prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who started the foundation that developed the Free Software Directory?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Sodipodi
Sodipodi was an open-source vector graphics editor, discontinued in 2004  It is the predecessor to Inkscape 

Development
Sodipodi started as a fork of Gill, a vector-graphics program written by Raph Levien  The main author was Lauris Kaplinski, and several other people contributed to the project  The project is no longer under active development, having been succeeded by Inkscape, a 2003 fork of Sodipodi  Sodipodi means "mish mash" or "hodgepodge" in Estonian child-speak The primary design goal of Sodipodi was to produce a usable vector graphics editor, and a drawing tool for artists  Although it used SVG as its native file format (including some extensions to hold metadata), it was not intended to be a full implementation of the SVG standard  Sodipodi imports and exports plain SVG data, and can also export raster graphics in PNG format  The user interface of Sodipodi is a Controlled Single Document Interface (CSDI) similar to GIMP 
Sodipodi was developed for Linux and Microsoft Windows  The last version was 0 34, released on 11 February 2004  Released under the GNU General Public License, Sodipodi is free software 

Derivatives
Sodipodi started a collection of SVG clip art containing symbols and flags from around the world  This work helped inspire the Open Clip Art Library Inkscape started as a fork of Sodipodi, founded in 2003 by a group of Sodipodi developers with different goals, including redesigning the interface and closer compliance with the SVG standard 

See also
Comparison of vector graphics editors
Passage 2:
Jonas Öberg
Jonas Öberg (born 22 November 1977 in Norrköping, Sweden) is a free and open-source software activist, describing himself as an instigator in the world of free, having worked with the Free Software Foundation Europe, GNU Project, FSCONS, Creative Commons and the Shuttleworth Foundation  He started to develop software in 1991 and installed his first Linux operating system in 1993 after which he eventually joined as a webmaster for the GNU Project  In the late 1990s, he spent some time at the MIT AI Labs where he met with Richard Stallman and others from the Free Software Foundation, joining them for The Bazaar conference in New York  Since 2002, he has been on the award committee for the Free Software Foundation's Free Software Awards 
In 2001, he was a founding member of the Free Software Foundation Europe and took up a role as vice president on 22 November 2001 when former vice president Loïc Dachary took a step back to focus on GNU SavannahHaving worked with Creative Commons for several years, including running a course of fundraising at the Peer to Peer University, he became the first Regional Coordinator for Europe in 2011  His work for the organisation eventually led him to a position as a Fellow of the Shuttleworth Foundation where his work focus on creating tools and prototypes for the embedding of metadata for licensing and attribution requirements in digital works  His company Commons Machinery was featured as one of the 12 winners of Tech All Stars 2014, a competition of the European Commission's and Neelie Kroes's Digital Agenda 

Personal life
He has a 19th-century wooden house in the North of Sweden which he is continuously renovating and lives outside of Stockholm in Gnesta, Sweden  He married Julia Velkova, a media researcher and member of Internet Society Bulgaria, at the Ice hotel in Sweden on 8 March 2013 
Passage 3:
Pygame
Pygame is a cross-platform set of Python modules designed for writing video games  It includes computer graphics and sound libraries designed to be used with the Python programming language 

History
Pygame was originally written by Pete Shinners to replace PySDL after its development stalled  It has been a community project since 2000 and is released under the free software GNU Lesser General Public License (which "provides for Pygame to be distributed with open source and commercial software") 

Development of Version 2
Pygame version 2 was planned as "Pygame Reloaded" in 2009, but development and maintenance of Pygame completely stopped until the end of 2016 with version 1 9 1  After the release of version 1 9 5 in March 2019, development of a new version 2 is active on the roadmap Pygame 2 0 released on 28 October, 2020, on Pygame's 20th birthday 

Features
Pygame uses the Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL) library, with the intention of allowing real-time computer game development without the low-level mechanics of the C programming language and its derivatives  This is based on the assumption that the most expensive functions inside games can be abstracted from the game logic, making it possible to use a high-level programming language, such as Python, to structure the game Other features that SDL does have include vector math, collision detection, 2D sprite scene graph management, MIDI support, camera, pixel-array manipulation, transformations, filtering, advanced freetype font support, and drawing Applications using Pygame can run on Android phones and tablets with the use of Pygame Subset for Android (pgs4a)  Sound, vibration, keyboard, and accelerometer are supported on Android 

Community
There is a regular competition, called PyWeek, to write games using Python (and usually but not necessarily, Pygame)  The community has created many tutorials for Pygame 

Notable games using Pygame
Frets on Fire
Dangerous High School Girls in Trouble
Save the Date, IndieCade 2013 Finalist
Drawn Down Abyss

See also
Cocos2d
Panda3D
Pyglet

Notes
Passage 4:
MeshLab
MeshLab is a 3D mesh processing software system that is oriented to the management and processing of unstructured large meshes and provides a set of tools for editing, cleaning, healing, inspecting, rendering, and converting these kinds of meshes  MeshLab is free and open-source software, subject to the requirements of the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2 or later, and is used as both a complete package and a library powering other software  It is well known in the more technical fields of 3D development and data handling 

Overview
MeshLab is developed by the ISTI - CNR research center; initially MeshLab was created as a course assignment at the University of Pisa in late 2005  It is a general-purpose system aimed at the processing of the typical not-so-small unstructured 3D models that arise in the 3D scanning pipeline 
The automatic mesh cleaning filters includes removal of duplicated, unreferenced vertices, non-manifold edges, vertices, and null faces  Remeshing tools support high quality simplification based on quadric error measure, various kinds of subdivision surfaces, and two surface reconstruction algorithms from point clouds based on the ball-pivoting technique and on the Poisson surface reconstruction approach  For the removal of noise, usually present in acquired surfaces, MeshLab supports various kinds of smoothing filters and tools for curvature analysis and visualization 
It includes a tool for the registration of multiple range maps based on the iterative closest point algorithm  MeshLab also includes an interactive direct paint-on-mesh system that allows users to interactively change the color of a mesh, to define selections and to directly smooth out noise and small features 
MeshLab is available for most platforms, including Linux, Mac OS X, Windows and, with reduced functionality, on Android and iOS and even as a pure client-side JavaScript application called MeshLabJS  The system supports input/output in the following formats: PLY, STL, OFF, OBJ, 3DS, VRML 2 0, X3D and COLLADA  MeshLab can also import point clouds reconstructed using Photosynth 
MeshLab is used in various academic and research contexts, like microbiology, cultural heritage, surface reconstruction, paleontology, for rapid prototyping in orthopedic surgery, in orthodontics, and desktop manufacturing 

Additional images
See also
Geometry processing
3D scanner
List of free and open-source software packages
Passage 5:
BlueSpice MediaWiki
BlueSpice is free wiki software based on the MediaWiki engine and licensed with the GNU General Public License  It is especially developed for businesses as an enterprise wiki distribution for MediaWiki and used in over 150 countries 
The freely available version BlueSpice free is considered one of the most popular wiki computer programs for knowledge management in companies 

History
The German company Hallo Welt! has been working on the development of an open source wiki based on MediaWiki since 2007  The origins of the later BlueSpice software go back to an initiative by the IBM CTO Gunter Dueck, who initiated an internal company wiki for IBM Germany in 2007 under the name "bluepedia"  The model for the bluepedia project was Wikipedia and accordingly the platform was based on MediaWiki  However, in daily operation, additional requirements arose for the software used  This led to the founding of a company that would develop and provide the missing functions in the future 
In 2011, Hallo Welt! decided to publish their wiki as free and open-source software  The stable version of BlueSpice for MediaWiki was released July 4, 2011 : 28  From this point on, a free download has been available at SourceForge  A key feature of the software was the provision of a WYSIWYG editor, which at the time was based on the TinyMCE editor In Autumn 2013, Hallo Welt! released the completely reworked version BlueSpice 2  According to the BlueSpice developers this release aims for opening up BlueSpice for freelance developers in the global MediaWiki community and multiple language versions In 2014, BlueSpice for MediaWiki became a project of Translatewiki net  In January 2015 the developers announced that they will change to a subscription model 

Functionality and techology
BlueSpice is written in the PHP programming language and uses MySQL, Apache/IIS, Tomcat  BlueSpice is released in a free edition and two paid editions  The free edition adds more than 50 extensions to a MediaWiki, mainly in the areas of:

Editing: A version of the MediaWiki VisualEditor is delivered, which, unlike the original, contains additional functions, such as an easier procedure for uploading documents or inserting dynamic content  The creation of new pages is supported by page templates 
Search and navigation: An extended search (Elasticsearch) offers improved search functionalities, like faceted search  The search results can further be sorted or filtered by category, namespace, author, semantic data, data type etc  Any files attached are also searched  It also provides common features like autocomplete and search as you type 
Administration: Convenient management of users, namespaces, groups, rights and settings 

Licensing and distribution
All extensions of the BlueSpice distributions are under open source licenses  The functions written by Hallo Welt! are published under the license GPLv3 The free version is made available for download as a classic server installation in a tarball or as a Docker image, with BlueSpice free having the widest distribution via the official Docker version (with more than 1 million pulls in three years) 

Versions
See also
MediaWiki
Comparison of wiki software
Passage 6:
Free Software Directory
The Free Software Directory (FSD) is a project of the Free Software Foundation (FSF)   It catalogs free software that runs under free operating systems—particularly GNU and Linux  The cataloged projects are often able to run in several other operating systems  The project was formerly co-run by UNESCO 
Unlike some other directories that focus on free software, Free Software Directory staff verify the licenses of software listed in the directory 

Coverage growth and usages
FSD has been used as a source for assessing the share of free software, for example finding in September 2002 an amount of "1550 entries, of which 1363 (87 9%) used the GPL license, 103 (6 6%) used the LGPL license, 32 (2 0%) used a BSD or BSD-like license, 29 (1 9%) used the Artistic license, 5 (0 3%) used the MIT license"  By September 2009, the Directory listed 6,000 packages whose number grew up to 6,500 in October 2011, when the newly updated directory was launched  All listed packages are "free for any computer user to download, run and share  Each entry is individually checked and tested     so users know that any program they come across in the directory will be truly free software     with free documentation and without proprietary software requirements" Several scientific publications review or refer to the directory  It has been remarked that the Directory "only includes software that runs on free operating systems  The FSF/UNESCO Free Software Directory is also a collaborative project, offering a web interface for users to enter and update entries" 
Among the critical issues of the previous version, it has been pointed out that while "available software is described using a variety of textual metadata, including the components upon which a particular piece of software depends", "unfortunately, those dependencies are only listed by name, and locating and retrieving them is left to the user" 
On the other hand, the accuracy of the directory review on licenses is acknowledged 
The code review from the directory's editorial board is suitable for obtaining statistics on subsets of free software packages reliably clustered by license In September 2011, the Free Software Directory was re-implemented as a wiki, using MediaWiki and the Semantic MediaWiki extension, to allow users to directly add to and modify its contents 
Semantic MediaWiki provides the directory with semantic web technologies by adding "advanced search and presentation capabilities, structured to be useful for reading by both humans and data-mining programs" The new edition of the directory has been described as designed to ease and support with semantics the discovery and harvesting of information on free software programs  "An extensive and flexible category system, plus over 40,000 keywords and more than 40 different fields of information, enhance both simple and advanced searching" A recent snapshot of the taxonomy of the projects reviewed and accepted in the directory is the following:

See also
Passage 7:
GNU/Linux naming controversy
Within the free software and the open-source software communities there is controversy over whether to refer to computer operating systems that use a combination of GNU software and the Linux kernel as "GNU/Linux" or "Linux" systems Proponents of the term Linux argue that it is far more commonly used by the public and media and that it serves as a generic term for systems that combine that kernel with software from multiple other sources, while proponents of the term GNU/Linux note that GNU alone would be just as good a name for GNU variants which combine the GNU operating system software with software from other sources The term GNU/Linux is promoted by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) and its founder Richard Stallman  Their reasoning is that the GNU project was the main contributor for not only many of the operating system components used in the subsequent development of modern "Linux" systems, but also the associated free software philosophy  Several distributions of operating systems containing the Linux kernel use the name that the FSF prefers, such as Debian, Trisquel and Parabola GNU/Linux-libre  Others claim that GNU/Linux is a useful name to make a distinction between those and Linux distributions such as Android and Alpine Linux 

History
In 1983, Richard Stallman, founder of the Free Software Foundation, set forth plans of a complete Unix-like operating system, called GNU, composed entirely of free software  In September of that year, Stallman published a manifesto in Dr  Dobb's Journal detailing his new project publicly, outlining his vision of free software  Software development work began in January 1984  By 1991, the GNU mid-level portions of the operating system were almost complete, and the upper level could be supplied by the X Window System, but the lower level (kernel, device drivers, system-level utilities and daemons) was still mostly lacking 
The kernel officially developed by GNU was called GNU Hurd  The Hurd followed an ambitious microkernel design, which proved unexpectedly difficult to implement early on  However, in 1991, Linus Torvalds independently released the first version of the Linux kernel  Early Linux developers ported GNU code, including the GNU C Compiler, to run on Linux, while the free software community adopted the use of the Linux kernel as the missing kernel for the GNU operating system  This work filled the remaining gaps in providing a completely free operating system Over the next few years, several suggestions arose for naming operating systems using the Linux kernel and GNU components  In 1992, the Yggdrasil Linux distribution adopted the name "Linux/GNU/X"  In Usenet and mailing-list discussions, one can find usages of "GNU/Linux" as early as 1992, and of "GNU+Linux" as early as 1993  The Debian project, which was at one time sponsored by the Free Software Foundation, switched to calling its product "Debian GNU/Linux" in early 1994 
This change followed a request by Richard Stallman (who initially proposed "LiGNUx," but suggested "GNU/Linux" instead after hearing complaints about the awkwardness of the former term)  GNU's June 1994 Bulletin described "Linux" as a "free Unix system for 386 machines" (with "many of the utilities and libraries" from GNU), but the January 1995 Bulletin switched to the term "GNU/Linux" instead Stallman's and the FSF's efforts to include "GNU" in the name started around 1994, but were reportedly mostly via private communications (such as the above-mentioned request to Debian) until 1996  In May 1996, Stallman released Emacs 19 31 with the Autoconf system target "linux" changed to "lignux" (shortly thereafter changed to "linux-gnu" in emacs 19 32), and included an essay "Linux and the GNU system" suggesting that people use the terms "Linux-based GNU system" (or "GNU/Linux system" or "Lignux" for short)  He later used "GNU/Linux" exclusively, and the essay was superseded by Stallman's 1997 essay, "Linux and the GNU System" 

Composition of operating systems
Modern free software and open-source software operating systems are composed of software by many different authors, including the Linux kernel developers, the GNU project, and other vendors such as those behind the X Window System  Desktop- and server-based distributions use GNU components such as the GNU C Library (glibc), GNU Core Utilities (coreutils), and the Bash shell 
In a 2002 analysis of the source code for Red Hat Linux 7 1, a typical Linux distribution, the total size of the packages from the GNU project was found to be much larger than the Linux kernel  Later, a 2011 analysis of the Ubuntu distribution's "Natty" release main repository found that 8% to 13% of it consisted of GNU components (the range depending on whether GNOME is considered part of GNU), while only 6% is taken by the Linux kernel (9% when including its direct dependencies)  Determining exactly what constitutes the "operating system" per se is a matter of continuing debate On the other hand, some embedded systems, such as handheld devices and smartphones (like Google's Android), residential gateways (routers), and Voice over IP devices, are engineered with space efficiency in mind and use a Linux kernel with few or no components of GNU, due to perceived issues surrounding bloat, and impeded performance  A system running μClinux is likely to substitute uClibc for glibc, and BusyBox for coreutils  Google's Linux-based Android operating system does not use any GNU components or libraries, using Google's own BSD-based Bionic C library in place of glibc  The FSF agrees that "GNU/Linux" is not an appropriate name for these systems There are also systems that use a GNU userspace and/or C library on top of a non-Linux kernel, for example Debian GNU/Hurd (GNU userland on the GNU kernel) or Debian GNU/kFreeBSD (which uses the GNU coreutils and C library with the kernel from FreeBSD) 

Opinions
GNU/Linux
The FSF justifies the name "GNU/Linux" primarily on the grounds that the GNU project was specifically developing a complete system, of which they argue that the Linux kernel filled one of the final gaps; the large number of GNU components and GNU source code used in such systems is a secondary argument:

 So if you were going to pick a name for the system based on who wrote the programs in the system, the most appropriate single choice would be GNU  But we don't think that is the right way to consider the question  The GNU Project was not, is not, a project to develop specific software packages  [   ] Many people have made major contributions to the free software in the system, and they all deserve credit  But the reason it is an integrated system—and not just a collection of useful programs—is because the GNU Project set out to make it one  We made a list of the programs needed to make a complete free system, and we systematically wrote, or found people to write, everything on the list 

Other arguments include that the name "GNU/Linux" recognizes the role that the free-software movement played in building modern free and open source software communities, that the GNU project played a larger role in developing packages and software for GNU/Linux or Linux distributions, and that using the word "Linux" to refer to the Linux kernel, the operating system and entire distributions of software leads to confusion on the differences about the three  Because of this confusion, legal threats and public relations campaigns apparently directed against the kernel, such as those launched by the SCO Group or the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution (AdTI), have been misinterpreted by many commentators who assume that the whole operating system is being targeted  SCO and the AdTI have even been accused of deliberately exploiting this confusion Regarding suggestions that renaming efforts stem from egotism or personal pique, Stallman has responded that his interest is not in giving credit to himself but to the GNU Project: "Some people think that it's because I want my ego to be fed  Of course, I'm not asking you to call it 'Stallmanix' "  In response to another common suggestion that many people have contributed to the system and that a short name cannot credit all of them, the FSF has argued that this cannot justify calling the system "Linux", since they believe that the GNU project's contribution was ultimately greater than that of the Linux kernel in these related systems In 2010, Stallman stated that naming is not simply a matter of giving equal mention to the GNU Project, saying that because the system is more widely referred as "Linux", people tend to "think it's all Linux, that it was all started by Mr  Torvalds in 1991, and they think it all comes from his vision of life, and that's the really bad problem "Ariadne Conill, developer and security chair of Alpine Linux, has stated that in her opinion GNU/Linux is the correct name when referring to Linux distributions that are based on glibc and GNU coreutils, such as Debian and Fedora Linux  This can be contrasted to other Linux distributions which are based on bionic (Android) and musl (Alpine) 

Linux
Proponents of naming the operating systems "Linux" state that "Linux" is used far more often than "GNU/Linux" Eric S  Raymond writes (in the "Linux" entry of the Jargon File):

Some people object that the name "Linux" should be used to refer only to the kernel, not the entire operating system  This claim is a proxy for an underlying territorial dispute; people who insist on the term GNU/Linux want the FSF to get most of the credit for Linux because [Stallman] and friends wrote many of its user-level tools  Neither this theory nor the term GNU/Linux has gained more than minority acceptance 

When Linus Torvalds was asked in the documentary Revolution OS whether the name "GNU/Linux" was justified, he replied:

Well, I think it's justified, but it's justified if you actually make a GNU distribution of Linux     the same way that I think that "Red Hat Linux" is fine, or "SUSE Linux" or "Debian Linux", because if you actually make your own distribution of Linux, you get to name the thing, but calling Linux in general "GNU Linux" I think is just ridiculous 
An earlier comment by Torvalds on the naming controversy was:

 Umm, this discussion has gone on quite long enough, thank you very much  It doesn't really matter what people call Linux, as long as credit is given where credit is due (on both sides)  Personally, I'll very much continue to call it "Linux",    
The GNU people tried calling it GNU/Linux, and that's ok   It's certainly no worse a name than "Linux Pro" or "Red Hat Linux" or
"Slackware Linux"    
Lignux is just a punny name—I think Linux/GNU or GNU/Linux is a bit more "professional"    

The name "GNU/Linux," particularly when using Stallman's preferred pronunciation, has been criticized for its perceived clumsiness and verbosity, a factor that Torvalds has cited as the downfall of operating systems such as 386BSD The Linux Journal speculated that Stallman's advocacy of the combined name stems from frustration that "Linus got the glory for what [Stallman] wanted to do "Others have suggested that, regardless of the merits, Stallman's persistence in what sometimes seems a lost cause makes him and GNU look bad  For example, Larry McVoy (author of BitKeeper, once used to manage Linux kernel development) opined that "claiming credit only makes one look foolish and greedy" Many users and vendors who prefer the name "Linux," such as Jim Gettys, one of the original developers of the X Window System, point to the inclusion of non-GNU, non-kernel tools, such as KDE, LibreOffice, and Firefox, in end-user operating systems based on the Linux kernel:

 There are lots of people on this bus; I don't hear a clamor of support that GNU is more essential than many of the other components; can't take a wheel away, and end up with a functional vehicle, or an engine, or the seats  I recommend you be happy we have a bus 

See also
Alternative terms for free software
GNU variants
List of GNU packages
History of free software
Passage 8:
Metalogix Software
Metalogix Software is an independent software vendor, founded in 2001 in Vancouver, British Columbia and was acquired by Quest Software, Inc  in July 2018  Metalogix develops, sells, and provides support for content infrastructure software for Microsoft SharePoint, Microsoft Exchange and Microsoft Office 365 platforms 
Metalogix sells an array of products for managing content infrastructure  The company's primary product is Content Matrix, which migrates content between SharePoint versions 
Metalogix is part of Quest Software, Inc  having been acquired in July 2018 

See also
Axceler, a company acquired by Metalogix in 2013 
Passage 9:
XWiki
XWiki is a free wiki software platform written in Java with a design emphasis on extensibility  XWiki is an enterprise wiki  It includes WYSIWYG editing, OpenDocument based document import/export, semantic annotations and tagging, and advanced permissions management As an application wiki, XWiki allows for the storing of structured data and the execution of server side script within the wiki interface  Scripting languages including Velocity, Apache Groovy, Python, Ruby and PHP can be written directly into wiki pages using wiki macros  User created data structures can be defined in wiki documents and instances of those structures can be attached to wiki documents, stored in a database, and queried using either Hibernate query language or XWiki's own query language XWiki org's extension wiki  is home to XWiki extensions ranging from code snippets which can be pasted into wiki pages to loadable core modules  Many of XWiki's features are provided by extensions which are bundled with it The wikitext is rendered using the XWiki Rendering Engine which extends WikiModel  and Doxia systems, allowing it to parse Confluence, JSPWiki, Creole, MediaWiki, and TWiki syntaxes as well as XWiki's own syntax  XWiki pages are written by default using the WYSIWYG editor and rendered with XWiki syntax to format text, create tables, create links, display images, etc 

Development
XWiki code is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License and hosted on GitHub where everyone is free to fork the source code and develop changes in their own repository  The content included in the XWiki wiki is licensed under a Creative Commons attribution license so that it can be redistributed as long as it references XWiki; derivatives can be re-licensed entirely  While most of the active developers are funded by commercial support company XWiki SAS, XWiki SAS maintains a strict boundary between itself and the XWiki free software project  All decisions about the direction of the XWiki software project are made by consensus of the committers must go through the developers' mailing list 

Open source projects
XWiki relies heavily on other open source projects to work  They include:

Groovy: for advanced scripting requirements
Hibernate: relational database storage
Lucene: to index all the content of a wiki and its attachments and allow the search within their content 
Velocity: a template language

History
XWiki was originally written by Ludovic Dubost who founded XPertNet SARL later to become XWiki SAS, and it was first released in January 2004 under the GNU General Public License  The "X" in the name comes from "eXtensible Wiki" (when you pronounce it, it sounds as 'X') 
The first version of the Wiki Farm xwiki com was released in April 2004  In addition the open source project was hosted on SourceForge and the first commit there was done on the 15th of December 2003 
In 2006, the license was changed to the GNU Lesser General Public License to give the developer community greater flexibility, Apache Maven developer Vincent Massol became the lead developer and XWiki won the Lutece d'Or award for best open source software developed for the enterprise 
After 6 beta versions and 5 release candidates, XWiki 1 0 was released on May 22, 2007 bringing new features such as stand-alone installer and semantic tagging  2007 also brought the introduction of XWiki Watch for allowing teams to collaboratively follow RSS feeds 

Features
Structured content and inline scripting, which allows building  wiki applications
User rights management (by wiki / space / page, using groups, etc   )
PDF export
Full-text search
Version control
Import office documents into wiki syntax through OpenOffice
Various protocols for accessing the wiki (WebDAV, REST, XML-RPC)
Content and site design Export and Import
Plugins, API, Programming   
More features on the official website XWiki is also an application wiki that allows the creation of objects and classes within the wiki  This way, forms can be developed in a very short time span and be reused to enter data on the wiki following a specific template  This means that end users can be presented with a page on which the layout is already drawn, where they can directly fill in the fields needed 

See also
Comparison of wiki software
Passage 10:
EtherApe
EtherApe is a packet sniffer/network traffic monitoring tool, developed for Unix  EtherApe is free, open source software developed under the GNU General Public License 

Functionality
Network traffic is displayed using a graphical interface  Each node represents a specific host  Links represent connections to hosts  Nodes and links are color-coded to represent different protocols forming the various types of traffic on the network  Individual nodes and their connecting links grow and shrink in size with increases and decreases in network traffic 

History
Originally authored by Juan Toledo, the first version of EtherApe (version 0 0 1) was released on February 18, 2000  In a 2006 survey, Insecure org named EtherApe number 43 on its list of the "Top 100 Network Security Tools" 

Features
Some of the features listed about EtherApe include (the following list refers to version 0 9 20 of EtherApe):

graphical network traffic display
color-coded node and links for most used protocols
optional background image
traffic may be viewed on one's own network, end to end (IP) or port to port (TCP)
a variety of frame and packet types are supported
data view can be manipulated using a network filter
clicking a node or link provides additional information regarding including protocol and traffic information
summary protocol and node table
can read traffic from a file or an actual network
handles traffic on Ethernet, WLAN, VLAN plus several other media and encapsulation types
supports both IPv4 and IPv6
XML export of node, link and traffic statistics
"central node ring" mode 
"column" mode 
optional name resolving using c-ares library
packet capture and display run on different processes

Security
EtherApe requires root privileges to capture packets (but not to replay captured files)  Starting with release 0 9 15 capturing is delegated to a separate process, while the main interface can run with lower privileges, significantly reducing the risk associated with capturing packets from untrusted sources (e g  Internet) 

See also
Comparison of packet analyzers
tcpdump, a packet analyzer
Ngrep, a tool that can match regular expressions within the network packet payloads
netsniff-ng, a free Linux networking toolkit
Wireshark, a GUI based alternative to tcpdump
dsniff, a packet sniffer and set of traffic analysis tools
Passage 11:
Intellectual property
Intellectual property (IP) is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect  There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others  The best-known types are patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets  The modern concept of intellectual property developed in England in the 17th and 18th centuries  The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in most of the world's legal systems Supporters of intellectual property laws often describe their main purpose as encouraging the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods  To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to certain information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time  Supporters argue that because IP laws allow people to protect their original ideas and prevent unauthorized copying, creators derive greater individual economic benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and thus have more economic incentives to create them in the first place  Advocates of IP believe that these economic incentives and legal protections stimulate innovation and contribute to technological progress of certain kinds The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods  Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can in theory "consume" an intellectual good without its being depleted  Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from appropriation problems: Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but producers of information or literature can usually do little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price  Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law 

History
The Statute of Monopolies (1624) and the British Statute of Anne (1710) are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property 
"Literary property" was the term predominantly used in the British legal debates of the 1760s and 1770s over the extent to which authors and publishers of works also had rights deriving from the common law of property (Millar v Taylor (1769), Hinton v Donaldson (1773), Donaldson v Becket (1774))  The first known use of the term intellectual property dates to this time, when a piece published in the Monthly Review in 1769 used the phrase  The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays The German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (Schutz des geistigen Eigentums) to the confederation  When the administrative secretariats established by the Paris Convention (1883) and the Berne Convention (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property 
The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960 and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) by treaty as an agency of the United Nations  According to legal scholar Mark Lemley, it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention), and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the Bayh–Dole Act in 1980 
The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) for monopoly privileges  Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal right obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention  demonstrating the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine 
The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al  v  Brown, in which Justice Charles L  Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own     as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears " The statement that "discoveries are     property" goes back earlier  Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years " In Europe, French author A  Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846 
Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation  Historically, therefore, legal protection was granted only when necessary to encourage invention, and it was limited in time and scope  This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and improvement The concept's origin can potentially be traced back further  Jewish law includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist—notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century  In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury" According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift"  Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development  Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries " Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients’ access to medicines, Internet users’ access to information, farmers’ access to seeds, programmers’ access to source codes or students’ access to scientific articles  However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its objective to have a “one-fits-all” protection law on Intellectual Property has been viewed with controversies regarding differences in the development level of countries  Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive agreement reached by the world 

Rights
Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets  There are also more specialized or derived varieties of sui generis exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called mask work rights in the US), supplementary protection certificates for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them), and database rights (in European law)  The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and geographical indications 

Patents
A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention  An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process, and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there needs to be an industrial applicability : 17  To enrich the body of knowledge and to stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public 

Copyright
A copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time  Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works"  Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed 

Industrial design rights
An industrial design right (sometimes called "design right" or design patent) protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian  An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value  An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft  Generally speaking, it is what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods 

Plant varieties
Plant breeders' rights or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new variety of a plant  The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered 

Trademarks
A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression that distinguishes a particular trader's products or services from similar products or services of other traders 

Trade dress
Trade dress is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers 

Trade secrets
A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers  There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e g , Formula of its soft drinks is a trade secret for Coca-Cola )

Motivation and justification
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers  To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time  Because they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation  The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods  Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible – an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted  Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation – while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price  Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work  Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection"  "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better  The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions"  This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric  Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the America Invents Act, stress international harmonization  Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of commodification derived from this possibility  The issue still remains open in legal scholarship 

Financial incentive
These exclusive rights allow intellectual property owners to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated research and development costs  In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "The Congress shall have power 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries '" ”Some commentators, such as David Levine and Michele Boldrin, dispute this justification In 2013 the United States Patent & Trademark Office approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the U S  economy is more than US $5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people  The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union  In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in pension-led funding and other types of business finance  However, in 2013, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently" 

Economic growth
The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth  The WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook gives two reasons for intellectual property laws:

One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations  The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development 
The Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally" Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets  "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72% more value added (price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries" A joint research project of the WIPO and the United Nations University measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth "

Morality
According to Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author"  Although the relationship between intellectual property and human rights is complex, there are moral arguments for intellectual property 
The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories  Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual  Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation  Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:

Natural Rights/Justice Argument: this argument is based on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and products which are produced by their body  Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust  Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind, it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas  Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create  They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create  Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production 
Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument: according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not  Innovation and invention in 19th century America has been attributed to the development of the patent system  By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility  The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of intellectual works"  Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas  Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility 
"Personality" Argument: this argument is based on a quote from Hegel: "Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own"  European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality"  Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered  Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality Lysander Spooner (1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases" Writer Ayn Rand argued in her book Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue  The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property  To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act 

Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement
Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action 
As of 2011, trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global trade  During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, IP has been a consideration in punishment of the aggressor through trade sanctions, has been proposed as a method to prevent future wars of aggression involving nuclear weapons, and has caused concern about stifling innovation by keeping patent information secret 

Patent infringement
Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder, i e  from the patent owner  The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection is defined in the claims of the granted patent  There is safe harbor in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research  This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or to gather data to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug  In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e g , in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea) 

Copyright infringement
Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a work, or to make derivative works, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator  It is often called "piracy"  In the United States, while copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright  Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder  The ACTA trade agreement, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement  There are limitations and exceptions to copyright, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement  Examples of such doctrines are the fair use and fair dealing doctrine 

Trademark infringement
Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party  In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement  Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law 

Trade secret misappropriation
Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available  In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the Uniform Trade Secrets Act  The United States also has federal law in the form of the Economic Espionage Act of 1996 (18 U S C  §§ 1831–1839), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime  This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity  The first, 18 U S C  § 1831(a), criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers  The second, 18 U S C  § 1832, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes  (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses ) In Commonwealth common law jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an equitable right rather than a property right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States 

