prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the oldest college in the state that contains Borough House Plantation?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Bellevue (Accokeek, Maryland)
Bellevue is a historic plantation house located at 200 Manning Road East, in Accokeek, Prince George's County, Maryland, United States  This Greek Revival style home was constructed in about 1840  It is one of only three surviving examples in Prince George's County of the once-popular Tidewater house style, typical of successful small plantations of that period  Bellevue is in excellent condition, and retains its freestanding chimneys with brick pent, as well as a roughly contemporary kitchen wing  The house stands on a five-acre, partially wooded lot which exemplifies its original plantation setting Bellevue was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 
Passage 2:
Borough House Plantation
Borough House Plantation, also known as Borough House, Hillcrest Plantation and Anderson Place, is an historic plantation on South Carolina Highway 261, 0 8 miles (1 3 km) north of its intersection with U S  Route 76/US Route 378 in Stateburg, in the High Hills of Santee near Sumter, South Carolina   A National Historic Landmark, the plantation is noted as the largest assemblage of high-style pisé (rammed earth) structures in the United States   The main house and six buildings on the plantation were built using this technique, beginning in 1821   The plantation is also notable as the home of Confederate Army General Richard H  Anderson 

Description and history
The original house built in 1758 served at different times during the American Revolution as headquarters for both British General Lord Cornwallis and Continental Army General Nathanael Greene   The second house was built in 1820 of rammed earth by William Wallace Anderson, M D  It was designed by architect A C  Jones 
On October 7, 1821, Anderson's wife, the former Mary Jane Mackensie, gave birth at home to their son, Richard H  Anderson  He later served as a Confederate Army general in the American Civil War   Stateburg was originally called Stateborough, as when the town was laid out, Borough House was the only residence in it In 1850–1852, Dr  Anderson chaired the committee that built the Church of the Holy Cross of rammed earth across the road from Borough Hall  It was also designed by Jones 
In 1851, Joel Roberts Poinsett, physician, American statesman and botanist (for whom the poinsettia is named), died while visiting Dr  Anderson  He was buried in the churchyard across the road On March 23, 1972, Borough Hall plantation was added to the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark  It is also part of the defined Stateburg Historic District, as is the Church of the Holy Cross 

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places listings in Sumter County, South Carolina
Passage 3:
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the most populous city in the U S  state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston metropolitan area  The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina's coastline on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley, Cooper, and Wando rivers  Charleston had a population of 150,277 at the 2020 census  The 2020 population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester counties, was 799,636 residents, the third-largest in the state, 8th-largest in the Deep South and the 74th-largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States 
Charleston was founded in 1670 as Charles Town, honoring King Charles II, at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River (now Charles Towne Landing) but relocated in 1680 to its present site, which became the fifth-largest city in North America within ten years  It remained unincorporated throughout the colonial period; its government was handled directly by a colonial legislature and a governor sent by Parliament  Election districts were organized according to Anglican parishes, and some social services were managed by Anglican wardens and vestries  Charleston adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783  Population growth in the interior of South Carolina influenced the removal of the state government to Columbia in 1788, but Charleston remained among the ten largest cities in the United States through the 1840 census Charleston's significance in American history is tied to its role as a major slave trading port  Charleston slave traders like Joseph Wragg were the first to break through the monopoly of the Royal African Company and pioneered the large-scale slave trade of the 18th century; almost one-half of slaves imported to the United States arrived in Charleston  In 2018, the city formally apologized for its role in the American slave trade 

History
Colonial era (1670–1786)
King Charles II granted the chartered Province of Carolina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Proprietors, on March 24, 1663  In 1670, Governor William Sayle arranged for several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda and Barbados  These settlers established what was then called Charles Town at Albemarle Point, on the west bank of the Ashley River, a few miles northwest of the present-day city center  Charles Town became the first comprehensively planned town in the Thirteen Colonies  Its governance, settlement, and development was to follow a visionary plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lords Proprietors by John Locke  Because the Carolina's Fundamental Constitutions was never ratified, however, Charles Town was never incorporated during the colonial period  Instead, local ordinances were passed by the provincial government, with day-to-day administration handled by the wardens and vestries of St Philip's and St Michael's Anglican parishes At the time of European colonization, the area was inhabited by the indigenous Cusabo, whom the settlers declared war on in October 1671  The settlers initially allied with the Westo, a northern indigenous tribe that traded in enslaved Indians  The settlers abandoned their alliance with the Westo in 1679 and allied with the Cusabo instead The initial settlement quickly dwindled away and disappeared while another village—established by the settlers on Oyster Point at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers around 1672—thrived  This second settlement formally replaced the original Charles Town in 1680  (The original site is now commemorated as Charles Towne Landing ) The second location was more defensible and had access to a fine natural harbor  The new town had become the fifth largest in North America by 1690 A smallpox outbreak erupted in 1698, followed by an earthquake in February 1699  The latter caused a fire that destroyed about a third of the town  During rebuilding, a yellow fever outbreak killed about 15% of the remaining inhabitants  Charles Town suffered between five and eight major yellow fever outbreaks over the first half of the 18th century 
It developed a reputation as one of the least healthy locations in the Thirteen Colonies for ethnic Europeans  Malaria was endemic  Although malaria did not have such high mortality as yellow fever, it caused much illness  It was a major health problem through most of the city's history before dying out in the 1950s after use of pesticides cut down on the mosquitoes that transmitted it 

