prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where did they film The Beach in the country where Siddhi Savetsila was born?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
The Beach (film)
The Beach is a 2000 adventure drama film directed by Danny Boyle, from a screenplay by John Hodge, based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Alex Garland  The film stars Leonardo DiCaprio, Tilda Swinton, Virginie Ledoyen, Guillaume Canet, and Robert Carlyle  It was filmed on the Thai island of Ko Phi Phi Le 
The film was a moderate box office success but received mixed-to-negative reviews from critics 

Plot
Richard, a young American seeking adventure in Bangkok, stays in a drab travelers' hotel on Khao San Road where he meets a young French couple, Françoise and Étienne  He also meets Daffy, who tells him of a pristine, uninhabited island in the Gulf of Thailand with a beautiful hidden beach  Daffy explains that he settled there in secret several years earlier, but difficulties arose and he left  Daffy commits suicide, leaving Richard a map to the island  Richard persuades Françoise and Étienne to accompany him to the island, and the three travel to Ko Samui  Richard meets two American surfers who have heard rumors of the island and he gives them a copy of the map 
En route to the island, Richard becomes infatuated with Françoise  After swimming to the island from a neighbouring island, they find a cannabis plantation guarded by armed Thai farmers  Avoiding detection, they make their way across the island and meet Keaty, who brings them to a community of travellers living on the island in secret  Sal, the community's English leader, explains that the farmers allow them to stay so long as they keep to themselves and do not allow any more travelers to come to the island  Richard lies that they have not shown the map to anyone else  The trio becomes integrated into the community 
One night, Françoise invites Richard to the beach, where she tells him that she is falling in love with him and they start an affair   Despite hoping to keep it secret, the community finds out  Although he is angry, Étienne says he will not stand in their way if Françoise is happier with Richard 
Sal selects Richard to accompany her on a supply run to Ko Pha Ngan  They encounter the American surfers who are preparing to search for the island and mention Richard's map  Sal is upset but believes Richard when he says they have no map  To ensure that Sal will not tell the rest of the island about the map, Richard has sex with her at her order   On their return to the island, Richard lies to Françoise about having had sex with Sal 
Three of the community fishermen are attacked by a shark while spearfishing  One is killed and another, Christo, is severely injured  Now terrified of the water, Christo refuses to be taken to the mainland for medical treatment and Sal refuses to allow any doctors to be brought to the island to treat him  As the man's condition worsens, the islanders simply leave him in the jungle to die, but Etienne refuses to abandon him 
When the surfers turn up on the neighboring island, Sal orders Richard to send them away and destroy their map  She tells everyone that she and Richard had sex, which leaves Françoise angry and heartbroken, causing her to return to Étienne  Isolated from the group, Richard begins to lose his sanity, imagining that he is conversing with the deceased Daffy 
The surfers reach the island but are discovered and killed by the farmers  Shocked at witnessing their deaths, Richard smothers Christo to put him out of his misery and gathers Françoise and Étienne to leave the island 
Richard is captured by the farmers along with Françoise and Étienne  The farmers are furious with the community for breaking their deal not to allow any more newcomers  The lead farmer gives Sal a gun loaded with a single bullet and orders her to make a choice: kill Richard and the group will be allowed to stay, or else they must all leave immediately  Sal pulls the trigger, but the chamber is empty  Shocked by her willingness to commit murder, the other members of the community abandon Sal, leave the island, and go their separate ways 
Back in the United States, Richard receives an email at an Internet cafe from Françoise with a nostalgic group photograph of the beach community in happier times 

Cast
Leonardo DiCaprio as Richard, a freelance traveler 
Tilda Swinton as Sal, the leader of the beach community 
Virginie Ledoyen as Françoise, the girlfriend of Étienne, and Richard's love interest 
Guillaume Canet as Étienne, the boyfriend of Françoise 
Robert Carlyle as Daffy, the eccentric former member of the beach community 
Paterson Joseph as Keaty, a member of the beach community who loves cricket 
Lars Arentz-Hansen as Bugs, Sal's South-African boyfriend and the beach community's carpenter 
Daniel Caltagirone as Unhygienix, the beach community's chef who has an obsession with soap due to having to always prepare the fish for consumption 
Staffan Kihlbom, Jukka Hiltunen, and Magnus Lindgren as Christo, Karl, and Sten, the beach community's Swedish fishermen 
Victoria Smurfit as Weathergirl, a member of the beach community whose tightening pelvis has been a sign for rain 
Zelda Tinska and Lidija Zovkić as Sonja and Mirjana, two beach community members who come from Sarajevo 
Samuel Gough as Guitarman, the beach community's residential guitarist who is not a good singer 
Peter Youngblood Hills and Jerry Swindall as Zeph and Sammy, two Americans whom Richard meets in Ko Samui 
Saskia Mulder and Simone Huber as Hilda and Eva, two women who accompany Zeph and Sammy to the island 
Peter Gevisser as Gregorio, an Italian member of the beach community 
Abhijati 'Meuk' Jusakul as the leader of the cannabis farmers 

Production
Ewan McGregor was cast as the main character before leaving due to disputes with the director  It was speculated that Boyle was offered additional funding under the condition that DiCaprio be cast and his character made American  Whilst promoting T2 Trainspotting on The Graham Norton Show, the dispute was discussed in more depth, with McGregor stating "It was a mis-handling and a mis-understanding over the film and it's a big regret of mine that it went on for so very long    and it didn't matter about The Beach, it was never about that  It was about our friendship  I felt like Danny's actor and it made me a bit rudderless " 
Boyle stated, "I handled it very very badly and I have apologised to Ewan for it  I felt a great shame about it and how it was handled "Members of the cast and crew were involved in a boating accident during production  It was reported that the incident involved both Boyle and DiCaprio  No one was injured The beach seen in the film is not the same as in real life  There is a gap between mountains on the actual beach in Thailand  The special effects crew digitally added some of the surrounding mountains during the post-production phase 
The waterfall scene, where DiCaprio and others jump from a high cliff to the water below, was filmed in Khao Yai National Park in central Thailand, at the Haew Suwat Waterfall 
The map in the film was illustrated by the author of the book that The Beach was based upon, Alex Garland  He received credit for this as the cartographer 
In 1999, Hélène de Fougerolles auditioned for the film but casting directors immediately told her that she was not mysterious enough for the character as she arrived with blond hair in pigtails  She asked them if she could "be an extra or serve coffees there, three months in Thailand, it sounds idyllic!"  Although firstly reluctant because the actress was already established in the industry, they finally accepted  As journalists were not allowed to come take pictures on set, the only picture the press could have of Guillaume Canet and Virginie Ledoyen before shooting started was their departure at Paris airport with de Fougerolles  They made it the cover of Studio Magazine, from which the international press reported her as officially cast  This eventually lent her lines edited out of the final cut but present in the DVD extras 

Release
The film opened February 11, 2000 in both the United Kingdom and the United States The budget of the film was US$50 million  The film opened at number 2 at the box office in both the UK and the US, with a weekend gross of $15,277,921 in the United States and Canada behind Scream 3, and a gross of £2,418,321 in the United Kingdom behind Toy Story 2  Global takings totaled over US$144 million, of which US$39 million was from the United States and Canada 

Home video
The film has been released on VHS and DVD  It was released on Blu-ray in Spain in October 2022   The standard DVD release included nine scenes that were deleted from the film, including an alternative opening which to an extent resembles the one in the novel  These  were later included in a Special Edition DVD release, along with Danny Boyle's commentary on what might have been their purpose  There is also an alternative ending which depicts Sal committing suicide and everyone loading up on a boat from the raft 

Soundtrack
The soundtrack for the film, co-produced by Pete Tong, features the international hits "Pure Shores" by All Saints and "Porcelain" by Moby, as well as tracks by New Order, Blur, Underworld, Orbital, Faithless, Sugar Ray, and others  Leftfield's contribution to the soundtrack, "Snakeblood", was found to have sampled Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark's "Almost" without permission, leading to a lawsuit; band member Neil Barnes said he forgot to remove the sample from the finished track  The songs "Synasthasia" by Junkie XL, "Out of Control" by The Chemical Brothers, "Fiesta Conga" by Movin' Melodies, "Redemption Song" by Bob Marley, "Neon Reprise" by Lunatic Calm and "Smoke Two Joints" by Chris Kay and Michael Kay were also included in the movie but omitted from the soundtrack  The teaser trailer for the film featured "Touched" by VAST 
The film score was composed by Angelo Badalamenti, and a separate album containing selections of his score was released as well 

Track listing
Year-end charts
Certifications
Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 20% based on 119 reviews, and an average rating of 4 4/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "The Beach is unfocused and muddled, a shallow adaptation of the novel it is based on  Points go to the gorgeous cinematography, though " On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 43 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews" Critics suggested that DiCaprio's fame post-Titanic might have contributed to the financial success of this film, which came out less than three years after the James Cameron blockbuster  CNN's Paul Clinton said "Leonardo DiCaprio's main fan base of screaming adolescent girls won't be disappointed with The Beach  The majority of the film displays the titanic-sized young heartthrob sans his shirt in this story about the pseudo-angst and alienation of a young man from the United States escaping civilization and his computer-obsessed generation " He agreed with most others that The Beach was "nothing to write home about"  DiCaprio was nominated for a Razzie Award for Worst Actor for his work on the film 

Controversies
Damage to filming location
Controversy arose during the making of the film due to 20th Century Fox's bulldozing and landscaping of the natural beach setting of Ko Phi Phi Le to make it more "paradise-like"  The production altered some sand dunes and cleared some coconut trees and grass to widen the beach  Fox set aside a fund to reconstruct and return the beach to its natural state; however, lawsuits were filed by environmentalists who believed the damage to the ecosystem was permanent and restoration attempts had failed   Following shooting of the film, there was a clear flat area at one end of the beach that was created artificially with an odd layout of trees which was never rectified, and the entire area remained damaged from the original state until the tsunami of 2004 The lawsuits dragged on for years  In 2006, Thailand's Supreme Court upheld an appellate court ruling that the filming had harmed the environment and ordered that damage assessments be made  Defendants in the case included 20th Century Fox and some Thai government officials The large increase in tourist traffic to the beach as a result of the film resulted in environmental damage to the bay and the nearby coral reefs, prompting Thai authorities to close the beach in 2018 The restoration period for the bay was lengthened due to travel restrictions during the COVID pandemic  Blacktip sharks began breeding there again  In 2022, the bay reopened to tourists, under strict protocols of no boats, no swimming and no more than a one hour visit per person for a limited number of visitors at a time 

Portrayal of Thailand
After the film premiered in Thailand in 2000, some Thai politicians were upset at the way Thailand was depicted in the film and called for it to be banned  The depiction of the drug culture was said to give Thailand a bad image and having a statue of Buddha in a bar was cited as "blasphemous" 

Possible spin-off
In a 2019 interview with The Independent, Danny Boyle revealed that a television series based on his film has been written by Amy Seimetz  The proposed series is set to take place before the events from the 1996 novel, although it will be updated to occur 20 years later, in 2016 

See also
Phi Phi Islands
Passage 2:
Sylvan Beach Union Chapel
Sylvan Beach Union Chapel is a historic interdenominational church building located at Sylvan Beach in Oneida County, New York   It opened on July 3, 1887, and worship services have been held there every summer since then   The film The Sterile Cuckoo starring Liza Minnelli was shot in part at the church It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009 
Passage 3:
Spring Lake, Alberta
Spring Lake, originally named Edmonton Beach, is a village in central Alberta, Canada  It is located on the eastern shore of Spring Lake, approximately 20 km (12 mi) and 40 km (25 mi) west of the cities of Spruce Grove and Edmonton respectively  Hasse Lake is located 6 km (3 7 mi) southwest of Spring Lake  It was known as the Summer Village of Edmonton Beach from 1959 to 1999 

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Village of Spring Lake had a population of 711 living in 286 of its 308 total private dwellings, a change of 1 7% from its 2016 population of 699  With a land area of 2 28 km2 (0 88 sq mi), it had a population density of 311 8/km2 (807 7/sq mi) in 2021 In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Village of Spring Lake recorded a population of 699 living in 261 of its 303 total private dwellings, a 31 1% change from its 2011 population of 533  With a land area of 2 33 km2 (0 90 sq mi), it had a population density of 300 0/km2 (777 0/sq mi) in 2016 The Village of Spring Lake's 2012 municipal census counted a population of 614, a 3 7% increase over its 2007 municipal census population of 592 

Services
There is a large RV park on the east side of the lake, which has a small camping store which sells candy, newspapers, and a variety of camping items  Other than this there are no commercial businesses in the village 

See also
List of communities in Alberta
List of villages in Alberta
Passage 4:
Bang Bon District
Bang Bon (Thai: บางบอน, pronounced [bāːŋ bɔ̄ːn]) is one of the 50 districts (khet) of Bangkok, Thailand  Its neighbours, clockwise from north, are Bang Khae, Phasi Charoen, Chom Thong, and Bang Khun Thian districts of Bangkok, Mueang Samut Sakhon district and Krathum Baen district of Samut Sakhon province, and Nong Khaem district of Bangkok 

History
Formerly Bang Bon was a tambon of amphoe Bang Khun Thian in Thonburi Province, prior to the merger of Thonburi and Phra Nakhon into a single province, after which it was a sub-district of Bang Khun Thian District 
On 14 October 1997, Bang Bon was split from Bang Khun Thian and established as a new district  The district office opened on 6 March 1998, the last of Bangkok's 50 districts to open, first established temporarily at the Thepyada Arak Fresh Market building, but later moved to a permanent location on Ekkachai Road 

Administration
The district has four sub-districts (khwaeng) 

The missing number 1 is the sub-district that was dissolved and divided into four current sub-districts 

Economy
Agriculture is an important part of the area economy  Among Bang Bon's famous products are Nam Doc Mai mangos, coconuts, orchids, and lotus 

Places
Wat Bang Bon
7th Cycle Birthday Anniversary Park, Bang Bon, otherwise known as 9 Hills Park
Sarasas Witaed Bangbon School
Suksanareewittaya School, formerly and still colloquially known as Suksanari 2 School (shared with Samut Sakhon province)

Notable people
Chalerm Yubamrung – politician
Passage 5:
Poplar Beach Resort Water Aerodrome
Poplar Beach Resort Water Aerodrome Airport was a public airport  It was located adjacent to Poplar Beach, British Columbia, Canada  The airport was listed as abandoned in the 15 March 2007 Canada Flight Supplement 
Passage 6:
Isle of Normandy
Isle of Normandy or Normandy Island or Normandy Isles or Normandy Isle is a neighborhood of North Beach in the city of Miami Beach, Florida   It is located along the eastern shore of Biscayne Bay 

Geography
It is located at 25 853°N 80 135°W﻿ / 25 853; -80 135, with an elevation 3 feet (0 91 m) 

History
After building a chain of movie theaters in Cincinnati, Alsace native Henri Levi (or Levy) moved to Miami Beach in 1922  In 1926 he undertook a 2-year period of 24-hour-a-day dredging to create Normandy Isle from the natural swampy land mass in Biscayne Bay west of 71st street theretofore called Warner-Meade Island  Levy was also instrumental in the construction of the 79th Street Causeway 

Streets
Most streets on Normandy Isle were named after French cities and architectural landmarks 
East-West

Bay Drive
Biarritz Drive
Biarritz Court
71st Street (originally Everglades Concourse)
Maimonides Street
Everglades Court (alley)
Normandy Drive
Normandy Court
Marseille Drive
Calais DriveNorth-South

Brest Esplanade
Rue Vendome
Vendome Court
Rue Versailles
Versailles Court
Vichy Drive
Rue Notre Dame
Rue Bordeaux
Trouville Esplanade
Rue Granville
Verdun Drive

Education
Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the local school district  Treasure Island Elementary School in North Bay Village serves Normandy Island  Miami Beach Nautilus Middle School and Miami Beach Senior High School serve Normandy Island 

Notable residents
Joan Field, concert violinist
Roy Firestone, sportscaster and entertainer
David M  Gersten, appeals court judge
Bob Mover, jazz saxophonist
Clifford S  Perlman, restaurateur
Daniel Schechter, psychiatrist and author
Passage 7:
Stinson Beach, California
Stinson Beach is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Marin County, California, on the west coast of the United States  Stinson Beach is located 2 5 miles (4 km) east-southeast of Bolinas, at an elevation of 26 feet (8 m)  The population of the Stinson Beach CDP was 541 at the 2020 census Stinson Beach is about a 35-minute drive from the Golden Gate Bridge on California's Highway 1  It is near important attractions such as Muir Woods National Monument, Muir Beach, and Mount Tamalpais   It has a long beach, and the cold water produces fog throughout the year Stinson Beach is a popular day trip for people in the San Francisco Bay Area and for tourists visiting Northern California  Although most visitors arrive by private car, Stinson Beach is linked to Marin City by a daily bus service, and the network of hiking trails around Mount Tamalpais also reaches the town  The beach is one of the cleanest in the state, and sandy, unlike the rockier neighboring beach in Bolinas 

History
Nathan H  Stinson bought land at the site in 1866 In 1870, the first road was built along the Pacific coast from Sausalito, and a tent settlement sprang up amongst the willow trees at the beach, which gave rise to the town's original name, Willow Camp  The Mt  Tamalpais & Muir Woods Railway opened in 1896, making Willow Camp more accessible  Visitors could ride the train to West Point Inn and then hike or arrange a stagecoach to take them to the beach  In 1906, refugees from the San Francisco earthquake came to the area and built some of the area's first businesses  Stinson Beach became the official town name in 1916, in honor of the largest landowners, Rose and Nathan Stinson 

The first post office opened in 1916 In 1939, the beach was sold to Marin County   It was transferred to the state of California in 1950, and was eventually transferred to the National Park Service in 1977 
In 2002, a surfer was attacked by a 12-to-15-foot-long (3 7 to 4 6 m) great white shark while surfing off Stinson Beach  The young man survived, but received more than 100 stitches to close his wounds  The attack was the second in Stinson Beach, and the 13th in Marin County since 1952  In 1998, Jonathan Kathrein was attacked by a great white shark while bodyboarding  His injury from the shark bite required over 600 stitches  The surf off Stinson Beach is within an area known as the Red Triangle, where there have been an unusually high number of shark attacks Marin County added 12 tsunami warning signs to the Stinson Beach shoreline in 2012 to explain the risk to beachgoers 

Geography
Stinson Beach is located in southern Marin County at 37°54′02″N 122°38′40″W, between Bolinas and Muir Beach  It is 15 miles (24 km) by road northwest of Sausalito and 20 miles (32 km) northwest of San Francisco 
The CDP has a total area of 0 89 square miles (2 31 km2), all of it recorded as land 

Climate
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Stinson Beach has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps  Like much of the California coast, summer afternoons are often cool and windy (and usually foggy) as winds blow in off the cold ocean   Adjacent sea surface temperatures are typically in the low to mid 50s F year-round   It receives more rain than other coast cities in the San Francisco Bay Area in this latitude with 1,034 70 mm (40 736 in) of rain 

Demographics
2010
The 2010 United States Census reported that Stinson Beach had a population of 632  The population density was 433 1 inhabitants per square mile (167 2/km2)  The racial makeup of Stinson Beach was 582 (92 1%) White, 3 (0 5%) African American, 8 (1 3%) Native American, 14 (2 2%) Asian, 1 (0 2%) Pacific Islander, 9 (1 4%) from other races, and 15 (2 4%) from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 33 persons (5 2%) 
The Census reported that 629 people (99 5% of the population) lived in households, 3 (0 5%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized 
There were 339 households, out of which 50 (14 7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 134 (39 5%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 14 (4 1%) had a female householder with no husband present, 10 (2 9%) had a male householder with no wife present   There were 26 (7 7%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 8 (2 4%) same-sex married couples or partnerships  147 households (43 4%) were made up of individuals, and 45 (13 3%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 1 86   There were 158 families (46 6% of all households); the average family size was 2 54 
The population was spread out, with 76 people (12 0%) under the age of 18, 26 people (4 1%) aged 18 to 24, 117 people (18 5%) aged 25 to 44, 278 people (44 0%) aged 45 to 64, and 135 people (21 4%) who were 65 years of age or older   The median age was 54 4 years  For every 100 females, there were 94 5 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95 1 males 
There were 773 housing units at an average density of 529 8 per square mile (204 6/km2), of which 209 (61 7%) were owner-occupied, and 130 (38 3%) were occupied by renters  The homeowner vacancy rate was 2 3%; the rental vacancy rate was 9 7%   425 people (67 2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 204 people (32 3%) lived in rental housing units 

2000
As of the census of 2000, there were 751 people, 374 households, and 178 families residing in the CDP   The population density was 712 inhabitants per square mile (275/km2)   There were 693 housing units at an average density of 657 per square mile (254/km2)   The racial makeup of the CDP in 2010 was 89 6% non-Hispanic White, 0 5% non-Hispanic African American, 0 2% Native American, 2 2% Asian, 0 2% from Pacific Islander, 0 5% from other races, and 1 6% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5 2% of the population 
There were 374 households, out of which 18 7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40 6% were married couples living together, 4 8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 52 4% were non-families  42 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older   The average household size was 1 98 and the average family size was 2 75 
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 16 9% under the age of 18, 3 3% from 18 to 24, 25 8% from 25 to 44, 39 4% from 45 to 64, and 14 5% who were 65 years of age or older   The median age was 47 years  For every 100 females, there were 98 2 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100 0 males 
The median income for a household in the CDP was $87,679, and the median income for a family was $105,827  Males had a median income of $58,750 versus $56,875 for females  The per capita income for the CDP was $62,452   About 3 8% of families and 5 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11 8% of those under the age of eighteen and 10 4% of those 65 or over 

Education
Stinson Beach is in the Bolinas-Stinson Union School District, the Tamalpais Union High School District, and the Marin Community College District   Students in primary grades (K-2) attend Stinson Beach School, while elementary grade students (grades 3–8) attend Bolinas School   Stinson Beach is in the attendance area of Tamalpais High School, in Mill Valley 

Government
Stinson Beach is unincorporated, receiving general government services from Marin County, including law enforcement, land use planning, library, public health, and code enforcement  Three special districts provide local services   The Stinson Beach County Water District provides water and septic tank maintenance service and contracts for garbage and recycling collection   The Stinson Beach Volunteer Fire Protection District provides fire protection, emergency medical care, and disaster management services   The Marin County Flood Control and Water Conservation District administers programs which aim to mitigate flooding, historically concentrating on issues related to the flooding of Easkoot Creek 

Community organizations
The Stinson Beach Village Association was formed in 1976 to represent the town as the County developed the first Stinson Beach Community Plan  The Village Association's current elected president is village resident Michael Matthews   Previously, development of the town had been promoted by the Stinson Beach Progressive Club, one of several non-profit organizations that formed the board of the Stinson Beach Community Center   The other founding organizations were the Allied Arts Club, the Stinson Beach Community Church, The Volunteer Fire Department, and the Parent-Teachers Club   The Community Center complex on Belvedere Avenue includes the Fire House, which fronts on Shoreline Highway, the Community Center, and the Chapel   The land was donated by the FitzHenrys and the other heirs of the Stinson families 

Regional recreation areas
Audubon Canyon Ranch
Golden Gate National Recreation Area
Mount Tamalpais State Park
Point Reyes National Seashore

Annual events
On the second Sunday of June, the town serves as the ending point for the annual running of the Dipsea Race, the second-oldest footrace in the U S  The California Road Club holds its Mount Tamalpais Hill Climb, one of the oldest bicycle races in the West, in early fall   Since 2002, the race has been held on the third Saturday of the month, with about 400 bicyclists competing in the 12 5-mile (20 1 km) road race from Stinson to the head of Bolinas Lagoon and on to the West summit of Mount Tamalpais at Rock Spring "Cuisine on the Green" is a yearly event held in the town's central park, the Village Green, each May  It features local restaurants and merchants selling a wide variety of foods, trinkets, clothing, art, and novelty items at different booths  Talent local to the area often performs on the small park stage  Cuisine on the Green benefits the Stinson Beach Community Center 
On July 4 of every year, a "tug-of-war" is held with Bolinas across the inlet dividing the two communities  Thirty women from each shore pull against each other until a winner is declared, and then 30 men from each take their turn  It is a slice of life, pure Americana, and always contested both during the actual event and then afterward in the local bars of Smiley's and the Sand Dollar, where the winners' trophies are displayed 

Notable people
Residents, landowners, and summer people important in the development, life, and culture of Stinson Beach   Arrival or tenure is shown in square brackets   Birth and death dates are shown in parentheses 

