prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The city where Dmitry Borisovich was born is located where in Russia?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Kaributas
Kaributas (Koribut, Korybut, baptized Dmitry; after 1350 – after 1404) was a son of Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and reigned in Severian Novgorod until 1393 
Kaributas was born some time after 1350 (exact date is unknown) to Algirdas of Lithuania and Uliana of Tver  Born a pagan, around 1380 he was baptised in the Orthodox rite and became the prince of Severian Novgorod  He adopted the Christian name of Dmitry and hence is sometimes referred to as Dmitry Korybut (a combination of his Slavicised Lithuanian name Kaributas and his Christian name)  He appeared in politics during the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384) when he supported his brother Jogaila against his uncle Kęstutis and cousin Vytautas  In 1382 he began a rebellion in Severian Novgorod, engaging Kęstutis' forces so that Jogaila could attack and capture lightly guarded Vilnius, capital of the Grand Duchy  He also witnessed the Treaty of Dubysa with the Teutonic Knights 
For his service, he was awarded possessions in Navahrudak and Lida  Kaributas continued to support Jogaila: he witnessed the Union of Krewo and fought in the Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392)  After the Ostrów Agreement, he refused to recognize Vytautas' superiority and was defeated in a battle near Lida in early 1393  Kaributas was imprisoned and stripped of his possessions  However, he was soon released and given Zbarazh, Bratslav, and Vinnytsia  Severian Novgorod was given to Fedor, son of Liubartas  Kaributas appeared last in written sources in 1404 during a military campaign waged by Vytautas against the Principality of Smolensk 
Kaributas' male-line descendants included Princes Zbaraski, Wiśniowiecki and, in the Russian Empire, Woroniecki, and Nieswicki, making these families Gediminid  King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki was named Korybut to foreground his agnatic descent from Kaributas 

Marriage and issue
Kaributas married Princess Anastasia, daughter of Grand Prince Oleg II of Ryazan, with whom he had three daughters and three sons  
Kaributas issue originated the Korybut coat of arms 

Helena (wife of John II "the Iron" Duke of Racibórz),
Fedor of Nesvich, Volhynia
Sigismund Korybut (a claimant to the Bohemian Crown),
Nastasia (wife of Fedor of Kashin)
Ivan
Passage 2:
Gmina Tarnów
Gmina Tarnów is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Tarnów County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, in southern Poland  Its seat is the city of Tarnów, although the city is not part of the territory of the gmina 
The gmina covers an area of 82 81 square kilometres (32 0 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 23,060 

Villages
Gmina Tarnów contains the villages and settlements of Biała, Błonie, Jodłówka-Wałki, Koszyce Małe, Koszyce Wielkie, Łękawka, Nowodworze, Poręba Radlna, Radlna, Tarnowiec, Wola Rzędzińska, Zawada, Zbylitowska Góra and Zgłobice 

Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Tarnów is bordered by the city of Tarnów and by the gminas of Czarna, Lisia Góra, Pleśna, Skrzyszów, Tuchów, Wierzchosławice, Wojnicz and Żabno 
Passage 3:
Kis-Küküllő County
Kis-Küküllő was an administrative county (comitatus) of the Kingdom of Hungary  Its territory is now in central Romania (central Transylvania)  Kis-Küküllő is the Hungarian name for the river Târnava Mică  The capital of the county was Dicsőszentmárton (now Târnăveni) 

Geography
Kis-Küküllő county shared borders with the Hungarian counties Alsó-Fehér, Torda-Aranyos, Maros-Torda, Udvarhely and Nagy-Küküllő  The river Mureș formed part of its northern border, the river Târnava Mare its southern border  Târnava Mică river flowed through the county  Its area was 1,724 km² around 1910 

History
Kis-Küküllő county came into existence in 1876, when the administrative structure of Transylvania was changed and Küküllő County was split  In 1920, by the Treaty of Trianon, the county became part of Romania  After the Second Vienna Award, a little part of the former county became part of Hungary again and was assigned to the recreated Maros-Torda County  Its territory lies in the present Romanian counties Mureș (a o  Târnăveni), Alba (the south-west) and Sibiu (the south, a o  Dumbrăveni) 

Demographics
Subdivisions
In the early 20th century, the subdivisions of Kis-Küküllő county were:

Notes
Passage 4:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 5:
Rostov
Rostov (Russian: Росто́в, IPA: [rɐˈstof]) is a town in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, one of the oldest in the country and a tourist center of the Golden Ring  It is located on the shores of Lake Nero, 202 kilometers (126 mi) northeast of Moscow  Population: 30,406 (2021 Census); 31,792 (2010 Census); 34,141 (2002 Census); 35,707 (1989 Census) While the official name of the town is Rostov, it is popularly known to Russians as Rostov Veliky (Russian: Ростов Великий, Rostov the Great) to distinguish it from the much larger city of Rostov-on-Don  The name of the town railway station is Rostov Yaroslavsky, due to its location in Yaroslavl Oblast 

History
Rostov was preceded by Sarskoye Gorodishche, which some scholars interpret as the capital of the Finnic Merya tribe  Others believe it was an important Viking trade enclave and fortress guarding the Volga trade route  It is known from Norse sources as Raðstofa  Scythians also settled there  These different ethnicities, such as the Vikings, Scyths, Slavs and Finns, were likely the ancestors of many of today's people in that region  First mentioned in documents in the year 862 as an already important settlement, by the 10th century Rostov became the capital city of Vladimir-Suzdal, one of the most prominent principalities in Rus'  It was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1474 After losing its independent status, Rostov was still an ecclesiastic center – from 988 it was the see of the Diocese of Yaroslavl, one of the first Russian bishoprics  In the 14th century, the bishops of Rostov became archbishops, and late in the 16th century, metropolitans  One of those metropolitans, Iona (Jonah) Sysoyevich (c  1607–1690), commissioned the town's main landmark: the Rostov Kremlin  This is regarded by some as the finest outside that of Moscow Ravaged by the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries (last sack by Edigu in 1408), and the Poles in 1608, Rostov survived as a medium-sized town  Late in the 18th century, the metropolitan see was transferred to Yaroslavl 
Rostov is renowned for manufacturing enamels 
On August 24, 1953, the town was hit by an F3 tornado, causing severe damage  The tornado traveled 6 kilometers with a maximum width of up to 550 meters 

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Rostov serves as the administrative center of Rostovsky District, even though it is not a part of it  As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the town of oblast significance of Rostov—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts  As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Rostov is incorporated within Rostovsky Municipal District as Rostov Urban Settlement 

Main sights
The architecture of the city shows many examples of early Russian Orthodox architecture  The central square of Rostov is occupied by the Assumption Cathedral  It is unknown when the present building was erected, the mid-16th century being the most likely date  Lower parts of the cathedral walls are dated to the 12th century  The ponderous bell-tower was constructed mostly in the 17th century  Its bells are among the largest and most famous in Russia - each has its own name  The largest bell, cast in 1688, weighs 32,000 kilograms (71,000 lb)  It is named Sysoy to honor the city's founding father  The church is home to the incorrupt body of Saint Leontius of Rostov An area situated between the cathedral square and the lake was chosen by Iona Sysoevich as a place for his fairy-tale residence  All the construction works were carried out between 1667 and 1694  Major buildings include the ornate Savior Church-na-Senyakh (1675), the sombre Church of St  Gregory (1670), and the barbican churches of St  John the Apostle (1683) and of the Resurrection of Christ (1670)  The residence, often erroneously called kremlin, also includes eleven ornate tower bells, numerous palaces, several small belfries, and the diminutive baroque Church of Our Lady of Smolensk (1693)  All the churches are elaborately painted and decorated 
The cathedral and four tall kremlin churches with their silver "blind" domes were imitated throughout the city  This is particularly evident in the Savior-on-the-Market church and the cathedral church of the Nativity convent, both dating from the 17th century and situated near the kremlin walls  The oldest church within the town center was consecrated to St  Isidore the Blessed in 1565  They say that Ivan the Terrible had the architect executed, because his church was so much smaller than its predecessor 
The kremlin is flanked by two monasteries, both facing the Lake Nero  To the right from the kremlin stands the Abraham monastery, founded in the 11th century and one of the oldest in Russia  Its cathedral, commissioned by Ivan the Terrible in 1553 to commemorate the conquest of Kazan, inspired numerous churches in the region, particularly in Yaroslavl 
Spaso-Yakovlevsky Monastery, situated to the left from the Kremlin on the town's outskirts, has been venerated as the shrine of St  Dmitry of Rostov  Most of the monastery structures were built in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in the fine neoclassical style  There are also two 17th-century churches: the Conception of St  Anna, and the Transfiguration of Our Savior  Unlike most other churches in the town, the monastery belongs to the Russian Orthodoxy and houses a theological seminary 

Surroundings
The vicinity of Rostov is rich in old architecture  For example, an old wooden church (1687–1689) may be seen in Ishnya  One of the best preserved monasteries in Russia, named after the saints Boris and Gleb, is situated in Borisoglebsky, about 20 kilometers (12 mi) west of the town  The monastery was favored by Ivan the Terrible, who personally supervised the construction of towered walls and bell-tower around an even more ancient cathedral  The only addition made to the monastery after Ivan's death is a barbican church, commissioned by the metropolitan Iona Sysoyevich 

Twin towns/sister cities
Jämsä, Finland
 Stevens Point, Wisconsin, USA

Rostov in films
Peter I (Russian: Пётр Первый) (1937), by Vladimir Petov
Ivan Vasilievich: Back to the Future (Russian: Иван Васильевич меняет профессию, Ivan Vasilievich Changes His Profession) (1973), by Leonid Gaidai

Notable people
Dmitry Borisovich (1253–1294), Russian nobleman
Konstantin of Rostov (1186–1218), the eldest son of Vsevolod the Big Nest and Maria Shvarnovna
Vasilko Konstantinovich (1209–1238), the first Prince of Rostov
Olena Kryvytska (born 1987), Ukrainian fencer
Lev Naumov (1925–2005), Russian classical pianist, composer and educator
Yuri Alexandrovich Bilibin (1901–1952), geologist
Vera Dmitrievna Titova (1888–?), Russian scientist and educator
Passage 6:
Dmitry Liss
Dmitry Liss (born 1960) is a Russian conductor  He is also the artistic director and chief conductor of the Ural Philharmonic Orchestra 

Biography
Born in 1960, Dmitry Liss is a graduate of the Moscow Conservatory  Upon graduation from the conservatory in 1984 he became a conductor of the Kuzbass Symphony Orchestra  In 1991 he was appointed to the position of Chief Conductor of this orchestra and at this time became the youngest chief conductor in Russia  Since 1995, Dmitry Liss has served as Artistic Director/Chief Conductor of the Ural Philharmonic Orchestra  Most recently, Liss was appointed Associate Conductor of the Russian National Orchestra (1999)  In 1997–1999 he was Principal Russian Conductor of the American Russian Youth Orchestra 

Activities
He has taken part in numerous international festivals and has recorded CDs for a variety of American, Russian, Japanese, Taiwanese, Belgian and Swiss companies 

Awards
Winner of the 1st International Competition of Young Conductors Lovro von Matačić (Zagreb, 1995) 
Artist Emeritus of Russia

External links
Dmitry Liss on the web-site of the Ural Philharmonic Orchestra
Dmitry Liss on the web-site of the Russian National Orchestra
(in English) Productions Internationales Albert Sarfati (World Management) : Dmitry Liss
DMITRY LISS: CONDUCTING IS SORT OF A DISEASE
Passage 7:
Gallaratese
Gallaratese is a district ("quartiere") of Milan, Italy, part of the Zone 8 administrative division of the city  It is located about 7 km north-west of the city centre  It borders on the comune of Pero to the north and on the districts of Trenno to the west and Lampugnano to the south; to the east, its ideal border is the eponymous street, which in turn is named after Gallarate, the town it leads to 

Overview
The district is clearly subdivided into two parts; the first one, in the area of Via Cechov, has developed after the other one, enclosed between Via Cilea and Via Apennini; this latter, older part of the district is sometimes referred to as quartiere San Leonardo  These two parts are connected by a major shopping mall called Bonola  
Gallaratese is one of the largest districts in Italy to have been built "from scratch" in the 20th century (between the 1960s and 1980s) in a previously rural area  The Olona river, which traverses the district, has been laid underground  The first buildings to be created in Gallaratese were large apartment blocks; smaller palaces were added later  Today, the district has a population of about 60,000  The district is well connected by public transportation; it has four stops of the Milan Metro subway and five bus lines traversing it  It is also close to major thoroughfares such as the Tangenziale and the Strada del Sempione  
A major landmark of the Gallaratese district is Monte Amiata, a complex of apartment blocks that were designed by Carlo Aymonino, and that are characterized by a futuristic architecture  The most typical buildings are the so-called "tower houses" (case torri in Italian, tower-shaped apartment blocks 

History
The project for the Gallaraterse district was first laid down by architect Piero Bottoni in the mid 20th century  The objective was to create a low-income housing district with green areas, effective traffic connection to the city, and functional public services  Construction began in 1957, from a first core of the district named "Gallaratese G 1"  The original plan by Bottoni was then refined and developed by over 60 architects, led by Gianluigi Reggio   A second and third part of the district, named "Gallaratese G 2" and "San Leonardo" respectively, were developed between 1964 and 1974   In those years, the "tower houses" that now characterize the Gallaratese' skyline were built   The final outcome was quite different from the original plans; the district was in fact developed with less green areas and less services than it had been planned, resulting in a definitely "satellite" district  
In the last decades of the 20th century the district has grown larger, gradually extending north up to the borders of Pero; the Bonola shopping mall was also created 

Footnotes
External links
Portal of the Gallaratese district (in Italian)
Passage 8:
Pesanggrahan, South Jakarta
Pesanggrahan is a district of South Jakarta one of the administrative cities which forms the capital territory of Jakarta, Indonesia  The Pesanggrahan River flows along the eastern edge of Pesanggrahan District  To the west of Pesanggrahan District is Tangerang and South Tangerang, Banten Province 
Pesanggrahan District was originally part of the Kebayoran Lama District, which was later made into a separate district 
A southwestern portion of the Jakarta Outer Ring Road and the Serpong-Jakarta railway passed through Pesanggrahan District 

Toponym
The name Pesanggrahan is derived from the name of the river Pesanggrahan along the eastern edge of the district 

Kelurahan (Administrative villages)
The district of Pesanggrahan is divided into five administrative villages (kelurahan):

Ulujami - area code 12250
Petukangan Utara - area code 12260
Petukangan Selatan - area code 12270
Pesanggrahan - area code 12320
Bintaro - area code 12330

List of important places

Budi Luhur University
Darunnajah Islamic Boarding School
Metro Mall Cipulir
Taman Swadharma
Passage 9:
Anatoly Chubais
Anatoly Borisovich Chubais (Russian: Анатолий Борисович Чубайс; born 16 June 1955) is a Russian politician and economist who was responsible for privatization in Russia as an influential member of Boris Yeltsin's administration in the early 1990s  During this period, he was a key figure in introducing a market economy and the principles of private ownership to Russia after the fall of the Soviet Union  He has the federal state civilian service rank of 1st class Active State Councillor of the Russian Federation From 1998 to 2008, he headed the state-owned electrical power monopoly RAO UES  A 2004 survey conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers and the Financial Times named Chubais the world's 54th most respected business leader  He was the head of the Russian Nanotechnology Corporation (RUSNANO) in 2008–2020  He was a member of the Advisory Council for JPMorgan Chase from September 2008 until 2013  From December 2020, he served as a special envoy of the Russian president for relations with international organisations On 23 March 2022, Chubais resigned from his position of special envoy and left Russia due to his opposition to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, according to media reports  He is the highest ranked Russian figure to resign due to the invasion 

Early life
Chubais was born on 16 June 1955 in the town of Borisov, Belarus, which was then part of the Soviet Union, the son of Raisa Efimovna (Sagal) and Boris Matveyevich Chubais  His father was Russian and his mother was Lithuanian Jewish  His father, a retired army colonel and veteran of World War II, was in the military at the time of Chubais' birth, and later worked as a lecturer of Philosophy  Though his mother received a degree in economics at university, she opted to stay home to care for their children on the military bases where her husband was regularly assigned  Anatoly Chubais has an older brother, Igor Chubais (born 1947), a philosopher In 1977, Chubais graduated from the Leningrad Institute of Engineering and Economics (LEEI) in present-day St  Petersburg and joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union until 1991 when he left it 

Career
Early career (1977–1991)
While later working at LEEI, Chubais started a club called Reforma, which helped turn the city of Leningrad into a model of political reform by constructing platforms for both local and national elections  Reforma also engaged in drafting reformist legislation, an important step down the road when Chubais would work in the city government  In 1982, he attained the rank of associate professor (доцент) at LEEI, while in 1983, he received his Candidate of Sciences (Ph D ) degree in Economics for the dissertation entitled "Исследование и разработка методов планирования совершенствования управления в отраслевых научно-технических организациях" (Research and Development of Methods for the Planned Improvement of Management in Industrial Research and Development Organizations) Starting in the early 1980s, Chubais became a leader of an informal circle of market-oriented economists in Leningrad  In 1982, together with economists Yury Yarmagayev and Grigory Glazkov, he published an article titled "Вопросы расширения хозяйственной самостоятельности предприятий в условиях научно-технического прогресса" (Questions of Expanding the Autonomy of Business Enterprises under the conditions of Scientific and Technological Progress) in which the authors argue that no amount of central planning can predict the end-demand for products  In 1982, Chubais was introduced to the future Prime Minister of Russia Yegor Gaidar, who was invited to and attended seminars led by Chubais By 1987, Chubais had become the organiser of the Leningrad chapter of the club Perestroyka, whose mission was to promote and discuss democratic ideas among the local intelligentsia  Among the people involved were his brother, Igor, who had founded the Moscow-based chapter of the Perestroyka and Perestroyka-88 clubs, future Russian Deputy Prime Minister Alexei Kudrin, future Chubais associates Pyotr Mostovoy and Alexander Kazakov, the future President of Saint Petersburg bank Vladimir Kogan, future Minister of Anti-Monopoly Policy and Entrepreneurship Support Ilya Yuzhanov, and future Deputy Governor of Saint Petersburg Mikhail Manevich The dissident economists organized a tulip farm to finance their seminars  In the four days before the International Women's Day (8 March), they managed to get income equivalent to the price of several Lada cars  The tulip money was used to finance the elections of Anatoly Sobchak, Yury Boldyrev and many other democratic candidates  As a result, 2/3 of the deputies winning the 1990 elections to Leningrad Soviet were from the opposition  Chubais himself later stated that he personally did not participate in growing or selling of the flowers At the end of 1990, the economist Vitaly Nayshul proposed the idea of using vouchers to facilitate mass privatization in order to transform the Soviet Union into a market economy  Chubais strongly criticized the scheme at the time, citing the inevitable inequality and social tensions that would result if implemented as proposed  Ironically, Chubais would later become the champion of the same concept just several years later 

Privatization chief in Leningrad (1990–1994)
In 1990, upon the election of Anatoly Sobchak as Chairman of the Leningrad City Council, Chubais assumed the position of his Deputy  He was trying to implement Sobchak's idea of creating a Free Economic Zone in Leningrad  In 1991, Chubais declined the offer to become the Chairman of Leningrad Ispolkom to instead become an advisor to the mayoral administration in Leningrad (by now renamed St  Petersburg) where Sobchak had just been elected mayor  At the same time, Chubais worked as the president of newly established Wassily Leontief Center for Research in Economics 