Criticisms
The term "intellectual property"
Criticism of the term intellectual property ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like property and rights in fashions that contradict practice and law  Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations, and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc Free Software Foundation founder Richard Stallman argues that, although the term intellectual property is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion"  He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights"  Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term  He argues that, "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of 'intellectual property' "Similarly, economists Boldrin and Levine prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which, they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights  They further argued that "stronger patents do little or nothing to encourage innovation", mainly explained by its tendency to create market monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology transfer On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers  Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and case law to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge  He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time" Law professor, writer and political activist Lawrence Lessig, along with many other copyleft and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile)  They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original)  Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is no natural scarcity of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original  Stephan Kinsella has objected to intellectual property on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas Entrepreneur and politician Rickard Falkvinge and hacker Alexandre Oliva have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect Newspeak to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and DRM 

Alternative terms
In civil law jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as intellectual rights, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included moral rights and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold  Use of the term intellectual rights has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term intellectual property has increased 
Alternative terms monopolies on information and intellectual monopoly have emerged among those who argue against the "property" or "intellect" or "rights" assumptions, notably Richard Stallman  The backronyms intellectual protectionism and intellectual poverty, whose initials are also IP, have also found supporters, especially among those who have used the backronym digital restrictions management The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an intellectual monopoly privilege (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen and Thomas Alured Faunce 

Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws
Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the free culture movement, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of pharmaceutical patents), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses, and argue that ever-expansive monopolies in the form of copyright extensions, software patents, and business method patents harm the public interest  More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that patent thickets are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like nanotechnology Petra Moser has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:

Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation  On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation 
In support of that argument, Jörg Baten, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing – which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent-owners – encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition 
Peter Drahos notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources  When authority is granted to the few over resources on which the many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many  This has consequences for both political and economic freedom within a society ": 13 The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between respecting  and implementing current intellectual property systems and other human rights  In 2001 the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human rights laws  According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so, they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits  In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself" Ethical problems are most pertinent when socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection  While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug  "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations" : 1108–9 Libertarians have differing views on intellectual property  Stephan Kinsella, an anarcho-capitalist on the right-wing of libertarianism, argues against intellectual property because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates artificial scarcity and infringes on the right to own tangible property  Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:

[I]magine the time when men lived in caves  One bright guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops  To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it  They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins  But the first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses  It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e g , land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea  Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights 
Thomas Jefferson once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on 13 August 1813:

If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it  Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it  He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine, receives light without darkening me 
In 2005 the Royal Society of Arts launched the Adelphi Charter, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law Another aspect of current U S  Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship  Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against cultural appropriation of indigenous knowledge, for which a collective IP regime is needed Intellectual property law has been criticized as not recognizing new forms of art such as the remix culture, whose participants often commit what technically constitutes violations of such laws, creation works such as anime music videos and others, or are otherwise subject to unnecessary burdens and limitations which prevent them from fully expressing themselves : 70

Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws
Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope 
As scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies  Patents have been granted for living organisms, and in the United States, certain living organisms have been patentable for over a century The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions in the United States and in Europe  With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in orphan works (copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)  In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual property rights  In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor  Additionally Congress's awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property  These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority The growth of the Internet, and particularly distributed search engines like Kazaa and Gnutella, have represented a challenge for copyright policy  The Recording Industry Association of America, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against copyright infringement, which the industry calls "piracy"  The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company Napster, and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright  The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based digital rights management tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works  Laws such as the Digital Millennium Copyright Act have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital rights management systems  Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the Copyright Directive  Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the Conditional Access Directive of 1998 (98/84/EEC)  This can hinder legal uses, affecting public domain works, limitations and exceptions to copyright, or uses allowed by the copyright holder  Some copyleft licenses, like the GNU GPL 3, are designed to counter this  Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions, such as when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program, or for accessibility reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal 
In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states  Pursuant to TRIPs, any sign which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark 

Use in corporate tax avoidance
Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and tax avoidance  IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) tools, which the OECD estimates costs $100–240 billion in lost annual tax revenues In 2017–2018, both the U S  and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the OECD BEPS Project timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above, and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes:

U S  Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes 
EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than the U S  TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT The departure of the U S  and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or capital allowance BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles)   In contrast, the OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a legal and a GAAP accounting concept 

Gender gap in intellectual property
Women have historically been underrepresented in the creation and ownership of intellectual property covered by intellectual property rights  According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, women composed only 16 5% of patent holders even as recently as 2020  This disparity is the result of several factors including systemic bias, sexism and discrimination within the intellectual property space, underrepresentation within STEM, and barriers to access of necessary finance and knowledge in order to obtain intellectual property rights, among other reasons 

See also
Copyfraud
Defensive publication
Freedom of information
Information policy
Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property
New product development
Sweat of the brow
Passage 12:
InfraRecorder
InfraRecorder is an open-source CD and DVD writing program for Microsoft Windows  First started by Christian Kindahl in the Google Summer of Code 2006, InfraRecorder uses the cdrtools software library to perform the actual burning 
Since 0 46, InfraRecorder is released under the terms of the GNU General Public License 3 and is free software  In November 2007, CNET rated InfraRecorder the best free alternative to commercial DVD burning software InfraRecorder is included on the VALO-CD, a collection of open source software for Windows 

Functionality
InfraRecorder supports disk rewriting and dual-layer DVDs  InfraRecorder can also burn a disc from an ISO image file  This program is completely portable on the Windows operating system 
As of version 0 40, InfraRecorder offers features similar to most CD- and DVD-authoring software, including the creation and burning of data and audio disc images, the ability to work with rewritable and multisession discs, and the ability to extract WAV and ISO image files from discs  One can also use the LAME MP3 encoder to save Audio CD tracks 
InfraRecorder is available in a version that will run natively on 64-bit versions of Windows; however, this version doesn't include an Ogg Vorbis decoder or libsnd library due to compilation difficulties with MinGW on the 64-bit Windows platform 

See also
List of optical disc authoring software
List of ISO image software
Passage 13:
CDex
CDex is a free software package for Digital Audio Extraction from Audio CD (a so-called CD ripper) and audio format conversion for Microsoft Windows  It converts CDDA tracks from a CD to standard computer sound files, such as WAV, MP3, or Ogg Vorbis  CDex was previously released as free software under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL);  however, although the website claims that this is still the case, no source code has been released since 2005  It was originally written by Albert L  Faber, and is developed and maintained by Georgy Berdyshev  Recent versions of the software may be compromised and a security threat 

Features
CDex is able to convert CD audio into several formats including WAV, Vorbis, MP3 (using the LAME encoder), VQF, Musepack, APE, and many others  As of version 1 70b2 FLAC encoding is native, but for version 1 51 FLAC and other codecs can be used by using an external encoder  It supports CD-Text to allow ripped tracks, with reduced user effort, to have the names of songs, artists and albums  It can also automatically identify (most) inserted audio CDs and look up the metadata by means of an online database (freedb) for automatic tagging, naming and sorting of ripped files  It also includes cdparanoia for robust CD reading  CDex is considered to be very configurable and relatively easy to use 

History
In 2000, at the start of the beta phase for version 1 30, CDex was turned into a free software project (cdexos: CDex Open Source) and hosted on SourceForge net 
In January 2006, the CDex homepage requested a new project manager and developer, implying that Albert L  Faber had abandoned development of CDex   On 5 June 2006, CDex 1 70 Beta 1 was released via the SourceForge net website (ascribed to Georgy Berdyshev)  It was the first official update to the program in almost three years, with CDex 1 70 Beta 2 following soon after on 23 June 2006  In 2008 Berdyshev was joined by Ariane Gomes as project developers  On 18 November 2009 CDex 1 70 Beta 4 was released  CDex 1 70 Final was released on 29 June 2014 featuring a Unicode and Multibyte version 
On 30 June 2007, just one day after the release of the GPLv3, the license of CDex was updated  However, the last version for which source code was made available is 1 70 Beta 2, and the SourceForge project appears to have been shut down in July 2015, shortly after the release of version 1 79 
From version 1 76 the installer includes the adware OpenCandy 
In November 2017 version 1 96 was released  It is not clear who is the current code maintainer, and no contact details are provided  Four further versions were released by March 2018 
The default Remote Server database in CDEx, Freedb, became inaccessible by June 2020   The gnudb org site at location gnudb gnudb org (on HTTP port 80) using proxy gnudb org works as a replacement for the inactive default Remote Server database 

Potential risk
The recent reincarnation of CDex has seen a number of sponsored programs being automatically selected during installation with little information about their nature  Scan results suggest there may be a substantial risk to any system these are installed on along with the source code no longer being publicly accessible, preventing independent code review 
This project should be considered as exploited by the new maintainer and should not be trusted  This project should not be trusted or installed on your machine  As the new maintainer has taken over new releases have been pushed out showing activity, the support links are broken, the ticketing system does not exist and is a broken link, there are no contact details or method to interact with the developer and the installer is installing adware without any notifications  The new maintainer has exploited the strong reputation and work of the project and turned it into mechanism to profit  Updates are being made to the application, including the installer with hidden software being installed 
Later versions apparently also add artifacts to ends of certain tracks that are ripped by the program   Rolling back to an earlier version of the program eliminates this issue 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Indian River (New Hampshire)
The Indian River is a 12 8-mile-long (20 6 km) river in western New Hampshire in the United States  It is a tributary of the Mascoma River, which in turn flows to the Connecticut River and ultimately Long Island Sound 
The Indian River rises in the southern corner of the town of Dorchester and flows south in a broad valley to the west of Mount Cardigan  At the town center of Canaan, the river turns west and shortly ends at the Mascoma River 
For its south-flowing portion, the Indian River is followed by New Hampshire Route 118  From Canaan to the Mascoma River, U S  Route 4 is close by 

See also
List of rivers of New Hampshire
Passage 2:
Utva River (Perm Krai)
The Utva (Russian: Утьва) is a river in Perm Krai, Russia, a right tributary of the Veslyana, which in turn is a tributary of the Kama  The river is 76 kilometres (47 mi) long, and its drainage basin covers 697 square kilometres (269 sq mi)  The source of the river is in the extreme southwest of the Gaynsky District of Perm Krai, near the border with Kirov Oblast and the Komi Republic  The main tributaries are the Chugrum (right) and the Yuzhnaya Anva (left) 
Passage 3:
Patuxent River
The Patuxent River is a tributary of the Chesapeake Bay in the state of Maryland   There are three main river drainages for central Maryland:  the Potomac River to the west passing through Washington, D C , the Patapsco River to the northeast passing through Baltimore, and the Patuxent River between the two   The 908-square-mile (2,352 km2)  Patuxent watershed had a rapidly growing population of 590,769 in 2000  It is the largest and longest river entirely within Maryland, and its watershed is the largest completely within the state 

Geography
The river source, 115 miles (185 km) from the Chesapeake, is in the hills of the Maryland Piedmont near the intersection of four counties – Howard, Frederick, Montgomery and Carroll, and only 0 6 miles (0 97 km) from Parr's Spring, the source of the south fork of the Patapsco River   Flowing in a generally southeastward direction, the Patuxent crosses the urbanized corridor between Baltimore and Washington, D C , and opens up into a navigable tidal estuary near the colonial seaport of Queen Anne in Prince George's County, Maryland, just southeast of Bowie   The river is bounded by significant marsh areas for 22 miles (35 km) from the Waysons Corner area to the Hunting Creek confluence  The 52 miles (84 km)-long tidal estuary is never wider than 2 3 miles (3 7 km) 
It marks the boundary between Montgomery, Prince George's, Charles and St  Mary's counties on the west and Howard, Anne Arundel, and Calvert counties on the east  The Chesapeake estuary's deepest point, 130 feet (40 m) below sea level, is in the lower Patuxent 
The two largest cities in the watershed are Bowie and Laurel, Maryland  There is a percentage of agricultural activity in the region as well  The mid and lower banks of the river have swamp and marshland ecosystems  Many of those ecosystems are protected by some form of parkland, on the state and local levels  The most notable of which include Jug Bay Wetlands Sanctuary, Merkle Wetlands Sanctuary in the Edgar A  Merkle Wildlife Refuge, and Patuxent River Park, along with many more  Farther north, there is the 20 square mile Patuxent Research Refuge, which helps to protect Patuxent River wildlife 

Tributaries
The Little Patuxent River, the Middle Patuxent River, and the Western Branch are the three largest tributaries  The Middle Patuxent flows into the Little Patuxent just upstream from the historic Savage Mill in Savage  The Little Patuxent then joins the Patuxent just southwest of Crofton  The Middle Patuxent flows 24 miles (39 km) through the middle of Howard County, while the Little Patuxent flows 38 miles (61 km) through northeast and southeast Howard County and western Anne Arundel County  Western Branch originates under the name Folly Branch in the Wingate Drive area of the northern part of Glenn Dale, assuming the name "Western Branch" in Woodmore, continuing southward through Prince George's County, joined by Collington Branch before it joins the Patuxent near Upper Marlboro 

History
Native Americans have lived along the Patuxent River since at least 1100 BC  An archaeological dig at Pig Point (just north of Jug Bay at the end of Wrighton Road ) uncovered some of the oldest known artifacts in the Mid Atlantic states, including pottery, arrow and spear points, and remnants of wigwams, fires and foodways  The site was probably a center of trade in the region and has one of the best unbroken archaeological records on the East Coast  The Pig Point site includes remnants of the oldest structures ever found in Maryland, wigwam post holes dating to the third century The word Patuxent is derived from the Algonquin language used by the indigenous people living in the area prior to the arrival of the European settlers  Its meaning is debated  According to some sources it means "water running over loose stones" while others believe it means the "place where tobacco grows" The Patuxent River was first named ("Pawtuxunt") on the detailed map resulting from the 1608 voyage upriver by Jamestown, Virginia settler John Smith 
Captain Smith got as far as the rough vicinity of the present-day Merkle Wildlife Sanctuary (Lyons Creek) area, 40 miles (60 km) from the Chesapeake near what is now the Anne Arundel–Calvert–Prince George's County tripoint 
This was most likely the second visit by Europeans to the Patuxent, as in June 1588 a small Spanish expedition under Vicente Gonzalez is believed to have anchored for the night in the Patuxent mouth 
The river was an important colonial shipping port with the government's garrison situated at the mouth of the river where Charles Calvert was first Collector in 1673  In 1699, Thomas Browne, a Patuxent Ranger, followed the river from the Snowden plantation to where Clarksville is sited  In 1702 George Plater I was the Patuxent naval officer (later based at Sotterley Plantation), having earlier served as Collector after Calvert, Rousby, Sewall, Digges, and Payne held the collectorship 
By the mid and late seventeenth century respectively, colonists spread upriver to Mt  Calvert and Billingsley Point, two 18th-century mansions 43 5 miles (70 km) upriver from the Chesapeake that are today part of Patuxent River Park  By 1705, the Snowden iron ore furnace (also known as the Patuxent Iron Works) just southeast of Laurel,
was shipping "pig iron" downriver from the current vicinity of the 1783 Montpelier Mansion, also part of Patuxent River Park 
In August 1814, Commodore Joshua Barney and his Chesapeake Bay Flotilla were trapped in the Patuxent by the British fleet under Admiral Sir George Cockburn  To keep them from British hands, Barney's men ignited the magazines of his ships in the four mile (6 km) stretch above Pig Point (44 miles (71 km) upriver from the Chesapeake when the British approached  The British then launched their attack on Washington, D C , from their warships in the Patuxent at Benedict, 22 miles (35 km) away  From there, the troops marched through Nottingham, Upper Marlboro, Bladensburg, and on to Washington 

Economy and commerce
Tobacco farming dominated the Patuxent's economy for the two centuries following white settlement, with about sixty percent of Maryland's tobacco coming from the Patuxent valley by the late eighteenth century 
Destruction of the plantations by the British and of the soil by centuries of tobacco farming brought the mid and lower Patuxent valley into a period of decline that would last until the 1930s, when there were fewer residents in the Patuxent's Calvert County than there were in the 1840s, and only a few hundred more than in the first Calvert County census in 1790 
The Patuxent was plied by regular steamship service, mostly from the Weems Line, from the 1820s to the 1920s, replacing the schooners and sailing packets that had for the previous centuries served the river's many landings and docks along the 52-mile (84 km) tidal reach 
The Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission constructed two dams on the main branch in the mid-twentieth century  Brighton Dam was constructed 96 miles (154 km) from the Chesapeake in 1943, impounding the waters of Triadelphia Reservoir; in 1952 the T  Howard Duckett Dam was constructed 14 miles (23 km) farther downstream, near Laurel, thus creating Rocky Gorge Reservoir  The land surrounding the two reservoirs is administered by the WSSC, creating a forested reserve of 4,400 acres (18 km2) accessible to the public for horseback riding, hunting, fishing, and picnicking in limited areas  The state of Maryland classifies the T  Howard Duckett Dam as "high hazard" because large releases of water flood areas of North Laurel With public recreational land on one or both shores of 74 of the river's 115 miles including the reservoir land, the impact that recreation in natural settings now has on the river's economy is obvious  The Patuxent Naval Air Station at the mouth of the river has continued to grow during past decades along with tourism, providing another main economic engine in the lower river valley that includes the popular boating center of Solomons 

