prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In the King's Speech, who played the person who was the King of England in 1950?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Taylor King
Taylor Steven King (born May 30, 1988) is an American former professional basketball player   King played for the Duke Blue Devils, Villanova University Wildcats, and Concordia of the NAIA  where he played the forward position  King attended Mater Dei High School of Santa Ana, where he enjoyed a successful high school basketball career, posting the third highest career point total in California high school history with 3,216 points 

High school career
King established several school records while at Mater Dei: total career points (3,216), points in a single season (987 in 2007), career 3-pointers made (370), career rebounds (1,456) and rebounds in a single season (444 in 2006)  He participated in the ABCD Camp, a camp for the best high school players in the United States, in each of his 4 high school seasons (2003 to 2006) 

College career
King played for Duke his freshman year   He transferred to Villanova University following the spring 2008 semester   Per NCAA regulations, King did not compete in the 2008–09 season, but returned for the 2009–10 season, with three more years of collegiate eligibility 
During the summer of 2010, Taylor King left the Villanova men's basketball team for what a team spokesman said were "personal reasons " On August 11, 2010, it was announced that King had transferred to USC  However, shortly after, it was announced he would not be attending USC but actually the NAIA school Concordia 

Professional career
On October 21, 2011, it was announced that King had made the final 12-man roster for the National Basketball League of Canada's London Lightning   However, on January 17, the Lightning released him, leaving room for him to be signed by the Quebec Kebs on February 2 On September 17, 2014, King signed a one-year contract with Cheshire Phoenix of the British Basketball League, coached by John Coffino  
King made an instant impact, leading the league in scoring with an average of 20 1ppg in 33 games, which included a 36-point game against the Sheffield Sharks  King was also fifth in the league in rebounding, with an average of 9 5rpg 
After the 2017–18 season, King retired from basketball 
Passage 2:
The King's Speech
The King's Speech is a 2010 historical drama film directed by Tom Hooper and written by David Seidler  Colin Firth plays the future King George VI who, to cope with a stammer, sees Lionel Logue, an Australian speech and language therapist played by Geoffrey Rush  The men become friends as they work together, and after his brother abdicates the throne, the new king relies on Logue to help him make his first wartime radio broadcast upon Britain's declaration of war on Germany in 1939 
Seidler read about George VI's life after learning to manage a stuttering condition he developed during his own youth  He started writing about the relationship between the therapist and his royal patient as early as the 1980s, but at the request of the King's widow, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, postponed work until her death in 2002  He later rewrote his screenplay for the stage to focus on the essential relationship between the two protagonists  Nine weeks before filming began, the filmmakers learned of the existence of notes written by Logue that were being used by his grandson Mark and Peter Conradi as the basis of a book, and were granted permission to incorporate material from the notes and book into the script 
Principal photography took place in London and around Britain from November 2009 to January 2010  Hard light was used to give the story a greater resonance and wider-than-normal lenses were employed to recreate the Duke of York's feelings of constriction  A third technique Hooper employed was the off-centre framing of characters 
The King's Speech was a major box office and critical success  It was widely praised by film critics for its visual style, art direction, screenplay, directing, score, and acting  Other commentators discussed the film's representation of historical detail, especially the reversal of Winston Churchill's opposition to abdication  The film received many awards and nominations, particularly for Colin Firth's performance, which resulted in his first Academy Award for Best Actor  At the 83rd Academy Awards, The King's Speech received 12 Oscar nominations, more than any other film in that year, and subsequently won four, including Best Picture  Censors initially gave it adult ratings due to profanity, though these were later revised downwards after criticism by the makers and distributors in the UK and some instances of swearing were muted in the US  On a budget of £8 million, it earned over £250 million internationally 

Plot
At the official closing of the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Stadium, Prince Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V, addresses the crowd with a strong stammer  His search for treatment has been discouraging, but his wife, Elizabeth, persuades him to see the Australian-born Lionel Logue, a non-medically trained Harley Street speech defects therapist  "Bertie", as he is called by his family, believes the first session is not going well, but Lionel, who insists that all his patients address him as such, has his potential client recite Hamlet's "To be, or not to be" soliloquy while hearing classical music played on a pair of headphones  Bertie is frustrated at the experiment but Lionel gives him the acetate recording that he has made of the reading as a souvenir 
After Bertie's father, King George V, broadcasts his 1934 Royal Christmas Message, he explains to Bertie that the wireless will play a significant part in the role of the royal family, allowing them to enter the homes of the people, and that Bertie's brother's neglect of his responsibilities make training in it necessary  The attempt at reading the message himself is a failure, but that night Bertie plays the recording Lionel gave him and is astonished at the lack of stutter there  He therefore returns for daily treatments to overcome the physical and psychological roots of his speaking difficulty 
George V dies in 1936, and his eldest son David ascends the throne as King Edward VIII  A constitutional crisis arises with the new king over a prospective marriage with the twice-divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson  Edward, as the supreme governor of the Church of England, cannot marry her, even if she receives her second divorce, since both her previous husbands are alive 
At an unscheduled session, Bertie expresses his frustration that, while his speech has improved when speaking to most people, he still stammers when talking to David, at the same time revealing the extent of Edward VIII's folly with Simpson  When Lionel insists that Bertie himself could make a good king, Bertie accuses Lionel of speaking treason and quits Lionel in anger  Bertie must now face the Accession Council without any assistance 
Bertie and Lionel only come together again after King Edward decides to abdicate in order to marry  Bertie, urged ahead by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, ascends the throne as King George VI and visits Lionel's home with his wife before their coronation, much to the surprise of Mrs  Logue when she comes upon Queen Elizabeth having tea at her dining room table  This is the first time that she learns who her husband's patient has been 
Bertie and Lionel's relationship is questioned by the King's advisors during the preparations for his coronation in Westminster Abbey  The archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Gordon Lang, brings to light that George never asked for advice from his advisors about his treatment and that Lionel has never had formal training   Lionel explains to an outraged Bertie that at the time he started with speech defects there were no formal qualifications and that the only known help that was available for returning Great War shell-shocked Australian soldiers was from personal experience  Bertie remains unconvinced until provoked to protest at Lionel's disrespect for King Edward's Chair and the Stone of Scone  Only at this pivotal moment, after realising he has just expressed himself without impairment, is Bertie able to rehearse with Lionel and complete the ceremony 
As the new king, Bertie is in a crisis when he must broadcast to Britain and the Empire following the declaration of war on Nazi Germany in 1939  Lionel is summoned to Buckingham Palace to prepare the king for his speech  Knowing the challenge that lies before him, Lang, Winston Churchill, and Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain are present to offer support  The King and Logue are then left in the broadcasting room  He delivers his speech with Logue conducting him, but by the end he is speaking freely  Preparing to leave the room for the congratulations of those present, Logue mentions to the King that he still has difficulty enunciating w and the King jokes back, "I had to throw in a few so they'd know it was me "
As the Royal Family step onto the palace balcony and are applauded by the crowd, a title card explains that Logue, who received the Royal Victorian Order for service to the Crown, was always present at King George VI's speeches during the war and that they remained friends until the King's death from lung cancer in 1952 

Cast
Colin Firth as King George VI
Geoffrey Rush as Lionel Logue
Helena Bonham Carter as Queen Elizabeth
Guy Pearce as King Edward VIII
Timothy Spall as Winston Churchill
Derek Jacobi as Cosmo Gordon Lang
Jennifer Ehle as Myrtle Logue
Michael Gambon as King George V
Freya Wilson as Princess Elizabeth
Ramona Marquez as Princess Margaret
Patrick Ryecart as Lord Wigram
Simon Chandler as Lord Dawson of Penn
Claire Bloom as Queen Mary
Orlando Wells as Prince George, Duke of Kent
Tim Downie as Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester
Eve Best as Wallis Simpson
Anthony Andrews as Stanley Baldwin
Andrew Havill as Robert Wood

Production
Development
As a child, David Seidler developed a stammer, which he believes was caused by the emotional trauma of World War II and the murder of his grandparents during the Holocaust  King George VI's success in overcoming his stammer inspired the young Seidler, "Here was a stutterer who was a king and had to give radio speeches where everyone was listening to every syllable he uttered, and yet did so with passion and intensity " When Seidler became an adult, he resolved to write about King George VI  During the late 1970s and 1980s he voraciously researched the King, but found a dearth of information on Logue  Eventually Seidler contacted Valentine Logue, who agreed to discuss his father and make his notebooks available if the Queen Mother gave her permission  She asked him not to do so in her lifetime, and Seidler halted the project 

The Queen Mother died in 2002  Three years later, Seidler returned to the story during a bout of creative work inspired by a recovery from cancer  His research, including a chance encounter with an uncle whom Logue had treated, indicated he used mechanical breathing exercises combined with psychological counselling to probe the underlying causes of the condition  Thus prepared, Seidler imagined the sessions  He showed the finished screenplay to his wife, who liked it, but pronounced it too "seduced by cinematic technique"  She suggested he rewrite it as a stage play to focus on the essential relationship between the King and Logue  After he had completed it, he sent it to a few friends who worked in theatre in London and New York for feedback In 2005, Joan Lane of Wilde Thyme, a production company in London, received the script  Lane started talking with Simon Egan and Gareth Unwin of Bedlam Productions, and they invited Seidler to London to rewrite the play again, this time for the screen  Together, Lane and Bedlam Productions organised a reading of the play in Pleasance Theatre, a small house in north London, to a group of Australian expatriates, among whom was Tom Hooper's mother  She called her son and said, "I've found your next project" Instead of trying to contact his agent, Lane asked an Australian staff member to hand-deliver the script to Geoffrey Rush's house, not far away from hers in Melbourne  Unwin reports that he received a four-page e-mail from Rush's manager admonishing them for the breach of etiquette, but ending with an invitation to discuss the project further  Iain Canning from See-Saw Films became involved and, in Gareth Unwin's words: "We worked with ex-chair of BAFTA Richard Price, and started turning this story about two grumpy men sitting in a room into something bigger " Hooper liked the story, but thought that the original ending needed to be changed to reflect events more closely: "Originally, it had a Hollywood ending     If you hear the real speech, he's clearly coping with his stammer  But it's not a perfect performance  He's managing it "

The production team learned – some nine weeks prior to the start of filming – of a diary containing Logue's original notes on his treatment of the Duke, which was in the process of being turned into a non-fiction book by Logue's grandson Mark and journalist Peter Conradi, titled The King's Speech: How One Man Saved the British Monarchy  Striking an agreement with the authors, they then went back and re-worked the script to reflect what was in the notes and the book  Some lines, such as at the climax, when Logue smiles and says, "You still stammered on the W" to the King, who replies, "I had to throw in a few so they would know it was me" were direct quotations from Logue's notes  Changes from the script to reflect the historical record included Michael Gambon improvising the ramblings of George V as he signed away authority, and the decision in the opening scene to dress the Duke in an overcoat rather than regal finery Seidler thought Paul Bettany would be a good choice to play King George VI, while Hooper preferred Hugh Grant, though both actors declined the offer  Once they met with Firth and heard him read for the part, Seidler and Hooper were convinced of his suitability for the role The UK Film Council awarded the production £1 million in June 2009  Filming began in December 2009, and lasted 39 days  Most was shot in the three weeks before Christmas because Rush would be performing in a play in January  The schedule was further complicated by Bonham Carter's availability: she worked on Harry Potter during the week, so her scenes had to be filmed during the weekend 

Location and design
The film depicted both regal opulence and scruffy, depression-era London  On 25 November 2009 the crew took over the Pullens buildings in Southwark and gave it the appearance of a street from 1930s London  Large advertisements for (among other things) Bovril and fascism were added to walls, and grit and grime to streets and buildings  To reproduce London smog of the time – thick enough that cars might need guidance from someone walking ahead – so much artificial smoke was used that fire alarms were triggered On 26 November, a week's filming with Firth, Rush, and Jacobi began at Ely Cathedral, the location used for Westminster Abbey  The production had asked for permission to film in the Abbey but were denied due to the demands of tourism  Though Lincoln Cathedral is architecturally a closer match to the Abbey, they preferred Ely, a favoured filming location  Its size allowed them to build sets showing not just the coronation, but the preparations before it Lancaster House, an opulent government-owned period house in London, was rented (at £20,000 per day) for interior scenes of Buckingham Palace  The 1936 Accession Council at St  James's Palace, where George VI swore an oath, was filmed in the Livery Hall of Drapers' Hall  The room, ornate and vast, met the occasion: the daunting nature of the new King's responsibilities was shown by surrounding him with rich detail, flags and royal portraiture The crew investigated Logue's former consultation rooms, but they were too small to film in  Instead, they found a high, vaulted room not far away in 33 Portland Place  Eve Stewart, the production designer, liked the mottled, peeling wallpaper there so much that she recreated the effect throughout the entire room  In his DVD commentary, Hooper said he liked Portland Place as a set because it felt "lived in", unlike other period houses in London  The scenes of the Duke of York at home with his family were also filmed here; showing the Prince living in a townhouse "subverted" expectations of a royal drama 

The opening scene, set at the closing ceremony of the 1925 British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Stadium, was filmed on location at Elland Road, home of Leeds United, and Odsal Stadium, home of Bradford RLFC  Elland Road was used for the speech elements of the prince stammering his way through his first public address, and Odsal Stadium was selected because of the resemblance of its curved ends to Wembley Stadium in 1925  The crew had access to the stadium only at 10 pm, after a football game  They filled the terraces with inflatable dummies and over 250 extras dressed in period costumes  Live actors were interspersed to give the impression of a crowd  Additional people, as well as more ranks of soldiers on the pitch, were added in post-production with visual effects Other locations include Cumberland Lodge, Harley Street, Knebworth, Hatfield House, the Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich, Queen Street Mill Textile Museum in Burnley, and Battersea Power Station, which doubled as a BBC wireless control room  The final cut of the film was completed on 31 August 2010 

Dialogue
In developing his portrayal of George VI's stammer, Firth worked with Neil Swain, the voice coach for the film  His sister, Kate Firth, also a professional voice coach to actors, proposed exercises the King might have done with Logue, and made suggestions on how to imagine Logue's mix of physical and psychological coaching for the film In addition, Firth watched archive footage of the King speaking  In an interview with Allan Tyrer published by the British Stammering Association, Swain said: "[It] was very interesting while we were working on the film just to think tonally how far we could go and should go with the strength of George's stammer  I think a less courageous director than Tom [Hooper] – and indeed a less courageous actor than Colin [Firth] – might have felt the need to slightly sanitise the degree and authenticity of that stammer, and I'm really really pleased that neither of them did " In May 2011 Firth said he was finding traces of the stammer difficult to eliminate: "You can probably hear even from this interview, there are moments when it's quite infectious  You find yourself doing it and if I start thinking about it the worse it gets  If nothing else it's an insight into what it feels like "

Music
The film's original music is composed by Alexandre Desplat, which consisted of a sparse arrangement of strings and piano  The London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Terry Davies, limited orchestral score by only adding oboe and harp in one cut, to convey the character of the king, while also using single note to represent the stickiness of the King's speech  Old microphones extracted from the EMI archives, specially made for the royal family, had been used to record the score, to create a dated sound The use of the 2nd movement (Allegretto) of Beethoven's 7th Symphony, played during the broadcast of the 1939 radio speech from the film's climax, was played as a temp track added by editor Tariq Anwar  Desplat did not want to change the track and defended Anwar's suggestion, as the theme has a universal quality  Hooper further remarked that the stature of the piece helps elevate the status of the speech to a public event  The score album also featured Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Marriage of Figaro overture  The score was nominated for several awards, including Best Original Score at the Oscars, Golden Globes, and BAFTAs, winning the latter award  The score also won a Grammy at the 54th Grammy Awards 

Visual style
Hooper employed a number of cinematic techniques to evoke the King's feelings of constriction  He and cinematographer Danny Cohen used wider than normal lenses to photograph the film, typically 14mm, 18mm, 21mm, 25mm and 27mm, where the subtle distortion of the picture helps to convey the King's discomfort  For instance, the subjective point of view shot during the Empire exhibition speech used a close up of the microphone with a wider lens, similar to the filming technique used for one of the Duke's early consultations with a physician  In The New York Times, Manohla Dargis wrote that the feeling of entrapment inside the King's head was rendered overly literal with what she believed to be a fisheye lens, though in these scenes the wider lenses were used  Hooper also discussed using the 18mm lens, one he likes "because it puts human beings in their context" Roger Ebert noted that the majority of the film was shot indoors, where oblong sets, corridors, and small spaces manifest constriction and tightness, in contrast to the usual emphasis on sweep and majesty in historical dramas  Hooper used wide shots to capture the actors' body language, particularly that of Geoffrey Rush, who trained at L'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq in Paris and "is consequently brilliant in the way he carries his body"  Hooper widened his scope first to capture Rush's gestures, then full body movements and silhouettes  The approach carried over to Firth as well  In the first consultation scene, the Duke is squeezed against the end of a long couch framed against a large wall, "as if to use the arm of the sofa as a kind of friend, as a security blanket?" Martin Filler praised the "low-wattage" cinematography of Danny Cohen's, as making everything look like it has been "steeped in strong tea" At other times, the camera was positioned very close to the actors to catch the emotion in their faces: "If you put a lens 6 inches from somebody's face, you get more emotion than if you're on a long lens 20 feet away," Cohen said in an interview  Hooper sought a second subtlety while filming the first consultation room scene between the two men, having placed the camera 18 inches from Colin Firth's face: "I wanted the nervousness of the first day to percolate into his performances," he said Historical dramas traditionally tend to use "soft light", but Hooper wanted to use a harsher glare, which gives a more contemporary feel, and thus a greater emotional resonance  To achieve the effect, the lighting team erected huge blackout tents over the Georgian buildings and used large lights filtered through Egyptian cotton 

Historical accuracy
Several events in the film did not happen, or were exaggerated  The visual blog Information is Beautiful deduced that, while taking creative licence into account, the film was 74 4% accurate when compared to real-life events, summarising: "Some nips and tucks of the historical record, but mostly an accurate retelling of a unique friendship" 

Relationship with Lionel Logue
The filmmakers not only tightened the chronology of the events to just a few years but even shifted the timeline of treatment  The Duke of York actually began working with Logue in October 1926, ten years before the abdication crisis, and the improvement in his speech was apparent in months rather than years as suggested by the film  When he was dispatched to Australia to open their new Parliament House in Canberra in 1927, the Duke gave numerous speeches during the journey and performed well despite Logue not accompanying him on the trip  He wrote to Logue from the Caribbean, "You remember my fear of 'The King'  I give it every evening at dinner on board  This does not worry me any more " Of his speech opening Parliament it was observed that he spoke "resonantly and without stuttering" Robert Logue, a grandson of Lionel, doubted the film's depiction of the speech therapist, stating "I don't think he ever swore in front of the King and he certainly never called him 'Bertie'"  Andrew Roberts, an English historian, states that the severity of the King's stammer was exaggerated and the characters of Edward VIII, Wallis Simpson, and George V made more antagonistic than they really were, to increase the dramatic effect 

Politics
Christopher Hitchens and Isaac Chotiner have criticised the film for failing to indict the appeasement of the era or to portray Edward VIII's sympathetic attitude to Nazi Germany   The Guardian also corrected the portrayal of Stanley Baldwin as having resigned due to his refusal to order Britain's re-armament, when he in fact stepped down as "a national hero, exhausted by more than a decade at the top"  Stanley's grandson, Earl Baldwin, was particularly unhappy with this film due to its factual distortions and portrayal of his grandfather as a dithering fool who misunderstood Hitler's intentions Hugo Vickers, an adviser on the film, agreed that the alteration of historical details to preserve the essence of the dramatic story was sometimes necessary  The high-ranking officials, for instance, would not have been present when the King made his speech, nor would Churchill have been involved at any level, "but the average viewer knows who Churchill is; he doesn't know who Lord Halifax and Sir Samuel Hoare are "Hitchens and Chotiner also challenged the film's portrayal of Winston Churchill's role in the abdication crisis  It is well established that Churchill encouraged Edward VIII to resist pressure to abdicate, whereas he is portrayed in the film as supportive of the Duke of York and not opposed to the abdication  Hitchens attributes this treatment to the "cult" surrounding Churchill's legacy  In a smart, well-made film "would the true story not have been fractionally more interesting for the audience?", he wondered 

Realism
Martin Filler acknowledged that the film legitimately used artistic licence to make valid dramatic points, such as in the probably imagined scene when George V lectures his son on the importance of broadcasting  Filler cautions that George VI would never have tolerated Logue addressing him casually, nor swearing, and the King almost certainly would have understood a newsreel of Hitler speaking in German  Filler makes the larger point that both the King and his wife were, in reality, lukewarm towards Churchill because of the latter's support for his brother during the abdication crisis Commenting on the film's final scene on the balcony of Buckingham Palace, Andrew Roberts has written, "The scene is fairly absurd from a historical point of view – Neville Chamberlain and Winston Churchill were not present and there were no cheering crowds outside Buckingham Palace " However, Roberts praises the film overall as a sympathetic portrayal of the King's "quiet, unassuming heroism [   ] The portrayals by Firth and Bonham Carter are sympathetic and acute, and the movie's occasional factual bêtises should not detract from that "

Release
Cinema release
The film had its world première on 6 September 2010 at the Telluride Film Festival in the United States  It was screened at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival, on Firth's 50th birthday, where it received a standing ovation and won the People's Choice Award  The cinema release poster was re-designed to show an extreme close-up of Firth's jaw and a microphone after Hooper criticised the first design as a "train smash"  Tim Appelo called the original, air-brushed effort, which showed the three leads, "shockingly awful" though the new one "really is worthwhile" The film was distributed by Transmission Films in Australia and by Momentum Pictures in the United Kingdom  The Weinstein Company distributed it in North America, Germany, Benelux, Scandinavia, China, Hong Kong, and Latin America  The film was released in France on 2 February 2011 by Wild Bunch under the title Le discours d'un roi 

Ratings controversy
The film was initially given a 15 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification, due to a minute-long scene where Logue encourages the King to swear, which he could do without stuttering  At the London Film Festival, Hooper criticised the decision, questioning how the board could certify the film "15" for bad language but allow films such as Salt (2010) and Casino Royale (2006) to have "12A" ratings, despite their graphic torture scenes  Following Hooper's criticism, the board lowered the rating to "12A", allowing children under 12 years of age to see the film if they are accompanied by an adult  Hooper levelled the same criticism at the Motion Picture Association of America, which gave the film an "R" rating, preventing anyone under the age of 17 from seeing the film without an adult  In his review, Roger Ebert criticised the "R" rating, calling it "utterly inexplicable", and wrote, "This is an excellent film for teenagers "In January 2011 Harvey Weinstein, the executive producer and distributor, said he was considering having the film re-edited to remove some profanity, so that it would receive a lower classification and reach a larger audience  Hooper refused to cut the film, though he considered covering the swear words with bleeps  Helena Bonham Carter also defended the film, saying, "[The film] is not violent  It's full of humanity and wit  [It's] for people not with just a speech impairment, but who have got confidence [doubts] " After receiving his Academy Award, Colin Firth noted that he does not support re-editing the film; while he does not condone the use of profanity, he maintains that its use was not offensive in this context  "The scene serves a purpose", Firth states  An alternative version, with some of the profanities muted out, was classified as "PG-13" in the United States; this version was released to cinemas on 1 April 2011, replacing the R-rated one  The PG-13 version of this film is not available on DVD and Blu-ray 

Reception
Box office
In Great Britain and Ireland, the film was the highest earning film on its opening weekend  It took in £3,510,000 from 395 cinemas  The Guardian said that it was one of the biggest takes in recent memory, and compared it to Slumdog Millionaire (2008), which, two years earlier, earned £1 5 million less  The King's Speech continued a "stunning three weeks" atop the UK Box office, and earned over £3 million for four consecutive weekends, the first film to do so since Toy Story 3 (2010)  After five weeks on UK release, it was hailed as the most successful independent British film ever In the United States The King's Speech opened with $355,450 (£220,000) in four cinemas  It holds the record for the highest per-cinema gross of 2010  It was widened to 700 screens on Christmas Day and 1,543 screens on 14 January 2011  It eventually made $138 million in North America overall In Australia The King's Speech made more than A$6,281,686 (£4 million) in the first two weeks, according to figures collected by the Motion Picture Distributors Association of Australia  The executive director of Palace Cinemas, Benjamin Zeccola, said customer feedback on the film was spectacular  "It's our No 1 for all the period, all throughout the country      I think this is more successful than Slumdog Millionaire and a more uplifting film  It's a good example of a film that started out in the independent cinemas and then spread to the mainstream cinemas "Of the film's net profit, estimated to amount to $30–40 million (£20–25 million) from the cinema release alone, roughly 20% was to be split between Geoffrey Rush (as executive producer), Tom Hooper and Colin Firth, who were to receive their bonuses before the other stakeholders  The remaining profit was to be split equally between the producers and the equity investors  The UK Film Council invested £1 million of public funds from the United Kingdom lottery into the film  In March 2011 Variety estimated that the return could be between fifteen and twenty times that  The Council's merger into the British Film Institute means that the profits were to be returned to that body 