In Yeltsin government (1992–1999)
In November 1991, Chubais became a minister in the Yeltsin Cabinet where he managed the portfolio of Rosimushchestvo (the Committee for the Management of State Property) which was handling privatization in Russia Chubais originally advocated rapid privatization in order to raise revenue, similar to the model used in Hungary  However, the Congress of People's Deputies of Russia rejected this model  Eventually, a compromise was proposed in the form of a voucher privatization program akin to the program used in the Czech Republic at the time  On 11 June 1991, the Supreme Soviet of Russia adopted this compromise and the massive program was officially initiated by decree of President Boris Yeltsin on 19 August 1991  This privatization program later came under heavy criticism  While most Russian citizens lost their savings in only a few weeks, a few oligarchs rapidly became billionaires by arbitraging the vast difference between the old domestic prices for Russian commodities versus the prices prevailing on the world market  The people who benefited from this arbitrage became known as "kleptocrats" because they stashed billions of dollars in Swiss bank accounts rather than investing in the Russian economy 
From November 1994 until January 1996, Chubais held the position of deputy prime minister for economic and financial policy in the Russian government  Thanks to liberalizing reforms carried out in 1995, the Russian Government was finally enjoying a measure of financial stability, something its politicians had been seeking ever since the resignation of Yegor Gaidar in 1993  By the end of 1995, the average annual inflation rate had declined from 18% down to 3% From April 1995 until February 1996, Chubais also represented Russia in two international financial institutions – the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) After resigning as deputy prime minister in January 1996, Chubais agreed to manage Boris Yeltsin's reelection campaign  By this time according to public opinion surveys, Yeltsin's approval rating had fallen to roughly 3%  Chubais established the Civil Society Foundation as well as Yeltsin's Campaign Analytical Group, which became one part of the Foundation  The group helped Yeltsin regain popularity and win re-election in the second round of the polls on 3 July 1994, capturing 53 82% of the popular vote From July 1996 until March 1997, Chubais was the chief of the Russian Presidential Administration  During his tenure, his office grew increasingly influential Chubais participated in the Bilderberg Club session in Turnberry, Scotland in 1998, and co-chaired the Round Table of Industrialists of Russia and the EU during the joint session of the Government Commission of the Russian Federation and the European Union  He was also elected to the Board of Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs in 2000 According to Yeltsin's daughter and chief of staff Tatyana Yumasheva, Chubais opposed the nomination of Vladimir Putin as Prime Minister of Russia and Yeltsin's successor in 1999  Although Chubais believed Putin was qualified for the position, he feared that his appointment would be rejected by the State Duma, allow the Communist Party of the Russian Federation to gain a large enough parliamentary majority to amend the constitution, and start a civil war 

RAO Unified Energy System of Russia (1998–2008)
In 1998, Chubais was elected to the chairman of the board of RAO UES of Russia, the state-owned electricity monopoly, at a special general meeting of shareholders; he soon was also appointed chairman of the board Since 2000, Chubais consistently defended the need for further reform, which included dis-aggregating power generation, transmission, and distribution activities from the monopoly holding company in order to facilitate the subsequent sale of a majority of shares to private investors  Chubais was convinced that the un-bundling and privatization of the state monopoly were the only mechanisms able to raise the substantial funds needed to modernize Russia's electricity sector He was elected president of the CIS Electric Power Council (2000), and later was repeatedly re-elected to that post from 2001 to 2004 In addition to reforms, Chubais and his team raised more than $30 billion in private investments for the Russian electric power sector  The funds were used to finance the construction of new facilities: 130 new units with a total capacity of about 29,000 MW, 10,000 kilometers of transmission lines, 60,000 kilometers of distribution network lines, and thousands of electrical sub-stations of all classes of voltage  His reforms also helped eliminate the use of barter payments and significantly reduced the number of payment defaults in the sector On 17 March 2005, he survived an assassination attempt  Vladimir Kvachkov was charged for the crime, but was acquitted by a jury In 2007, the Russian newspaper Vedomosti named Chubais the "Professional of the Year"  The paper called him the only professional reformer in Russia because of his achievements in breaking of one monopoly into dozens of independent entities, introducing market forces into the electricity distribution system, and transforming a government institution structure into one attractive for private investment and management In July 2008, RAO UES of Russia ceased to exist as a legal entity 

RUSNANO (2008–2020)
Since September 2008, Chubais has been General Manager of the State Corporation Rosnanotech The official business of the corporation is to promote innovation and modernization in Russia's economy in several areas  For example, RUSNANO forms an important part of the government's strategy to find economic alternatives to fossil fuels   The corporation has set a target of 900 billions rubles in sales by 2015  In the past, Chubais has compared RUSNANO to a garden in which the corporation cultivates innovative business ventures  Over its eight years of operation (2007–2015), RUSNANO has completed over 100 investment projects which resulted in the opening of 68 new plants and 28 R&D centers  As stated in the annual RUSNANO groups' financial report, the value of RUSNANO's portfolio was estimated in 2015 at 227 7 billion rubles and its net income at 17 billion rubles Chubais has been a member of the Skolkovo Foundation Council since 2010, and in 2011 was elected chairman of the board of LTD RUSNANO He left the organization in December 2020 

Resignation (2022)
On 23 March 2022, after Russia launched a large-scale invasion of Ukraine, Chubais quit his official positions, including that as climate envoy, stating that he was opposed to the invasion, according to media reports  Kremlin spokesperson Dmitry Peskov confirmed that Chubais had resigned, but did not specify why, stating: "Whether he left or not is his personal matter"  Chubais left Russia, arriving in Istanbul, Turkey, on the same day, planning to remain abroad  Alexei Navalny's spokesperson, Kira Yarmysh, suggested that Chubais had "left Russia only out of fear for his own skin and his own money"  He was the highest ranked Kremlin official to resign following the start of the invasion, though he is not a member of Putin's inner circle 

Personal life
Chubais is married to Dunya Smirnova (a screenwriter and TV presenter), and has two children from his first marriage: a son, Aleksey, and a daughter, Olga On 1 August 2022, Chubais told Russian journalist Ksenia Sobchak that he had been hospitalised with the neurological disorder Guillain-Barré syndrome, though Sardinian newspaper L’Unione Sarda reported that Italian authorities had not yet ruled out poisoning, and Italian intelligence services are awaiting his blood toxicology results in order to make sure he was not poisoned Chubais currently lives in Israel and received Israeli citizenship in May 2023 

Involvement in political parties
In June 1993, Anatoly Chubais co-founded the "Russia's Choice" electoral bloc (Vybor Rossii), which was headed by Yegor Gaidar  In December 1993, running under this bloc, Chubais was elected as a deputy to the Russian State Duma in its first convocation On 12–13 July 1994, Chubais was elected to the governing council of the party "Democratic Choice of Russia", which had been built off the electoral bloc "Russia's Choice"  In December 1998, Chubais became a member of the Organizing Committee of Right Cause coalition and was elected to the Steering Committee of the Organizing Committee of this coalition In July 1996, Chubais founded the "Center for Protection of Private Property" Foundation In May 2000, Chubais was elected co-chairman of the Coordinating Council of the Russian National Political Organization "Union of Right Forces" at its founding congress  He was also later elected co-president and a member of the Federal Political Council on 26 May 2001, during the founding congress of the "Union of Right Forces" Party (SPS) On 24 January 2004, he resigned from his post as co-chair of the party but remained on the Federal Political Council of the SPS party In May 2010, Chubais became the chairman of the board of trustees of the Gaidar Foundation, jointly established by the Gaidar Institute for Economic Policy and Maria Strugatsky 

Awards
In 1997, the British magazine Euromoney named him the world's best Minister of Finance In December 2001, Chubais was awarded an honorary diploma of International Award by the International Union of Economists for his significant contributions to the Russian Federation, specifically his work applying advanced international experience to introduce contemporary methods of organizing administration, economics, finances and production processes In 2008, Chubais was awarded a Presidential Commendation for helping draft part of the Russian Constitution as well as his overall contributions to democracy in Russia In 2010, Chubais was honored by with IV degree Order For Merit to the Fatherland "for outstanding contribution to the implementation of state policy in the field of nanotechnology and many years of favorable work" Chubais received three presidential commendations (awarded in 1995, 1997 and 1998) and as well as one honorary Ph D  from the St  Petersburg State Engineering and Economic University 
Passage 10:
Sokolniki District
Sokolniki District (Russian: райо́н Соко́льники) is a district of the Eastern Administrative Okrug of the federal city of Moscow located in the north-east corner of the city  Population: 57,444 (2010 Census); 54,975 (2002 Census) 

Etymology
Sokolniki derives its name from the word "сокол" (sokol,  meaning "falcon") in view of the Tsar's falcon hunting grounds which were located there, primarily on the territory of the present-day Sokolniki Park  The district also provides the name for one of its metro stations: Sokolniki Metro Station 

Sports
The district is home to the FC and HC Spartak Moscow  The latter plays its games in the Sokolniki Sports Palace located within Sokolniki Park 

Miscellaneous
 
In 2006, after twenty years of construction and changing ownership, a twenty-storey hotel finally opened overlooking the Sokolniki metro station and Sokolniki Square  This hotel is now the Holiday Inn Sokolniki 
In Tolstoy's War and Peace, Pierre fights a duel in Sokolniki 
The Elite House in Sokolniki will soon be one of the largest buildings in the world with DuPont Tyvek used as a weather and water barrier 
Passage 11:
Dmitri N  Smirnov (footballer)
Dmitri Nikolayevich Smirnov (Russian: Дмитрий Николаевич Смирнов; born 9 November 1980) is a Russian former footballer  He is not related to Dmitry Alexandrovich Smirnov with whom he played on the same team for several years for FC Torpedo-ZIL Moscow, Luch and Tom  To avoid confusion, he is usually referred to as Dmitri N  Smirnov 

External links
(in Russian) Player page on the official Luch website
Dmitri N  Smirnov at Russian Premier League
Passage 12:
Cyprus Popular Bank
Cyprus Popular Bank (from 2006 to 2011 known as Marfin Popular Bank) was the second-largest banking group in Cyprus behind the Bank of Cyprus until it was 'shuttered' in March 2013 and split into two parts  The 'good' Cypriot part was merged into the Bank of Cyprus (including insured deposits under 100,000 Euro) and the 'bad' part or legacy entity holds all the overseas operations as well as uninsured deposits above 100,000 Euro, old shares and bonds  The uninsured depositors were subject to a bail-in and became the new shareholders of the legacy entity   As at May 2017, the legacy entity is one of the largest shareholders of Bank of Cyprus with 4 8% but does not hold a board seat  All the overseas operations, of the now defunct Cyprus Popular Bank, are also held by the legacy entity, until they are sold by the Special Administrator, at first Ms Andri Antoniadou, who ran the legacy entity for two years, from March 2013 until 3 March 2015  She tendered her resignation due to disagreements, with the Governor of the Central Bank of Cyprus and the Central Bank Board members, who amended the lawyers of the legacy entity, without consulting her  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou who is an expert in Treasury and risk management took over as Special Administrator of the legacy entity in April 2015 until December 2016  The legacy entity is pursuing legal action against former major shareholder Marfin Investment Group 
Its shares were listed on the Cyprus Stock Exchange and the Athens Stock Exchange  CPB had a network of more than 295 branches in Cyprus, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, the UK and Malta  The bank had applied to open a representative office in Beijing, People's Republic of China Trading on the island as Laiki Bank (Laiki being the Greek word for Popular), as of September 2012 it held a 16% share of the market in loans and a 14 4% share of deposits   The Bank made a series of large loans, many to Greek companies prior to and during their financial crisis  What followed has been described as "billions handed out in bad loans created a financial time-bomb"  After the bank collapsed, it was rescued by the Cypriot government, which took 84% ownership on 30 June 2012 and as of March 2013 it is being dismantled as part of the 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis 

History
In 1901, four leading citizens of Limassol—Agathoclis Francoudis, Ioannis Kyriakides, Christodoulos Sozos and Neoklis Ioannides—established the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to encourage saving among the workforce  More than two decades later, in 1924, the bank changed its name from the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to the Popular Bank of Limassol  The bank also became the first company in Cyprus to register as a public-traded company 
Then in 1967, the Popular Bank of Limassol changed its name to Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) to reflect the bank’s expansion beyond Limassol  Expansion beyond Limassol followed quickly, with the establishment of its first branches in Nicosia,  Famagusta (1969), and Paphos and Larnaca (1970)  Also in 1970, Midland Bank acquired 22% of the company's shares, making Midland a major shareholder in CPB  The next year CPB relocated its headquarters from Limassol to Nicosia 

1974 CPB established its first London branch 
1983 CPB acquired all the Cyprus operations of Grindlays Bank located in the area under government control 
1992 CPB opened the first branch of European Popular Bank in Athens  CPB owned 58% of the shares of the bank; other shareholders included HSBC (formerly Midland Bank) and Greek and Cypriot investors  CPB retained branches in Heraklion and Thessaloniki
1995 CPB opened its first representative offices in South Africa and in Toronto, Ontario, Canada 
1996 CPB opened its first representative offices in Australia 
1997 CPB opened its first representative offices in Serbia and in Russia ("Rosprombank")
1998 CPB establishes a representative office in New York  (NY State Banking Dept says State chartered) 
2000 The Cyprus Popular Bank Group changed its name to Laiki Group 
2001 The Laiki Group established a subsidiary in Australia with five branches 
2005 The Group established Laiki Bank (Guernsey), and purchased Bank Centrobank in Serbia 
2006 The Greek Marfin Investment Group acquired HSBC's shares in Laiki Bank, establishing a strong minority share position   Subsequently, the Marfin Investment Group through more acquisitions managed to take control of Laiki Bank, which it re-branded as Marfin Popular Bank   In Greece, the Marfin Group consolidated Egnatia, Laiki and Marfin to form Marfin Egnatia Bank, which is the 95%-owned Greek subsidiary of Marfin Popular Bank 
2007 The bank announced the planned takeover of 50 12% of the share capital of AS SBM Pank, a bank in Estonia MPB also acquired 99 2% of the shares of Marine Transport Bank Ukraine for US$156 million  This bank was founded in 1993 as Marine Trade Bank and changed its name to Marine Transport Bank in 1996  It has its headquarters in the Odesa region and has 86 branches 
Lastly, MPB acquired 43% of the share capital of Lombard Bank Malta for €48 million from Banca della Svizzera Italiana (BSI) of Lugano  CPB now holds c  49% of Lombard Bank Malta In 2007, the bank announced a multi-million financial deal to sponsor the football First Division in Cyprus until 2010 
2008 Marfin Popular Bank completed its acquisition of 50 4% of the shares of CJSC RPB Holding, parent company of the Rossisysky Promishlenny Bank (Rosprombank), for €83 million  The acquisition makes Marfin the first Greek or Cypriot bank to acquire control of a bank in Russia 
In 2010, they launched a new mobile banking and mobile trading service  In the same year, the company was selected as the bank of the year in Cyprus by the Banker 
2010 MPB sold 85% of Laiki Bank Australia to Bank of Beirut  The Australian bank received a new name, Beirut Hellenic Bank  At the time, the bank had a branch in Adelaide, four branches in Melbourne and five branches in Sydney 
2011 MPB sold the majority of its shareholding in its Estonian subsidiary and returned to its historic name of Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) 
In 2012 CPB converted its Greek subsidiary into a branch of the parent bank 
The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis resulted in financial difficulties at CPB  The Cypriot state recapitalized CPB on 30 June 2012 with the result that the government acquired 84% of the bank's equity  This increased the bank's core tier 1 capital ratio towards 9%, the level mandated by the European Banking Authority 
In early 2013 CPB renamed its Greek branches to CPB Bank and on 26 March the bank sold them to Piraeus Bank  Laiki was split into a good and bad bank, the good bank (Cyprus operations) merged with Bank of Cyprus and the bad bank is in the process of being sold and finally shuttered  The board and CEO were replaced on 27 March  The bad bank was being run by a Special Administrator Ms Andri Antoniadou who was acting CEO until 3 March 2015  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou took over as Special Administrator in April 2015 until December 2016 In 2018 European Court dismisses compensation claim in Cyprus 2013 deposit-grab 
Passage 13:
Shostakovich Peninsula
Shostakovich Peninsula is an ice-covered peninsula lying north of Stravinsky Inlet and extending into Bach Ice Shelf in southern Alexander Island, Antarctica  The peninsula was first mapped by Directorate of Overseas Surveys from satellite imagery of Antarctica supplied by U S  National Aeronautics and Space Administration in cooperation with U S  Geological Survey  Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian composer (1906-1975)  Shostakovich Peninsula is one of the eight peninsulas of Alexander Island 

See also
Derocher Peninsula
Harris Peninsula
Pesce Peninsula
 This article incorporates public domain material from "Shostakovich Peninsula"  Geographic Names Information System  United States Geological Survey 
Passage 14:
Sikyona
Sikyona (Greek: Σικυώνα) is a municipality in Corinthia, Greece  The seat of the municipality is in Kiato  Sikyona takes its name from the ancient city Sicyon, which was located in the same territory 

Municipality
The municipality Sikyona was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities, that became municipal units:
Feneos
Sikyona
StymfaliaThe municipality has an area of 602 539 km2, the municipal unit 171 268 km2  The municipal unit Sikyona is subdivided into the following communities:
Archaia Sikyona-Vasiliko
Bozikas
Diminio
Gonoussa
Kato Diminio
Sikyona (Kiato)
Klimenti
Kryoneri
Laliotis
Megas Valtos
Mikros Valtos
Moulki
Paradeisi
Pasi
Souli
Titani

Historical population
Passage 15:
Federalism
Federalism is a combined and compound mode of government that combines a general government (the central or "federal" government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial, or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system, dividing the powers between the two  Federalism in the modern era was first adopted in the unions of states during the Old Swiss Confederacy Federalism differs from confederalism, in which the general level of government is subordinate to the regional level, and from devolution within a unitary state, in which the regional level of government is subordinate to the general level  It represents the central form in the pathway of regional integration or separation, bounded on the less integrated side by confederalism and on the more integrated side by devolution within a unitary state Examples of a federation or federal province or state include Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Iraq, Malaysia, Mexico, Micronesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States  Some characterize the European Union as the pioneering example of federalism in a multi-state setting, in a concept termed the "federal union of states" 

Overview
Etymology
The terms "federalism" and "confederalism" share a root in the Latin word foedus, meaning "treaty, pact or covenant"  Their common early meaning until the late eighteenth century was a simple league or inter-governmental relationship among sovereign states based on a treaty  They were therefore initially synonyms  It was in this sense that James Madison in Federalist No 39 had referred to the new US Constitution as "neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both" (i e  as constituting neither a single large unitary state nor a league/confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two)  In the course of the nineteenth century United States, the meaning of federalism would come to shift, strengthening to refer uniquely to the novel compound political form established at the Philadelphia Convention, while the meaning of confederalism would remain at a league of states 

Origin
In the narrow sense, federalism refers to the mode in which the body politic of a state is organized internally, and this is the meaning most often used in modern times  Political scientists, however, use it in a much broader sense, referring instead to a "multi-layer or pluralistic concept of social and political life "The first forms of federalism took place in ancient times, in the form of alliances between states  Some examples from the seventh to second century B C  were the Archaic League, the Aetolic League, the Peloponnesian League, and the Delian League  An early ancestor of federalism was the Achaean League in Hellenistic Greece  Unlike the Greek city states of Classical Greece, each of which insisted on keeping its complete independence, changing conditions in the Hellenistic period drove many city states to band together even at the cost of losing part of their sovereignty  Subsequent unions of states included the first and second Swiss Confederations (1291–1798 and 1815–48), the United Provinces of the Netherlands (1579–1795), the German Bund (1815–66), the first American union known as the Confederation of the United States of America (1781–89), and second American union formed as the United States of America (1789–1865) 

Political theory
Modern federalism is a political system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments  The term federalist describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context  Since the term federalization also describes distinctive political processes, its use as well depends on the context In political theory, two main types of federalization are recognized:

integrative, or aggregative federalization, designating various processes like: integration of non-federated political subjects by creating a new federation, accession of non-federated subjects into an existing federation, or transformation of a confederation into a federation
devolutive, or dis-aggregative federalization: transformation of a unitary state into a federation

Reasons for adoption
According to Daniel Ziblatt, there are four competing theoretical explanations in the academic literature for the adoption of federal systems:

Ideational theories, which hold that a greater ideological commitment to decentralist ideas in society makes federalism more likely to be adopted 
Cultural-historical theories, which hold that federal institutions are more likely to be adopted in societies with culturally or ethnically fragmented populations 
"Social contract" theories, which hold that federalism emerges as a bargain between a center and a periphery where the center is not powerful enough to dominate the periphery and the periphery is not powerful enough to secede from the center 
"Infrastructural power" theories, which hold that federalism is likely to emerge when the subunits of a potential federation already have highly developed infrastructures (e g  they are already constitutional, parliamentary, and administratively modernized states) Immanuel Kant noted that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils" so long as they possess an appropriate constitution which pits opposing factions against each other with a system of checks and balances  In particular individual states required a federation as a safeguard against the possibility of war Proponents for federal systems have historically argued that the power-sharing inherent in federal systems reduces both domestic security threats and foreign threats  Federalism allows states to be large and diverse, mitigating the risk of a tyrannical government through centralization of powers 