Charles Town was fortified according to a plan developed in 1704 under Governor Nathaniel Johnson  Both Spain and France contested Britain's claims to the region  Various bands of Native Americans and independent pirates also raided it 
On September 5–6, 1713 (O S ) a violent hurricane passed over Charles Town  The Circular Congregational Church manse was damaged during the storm, in which church records were lost  Much of Charles Town was flooded as "the Ashley and Cooper rivers became one " At least seventy people died in the disaster From the 1670s Charleston attracted pirates  The combination of a weak government and corruption made the city popular with pirates, who frequently visited and raided the city  Charles Town was besieged by the pirate Blackbeard for several days in May 1718  Blackbeard released his hostages and left in exchange for a chest of medicine from Governor Robert Johnson Around 1719, the town's name began to be generally written as Charlestown and, excepting those fronting the Cooper River, the old walls were largely removed over the next decade  Charlestown was a center for the inland colonization of South Carolina  It remained the southernmost point of the Southern Colonies until the Province of Georgia was established in 1732  As noted, the first settlers primarily came from Europe, Barbados and Bermuda  The Barbadian and Bermudan immigrants were planters who brought enslaved Africans with them, having purchased them in the West Indies 
Early immigrant groups to the city included the Huguenots, Scottish, Irish, and Germans, as well as hundreds of Jews, predominately Sephardi from London and major cities of the Dutch Republic, where they had been given refuge  As late as 1830, Charleston's Jewish community was the largest and wealthiest in North America By 1708, the majority of the colony's population were Black Africans  They had been brought to Charlestown via the Atlantic slave trade, first as indentured servants and then as slaves  In the early 1700s, Charleston's largest slave trader, Joseph Wragg, pioneered the settlement's involvement in the slave trade  Of the estimated 400,000 captive Africans transported to North America to be sold into slavery, 40% are thought to have landed at Sullivan's Island off Charlestown  Free people of color also migrated from the West Indies, being descendants of white planters and their Black consorts, and unions among the working classes In 1767 Gadsden's Wharf was constructed at the city port on the Cooper River; it ultimately extended 840 feet and was able to accommodate six ships at a time  Many slaves were sold from here  Devoted to plantation agriculture that depended on enslaved labor, South Carolina became a slave society: it had a majority-Black population from the colonial period until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century, when many rural Blacks moved to northern and midwestern industrial cities to escape Jim Crow laws 

At the foundation of the town, the principal items of commerce were pine timber and pitch for ships and tobacco  The early economy developed around the deerskin trade, in which colonists used alliances with the Cherokee and Creek peoples to secure the raw material 
At the same time, Indians took each other as captives and slaves in warfare  From 1680 to 1720, approximately 40,000 native men, women, and children were sold through the port, principally to the West Indies such as (Bermuda and the Bahamas), but also to other Southern colonies  The Lowcountry planters did not keep Indian slaves, considering them too prone to escape or revolt  They used the proceeds of their sale to purchase enslaved Black Africans for their own plantations  The slave raiding—and the European firearms it introduced—helped destabilize Spanish Florida and French Louisiana in the 1700s during the War of the Spanish Succession  But it also provoked the Yamasee War of the 1710s that nearly destroyed the colony  After that, South Carolina largely abandoned the Indian slave trade The area's unsuitability for growing tobacco prompted the Lowcountry planters to experiment with other cash crops  The profitability of growing rice led the planters to pay premiums for slaves from the "Rice Coast" who knew its cultivation; their descendants make up the ethnic Gullah who created their own culture and language in this area  Slaves imported from the Caribbean showed the planter George Lucas's daughter Eliza how to raise and use indigo for dyeing in 1747 
Throughout this period, the slaves were sold aboard the arriving ships or at ad hoc gatherings in town's taverns  Runaways and minor slave rebellions prompted the 1739 Security Act, which required all white men to carry weapons at all times (even to church on Sundays)  Before it had fully taken effect, the Cato or Stono Rebellion broke out  The white community had recently been decimated by a malaria outbreak, and the rebels killed about 25 white people before being stopped by the colonial militia  As a result of their fears of rebellion, whites killed a total of 35 to 50 Black people The planters attributed the violence to recently imported Africans and agreed to a 10-year moratorium on slave importation through Charlestown  They relied for labor upon the slave communities they already held  The 1740 Negro Act also tightened controls, requiring a ratio of one white for every ten Blacks on any plantation (which was often not achieved), and banning slaves from assembling together, growing their own food, earning money, or learning to read  Drums were banned because Africans used them for signaling; slaves were allowed to use string and other instruments  When the moratorium expired and Charlestown reopened to the slave trade in 1750, the memory of the Stono Rebellion resulted in traders avoiding buying slaves from the Congo and Angola, whose populations had a reputation for independence 
By the mid-18th century, Charlestown was the hub of the Atlantic slave trade in the Southern Colonies  Even with the decade-long moratorium, its customs processed around 40% of the enslaved Africans brought to North America between 1700 and 1775, and about half up until the end of the African trade 
The plantations and the economy based on them made this the wealthiest city in the Thirteen Colonies and the largest in population south of Philadelphia  In 1770, the city had 11,000 inhabitants—half slaves—and was the 4th-largest port in the colonies, after Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia 
The elite began to use their wealth to encourage cultural and social development  America's first theater building was constructed here in 1736; it was later replaced by today's Dock Street Theater  St Michael's was erected in 1753  Benevolent societies were formed by the Huguenots, free people of color, Germans, and Jews  The Library Society was established in 1748 by well-born young men who wanted to share the financial cost to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day 