Critical response
The King's Speech has received widespread critical acclaim, with Firth's performance receiving universal praise  Bonham Carter and Rush were also widely praised with both going on to win BAFTAs and receiving Academy Award nominations  Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 94% based on reviews from 297 critics; the film's average rating was calculated as 8 60/10  The website's critical consensus reads: "Colin Firth gives a masterful performance in The King's Speech, a predictable but stylishly produced and rousing period drama " Metacritic gave the film a weighted score of 88/100, based on 41 critical reviews, which indicates "universal acclaim"  CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A+" grade  Empire gave the film five stars out of five, commenting, "You'll be lost for words " Lisa Kennedy of The Denver Post gave the film full marks for its humane qualities and craftsmanship: "It is an intelligent, winning drama fit for a king – and the rest of us", she said  Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film a full four stars, commenting that "what we have here is a superior historical drama and a powerful personal one " Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave four stars out of five, stating, "Tom Hooper's richly enjoyable and handsomely produced movie     is a massively confident crowd-pleaser "Manohla Dargis, whilst generally ambivalent towards the film, called the lead performances one of its principal attractions  "With their volume turned up, the appealing, impeccably professional Mr  Firth and Mr  Rush rise to the acting occasion by twinkling and growling as their characters warily circle each other before settling into the therapeutic swing of things and unknowingly preparing for the big speech that partly gives the film its title," she wrote  The Daily Telegraph called Guy Pearce's performance as Edward VIII "formidable     with glamour, charisma and utter self-absorption"  Empire said he played the role well as "a flash harry flinty enough to shed a nation for a wife " The New York Times thought he was able to create "a thorny tangle of complications in only a few abbreviated scenes"  Hooper praised the actor in the DVD commentary, saying he "nailed" the 1930s royal accent  Richard Corliss of Time magazine named Colin Firth's performance one of the Top 10 Movie Performances of 2010 

Allociné, a French cinema website, gave the film an average of four out of five stars, based on a survey of 21 reviews  Le Monde, which characterised the film as the "latest manifestation of British narcissism" and summarised it as "We are ugly and boring, but, By Jove!, we are right!", nevertheless admired the performances of Firth, Rush, and Bonham Carter  It said that, though the film swept British appeasement under the carpet, it was still enjoyable Slovenian Marxist philosopher and cultural critic Slavoj Žižek has incorporated the film into his critique of ideology by describing it as "reactionary," interpreting the king's stutter as evidence that he "displays a minimum of common sense, experiencing the stupidity of seriously accepting that one is king by divine will" and claiming that "the task of the Australian voice-coach is to render him stupid enough to accept his being a king as his natural property " Žižek thus interprets the king's stutter as a case of what is referred to in Lacanian psychoanalysis as "symbolic castration "Queen Elizabeth II, the daughter and successor of King George VI, was sent two copies of the film before Christmas 2010  The Sun newspaper reported she had watched the film in a private screening at Sandringham House  A palace source described her reaction as being "touched by a moving portrayal of her father"  Seidler called the reports "the highest honour" the film could receive 

Depiction of stuttering
The British Stammering Association welcomed the release of The King's Speech, congratulating the film makers on their "realistic depiction of the frustration and the fear of speaking faced by people who stammer on a daily basis " It said that "Colin Firth's portrayal of the King's stammer in particular strikes us as very authentic and accurate " The Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists welcomed the film, and launched their "Giving Voice" campaign around the time of its commercial release Disfluency advocate Jonah Lehrer called the film "an inspiring tale" and praised its portrayal of the troubles suffered by Firth's character 
 However, Lehrer and other advocates criticized the film's depiction of stuttering as a result of emotional repression and childhood trauma  The treatment performed by Rush's character also drew criticism  Lehrer did admit it was a necessary artistic license: "[the film] would have been a rather tedious piece of entertainment if the climactic scene involved Logue telling the monarch that his primary motor cortex was to blame "Science journalist Jeremy Hsu wrote that the film "mainly succeeds by tackling the social stigma that surrounds stuttering " However, similar to Lehrer, he disapproved that it perpetuated myths about the condition, namely its relationship with childhood trauma and overly strict parenting Columnist Jane Ahlin praised the film as it "brings out of the shadows a common problem figuring into the lives of children and adults from every culture around the world " At the same time, she stated, "heartwarming though the movie The King's Speech is, as someone who married a stutterer and is the mother of a stutterer, I'm not sure it does anything to put myths about stuttering to rest " She criticized the depiction of family and social dynamics as causes of the condition, as well as the portrayal of stutterering as connected to emotional or psychological problems 

Awards and nominations
At the 83rd Academy Awards, The King's Speech won the Academy Award for Best Picture, Best Director (Hooper), Best Actor (Firth), and Best Original Screenplay (Seidler)  The film had received 12 Oscar nominations, more than any other film in that year  Besides the four categories it won, the film received nominations for Best Cinematography (Danny Cohen) and two for the supporting actors (Bonham Carter and Rush), as well as two for its mise-en-scène: Art Direction and Costumes At the 64th British Academy Film Awards, it won seven awards, including Best Film, Outstanding British Film, Best Actor for Firth, Best Supporting Actor for Rush, Best Supporting Actress for Bonham Carter, Best Original Screenplay for Seidler, and Best Music for Alexandre Desplat  The film had been nominated for 14 BAFTAs, more than any other film  At the 68th Golden Globe Awards, Firth won for Best Actor   The film won no other Golden Globes, despite earning seven nominations, more than any other film At the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Firth won the Best Actor award and the entire cast won Best Ensemble, meaning Firth went home with two acting awards in one evening  Hooper won the Directors Guild of America Awards 2010 for Best Director  The film won the Darryl F  Zanuck Award for Best Theatrical Motion Picture at the Producers Guild of America Awards 2010 The King's Speech won the People's Choice Award at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival, Best British Independent Film at the 2010 British Independent Film Awards, and the 2011 Goya Award for Best European Film from the Academia de las Artes y las Ciencias Cinematográficas de España (Spanish Academy of Cinematic Art and Science) 

See also
Bertie & Elizabeth (2002), a television film which also addresses the stammering of the king (played by James Wilby)  It was a co-production of PBS (Masterpiece Theatre) and Carlton Television 
Passage 3:
Gunhilde
Gunhilde (or Gunnhild) (died 13 November 1002) is said to have been the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark, and the daughter of Harald Bluetooth  She was married to Pallig, a Dane who served the King of England, Æthelred the Unready, as ealdorman of Devonshire She is supposed to have been a hostage in England when she was killed in the St  Brice's Day massacre, ordered by Æthelred  Pallig is reported alternatively to have been killed in the massacre or to have provoked the massacre by deserting Æthelred's service Historians are divided about the strength of the evidence that she was Sweyn Forkbeard's sister  Ryan Lavelle is sceptical of the reliability of the later medieval sources, such as the Chronicle of John of Wallingford, which mention her  However, Frank Stenton described the claim as a "well recorded tradition", and considered that a desire to avenge her death was probably a principal motive for Sweyn's invasion of England in 1003, leading to the eventual conquest of England by his son Cnut 
Passage 4:
George VI
George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death on 6 February 1952  He was also the last Emperor of India from 1936 until the British Raj was dissolved in August 1947, and the first Head of the Commonwealth following the London Declaration of 1949 
The future George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Victoria; he was named Albert at birth after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort, and was known as "Bertie" to his family and close friends  His father ascended the throne as George V in 1910  As the second son of the king, Albert was not expected to inherit the throne  He spent his early life in the shadow of his elder brother, Prince Edward, the heir apparent  Albert attended naval college as a teenager and served in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force during the First World War  In 1920, he was made Duke of York  He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923, and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret  In the mid-1920s, he engaged speech therapist Lionel Logue to treat his stutter, which he learned to manage to some degree  His elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII after their father died in 1936, but Edward abdicated later that year to marry the twice-divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson  As heir presumptive to Edward VIII, Albert thereby became the third monarch of the House of Windsor, taking the regnal name George VI 
In September 1939, the British Empire and most Commonwealth countries—but not Ireland—declared war on Nazi Germany  War with the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively  George VI was seen as sharing the hardships of the common people and his popularity soared  Buckingham Palace was bombed during the Blitz while the King and Queen were there, and his younger brother the Duke of Kent was killed on active service  George became known as a symbol of British determination to win the war  Britain and its allies were victorious in 1945, but the British Empire declined  Ireland had largely broken away, followed by the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947  George relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948 and instead adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth  He was beset by smoking-related health problems in the later years of his reign and died at Sandringham House, aged 56, of a coronary thrombosis in 1952  He was succeeded by his elder daughter, Elizabeth II 

Early life
Albert was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria  His father was Prince George, Duke of York (later King George V), the second and only surviving son of the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra)  His mother, the Duchess of York (later Queen Mary), was the eldest child and only daughter of Francis, Duke of Teck, and Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck  His birthday, 14 December 1895, was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort  Uncertain of how the Prince Consort's widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been "rather distressed"  Two days later, he wrote again: "I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her "The Queen was mollified by the proposal to name the new baby Albert, and wrote to the Duchess of York: "I am all impatience to see the new one, born on such a sad day but rather more dear to me, especially as he will be called by that dear name which is a byword for all that is great and good " Consequently, he was baptised "Albert Frederick Arthur George" at St Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham on 17 February 1896  Formally he was His Highness Prince Albert of York; within the royal family he was known informally as "Bertie"  The Duchess of Teck did not like the first name her grandson had been given, and she wrote prophetically that she hoped the last name "may supplant the less favoured one"  Albert was fourth in line to the throne at birth, after his grandfather, father and elder brother, Edward 
Albert was ill often and was described as "easily frightened and somewhat prone to tears"  His parents were generally removed from their children's day-to-day upbringing, as was the norm in aristocratic families of that era  He had a stutter that lasted for many years  Although naturally left-handed, he was forced to write with his right hand, as was common practice at the time  He had chronic stomach problems as well as knock knees, for which he was forced to wear painful corrective splints Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901, and the Prince of Wales succeeded her as King Edward VII  Prince Albert moved up to third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother 

Military career and education
Beginning in 1909, Albert attended the Royal Naval College, Osborne, as a naval cadet  In 1911 he came bottom of the class in the final examination, but despite this he progressed to the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth  When his grandfather Edward VII died in 1910, his father became King George V  Prince Edward became Prince of Wales, with Albert second in line to the throne Albert spent the first six months of 1913 on the training ship HMS Cumberland in the West Indies and on the east coast of Canada  He was rated as a midshipman aboard HMS Collingwood on 15 September 1913  He spent three months in the Mediterranean, but never overcame his seasickness  Three weeks after the outbreak of World War I he was medically evacuated from the ship to Aberdeen, where his appendix was removed by Sir John Marnoch  He was mentioned in dispatches for his actions as a turret officer aboard Collingwood in the Battle of Jutland (31 May – 1 June 1916), the great naval battle of the war  He did not see further combat, largely because of ill health caused by a duodenal ulcer, for which he had an operation in November 1917 In February 1918 Albert was appointed Officer in Charge of Boys at the Royal Naval Air Service's training establishment at Cranwell  With the establishment of the Royal Air Force Albert transferred from the Royal Navy to the Royal Air Force  He served as Officer Commanding Number 4 Squadron of the Boys' Wing at Cranwell until August 1918, before reporting for duty on the staff of the RAF's Cadet Brigade at St Leonards-on-Sea and then at Shorncliffe  He completed a fortnight's training and took command of a squadron on the Cadet Wing  He was the first member of the British royal family to be certified as a fully qualified pilot Albert wanted to serve on the Continent while the war was still in progress and welcomed a posting to General Trenchard's staff in France  On 23 October, he flew across the Channel to Autigny  For the closing weeks of the war, he served on the staff of the RAF's Independent Air Force at its headquarters in Nancy, France  Following the disbanding of the Independent Air Force in November 1918, he remained on the Continent for two months as an RAF staff officer until posted back to Britain  He accompanied King Albert I of Belgium on his triumphal re-entry into Brussels on 22 November  Prince Albert qualified as an RAF pilot on 31 July 1919 and was promoted to squadron leader the following day In October 1919, Albert went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied history, economics and civics for a year, with the historian R  V  Laurence as his "official mentor"  On 4 June 1920 his father created him Duke of York, Earl of Inverness and Baron Killarney  He began to take on more royal duties  He represented his father and toured coal mines, factories, and railyards  Through such visits he acquired the nickname of the "Industrial Prince"  His stutter, and his embarrassment over it, together with a tendency to shyness, caused him to appear less confident in public than his older brother, Edward  However, he was physically active and enjoyed playing tennis  He played at Wimbledon in the Men's Doubles with Louis Greig in 1926, losing in the first round  He developed an interest in working conditions, and was president of the Industrial Welfare Society  His series of annual summer camps for boys between 1921 and 1939 brought together boys from different social backgrounds 

Marriage
In a time when royalty were expected to marry fellow royalty, it was unusual that Albert had a great deal of freedom in choosing a prospective wife  An infatuation with the already-married Australian socialite Lady Loughborough came to an end in April 1920 when the King, with the promise of the dukedom of York, persuaded Albert to stop seeing her  That year, he met for the first time since childhood Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, the youngest daughter of the Earl and Countess of Strathmore  He became determined to marry her  Elizabeth rejected his proposal twice, in 1921 and 1922, reportedly because she was reluctant to make the sacrifices necessary to become a member of the royal family  In the words of Lady Strathmore, Albert would be "made or marred" by his choice of wife  After a protracted courtship, Elizabeth agreed to marry him Albert and Elizabeth were married on 26 April 1923 in Westminster Abbey  Albert's marriage to someone not of royal birth was considered a modernising gesture  The newly formed British Broadcasting Company wished to record and broadcast the event on radio, but the Abbey Chapter vetoed the idea (although the Dean, Herbert Edward Ryle, was in favour) 

From December 1924 to April 1925, the Duke and Duchess toured Kenya, Uganda, and the Sudan, travelling via the Suez Canal and Aden  During the trip, they both went big-game hunting Because of his stutter, Albert dreaded public speaking  After his closing speech at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on 31 October 1925, one which was an ordeal for both him and his listeners, he began to see Lionel Logue, an Australian-born speech therapist  The Duke and Logue practised breathing exercises, and the Duchess rehearsed with him patiently  Subsequently, he was able to speak with less hesitation  With his delivery improved, Albert opened the new Parliament House in Canberra, Australia, during a tour of the empire with the Duchess in 1927  Their journey by sea to Australia, New Zealand and Fiji took them via Jamaica, where Albert played doubles tennis partnered with a black man, Bertrand Clark, which was unusual at the time and taken locally as a display of equality between races The Duke and Duchess had two children: Elizabeth (called "Lilibet" by the family, and the future Elizabeth II) who was born in 1926, and Margaret who was born in 1930  The close family lived at White Lodge, Richmond Park, and then at 145 Piccadilly, rather than one of the royal palaces  In 1931, the Canadian prime minister, R  B  Bennett, considered Albert for Governor General of Canada—a proposal that King George V rejected on the advice of the Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, J  H  Thomas 

Reign
Reluctant king
King George V had severe reservations about Prince Edward, saying "After I am dead, the boy will ruin himself in twelve months" and "I pray God that my eldest son will never marry and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne " On 20 January 1936, George V died and Edward ascended the throne as King Edward VIII  In the Vigil of the Princes, Prince Albert and his three brothers (the new king, Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, and Prince George, Duke of Kent) took a shift standing guard over their father's body as it lay in state, in a closed casket, in Westminster Hall 
As Edward was unmarried and had no children, Albert was the heir presumptive to the throne  Less than a year later, on 11 December 1936, Edward abdicated in order to marry Wallis Simpson, who was divorced from her first husband and divorcing her second  Edward had been advised by British prime minister Stanley Baldwin that he could not remain king and marry a divorced woman with two living ex-husbands  He abdicated and Albert, though he had been reluctant to accept the throne, became king  The day before the abdication, Albert went to London to see his mother, Queen Mary  He wrote in his diary, "When I told her what had happened, I broke down and sobbed like a child "On the day of Edward's abdication, the Oireachtas, the parliament of the Irish Free State, removed all direct mention of the monarch from the Irish constitution  The next day, it passed the External Relations Act, which gave the monarch limited authority (strictly on the advice of the government) to appoint diplomatic representatives for Ireland and to be involved in the making of foreign treaties  The two acts made the Irish Free State a republic in essence without removing its links to the Commonwealth Across Britain, gossip spread that Albert was physically and psychologically incapable of being king  No evidence has been found to support the contemporaneous rumour that the government considered bypassing him, his children and his brother Prince Henry, in favour of their younger brother Prince George, Duke of Kent  This seems to have been suggested on the grounds that Prince George was at that time the only brother with a son 

Early reign
Albert assumed the regnal name "George VI" to emphasise continuity with his father and restore confidence in the monarchy  The beginning of George VI's reign was taken up by questions surrounding his predecessor and brother, whose titles, style and position were uncertain  He had been introduced as "His Royal Highness Prince Edward" for the abdication broadcast, but George VI felt that by abdicating and renouncing the succession, Edward had lost the right to bear royal titles, including "Royal Highness"  In settling the issue, George's first act as king was to confer upon his brother the title "Duke of Windsor" with the style "Royal Highness", but the letters patent creating the dukedom prevented any wife or children from bearing royal styles  George VI was forced to buy from Edward the royal residences of Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House, as these were private properties and did not pass to him automatically  Three days after his accession, on his 41st birthday, he invested his wife, the new queen consort, with the Order of the Garter 

George VI's coronation at Westminster Abbey took place on 12 May 1937, the date previously intended for Edward's coronation  In a break with tradition, his mother Queen Mary attended the ceremony in a show of support for her son  There was no Durbar held in Delhi for George VI, as had occurred for his father, as the cost would have been a burden to the Government of India  Rising Indian nationalism made the welcome that the royal party would have received likely to be muted at best, and a prolonged absence from Britain would have been undesirable in the tense period before the Second World War  Two overseas tours were undertaken, to France and to North America, both of which promised greater strategic advantages in the event of war The growing likelihood of war in Europe dominated the early reign of George VI  The King was constitutionally bound to support British prime minister Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler  When the King and Queen greeted Chamberlain on his return from negotiating the Munich Agreement in 1938, they invited him to appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with them  This public association of the monarchy with a politician was exceptional, as balcony appearances were traditionally restricted to the royal family  While broadly popular among the general public, Chamberlain's policy towards Hitler was the subject of some opposition in the House of Commons, which led historian John Grigg to describe George's behaviour in associating himself so prominently with a politician as "the most unconstitutional act by a British sovereign in the present century" 

In May and June 1939, the King and Queen toured Canada and the United States; it was the first visit of a reigning British monarch to North America, although George had been to Canada prior to his accession  From Ottawa, George and Elizabeth were accompanied by Canadian prime minister Mackenzie King, to present themselves in North America as King and Queen of Canada  Both Mackenzie King and the Canadian governor general, Lord Tweedsmuir, hoped that George's presence in Canada would demonstrate the principles of the Statute of Westminster 1931, which gave full sovereignty to the British Dominions  On 19 May, George personally accepted and approved the Letter of Credence of the new U S  ambassador to Canada, Daniel Calhoun Roper; gave royal assent to nine parliamentary bills; and ratified two   international treaties with the Great Seal of Canada  The official royal tour historian, Gustave Lanctot, wrote "the Statute of Westminster had assumed full reality" and George gave a speech emphasising "the free and equal association of the nations of the Commonwealth" The trip was intended to soften the strong isolationist tendencies among the North American public with regard to the developing tensions in Europe  Although the aim of the tour was mainly political, to shore up Atlantic support for the United Kingdom in any future war, the King and Queen were enthusiastically received by the public  The fear that George would be compared unfavourably to his predecessor was dispelled  They visited the 1939 New York World's Fair and stayed with President Franklin D  Roosevelt at the White House and at his private estate at Hyde Park, New York  A strong bond of friendship was forged between Roosevelt and the royal couple during the tour, which had major significance in the relations between the United States and the United Kingdom through the ensuing war years 

Second World War
Following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the United Kingdom and the self-governing Dominions other than Ireland declared war on Nazi Germany  The King and Queen resolved to stay in London, despite German bombing raids  They officially stayed in Buckingham Palace throughout the war, although they usually spent nights at Windsor Castle  The first night of the Blitz on London, on 7 September 1940, killed about one thousand civilians, mostly in the East End  On 13 September, the couple narrowly avoided death when two German bombs exploded in a courtyard at Buckingham Palace while they were there  In defiance, Elizabeth declared: "I am glad we have been bombed  It makes me feel we can look the East End in the face " The royal family were portrayed as sharing the same dangers and deprivations as the rest of the country  They were subject to British rationing restrictions, and U S  First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt remarked on the rationed food served and the limited bathwater that was permitted during a stay at the unheated and boarded-up Palace  In August 1942, the King's brother, the Duke of Kent, was killed on active service 

In 1940, Winston Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as prime minister, though personally George would have preferred to appoint Lord Halifax  After the King's initial dismay over Churchill's appointment of Lord Beaverbrook to the Cabinet, he and Churchill developed "the closest personal relationship in modern British history between a monarch and a Prime Minister"  Every Tuesday for four and a half years from September 1940, the two men met privately for lunch to discuss the war in secret and with frankness  George related much of what the two discussed in his diary, which is the only extant first-hand account of these conversations Throughout the war, George and Elizabeth provided morale-boosting visits throughout the United Kingdom, visiting bomb sites, munitions factories, and troops  George visited military forces abroad in France in December 1939, North Africa and Malta in June 1943, Normandy in June 1944, southern Italy in July 1944, and the Low Countries in October 1944  Their high public profile and apparently indefatigable determination secured their place as symbols of national resistance  At a social function in 1944, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Field Marshal Alan Brooke, revealed that every time he met Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, he thought Montgomery was after his job  George replied: "You should worry, when I meet him, I always think he's after mine!"In 1945, crowds shouted "We want the King!" in front of Buckingham Palace during the Victory in Europe Day celebrations  In an echo of Chamberlain's appearance, the King invited Churchill to appear with the royal family on the balcony to public acclaim  In January 1946, George addressed the United Nations at its first assembly, which was held in London, and reaffirmed "our faith in the equal rights of men and women and of nations great and small" 

Empire to Commonwealth
George VI's reign saw the acceleration of the dissolution of the British Empire  The Statute of Westminster 1931 had already acknowledged the evolution of the Dominions into separate sovereign states  The process of transformation from an empire to a voluntary association of independent states, known as the Commonwealth, gathered pace after the Second World War  During the ministry of Clement Attlee, British India became the two independent Dominions of India and Pakistan in August 1947  George relinquished the title of Emperor of India, and became King of India and King of Pakistan instead  In late April 1949, the Commonwealth leaders issued the London Declaration, which laid the foundation of the modern Commonwealth and recognised George as Head of the Commonwealth  In January 1950, he ceased to be King of India when it became a republic  He remained King of Pakistan until his death  Other countries left the Commonwealth, such as Burma in January 1948, Palestine (divided between Israel and the Arab states) in May 1948 and the Republic of Ireland in 1949 In 1947, George and his family toured southern Africa  The prime minister of the Union of South Africa, Jan Smuts, was facing an election and hoped to make political capital out of the visit  George was appalled, however, when instructed by the South African government to shake hands only with whites, and referred to his South African bodyguards as "the Gestapo"  Despite the tour, Smuts lost the election the following year, and the new government instituted a strict policy of racial segregation 

Illness and death
The stress of the war had taken its toll on George's health, made worse by his heavy smoking, and subsequent development of lung cancer among other ailments, including arteriosclerosis and Buerger's disease  A planned tour of Australia and New Zealand was postponed after George developed an arterial blockage in his right leg, which threatened the loss of the leg and was treated with a right lumbar sympathectomy in March 1949  His elder daughter and heir presumptive, Elizabeth, took on more royal duties as her father's health deteriorated  The delayed tour was re-organised, with Princess Elizabeth and her husband, Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, taking the place of the King and Queen 
George was well enough to open the Festival of Britain in May 1951, but on 4 June it was announced that he would need immediate and complete rest for the next four weeks, despite the arrival of Haakon VII of Norway the following afternoon for an official visit  On 23 September 1951, he underwent a surgical operation where his entire left lung was removed by Clement Price Thomas after a malignant tumour was found  In October 1951, Elizabeth and Philip went on a month-long tour of Canada; the trip had been delayed for a week due to George's illness  At the State Opening of Parliament in November, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Simonds, read the King's speech from the throne  The King's Christmas broadcast of 1951 was recorded in sections, and then edited together On 31 January 1952, despite advice from those close to him, George went to London Airport to see Elizabeth and Philip off on their tour to Australia via Kenya  It was his last public appearance  Six days later, at 07:30 GMT on the morning of 6 February, he was found dead in bed at Sandringham House in Norfolk  He had died in the night from a coronary thrombosis at the age of 56  His daughter flew back to Britain from Kenya as Queen Elizabeth II From 9 February George's coffin rested in St Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham, before lying in state at Westminster Hall from 11 February  His funeral took place at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, on the 15th  He was interred initially in the Royal Vault until he was transferred to the King George VI Memorial Chapel inside St George's on 26 March 1969  In 2002, fifty years after his death, the remains of his widow, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, and the ashes of his younger daughter, Princess Margaret, who both died that year, were interred in the chapel alongside him  In 2022, the remains of Queen Elizabeth II and her husband, Prince Philip, were also interred in the chapel 