Examples
Many countries have implemented federal systems of government with varying degree of central and regional sovereignty  The federal government of these countries can be divided into minimalistic federations, consisting of only two sub-federal units or multi-regional, those that consist of three to dozens of regional governments  They can also be grouped based on their body polity type, such as emirate, provincial, republican or state federal systems  Another way to study federated countries is by categorizing them into those whose entire territory is federated as opposed to only part of its territory comprising the federal portion of the country  Some federal systems are national systems while others, like the European Union are supra national 
In general, two extremes of federalism can be distinguished: at one extreme, the strong federal state is almost completely unitary, with few powers reserved for local governments; while at the other extreme, the national government may be a federal state in name only, being a confederation in actuality  Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium or Bosnia and Herzegovina 
The governments of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, India, and Mexico, among others, are also organized along federalist principles 
In Canada, federalism typically implies opposition to sovereigntist movements (most commonly Quebec separatism)  In 1999, the Government of Canada established the Forum of Federations as an international network for exchange of best practices among federal and federalizing countries  Headquartered in Ottawa, the Forum of Federations partner governments include Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan and Switzerland 

Europe vs  the United States
In Europe, "federalist" is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels  The Union of European Federalists advocates for this development within the European Union, ultimately leading to the United States of Europe  Although there are medieval and early modern examples of European states which used confederal and federal systems, contemporary European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill's speech in Zürich in 1946 In the United States, federalism originally referred to belief in a stronger central government  When the U S  Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while "Anti-Federalists" wanted a weaker central government  This is very different from the modern usage of "federalism" in Europe and the United States  The distinction stems from the fact that "federalism" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state  The U S  Constitution was written as a replacement for the Articles of Confederation, under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government 
In contrast, Europe has a greater history of unitary states than North America, thus European "federalism" argues for a weaker central government, relative to a unitary state  The modern American usage of the word is much closer to the European sense  As the power of the U S  federal government has increased, some people have perceived a much more unitary state than they believe the Founding Fathers intended  Most people politically advocating "federalism" in the United States argue in favor of limiting the powers of the federal government, especially the judiciary (see Federalist Society, New Federalism) 
The contemporary concept of federalism came about with the creation of an entirely new system of government that provided for democratic representation at two governing levels simultaneously, which was implemented in the US Constitution  In the United States implementation of federalism, a bicameral general government, consisting of a chamber of popular representation proportional to population (the House of Representatives), and a chamber of equal State-based representation consisting of two delegates per State (the Senate), was overlaid upon the pre-existing regional governments of the thirteen independent States  With each level of government allocated a defined sphere of powers, under a written constitution and the rule of law (that is, subject to the independent third-party arbitration of a supreme court in competence disputes), the two levels were thus brought into a coordinate relationship for the first time 
In 1946, Kenneth Wheare observed that the two levels of government in the US were "co-equally supreme"  In this, he echoed the perspective of American founding father James Madison who saw the several States as forming "distinct and independent portions of the supremacy" in relation to the general government 

Constitutional structure
Division of powers
In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution  Almost every country allows some degree of regional self-government, but in federations the right to self-government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched  Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence 
In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers  Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition  Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871  The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states  The Constitution of some countries, like Canada and India, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial/state governments are retained by the federal government  Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility  Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of Union competence or shared between the Union and the Member States as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent States 

Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find 'symmetric federalism'  Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do  This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions  In Spain, the Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians, spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the "historical communities" such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country  They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities (called also the "coffee for everyone" arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history  However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federation, but a system of asymmetric devolved government within a unitary state 
It is common that during the historical evolution of a federation there is a gradual movement of power from the component states to the centre, as the federal government acquires additional powers, sometimes to deal with unforeseen circumstances  The acquisition of new powers by a federal government may occur through formal constitutional amendment or simply through a broadening of the interpretation of a government's existing constitutional powers given by the courts 
Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities  Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities  Each state is divided into municipalities (municípios) with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government  Each municipality has a "little constitution", called "organic law" (lei orgânica)  Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full-autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities (municipio libre, "free municipality") is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions  Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states  However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly 
Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood) in themselves  For example, James Madison (author of the US Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No  39 that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both  In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national   " This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent  This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people 

Bicameralism
The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states  One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions  Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole  A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population 
Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913, or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in the Council of the European Union  The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats 

Intergovernmental relations
In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government  A First Ministers conference of the prime minister and the provincial premiers is the de facto highest political forum in the land, although it is not mentioned in the constitution 

Constitutional change
Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution  As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent  An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect  In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons  In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority 
Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state  The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent  In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states  Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces  The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system 

Other technical terms
Fiscal federalism – the relative financial positions and the financial relations between the levels of government in a federal system 
Formal federalism (or 'constitutional federalism') – the delineation of powers is specified in a written constitution, which may or may not correspond to the actual operation of the system in practice 
Executive federalism refers in the English-speaking tradition to the intergovernmental relationships between the executive branches of the levels of government in a federal system and in the continental European tradition to the way constituent units 'execute' or administer laws made centrally 
Gleichschaltung – the conversion from a federal governance to either a completely unitary or more unitary one, the term was borrowed from the German for conversion from alternating to direct current  During the Nazi era the traditional German states were mostly left intact in the formal sense, but their constitutional rights and sovereignty were eroded and ultimately ended and replaced with the Gau system  Gleichschaltung also has a broader sense referring to political consolidation in general 
defederalize – to remove from federal government, such as taking a responsibility from a national level government and giving it to states or provinces

In relation to conflict
It has been argued that federalism and other forms of territorial autonomy are a useful way to structure political systems in order to prevent violence among different groups within countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level  Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto-states  Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms that encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries Federalism is sometimes viewed in the context of international negotiation as "the best system for integrating diverse nations, ethnic groups, or combatant parties, all of whom may have cause to fear control by an overly powerful center " However, those skeptical of federal prescriptions sometimes believe that increased regional autonomy can lead to secession or dissolution of the nation  In Syria, for example, federalization proposals have failed in part because "Syrians fear that these borders could turn out to be the same as the ones that the fighting parties have currently carved out "

See also
Notes and references
Sources
External links

P -J  Proudhon (1863), The Principle of Federation 
Passage 16:
Yuri Chesnokov (volleyball)
Yuri Borisovich Chesnokov (Russian: Юрий Борисович Чесноков; January 22, 1933 – May 30, 2010) was a Russian volleyball player who competed for the Soviet Union in the 1964 Summer Olympics  He was born in Moscow 
Chesnokov was a two-time world champion, having won gold at the 1960 and the 1962 competitions  In 1964 he was part of the Soviet team which won the gold medal in the Olympic tournament  He played eight matches  After his active career, he coached the Soviet team at the 1972 and 1976 Olympics, and later served as a FIVB vice-president for many years  In 2000 he was inducted into the Volleyball Hall of Fame 
Passage 17:
Dmitry Borisovich
Dmitry Borisovich (Russian: Дмитрий Борисович; 11 September 1253, in Rostov – 1294, in Rostov) was a Russian nobleman  He was the eldest of the three sons of Prince Rostov Boris Vasylkovych from his marriage to Princess Maria Yaroslavna of Murom  He was Prince of Rostov (1278–1286 and 1288–1294) and Prince of Uglich (1285–1288) 

Sources
http://www biografija ru/show_bio aspx?id=112862
Context 2: Passage 1:
Standing Rules of the United States Senate
The Standing Rules of the Senate are the parliamentary procedures adopted by the United States Senate that govern its procedure  The Senate's power to establish rules derives from Article One, Section 5 of the United States Constitution: "Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings    "
There are currently forty-five rules, with the latest revision adopted on January 24, 2013  The most recent addition of a new rule occurred in 2006, when The Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006 introduced a 44th rule on earmarks  The stricter rules are often waived by unanimous consent 

Outline of rules
Quorum
The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business  Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed to be present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise  Any senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present  In practice, senators almost always request quorum calls not to establish the presence of a quorum, but to temporarily delay proceedings without having to adjourn the session  Such a delay may serve one of many purposes; often, it allows Senate leaders to negotiate compromises off the floor or to allow senators time to come to the Senate floor to make speeches without having to constantly be present in the chamber while waiting for the opportunity  Once the need for a delay has ended, any senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call 

Debate
The Senate is presided over by the Presiding Officer, either the President of the Senate (the Vice President) or more often the President pro tempore (in special cases the Chief Justice presides)  During debates, senators may speak only if called upon by the Presiding Officer  The Presiding Officer is, however, required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak  Thus, the Presiding Officer has little control over the course of debate  Customarily, the majority leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates, even if another senator rises first  All speeches must be addressed to the Presiding Officer, using the words "Mr  President" or "Madam President"  Only the Presiding Officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person  In most cases, senators refer to each other not by name, but by state, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia" or "the junior senator from California" 
There are very few restrictions on the content of speeches, and there is no requirement that speeches be germane to the matter before the Senate 
The Senate Rules provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day (a legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends when it adjourns; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day)  The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please  Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits  In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute  In general, however, the right to unlimited debate is preserved 

Filibuster
The filibuster is an obstructionary tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely  A filibuster may entail, but does not actually require, long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments  The longest filibuster speech in the history of the Senate was delivered by Strom Thurmond, who spoke for over twenty-four hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957  The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture  In most cases, cloture requires the support of three-fifths of the Senate  Cloture is invoked very rarely, particularly because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority  If the Senate does invoke cloture, debate does not end immediately; instead, further debate is limited to thirty additional hours unless increased by another three-fifths vote 

Closed session
On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session  During a closed session, the chamber doors are closed and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or not essential to the session  Closed sessions are rare and are usually held only under certain circumstances in which the Senate is discussing sensitive subject matter, such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or discussions of Senate deliberations during impeachment trials  Any Senator has the right to call a closed session as long as the motion is seconded 

Voting
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote  In many cases, the Senate votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye!" (in favor of the motion) or "No!" (against the motion)  The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote  Any senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer's assessment and request a recorded vote  The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one-fifth of the senators present  In practice, however, senators second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy  When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; each senator responds when their name is called  Senators who miss the roll call may still cast a vote as long as the recorded vote remains open  The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer but must remain open for a minimum of fifteen minutes  If the vote is tied, the Vice President, if present, is entitled to a casting vote  If the Vice President is not present, however, the motion is resolved in the negative 

Committees
Tasks in the Senate are divided among sixteen standing committees, four select committees, four joint committees, and occasionally temporary committees  Senate rules establish the policy jurisdictions of each committee; for example, the Committee on Foreign Relations deals with all matters relating to foreign policy  Committees act, in effect, as "little legislatures", monitoring ongoing governmental operations, identifying issues suitable for legislative review, gathering and evaluating information, and recommending courses of action to their parent body in matters relating to their jurisdiction  Senate rules give committees significant gatekeeping authority over legislation that falls under their jurisdiction, with proposed bills submitted to the relevant committee, which can hold hearings, "mark up" bills, consolidate bills into a "clean bill", or ignore the bill altogether (there exist some workarounds for Senators to circumvent committees, but in general Senators work through the committee system) The size of each standing committee is established by Senate rules  The makeup of committees are established through inter-party negotiations before each new Congress, with the percentage of a party's representation within the Senate determining the percentage of seats it will have on each committee 

Reconciliation
Legislation affecting spending, revenues, and the federal debt limit is governed under a special rules process called "Reconciliation" that prohibits filibusters by limiting debate to twenty hours  Congress can pass up to three reconciliation bills per year, with each bill addressing one of the topics of reconciliation (revenue, spending, or the debt limit)  However, if Congress passes a reconciliation bill affecting more than one of those topics, it cannot pass another reconciliation bill later in the year affecting one of the topics addressed by the previous reconciliation bill  In practice, reconciliation bills have usually been passed once per year at most  Reconciliation cannot be used to enact or rescind discretionary spending (which is controlled through the annual appropriations process) or adjust Social Security spending, and is limited by the Byrd Rule, which allows senators to block provisions that are "extraneous" to spending, revenues, or the debt limit Reconciliation was created by the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, and significantly altered with the introduction of the Byrd Rule in 1985 (amended in 1990)  Originally infrequently used (it did not see first use until 1980) 

Nominations
Selected public positions in the United States are appointed by the president but require Senate approval  Senate rule XXXI governs the Senate process for considering the president's nominations 
For most positions the nomination is passed first to a Senate committee for review  Generally it is the Senate committee with jurisdiction over the topic or department related to the position to be filled A public hearing by the committee is possible  Historically about half of civilian appointees were approved without a hearing  After consideration, the committee can report a favorable recommendation, or an unfavorable recommendation, or it can report no recommendation  It can also fail to act  To simplify the process, and with the support of the committee, the Senate by unanimous consent might discharge a nomination from the committee without the committee having acted It is up to the leadership of the Senate to then place the nomination on the Senate calendar for a vote in executive session  Some nominations are passed by unanimous consent  The leadership may delay putting a nomination on the calendar, in which case it may not be acted upon 

Nomination Time Limit
Paragraph 6 of rule XXXI specifies that if final action has not been taken before Congress adjourns the nomination is returned to the President  By the same rule nominations are returned when the Senate goes into recess for more than 30 days  However, in modern practice some nominations may stay active over long recesses if the Senate holds pro forma sessions during recess or agrees to suspend the rule by unanimous consent  When a nomination is returned without action, the president may nominate a different person or re-nominate the same person 

Rules by number
There are currently forty-four Standing Rules of the Senate:
SR Rule I: Appointment of a Senator to the Chair
SR Rule II: Presentation of Credentials and Questions of Privilege
SR Rule III: Oaths
SR Rule IV: Commencement of Daily Sessions
SR Rule V: Suspension and Amendment of the Rules
SR Rule VI: Quorum – Absent Senators May Be Sent For
SR Rule VII: Morning Business
SR Rule VIII: Order of Business
SR Rule IX: Messages
SR Rule X: Special Orders
SR Rule XI: Papers – Withdrawal, Printing, Reading of, and Reference
SR Rule XII: Voting Procedure
SR Rule XIII: Reconsideration
SR Rule XIV: Joint Resolutions, and Preambles Thereto
SR Rule XV: Amendments and Resolutions
SR Rule XVI: Appropriations and Amendments to General Appropriation Bills
SR Rule XVII: Reference to Committees; Motions to Discharge; Reports of Committees; and Hearings Available
SR Rule XVIII: Business Continued from Session to Session
SR Rule XIX: Debate
SR Rule XX: Questions for Order
SR Rule XXI: Session with Closed Doors
SR Rule XXII: Precedence of Motions
SR Rule XXIII: Privilege of the Floor
SR Rule XXIV: Appointments of Committee
SR Rule XXV: Standing Committees
SR Rule XXVI: Committee Procedure
SR Rule XXVII: Committee Staff
SR Rule XXVIII: Conference Committees; Reports; Open Meetings
SR Rule XXIX: Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXX: Executive Session – Proceedings on Treaties
SR Rule XXXI: Executive Session – Proceedings on Nominations
SR Rule XXXII: The President Furnished with Copies of Record Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXXIII: Senate Chamber – Senate Wing of the Capitol
SR Rule XXXIV: Public Financial Disclosure
SR Rule XXXV: Gifts
SR Rule XXXVI: Outside Earned Income
SR Rule XXXVII: Conflict of Interest
SR Rule XXXVIII: Prohibition of Unofficial Office Accounts
SR Rule XXXIX: Foreign Travel
SR Rule XL: Franking Privilege and Radio and Television Studios
SR Rule XLI: Political Fund Activity; Definitions
SR Rule XLII: Employment Practices
SR Rule XLIII: Representation by Members
SR Rule XLIV: Congressionally Directed Spending and Related ItemsThe latest change was the introduction in 2006 of a 44th rule on earmarks, by the Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act 
Passage 2:
Sulaiman Mohammed Nazif
Sulaiman Mohammed Nazif (born 14 April 1970) is a Nigerian politician, who represented the Bauchi North constituency of Bauchi State, Nigeria, in the Senate of Nigeria  He took office on 29 May 2007  He was elected on the Action Congress (AC) platform Nazif attended the Federal Polytechnic Staff School, Bauchi (1981–1983), the Nigerian Military School (1983–1988) and Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, graduating in 1990 as an Engineer 
After taking his seat in the Senate, he was appointed to committees on Women and Youth, Water Resources, Solid Minerals, Local & Foreign Debts, Land Transport (Vice Chairman), Drugs and Narcotics, Anti Corruption and Communications 
He was also appointed the Publicity Secretary of the Northern Senators Forum He was nominated to go to the U S  to witness the inauguration of President Barack Obama  However, when he arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport he was told his visa was not in order and was not allowed to enter the country 
In a mid-term evaluation of Senators in May 2009, ThisDay said that he had not sponsored any bill but co-sponsored some bills, including the Nigerian Railway Corporation (Repeal and Reenactment) Bill 2008  He co-sponsored fifteen motions and made brilliant contributions to debates in plenary Nazif was a contender to become governor of Bauchi State in the 28 April 2011 elections, running on the All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP) platform  He came fourth with 102,093 votes, losing to the incumbent Governor Isa Yuguda, who won 771,503 votes 

Incomplete project controversy
In January 2022, WikkiTimes reported on several incomplete constituency projects from Nazif's term in office, specifically two nonexistent skills acquisition centres that cost over ₦41 million in public funds  One "centre" was entirely on paper with no evidence of any construction while the other "centre" was simply an abandoned building that had never been utilized  The investigation also found that the contract awarding process did not follow legally required procedures and the companies given the construction contracts did not have any physical or recent presence  Nazif did not respond to requests for comment 
Passage 3:
Marriage Protection Act
The Marriage Protection Act of 2004 (MPA) was a bill introduced in the United States Congress in 2003 to amend the federal judicial code to deny federal courts jurisdiction to hear or decide any question pertaining to the interpretation of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) or the MPA itself  Introduced as H R  3313 during the 108th Congress, the Republican-controlled House passed it in 2004, but it did not pass the Senate 

Text
The version approved by the House of Representatives would have added this text as Section 1632 to Chapter 99 in Part IV of Title 28 of the United States Code (28 U S C  § 1632), governing the judiciary and judicial procedures: 

No court created by Act of Congress shall have any jurisdiction, and the Supreme Court shall have no appellate jurisdiction, to hear or decide any question pertaining to the interpretation of, or the validity under the Constitution of, section 1738C or this section  
28 U S C  § 1738C forbade (prior to the Respect for Marriage Act) requiring any state or any other political subdivision of the United States to credit as a marriage a same-sex relationship treated as marriage in another state or equivalent government 

Major actions
On October 16, 2003, the bill was introduced in the House of Representatives by John Hostettler (R–Indiana) and immediately referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary  The bill was co-sponsored by Ron Paul of Texas (R–Texas)  The legislation passed the House by a vote of 233 to 194  The Senate referred the bill to the Senate Judiciary Committee on September 7, 2004, where it died in committee 
Hostettler reintroduced the legislation as H R  1100 in the 109th Congress on March 3, 2005  It had 76 co-sponsors  It again died in committee  Dan Burton (R–Indiana) reintroduced the legislation as H R  724 in the 110th United States Congress, on January 30, 2007, with 50 cosponsors  It died when the 110th Congress ended  Burton reintroduced it again in the 111th Congress on March 3, 2009 as H R  1269 and it died in committee  Dan Burton reintroduced it in the 112th Congress on March 2, 2011 as H R  875 with 26 cosponsors  It was referred to the Subcommittee on Courts, Commercial and Administrative Law and the Subcommittee on Constitution 

Analysis
The proposed legislation raises Constitutional questions in relation to the Full Faith and Credit Clause  Joanna Grossman, writing for FindLaw, emphasized "the need for the federal courts to weigh in", rather than for states to continue making a public-policy exception when deciding the status of same-sex relationships independently of the decisions of other states, as states have been permitted to do in the case of incestuous marriages  The Act was designed to protect DOMA by prohibiting federal courts from hearing cases like that of Nancy Wilson, who sued to have her relationship with Paula Schoenwether treated as marriage in Florida because it had been treated as marriage in Massachusetts  In that case, the federal court upheld DOMA The U S  Constitution permits Congress to make exceptions to court jurisdiction  The degree to which such exceptions may undermine federal separation of powers, the Equal Protection Clause, or the Due Process Clause, may render the Marriage Protection Act unconstitutional, according to Grossman 