Rafael Garcia [1836–1846], first settler on Bolinas Lagoon 
Gregorio (1791–May 10, 1863) and Ramona Garcia Briones (1793/4–June 23, 1901), received the Rancho Las Baulines Mexican land grant on February 11, 1846; after being widowed, Ramona married Benancio Munos when she was almost 80; when she died at the age of 107, Ramona Garcia Munos was believed to be the oldest woman in California 
Pablo Briones [1837–?], with his uncle, Rafael Garcia, managed the Rancho for his parents, Gregorio and Ramona; trained as curandero by his aunt, Juana Briones de Miranda; settled in Bolinas 
Captain Isaac Morgan [c  1851–?], purchased the portion of Rancho Las Baulines east of Bolinas Lagoon in 1852; on this property, called Belvidere Ranch and which was to become Stinson Beach, he grew apples, cut wood, built boats, and had a dairy farm; in 1866, as lead partner in the Morgan Land Company, purchased the Page Tract, which ran from Belvidere Ranch to Dogtown and which became the Bourne and Wilkins Ranches 
Nathan and Rose Stinson [1870s–?], established first campground at Willow Camp 
Captain Alfred Easkoot [1870s–], Marin County surveyor; founder of second campground ; member of Duxbury Grove No  26, UAOD
Thaddeus Welch (1844–1919) and Ludmila Pilat Welch (1867–1925) [1896–1905], American painters
William Kent (March 29, 1864 – March 13, 1928) United States Congressman; donor of the land for the Muir Woods National Monument; owner of the beach and tidelands that became Seadrift 
Newman Lee Fitzhenry (1881–November 20, 1938) [c  1913–1938], BS, University of Chicago, 1905; married Eve Stinson and pursued real estate and resort development; suicided November 20, 1938 
William Kent Jr , began the development of the Seadrift subdivision in the 1950s 
Mildred Sadler (May 16, 1905 – February 18, 2004) (1926–2004), Principal, Stinson Beach School, 1926–1967 
Landis Everson (1960s), poet and painter 
George Hunter White, also known as Colonel White (1965–1975) (died October 23, 1975), Federal Bureau of Narcotics agent and District Supervisor, retired; OSS Counter-Intelligence Director during WWII; led Project MKULTRA in Boston and Operation Midnight Climax in New York and San Francisco brothels (or "safehouses") until the closure of the San Francisco facilities in 1965; Fire Marshall, Stinson Beach Fire Department
Elmer Collett (1966–present), former professional football player for the 49ers and the Colts
Peter Bishop Allen (November 1, 1943 – June 3, 2004) (c  1967–2004), sculptor of marine mammals; Assistant Chief, Stinson Beach Fire Department; founder of The Kids Camp nature education program
Steve Miller (1960s–1970s), musician
Jerry Garcia (1970s), musician
Carolyn Garcia, also known as Mountain Girl (1970s), member of Merry Pranksters, wife of Jerry Garcia
Keith and Donna Godchaux (1970s), musicians
Peter Rowan (1970s), musician
Richard Jencks - former President of CBS 
The Rowan Brothers – Lorin and Chris Rowan (1970s), musicians
David Grisman (1970s), musician
George Frayne (born c  1946) (c  1973–199), musician (Commander Cody and His Lost Planet Airmen) and artist; Frayne has referred to Stinson Beach as "formerly the grooviest place on earth "
Joseph Esherick (1987), famed architect; designed a home on Sea Drift Road
James Grant (1924–1997) (c  1980–1997), painter and sculptor; the art exhibit wall at the Stinson Beach Branch Library is named in his honor
Jerry Cebe (August 10, 1940 - Sep 1, 2017), artist (abstract painting; art glass)
Klaus Kinski

In popular culture
Stinson Beach has been the setting and filming location for several movies, including:

Play It Again, Sam
The Fog
Memoirs of an Invisible Man
The Invisible Man (2020 film); this adaptation is unrelated to the novel & film listed above 
Basic Instinct
On The Edge
Shoot The Moon
 The Crazy-Quilt (1966 John Korty Film)
America Is Still the PlaceThe town was mentioned in an episode of M*A*S*H—"The Merchant of Korea"   In the episode, BJ borrows $200 from Charles to wire home to his wife as a down payment on the purchase of a one-acre lot with "trees, the beach, a view of San Francisco   everything!"
George Frayne (Commander Cody) wrote a song about Stinson Beach entitled "Midnight on The Strand"  It was recorded on his 1987 album, Let's Rock 
The town and the beach are the topic of a poem by Garrison Keillor  In We Are Still Married: Stories and Letters, Keillor has a four-page essay about his visits to Stinson Beach and how thinking of the beach helps him sleep The poet Robert Duncan wrote his influential collection Opening the Field at a house in Stinson Beach Janis Joplin's cremated ashes were scattered along this beach as well as the Pacific Ocean The story of a young surfer's recovery from a shark attack is the subject of a book, Far from Shore Author Danielle Steel writes about Stinson Beach in her novel One Day at a Time (Dell, 2009, ISBN 978-0-440-24333-5) 

See also
List of beaches in California
List of California state parks
Passage 8:
Garden City, South Carolina
Garden City, sometimes known as Garden City Beach, is a census-designated place (CDP) in Horry County, South Carolina, United States  The population was 9,209 at the 2010 census  Garden City Beach is located directly south of Surfside Beach  The developed part of the beach extends south beyond the limits of the Garden City CDP, into Georgetown County, and ends on a peninsula at the mouth of Murrells Inlet 

Geography
Garden City is located in southern Horry County at 33°35′16″N 79°0′19″W (33 587760, -79 005221)  It is bordered to the northeast by the town of Surfside Beach, to the northwest by U S  Route 17, to the south by the Georgetown County/Horry County line, and to the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean  U S  Route 17 Business is the main road through the center of the community, leading northeast 10 miles (16 km) to the center of Myrtle Beach  Georgetown is 25 miles (40 km) to the southwest via US 17 
According to the United States Census Bureau, the Garden City CDP has a total area of 5 4 square miles (14 1 km2), of which 5 4 square miles (13 9 km2) are land and 0 1 square miles (0 2 km2), or 1 47%, are water 

Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 10,235 people, 4,893 households, and 2,765 families residing in the CDP 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 9,357 people, 4,703 households, and 2,873 families residing in the CDP   The population density was 1,745 1 inhabitants per square mile (673 8/km2)  There were 7,995 housing units at an average density of 1,491 1 per square mile (575 7/km2)  The racial makeup of the CDP was 97 02% White, 1 00% African American, 0 28% Native American, 0 42% Asian, 0 10% Pacific Islander, 0 30% from other races, and 0 89% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 12% of the population 
There were 4,703 households, out of which 12 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52 2% were married couples living together, 6 9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38 9% were non-families  31 9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older   The average household size was 1 96 and the average family size was 2 40 
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 11 2% under the age of 18, 5 6% from 18 to 24, 21 5% from 25 to 44, 27 6% from 45 to 64, and 34 2% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 54 years   For every 100 females, there were 91 5 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89 1 males 
The median income for a household in the CDP was $34,967, and the median income for a family was $40,403  Males had a median income of $27,683 versus $22,904 for females   The per capita income for the CDP was $24,062   About 2 9% of families and 5 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7 4% of those under age 18 and 3 5% of those age 65 or over 

Attractions
The Pier at Garden City
Formally known as the Kingfisher Pier that was completely destroyed by Hurricane Hugo and replaced, It is approximately 668 feet (204 m) long, with a rain shelter at the end of the pier which includes a bar and nightly live music during the tourist season 

Garden City Golf Cart Parade
The Garden City Golf Cart Parade is a Fourth of July parade that features red, white and blue-decorated golf carts  It has been a community tradition for almost 30 years  It originally started at Calhoun Drive behind Willards Fireworks  After a brief hiatus, it was held again on July 4, 2009 

Weather
Temperatures tend to be in the 80s (°F) during the summer months in Garden City, SC, and in the 40s during the winter  The warmest month of the year is July with an average maximum temperature of 90 40 °F (32 44 °C), while the coldest month of the year is January with an average minimum temperature of 37 30 °F (2 94 °C)  The annual average precipitation at Garden City is 54 57 inches  Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year  The wettest month of the year is September with an average rainfall of 6 44 inches 

Hurricane Hazel
The worst disaster in the community's history occurred on 14 October 1954  Hurricane Hazel slammed into the community and left only two houses habitable 

Hurricane Hugo
In September 1989, Hurricane Hugo destroyed 43% of the beachfront structures along the coast in Garden City  In the aftermath of the storm, Horry County administrator M  L  Love said, "Garden City for all practical purposes is gone " The Kingfisher Pier, as it was known at that time, was also destroyed by Hurricane Hugo  Reconstruction of the pier began in February 1992  The Pier at Garden City, as it is known today, was fully operational July 1992, and no significant damage has been reported since then 

Transportation
Roads and highways
U S  17 Business
U S  17

Mass transit
The Coast RTA - Bus system operating seven days a week, 364 days a year  15 routes throughout the Horry County/Grand Strand area, including Myrtle Beach, North Myrtle Beach, Surfside Beach, Garden City, Conway, Loris, and Aynor 
Passage 9:
Corona del Mar State Beach
Corona del Mar State Beach (Spanish for the Crown of the Sea) is a protected beach in the state park system of California, United States   It is located in Corona del Mar, Newport Beach, and operated by the city of Newport Beach   The 30-acre (12 ha) park was established in 1947 

History
The beach had been a surfing hotspot until the late 1930s, when the Newport Harbor jetty was extended, leading to the creation of The Wedge as a popular surf break, but shielding Corona from all but the most southerly swells Surfing legend Duke Kahanamoku is credited with the first use of a surfboard for rescue purposes at Corona del Mar beach in 1925, when a charted fishing vessel capsized in heavy surf and Kahanamoku rescued people via surfboard 

See also
List of beaches in California
List of California state parks
List of California State Beaches
Passage 10:
Sunset Beach, Oregon
Sunset Beach is a small unincorporated community located between the cities of Seaside and Warrenton in Clatsop County, Oregon, United States  Sunset Beach is located between U S  Route 101, Neacoxie Lake and the Pacific Ocean   It serves as the northernmost access to the resort community of Surf Pines, and provides motor vehicle beach access  The "Fort to Sea Trail", which follows the route used by the Lewis and Clark Expedition when hiking from Fort Clatsop to the Pacific Ocean, ends at the beach access  A beach of the same name is west of the community 

See also
Sunset Beach State Recreation Site
Lewis and Clark National Historical Park
Passage 11:
Whihala Beach County Park
Whihala Beach County Park is a park in Whiting, Indiana, United States  It is a public beach with life guards  The beach was previously named Whiting Beach Whihala Beach is named after the nearby cities of Whiting and Hammond and Lake County Parks Department 
Passage 12:
Oak Street Beach
Oak Street Beach is located on North Lake Shore Drive in Chicago, Illinois, on the shore of Lake Michigan   One of a series of Chicago beaches, the Chicago Park District defines Oak Street Beach as the area from approximately 1550 North Lake Shore Drive to 500 North Lake Shore Drive, excluding Ohio Street Beach, the South Ledge, a concrete path running from Ohio Street beach to the Oak Street Curve, Oak Street Beachstro Restaurant, Oak Street Beach proper, the North Ledge, and a concrete path running from Oak Street Beach to North Avenue Beach 

History
Up until the late 1800s the Lake Shore sloped from Oak Street to the Chicago river in a much gentler fashion  However the construction of a shipping pier at the river led to a build up of sand and silt just to the north   As the land rose up out of the water squatters began to take residence, leading to disputes with lakefront property owners 
The biggest series of clashes surrounded a man named George Streeter in 1886  Streeter's boat, with passengers and cargo, became stranded on the sandbar created by the pier  As he unloaded waste and cargo, he created a small island  Eventually he persuaded people to dump more there, and claimed a sizable island  However the city would not stand for it, and after legal battles (some of which included gun fights) Streeter was evicted and the land, which was eventually filled in, became part of Chicago and became known as Streeterville 
Oak Street Beach was formed by sand washing up against the northern side of Streeterville   Originally, it was under control of the Lincoln Park District, one of several districts in the city that were consolidated in 1934 to create the Chicago Park District Through the 1960s the sand area of Oak Street covered more than twice the area it does now, and the water was as much as three feet higher than its current level  The beach was popular for residents and tourists as a summer social spot near down town 

Cultural impact
A radio advertisement for mattresses, in the 1970s, featured a child reading a letter he was writing to the Sandman  The punch line was the child asking, "Is it true you get all your sand from Oak Street Beach?"
Chicago pop-punk band Knuckle Puck released a song titled "Oak Street" on their "While I Stay Secluded" EP 
Chicago hip-hop artist Chance The Rapper mentions Oak Street Beach in the third verse of his song, Windows 

Gallery
See also
Beaches in Chicago
Lincoln Park
Passage 13:
Muscle Beach Party
Muscle Beach Party is the second of seven beach party films produced by American International Pictures  It stars Frankie Avalon and Annette Funicello and was directed by William Asher, who also directed four other films in this series 
Dick Dale and the Del-Tones and Stevie Wonder appear in musical numbers, the latter aged thirteen and making his film debut, billed as "Little Stevie Wonder "
The movie was released two days after Peter Lorre's death 

Plot
Frankie, Dee Dee, and the beach party gang hit Malibu Beach for yet another summer of surfing and no jobs, only to find their secret surfing spot threatened by a gang of bodybuilders led by the dim-witted coach Jack Fanny  All the while a bored Italian countess is trying to steal Frankie from Dee Dee and, much to everyone's surprise, he seems more than happy to go along with it  Her plan is to turn him into a teen idol 
Due to some razzing from his former surfing buddies and sage advice from wealthy S Z  Matts, Frankie sees the error of his ways and goes back to his American beach bunny, Dee Dee 

Cast
Frankie Avalon as Frankie
Annette Funicello as Dee Dee
Luciana Paluzzi as Contessa Juliana ("Julie") Giotto-Borgini
John Ashley as Johnny
Don Rickles as Jack Fanny
Peter Turgeon as Theodore
Jody McCrea as Deadhead
Dick Dale as Himself
Candy Johnson	        	Candy
Rock Stevens (Peter Lupus)	        	Flex Martian
Valora Noland	        	Animal
Delores Wells	        	Sniffles
Donna Loren	        	Donna
Morey Amsterdam	        	Cappy
Little Stevie Wonder           	Himself
Buddy Hackett	        	S Z  Matts (rich business manager)
Dan Haggerty       	Biff
Larry Scott	        	Rock
Gordon Case	        	Tug
Gene Shuey	        	Riff
Chester Yorton	        	Hulk
Bob Seven	        	Sulk
Steve Merjanian	        	Clod
Alberta Nelson	        	Lisa, Jack Fanny's assistant
Amadee Chabot	        	Flo, Jack Fanny's assistant
Peter Lorre	        	Mr  Strangdour

Cast notes
Funicello reprises her character from Beach Party, although in this film (and three others that follow) she is referred to as "Dee Dee", as opposed to "Dolores "  John Ashley's character, previously called "Ken", is now known as "Johnny "Harvey Lembeck's Eric von Zipper character and his Rats gang from Beach Party are absent in this film, although they appear in Bikini Beach, Pajama Party, Beach Blanket Bingo, How to Stuff a Wild Bikini, and The Ghost in the Invisible Bikini  Lembeck as von Zipper (but sans Rats gang) also appears in a cameo in Dr  Goldfoot and the Bikini Machine  Lembeck also appeared in Fireball 500, another Avalon-Funicello vehicle, as an entirely different character  Peter Lorre appears briefly near the end of the film and there is a notice explaining that he will appear in the next installment of the series  Lorre died in March 1964; thus, this was his only appearance in the series 

Production notes
Before production producer Martin Ransohoff announced he was going to make a film called Muscle Beach based on Ira Wallach's satirical novel  This was eventually made as Don't Make Waves (1967) 

Novelization
A 141-page paperback adaptation of the screenplay, written by Elsie Lee, was published prior to the release of the film by Lancer Books 

Jack Fanny's bodybuilders
In the above-cited paperback novelisation, the Jack Fanny character (a satire of Vic Tanny) introduces his bodybuilders as Biff, Rock, Tug, Riff, Sulk, Mash and Clod, whereas in the film he calls them Biff, Rock, Tug, Riff, Sulk, Hulk, and Clod   In two separate sequences, the latter version of these names is seen printed on their shirts 
Larry Scott, who played Rock, was well known in the bodybuilding world at the time and became the first Mr  Olympia  Due to his preference for a piece of gym equipment commonly known as the Preacher Bench, the bench also became known as the Scott Curl Bench  Gene Shuey who played Riff, and Chester Yorton who played Hulk, were also well known in the bodybuilding circuit  Peter Lupus (aka "Rock Stevens") was also a champion bodybuilder himself, holding the titles of Mr  Indianapolis, Mr  Indiana, Mr  Hercules, and Mr  International Health Physique  He is best known as Willy Armitage, the strong, mostly silent, member of the IMF team in Mission: Impossible from 1966 to 1973 

Costumes and props
The swimsuits were designed by Rose Marie Reid; Buddy Hackett's clothes were from Mr  Guy of Los Angeles; and the hat that Deadhead wears was designed by Ed "Big Daddy" Roth 
The surfboards used in the film were by Phil of Downey, California – aka Phil Sauers, the maker of "Surfboards of the Stars " Sauers was also the stunt coordinator for another beach party film that used his surfboards, Columbia Pictures' Ride the Wild Surf, which was released later the same year  Sauers was even portrayed in that film as a character by Mark LaBuse 
The "globe" telephone cover on Mr  Strangdour's desk is the same one in Norma Desmond's home in the film Sunset Blvd 

Music
The original score for this film, like Beach Party before it, was composed by Les Baxter 
Roger Christian, Gary Usher and Brian Wilson (of The Beach Boys) wrote six songs for the film: 

"Surfer's Holiday" performed by Frankie Avalon, Annette Funicello and the cast;
"Runnin' Wild" performed by Frankie Avalon;
"My First Love" and "Muscle Beach Party," both performed by Dick Dale and His Del-Tones;
"Muscle Bustle" performed by Donna Loren with Dick Dale and His Del-Tones; and
"Surfin' Woodie" performed a cappella by Dick Dale with the cast Guy Hemric and Jerry Styner wrote two songs for the film: 

"Happy Street" performed by Little Stevie Wonder; and
"A Girl Needs a Boy" first performed by Annette Funicello, then reprised by Frankie Avalon as "A Boy Needs a Girl "

Opening title art
The colorful, hand-painted mural that is shown in full and in detail as background during the opening credits is by California artist Michael Dormer, whose surfer cartoon character, "Hot Curl" can also be glimpsed throughout the film 

Deleted scene
Although the end titles provide a credit reading, "Muscle Mao Mao Dance Sequence Choreographed by John Monte, National Dance Director, Fred Astaire Studios", no such sequence is found in the film's release prints 

Reception
John L  Scott of the Los Angeles Times called it "a romantic, slightly satirical film comedy with songs which should prove popular with members of the two younger sets it concerns — surfers and musclemen — and with oldsters who don't mind the juvenile antics " Variety wrote that "the novelty of surfing has worn off, leaving in its wake little more than a conventional teenage-geared romantic farce with songs     Whenever the story bogs down, which it does quite often, someone runs into camera range and yells, 'surf's up!' This is followed by a series of cuts of surfers in action  It's all very mechanical " The Monthly Film Bulletin stated, "Indifferently scripted, and lacking the brightening presence of Dorothy Malone and Bob Cummings, this is an excruciatingly unfunny and unattractive sequel to Beach Party  William Asher's direction remains quite bright, but that is about all that can be said for the film "The Golden Laurel, which had no ceremony but published its award results in the trade magazine Motion Picture Exhibitor from 1958 to 1971, nominated Annette Funicello for "Best Female Musical Performance" for this film in 1965 
The film was banned in Burma, along with Ski Party, Bikini Beach and Beach Blanket Bingo 

Cultural references
Don Rickles' character name "Jack Fanny" is based on then-popular bodybuilder and gym entrepreneur (and usually sharp-dressed) Vic Tanny  The forename "Jack" might also be a reference to another then-popular fitness instructor, bodybuilder, and gym-entrepreneur, Jack LaLanne 
Julie's remark to an angry Dee Dee, "Have you tried Miltown?" is in reference to the drug Miltown by Wallace Laboratories, a carbamate derivative used as an anxiolytic drug – it was the best-selling minor tranquilizer at the time 
Cappy's Place in this film (and Big Daddy's club in the preceding Beach Party) is a reference to Southern California beach coffeehouses in general and Cafe Frankenstein in particular 
This is the second and last time Avalon or any other "teenager" in the cast smokes cigarettes onscreen in the series – the Surgeon General's report on smoking was released on January 11, 1964, while Muscle Beach Party was being filmed 

See also
List of American films of 1964
Passage 14:
Kuramo Beach
Kuramo Beach is a sandy beach in Lagos, Nigeria, located at the south side of Victoria Island, just east of Bar Beach and south of the Kuramo Waters lagoon  It was the location of numerous illegal shanties and cabins, some of them being used for music entertainment, bars and prostitution  In August 2012, a surge of the Atlantic Ocean hit Kuramo Beach, destroying some of these shacks and killing 16 people  The next day government authorities evacuated the area, demolished the remaining shacks and began to refill the sand The ocean surge is said to occur every August at the beach, though in former years there were no deaths Some of the popular hotels to stay are Lagos Continental Hotel and Eco hotels & Suites
Passage 15:
Dillon Beach, California
Dillon Beach is a census-designated place (CDP) in Marin County, California, United States  It is located 3 25 miles (5 2 km) west of Tomales, at an elevation of 89 ft (27 m)  The population was 246 at the 2020 census  Dillon Beach was named after the founder, George Dillon, who settled there in 1858  The area includes a public access beach, as well as a private beach resort, the only private beach in California 

Geography
Dillon Beach is located at Bodega Bay (near the mouth of Tomales Bay), at 38°15′03″N 122°57′55″W The Estero de San Antonio State Marine Recreational Management Area is a marine protected area located 1 5 miles (2 4 km) north of Dillon Beach  Like an underwater park, this marine protected area helps conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems 
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 2 98 sq mi (7 7 km2), all of it land 

History
The Coast Miwok people had a presence in the area around Dillon Beach long before Europeans arrived in the Americas  It is thought that a few of their villages lay within the greater Dillon Beach area, including one around the feature known locally as the Sand Point 
In the 1850s, local historical figure Tom Wood operated in the area, employing the natives in harvesting of grain to be milled nearby  He would attempt to ensure that they were not taken advantage of by the British, French, or American traders that would ply the coast  Hides and tallow were traded for various manufactured goods, among them whiskey  Despite Wood's efforts, many of them would fall victim to alcoholism, and while a few claim descent from the local Coast Miwoks, no full-blooded members live today  Tom's Point, immediately south of Dillon Beach on the eastern shore of the bay, is named for Tom Wood, and Wood resided there with the small village he ingratiated himself into 
Irishman George Dillon and wife Mathilda arrived at what is now Dillon Beach from the eastern U S  in 1868  When his friends and family showed interest in the area, he thought to capitalize on it; in 1888, he built an 11 bedroom hotel, restaurant, and general store  This is the Dillon Beach Resort in operation today  Visitors would explore the area on their way up the coast toward the redwood forests, strolling the beach, fishing, or digging clams from the nearby clam bars of Tomales Bay 
In 1903, Dillon sold out to John Keegan with the agreement that the beach would always be named Dillon Beach  Keegan also built cottages, one of which still stands along the road to the beach  Keegan ran a stagecoach from Dillon Beach to Tomales where it met the train 
Keegan sold the holdings to the California Eucalyptus Plantation Company in 1911  They planted the area with eucalyptus trees, a few of which still stand, but continued to operate the resort, and redoubled these efforts as the eucalyptus crop proved to warp easily and was effectively worthless  Under the subsidiary of the Dillon Beach Company, they operated the resort, ferried guests from the train in Tomales, ran a charter boat, and created Portola Beach, a subdivision along Cliff Street  Try as they might, their Dillon Beach operations were failing 
When regular visitors and Woodland ranchers Sylvester and Carrie Lawson offered to lease the property, the California Eucalyptus Plantation Company promptly agreed  Different portions of the business and land were leased or purchased by the Lawson family, and by 1942 Dillon Beach was firmly in Lawson hands  Sylvester and Carrie's older son, Howard, and his wife, Winifred, owned and ran the resort, while the younger son, Walter, and his wife, Nita, ran the southern side of the property, operating it as a ranch and opening Lawsons Landing on it  The Landing is operated by Walter's descendants to this day as a campground with a store and boating access to Tomales Bay 
During World War II, fears of a Japanese invasion of the West Coast were considered well founded, especially along sparsely populated Marin and Sonoma counties, where enemy forces could conceivably make landfall and prepare for a larger invasion of San Francisco Bay  The military commandeered many cottages and monitored the water from outposts on the surrounding hills supported by ground patrols  The sand dunes on the Lawsons Landing property were also a site for rifle and grenade practice, and the Lawson family recalls at least one instance of an armored vehicle's  50 caliber machine gun being fired around their cows, resulting in a tense conversation between soldiers and ranchers  One soldier reportedly sighted a Japanese submarine off the beach, prompting the garrison to scramble to nearby Marshall to requisition its civilian fishing boats for use in a counterattack, several of which were run by their respective owners  It took several hours to coordinate the operation, and once the soldiers finally arrived at the area of the supposed sighting, armed only with small arms, the submarine had departed, if it had been there at all 
The College of the Pacific operated from 1933 until some time in the 1980s  It stood between Portola Beach and Lawsons Landing, offering a hands-on experience for a small number of marine biology students  The concrete foundation is all that remains today, hinting at what was there before to passersby today 
During the 1960s, Oceana Marin was developed north of town by John Keegan's grandson, James Keegan of Wells Fargo Bank and Henry Trione of Sonoma County Mortgage  Fancy modern coastal houses were built on the hillsides overlooking the quaint town of small cottages, giving it a unique appeal 
The resort, day use beach, and restaurant were sold to Fred Cline in 1990 by the Lawsons  He would sell in 2018 to the group of investors owning it today 