American Revolution (1776–1783)
Delegates for the Continental Congress were elected in 1774, and South Carolina declared its independence from Britain on the steps of the Exchange  Slavery was again an important factor in the city's role during the Revolutionary War  The British attacked the settlement three times, assuming that the settlement had a large base of Loyalists who would rally to their cause once given some military support  The loyalty of white Southerners towards the Crown had largely been forfeited, however, by British legal cases (such as the 1772 Somersett case which marked the prohibition of slavery in England and Wales; a significant milestone in the abolitionist struggle) and military tactics (such as Dunmore's Proclamation in 1775) that promised the emancipation of slaves owned by Patriot planters; these efforts did, however, unsurprisingly win the allegiance of thousands of Black Loyalists 
The Battle of Sullivan's Island saw the British fail to capture a partially constructed palmetto palisade from Col  Moultrie's militia regiment on June 28, 1776  The Liberty Flag used by Moultrie's men formed the basis of the later South Carolina flag, and the victory's anniversary continues to be commemorated as Carolina Day 
Making the capture of Charlestown their chief priority, the British sent Sir Henry Clinton, who laid siege to Charleston on April 1, 1780, with about 14,000 troops and 90 ships  Bombardment began on March 11, 1780  The Patriots, led by Benjamin Lincoln, had about 5,500 men and inadequate fortifications to repel the forces against them  After the British cut his supply lines and lines of retreat at the battles of Monck's Corner and Lenud's Ferry, Lincoln's surrender on May 12, 1780 became the greatest American defeat of the war 
The British continued to hold Charlestown for over a year following their defeat at Yorktown in 1781, although they alienated local planters by refusing to restore full civil government  Nathanael Greene had entered the state after Cornwallis's pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse and kept the area under a kind of siege  British Army officer Alexander Leslie, commanding Charlestown, requested a truce in March 1782 to purchase food for his garrison and the town's inhabitants  Greene refused and formed a brigade under Mordecai Gist to counter British forays  Charlestown was finally evacuated by the British in December 1782  Greene presented the British leaders of the town with the Moultrie Flag 

Antebellum era (1783–1861)
Between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, Charleston experienced an economic boom, at least for the top strata of society  The expansion of cotton as a cash crop in the South both led to huge wealth for a small segment of society and funded impressive architecture and culture but also escalated the importance of slaves and led to greater and greater restrictions on Black Charlestonians 
By 1783, the growth of the city had reached a point where a municipal government became desirable; therefore on August 13, 1783, an act of incorporation for the city of Charleston was ratified  The act originally specified the city's name as "Charles Ton," as opposed to the previous Charlestown, but the spelling "Charleston" quickly came to dominate Although Columbia had replaced it as the state capital in 1788, Charleston became even more prosperous as Eli Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin sped the processing of the crop over 50 times  Britain's Industrial Revolution—initially built upon its textile industry—took up the extra production ravenously and cotton became Charleston's major export commodity in the 19th century  

The Bank of South Carolina, the second-oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798; branches of the First and Second banks of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817 
Throughout the Antebellum Period, Charleston continued to be the only major American city with a majority-slave population  The city's widespread use of slaves as workers was a frequent subject of writers and visitors: a merchant from Liverpool noted in 1834 that "almost all the working population are Negroes, all the servants, the carmen & porters, all the people who see at the stalls in Market, and most of the Journeymen in trades"  American traders had been prohibited from equipping the Atlantic slave trade in 1794 and all importation of slaves was banned in 1808, but American merchantmen frequently refused to permit British inspection for enslaved cargo, and smuggling remained common  Much more important was the domestic slave trade, which boomed as the Deep South was developed in new cotton plantations  As a result of the trade, there was a forced migration of more than one million slaves from the Upper South to the Lower South in the antebellum years  During the early 19th century, the first dedicated slave markets were founded in Charleston, mostly near Chalmers and State streets  Many domestic slavers used Charleston as a port in what was called the coastwise trade, traveling to such ports as Mobile and New Orleans 
Slave ownership was the primary marker of class and even the town's freedmen and free people of color typically kept slaves if they had the wealth to do so  Visitors commonly remarked on the sheer number of Blacks in Charleston and their seeming freedom of movement, though in fact—mindful of the Stono Rebellion and the slave revolution that established Haiti—the whites closely regulated the behavior of both slaves and free people of color  Wages and hiring practices were fixed, identifying badges were sometimes required, and even work songs were sometimes censored  Punishment was handled out of sight by the city's workhouse, whose fees provided the municipal government with thousands a year  In 1820, a state law mandated that each act of manumission (freeing a slave) required legislative approval, effectively halting the practice The effects of slavery were pronounced on white society as well  The high cost of 19th-century slaves and their high rate of return combined to institute an oligarchic society controlled by about ninety interrelated families, where 4% of the free population controlled half of the wealth, and the lower half of the free population—unable to compete with owned or rented slaves—held no wealth at all  The white middle class was minimal: Charlestonians generally disparaged hard work as the lot of slaves  All the slaveholders taken together held 82% of the city's wealth and almost all non-slaveholders were poor  Olmsted considered their civic elections "entirely contests of money and personal influence" and the oligarchs dominated civic planning: the lack of public parks and amenities was noted, as was the abundance of private gardens in the wealthy's walled estates In the 1810s, the town's churches intensified their discrimination against their Black parishioners, culminating in Bethel Methodist's 1817 construction of a hearse house over its Black burial ground  4,376 Black Methodists joined Morris Brown in establishing Hampstead Church, the African Methodist Episcopal church now known as Mother Emanuel  State and city laws prohibited Black literacy, limited Black worship to daylight hours, and required a majority of any church's parishioners be white  In June 1818, 140 Black church members at Hampstead Church were arrested and eight of its leaders given fines and ten lashes; police raided the church again in 1820 and pressured it in 1821 In 1822, members of the church, led by Denmark Vesey, a lay preacher and carpenter who had bought his freedom after winning a lottery, planned an uprising and escape to Haiti—initially for Bastille Day—that failed when one slave revealed the plot to his master  Over the next month, the city's intendant (mayor) James Hamilton Jr  organized a militia for regular patrols, initiated a secret and extrajudicial tribunal to investigate, and hanged 35 and exiled 35 or 37 slaves to Spanish Cuba for their involvement  Hamilton imposed more restrictions on both free and enslaved Blacks: South Carolina required free Black sailors to be imprisoned while their ships were in Charleston Harbor though international treaties eventually required the United States to quash the practice; free Blacks were banned from returning to the state if they left for any reason; slaves were given a 9:15 pm curfew; the city razed Hampstead Church to the ground and erected a new arsenal  This structure later was the basis of the Citadel's first campus  The AME congregation built a new church but in 1834 the city banned it and all Black worship services, following Nat Turner's 1831 rebellion in Virginia  The estimated 10% of slaves who came to America as Muslims never had a separate mosque  Slaveholders sometimes provided them with beef rations in place of pork in recognition of religious traditions The registered tonnage of Charleston shipping in 1829 was 12,410  In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts  Soon, federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston's forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor "to take possession of any vessel arriving from a foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with " This federal action became known as the Charleston incident  The state's politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs Charleston's embrace of classical architecture began after a devastating fire leveled much of the city  On April 27, 1838, Charleston suffered a catastrophic fire that burned more than 1000 buildings and caused about $3 million in damage at the time  The damaged buildings amounted to about one-fourth of all the businesses in the main part of the city  When the many homes and business were rebuilt or repaired, a great cultural awakening occurred  Previous to the fire, only a few homes were styled as Greek Revival; many residents decided to construct new buildings in that style after the conflagration  This tradition continued and made Charleston one of the foremost places to view Greek Revival architecture  The Gothic Revival also made a significant appearance in the construction of many churches after the fire that exhibited picturesque forms and reminders of devout European religion By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity  The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves bought and sold  The legal importation of African slaves had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant  However, the domestic trade was booming  More than one million slaves were transported from the Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cotton plantations were widely developed through what became known as the Black Belt  Many slaves were transported in the coastwise slave trade, with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston 