Legacy
In the words of Labour Member of Parliament (MP) George Hardie, the abdication crisis of 1936 did "more for republicanism than fifty years of propaganda"  George VI wrote to his brother Edward that in the aftermath of the abdication he had reluctantly assumed "a rocking throne" and tried "to make it steady again"  He became king at a point when public faith in the monarchy was at a low ebb  During his reign, his people endured the hardships of war, and imperial power was eroded  However, as a dutiful family man and by showing personal courage, he succeeded in restoring the popularity of the monarchy The George Cross and the George Medal were founded at the King's suggestion during the Second World War to recognise acts of exceptional civilian bravery  He bestowed the George Cross on the entire "island fortress of Malta" in 1943  He was posthumously awarded the Order of Liberation by the French government in 1960, one of only two people (the other being Churchill in 1958) to be awarded the medal after 1946 Colin Firth won an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance as George VI in the 2010 film The King's Speech 

Titles, honours and arms
As Duke of York, Albert bore the royal arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing an anchor azure—a difference earlier awarded to his father, George V, when he was Duke of York, and then later awarded to his grandson Prince Andrew, Duke of York  As king, he bore the royal arms undifferenced 

Issue
Ancestry
Notes
Passage 5:
Raymond Márquez
Raymond Márquez (born 1930), a k a  "Spanish Raymond", is an American criminal  He was the "king" of the illegal numbers racket in Harlem from the 1950s until his retirement in 2001 

Early years
Márquez's parents moved from Puerto Rico to New York City in the late 1920s and settled in the Harlem section of Manhattan  He was born and raised in Harlem; there he also received his primary and secondary education  His father was able to establish a grocery store; however, the family economic situation was not a good one and when Márquez graduated from Textile High School in 1947, at the age of 17, his parents were unable to send him to college 

Harlem numbers racket and legal battles
In 1947, Márquez looked upon people who were prosperous, well dressed and involved in numbers activities as his role models  He began his career in the Harlem numbers racket as a pickup boy  As a pick up boy, he would go around Harlem, gathering the betting slips from the runners  The runners are those who solicited the wagers from the betting customers  Márquez would then turn in the slips to a regional controller and eventually the listed slips would end up at the headquarters of the gambling organization, known as a bank  Márquez branched out for himself within a year and gained a reputation for paying winning customers promptly Márquez had few legal scrapes during his early years  By 1958, law enforcement authorities publicly identified him as an underworld kingpin  and that is when an investigator from the New York Police Department (NYPD), nicknamed him "Spanish Raymond", a moniker which has stood since then  Also in 1958, Márquez was accused in a killing related to his gambling activities  A grand jury failed to indict him for the murder  Márquez acknowledged bribing the police in the 1950s and 1960s to prevent raids on his illicit network  Márquez also was believed to have paid a percentage of his profits to Mafia boss Anthony "Fat Tony" Salerno  Márquez denied that he did business with the Mafia, and said that while he was friends with Salerno he was not a business partner 

First conviction
In 1969, Márquez was arrested by the FBI on Federal gambling and extortion charges  He was convicted and sentenced to concurrent terms of three and five years imprisonment  He served a total of five years from 1970 to 1975  In 1975  he was released and continued in his former activities  This was during the post Knapp Commission era in which the NYPD was the focus of a scandal arising from pervasive corruption and the crackdown on the numbers racket was sidelined due to a moratorium on numbers gambling resulting from concerns that systemic corruption of the NYPD would continue to flourish  Protection payoffs to the police were no longer necessary Two years after his release from prison, in 1977, Márquez was briefly kidnapped, and was freed after payment of $8,100 in jewelry as ransom by his wife  He was found in the trunk of his car in Flushing, Queens  Márquez was identified in The New York Times as allegedly running a $25 million a year numbers racket Márquez received attention in the late 1970s, when a New York State Supreme Court justice, Andrew Tyler, was convicted of perjury for allegedly lying about a meeting with Márquez in 1975  The conviction was overturned in 1978 

Controversial investments
In April 1994, he was arrested on state gambling charges  Prosecutors claimed that he had amassed a small fortune by illegal means and that therefore said fortune should be confiscated  The indictment led to a legal battle over attempts by city authorities to seize $6 5 million from him in unpaid taxes from wealth that they say was generated by illegal activities from 1990 to 1993  The prosecutors contended that Márquez and his organization handled about $30 million a year in wagers that were made at 41 parlors and that his organization faxed the reported earnings to his wife's yacht  His wife, Alice, also pleaded guilty to a gambling charge Márquez claimed that his wife had accumulated a fortune, including three motels, a 63-foot yacht and a home in Great Neck, New York, through legitimate investments  It was later shown that the home, the yacht and motels had all been acquired prior to 1990 In 1995, Márquez was indicted on 221 counts of running a criminal enterprise  The charges were reduced to two counts, a "C" felony for attempted enterprise corruption and "E" felony for promoting gambling 

Dramatic arrests
On January 13, 1995, 500 NYPD police officers raided 69 locations, including nearly a dozen money banks, which were allegedly under the Márquez family's control  Police arrested 75 employees on felony gambling charges, confiscated over $100,000 in cash, and seized over a dozen keys to safety deposit boxes According to a law enforcement official, the operation was managed by his two nephews, Peter and Robert Márquez Jr , grossed between $25 and $30 million per year, and was headquartered in a row of four contiguous buildings on St  Nicholas Avenue and 113th Street which were connected by a series of doors, tunnels and trapdoors  Robert and Peter Márquez were arrested, along with their sister, Christine, and father Fernando 

An ill-advised plea bargain
In April 1996, Márquez pleaded guilty after making an agreement with the District Attorney's office to forfeit $1 million and to serve a 90-day jail sentence with four years and nine months of probation However, it was discovered by the Appeals Bureau at the D A 's office that a split sentence with a "C" felony was reserved only for those with a narcotics conviction, thus making the deal invalid  Márquez's lawyer sought to withdraw the guilty plea, which was denied by the court  Márquez was sentenced to five years' probation and a $1 million fine In 1998, Márquez and three associates were indicted on 52 counts and charged with running a criminal organization, in the culmination of a year-long NYPD investigation  The prosecution built a case on circumstantial evidence consisting of recordings of Márquez's cell-phone conversations and numerous surveillance videos and photographs of him driving by reputed gambling parlors  Márquez, who was represented by his son, claimed that he was doing research on his autobiography and that was the reason that he showed up on the surveillance tapes  He and three co-defendants were all acquitted after a three-month trial 

Lawsuit against New York City
In 2001, Márquez sued the City of New York for $15 million, claiming that he contracted bladder cancer caused by the secondhand cigarette smoke he inhaled at Rikers Island and the Tombs while confined there for 29 months in the 1990s  Márquez admitted he smoked for three decades before quitting in the 1970s  His son and lawyer, David Márquez, maintained that he had not inhaled deeply when he smoked, that the ventilation system at Rikers Island was inadequate, and that by the time he went to Rikers he hadn't smoked in 23 years  In 2008, a jury rejected the claim after a trial in New York State Supreme Court 

Retirement
Márquez announced his retirement in 2001, saying that he was fed up of being targeted by the office of Manhattan's District Attorney Robert M  Morgenthau  In an interview with the New York Daily News, Márquez described the numbers game as "a source of entertainment to the people" and professed his innocence to the various criminal charges that had been leveled against him over the years  Prosecutors responded that Márquez's "saint act doesn't ring true" and that numbers rackets enforce their control through violence Márquez runs and manages hotels in Commack, Long Island, and Fort Lauderdale, Florida  In 2011, Márquez was targeted by New York City authorities for owing $1 6 million in unincorporated business taxes, making him one of the city's top scofflaws  His son said Márquez would never pay it, saying that Márquez was judgement-proof 

See also
List of Puerto Ricans

Further reading
Gangsters of Harlem by Ron Chepesiuk; Publisher: Barricade Books; ISBN 1-56980-318-8; ISBN 978-1-56980-318-9
Context 2: Passage 1:
Cardinal (Catholic Church)
A cardinal (Latin: Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae cardinalis, lit  'cardinal of the Holy Roman Church') is a senior member of the clergy of the Catholic Church  Cardinals are created by the pope and typically hold the title for life  Collectively, they constitute the College of Cardinals 
The most solemn responsibility of the cardinals is to elect a new pope in a conclave, almost always from among themselves (with a few historical exceptions), when the Holy See is vacant  During the period between a pope's death or resignation and the election of his successor, the day-to-day governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals  The right to participate in a conclave is limited to cardinals who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs  In addition, cardinals collectively participate in papal consistories (which generally take place annually), in which matters of importance to the Church are considered and new cardinals may be created  Cardinals of working age are also appointed to roles overseeing dicasteries of the Roman Curia, the central administration of the Catholic Church 
Cardinals are drawn from a variety of backgrounds, being appointed as cardinals in addition to their existing roles within the Church  Most cardinals are bishops and archbishops leading dioceses and archdioceses around the world – often the most prominent diocese or archdiocese in their country  Others are titular bishops who are current or former officials within the Roman Curia (generally the heads of dicasteries and other bodies linked to the Curia)  A very small number are priests recognised by the pope for their service to the Church; as canon law requires them to be generally consecrated as bishops before they are made cardinals, but some are granted a papal dispensation  There are no strict criteria for elevation to the College of Cardinals  Since 1917, a potential cardinal must already be at least a priest, but laymen have been cardinals in the past  The selection is entirely up to the pope and tradition is his only guide 
As of 2 June 2023, there are 222 serving cardinals, of whom 121 are eligible to vote in a conclave to elect a new pope 

History
There is general disagreement about the origin of the term, but a chief consensus that "cardinalis" is etymologically from the Latin word cardo (meaning "pivot" or "hinge") was first used in late antiquity to designate a bishop or priest who was incorporated into a church for which he had not originally been ordained  In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean "principal", "eminent", or "superior"  The name was also given to the senior priest in each of the "title" churches (the parish churches) of Rome and to the bishops of the seven sees surrounding the city  By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a privileged class among the Roman clergy  They took part in the administration of the church of Rome and in the papal liturgy  By decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become Bishop of Rome  Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244 In cities other than Rome, the name cardinal began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour  The earliest example of this occurs in a letter sent by Pope Zacharias in 747 to Pippin III (the Short), ruler of the Franks, in which Zacharias applied the title to the priests of Paris to distinguish them from country clergy  This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a special class among the clergy known as cardinals  The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V 
In 1059 (five years after the East-West Schism), the right of electing the pope was reserved to the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven suburbicarian sees  In the 12th century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside Rome as cardinals began, with each of them assigned a church in Rome as his titular church or linked with one of the suburbicarian dioceses, while still being incardinated in a diocese other than that of Rome The term cardinal at one time applied to any priest permanently assigned or incardinated to a church, or specifically to the senior priest of an important church, based on the Latin cardo (hinge), meaning "pivotal" as in "principal" or "chief"  The term was applied in this sense as early as the 9th century to the priests of the tituli (parishes) of the diocese of Rome In the year 1563, the Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good cardinals: "nothing is more necessary to the Church of God than that the holy Roman pontiff apply that solicitude which by the duty of his office he owes the universal Church in a very special way by associating with himself as cardinals the most select persons only, and appoint to each church most eminently upright and competent shepherds; and this the more so, because our Lord Jesus Christ will require at his hands the blood of the sheep of Christ that perish through the evil government of shepherds who are negligent and forgetful of their office "The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the Kings of France, reasserted itself through the influence of cardinals of certain nationalities or politically significant movements  Traditions even developed entitling certain monarchs, including those of Austria, Spain, and France, to nominate one of their trusted clerical subjects to be created cardinal, a so-called "crown-cardinal" In early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs  In some cases, they took on powerful positions in government  In Henry VIII's England, his chief minister was for some time Cardinal Wolsey  Cardinal Richelieu's power was so great that he was for many years effectively the ruler of France  Richelieu's successor was also a cardinal, Jules Mazarin  Guillaume Dubois and André-Hercule de Fleury complete the list of the four great cardinals to have ruled France  In Portugal, due to a succession crisis, one cardinal, Henry of Portugal, was crowned king, the only example of a cardinal-king 
While the incumbents of some sees are regularly made cardinals, and some countries are entitled to at least one cardinal by concordate (usually earning either its primate or the metropolitan of the capital city the cardinal's hat), almost no see carries an actual right to the cardinalate, not even if its bishop is a Patriarch: the notable exception is the Patriarch of Lisbon who, by Pope Clement XII's 1737 bull Inter praecipuas apostolici ministerii, is accorded the right to be elevated to the rank of cardinal in the consistory following his appointment 

Papal elections
In 1059, Pope Nicholas II gave cardinals the right to elect the Bishop of Rome in the papal bull In nomine Domini  For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, but in 1179 the Third Lateran Council restored the right to the whole body of cardinals 

Numbers
In 1586, Pope Sixtus V limited the number of cardinals to 70: six cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons  Pope John XXIII exceeded that limit citing the need to staff Church offices  In November 1970 in Ingravescentem aetatem, Pope Paul VI established that electors would be under the age of eighty years  When it took effect on 1 January 1971, it deprived 25 cardinals of the right to participate in a conclave  In October 1975 in Romano Pontifici eligendo, he set the maximum number of electors at 120, while establishing no limit on the overall size of the college Popes can set aside church laws and they have regularly brought the number of cardinals under the age of 80 to more than 120, twice reaching as high as 135 with Pope John Paul II's consistories of February 2001 and October 2003  No more than 120 electors have ever participated in a conclave, but most canon lawyers believe that if their number exceeded 120 they would all participate Pope Paul VI also increased the number of cardinal bishops by assigning that rank, in 1965, to patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches when named cardinals  In 2018, Pope Francis expanded the cardinal bishops of Roman title, because this had not been done despite recent decades' expansion in the two lower orders of cardinals, besides having all six such cardinals being over the age limit for a conclave 

Titular churches
Each cardinal is assigned a titular church upon his creation, which is always a church in the city of Rome  Through the process of opting (optazione), a cardinal can raise through the ranks from cardinal deacon to priest, and from cardinal priest to that of cardinal bishop - in which case he obtains one of the suburbicarian sees located around the city of Rome  The only exception is for patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches  Nevertheless, cardinals possess no power of governance nor are they to intervene in any way in matters which pertain to the administration of goods, discipline, or the service of their titular churches  They are allowed to celebrate Mass and hear confessions and lead visits and pilgrimages to their titular churches, in coordination with the staff of the church  They often support their churches monetarily, and many cardinals do keep in contact with the pastoral staffs of their titular churches  The term cardinal is from the Latin word "cardo" meaning a hinge  Here it means a "door", an example of synecdoche, a figure of speech whereby the part refers to the whole  The "door" is the address of the titular church from which the cardinal derives his membership of the Roman clergy, who elect the pope 
The Dean of the College of Cardinals in addition to such a titular church also receives the titular bishopric of Ostia, the primary suburbicarian see  Cardinals governing a particular church retain that church 

Title and reference style
In 1630, Pope Urban VIII decreed their title to be Eminence (previously, it had been "illustrissimo" and "reverendissimo") and decreed that their secular rank would equate to Prince, making them secondary only to the pope and crowned monarchs In accordance with tradition, they sign by placing the title "Cardinal" (abbreviated Card ) after their personal name and before their surname as, for instance, "John Card(inal) Doe" or, in Latin, "Ioannes Card(inalis) Doe"  Some writers, such as James-Charles Noonan, hold that, in the case of cardinals, the form used for signatures should be used also when referring to them in English  However, official sources, such as the Catholic News Service, say that the correct form for referring to a cardinal in English is normally as "Cardinal [First name] [Surname]"  This is the rule given also in stylebooks not associated with the church  This style is also generally followed on the websites of the Holy See and episcopal conferences  Oriental patriarchs who are created cardinals customarily use "Sanctae Ecclesiae Cardinalis" as their full title, probably because they do not belong to the Roman clergy The [First name] Cardinal [Surname] order is used in the Latin proclamation of the election of a new pope by the cardinal protodeacon, if the new pope is a cardinal, as it has been since 1378 
The term Prince of the Church has historically been applied to cardinals of the Catholic church, and sometimes more broadly to senior members of the church hierarchy  It has been rejected by Pope Francis, who stated to a group of newly created cardinals "He (Jesus) does not call you to become 'princes' of the Church, to 'sit on his right or on his left ' He calls you to serve like Him and with Him " The term is still applied, both seriously and as a criticism of their perceived attitudes of some cardinals [1][2]

Orders and their chief offices
Cardinal bishops
Cardinal bishops (cardinals of the episcopal order; Latin: cardinales episcopi) are the senior order of cardinals  Though in modern times the vast majority of cardinals are also bishops or archbishops, few are "cardinal bishops"  For most of the second millennium there were six cardinal bishops, each presiding over one of the seven suburbicarian sees around Rome: Ostia, Albano, Porto and Santa Rufina, Palestrina, Sabina and Mentana, Frascati, and Velletri  Velletri was united with Ostia from 1150 until 1914, when Pope Pius X separated them again, but decreed that whichever cardinal bishop became Dean of the College of Cardinals would keep the suburbicarian see he already held, adding to it that of Ostia, with the result that there continued to be only six cardinal bishops  Since 1962, the cardinal bishops have only a titular relationship with the suburbicarian sees, each of which is governed by a separate ordinary Until 1961, membership in the order of cardinal bishops was achieved through precedence in the College of Cardinals  When a suburbicarian see fell vacant, the most senior cardinal by precedence could exercise his option to claim the see and be promoted to the order of cardinal bishops  Pope John XXIII abolished that privilege on 10 March 1961 and made the right to promote someone to the order of cardinal bishops the sole prerogative of the pope In 1965, Pope Paul VI decreed in his motu proprio Ad purpuratorum Patrum Collegium that patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches who were named cardinals (i e  "cardinal patriarchs") would also be cardinal bishops, ranking after the six Roman rite cardinal bishops of the suburbicarian sees  (Latin Church patriarchs who become cardinals are cardinal priests, not cardinal bishops: for example Angelo Scola was made Patriarch of Venice in 2002 and cardinal priest of Santi XII Apostoli in 2003 ) Those of cardinal patriarch rank continue to hold their patriarchal see and are not assigned any Roman title (suburbicarian see or title or deaconry) 
At the June 2018 consistory, Pope Francis increased the number of Latin Church cardinal bishops to match the expansion in cardinal priests and cardinal deacons in recent decades  He elevated four cardinals to this rank granting their titular churches and deaconries suburbicarian rank pro hac vice (temporarily) and making them equivalent to suburbicarian see titles  At the time of the announcement, all six cardinal bishops of suburbicarian see titles, as well as two of the three cardinal patriarchs, were non-electors because of having reached age 80  Pope Francis created another cardinal bishop in the same way on 1 May 2020, bringing the number of Latin Church cardinal bishops to eleven 
The Dean of the College of Cardinals, the highest ranking cardinal, was formerly the longest serving cardinal bishop, but since 1965 is elected by the Latin Church cardinal bishops from among their number, subject to papal approval  Likewise the Vice-Dean, formerly the second longest serving, is also elected  Seniority of the remaining Latin Church cardinal bishops is still by date of appointment to the rank  For a period ending in the mid-20th century, long-serving cardinal priests were entitled to fill vacancies that arose among the cardinal bishops, just as cardinal deacons of ten years' standing are still entitled to become cardinal priests 

Cardinal priests
Cardinal priests (Latin: cardinales presbyteri) are the most numerous of the three orders of cardinals in the Catholic Church, ranking above the cardinal deacons and below the cardinal bishops  Those who are named cardinal priests today are generally also bishops of important dioceses throughout the world, though some hold Curial positions 
In modern times, the name "cardinal priest" is interpreted as meaning a cardinal who is of the order of priests  Originally, however, this referred to certain key priests of important churches of the Diocese of Rome, who were recognized as the cardinal priests, the important priests chosen by the pope to advise him in his duties as Bishop of Rome (the Latin cardo means "hinge")  Certain clerics in many dioceses at the time, not just that of Rome, were said to be the key personnel—the term gradually became exclusive to Rome to indicate those entrusted with electing the Bishop of Rome, the pope 

While the cardinalate has long been expanded beyond the Roman pastoral clergy and Roman Curia, every cardinal priest has a titular church in Rome, though they may be bishops or archbishops elsewhere, just as cardinal bishops were given one of the suburbicarian dioceses around Rome  Pope Paul VI abolished all administrative rights cardinals had with regard to their titular churches, though the cardinal's name and coat of arms are still posted in the church, and they are expected to celebrate Mass and preach there if convenient when they are in Rome 
While the number of cardinals was small from the times of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance, and frequently smaller than the number of recognized churches entitled to a cardinal priest, in the 16th century the college expanded markedly  In 1587, Pope Sixtus V sought to arrest this growth by fixing the maximum size of the college at 70, including 50 cardinal priests, about twice the historical number  This limit was respected until 1958, and the list of titular churches modified only on rare occasions, generally when a building fell into disrepair  When Pope John XXIII abolished the limit, he began to add new churches to the list, which Popes Paul VI and John Paul II continued to do  Today there are close to 150 titular churches, out of over 300 churches in Rome 
The cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests is titled cardinal protopriest  He had certain ceremonial duties in the conclave that have effectively ceased because he would generally have already reached age 80, at which cardinals are barred from the conclave  The current cardinal protopriest is Michael Michai Kitbunchu of Thailand 

Cardinal deacons
The cardinal deacons (Latin: cardinales diaconi) are the lowest-ranking cardinals  Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are either officials of the Roman Curia or priests elevated after their 80th birthday  Bishops with diocesan responsibilities, however, are created cardinal priests 
Cardinal deacons derive originally from the seven deacons in the Papal Household who supervised the Church's works in the seven districts of Rome during the early Middle Ages, when church administration was effectively the government of Rome and provided all social services  They came to be called "cardinal deacons" by the late eighth century, and they were granted active rights in papal elections and made eligible for the election as pope by the decree of 769 Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are mainly officials of the Roman Curia holding various posts in the church administration  Their number and influence has varied through the years  While historically predominantly Italian the group has become much more internationally diverse in later years  While in 1939 about half were Italian by 1994 the number was reduced to one third  Their influence in the election of the pope has been considered important  They are better informed and connected than the dislocated cardinals but their level of unity has been varied  Under the 1587 decree of Pope Sixtus V, which fixed the maximum size of the College of Cardinals, there were 14 cardinal deacons  Later the number increased  As late as 1939 almost half of the cardinals were members of the curia  Pius XII reduced this percentage to 24 percent  John XXIII brought it back up to 37 percent but Paul VI brought it down to 27 percent where John Paul II maintained this ratio As of 2005, there were over 50 churches recognized as cardinalatial deaconries, though there were only 30 cardinals of the order of deacons  Cardinal deacons have long enjoyed the right to "opt for the order of cardinal priests" (optazione) after they have been cardinal deacons for 10 years  They may on such elevation take a vacant "title" (a church allotted to a cardinal priest as the church in Rome with which he is associated) or their diaconal church may be temporarily elevated to a cardinal priest's "title" for that occasion  When elevated to cardinal priests, they take their precedence according to the day they were first made cardinal deacons (thus ranking above cardinal priests who were elevated to the college after them, regardless of order) 
When not celebrating Mass but still serving a liturgical function, such as the semiannual Urbi et Orbi papal blessing, some Papal Masses and some events at Ecumenical Councils, cardinal deacons can be recognized by the dalmatics they would don with the simple white mitre (so called mitra simplex) 

Cardinal protodeacon
The cardinal protodeacon is the senior cardinal deacon in order of appointment to the College of Cardinals  If he is a cardinal elector and participates in a conclave, he announces a new pope's election and name from the central balcony of St  Peter's Basilica in Vatican City  The protodeacon also bestows the pallium on the new pope and crowns him with the papal tiara, although the crowning has not been celebrated since Pope John Paul I opted for a simpler papal inauguration ceremony in 1978  The current cardinal protodeacon is Renato Raffaele Martino 