Dillon Beach Resort
Between 2001 and 2018, Dillon Beach Resort was owned and operated by Fred and Nancy Cline of Sonoma Valley, California   In April 2018, Mike Goebel purchased the resort 
It is one of the few beaches with private (for-fee) access in northern California  
In California, public access is permitted below the high tide line  The horrible lines of traffic in Dillon Beach are caused by people waiting for entry into the parking lot of Dillon Beach Resort's beach lot  On hot holidays the line can extend all the way up to Elephant Rocks, almost a mile away 

Demographics
2010
At the 2010 census, Dillon Beach had a population of 283  The population density was 94 8 inhabitants per square mile (36 6/km2)  The racial makeup of Dillon Beach was 266 (94 0%) White, 3 (1 1%) Native American, 4 (1 4%) Asian, and 10 (3 5%) from two or more races   Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9 people (3 2%) The census reported that 100% of the population lived in households 
There were 147 households, 20 (13 6%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 79 (53 7%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 6 (4 1%) had a female householder with no husband present, 2 (1 4%) had a male householder with no wife present   There were 6 (4 1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 3 (2 0%) same-sex married couples or partnerships  48 households (32 7%) were one person and 26 (17 7%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older  The average household size was 1 93   There were 87 families (59 2% of households); the average family size was 2 37 
The age distribution was 28 people (9 9%) under the age of 18, 7 people (2 5%) aged 18 to 24, 44 people (15 5%) aged 25 to 44, 127 people (44 9%) aged 45 to 64, and 77 people (27 2%) who were 65 or older   The median age was 57 4 years  For every 100 females, there were 95 2 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94 7 males 
There were 440 housing units at an average density of 147 5 per square mile, of the occupied units 125 (85 0%) were owner-occupied and 22 (15 0%) were rented  The homeowner vacancy rate was 5 3%; the rental vacancy rate was 59 3%  84 5% of the population lived in owner-occupied housing units and 15 5% lived in rental housing units 

2000
At the 2000 census, there were 319 people, 155 households, and 103 families in the CDP   The population density was 107/sq mi (41 5/km2)   There were 415 housing units at an average density of 140/sq mi (54/km2)   The racial makeup of the CDP in 2010 was 90 8% non-Hispanic White, 1 1% Native American, 1 4% Asian, and 3 5% from two or more races  3 2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race 
Of the 155 households 17 4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59 4% were married couples living together, 4 5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33 5% were non-families  27 7% of households were one person and 10 3% were one person aged 65 or older   The average household size was 2 06 and the average family size was 2 47 
The age distribution was 14 4% under the age of 18, 1 3% from 18 to 24, 18 8% from 25 to 44, 43 6% from 45 to 64, and 21 9% 65 or older   The median age was 52 years  For every 100 females, there were 95 7 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95 0 males 
The median household income was $47,679 and the median family income  was $52,000  Males had a median income of $40,714 versus $37,083 for females  The per capita income for the CDP was $39,475   None of the families and 1 3% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no under-eighteens and none of those over 64 
Passage 16:
Siddhi Savetsila
Siddhi Savetsila (Thai: สิทธิ เศวตศิลา, RTGS: Sit Sawetsila, Thai pronunciation: [sìt sàʔwèːtsìʔlaː], 7 January 1919 – 5 December 2015) was a Thai air force officer and politician  After finishing his military career with the rank of air chief marshal, he served as the foreign minister of Thailand from 1980 to 1990  In 1991, he became a member of the Privy Council of King Bhumibol Adulyadej  He was the president of the united nations security council in 1985 with Mom Luang Birabhongse Kasemsri 

Life and career
Siddhi Savetsila was born in Bangkok  He is a member of the Thai aristocracy  His father was a high-ranking official in the royal government  His paternal grandfather was Henry Alabaster who was the British consul in Siam during the reign of King Rama IV (Mongkut) and then served as an advisor to King Rama V (Chulalongkorn)  His mother was an offspring of the influential Bunnag family  He is a direct descendant of Somdet Chao Phraya Borom Maha Prayurawongse Siddhi studied metallurgic engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), graduating with an S B  degree in 1943  During the Second World War, he joined the Free Thai Movement (Seri Thai) which resisted against the de facto occupation of Thailand by Japanese forces  He collected data for the US foreign-intelligence agency OSS (predecessor of the CIA) and was temporarily detained by the Japanese  Two of Siddhis sisters married US intelligence operatives, one was the wife of former OSS agent Willis Bird and one of CIA officer William Lair  After the end of the war, he returned to the MIT and received his S M  degree in 1947 
He then served in the Royal Thai Air Force and rose up to the rank of air chief marshal (phon akat ek)  From 1975 to 1980 he served as secretary-general of the National Security Council  In this position he assisted Prime Minister Kriangsak Chomanan at the time of the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia 1978/79 
In 1980, Kriangsak appointed him minister of foreign affairs  He kept this position when Prem Tinsulanonda took over the premiership a few months later  As Thailand' representative in the United Nations (UN) and ASEAN, Siddhi advocated a tough line towards Vietnam which was occupying Cambodia after 1979  In 1983, Siddhi was elected member of parliament and in 1985 he took over the leadership of the Social Action Party (SAP) following the retirement of Kukrit Pramoj  The party did well in the 1986 election and Siddhi additionally became deputy prime minister for a short time 
In August 1990, the new Prime Minister Chatichai Choonhavan dismissed Siddhi as he sought a more pragmatic relationship with the communist-ruled countries of Southeast Asia  Siddhi's SAP was in great difficulties during the late 1980s and, in September 1990, Siddhi gave up his leadership  One month later, he completely retired from the parliament and the party, stating that he was tired of politics  In 1991 King Bhumibol appointed him to his privy council Siddhi holds honorary doctorate degrees from the University of the Philippines, the National University of Singapore and five universities in Thailand  He was decorated with the Order of Chula Chom Klao (first class), the Order of the White Elephant (special class) and the Order of the Crown of Thailand (special class), as well as foreign decorations from 14 countries On 8 May 2000, he was among the five Free Thai veterans who were awarded the Agency Seal Medallion by CIA director George Tenet 
He died on 5 December 2015 at the age of 96 

Honour
Foreign honour
Malaysia : Honorary Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (P M N ) (1983)
 Portugal: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry(G C I H )
 United States: Medal of Freedom

Military rank
Air Chief Marshal

Volunteer Defense Corps of Thailand rank
Volunteer Defense Corps Lieutenant Colonel
Context 2: Passage 1:
Lockheed Martin A2100
The A2100 is a model of communications satellite spacecraft made by Lockheed Martin Space Systems  It is used as the foundation for telecommunications payloads in geosynchronous orbit, as well as GOES-R weather satellites and GPS Block IIIA satellites  Over 40 satellites use the A2100 bus 

History
The first satellite, AMC-1, was launched September 8, 1996, and has achieved 15-year on-orbit service life   Since 1996 there have been over 45 of the A2100 based satellites launched, with over 400 years of total on-orbit service 
Other A2100 spacecraft include JCSAT-13 and VINASAT-2, which were launched May, 2012 on an Ariane 5 rocket, as well as Arabsat-6A and Hellas Sat 4/SaudiGeoSat-1 of Saudi Arabia's Arabsat-6G program In 2002, Lockheed Martin Commercial Space Systems was given a Frost and Sullivan Satellite Reliability Award for excellence in the production of flexible and reliable communications satellites used in geosynchronous Earth orbit A2100 customers includes communications companies around the world, including Astra, Telesat, SKY Perfect JSAT Group and others 

Design
The Lockheed Martin A2100 geosynchronous spacecraft series is designed for a variety of telecommunications needs including Ka band broadband and broadcast services, fixed satellite services in C-band and Ku band payload configurations, high-power direct broadcast services using the Ku band frequency spectrum, and mobile satellite services using UHF, L-band and S-band payloads The A2100 satellite system was developed by the Astro Space team at its East Windsor, New Jersey facility, with team members delivering a flexible common bus with fewer components, lower spacecraft weight, and reduced customer delivery time The A2100 is being supplanted by the LM2100, an evolutionary upgrade with several new features  The military version is the LM2100 Combat Bus 

Propulsion system
The attitude control system includes reaction wheels, with momentum desaturation and main motor maneuver attitude control propulsion provided by small monopropellant hydrazine motors  This hydrazine supply is contained in a central propellant tank of 0 90 m diameter and up to 2 00 m length depending on the customer's requirements 
This tank's maximum length was later increased to 2 55 m 
The liquid apogee engine uses hydrazine fuel from the central tank along with nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer from two flanking tanks of 0 54 m diameter and up to 1 65 m long 
Orbit maintenance is performed by the small hydrazine motors and ion thrusters 
The maximum propellant supply (with the largest tanks at 95% fill factor) are 1368 kg of hydrazine fuel and 627 kg of nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer 
According to Moog-ISP, the A2100 platform uses its LEROS bipropellant Liquid Apogee Engine 

Satellite orders
A2100A
A2100AX
A2100AXS
A2100M (Military)
LM2100 (Modernized)
LM2100M (Modernized Military)
Cancelled orders
Passage 2:
Communications satellite
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunication signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth  Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications   Many communications satellites are in geostationary orbit 22,300 miles (35,900 km) above the equator, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore the satellite dish antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite  Others form satellite constellations in low Earth orbit, where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently 
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of sight and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth   The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points   Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies  To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use  This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference 

History
Origins
In October 1945, Arthur C  Clarke published an article titled "Extraterrestrial Relays" in the British magazine Wireless World  The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits to relay radio signals  Because of this, Arthur C  Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the concept of the communications satellite, and the term 'Clarke Belt' is employed as a description of the orbit 

The first artificial Earth satellite was Sputnik 1 which was put into orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957  It was developed by Mikhail Tikhonravov and Sergey Korolev, building on work by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky  Sputnik 1 was equipped with an on-board radio transmitter that worked on two frequencies of 20 005 and 40 002 MHz, or 7 and 15 meters wavelength  The satellite was not placed in orbit to send data from one point on Earth to another; the radio transmitter was meant to study the properties of radio wave distribution throughout the ionosphere   The launch of Sputnik 1 was a major step in the exploration of space and rocket development, and marks the beginning of the Space Age 

Early active and passive satellite experiments
There are two major classes of communications satellites, passive and active  Passive satellites only reflect the signal coming from the source, toward the direction of the receiver  With passive satellites, the reflected signal is not amplified at the satellite, and only a very small amount of the transmitted energy actually reaches the receiver   Since the satellite is so far above Earth, the radio signal is attenuated due to free-space path loss, so the signal received on Earth is very, very weak  Active satellites, on the other hand, amplify the received signal before retransmitting it to the receiver on the ground  Passive satellites were the first communications satellites, but are little used now 
Work that was begun in the field of electrical intelligence gathering at the United States Naval Research Laboratory in 1951 led to a project named Communication Moon Relay  Military planners had long shown considerable interest in secure and reliable communications lines as a tactical necessity, and the ultimate goal of this project was the creation of the longest communications circuit in human history, with the moon, Earth's natural satellite, acting as a passive relay  After achieving the first transoceanic communication between Washington, D C , and Hawaii on 23 January 1956, this system was publicly inaugurated and put into formal production in January 1960 

The first satellite purpose-built to actively relay communications was Project SCORE,  led by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and launched on 18 December 1958, which used a tape recorder to carry a stored voice message, as well as to receive, store, and retransmit messages  It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U S  President Dwight D  Eisenhower  The satellite also executed several realtime transmissions before the non-rechargeable batteries failed on 30 December 1958 after eight hours of actual operation The direct successor to SCORE was another ARPA-led project called Courier  Courier 1B was launched on 4 October 1960 to explore whether it would be possible to establish a global military communications network by using "delayed repeater" satellites, which receive and store information until commanded to rebroadcast them  After 17 days, a command system failure ended communications from the satellite NASA's satellite applications program launched the first artificial satellite used for passive relay communications in Echo 1 on 12 August 1960  Echo 1 was an aluminized balloon satellite acting as a passive reflector of microwave signals  Communication signals were bounced off the satellite from one point on Earth to another  This experiment sought to establish the feasibility of worldwide broadcasts of telephone, radio, and television signals 

More firsts and further experiments
Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications commercial satellite and marked the first transatlantic transmission of television signals  Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on 10 July 1962, in the first privately sponsored space launch Another passive relay experiment primarily intended for military communications purposes was Project West Ford, which was led by Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Laboratory  After an initial failure in 1961, a launch on 9 May 1963 dispersed 350 million copper needle dipoles to create a passive reflecting belt  Even though only about half of the dipoles properly separated from each other, the project was able to successfully experiment and communicate using frequencies in the SHF X band spectrum An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was the Hughes Aircraft Company's Syncom 2, launched on 26 July 1963  Syncom 2 was the first communications satellite in a geosynchronous orbit  It revolved around the earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still had north–south motion, special equipment was needed to track it  Its successor, Syncom 3, launched on 19 July 1964, was the first geostationary communications satellite  Syncom 3 obtained a geosynchronous orbit, without a north–south motion, making it appear from the ground as a stationary object in the sky A direct extension of the passive experiments of Project West Ford was the Lincoln Experimental Satellite program, also conducted by the Lincoln Laboratory on behalf of the United States Department of Defense  The LES-1 active communications satellite was launched on 11 February 1965 to explore the feasibility of active solid-state X band long-range military communications  A total of nine satellites were launched between 1965 and 1976 as part of this series 

International commercial satellite projects
In the United States, 1962 saw the creation of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) private corporation, which was subject to instruction by the US Government on matters of national policy  Over the next two years, international negotiations led to the Intelsat Agreements, which in turn led to the launch of Intelsat 1, also known as Early Bird, on 6 April 1965, and which was the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit  Subsequent Intelsat launches in the 1960s provided multi-destination service and video, audio, and data service to ships at sea (Intelsat 2 in 1966–67), and the completion of a fully global network with Intelsat 3 in 1969–70  By the 1980s, with significant expansions in commercial satellite capacity, Intelsat was on its way to become part of the competitive private telecommunications industry, and had started to get competition from the likes of PanAmSat in the United States, which, ironically, was then bought by its archrival in 2005 When Intelsat was launched, the United States was the only launch source outside of the Soviet Union, who did not participate in the Intelsat agreements  The Soviet Union launched its first communications satellite on 23 April 1965 as part of the Molniya program  This program was also unique at the time for its use of what then became known as the Molniya orbit, which describes a highly elliptical orbit, with two high apogees daily over the northern hemisphere  This orbit provides a long dwell time over Russian territory as well as over Canada at higher latitudes than geostationary orbits over the equator 

Satellite orbits
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital classifications are used to further specify orbital details  MEO and LEO are non-geostationary orbit (NGSO) 

Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is 22,236 miles (35,785 km) from Earth's surface  This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky   This is because the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth   The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in the sky the satellite appears 
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth  Orbital altitudes range from 2,000 to 36,000 kilometres (1,200 to 22,400 mi) above Earth 
The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth orbit (LEO), and is about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth beyond the visible horizon  Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so that one of these satellites will always be visible in the sky for transmission of communication signals   However, due to their closer distance to the Earth, LEO or MEO satellites can communicate to ground with reduced latency and at lower power than would be required from a geosynchronous orbit 

Low Earth orbit (LEO)
A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above the earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the sub-satellite point  In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly  So even for local applications, many satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity 
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal strength (signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is considerable)  Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost 
In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions 

Satellite constellation
A group of satellites working in concert is known as a satellite constellation  Two such constellations, intended to provide satellite phone and low-speed data services, primarily to remote areas, are the Iridium and Globalstar systems  The Iridium system has 66 satellites, which orbital inclination of 86 4° and inter-satellite links provide service availability over the entire surface of Earth  Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by SpaceX, that aims for global satellite Internet access coverage 
It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over another part   This will be the case with the CASCADE system of Canada's CASSIOPE communications satellite  Another system using this store and forward method is Orbcomm 

Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
A medium Earth orbit is a satellite in orbit somewhere between 2,000 and 35,786 kilometres (1,243 and 22,236 mi) above the earth's surface   MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality  MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 and 8 hours  MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites  A MEO satellite's longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network  One disadvantage is that a MEO satellite's distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, although these limitations are not as severe as those of a GEO satellite 
Like LEOs, these satellites do not maintain a stationary distance from the earth   This is in contrast to the geostationary orbit, where satellites are always 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) from the earth 
Typically the orbit of a medium earth orbit satellite is about 16,000 kilometres (10,000 mi) above earth  In various patterns, these satellites make the trip around earth in anywhere from 2 to 8 hours 

Examples of MEO
In 1962, the communications satellite, Telstar, was launched  It was a medium earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals  Although it was the first practical way to transmit signals over the horizon, its major drawback was soon realised  Because its orbital period of about 2 5 hours did not match the Earth's rotational period of 24 hours, continuous coverage was impossible  It was apparent that multiple MEOs needed to be used in order to provide continuous coverage 
In 2013, the first four of a constellation of 20 MEO satellites was launched  The O3b satellites provide broadband internet services, in particular to remote locations and maritime and in-flight use, and orbit at an altitude of 8,063 kilometres (5,010 mi)) 

Geostationary orbit (GEO)
To an observer on Earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky   This is because it revolves around the Earth at Earth's own angular velocity (one revolution per sidereal day, in an equatorial orbit) 
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion  This is relatively inexpensive 
In applications that require many ground antennas, such as DirecTV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit 

Examples of GEO
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on 19 August 1964, and used for communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics  Shortly after Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was launched on 6 April 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude  It was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean 
On 9 November 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, Anik A1, was launched by Telesat Canada, with the United States following suit with the launch of Westar 1 by Western Union on 13 April 1974 
On 30 May 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be three-axis stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-6 built for NASA 
After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE Americom, now SES) launched Satcom 1 in 1975   It was Satcom 1 that was instrumental in helping early cable TV channels such as WTBS (now TBS), HBO, CBN (now Freeform) and The Weather Channel become successful, because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local cable TV headends using the satellite   Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast television networks in the United States, like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute programming to their local affiliate stations   Satcom 1 was widely used because it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in America (24 transponders as opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in lower transponder-usage costs  Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher transponder numbers By 2000, Hughes Space and Communications (now Boeing Satellite Development Center) had built nearly 40 percent of the more than one hundred satellites in service worldwide  Other major satellite manufacturers include Space Systems/Loral, Orbital Sciences Corporation with the Star Bus series, Indian Space Research Organisation, Lockheed Martin (owns the former RCA Astro Electronics/GE Astro Space business), Northrop Grumman, Alcatel Space, now Thales Alenia Space, with the Spacebus series, and Astrium 

Molniya orbit
Geostationary satellites must operate above the equator and therefore appear lower on the horizon as the receiver gets farther from the equator  This will cause problems for extreme northerly latitudes, affecting connectivity and causing multipath interference (caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground antenna) 
Thus, for areas close to the North (and South) Pole, a geostationary satellite may appear below the horizon  Therefore, Molniya orbit satellites have been launched, mainly in Russia, to alleviate this problem 
Molniya orbits can be an appealing alternative in such cases  The Molniya orbit is highly inclined, guaranteeing good elevation over selected positions during the northern portion of the orbit  (Elevation is the extent of the satellite's position above the horizon  Thus, a satellite at the horizon has zero elevation and a satellite directly overhead has elevation of 90 degrees )
The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprint moves only slightly  Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation over the targeted region for six to nine hours every second revolution  In this way a constellation of three Molniya satellites (plus in-orbit spares) can provide uninterrupted coverage 
The first satellite of the Molniya series was launched on 23 April 1965 and was used for experimental transmission of TV signals from a Moscow uplink station to downlink stations located in Siberia and the Russian Far East, in Norilsk, Khabarovsk, Magadan and Vladivostok  In November 1967 Soviet engineers created a unique system of national TV network of satellite television, called Orbita, that was based on Molniya satellites 

Polar orbit
In the United States, the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) was established in 1994 to consolidate the polar satellite operations of
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)  NPOESS manages a number of satellites for various purposes; for example, METSAT for meteorological satellite, EUMETSAT for the European branch of the program, and METOP for meteorological operations 
These orbits are sun synchronous, meaning that they cross the equator at the same local time each day  For example, the satellites in the NPOESS (civilian) orbit will cross the equator, going from south to north, at times 1:30 P M , 5:30 P M , and 9:30 P M 

Beyond geostationary orbit
There are plans and initiatives to bring dedicated communications satellite beyond geostationary orbits 
NASA proposed LunaNet as a data network aiming to provide a „Lunar Internet for cis-lunar spacecraft and Installations 
The Moonlight Initiative is an equivalent ESA project that is stated to be compatible and providing navigational services for the lunar surface  Both programmes are satellite constellstions of several satellites in various orbits around the Moon 
Other orbits are also planned to be used  Positions in the Earth-Moon-Libration points are also proposed for communication satellites covering the Moon alike communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit cover the Earth  Also, dedicated communication satellites in orbits around Mars supporting different missions on surface and other orbits are considered, such as the Mars Telecommunications Orbiter 

Structure
Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems:

Communication Payload, normally composed of transponders, antennas, and switching systems
Engines used to bring the satellite to its desired orbit
A station keeping tracking and stabilization subsystem used to keep the satellite in the right orbit, with its antennas pointed in the right direction, and its power system pointed towards the sun
Power subsystem, used to power the Satellite systems, normally composed of solar cells, and batteries that maintain power during solar eclipse
Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground control stations  The ground control Earth stations monitor the satellite performance and control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided by the satellite  Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission  This is typically known as link budgeting and a network simulator can be used to arrive at the exact value 

Frequency allocation for satellite systems
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international coordination and planning  This is carried out under the auspices of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 
To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions:

Region 1: Europe, Africa, the Middle East, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia
Region 2: North and South America and Greenland
Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia, and the southwest PacificWithin these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given service may be allocated different frequency bands in different regions  Some of the services provided by satellites are:

Fixed satellite service (FSS)
Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)
Mobile-satellite service
Radionavigation-satellite service
Meteorological-satellite service

Applications
Telephony
The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony  The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from land line telephones to an earth station, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite   The downlink follows an analogous path   Improvements in submarine communications cables through the use of fiber-optics caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century 
Satellite communications are still used in many applications today  Remote islands such as Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Diego Garcia, and Easter Island, where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones  There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to non existent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, and Australia  Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of Antarctica and Greenland  Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a backup for hospitals, military, and recreation  Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones Satellite phone systems can be accomplished by a number of means  On a large scale, often there will be a local telephone system in an isolated area with a link to the telephone system in a main land area  There are also services that will patch a radio signal to a telephone system  In this example, almost any type of satellite can be used  Satellite phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-Earth-orbit satellites  Calls are then forwarded to a satellite teleport connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network  