Civil War (1861–1865)
Charleston played a major part in the Civil War  As a pivotal city, both the Union and Confederate Armies vied for control of it  The Civil War began in Charleston Harbor in 1861, and ended mere months after the Union forces took control of Charleston in 1865 
Following the election of Abraham Lincoln, the South Carolina General Assembly voted on December 20, 1860, to secede from the Union  South Carolina was the first state to secede  On December 27, Castle Pinckney was surrendered by its garrison to the state militia and, on January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on the USS Star of the West as it entered Charleston Harbor 
The first full battle of the American Civil War occurred on April 12, 1861, when shore batteries under the command of General P  G  T  Beauregard opened fire on the US Army-held Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor  After a 34-hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort 
On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over 500 acres (200 ha) of the city 
Union control of the sea permitted the repeated bombardment of the city, causing vast damage  Although Admiral Du Pont's naval assault on the town's forts in April 1863 failed, the Union navy's blockade shut down most commercial traffic  Over the course of the war, some blockade runners got through but not a single one made it into or out of the Charleston Harbor between August 1863 and March 1864  The early submarine H L  Hunley made a night attack on the USS Housatonic on February 17, 1864 General Gillmore's land assault in July 1864 was unsuccessful but the fall of Columbia and advance of General William T  Sherman's army through the state prompted the Confederates to evacuate the town on February 17, 1865, burning the public buildings, cotton warehouses, and other sources of supply before their departure  Union troops moved into the city within the month  The War Department recovered what federal property remained and also confiscated the campus of the Citadel Military Academy and used it as a federal garrison for the next 17 years  The facilities were finally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E  Marichak 

Postbellum (1865–1945)
Reconstruction
After the defeat of the Confederacy, federal forces remained in Charleston during Reconstruction  The war had shattered the city's prosperity, but the African-American population surged (from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880) as freedmen moved from the countryside to the major city  Blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church and resumed open meetings of the African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches  They purchased dogs, guns, liquor, and better clothes—all previously banned—and ceased yielding the sidewalks to whites  Despite the efforts of the state legislature to halt manumissions, Charleston had already had a large class of free people of color as well  At the onset of the war, the city had 3,785 free people of color, many of mixed race, making up about 18% of the city's black population and 8% of its total population  Many were educated and practiced skilled crafts; they quickly became leaders of South Carolina's Republican Party and its legislators  Men who had been free people of color before the war comprised 26% of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876 By the late 1870s, industry was bringing the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality; new jobs attracted new residents  As the city's commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions  In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston's African American population  Gen  Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war  Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now a university-preparatory school, Porter-Gaud School 
In 1875, blacks made up 57% of the city's and 73% of the county's population  With leadership by members of the antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as "unique" in being able to defend themselves without provoking "massive white retaliation", as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction  In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as a violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to maintain white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and granting of citizenship to freedmen by federal constitutional amendments  After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by conservative Democratic paramilitary groups, known as the Red Shirts  Violent incidents took place in Charleston on King Street on September 6 and in nearby Cainhoy on October 15, both in association with political meetings before the 1876 election  The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks  The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of the state legislature  Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election, when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed 