Cardinal protodeacons since 1887
Giuseppe Pecci, S J  (20 December 1887 – 8 February 1890)
John Henry Newman, C O  (8 February 1890 – 11 August 1890)
Joseph Hergenröther (11 August 1890 – 3 October 1890)
Tommaso Maria Zigliara,, O P  (3 October 1890 – 1 June 1891)
Isidoro Verga (1 June 1891 – 22 June 1896)
Luigi Macchi (22 June 1896 – 29 March 1907)
Andreas Steinhuber, S J  (29 March 1907 – 15 October 1907)
Francesco Segna (15 October 1907 – 4 January 1911)
Francesco Salesio Della Volpe (4 January 1911 – 5 November 1916†); announced election of Pope Benedict XV (1914)
Gaetano Bisleti (5 November 1916 – 17 December 1928*); announced election of Pope Pius XI (1922)
Camillo Laurenti (17 December 1928 – 16 December 1935*)
Camillo Caccia-Dominioni (16 December 1935 – 12 November 1946†); announced election of Pope Pius XII (1939)
Nicola Canali (12 November 1946 – 3 August 1961†); announced election of Pope John XXIII (1958)
Alfredo Ottaviani (3 August 1961 – 26 June 1967*); announced election of Pope Paul VI (1963)
Arcadio Larraona Saralegui, CMF (26 June 1967 – 28 April 1969*)
William Theodore Heard (28 April 1969 – 18 May 1970*)
Antonio Bacci (18 May 1970 – 20 January 1971†)
Michael Browne, OP (20 January 1971 – 31 March 1971†)
Federico Callori di Vignale (31 March 1971 – 8 August 1971†)
Charles Journet (8 August 1971 – 5 March 1973*)
Pericle Felici (5 March 1973 – 30 June 1979*); announced elections of Pope John Paul I (1978) and Pope John Paul II (1978)
Sergio Pignedoli (30 June 1979 – 15 June 1980†)
Umberto Mozzoni (15 June 1980 – 2 February 1983*)
Opilio Rossi (2 February 1983 – 22 June 1987*)
Giuseppe Caprio (22 June 1987 – 26 November 1990*)
Aurelio Sabattani (26 November 1990 – 5 April 1993*)
Duraisamy Simon Lourdusamy (5 April 1993 – 29 January 1996*)
Eduardo Martínez Somalo (29 January 1996 – 9 January 1999*)
Pio Laghi (9 January 1999 – 26 February 2002*)
Luigi Poggi (26 February 2002 – 24 February 2005*)
Jorge Medina (24 February 2005 – 23 February 2007*); announced election of Pope Benedict XVI (2005)
Darío Castrillón Hoyos (23 February 2007 – 1 March 2008*)
Agostino Cacciavillan (1 March 2008 – 21 February 2011*)
Jean-Louis Tauran (21 February 2011 – 12 June 2014*); announced election of Pope Francis (2013)
Renato Raffaele Martino (12 June 2014 –)* Ceased to be protodeacon upon being raised to the order of cardinal-priest† Was protodeacon at time of death

Special types of cardinals
Camerlengo
The Cardinal Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, assisted by the Vice-Camerlengo and the other prelates of the office known as the Apostolic Camera, has functions that in essence are limited to a period of sede vacante of the papacy  He is to collate information about the financial situation of all administrations dependent on the Holy See and present the results to the College of Cardinals, as they gather for the papal conclave 

Cardinals who are not bishops
Until 1918, any cleric, even one only in minor orders, could be created a cardinal (see "lay cardinals", below), but enrolled only in the order of cardinal deacons  For example, in the 16th century, Reginald Pole was a cardinal for 18 years before he was ordained a priest  The 1917 Code of Canon Law mandated that all cardinals, even cardinal deacons, had to be priests, and, in 1962, Pope John XXIII set the norm that all cardinals be consecrated as bishops, even if they are only priests at the time of appointment  As a consequence of these two changes, canon 351 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law requires that a cardinal be at least in the order of priesthood at his appointment, and that those who are not already bishops must receive episcopal consecration  Several cardinals near to or over the age of 80 or when appointed have obtained dispensation from the rule of having to be a bishop  These were all appointed cardinal-deacons, but Roberto Tucci and Albert Vanhoye lived long enough to exercise the right of option and be promoted to the rank of cardinal-priest 
A cardinal who is not a bishop is entitled to wear and use the episcopal vestments and other pontificalia (episcopal regalia: mitre, crozier, zucchetto, pectoral cross, and ring)  He has both actual and honorary precedence over patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops who are not cardinals  However, he cannot perform the sacrament of ordination or other rites reserved solely to bishops  The prominent priests who since 1962 were not ordained bishops on their elevation to the cardinalate were over the age of 80 or near to it, and so no cardinal who was not a bishop has participated in recent papal conclaves 

"Lay cardinals"
At various times, there have been cardinals who had only received first tonsure and minor orders but not yet been ordained as deacons or priests  Though clerics, they were inaccurately called "lay cardinals"  Teodolfo Mertel was among the last of the lay cardinals  When he died in 1899 he was the last surviving cardinal who was not at least ordained a priest  With the revision of the Code of Canon Law promulgated in 1917 by Pope Benedict XV, only those who are already priests or bishops may be appointed cardinals  Since the time of Pope John XXIII a priest who is appointed a cardinal must be consecrated a bishop, unless he obtains a dispensation 

Cardinals in pectore or secret cardinals
In addition to the named cardinals, the pope may name secret cardinals or cardinals in pectore (Latin for in the breast)  During the Western Schism, many cardinals were created by the contending popes  Beginning with the reign of Pope Martin V, cardinals were created without publishing their names until later, a practice termed creati et reservati in pectore  A cardinal named in pectore is known only to the pope  In the modern era, popes have named cardinals in pectore to protect them or their congregations from political reprisals  If conditions change, the pope makes the appointment public  The cardinal in question then ranks in precedence with those made cardinals at the time of his in pectore appointment  If a pope dies before revealing the identity of an in pectore cardinal, the person's status as cardinal expires  The last pope known to have named a cardinal in pectore is Pope John Paul II, who named four, including one whose identity was never revealed 

Vesture and privileges
Pontifical vestments
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
When in choir dress, a Latin Church cardinal wears scarlet garments—the blood-like red symbolizes a cardinal's willingness to die for his faith  Excluding the rochet — which is always white—the scarlet garments include the cassock, mozzetta, and biretta (over the usual scarlet zucchetto)  The biretta of a cardinal is distinctive not merely for its scarlet color, but also for the fact that it does not have a pompon or tassel on the top as do the birettas of other prelates  Until the 1460s, it was customary for cardinals to wear a violet or blue cape unless granted the privilege of wearing red when acting on papal business  His normal-wear cassock is black but has scarlet piping and a scarlet fascia (sash)  Occasionally, a cardinal wears a scarlet ferraiolo which is a cape worn over the shoulders, tied at the neck in a bow by narrow strips of cloth in the front, without any 'trim' or piping on it  It is because of the scarlet color of cardinals' vesture that the bird of the same name has become known as such 
Eastern Catholic cardinals continue to wear the normal dress appropriate to their liturgical tradition, though some may line their cassocks with scarlet and wear scarlet fascias, or in some cases, wear Eastern-style cassocks entirely of scarlet In previous times, at the consistory at which the pope named a new cardinal, he would bestow upon him a distinctive wide-brimmed hat called a galero  This custom was discontinued in 1969 and the investiture now takes place with the scarlet biretta  In ecclesiastical heraldry, however, the scarlet galero is still displayed on the cardinal's coat of arms  Cardinals had the right to display the galero in their cathedral, and when a cardinal died, it would be suspended from the ceiling above his tomb  Some cardinals will still have a galero made, even though it is not officially part of their apparel To symbolize their bond with the papacy, the pope gives each newly appointed cardinal a gold ring, which is traditionally kissed by Catholics when greeting a cardinal (as with a bishop's episcopal ring)  Before the new uniformity imposed by John Paul II, each cardinal was given a ring, the central piece of which was a gem, usually a sapphire, with the pope's stemma engraved on the inside  There is now no gemstone, and the pope chooses the image on the outside: under Pope Benedict XVI it was a modern depiction of the crucifixion of Jesus, with Mary and John to each side  The ring includes the pope's coat of arms on the inside Cardinals have in canon law a "privilege of forum" (i e , exemption from being judged by ecclesiastical tribunals of ordinary rank): only the pope is competent to judge them in matters subject to ecclesiastical jurisdiction (cases that refer to matters that are spiritual or linked with the spiritual, or with regard to infringement of ecclesiastical laws and whatever contains an element of sin, where culpability must be determined and the appropriate
ecclesiastical penalty imposed)  The pope either decides the case himself or delegates the decision to a tribunal, usually one of the tribunals or congregations of the Roman Curia  Without such delegation, no ecclesiastical court, even the Roman Rota, is competent to judge a canon law case against a cardinal Additionally, canon law gives cardinals the faculty of hearing confessions validly and licitly everywhere, whereas other priests and bishops must be granted this faculty and might be restricted in its use by the local bishop 

See also
Cardinal-Infante (disambiguation)
Cardinal-nephew
Cardinal protector
Hierarchy of the Catholic Church
List of current cardinals
List of the creations of the cardinals

Notes
Passage 2:
Edward Alacampe
Edward Alacampe (1581 – 6 February 1646), an English Jesuit, became a member of the English College, Rome in 1605  Three years later he entered the Society of Jesus; in 1614, he was at the new college in Liège  Afterwards, he held the office of procurator at Rome, and died in the house of probation at Ghent 

See also
Passage 3:
Claudia Cardinale
Claude Joséphine Rose "Claudia" Cardinale (French: [klod ʒozefin ʁoz kaʁdinal]; born 15 April 1938) is an Italian actress 
Born and raised in La Goulette, a neighbourhood of Tunis, Cardinale won the "Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia" competition in 1957, the prize being a trip to Italy, which quickly led to film contracts, due above all to the involvement of Franco Cristaldi, who acted as her mentor for a number of years and later married her  After making her debut in a minor role with the Egyptian star Omar Sharif in Goha (1958), Cardinale became one of the best-known actresses in Italy with roles in films such as Rocco and His Brothers (1960), Girl with a Suitcase (1961), Cartouche (1962), The Leopard (1963),  and Fellini's 8½ (1963) From 1963, Cardinale appeared in The Pink Panther opposite David Niven  She went on to appear in the Hollywood films Blindfold (1965), Lost Command (1966), The Professionals (1966), Don't Make Waves (1967) with Tony Curtis, The Hell with Heroes (1968), and the Sergio Leone Western Once Upon a Time in the West (1968), a joint US-Italian production, in which she was praised for her role as a former prostitute opposite Jason Robards, Charles Bronson, and Henry Fonda 
Jaded with the Hollywood film industry and not wanting to become a cliché, Cardinale returned to Italian and French cinema, and garnered the David di Donatello for Best Actress award for her roles in Il giorno della civetta (1968) and as a prostitute alongside Alberto Sordi in A Girl in Australia (1971)  In 1974, Cardinale met director Pasquale Squitieri, who would become her partner, and she frequently featured in his films, including I guappi (1974), Corleone (1978) and Claretta (1984), the last of which won her the Nastro d'Argento Award for Best Actress  In 1982, she starred in Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo as the love interest of Klaus Kinski, who raises the funds to buy a steamship in Peru  In 2010, Cardinale received the Best Actress Award at the 47th Antalya "Golden Orange" International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica 
Outspoken on women's rights causes over the years, Cardinale has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defence of Women's Rights since March 2000  In February 2011, the Los Angeles Times Magazine named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history 

Early life
Claudia Cardinale was born Claude Joséphine Rose Cardinale in La Goulette, a neighbourhood of Tunis, Tunisia, on 15 April 1938  Her mother, Yolande Greco like her was born in Tunisia to Sicilian emigrants from Trapani  Her maternal grandparents had a small shipbuilding firm in Trapani, but later settled in La Goulette, where a large Italian community existed  Her father, Francesco Cardinale, was a railway worker, born in Gela, Sicily   Her native languages were French, Tunisian Arabic, and the Sicilian language of her parents  She did not learn to speak Italian until she had already begun to be cast for Italian films Cardinale was educated at the Saint-Joseph-de-l'Apparition school of Carthage, which she attended along with her younger sister Blanche  She then studied at the Paul Cambon School, where she graduated with the intention of becoming a teacher  As a teenager, she was described as "silent, weird, and wild", and like other girls of her generation, was fascinated by Brigitte Bardot, who came to prominence in the 1956 film And God Created Woman, directed by Roger Vadim 

Career
1950s
Cardinale's first film work was participating, along with classmates, in a short film by French director René Vautier, Anneaux d'or, successfully presented at the Berlin Film Festival  The film made her a minor local celebrity, and led to her being spotted by Jacques Baratier, who offered her a minor role in Goha  She accepted it reluctantly after Baratier explained he wanted a Tunisian actress rather than an Italian to star in the main role opposite the Egyptian actor Omar Sharif  The appearance nonetheless marked her feature-film debut  The turning point came in 1957 during the Italian Cinema Week in Tunis, when she won a competition for the "Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia", with a trip to the Venice Film Festival as first prize  After being spotted by several film producers at the event, she was invited to study at the Experimental Cinematography Centre in Rome under Tina Lattanzi  She attended briefly as, despite her extremely photogenic looks, she had trouble with her acting assignments (partly owing to her difficulties with the Italian language)  She left at the end of her first term and decided to return home, earning herself a cover story in the popular weekly Epoca triggered by her unexpected decision to turn her back on a career as a film star Back in Tunis, however, Cardinale discovered unexpectedly that she was pregnant, the result of what she later described as a "terrible" relationship with a Frenchman, some 10 years her senior, which began when she was only 17 and lasted for about a year  On this discovery, he wanted her to have an abortion, but she decided to keep the child  She solved her problems by signing a seven-year exclusive contract with Franco Cristaldi's production company Vides  Cristaldi largely managed her early career, and she was married to him from 1966 until 1975 Under the new contract, in 1958, Cardinale was given a minor role with Italian actors Vittorio Gassman, Totò, Marcello Mastroianni, and Renato Salvatori in Mario Monicelli's internationally successful criminal comedy Big Deal on Madonna Street (I soliti ignoti)  She portrayed Carmelita, a Sicilian girl virtually imprisoned in her home by her overpowering brother  The comedy was a huge success, making Cardinale instantly recognisable  Some newspapers were already referring to her as "la fidanzata d'Italia" (Italy's sweetheart)  Later that year, she had a leading role opposite Yvonne Monlaur in Claudio Gora's romantic comedy Three Strangers in Rome 
Although she worked well into her seventh month, Cardinale's pregnancy was kept a tight secret  Tormented by thoughts of suicide, she fell into a state of depression  When she thought she could no longer hide her condition, she asked Cristaldi to terminate her contract  Understanding her predicament, he sent her to London for the birth, far away from the press  He simply explained that she had gone to England to learn English for a film  Cristaldi told Cardinale not to reveal her condition as she would be betraying the public and it would put an end to her career  So as to maintain the secret, he drew up a detailed American-style contract covering every little detail of her life, depriving her of any possibility of acting on her own behalf  Cardinale explained: "I was no longer master of my own body or thoughts  Even talking with a friend about anything that could make me look different from my public image was risky, as if it had been publicized, I would have been in trouble  Everything was in the hands of Vides"  For seven years, Cardinale kept her secret, not only from the public but also from her own son, Patrick, who grew up in the family with her parents and sister more or less as a brother until the day Enzo Biagi, a journalist, discovered the truth  After Cardinale decided to tell him everything, he published her story in  Oggi and L'Europeo In 1959, she appeared opposite Salvatori in the mafia film Vento del sud, and played the wife of Maurizio Arena in Luigi Zampa's Il magistrato  Cardinale also starred opposite Pietro Germi in his crime film The Facts of Murder, an important assignment for her in mastering the craft of acting while learning to feel at ease in front of the camera  Cardinale considered it to have been her first real test as an actress  She then played the role of Maria in Ralph Thomas's British film Upstairs and Downstairs, which starred Michael Craig and Anne Heywood  In her early roles, she was usually dubbed, as producers considered her voice too hoarse 

1960s
In 1960, Cardinale starred opposite Marcello Mastroianni in Mauro Bolognini's Golden Leopard-winning drama film Il bell'Antonio  The film marked the start of a fruitful partnership  Cardinale stated that her films with Bolognini were among the most joyful of her career, considering him to be "a great director, a man of rare professional capability, great taste and culture  Beyond that, for me personally, a sensitive and sincere friend "
In Bolognini's films, thanks to her aesthetic femininity,  Cardinale took roles of manipulative women who lead men to perdition  During the filming of Il bell'Antonio, her co-star Marcello Mastroianni fell in love with her, but she rejected him, as she did not take his love seriously, considering him to be one of those actors who cannot help but fall in love with their co-stars  Mastroianni insisted that his feelings were genuine, even after many years  The genuine empathy between the two actors proved to be ideal for reproducing the tension between the characters in the film  Cardinale next portrayed Pauline Bonaparte in Abel Gance's French film Napoleone ad Austerlitz, and after appearing opposite Gassman and Salvatori in the sequel to Big Deal on Madonna Street, Audace colpo dei soliti ignoti, she portrayed Ginetta, the fiancée of Spiros Focás, alongside Salvatori and Alain Delon in Luchino Visconti's critically acclaimed Rocco and His Brothers  However, her leading performance in Francesco Maselli's Silver Spoon Set gained her most attention during this period  Francesco Freda felt the film paved her way "to great success", noting the "sweetness of her smile" which struck a chord with the public 
In 1961, Cardinale portrayed a sultry nightclub singer and young mother in Valerio Zurlini's Girl with a Suitcase  As a result of her own experience of early motherhood, Cardinale naturally conveyed the concerns of a teenaged mother, identifying fully with the character of Aida  Such was her psychological involvement that she needed several months to overcome her apprehensions and prepare for the part  Zurlini chose her for such a difficult role against everyone's advice, as she was not yet considered a "real" actress, nor was she (yet) one of the most celebrated Italian beauties  However, he was very close and supportive of Cardinale during the production, and a true friendship developed between the two, based on a deep mutual understanding  Cardinale remarked: "Zurlini was one of those who really love women: he had an almost feminine sensitivity  He could understand me at a glance  He taught me everything, without ever making demands on me      He was really very fond of me " Cardinale was warmly praised by the critics for her performance in Girl with a Suitcase, Dennis Schwartz considering her to have been at her "charming best"  Later in 1961, Cardinale starred as a prostitute opposite Jean-Paul Belmondo in Bolognini's La Viaccia  Both Girl with a Suitcase and La Viaccia were presented at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival  At the time, Cardinale was not considered comparable to the two divas of Italian cinema, Sophia Loren and Gina Lollobrigida, but several newspapers and magazines including Paris Match began to consider her to be a credible young rival to Brigitte Bardot  Cardinale's 1961 appearances also included Henri Verneuil's French comedy Les Lions sont lâchés, and Auguste in which she had a cameo role 
The following year, Cardinale starred opposite Jean-Paul Belmondo as Vénus in the 18th-century set adventure Cartouche, which made her a major star in France  She also played Angiolina, the romantic interest of Anthony Franciosa in Bolognini's Senilità, a character which film writer Jacek Klinowski describes as "a spirited and strikingly beautiful twenty-year-old"  In 1962, Cardinale was interviewed by the writer Alberto Moravia, who focused exclusively on her sexuality and body image in films, treating her as an object  Cardinale remarked to him: "I used my body as a mask, as a representation of myself"  The interview was published in Esquire under the title "The Next Goddess of Love"  Cardinale was amused to discover that the interview had inspired the writer to publish La dea dell'amore ("Goddess of Love") the following year, in which one of the characters, with her fine physical appearance and natural curves, closely resembled Cardinale  Just a few years later, she played a similar character in a film based on another novel by Moravia, Time of Indifference The finest and most prolific year of her career was 1963, when she appeared in a number of leading productions  She starred alongside Burt Lancaster in Visconti's The Leopard (1963) (Il Gattopardo), portraying a village girl who married a progressive young aristocrat (Alain Delon), and played a film actress cast by a director (Marcello Mastroianni) in Federico Fellini's 8½  Both films were critically acclaimed and are often cited by critics and scholars as among the greatest films ever made  She participated in the two films during exactly the same period, frequently moving from one to the other and experiencing the strictly planned approach of Visconti which contrasted strongly with Fellini's much more relaxed style and his almost total reliance on improvisation  Cardinale remembered Visconti's set as having an almost religious atmosphere, everything focused on the film, far removed the outside world  Visconti needed silence for his work while Fellini preferred noise and confusion Prior to this period, Cardinale's own voice had not been used in her Italian films, as it was considered too hoarse, and owing to her French accent, insufficiently Italian  Not until 8½ was she allowed to use her own voice  Cardinale explained: "When I arrived for my first movie, I couldn't speak a word  I thought I was on the moon  I couldn't understand what they were talking about  And I was speaking in French; in fact I was dubbed  And Federico Fellini was the first one who used my voice  I think I had a very strange voice " With her portrayal of Angelica in The Leopard and her brief appearance as herself in 8½, Cardinale achieved the definitive status of a top-ranking star The same year, Cardinale starred as Mara in La ragazza di Bube or Bebo's Girl, in which she also used her own voice  For her performance in the film, she received her first Nastro d'Argento for Best Actress in 1965  Cardinale acted in her first American film (although it was produced in Italy) when she played Princess Dala, a wealthy aristocratic woman who is the love and jewellery interest of David Niven in the Cortina d'Ampezzo-set The Pink Panther  Cardinale's voice in the film was dubbed by Gale Garnett, who went uncredited  Niven raved about working with the actress, telling her, "After spaghetti, you're Italy's happiest invention "
In 1964, Cardinale starred alongside Rod Steiger and Shelley Winters in Francesco Maselli's Italian-made Time of Indifference  Thereafter, she spent three years in the United States, where she starred in several Hollywood films  She told of how she benefited from the arrangement, explaining it was an American initiative at a time when they invited all the successful European actresses to perform in their pictures, hoping to create a monopoly  Many suffered from the experience, but she was able to hold her own: "I took care of my own interests, blankly refusing to sign an exclusive contract with Universal Studios  I only signed for individual films  In the end, everything worked out fine for me She first starred in the Henry Hathaway's Hollywood picture Circus World (1964) opposite John Wayne and Rita Hayworth, playing the daughter of Hayworth, who performs with her as a mother-daughter circus act  By the end of the decade, she had returned to making films primarily in Italy, accepting a pay cut, turning her back on Hollywood stardom  Cardinale has further said, "I don't like the star system  I'm a normal person  I like to live in Europe  I mean, I've been going to Hollywood many, many times, but I didn't want to sign a contract " Film writer David Simpson notes that as a result, "Cardinale never achieved the same level of fame as Loren and Gina Lollobrigida", although she appeared in a higher number of decent films In 1964, she also played the lead role in The Magnificent Cuckold, based on the Belgian play Le Cocu magnifique  She was at the height of her sensuality at the time, but later the film only brought back unpleasant memories for her as she experienced little empathy with the director Antonio Pietrangeli, while the male star Ugo Tognazzi tried to seduce her  In 1965, Cardinale appeared in Visconti's Vaghe stelle dell'Orsa, known as Sandra (Of a Thousand Delights) in the US and Of These Thousand Pleasures in the UK, playing a Holocaust survivor who may have had an incestuous relationship with her brother  Later that year, she starred opposite Rock Hudson in Universal Pictures's Blindfold, the last film to be directed by Philip Dunne  Filming began on 22 February 1965 on location in Ocala, Florida  Diane Bond doubled for Cardinale in the film  Cardinale became good friends with Hudson, who proved to be very protective of her, knowing her discomfort outside of Italy  While in Hollywood, Cardinale also became friends with Barbra Streisand, Elliott Gould, and Steve McQueen, but she never managed to feel at home there By 1966, Cardinale was being cited as the most popular film star in Italy, even more than Mastroianni and Loren  Life stated that "the Cardinale appeal is a blend of solid simplicity and radiant sensuality  It moves men all over the world to imagine her both as an exciting mistress and wife " However, following her success in Hollywood, she began to express concerns about the direction of her career  In a July 1966 interview with Life, she confessed her fear of being overglamourized and exploited, like Sophia Loren, and although she had several further US films lined up, stated: "If I have to give up the money, I give it up  I do not want to become a cliché "
In 1966, a photograph of Cardinale was featured in the original gatefold artwork to Bob Dylan's album Blonde on Blonde (1966), but it was used without her permission and removed from later pressings  That year, she starred in Mark Robson's war picture Lost Command for Columbia Pictures opposite Anthony Quinn, Alain Delon, and George Segal  Quinn expressed his love of working with Cardinale, stating that although he adored Cardinale and Loren equally, "I relate easier to Claudia, Sophia creates an impression of something larger than life, something unobtainable  But Claudia – she's not easy, still she's within reach"  She also played a Mexican marquessa in Richard Brooks' Western The Professionals, uniting her on screen once again with Burt Lancaster in what she  considered to be her best American film  The following year, she appeared in Una rosa per tutti (A Rose for Everyone) and in Alexander Mackendrick's sex farce Don't Make Waves opposite Tony Curtis  Although occasional funny moments were noted, Don't Make Waves was generally panned by the critics and the lack of chemistry with co-star Curtis was highlighted  Leonard Maltin, though, described the film as "a gem" At the beginning of 1967, Cristaldi joined her in the United States  While the two were staying in Atlanta, he surprised her by taking her to their wedding ceremony which he had arranged without her knowledge  She went ahead with the ceremony but was concerned about sacrificing the rights she had to her child Patrick  She also realised she was increasingly unable to make decisions about her own life  The marriage was never made official in Italy In 1968, Cardinale featured opposite Franco Nero in The Day of the Owl, in a David di Donatello for Best Actress-winning performance  She reunited with Rock Hudson in the Italian-made criminal comedy A Fine Pair under director Francesco Maselli  She also appeared alongside Rod Taylor in The Hell with Heroes and starred in one of her best-known roles as former prostitute Jill McBain in Sergio Leone's epic Western Once Upon a Time in the West  Such was the power of her performance as the whore that Leone's biographer Robert C  Cumbow described her as "permanently engraved in cinematic history" and noted how suited to the role she was: "Her sex-goddess appearance combines with her more mystical iconographic associations to ease the progress of Jill from tart to town builder, from harlot to earth mother, from sinner to symbol of America—the apotheosis of the harlot with a heart of gold " In 1969, Cardinale starred opposite Nino Manfredi in Luigi Magni's Nell'anno del Signore, based on the actual story of the capital execution of two carbonari in papal Rome  This was followed by a role as a telephone operator in Certo certissimo     anzi probabile, and as a nurse opposite Sean Connery and Peter Finch in Mikhail Kalatozov's The Red Tent, based on the story of the mission to rescue Umberto Nobile and the other survivors of the crash of the Airship Italia 