See also
Jurisdiction stripping
Federal Marriage Amendment
Defense of Marriage Act (2004)
LGBT rights in the United States
We the People Act
Respect for Marriage Act (2022)
Passage 4:
2014 United States Senate elections
The 2014 United States Senate elections were held on November 4, 2014  A total of 36 seats in the 100-member U S  Senate were contested  Thirty-three Class 2 seats were contested for regular six-year terms to be served from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2021, and three Class 3 seats were contested in special elections due to Senate vacancies  The elections marked 100 years of direct elections of U S  senators  Going into the elections, 21 of the contested seats were held by the Democratic Party, while 15 were held by the Republican Party 
The Republicans regained the majority of the Senate in the 114th Congress, which started in January 2015; the Republicans had not controlled the Senate since January 2007  They needed a net gain of at least six seats to obtain a majority and were projected by polls to do so  On election night, they held all of their seats and gained nine Democratic-held seats  Republicans defeated five Democratic incumbents: Mark Begich of Alaska lost to Dan Sullivan, Mark Pryor of Arkansas lost to Tom Cotton, Mark Udall of Colorado lost to Cory Gardner, Mary Landrieu of Louisiana lost to Bill Cassidy, and Kay Hagan of North Carolina lost to Thom Tillis  Republicans also picked up another four open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia  Democrats did not pick up any Republican-held seats, but they did hold an open seat in Michigan 
This was the second consecutive election held in a president's sixth year where control of the Senate changed hands, the first being in 2006  This was also the first time that the Democrats lost control of the Senate in a sixth-year midterm since 1918  With a total net gain of nine seats, the Republicans made the largest Senate gain by any party since 1980  This is also the first election since 1980 in which more than two incumbent Democratic Senators were defeated by their Republican challengers  Days after the election, the United States Election Project estimated that 36 4% of eligible voters voted, 4% lower than the 2010 elections, and possibly the lowest turnout rate since the 1942 election As of 2022, this remains the last time that a Republican has won a U S  Senate election in Colorado  This is the most recent Senate elections where any Republican flipped an open Democratic-held seat  This is also the most recent election where the party winning control of the Senate won the popular vote  It also remains the last time that the president's party has suffered a net loss of Senate seats in a midterm 

Partisan composition
For a majority, Republicans needed at least 51 seats  Democrats could have retained a majority with 48 seats (assuming the two Independents continued to caucus with them) because the Democratic Vice President Joe Biden would become the tie-breaker  From 1915 to 2013, control of the U S  Senate flipped in 10 of 50 cycles, or 20% of the time  Republicans had lost ground in the 2012 elections, leading to an internal fight among the Republican leadership over the best strategies and tactics for the 2014 Senate races  By December 2013, eight of the twelve incumbent Republicans running for re-election saw Tea Party challenges  However, Republican incumbents won every primary challenge  Although Democrats saw some opportunities for pickups, the combination of Democratic retirements and numerous Democratic seats up for election in swing states and red states gave Republicans hopes of taking control of the Senate  7 of the 21 states with Democratic seats up for election in 2014 had voted for Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election compared to just 1 state with a Republican senator that voted for Barack Obama  Democrats also faced the lower voter turnout that accompanies mid-term elections Poll aggregation website FiveThirtyEight gave the Republican Party a 60% chance of taking control of the Senate as of September 28  Another poll aggregation website, RealClearPolitics, gave the Republican Party a net gain of 7 seats  Due to the closeness of several races, it was initially believed that Senate control might not be decided on election night  Both Louisiana and Georgia were seen as competitive, and both states require a run-off election if no candidate takes a majority of the vote 
Two independent candidates (in Kansas and South Dakota) refused to commit to caucusing with either party  In the final months of the race, polls showed them with viable chances of winning, leading some analysts to speculate on the possibility of an "Independent caucus" that could also include Maine Senator Angus King and possibly Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders  However, no Independent won a Senate race in 2014, and King and Sanders continue to caucus with the Democratic Party following the 2014 election 
By midnight ET, most major networks projected that the Republicans would take control of the Senate  The party held all three competitive Republican-held seats (Kentucky, Kansas, and Georgia), and defeated incumbent Democrats in North Carolina, Colorado, and Arkansas  Combined with the pick-ups of open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia, the Republicans made a net gain of 7 seats before the end of the night  Republicans defeated three incumbent Democrats, a task the party had not accomplished since the 1980 election  Five of the seven confirmed pickups were in states that voted for Mitt Romney in 2012, but two of the seats that Republicans won represent states that voted for Barack Obama in 2012 (Colorado and Iowa)  Of the three races that were not called by the end of election night, Alaska and Virginia were still too close to call, while Louisiana held a December 6 run-off election  Virginia declared Democrat Mark Warner the winner of his race by a narrow margin over Republican Ed Gillespie on November 7, and Alaska declared Dan Sullivan the winner against Democratic incumbent Mark Begich a week later, on November 12  Republican Bill Cassidy defeated Democratic incumbent Mary Landrieu in the Louisiana runoff on December 6 

Election spending
Altogether, at least $3 67 billion was spent by candidates, parties, committees and outside groups in the 2014 election  Spending on the 2014 Senate elections by outside groups (i e , organizations other than a candidate's campaign, such as super PACs and "dark money" nonprofit groups) more than doubled from 2010  In the 10 competitive races for which data was available, outside groups accounted for 47% of spending, candidates accounted for 41% of spending, and parties accounted for 12% of spending  The Senate race with the most outside spending was in North Carolina, at $80 million, a new record The top outside spenders in the 11 most competitive Senate races were the following:

On the Republican side, the National Republican Senatorial Committee, Crossroads GPS, U S  Chamber of Commerce, Ending Spending Action Fund, Freedom Partners Action Fund, American Crossroads, and the NRA Political Victory Fund 
On the Democratic side, the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, Senate Majority PAC, and NextGen Climate Action Committee 

Results summary
The Republican Party made a net gain of nine U S  Senate seats in the 2014 elections Going into the elections, there were 53 Democratic, 45 Republican and 2 independent senators (both of whom caucus with the Democrats)  In all, there were 36 elections: 33 senators were up for election this year as class 2 senators, and 3 faced special elections (all from Class 3)  Of all these seats, 21 were held by Democrats and 15 were held by Republicans 

Colored shading indicates party with largest share of that row 

Source: Clerk of the U S  House of Representatives

Change in composition
Before the elections
After the elections
Gains and losses
Retirements
Four Democrats and two Republicans retired instead of seeking re-election 

Resignations
One Republican resigned four years into his six-year term 

Nomination withdrawn
One Democrat was originally to seek election for a full 6-year term in office but withdrew 

Defeats
Five Democrats sought re-election but lost in the general election 

Race summaries
Special elections during the preceding Congress
In these special elections, the winners were elected during 2014 and seated before January 3, 2015 — except that one was seated on January 3, 2015, the effective date of the predecessor's resignation 

Elections leading to the next Congress
In these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning January 3, 2015; ordered by state 
All of the elections involved the Class 2 seats 

Closest races
In seven races the margin of victory was under 10% 

Final pre-election predictions
Predicted probability of Republican takeover
Several websites used poll aggregation and psephology to estimate the probability that the Republican Party would gain enough seats to take control of the Senate 

Predictions
Republicans needed to win at least six in order to gain a majority of 51 seats and Democrats needed to win at least seven in order to hold a majority of 50 seats (including the two independents who currently caucus with the Democrats) and the tie-breaking vote of Vice President Joe Biden 

Alabama
Three-term incumbent Republican Jeff Sessions had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Sessions sought re-election  Democrat Victor Sanchez Williams ran against Sessions as a write-in candidate  Sessions won with 97 3 percent of the vote against assorted write-in candidates 

Alaska
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Begich had been first elected with 48% of the vote in 2008, defeating six-term Senator Ted Stevens by 3,953 votes (a margin of 1 25%)  Begich was 52 years old in 2014 and was seeking re-election to a second term  Stevens, who would have been almost 91 years old at the time of the election, had already filed for a rematch back in 2009, but was killed in a plane crash the following year 
Republican Lieutenant Governor Mead Treadwell, 2010 nominee Joe Miller, State Natural Resources Commissioner Daniel S  Sullivan, and Air Force veteran John Jaramillo ran for the GOP nomination  In the August 19 primary, Sullivan won the Republican nomination with 40% and defeated Begich in the general election 

Arkansas
Two-term incumbent Democrat Mark Pryor had been re-elected with 80% of the vote without Republican opposition in 2008  Pryor was running for a third term Freshman Representative Tom Cotton of Arkansas's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee  In the general election, Cotton defeated Pryor 

Colorado
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Udall had been elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  Udall was running for re-election Congressman Cory Gardner of Colorado's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee; his late entry into the race caused numerous Republicans to withdraw their candidacies  Gaylon Kent was the Libertarian Party nominee  Unity Party of America founder and National Chairman Bill Hammons was the Unity Party nominee 

Delaware
Democrat Chris Coons won in the 2010 United States Senate special election in Delaware caused by Joe Biden's election as Vice President, winning by a 57% to 41% margin  Coons sought re-election  His Republican opponent was engineer Kevin Wade, whom Coons went on to defeat in the general election 

Georgia
Two-term incumbent Republican Saxby Chambliss had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008 in a runoff election with former state Representative Jim Martin; Georgia requires run-off elections when no Senate candidate wins over 50% of the vote  Chambliss did not seek a third term Political activist Derrick Grayson, Representatives Jack Kingston of Georgia's 1st congressional district, Paul Broun of Georgia's 10th congressional district, and Phil Gingrey of Georgia's 11th congressional district all declared their candidacy for the Republican nomination, as did former Secretary of State Karen Handel  In the May 20 primary, no candidate received a majority of votes, so the top two candidates faced each other in a runoff; Perdue narrowly won against Kingston in the runoff primary election on July 22 with 50 9% of the vote Michelle Nunn, CEO of Points of Light and the daughter of former U S  Senator Sam Nunn, won the Democratic nomination  Other declared Democratic candidates included former State Senator Steen Miles, psychiatrist Branko Radulovacki, and former US Army Ranger Todd Robinson  Amanda Swafford, a former Flowery Branch, Georgia, city councilwoman, received the Libertarian Party of Georgia nomination 

Hawaii (special)
Daniel Inouye, the second longest serving United States Senator in U S  history, died on December 17, 2012, after respiratory complications  Hawaii law allows the Governor of Hawaii, to appoint an interim Senator "who serves until the next regularly-scheduled general election, chosen from a list of three prospective appointees that the prior incumbent's political party submits"  Governor Neil Abercrombie did so, selecting Lieutenant Governor Brian Schatz to fill the Senate seat  Inouye had been re-elected in 2010 with 72% of the vote  Schatz was challenged in the Democratic primary by Congresswoman Colleen Hanabusa of Hawaii's 1st congressional district, who Inouye had hoped would be his successor  Schatz defeated Hanabusa in the primary with 48 5% to 47 8% Campbell Cavasso, former State Representative and nominee for the U S  Senate in 2004 and 2010, was the Republican nominee 

Idaho
One-term incumbent Republican Jim Risch had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Risch sought a second term Boise attorney Nels Mitchell was the Democratic nominee 

Illinois
Three-term incumbent and Senate Majority Whip Democrat Dick Durbin had been re-elected with 68% of the vote in 2008  Durbin ran for a fourth term State Senator Jim Oberweis was the Republican nominee  He defeated primary challenger Doug Truax with 56% of the vote 

Iowa
Five-term incumbent Democrat Tom Harkin had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Harkin announced on January 26, 2013, that he would not seek a sixth term  Congressman Bruce Braley was the Democratic nominee State Senator Joni Ernst was the Republican nominee Doug Butzier, who was the Libertarian Party's nominee, died in a plane crash on October 13, 2014, but still appeared on the ballot 

Kansas
Three-term incumbent Republican Pat Roberts had been re-elected with 60% of the vote in 2008  Roberts sought a fourth term  He faced a primary challenge from radiologist Milton Wolf, a conservative Tea Party supporter  Roberts defeated Wolf in the Republican primary by 48% to 41%  Shawnee County District Attorney Chad Taylor won the Democratic nomination  Randall Batson from Wichita was on the general election ballot as a Libertarian  Also, Greg Orman qualified for the ballot as an independent On September 3, Taylor announced he was dropping out of the election, leading to speculation that Democrats would support Orman's candidacy  On September 18, the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Taylor's name had to be removed from the ballot 

Kentucky
Five-term Republican incumbent and Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell had been re-elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  McConnell sought re-election to a sixth term  McConnell defeated businessman Matt Bevin in the Republican primary on May 20 Kentucky Secretary of State Alison Lundergan Grimes, with support from much of Kentucky's Democratic leadership, won the Democratic primary  Actress Ashley Judd publicly claimed to be considering a run for the Democratic nomination, but ultimately decided against it Ed Marksberry pursued an independent bid after dropping out of the Democratic field in September 2013 

Louisiana
Three-term incumbent Democrat Mary Landrieu had been re-elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Landrieu ran for a fourth term Louisiana uses a unique jungle primary system that eschews primaries in favor of run-off elections between the top two candidates; this run-off can be avoided if the winning candidate receives over 50% of the vote  Democrats Wayne Ables, Vallian Senegal, and William Waymire ran against Landrieu in the election, as did Republicans Bill Cassidy (representative of Louisiana's 6th congressional district), Thomas Clements (small business owner), and retired Air Force Colonel Rob Maness  Electrical Engineer Brannon McMorris ran as a Libertarian Because Republican candidate Maness took almost 14% of the votes in the primary, there was a runoff election on December 6, 2014, between Landrieu (42%) and Cassidy (41%)  Cassidy won the runoff with 56% of the vote 

Maine
Three-term incumbent Republican Susan Collins was seeking a fourth term  Shenna Bellows, former executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Maine, was the Democratic nominee 

Massachusetts
Five-term incumbent and 2004 Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry had been re-elected with 66% of the vote in 2008  Kerry resigned in early 2013 to become U S  Secretary of State  Governor Deval Patrick appointed Democrat Mo Cowan to the seat  Democratic Congressman Ed Markey beat Republican Gabriel E  Gomez in the June 25, 2013 special election by a 55% to 45% margin  Markey had served the remainder of Kerry's term before running for re-election to a first full term in 2014  Hopkinton Town Selectman Brian Herr was the Republican nominee 

Michigan
Six-term incumbent Senator and Chairman of the Armed Services Committee Democrat Carl Levin, the longest-serving senator in Michigan's history, had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Levin announced on March 7, 2013, that he would not seek re-election 
Three term Democratic Representative Gary Peters of MI-14 was the Democratic nominee  He defeated Republican former Secretary of State Terri Lynn Land who was unopposed for the Republican nomination 

Minnesota
One-term incumbent Democrat Al Franken unseated one-term Republican Norm Coleman by 312 votes in a contested three-way race with 42% of the vote in 2008; the third candidate in the race, former Senator Dean Barkley of the Independence Party of Minnesota, won 15% of the vote  Franken sought re-election  State Representative Jim Abeler, St  Louis County Commissioner Chris Dahlberg, co-CEO of Lazard Middle Market Mike McFadden, bison farmer and former hair salon owner Monti Moreno, state Senator Julianne Ortman, and U S  Navy reservist Phillip Parrish ran for the Republican nomination  McFadden won the Republican primary and was the Republican nominee in the general election Hannah Nicollet of the Independence Party of Minnesota also ran 

Mississippi
Six-term incumbent Republican Thad Cochran, re-elected with 62% of the vote in 2008, ran for re-election  Cochran was the last incumbent Senator to declare his plans, leading to widespread speculation that he might announce his retirement Tea Party candidate Chris McDaniel, a conservative Mississippi state senator, ran against Cochran in the Republican primary  Neither McDaniel nor Cochran was able to get 50% of the vote in the first round of the primary, so a runoff election was held June 24  Cochran won the runoff election by 51% to 49%, with the help of Democratic voters eligible to vote in the state's open primaries who chose Cochran as their preferred Republican  McDaniel filed a lawsuit to challenge the results of the run-off, but the challenge was rejected on appeal by the Supreme Court of Mississippi Former Congressman Travis Childers was the Democratic nominee 

Montana
Six-term incumbent Democrat Max Baucus, the longest-serving senator in Montana's history, had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008
Context 3: Passage 1:
Vinko Dvořák
Vinko Dvořák (January 21, 1848 – May 6, 1922) was a Czech-Croatian physicist, professor and academician He studied mathematics and physics at the Charles University in Prague, and after graduating he became an assistant to professor Ernst Mach  After obtaining his doctorate in Prague in 1873/1874 he came to Zagreb (at the time also part of Austria-Hungary) and founded the Physics Cabinet at the Faculty of Philosophy in 1875 
Dvořák made many important discoveries in the field of experimental acoustics and optics, which are known as the Dvořák-Rayleigh current, the Dvořák acoustic repulsion, and the Dvořák circuit  His work on acoustic radiometers coincided with that of Lord Rayleigh He was the dean of the Faculty of Philosophy in 1881/82 and again in 1891/92 and the rector of the University of Zagreb in 1893/94 
Professor Dvorak made constant advancements in physics experimentation at the Faculty—in 1896 he obtained a Röntgen radiation device just six months after it was discovered He became a member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts in 1883 (associate) and 1887 (full member)  He was also an associate member of the Czech Academy of Franz Joseph I, a member of the Société francaise de physique (French Physics Society) and the Paris Société internationale des électriciens, and a member of the Royal Czech Society of Sciences in Prague 
Dvořák retired in 1911 
Passage 2:
Boeing VC-25
The Boeing VC-25 is a military version of the Boeing 747 airliner, modified for presidential transport and commonly operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) as Air Force One, the call sign of any U S  Air Force aircraft carrying the president of the United States 
Only two examples of this aircraft type are in service; they are highly modified Boeing 747-200Bs, designated VC-25A and having tail numbers 28000 and 29000  Although technically the Air Force One designation applies to the aircraft only while the president is on board, the term is commonly used to refer to the VC-25 in general  The two aircraft often operate in conjunction with Marine One helicopters, which ferry the president to airports whenever a vehicle motorcade would be inappropriate  Two new aircraft, based on the Boeing 747-8I and designated VC-25B, have been ordered by the USAF to replace the aging VC-25As 

Development
By 1985, the pair of Boeing 707-based VC-137s used as the presidential aircraft had been in service for 23 and 13 years respectively, and the USAF began searching for an eventual replacement  The Request for Proposal issued stated that the aircraft to be selected should have at least three engines and an unrefueled range of at least 6,000 miles (9,700 km)  Both Boeing with its 747 and McDonnell Douglas with the DC-10 were in competition to be selected, with the Boeing entry the eventual winner   The fabrication of the current 747s began during the presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981–1989) 
The VC-25s were completed in 1986 and first flew in 1987   The interior designs were created by First Lady Nancy Reagan, who used designs reminiscent of the American Southwest  Problems with interior wiring for communication systems delayed delivery of the two aircraft until 1990, during the administration of George H  W  Bush 
The Air Force reported that the operating cost for each VC-25A in 2014 was $210,877 per hour 

Design and configuration
The VC-25 is capable of flying 7,800 miles (12,600 km)—roughly one-third the distance around the world—without refueling  The VC-25A can accommodate more than 70 passengers  Each VC-25A cost approximately $325 million  While the VC-25 has two main decks and a cargo area, like a regular Boeing 747, its 4,000 square feet (370 m2) of floor space has been reconfigured for presidential duties  Its lowest level is mostly cargo space, carrying luggage and the onboard food supply 
The main passenger area is on the second floor or main deck  There are three entrances on board, two on the main and one on the lower deck  Typically the president boards and disembarks from the front, main deck entrance via an airstair, while journalists and other passengers enter at the rear door of the main deck  Facilities for the press and other passengers are configured like an ordinary airliner's first-class cabin 