Television
As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats   Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio: Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS) 
The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous  Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same linear polarization as FSS-class satellites  Examples of these are the Astra, Eutelsat, and Hotbird spacecraft in orbit over the European continent  Because of this, the terms FSS and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in Europe 
Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of the Ku band  They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, live shots, and backhauls), as well as being used for distance learning by schools and universities, business television (BTV), Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications  FSS satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends 
Free-to-air satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the Ku band  The Intelsat Americas 5, Galaxy 10R and AMC 3 satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their Ku band transponders 
The American Dish Network DBS service has also recently used FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's "must-carry" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels 
A direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter)  Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave Ku band  DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV, DISH Network and Orby TV in the United States, Bell Satellite TV and Shaw Direct in Canada, Freesat and Sky in the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand and DSTV in South Africa 
Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2 5 m) in diameter for Ku band, and 12 feet (3 6 m) or larger for C band)   They use linear polarization for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to circular polarization used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice  FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of TVRO (Television Receive Only) receivers and dishes  It was also used in its Ku band form for the now-defunct Primestar satellite TV service 
Some satellites have been launched that have transponders in the Ka band, such as DirecTV's SPACEWAY-1 satellite, and Anik F2  NASA and ISRO have also launched experimental satellites carrying Ka band beacons recently Some manufacturers have also introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television  Using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no matter where or how the vehicle (on which the antenna is mounted) is situated   These mobile satellite antennas are popular with some recreational vehicle owners   Such mobile DBS antennas are also used by JetBlue Airways for DirecTV (supplied by LiveTV, a subsidiary of JetBlue), which passengers can view on-board on LCD screens mounted in the seats 

Radio broadcasting
Satellite radio offers audio broadcast services in some countries, notably the United States  Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere 
A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals 

Amateur radio
Amateur radio operators have access to amateur satellites, which have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio traffic  Most such satellites operate as spaceborne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped with UHF or VHF radio equipment and highly directional antennas such as Yagis or dish antennas  Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time  Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using the X 25 or similar protocols 

Internet access
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections  This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access a broadband connection, or require high availability of services 

Military
Communications satellites are used for military communications applications, such as Global Command and Control Systems  Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are the MILSTAR, the DSCS, and the FLTSATCOM of the United States, NATO satellites, United Kingdom satellites (for instance Skynet), and satellites of the former Soviet Union  India has launched its first Military Communication satellite GSAT-7, its transponders operate in UHF, F, C and Ku band bands  Typically military satellites operate in the UHF, SHF (also known as X-band) or EHF (also known as Ka band) frequency bands 

Data collection
Near-ground in situ environmental monitoring equipment (such as weather stations, weather buoys, and radiosondes), may use satellites for one-way data transmission or two-way telemetry and telecontrol  It may be based on a secondary payload of a weather satellite (as in the case of GOES and METEOSAT and others in the Argos system) or in dedicated satellites (such as SCD)  The data rate is typically much lower than in satellite Internet access 

See also
Passage 3:
INSAT-4CR
INSAT-4CR was a communications satellite operated by ISRO as part of the Indian National Satellite System  Launched in September 2007, it replaced the INSAT-4C satellite which had been lost in a launch failure the previous year  The satellite was initially stationed in geostationary orbit at a longitude of 74 degrees east, with expected operational life of at least ten years, however this may have been reduced by the underperformance of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle which placed it into orbit  INSAT-4CR is planned to be replaced by GSAT-31, which was launched on February 6, 2019 

Spacecraft
INSAT-4CR was constructed by ISRO, and is based around the I-2K satellite bus  A 2,168-kilogram (4,780 lb) spacecraft, it is equipped with twelve Ku band transponders operating at a frequency of 36 MHz, with 140 Watt travelling wave tube amplifiers  The satellite has an effective isotropic radiated power of 51 5 dBW  An additional Ku band signal is used as a beacon for tracking 
INSAT-4CR operated in a geostationary orbit at a longitudes of 74° East and  48° East, providing communications to India  Broadcasting capacity on INSAT-4CR was allocated to Airtel Digital TV and Sun Direct DTH  At launch, the satellite was carrying 1,218 kilograms (2,685 lb) of fuel, for raising itself into geostationary orbit, and subsequently operating there for a planned twelve years  Increased expenditure of fuel reaching geostationary orbit, due to launch underperformance, may have resulted in a loss of up to five years of operational life 

Launch
INSAT-4CR was launched on 2 September 2007 by the fifth flight of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV-F04  The launch occurred at 12:51 UTC on 2 September 2007  The third stage of the carrier rocket underperformed, resulting in the satellite being placed into a lower than planned orbit 
As a result of the underperformance during its launch, INSAT-4CR had to expend maneuvering and station keeping propellant to raise its orbit by more than had originally been planned  It was subsequently reported by Indian news agencies that ISRO had lost track of the satellite's orbit, and could not locate the spacecraft until NASA identified it several days later, however, ISRO denied these claims  As a result of these failures, the operational lifetime of the satellite was reportedly decreased by up to five years 

End of life and replacement
Towards the end of its service life INSAT-4CR was relocated from 74°E to 48°E slot on 10 February 2017 where it stayed until being retired and placed into graveyard orbit on 24 November 2020  Services of INSAT-4CR were handed over to GSAT-31 
Passage 4:
NOAA-4
NOAA-4, also known as ITOS-G was a weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)  It was part of a series of satellites called ITOS, or improved TIROS  NOAA-4 was launched on a Delta rocket on November 15, 1974  The launch carried two other satellites: AMSAT-OSCAR 7 and Intasat  It remained operational for 1463 days until it was deactivated by NOAA on November 18, 1978 
Passage 5:
FedSat
FedSat (Australia's 'Federation Satellite'; sometimes FedSat 1; COSPAR 2002-056B, SATCAT 27598) was an Australian scientific research satellite launched from Tanegashima Space Center, Japan by a NASDA H-IIA launch vehicle  on 14 December 2002 (NASDA is now merged with JAXA)  The satellite was developed by the Cooperative Research Centre for Satellite Systems, a cooperative made up of several universities, commercial organisations and government bodies  The ground station was at the Institute for Telecommunications Research, part of the University of South Australia, near Adelaide  Since 2005 it was operated by the Australian Department of Defence 

Payloads
The satellite had six payloads, as given below:

Communications Payload: A collection of three components (UHF transponder, Ka-band transponder and base-band processor) used to perform several experiments in satellite communications 
High Performance Computing Experiment: A reconfigurable computer based on a Xilinx XQR4062 FPGA, the first of its kind to be used in space 
GPS Payload: A Global Positioning System receiver built by NASA  Conceived especially for ionospheric studies between GPS constellation levels and FedSat orbit 
NewMag Payload: A magnetometer built by the University of Newcastle, Australia, used to take measurements of the Earth's magnetic field near its poles 
Star Camera: An experimental star camera built by the University of Stellenbosch, used to determine the position of the satellite in space by analysing images of surrounding stars 
Compact Disk: A nickel "master" disk "cultural time capsule" with tracks including Paul Kelly's performance of the song he co-wrote with Kev Carmody, "From Little Things, Big Things Grow", and recorded statements from several hundred Australian school children about how they imagined a future Australia and its place in the Asia-Pacific The satellite platform, comprising the structural/thermal components, power system, attitude control system, onboard computer and groundlink, was originally developed in the United Kingdom by Space Innovations Limited
Context 3: Passage 1:
Mary Jo Catlett
Mary Jo Catlett (born September 2, 1938) is an American actress  She is a main cast member on the animated series SpongeBob SquarePants, providing the voice of Mrs  Puff  She is also known for originating the role of Ernestina in the 1964 Broadway production of Hello, Dolly! and for playing Pearl Gallagher, the third housekeeper on Diff'rent Strokes Catlett was born in Denver, Colorado, where she performed in a variety of plays and eventually directed a company of Pirates of Penzance  Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, she performed in Off-Broadway and Broadway musicals, often taking light-hearted, humorous roles  Since the late 1960s, Catlett has appeared in television shows such as M*A*S*H, The Dukes of Hazzard, and General Hospital  Catlett received Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Awards in 1978 and 1980, a nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical at the Ovation Awards in 1995, and a Daytime Emmy Award nomination in 1990 In 1998, Catlett joined the main cast of the then-upcoming cartoon SpongeBob SquarePants as the voice of Mrs  Puff, the title character's teacher, who has become her longest-running and most well-known role  Series creator Stephen Hillenburg had seen Catlett perform on stage and sought her out for the part himself  She quickly accepted and has since voiced Mrs  Puff in every season of the cartoon, in addition to all of the theatrical SpongeBob films and video games  In 2001, she received an Annie Award nomination for her voice-over work as Mrs  Puff 

Early life
Catlett was born in Denver, Colorado, on September 2, 1938, the daughter of Cornelia M  (née Callaghan) and Robert J  Catlett  She has a sister, Patricia Marie, who is a nun with the Dominican Order  Catlett is a Catholic 

Career
In 1974, Catlett originated the role of Mrs  Tiffany in Fashion: or, Life in New York  Her performance was well-received; The New York Times' theater critic Clive Barnes called Catlett and co-star Henrietta Valor "exceptional     both particular delights," and Jerry Tallmer of the New York Post said that the play's casting was "top-notch, with particular praise from this quarter for Mary Jo Catlett " Catlett would reprise her role in the 1994 revival of Fashion Catlett described herself as a character actress  In a 1988 interview with the Orlando Sentinel, she said, "It has been a plus to be a character actress  There are plenty of them out there but far fewer than ingenues and leading ladies, who perhaps eventually become character actresses  But I always was a character actress  I always was round and funny "

In 1976 and 1980, Catlett received Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Awards for her roles in Come Back, Little Sheba and Philadelphia, Here I Come!, respectively  In 1995, Catlett's role as Madame de la Grande Bouche in Beauty and the Beast earned her a nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical at the Ovation Awards  Catlett became a main cast member on Diff'rent Strokes in its fifth season, playing the third housekeeper, Pearl Gallagher  She also played characters on General Hospital (for which she was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award) and in several episodes of the television sitcom M*A*S*H 
In 1987, Catlett directed a production of Dan Goggin's Nunsense after meeting with Goggin and discussing the character of Sister Mary Regina  It was staged at the Mark Two Dinner Theatre in Orlando, Florida  Catlett decided to play Sister Mary as well, taking on a dual role as both director and performer  She was partially inspired to direct the show after witnessing directors' unfair treatment of her castmates in previous productions  She said, "I have worked with many directors who were tyrannical  You get afraid to do anything because he'll yell, 'Don't do that!' It makes you crazy    as a director, I believe that there can be a democracy "

SpongeBob SquarePants
In 1998, Catlett was cast as the voice of Mrs  Puff, one of the main characters of Nickelodeon's then-upcoming animated series SpongeBob SquarePants  She is one of the show's nine main cast members and has performed in every season, as well as in all of the theatrical SpongeBob films and video games  Mrs  Puff has become her longest-running and most well-known role  Stephen Hillenburg, the creator of the cartoon, specifically sought out Catlett to voice Mrs  Puff  He had seen her perform on stage and had a strong vision for Mrs  Puff as a character  Catlett quickly accepted and attended early practice sessions with the rest of the voice cast  Her first official recording as Mrs  Puff took place on August 24, 1998; she recorded dialogue with Tom Kenny as SpongeBob SquarePants and Bill Fagerbakke as Patrick Star in a single booth at Nickelodeon Animation Studio for the episode "Boating School" 
In 2001, Catlett was nominated for an Annie Award for her voice-over work as Mrs  Puff, placing in the category "Best Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Production " Kenny was also nominated at the same ceremony, making Catlett and Kenny the first two SpongeBob cast members to be nominated for an award 
As of 2017, voicing Mrs  Puff is Catlett's only regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she is good friends with the other SpongeBob cast members, making the SpongeBob recording booth an easy environment that requires less preparation than in-person performances  The About Group's Nancy Basille noted in 2016 that Catlett's "rich, low tones as teacher Mrs  Puff recall other roles she has had," citing Diff'rent Strokes and M*A*S*H as programs on which she had used a similar voice 

Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Theatre
Passage 2:
Annelid
The annelids  (Annelida , from Latin anellus, "little ring"), also known as the segmented worms, are a large phylum, with over 22,000 extant species including ragworms, earthworms, and leeches  The species exist in and have adapted to various ecologies – some in marine environments as distinct as tidal zones and hydrothermal vents, others in fresh water, and yet others in moist terrestrial environments 
The Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms  They also have parapodia for locomotion  Most textbooks still use the traditional division into polychaetes (almost all marine), oligochaetes (which include earthworms) and leech-like species  Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes  In addition, the Pogonophora, Echiura and Sipuncula, previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes  Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa, a "super-phylum" of protostomes that also includes molluscs, brachiopods, and nemerteans 
The basic annelid form consists of multiple segments  Each segment has the same sets of organs and, in most polychates, has a pair of parapodia that many species use for locomotion  Septa separate the segments of many species, but are poorly defined or absent in others, and Echiura and Sipuncula show no obvious signs of segmentation  In species with well-developed septa, the blood circulates entirely within blood vessels, and the vessels in segments near the front ends of these species are often built up with muscles that act as hearts  The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments, which facilitates movement by peristalsis ("ripples" that pass along the body) or by undulations that improve the effectiveness of the parapodia  In species with incomplete septa or none, the blood circulates through the main body cavity without any kind of pump, and there is a wide range of locomotory techniques – some burrowing species turn their pharynges inside out to drag themselves through the sediment 
Earthworms are oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil  The burrowing of marine polychaetes, which may constitute up to a third of all species in near-shore environments, encourages the development of ecosystems by enabling water and oxygen to penetrate the sea floor  In addition to improving soil fertility, annelids serve humans as food and as bait  Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water  Although blood-letting is used less frequently by doctors than it once was, some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over-harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries  Ragworms' jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer an exceptional combination of lightness and strength 
Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare – mostly jaws and the mineralized tubes that some of the species secreted  Although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids, the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period  Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous, about 299 million years ago  Palaeontologists disagree about whether some body fossils from the mid Ordovician, about 472 to 461 million years ago, are the remains of oligochaetes, and the earliest indisputable fossils of the group appear in the Paleogene period, which began 66 million years ago 

Classification and diversity
There are over 22,000 living annelid species, ranging in size from microscopic to the Australian giant Gippsland earthworm and Amynthas mekongianus, which can both grow up to 3 meters (9 8 ft) long  to the largest annelid, Microchaetus rappi which can grow up to 6 7 m (22 ft)  Although research since 1997 has radically changed scientists' views about the evolutionary family tree of the annelids, most textbooks use the traditional classification into the following sub-groups:
Polychaetes (about 12,000 species)  As their name suggests, they have multiple chetae ("hairs") per segment  Polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, and nuchal organs that are thought to be chemosensors  Most are marine animals, although a few species live in fresh water and even fewer on land 
Clitellates (about 10,000 species )  These have few or no chetae per segment, and no nuchal organs or parapodia  However, they have a unique reproductive organ, the ring-shaped  clitellum ("pack saddle") around their bodies, which produces a cocoon that stores and nourishes fertilized eggs until they hatch  or, in moniligastrids, yolky eggs that provide nutrition for the embryos  The clitellates are sub-divided into:Oligochaetes ("with few hairs"), which includes earthworms  Oligochaetes have a sticky pad in the roof of the mouth  Most are burrowers that feed on wholly or partly decomposed organic materials 
Hirudinea, whose name means "leech-shaped" and whose best known members are leeches  Marine species are mostly blood-sucking parasites, mainly on fish, while most freshwater species are predators  They have suckers at both ends of their bodies, and use these to move rather like inchworms The Archiannelida, minute annelids that live in the spaces between grains of marine sediment, were treated as a separate class because of their simple body structure, but are now regarded as polychaetes  Some other groups of animals have been classified in various ways, but are now widely regarded as annelids:

Pogonophora / Siboglinidae were first discovered in 1914, and their lack of a recognizable gut made it difficult to classify them  They have been classified as a separate phylum, Pogonophora, or as two phyla, Pogonophora and Vestimentifera  More recently they have been re-classified as a family, Siboglinidae, within the polychaetes 
The Echiura have a checkered taxonomic history: in the 19th century they were assigned to the phylum "Gephyrea", which is now empty as its members have been assigned to other phyla; the Echiura were next regarded as annelids until the 1940s, when they were classified as a phylum in their own right; but a molecular phylogenetics analysis in 1997 concluded that echiurans are annelids 
Myzostomida live on crinoids and other echinoderms, mainly as parasites  In the past they have been regarded as close relatives of the trematode flatworms or of the tardigrades, but in 1998 it was suggested that they are a sub-group of polychaetes  However, another analysis in 2002 suggested that myzostomids are more closely related to flatworms or to rotifers and acanthocephales 
Sipuncula was originally classified as annelids, despite the complete lack of segmentation, bristles and other annelid characters  The phylum Sipuncula was later allied with the Mollusca, mostly on the basis of developmental and larval characters  Phylogenetic analyses based on 79 ribosomal proteins indicated a position of Sipuncula within Annelida  Subsequent analysis of the mitochondrion's DNA has confirmed their close relationship to the Myzostomida and Annelida (including echiurans and pogonophorans)  It has also been shown that a rudimentary neural segmentation similar to that of annelids occurs in the early larval stage, even if these traits are absent in the adults Mitogenomic and phylogenomic analysis also implies that Orthonectida, a group of extremely simplified parasites traditionally placed in Mesozoa, are actually reduced annelids 

Distinguishing features
No single feature distinguishes Annelids from other invertebrate phyla, but they have a distinctive combination of features  Their bodies are long, with segments that are divided externally by shallow ring-like constrictions called annuli and internally by septa ("partitions") at the same points, although in some species the septa are incomplete and in a few cases missing  Most of the segments contain the same sets of organs, although sharing a common gut, circulatory system and nervous system makes them inter-dependent  Their bodies are covered by a cuticle (outer covering) that does not contain cells but is secreted by cells in the skin underneath, is made of tough but flexible collagen and does not molt – on the other hand arthropods' cuticles are made of the more rigid α-chitin, and molt until the arthropods reach their full size  Most annelids have closed circulatory systems, where the blood makes its entire circuit via blood vessels 

Description
Segmentation
Most of an annelid's body consists of segments that are practically identical, having the same sets of internal organs and external chaetae (Greek χαιτη, meaning "hair") and, in some species, appendages  The frontmost and rearmost sections are not regarded as true segments as they do not contain the standard sets of organs and do not develop in the same way as the true segments  The frontmost section, called the prostomium (Greek προ- meaning "in front of" and στομα meaning "mouth") contains the brain and sense organs, while the rearmost, called the pygidium (Greek πυγιδιον, meaning "little tail") or periproct contains the anus, generally on the underside  The first section behind the prostomium, called the peristomium (Greek περι- meaning "around" and στομα meaning "mouth"), is regarded by some zoologists as not a true segment, but in some polychaetes the peristomium has chetae and appendages like those of other segments The segments develop one at a time from a growth zone just ahead of the pygidium, so that an annelid's youngest segment is just in front of the growth zone while the peristomium is the oldest  This pattern is called teloblastic growth  Some groups of annelids, including all leeches, have fixed maximum numbers of segments, while others add segments throughout their lives 
The phylum's name is derived from the Latin word annelus, meaning "little ring" 

Body wall, chaetae and parapodia
Annelids' cuticles are made of collagen fibers, usually in layers that spiral in alternating directions so that the fibers cross each other  These are secreted by the one-cell deep epidermis (outermost skin layer)  A few marine annelids that live in tubes lack cuticles, but their tubes have a similar structure, and mucus-secreting glands in the epidermis protect their skins  Under the epidermis is the dermis, which is made of connective tissue, in other words a combination of cells and non-cellular materials such as collagen  Below this are two layers of muscles, which develop from the lining of the coelom (body cavity): circular muscles make a segment longer and slimmer when they contract, while under them are longitudinal muscles, usually four distinct strips,  whose contractions make the segment shorter and fatter  But several families have lost the circular muscles, and it has been suggested that the lack of circular muscles is a plesiomorphic character in Annelida  Some annelids also have oblique internal muscles that connect the underside of the body to each side The setae ("hairs") of annelids project out from the epidermis to provide traction and other capabilities  The simplest are unjointed and form paired bundles near the top and bottom of each side of each segment  The parapodia ("limbs") of annelids that have them often bear more complex chetae at their tips – for example jointed, comb-like or hooked  Chetae are made of moderately flexible β-chitin and are formed by follicles, each of which has a chetoblast ("hair-forming") cell at the bottom and muscles that can extend or retract the cheta  The chetoblasts produce chetae by forming microvilli, fine hair-like extensions that increase the area available for secreting the cheta  When the cheta is complete, the microvilli withdraw into the chetoblast, leaving parallel tunnels that run almost the full length of the cheta  Hence annelids' chetae are structurally different from the setae ("bristles") of arthropods, which are made of the more rigid α-chitin, have a single internal cavity, and are mounted on flexible joints in shallow pits in the cuticle Nearly all polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, while other major annelid groups lack them  Parapodia are unjointed paired extensions of the body wall, and their muscles are derived from the circular muscles of the body  They are often supported internally by one or more large, thick chetae  The parapodia of burrowing and tube-dwelling polychaetes are often just ridges whose tips bear hooked chetae  In active crawlers and swimmers the parapodia are often divided into large upper and lower paddles on a very short trunk, and the paddles are generally fringed with chetae and sometimes with cirri (fused bundles of cilia) and gills 

Nervous system and senses
The brain generally forms a ring round the pharynx (throat), consisting of a pair of ganglia (local control centers) above and in front of the pharynx, linked by nerve cords either side of the pharynx to another pair of ganglia just below and behind it  The brains of polychaetes are generally in the prostomium, while those of clitellates are in the peristomium or sometimes the first segment behind the prostomium  In some very mobile and active polychaetes the brain is enlarged and more complex, with visible hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain sections  The rest of the central nervous system, the ventral nerve cord, is generally "ladder-like", consisting of a pair of nerve cords that run through the bottom part of the body and have in each segment paired ganglia linked by a transverse connection  From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body  However, in most polychaetes the two main nerve cords are fused, and in the tube-dwelling genus Owenia the single nerve chord has no ganglia and is located in the epidermis As in arthropods, each muscle fiber (cell) is controlled by more than one neuron, and the speed and power of the fiber's contractions depends on the combined effects of all its neurons  Vertebrates have a different system, in which one neuron controls a group of muscle fibers  Most annelids' longitudinal nerve trunks include giant axons (the output signal lines of nerve cells)  Their large diameter decreases their resistance, which allows them to transmit signals exceptionally fast  This enables these worms to withdraw rapidly from danger by shortening their bodies  Experiments have shown that cutting the giant axons prevents this escape response but does not affect normal movement The sensors are primarily single cells that detect light, chemicals, pressure waves and contact, and are present on the head, appendages (if any) and other parts of the body  Nuchal ("on the neck") organs are paired, ciliated structures found only in polychaetes, and are thought to be chemosensors  Some polychaetes also have various combinations of ocelli ("little eyes") that detect the direction from which light is coming and camera eyes or compound eyes that can probably form images  The compound eyes probably evolved independently of arthropods' eyes  Some tube-worms use ocelli widely spread over their bodies to detect the shadows of fish, so that they can quickly withdraw into their tubes  Some burrowing and tube-dwelling polychaetes have statocysts (tilt and balance sensors) that tell them which way is down  A few polychaete genera have on the undersides of their heads palps that are used both in feeding and as "feelers", and some of these also have antennae that are structurally similar but probably are used mainly as "feelers" 

Coelom, locomotion and circulatory system
Most annelids have a pair of coelomata (body cavities) in each segment, separated from other segments by septa and from each other by vertical mesenteries  Each septum forms a sandwich with connective tissue in the middle and mesothelium (membrane that serves as a lining) from the preceding and following segments on either side  Each mesentery is similar except that the mesothelium is the lining of each of the pair of coelomata, and the blood vessels and, in polychaetes, the main nerve cords are embedded in it   The mesothelium is made of modified epitheliomuscular cells; in other words, their bodies form part of the epithelium but their bases extend to form muscle fibers in the body wall  The mesothelium may also form radial and circular muscles on the septa, and circular muscles around the blood vessels and gut  Parts of the mesothelium, especially on the outside of the gut, may also form chloragogen cells that perform similar functions to the livers of vertebrates: producing and storing glycogen and fat; producing the oxygen-carrier hemoglobin; breaking down proteins; and turning nitrogenous waste products into ammonia and urea to be excreted 