Environmental concerns
According to EcoHealth Report Cards, the Patuxent River has a below average health rating, scoring a 38%, compared to the Chesapeake's over all health rating of 54%, as of 2016  However, the river does have higher ratings in dissolved oxygen, and likely, will soon have higher ratings in phosphorus The Middle and Little Patuxent watersheds include nearly all of Columbia, Maryland, including its downtown urban Lake Kittamaqundi and Wilde Lake  Columbia is a large planned community in Howard County that opened in 1967  Columbia's major downtown roadway is called Little Patuxent Parkway, and Maryland Route 175 in East Columbia was known as the Patuxent Parkway until May 2006, when it was renamed for Columbia's founder, the late James Rouse, and his wife, Patty  It was the largely unchecked erosion from this late 1960s and 1970s building spree that contributed the bulk of the Patuxent River's highest and most damaging sediment, siltation, and pollution levels to date downstream  This in turn led to a nearly complete destruction of a once thriving seafood industry along the brackish portion of the river 
"The Patuxent River has known no greater friend, advocate, and defender than Bernie Fowler " Fowler, as an early-1970s Calvert County commissioner, led the way in a lawsuit filed by downriver Charles, Calvert and St  Mary's counties against upriver counties  The lawsuit forced the state, the upriver counties, and the U S  Environmental Protection Agency to enact pollution control measures  Between 1985 and 2005, the Patuxent saw a 26% decrease in nitrogen, a 46% decrease in phosphorus, and a 35% reduction in sediment, despite urban areas increasing to 31% of the watershed by 2002  Of the Chesapeake's major tributaries, the Patuxent is the only one having most of its harmful phosphorus and nitrogen nutrient overloads coming from urban runoff  The river's other two largest contributors, point sources (industrial, sewage, etc ) and the declining (24%) agricultural areas, contribute less of the nutrient load  Forested areas account for 43% of the watershed In 2004, Fred Tutman became the first "Riverkeeper" for the Patuxent  The mission of the Patuxent Riverkeeper organization, a member of the worldwide Waterkeeper Alliance, is to protect and improve the quality of the river's water and watershed and provide access and education at its facility in Nottingham Over the past 50 years, nationally recognized land preservation efforts in this part of Maryland have saved tens of thousands of acres from the Baltimore-Washington bedroom community sprawl  The southern half of the U S  Army's Fort Meade was added to the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, which, at 12,300 acres (50 km2), is the second largest contiguous public park-refuge within 30 miles (50 km) of either Washington or Baltimore  It is located midway between these two cities  The contiguous public area of 8,575 acres (35 km2) centered on Jug Bay, 42 miles (68 km) upriver from the Chesapeake, form the fifth largest such Baltimore-D C  preserve and largest tidewater one and consist of the Jug Bay Wetlands Sanctuary, the Merkle Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Jug Bay component of the Patuxent River Park  The 6,600-acre (27 km2) Patuxent River State Park in the uppermost part of the basin is the seventh largest 

Chesapeake Bay Week video releases, 2022
On 20 April 2022, PBS released a 26 minute documentary: "Troubled Tributary: Maryland's Patuxent River" - The Patuxent River is a crucial tributary of the Chesapeake Bay  Despite the central role the river has played in the history of the Bay's environmental movement and abundant conservation resources funneled to it over the years, it remains polluted  Its riverkeeper, Fred Tutman, believes that environmental injustice exists along its banks 
On 21 April 2022, PBS released a 56 minute special: "The Chesapeake Bay Summit 2022" - Experts, scientists and policy makers converge for a compelling discussion on the health of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, led by host Frank Sesno 

Bridges
See also
List of parks in the Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area – many parks listed are along the Patuxent River
Passage 4:
Botanie Valley
Botanie Valley  is in British Columbia's southern interior near Lytton  It is a traditional food source for the Nlaka'pamux people  The name itself means "covering" possibly referring to the abundant plant life covering the area  Botanie Creek enters the Thompson River a few kilometres upstream of its confluence with the Fraser River, making Botanie the Thompson River's last tributary 

History
Due to the centrality of its location between the larger Thompson and Fraser watersheds, the Valley was a traditional First Nations meeting place  It was not only a meeting place for people of the Nlaka'pamux nation  Secwepemc, Stl'atl'imx and others met, sometimes as many as a thousand at a time  Ethnobiologist, Nancy Turner said of these meetings, "They met, at least in part, to take advantage of the great abundance of a number of different "root" vegetables and berries to be found there  Also important was the cultural "glue" created at these gatherings, where women harvested plant foods, men hunted, and everyone traded and socialized"  The Valley was settled by Europeans in 1876  It has been used for ranching and homesteading since that time  In 1926  a small dam was built, creating Botanie Lake  In modern times the Lytton First Nation has hosted an annual Healing Gathering at Pasulko Lake 

Ecology
Botanie Valley has a rich diversity of plant life owing in part to its location between the rainy Coastal Mountain Range and the dryer Interior Plateau  Occurrence of wildfires also turns forest lands into diverse flower meadows in the higher sub-alpine elevations  In 1978, in an attempt to preserve this diversity, the Province of British Columbia created the Skwaha Lake Ecological Reserve  The reserve contains four blue listed species, and two redlisted species, Nuttall's Sunflower and Oniongrass  Invasive species and climate change are named as threats to these species 
Passage 5:
Balanak Bonihar O Pallavi
Balanak Bonihar O Pallavi (The peasants on the banks of river Balan and Pallavi) is a short story collection, written by Dr Binod Bihari Verma, on the village life of Mithila on the banks of the Kosi River and its tributaries 

Overview
This short story collection has fourteen short stories centering on the village society of Mithila  The focus of the stories and the protagonists are from the middle and lower middle class of the population  It deals with their social interactions, their dreams and aspirations, and their interaction with the predominant forces of their environment namely, the rivers 

Explanation of the Book's title
Balanak Bonihar O Pallavi means the tiller by the river and Pallavi, a common feminine name neing a metaphor for the agricultural produce of the farmer  It is the title of the first short story in this collection and is reflective of the general theme of the stories 

Critical reception
Various  Encyclopedia of Indian Literature  Vol 5  Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi  p  4053  has the following review:His stories focus on human values and are full of tenderness and pathos 

Characters in "Balanak bonihar o pallavi"
Most of the short stories have certain similar central characters, these are:

Balan: The "river" or the flood waters
Sounse: Gangetic river dolphin, Platenista gangetica, which populates kosi and its tributaries, now a species on verge  of extinction
Oxygen, Hydrogen: Representing the chemicals
Various human characters having different names although representing similar socioeconomic strata:
Rannu Sardar
Sulochana
Saheb
Gonour babu
Real life characters:
Prof Upendra Thakur
Prof Radha Krishna Choudhary

Major themes
Life on the banks of rivers in Mithila
Environmental pollution
Lot of the women in Mithila
Marital relationship in the rural poor
The annual cycle of flooding and the devastation
Unemployment
Curse of the Dowry system in Mithila

Allusions and references
River: Kosi river
People:
Prof Upendra Thakur
Prof Radha Krishna Choudhary

Stories
Balanak bonihar o pallavi
Kunti karna o parshuram
Sulochnak chatisar
Saheb
Brahma - bisun - rati
Ham pan khelonhh
Fulak katha
Antarmukhi vasundhara
Kasha k ful
Machhak piknik
Jivan - nao
Ka purush
Gonour babu
Aakash ful

External links
University of Washington Library entry of Balanak Bonihar O Pallavi
Passage 6:
Camaipi River do Vila Nova River
The Camaipi do Vila Nova River is a river of Amapá state in Brazil  It is a tributary of the Vila Nova River which in turn is part of the Amazon River system 
Passage 7:
Chesapeake Bay Retriever
The Chesapeake Bay Retriever is a large breed of dog belonging to the retriever, gundog, and sporting breed groups  The breed was developed in the United States Chesapeake Bay area during the 19th century  Historically used by local market hunters to retrieve waterfowl, pull fishing nets, and rescue fishermen, it is today primarily a family pet and hunting companion, known for a bright and happy disposition; courage; willingness to work; alertness; intelligence; love of water; and hunting capabilities  The Chesapeake is a medium- to large-sized dog similar in appearance to the Labrador Retriever, but with a wavy coat 

Appearance
Distinctive features include eyes that are very clear, of yellowish or amber hue, hindquarters as high or a trifle higher than the shoulders, and a double-coat that tends to wave on shoulders, neck, back, and loins  The waterproof coat feels slightly oily and is often associated with a slight musky odor  Three basic colors are generally seen in the breed: brown, which includes all shades from a light to a deep dark brown; sedge, which varies from a reddish yellow through a bright red to chestnut shades; and deadgrass in all its shades, varying from a faded tan to a dull straw color  The breed standard states that white may also appear but it must be limited to the breast, belly, toes, or back of the feet  The head is round and broad with a medium stop and muzzle  The lips are thin, and the ears are small and of medium leather  The forelegs should be straight with good bone  The hindquarters are especially strong and the toes webbed since excellent swimming ability is important for the Chesapeake  This breed is also known for its large and powerful chest, used to break apart ice when diving into cold water while duck hunting 

Coat
The coat of the Chesapeake Bay Retriever is given the most consideration of any trait listed on the Positive Scale of Points in the Breed Standard  However the AKC Standard also reads "The question of coat and general type of balance takes precedence over any scoring table which could be drawn up  The Chesapeake should be well proportioned, an animal with a good coat and well balanced in other points being preferable to one excelling in some but weak in others " The hair on the face and legs should be very short and straight with a tendency to wave, never curl, on the shoulders, neck, back, and loins only and nowhere over 1 5 inches long  Moderate feathering on the rear of the hindquarters and tail is permissible although not longer than 1 75 inches long 
The texture of the thick double-coat is important in protecting the dog from cold water and icy conditions  The oil in the harsh outer coat and woolly undercoat resists water, keeping the dog dry and warm  Maintenance of the coat is minimal and mainly consists of brushing with a short-tooth brush once a week  It is difficult to get a Chesapeake Bay Retriever thoroughly wet, but they should be bathed every 3–4 months using a suitably mild shampoo, then dried thoroughly  Brushing or bathing more often can ruin the texture since it strips the protective oil from the coat and may even remove the undercoat   The color of the coat must be similar to the working surroundings  Any color of brown, sedge or deadgrass is acceptable and one color is not preferred over another  The American Chesapeake Club includes a discussion on color:

Three basic colors are generally seen in the breed: Brown which includes all shades from a light cocoa (a silvered brown) to a deep bittersweet chocolate color; sedge which varies from a reddish yellow through a bright red to chestnut shades; deadgrass which takes in all shades of deadgrass, varying from a faded tan to a dull straw color  Historic records show that some of the deadgrass shades can be very light, almost white in appearance, while darker deadgrass colors can include diluted shades of brown called ash, that appear as either gray or taupe  The almost white and ash/taupe/gray shades are not commonly seen, but are acceptable The difference between a sedge and a deadgrass is that the deadgrass shades contain no significant amount of red, while the sedge shades do have red  Coat and texture also play a factor in the perception of color  The self-color pattern is preferred by the standard (One color with or without lighter and darker shadings of the same color)  You will see dogs with varying degrees of other markings such as: masking on top of the skull, striping effect of light & dark through the body and on legs, distinct & indistinct saddle markings, agouti coloring and tan points  All are acceptable, they are just not preferred A white spot on the breast (not extending above the sternum), belly, toes or back of the feet is permissible, but the smaller the spot the better  White beyond these areas and black anywhere on the body is not allowed in the breed standard 

Temperament
The quintessential Chesapeake Bay Retriever has a bright and happy disposition, intelligence, quiet good sense, and an affectionate protective nature  Some can be quite vocal when happy, and some will "smile" by baring their front teeth in a peculiar grin; this is not a threat, but a sign of joy or submissiveness 
Chesapeake Bay Retrievers can make excellent family dogs when socialized properly  Some Chesapeakes are assertive and willful and may be reserved with strangers, but others are passive and outgoing with people 

Training
The Chesapeake Bay Retriever is a versatile breed competing in field trials, hunt tests, conformation, obedience, agility and tracking, yet remains true to its roots as a hunting dog of great stamina and ability  The Chesapeake Bay Retriever is an intelligent breed and learns at a high speed  Historically considered stubborn and difficult to train, many trainers thought this breed required more physical discipline than other retriever breeds  Some trainers now recommend that the Chesapeake Bay Retriever owner use consistent, daily obedience training with play time before and after to keep the dog wanting to work with little or no physical discipline required 

Health
The breed is subject to a number of hereditary diseases  These include, but are not limited to:

Exercise-induced collapse
Hip dysplasia
Progressive retinal atrophy
Type 3 von Willebrand disease
Cataract
Regional Alopecia in both sexesA UK Kennel Club survey puts the median lifespan of the breed at 10 75 years (average 9 85)  A US breed club survey puts the average lifespan at 9 4 years  1 in 4 lived to 13 years or more while 1 in 5 don't live past 5 years 

History
Chesapeake Bay Retrievers trace their history to two pups who were rescued from a foundering ship in Maryland in 1807  The male "Sailor" and female "Canton" were described as  Newfoundland dogs, but were more accurately Lesser Newfoundland or St  John's water dogs  These two lived in different parts of the bay area and there is no record of a litter being produced together  They were bred with area dogs, with more consideration given to ability than to breed, to create the beginnings of the Chesapeake Bay Retriever breed  There are few records of the breeds of these early dogs, but spaniels and hounds were included  Dogs from both Chesapeake Bay shores were recognized as one of three types of Chesapeake Bay Ducking Dog in 1877  In 1918 a single type, called the Chesapeake Bay Retriever, was recognized by the American Kennel Club, and there have been few changes to the breed standard since then 
George Law, who rescued the pups, wrote this account in 1845 which appears on the website of the American Chesapeake Bay Retriever Club:

In the fall of 1807 I was on board of the ship Canton, belonging to my uncle, the late Hugh Thompson, of Baltimore, when we fell in, at sea, near the termination of a very heavy equinoctial gale, with an English brig in a sinking condition, and took off the crew  The brig was loaded with codfish, and was bound to Pole, in England, from Newfoundland  I boarded her, in command of a boat from the Canton, which was sent to take off the English crew, the brig's own boats having been all swept away, and her crew in a state of intoxication  I found onboard of her two Newfoundland pups, male and female, which I saved, and subsequently, on our landing the English crew at Norfolk, our own destination being Baltimore, I purchased these two pups of the English captain for a guinea apiece  Being bound again to sea, I gave the dog pup, which was called Sailor, to Mr  John Mercer, of West River; and the slut pup, which was called Canton, to Doctor James Stewart, of Sparrow's Point  The history which the English captain gave me of these pups was, that the owner of his brig was extensively engaged in the Newfoundland trade, and had directed his correspondent to select and send him a pair of pups of the most approved Newfoundland breed, but of different families, and that the pair I purchased of him were selected under this order  The dog was of a dingy red colour; and the slut black  They were not large; their hair was short, but very thick-coated; they had dew claws  Both attained great reputation as water-dogs  They were most sagacious in every thing, particularly so in all duties connected with duck-shooting  Governor Lloyd exchanged a Merino ram for the dog, at the time of the Merino fever, when such rams were selling for many hundred dollars, and took him over to his estate on the eastern shore of Maryland, where his progeny were well known for many years after; and may still be known there, and on the western shore, as the Sailor breed  The slut remained at Sparrows Point till her death, and her progeny were and are still well known, through Patapsco Neck, on the Gunpowder, and up the bay, amongst the duck-shooters, as unsurpassed for their purposes  I have heard both Doctor Stewart and Mr  Mercer relate most extraordinary instances of the sagacity and performance of both dog and slut, and would refer you to their friends for such particulars as I am unable, at this distance of time, to recollect with sufficient accuracy to repeat Mercer is said to have described Sailor:

    he was of fine size and figure-lofty in his carriage, and built for strength and activity; remarkably muscular and broad across the hips and breast; head large, but not out of proportion; muzzle rather longer than is common with that race of dogs; his colour a dingy red, with some white on the face and breast; his coat short and smooth, but uncommonly thick, and more like a coarse fur than hair; tail full, with long hair, and always carried very high  His eyes were very peculiar: they were so light as to have almost an unnatural appearance, something resembling what is termed a wail eye, in a horse; and it is remarkable, that in a visit which I made to the Eastern Shore, nearly twenty years after he was sent there, in a sloop which had been sent expressly for him, to West River, by Governor Lloyd, I saw many of his descendants who were marked with this peculiarity In 1964, it was declared the official dog of Maryland  It is the mascot of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County 
Members of the breed were owned by General George Armstrong Custer, President Theodore Roosevelt, Senator John McCain, and actors Paul Walker and Tom Felton 