1970s
In 1970, Cardinale starred opposite Peter McEnery and Eli Wallach in Jerzy Skolimowski's comedy film The Adventures of Gerard, based on The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard by Arthur Conan Doyle  In 1971, she formed a duo with Brigitte Bardot in the French Western-comedy The Legend of Frenchie King, and appeared as a prostitute opposite Alberto Sordi in Luigi Zampa's comedy A Girl in Australia  The film, shot on location in February and March 1971, earned Cardinale a Best Actress award at the David di Donatello Awards the following year  In 1972, Cardinale appeared in Marco Ferreri's L'udienza, which was screened at the 22nd Berlin International Film Festival  She also featured in La Scoumoune with Jean-Paul Belmondo and Michel Constantin  After a role as a Russian aristocrat opposite Oliver Reed in One Russian Summer (1973), set in prerevolutionary Russia, Cardinale starred opposite Franco Nero in I guappi (1974), a historical drama film with "poliziotteschi" and "noir" elements  Cardinale and the director Pasquale Squitieri met for the first time on set, and he soon became her husband 
In 1975, Cardinale played the daughter of a political exile (Adolfo Celi) in Mauro Bolognini's Libera, My Love, a character who becomes "increasingly incensed by the fascist government of Italy and makes a number of bold and very personal gestures against it"  Later that year she appeared in the comedies The Immortal Bachelor with Vittorio Gassman and Blonde in Black Leather with Monica Vitti  Vitti's biographer noted how Cardinale and Vitti stood out as the female duo in a predominantly masculine cast In 1976, Cardinale appeared in the sex comedy Il comune senso del pudore, which was directed and written by Alberto Sordi, who also co-starred  The following year, she had a biblical role as the adulteress in the Jesus of Nazareth miniseries, which featured Robert Powell as Jesus, Anne Bancroft as Mary Magdalene, and Ernest Borgnine as Cornelius the Centurion  Cardinale starred in her husband's Il prefetto di ferro, which tells the story of Cesare Mori (Giuliano Gemma), an Italian prefect that before and during the Fascist period was best known as "the Iron Prefect"  The film shared the 1978 David di Donatello for Best Film award  with In nome del Papa Re  In 1978, Cardinale appeared in Damiano Damiani's political thriller, Goodbye & Amen – L'uomo della CIA, and again featured alongside Gemma in her husband's gangster picture, Corleone, set in 1950s Sicily 
After a role in another Squitieri film in 1978, L'arma, Cardinale portrayed Eleana, a Greek "gutsy brothel madame" and the girlfriend of Telly Savalas in George P  Cosmatos's adventure war film, Escape to Athena (1979)  The film, shot on location in Rhodes, was poorly received; it holds a 32% "rotten" rating on Rotten Tomatoes as of July 2015 

1980s
After a role in Si salvi chi vuole (1980), and a smaller part in Peter Zinner's The Salamander opposite Franco Nero, Anthony Quinn, and Christopher Lee, Cardinale played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in Liliana Cavani's war picture The Skin, a film which also reunited her with Burt Lancaster  The Skin was entered into the 1981 Cannes Film Festival  In 1982, Cardinale appeared in Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo, playing a successful brothel owner who funds Klaus Kinski's purchase of an old steamship in South America  The film, inspired by the story of Peruvian rubber baron Carlos Fermín Fitzcarrald, was shot on location in Brazil and Peru  The film was critically acclaimed, with Vincent Canby of The New York Times calling it "a fine, quirky, fascinating movie" and a "stunning spectacle", comparing the dynamic between Kinski and Cardinale to Katharine Hepburn and Humphrey Bogart in John Huston's The African Queen  He pointed out that although Cardinale's screen time in the film was not substantial, she set its comic tone; he praised the way she managed to turn Kinski, renowned for his volatile temperament and portrayals of megalomaniacs and criminals, into a "genuinely charming screen presence", adding a new dimension to his acting career  Later that year, Cardinale played opposite Pierre Mondy in the sex farce Le Cadeau, a role which biographers Lancia and Minelli say was played with a "mature charm and expressiveness" In 1983, Cardinale had a role in the Waris Hussein miniseries Princess Daisy, and featured alongside  Lino Ventura and Bernard Giraudeau in the French-Canadian film Le Ruffian  In 1984, she played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in a Marco Bellocchio production of Henry IV, based on the Luigi Pirandello play of the same name  It was entered into the 1984 Cannes Film Festival  Squitieri's Claretta (1984), featuring Cardinale and Gemma, was entered into the competition at the 41st Venice International Film Festival  Cardinale's performance as Claretta Petacci garnered her the Nastro d'Argento for Best Actress  In 1985, Cardinale starred opposite Ben Gazzara and Lina Sastri in Alberto Bevilacqua's La donna delle meraviglie   It entered the competition at the 1985 Venice International Film Festival In 1986, Cardinale was involved in the making of two films for television  In Comencini's La storia (from Elsa Morante's novel), Cardinale portrayed a widow raising a son during World War II  In her husband's Naso di Cane, a miniseries, Enrico Lancia and Roberto Poppi praised her for her "light comic touch"  In 1987, Cardinale starred opposite Peter Coyote, Greta Scacchi, and Jamie Lee Curtis in Diane Kurys's film A Man in Love (Un homme amoureux), Kurys's first English-language feature  It was entered into the 1987 Cannes Film Festival  Cardinale's performance as Scacchi's cancer-stricken mother was praised by critics, with Desson Howe of The Washington Post highlighting the "warm and radiant" elements that she brought to the role, and Hal Hinson, also of The Post, comparing Scacchi to having "the same kind of sensuality that Cardinale brought to her earlier roles"  After a role in the comedy, Blu elettrico (1988), Cardinale portrayed Yolande de Polastron, a favourite of Marie Antoinette's, in the two-part film La Révolution française in 1989  Made to celebrate the bicentennial anniversary of the French Revolution, the 360-minute Robert Enrico and Richard T  Heffron film was an international production, boasting a cast which included Klaus Maria Brandauer, Jane Seymour and Peter Ustinov 

1990s
In 1990, Cardinale starred opposite Bruno Cremer in Squitieri's Atto di dolore, and appeared in the Morocco-set Soviet-Italian production, La battaglia dei tre tamburi di fuoco 
In 1991, Cardinale featured alongside Richard Berry and Omar Sharif in Henri Verneuil's Mayrig (meaning "mother"), a film about the struggles of an Armenian family that emigrates to Marseilles from Turkey after the Armenian genocide of 1915  Such was the success of the film that Verneuil made a sequel the following year, 588, rue Paradis, also featuring the cast  Cardinale was praised by critics for her role as the mother; the Armenian General Benevolent Union of America noted the "flawless performance of these intrepid actors, especially of Claudia Cardinale"  In 1993, Cardinale won the Leone d'oro alla carriera award at the Venice Film Festival, in which she was honoured along with Roman Polanski, Robert De Niro, and Steven Spielberg  Cardinale agreed to reunite with Blake Edwards, Herbert Lom, and Burt Kwouk to celebrate the 30th anniversary of The Pink Panther by making Son of the Pink Panther  It was Edward's last film, but was a critical and commercial failure, with critics despairing at the "painfully unfunny script" and the performance of Roberto Benigni as Clouseau, which earned him the Razzie Award for Worst New Star  As of July 2015, it has a rating of just 6% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 reviews 
In 1994, Cardinale had a role in Charlotte Dubreuil's Elles ne pensent qu'à ça   , and the following year appeared in the French TV serial 10-07: L'affaire Zeus In 1997, Cardinale featured in the British-Italian television drama miniseries Nostromo, directed by Alastair Reid and produced by Fernando Ghia of Pixit Productions, a co-production with Radiotelevisione Italiana, Televisión Española, and WGBH Boston  It is described as "an adaptation of Joseph Conrad's epic story Nostromo of political upheaval, greed, and romance in turn-of-the-20th-century South America " Cardinale and the cast were nominated for an ALMA Award for Outstanding Latino/a Cast in a Made-for-Television Movie or Mini-Series  Later in 1997, Cardinale appeared in the films Sous les pieds des femmes and her husband's Stupor Mundi, in which she portrayed Constance of Aragon  In 1998, Cardinale portrayed the mother of Lola Naymark in the French picture Riches, belles, etc , a wealthy baroness who leaves her hotel to her daughter to care for during her absence  The following year, Cardinale played the peasant mother of two children who are members of Carmine Crocco's (Enrico Lo Verso's) army during the Garibaldi era, in Cristaldi's historical film Li chiamarono    briganti!  Poorly received, the film was boycotted, and the producers have since refused to assign the broadcasting rights 

2000s
In 2000, Cardinale embarked on her stage career, starring in Maurizio Scaparro's stage production of La Venexiana, adapted by René de Ceccatty, at the Théâtre du Rond-Point in Paris 
She also appeared in her husband's television film, Élisabeth - Ils sont tous nos enfants  Two years later, Cardinale went on a theatrical tour of Italy, performing in Luigi Pirandello's Come tu mi vuoi, which Squitieri directed  She appeared as what Roger Ebert described as a "faded countess" opposite Jeremy Irons in Claude Lelouch's thriller film And Now    Ladies and Gentlemen, portraying a character who spends her time in Fez, Morocco, with handsome gigolos  The film was screened out of competition at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival  And Now    Ladies and Gentlemen received mixed reviews; A  O  Scott of The New York Times dismissed it as "sublimely silly", but praised the "impeccable CinemaScope compositions" and the "lush, suave score" by Michel Legrand In 2005, Cardinale appeared in a Philippe Adrien stage production of Tennessee Williams's Sweet Bird of Youth, and in the 2006/2007 season also featured in another Williams play, The Glass Menagerie, directed by Andrea Liberovici, in which she played the character of Amanda  In 2007, Cardinale appeared in the Aline Issermann comedy film Cherche fiancé tous frais payés, opposite Alexandra Lamy and Bruno Salomone, in a role which Patrick Besson described as "atrocious"  After a role in the TV movie Hold-up à l'italienne (2008), the following year Cardinale starred in the critically acclaimed The String, playing a Tunisian mother who has a tempestuous relationship with her French-educated gay son  Michael D  Klemm of cinemaqueer com reflected on how the film broke many of the taboos with interracial sexuality and homosexuality  He praised Cardinale's "terrific" acting and portrayal of the "overbearing" mother, likening one scene, where she "brings home a nice girl for Malik (Antonin Stahly) to meet", to Harold and Maude (1971) 

2010s
In 2010, Cardinale received the Golden Orange Best Actress Award at the 47th Antalya "Golden Orange" International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica  The Turkish-Italian co-production was shot in locations in Istanbul and Rimini In 2012, Cardinale featured opposite Jeanne Moreau and Michael Lonsdale in the final feature film to be directed by Portuguese director Manoel de Oliveira, Gebo and the Shadow  Critically acclaimed, it has a rare 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, and was shown at the 69th Venice International Film Festival  The Hollywood Reporter described it as the "ensemble of superb older performers who comprise the remainder of the dramatis personae"  Another excellent film in which Cardinale acted, released in 2012, was The Artist and the Model  In it, she starred along with Jean Rochefort  In 2013, Cardinale starred alongside supporting actresses Patricia Black and Chloé Cunha in Nadia Szold's Joy de V , and had a role in Ernst Gossner's war drama The Silent Mountain, a love story set in the Dolomite Mountains at the outbreak of World War I between Italy and Austria-Hungary in 1915  Gossner described her as "a terrific spirit on the set", and noted that Cardinale told the production team "legendary stories" about Marcello Mastroianni  In 2014, Cardinale portrayed a "sympathetic Italian chaperone" viscountess in the British period drama film Effie Gray, which was written by Emma Thompson (whom Cardinale shares birthday with) and featured Dakota Fanning in the lead role  While promoting Effie Gray, in an interview Cardinale said: "I still continue to work, it's 142 movies now  Usually when you are old you don't work any more, but I still work, which is good     I've been very lucky because I've had many fantastic directors with me, Fellini, Visconti, Blake Edwards, lots and lots   " On 11 October 2018 she received the Tabernas de Cine award in the Almería Western Film Festival 

2020s
In 2020, Cardinale headlined the Swiss miniseries Bulle  Later that year, she had a role in the Netflix film Rogue City  In its debut weekend, it was the second most-streamed film on the site 

Personal life
Claudia Cardinale met the Italian film producer Franco Cristaldi in 1958  According to Cardinale, the couple had a marriage party but did not marry, and they became increasingly detached  Cristaldi later married Zeudi Araya and had no further relationship with Cardinale Cardinale lived with Pasquale Squitieri, an Italian film director, for 42 years, from 1975 until Squitieri died on 18 February 2017, aged 78 Cardinale has two children: Patrick, who was born when she was 19 and later adopted by Cristaldi, and Claudia, whom she had with Squitieri 
Cardinale is fluent in Arabic, French, Italian, English, and Spanish  Her niece Francesca is also an actress Cardinale is a political liberal who has supported feminist causes over the years  Although she lives in Paris, Cardinale is fiercely outspoken about being identified as an Italian  She has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defence of Women's Rights since March 2000, and was a goodwill ambassador for the UNESCO World Water Day for 2006 Cardinale published an autobiography with Anne Mori, Io Claudia, Tu Claudia, in 1995  She has been a regular attendee of the Academy Awards  Her awards have included an honorary Golden Lion at the 1993 Venice Film Festival, and an Honorary Golden Bear at the 2002 Berlin Film Festival  The Los Angeles Times Magazine, in a February 2011 online feature, named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history  Cardinale said of her acting, "I never felt scandal and confession were necessary to be an actress  I've never revealed myself or even my body in films  Mystery is very important " In a 2014 interview, she revealed her secret of success: "If you want to practise this craft, you have to have inner strength  Otherwise, you'll lose your idea of who you are  Every film I make entails becoming a different woman  And in front of a camera, no less! But when I'm finished, I'm me again "

See also
Passage 4:
Three Strangers in Rome
Tre straniere a Roma, also known as Three Strangers in Rome, is a 1958 Italian romantic comedy film directed by Claudio Gora starring Claudia Cardinale  The film was one of the first movies with Cardinale in a leading role 

Cast
Yvonne Monlaur: Nanda
Claudia Cardinale: Marisa
Françoise Danell: Elsa
Luciano Marin: Sandro Nencioni
Roy Ciccolini: Sergio
Leonardo Botta: Franco
Tamara Lees: Sandro's girlfriend
Renato Chiantoni: Pasquale
Nando Bruno: Vincenzo's father
Guglielmo Inglese: Michele
Alberto Talegalli: Uncle Gaetano
Gina Mascetti: Owner of the Pensione Aurora
Dolores Palumbo: Sergio's mother
Andrea Scotti: Osvaldo
Marino Barreto Junior: Himself
Marco Tulli

External links
Tre straniere a Roma at IMDb
Passage 5:
Frank Kubatzki
Frank Kubatzki (May 12, 1877 – ?) was an American blacksmith from Milwaukee who served three terms as a Democratic member of the Wisconsin State Assembly representing the 8th Milwaukee County District (8th Ward of the City of Milwaukee) 

Background
Kubatzki was born in the part of Poland within the German Empire on May 12, 1877, and came to America with his parents at the age of two, the family locating in Milwaukee  He was educated in a parochial school and night school, and became a blacksmith by trade  He served in the Army's First Wisconsin Volunteers from the outbreak of the Spanish–American War until he was mustered out in October 1898  Returning home, he returned to his trade until he lost the use of two limbs due to a disease contracted while in the service, and had to dispose of his business  He would eventually be awarded a monthly pension of $72 in 1926, apparently as a result of lobbying by Congressman John C  Schafer 

Legislative service
He was elected to the assembly in 1914 and was re-elected in 1916 and 1918, receiving 1,147 votes at the 1918 general election to 756 for Socialist Frank Cieszynski  He was defeated for re-election in 1920 by Socialist Walter Polakowski  In 1922 he attempted to re-gain his old seat, but came in third, losing to Polakowski's younger brother John Polakowski, who received 2,191 votes to 1,471 for Republican Louis Polewczwnski and 856 for Kubatzki 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Siege of Germanicia
The siege of Germanicia or Marash was led by Muslim forces of the Rashidun Caliphate during their campaigns in Anatolia in 638  The city surrendered without much bloodshed  This expedition is important because it marks the end of the military career of the legendary Arab Muslim general Khalid ibn Walid, who was dismissed from the army a few months after his return from the expedition 

Background
The Muslims won a decisive victory at the Battle of Yarmouk fought in August 636, thus the attempt made by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius to roll back Roman Syria failed  Further, unable to send more imperial troops to Syria, Heraclius made yet another attempt to re-conquer Syria by the aid of his Christian Arab allies of Jazira  The army of the Christian Arabs laid siege to Emesa in mid-summer of 638  The Muslims avoided a battle in the open and instead opted for a defensive strategy which led to the Battle at Emesa  All the regiments from outposts in northern Syria were called to Emesa  The Christian Arab Army was forced to withdraw their siege when, by the orders of Caliph Umar, the Muslim army from Iraq attacked Jazira  At this point, the rear elements of the besieging army were attacked by a Mobile guard led by Khalid ibn Walid, which in effect left the Byzantine forces devastated  Caliph Umar then launched a full-scale invasion of Jazira which was completed without much resistance in just a few months  As soon as the western part of Jazira was occupied, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah wrote to Umar and asked for Ayadh bin Ghanam, who was operating in western Jazira, to be put under his command so that he could use him in raids across the northern border  Umar agreed to this request, and Ayadh moved to Emesa with a part of the Muslim forces sent from Iraq to Jazira 

The siege
In the Autumn of 638, Abu Ubaidah launched several columns, including two commanded by Khalid ibn Walid and Ayadh, to raid Byzantine territory in Anatolia as far west as Tarsus  Khalid's objective was Germanicia (Arabic: Marash), the city which lies on a plain at the foot of the Taurus Mountains  The region is best known for its production of salep, a flour made from dried orchid tubers  In late 638, the Muslim army laid the siege to the city which contained a Byzantine garrison  Expecting no help from their Emperor, the Byzantine garrison surrendered the city on the usual terms of Jizya offered by the Rashidun army, which included terms stating that the garrison and the populace be spared  As for material wealth, the Muslims could take all they wished 

Aftermath
It is narrated that Khalid returned to Qinnasrin laden with spoils of war that had seldom been seen before  Many Muslim historians commented that Just the spoils of Marash were sufficient to make the soldiers of this expedition rich for life  Khalid ibn Walid, who was at the peak of his military career was unfortunately dismissed by Caliph Umar because of his immense popularity which was a result of his very successful military career  It was a general view that Umar had dismissed Khalid because he was angry with Khalid, though it was clarified later by Caliph Umar that:

I have not dismissed Khalid because of my anger or because of any dishonesty on his part, but because people glorified him and were misled  I feared that people would rely on him, rather than God, for victory  I want them to know that it is God who does all things; and there should be no mischief in the land 
Khalid was urged by many of his companions to retaliate against Umar for this  Khalid did not, although he was powerful enough to launch a coup d'état against Umar and in effect seize the power of the Rashidun Empire  He instead chose to stay away from politics and died four years later in 642 in Emesa  Caliph Umar was said to have felt embarrassed for his conduct against Khalid and was reported to have said at his death that 'he would have appointed Khalid as his successor if he was still alive '
Passage 2:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 862
United Nations Security Council resolution 862, adopted unanimously on 31 August 1993, after recalling resolutions 841 (1993), 861 (1993) and an agreement between the President of Haiti and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Haiti, the Council reaffirmed the international community's commitment to a solution in Haiti and discussed the establishment of a new police force in Haiti under a proposed United Nations Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) The immediate dispatch of an advance team of no more than 30 personnel to assess requirements and prepare for the possible dispatch of both the civilian police and military assistance components of UNMIH  The mandate of the advance team would last for one month with the prospect of incorporating it into the UNMIH peacekeeping mission when established 
The Council awaited a further report by the Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali concerning the proposed establishment of UNMIH and its financial costs, time-frame, projected conclusion and co-ordination with the work of the Organization of American States, further requesting him to enter into a Status of Forces Agreement with the Government of Haiti to facilitate an early dispatch of UNMIH when the Council decided  The mission was formally established in Resolution 867 

See also
History of Haiti
List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 801 to 900 (1993–1994)
Passage 3:
United Nations General Assembly resolution ES-10/L 22
United Nations General Assembly resolution ES‑10/19 is an emergency session resolution declaring the status of Jerusalem as Israel's capital as "null and void"  It was adopted by the 37th Plenary meeting of the tenth emergency special session of the United Nations General Assembly during the tenure of the seventy-second session of the United Nations General Assembly on 21 December 2017  The resolution was drafted by Yemen and Turkey  Though strongly contested by the United States, it passed by 128 votes to 9 against with 21 absentees and 35 abstentions 

Background
On 6 December 2017, US President Donald Trump said that he would recognise Jerusalem as Israel's capital and begin the process of moving the embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem  This was a departure from previous Security Council resolutions and prevailing international norms (where no state either recognises Jerusalem as a national capital nor has an embassy there) 
After a United Nations Security Council resolution was vetoed by the U S  three days earlier, Palestinian UN Ambassador Riyad Mansour said that the General Assembly would vote on a draft resolution calling for Trump's declaration to be withdrawn  He sought to invoke Resolution 377, known as the "Uniting for Peace" resolution, to circumvent a veto  The resolution states that the General Assembly can call an Emergency Special Session to consider a matter "with a view to making appropriate recommendations to members for collective measures" if the Security Council fails to act 

Campaign
On 20 December, US President Donald Trump threatened to cut US aid to countries voting against the US's side  The day before the vote, he said: "Let them vote against us   We don't care   this isn't like it used to be where they could vote against you and then you pay them hundreds of millions of dollars  We're not going to be taken advantage of any longer " Ambassador Nikki Haley warned her country would remember and "take names" of every country that voted in favour of the resolution  The governments of Turkey and Iran denounced the threats made by the US as "anti-democratic" and "blackmail"  Haley had sent a letter to dozens of member states that warned Trump had asked her to "report back on those countries who voted against us " Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said "I call on the whole world: Don't you dare sell your democratic struggle and your will for petty dollars" and warned Trump that "he cannot buy Turkey's democratic will with his dollars " He added: "I hope and expect the US won't get the result it expects from there (UN) and the world will give a very good lesson to the United States" Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu stated that Israel rejects this vote before it passes and called the UN a "house of lies" Hanan Ashrawi, a member of the PLO’s Executive Committee, condemned Trump's warning to countries receiving aid from the US: "Trump should know that there are things that are not for sale or subject to blackmail, particularly issues of principle, legality and morality "Canada's Foreign Affairs Minister Chrystia Freeland's spokesman, a country which was seeking re-negotiations of the NAFTA,  confirmed its intention to abstain from the vote and that the resolution should not have come to the General Assembly 

Content
The text of the resolution includes the following key statements:
The General Assembly,

Bearing in mind the specific status of the Holy City of Jerusalem and, in particular, the need for the protection and preservation of the unique spiritual, religious and cultural dimensions of the City, as foreseen in the relevant United Nations resolutions,
Stressing that Jerusalem is a final status issue to be resolved through negotiations in line with relevant United Nations resolutions,
Expressing in this regard its deep regret at recent decisions concerning the status of Jerusalem,
Affirms that any decisions and actions which purport to have altered, the character, status or demographic composition of the Holy City of Jerusalem have no legal effect, are null and void and must be rescinded in compliance with relevant resolutions of the Security Council, and in this regard, calls upon all States to refrain from the establishment of diplomatic missions in the Holy City of Jerusalem, pursuant to resolution 478 (1980) of the Security Council;
Demands that all States comply with Security Council resolutions regarding the Holy City of Jerusalem, and not to recognize any actions or measures contrary to those resolutions;
Reiterates its call for the reversal of the negative trends on the ground that are imperiling the two-State solution and for the intensification and acceleration of international and regional efforts and support aimed at achieving, without delay, a comprehensive, just and lasting peace in the Middle East on the basis of the relevant United Nations resolutions, the Madrid terms of reference, including the principle of land for peace, the Arab Peace Initiative and the Quartet Roadmap and an end to the Israeli occupation that began in 1967 