Politics
In the early 20th century strong political machines emerged in the city reflecting economic, class, racial, and ethnic tensions  The factions nearly all opposed U S  Senator Ben Tillman who repeatedly attacked and ridiculed the city in the name of upstate poor farmers  Well organized factions within the Democratic Party in Charleston gave the voters clear choices and played a large role in state politics 

1886 earthquake
On August 31, 1886, Charleston experienced a strong earthquake  The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7 0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme)  It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda  It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($163 million in 2021 dollars), at a time when all the city's buildings were valued around $24 million ($653 million in 2021 dollars) 

Charleston race riots
The Charleston race riot of 1919 took place on the night of Saturday, May 10, between members of the US Navy and the local black population  They attacked black individuals, businesses, and homes killing six and injuring dozens 

Contemporary era (1945–present)
Charleston languished economically for several decades in the 20th century, though the large federal military presence in the region helped to shore up the city's economy  Charleston's tourism boom began in earnest following the publication of Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham's Architecture of Charleston in the 1920s The Charleston Hospital Strike of 1969, in which mostly black workers protested discrimination and low wages, was one of the last major events of the civil rights movement  It attracted Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Andrew Young, and other prominent figures to march with the local leader, Mary Moultrie 
Joseph P  Riley Jr  was elected mayor in the 1970s, and helped advance several cultural aspects of the city 
Between 1989 and 1996, Charleston saw two significant economic hits  First, the eye of Hurricane Hugo came ashore at Charleston Harbor in 1989, and though the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, three-quarters of the homes in Charleston's historic district sustained damage of varying degrees  The hurricane caused over $2 8 billion in damage  The city was able to rebound fairly quickly after the hurricane and has grown in population, reaching an estimated 124,593 residents in 2009  Second, in 1993, the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) directed that Naval Base Charleston be closed  Pursuant to BRAC action, Naval Base Charleston was closed on April 1, 1996, although some activities remain under the cognizance of Naval Support Activity Charleston, now part of Joint Base Charleston After having been a majority-minority city for most of its history, in the late 20th century many whites began returning to the urban core of Charleston and the area gentrified with rising prices and rents  From 1980 to 2010, the peninsula's population shifted from two-thirds black to two-thirds white; in 2010 residents numbered 20,668 whites to 10,455 blacks  Many African Americans moved to the less-expensive suburbs in these decades On June 17, 2015, 21-year-old white supremacist Dylann Roof entered the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church and sat in on part of a Bible study before shooting and killing nine people and injuring a tenth, all African Americans  Senior pastor Clementa Pinckney, who also served as a state senator, was among those killed during the attack  The deceased also included congregation members Susie Jackson, 87; Rev  Daniel Simmons Sr , 74; Ethel Lance, 70; Myra Thompson, 59; Cynthia Hurd, 54; Rev  Depayne Middleton-Doctor, 49; Rev  Sharonda Coleman-Singleton, 45; and Tywanza Sanders, 26  The attack garnered national attention, and sparked a debate on historical racism, Confederate symbolism in Southern states, and gun violence, in part based on Roof's online postings  A memorial service on the campus of the College of Charleston was attended by President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and Speaker of the House John Boehner 

Condemnation of role in the slave trade
On June 17, 2018, the Charleston City Council apologized for its role in the slave trade and condemned its "inhumane" history  It also acknowledged wrongs committed against African Americans by slavery and Jim Crow laws 

Geography
The city proper consists of six distinct districts 

Downtown, or sometimes referred to as "The Peninsula", is Charleston's center city separated by the Ashley River to the west and the Cooper River to the east 
West Ashley, residential area to the west of Downtown bordered by the Ashley River to the east and the Stono River to the west
Johns Island, far western limits of Charleston, bordered by the Stono River to the east, Kiawah River to the south and Wadmalaw Island to the west
James Island, popular residential area between Downtown and the town of Folly Beach with portions of the independent town of James Island intermixed
Cainhoy Peninsula, far eastern limits of Charleston bordered by the Wando River to the west and Nowell Creek to the east
Daniel Island, residential area to the north of downtown, east of the Cooper River and west of the Wando River

Topography
The incorporated city fitted into 4–5 sq mi (10–13 km2) as late as the First World War, but has since greatly expanded, crossing the Ashley River and encompassing James Island and some of Johns Island  The city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area  The present city has a total area of 127 5 sq mi (330 2 km2), of which 109 0 sq mi (282 2 km2) is land and 18 5 sq mi (47 9 km2) is covered by water  North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River 
Charleston Harbor runs about 7 mi (11 km) southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 mi (3 2 km), surrounded on all sides except its entrance  Sullivan's Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to the south  The entrance itself is about 1 mi (2 km) wide; it was originally only 18 ft (5 m) deep but began to be enlarged in the 1870s  The tidal rivers (Wando, Cooper, Stono, and Ashley) are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline  There is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor, and the Cooper River is deep 

Climate
Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with mild winters, hot humid summers, and significant rainfall all year long  Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers  Fall remains relatively warm through the middle of November  Winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain  Measurable snow (≥0 1 in or 0 25 cm) has a median occurrence of only once per decade at the airport, but freezing rain is more common; a snowfall/freezing rain event on January 3, 2018, was the first such event in Charleston since December 26, 2010  However, 6 0 in (15 cm) fell at the airport on December 23, 1989, during the December 1989 United States cold wave, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8 0 in (20 cm) snowfall Downtown Charleston's climate is considerably milder than the airport's due to stronger maritime influence  This is especially true in the winter, with the average January low in downtown being 43 6 °F (6 °C) to the airport's 38 9 °F (4 °C) for example 
The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F (40 °C) on June 2, 1985, and June 24, 1944; the lowest was 7 °F (−14 °C) on February 14, 1899  At the airport, where official records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F (41 °C) on August 1, 1999, down to 6 °F (−14 °C) on January 21, 1985  Hurricanes are a major threat to the area during the summer and early fall, with several severe hurricanes hitting the area—most notably Hurricane Hugo on September 21, 1989 (a category 4 storm)  The dewpoint from June to August ranges from 67 8 to 71 4 °F (19 9 to 21 9 °C) 