See also
Dogs portal
List of dog breeds
Passage 8:
Kunwak River
The Kunwak River is a river of Nunavut, Canada  It flows northeast out of Tulemalu Lake and enters Tebesjuak Lake, Mallery Lake and Princess Mary Lake before turning southeast and flowing into Thirty Mile Lake on the Kazan River 
Historically the Kunwak has been inhabited by the Inuit  The Harvaqtuurmiut, a Caribou Inuit group, made their homes along the river 
Passage 9:
Piaçaca River
Piaçaca River is a river of Amapá state in Brazil  It is a tributary of the Vila Nova River which in turn is part of the Amazon River basin 
Passage 10:
2011 Assiniboine River flood
The 2011 Assiniboine River flood was caused by above average precipitation in Western Manitoba and Saskatchewan  This was a 1 in 300 year flood that affected much of Western Manitoba  The flooding in Manitoba was expected to mostly involve the 2011 Red River Flood but instead the more severe flooding was found on the Assiniboine in the west 

Early signs
The 2011 flood really started in the fall of 2010 with several major rainfall events and generally wet conditions  Initially, it was predicted that the flood along the Assiniboine River would be similar to the flood of 1995  During the winter of 2010–2011 the Shellmouth Reservoir was emptied in preparation, to store water for the coming spring flood  With more and more precipitation, the estimates on the flood were revised upwards 

The first major settlement to experience the floodwater was St  Lazare, Manitoba which was located near the confluence of the Assiniboine River and Qu'Appelle River  Dikes were built up to protect against the rising floodwater, but unfortunately some residences were not spared as their protective dikes were overwhelmed  The flood continued downstream, spilling over its banks and flooding campgrounds and fields in the flood plain  Brandon, Manitoba's second largest city, prepared well in advance of the anticipated flood building up both earthen dikes as well as sandbag/Hesco bastion dikes  After a heavy snowfall on April 29 and 30 over much of the Assiniboine River watershed the crest forecast for Brandon was revised upward well above the flood of 1976  The river peaked at about 36,700 cu ft/s (1,040 m3/s),60% higher than the previous highest recorded peak of 23,000 cu ft/s (650 m3/s) in 1923  The 2011 event is estimated to be a 1 in 300-year flood 
Shortly thereafter a state of emergency was declared in Brandon as well as other municipalities across Manitoba  Premier Greg Selinger requested from Prime Minister Stephen Harper troops from the Canadian military to help with the flood fighting efforts  The last time the military was called in to help fight a flood in Manitoba was the 1997 Red River flood 
Downstream of Brandon, the Manitoba Government forecast that between 54000-56000 cu ft/s of water would enter into the Portage Diversion reservoir near Portage la Prairie  The capacity for the Portage Diversion channel, which drains into Lake Manitoba, is only approximately 25,000 cu ft/s (710 m3/s), which would mean that between 29000-31000 cu ft/s of water would flow toward communities such as Poplar Point, St  Francois Xavier, and Headingley, before joining with the Red River at The Forks  This amount of water would overwhelm the dikes downstream, along the Assiniboine River, which were only built to allow for a channel capacity of about 10,000-11,000 cu ft/s before spilling over  Otherwise breaching of dikes would occur On June 22, 2011 the city of Minot in North Dakota issued an evacuation of 12,000 residents due to the swollen Souris River that flows through the city  The Souris River starts in Saskatchewan and makes its way south across the border and then back north into Manitoba  The Souris River then eventually joins up with the Assiniboine River past Brandon which could again raise water levels on the Assiniboine due to the swollen Souris and the possibility of Lake Manitoba raising up again  Preparations are under way for the communities along the Souris to raise dikes and evacuations have begun  The province has said it will push the limits of the flood protection again 

Intentional breach and flooding
It was determined by the Manitoba government that the capacity could be increased to 32000-34000 cu ft/s by building up the banks of the Portage Diversion, depending on hydraulic resistance on bridges along the channel  This would reduce the flows on the Assiniboine River somewhat, but still not enough for the dikes to hold  It was also determined that a controlled release of water from the Assiniboine in the range of 2000–6000 cu ft/s should be created downstream of the Portage Diversion in order to reduce flows on the river, and divert the water into the La Salle River watershed, resulting in more manageable river levels along the Assiniboine River  The exact location decided on was at the Hoop and Holler Bend



ground_truth: Richard Stallman

rms

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the life expectancy of the type of retriever named after the body of water the Patuxent River turns into?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: 
The controlled breach of the dike was estimated to flood approximately 225 square kilometres (87 sq mi)  This option was chosen as opposed to risking an uncontrolled breach, which could release as much as 500 square kilometres (190 sq mi) with flows of up to 15,000 cu ft/s (420 m3/s), while over 800 homes would be affected by the waters  Military personnel were assigned to build flood protection in Brandon, on the Assiniboine River west of Portage la Prairie, and for residences that were at risk of flooding due to the controlled breach 
The intentional breach and overland flooding began on Saturday May, 14  The resultant flooding was very slow moving and was expected to take several days to reach the La Salle River  The waters intentionally spilled from the Assiniboine were expected to cover 185 square kilometres (71 sq mi) and flood a possible 150 homes  The Expected crest at the Portage Reservoir was then downgraded to around 52,000 cu ft/s (1,500 m3/s), leading some engineers to question the necessity of the breach at Hoop & Holler Bend as between the Portage Diversion (34,000 cu ft/s (960 m3/s)) and the Assiniboine River Channel (up to 20,000 cu ft/s (570 m3/s)) could have handled the floodwater  The controlled breach has carried no more than 400 cu ft/s (11 m3/s) and flooding was modest 

Effects on Lake Manitoba
With the diversion of water from the Assiniboine using the Portage Diversion into Lake Manitoba, the water level on the lake increased  Increasing the capacity of the Diversion put surrounding residences in danger of being flooded, also prompting an evacuation of Delta Beach on Lake Manitoba  Due to the increased capacity of the diversion and the duration of its use, it increased water levels on Lake Manitoba significantly, more than the 1976 Assiniboine River Flood, which resulted in approximately 1,420,000 acre-feet (1 75 km3) of water being diverted  In 2011 a total of 4,768,000 acre-feet (5 881 km3)  was diverted into the lake  The Manitoba Government's projections indicated that excluding the outflows of Lake Manitoba through the Fairford River resulted in an increase of 1 22 feet (0 37 m) in the level of the lake [1]  The Flood of 2011 surpassed these totals, causing flooding to Lake Manitoba and peaked at 817 2 feet (249 1 m) above sea level, 5 feet (1 5 m) above the normal operating range   This led to flood fighting efforts shifting from the Assiniboine River to Lake Manitoba 
A technical review of the 2011 flood completed in October, 2013 concluded that the net effect of artificial works (Fairford River improvements and the Portage Diversion) was a rise of 0 3 feet (0 091 m) on the lake  However, the rise occurred in weeks, rather than years as would occur in natural conditions 
Passage 11:
Golden Retriever
The Golden Retriever is a Scottish breed of retriever dog of medium size  It is characterised by a gentle and affectionate nature and a striking golden coat  It is commonly kept as a pet and is among the most frequently registered breeds in several Western countries  It is a frequent competitor in dog shows and obedience trials; it is also used as a gundog, and may be trained for use as a guide dog 
The breed was created by Sir Dudley Marjoribanks at his Scottish estate Guisachan in the late nineteenth century  He cross-bred Flat-coated Retrievers with Tweed Water Spaniels, with some further infusions of Red Setter, Labrador Retriever and Bloodhound  The breed was recognised by the Kennel Club in 1913, and during the interwar period spread to many parts of the world 

History
The Golden Retriever was developed in Scotland in the nineteenth century by Sir Dudley Marjoribanks (later to become Baron Tweedmouth) from Flat-coated Retrievers judiciously crossed with Tweed Water Spaniels and some other British dog breeds  Prior to the 1952 publication of the very detailed stud book which had been meticulously maintained by Marjoribanks, a number of romantic tales were published about the origins of the breed In the 1860s Marjoribanks set out to create what to his mind was the ultimate breed of retriever at his Scottish estate Guisachan  He started by acquiring a yellow-coloured Flat-coated Retriever dog called Nous; Nous had been whelped in June 1864 and was the only yellow pup in an otherwise all black-coloured litter  Whilst uncommon, occasionally liver, brown, golden or yellow-coloured purebred Flat-coated Retriever pups are whelped to matings of two black parents  It is the pedigree of Nous that was the source for the romantic tales of the heritage of the Golden Retriever  One early account claimed Nous was purchased from a Russian circus trainer in Brighton, another claimed he was bought from a cobbler, and yet another claimed a gypsy  The stud book states that Nous was a Flat-coated Retriever bred by Lord Chichester on his Stanmer Park estate near Brighton In 1868 Nous was mated to a Tweed Water Spaniel bitch named Belle, who is recorded in the stud book as being whelped in 1863 and being of "Ladykirk breeding"  The litter from this mating consisted of four yellow pups, Primrose, Ada, Cowslip and Crocus  The best bitch from this litter, Cowslip, was mated to a Tweed Water Spaniel called Tweed with the mating producing a bitch pup called Topsy  Cowslip was subsequently mated to a Red Setter called Sampson; that mating produced a dog pup called Jack  Topsy was mated with a black Flat-coated Retriever called Sambo and a bitch pup from that litter, Zoe, was mated back to Jack and two pups from that mating were retained, a dog called Nous II and a bitch called Gill  Gill was mated to a black Labrador Retriever called Tracer, and a bitch pup from that mating, Queenie, was mated back to Nous II; all Golden Retrievers descend from this mating  The progeny from these various matings varied in colour from pure black to light cream, but it was the golden coloured ones that were retained and mated to each other, forming the foundation stock of the Golden Retriever breed  Marjoribanks is also known to have used a sandy-coloured Bloodhound and another Labrador in subsequent years of the breeding programme 
In 1952 Marjoribanks's great-nephew, Giles Fox-Strangways, 6th Earl of Ilchester, teamed up with Elma Stonex and together they studied Marjoribanks's stud book  In 1960 their research was published, presenting all of the evidence required to counter all tales of Russian ancestry  The stud book, which covers the period from 1868 to 1890, is preserved in the library of the Kennel Club in London 

In the early days Golden Retrievers were called the 'Flat-coated Retriever, Golden', Initially the Golden Retriever was considered a colour variety of the former breed  In 1903 the Kennel Club recorded the first examples, listing them in the same register as Flat-coats  In 1904 a Golden Retriever won a field trial and in 1908 the first examples were exhibited at conformation shows  In 1911 a breed club was formed for the breed in England, the Golden Retriever Club, and they were given a new name, the 'Yellow or Golden Retriever'; from this point they were increasingly seen as a separate breed from the Flat-coated Retriever  It was not until 1913 that the Kennel Club began recording them on a separate breed register from the Flat-coated Retriever and in 1920 the 'Yellow or' was dropped from the breed name and they were officially called the 'Golden Retriever' One early twentieth century enthusiast of the breed, Winifred Charlesworth, was instrumental in the establishment of the breed club as well as its separate Kennel Club recognition  It was she who drew up the first breed standard, which was adopted by the Kennel Club and with only minor amendments and remains largely unchanged  She bred and exhibited the first Golden Retriever Show Champion, was a strong advocate for maintaining the working instincts of the breed, and she is credited with popularising it at field trials and introducing it to shooting sportsmen In the years after the First World War its popularity increased markedly and in the 1920s and 1930s it spread through much of the Western world  The Canadian Kennel Club recognised the breed in 1927, the American Kennel Club in 1932; the first examples were registered in France in 1934 and Australia in 1937  The worldwide popularity of the breed meant it did not suffer the misfortunes many British dog breeds did during the Second World War due to British wartime restrictions on the breeding of larger dogs, with ample quality breeding stock available globally to ensure none of its characteristics were lost Since the 1940s its popularity has continued to grow, and it has become one of the most recognised and most frequently registered dog breeds in the Western world 

Description
Appearance
The Golden Retriever is a powerfully built, medium-sized breed of dog; according to the Kennel Club breed standard, dogs stand from 56 to 61 centimetres (22 to 24 in) and bitches from 51 to 56 centimetres (20 to 22 in)  Healthy adult examples typically weigh between 25 and 34 kilograms (55 and 75 lb) The Golden Retriever has a broad head with a well-defined stop, with dark eyes set well apart, a wide and powerful muzzle, a large black nose, dark-pigmented and slightly drooping flews, and ears of moderate size set high and hanging with a slight fold  The neck is muscular and fairly long with loose-fitting skin, the shoulders well laid-back and long-bladed, and the body deep through the chest with well-sprung ribs  The back is usually level from withers to croup and the long, straight tail is usually carried flat, roughly in line with the back  The forelegs are straight with good bone, the hind legs are powerful with well bent stifles and muscular thighs, and the feet are cat-like The double coat is a recognisable and striking feature: the outer coat is long, flat or wavy and has good feathering on the forelegs, while the undercoat is dense and provides weather resistance  The coat can be any shade of cream, yellow or gold; the coat typically becomes paler with age  The Kennel Club breed standard prohibits red or mahogany-coloured coats, but a few white hairs on the chest are permitted  Originally only yellow or golden coloured examples were permitted, this excluded many outstanding cream coloured dogs; to overcome this in 1936 the Kennel Club's standard was amended to include the cream colour  The cream colour, which in more modern times can be almost white, has become the dominant colour and is particularly favoured by conformation show exhibitors  Golden Retrievers that are bred for conformation shows tend to have longer and finer coats than those bred for working as gundogs The Kennel Club breed standard is accepted by every kennel club in the world except those of Canada and the United States  Breed standards in North America call for a slightly taller dog and the cream colour is not permitted 

Temperament
The Golden Retriever is considered an intelligent, gentle natured and very affectionate breed of dog  As is typical with retriever breeds, the breed is generally calm and biddable, being very easy to train and extremely keen to please their master  The breed is known to make excellent pets and family dogs, being generally extremely tolerant of children and keen to accompany any member of the family in a range of activities  Due to their affable natures, the breed is often completely devoid of guarding instincts  However, there have also been reports of some very aggressive Golden Retrievers in certain lineages  It has been suggested that these variations in aggression are partially caused by genetic factors The breed usually retains many of their gundog traits and instincts including an excellent sense of smell and a strong instinct to retrieve; even among those not trained as gundogs it is typical for Golden Retrievers to present their owners with toys or other objects  Compared to other retriever breeds the Golden Retriever is typically quite slow to mature 

Popularity and uses
The Golden Retriever is one of the most commonly kept breeds of companion dog in the Western world, and is often among the top ten dog breeds by number of registrations in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia and Canada  It is a frequent competitor at dog shows; separate show lines of the breed have been developed  The dogs can be trained as guide dogs and therapy dogs, and may compete in obedience trials and other dog sports The Golden Retriever is still used as a gundog by sportsmen, both as a hunting companion in the field and for competing in field trials   It is used more for retrieval of land-based gamebirds such as grouse and partridge than for wildfowl hunting  Those used as gundogs are usually from working lines specifically bred for field use; dogs from pet or show lines are rarely suitable  A Golden Retriever with a traditional dense double coat is well suited to working in cold and wet conditions, as the coat provides water resistance and insulation  Compared to other retriever breeds, the Golden Retriever is not a strong swimmer; its long coat causes it to sit low in the water when swimming The Golden Retriever is much less commonly used by sportsmen as a hunting companion than the Labrador Retriever  One reason is that the breed is generally quite slow to mature, particularly compared to the Labrador; often when a Golden Retriever is still in basic training a Labrador of the same age has already completed a season of hunting  Another is its long coat, which requires more maintenance and grooming than that of the Labrador, particularly after working in muddy conditions or close cover, as their long hair is more prone to picking up dirt and burrs  More Golden Retrievers are bred as pets or for the show ring than for hunting, so it can be hard for sportsmen to find pups bred from proven working lines 