Many annelids move by peristalsis (waves of contraction and expansion that sweep along the body), or flex the body while using parapodia  to crawl or swim  In these animals the septa enable the circular and longitudinal muscles to change the shape of individual segments, by making each segment a separate fluid-filled "balloon"  However, the septa are often incomplete in annelids that are semi-sessile or that do not move by peristalsis or by movements of parapodia – for example some move by whipping movements of the body, some small marine species move by means of cilia (fine muscle-powered hairs) and some burrowers turn their pharynges (throats) inside out to penetrate the sea-floor and drag themselves into it The fluid in the coelomata contains coelomocyte cells that defend the animals against parasites and infections  In some species coelomocytes may also contain a respiratory pigment – red hemoglobin in some species, green chlorocruorin in others (dissolved in the plasma) – and provide oxygen transport within their segments  Respiratory pigment is also dissolved in the blood plasma  Species with well-developed septa generally also have blood vessels running all long their bodies above and below the gut, the upper one carrying blood forwards while the lower one carries it backwards  Networks of capillaries in the body wall and around the gut transfer blood between the main blood vessels and to parts of the segment that need oxygen and nutrients  Both of the major vessels, especially the upper one, can pump blood by contracting  In some annelids the forward end of the upper blood vessel is enlarged with muscles to form a heart, while in the forward ends of many earthworms some of the vessels that connect the upper and lower main vessels function as hearts  Species with poorly developed or no septa generally have no blood vessels and rely on the circulation within the coelom for delivering nutrients and oxygen However, leeches and their closest relatives have a body structure that is very uniform within the group but significantly different from that of other annelids, including other members of the Clitellata  In leeches there are no septa, the connective tissue layer of the body wall is so thick that it occupies much of the body, and the two coelomata are widely separated and run the length of the body  They function as the main blood vessels, although they are side-by-side rather than upper and lower  However, they are lined with mesothelium, like the coelomata and unlike the blood vessels of other annelids  Leeches generally use suckers at their front and rear ends to move like inchworms  The anus is on the upper surface of the pygidium 

Respiration
In some annelids, including earthworms, all respiration is via the skin  However, many polychaetes and some clitellates (the group to which earthworms belong) have gills associated with most segments, often as extensions of the parapodia in polychaetes  The gills of tube-dwellers and burrowers usually cluster around whichever end has the stronger water flow 

Feeding and excretion
Feeding structures in the mouth region vary widely, and have little correlation with the animals' diets  Many polychaetes have a muscular pharynx that can be everted (turned inside out to extend it)  In these animals the foremost few segments often lack septa so that, when the muscles in these segments contract, the sharp increase in fluid pressure from all these segments everts the pharynx very quickly  Two families, the Eunicidae and Phyllodocidae, have evolved jaws, which can be used for seizing prey, biting off pieces of vegetation, or grasping dead and decaying matter  On the other hand, some predatory polychaetes have neither jaws nor eversible pharynges   Selective deposit feeders generally live in tubes on the sea-floor and use palps to find food particles in the sediment and then wipe them into their mouths  Filter feeders use "crowns" of palps covered in cilia that wash food particles towards their mouths  Non-selective deposit feeders ingest soil or marine sediments via mouths that are generally unspecialized  Some clitellates have sticky pads in the roofs of their mouths, and some of these can evert the pads to capture prey  Leeches often have an eversible proboscis, or a muscular pharynx with two or three teeth The gut is generally an almost straight tube supported by the mesenteries (vertical partitions within segments), and ends with the anus on the underside of the pygidium  However, in members of the tube-dwelling family Siboglinidae the gut is blocked by a swollen lining that houses symbiotic bacteria, which can make up 15% of the worms' total weight  The bacteria convert inorganic matter – such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from hydrothermal vents, or methane from seeps – to organic matter that feeds themselves and their hosts, while the worms extend their palps into the gas flows to absorb the gases needed by the bacteria Annelids with blood vessels use metanephridia to remove soluble waste products, while those without use protonephridia  Both of these systems use a two-stage filtration process, in which fluid and waste products are first extracted and these are filtered again to re-absorb any re-usable materials while dumping toxic and spent materials as urine  The difference is that protonephridia combine both filtration stages in the same organ, while metanephridia perform only the second filtration and rely on other mechanisms for the first – in annelids special filter cells in the walls of the blood vessels let fluids and other small molecules pass into the coelomic fluid, where it circulates to the metanephridia  In annelids the points at which fluid enters the protonephridia or metanephridia are on the forward side of a septum while the second-stage filter and the nephridiopore (exit opening in the body wall) are in the following segment  As a result, the hindmost segment (before the growth zone and pygidium) has no structure that extracts its wastes, as there is no following segment to filter and discharge them, while the first segment contains an extraction structure that passes wastes to the second, but does not contain the structures that re-filter and discharge urine 

Reproduction and life cycle
Asexual reproduction
Polychaetes can reproduce asexually, by dividing into two or more pieces or by budding off a new individual while the parent remains a complete organism  Some oligochaetes, such as Aulophorus furcatus, seem to reproduce entirely asexually, while others reproduce asexually in summer and sexually in autumn  Asexual reproduction in oligochaetes is always by dividing into two or more pieces, rather than by budding  However, leeches have never been seen reproducing asexually Most polychaetes and oligochaetes also use similar mechanisms to regenerate after suffering damage  Two polychaete genera, Chaetopterus and Dodecaceria, can regenerate from a single segment, and others can regenerate even if their heads are removed  Annelids are the most complex animals that can regenerate after such severe damage  On the other hand, leeches cannot regenerate 

Sexual reproduction
It is thought that annelids were originally animals with two separate sexes, which released ova and sperm into the water via their nephridia  The fertilized eggs develop into trochophore larvae, which live as plankton  Later they sink to the sea-floor and metamorphose into miniature adults: the part of the trochophore between the apical tuft and the prototroch becomes the prostomium (head);  a small area round the trochophore's anus becomes the pygidium (tail-piece); a narrow band immediately in front of that becomes the growth zone that produces new segments; and the rest of the trochophore becomes the peristomium (the segment that contains the mouth) However, the lifecycles of most living polychaetes, which are almost all marine animals, are unknown, and only about 25% of the 300+ species whose lifecycles are known follow this pattern  About 14% use a similar external fertilization but produce yolk-rich eggs, which reduce the time the larva needs to spend among the plankton, or eggs from which miniature adults emerge rather than larvae  The rest care for the fertilized eggs until they hatch – some by producing jelly-covered masses of eggs which they tend, some by attaching the eggs to their bodies and a few species by keeping the eggs within their bodies until they hatch  These species use a variety of methods for sperm transfer; for example, in some the females collect sperm released into the water, while in others the males have a penis that inject sperm into the female  There is no guarantee that this is a representative sample of polychaetes' reproductive patterns, and it simply reflects scientists' current knowledge Some polychaetes breed only once in their lives, while others breed almost continuously or through several breeding seasons  While most polychaetes remain of one sex all their lives, a significant percentage of species are full hermaphrodites or change sex during their lives  Most polychaetes whose reproduction has been studied lack permanent gonads, and it is uncertain how they produce ova and sperm  In a few species the rear of the body splits off and becomes a separate individual that lives just long enough to swim to a suitable environment, usually near the surface, and spawn Most mature clitellates (the group that includes earthworms and leeches) are full hermaphrodites, although in a few leech species younger adults function as males and become female at maturity  All have well-developed gonads, and all copulate  Earthworms store their partners' sperm in spermathecae ("sperm stores") and then the clitellum produces a cocoon that collects ova from the ovaries and then sperm from the spermathecae  Fertilization and development of earthworm eggs takes place in the cocoon  Leeches' eggs are fertilized in the ovaries, and then transferred to the cocoon  In all clitellates the cocoon also either produces yolk when the eggs are fertilized or nutrients while they are developing  All clitellates hatch as miniature adults rather than larvae 

Ecological significance
Charles Darwin's book The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms (1881) presented the first scientific analysis of earthworms' contributions to soil fertility  Some burrow while others live entirely on the surface, generally in moist leaf litter  The burrowers loosen the soil so that oxygen and water can penetrate it, and both surface and burrowing worms help to produce soil by mixing organic and mineral matter, by accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and thus making it more quickly available to other organisms, and by concentrating minerals and converting them to forms that plants can use more easily  Earthworms are also important prey for birds ranging in size from robins to storks, and for mammals ranging from shrews to badgers, and in some cases conserving earthworms may be essential for conserving endangered birds Terrestrial annelids can be invasive in some situations  In the glaciated areas of North America, for example, almost all native earthworms are thought to have been killed by the glaciers and the worms currently found in those areas are all introduced from other areas, primarily from Europe, and, more recently, from Asia   Northern hardwood forests are especially negatively impacted by invasive worms through the loss of leaf duff, soil fertility, changes in soil chemistry and the loss of ecological diversity  Especially of concern is Amynthas agrestis and at least one state (Wisconsin) has listed it as a prohibited species 
Earthworms migrate only a limited distance annually on their own, and the spread of invasive worms is increased rapidly by anglers and from worms or their cocoons in the dirt on vehicle tires or footwear 
Marine annelids may account for over one-third of bottom-dwelling animal species around coral reefs and in tidal zones  Burrowing species increase the penetration of water and oxygen into the sea-floor sediment, which encourages the growth of populations of aerobic bacteria and small animals alongside their burrows Although blood-sucking leeches do little direct harm to their victims, some transmit flagellates that can be very dangerous to their hosts  Some small tube-dwelling oligochaetes transmit myxosporean parasites that cause whirling disease in fish 

Interaction with humans
Earthworms make a significant contribution to soil fertility  The rear end of the Palolo worm, a marine polychaete that tunnels through coral, detaches in order to spawn at the surface, and the people of Samoa regard these spawning modules as a delicacy  Anglers sometimes find that worms are more effective bait than artificial flies, and worms can be kept for several days in a tin lined with damp moss   Ragworms are commercially important as bait and as food sources for aquaculture, and there have been proposals to farm them in order to reduce over-fishing of their natural populations  Some marine polychaetes' predation on molluscs causes serious losses to fishery and aquaculture operations Scientists study aquatic annelids to monitor the oxygen content, salinity and pollution levels in fresh and marine water Accounts of the use of leeches for the medically dubious practise of blood-letting have come from China around 30 AD, India around 200 AD, ancient Rome around 50 AD and later throughout Europe  In the 19th century medical demand for leeches was so high that some areas' stocks were exhausted and other regions imposed restrictions or bans on exports, and Hirudo medicinalis is treated as an endangered species by both IUCN and CITES  More recently leeches have been used to assist in microsurgery, and their saliva has provided anti-inflammatory compounds and several important anticoagulants, one of which also prevents tumors from spreading Ragworms' jaws are strong but much lighter than the hard parts of many other organisms, which are biomineralized with calcium salts  These advantages have attracted the attention of engineers  Investigations showed that ragworm jaws are made of unusual  proteins that bind strongly to zinc 

Evolutionary history
Fossil record
Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare  Polychaetes' fossil record consists mainly of the jaws that some species had and the mineralized tubes that some secreted



ground_truth: Ko Phi Phi Leh

Ko Phi Phi Le

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the experimental satellite being forerunner to communication satellite of INSAT-4CR's manufacturer called?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  It was later completed along with integration of payloads in Canberra, Australia 

Declared Dead
The spacecraft's battery failed in May 2007 and the mission has been terminated, after lasting 18 months longer than expected 
Passage 6:
SICRAL 1B
SICRAL 1B is a military communications satellite built by Thales Alenia Space for Italian Armed Forces  It is a dual-use spacecraft: Telespazio will use some of the satellite's transmission capacity and some will be used by the Italian defense ministry and NATO  The spacecraft is based on the Italsat 3000 bus and includes one EHF/Ka band, three UHF-band and five active SHF-band transponders  It is designed to be operable for 13 years 

Construction
Thales Alenia Space was the prime contractor for development and construction of the SICRAL 1B satellite 

Launch
On April 20, 2009 Sea Launch used a Zenit-3SL to carry SICRAL 1B into a geosynchronous transfer orbit  Liftoff from the Ocean Odyssey launch platform took place at 08:16 GMT 
Passage 7:
ATS-6
ATS-6 (Applications Technology Satellite-6)  was a NASA experimental satellite, built by Fairchild Space and Electronics Division It has been called the world's first educational satellite as well as world's first experimental Direct Broadcast Satellite as part of the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment between NASA and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)  It was launched May 30, 1974, and decommissioned July 1979  At the time of launch, it was the most powerful telecommunication satellite in orbit  ATS-6 carried no fewer than 23 different experiments, and introduced several breakthroughs  It was the first 3-axis stabilized spacecraft in geostationary orbit  It was also the first to use experimentally with some success electric propulsion in geostationary orbit  It also carried several particle physics experiments, including the first heavy ion detector in geostationary orbit 
During its five-year life, ATS-6 transmitted connection programming to various countries, including India, the United States and other regions  The vehicle also conducted air traffic control tests, was used to practice satellite-assisted search and rescue techniques, carried an experimental radiometer subsequently carried as a standard instrument aboard weather satellites, and pioneered direct broadcast TV 
ATS-6 was a precursor to many technologies still in use today on geostationary spacecraft: large deployable antenna, 3-axis attitude control with slewing capabilities, antenna pointing through RF sensing, electric propulsion, meteorological radiometer in geostationary orbit, and direct to home broadcasting  It is also possible that ATS-6 was a forerunner of the large ELINT satellites such as Mentor 

Launch
ATS-6 was launched on May 30, 1974, by a Titan III-C launch vehicle  The spacecraft was inserted directly in the geosynchronous orbit  This reduced the on-board fuel requirements to less than 40 kilograms (88 lb) (for a total mass at launch of nearly 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb))  The highly accurate orbit insertion further lowered the amount of fuel required for final positioning to 9 kilograms (20 lb)  This enabled a life extension from the original 2 year to 5 years, even accounting for the premature failure of the electric propulsion subsystem (the station-keeping fuel requirement being around 1 6 kilograms per year (3 5 lb/a)) 

Structure, power subsystem and antenna
One of the major innovations of ATS-6 was an in-flight deployable antenna of more than 9 metres (30 ft) in diameter  The antenna reflector was furled during launch under the launch vehicle fairing, and was deployed in orbit much like an umbrella  The antenna reflector was built from 48 aluminum ribs, supporting a metallized Dacron mesh  The antenna feeds (in C, S, L, UHF and VHF bands) were placed on the spacecraft body, facing the antenna reflector, and linked to the antenna and the solar panels masts by a carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) truss  The solar panels were rigidly mounted on two deployable masts  They were of hemi-cylinder shape, thus providing a relatively constant power (595 W beginning of life)  Electric power was supplied during eclipses by two Nickel cadmium batteries of 15-A·h capacity, powering a regulated 30 5-V bus  The satellite dimensions in orbit were 15 8-metre (52 ft) width by 8 2-metre (27 ft) height 
This deployable antenna parabola was designed and developed by Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (LMSC), now Lockheed Martin, under subcontract to Fairchild Aerospace, after several years of small study contracts at LMSC   The program manager at LMSC was GKC (Colin) Campbell   The deployment of the reflector was initiated by pyrotechnically operated SQUIB cable cutters   Deployment time was on the order of 2 5 seconds producing 3,400 newton-metres (2,500 lb⋅ft) of torque at the spacecraft interface   The reflector surface was designed for optimal operation at S-Band frequencies  It weighed 83 kilograms (182 lb) at launch and stowed into a toroidal volume (doughnut shaped) approximately 1 8 metres (6 ft) in diameter and 250 millimetres (10 in) thick   Three models were fabricated, the STM or structural test model, the F reflector and the G reflector   The STM was destroyed by Fairchild shortly after the program was finished and the F model was launched with the spacecraft in 1972   The G model sat unprotected in the Farchild parking lot for several years before it was donated to the Smithsonian   Bill Wade, the assistant program manager and test manager on the program supported The Smithsonian in the restoration by providing a complete set of drawings and specifications and visited the Silver Hill facility to provide technical guidance At the time of launch it was the largest parabolic surface launched into orbit 

Three-axis stabilisation
ATS-6 has been the first geostationary satellite with three-axis stabilization and pointing , This subsystem was capable of a highly accurate pointing (better than 0 1° through the inertial measurement units, down to 0 002° by using a radio-frequency interferometer )  Furthermore, the satellite was able to follow low earth orbit satellites through slewing, by tracking the low earth-orbit satellite through an S-band RF sensing  The system was also able to perform orbitography of the tracked satellite, and was a precursor to the operational system TDRSS 
This highly advanced (for the time) pointing subsystem used earth and sun sensors, a star tracker pointed to the pole star, Polaris, and three inertial sensors  The sensor measurements were fed to two digital computers (nominal and redundant), as well to a back-up analog computer  It was also possible to orient the satellite by using radio-frequency sensors   Actuators were three momentum wheels, and hot gas (hydrazine mono-propellant) thrusters  One of the momentum wheels having failed in July 1975, an alternative scheme was developed, allowing station-keeping with the two remaining wheels and thrusters 

Electric propulsion
ATS-6 was equipped with two electric thrusters based on the acceleration of cesium ions, that were to be used for North-South Station Keeping  This subsystem development followed earlier failed attempts on the previous ATS spacecraft  Each of the thrusters had a mass of 16 kilograms (35 lb), used 150 W of electric power, and produced a thrust of 4 newton-metres (3 0 lbf⋅ft), with a specific impulse of 2500s  The on-board supply of cesium would have been sufficient for 4400 hours of thrust  Unfortunately, both thrusters failed prematurely, one after 1 hour of operation, one after 95 hours  However, some of the experiments objectives could be met, such as the measurement of the effective thrust, the absence of any interference with the radio-frequency payloads (from 150 MHz to 6 GHz), no cesium redeposition on the critical parts of the payload (such as the radiometer), and the correct neutralisation of the spacecraft versus its environment 

Payload
Radiometer
A radiometer was on board ATS-6, mounted on the earth-facing panel  This instrument was (for the time) of very high resolution  It operated on two channels: infra-red (10 5 to 12 5 µm) and visible light (0 55 to 0 75 µm)  Images taken with the radiometer covered the whole earth disk, with a resolution of 1,200 lines of 2,400 pixels each (11-kilometre (6 8 mi) square pixel in infra-red, and 5 5-kilometre (3 4 mi) square in visible light)  The IR detector was passively cooled at 115K, and the visible light detector maintained at 300K  A complete image of earth's disk was transmitted to ground every 25 minutes  Several hundreds images were taken and transmitted, until a mechanical component of the radiometer failed, two and a half months after launch 

Telecommunication experiments
The main mission of ATS-6 was to demonstrate the feasibility of direct-to-home (DTH) television broadcasting  To this end, in addition to the high-gain antenna, the spacecraft payload was able to receive in any of the VHF, C, S and L-bands, and to transmit in S-band (2 GHz) through a 20-W solid state transmitter, in L-band (1650 MHz) at 40W, in UHF (860 MHz) at 80W (which was used for the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)), and with a TWTA-based transmitter of 20 W in C-band (4 GHz)  The antenna produced two spots on earth of 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi) each, in which the TV broadcast could be received with 3 metres (9 8 ft) diameter antennas  This payload was first used over the United States for tele-education and tele-medicine experiments, from August 1974 to May 1975 as part of the HET, or Health, Education, Telecommunications experiment developed jointly by NASA and the US Department of Health, Education, & Welfare (now DHHS)  The spacecraft was then moved over the geo-stationary arc from 94 °W to 35 °E, in collaboration with the Indian Space Agency (ISRO), who had deployed in India more than 2500 receive ground stations  The move of the satellite from 94 degrees West to 35 degrees East, a journey of 12,800 kilometres (8,000 mi), was actioned from the ground station at Rosman North Carolina  This relocation involved 2 rocket burns of the onboard rocket motor  The 2nd burn lasting 5 hours 37 minutes and 17 seconds  The longest burn ever done by a chemical rocket in space at that time  A tele-education programme was started – Satellite Instructional Television Experiment or SITE – and run for one year  During the experiment, a receive station was offered by the Indian Government to Arthur C  Clarke, who was living in Sri Lanka  This experiment was highly successful, and encouraged ISRO to start building an operational program, with the Indian spacecraft  INSAT IB (launched 1983)  After the SITE experiment, the satellite was brought back over the United States, and served notably as a data-relay and tracking satellite for low-orbit spacecraft such as Nimbus 6, and for the Apollo-Soyuz flight 

Particle physics experiments
Several particle physics experiments were on board ATS-6  The most significant measured low energy protons (from 25 keV to 3 6 MeV), as well as detected heavy ions (up to 6 MeV)  This latter experiment allowed to detect the first heavy ions (Z > 6) with an energy  E > 4 MeV, in geostationary orbit 

Propagation experiments
Finally, ATS-6 embarked several radio beacons, which allowed to measure electromagnetic propagation properties of the atmosphere at 13, 18, 20 and 30 GHz 

Decommissioning
By June 30, 1979, only one of the four ATS-6 station keeping thrusters was working, and was showing signs of unreliability  This thruster was used to move ATS-6 out of geostationary orbit to an orbit several hundred kilometers higher  This was to vacate the geostationary slot for the next satellite 

See also
1974 in spaceflight
Applications Technology Satellite
Passage 8:
Optus
Singtel Optus Pty Limited (commonly referred to as Optus) is an Australian telecommunications company headquartered in Macquarie Park, a suburb in the Northern Sydney region of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia  It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Singaporean telecommunications company Singtel  
Optus is the second-largest wireless carrier in Australia, with over 10 million subscribers as of 2022, and it's mobile network covers 98 5% of the Australian population 

History
AUSSAT and deregulation (1981–1990)
Optus can trace its beginnings back to the formation of the Government-owned AUSSAT Pty Limited in 1981  In 1982, Aussat selected the Hughes 376 for their initial satellites, with the first, AUSSAT A1, launched in August 1985  AUSSAT satellites were used for both military and civilian satellite communications, and delivering television services to remote outback communities 

With Aussat operating at a loss and with moves to deregulate telecommunications in Australia, the government decided to sell Aussat, coupled with a telecommunications licence  The licence was sold to Optus Communications – a consortium including:
logistics firm Mayne Nickless (24 99%);
UK telecommunications company Cable & Wireless (24 50%);
US telecommunications company BellSouth (24 50%);
AIDC Limited (10 00%);
insurance and investment company AMP (10 00%); and
insurance and investment company National Mutual (6 02%) The new telecommunications company was designed to provide competition to then government owned telecommunications company Telecom Australia, now known as Telstra 

Founding of Optus (1991–present)
Optus gained the second general carrier licence in January 1991 After privatisation, AUSSAT became Optus and its first offering to the general public was to offer long-distance calls at cheaper rates than that of its competitor Telstra  The long-distance calling rates on offer were initially available by consumers dialing 1 before the area code and phone number  Following this, a ballot process was conducted by then regulator AUSTEL, with customers choosing their default long-distance carrier  Customers who made no choice or did not respond to the mailout campaign automatically remained as a Telstra long-distance customer  Customers who remained with Telstra could dial the override code of 1456 before the area code and phone number to manually select Optus as the carrier for that single call  Since 1 July 1998, consumers have the choice of preselecting their preferred long-distance carrier or dialling the override code before dialling a telephone number 
The group began by building an interstate fibre optic cable and a series of exchanges between Optus' interstate network and Telstra's local network  It also laid fibre optics into major office buildings and industrial areas, and focused on high bandwidth local, (interstate) long distance, and interstate calls for business  In its early years, Optus was only able to offer local and long-distance calls to residential customers through Telstra's local phone network  Telstra would carry residential to residential calls to Optus' exchanges, and then the calls would be switched to Optus' long-distance fibre optic network 
Optus was the main sponsor of the 1997 ARL season 

2022 cyberattack
Around 22 September 2022, Optus systems sustained a significant cyberattack that resulted in a major data breach of both current and former customers' personal information, including customers’ names, dates of birth, phone numbers and email addresses, with a smaller subset of customers having their street addresses, driving licence details and passport numbers leaked  Optus CEO Kelly Bayer Rosmarin urged customers to exercise "heightened awareness" regarding transactions with their Optus and other accounts  Rosmarin emphasised that passwords were not compromised  The CEO said that the "worst-case scenario" regarding the number of customers whose data had been leaked was 9 8 million customers, but believes the actual number to be far lower On 24 September 2022, Australian news outlets The Age and The Sydney Morning Herald reported that Optus was investigating the authenticity of a ransom demand of US$1 million made on a hacking forum  The demand gave Optus one week to pay the ransom in cryptocurrency else the data will be sold for US$300,000 to whoever else wants it On 6 October, the Australian Federal Police announced the arrest of a 19-year-old man who had allegedly threatened 93 Optus customers by saying that he would use their information leaked in the attack to commit financial crimes, unless they paid AUD $2,000 In response to the cyberattack, the Australian federal government announced emergency regulation on 6 October, in the form of a 12-month amendment to the Telecommunications Regulations 2021 to "enable telecommunications companies to temporarily share approved government identifier information with regulated financial services entities "On 11 October, the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner launched an investigation, the aim of which is to explore the company's handling of customers' data 