Metropolitan Statistical Area
As defined by the U S  Office of Management and Budget, for use by the U S  Census Bureau and other U S  Government agencies for statistical purposes only, Charleston is included within the Charleston–North Charleston, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area and the smaller Charleston-North Charleston urban area  The Charleston–North Charleston metropolitan area consists of three counties: Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester  As of the 2020 U S  Census, the metropolitan statistical area had a total population of 799,636 people  North Charleston is the second-largest city in the metro area and ranks as the third-largest city in the state; Mount Pleasant and Summerville are the next-largest cities  These cities combined with other incorporated and unincorporated areas along with the city of Charleston form the Charleston–North Charleston urban area with a population of 548,404 as of 2010  The metropolitan statistical area also includes a separate and much smaller urban area within Berkeley County, Moncks Corner (with a 2000 population of 9,123) 
The traditional parish system persisted until the Reconstruction Era, when counties were imposed  Nevertheless, traditional parishes still exist in various capacities, mainly as public service districts  When the city of Charleston was formed, it was defined by the limits of the Parish of St  Philip and St  Michael, now also includes parts of St  James' Parish, St  George's Parish, St  Andrew's Parish, and St  John's Parish, although the last two are mostly still incorporated rural parishes 

Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 150,227 people, 58,902 households, and 31,780 families residing in the city 

Language
Given Charleston's high concentration of African Americans who spoke the Gullah language, a creole language that developed on the Sea Islands and in the Low Country, the local speech patterns were also influenced by this community  Today, Gullah is still spoken by many African American residents  However, rapid development since 1980, especially on the surrounding Sea Islands, has attracted residents from outside the area and led to a decline in Gullah's prominence 
The traditional educated Charleston accent has long been noted in the state and throughout the South  It is typically heard in wealthy European American older people who trace their families back generations in the city  It has ingliding or monophthongal long mid-vowels, raises ay and aw in certain environments, and is nonrhotic  Sylvester Primer of the College of Charleston wrote about aspects of the local dialect in his late 19th-century works: "Charleston Provincialisms" (1887) and "The Huguenot Element in Charleston's Provincialisms", published in a German journal  He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers  The disappearing "Charleston accent" spoken mainly by older natives is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city's name  Many Charleston natives ignore the 'r' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as "Chalston" 

Religion
Charleston is known as "The Holy City"  Despite beliefs that the term dates to the city's earliest days and refers to its religiously tolerant culture, the term was coined in the 20th century, likely as a mockery of Charlestonians' self-satisfied attitude about their city  Regardless of the nickname's origination, residents have embraced the term and explained it in more flattering terms 
The Anglican church was dominant in the colonial era, and the Cathedral of St  Luke and St  Paul is today the seat of the Anglican Diocese of South Carolina  St  John's Protestant Episcopal Church is another historic church in Charleston  Many French Huguenot refugees settled in Charleston in the early 18th century  The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal church in the Southern United States and houses the oldest black congregation south of Baltimore, Maryland South Carolina has long allowed Jews to practice their faith without restriction  Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim, founded in 1749 by Sephardic Jews from London, is the fourth-oldest Jewish congregation in the continental United States and was an important site for the development of Reform Judaism  Brith Sholom Beth Israel is the oldest Orthodox synagogue in the South, founded by Sam Berlin and other Ashkenazi German and Central European Jews in the mid-19th century The city's oldest Catholic parish, St  Mary of the Annunciation Catholic Church, is the mother church of Catholicism in South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia  In 1820, Charleston was established as the see city of the Diocese of Charleston, which at the time comprised the Carolinas and Georgia, and presently encompasses the state of South Carolina 
The Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite, established in Charleston in 1801, is considered the mother council of the world by Scottish Rite Freemasons 

Culture
Charleston's culture blends traditional Southern U S , English, French, and West African elements  The downtown peninsula has a number of art, music, local cuisine, and fashion venues  Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy 
Charleston's oldest community theater group, the Footlight Players, has provided theatrical productions since 1931  A variety of performing arts venues includes the historic Dock Street Theatre  The annual Charleston Fashion Week held each spring in Marion Square brings in designers, journalists, and clients from across the nation  Charleston is known for its local seafood, which plays a key role in the city's renowned cuisine, comprising staple dishes such as gumbo, she-crab soup, fried oysters, Lowcountry boil, deviled crab cakes, red rice, and shrimp and grits  Rice is the staple in many dishes, reflecting the rice culture of the Low Country  The cuisine in Charleston is also strongly influenced by British and French elements 

Annual cultural events and fairs
Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17-day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines  The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city  Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation's Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival  The Charleston Conference is a major library industry event, held in the city center since 1980 