Health
Golden Retrievers are a generally healthy breed; they have an average lifespan of 12 to 13 years  Irresponsible breeding to meet high demand has led to the prevalence of inherited health problems in some breed lines, including allergic skin conditions, eye problems and sometimes snappiness  These problems are rarely encountered in dogs bred from responsible breeders The breed is unusually prone to cancer, with one United States study finding cancer to be the cause of death in approximately 50% of the population, the second highest in the study  Several European studies found a much lower prevalence (20–39%), which may reflect the significant genetic divergence between the American and European populations   They are especially prone to hemangiosarcoma and lymphoma, with an estimated lifetime risk of one in five for the former and one in eight for the latter  The high prevalence of cancer deaths among Golden Retrievers may partly represent a lack of other congenital diseases 

Notable Golden Retrievers
Liberty, presidential pet of President Gerald R  Ford 
Bailey, pet of US presidential candidate Elizabeth Warren 
Orca, PDSA Gold Medal recipient for bravery 
Mayor Max, elected Mayor of Idyllwild, California 

See also
Dogs portal

Explanatory notes
Passage 12:
Pawnee River
The Pawnee River or Pawnee Fork is a river in western Kansas in the United States, about 198 miles (319 km) long  It is a tributary of the Arkansas River, which in turn is a branch of the Mississippi River 
It rises in northwestern Gray County at an elevation of 2,835 feet (864 m), as the outflow of several agricultural drainage channels  For 20 miles (32 km) the river runs due north, before turning northeast near Ravanna  The river arcs to the south and receives Buckner Creek, its main tributary at the town of Burdett, then flows east past Rozel and through Fort Larned National Historic Site  It joins the Arkansas River on the left bank, south of the city of Larned This river drains an arid farming region of about 2,700 square miles (7,000 km2) of the Great Plains  Most of its flow is consumed by irrigation before it reaches the mouth, and the river dries up for periods of months at a time in most years  The land surrounding the river was originally inhabited by the Kansa, Cheyenne, Osage, Pawnee and other tribes, the latter for which the river is named  The river was a route for the Santa Fe Trail in the 19th century, and was also the scene of Native American-U S  wars in 1854, after which Fort Larned was established on the river to maintain a permanent military presence in the region 

See also
List of rivers of Kansas
Passage 13:
Mangalam River
Mangalam River is the main tributary of the river Gayathripuzha, which in turn is a tributary of Bharathapuzha, the second longest river in Kerala, India   It is around 30 km long in length, with its source from Nelliyampathi forests, and passing through Vadakkencherry, Kannambra, Puthucode, Padur, etc  and joining Gayathripuzha at Plazhi in the border of Thrissur and Palakkad districts 
Cherukunnapuzha is a tributary of Mangalam River and Mangalam Dam is constructed across this river  A canal system for irrigation purpose was completed and opened in 1966, in Alathur taluk, Palakkad district 

Tributaries of the river Mangalam river
Cherukunnapuzha

See also
Bharathapuzha - Main river
Gayathripuzha - One of the main  tributaries of the river Bharathapuzha

Other tributaries of the river Gayathripuzha
Ayalurpuzha
Vandazhippuzha
Meenkarappuzha
Chulliyar
Passage 14:
VX-6
Air Development Squadron Six (VX-6 or AIRDEVRON SIX, commonly referred to by its nickname, "puckered penguins") was a United States Navy Air Development Squadron based at McMurdo Station, Antarctica  Established at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland on 17 January 1955, the squadron's mission was to conduct operations in support of Operation Deep Freeze, the operational component of the United States Antarctic Program 
Using the tail code XD, the squadron flew numerous fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters over the course of its existence—many of which were pioneering endeavors  For example, the first air link between Antarctica and New Zealand was established by men and aircraft of VX-6 in 1955  The following year, a ski-equipped R4D Dakota of VX-6 became the first aircraft to land at the South Pole  In 1961, the first emergency midwinter medical evacuation flight was conducted from Byrd Station to  Christchurch  In 1963, an LC-130F Hercules of VX-6 made the longest flight in Antarctic history  In 1967, a United States Navy LC-130F of VX-6 completed the first scheduled winter flight to Antarctica, landing at Williams Field 
VX-6 changed the tail code of its aircraft to JD in 1957, and was redesignated as Antarctic Development Squadron Six (VXE-6) on 1 January 1969  Over the first 14-years of its existence during the time it was designated VX-6, seventeen sailors and marines assigned died in Antarctica during Operation Deep Freeze missions 

History
VX-6 traces its roots to Operation Highjump (1946–1947), the fourth Antarctic expedition conducted by United States Navy Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd  That expedition set out in December 1946 to conduct an extensive aerial survey of Antarctica, using Martin PBM Mariners based in the pack ice of the Ross Sea, as well as land-based R4D Dakotas (Dakota, from the acronym "DACoTA" for Douglas Aircraft Company Transport Aircraft, was the designation used by the United States Navy to refer to the Douglas C-47 Skytrain)  By the time Operation Highjump was concluded in late February 1947, the team had mapped about 5,500 miles (8,900 km) of coastline and 1,500,000 square miles (3,900,000 km2) of the interior of the continent VX-6 was one of six air development squadrons formed by the United States Navy beginning in 1946 to develop and evaluate aircraft tactics and techniques  These squadrons were initially directed by the Operational Development Force, which was redesignated in May 1959 as the Operational Test and Evaluation Force (OPTEVFOR)  These six squadrons were initially designated as VX-1 (tail code XA), VX-2 (tail code XB), VX-3 (tail code XC), VX-4 (tail code XF), VX-5 (tail code XE) and VX-6 (tail code XD)  On 1 January 1969, the surviving Air Development Squadrons (VX-1, VX-4, VX-5 and VX-6) became Air Test and Evaluation Squadrons  Their designations were changed to VXE-1, VXE-4, VXE-5 and VXE-6  Their tail codes of these squadrons were changed to JA, JF, JE and JD, respectively 

Operation Deep Freeze I and II
Air Development Squadron Six (VX-6) was formally established on 17 January 1955 at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland  The squadron's mission was to conduct aviation operations in support of United States Department of Defense responsibilities in connection with the United States Antarctic Program  On 1 February, Task Force 43 was activated to plan Antarctic operations scheduled to begin in the fall under the code name Operation Deep Freeze, with Captain George J  Dufek as commanding officer  Dufek would remain as commanding officer through Operation Deep Freeze IV, which concluded in 1959  The mission of Task Force 43 was to provide all the logistical support necessary for the successful U S  participation in the upcoming International Geophysical Year (1957–8)  More specifically, this meant that Task Force 43 was responsible for the construction of airstrips and iceports and the establishment of bases on Antarctica that would enable scientists to conduct geophysical studies upon that continent  On 14 November, the flagship of the recently promoted RADM Dufek, Commander Task Force 43, steamed from Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia to rendezvous in New Zealand with other ships of the task force for the onward voyage to Antarctica VX-6 made its first deployment at that time as part of Task Force 43 (the logistics arm of Operation Deep Freeze)  That first season, VX-6 completed nine long-range exploratory flights  The squadron also transported people and materials necessary for the construction of Little America Base Camp, the Naval Air Operations Facility on Hut Point Peninsula (Ross Island), the first South Pole Station (now referred to as "Old Pole"), and assisted in the establishment of four other bases on the continent  On 20 December 1955, two Lockheed P2V-2 Neptunes and two R5D Skymasters (R5D was the designation used by the United States Navy to refer to the Douglas C-54 Skymaster) established the first air link between Antarctica and New Zealand with a flight from Christchurch to McMurdo Station Following its return from Operation Deep Freeze I in February 1956, VX-6 was relocated to Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island  Naval Construction Battalion Center Davisville, the site of manufacture of the first Quonset huts, was also located at Quonset Point  NCBC Davisville was the home of Naval Construction Battalion 200, which had been established to perform the construction of any facilities required by the United States Antarctic Program  In September of that year, LCDR Ray E  Hall drew the first rendition of "Puckered Pete", a cartoon character which later became the unofficial mascot of VX-6 

On 31 October 1956, during Operation Deep Freeze II, Qué Será Será, a ski-equipped R4D Dakota piloted by LCDR Conrad S  Shinn, became the first plane to land at the South Pole  The seven United States Navy men (RADM George J  Dufek, CAPT Douglas L  Cordiner, CAPT William M  Hawkes, LCDR Conrad S  Shinn, LT John R  Swadener, AD2 John P  Strider, and AT2 William A  Cumbie Jr ) aboard that aircraft were the first to stand at this spot in 44 years, the last being Robert Falcon Scott's ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition in January 1912  RADM Dufek had chosen LCDR Shinn and his flight crew to attempt the landing, which was an extraordinary undertaking since the South Pole was almost 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above sea level where the aircraft engines would operate considerably below their optimum power levels  In addition it was expected that extremely cold conditions could be expected on the surface  The landing party remained at the South Pole for only 49 minutes, setting up navigational aids to assist the future delivery of materials and equipment for constructing a scientific observation station at the spot  Also in 1956, an R4D Dakota delivered the first group of 11 Seabees and 11 dog sleds, together with tents and other equipment to the South Pole, to begin construction of the first South Pole Station 

1957–1969
In 1957, the first letter of all the east-coast-based VX squadrons, including VX-6, was changed from X to J  In January 1958, a VX-6 UC-1 Otter made the first wheels-on-dirt landing in Antarctica at Marble Point  On 1 October 1959, RADM David M  Tyree (Commander, U S  Naval Support Force Antarctica from 14 April 1959–26 November 1962) arrived at Naval Air Facility McMurdo Station from Christchurch aboard an R5D Skymaster piloted by LCDR J  A  Henning of VX-6  This first flight of the season marked the operational implementation of Operation Deep Freeze V On 9–10 April 1961, the first midwinter medical evacuation flight was conducted to rescue Leonid Kuperov, a seriously ill Soviet scientist, from Byrd Station  Two VX-6 C-130BL Hercules from Quonset Point flew from to Christchurch  One (piloted by CDR Lloyd E  Newcomer) then flew on to Byrd Station to pick up Kuperov, while the other stood by in Christchurch  The total distance flown during this rescue mission was just under 13000 miles On 22 February 1963, an LC-130F Hercules of VX-6 made the longest flight in Antarctic history, covering territory never before seen by man  The plane (piloted by CDR William H  Everett and carrying RADM James R  Reedy (Commander, U S  Naval Support Force Antarctica from November 1962–April 1965) among its passengers, made the 3,470-mile (5,580 km) flight from McMurdo Station, beyond the South Pole to the Shackleton Range and then southeastward to the pole of inaccessibility before returning to McMurdo Station; the duration of this journey was 10 hours and 40 minutes  Also in February 1963, VX-6 completed the first delivery of bulk fuel by a Lockheed LC-130 Hercules On 26 June 1964, an LC-130F Hercules, commanded by LT Robert V  Mayer of VX-6, completed a round-trip flight from Christchurch to Antarctica in an emergency evacuation of petty officer B  L  McMullen, critically injured in a fall  As in the earlier medical evacuation of 1961, two planes, with teams of medical specialists on board, flew from NAS Quonset Point to Christchurch where one plane stood by while the other undertook the hazardous flight  On 30 September 1964, three LC-130 Hercules aircraft of VX-6 took off from Melbourne, Christchurch and Punta Arenas, respectively  The three aircraft flew to Antarctica, landing on Williams Field, 7 miles (11 km) from McMurdo Station  The flight from Melbourne, the first in history from Australia to Antarctica, passed over the South Pole to drop a 50-pound sack of mail to the wintering-over party, then landed at Byrd Station before proceeding to McMurdo Station  The arrival of RADM Reedy on this flight marked the official opening of Operation Deep Freeze 1965  Also in 1964, VX-6 conducted the first flight from Cape Town, South Africa to McMurdo Station, the first flight of a U S  aircraft to the Soviet Vostok Station, and the first successful demonstration of trimetrogon aerial photography, used extensively to map Antarctica On 7 June 1966, a C-130 Hercules, piloted by CDR Marion Morris of VX-6, returned to Christchurch after a flight to McMurdo Station to evacuate UT-2 Robert L  Mayfield, who had been critically injured in a fall  It was the third emergency air evacuation from Antarctica during the winter night On 18 June 1967, The first scheduled winter flight to Antarctica was successfully completed when a United States Navy LC-130F of VX-6 flying from Christchurch landed at Williams Field  Although earlier winter flights had been made to Antarctica as a result of medical emergencies, this was the first planned flight  On 2 December 1967, an LC-117D Skytrooper landed at McMurdo Station from Hallett Station  This was the last C-117 flight on the Antarctic continent, marking the end of 11 years of service to VX-6 by the Douglas C-47 Skytrain airframe On 1 January 1969, VX-6 was redesignated as Antarctic Development Squadron Six (VXE-6) 

Aircraft
In support of Operation Deep Freeze, the squadron operated a variety of aircraft throughout the course of its existence  Fixed-wing aircraft included the Grumman UF-1L Albatross, UC-1 Otter, Douglas Skytrain (R4D Dakota and C-47 models), Douglas Skymaster (R5D and C-54 models), Lockheed Neptune (P2V-2 and P2V-7 models), Lockheed Constellation (R7D and R7V models), and the Lockheed LC-130 Hercules  The ski-equipped LC-130 Hercules, whose long range and heavy load capability significantly increased the capabilities of the unit, was introduced during Operation Deep Freeze 1961  Helicopters included the Sikorsky Seahorse (HUS-1A and HUS-1L models), and the Sikorsky HO4S-3 

Aviation accidents and incidents
Seventeen sailors and marines assigned to VX-6 died in Antarctica in support of Operation Deep Freeze On 18 October 1956, a P2V-2 Neptune crashed at McMurdo Station during a landing in whiteout conditions, killing David W  Carey, Rayburn A  Hudman, Marion O  Marze, and Charles S  Miller On 12 July 1957, an HO4S-3 crashed in the vicinity of McMurdo Station during austral winter, killing Nelson R  Cole On 4 January 1959, a UC-1 Otter crashed on takeoff at Marble Point, killing Harvey E  Gardner and Lawrence J  Farrell On 9 November 1961, a P2V-7 crashed on takeoff from Wilkes Station, killing William D  Counts, Romuald P  Compton, William W  Chastain, James L  Gray and passenger geologist Dr  Edward C  Thiel On 2 February 1966, a LC-47J crashed on Ross Ice Shelf during takeoff, killing Ronald Rosenthal, Harold M  Morris, William D  Fordell, Richard S  Simmons, Wayne M  Shattuck, and Charles C  Kelley 

See also
Mount VX-6
VX-9
VX-20
VX-23
VX-30
VX-31
Passage 15:
Indian River Charter High School
Indian River Charter High School (IRCHS) is a co-educational public charter high school in Vero Beach, Florida  The school operates under charter from the Indian River County School District 

Location
The school is located near the Mueller Campus of the Indian River State College 
Passage 16:
Bolshaya Lyampa
The Bolshaya Lyampa (Russian: Большая Лямпа) is a river in Perm Krai, Russia, a right tributary of the Uls which in turn is a tributary of the Vishera  The river is 34 kilometres (21 mi) long  Its source is near the border with Sverdlovsk Oblast  It flows into the Uls 55 kilometres (34 mi) from the larger river's mouth  The Bolshaya Lyampa's main tributary is the Malaya Lyampa 
Passage 17:
Ngunguru River
The Ngunguru River is a river of the Northland Region of New Zealand's North Island  It initially flows southwest before turning east to flow into a long, wide estuary which empties into Ngunguru Bay to the northwest of Whangārei  The town of Ngunguru sits on the estuary's north bank at its opening to the bay 