The "White House"
The front section of the aircraft is informally called the "White House", a reference to the president's official residence in Washington, D C  The president's executive suite includes sleeping quarters with two couches that can be converted into beds, lavatory and shower, vanity, double sink, and a private office, or the president's "Oval Office aboard Air Force One"  If necessary, the president can address the nation from the office  This capability was added after the September 11 attacks, during which the aircraft had to land at Barksdale Air Force Base for President George W  Bush to address the nation  These offices, including the president's suite, are mostly located on the starboard (right) side, and a long corridor runs along the port (left) side  The aircraft also contains a conference room, originally designed as a situation room, but now used for meeting with staff while traveling  This room includes a 50-inch plasma screen television which can be used for teleconferencing  The aircraft has fully equipped office areas with telecommunication systems (including 87 telephones and 19 televisions) On board the VC-25 is a medical annex, which includes a fold-out operating table, emergency medical supplies, and a well-stocked pharmacy  George W  Bush had a treadmill added to Air Force One during his term in office  Every flight is staffed by a doctor and nurse  The aircraft is self-sufficient, such as carrying all the food it will need  Meals are prepared in two galleys, which together are equipped to feed up to 100 people at a time  The president gets a personal menu  An area where guests sit is near the center of the aircraft, outside the "White House" There are separate quarters for guests, senior staff, Secret Service and security personnel, and the news media located in the aft area of the main deck  Protocol states that one may wander aft of one's assigned seat, but not forward of it  Communications equipment and the cockpit are on the upper deck  There are also secure and non-secure voice, fax and data communications facilities  While the aircraft's luggage capacity is adequate to carry the belongings of the passengers, the logistics train of the president means that the aircraft must fly preceded by an aerial convoy of several cargo transports, which carry the helicopters, motorcade vehicles, and other equipment required by the presidential entourage 

Operational history
VC-25A
The VC-25A replaced the VC-137C (a military version of the Boeing 707) as the mainstay of the Air Force One fleet  On some occasions, the VC-25s serve as transport for the US vice president, for which service they use the Air Force Two call sign  The VC-25A aircraft are maintained and operated as military operations by the Presidential Airlift Group, part of Air Mobility Command's 89th Airlift Wing, based at Joint Base Andrews in Camp Springs, Maryland 
The aircraft can also be operated as a military command center in the event of an incident such as a nuclear attack  Operational modifications include aerial refueling capability and countermeasures against anti-aircraft missiles  The electronics on board are connected with approximately 238 miles (383 km) of wiring, twice that of a regular 747  All wiring is covered with heavy shielding for protection from a nuclear electromagnetic pulse in the event of a nuclear attack  The aircraft also has electronic countermeasures (ECMs) to jam enemy radar, flares to avoid heat-seeking missiles, and chaff to avoid radar-guided missiles  All small arms and ammunition stores not in the physical possession of the Secret Service on board the VC-25s are stowed and secured by the Secret Service in separate locked compartments, each with a different locking mechanism for added security   Many of the VC-25's other capabilities are classified for security reasons 
After a presidential inauguration resulting in a change in office, the outgoing president is provided transport on a VC-25 aircraft to their home destination   The aircraft for this flight does not use the Air Force One call sign because it is not carrying the president in office   For both Presidents Bill Clinton and George W  Bush, the flight was known as Special Air Mission 28000, where the number represents the aircraft's tail number 

The VC-25As have also been used to transport deceased former presidents, as the guest area aft of "the White House" has chairs and tables that can be removed and the casket laid in their place  The bodies of Ronald Reagan, Gerald Ford, and George H W  Bush were transported to Washington for their state funerals, and then on to their final resting places  Colonel Mark Tillman, pilot for President George W  Bush, said, "We'll take care of the president from basically when he's in office to when he lays in state " For the funeral of President Ronald Reagan in 2004, Tillman said that the crew converted the front of the aircraft to look the way it would have appeared when Reagan was president; President and Nancy Reagan's Air Force One jackets were placed on the chairs to "make them feel at home"  A specially designed hydraulic lifter (similar to the type used by airline catering) with the presidential seal affixed to the sides lifts the casket up to the portside aft door to enter the VC-25A  The tradition of placing the caskets in the passenger cabin dates back to the assassination of John F  Kennedy, when the crew did not want the president's body placed in the cargo hold, and again during the state funeral of Lyndon B  Johnson The two VC-25As are slated for retirement by the end of 2025 

VC-25B
The VC-25A aircraft are aging and have become less cost-effective to operate  The USAF Air Mobility Command investigated possible replacements, with early press coverage suggesting that the USAF would consider the Boeing 747-8 and the Airbus A380  On 7 January 2009, Air Force Materiel Command issued a new Sources Sought notice for a replacement aircraft to enter service by 2017 with an additional two aircraft to follow in 2019 and 2021  On 28 January 2009, EADS North America representing EADS and its Airbus division confirmed it would not respond to the US Air Force notice, as assembling only three airplanes in the US would not make financial sense  This made Boeing the only aircraft manufacturer interested in supplying the replacement aircraft, and was reported to be exploring a 787 option also  On 28 January 2015, the Air Force announced the selection of the Boeing 747-8 to replace the aging VC-25A for presidential transport On 10 May 2016, the Air Force posted online an amendment to its Air Force One contract authorizing Boeing to begin preliminary design activities  This version of the contract synopsis confirmed that the government will buy two modified 747-8 aircraft  Boeing was awarded a contract in January 2016 to identify cost reduction opportunities in areas including maintenance, aerial refueling and communications  On 15 July 2016, Boeing received another contract for pre-engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) risk-reduction to address "system specification, the environmental control system, the aircraft interior, the electrical and power system and sustainment and maintenance approaches" to reduce development risks and life-cycle costs On 1 August 2017, Defense One reported that in an effort to pay less for the replacement program, the USAF entered into a contract to purchase two 747-8 Intercontinentals from Boeing, which had originally been ordered by Transaero, a Russian airline, in 2011  Before they could be delivered, the company filed for bankruptcy and was closed down; the two aircraft were stored at Southern California Logistics Airport in the Mojave desert to prevent corrosion  On 27 February 2018, the White House announced a US$3 9 billion agreement with Boeing to modify the two unsold 747-8s to replace the current VC-25As  The new aircraft will be designated VC-25B  These aircraft are to be retrofitted with telecommunications and security equipment to bring them to the required security level for the presidential aircraft, and are due to be delivered by 2024  Once the new aircraft are delivered, the VC-25As will be retired and placed in museums In June 2019, President Trump announced his plans to revamp the VC-25's livery from the traditional white and ultramarine shades to one of red, white, and blue  This would have been the first deviation from the Raymond Loewy livery scheme since it was introduced in 1962 on the VC-137C which was first used as Air Force One during the Kennedy administration  The Biden administration abandoned the new design, citing "additional engineering, as well as increased time and cost " A modified version of the traditional scheme was announced in March 2023 The 747s begun undergoing modification work at the Boeing's San Antonio facility in 2020  According to The Wall Street Journal, the development process has been hit by multiple "production mishaps", including the discovery of empty tequila mini-bottles on one of the aircraft, and the use of jacks that were not rated to support the weight of the aircraft  While the jacking did not result in damage to the planes, "the Pentagon's contractor-management agency formally requested Boeing improve its operations " While the initial delivery date was set to 2024, the Pentagon expects the jets to be two to three years late In April 2022, Boeing's CEO Dave Calhoun revealed that he expects the company to have a loss of $660 million on the VC-25B program, after the contract was renegotiated by President Trump 

Variants
VC-25A
based on Boeing 747-200B
VC-25B
based on Boeing 747-8 Intercontinental, to replace the VC-25As

Operators
United StatesUnited States Air Force
89th Airlift Wing, Presidential Airlift Group (PAG) - Andrews AFB, Maryland

Specifications (VC-25A)
Data from Boeing BDSGeneral characteristics
Crew: 26: 2 pilots, flight engineer, navigator, + cabin crew + mission crew
Capacity: 76 passengers
Length: 231 ft 10 in (70 66 m)
Wingspan: 196 ft 8 in (59 94 m)
Height: 63 ft 5 in (19 33 m)
Max takeoff weight: 833,000 lb (377,842 kg)
Powerplant: 4 × General Electric CF6-80C2B1 turbofan engines, 56,700 lbf (252 kN) thrust eachPerformance

Maximum speed: 547 5 kn (630 1 mph, 1,014 0 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,668 m)
Maximum speed: Mach 0 92
Cruise speed: 500 kn (580 mph, 930 km/h) / M0 84 at 35,000 ft (10,668 m)
Range: 6,800 nmi (7,800 mi, 12,600 km)
Service ceiling: 45,100 ft (13,700 m)

Notable appearances in media
The VC-25 "Air Force One" is a prominent symbol of the U S  presidency and its powers; with the White House and presidential seal, it is among the most recognized presidential symbols  Air Force One has often appeared in popular culture and fiction, including the setting of the 1997 action movie Air Force One where the aircraft had an escape pod and a parachute ramp, unlike the actual presidential aircraft 

See also
Air Force One photo op incident
Air Force Two
Air transports of heads of state and governmentRelated development

Boeing 747
Boeing E-4B NightwatchAircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

VC-137C SAM 26000
VC-137C SAM 27000
Boeing C-32
Boeing C-40 Clipper
Airbus A330 MRTT Vespina
Passage 3:
SOLID
In software engineering, SOLID is a mnemonic acronym for five design principles intended to make object-oriented designs more understandable, flexible, and maintainable  The principles are a subset of many principles promoted by American software engineer and instructor Robert C  Martin, first introduced in his 2000 paper Design Principles and Design Patterns discussing software rot : 2–3 The SOLID ideas are

The Single-responsibility principle: "There should never be more than one reason for a class to change " In other words, every class should have only one responsibility 
The Open–closed principle: "Software entities     should be open for extension, but closed for modification "
The Liskov substitution principle: "Functions that use pointers or references to base classes must be able to use objects of derived classes without knowing it " See also design by contract 
The Interface segregation principle: "Clients should not be forced to depend upon interfaces that they do not use "
The Dependency inversion principle: "Depend upon abstractions, [not] concretions "The SOLID acronym was introduced later, around 2004, by Michael Feathers Although the SOLID principles apply to any object-oriented design, they can also form a core philosophy for methodologies such as agile development or adaptive software development 

See also
Code reuse
GRASP (object-oriented design)
Inheritance (object-oriented programming)
List of software development philosophies
Passage 4:
Form I-9
Form I-9, officially the Employment Eligibility Verification, is a United States Citizenship and Immigration Services form  Mandated by the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, it is used to verify the identity and legal authorization to work of all paid employees in the United States  All U S  employers must ensure proper completion of Form I-9 for each individual they hire for employment in the United States 

Requirements
The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) required employers to verify that all newly hired employees presented facially valid documentation verifying the employee's identity and legal authorization to accept employment in the United States  The I-9 form, or more properly the Employment Eligibility Verification Form, is provided by the federal government for that purpose Every employee hired after November 6, 1986 must complete an I-9 form at the time of hire  Employees must complete Section 1 of the form upon commencing employment  The employer must complete Section 2 within three days of the employee's starting date at work  The employer is responsible for ensuring that the forms are completed properly and in a timely manner  
The I-9 is not required for unpaid volunteers or for contractors  However, a company could still find itself liable if it contracts work to a contractor it knows either is or employs unauthorized workers Multiple versions of Form I-9, Employment Eligibility Verification, have been issued since the form was first introduced in 1987; not all versions are valid for use  Currently, only forms showing the following revision date are valid: "Rev  07/17/2017 N*" If an employee cannot read or cannot write in English, a translator or preparer may complete the form and sign it on behalf of the employee  The form also requires the employee's own signature 
In October 2004, new legislation made it possible to complete the I-9 electronically 

Prerequisites for employees
In completing form I-9, prospective employees attest, under penalty of perjury, that they are in one of the following categories:

A U S  citizen,
A U S  non-citizen national,
A lawful permanent resident or
An alien authorized to work 

Documentation for proof of identity or employment authorization
With the form, prospective employees must provide documents that prove their eligibility to work  A variety of documents are acceptable  The prospective employee must provide either:

One document that establishes both identity and employment eligibility (on List A on the I-9)
One document that establishes identity (on List B) together with another document that establishes employment eligibility (on List C) All documents must be unexpired

List A
Documents that may be used under "List A" of the I-9 form to establish both identity and employment eligibility include:

An unexpired U S  Passport,
A U S  Passport Card,
A Permanent Resident Card (often called a "green card") or Alien Registration Receipt Card with photograph,
An unexpired Temporary Resident Card,
An unexpired foreign passport with an I-551 stamp, or with Form I-94 (For the certain alien who is authorized to work with restrictions  The person should also attach the documents which indicate an unexpired employment authorization ),
An unexpired Employment Authorization Document issued by the United States Department of Homeland Security that includes a photograph (Form I-766) or
An unexpired Employment Authorization Card 

List B
Documents that may be used under "List B" of the I-9 to establish identity include:

Driver's license or identification card issued by a U S  state or outlying possession of the U S  provided it contains a photograph or identifying information such as name, date of birth, sex, height, eye color and address;
Federal or state identification card provided it contains a photograph or identifying information such as name, date of birth, sex, height, eye color and address;
School identification card with photograph;
U S  Armed Services identification card or draft record;
Voter Registration Card;
U S  Coast Guard Merchant Mariner Card;
Native American tribal document;
Driver's license issued by a Canadian government authority or
Trusted traveler documentation (Global Entry, NEXUS, SENTRI) For individuals under the age of eighteen, the following documents may be used to establish identity:

School record or report card;
Clinic, doctor or hospital record or
Daycare or nursery school record Employees who supply an item from List B (to establish identity) must also supply an item from List C (to establish employment eligibility) 

List C
Documents that may be used under "List C" of the I-9 to establish employment eligibility include:

A U S  Social Security card issued by the Social Security Administration unless it indicates one of the following:
NOT VALID FOR EMPLOYMENT (generally issued to non-immigrant aliens unauthorized to work)
VALID FOR WORK ONLY WITH INS AUTHORIZATION
VALID FOR WORK ONLY WITH DHS AUTHORIZATION,
A birth certificate issued by the U S  State Department (Form FS-545 or Form DS-1350),
Original or certified copy of a birth certificate from the U S  or an outlying possession of the U S , bearing an official seal,
A Certificate of U S  Citizenship (Form N-560 or N-561),
A Certificate of Naturalization (Form N-550 or N-570),
Native American tribal document,
U S  Citizen ID Card (Form I-197),
An ID Card for the use of a Resident Citizen in the United States (Form I-179),
An unexpired employment authorization card issued by the Dept  of Homeland Security (other than those included on List A) or
Consular Report of Birth Abroad (Form FS-240) U S  citizens who have lost their social security card can apply for a duplicate at the Social Security Administration  
Employees who supply an item from List C (to establish employment eligibility) must also supply an item from List B (to establish identity) 

Reverification
Employers must update or reverify certain ID documents at or prior to their expiration date  This does not apply to already presented and accepted non-expired U S  Passports or Permanent Resident Cards when they reach their expiration date, nor to any List B documents (e g , state driver's licenses and state IDs)  The USCIS website, in the Employer section, Employer Bulletins, lists the limited requirements and allowed instances for reverification 
For U S  citizens, I-9s are valid continuously unless a break of more than a year of employment occurs  International employees on F-1 (student), H-1B (specialty occupation), or J-1 (exchange visitor) visas must have their I-9 reverified each time their visa has expired with a new work authorization permit (renewed visa with work authorization, EAD, Permanent Residence Card, etc ) 

Retention
Employers must retain a Form I-9 for all current employees  Employers must also retain a Form I-9 for three years after the date of hire, or one year after the date employment ends, whichever is later  Employers must show their employees' I-9 form any time the immigration or labor authority requests it 

Anti-discrimination provisions
The Immigration Reform and Control Act which introduced the requirement leading to the promulgation of the I-9 form also included anti-discrimination provisions  Under the Act, most U S  citizens, permanent residents, temporary residents, asylees or refugees who are legally allowed to work in the United States cannot be discriminated against on the basis of national origin or citizenship status  This provision applies to employers of three or more workers and covers both hiring and termination decisions  In addition, an employer must accept any valid document or combination of documents specified in the I-9 form as long as the documents appear genuine For example, an employer could not refuse to hire a candidate because his I-9 revealed that he was a non-citizen (such as a permanent resident or a refugee) rather than a U S  citizen  For this reason some immigration lawyers advise companies to avoid requiring an I-9 until a candidate is hired rather than risk a lawsuit  As another example, a company could not insist that an employee provide a passport rather than, say, a driver's license and social security card  Another anti-discrimination provision requires that employers must enforce I-9 compliance in a uniform manner  For example, an employer must not require some employees to complete an I-9 before being hired, but allow others to complete the form after starting employment Employers must not assume that the employee is unauthorized to work just because the individual either could not bring the proof of employment authorization or has brought the unaccepted documents until the start date of the employment  Instead, employers should encourage that employee to bring the acceptable documents which are under the List A, B and C  Employers may terminate the employment only if the employee cannot attest the person's work authorization by bringing the proof after the start date 
The Office of Special Counsel for Immigration-Related Unfair Employment Practices ("OSC") is a section within the Department of Justice's Civil Rights Division that enforces the anti-discrimination provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act ("INA")  The OSC can help workers by calling employers and explaining proper verification practices and, when necessary, by providing victims of discrimination with charge forms  Upon receipt of a charge of discrimination, OSC investigations typically take no longer than seven months  Victims may obtain various types of relief including job relief and back pay 
OSC also has an extensive outreach program  It provides staff to speak at outreach events throughout the country, and has free informational brochures, posters and tapes for distribution 

Types of discrimination
The OSC investigates the following types of discriminatory conduct under the anti-discrimination provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), 8 U S C  § 1324b:

Citizenship or immigration status discrimination
With respect to hiring, firing, recruitment or referral for a fee by employers with four or more employees, employers may not treat individuals differently because they are or are not U S  citizens or work-authorized individuals  U S  citizens, recent permanent residents, temporary residents, asylees and refugees are protected from citizenship status discrimination  However, permanent residents who do not apply for naturalization within six months of eligibility are not protected from citizenship status discrimination  Citizenship status discrimination which is otherwise required to comply with law, regulation, executive order or government contract is permissible by law 

National origin discrimination
With respect to hiring, firing, recruitment or referral for a fee by employers with more than three and fewer than fifteen employees, employers may not treat individuals differently because of their place of birth, country of origin, ancestry, native language, accent or because they are perceived as looking or sounding foreign  All U S  citizens, lawful permanent residents and work authorized individuals are protected from national origin discrimination  The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has jurisdiction over employers with fifteen or more employees 

Unfair documentary practices
Relating to verifying the employment eligibility of employees, employers may not request more or different documents than are required to verify employment eligibility, reject reasonably genuine-looking documents or specify certain documents over others with the purpose or intent of discriminating on the basis of citizenship status or national origin  U S  citizens and all work authorized individuals are protected from document abuse 

Retaliation
Individuals who file charges with OSC; who cooperate with an OSC investigation; who contest action that may constitute unfair documentary practices or discrimination based upon citizenship, immigration status, or national origin; or who assert their rights under the INA's anti-discrimination provision are protected from retaliation 

Penalties
The IRCA includes penalties for I-9 noncompliance  Federal law provides for imprisonment or fines for making false statements or using false documents in connection with the completion of the I-9  An employer who hires an unauthorized worker can be fined between $250 and $5,500 per worker  In addition, such an employer can be barred from federal government contracts for a year  An employee who knowingly accepts fraudulent documentation can also be criminally prosecuted under other immigration laws An employer who fails to keep proper records that I-9s are properly filed can be fined $110 per missing item for each form, up to $1100 per form, even if the employee is legally authorized to work in the United States  Since 2009, Immigration & Customs Enforcement (ICE) has conducted over 7,500 audits and imposed over $80 million in fines  In 2011 alone, ICE conducted 2,740 audits and assessed over $7 million in fines An individual who knowingly commits or participates in document fraud may be fined between $375 and $3,200 per document for the first offense and between $3,200 and $6,500 per document for subsequent offenses 

See also
Immigration to the United States
E-Verify
Passage 5:
Mach bands
Mach bands is an optical illusion named after the physicist Ernst Mach  It exaggerates the contrast between edges of the slightly differing shades of gray, as soon as they contact one another, by triggering edge-detection in the human visual system 

Explanation
The Mach bands effect is due to the spatial high-boost filtering performed by the human visual system on the luminance channel of the image captured by the retina  Mach reported the effect in 1865, conjecturing that filtering is performed in the retina itself, by lateral inhibition among its neurons   This conjecture is supported by observations on other (non-visual) senses, as pointed out by von Békésy   The visual pattern is often found on curved surfaces subject to a particular, naturally-occurring illumination, so the occurrence of filtering can be explained as the result of learnt image statistics   The effect of filtering can be modeled as a convolution between a trapezoidal function that describes the illumination and one or more bandpass filters   A tight approximation is obtained by a model employing 9 even-symmetric filters scaled at octave intervals The effect is independent of the orientation of the boundary 