Music
The Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music  In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country  The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake's "Charleston Rag" and later James P  Johnson's "Charleston", as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s  "Ballin' the Jack", which was a popular dance in the years before "Charleston", was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by the Rev  Daniel J  Jenkins in Charleston  The orphanage accepted donations of musical instruments and Rev  Jenkins hired local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music  As a result, Charleston musicians became proficient on a variety of instruments and were able to read music expertly  These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land some of them positions in big bands with Duke Ellington and Count Basie  William "Cat" Anderson, Jabbo Smith, and Freddie Green are but a few of the alumni who became professional musicians  Orphanages around the country began to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins Orphanage Band's success As many as five bands were on tour during the 1920s  The Jenkins Orphanage Band played in the inaugural parades of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft and toured the US and Europe  The band also played on Broadway for the play "Porgy" by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, a stage version of their novel of the same title  The story was based in Charleston and featured the Gullah community  The Heywards insisted on hiring the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on stage  Only a few years later, DuBose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel into the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess (so named so as to distinguish it from the play)  George Gershwin and Heyward spent the summer of 1934 at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing this "folk opera", as Gershwin called it  Porgy and Bess is considered one of the first Great American Operas and is widely performed To this day, Charleston is home to many musicians in all genres 

Live theater
Charleston has a vibrant theater scene and is home to America's first theater  Most of the theaters are part of the League of Charleston Theatres, better known as Theatre Charleston  Some of the city's theaters include:

The Dock Street Theatre, opened in the 1930s on the site of America's first purpose-built theater building, is home of the Charleston Stage Company, South Carolina's largest professional theater company 
Sottile Theater is on the campus of The College of Charleston 
The Queen Street Playhouse is a former cotton warehouse that was fully converted to a theater in 1986  It is the home of the Footlight Players, a Charleston theater troupe first organized in 1932 

Museums, historical sites, and other attractions
Charleston has many historic buildings, art and historical museums, public parks, and other attractions, including:

Halsey Institute of Contemporary Art at the College of Charleston is free a non-collecting contemporary arts organization 
The Calhoun Mansion, a 24,000-square-foot, 1876 Victorian home at 16 Meeting Street, is named for a grandson of John C  Calhoun who lived there with his wife, the builder's daughter  The private house is periodically open for tours 
The Charleston Museum, America's first museum, was founded in 1773 
The Exchange and Provost was built in 1767  It is operated as a museum by the Daughters of the American Revolution 
The Powder Magazine is a 1713 gunpowder magazine and museum  It is the oldest surviving public building in South Carolina 
The Gibbes Museum of Art, opened in 1905, houses principally American works with a Charleston or Southern connection 
The Fireproof Building houses the South Carolina Historical Society which has a rotating series of historical displays 
The Nathaniel Russell House is an important federal-style house open to the public as a house museum 
The Gov  William Aiken House, also known as the Aiken-Rhett House, is a house museum built in 1820 
The Heyward-Washington House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  Furnished for the late 18th century, the house includes a collection of Charleston-made furniture 
The Joseph Manigault House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  The house was designed by Gabriel Manigault and is significant for its Adam style architecture 
The Market Hall and Sheds, also known as the City Market or simply the Market, stretch several blocks behind 188 Meeting Street  Market Hall was built in the 1841 and houses the Daughters of the Confederacy Museum  The sheds house some permanent stores, but are mainly occupied by open-air vendors 
The Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture was established to collect, preserve, and make public the unique historical and cultural heritage of African Americans in Charleston and the South Carolina Low Country  Avery's archival collections, museum exhibitions, and public programming reflect these diverse populations, as well as the wider African Diaspora 
Fort Sumter, site of the first shots fired in the Civil War, is located in Charleston Harbor  The National Park Service maintains a visitor center for Fort Sumter at Liberty Square (near the South Carolina Aquarium), and boat tours including the fort depart nearby 
The Battery is an historic defensive seawall and promenade located at the tip of the peninsula along with White Point Garden, a park featuring several memorials and Civil War-era artillery pieces 
Rainbow Row is an iconic strip of homes along the harbor that date back to the mid-18th century  Though the homes are not open to the public, they are one of the most photographed attractions in the city and are featured heavily in local art 
The South Carolina Aquarium includes revolving exhibits while its permanent focus is on the aquatic life of South Carolina 
Waterfront Park located on the Cooper River 
Old Slave Mart museum – Located at 6 Chalmers St in the historic district is the first African American Museum  It has operated since 1938 

Sports
Charleston is home to a number of professional, minor league, and amateur sports teams:

The Charleston Battery, a professional soccer team, play in the USL Championship  The Battery play at Patriots Point Soccer Complex 
The South Carolina Stingrays, a professional hockey team, plays in the ECHL  The Stingrays play in North Charleston at the North Charleston Coliseum  The Stingrays are an affiliate of the Washington Capitals and Hershey Bears 
The Charleston RiverDogs, a Minor League Baseball team, plays in the Low-A East and are an affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays  The RiverDogs play at Joseph P  Riley Jr  Park 
The Charleston Outlaws RFC is a rugby union club in the Palmetto Rugby Union, USA Rugby South, and USA Rugby  It competes in Men's Division II against the Cape Fear, Columbia, Greenville, and Charlotte "B" clubs  The club also hosts a rugby sevens tournament during Memorial Day weekend 
The Charleston Gaelic Athletic Association is a Gaelic athletic club focusing on the sports of hurling and Gaelic football  The club competes in the Southeastern Division of the North American County Board of the GAA  The club hosts other division clubs in the Holy City Cup each spring 
The Lowcountry Highrollers is a women's flat-track roller derby league in the Charleston area  The league is a local member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association 
The Family Circle Tennis Center hosts the Volvo Car Open, a major Women's Tennis Association Event  The facility is located on Daniel Island Other notable sports venues in Charleston include Johnson Hagood Stadium (home of The Citadel Bulldogs football team), McAlister Field House (home of The Citadel Bulldogs basketball team), and Toronto Dominion Bank Arena at the College of Charleston, which seats 5,100 people who view the school's basketball and volleyball teams 