Motion
The motion was proposed by Yemen and Turkey 

Debate
In introducing the resolution as chair of the Arab Group, Yemen's Ambassador said the US decision was a "blatant violation of the rights of the Palestinian people, as well as those of all Christians and Muslims " He emphasized that it constituted a "dangerous breach of the Charter of the United Nations and a serious threat to international peace and security, while also undermining the chances for a two‑State solution and fuelling the fires of violence and extremism "Turkey, who was the co-sponsor of the draft resolution, also spoke as current chair of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)  Foreign Minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu said that Trump's decision was an outrageous assault to all universal values  "The Palestinians have the right to their own state based on 1967 borders with East Jerusalem as its capital  This is the main parameter and only hope for a just and lasting peace in the region  However, the recent decision of a UN Member State to recognise Jerusalem, or Al-Quds, as the capital of Israel, violates international law, including all relevant UN resolutions "The General Assembly heard from Palestinian Foreign Minister Riyad al-Maliki, who said that the meeting was "not because of any animosity to the United States of America" but instead the sessions was "called to make the voice of the vast majority of the international community — and that of people around the world — heard on the question of Jerusalem/Al‑Quds Al‑Sharif " He called the US decision to recognise Jerusalem as Israel's capital and to move its embassy there "an aggressive and dangerous move" which could inflame tensions and lead to a religious war that "has no boundaries " He added that though the decision would have no impact on the city's status, it would nevertheless compromise the role of the United States in the Middle East peace process  He urged member states to reject "blackmail and intimidation "US Ambassador Nikki Haley then said that her country was "singled out for attack" because of its recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel  She added that: "The United States will remember this day in which it was singled out for attack in the General Assembly for the very act of exercising our right as a sovereign nation,” Haley said  "We will remember it when we are called upon to once again make the world’s largest contribution to the United Nations, and so many countries come calling on us, as they so often do, to pay even more and to use our influence for their benefit " She added that: "America will put our embassy in Jerusalem  That is what the American people want us to do, and it is the right thing to do  No vote in the United Nations will make any difference on that   this vote will make a difference in how Americans view the UN "Israel's Ambassador Danny Danon then told the assembly that the vowed that "no General Assembly resolution will ever drive us from Jerusalem "Venezuela's ambassador, speaking for the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), expressed "grave concern about Israel’s ongoing violations in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including attempts to alter the character, status and demographic composition of the City of Jerusalem  [It was] also concerned about the decision to relocate the United States embassy [and] warned that such provocative actions would further heighten tensions, with potentially far‑reaching repercussions given the extremely volatile backdrop Other speakers included Pakistan, Indonesia, Maldives, Syria, Bangladesh, Cuba, Iran, and China Malaysia's Ambassador Datuk Seri Mohammed Shahrul Ikram Yaakob said that, as a member of the OIC and NAM,  "Malaysia joins the international community in expressing our deep concern and rejects the decision by the United States to recognise Jerusalem as the capital of Israel  It is also an infringement of the Palestinian people’s rights and their right to self determination " He called for a peaceful two-state solution and that Malaysia is concerned the situation will only feed into the agenda of extremists "Other speakers included, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and South Africa  The Permanent Observer for the Holy See, Tomasz Grysa, emphasised that Jerusalem was most sacred to the Abrahamic faiths and a symbol for millions of believers around the world who considered it their "spiritual capital " Its significance went "beyond the question of borders, a reality that should be considered a priority in every negotiation for a political solution "  The Holy See, he said, called for a "peaceful resolution that would ensure respect for the sacred nature of Jerusalem and its universal value   reiterating that only international guarantee could preserve its unique character and status and provide assurance of dialogue and reconciliation for peace in the region "After the motion was passed, more speeches continued with Estonia, who also spoke on behalf of other states  Australia's Ambassador then explained her country's government did "not support unilateral action that undermined the peace process [and] it did not believe today’s text would help to bring the parties back to the negotiating table "Other speakers included, Paraguay, whose Ambassador said that the country would abstain because "the question of Jerusalem was a matter for the Security Council, as the primary body responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security " This was followed by El Salvador, Argentina and Romania Canada's Ambassador Marc-Andre Blanchard called the proposal "one-sided" and said: "We are disappointed that this resolution is one sided and does not advance prospects for peace to which we aspire, which is why we have abstained on today’s vote " He, however, added that Canada wanted to emphasise Jerusalem's special significance to the Abrahamic religions of  Jews, Muslims and Christians  "Denying the connection between Jerusalem and the Jewish, Muslim and Christian faiths undermines the integrity of the site for all  We also reiterate the need to maintain the status quo at Jerusalem’s Holy sites Nicaragua explained its support of the resolution, as it "rebuffed recent unilateral attempts to modify the character and status of Jerusalem  Such unilateral actions were in blatant violation of resolution 2234 (2016) and others   unilateral actions jeopardised peace and stability in the Middle East and drew the international community further away from a solution "Mexico's ambassador then explained the abstention and emphasised that convening an emergency session was a disproportionate response  "The United States must become part of the solution, not a stumbling block that would hamper progress   the international community was further than ever from agreement "The Czech Republic then said that while it supported the European Union position, it had abstained because it "did not believe the draft resolution would contribute to the peace process "Armenia said that is position "remained unchanged  The situation should be resolved through negotiations paving the way for lasting peace and security "Hungary echoed Armenia's stance and said it would not comment on the foreign relations of the United States Latvia then spoke, before Estonia re-took the floor to say it had also spoken on behalf of Albania, Lithuania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 

Result
Reactions
States – UN Ambassador Nikki Haley announced that the U S  will move its embassy to Jerusalem and "no vote in the UN will make any difference on that" and that the US was "by far the single largest contributor to the UN " She also warned that the US might also cut funding to the UN itself  During the 2018 State of the Union Address, Trump said that the countries which voted against the resolution opposed the United States' "sovereign right to make this recognition" and said he would ask Congress to pass legislation which would ensure foreign aid would "only go to America's friends, not enemies of America "
 – Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu rejected the result shortly after it was announced in call it "preposterous," while he also thanked the states that supported "the truth" by not participating in "the theater of the absurd " He added that: "Jerusalem is our capital  Always was, always will be   But I do appreciate the fact that a growing number of countries refused to participate in this theatre of the absurd  So I appreciate that, and especially I want to again express our thanks to [US] President (Donald) Trump and Ambassador [Nikki] Haley, for their stalwart defense of Israel and their stalwart defense of the truth "  Defense Minister Avigdor Liberman, reminded Israelis of the longstanding Israeli disdain for such votes  "Let us just remember that this is the same UN about which our first ambassador to the organization, Abba Eban, once said: 'If Algeria introduced a resolution declaring that the earth was flat and that Israel had flattened it, it would pass by a vote of 164 to 13 with 26 abstentions'  There is nothing new in what just happened at the UN " He also praised the US as "the moral beacon shining out of the darkness " Minister of Strategic Affairs and Public Security Gilad Erdan said: "The historic connection between Israel and Jerusalem is stronger than any vote by the 'United Nations' — nations who are united only by their fear and their refusal to recognize the simple truth that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and the Jewish people "
However, opposition Joint List Chairman and MK Ayman Odeh called the vote a wake-up call for Israel: "In the international arena, there still exists a large and definitive majority that believes that the Palestinian people, like all other nations, deserve a place in this world and the right to self-determination  This evening's vote by the majority of the world's nations against Trump's announcement, in spite of the pressure and threats, flies in the face of Trump's and Netanyahu's diplomatic policy and is a clear statement by the international community in support of peace and the right of the Palestinians to an independent state, whose capital is East Jerusalem "
 – A spokesman for Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas called the vote "a victory for Palestine;" Abbas himself thanked the member states who voted in support of the resolution "in spite of the pressures they faced " UN Ambassador Riyad Mansour called the vote "a massive setback" for the US 
 – Minister of Foreign Affairs Mohammad Javad Zarif called the result a "resounding global no" to the Trump administration's "thuggish intimidation "
 – Foreign Minister Khalid bin Ahmed Al Khalifa said that it was "unhelpful to pick up a fight with Trump over a side issue and urged countries to concentrate on the threat posed by "theo-fascist" Iran instead "
Israel's Foreign Affairs Ministry reacted in writing on Twitter that Khalifa had denounced an Arab boycott of Israel and confirmed Bahraini citizens were free to visit Israel 
Iran responded to this by saying that "Palestine's freedom from the clutches of Israeli occupation remains the Islamic world's highest priority" and that "despite all complex plots, manufactured crises and fictitious threats propagated by the US-Zionism axis, Palestine still is and will remain the Islamic world's number one priority until it is liberated, and no one    can distract Muslims from this serious issue "
 – Jimmy Morales, the president of Guatemala, one of the nine countries which voted against the resolution, announced on 24 December 2017 that he would follow Trump in move his country's embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem MediaHaaretz's Noa Landau, wrote, in citing unnamed diplomatic sourced, that Israel was particularly disappointed with countries like India that have enhanced bilateral relations with it recently  "The main disappointment in Israel was with the countries that have enhanced bilateral relations in recent years, especially those that share a particularly conservative worldview with the Netanyahu government  For example, India – whose Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, visited Israel in July, a tour that was memorable mainly for the pastoral photographs of him and Netanyahu embracing and wading in the waves – voted for the resolution against Israel and the United States "
OthersAt a "Solidarity to Save Jerusalem" rally organised by the Barisan Nasional government in Malaysia, one of the attendees Association of NextGen Christians of Malaysia President Joshua Hong said at the Putra Mosque: "We are here because we feel that the decision made by President Trump on announcing Jerusalem as the capital of Israel is merely a political decision  He added that the decision also hurts Christian and Arabic churches in Palestine and not just the Muslims  "To us as Christians, Jerusalem is a city of peace and after that announcement, we feel there is no more peace  I think it is not right and unjust  We believe we should continue pursuing the sustainable peace solution for Palestine and Israel, rather than just a single nation declaring it just like that " He claimed that about 50 members of the group turned up in a show of support for the Palestinian people 

See also
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 43/177
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 67/19
List of United Nations resolutions concerning Israel
List of United Nations resolutions concerning Palestine
United Nations General Assembly resolution
Passage 4:
Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501)
The First Rebellion of the Alpujarras (Arabic: ثورة البشرات الأولى; 1499–1501) were a series of uprisings by the Muslim population of the Kingdom of Granada, Crown of Castile (formerly, the Emirate of Granada) against their Catholic rulers  They began in 1499 in the city of Granada in response to mass forced conversions of the Muslim population to the Catholic faith, which were perceived as violations of the 1491 Treaty of Granada  The uprising in the city quickly died down, but it was followed by more serious revolts in the nearby mountainous area of the Alpujarras  The Catholic forces, on some occasions led personally by King Ferdinand, succeeded in suppressing the revolts and inflicted severe punishment on the Muslim population 
The Catholic rulers used these revolts as a justification to repudiate the Treaty of Granada and abrogate the rights of the Muslims guaranteed by the treaty  All Muslims of Granada were subsequently required to convert to Catholicism or be expelled, and in 1502 these forced conversions applied to all of Castile  However, they did not apply in the kingdoms of Valencia or Aragon 

Background
Muslims had been present in the Iberian peninsula since the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century  By the end of the 15th century, the Emirate of Granada was the last Muslim-ruled area in the peninsula  In January 1492, after a decade-long campaign, Muhammad XII of Granada (also known as "Boabdil") surrendered the Emirate to the Catholic forces led by the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile  The Treaty of Granada, signed on November 1491, guaranteed a set of rights to the Muslims of Granada, including religious tolerance and fair treatment, in return for the capitulation At this point, the Muslim population in the former Emirate of Granada was estimated to be between 250,000 and 300,000, making up the majority in the former emirate, and constituting roughly half of the entire Muslim population in Spain Initially, the Catholic rulers upheld the treaty  Despite pressure from the Spanish clergy, Ferdinand and the Archbishop of Granada Hernando de Talavera chose a laissez-faire policy towards the Muslims in the hope that interaction with Catholics would make them "understand the error" of their faith and abandon it  When Ferdinand and Isabella visited the city in the summer of 1499, they were greeted by enthusiastic crowds, including Muslims In the summer of 1499, Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, the archbishop of Toledo, arrived in Granada and began working alongside Talavera  Cisneros disliked Talavera's approach and began sending uncooperative Muslims, especially the noblemen, to prison, where they were treated harshly until they agreed to convert  Emboldened by the increase in conversions, Cisneros intensified the efforts and in December 1499 he told Pope Alexander VI that three thousand Muslims converted in a single day  Cisneros' own church council warned that these methods might be a breach of the Treaty, and sixteenth-century hagiographer Álvar Gómez de Castro described the approach as "methods that were not correct" 

Uprising in the Albayzín
The increasing forced conversions of Muslims triggered resistance, initially among the urban population of the Albayzín (also spelled Albaicín), the Muslim quarter of Granada   The situation was exacerbated by the treatment of elches, former Christians who converted to Islam  Specific clauses in the Treaty of Granada forbade the conversion of the elches back to Christianity against their will, but the treaty allowed for questionings of such converts by Christian clerics, in the presence of Muslim religious authorities  Cisneros used this 'loophole' to summon elches and imprison those who refused to return to Christianity  These efforts were often focused on wives of Muslim men – an emphasis that angered the Muslim population who considered this a violation of their families 

On 18 December 1499, as part of this effort, constable Velasco de Barrionuevo and an assistant were taking a female elche from the Albayzín for such questioning  When they passed through a square, she shouted that she was being forced to become Christian  The officials were then surrounded by a hostile crowd, the constable was killed and the assistant managed to escape after being sheltered by a local Muslim woman This incident escalated into an open revolt  The residents of the Albayzín barricaded the streets and armed themselves  An angry crowd marched to Cisneros' house, apparently for an assault  This crowd later dispersed, but over the following days the revolt become more organized  The population of the Albayzín elected their own officials and leaders  In the standoff that ensued, the archbishop Hernando de Talavera and the Captain-General Marquis de Tendilla attempted to defuse the situation through negotiations and gestures of good-will  After ten days, the uprising ended as the Muslims handed in their weapons and handed over the constable's killers, who were promptly executed Subsequently, Cisneros was summoned to the court in Seville to account for his actions, facing a furious Ferdinand  Cisneros however argued that it was the Muslims, not him, who breached the Treaty by engaging in armed rebellion  He convinced Ferdinand and Isabella to declare a collective pardon to the rebels, on condition that they convert to Christianity  Cisneros returned to Granada, which now nominally became a fully Christian city 

Uprising in the Alpujarra
Although the uprising in the Albayzín appeared to be put down and Granada was nominally transformed to a Christian city, the rebellion spread to the countryside  The leaders of the Albayzín uprising fled to the Alpujarra mountains  The inhabitants of the mountains, almost exclusively Muslims, had only accepted Christian rule reluctantly  They quickly rose up in revolts against what they regarded as the violation of the terms of the Treaty of Granada, and because they feared they would suffer the same forced conversions as the residents of the Albayzín  By February 1500, 80,000 Christian troops were mobilized to put down the rebellion  By March, King Ferdinand arrived to personally direct the operations The rebels were often tactically well led and made use of the mountainous terrain to conduct guerrilla warfare  However, they lacked a central leadership and coherent strategy  This was partly caused by the previous Castilian policy of encouraging and facilitating the Granadan upper class to leave the country or convert and be absorbed into the Christian upper class  The rebels' lack of strategic command allowed the Christian forces to proceed by defeating the rebels in one area separately, then moving on to the next The rebelling towns and villages in the Alpujarra were gradually defeated  Ferdinand personally led the assault on Lanjarón  Rebels who surrendered were generally required to be baptized in order to keep their lives  Towns and villages which had to be taken by assault were treated harshly  One of the most violent episodes occurred in Laujar de Andarax, where the Catholic forces under Louis de Beaumont took 3,000 Muslims prisoner and then slaughtered them  Between two and six hundred women and children who took refuge in a local mosque were blown up with gunpowder  During the capture of Velefique, all the men were killed and the women enslaved  At Nijar and Güéjar Sierra, the whole population was enslaved except children who were kidnapped in order to be brought up as Christians On 14 January 1501, Ferdinand ordered his army to stand down because the uprising seemed to be suppressed  However, further unrest occurred in Sierra Bermeja  An army under Alonso de Aguilar, one of the most distinguished captains of Spain, marched to put down this rebellion  On 16 March, the army's undisciplined troops, eager for pillage, charged the rebels  However, this was met by a fierce counterattack  The result was a catastrophe for the Catholic army; Aguilar himself was killed in battle and the army was nearly annihilated However, the Muslims soon sued for peace, and Ferdinand, aware of the weakness of the army and the difficulty of mountain warfare, declared that the rebels must choose between exile or baptism  Only those who could pay ten gold doblas were given passage, and the majority who could not pay had to stay and be baptized  The insurgents surrendered in waves, beginning from the middle of April, since some waited to see whether the first insurgents who surrendered were safe  The emigrants were escorted under guards to the port of Estepona and given passage to North Africa  The remaining were allowed to return home after converting, surrendering their arms, and forfeiting their property 

Aftermath
By the end of 1501, the rebellion was put down  The Muslims were no longer given their rights provided by the Treaty of Granada, and were given the choice of: (1) remain and accept baptism, (2) reject baptism and be enslaved or killed, or  (3) be exiled  Given the expensive fee exacted for passage out of Spain, conversion was the only realistic option for them  Therefore, only a decade after the fall of the Emirate of Granada, the entire Muslim population of Granada had nominally become Christian A proclamation in 1502 extended these forced conversions to the rest of the lands of Castile, even though those outside Granada had nothing to do with the rebellion  The newly converted Muslims were known as nuevos cristianos ("new Christians") or moriscos  (lit  "Moorish")  Although they converted to Christianity, they maintained their existing customs, including their language, distinct names, food, dress and even some ceremonies  Many secretly practiced Islam, even as they publicly professed and practiced Christianity  In return, the Catholic rulers adopted increasingly intolerant and harsh policies in order to eradicate these characteristics  This culminated in Philip II's Pragmatica of 1 January 1567 which ordered the Moriscos to abandon their customs, clothing and language  The pragmatica triggered the Morisco revolts in 1568–1571 

See also
Expulsion of the Moriscos
Morisco rebellions in Granada
Mudéjar
Reconquista
Passage 5:
Dutch Republic
The United Provinces of the Netherlands, officially the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Dutch: Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden), and commonly referred to in historiography as the Dutch Republic, was a confederation that existed from 1579 until the Batavian Revolution in 1795  It was a predecessor state of the present-day Netherlands  The republic was established after seven Dutch provinces in the Spanish Netherlands revolted against Spanish rule, forming a mutual alliance against Spain in 1579 (the Union of Utrecht) and declaring their independence in 1581 (the Act of Abjuration)  It comprised Groningen, Frisia, Overijssel, Guelders, Utrecht, Holland and Zeeland 
Although the state was small and contained only around 1 5 million inhabitants, it controlled a worldwide network of seafaring trade routes  Through its trading companies, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (GWC), it established a Dutch colonial empire  The income from this trade allowed the Dutch Republic to compete militarily against much larger countries  It amassed a huge fleet of 2,000 ships, initially larger than the fleets of England and France combined  Major conflicts were fought in the Eighty Years' War against Spain (from the foundation of the Dutch Republic until 1648), the Dutch–Portuguese War (1602–1663), four Anglo-Dutch Wars (the first against the Commonwealth of England, two against the Kingdom of England, and a fourth against the Kingdom of Great Britain: 1652–1654, 1665–1667, 1672–1674 and 1780–1784), the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1713), the War of Austrian Succession (1744–1748) and the War of the First Coalition (1792–1795) against the Kingdom of France 
The republic was more tolerant of different religions and ideas than its contemporary states were, allowing freedom of thought to its residents  Artists flourished under this regime, including painters such as Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer and many others  So did scientists, such as Hugo Grotius, Christiaan Huygens and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek  The Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world during much of the 17th century, a period which became known in Dutch history as the Dutch Golden Age



ground_truth: Colin Firth

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What city is the star of 'Three Strangers in Rome' from?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 
The republic was a confederation of provinces each with a high degree of independence from the federal assembly, known as the States General  In the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the republic gained approximately 20% more territory, located outside the member provinces, which was ruled directly by the States General as Generality Lands  Each province was led by an official known as the stadtholder (Dutch for 'steward'); this office was nominally open to anyone, but most provinces appointed a member of the House of Orange  The position gradually became hereditary, with the Prince of Orange simultaneously holding most or all of the stadtholderships, making him effectively the head of state  This created tension between political factions: the Orangists favoured a powerful stadtholder, while the Republicans favoured a strong States General  The Republicans forced two Stadtholderless Periods, 1650–1672 and 1702–1747, with the latter causing national instability and the end of Great Power status 
Economic decline led to a period of political instability known as the Patriottentijd (1780–1787)  This unrest was temporarily suppressed by a Prussian invasion in support of the stadtholder  The French Revolution and subsequent War of the First Coalition caused these tensions to reignite  Following military defeat by France, the stadtholder was expelled in the Batavian Revolution of 1795  This ended the Dutch Republic; it was succeeded by the Batavian Republic 

History
Until the 16th century, the Low Countries—corresponding roughly to the present-day Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg—consisted of a number of duchies, counties, and prince-bishoprics, almost all of which were under the supremacy of the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the County of Flanders, most of which was under the Kingdom of France 
Most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg  In 1549, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which further unified the Seventeen Provinces under his rule  Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain  In 1568, the Netherlands, led by William I of Orange, together with Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, and Lamoral, Count of Egmont revolted against Philip II because of high taxes, persecution of Protestants by the government, and Philip's efforts to modernize and centralize the devolved-medieval government structures of the provinces  This was the start of the Eighty Years' War  During the initial phase of the war, the revolt was largely unsuccessful  Spain regained control over most of the rebelling provinces  This period is known as the "Spanish Fury" due to the high number of massacres, instances of mass looting, and total destruction of multiple cities and in particular Antwerp between 1572 and 1579 
In 1579, a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Army of Flanders  This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II  Dutch colonialism began at this point, as the Netherlands was able to swipe a number of Portuguese and Spanish colonies, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region  After the assassination of William of Orange on 10 July 1584, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined offers of sovereignty  However, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England (Treaty of Nonsuch, 1585), and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general  This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy  The Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by Spain until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 
During the Anglo-French War (1778–1783), the internal territory was divided into two groups: the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American, and the Orangists, who were pro-British  The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of republican revolutions in 1783–1787  During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities  Initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787  The republican forces fled to France, but then successfully re-invaded alongside the army of the French Republic (1793–1795), ousting stadtholder William V, abolishing the Dutch Republic, and replacing it with the Batavian Republic (1795–1806)  After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) 
The Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813  In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names "United Provinces of the Netherlands" and "United Netherlands" were used  In 1815, it was rejoined with the Austrian Netherlands and Liège (the "Southern provinces") to become the Kingdom of the Netherlands, informally known as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, to create a strong buffer state north of France  On 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands  Between 1815 and 1890, the King of the Netherlands was also in a personal union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg  After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became unequivocally known as the "Kingdom of the Netherlands", as it remains today 

Economy
During the Dutch Golden Age in the late-16th and 17th centuries, the Dutch Republic dominated world trade, conquering a vast colonial empire and operating the largest fleet of merchantmen of any nation  The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world  In 1650 the urban population of the Dutch Republic as a percentage of total population was 31 7 percent, while that of the Spanish Netherlands was 20 8 percent, of Portugal 16 6 percent, and of Italy 14 percent  In 1675 the urban population density of Holland alone was 61 percent, compared to the rest of the Dutch Republic, where 27 percent lived in urban areas The free trade spirit of the time was augmented by the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries  The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands  The Dutch East-India Company exchange went public in six different cities  Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a single city, so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles  While the banking system evolved in the Low Countries, it was quickly incorporated by the well-connected English, stimulating English economic output The Dutch Republic was a master of banking, often compared to 14th century Florence  When Southern Europe was experiencing poor harvests, surplus grain from Poland was sold by the Dutch for large profits 

Politics
The republic was a confederation of seven provinces, which had their own governments and were very independent, and a number of so-called Generality Lands  The latter were governed directly by the States General, the federal government  The States General were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives of each of the seven provinces  The provinces of the republic were, in official feudal order:

Duchy of Guelders
County of Holland
County of Zeeland
Lordship of Utrecht
Lordship of Overijssel
Lordship of Frisia
Lordship of GroningenThere was an eighth province, the County of Drenthe, but this area was so poor that it was exempt from paying federal taxes, and as a consequence, it was denied representation in the States General 
Each province was governed by the Provincial States, their main executive official (though not the official head of state) being a raadpensionaris or landsadvocaat  In times of war, the stadtholder, who commanded the army, would have more power than the raadpensionaris  In theory, the stadtholders were freely appointed by and subordinate to the states of each province  However, in practice the princes of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau, beginning with William the Silent, were always chosen as stadtholders of most of the provinces 
Zeeland and usually Utrecht had the same stadtholder as Holland  There was a constant power struggle between the Orangists, who supported the stadtholders and specifically the princes of Orange, and the Republicans, who supported the States General and hoped to replace the semi-hereditary nature of the stadtholdership with a true republican structure 
After the Peace of Westphalia, several border territories were assigned to the United Provinces  They were federally governed Generality Lands  These were Staats-Brabant, Staats-Vlaanderen, Staats-Overmaas, and (after the Treaty of Utrecht) Staats-Opper-Gelre  The States General of the United Provinces were in control of the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, but some shipping expeditions were initiated by some of the provinces, mostly Holland and Zeeland 
The framers of the United States Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces, as Federalist No  20, by James Madison, shows  Such influence appears, however, to have been of a negative nature, as Madison describes the Dutch confederacy as exhibiting "Imbecility in the government; discord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a precarious existence in peace, and peculiar calamities from war " Apart from this, the American Declaration of Independence is similar to the Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United Provinces, but concrete evidence that the latter directly influenced the former is absent 

Religion
In the Union of Utrecht of 20 January 1579, Holland and Zeeland were granted the right to accept only one religion (in practice, Calvinism)  Every other province had the freedom to regulate the religious question as it wished, although the Union stated every person should be free in the choice of personal religion and that no person should be prosecuted based on religious choice  William of Orange had been a strong supporter of public and personal freedom of religion and hoped to unite Protestants and Catholics in the new union, and, for him, the Union was a defeat  In practice, Catholic services in all provinces were quickly forbidden, and the Dutch Reformed Church became the "public" or "privileged" church in the republic During the republic, any person who wished to hold public office had to conform to the Reformed Church and take an oath to this effect  The extent to which different religions or denominations were persecuted depended much on the time period and regional or city leaders  In the beginning, this was especially focused on Roman Catholics, being the religion of the enemy  In 17th-century Leiden, for instance, people opening their homes to services could be fined 200 guilders (a year's wage for a skilled tradesman) and banned from the city  Throughout this, however, personal freedom of religion existed and was one factor—along with economic reasons—in causing large immigration of religious refugees from other parts of Europe In the first years of the republic, controversy arose within the Reformed Church, mainly around the subject of predestination  This has become known as the struggle between Arminianism and Gomarism, or between Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants  In 1618, the Synod of Dort tackled this issue, which led to the banning of the Remonstrant faith 
Beginning in the 18th century, the situation changed from more or less active persecution of religious services to a state of restricted toleration of other religions, as long as their services took place secretly in private churches 

Decline
Long-term rivalry between the two main factions in Dutch society, the Staatsgezinden (Republicans, Dutch States Party) and the Prinsgezinden (Royalists or Orangists), sapped the strength and unity of the country  Johan de Witt and the Republicans did reign supreme for a time at the middle of the 17th century (the First Stadtholderless Period) until his overthrow and murder in 1672  Subsequently, William III of Orange became stadtholder  After a 22-year stadtholderless era, the Orangists regained power, and his first problem was to survive the Franco-Dutch War (with the derivative Third Anglo-Dutch war), when France, England, Münster, and Cologne united against this country 
Wars to contain the expansionist policies of France in various coalitions after the Glorious Revolution, mostly including England and Scotland—after 1707, Great Britain—burdened the republic with huge debts, although little of the fighting after 1673 took place on its own territory  The necessity to maintain a vast army against France meant that less money could be spent on the navy, weakening the republic's economy  After William III's death in 1702 the Second Stadtholderless Period was inaugurated  Despite having contributed much in the War of the Spanish Succession, the Dutch Republic gained little from the peace talks in Utrecht (1713)  However, the Dutch had over a period of forty years successfully defended their positions in the Southern Netherlands and their troops were central in the alliances which had halted French territorial expansion in Europe until 1792  The end of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748, and Austria becoming allies with France against Prussia, marked the end of the republic as a major military power Fierce competition for trade and colonies, especially from France and England, furthered the economic downturn of the country  The three Anglo-Dutch Wars and the rise of mercantilism had a negative effect on Dutch shipping and commerce 

See also
List of countries that gained independence from Spain
Dutch Empire
Dutch East India Company
Passage 6:
Project Daedalus
Project Daedalus (named after Daedalus, the Greek mythological designer who crafted wings for human flight) was a study conducted between 1973 and 1978 by the British Interplanetary Society to design a plausible uncrewed interstellar probe  Intended mainly as a scientific probe, the design criteria specified that the spacecraft had to use existing or near-future technology and had to be able to reach its destination within a human lifetime  Alan Bond led a team of scientists and engineers who proposed using a fusion rocket to reach Barnard's Star 5 9 light years away   The trip was estimated to take 50 years, but the design was required to be flexible enough that it could be sent to any other target star 
All the papers produced by the study are available in a BIS book, Project Daedalus: Demonstrating the Engineering Feasibility of Interstellar Travel,

Concept
Daedalus would be constructed in Earth orbit and have an initial mass of 54,000 tonnes including 50,000 tonnes of fuel and 500 tonnes of scientific payload  Daedalus was to be a two-stage spacecraft  The first stage would operate for two years, taking the spacecraft to 7 1% of light speed (0 071 c), and then after it was jettisoned, the second stage would fire for 1 8 years, taking the spacecraft up to about 12% of light speed (0 12 c), before being shut down for a 46-year cruise period  Due to the extreme temperature range of operation required, from near absolute zero to 1600 K, the engine bells and support structure would be made of molybdenum alloyed with titanium, zirconium, and carbon, which retains strength even at cryogenic temperatures  A major stimulus for the project was Friedwardt Winterberg's inertial confinement fusion drive concept, for which he received the Hermann Oberth gold medal award This velocity is well beyond the capabilities of chemical rockets or even the type of nuclear pulse propulsion studied during Project Orion  According to Dr  Tony Martin, controlled-fusion engine and the nuclear–electric systems have very low thrust, equipment to convert nuclear energy into electrical has a large mass, which results in small acceleration, which would take a century to achieve the desired speed; thermodynamic nuclear engines of the NERVA type require a great quantity of fuel, photon rockets have to generate power at a rate of 3×109 W per kg of vehicle mass and require mirrors with absorptivity of less than 1 part in 106, interstellar ramjet's problems are tenuous interstellar medium with a density of about 1 atom/cm3, a large diameter funnel, and high power required for its electric field  Thus the only suitable propulsion method for the project was thermonuclear pulse propulsion Daedalus would be propelled by a fusion rocket using pellets of a deuterium/helium-3 mix that would be ignited in the reaction chamber by inertial confinement using electron beams  The electron beam system would be powered by a set of induction coils trapping energy from the plasma exhaust stream  250 pellets would be detonated per second, and the resulting plasma would be directed by a magnetic nozzle  The computed burn-up fraction for the fusion fuels was 0 175 and 0 133 producing exhaust velocities of 10,600 km/s and 9,210 km/s respectively  Due to scarcity of helium-3 on Earth, it was to be mined from the atmosphere of Jupiter by large hot-air balloon supported robotic factories over a 20-year period, or from a less distant source, such as the Moon The second stage would have two 5-metre optical telescopes and two 20-metre radio telescopes  About 25 years after launch these telescopes would begin examining the area around Barnard's Star to learn more about any accompanying planets  This information would be sent back to Earth, using the 40-metre diameter second stage engine bell as a communications dish, and targets of interest would be selected  Since the spacecraft would not decelerate, upon reaching Barnard's Star, Daedalus would carry 18 autonomous sub-probes that would be launched between 7 2 and 1 8 years before the main craft entered the target system  These sub-probes would be propelled by nuclear-powered ion drives and would carry cameras, spectrometers, and other sensory equipment  The sub-probes would fly past their targets, still travelling at 12% of the speed of light, and transmit their findings back to the Daedalus' second stage, mothership, for relay back to Earth 
The ship's payload bay containing its sub-probes, telescopes, and other equipment would be protected from the interstellar medium during transit by a beryllium disc, up to 7 mm thick, weighing up to 50 tonnes   This erosion shield would be made from beryllium due to its lightness and high latent heat of vaporisation  Larger obstacles that might be encountered while passing through the target system would be dispersed by an artificially generated cloud of particles, ejected by support vehicles called dust bugs about 200 km ahead of the vehicle  The spacecraft would carry a number of robot wardens capable of autonomously repairing damage or malfunctions 

Specifications
Overall length: 190 metres
Payload mass: 450 tonnes

Variants
A quantitative engineering analysis of a self-replicating variation on Project Daedalus was published in 1980 by Robert Freitas  The non-replicating design was modified to include all subsystems necessary for self-replication  Use the probe to deliver a seed factory, with a mass of about 443 metric tons, to a distant site  Have the seed factory replicate many copies of itself on-site, to increase its total manufacturing capacity, then use the resulting automated industrial complex to construct probes, with a seed factory on board, over a 1,000-year period  Each REPRO would weigh over 10 million tons due to the extra fuel needed to decelerate from 12% of lightspeed 
Another possibility is to equip the Daedalus with a magnetic sail similar to the magnetic scoop on a Bussard ramjet to use the destination star heliosphere as a brake, making carrying deceleration fuel unnecessary, allowing a much more in-depth study of the star system chosen 

See also
Breakthrough Starshot
Project Icarus
Project Longshot
Enzmann starship

Further reading
K  F  Long (2012)  "Project Daedalus"  Deep Space Propulsion: A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight  Springer  pp  190–197  ISBN 9781461406075 
Passage 7:
Kushla
Kushla (Кушла) is a village in southern Bulgaria, Zlatograd municipality, Smolyan Province, located near the border with Greece  In the Ottoman times the town was called Ugurli in Turkish and Kotyli in Greek  In 1918 the village was part of the Satres (bulg  Sinikovo) community  Following Greek and Bulgarian independence, the former town and its 350 families was divided between the countries in the Neuilly treaty in 1922 until 1941 when the Axis powers opened the borders briefly up to 1944 when Greece retook Kotyli and the local Bulgarian Muslims were since schooled in Greek language  The other part of the village lies in the Xanthi regional unit of Greece as Kotyli (Kozludzha)  The villages have a Pomak (Bulgarian Muslim) majority 
Passage 8:
Siege of Jerusalem (636–637)
The siege of Jerusalem (636–637) was part of the Muslim conquest of the Levant and the result of the military efforts of the Rashidun Caliphate against the Byzantine Empire in the year 636–637/38  It began when the Rashidun army, under the command of Abu Ubayda, besieged Jerusalem beginning in November 636  After six months, the Patriarch Sophronius agreed to surrender, on condition that he submit only to the Caliph  According to Islamic tradition, in 637 or 638, Caliph Umar (r  634–644) traveled to Jerusalem in person to receive the submission of the city  The Patriarch thus surrendered to him 
The Muslim conquest of the city solidified Arab control over Palestine, which would not again be threatened until the First Crusade in 1099 

Background
Jerusalem was an important city of the Byzantine province of Palaestina Prima  Just 23 years prior to the Muslim conquest, in 614, it fell to an invading Sassanid army under Shahrbaraz during the last of the Byzantine–Sasanian Wars  The Persians looted the city, and are said to have massacred its 90,000 Christian inhabitants  As part of the looting, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed and the True Cross captured and taken to Ctesiphon as a battle-captured holy relic  The Cross was later returned to Jerusalem by Emperor Heraclius after his final victory against the Persians in 628  The Jews, who were persecuted in their Christian-controlled homeland, initially aided the Persian conquerors After the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632, Muslim leadership passed to Caliph Abu Bakr (r  632–634) following a series of campaigns known as the Ridda Wars  Once Abu Bakr's sovereignty over Arabia had been secured, he initiated a war of conquest in the east by invading Iraq, then a province of the Sassanid Persian Empire; while on the western front, his armies invaded the Byzantine Empire In 634, Abu Bakr died and was succeeded by Umar (r  634–644), who continued his own war of conquest  In May 636, Emperor Heraclius (r  610–641) launched a major expedition to regain the lost territory, but his army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Yarmouk in August 636  Thereafter, Abu Ubayda, the Rashidun commander-in-chief of the Rashidun army in Syria, held a council of war in early October 636 to discuss future plans  Opinions of objectives varied between the coastal city of Caesarea and Jerusalem  Abu Ubayda could see the importance of both these cities, which had resisted all Muslim attempts at capture  Unable to decide on the matter, he wrote to Caliph Umar for instructions  In his reply, the caliph ordered them to capture the latter  Accordingly, Abu Ubayda marched towards Jerusalem from Jabiyah, with Khalid ibn al-Walid and his mobile guard leading the advance  The Muslims arrived at Jerusalem around early November, and the Byzantine garrison withdrew into the fortified city 

Siege
Jerusalem had been well-fortified after Heraclius recaptured it from the Persians  After the Byzantine defeat at Yarmouk, Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, repaired its defenses  The Muslims had so far not attempted any siege of the city  However, since 634, Saracen forces had the potential to threaten all routes to the city  Although it was not encircled, it had been in a state of siege since the Muslims captured the towns of Pella and Bosra east of the Jordan River  After the Battle of Yarmouk, the city was severed from the rest of Syria, and was presumably being prepared for a siege that seemed inevitable  When the Muslim army reached Jericho, Sophronius collected all the holy relics including the True Cross, and secretly sent them to the coast, to be taken to Constantinople  The Muslim troops besieged the city some time in November 636  Instead of relentless assaults on the city, they decided to press on with the siege until the Byzantines ran short of supplies and a bloodless surrender could be negotiated Although details of the siege were not recorded, it appeared to be bloodless  The Byzantine garrison could not expect any help from the humbled Heraclius  After a siege of four months, Sophronius offered to surrender the city and pay a jizya (tribute), on condition that the caliph came to Jerusalem to sign the pact and accept the surrender  It is said that when Sophronius's terms became known to the Muslims, Shurahbil ibn Hasana, one of the Muslim commanders, suggested that instead of waiting for the caliph to come all the way from Madinah, Khalid ibn Walid should be sent forward as the caliph, as he was very similar in appearance to Umar  The subterfuge did not work  Possibly, Khalid was too famous in Syria, or there may have been Christian Arabs in the city who had visited Madinah and had seen both Umar and Khalid, remembering the differences  Consequently, the Patriarch of Jerusalem refused to negotiate  When Khalid reported the failure of this mission, Abu Ubaidah wrote to caliph Umar about the situation, and invited him to come to Jerusalem to accept the surrender of the city 

Surrender
The date of the surrender of Jerusalem is debatable  Primary sources, such as chronicles from centuries closer or further removed from the time of the events, offer the year 638, for instance Theophilus of Edessa (695–785); or 636, 636/37, and 637  Academic secondary sources tend to prefer 638  Encyclopaedia Britannica mentions both options in different articles In early April 637, Umar arrived in Palestine and went first to Jabiya, where he was received by Abu Ubaidah, Khalid, and Yazid, who had travelled with an escort to receive him  Amr was left as commander of the besieging Muslim army Upon Umar's arrival in Jerusalem, a pact known as the Umariyya Covenant was composed  It surrendered the city and gave guarantees of civil and religious liberty to Christians in exchange for jizya  It was signed by caliph Umar on behalf of the Muslims, and witnessed by Khalid, Amr, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, and Mu'awiya  Depending on the sources, in either 637 or in 638, Jerusalem was officially surrendered to the caliph  For the Jewish community this marked the end of nearly 500 years of Roman rule and oppression  Umar permitted the Jews to once again reside within the city of Jerusalem itself It has been recorded in the annals of Muslim chronicles, that at the time of the Zuhr prayers, Sophronius invited Umar to pray in the rebuilt Church of the Holy Sepulchre  Umar declined, fearing that accepting the invitation might endanger the church's status as a place of Christian worship, and that Muslims might break the treaty and turn the church into a mosque  After staying for ten days in Jerusalem, the caliph returned to Medina 

Aftermath
Following the Caliph's instructions, Yazid proceeded to Caesarea, and once again laid siege to the port city  Amr and Shurahbil marched to complete the occupation of Palestine, a task that was completed by the end of the year  Caesarea, however, could not be taken until 640, when at last, the garrison surrendered to Mu'awiya I, then a governor of Syria  With an army of 17,000 men, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid set off from Jerusalem to conquer all of northern Syria  This ended with the conquest of Antioch in late 637  In 639, the Muslims invaded and conquered Egypt 
During his stay in Jerusalem, Umar was led by Sophronius to various holy sites, including the Temple Mount  Seeing the poor state of where the Temple once stood, Umar ordered the area cleared of refuse and debris before having a wooden mosque built on the site  The earliest account of such a structure is given by the Gallic bishop Arculf, who visited Jerusalem between 679 and 682, and describes a very primitive house of prayer able to accommodate up to 3,000 worshippers, constructed of wooden beams and boards over preexisting ruins More than half a century after the capture of Jerusalem, in 691, the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of the Dome of the Rock over a large outcropping of bedrock on the Temple Mount  The 10th-century historian al-Maqdisi wrote that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur with the city's Christian churches  Whatever the intention, the impressive splendor and scale of the shrine is seen as having helped significantly in solidifying the attachment of Jerusalem to the early Muslim faith Over the next 400 years, the city's prominence diminished as Saracen powers in the region jockeyed for control  Jerusalem remained under Muslim rule until it was captured by Crusaders in 1099 during the First Crusade 

Hadith
It is believed in Sunni Islam that Muhammad foretold the conquest of Jerusalem in numerous authentic hadiths in various Islamic sources, including a narration mentioned in Sahih al-Bukhari in Kitab Al Jizyah Wa'l Mawaada'ah (The Book of Jizya and Storage):
Narrated `Auf bin Mali:
I went to the Prophet during the Expedition to Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent  He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the End Times: my death, the conquest of Jerusalem, a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep   "The siege of Jerusalem was carried by Abu Ubaidah under Umar in the earliest period of Islam along with Plague of Emmaus  The epidemic is famous in Muslim sources because of the death of many prominent companions of Muhammad 

Notes
Passage 9:
Mawdud
Mawdud ibn Altuntash (Arabic: شرف الدولة المودود) (also spelled Maudud or Sharaf al-Dawla Mawdûd) (died October 2, 1113) was a Turkic military leader who was atabeg of Mosul from 1109 to 1113  He organized several expeditions to reconquer lands from the Crusaders and defeated them at  Battle of Al-Sannabra

Biography
Mawdud was an officer of Muhammad I Tapar who sent him to reconquer Mosul from the rebel atabeg Jawali Saqawa  After his conquest of the city, Mehmed entrusted him with several military attempts to push back the Crusaders from the nearby Principality of Antioch and County of Edessa  The first attempt was launched in 1110; having joined forces with Ilghazi, the emir of Mardin, and of Sökmen el-Kutbî, emir of Ahlat, they began by besieging Edessa from April of that year, but Baldwin I of Jerusalem intervened, and forced Mawdud to retreat 
The following year Mawdud marched against Edessa, but as the city walls had been quickly strengthened, he preferred to lay siege to the town of Turbessel, held by Joscelin I of Courtenay  When Ridwan of Aleppo sent news that the Christians under Tancred were on the verge of capturing Aleppo, he moved on to that city  On his arrival, however, he discovered that the capture of the city was not imminent at all, and that Ridwan even refused to open the city's gates for him  He also received the news that a relief army which had been sent by Baldwin I was now marching northwards, so he raised the siege of Turbessel and the subsequent Battle of Shaizar in 1111 proved to be indecisive and a tactical draw 
The 1112 campaign began again with the siege of Turbessel, but was halted when a party of the Mosul army was decimated by Joscelin on June 15  An attempt to capture Edessa with the assistance of its Armenian population was discovered by then count Baldwin II of Jerusalem, resulting in the slaughter of the Armenian participants 
In 1113 Toghtekin of Damascus, tired of the ravages by the Christian forces against his territories, appealed to Mawdud to join him to invade the Kingdom of Jerusalem  The two pillaged Galilee and besieged Tiberias, though without being able to capture it  On June 28, however, the Muslims defeated King Baldwin I of Jerusalem's army at the Battle of Al-Sannabra  Reinforcements saved the Christian forces from total annihilation and prevented the Muslim commanders from exploiting the victory, and ultimately forced them to retreat to Damascus due to a lack of supplies 
It was while in Damascus as a guest of Toghtekin that Mawdud was murdered by the Assassins, possibly with the knowledge of his host (who himself accused Ridwan of the deed)  As Mawdud and Toghtekin returned from prayer an assailant stabbed Mawdud four times, fatally wounding him  The killer was beheaded by nearby guards and his body burned  Mawdud was taken into a nearby house and offered food but, according to Ibn al-Athir, refused to eat as he was in the middle of a fast and died later that day  He was succeeded as atabeg by Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi, his representative at Baghdad 



ground_truth: La Goulette

Tunis

Rome

Roma

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who led the muslim forces to retake the proposed embassy destination?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  As of 2017, the pledge had 158 signatories, but some of the signatories have since died  Most of the signers of the pledge are billionaires, and their pledges total over $365 billion 

2009
In the wake of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008, the world's billionaires lost $2 trillion in net worth and the list became 30% smaller than the previous year's list 

2008
Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, four years after starting the company, joined the list at 23 to become the youngest self-made billionaire 

2007
Forbes recorded a then record of 946 billionaires  There were 178 newcomers, as well as the first billionaires from Cyprus, Oman, Romania and Serbia  Over 66% of the previous year's billionaires became richer  The billionaires' net worth increased in 2007 by $900 billion to $3 5 trillion 

2006
Free cash used by consumers from home equity extraction, known as the real estate bubble created a total of nearly $5 trillion in 2005, contributing to economic growth worldwide 

2005
The net worth of 2005's 691 billionaires was $2 2 trillion  More than half of them had self-made fortunes 

2004
The founders of Google, Sergey Brin and Larry Page, became billionaires at age 30 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2003
Oprah Winfrey became the first female African-American billionaire 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2002
As a result of the market crash caused by the Dot-com bubble, 83 billionaires dropped off the list from the previous year 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2001
In 2001, BET founder Robert L  Johnson became the first ever African-American billionaire 
* Each hold an essentially equal share in Wal-Mart  Had he been alive in 2001, Sam Walton would have been the world's wealthiest person 

2000
Gates became the first American to take the top spot of the world's billionaires in 1995 with a net worth of $12 5 billion, and he remained there during the dot-com bubble's height in 1999 when his fortune peaked at $90 billion  After the dot-com bubble started to collapse in 2000, his wealth dropped to $60 billion, although he remained at the top of the list 

1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
Statistics
The dot-com bubble created the most paper wealth for some billionaires  However, once the dotcom bubble burst the new rich saw their fortunes disappear  Billionaires' fortunes were hit even harder by the global financial crisis; 2009 was the first time in five years that the world had a net loss in the number of billionaires  The strong performance of the financial markets and global economic recovery have erased financial assets losses  Most of the richest people in the world saw their fortunes soar in the early 2010s 

See also
Passage 4:
Windows 98
Windows 98 is a consumer-oriented operating system developed by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x family of Microsoft Windows operating systems  The second operating system in the 9x line, it is the successor to Windows 95, and was released to manufacturing on May 15, 1998, and generally to retail on June 25, 1998  Like its predecessor, it is a hybrid 16-bit and 32-bit monolithic product with the boot stage based on MS-DOS Windows 98 is a web-integrated operating system that bears numerous similarities to its predecessor  Most of its improvements were cosmetic or designed to improve the user experience, but there were also a handful of features introduced to enhance system functionality and capabilities, including improved USB support and accessibility, as well as support for hardware advancements such as DVD players  Windows 98 was the first edition of Windows to adopt the Windows Driver Model, and introduced features that would become standard in future generations of Windows, such as Disk Cleanup, Windows Update, multi-monitor support, and Internet Connection Sharing 
Microsoft had marketed Windows 98 as a "tune-up" to Windows 95, rather than an entirely improved next generation of Windows  Upon release, it was generally well-received for its web-integrated interface and ease of use, as well as its addressing of issues present in Windows 95, although some pointed out that it was not significantly more stable than its predecessor  Windows 98 sold an estimated 58 million licenses and saw one major update, known as Windows 98 Second Edition (SE), released on May 5, 1999  After the release of its successor, Windows Me in 2000, mainstream support for Windows 98 and 98 SE ended on June 30, 2002, followed by extended support on July 11, 2006 