In radiology
This visual phenomenon is important to keep in mind when evaluating dental radiographs for evidence of decay, in which grayscale images of teeth and bone are analyzed for abnormal variances of density  A false-positive radiological diagnosis of dental caries can easily arise if the practitioner does not take into account the likelihood of this illusion  Mach bands manifest adjacent to metal restorations or appliances and the boundary between enamel and dentin  Mach bands may also result in the misdiagnosis of horizontal root fractures because of the differing radiographic intensities of tooth and bone Mach effect can also lead to an erroneous diagnosis of pneumothorax by creating a dark line at the lung periphery (whereas a true pneumothorax will have a white pleural line) 

In computer graphics
Mach bands can also appear when there is a discontinuity in the derivative of a gradient, a visual effect common when intensities are linearly interpolated such as in Gouraud shading 
Computer image processing systems use edge-detection in a way analogous to the brain, using unsharp masking to clarify edges in photos for example 

See also
Acutance
Cornsweet illusion
Hermann grid illusion
Lateral inhibition
Optical illusions
Watercolour illusion
Gibbs phenomenon
Passage 6:
Sound barrier
The sound barrier or sonic barrier is the large increase in aerodynamic drag and other undesirable effects experienced by an aircraft or other object when it approaches the speed of sound  When aircraft first approached the speed of sound, these effects were seen as constituting a barrier, making faster speeds very difficult or impossible  The term sound barrier is still sometimes used today to refer to aircraft approaching supersonic flight in this high drag regime  Flying faster than sound produces a sonic boom 
In dry air at 20 °C (68 °F), the speed of sound is 343 metres per second (about 767 mph, 1234 km/h or 1,125 ft/s)  The term came into use during World War II when pilots of high-speed fighter aircraft experienced the effects of compressibility, a number of adverse aerodynamic effects that deterred further acceleration, seemingly impeding flight at speeds close to the speed of sound  These difficulties represented a barrier to flying at faster speeds  In 1947, American test pilot Chuck Yeager demonstrated that safe flight at the speed of sound was achievable in purpose-designed aircraft, thereby breaking the barrier  By the 1950s, new designs of fighter aircraft routinely reached the speed of sound, and faster 

History
Some common whips such as the bullwhip or stockwhip are able to move faster than sound: the tip of the whip exceeds this speed and causes a sharp crack—literally a sonic boom  Firearms made after the 19th century generally have a supersonic muzzle velocity The sound barrier may have been first breached by living beings about 150 million years ago  Some paleobiologists report that computer models of their biomechanical capabilities suggest that certain long-tailed dinosaurs such as Brontosaurus, Apatosaurus, and Diplodocus could flick their tails at supersonic speeds, creating a cracking sound  This finding is theoretical and disputed by others in the field  Meteorites in the Earth's upper atmosphere usually travel at higher than Earth's escape velocity, which is much faster than sound 

Early problems
The tip speed of a propeller blade depends on the propeller speed and the forward speed of the aircraft  When the aircraft speed is high enough, the tips reach supersonic speeds  Shock waves form at the blade tips and sap the shaft power driving the propeller  To maintain thrust, the engine power must replace this loss, and must also match the aircraft drag as it increases with speed  The required power is so great that the size and weight of the engine becomes prohibitive  This speed limitation led to research into jet engines, notably by Frank Whittle in England and Hans von Ohain in Germany  The jet engine is suitable for two reasons  It produces the required power, in terms of thrust, from a relatively small size compared to the piston engine it replaced  The whirling blades in the front of the jet engine are not adversely affected by high aircraft speeds in the same way as the propeller  
Nevertheless, propeller aircraft were able to approach their critical Mach number, different for each aircraft, in a dive  Unfortunately, doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons  Flying the Mitsubishi Zero, pilots sometimes flew at full power into terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the control surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them  In this case, several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse



ground_truth: Yaroslavl Oblast

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the party who gained control of congress in the midterm elections in 1946 take control of the determiner of rules of the US House and US Senate?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Baucus announced on April 23, 2013, that he would retire in 2014, rather than seek re-election to a seventh term  Baucus was appointed as the United States Ambassador to China, leading him to resign from the Senate in February 2014 Following Baucus's confirmation as ambassador, Governor Steve Bullock appointed the Lieutenant Governor John Walsh to fill the vacant senate seat  Former Lieutenant Governor John Bohlinger was defeated by Walsh in the Democratic primary  Amid controversy over alleged plagiarism in a 2007 research paper, Walsh pulled out of the race  The Montana Democratic Party held a special nominating convention on August 16 to choose a replacement for Walsh  First-term State Representative Amanda Curtis won the nomination, thereby becoming the new Democratic nominee Congressman Steve Daines won the Republican nomination over state Representative Champ Edmunds of Missoula and David Leaser of Kalispell 

Nebraska
One-term incumbent Republican Mike Johanns had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  He did not seek a second term  Term limited Republican Governor Dave Heineman considered running for the Republican nomination, but ultimately decided not to do so  Former state Treasurer Shane Osborn, attorney Bart McLeay, banker Sid Dinsdale, and Midland University President Ben Sasse ran for the Republican nomination  In the May 13 primary, Sasse won the Republican nomination 
Trial lawyer David Domina was the Democratic nominee 

New Hampshire
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeanne Shaheen had been elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Shaheen ran for re-election  Shaheen defeated Republican nominee Scott Brown, who had represented neighboring Massachusetts in the Senate from 2010 to 2013 

New Jersey
Incumbent Democrat Frank Lautenberg had been re-elected with 56% of the vote in 2008  After announcing he would not seek re-election, Lautenberg died in June 2013, aged 89, after a long period of ill health Newark Mayor Cory Booker, a Democrat, defeated Republican nominee Steve Lonegan by 55%-to-45% in a 2013 special election to replace interim Republican appointee Jeffrey Chiesa  Booker ran for re-election to a full term in 2014  1978 and 1982 Republican candidate and political operative Jeff Bell was the Republican nominee 

New Mexico
One-term incumbent Democrat Tom Udall had been elected with 61% of the vote in 2008  Former Doña Ana County Republican Party Chairman David Clements and former New Mexico Republican Party Chairman Allen Weh sought the Republican nomination  Weh won the June 3 primary but lost to Udall in the general election 

North Carolina
One-term incumbent Democrat Kay Hagan had been elected with 53% of the vote against incumbent Republican Elizabeth Dole in 2008  Hagan was seeking re-election State House Speaker Thom Tillis was the Republican nominee  Sean Haugh won the Libertarian nomination 

Oklahoma
There were 2 elections in Oklahoma, due to the resignation of Tom Coburn 

Oklahoma (regular)
Three-term incumbent Republican Jim Inhofe had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008  Inhofe sought re-election  Matt Silverstein, an insurance agency owner, ran for the Democratic nomination 

Oklahoma (special)
Two-term incumbent Republican Tom Coburn had been re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2010, and was not scheduled to be up for election again until 2016  However, Coburn announced his intention to resign at the end of the 113th Congress  A special election to fill his seat took place in November 2014, concurrent with the other Senate elections  Congressman James Lankford was the Republican nominee  State Senator Connie Johnson was the Democratic nominee 

Oregon
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeff Merkley was narrowly elected with 49% of the vote in 2008  Merkley was running for a second term  State representative Jason Conger, attorney Tim Crawley, IT consultant Mark Callahan, neurosurgeon Dr  Monica Wehby, and former Linn County Republican Chair Jo Rae Perkins all ran for the Republican nomination, with Wehby ultimately winning the nomination in the May 20 primary 

Rhode Island
Three-term incumbent Democrat Jack Reed had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Reed defeated Republican nominee Mark Zaccaria in the 2014 election 

South Carolina
There were 2 elections in South Carolina, due to the resignation of Jim DeMint 

South Carolina (regular)
Two-term Republican Lindsey Graham had been re-elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Graham won the Republican nomination over a field that included state senator Lee Bright  State Senator Brad Hutto won the Democratic nomination 

South Carolina (special)
Jim DeMint had been elected to a second term in 2010, but resigned from the Senate in January 2013 to become president of The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank  Governor Nikki Haley appointed Congressman Tim Scott as DeMint's replacement  Scott, an African-American, was the Republican nominee to serve out the remainder of DeMint's term  Scott is the first African-American Republican since shortly after Reconstruction to represent a Southern state  Richland County Councilwoman Joyce Dickerson won the Democratic nomination 

South Dakota
Three-term incumbent Democrat Tim Johnson had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Johnson announced on March 26, 2013, that he would not run for re-election  Former Congressional aide Rick Weiland was the Democratic nominee Among Republicans, former two-term Governor Mike Rounds announced his candidacy for the GOP nomination on November 29, 2012  Rounds won the Republican nomination over state senator Larry Rhoden, state representative Stace Nelson, and physician Annette Bosworth Former Republican U S  Senator Larry Pressler and Republican State Senator Gordon Howie ran as independents  Pressler did not commit to caucusing with either party, while Howie said he would caucus with the Senate Republicans 

Tennessee
Two-term incumbent Republican Lamar Alexander had been re-elected with 65% of the vote in 2008  Alexander sought re-election to a third term  On August 7, 2014, Alexander won the Republican nomination over six challengers, including State Representative Joe Carr On November 4, 2014, Alexander faced Democratic nominee Gordon Ball, Libertarian Party nominee Joshua James, Constitution Party nominee Joe Wilmothm, and independent Danny Page also ran in the general election 

Texas
Two-term incumbent Republican John Cornyn, the Senate Minority Whip, had been re-elected with 55% of the vote in 2008  Cornyn sought re-election, and won the 2014 Republican primary with 59% of the vote  David Alameel, a dentist, and Kesha Rogers, a volunteer for The Lyndon LaRouche Policy Institute, faced each other in a run-off election for the Democratic nomination  Alameel won the run-off and was the Democratic nominee 

Virginia
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Warner had been elected with 65% of the vote in 2008; he sought re-election  Ed Gillespie, former RNC Chairman and presidential adviser, ran for the Republican nomination  Robert Sarvis, the Libertarian nominee for Governor in 2013, also ran 

West Virginia
Five-term incumbent Democrat Jay Rockefeller had been re-elected with 64% of the vote in 2008  He announced on January 11, 2013, that he would not seek re-election to a sixth term  Secretary of State Natalie Tennant won the Democratic nomination On November 26, 2012, Republican Congresswoman Shelley Moore Capito announced her plans to run for the seat, in hopes of becoming the first Republican Senator elected from West Virginia since 1956  Moore Capito won the Republican nomination and the general election, the first woman to serve as United States Senator from West Virginia 

Wyoming
Three-term incumbent Republican Mike Enzi had been re-elected with 76% of the vote in 2008  Enzi sought re-election  Liz Cheney, daughter of former Vice President Dick Cheney, briefly entered the race for the Republican nomination, but dropped her bid in January 2014  On August 19, Enzi won the Republican primary election with 82% of the vote, and Democrat Charlie Hardy, a former Catholic priest, won his party's primary election with 48% of the vote 

See also
2014 United States elections
2014 United States gubernatorial elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
113th United States Congress
114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 5:
1946 United States House of Representatives elections
The 1946 United States House of Representatives elections were elections for the United States House of Representatives to elect members to serve in the 80th United States Congress  They were held for the most part on November 5, 1946, while Maine held theirs on September 9  November 1946 was 19 months after President Harry S  Truman assumed office upon the death of Franklin D  Roosevelt 
While Democrats had controlled the House for 16 years since 1931 and Roosevelt had been elected to a record four terms in office, Truman did not garner the same support as the deceased president  The 1946 election resulted in Republicans picking up 55 seats to win majority control  Joseph Martin, Republican of Massachusetts, became Speaker of the House, exchanging places with Sam Rayburn, Democrat of Texas, who became the new Minority Leader  The Democratic defeat was the largest since they were trounced in the 1928 pro-Republican wave that brought Herbert Hoover to power  They also lost the Senate in the concurrent Senate elections 
The vote was largely seen as a referendum on Truman, whose approval rating had sunk to 32 percent over the president's controversial handling of a wave of post-war labor strikes, including a United Auto Workers strike against Ford and General Motors in 1945, a United Mine Workers strike starting in April 1946, and a national railroad worker strike that began in May  Further damage resulted from the back-and-forth over whether to end wartime price controls, unpopular with the American business constituency, to handle shortages, particularly in meat and other foodstuffs  While Truman's early months in the White House had been plagued with questions of "What would Roosevelt do if he were alive?" Republicans now began to joke "What would Truman do if he were alive?" and "To err is Truman " However, the Republican majority was short-lived, as Democrats regained control of the House two years later 

Overall results
Source: Election Statistics - Office of the Clerk

Special elections
In these special elections, the winner was seated during 1946 or before January 3, 1947; ordered by election date, then by district 

Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Non-voting delegates
Alaska Territory
See also
1946 United States elections
1946 United States Senate elections
1946 California's 12th congressional district election (the Richard Nixon-Jerry Voorhis race)
79th United States Congress
80th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 6:
114th United States Congress
The 114th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States of America federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives  It met in Washington, D C , from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2017, during the final two years of Barack Obama's presidency  The seats in the House were apportioned based on the 2010 United States census The 2014 elections gave the Republicans control of the Senate and the House for the first time since the 109th Congress  With 248 seats in the House of Representatives and 54 seats in the Senate, this Congress began with the largest Republican majority since the 71st Congress of 1929–1931 

Major events
January 6, 2015: Incumbent Speaker of the House John Boehner was re-elected even though several members of his own party once again chose not to vote for him  He received 216 votes, a majority of the votes cast, but two votes shy of a majority of the full membership 
January 20, 2015: 2015 State of the Union Address
March 3, 2015: Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu addressed a joint session of Congress regarding sanctions against Iran  Netanyahu was invited by Speaker John Boehner without consulting President Obama 
March 9, 2015: U S  Senator Tom Cotton wrote and sent a letter to the leadership of the Islamic Republic of Iran, signed by 47 of the Senate's 54 Republicans, attempting to cast doubt on the Obama administration's authority to engage in nuclear-proliferation negotiations with Iran 
March 25, 2015: Afghanistan President Ashraf Ghani addressed a joint session of Congress 
April 29, 2015: Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe addressed a joint session of Congress, becoming the first Japanese leader to do so 
September 24, 2015: Pope Francis addressed a joint session of Congress, becoming the first Pope to do so 
September 25, 2015: House Speaker John Boehner announced that he would resign as Speaker and from the House at the end of October 2015  Subsequently, Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy, the presumptive favorite to succeed John Boehner, unexpectedly withdrew his candidacy for the job 
October 29, 2015: Paul Ryan was elected to succeed John Boehner as Speaker of the House receiving 236 votes (of 432 votes cast)  He is the youngest Speaker since James G  Blaine in 1869 
January 12, 2016: 2016 State of the Union Address
June 8, 2016: Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed a joint session of Congress 
June 22–23, 2016: In the wake of the Orlando nightclub shooting, Congress debated gun control reform  The U S  House recessed for the July 4 holiday during a sit-in protest held by Democrats that halted business in the chamber for more than 24 hours 
November 8, 2016: Donald Trump and Mike Pence elected as president and vice-president in presidential elections, while the Republicans retain majority at both Senate and House of Representatives 

Major legislation
Enacted
January 12, 2015: Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–1 (text) (PDF)
February 27, 2015: Protecting Volunteer Firefighters and Emergency Responders Act, Pub L  114-3
March 4, 2015: Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2015, Pub L  114-4
April 16, 2015: Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–10 (text) (PDF)
May 22, 2015: Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–17 (text) (PDF)
June 2, 2015: USA FREEDOM Act: Uniting and Strengthening America by Fulfilling Rights and Ensuring Effective Discipline Over Monitoring Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–23 (text) (PDF)
June 29, 2015: Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–27 (text) (PDF)
July 6, 2015: Department of Homeland Security Interoperable Communications Act, Pub  L  114–29 (text) (PDF)
September 25, 2015: Gerardo Hernandez Airport Security Act of 2015, Pub L  114-50
September 30, 2015: National Winstorm Impact Reduction Act Reauthorization of 2015, Pub L  114-52
November 2, 2015: Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–74 (text) (PDF)
November 5, 2015: Librarian of Congress Succession Modernization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–86 (text) (PDF)
November 25, 2015: SPACE Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–90 (text) (PDF)
November 25, 2015: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016, Pub L  114-92
December 4, 2015: Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act, Pub  L  114–94 (text) (PDF)
December 10, 2015: Every Student Succeeds Act, Pub  L  114–95 (text) (PDF)
December 18, 2015: Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016, Pub  L  114–113 (text) (PDF)
January 28, 2016: Grants Oversight and New Efficiency (GONE) Act, Pub L  114-117
February 8, 2016: International Megan's Law to Prevent Sexual Exploitation and Other Crimes Through Advanced Notification of Traveling Sex Offenders, Pub L  114-119
February 8, 2016: Coast Guard Authorization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–120 (text) (PDF)
February 24, 2016: Internet Tax Freedom Act contained in Trade Facilitation and Trade Enforcement Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–125 (text) (PDF)
May 9, 2016: Protect and Preserve International Cultural Property Act, Pub L  114-151
June 28, 2016: Frank R  Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, Pub  L  114-182
June 30, 2016: Puerto Rico Oversight, Management, and Economic Stability Act (PROMESA), Pub L  114-187
July 20, 2016: Global Food Security Act of 2016, Pub  L  114–195 (text) (PDF)
July 29, 2016: Making Electronic Government Accountable By Yielding Tangible Efficiences (MEGABYTE) Act of 2016, Pub L  114-210
September 28, 2016: Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act, Pub  L  114–222 (text) (PDF)
September 29, 2016: Continuing Appropriations and Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2017, and Zika Response and Preparedness Act, Pub L  114-223
October 7, 2016: Sexual Assault Survivors' Rights Act, Pub  L  114–236 (text) (PDF)
December 10, 2016: Further Continuing and Security Assistance Appropriations Act, 2017, Pub L  114-254
December 13, 2016: 21st Century Cures Act, Pub  L  114–255 (text) (PDF)
December 14, 2016: First Responder Anthrax Preparedness Act, Pub L  114-268
December 14, 2016: Better Online Ticket Sales (BOTS) Act, Pub L  114-274
December 16, 2016: Frank R  Wolf International Religious Freedom Act, Pub  L  114-281
December 16, 2016: United States-Israel Advanced Research Partnership Act of 2016, Pub L  114-304
December 16, 2016: Holocaust Expropriated Art Recovery (HEAR) Act of 2016, Pub L  114-308
December 16, 2016: Foreign Cultural Exchange Jurisdictional Immunity Clarification Act, Pub L  114-319
December 23, 2016: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017, Pub L  114-328
January 6, 2017: American Innovation and Competitiveness Act, Pub L  114-329

Proposed
Vetoed
February 24, 2015: Keystone XL Pipeline Approval Act (S  1)
March 31, 2015: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the National Labor Relations Board relating to representation case procedures  (S J Res  8)
October 22, 2015: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016 (H R  1735)
December 19, 2015: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of a rule submitted by the Environmental Protection Agency relating to "Standards of Performance for Greenhouse Gas Emissions from New, Modified, and Reconstructed Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units" (S J Res  23)
December 19, 2015: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of a rule submitted by the Environmental Protection Agency relating to "Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units" (S J Res  24)
January 8, 2016: The Restoring Americans' Healthcare Freedom Reconciliation Act of 2015 (H R  3762)
January 19, 2016: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the Corps of Engineers and the Environmental Protection Agency relating to the definition of "waters of the United States" under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (S J Res  22)
June 8, 2016: A joint resolution disapproving the rule submitted by the Department of Labor relating to the definition of the term "Fiduciary" (H J Res  88)
July 22, 2016: Presidential Allowance Modernization Act of 2016 (H R  1777)
September 23, 2016: Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (S  2040) (Passed over Veto)

Party summary
Resignations and new members are discussed in the "Changes in membership" section, below 

Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Section contents: Senate: Majority (R), Minority (D) • House: Majority (R),  Minority (D)

Senate
President: Joe Biden (D)
President pro tempore: Orrin Hatch (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Mitch McConnell
Assistant Majority Leader (Majority Whip): John Cornyn
Chief Deputy Whip: Mike Crapo
Deputy Whips:[data unknown/missing]
Republican Conference Chairman: John Thune
Republican Conference Vice Chairman: Roy Blunt
Senatorial Committee Chairman: Roger Wicker
Policy Committee Chairman: John Barrasso