See also
List of rivers of New Zealand
Passage 18:
Metsimotlhabe River
The Metsimotlhabe River is the largest river in the Kweneng District of Botswana, draining the area that lies to the south of Molepolole into the Notwane River, in turn a tributary of the Limpopo River   
The name "Metsimotlhabe" means "water sand river" The Bokaa Dam was built in 1990/1991 by damming the Metsimotlhabe River just south of Bokaa village 
Surface drainage in the sandveld surrounding the Metsimotlhabe is limited to pans and dry valleys, which rarely carry surface water Sand extraction from the riverbed has caused problems, since this lowers the water table and causes the surrounding vegetation to die 
This is a significant economic activity in the District 
In June 2012 a spokesperson for the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources pointed out that demand was high due to the boom in housing caused by the growing affluence of the country 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Xico, State of Mexico
Xico is a city in the State of Mexico, Mexico  It serves as the municipal seat of Valle de Chalco municipality, with which it is, for all practical purposes, coterminous  The municipality lies adjacent to the east side of the Federal District (Distrito Federal) and is part of the Mexico City metropolitan area  The city and municipality lie on the old lakebed of Lake Chalco, which was drained like much of the Basin of Mexico  The city name comes from the nearby Xico hill (Cerro de Xico) and the name of the municipality comes from the old lake plus a reference to the "Programa Nacional de Solidaridad" (National Program of Solidarity) which was initiated here  The municipality's glyph and shield make reference to both names  It is a distinct entity from the city and municipality of Chalco, which is nearby  "Chalco" in both names refers to the Chalca tribe that were one of the original inhabitants of the area 

The city
Early pre-Hispanic history refers to the area around the Cerro de Xico and the Island of Xico as most of the modern city was underwater until relatively recently  The area was mostly fishing villages from 900 BC to 100 AD  However, from 550 to 650, the area was dominated by the Teotihuacan culture  From 650 to 750, an Otomi settlement gained prominence  The Acxotecas arrived around 1328, the same time that chinampa farming began here  Xico was conquered by the Aztec Tezozomoc in 1381, after which groups of Mexicas settle here extending the chinampa farming system in the 14th and 15th centuries  The area was ceded to Hernán Cortés by the Spanish king in 1529  The modern area began in the 19th century when Porfirio Díaz ordered the draining of Lake Chalco which devastated the economies of the former coastline communities  The Mexican Revolution tried to compensate these communities by the creation of ejidos, the two largest here being Estación Xico with 507 hectares and San Miguel Xico with 250 hectares  These ejidos, as well as the present-day city and municipality, rest almost entirely on former lakebed For the most part, the area laid barren until the late 1970s, when there was a sudden influx of families coming from the central and southern parts of Mexico in search of land  Despite its proximity, there was no infrastructure for basic services including schooling for children  Many people bought ejido land causing legal problems  The federal government had to step in to install basic services and regularize the property rights of more than 77,000 parcels of ejido land that was sold  However, the area did not become a separate municipality until 1994  In the census of 2005 the population of Xico was 331,321 people The only notable sites in the area are The Cerro del Marqués which contains architecture and archeological remains but these are not open to the public  However, there is the Museo Comunitario (Community Museum) which displays local archeological finds located in the Casa de Cultura “Chalchiuhtlicue”  There is also the Ex – Hacienda de Xico which was constructed at the same time the lake was drained 

The municipality
As municipal seat, Xico has governing jurisdiction over the following communities: Las Bombas, Comalchica, Santa Cruz, El Triángulo, El Invernadero, Colonia Ampliación (San Miguel Tláhuac), and Ejido Tulyehualco (Tabla Número Nueve) as well as 13 unnamed communities  It has a total population of 332,279 The municipality borders the municipalities of Ixtapaluca, Chicoloapan, Los Reyes Acaquilpan, al oriente con Chalco de Díaz Covarrubias  and borders to the south with the Distrito Federal (Delegaciones Iztapalapa y Tláhuac)  It covers a total surface area of 46 36 km2 (17 9 sq mi) 
Passage 2:
Skin of my teeth
Skin of my teeth (Hebrew: עוֹר שִׁנָּי ‘ōr šinnāy) is a phrase from the Bible  In Job 19:20, the King James Version of the Bible says, "My bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the skin of my teeth "  In the Geneva Bible, the phrase is rendered as "I have escaped with the skinne of my tethe "The verse from Job 19:20 can be resolved as follows: In the first clause, the author uses the Hebrew `or in its usual sense of "skin", associating it with "flesh" and "bones"  In the second clause, he uses the Hebrew or as derived from the Arabic ghar / "the bones in which the teeth are set (Latin: os maxilla and os mandibula)"  Therefore, the correct reading is: "My skin and flesh cling to my bones, and I am left with (only) my gums," giving us a stark description of the advanced stage of Job's disease In modern times, "by the skin of my teeth" is used to describe a situation from which one has barely managed to escape or achieve something; a close call 

Cultural references to the phrase
Skin o' My Tooth – 1928 book by Baroness Emma Orczy in which the phrase is a nickname of the main character, a lawyer; the nickname is given by a client who says that he was freed "by the skin o' my tooth"
The Skin of Our Teeth – 1942 play by Thornton Wilder with multiple Biblical allusions
"Skin o' My Teeth" – song on Megadeth's 1992 album Countdown to Extinction, referring to the theme of a suicide attempt
a reference to the quote in the song Alone, the 3rd track on Biting Elbows' 2020 album Shortening the Longing, talking about a bad break-up situation
"Skin of Her Teeth" – 2021 TV episode in Dexter: New Blood limited series in the Jeff Lindsay Dexter serial killer franchise
"Skin of My Teeth" – song from Demi Lovato's 2022 album Holy Fvck

See also
Hair's breadth
Passage 3:
Immaculate Conception
The Immaculate Conception is the belief that the Virgin Mary was free of original sin from the moment of her conception  It is one of the four Marian dogmas of the Catholic Church  Debated by medieval theologians, it was not defined as a dogma until 1854, by Pope Pius IX in the papal bull Ineffabilis Deus  While the Immaculate Conception asserts Mary's freedom from original sin, the Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563, had previously affirmed her freedom from personal sin The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in works of art  The iconography of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception shows Mary standing, with arms outstretched or hands clasped in prayer  The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8 Many Protestant churches rejected the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as un-scriptural, though some Anglicans accept it as a pious devotion  Opinions on the Immaculate Conception in Oriental Orthodoxy are divided: Shenouda III, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church, opposed the teaching; the Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo accept it  It is not accepted by Eastern Orthodoxy due to differences in the understanding of original sin, although they do affirm Mary's purity and preservation from sin  Patriarch Anthimus VII of Constantinople (1827-1913) characterized the dogma of the Immaculate Conception as a "Roman novelty" 

History
Anne, mother of Mary, and original sin
Anne, the mother of Mary, first appears in the 2nd-century Gospel of James, and the author created his story by drawing on Greek tales of the childhood of heroes and on the Old Testament story of Hannah (hence the name Anna/Anne), the mother of the biblical Samuel  Anne and her husband, Joachim, are infertile, but God hears their prayers and Mary is conceived  Within the Gospel of James, the conception occurs without sexual intercourse between Anne and Joachim, which fits well with the Gospel of James' persistent emphasis on Mary's sacred purity, but the story does not advance the idea of an immaculate conception  The author of the Gospel of James may have based this account of Mary's conception on that of John the Baptist as recounted in the Gospel of Luke  The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that "Mary is conceived by her parents as we are all conceived" 

Church Fathers
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Cyril of Jerusalem developed the idea of Mary as the New Eve, drawing comparison to Eve, while yet immaculate and incorrupt — that is to say, not subject to original sin  The encyclopedia adds that Ephrem the Syrian said she was as innocent as Eve before the Fall Ambrose says she is incorrupt, a virgin immune through grace from every stain of sin  It was John Damascene's opinion that the supernatural influence of God at the generation of Mary was so comprehensive that it extended also to her parents  He says of them that, during the generation, they were filled and purified by the Holy Spirit, and freed from sexual concupiscence  Consequently, according to Damascene, even the human element of her origin, the material of which she was formed, was pure and holy  This opinion of an immaculate active generation and the sanctity of the "conceptio carnis" was taken up by some Western authors  The Greek Fathers never formally or explicitly discussed the question of the Immaculate Conception 

Medieval formulation
By the 4th century the idea that Mary was free from sin was generally more widespread, but original sin raised the question of whether she was also free of the sin passed down from Adam  The question became acute when the feast of her conception began to be celebrated in England in the 11th century, and the opponents of the feast of Mary's conception brought forth the objection that as sexual intercourse is sinful, to celebrate Mary's conception was to celebrate a sinful event  The feast of Mary's conception originated in the Eastern Church in the 7th century, reached England in the 11th, and from there spread to Europe, where it was given official approval in 1477 and extended to the whole church in 1693; the word "immaculate" was not officially added to the name of the feast until 1854 The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception caused a virtual civil war between Franciscans and Dominicans during the Middle Ages, with Franciscan 'Scotists' in its favour and Dominican 'Thomists' against it   The English ecclesiastic and scholar Eadmer (c  1060 – c  1126) reasoned that it was possible that Mary was conceived without original sin in view of God's omnipotence, and that it was also appropriate in view of her role as Mother of God: Potuit, decuit, fecit, "it was possible, it was fitting, therefore it was done"  Others, including Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), objected that if Mary were free of original sin at her conception then she would have no need of redemption, making Christ's saving redemption superfluous; they were answered by Duns Scotus (1264–1308), who "developed the idea of preservative redemption as being a more perfect one: to have been preserved free from original sin was a greater grace than to be set free from sin"  In 1439, the Council of Basel, in schism with Pope Eugene IV who resided at the Council of Florence, declared the Immaculate Conception a "pious opinion" consistent with faith and Scripture; the Council of Trent, held in several sessions in the early 1500s, made no explicit declaration on the subject but exempted her from the universality of original sin; and by 1571 the revised Roman Breviary set out an elaborate celebration of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December 

Popular devotion and Ineffabilis Deus
The eventual creation of the dogma was due more to popular devotion than scholarship  The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature and art, and some devotees went so far as to hold that Anne had conceived Mary by kissing her husband Joachim, and that Anne's father and grandmother had likewise been conceived without sexual intercourse, although Bridget of Sweden (c  1303–1373) told how Mary herself had revealed to her that Anne and Joachim conceived their daughter through a sexual union which was sinless because it was pure and free of sexual lust In the 16th and especially the 17th centuries there was a proliferation of Immaculatist devotion in Spain, leading the Habsburg monarchs to demand that the papacy elevate the belief to the status of dogma  In France in 1830 Catherine Labouré (May 2, 1806 – December 31, 1876) saw a vision of Mary standing on a globe while a voice commanded her to have a medal made in imitation of what she saw  The medal said "O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee", which was a confirmation of Mary herself that she was conceived without sin, confirming the Immaculate Conception  Her vision marked the beginning of a great 19th-century Marian revival In 1849 Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical Ubi primum soliciting the bishops of the church for their views on whether the doctrine should be defined as dogma; ninety percent of those who responded were supportive, although the Archbishop of Paris, Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour, warned that the Immaculate Conception "could be proved neither from the Scriptures nor from tradition",  and in 1854 the Immaculate Conception dogma was proclaimed with the bull Ineffabilis Deus 
We declare, pronounce, and define that the doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine revealed by God and therefore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful 
Dom Prosper Guéranger, Abbot of Solesmes Abbey, who had been one of the main promoters of the dogmatic statement, wrote Mémoire sur l'Immaculée Conception, explaining what he saw as its basis:

 For the belief to be defined as a dogma of faith [   ] it is necessary that the Immaculate Conception form part of Revelation, expressed in Scripture or Tradition, or be implied in beliefs previously defined  Needed, afterward, is that it be proposed to the faith of the faithful through the teaching of the ordinary magisterium  Finally, it is necessary that it be attested by the liturgy, and the Fathers and Doctors of the Church 

Guéranger maintained that these conditions were met and that the definition was therefore possible  Ineffabilis Deus found the Immaculate Conception in the Ark of Salvation (Noah's Ark), Jacob's Ladder, the Burning Bush at Sinai, the Enclosed Garden from the Song of Songs, and many more passages  From this wealth of support the pope's advisors singled out Genesis 3:15: "The most glorious Virgin     was foretold by God when he said to the serpent: 'I will put enmity between you and the woman,'" a prophecy which reached fulfilment in the figure of the Woman in the Revelation of John, crowned with stars and trampling the Dragon underfoot  Luke 1:28, and specifically the phrase "full of grace" by which Gabriel greeted Mary, was another reference to her Immaculate Conception: "she was never subject to the curse and was, together with her Son, the only partaker of perpetual benediction" Ineffabilis Deus was one of the pivotal events of the papacy of Pius, pope from 16 June 1846 to his death on 7 February 1878  Four years after the proclamation of the dogma, in 1858, the young Bernadette Soubirous said that Mary appeared to her at Lourdes in southern France, to announce that she was the Immaculate Conception; the Catholic Church later endorsed the apparition as authentic  There are other (approved) Marian apparitions in which Mary identified herself as the Immaculate Conception, for example Our Lady of Gietrzwald in 1877, Poland 

Feast, patronages and disputes
The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8  The Roman Missal and the Roman Rite Liturgy of the Hours include references to Mary's immaculate conception in the feast of the Immaculate Conception  Its celebration seems to have begun in the Eastern church in the 7th century and may have spread to Ireland by the 8th, although the earliest well-attested record in the Western church is from England early in the 11th  It was suppressed there after the Norman Conquest (1066), and the first thorough exposition of the doctrine was a response to this suppression  It continued to spread through the 15th century despite accusations of heresy from the Thomists and strong objections from several prominent theologians   Beginning around 1140 Bernard of Clairvaux, a Cistercian monk, wrote to Lyons Cathedral to express his surprise and dissatisfaction that it had recently begun to be observed there, but in 1477 Pope Sixtus IV, a Franciscan Scotist and devoted Immaculist, placed it on the Roman calendar (i e , list of church festivals and observances) via the bull Cum praexcelsa  Thereafter in 1481 and 1483, in response to the polemic writings of the prominent Thomist, Vincenzo Bandello, Pope Sixtus IV published two more bulls which forbade anybody to preach or teach against the Immaculate Conception, or for either side to accuse the other of heresy, on pains of excommunication  Pope Pius V kept the feast on the tridentine calendar but suppressed the word "immaculate"  Gregory XV in 1622 prohibited any public or private assertion that Mary was conceived in sin  Urban VIII in 1624 allowed the Franciscans to establish a military order dedicated to the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception  Following the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus the typically Franciscan phrase "immaculate conception" reasserted itself in the title and euchology (prayer formulae) of the feast  Pius IX solemnly promulgated a mass formulary drawn chiefly from one composed 400 years by a papal chamberlain at the behest of Sixtus IV, beginning "O God who by the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin" 

Prayers and hymns
The Roman Rite liturgical books, including the Roman Missal and the Liturgy of the Hours, included offices venerating Mary's immaculate conception on the feast of the Immaculate Conception  An example is the antiphon that begins: "Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis non est in te" ("You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you"  It continues: "Your clothing is white as snow, and your face is like the sun  You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you  You are the glory of Jerusalem, you are the joy of Israel, you give honour to our people  You are all beautiful, Mary" ) On the basis of the original Gregorian chant music, polyphonic settings have been composed by Anton Bruckner, Pablo Casals, Maurice Duruflé, Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki, Ola Gjeilo, José Maurício Nunes Garcia, and Nikolaus Schapfl Other prayers honouring Mary's immaculate conception are in use outside the formal liturgy  The Immaculata prayer, composed by Maximillian Kolbe, is a prayer of entrustment to Mary as the Immaculata  A novena of prayers, with a specific prayer for each of the nine days has been composed under the title of the Immaculate Conception Novena Ave Maris Stella is the vesper hymn of the feast of the Immaculate Conception  The hymn Immaculate Mary, addressed to Mary as the Immaculately Conceived One, is closely associated with Lourdes 

Artistic representation
The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in art  During the Medieval period it was depicted as "Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate", meaning Mary's conception through the chaste kiss of her parents at the Golden Gate in Jerusalem; the 14th and 15th centuries were the heyday for this scene, after which it was gradually replaced by more allegorical depictions featuring an adult Mary The definitive iconography for the depiction of "Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception" seems to have been finally established by the painter and theorist Francisco Pacheco in his  "El arte de la pintura" of 1649: a beautiful young girl of 12 or 13, wearing a white tunic and blue mantle, rays of light emanating from her head ringed by twelve stars and crowned by an imperial crown, the sun behind her and the moon beneath her feet  Pacheco's iconography influenced other Spanish artists or artists active in Spain such as El Greco, Bartolomé Murillo, Diego Velázquez, and Francisco Zurbarán, who each produced a number of artistic masterpieces based on the use of these same symbols  The popularity of this particular representation of The Immaculate Conception spread across the rest of Europe, and has since remained the best known artistic depiction of the concept: in a heavenly realm, moments after her creation, the spirit of Mary (in the form of a young woman) looks up in awe at (or bows her head to) God  The moon is under her feet and a halo of twelve stars surround her head, possibly a reference to "a woman clothed with the sun" from Revelation 12:1–2  Additional imagery may include clouds, a golden light, and putti  In some paintings the putti are holding lilies and roses, flowers often associated with Mary 