Development
Following the success of Windows 95, the development of Windows 98 began, initially under the development codename "Memphis " The first test version, Windows Memphis Developer Release, was released in January 1997 Memphis first entered beta as Windows Memphis Beta 1, released on June 30, 1997  It was followed by Windows 98 Beta 2, which dropped the Memphis name and was released in July  Microsoft had planned a full release of Windows 98 for the first quarter of 1998, along with a Windows 98 upgrade pack for Windows 95, but it also had a similar upgrade for Windows 3 x operating systems planned for the second quarter  Stacey Breyfogle, a product manager for Microsoft, explained that the later release of the upgrade for Windows 3 was because the upgrade required more testing than that for Windows 95 due to the presence of more compatibility issues, and without user objections, Microsoft merged the two upgrade packs into one and set all of their release dates to the second quarter On December 15, Microsoft released Windows 98 Beta 3  It was the first build to be able to upgrade from Windows 3 1x, and introduced new startup and shutdown sounds Near its completion, Windows 98 was released as Windows 98 Release Candidate on April 3, 1998, which expired on December 31  This coincided with a notable press demonstration at COMDEX that month  Microsoft CEO Bill Gates was highlighting the operating system's ease of use and enhanced support for Plug and Play (PnP)  However, when presentation assistant Chris Capossela plugged a USB scanner in, the operating system crashed, displaying a Blue Screen of Death  Bill Gates remarked after derisive applause and cheering from the audience, "That must be why we're not shipping Windows 98 yet " Video footage of this event became a popular Internet phenomenon Microsoft had quietly marketed the operating system as a "tune-up" to Windows 95  It was compiled as Windows 98 on May 11, 1998, before being fully released to manufacturing on May 15  The company was facing pending legal action for allowing free downloads of, and planning to ship Windows licenses with, Internet Explorer 4 0 in an alleged effort to expand its software monopoly  Microsoft's critics believed the lawsuit would further delay Windows 98's public release; it did not, and the operating system was released on June 25, 1998 A second major version of the operating system called Windows 98 Second Edition was later unveiled in March 1999  Microsoft compiled the final build on April 23, 1999, before publicly releasing it on May 5, 1999  Windows 98 was to be the final product in the Windows 9x line until Microsoft briefly revived the line to release Windows Me in 2000 as the final Windows 9x product before the introduction of Windows XP in 2001, which was based on the Windows NT architecture and kernel used in Windows 2000 

New and updated features
Web integration and shell enhancements
The first release of Windows 98 included Internet Explorer 4 01  This was updated to 5 0 in the Second Edition  Besides Internet Explorer, many other Internet companion applications are included such as Outlook Express, Windows Address Book, FrontPage Express, Microsoft Chat, Personal Web Server and a Web Publishing Wizard, and NetShow  NetMeeting allows multiple users to hold conference calls and work with each other on a document The Windows 98 shell is web-integrated; it contains deskbands, Active Desktop, Channels, ability to minimize foreground windows by clicking their button on the taskbar, single-click launching, Back and Forward navigation buttons, favorites, and address bar in Windows Explorer, image thumbnails, folder infotips and Web view in folders, and folder customization through HTML-based templates  The taskbar supports customizable toolbars designed to speed up access to the Web or the user's desktop; these toolbars include an Address Bar and Quick Launch  With the Address Bar, the user accesses the Web by typing in a URL, and Quick Launch contains shortcuts or buttons that perform system functions such as switching between windows and the desktop with the Show Desktop button  Another feature of this new shell is that dialog boxes show up in the Alt-Tab sequence 
Windows 98 also integrates shell enhancements, themes and other features from Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 such as DriveSpace 3, Compression Agent, Dial-Up Networking Server, Dial-Up Scripting Tool and Task Scheduler  3D Pinball Space Cadet is included on the CD-ROM, but not installed by default  Windows 98 had its own separately purchasable Plus! pack, called Plus! 98 Title bars of windows and dialog boxes support two-color gradients, a feature ported from and refined from Microsoft Office 95  Windows menus and tooltips support slide animation  Windows Explorer in Windows 98, as in Windows 95, converts all-uppercase filenames to sentence case for readability purposes; however, it also provides an option Allow all uppercase names to display them in their original case  Windows Explorer includes support for compressed CAB files  The Quick Res and Telephony Location Manager Windows 95 PowerToys are integrated into the core operating system 

Improvements to hardware support
Windows Driver Model
Windows 98 was the first operating system to use the Windows Driver Model (WDM)  This fact was not well publicized when Windows 98 was released, and most hardware producers continued to develop drivers for the older VxD driver standard, which Windows 98 supported for compatibility's sake  The WDM standard only achieved widespread adoption years later, mostly through Windows 2000 and Windows XP, as they were not compatible with the older VxD standard  With the Windows Driver Model, developers could write drivers that were compatible with other versions of Windows  Device driver access in WDM is implemented through a VxD device driver, NTKERN VXD, which implements several Windows NT-specific kernel support functions Support for WDM audio enables digital mixing, routing and processing of simultaneous audio streams and kernel streaming with high quality sample rate conversion on Windows 98  WDM Audio allows for software emulation of legacy hardware to support MS-DOS games, DirectSound support and MIDI wavetable synthesis  The Windows 95 11-device limitation for MIDI devices is eliminated  A Microsoft GS Wavetable Synthesizer licensed from Roland shipped with Windows 98 for WDM audio drivers  Windows 98 supports digital playback of audio CDs, and the Second Edition improves WDM audio support by adding DirectSound hardware mixing and DirectSound 3D hardware abstraction, DirectMusic kernel support, KMixer sample-rate conversion for capture streams and multichannel audio support  All audio is sampled by the Kernel Mixer to a fixed sampling rate which may result in some audio getting upsampled or downsampled and having a high latency, except when using Kernel Streaming or third-party audio paths like ASIO which allow unmixed audio streams and lower latency  Windows 98 also includes a WDM streaming class driver (Stream sys) to address real time multimedia data stream processing requirements and a WDM kernel-mode video transport for enhanced video playback and capture 
Windows Driver Model also includes Broadcast Driver Architecture, the backbone for TV technologies support in Windows  WebTV for Windows utilized BDA to allow viewing television on the computer if a compatible TV tuner card is installed  TV listings could be updated from the Internet and WaveTop Data Broadcasting allowed extra data about broadcasts to be received via regular television signals using an antenna or cable, by embedding data streams into the vertical blanking interval portion of existing broadcast television signals 

Other device support improvements
Windows 98 had more robust USB support than Windows 95, which only had support in OEM versions OSR2 1 and later  Windows 98 supports USB hubs, USB scanners and imaging class devices  Windows 98 also introduced built-in support for some USB Human Interface Device class (USB HID) and PID class devices such as USB mice, keyboards, force feedback joysticks etc  including additional keyboard functions through a certain number of Consumer Page HID controls Windows 98 introduced ACPI 1 0 support which enabled Standby and Hibernate states  However, hibernation support was extremely limited and vendor-specific  Hibernation was only available if compatible (PnP) hardware and BIOS are present, and the hardware manufacturer or OEM supplied compatible WDM drivers, non-VxD drivers  However, there are hibernation issues with the FAT32 file system, making hibernation problematic and unreliable 
Windows 98, in general, provides improved — and a broader range of — support for IDE and SCSI drives and drive controllers, floppy drive controllers and all other classes of hardware as compared to Windows 95  There is integrated Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) support (although the USB Supplement to Windows 95 OSR2 and later releases of Windows 95 did have AGP support)  Windows 98 has built-in DVD support and UDF 1 02 read support  The Still imaging architecture (STI) with TWAIN support was introduced for scanners and cameras and Image Color Management 2 0 for devices to perform color space transformations  Multiple monitor support allows using up to nine multiple monitors on a single PC, with the feature requiring one PCI graphics adapter per monitor  Windows 98 shipped with DirectX 5 2, which notably included DirectShow  Windows 98 Second Edition would later ship with DirectX 6 1 

Networking enhancements
Windows 98 networking enhancements to TCP/IP include built-in support for Winsock 2, SMB signing, a new IP Helper API, Automatic Private IP Addressing (also known as link-local addressing), IP multicasting, and performance enhancements for high-speed high bandwidth networks  Multihoming support with TCP/IP is improved and includes RIP listener support 
The DHCP client has been enhanced to include address assignment conflict detection and longer timeout intervals  NetBT configuration in the WINS client has been improved to continue persistently querying multiple WINS servers if it failed to establish the initial session until all of the WINS servers specified have been queried or a connection is established 
Network Driver Interface Specification 5 support means Windows 98 can support a wide range of network media, including Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Token Ring, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), ISDN, wide area networks, X 25, and Frame Relay  Additional features include NDIS power management, support for quality of service, Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) and support for a single INF file format across all Windows versions Windows 98 Dial-Up Networking supports PPTP tunneling, support for ISDN adapters, multilink support, and connection-time scripting to automate non-standard login connections  Multilink channel aggregation enables users to combine all available dial-up lines to achieve higher transfer speeds  PPP connection logs can show actual packets being passed and Windows 98 allows PPP logging per connection  The Dial-Up Networking improvements are also available in Windows 95 OSR2 and are downloadable for earlier Windows 95 releases 
For networked computers that have user profiles enabled, Windows 98 introduces Microsoft Family Logon which lists all users that have been configured for that computer, enabling users to simply select their names from a list rather than having to type them in Windows 98 supports IrDA 3 0 which specifies both Serial Infrared Devices and Fast Infrared devices, which are capable of sending and receiving data at 4 Mbit/s  Infrared Recipient, a new application for transferring files through an infrared connection is included  The IrDA stack in Windows 98 supports networking profiles over the IrCOMM kernel-mode driver  Windows 98 also has built-in support for browsing Distributed File System trees on Server Message Block shares such as Windows NT servers UPnP and NAT traversal APIs can be installed on Windows 98 by installing the Windows XP Network Setup Wizard  An L2TP/IPsec VPN client can also be downloaded  By installing Active Directory Client Extensions, Windows 98 can take advantage of several Windows 2000 Active Directory features 

Improvements to the system and built-in utilities
Performance improvements
Windows 95 introduced the 32-bit, protected-mode cache driver VCACHE (replacing SMARTDrv) to cache the most recently accessed information from the hard drive in memory, divided into chunks  However, the cache parameters needed manual tuning as it degraded performance by consuming too much memory and not releasing it quickly enough, forcing paging to occur far too early  The Windows 98 VCACHE cache size management for disk and network access, CD-ROM access and paging is more dynamic compared to Windows 95, resulting in no tuning being required for cache parameters  On the FAT32 file system, Windows 98 has a performance feature called MapCache that can run applications from the disk cache itself if the code pages of executable files are aligned/mapped on 4K boundaries, instead of copying them to virtual memory  This results in more memory being available to run applications, and lesser usage of the swap file 
Windows 98 registry handling is more robust than Windows 95 to avoid corruption and there are several enhancements to eliminate limitations and improve registry performance  The Windows 95 registry key size limitation of 64 KB is gone  The registry uses less memory and has better caching Disk Defragmenter has been improved to rearrange program files that are frequently used to a hard disk region optimized for program start  However, as with Windows 95, the message "Drive contents changed    restarting " still exists in this version (i e  if the contents of the hard drive changed, then the entire drive is then rescanned and then progress resumed where it had left off)  If it gets stuck on the same area too many times, it will ask the user if it should keep trying or give up  The version of Disk Defragmenter from Windows Me does not have this problem and will function on Windows 98 or Windows 95 if the user simply copies it over Windows 98 also supports a Fast Shutdown feature that initiates shutdown without uninitializing device drivers  However, this can cause Windows 98 to hang instead of shutting down the computer if a buggy driver is active, so Microsoft supplied instructions for disabling the feature  Windows 98 supports write-behind caching for removable disk drives  A utility for converting FAT16 partitions to FAT32 without formatting the partition is also included 

Other system tools
A number of improvements are made to various other system tools and accessories in Windows 98  Microsoft Backup supports differential backup and SCSI tape devices in Windows 98  Disk Cleanup, a new tool, enables users to clear their disks of unnecessary files  Cleanup locations are extensible through Disk Cleanup handlers  Disk Cleanup can be automated for regular silent cleanups Scanreg (DOS) and ScanRegW are Registry Checker tools used to back up, restore or optimize the Windows registry  ScanRegW tests the registry's integrity and saves a backup copy each time Windows successfully boots  The maximum number of copies could be customized by the user through "scanreg ini" file  The restoration of a registry that causes Windows to fail to boot can only be done from DOS mode using ScanReg System Configuration Utility is a new system utility used to disable programs and services that are not required to run the computer  A Maintenance Wizard is included that schedules and automates ScanDisk, Disk Defragmenter and Disk Cleanup  Windows Script Host, with VBScript and JScript engines is built-in and upgradeable to version 5 6  System File Checker checks installed versions of system files to ensure they were the same version as the one installed with Windows 98 or newer  Corrupt or older versions are replaced by the correct versions  This tool was introduced to resolve the DLL hell issue and was replaced in Windows Me by System File Protection 
Windows 98 Setup simplifies installation, reducing the bulk of user input required  The Windows 98 Startup Disk contains generic, real-mode ATAPI and SCSI CD-ROM drivers that can be used instead in the event that the specific driver for a CD-ROM is unavailable The system could be updated using Windows Update  A utility to automatically notify the user of critical updates was later released Windows 98 includes an improved version of the Dr  Watson utility that collects and lists comprehensive information such as running tasks, startup programs with their command line switches, system patches, kernel driver, user drivers, DOS drivers and 16-bit modules  With Dr  Watson loaded in the system tray, whenever a software fault occurs (general protection fault, hang, etc ), Dr  Watson will intercept it and indicate what software crashed and its cause Windows Report Tool takes a snapshot of system configuration and lets users submit a manual problem report along with system information to technicians  It has e-mail confirmation for submitted reports 

Accessories
Windows 98 includes Microsoft Magnifier, Accessibility Wizard and Microsoft Active Accessibility 1 1 API (upgradeable to MSAA 2 0 ) A new HTML Help system with 15 Troubleshooting Wizards was introduced to replace WinHelp 
Users can configure the font in Notepad  Microsoft Paint supports GIF transparency  HyperTerminal supports a TCP/IP connection method, which allows it to be used as a Telnet client  Imaging for Windows is updated  System Monitor—used to track the performance of hardware and software—supports output to a log file 

Miscellaneous improvements
Telephony API (TAPI) 2 1
DCOM version 1 2
Ability to list fonts by similarity determined using PANOSE information 
Tools to automate setup, such as Batch 98 and INFInst exe, support error-checking, gathering information automatically to create an INF file directly from a machine's registry, customizing IE4, shell and desktop settings and adding custom drivers 
Several other Resource Kit tools are included on the Windows 98 CD 
Windows 98 has new system event sounds for Low Battery Alarm and Critical Battery Alarm 
Windows 98 also introduced new and updated system sounds  The new startup sound for Windows 98 was composed by Microsoft sound engineer Ken Kato, who considered it to be a "tough act to follow" 
Windows 98 shipped with Flash Player and Shockwave Player preinstalled 

Windows 98 Second Edition
Windows 98 Second Edition (often shortened to Windows 98 SE and sometimes to Win98 SE) is an updated version of Windows 98 released on May 5, 1999, nine months before the release of Windows 2000  It includes many bug fixes, improved WDM audio and modem support, improved USB support, the replacement of Internet Explorer 4 0 with Internet Explorer 5 0, Web Folders (WebDAV namespace extension for Windows Explorer), and related shell updates  Also included is basic OHCI-compliant FireWire DV camcorder support (MSDV class driver) and SBP-2 support for mass storage class devices  Wake-On-LAN reenables suspended networked computers due to network activity, and Internet Connection Sharing allows multiple networked client computers to share an Internet connection via a single host computer Other features in the update include DirectX 6 1 which introduced major improvements to DirectSound and the introduction of DirectMusic, improvements to Asynchronous Transfer Mode support (IP/ATM, PPP/ATM and WinSock 2/ATM support), Windows Media Player 6 1 replacing the older Media Player, Microsoft NetMeeting 3 0, MDAC 2 1 and WMI  A memory overflow issue was resolved in which earlier versions of Windows 98 would crash most systems if left running for 49 7 days (equal to 232 milliseconds)  Windows 98 SE could be obtained as retail upgrade and full version packages, as well as OEM and a Second Edition Updates Disc for existing Windows 98 users  USB audio device class support is present from Windows 98 SE onwards  Windows 98 Second Edition improved WDM support in general for all devices, and it introduced support for WDM for modems (and therefore USB modems and virtual COM ports)  However, Microsoft driver support for both USB printers and USB mass-storage device class is not available for Windows 98 

Removed features
Windows 98 Second Edition did not ship with the WinG API or RealPlayer 4 0, unlike the original release of Windows 98, due to both of these having been superseded by DirectX and Windows Media Player, respectively 

Upgradeability
Several components of both Windows 98 and Windows 98 Second Edition can be updated to newer versions  These include:

Internet Explorer 6 SP1 and Outlook Express 6 SP1
Windows Media Format Runtime and Windows Media Player 9 Series on Windows 98 Second Edition (Windows Media Player 7 1 on Windows 98 original release)
Windows Media Encoder 7 1 and Windows Media 8 Encoding Utility
DirectX 9 0c (the latest compatible runtime is from October 2007 )
MSN Messenger 7 0
Significant features from newer Microsoft operating systems can be installed on Windows 98  Chief among them are  NET Framework versions 1 0, 1 1 and 2 0, the Visual C++ 2005 runtime, Windows Installer 2 0, the GDI+ redistributable library, Remote Desktop Connection client 5 2 and the Text Services Framework 
Several other components such as MSXML 3 0 SP7, Microsoft Agent 2 0, NetMeeting 3 01, MSAA 2 0, ActiveSync 3 8, WSH 5 6, Microsoft Data Access Components 2 81 SP1, WMI 1 5 and Speech API 4 0 
Office XP is the last version of Microsoft Office that is compatible with Windows 98 
Although Windows 98 does not fully support Unicode, certain Unicode applications can run if the Microsoft Layer for Unicode is installed 

System requirements
The two major versions of Windows 98 have minimum requirements needed to be run 

Users can bypass processor requirement checks with the undocumented /NM setup switch  This allows installation on computers with processors as old as the Intel 80386 

Limitations
The original release of Windows 98 may fail to boot on computers with a processor faster than 2 1 GHz  Windows 98 is only designed to handle up to 512 MB of RAM without changes  The maximum amount of RAM the operating system is designed to use is up to 1 GB of RAM  Systems with more than 1 5 GB of RAM may continuously reboot during startup  Both Windows 98 and Windows 98 Second Edition have problems running on hard drives of capacities larger than 32 GB in systems with certain Phoenix BIOS configurations  A software update fixed this shortcoming 

Support lifecycle
All computers running Windows NT 4 0 Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, and Windows 98 can be directly upgraded to Windows XP Professional  Support for Windows 98 under Microsoft's consumer product life cycle policy was originally planned to end on June 30, 2003, however, in December 2002, Microsoft extended the support window to January 16, 2004  This date would then be extended again to June 30, 2006 on January 13, 2004 up to a final end of support date of July 11, 2006, citing support volumes in emerging markets as the reason for the extension Retail availability for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and later became completely unavailable from Microsoft in any form (through MSDN or otherwise) due to the terms of Java-related settlements Microsoft made with Sun Microsystems The Windows Update website continued to be available after Windows 98's end of support date, however, in 2011, Microsoft retired the Windows Update v4 website and removed the updates for Windows 98 and Windows 98 SE from its servers 

Reception
Windows 98 was released to generally favorable reviews, with praise directed to its improved graphical user interface and customizability, ease of use,: 30–31  and the degree to which it addressed complaints that users and critics had with Windows 95  Michael Sweet of Smart Computing characterized it as heavily integrating features of the Internet browser, and found file and folder navigation easier : 30–31  Ed Bott of PC Computing lauded the bug fixes, easier troubleshooting, and support for hardware advances such as DVD players and USB  However, he also found that the operating system crashed only slightly less frequently, and criticized the high upgrade price and system requirements  He rated it four stars out of five 

Sales
Windows 98 sold 530,000 licenses in its first four days of availability, overtaking Windows 95's 510,000  It later sold a total of 580,000 and 350,000 licenses in the first and second months of availability, respectively In the first year of its release, Windows 98 sold a total of 15 million licenses – 2 million more than its predecessor  However, International Data Corporation estimated that of the roughly 89 million shipped computers in the desktop market, the operating system had a market share of 17 2 percent, compared to Windows 95's 57 4 percent  Meanwhile, the two operating systems continued to observe a trend whereby Windows 98 improved in sales performance, whereas Windows 95 dwindled  After a legal dispute and subsequent settlement with Sun Microsystems over the former's Java Virtual Machine, Microsoft ceased distributing the operating system on December 15, 2003, and IDC estimated that a total of 58 million copies were installed worldwide by then 
Passage 5:
Susanne Klatten
Susanne Hanna Ursula Klatten (née Quandt, born 28 April 1962) is a German billionaire heiress, the daughter of Herbert and Johanna Quandt  As of January 2022, her net worth was estimated at US$23 4 billion, and the richest woman in Germany and the 50th richest person in the world according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index 

Education
Klatten was born in Bad Homburg, West Germany  After gaining a degree in business finance, she worked for the advertising agency Young & Rubicam in Frankfurt from 1981 to 1983  This was followed by a course in marketing and management at the University of Buckingham, and an MBA from IMD Business School in Lausanne specialising in advertising She gained further business experience in London with Dresdner Bank, the Munich branch of management consultants McKinsey and the bank Bankhaus Reuschel & Co 
She has often worked under the name Susanne Kant 

Investments
On her father's death she inherited his 50 1% stake in pharmaceutical and chemicals manufacturer Altana  She sits on Altana's supervisory board and helped transform it into a world-class corporation in the German DAX list of 30 top companies  In 2006 Altana AG sold its pharmaceutical activities to Nycomed for €4 5 billion, leaving only its speciality chemicals business  The €4 5 billion was distributed to shareholders as a dividend  Altana maintained its stock exchange listing and Klatten remained its majority shareholder  
In 2009, she bought almost all shares she did not already own in Altana  Altana and SKion, which are both wholly owned by Susanne Klatten, are shareholder of Landa Digital Printing with together 46% since 2018  Landa Digital Printing is a company of the Israeli entrepreneur and inventor Benny Landa in the field of digital printing and nanotechnology Her father also left her a 12 50% stake in BMW, but following the death of her mother in 2015, her stake in BMW is now 19 2%  She was appointed to the supervisory board of BMW with her brother Stefan Quandt in 1997 
German graphite maker SGL Carbon said on 16 March 2009 that Klatten owns options to raise her stake in SGL from 8% to almost a quarter of the shares but no more than that 

Quandt family activities during WWII
The Hanns Joachim Friedrichs Award winning documentary film The Silence of the Quandts by the German public broadcaster ARD described in October 2007 the role of the Quandt family businesses during the Second World War  The family's Nazi past was not well known, but the documentary film revealed this to a wide audience and confronted the Quandts about the use of slave labourers in the family's factories during World War II  As a result, five days after the showing, four family members announced, on behalf of the entire Quandt family, their intention to fund a research project in which a historian would examine the family's activities during Adolf Hitler's dictatorship  The independent 1,200-page study researched and compiled by Bonn historian, Joachim Scholtyseck, that was released in 2011 concluded: "The Quandts were linked inseparably with the crimes of the Nazis"  As of 2008, no compensation, apology or even memorial at the site of one of their factories, have been permitted  BMW was not implicated in the report 

Personal life
Police prevented an attempt to kidnap her and her mother Johanna Quandt in 1978 Susanne met Jan Klatten while she was doing an internship with BMW in Regensburg, where he worked as an engineer  It is reported that during this time, she called herself Kant and did not tell him who she was until they were sure about each other, but Klatten himself denies the story  They married in 1990 in Kitzbühel and live in Munich  They have three children  The couple separated in 2018  She has been a member of the University Council of the Technical University of Munich since 2005  In 2007 she was awarded the Bayerischer Verdienstorden, the Bavarian Order of Merit  She is one of the biggest donors of the centre-right political party, the Christian Democratic Union In 2007 Klatten was blackmailed by Helg "Russak" Sgarbi, a 44-year-old Swiss national who threatened to release materials depicting the two having an affair  Sgarbi, who was charged with similar blackmail schemes against multiple women, was arrested in January 2009 and brought to court in Germany, where he was sentenced to six years in jail  His accomplice, the Italian hotel owner Ernano Barretta who allegedly filmed Sgarbi and Klatten with hidden cameras, was also arrested and was sentenced in 2012 to seven years in prison 

See also
List of female billionaires
Passage 6:
List of countries by steel production
This article summarizes the world steel production by country 
In 2020, total world crude steel production was 1877 5 million tonnes (Mt)   The biggest steel producing country is currently China, which accounted for 57% of world steel production in 2020  In 2020, China became the first country to produce over one billion tons of steel  In 2008, 2009, 2015 and 2016 output fell in the majority of steel-producing countries as a result of the global recession  In 2010 and 2017, it started to rise again  Crude steel production contracted in all regions in 2019 except in Asia and the Middle East 

List of countries by steel production
This is a list of countries by steel production in 1967, 1980, 1990, 2000 and from 2007 to 2021, based on data provided by the World Steel Association  All countries with annual production of crude steel at least 2 million metric tons 

Exports
net: exports - imports

Imports
Net: imports − exports

See also
Steel industry
Global steel industry trends
List of steel producers
List of countries by iron ore production



ground_truth: Abu Ubaidah