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Harry Reid
Assistant Minority Leader (Minority Whip): Dick Durbin
Chief Deputy Whip: Barbara Boxer
Deputy Whips:[data unknown/missing]
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Harry Reid
Democratic Caucus Vice Chair and Policy Committee Chairman: Chuck Schumer
Democratic Caucus Secretary: Patty Murray
Senatorial Campaign Committee Chairman: Jon Tester
Policy Committee Vice Chairwoman: Debbie Stabenow
Policy Committee Strategic Policy Adviser: Elizabeth Warren
Policy Committee Policy Development Adviser: Mark Warner
Steering and Outreach Committee Chairwoman: Amy Klobuchar
Steering and Outreach Committee Vice Chairwoman: Jeanne Shaheen

House of Representatives
Speaker: John Boehner (R), until October 29, 2015
Paul Ryan (R), from October 29, 2015

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Kevin McCarthy
Majority Whip: Steve Scalise
Majority Chief Deputy Whip: Patrick McHenry
Senior Deputy Whips: Kristi Noem, Dennis Ross, Aaron Schock (until March 31, 2015), Steve Stivers, Ann Wagner
Republican Conference Chairwoman: Cathy McMorris Rodgers
Republican Conference Vice-Chairwoman: Lynn Jenkins
Republican Conference Secretary: Virginia Foxx
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Greg Walden
Policy Committee Chairman: Luke Messer
Republican Campaign Committee Deputy Chairman: Lynn Westmoreland

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Nancy Pelosi
Minority Whip: Steny Hoyer
Assistant Democratic Leader: Jim Clyburn
Senior Chief Deputy Minority Whip: John Lewis
Chief Deputy Minority Whips: G  K  Butterfield, Diana DeGette, Keith Ellison, Jan Schakowsky, Kyrsten Sinema, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Peter Welch
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Xavier Becerra
Democratic Caucus Vice-Chairman: Joe Crowley
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Ben Ray Luján
Steering and Policy Committee Co-Chairs: Rosa DeLauro (Steering) and Donna Edwards (Policy)
Organization, Study, and Review Chairwoman: Karen Bass
Policy and Communications Chairman: Steve Israel

Members
Senate
Senators are listed by state and then by Senate classes, In this Congress, Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 2016; Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 2018; and Class 2 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 2020 

House of Representatives
Changes in membership
Senate
There were no changes in Senate membership during this Congress 

House of Representatives
Committees
[Section contents: Senate, House, Joint ]

Senate
House of Representatives
Joint committees
Caucuses
Employees
Senate
Source: "Senate Organization Chart for the 114th Congress"  Senate gov  US Senate  Archived from the original on March 28, 2015  Retrieved January 26, 2015 

Chaplain: Barry C  Black (Seventh-day Adventist)
Curator: Melinda Smith
Librarian: Leona I  Faust
Historian: Donald A  Ritchie, until June 1, 2015
Betty Koed, starting June 1, 2015
Parliamentarian: Elizabeth MacDonough
Secretary: Julie E  Adams
Sergeant at Arms: Frank J  Larkin
Secretary for the Majority: Laura Dove
Secretary for the Minority: Gary B  Myrick

House of Representatives
Source: "Officers and Organizations of the House"  House gov  US House  Archived from the original on July 6, 2017  Retrieved January 26, 2015 

Chaplain: Patrick J  Conroy (Roman Catholic)
Chief Administrative Officer: Ed Cassidy, until December 31, 2015
Will Plaster, January 1, 2016 – August 1, 2016
Phil Kiko, from August 1, 2016
Clerk: Karen L  Haas
Historian: Matthew Wasniewski
Inspector General: Theresa M  Grafenstine
Parliamentarian: Thomas J  Wickham Jr 
Reading Clerks: Susan Cole and Joseph Novotny
Sergeant at Arms: Paul D  Irving

Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Stephen T  Ayers
Attending Physician of the United States Congress: Brian P  Monahan
Comptroller General of the United States: Eugene Louis Dodaro
Director of the Congressional Budget Office: Douglas Elmendorf, until March 31, 2015
Keith Hall, from April 1, 2015
Librarian of Congress: James H  Billington, until September 30, 2015
David S  Mao (acting), October 1, 2015 – September 14, 2016
Carla Diane Hayden, from September 14, 2016
Public Printer of the United States: Davita Vance-Cooks

See also
Elections
2014 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
2014 United States Senate elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
2016 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
2016 United States presidential election
2016 United States Senate elections
2016 United States House of Representatives elections

Membership lists
List of new members of the 114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 7:
CDC SCOPE
SCOPE (Supervisory Control of Program Execution) is a series of Control Data Corporation batch operating systems developed in the 1960s 

Variants
SCOPE for the CDC 3000 series
SCOPE for the CDC 6000 series
SCOPE and SCOPE-2 for the CDC 7600/Cyber-76

SCOPE for the CDC 3000 series
SCOPE for the CDC 6000 series
This operating system was based on the original Chippewa Operating System  In the early 1970s, it was renamed NOS/BE for the CDC Cyber machines  The SCOPE operating system is a file-oriented system using mass storage, random access devices  It was designed to make use of all capabilities of CDC 6000 computer systems and exploits fully the multiple-operating modes of all segments of the computer  Main tasks of SCOPE are controlling job execution, storage assignment, performing segment and overlay loading  Its features include comprehensive input/output functions and library maintenance routines  The operating system chronologically records all jobs run and any problems encountered  To aid debugging, dumps and memory maps are available 

Description
SCOPE is a multiprogramming operating system capable of running up to eight jobs, called control points, at one time  One control point is used for system functions : p 1-2  Later versions increased this limit to 15 
SCOPE runs on the 6x00's peripheral processors (PPs)  "A central processor (CP)… is completely within the power of every PP at all times " One PP, identified as PP0 runs the Monitor Program (MTR) "that oversees or controls all other activities " PP9 is assigned to control the system console typewriter and displays  The other PPs perform input/output functions as directed by MTR : p 1-1 A portion of the central processor's memory (called central memory, or CM) the Central Memory Resident (CMR) "is reserved for various system tables accessible by the PPs ”: p 1-2  Part of this CMR is a communications area for each PP  Each communications area contains an "input register" and an "output register", followed by a message buffer : p 1-1 When the computer is deadstarted, all PP's are loaded with system code from magnetic tape  PP0 will begin running the monitor code  The remaining PPs will loop reading their input registers waiting for requests from the monitor : p 1-1

Software
As of SCOPE 3 3 a number of programming language compilers and utilities were supported  Major languages were ALGOL, BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, and COMPASS (assembler)  Other languages were APT, CSSL 3 (Continuous System Simulation Language), JOVIAL, SIMSCRIPT, and SIMULA  Other software included IGS (Interactive Graphics System), PERT, and SORT/MERGE CDC systems were considered supercomputers, and customers were often large government agencies and research facilities  Most of these had specialized requirements, and often wrote their own software 

Competition
SCOPE was written by a programming team in Sunnyvale, California, about 2,000 miles from the CDC hardware division   It was considered by them a buggy and inefficient piece of software, though not much different than many operating systems of the era   At the CDC Arden Hills, Minnesota laboratories (where they referred to SCOPE as Sunnyvale's Collection Of Programming Errors) they had a competing operating system, MACE   This was the Mansfield And Cahlander Executive (from Greg Mansfield and Dave Cahlander, the authors of the system)   It had started as an engineering test executive, but eventually developed into a complete operating system — a modularized rewrite and enhancement of the original Chippewa Operating System (COS)   While never an official CDC product, a copy was freely given to any customer who asked for one   Many customers did, especially the more advanced ones (like University and research sites) 
When Control Data decided to write its next operating system Kronos, it considered both the current SCOPE system and the unofficial MACE alternative   They chose to abandon the SCOPE system and base Kronos on the MACE software   Eventually, Kronos was replaced by the new Network Operating System (NOS)   Though many smaller CDC customers continued to use the SCOPE system rather than Kronos   When NOS became the primary Control Data operating system, some customers running mainly batch operations were reluctant to switch to the NOS system, as they saw no benefit for their shop   So the SCOPE system was maintained, and renamed as NOS/BE (Batch Environment), primarily so that CDC Marketing could say that all mainframe customers were using the NOS operating system 

Current status
The computer emulation community has made repeated attempts to recover and preserve CDC software  It is now running under a CDC CYBER and 6000 series emulator 

See also
CDC Kronos
NOS
Passage 8:
1886 United States House of Representatives elections
The 1886 United States House of Representatives elections were held for the most part on November 2, 1886, with three states holding theirs early between June and September  They occurred in the middle of President Grover Cleveland's first term  Elections were held for 325 seats of the United States House of Representatives, representing 38 states, to serve in the 50th United States Congress  Special elections were also held throughout the year 
As in many midterm elections, the President's party lost seats to the opposition, in this case, Democrats lost seats to Republicans, although a narrow majority was retained   Many of these Republican pickups were in the industrializing Midwest states, where the debate over tariffs, which were advocated by Republicans to protect domestic industry but opposed by Democrats to allow for free agricultural trade, led to political change  The small Labor Party, supported by industrial workers, gained one seat each in Virginia and Wisconsin, while the Greenback Party maintained its one seat in Iowa (James B  Weaver)  One Independent was also elected in North Carolina 

Election summaries
There were 2 Labor and 1 Independent members elected, and 1 Greenback member re-elected  The previous election saw just the Greenback elected 

Special elections
Election dates
In all the states except three, elections were held November 2, 1886  Those three states, with 7 seats among them, held elections:

June 7, 1886: Oregon
September 7, 1886: Vermont
September 10, 1886: Maine

Alabama
Arkansas
Arizona Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

California
Colorado
Connecticut
Dakota Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

New York
North Carolina
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Utah Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Vermont
Virginia
Washington Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wisconsin elected nine members of congress on Election Day, November 2, 1886 

Wyoming Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Non-voting members
See also
1886 United States elections
1886–87 United States Senate elections
49th United States Congress
50th United States Congress

Notes



ground_truth: January 2015

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the employer of the person Mach's principle was named after?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Likewise, the flexing caused by the low torsional stiffness of the Supermarine Spitfire's wings caused them, in turn, to counteract aileron control inputs, leading to a condition known as control reversal  This was solved in later models with changes to the wing  Worse still, a particularly dangerous interaction of the airflow between the wings and tail surfaces of diving Lockheed P-38 Lightnings made "pulling out" of dives difficult; however, the problem was later solved by the addition of a "dive flap" that upset the airflow under these circumstances  Flutter due to the formation of shock waves on curved surfaces was another major problem, which led most famously to the breakup of a de Havilland Swallow and death of its pilot Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr  on 27 September 1946  A similar problem is thought to have been the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union 
All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a "barrier" making it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound  Erroneous news reports caused most people to envision the sound barrier as a physical "wall", which supersonic aircraft needed to "break" with a sharp needle nose on the front of the fuselage  Rocketry and artillery experts' products routinely exceeded Mach 1, but aircraft designers and aerodynamicists during and after World War II discussed Mach 0 7 as a limit dangerous to exceed 

Early claims
During WWII and immediately thereafter, a number of claims were made that the sound barrier had been broken in a dive  The majority of these purported events can be dismissed as instrumentation errors  The typical airspeed indicator (ASI) uses air pressure differences between two or more points on the aircraft, typically near the nose and at the side of the fuselage, to produce a speed figure  At high speed, the various compression effects that lead to the sound barrier also cause the ASI to go non-linear and produce inaccurately high or low readings, depending on the specifics of the installation  This effect became known as "Mach jump"  Before the introduction of Mach meters, accurate measurements of supersonic speeds could only be made remotely, normally using ground-based instruments  Many claims of supersonic speeds were found to be far below this speed when measured in this fashion 
In 1942, Republic Aviation issued a press release stating that Lts  Harold E  Comstock and Roger Dyar had exceeded the speed of sound during test dives in a Republic P-47 Thunderbolt  It is widely agreed that this was due to inaccurate ASI readings  In similar tests, the North American P-51 Mustang demonstrated limits at Mach 0 85, with every flight over Mach 0 84 causing the aircraft to be damaged by vibration 

One of the highest recorded instrumented Mach numbers attained for a propeller aircraft is the Mach 0 891 for a Spitfire PR XI, flown during dive tests at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough in April 1944  The Spitfire, a photo-reconnaissance variant, the Mark XI, fitted with an extended "rake type" multiple pitot system, was flown by Squadron Leader J  R  Tobin to this speed, corresponding to a corrected true airspeed (TAS) of 606 mph  In a subsequent flight, Squadron Leader Anthony Martindale achieved Mach 0 92, but it ended in a forced landing after over-revving damaged the engine Hans Guido Mutke claimed to have broken the sound barrier on 9 April 1945 in the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft  He states that his ASI pegged itself at 1,100 kilometres per hour (680 mph)  Mutke reported not just transonic buffeting, but the resumption of normal control once a certain speed was exceeded, then a resumption of severe buffeting once the Me 262 slowed again  He also reported engine flame-out This claim is widely disputed, even by pilots in his unit  All of the effects he reported are known to occur on the Me 262 at much lower speeds, and the ASI reading is simply not reliable in the transonic  Further, a series of tests made by Karl Doetsch at the behest of Willy Messerschmitt found that the plane became uncontrollable above Mach 0 86, and at Mach 0 9 would nose over into a dive that could not be recovered from  Post-war tests by the RAF confirmed these results, with the slight modification that the maximum speed using new instruments was found to be Mach 0 84, rather than Mach 0 86 In 1999, Mutke enlisted the help of Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University to run computational tests to determine whether the aircraft could break the sound barrier  These tests do not rule out the possibility, but are lacking accurate data on the coefficient of drag that would be needed to make accurate simulations  Wagner stated: "I don't want to exclude the possibility, but I can imagine he may also have been just below the speed of sound and felt the buffeting, but did not go above Mach-1 "One bit of evidence presented by Mutke is on page 13 of the "Me 262 A-1 Pilot's Handbook" issued by Headquarters Air Materiel Command, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio as Report No  F-SU-1111-ND on January 10, 1946:

Speeds of 950 km/h (590 mph) are reported to have been attained in a shallow dive 20° to 30° from the horizontal  No vertical dives were made  At speeds of 950 to 1,000 km/h (590 to 620 mph) the air flow around the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, and it is reported that the control surfaces no longer affect the direction of flight  The results vary with different airplanes: some wing over and dive while others dive gradually  It is also reported that once the speed of sound is exceeded, this condition disappears and normal control is restored 
The comments about restoration of flight control and cessation of buffeting above Mach 1 are very significant in a 1946 document  However, it is not clear where these terms came from, as it does not appear the US pilots carried out such tests In his 1990 book Me-163, former Messerschmitt Me 163 "Komet" pilot Mano Ziegler claims that his friend, test pilot Heini Dittmar, broke the sound barrier while diving the rocket plane, and that several people on the ground heard the sonic booms  He claims that on 6 July 1944, Dittmar, flying Me 163B V18, bearing the Stammkennzeichen alphabetic code VA+SP, was measured traveling at a speed of 1,130 km/h (702 mph)  However, no evidence of such a flight exists in any of the materials from that period, which were captured by Allied forces and extensively studied  Dittmar had been officially recorded at 1,004 5 km/h (623 8 mph) in level flight on 2 October 1941 in the prototype Me 163A V4  He reached this speed at less than full throttle, as he was concerned by the transonic buffeting  Dittmar himself does not make a claim that he broke the sound barrier on that flight and notes that the speed was recorded only on the AIS  He does, however, take credit for being the first pilot to "knock on the sound barrier" The Luftwaffe test pilot Lothar Sieber (7 April 1922 – 1 March 1945) may have inadvertently become the first human to break the sound barrier on 1 March 1945  This occurred while he was piloting a Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" for the first crewed vertical takeoff of a rocket in history  In 55 seconds, he traveled a total of 14 km (8 7 miles)  The aircraft crashed, and he perished violently in this endeavor There are a number of unmanned vehicles that flew at supersonic speeds during this period  In 1933, Soviet designers working on ramjet concepts fired phosphorus-powered engines out of artillery guns to get them to operational speeds  It is possible that this produced supersonic performance as high as Mach 2, but this was not due solely to the engine itself  In contrast, the German V-2 ballistic missile routinely broke the sound barrier in flight, for the first time on 3 October 1942  By September 1944, V-2s routinely achieved Mach 4 (1,200 m/s, or 3044 mph) during terminal descent 

Breaking the sound barrier
In 1942, the United Kingdom's Ministry of Aviation began a top-secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier  The project resulted in the development of the prototype Miles M 52 turbojet-powered aircraft, which was designed to reach 1,000 mph (417 m/s; 1,600 km/h) (over twice the existing speed record) in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft (11 km) in 1 minute 30 seconds 
A huge number of advanced features were incorporated into the resulting M 52 design, many of which hint at a detailed knowledge of supersonic aerodynamics  In particular, the design featured a conical nose and sharp wing leading edges, as it was known that round-nosed projectiles could not be stabilised at supersonic speeds  The design used very thin wings of biconvex section proposed by Jakob Ackeret for low drag  The wing tips were "clipped" to keep them clear of the conical shock wave generated by the nose of the aircraft  The fuselage had the minimum cross-section allowable around the centrifugal engine with fuel tanks in a saddle over the top 

Another critical addition was the use of a power-operated stabilator, also known as the all-moving tail or flying tail, a key to supersonic flight control, which contrasted with traditional hinged tailplanes (horizontal stabilizers) connected mechanically to the pilots control column  Conventional control surfaces became ineffective at the high subsonic speeds then being achieved by fighters in dives, due to the aerodynamic forces caused by the formation of shockwaves at the hinge and the rearward movement of the centre of pressure, which together could override the control forces that could be applied mechanically by the pilot, hindering recovery from the dive  A major impediment to early transonic flight was control reversal, the phenomenon which caused flight inputs (stick, rudder) to switch direction at high speed; it was the cause of many accidents and near-accidents  An all-flying tail is considered to be a minimum condition of enabling aircraft to break the transonic barrier safely, without losing pilot control  The Miles M 52 was the first instance of this solution, which has since been universally applied 
Initially, the aircraft was to use Frank Whittle's latest engine, the Power Jets W 2/700, which would only reach supersonic speed in a shallow dive  To develop a fully supersonic version of the aircraft, an innovation incorporated was a reheat jetpipe – also known as an afterburner  Extra fuel was to be burned in the tailpipe to avoid overheating the turbine blades, making use of unused oxygen in the exhaust  Finally, the design included another critical element –  the use of a shock cone in the nose to slow the incoming air to the subsonic speeds needed by the engine 
Although the project was eventually cancelled, the research was used to construct an unmanned missile that went on to achieve a speed of Mach 1 38 in a successful, controlled transonic and supersonic level test flight; this was a unique achievement at that time, which validated the aerodynamics of the M 52 
Meanwhile, test pilots achieved high velocities in the tailless, swept-wing de Havilland DH 108  One of them was Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr , who was killed on 27 September 1946 when his DH 108 broke up at about Mach 0 9  John Derry has been called "Britain's first supersonic pilot" because of a dive he made in a DH 108 on 6 September 1948 

The first aircraft to officially break the sound barrier
The British Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange all its high-speed research, data and designs and Bell Aircraft company was given access to the drawings and research on the M 52, but the U S  reneged on the agreement, and no data was forthcoming in return  Bell's supersonic design was still using a conventional tail, and they were battling the problem of control 

They utilized the information to initiate work on the Bell X-1  The final version of the Bell X-1 was very similar in design to the original Miles M 52 version  Also featuring the all-moving tail, the XS-1 was later known as the X-1  It was in the X-1 that Chuck Yeager was credited with being the first person to break the sound barrier in level flight on 14 October 1947, flying at an altitude of 45,000 ft (13 7 km)  George Welch made a plausible but officially unverified claim to have broken the sound barrier on 1 October 1947, while flying an XP-86 Sabre  He also claimed to have repeated his supersonic flight on 14 October 1947, 30 minutes before Yeager broke the sound barrier in the Bell X-1  Although evidence from witnesses and instruments strongly imply that Welch achieved supersonic speed, the flights were not properly monitored and are not officially recognized  The XP-86 officially achieved supersonic speed on 26 April 1948 On 14 October 1947, just under a month after the United States Air Force had been created as a separate service, the tests culminated in the first crewed supersonic flight, piloted by Air Force Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager in aircraft #46-062, which he had christened Glamorous Glennis  The rocket-powered aircraft was launched from the bomb bay of a specially modified B-29 and glided to a landing on a runway  XS-1 flight number 50 is the first one where the X-1 recorded supersonic flight, with a maximum speed of Mach 1 06 (361 m/s, 1,299 km/h, 807 2 mph) 
As a result of the X-1's initial supersonic flight, the National Aeronautics Association voted its 1947 Collier Trophy to be shared by the three main participants in the program  Honored at the White House by President Harry S  Truman were Larry Bell for Bell Aircraft, Captain Yeager for piloting the flights, and John Stack for the NACA contributions Jackie Cochran was the first woman to break the sound barrier, which she did on 18 May 1953, piloting a plane borrowed from the Royal Canadian Air Force, with Yeager accompanying her On December 3, 1957, Margaret Chase Smith became the first woman in Congress to break the sound barrier, which she did as a passenger in an F-100 Super Sabre piloted by Air Force Major Clyde Good In the late 1950s, Allen Rowley, a British journalist, was able to fly in a Super Sabre at 1000mph one of the few non-American civilians to exceed the speed of sound and one of the few civilians anywhere to make such a trip On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8-43 (registration N9604Z) unofficially exceeded Mach 1 in a controlled dive during a test flight at Edwards Air Force Base, as observed and reported by the flight crew; the crew were William Magruder (pilot), Paul Patten (co-pilot), Joseph Tomich (flight engineer), and Richard H  Edwards (flight test engineer)  This was the first supersonic flight by a civilian airliner, achieved before the Concorde or the Tu-144 flew 