Corporate affairs
Chief Executive Officer
Kelly Bayer Rosmarin commenced as CEO of Optus and Consumer Australia on 1 April 2020 
A senior executive, Kelly joined Optus as Deputy CEO on 1 March 2019 following a variety of executive roles including Group Executive, Institutional Banking and Markets at the Commonwealth Bank of Australia 

The hybrid fibre-coax rollout
These practices meant that Optus was the largest customer of Telstra  To become competitive Optus would need to lay its own local phone network  To provide a killer application for this, the Australian Federal government sold subscription television licences  Optus, as well as the Seven Network, businessman Kerry Stokes and American cable company Cablevision, formed the Optus Vision consortium  News Corporation and Telstra created the rival Foxtel consortium 
Telstra's local phone network did not have the capability to deliver Foxtel pay television to consumers in the early 1990s, so Telstra identified a need to create a broadband network to support this new product 
As Telstra and Optus could not agree on terms for a joint broadband cable roll out, they laid two competing cable networks, in addition to Telstra's existing copper network, at a combined cost estimated of over A$6bn 
Whilst Telstra focused on creating a broadband network specifically for broadcast, Optus designed their cable network to provide telephony services in addition to broadcast television 
Optus is no longer a customer of Telstra's after deciding to move the funding used to lease Telstra's copper network into constructing their hybrid fibre-coaxial network, the first in Australia 

Takeovers
Cable and Wireless with 24 5% stakeholder bought out Bell South's equal 24 5% shareholding in July 1997  The company returned to profitability in 1998 and changed its name to Cable and Wireless Optus Pty Limited  Government relaxation of foreign ownership restrictions paved the way for the company to be floated - with Cable and Wireless increasing its holding to 52 5%) - and listed on the Australian Stock Exchange on 17 November 1998 During 2001, Singtel launched a takeover bid for Cable and Wireless Optus which was ultimately successful and the company became known as Singtel Optus Pty Limited 
In May 2004, Optus announced a $226 8 million bid for UEComm  The takeover was approved in July and completed in August In July 2005, Optus announced it would acquire Alphawest Ltd  for A$25 9 million  The buyout was completed in November 2005 and Alphawest is now an operating division of Optus Business 
On 12 January 2006, Optus acquired the remaining 74 15% of Virgin Mobile Australia for U$22 6 m, giving it 100% ownership 

OptusNet
Optus Communications offered its first business-focused internet products in 1998 under the OptusNet product family, offering in-house developed dial-up and high-speed services  Optus purchased one of Australia's pioneer ISPs, Microplex, in 1998 to provide consumer dial-up internet services  Separate to this, under the Optus Vision brand, a cable broadband arm began as a joint venture with U S  cable and content provider Excite@Home and was known as Optus@Home from its introduction in 1999 until it was renamed in 2002  ADSL services were offered from February 2004  ADSL2+ services were provided from December 2005 

OPEL Networks
In June 2007, joint venture subsidiary OPEL Networks was awarded government funding towards the cost of building a regional broadband network  Optus was to be contracted to build the network on behalf of OPEL In April 2008, after a change of the Federal Government from the Liberal Party of Australia coalition to the Australian Labor Party, the new government terminated the funding agreement and the project was halted, with its functions to be replaced by the National Broadband Network 

Terria
Optus is part of a consortium – now known as Terria – that in July 2006 announced their intention to make a combined bid to build the proposed National Broadband Network 

Products and services
Optus's Customer Solutions and Services (CS&S) organisation is responsible for providing support to Optus Business customers  CS&S works with Optus' subsidiary Alphawest to support information technology services across Optus' large business, corporate and government client base 
Retail services are sold to customers via phone, internet or through retail outlets, especially franchise chains such as Optus World, Network Communications, Strathfield, Telechoice, and Allphones 
Key Optus products and services include:

Voice
Residential and Commercial POTS for local and long-distance telephony
Commercial VoIP and VoDSL
Intelligent Network applications, such as free call, 1300 and Interactive voice response services

Wireless
GSM/GPRS utilising 900 MHz/1800 MHz covering 98 5% of the population
3G/HSPA provided by 2100 MHz for large regional centres and metropolitan and 900 MHz for regional as well as metropolitan coverage  The dual frequencies covers 98 5% (98 8% with the use of an external antenna) of the population
4G/LTE provided by 700 / 1800 / 2100 / 2300 / 2600 MHz Covering 95 9% of the Australian population (As of July 2017) 
5G provided by 2300 MHz and 3500 MHz
Satellite Telephony covering all of Australia 

Internet access
NBN Internet (via Cable, FTTB, FTTC, FTTN, FTTP, Fixed wireless and Satellite)
Residential Dial-Up Internet in all states
Residential Broadband Internet (via cable and DSL) in all states (except the Northern Territory) 
Commercial and wholesale internet access
Secure Gateway services for Federal Government departments
NBN WIRELESS - not continued for new connects

Television
Optus Television service provided in Sydney, Melbourne & Brisbane, including Foxtel Digital

Subsidiaries
A number of notable wholly owned subsidiaries operate as part of the Singtel Optus group  These are:

Information Technology & Network Services
Alphawest
Uecomm
Mobile Telephony
SIMplus
Virgin Mobile AustraliaUntil 20 January 2013, Optus sold mobile services under the brand name Boost Mobile Optus also has a 50% stake in the now defunct OPEL Networks Other wholly owned subsidiaries of note no longer have a significant active role as individual entities  These are as follows:
Reef Networks was formed in 1999 to provide an optical fibre link between Brisbane and Cairns in Queensland  Optus gained exclusive access to this link in 2001, ahead of acquiring the organisation in 2005 XYZed was established by Optus in 2000 to provide wholesale business-grade DSL services under an individual brand, but today provides a collection of products only as part of the Optus Wholesale & Satellite division  XYZed established a network of DSLAMs inside Telstra telephone exchanges, utilising Unconditioned Local Loop services to reach end users 

Infrastructure
Optus' fully owned network infrastructure consists of the following:

Network backbone
ExtraTerrestrial Fibre Optic Network
Cairns to Brisbane
Brisbane to Sydney (fully diverse over two physically separate paths)
Sydney to Melbourne (fully diverse over two physically separate paths, one via Canberra, one via the coast)
Melbourne to Adelaide
Adelaide to Perth
SDH Digital Microwave
Hobart to Launceston
Satellite
Fleet of geostationary satellites (See Optus fleet of satellites)
International Earth Stations in Sydney and Perth
National Earth Stations in Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, Hobart and Darwin
Regional exchanges in Sydney (Rosebery), Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra, Adelaide and Perth 
Telehousing Data Centres in Melbourne and Sydney

Customer access network
Hybrid fibre-coaxial (HFC) network in Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne, providing consumer fixed telephony, cable internet and cable television services 
CBD optical fibre rings in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, Canberra and Wollongong, providing direct access for corporate and government services 
DSLAMs in certain Telstra local telephone exchanges in all states  Originally only providing business-grade DSL services, newer installations also provide consumer DSL and POTS telephony OptusNet also provides Cable internet  In August 2010, OptusNet released an upgrade of its HFC network to the DOCSIS 3 0 standard, which enabled customers to access a maximum theoretical downstream bandwidth of 100 Megabits  OptusNet is also one of the few ISPs in Australia to currently provide ADSL2+ via its own DSLAMs, which it also resells to other ISPs 

Mobile network
Mobile network equipment is from Nortel, Nokia and Huawei and antennas are sourced from Andrews, RFS, Argus and Kathrein The Optus network operates on the following bandwidth frequencies across Australia:

3G UMTS 900/2100 MHz
4G LTE 700 / 1800 / 2100 / 2300 / 2600 MHz network which has been in progressive rollout since 2012  VoLTE is currently being rolled out across Australia  For now, VoLTE is only available in CBD and metro areas in Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, Perth and Canberra on selected devices purchased on postpaid contracts  Until VoLTE has been fully rolled out, voice calling is still reliant on the 3G network (and formerly the 2G network until it was terminated) 
5G NR 3500 MHz rollout started in October 2019The 2G GSM 900/1800 MHz network was terminated on 3 April 2017 in Western Australia and Northern Territory  2G GSM was completely terminated on 1 August 2017 when 2G was disconnected in Victoria, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Queensland, Tasmania and South Australia  To remain connected, a device that is capable of running 3G at 900 MHz is now required after 2G was completely disconnected across Australia 

Partly owned infrastructure
Part-owned network infrastructure includes:

3G mobile network, a joint venture with Vodafone Australia
Southern Cross Cable, a fully diverse submarine optical fibre link across the Pacific Ocean between Sydney, New South Wales and California in the United States  The Singtel group owns a 40% interest in Southern Cross Cables Limited  This interest was originally owned by Singtel Optus Pty Limited, before ownership was transferred to parent company Singtel during the March 2006 - June 2006 quarter 

Advertising and sponsorship
Between 1994 and 2005 Optus had the naming rights to the Carlton football clubs original home ground in Princes Park  It was called Optus Oval until the ground was retired by the AFL in 2005  
In 2016, Optus signed a 10-year partnership agreement with the Australian Olympic Committee to be the official partner of the Australian Olympic Team and the Australian Paralympic Team until 2026 In 2017, Optus won naming rights to Perth Stadium where it would be known as Optus Stadium  Optus and the Government of Western Australia agreed to a 10-year naming right worth approximately A$50 million Optus also has a long-term partnership with the Adelaide Crows in the AFL  Optus has been a partner of the Collingwood Magpies in the AFL Women's since 2018 Optus is the current major sponsor for the No  25 Walkinshaw Andretti United Holden ZB Commodore driven by Chaz Mostert

Outsourcing
Since 2005, Optus has outsourced some customer service functions to Concentrix and 247 ai, with the outsourcer providing 800 staff operating offshore in India, supplementing Optus' 3,000-plus onshore call centre staff  Some functions have also been supplemented in the Philippines  Optus also uses 24/7 Inc  for telephone & chat based offshore support 
In October 2006, Optus announced that it would outsource 100 contracting jobs to another Singtel subsidiary, IT company NCS, in Singapore 

Achievement and Rewards
See also
4G Australia
Internet in Australia
National Broadband Network
Telecommunications in Australia
Passage 9:
TDRS-6
TDRS-6, known before launch as TDRS-F, is an American communications satellite, of first generation, which is operated by NASA as part of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System  It was constructed by TRW, and is based on a custom satellite bus which was used for all seven first generation TDRS satellites 

History
TDRS-F was deployed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-54 mission in 1993  Endeavour was launched from Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center, at 13:59:30 UTC on 13 January 1993  TDRS-F was deployed from Endeavour around six hours after launch, and was raised to geosynchronous orbit by means of an Inertial Upper Stage 

Deployment
The two-stage solid-propellent Inertial Upper Stage made two burns  The first stage burn occurred shortly after deployment from Endeavour, and placed the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO)  At 02:26 UTC on 14 January 1993, it reached apogee, and the second stage fired, placing TDRS-F into geosynchronous orbit  At this point, it received its operational designation, TDRS-6 

Operation
In 1994, it was placed at a longitude 46 0° West of the Greenwich Meridian, to serve as an on-orbit spare  In 1996, it was moved to 47 0° West, where it remained until 2005, when it was repositioned to 174 0° West, where, as of August 2009, it was used to provide communications with spacecraft in Earth orbit, such as the International Space Station (ISS) and spacecraft bringing astronauts to the ISS 

See also
List of TDRS satellites
Passage 10:
Hans K  Ziegler
Hans K  Ziegler (March 1, 1911, Munich, Germany – December 11, 1999 Colts Neck Township, New Jersey, United States) was a pioneer in the field of communication satellites and the use of photovoltaic solar cells as a power source for satellites 

Life
Hans Ziegler was born in Munich, Germany  There, he studied at the Technische Hochschule, which is today the Technische Universität München (TUM), and began his career as Wissenschaftlicher Assistant (Scientific Assistant)  Following that, he was a researcher in German industry for ten years  During the Second World War, he worked for the company Rosental Selb in Bavaria on high tension porcelain 
In 1947, he came to the US with Wernher von Braun under Operation Paperclip, by means of which the USA gained Nazi engineers and scientists  He went to the US Army Signal Corps' Laboratories in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and became a US citizen in 1954 
Ziegler's work in the US was very influential in the development of military electronics, especially in the electronics for the early phases of the US space program  During the thirty years he worked as an engineer in the field of electronics and electrical engineering in the research and development department of the U S  Army in Fort Monmouth, N J  (from 1947 to 1976), he held the top position of Chief Scientist for 12 years  In Fort Monmouth, he worked as a Scientific Consultant, Assistant Director of Research, Director of the Astro-Electronics Division and Chief Scientist (1959)  After the Army was restructured, he became Deputy for Science and Chief Scientist of the US Army Electronics Command in 1963 and Director of the US Army Electronics Technology & Devices Laboratory from 1971 until his retirement 
In May 1954, after examining the solar cells of Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson at Bell Laboratories, Ziegler wrote, "Future development [of the silicon solar cell] may well render it into an important source of electrical power [as] the roofs of all our buildings in cities and towns equipped with solar [cells] would be sufficient to produce this country's entire demand for electrical power "Referring to silicon solar cells, he said to the head of the U  S  Signal Corps, General James O'Connell, at a meeting in September 1955, "In fact, in the long run, mankind has no choice but to turn to the sun if it wants to survive "He and his team produced a report on the prospects for application of this technique in the field of communication and they named the supply of energy for artificial satellites as the most important application  He knew that he was not the first to suggest this application  For example, the science fiction author, Arthur C  Clarke had already made this suggestion in 1945, but without having a concrete technology for it at that time 
Ziegler participated in the development of the first planned satellites  The first satellite,
Explorer 1, still went into space without solar cells, since it was a quick, less-than-ideal solution after the start of the Sputnik to show the American public that America's scientists could also start a satellite  The actual scheduled satellite project, Project Vanguard, successfully put a satellite named Vanguard I in orbit around Earth on March 17, 1958 
Over the objections of the Navy, which still thought that solar cells were not a mature technology, this satellite had four solar cells on its outer hull, due to the persistent work of Ziegler, which powered the instruments and performed their duties reliably for more than seven years  After this success, solar cells were established as the energy supply for satellites  He was also involved with the development of the first communication satellite in the world, SCORE, which was started in 1958 
He was awarded the Meritorious Civilian Service Award by the US Department of Defense in 1963 as a " world pioneer in communications satellites and solar energy systems to power satellites"  When he retired in 1977, he was decorated with the highest award of the Army for "exceptional civilian service" 
Ziegler was the author of many technical papers, a member of the IEEE, and represented the US, in military and civilian matters, in many national and international committees  In 1958, he was a member of the US delegation to the International Geophysical Year in Moscow, USSR, and in 1964, he gave advice on the scientific activities in Antarctica and at the South Pole, under the direction of the US National Science Foundation 
Ziegler's wife Friederike died in 1996  He last lived in Colts Neck Township, New Jersey and died at the age of 88 on December 11, 1999  He was survived by his daughters, Christine Griffith and Friederike Meindl, and his son, Hans 

See also
Solar power
Solar panel
Active solar
Photovoltaic components, projects and howtos
Context 3:  Some Ediacaran fossils such as Dickinsonia in some ways resemble polychaetes, but the similarities are too vague for these fossils to be classified with confidence  The small shelly fossil Cloudina, from 549 to 542 million years ago, has been classified by some authors as an annelid, but by others as a cnidarian (i e  in the phylum to which jellyfish and sea anemones belong)  Until 2008 the earliest fossils widely accepted as annelids were the polychaetes Canadia and Burgessochaeta, both from Canada's Burgess Shale, formed about 505 million years ago in the early Cambrian  Myoscolex, found in Australia and a little older than the Burgess Shale, was possibly an annelid  However, it lacks some typical annelid features and has features which are not usually found in annelids and some of which are associated with other phyla   Then Simon Conway Morris and John Peel reported Phragmochaeta from Sirius Passet, about 518 million years old, and concluded that it was the oldest annelid known to date  There has been vigorous debate about whether the Burgess Shale fossil Wiwaxia was a mollusc or an annelid  Polychaetes diversified in the early Ordovician, about 488 to 474 million years ago   It is not until the early Ordovician that the first annelid jaws are found, thus the crown-group cannot have appeared before this date and probably appeared somewhat later  By the end of the Carboniferous, about 299 million years ago, fossils of most of the modern mobile polychaete groups had appeared  Many fossil tubes look like those made by modern sessile polychaetes, but the first tubes clearly produced by polychaetes date from the Jurassic, less than 199 million years ago  In 2012, a 508 million year old species of annelid found near the Burgess shale beds in British Columbia, Kootenayscolex, was found that changed the hypotheses about how the annelid head developed  It appears to have bristles on its head segment akin to those along its body, as if the head simply developed as a specialized version of a previously generic segment 
The earliest good evidence for oligochaetes occurs in the Tertiary period, which began 65 million years ago, and it has been suggested that these animals evolved around the same time as flowering plants in the early Cretaceous, from 130 to 90 million years ago  A trace fossil consisting of a convoluted burrow partly filled with small fecal pellets may be evidence that earthworms were present in the early Triassic period from 251 to 245 million years ago  Body fossils going back to the mid Ordovician, from 472 to 461 million years ago, have been tentatively classified as oligochaetes, but these identifications are uncertain and some have been disputed 

Internal relationships
Traditionally the annelids have been divided into two major groups, the polychaetes and clitellates  In turn the clitellates were divided into oligochaetes, which include earthworms, and hirudinomorphs, whose best-known members are leeches  For many years there was no clear arrangement of the approximately 80 polychaete families into higher-level groups  In 1997 Greg Rouse and Kristian Fauchald attempted a "first heuristic step in terms of bringing polychaete systematics to an acceptable level of rigour", based on anatomical structures, and divided polychaetes into:
Scolecida, less than 1,000 burrowing species that look rather like earthworms 
Palpata, the great majority of polychaetes, divided into:
Canalipalpata, which are distinguished by having long grooved palps that they use for feeding, and most of which live in tubes 
Aciculata, the most active polychaetes, which have parapodia reinforced by internal spines (aciculae) 
Also in 1997 Damhnait McHugh, using molecular phylogenetics to compare similarities and differences in one gene, presented a very different view, in which: the clitellates were an offshoot of one branch of the polychaete family tree; the pogonophorans and echiurans, which for a few decades had been regarded as a separate phyla, were placed on other branches of the polychaete tree  Subsequent molecular phylogenetics analyses on a similar scale presented similar conclusions In 2007 Torsten Struck and colleagues compared three genes in 81 taxa, of which nine were outgroups, in other words not considered closely related to annelids but included to give an indication of where the organisms under study are placed on the larger tree of life  For a cross-check the study used an analysis of 11 genes (including the original 3) in ten taxa  This analysis agreed that clitellates, pogonophorans and echiurans were on various branches of the polychaete family tree  It also concluded that the classification of polychaetes into Scolecida, Canalipalpata and Aciculata was useless, as the members of these alleged groups were scattered all over the family tree derived from comparing the 81 taxa  It also placed sipunculans, generally regarded at the time as a separate phylum, on another branch of the polychaete tree, and concluded that leeches were a sub-group of oligochaetes rather than their sister-group among the clitellates  Rouse accepted the analyses based on molecular phylogenetics, and their main conclusions are now the scientific consensus, although the details of the annelid family tree remain uncertain In addition to re-writing the classification of annelids and three previously independent phyla, the molecular phylogenetics analyses undermine the emphasis that decades of previous writings placed on the importance of segmentation in the classification of invertebrates  Polychaetes, which these analyses found to be the parent group, have completely segmented bodies, while polychaetes' echiurans and sipunculan offshoots are not segmented and pogonophores are segmented only in the rear parts of their bodies  It now seems that segmentation can appear and disappear much more easily in the course of evolution than was previously thought  The 2007 study also noted that the ladder-like nervous system, which is associated with segmentation, is less universal than previously thought in both annelids and arthropods The updated phylogenetic tree of the Annelid phylum is comprised by a grade of basal groups of polychaetes: Palaeoannelida, Chaetopteriformia and the Amphinomida/Sipuncula/Lobatocerebrum clade  This grade is followed by Pleistoannelida, the clade containing nearly all of annelid diversity, divided into two highly diverse groups: Sedentaria and Errantia  Sedentaria contains the clitellates, pogonophorans, echiurans and some archiannelids, as well as several polychaete groups  Errantia contains the eunicid and phyllodocid polychaetes, and several archiannelids  Some small groups, such as the Myzostomida, are more difficult to place due to long branching, but belong to either one of these large groups 

External relationships
Annelids are members of the protostomes, one of the two major superphyla of bilaterian animals – the other is the deuterostomes, which includes vertebrates  Within the protostomes, annelids used to be grouped with arthropods under the super-group Articulata ("jointed animals"), as segmentation is obvious in most members of both phyla  However, the genes that drive segmentation in arthropods do not appear to do the same in annelids  Arthropods and annelids both have close relatives that are unsegmented  It is at least as easy to assume that they evolved segmented bodies independently as it is to assume that the ancestral protostome or bilaterian was segmented and that segmentation disappeared in many descendant phyla  The current view is that annelids are grouped with molluscs, brachiopods and several other phyla that have lophophores (fan-like feeding structures) and/or trochophore larvae as members of Lophotrochozoa  Meanwhile, arthropods are now regarded as members of the Ecdysozoa ("animals that molt"), along with some phyla that are unsegmented 
The "Lophotrochozoa" hypothesis is also supported by the fact that many phyla within this group, including annelids, molluscs, nemerteans and flatworms, follow a similar pattern in the fertilized egg's development  When their cells divide after the 4-cell stage, descendants of these four cells form a spiral pattern  In these phyla the "fates" of the embryo's cells, in other words the roles their descendants will play in the adult animal, are the same and can be predicted from a very early stage  Hence this development pattern is often described as "spiral determinate cleavage" 

Fossil discoveries lead to the hypothesis that Annelida and the lophophorates are more closely related to each other than any other phyla  Because of the body plan of lophotrochozoan fossils, a phylogenetic analysis found the lophophorates as the sister group of annelids  Both groups share in common: the presence of chaetae secreted by microvilli; paired, metameric coelomic compartments; and a similar metanephridial structure 

Notes
Passage 3:
Lori Alan
Lori Alan is an American actress  She has played a long-running role as Pearl Krabs on the animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants  She also voiced Diane Simmons on Family Guy, the Invisible Woman on Fantastic Four, and The Boss in the Metal Gear video game series 

Personal life
Alan had a mixed-faith family: her mother is a Southern Baptist and her father is Jewish  Both of her parents were performers and supported her choice to be an actress  Alan lives in Los Angeles 
She started acting at age five, making her television debut in a Shakey's Pizza commercial Alan is active in animal rescue and welfare causes  She has spoken out against animal cruelty and has campaigned for the anti-dog meat charity World Protection for Dogs and Cats in the Meat Trade  She is also on the board of Pickle Pants Rescue, an animal rescue organization in Los Angeles 

Career
Alan has done vocal work for over three decades  Her process of getting to the authentic personality of the character she is providing the voice for is to improvise and trust her own choices, something she learned at her first voice acting job Alan voices Pearl the Whale on SpongeBob SquarePants, Sue Richards (the Invisible Woman) on Marvel Comics' The Fantastic Four, newsreader-turned-murderer Diane Simmons on Family Guy, and The Boss in the Metal Gear series  Lori has done voices in feature films: Monsters University, Toy Story 3, Despicable Me 2, WALL·E, Inside Out, and each movie in the SpongeBob SquarePants film series  She has also voiced roles for Henry Hugglemonster, Cow and Chicken, Animaniacs, and Futurama  Her rendition of The Boss was rated as one of the top 25 "Greatest Acting Performances in Video Games" by Complex In 2005, she joined Warren Beatty, Rob Reiner, Kurtwood Smith and Jason George to help voice commercials against proposals made by California's Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger In 2014, she won a Voice Arts Award (VAA) for outstanding body of work and outstanding national television commercial Alan's on-camera roles include Desperate Housewives, Ray Donovan, Comedy Central's Workaholics, Bones, Southland, CSI, 90210, Law & Order: LA, Law & Order and many more  On stage credits include The Pee-wee Herman Show, solo show Lori Alan: The Musical, Queen Celia in the hit musical Sneaux!, and the award-winning musical Reefer Madness  Her 1999 performance in Reefer Madness as a "Reefer Madam" was praised by the Los Angeles Times She revisited her role in the Reefer Madness tenth Anniversary Cast in 2015  Her vocals on the song "The Stuff" was considered both sultry and comical by Broadway World 