Other denominations
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy never accepted Augustine's specific ideas on original sin, and in consequence did not become involved in the later developments that took place in the Roman Catholic Church, including the Immaculate Conception  In 1894, when Pope Leo XIII addressed the Eastern church in his encyclical Praeclara gratulationis, Ecumenical Patriarch Anthimos, in 1895, replied with an encyclical approved by the Constantinopolitan Synod in which he stigmatised the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility as "Roman novelties" and called on the Roman church to return to the faith of the early centuries  Eastern Orthodox Bishop Kallistos Ware comments that "the Latin dogma seems to us not so much erroneous as superfluous" 

Oriental Orthodoxy
The Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo do believe in the Immaculate Conception of the Theotokos  The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on Nehasie 7 (August 13) 

Old Catholics
In the mid-19th century, some Catholics who were unable to accept the doctrine of papal infallibility left the Roman Church and formed the Old Catholic Church   This movement rejects the Immaculate Conception 

Protestantism
Protestants overwhelmingly condemned the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus as an exercise in papal power, and the doctrine itself as un-scriptural, for it denied that all had sinned and rested on the Latin translation of Luke 1:28 (the "full of grace" passage) that the original Greek did not support  Protestants, therefore, teach that Mary was a sinner saved through grace, like all believers The Catholic–Lutheran dialogue's statement The One Mediator, the Saints, and Mary , issued in 1990 after seven years of study and discussion, conceded that Lutherans and Catholics remained separated "by differing views on matters such as the invocation of saints, the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of Mary"; the final report of the Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC), created in 1969 to further ecumenical progress between the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, similarly recorded the disagreement of the Anglicans with the doctrine, although Anglo-Catholics may hold the Immaculate Conception as an optional pious belief 

See also
Act for the Immaculate Conception of Mary
Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (disambiguation)
Church of the Immaculate Conception (disambiguation)
Congregation of the Immaculate Conception
Marian doctrines of the Catholic Church
Marian Fathers of the Immaculate Conception
Miraculous medal
Mother of God (Roman Catholic)
Patronages of the Immaculate Conception
Perpetual virginity of Mary
Roman Catholic Marian art
Passage 4:
Big Medicine
Big Medicine was an American reality television show that examined the effects of bariatric surgery, both physical and emotional, on obese patients  It also chronicled the ordeals of the patients leading up to surgery  It aired on TLC from May 28, 2007, until November 18, 2009  Big Medicine was taped at the Weight Management Center of The Methodist Hospital in Houston, Texas   Operating on the patients are the father and son surgical team of Dr  Robert Davis and Dr  Garth Davis   Before the final determination to operate is reached, patients are examined psychologically by Psychotherapist Mary Jo Rapini   Often, patients with excess skin after their weight-loss is achieved will be referred to Dr  John LoMonaco, a plastic surgeon 
Passage 5:
United States Bill of Rights
The United States Bill of Rights comprises the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution  Proposed following the often bitter 1787–88 debate over the ratification of the Constitution and written to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved to the states or the people  The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those in earlier documents, especially the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), as well as the Northwest Ordinance (1787), the English Bill of Rights (1689), and Magna Carta (1215) Largely because of the efforts of Representative James Madison, who studied the deficiencies of the Constitution pointed out by anti-federalists and then crafted a series of corrective proposals, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment on September 25, 1789, and submitted them to the states for ratification  Contrary to Madison's proposal that the proposed amendments be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution (at the relevant articles and sections of the document), they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it  Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution  Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty-seventh Amendment  Article One is still pending before the states 
Although Madison's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government  The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment  Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments  The process is known as incorporation There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence  One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D C 

Background
Philadelphia Convention
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution, the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781  However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states  The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania  Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one  The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention  The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation  Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi-gods " Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion  However, after only a brief discussion where Roger Sherman pointed out that State Bills of Rights were not repealed by the new Constitution, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations  Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers" that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny  Another delegate, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No  84 Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion—introduced five days before the end of the convention—may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic  The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process  Author David O  Stewart characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude" while historian Jack N  Rakove calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification" Thirty-nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution  Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia  Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification 

Anti-Federalists
Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism"  Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon  Mr  Gerry's Objections", which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed Constitution  Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the President would become a king  Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread  If we cannot secure all our rights, let us secure what we can " The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus" (probably Robert Yates) wrote,

We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion—that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed—that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc  If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms  The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted  With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution 
He continued with this observation:

Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought  So clear a point is this, that I cannot help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage 

Federalists
Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part because of the procedural uncertainties it would create  Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No  46 of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position  Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No  84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights " He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations " Patrick Henry criticized the Federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people     being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication " Other anti-Federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular the Magna Carta, had protected specific rights  In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:

Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince  Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John 

Massachusetts compromise
In December 1787 and January 1788, five states—Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut—ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated  In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak  The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments  The convention's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment Following Massachusetts' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments  A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states' rights  The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade A minority of the Constitution's critics, such as Maryland's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification  However, Martin's allies, such as New York's John Lansing Jr , dropped moves to obstruct the Convention's process  They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was", seeking amendments  Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before" shift to a position of "amendments after" for the sake of staying in the Union  Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established  The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states  Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it 
Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine-state ratification plateau in June 1788  On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year  On March 4, 1789, the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating 

New York Circular Letter
In New York, the majority of the Ratifying Convention was Anti-Federalist and they were not inclined to follow the Massachusetts Compromise  Led by Melancton Smith, they were inclined to make the ratification of New York conditional on prior proposal of amendments or, perhaps, insist on the right to secede from the union if amendments are not promptly proposed  Hamilton, after consulting with Madison, informed the Convention that this would not be accepted by Congress 
After ratification by the ninth state, New Hampshire, followed shortly by Virginia, it was clear the Constitution would go into effect with or without New York as a member of the Union  In a compromise, the New York Convention proposed to ratify, feeling confident that the states would call for new amendments using the convention procedure in Article V, rather than making this a condition of ratification by New York  John Jay wrote the New York Circular Letter calling for the use of this procedure, which was then sent to all the States  The legislatures in New York and Virginia passed resolutions calling for the convention to propose amendments that had been demanded by the States while several other states tabled the matter to consider in a future legislative session  Madison wrote the Bill of Rights partially in response to this action from the States 

Proposal and ratification
Anticipating amendments
The 1st United States Congress, which met in New York City's Federal Hall, was a triumph for the Federalists



ground_truth: average lifespan at 9.4 years

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What specific part of the book where the quote "by the skin of your teeth" comes from document reference for Mary?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia  The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina 
Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle  In retaliation for Madison's victory in that battle at Virginia's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates, had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison's planned congressional run and recruited Madison's future presidential successor, James Monroe, to oppose him  Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments forming a bill of rights at the First Congress Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, Madison had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates  By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government  Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised  But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty " He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability"  Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion"  Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights—useful—not essential—" On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 inauguration as the nation's first president, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution  He urged the legislators,

whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted 

Madison's proposed amendments
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration  Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble  Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government  Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress  Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one", limited to protecting individual rights Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments  The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms (although this applied only to Protestants) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment The greatest influence on Madison's text, however, was existing state constitutions  Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776  To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states  He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases " He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions  Madison proposed the following constitutional amendments:

First  That there be prefixed to the Constitution a declaration, that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from, the people 
That Government is instituted and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety 
That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their Government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution 
Secondly  That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made;" and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to—, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than—, nor more than—, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto "
Thirdly  That in article 1st, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit: "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of Representatives "
Fourthly  That in article 1st, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit: The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner, or on any pretext, infringed 
The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable 
The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good; nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person 
No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law 
No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same offence; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted 
The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property, from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized 
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence 
The exceptions here or elsewhere in the Constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people, or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the Constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution 
Fifthly  That in article 1st, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No State shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases 
Sixthly  That, in article 3d, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2d, these words, to wit: But no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to — dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law 
Seventhly  That in article 3d, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the clauses following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service, in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed  In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate 
Eighthly  That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this Constitution are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the Legislative Department shall never exercise the powers vested in the Executive or Judicial, nor the Executive exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Judicial, nor the Judicial exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Executive Departments 
The powers not delegated by this Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively 

Ninthly  That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th 

Crafting amendments
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government  The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution" before the galleries could shake public confidence  A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789 The eleven-member committee made some significant changes to Madison's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press"  The House debated the amendments for eleven days  Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution's end so that the document would "remain inviolate", rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed  The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789 The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own  Madison's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789  The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison's proposed changes to the preamble On September 21, 1789, a House–Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals  On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider  This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28 By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted  A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists' most effective critique  Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention  Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process  Historian Gordon S  Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress  There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights "

Ratification process
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789  The following states ratified some or all of the amendments:
New Jersey: Articles One and Three through Twelve on November 20, 1789, and Article Two on May 7, 1992
Maryland: Articles One through Twelve on December 19, 1789
North Carolina: Articles One through Twelve on December 22, 1789
South Carolina: Articles One through Twelve on January 19, 1790
New Hampshire: Articles One and Three through Twelve on January 25, 1790, and Article Two on March 7, 1985
Delaware: Articles Two through Twelve on January 28, 1790
New York: Articles One and Three through Twelve on February 24, 1790
Pennsylvania: Articles Three through Twelve on March 10, 1790, and Article One on September 21, 1791
Rhode Island: Articles One and Three through Twelve on June 7, 1790, and Article Two on June 10, 1993
Vermont: Articles One through Twelve on November 3, 1791
Virginia: Article One on November 3, 1791, and Articles Two through Twelve on December 15, 1791(After failing to ratify the 12 amendments during the 1789 legislative session )Having been approved by the requisite three-fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791), the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution  Congress, now meeting at Congress Hall in Philadelphia, was informed of this by President Washington on January 18, 1792 As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete  The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union (June 1, 1792)  On June 27, 1792, the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996 Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803  Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution  As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still pending before the states  Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted 
Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years  The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise  A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article  Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article's ratification with a letter-writing campaign to state legislatures  As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution  The amendment's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W  Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992 Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states  Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify  Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon  Both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two  All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights' sesquicentennial: Massachusetts on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19  Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively 

Application and text
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S  Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution " The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931  Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance" to develop that would support the Bill's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v  Baltimore (1833)  In the 20th century, however, most of the Bill's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment—a process known as incorporation—beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v  New York (1925)  In Talton v  Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments  Through the incorporation process the Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the states almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights  The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian/minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights  The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v  Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities  As the Court noted, the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts " This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections "

First Amendment
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances 
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances  Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today In Everson v  Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State", though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute  Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th- and 21st-century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections  The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co  v  Sullivan (1964)  Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media  In Near v  Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v  United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint—pre-publication censorship—in almost all cases  The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action  In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association 

Second Amendment
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed 
The Second Amendment protects the individual right to keep and bear arms  The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights  First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 (but there only applying to Protestants), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776  Long a controversial issue in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions 

In United States v  Cruikshank (1876), the Court ruled that "[t]he right to bear arms is not granted by the Constitution; neither is it in any manner dependent upon that instrument for its existence  The Second Amendment means no more than that it shall not be infringed by Congress, and has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the National Government "
In United States v  Miller (1939), the Court ruled that the amendment "[protects arms that had a] reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia" 
In District of Columbia v  Heller (2008), the Court ruled that the Second Amendment "codified a pre-existing right" and that it "protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home" but also stated that "the right is not unlimited  It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose" 
In McDonald v  Chicago (2010), the Court ruled that the Second Amendment limits state and local governments to the same extent that it limits the federal government 

Third Amendment
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law 
The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War  The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of November 2022, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision 

Fourth Amendment
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized 
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause  It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution  Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it  The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally cannot be introduced into a criminal trial  The amendment's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left-leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right-leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist 

Fifth Amendment
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation 
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self-incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain  The amendment was the basis for the court's decision in Miranda v  Arizona (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self-incrimination prior to interrogation by police; the Miranda warning 

Sixth Amendment
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense 
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial:

to a speedy and public trial
to trial by an impartial jury
to be informed of criminal charges
to confront witnesses
to compel witnesses to appear in court
to assistance of counselIn Gideon v  Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts 

Seventh Amendment
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law 
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars  It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials  In Colgrove v  Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members  The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to the states) 

Eighth Amendment
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted 
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive" open to interpretation  The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment  This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution  In Furman v  Georgia (1972), some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency" as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years  Executions resumed following Gregg v  Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines  The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v  Gamble (1976) and Brown v  Plata (2011) 

Ninth Amendment
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people 
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution  The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights  It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v  Connecticut (1965)  The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy  This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, Roe v  Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and Planned Parenthood v  Casey (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion 

Tenth Amendment
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people 
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people  The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government nor explicitly forbidden to the states 

Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states  The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing  The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire  Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the New York Public Library  North Carolina's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War  In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003  The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington, D C  since December 13, 1952 After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved  Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003  In his dedicatory remarks, President George W  Bush stated, "The true [American] revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power—the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all "In 1941, President Franklin D  Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights  In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states 

See also
Notes
Passage 6:
Linux Documentation Project
The Linux Documentation Project (LDP) is a dormant all-volunteer project that maintains a large collection of GNU and Linux-related documentation and publishes the collection online  It began as a way for hackers to share their documentation with each other and with their users, and for users to share documentation with each other  Its documents tend to be oriented towards experienced users such as professional system administrators, but it also contains tutorials for beginners 

History
The LDP originally began as an FTP site in 1992, but it went on the World Wide Web at MetaLab in 1993  It is believed to have been the first Linux related website ever Today, the LDP serves over 475 documents contributed by even more authors  About a dozen of them are book length, and most of those are available in print from major technical publishers including O'Reilly 
On 1 September 2008, LDP started a wiki to allow a better interaction with the authors and the users, with a plan to convert documentation to the wiki format 
and a list of pages to be ported Presently (as of July 2020), the LDP is no longer active; the last entry under "Recent Changes" dates from 2016-01-29, 
the last guide inserted from Mar 2014 

Content
The LDP published many HOWTO documents, which instruct a user on the specific steps to take to achieve a desired goal  
These goals are sometimes very specific, such as configuring a particular modem, and sometimes very broad, such as how to administer a network for an ISP 
Very broad topics were covered in the guides, which are book-length documents, usually on broad subjects such as security or networking 
The LDP also published Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) lists, man pages and other documents, as well as two webzines, the Linux Gazette and Linux Focus 
Much of the LDP collection is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL)  Many other licenses are also used, as long as they are freely distributable  Current policy recommends the GFDL 
Linux Network Administrator's Guide is one book in the series 
Passage 7:
Mammillaria mammillaris
Mammillaria mammilllaris, common name woolly nipple cactus, is a species of plant in the family Cactaceae  It is the type species of the genus Mammillaria  It has been described by Carolus Linnaeus as Cactus mammillaris in 1753  The specific epithet mammillaris comes from the Latin mammilla, meaning nipple, with reference to the characteristic tubercles 

Description
Mammillaria mammillaris is a perennial plant that grows solitary or forming small groups  The stems are spherical to short cylindrical, light green to dark green and reach a diameter of up to 20 centimeters  The conical tubercules contain latex  The 3-5 reddish brown central spines have a darker tip and are 7-8 millimeters long  The top pin is the longest  The 10 to 16 radial spines are reddish brown and greyish in old age  Axils have scant wool  The flowers are cream-white, funnel-shaped and have a length of 1 to 1 2 centimeters  The club-shaped red fruits are 10 to 20 millimeters long and contain little brown, rough seeds 

Distribution
This species is distributed in the Lesser Antilles to Trinidad and Tobago, Curaçao and the neighboring islands of the Netherlands Antilles and in Venezuela 

Habitat
Its natural habitat are the coastal and mountainous regions, at an elevation of 0–500 metres (0–1,640 ft) above sea level 



ground_truth: Genesis 3:15