The sound barrier understood
As the science of high-speed flight became more widely understood, a number of changes led to the eventual understanding that the "sound barrier" is easily penetrated, with the right conditions  Among these changes were the introduction of thin swept wings, the area rule, and engines of ever-increasing performance  By the 1950s, many combat aircraft could routinely break the sound barrier in level flight, although they often suffered from control problems when doing so, such as Mach tuck  Modern aircraft can transit the "barrier" without control problems By the late 1950s, the issue was so well understood that many companies started investing in the development of supersonic airliners, or SSTs, believing that to be the next "natural" step in airliner evolution  However, this has not yet happened  Although the Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144 entered service in the 1970s, both were later retired without being replaced by similar designs  The last flight of a Concorde in service was in 2003 
Although Concorde and the Tu-144 were the first aircraft to carry commercial passengers at supersonic speeds, they were not the first or only commercial airliners to break the sound barrier  On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8 broke the sound barrier at Mach 1 012, or 1,240 km/h (776 2 mph), while in a controlled dive through 41,088 feet (12,510 m)  The purpose of the flight was to collect data on a new design of leading edge for the wing 

Breaking the sound barrier in a land vehicle
On 12 January 1948, a Northrop unmanned rocket sled became the first land vehicle to break the sound barrier  At a military test facility at Muroc Air Force Base (now Edwards AFB), California, it reached a peak speed of 1,019 mph (1,640 km/h) before jumping the rails On 15 October 1997, in a vehicle designed and built by a team led by Richard Noble, Royal Air Force pilot Andy Green became the first person to break the sound barrier in a land vehicle in compliance with Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile rules  The vehicle, called the ThrustSSC ("Super Sonic Car"), captured the record 50 years and one day after Yeager's first supersonic flight 

Breaking the sound barrier as a human projectile
Felix Baumgartner
In October 2012 Felix Baumgartner, with a team of scientists and sponsor Red Bull, attempted the highest sky-dive on record  The project would see Baumgartner attempt to jump 120,000 ft (36,580 m) from a helium balloon and become the first parachutist to break the sound barrier  The launch was scheduled for 9 October 2012, but was aborted due to adverse weather; subsequently the capsule was launched instead on 14 October  Baumgartner's feat also marked the 65th anniversary of U S  test pilot Chuck Yeager's successful attempt to break the sound barrier in an aircraft Baumgartner landed in eastern New Mexico after jumping from a world record 128,100 feet (39,045 m), or 24 26 miles, and broke the sound barrier as he traveled at speeds up to 833 9 mph (1342 km/h, or Mach 1 26)  In the press conference after his jump, it was announced that he was in freefall for 4 minutes 18 seconds, the second longest freefall after the 1960 jump of Joseph Kittinger for 4 minutes 36 seconds 

Alan Eustace
In October 2014, Alan Eustace, a senior vice president at Google, broke Baumgartner's record for highest sky-dive and also broke the sound barrier in the process  However, because Eustace's jump involved a drogue parachute, while Baumgartner's did not, their vertical speed and free-fall distance records remain in different categories 

Legacy
David Lean directed The Sound Barrier, a fictionalized retelling of the de Havilland DH 108 test flights 

See also
Sonic boom
Vapor cone
Passage 7:
Global Alliance in Management Education
CEMS - The Global Alliance in Management Education or CEMS (formerly the Community of European Management Schools and International Companies) is a cooperation of leading business schools and universities with multinational companies and NGOs  The CEMS Global Alliance includes 34 academic institutions on every continent, nearly 70 corporate partners and eight social partners (NGOs) from around the globe  CEMS administers the delivery of the CEMS MIM degree in its member schools, supports the CEMS Alumni Association (CAA) and facilitates general cooperation among its members 

CEMS MIM
CEMS Master in International Management (CEMS MIM) is a one-year degree program for a select group of students at the member institutions,  taught jointly by CEMS business schools and universities  Created in 1988 by founding members from the University of Cologne, HEC Paris, ESADE and the Bocconi University, it was the first supra-national MSc  The aim of CEMS is to develop knowledge and provide education that is essential in the multilingual, multicultural and interconnected business world The MIM Programme consists of three terms: two academic terms and one internship term  The two academic terms must be consecutive, while the internship term can take place at any time during the graduate period of studies  Students must spend at least two out of the three terms abroad  In addition to completing one's home degree, graduation from CEMS also requires completion of a business project, skill seminars, an international internship, and two foreign language exams 
Each CEMS academic member has a limited number of places available  In many cases, schools have prerequisites to be admitted into the selection process, including a high-grade average and proof of language skills  The selection process typically requires the student to already be enrolled or selected for a Master of Business degree with a member university before applying for the CEMS MIM  CEMS graduates receive a degree from their home institution as well as from CEMS 

Global ranking
The CEMS MIM has consistently ranked among the top 10 in the Masters in Management Ranking since 2005 by the Financial Times 

Academic members
Schools offering the CEMS Master's in International Management (CEMS MIM):

Corporate partners
Nearly 70 corporate partners contribute financially on an annual basis and provide the programme with human resources and input into the curriculum itself in each country they are based  They chart skills courses, give lectures or invite CEMS students to company activities where students learn about corporate practices or solve cases  These connections are very useful to promote the company to the students, while the students gain insight into real-world problems and solution approaches 
Students are advised to be responsible and arrange by themselves an internship partner which will accept the student intern for at least ten consecutive weeks  There are student visa requirements that each student takes responsibility to abide by, and the regulation varies by each local government 

Social partners
The first CEMS social partners joined the organisation in December 2010  These are the first in a series of non-profits and NGOs that contribute to the alliance in a way identical to corporate partners (selection and admission of students, governance, curriculum delivery, proposal of internships and employment opportunities)  This new initiative is part of a major sustainability drive from within CEMS  In the same vein, CEMS has also signed the PRME (Principles for Responsible Management Education) declaration 

Alumni association
The CEMS Alumni Association (CAA), founded in 1993 by CEMS graduates, is an international network of CEMS graduates throughout the world  To date, there are nearly 16,000 CEMS alumni  The Graduation Ceremony takes place each year during the CEMS Annual Events (usually at the end of November) which is hosted by one of the CEMS member schools The CAA is led by an alumni board and is present in many countries through local committees of CEMS alumni  The local committees are responsible for keeping in contact with CEMS alumni and organizing professional and social activities  They meet regularly to discuss the activities and development of the association  The alumni board comprises the CAA President, the CEMS Executive Director, a representative of the CEMS Student Board, a representative of CEMS member schools, three local committee representatives, two senior alumni and two junior alumni  It proposes and develops initiatives to foster career and personal development opportunities for its alumni members and represents alumni interests on the CEMS Executive Board 
While students stay at partner universities, there are support groups called CEMS clubs through which CEMS students share their identities  The extended network of CEMS students spans schools across the world 

Footnotes
Notes
Passage 8:
Confederation of Finnish Industries
The Confederation of Finnish Industries (EK, Finnish: Elinkeinoelämän Keskusliitto, Swedish: Finlands Näringsliv) is the largest employers' association in Finland  It was formed at the beginning of 2005 when the two employers' associations Palvelutyönantajat (Employers of the Service Sector) and Teollisuuden ja Työnantajain Keskusliitto (Union of Industries and Employers) merged  EK's member companies collectively contribute over 70% of Finland's GDP, and over 95% of Finland's exports  It has considerable negotiating power, since Finland has universal validity of collective labour agreements, and often a national income policy agreement is reached 
EK focuses its activity on the following goals:

A business environment which stimulates growth and success for companies
Securing the competitiveness of Finnish work
Ways to benefit from the opportunities offered by globalisation
Economic policies promoting competitiveness
Efficient member servicesThe organisation consists of:

43 branch associations
About 15,000 member companies, 96% of which are small and medium enterprises (SMEs)
About 900,000 employees

External links
The Confederation of Finnish Industries  Official site
Passage 9:
Mach's principle
In theoretical physics, particularly in discussions of gravitation theories,  Mach's principle (or Mach's conjecture) is the name given by Einstein to an imprecise hypothesis often credited to the physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach  The hypothesis attempted to explain how rotating objects, such as gyroscopes and spinning celestial bodies, maintain a frame of reference  
The proposition is that the existence of absolute rotation (the distinction of local inertial frames vs  rotating reference frames) is determined by the large-scale distribution of matter, as exemplified by this anecdote:

You are standing in a field looking at the stars  Your arms are resting freely at your side, and you see that the distant stars are not moving  Now start spinning  The stars are whirling around you and your arms are pulled away from your body  Why should your arms be pulled away when the stars are whirling? Why should they be dangling freely when the stars don't move?

Mach's principle says that this is not a coincidence—that there is a physical law that relates the motion of the distant stars to the local inertial frame  If you see all the stars whirling around you, Mach suggests that there is some physical law which would make it so you would feel a centrifugal force  There are a number of rival formulations of the principle, often stated in vague ways like "mass out there influences inertia here"  A very general statement of Mach's principle is "local physical laws are determined by the large-scale structure of the universe" Mach's concept was a guiding factor in Einstein's development of the general theory of relativity  Einstein realized that the overall distribution of matter would determine the metric tensor which indicates which frame is stationary with respect to rotation  Frame-dragging and conservation of gravitational angular momentum makes this into a true statement in the general theory in certain solutions  But because the principle is so vague, many distinct statements have been made which would qualify as a Mach principle, and some of which are false  The Gödel rotating universe is a solution of the field equations that is designed to disobey Mach's principle in the worst possible way  In this example, the distant stars seem to be revolving faster and faster as one moves further away  This example does not completely settle the question of the physical relevance of the principle because it has closed timelike curves 

History
Mach put forth the idea in his book The Science of Mechanics (1883 in German, 1893 in English)  Before Mach's time, the basic idea also appears in the writings of George Berkeley  After Mach, the book Absolute or Relative Motion? (1896) by Benedict Friedlaender and his brother Immanuel contained ideas similar to Mach's principle 

Einstein's use of the principle
There is a fundamental issue in relativity theory: if all motion is relative, how can we measure the inertia of a body? We must measure the inertia with respect to something else  But what if we imagine a particle completely on its own in the universe? We might hope to still have some notion of its state of motion  Mach's principle is sometimes interpreted as the statement that such a particle's state of motion has no meaning in that case 
In Mach's words, the principle is embodied as follows:
[The] investigator must feel the need of    knowledge of the immediate connections, say, of the masses of the universe  There will hover before him as an ideal insight into the principles of the whole matter, from which accelerated and inertial motions will result in the same way 
Albert Einstein seemed to view Mach's principle as something along the lines of:
   inertia originates in a kind of interaction between bodies   
In this sense, at least some of Mach's principles are related to philosophical holism  Mach's suggestion can be taken as the injunction that gravitation theories should be relational theories  Einstein brought the principle into mainstream physics while working on general relativity  Indeed, it was Einstein who first coined the phrase Mach's principle  There is much debate as to whether Mach really intended to suggest a new physical law since he never states it explicitly 
The writing in which Einstein found inspiration was Mach's book The Science of Mechanics (1883, tr  1893), where the philosopher criticized Newton's idea of absolute space, in particular the argument that Newton gave sustaining the existence of an advantaged reference system: what is commonly called "Newton's bucket argument" 
In his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Newton tried to demonstrate that one can always decide if one is rotating with respect to the absolute space, measuring the apparent forces that arise only when an absolute rotation is performed  If a bucket is filled with water, and made to rotate, initially the water remains still, but then, gradually, the walls of the vessel communicate their motion to the water, making it curve and climb up the borders of the bucket, because of the centrifugal forces produced by the rotation  This experiment demonstrates that the centrifugal forces arise only when the water is in rotation with respect to the absolute space (represented here by the earth's reference frame, or better, the distant stars) instead, when the bucket was rotating with respect to the water no centrifugal forces were produced, this indicating that the latter was still with respect to the absolute space 
Mach, in his book, says that the bucket experiment only demonstrates that when the water is in rotation with respect to the bucket no centrifugal forces are produced, and that we cannot know how the water would behave if in the experiment the bucket's walls were increased in depth and width until they became leagues big  In Mach's idea this concept of absolute motion should be substituted with a total relativism in which every motion, uniform or accelerated, has sense only in reference to other bodies (i e , one cannot simply say that the water is rotating, but must specify if it's rotating with respect to the vessel or to the earth)  In this view, the apparent forces that seem to permit discrimination between relative and "absolute" motions should only be considered as an effect of the particular asymmetry that there is in our reference system between the bodies which we consider in motion, that are small (like buckets), and the bodies that we believe are still (the earth and distant stars), that are overwhelmingly bigger and heavier than the former 
This same thought had been expressed by the philosopher George Berkeley in his De Motu  It is then not clear, in the passages from Mach just mentioned, if the philosopher intended to formulate a new kind of physical action between heavy bodies  This physical mechanism should determine the inertia of bodies, in a way that the heavy and distant bodies of our universe should contribute the most to the inertial forces  More likely, Mach only suggested a mere "redescription of motion in space as experiences that do not invoke the term space"   What is certain is that Einstein interpreted Mach's passage in the former way, originating a long-lasting debate 
Most physicists believe Mach's principle was never developed into a quantitative physical theory that would explain a mechanism by which the stars can have such an effect  Mach himself never made his principle exactly clear : 9–57  Although Einstein was intrigued and inspired by Mach's principle, Einstein's formulation of the principle is not a fundamental assumption of general relativity, although the principle of equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass is most certainly fundamental 

Mach's principle in general relativity
Because intuitive notions of distance and time no longer apply, what exactly is meant by "Mach's principle" in general relativity is even less clear than in Newtonian physics and at least 21 formulations of Mach's principle are possible, some being considered more strongly Machian than others : 530   A relatively weak formulation is the assertion that the motion of matter in one place should affect which frames are inertial in another 
Einstein, before completing his development of the general theory of relativity, found an effect which he interpreted as being evidence of Mach's principle   We assume a fixed background for conceptual simplicity, construct a large spherical shell of mass, and set it spinning in that background   The reference frame in the interior of this shell will precess with respect to the fixed background   This effect is known as the Lense–Thirring effect   Einstein was so satisfied with this manifestation of Mach's principle that he wrote a letter to Mach expressing this:

it    turns out that inertia originates in a kind of interaction between bodies, quite in the sense of your considerations on Newton's pail experiment     If one rotates [a heavy shell of matter] relative to the fixed stars about an axis going through its center, a Coriolis force arises in the interior of the shell; that is, the plane of a Foucault pendulum is dragged around (with a practically unmeasurably small angular velocity) 
The Lense–Thirring effect certainly satisfies the very basic and broad notion that "matter there influences inertia here"   The plane of the pendulum would not be dragged around if the shell of matter were not present, or if it were not spinning   As for the statement that "inertia originates in a kind of interaction between bodies", this, too, could be interpreted as true in the context of the effect 
More fundamental to the problem, however, is the very existence of a fixed background, which Einstein describes as "the fixed stars"   Modern relativists see the imprints of Mach's principle in the initial-value problem   Essentially, we humans seem to wish to separate spacetime into slices of constant time   When we do this, Einstein's equations can be decomposed into one set of equations, which must be satisfied on each slice, and another set, which describe how to move between slices   The equations for an individual slice are elliptic partial differential equations   In general, this means that only part of the geometry of the slice can be given by the scientist, while the geometry everywhere else will then be dictated by Einstein's equations on the slice In the context of an asymptotically flat spacetime, the boundary conditions are given at infinity   Heuristically, the boundary conditions for an asymptotically flat universe define a frame with respect to which inertia has meaning   By performing a Lorentz transformation on the distant universe, of course, this inertia can also be transformed 
A stronger form of Mach's principle applies in Wheeler–Mach–Einstein spacetimes, which require spacetime to be spatially compact and globally hyperbolic   In such universes Mach's principle can be stated as the distribution of matter and field energy-momentum (and possibly other information) at a particular moment in the universe determines the inertial frame at each point in the universe (where "a particular moment in the universe" refers to a chosen Cauchy surface) : 188–207 There have been other attempts to formulate a theory that is more fully Machian, such as the Brans–Dicke theory and the Hoyle–Narlikar theory of gravity, but most physicists argue that none have been fully successful  At an exit poll of experts, held in Tübingen in 1993, when asked the question "Is general relativity perfectly Machian?", 3 respondents replied "yes", and 22 replied "no"   To the question "Is general relativity with appropriate boundary conditions of closure of some kind very Machian?" the result was 14 "yes" and 7 "no" : 106 However, Einstein was convinced that a valid theory of gravity would necessarily have to include the relativity of inertia:

So strongly did Einstein believe at that time in the relativity of inertia that in 1918 he stated as being on an equal footing three principles on which a satisfactory theory of gravitation should rest:
The principle of relativity as expressed by general covariance 
The principle of equivalence 
Mach's principle (the first time this term entered the literature): … that the gµν are completely determined by the mass of bodies, more generally by Tµν In 1922, Einstein noted that others were satisfied to proceed without this [third] criterion and added, 
"This contentedness will appear incomprehensible to a later generation however "

It must be said that, as far as I can see, to this day, Mach's principle has not brought physics decisively farther  It must also be said that the origin of inertia is and remains the most obscure subject in the theory of particles and fields  Mach's principle may therefore have a future – but not without the quantum theory 

Inertial induction
In 1953, in order to express Mach's Principle in quantitative terms, the Cambridge University physicist Dennis W  Sciama proposed the addition of an acceleration dependent term to the Newtonian gravitation equation  Sciama's acceleration dependent term was 
  
    
      
        F
        =
        G
        
          
            
              
                m
                
                  A
                
              
              
                m
                
                  B
                
              
              
                
                  a
                
              
            
            
              r
              
                c
                
                  2
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\textstyle F=G{\frac {m_{A}m_{B}{\bf {a}}}{rc^{2}}}\ }
   where r is the distance between the particles, G is the gravitational constant, a is the relative acceleration and c represents the speed of light in vacuum  Sciama referred to the effect of the acceleration dependent term as Inertial Induction 

Variations in the statement of the principle
The broad notion that "mass there influences inertia here" has been expressed in several forms 
Hermann Bondi and Joseph Samuel have listed eleven distinct statements that can be called Mach principles, labelled Mach0 through Mach10   Though their list is not necessarily exhaustive, it does give a flavor for the variety possible 

Mach0: The universe, as represented by the average motion of distant galaxies, does not appear to rotate relative to local inertial frames 
Mach1: Newton's gravitational constant G is a dynamical field 
Mach2: An isolated body in otherwise empty space has no inertia 
Mach3: Local inertial frames are affected by the cosmic motion and distribution of matter 
Mach4: The universe is spatially closed 
Mach5: The total energy, angular and linear momentum of the universe are zero 
Mach6: Inertial mass is affected by the global distribution of matter 
Mach7: If you take away all matter, there is no more space 
Mach8: 
  
    
      
        Ω
         
        
          
            
              
                =
              
              
                def
              
            
          
        
         
        4
        π
        ρ
        G
        
          T
          
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Omega \ {\stackrel {\text{def}}{=}}\ 4\pi \rho GT^{2}}
   is a definite number, of order unity, where 
  
    ρ
    \rho
   is the mean density of matter in the universe, and 
  
    T
    T
   is the Hubble time 
Mach9: The theory contains no absolute elements 
Mach10: Overall rigid rotations and translations of a system are unobservable 

See also



ground_truth: Charles University