Filmography
Film
Television
Web
Video games
Passage 4:
Hilo March
"Hilo March" is a Hawaiian popular song written by Joseph Kapeau Ae`a  It was originally called "Ke Ala Tuberose"  It has been covered by a number of musicians, Polynesian and non-Polynesian alike  It was also used in the soundtrack of SpongeBob SquarePants (arranged by The Hawaiian Serenaders as "Hilo March", and arragnged by Kapono Beamer as "Old Hilo March") 

About the song
It has been adopted as the school song by the University of Hawaii at Hilo  Along with another popular song, "Aloha ʻOe", every person from child to senior citizen know is said to the words and music to these songs  Originally the song was called "Ke Ala Tuberose" and was composed by Joseph Kapeau Ae`a, who was a member of the Royal Hawaiian Band and also a friend of Princess Liliuokalani  The princess requested  Ae`a and the band come to Hilo and that is where he composed the song  In August 1881, the title was changed from "Ke Ala Tuberose" to "Hilo March" and played by the Royal Hawaiian band under Captain Henri Berger's direction  Besides being a favorite of the Royal Hawaiian band and its popularity in the Islands, it has been picked up as a favorite by many steel guitarists on the mainland  The lyrics of the song tell of Hilo's beauty as well as the beauty of the Lehua flower 

Covers
It has been covered by artists such as Trevor Edmondson, Christopher Homer & Raney Van Vink, the Four Hawaiians, Lani McIntyre and his Aloha Islanders, the Mena Moeria Minstrels, Tau Moe's Original Hawaiians, Johnny Pineapple And His Orchestra, Hank Snow, Bashful Brother Oswald, and Bill Wolfgramme and his Islanders
Passage 5:
Derek Drymon
Derek Drymon (born November 19, 1968) is an American animator, writer, storyboard artist, director, comedian, and producer  He has worked on numerous animated cartoon productions of the 1990s and 2000s, best known for his work on Rocko's Modern Life, SpongeBob SquarePants and Adventure Time 

Early life
Derek Drymon was born in New Jersey  He attended Jefferson Township and Dover public schools as a child and enjoyed drawing and making comic books  Drymon graduated from Jefferson Township High School in 1987  Drymon attended the School of Visual Arts (SVA) in New York, where he majored in Illustration, sharpening his drawing skills and moving from still images to animation  He graduated from SVA in 1992 

Career
Drymon obtained an internship with Disney on the strength of his life drawings Drymon was discovered by Nickelodeon in 1993  He moved to California to work as an animator for Nickelodeon  In 1993, Drymon also began working as a storyboard artist and writer for Rocko's Modern Life  It was here he met two of his future employers, Tim Hill and Stephen Hillenburg; Hill was a writer, Hillenburg a co-producer and storyboard artist  In 1997, Hillenburg created SpongeBob SquarePants  Drymon performed many duties on SpongeBob, including being a writer on all episodes, the creative director, and, on his last season with the show, supervising producer  Drymon also worked on the Cartoon Network animated series Camp Lazlo  Drymon worked on Tim Hill's side project, the popular KaBlam! skit Action League Now!, as a storyboard artist  He also wrote the Emmy Award-nominated episode of CatDog "Doggone" Drymon met Stephen Hillenburg on the Nickelodeon cartoon Rocko's Modern Life  Hillenburg recalled Drymon as "one of the main people in the genesis of SpongeBob"  Drymon teamed up with Hillenburg, Hill, and Nick Jennings who was also a companion from Nickelodeon  Drymon was the creative director for the first three seasons and became Supervising Producer in season 3 until being replaced by Paul Tibbitt starting in season 4  Along with Stephen Hillenburg, Drymon approved the writers' ideas and outlines for episodes and controlled the creative and production process on SpongeBob Drymon was eventually promoted to Executive producer on television show Adventure Time, and become a lead writer for DreamWorks Pictures, and a director at Illumination Entertainment  During the first three seasons of SpongeBob, Drymon being creative director allowed him to work with executive story editor Merriwether Williams and the rest of the writing team 
Staff writer Kent Osborne responded to the writing process with Drymon and other writers by saying  "By the third season we had done 26 half-hours  I came up with millions of ideas"  Despite the issues with writing new episodes, Drymon collaborated with the writers to create episode ideas like the half-hour specials and episodes that focused on other characters, for example the season three episodes "The Algae Always Greener" and "Plankton's Army" focused on Sheldon Plankton and "Doing Time" focused on Mrs  Puff  Drymon said in an interview "Coming up with episode ideas was always tough"  The writers were influenced for the episode "The Secret Box", which was influenced by Drymon because he told them when he was younger he kept a "secret box", the writers thought it was hilarious and weird and used Drymon's idea to create the story of the episode   Drymon co-wrote the pilot episode "Help Wanted"  Drymon earned two Emmy nominations and along with the crew of SpongeBob won the "Best Animated Television Production" Annie award in 2005 for season 3 of SpongeBob Drymon hired a large amount of the staff writers, including Sam Henderson, a friend and fellow alumnus of SVA, along with Kent Osborne and Walt Dohrn From 2008 to 2017, Drymon work as a Storyboard Artist for DreamWorks Animation, working on films such as the Kung Fu Panda trilogy, Monsters vs  Aliens, Shrek Forever After, Puss in Boots, Turbo, Penguins of Madagascar, and Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie 
Drymon was an executive producer (with Fred Seibert) on the Cartoon Network series Adventure Time, created by Pendleton Ward for the show's first season  He was no longer credited on episodes starting with the second season On September 17, 2020, Drymon was set to co-direct Hotel Transylvania: Transformania with story artist Jennifer Kluska In April 2023, Drymon was announced as the director of the fourth SpongeBob SquarePants theatrical film titled The SpongeBob Movie: Search for SquarePants 

Filmography
Television
Film
Bibliography
Passage 6:
List of SpongeBob SquarePants cast members
SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated television series created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg that debuted on Nickelodeon in the United States on May 1, 1999  The regular voice cast consists of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Doug Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan  Most one-off and background characters are voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, Sirena Irwin, Bob Joles, Mark Fite, Thomas F  Wilson, Carlos Alazraqui and Jess Harnell  Throughout the show's run, it has employed numerous guest stars from many ranges of professions  Repeat guests include Ernest Borgnine, Tim Conway, Brian Doyle-Murray, Marion Ross, John O'Hurley and Michael McKean 
SpongeBob SquarePants chronicles the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom  Many of the ideas for the show originated in an unpublished, educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in the mid-1980s  He began developing SpongeBob SquarePants into a television series in 1996 upon the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, another Nickelodeon animated series which Hillenburg directed  While creating the show, Hillenburg, with colleague Derek Drymon, was also conducting auditions to find voices for the show's characters  He turned to Kenny, who had worked with him on Rocko's Modern Life, to voice the title character 
The cast members receive residuals every time a new episode they appeared in has aired, which Carolyn Lawrence described as "a very complicated mathematical calculation " Lawrence said in 2008 that it was a "declining scale" and the entertainment industry were "still in negotiations    both sides are still talking " She further stated that "they're still trying to work it out "Kenny and Catlett were the first cast members to receive award nominations for their performance on SpongeBob SquarePants  They each received Annie Award nominations in 2001, but did not win  In 2010, Kenny won the Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in a Television Production, making it the first time a cast member had won this type of award  Bumpass was the first cast member to be nominated for an Emmy Award, receiving a nomination in 2012  In 2018, Kenny won both an Annie Award and an Emmy Award for his performance as SpongeBob 

Regular cast
Background
SpongeBob SquarePants has featured the voices of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke,  Rodger Bumpass,  Clancy Brown, Mr  Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan since it began  Stephen Hillenburg started developing the SpongeBob concept into a television series in 1996 upon the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, which he directed  While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997, he and the show's then-creative director Derek Drymon were also conducting auditions to find voices for the show's characters For the voice of SpongeBob, the main character, Hillenburg approached Kenny, who previously worked with him on Rocko's Modern Life  Drymon said, "Steve [Hillenburg] wanted to find an original sounding voice [for SpongeBob] " Hillenburg utilized Kenny's and other people's personalities to help create the personality of SpongeBob  The voice of SpongeBob was originally used by Kenny for a minor character in Rocko's Modern Life  Kenny forgot the voice initially as he created it only for that single use  Hillenburg, however, remembered it when he was coming up with SpongeBob and used a video clip of the episode to remind Kenny of the voice  Kenny says that SpongeBob's high-pitched laugh was specifically created to be unique   They wanted an annoying laugh in the tradition of Popeye and Woody Woodpecker  Fagerbakke voices SpongeBob's best friend, a starfish named Patrick Star  He auditioned for the role after Kenny had been cast as SpongeBob  Fagerbakke said, "Steve is such a lovely guy, and I had absolutely no feeling for the material whatsoever " He described his experience in the audition, saying "I was just going in for another audition, and I had no idea what was in store there in terms of the remarkable visual wit and really the kind of endearing child-like humanity in the show  I couldn't pick that up from the audition material at all  I was just kind of perfunctorially trying to give the guy what he wanted "Rodger Bumpass provides the voice of Squidward Tentacles, and other characters  Squidward was "a very nasally, monotone kind of guy", said Bumpass  He said that the character "became a very interesting character to do" because of "his sarcasm, and then his frustration, and then his apoplexy, and so he became a wide spectrum of emotions"  Voice acting veteran Clancy Brown voices Mr  Krabs, SpongeBob's boss at the Krusty Krab  For the character, Brown uses a voice that he describes as "piratey" with "a little Scottish brogue"  According to Brown, his Mr  Krabs voice was improvised during his audition and it was not challenging for him to find the correct voice Mr  Lawrence had met Hillenburg previously on Rocko's Modern Life  When working on the pilot episode of SpongeBob, Hillenburg invited him to audition for all of the characters  Since other voices had been found for the main cast already, Lawrence started out by voicing a variety of minor characters  This included Plankton, who was initially only set to appear in one episode  Mr  Lawrence stated in an interview with Thomas F  Wilson that Nickelodeon executives told Hillenburg, "'we could stunt-cast this  You know, we could have Bruce Willis do this voice ' And Steve was just like, 'it's Doug [Lawrence], don't you hear it? This is the character! This is the guy!'" Jill Talley, Tom Kenny's wife, voices Karen Plankton  Being a Chicago native, she uses a Midwestern accent for the character  Electronic sound effects are underlaid by the series' audio engineers to create a robotic sound whenever she speaks  Talley and Lawrence often improvise their characters' dialogue  In 2009, Lawrence called improvisation his "favorite part of the voice over"  He elaborated in a 2012 interview, saying, "I always enjoy the back-and-forth  [Talley and I] start to actually overlap so much talking to each other that [the voice directors] have to tell us, 'hey, stop doing that, separate what you're saying!'"Carolyn Lawrence provides Sandy Cheeks' voice  When Lawrence was on a sidewalk in Los Feliz, Los Angeles with a friend who knew SpongeBob SquarePants casting director Donna Grillo, her friend said to the director that Lawrence had "an interesting voice"  Grillo invited Lawrence to audition and she then got the role  American actress Mary Jo Catlett, who is known for her live-action roles on television programs from the 1970s such as Diff'rent Strokes and M*A*S*H, provides Mrs  Puff's voice  As of 2017, voicing Mrs  Puff has become her only regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she is good friends with the other SpongeBob cast members, making the SpongeBob recording booth an easy environment that requires less preparation than in-person performances  Lori Alan voices Pearl  During her audition for the role, she was shown an early drawing of Pearl and took note of how the character was much larger than the rest of the cast  She decided to reflect the character's size in her voice by making it deep and full in tone  She aimed to make Pearl's voice invoke the sound of whales’ low vocalizations while also sounding "spoiled and lovable " In an interview with AfterBuzz TV, Alan said that she knew Pearl "had to sound somewhat like a child," but at the same time needed "an abnormally large voice "In the Christmas special "Christmas Who?", the characters of Patchy the Pirate, the president of the fictional SpongeBob SquarePants fan club, and his pet called Potty the Parrot debuted  The former is portrayed by Kenny in live-action, while series creator Hillenburg voiced the latter  After Hillenburg's departure as the series' showrunner in 2004, staff writer Paul Tibbitt was given the role voicing Potty the Parrot  Mr  Krabs' mother, Mama Krabs, who debuted in the episode "Sailor Mouth", was voiced by Tibbitt  However, voice actress Sirena Irwin overtook Tibbitt's role as the character reappeared in the fourth season episode "Enemy In-Law" in 2005  Irwin also provides the voices of other characters in the show, including Margaret SquarePants, SpongeBob's mother 
Voice recording sessions always include a full cast of actors, which Kenny describes as "getting more unusual"  Kenny said, "That's another thing that's given SpongeBob its special feel  Everybody's in the same room, doing it old radio-show style  It's how the stuff we like was recorded"  It takes about four hours to record an 11-minute episode  For the first three seasons, Hillenburg and Drymon sat in on recording sessions at Nickelodeon Studios, and they directed the actors  In the fourth season, Andrea Romano took over the role as the voice director  Wednesday is recording day, the same schedule followed by the crew since 1999  Casting supervisor Jennie Monica Hammond said, "I loved Wednesdays" 

Main cast
Other regular cast
Recurring guest voices
Former cast members
Awards and nominations
Notes
Passage 7:
List of SpongeBob SquarePants episodes
SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated television series created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg that premiered on Nickelodeon on May 1, 1999  The series is set in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom, and centers on the adventures and endeavors of SpongeBob SquarePants, an over-optimistic sea sponge  Many of the ideas for the show originated in an unpublished, educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in the mid-1980s  He began developing SpongeBob SquarePants into a television series in 1996 after the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, another Nickelodeon television series that Hillenburg previously directed As of April 7, 2023, 288 episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants have aired, currently in its thirteenth season  The thirteenth season consists of 26 episodes  The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, a feature-length film, was released in theaters on November 19, 2004, and grossed over US$140 million worldwide  Atlantis SquarePantis, a television film guest starring David Bowie, debuted as part of the fifth season  In 2009, Nickelodeon celebrated the show's tenth anniversary with Square Roots: The Story of SpongeBob SquarePants and SpongeBob's Truth or Square  The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water, a stand-alone sequel, was released in theaters on February 6, 2015, and grossed over US$324 million worldwide Episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants have been nominated for a variety of different awards, including 17 Annie Awards (with six wins), 17 Golden Reel Awards (with eight wins), 15 Emmy Awards (with one win), 21 Kids' Choice Awards (with 20 wins), and four BAFTA Children's Awards (with two wins)  Several compilation DVDs have been released  In addition, the first twelve seasons have been released on DVD, and are available for Regions 1, 2 and 4 as of January 12, 2021 

Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (1999–2001)
The first season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (41 segments, since the first episode has three segments)  This is the only season that used cel animation  The episodes are ordered according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 2 (2000–03)
The second season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (39 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 3 (2001–04)
The third season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (37 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 4 (2005–07)
The fourth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (38 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 5 (2007–09)
The fifth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (41 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 6 (2008–10)
The sixth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (47 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 7 (2009–11)
The seventh season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (50 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 8 (2011–12)
The eighth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (47 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 9 (2012–17)
The ninth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (49 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 10 (2016–17)
The tenth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 11 episodes (22 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order  It is the shortest season, lacking the usual 26 episode length 

Season 11 (2017–18)
The eleventh season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (50 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 12 (2018–22)
The twelfth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 31 episodes (53 segments), including 5 specials, which are ordered according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order  This was the last season that series creator Stephen Hillenburg was involved in, before his death from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis on November 26, 2018, at age 57 

Season 13 (2020–23)
The thirteenth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes, which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Films
Notes
DVD Notes
Passage 8:
Nannochoristidae
Nannochoristidae is a family of scorpionflies with many unusual traits  It is a tiny, relict family with a single extant genus, Nannochorista, with eight species occurring in New Zealand, southeastern Australia, Tasmania, Argentina and Chile  Due to the group's distinctiveness from other scorpionflies, it is sometimes placed in its own order, the Nannomecoptera  Some studies have placed them as the closest living relatives of fleas  Most mecopteran larvae are eruciform, or shaped like caterpillars  Nannochoristid larvae, however, are elateriform, and have elongated and slender bodies  The larvae are aquatic, which is unique among mecopterans  The larvae are predatory, hunting on the beds of shallow streams, primarily on the larvae of aquatic Diptera like chironomids Fossils indicate that Nannochoristidae formerly had a wider distribution, being present in the Northern Hemisphere during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Some research suggests the nannochoristids are the only holometabolous insects with true larval compound eyes  All other eyed larvae have stemmata, which are structurally different from adult compound eyes with ommatidia  This is unusual, since most adult features are present as imaginal discs in larvae and not formed until pupation  The presence of compound eyes in nannochoristid larvae suggests the timing of the development of adult features can be initiated earlier in development, which has important implications for insect evolutionary development 

Phylogeny
The cladogram of external relationships, based on a 2008 DNA and protein analysis, shows the family as a clade, sister to the Siphonaptera (fleas) and rest of Mecoptera, and more distantly related to the Diptera (true flies) and Mecoptera (scorpionflies) 
A more recent study in 2021 found Nannochoristidae to be the sister group to fleas, with strong support 

Genera
After Cao et al  2022 
Nannochorista Tillyard, 1917 (8 species: Argentina, Chile, Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand) Koonwarra fossil bed, Australia, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
†Dahurochorista Sukatsheva 1985 (one species: Ichetuy Formation, Russia, Late Jurassic (Oxfordian)
†Dahurolarva Sukatsheva 1985 (one species: Ichetuy Formation, Oxfordian, Russia) (based on larvae only)
†Itaphlebia Sukatsheva 1985 (14 species) Itat Formation, Russia, Middle Jurassic (Bathonian), Daohugou, China, Middle Jurassic (Callovian), Karabastau Formation, Kazakhstan, Late Jurassic (Oxfordian) Doronino Formation, Russia, Early Cretaceous (Barremian)
†Namdyrus Sukacheva 1993 Khaya Formation, Russia, Late Jurassic (Tithonian)
†Tarantogus Sukatsheva, 1985 Itat Formation, Russia, Bathonian (based on larvae only)
†Undisca Sukatsheva, 1990 Glushkovo Formation, Russia, Tithonian



ground_truth: ATS - 6 (Applications Technology Satellite - 6)

ATS-6

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the voice of the character in Spongebob Squarepants with the same name as the creature that annelid larvae live like?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  Likewise, the flexing caused by the low torsional stiffness of the Supermarine Spitfire's wings caused them, in turn, to counteract aileron control inputs, leading to a condition known as control reversal  This was solved in later models with changes to the wing  Worse still, a particularly dangerous interaction of the airflow between the wings and tail surfaces of diving Lockheed P-38 Lightnings made "pulling out" of dives difficult; however, the problem was later solved by the addition of a "dive flap" that upset the airflow under these circumstances  Flutter due to the formation of shock waves on curved surfaces was another major problem, which led most famously to the breakup of a de Havilland Swallow and death of its pilot Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr  on 27 September 1946  A similar problem is thought to have been the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union 
All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a "barrier" making it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound  Erroneous news reports caused most people to envision the sound barrier as a physical "wall", which supersonic aircraft needed to "break" with a sharp needle nose on the front of the fuselage  Rocketry and artillery experts' products routinely exceeded Mach 1, but aircraft designers and aerodynamicists during and after World War II discussed Mach 0 7 as a limit dangerous to exceed 

Early claims
During WWII and immediately thereafter, a number of claims were made that the sound barrier had been broken in a dive  The majority of these purported events can be dismissed as instrumentation errors  The typical airspeed indicator (ASI) uses air pressure differences between two or more points on the aircraft, typically near the nose and at the side of the fuselage, to produce a speed figure  At high speed, the various compression effects that lead to the sound barrier also cause the ASI to go non-linear and produce inaccurately high or low readings, depending on the specifics of the installation  This effect became known as "Mach jump"  Before the introduction of Mach meters, accurate measurements of supersonic speeds could only be made remotely, normally using ground-based instruments  Many claims of supersonic speeds were found to be far below this speed when measured in this fashion 
In 1942, Republic Aviation issued a press release stating that Lts  Harold E  Comstock and Roger Dyar had exceeded the speed of sound during test dives in a Republic P-47 Thunderbolt  It is widely agreed that this was due to inaccurate ASI readings  In similar tests, the North American P-51 Mustang demonstrated limits at Mach 0 85, with every flight over Mach 0 84 causing the aircraft to be damaged by vibration 

One of the highest recorded instrumented Mach numbers attained for a propeller aircraft is the Mach 0 891 for a Spitfire PR XI, flown during dive tests at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough in April 1944  The Spitfire, a photo-reconnaissance variant, the Mark XI, fitted with an extended "rake type" multiple pitot system, was flown by Squadron Leader J  R  Tobin to this speed, corresponding to a corrected true airspeed (TAS) of 606 mph  In a subsequent flight, Squadron Leader Anthony Martindale achieved Mach 0 92, but it ended in a forced landing after over-revving damaged the engine Hans Guido Mutke claimed to have broken the sound barrier on 9 April 1945 in the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft  He states that his ASI pegged itself at 1,100 kilometres per hour (680 mph)  Mutke reported not just transonic buffeting, but the resumption of normal control once a certain speed was exceeded, then a resumption of severe buffeting once the Me 262 slowed again  He also reported engine flame-out This claim is widely disputed, even by pilots in his unit  All of the effects he reported are known to occur on the Me 262 at much lower speeds, and the ASI reading is simply not reliable in the transonic  Further, a series of tests made by Karl Doetsch at the behest of Willy Messerschmitt found that the plane became uncontrollable above Mach 0 86, and at Mach 0 9 would nose over into a dive that could not be recovered from  Post-war tests by the RAF confirmed these results, with the slight modification that the maximum speed using new instruments was found to be Mach 0 84, rather than Mach 0 86 In 1999, Mutke enlisted the help of Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University to run computational tests to determine whether the aircraft could break the sound barrier  These tests do not rule out the possibility, but are lacking accurate data on the coefficient of drag that would be needed to make accurate simulations  Wagner stated: "I don't want to exclude the possibility, but I can imagine he may also have been just below the speed of sound and felt the buffeting, but did not go above Mach-1 "One bit of evidence presented by Mutke is on page 13 of the "Me 262 A-1 Pilot's Handbook" issued by Headquarters Air Materiel Command, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio as Report No  F-SU-1111-ND on January 10, 1946:

Speeds of 950 km/h (590 mph) are reported to have been attained in a shallow dive 20° to 30° from the horizontal  No vertical dives were made  At speeds of 950 to 1,000 km/h (590 to 620 mph) the air flow around the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, and it is reported that the control surfaces no longer affect the direction of flight  The results vary with different airplanes: some wing over and dive while others dive gradually  It is also reported that once the speed of sound is exceeded, this condition disappears and normal control is restored 
The comments about restoration of flight control and cessation of buffeting above Mach 1 are very significant in a 1946 document  However, it is not clear where these terms came from, as it does not appear the US pilots carried out such tests In his 1990 book Me-163, former Messerschmitt Me 163 "Komet" pilot Mano Ziegler claims that his friend, test pilot Heini Dittmar, broke the sound barrier while diving the rocket plane, and that several people on the ground heard the sonic booms  He claims that on 6 July 1944, Dittmar, flying Me 163B V18, bearing the Stammkennzeichen alphabetic code VA+SP, was measured traveling at a speed of 1,130 km/h (702 mph)  However, no evidence of such a flight exists in any of the materials from that period, which were captured by Allied forces and extensively studied  Dittmar had been officially recorded at 1,004 5 km/h (623 8 mph) in level flight on 2 October 1941 in the prototype Me 163A V4  He reached this speed at less than full throttle, as he was concerned by the transonic buffeting  Dittmar himself does not make a claim that he broke the sound barrier on that flight and notes that the speed was recorded only on the AIS  He does, however, take credit for being the first pilot to "knock on the sound barrier" The Luftwaffe test pilot Lothar Sieber (7 April 1922 – 1 March 1945) may have inadvertently become the first human to break the sound barrier on 1 March 1945  This occurred while he was piloting a Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" for the first crewed vertical takeoff of a rocket in history  In 55 seconds, he traveled a total of 14 km (8 7 miles)  The aircraft crashed, and he perished violently in this endeavor There are a number of unmanned vehicles that flew at supersonic speeds during this period  In 1933, Soviet designers working on ramjet concepts fired phosphorus-powered engines out of artillery guns to get them to operational speeds  It is possible that this produced supersonic performance as high as Mach 2, but this was not due solely to the engine itself  In contrast, the German V-2 ballistic missile routinely broke the sound barrier in flight, for the first time on 3 October 1942  By September 1944, V-2s routinely achieved Mach 4 (1,200 m/s, or 3044 mph) during terminal descent 

Breaking the sound barrier
In 1942, the United Kingdom's Ministry of Aviation began a top-secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier  The project resulted in the development of the prototype Miles M 52 turbojet-powered aircraft, which was designed to reach 1,000 mph (417 m/s; 1,600 km/h) (over twice the existing speed record) in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft (11 km) in 1 minute 30 seconds 
A huge number of advanced features were incorporated into the resulting M 52 design, many of which hint at a detailed knowledge of supersonic aerodynamics  In particular, the design featured a conical nose and sharp wing leading edges, as it was known that round-nosed projectiles could not be stabilised at supersonic speeds  The design used very thin wings of biconvex section proposed by Jakob Ackeret for low drag  The wing tips were "clipped" to keep them clear of the conical shock wave generated by the nose of the aircraft  The fuselage had the minimum cross-section allowable around the centrifugal engine with fuel tanks in a saddle over the top 

Another critical addition was the use of a power-operated stabilator, also known as the all-moving tail or flying tail, a key to supersonic flight control, which contrasted with traditional hinged tailplanes (horizontal stabilizers) connected mechanically to the pilots control column  Conventional control surfaces became ineffective at the high subsonic speeds then being achieved by fighters in dives, due to the aerodynamic forces caused by the formation of shockwaves at the hinge and the rearward movement of the centre of pressure, which together could override the control forces that could be applied mechanically by the pilot, hindering recovery from the dive  A major impediment to early transonic flight was control reversal, the phenomenon which caused flight inputs (stick, rudder) to switch direction at high speed; it was the cause of many accidents and near-accidents  An all-flying tail is considered to be a minimum condition of enabling aircraft to break the transonic barrier safely, without losing pilot control  The Miles M 52 was the first instance of this solution, which has since been universally applied 
Initially, the aircraft was to use Frank Whittle's latest engine, the Power Jets W 2/700, which would only reach supersonic speed in a shallow dive  To develop a fully supersonic version of the aircraft, an innovation incorporated was a reheat jetpipe – also known as an afterburner  Extra fuel was to be burned in the tailpipe to avoid overheating the turbine blades, making use of unused oxygen in the exhaust  Finally, the design included another critical element –  the use of a shock cone in the nose to slow the incoming air to the subsonic speeds needed by the engine 
Although the project was eventually cancelled, the research was used to construct an unmanned missile that went on to achieve a speed of Mach 1 38 in a successful, controlled transonic and supersonic level test flight; this was a unique achievement at that time, which validated the aerodynamics of the M 52 
Meanwhile, test pilots achieved high velocities in the tailless, swept-wing de Havilland DH 108  One of them was Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr , who was killed on 27 September 1946 when his DH 108 broke up at about Mach 0 9  John Derry has been called "Britain's first supersonic pilot" because of a dive he made in a DH 108 on 6 September 1948 

The first aircraft to officially break the sound barrier
The British Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange all its high-speed research, data and designs and Bell Aircraft company was given access to the drawings and research on the M 52, but the U S  reneged on the agreement, and no data was forthcoming in return  Bell's supersonic design was still using a conventional tail, and they were battling the problem of control 

They utilized the information to initiate work on the Bell X-1  The final version of the Bell X-1 was very similar in design to the original Miles M 52 version  Also featuring the all-moving tail, the XS-1 was later known as the X-1  It was in the X-1 that Chuck Yeager was credited with being the first person to break the sound barrier in level flight on 14 October 1947, flying at an altitude of 45,000 ft (13 7 km)  George Welch made a plausible but officially unverified claim to have broken the sound barrier on 1 October 1947, while flying an XP-86 Sabre  He also claimed to have repeated his supersonic flight on 14 October 1947, 30 minutes before Yeager broke the sound barrier in the Bell X-1  Although evidence from witnesses and instruments strongly imply that Welch achieved supersonic speed, the flights were not properly monitored and are not officially recognized  The XP-86 officially achieved supersonic speed on 26 April 1948 On 14 October 1947, just under a month after the United States Air Force had been created as a separate service, the tests culminated in the first crewed supersonic flight, piloted by Air Force Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager in aircraft #46-062, which he had christened Glamorous Glennis  The rocket-powered aircraft was launched from the bomb bay of a specially modified B-29 and glided to a landing on a runway  XS-1 flight number 50 is the first one where the X-1 recorded supersonic flight, with a maximum speed of Mach 1 06 (361 m/s, 1,299 km/h, 807 2 mph) 
As a result of the X-1's initial supersonic flight, the National Aeronautics Association voted its 1947 Collier Trophy to be shared by the three main participants in the program  Honored at the White House by President Harry S  Truman were Larry Bell for Bell Aircraft, Captain Yeager for piloting the flights, and John Stack for the NACA contributions Jackie Cochran was the first woman to break the sound barrier, which she did on 18 May 1953, piloting a plane borrowed from the Royal Canadian Air Force, with Yeager accompanying her On December 3, 1957, Margaret Chase Smith became the first woman in Congress to break the sound barrier, which she did as a passenger in an F-100 Super Sabre piloted by Air Force Major Clyde Good In the late 1950s, Allen Rowley, a British journalist, was able to fly in a Super Sabre at 1000mph one of the few non-American civilians to exceed the speed of sound and one of the few civilians anywhere to make such a trip On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8-43 (registration N9604Z) unofficially exceeded Mach 1 in a controlled dive during a test flight at Edwards Air Force Base, as observed and reported by the flight crew; the crew were William Magruder (pilot), Paul Patten (co-pilot), Joseph Tomich (flight engineer), and Richard H  Edwards (flight test engineer)  This was the first supersonic flight by a civilian airliner, achieved before the Concorde or the Tu-144 flew 

The sound barrier understood
As the science of high-speed flight became more widely understood, a number of changes led to the eventual understanding that the "sound barrier" is easily penetrated, with the right conditions  Among these changes were the introduction of thin swept wings, the area rule, and engines of ever-increasing performance  By the 1950s, many combat aircraft could routinely break the sound barrier in level flight, although they often suffered from control problems when doing so, such as Mach tuck  Modern aircraft can transit the "barrier" without control problems By the late 1950s, the issue was so well understood that many companies started investing in the development of supersonic airliners, or SSTs, believing that to be the next "natural" step in airliner evolution  However, this has not yet happened  Although the Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144 entered service in the 1970s, both were later retired without being replaced by similar designs  The last flight of a Concorde in service was in 2003 
Although Concorde and the Tu-144 were the first aircraft to carry commercial passengers at supersonic speeds, they were not the first or only commercial airliners to break the sound barrier  On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8 broke the sound barrier at Mach 1 012, or 1,240 km/h (776 2 mph), while in a controlled dive through 41,088 feet (12,510 m)  The purpose of the flight was to collect data on a new design of leading edge for the wing 

Breaking the sound barrier in a land vehicle
On 12 January 1948, a Northrop unmanned rocket sled became the first land vehicle to break the sound barrier  At a military test facility at Muroc Air Force Base (now Edwards AFB), California, it reached a peak speed of 1,019 mph (1,640 km/h) before jumping the rails On 15 October 1997, in a vehicle designed and built by a team led by Richard Noble, Royal Air Force pilot Andy Green became the first person to break the sound barrier in a land vehicle in compliance with Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile rules  The vehicle, called the ThrustSSC ("Super Sonic Car"), captured the record 50 years and one day after Yeager's first supersonic flight 

Breaking the sound barrier as a human projectile
Felix Baumgartner
In October 2012 Felix Baumgartner, with a team of scientists and sponsor Red Bull, attempted the highest sky-dive on record  The project would see Baumgartner attempt to jump 120,000 ft (36,580 m) from a helium balloon and become the first parachutist to break the sound barrier  The launch was scheduled for 9 October 2012, but was aborted due to adverse weather; subsequently the capsule was launched instead on 14 October  Baumgartner's feat also marked the 65th anniversary of U S  test pilot Chuck Yeager's successful attempt to break the sound barrier in an aircraft Baumgartner landed in eastern New Mexico after jumping from a world record 128,100 feet (39,045 m), or 24 26 miles, and broke the sound barrier as he traveled at speeds up to 833 9 mph (1342 km/h, or Mach 1 26)  In the press conference after his jump, it was announced that he was in freefall for 4 minutes 18 seconds, the second longest freefall after the 1960 jump of Joseph Kittinger for 4 minutes 36 seconds 

Alan Eustace
In October 2014, Alan Eustace, a senior vice president at Google, broke Baumgartner's record for highest sky-dive and also broke the sound barrier in the process  However, because Eustace's jump involved a drogue parachute, while Baumgartner's did not, their vertical speed and free-fall distance records remain in different categories 

Legacy
David Lean directed The Sound Barrier, a fictionalized retelling of the de Havilland DH 108 test flights 

See also
Sonic boom
Vapor cone
Passage 7:
Global Alliance in Management Education
CEMS - The Global Alliance in Management Education or CEMS (formerly the Community of European Management Schools and International Companies) is a cooperation of leading business schools and universities with multinational companies and NGOs  The CEMS Global Alliance includes 34 academic institutions on every continent, nearly 70 corporate partners and eight social partners (NGOs) from around the globe  CEMS administers the delivery of the CEMS MIM degree in its member schools, supports the CEMS Alumni Association (CAA) and facilitates general cooperation among its members 

CEMS MIM
CEMS Master in International Management (CEMS MIM) is a one-year degree program for a select group of students at the member institutions,  taught jointly by CEMS business schools and universities  Created in 1988 by founding members from the University of Cologne, HEC Paris, ESADE and the Bocconi University, it was the first supra-national MSc  The aim of CEMS is to develop knowledge and provide education that is essential in the multilingual, multicultural and interconnected business world The MIM Programme consists of three terms: two academic terms and one internship term  The two academic terms must be consecutive, while the internship term can take place at any time during the graduate period of studies  Students must spend at least two out of the three terms abroad  In addition to completing one's home degree, graduation from CEMS also requires completion of a business project, skill seminars, an international internship, and two foreign language exams 
Each CEMS academic member has a limited number of places available  In many cases, schools have prerequisites to be admitted into the selection process, including a high-grade average and proof of language skills  The selection process typically requires the student to already be enrolled or selected for a Master of Business degree with a member university before applying for the CEMS MIM  CEMS graduates receive a degree from their home institution as well as from CEMS 

Global ranking
The CEMS MIM has consistently ranked among the top 10 in the Masters in Management Ranking since 2005 by the Financial Times 

Academic members
Schools offering the CEMS Master's in International Management (CEMS MIM):

Corporate partners
Nearly 70 corporate partners contribute financially on an annual basis and provide the programme with human resources and input into the curriculum itself in each country they are based  They chart skills courses, give lectures or invite CEMS students to company activities where students learn about corporate practices or solve cases  These connections are very useful to promote the company to the students, while the students gain insight into real-world problems and solution approaches 
Students are advised to be responsible and arrange by themselves an internship partner which will accept the student intern for at least ten consecutive weeks  There are student visa requirements that each student takes responsibility to abide by, and the regulation varies by each local government 

Social partners
The first CEMS social partners joined the organisation in December 2010  These are the first in a series of non-profits and NGOs that contribute to the alliance in a way identical to corporate partners (selection and admission of students, governance, curriculum delivery, proposal of internships and employment opportunities)  This new initiative is part of a major sustainability drive from within CEMS  In the same vein, CEMS has also signed the PRME (Principles for Responsible Management Education) declaration 

Alumni association
The CEMS Alumni Association (CAA), founded in 1993 by CEMS graduates, is an international network of CEMS graduates throughout the world  To date, there are nearly 16,000 CEMS alumni  The Graduation Ceremony takes place each year during the CEMS Annual Events (usually at the end of November) which is hosted by one of the CEMS member schools The CAA is led by an alumni board and is present in many countries through local committees of CEMS alumni  The local committees are responsible for keeping in contact with CEMS alumni and organizing professional and social activities  They meet regularly to discuss the activities and development of the association  The alumni board comprises the CAA President, the CEMS Executive Director, a representative of the CEMS Student Board, a representative of CEMS member schools, three local committee representatives, two senior alumni and two junior alumni  It proposes and develops initiatives to foster career and personal development opportunities for its alumni members and represents alumni interests on the CEMS Executive Board 
While students stay at partner universities, there are support groups called CEMS clubs through which CEMS students share their identities  The extended network of CEMS students spans schools across the world 

Footnotes
Notes
Passage 8:
Confederation of Finnish Industries
The Confederation of Finnish Industries (EK, Finnish: Elinkeinoelämän Keskusliitto, Swedish: Finlands Näringsliv) is the largest employers' association in Finland  It was formed at the beginning of 2005 when the two employers' associations Palvelutyönantajat (Employers of the Service Sector) and Teollisuuden ja Työnantajain Keskusliitto (Union of Industries and Employers) merged  EK's member companies collectively contribute over 70% of Finland's GDP, and over 95% of Finland's exports  It has considerable negotiating power, since Finland has universal validity of collective labour agreements, and often a national income policy agreement is reached 
EK focuses its activity on the following goals:

A business environment which stimulates growth and success for companies
Securing the competitiveness of Finnish work
Ways to benefit from the opportunities offered by globalisation
Economic policies promoting competitiveness
Efficient member servicesThe organisation consists of:

43 branch associations
About 15,000 member companies, 96% of which are small and medium enterprises (SMEs)
About 900,000 employees

External links
The Confederation of Finnish Industries  Official site
Passage 9:
Mach's principle
In theoretical physics, particularly in discussions of gravitation theories,  Mach's principle (or Mach's conjecture) is the name given by Einstein to an imprecise hypothesis often credited to the physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach  The hypothesis attempted to explain how rotating objects, such as gyroscopes and spinning celestial bodies, maintain a frame of reference  
The proposition is that the existence of absolute rotation (the distinction of local inertial frames vs  rotating reference frames) is determined by the large-scale distribution of matter, as exemplified by this anecdote:

You are standing in a field looking at the stars  Your arms are resting freely at your side, and you see that the distant stars are not moving  Now start spinning  The stars are whirling around you and your arms are pulled away from your body  Why should your arms be pulled away when the stars are whirling? Why should they be dangling freely when the stars don't move?

Mach's principle says that this is not a coincidence—that there is a physical law that relates the motion of the distant stars to the local inertial frame  If you see all the stars whirling around you, Mach suggests that there is some physical law which would make it so you would feel a centrifugal force  There are a number of rival formulations of the principle, often stated in vague ways like "mass out there influences inertia here"  A very general statement of Mach's principle is "local physical laws are determined by the large-scale structure of the universe" Mach's concept was a guiding factor in Einstein's development of the general theory of relativity  Einstein realized that the overall distribution of matter would determine the metric tensor which indicates which frame is stationary with respect to rotation  Frame-dragging and conservation of gravitational angular momentum makes this into a true statement in the general theory in certain solutions  But because the principle is so vague, many distinct statements have been made which would qualify as a Mach principle, and some of which are false  The Gödel rotating universe is a solution of the field equations that is designed to disobey Mach's principle in the worst possible way  In this example, the distant stars seem to be revolving faster and faster as one moves further away  This example does not completely settle the question of the physical relevance of the principle because it has closed timelike curves 

History
Mach put forth the idea in his book The Science of Mechanics (1883 in German, 1893 in English)  Before Mach's time, the basic idea also appears in the writings of George Berkeley  After Mach, the book Absolute or Relative Motion? (1896) by Benedict Friedlaender and his brother Immanuel contained ideas similar to Mach's principle 

Einstein's use of the principle
There is a fundamental issue in relativity theory: if all motion is relative, how can we measure the inertia of a body? We must measure the inertia with respect to something else  But what if we imagine a particle completely on its own in the universe? We might hope to still have some notion of its state of motion  Mach's principle is sometimes interpreted as the statement that such a particle's state of motion has no meaning in that case 
In Mach's words, the principle is embodied as follows:
[The] investigator must feel the need of    knowledge of the immediate connections, say, of the masses of the universe  There will hover before him as an ideal insight into the principles of the whole matter, from which accelerated and inertial motions will result in the same way 
Albert Einstein seemed to view Mach's principle as something along the lines of:
   inertia originates in a kind of interaction between bodies   
In this sense, at least some of Mach's principles are related to philosophical holism  Mach's suggestion can be taken as the injunction that gravitation theories should be relational theories  Einstein brought the principle into mainstream physics while working on general relativity  Indeed, it was Einstein who first coined the phrase Mach's principle  There is much debate as to whether Mach really intended to suggest a new physical law since he never states it explicitly 
The writing in which Einstein found inspiration was Mach's book The Science of Mechanics (1883, tr  1893), where the philosopher criticized Newton's idea of absolute space, in particular the argument that Newton gave sustaining the existence of an advantaged reference system: what is commonly called "Newton's bucket argument" 
In his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Newton tried to demonstrate that one can always decide if one is rotating with respect to the absolute space, measuring the apparent forces that arise only when an absolute rotation is performed  If a bucket is filled with water, and made to rotate, initially the water remains still, but then, gradually, the walls of the vessel communicate their motion to the water, making it curve and climb up the borders of the bucket, because of the centrifugal forces produced by the rotation  This experiment demonstrates that the centrifugal forces arise only when the water is in rotation with respect to the absolute space (represented here by the earth's reference frame, or better, the distant stars) instead, when the bucket was rotating with respect to the water no centrifugal forces were produced, this indicating that the latter was still with respect to the absolute space 
Mach, in his book, says that the bucket experiment only demonstrates that when the water is in rotation with respect to the bucket no centrifugal forces are produced, and that we cannot know how the water would behave if in the experiment the bucket's walls were increased in depth and width until they became leagues big  In Mach's idea this concept of absolute motion should be substituted with a total relativism in which every motion, uniform or accelerated, has sense only in reference to other bodies (i e , one cannot simply say that the water is rotating, but must specify if it's rotating with respect to the vessel or to the earth)  In this view, the apparent forces that seem to permit discrimination between relative and "absolute" motions should only be considered as an effect of the particular asymmetry that there is in our reference system between the bodies which we consider in motion, that are small (like buckets), and the bodies that we believe are still (the earth and distant stars), that are overwhelmingly bigger and heavier than the former 
This same thought had been expressed by the philosopher George Berkeley in his De Motu  It is then not clear, in the passages from Mach just mentioned, if the philosopher intended to formulate a new kind of physical action between heavy bodies  This physical mechanism should determine the inertia of bodies, in a way that the heavy and distant bodies of our universe should contribute the most to the inertial forces  More likely, Mach only suggested a mere "redescription of motion in space as experiences that do not invoke the term space"   What is certain is that Einstein interpreted Mach's passage in the former way, originating a long-lasting debate 
Most physicists believe Mach's principle was never developed into a quantitative physical theory that would explain a mechanism by which the stars can have such an effect  Mach himself never made his principle exactly clear : 9–57  Although Einstein was intrigued and inspired by Mach's principle, Einstein's formulation of the principle is not a fundamental assumption of general relativity, although the principle of equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass is most certainly fundamental 

Mach's principle in general relativity
Because intuitive notions of distance and time no longer apply, what exactly is meant by "Mach's principle" in general relativity is even less clear than in Newtonian physics and at least 21 formulations of Mach's principle are possible, some being considered more strongly Machian than others : 530   A relatively weak formulation is the assertion that the motion of matter in one place should affect which frames are inertial in another 
Einstein, before completing his development of the general theory of relativity, found an effect which he interpreted as being evidence of Mach's principle   We assume a fixed background for conceptual simplicity, construct a large spherical shell of mass, and set it spinning in that background   The reference frame in the interior of this shell will precess with respect to the fixed background   This effect is known as the Lense–Thirring effect   Einstein was so satisfied with this manifestation of Mach's principle that he wrote a letter to Mach expressing this:

it    turns out that inertia originates in a kind of interaction between bodies, quite in the sense of your considerations on Newton's pail experiment     If one rotates [a heavy shell of matter] relative to the fixed stars about an axis going through its center, a Coriolis force arises in the interior of the shell; that is, the plane of a Foucault pendulum is dragged around (with a practically unmeasurably small angular velocity) 
The Lense–Thirring effect certainly satisfies the very basic and broad notion that "matter there influences inertia here"   The plane of the pendulum would not be dragged around if the shell of matter were not present, or if it were not spinning   As for the statement that "inertia originates in a kind of interaction between bodies", this, too, could be interpreted as true in the context of the effect 
More fundamental to the problem, however, is the very existence of a fixed background, which Einstein describes as "the fixed stars"   Modern relativists see the imprints of Mach's principle in the initial-value problem   Essentially, we humans seem to wish to separate spacetime into slices of constant time   When we do this, Einstein's equations can be decomposed into one set of equations, which must be satisfied on each slice, and another set, which describe how to move between slices   The equations for an individual slice are elliptic partial differential equations   In general, this means that only part of the geometry of the slice can be given by the scientist, while the geometry everywhere else will then be dictated by Einstein's equations on the slice In the context of an asymptotically flat spacetime, the boundary conditions are given at infinity   Heuristically, the boundary conditions for an asymptotically flat universe define a frame with respect to which inertia has meaning   By performing a Lorentz transformation on the distant universe, of course, this inertia can also be transformed 
A stronger form of Mach's principle applies in Wheeler–Mach–Einstein spacetimes, which require spacetime to be spatially compact and globally hyperbolic   In such universes Mach's principle can be stated as the distribution of matter and field energy-momentum (and possibly other information) at a particular moment in the universe determines the inertial frame at each point in the universe (where "a particular moment in the universe" refers to a chosen Cauchy surface) : 188–207 There have been other attempts to formulate a theory that is more fully Machian, such as the Brans–Dicke theory and the Hoyle–Narlikar theory of gravity, but most physicists argue that none have been fully successful  At an exit poll of experts, held in Tübingen in 1993, when asked the question "Is general relativity perfectly Machian?", 3 respondents replied "yes", and 22 replied "no"   To the question "Is general relativity with appropriate boundary conditions of closure of some kind very Machian?" the result was 14 "yes" and 7 "no" : 106 However, Einstein was convinced that a valid theory of gravity would necessarily have to include the relativity of inertia:

So strongly did Einstein believe at that time in the relativity of inertia that in 1918 he stated as being on an equal footing three principles on which a satisfactory theory of gravitation should rest:
The principle of relativity as expressed by general covariance 
The principle of equivalence 
Mach's principle (the first time this term entered the literature): … that the gµν are completely determined by the mass of bodies, more generally by Tµν In 1922, Einstein noted that others were satisfied to proceed without this [third] criterion and added, 
"This contentedness will appear incomprehensible to a later generation however "

It must be said that, as far as I can see, to this day, Mach's principle has not brought physics decisively farther  It must also be said that the origin of inertia is and remains the most obscure subject in the theory of particles and fields  Mach's principle may therefore have a future – but not without the quantum theory 

Inertial induction
In 1953, in order to express Mach's Principle in quantitative terms, the Cambridge University physicist Dennis W  Sciama proposed the addition of an acceleration dependent term to the Newtonian gravitation equation  Sciama's acceleration dependent term was 
  
    
      
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    {\textstyle F=G{\frac {m_{A}m_{B}{\bf {a}}}{rc^{2}}}\ }
   where r is the distance between the particles, G is the gravitational constant, a is the relative acceleration and c represents the speed of light in vacuum  Sciama referred to the effect of the acceleration dependent term as Inertial Induction 

Variations in the statement of the principle
The broad notion that "mass there influences inertia here" has been expressed in several forms 
Hermann Bondi and Joseph Samuel have listed eleven distinct statements that can be called Mach principles, labelled Mach0 through Mach10   Though their list is not necessarily exhaustive, it does give a flavor for the variety possible 

Mach0: The universe, as represented by the average motion of distant galaxies, does not appear to rotate relative to local inertial frames 
Mach1: Newton's gravitational constant G is a dynamical field 
Mach2: An isolated body in otherwise empty space has no inertia 
Mach3: Local inertial frames are affected by the cosmic motion and distribution of matter 
Mach4: The universe is spatially closed 
Mach5: The total energy, angular and linear momentum of the universe are zero 
Mach6: Inertial mass is affected by the global distribution of matter 
Mach7: If you take away all matter, there is no more space 
Mach8: 
  
    
      
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    {\displaystyle \Omega \ {\stackrel {\text{def}}{=}}\ 4\pi \rho GT^{2}}
   is a definite number, of order unity, where 
  
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   is the mean density of matter in the universe, and 
  
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   is the Hubble time 
Mach9: The theory contains no absolute elements 
Mach10: Overall rigid rotations and translations of a system are unobservable 

See also



ground_truth: Mr. Lawrence

Doug Lawrence