Books and films
Various books and films have been set in Charleston; some of the best known works are listed below  In addition, Charleston is a popular filming location for movies and television, both in its own right and as a stand-in for Southern and/or historic settings 

Porgy (1925), by DuBose Heyward, adapted into the play in 1927  George Gershwin's folk opera Porgy and Bess (1935), based on the novel Porgy, is set in Charleston and was partially written at Folly Beach, near Charleston  A film version was released in 1959 
North and South series of books by John Jakes, was partially set in Charleston  The North and South miniseries was partially set and filmed in Charleston 
Part of the 1989 film Glory, starring Matthew Broderick, Denzel Washington, and Morgan Freeman, features the 1863 Second Battle of Fort Wagner on Morris Island 
The movies Swamp Thing (1982) and The Lords of Discipline (1983) (based on the novel by Pat Conroy) were partly filmed in Charleston 

Economy
Commercial shipping is important to the economy  The city has two shipping terminals, of a total of five terminals owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority in the Charleston metropolitan area, which are part of the fourth-largest container seaport on the East Coast and the seventh-largest container seaport in the United States  The port is also used to transfer cars and car parts for Charleston's auto manufacturing business, such as Mercedes and Volvo Sometimes known as Silicon Harbor, the city is becoming a popular location for high tech and innovation, and this sector has had the highest rate of growth between 2011 and 2012, due in large part to the Charleston Digital Corridor  In 2013, the Milken Institute ranked the Charleston region as the ninth-best performing economy in the US because of its growing IT sector  Notable companies include Blackbaud, Greystar Real Estate Partners, Evening Post Industries, Le Creuset, SPARC a Booz Allen Hamilton subsidiary, BoomTown, CSS, and Benefitfocus 
In June 2017, the mean sales price for a home in Charleston was $351,186 and the median price was $260,000 

Government
Charleston has a strong mayor-council government, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive officer of the municipality  The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as other council members  The current mayor, since 2016, is John Tecklenburg  The council has 12 members who are each elected from single-member districts 

Fire department
The City of Charleston Fire Department consists over 300 full-time firefighters  These firefighters operate out of 21 companies located throughout the city: 16 engine companies, two tower companies, two ladder companies, a heavy rescue company, a HAZ-MAT unit and several special units  Training, Fire Marshall, Operations, and Administration are the divisions of the department  The department operates on a 24/48 schedule and is a Class 1 ISO rating  Russell (Rusty) Thomas served as Fire Chief until June 2008, and was succeeded by Chief Thomas Carr in November 2008  The department is presently led by Chief Daniel Curia 

Police department
The City of Charleston Police Department, with a total of 458 sworn officers, 117 civilians, and 27 reserve police officers, is South Carolina's largest police department  Luther Reynolds serves as the current Chief of Police  He follows Greg Mullen and Reuben Greenberg  Chief Reynolds is credited with continuing successful community outreach programs such as The Illumination Project and fostering a culture of mutual respect  Under Chief Reynolds, the agency has successfully withstood challenges such as the Coronavirus and downtown disturbances  Additionally, the agency continues to recruit police candidates in a competitive market 

EMS and medical centers
Emergency medical services (EMS) for the city are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services (CCEMS) & Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (BCEMS)  The city is served by the EMS and 911 services of both Charleston and Berkeley counties since the city is part of both counties 
Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state  The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H  Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital  MUSC is the state's first school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth-oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States  The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals  Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at another major hospital located in the West Ashley portion of the city: Bon Secours-St Francis Xavier Hospital  The Trident Regional Medical Center located in the City of North Charleston and East Cooper Regional Medical Center located in Mount Pleasant also serve the needs of residents of the city of Charleston 

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Station Charleston responds to search and rescue emergencies, conducts maritime law enforcement activities, and Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security (PWCS) missions  Personnel from Station Charleston are highly trained professionals, composed of federal law enforcement officers, boat crewmen, and coxswains who are capable of completing a wide range of missions  In 2020, the Coast Guard announced plans to construct a 2,800-acre (11 km2) "superbase" on the former Charleston Naval Shipyard complex to consolidate all its Charleston-area facilities and become the homeport for five Security cutters and additional offshore cutters Coast Guard Sector Charleston (District 7)

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Helicopter Air Facility, Johns Island, Charleston
Coast Guard Reserves, Charleston
USCGC Yellowfin, Marine Protector-class coastal patrol boat, Charleston
USCGC Anvil, 75-foot inland construction tender, Charleston
USCGC Willow, (WLB-202), Charleston

Military
Army Corps of Engineers, Charleston District Headquarters
U S  Coast Guard
Joint Base Charleston (Navy & Air Force)

Crime
The following table shows Charleston's crime rate for six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses to calculate the ranking of "America's most dangerous cities", in comparison to the national average  The statistics shown are for the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people  Since 1999, the overall crime rate of Charleston has declined markedly  The total crime index rate for Charleston in 1999 was 597 1 crimes committed per 100,000 people, while in 2011, the total crime index rate was 236 4 per 100,000 

Transportation
Airport and rail
The City of Charleston is served by the Charleston International Airport  It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 mi (19 km) northwest of downtown Charleston  It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS)  The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base  Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John's Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft  Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority  As of April 2019, British Airways does seasonal non-stop flights from Charleston to London-Heathrow 
Charleston is served by two daily Amtrak trains: The Palmetto and Silver Meteor at the Amtrak station located at 4565 Gaynor Avenue in the City of North Charleston located around 7 5 miles from downtown Charleston 

Interstates and highways
Interstate 26 (I-26) begins in downtown Charleston, with exits to the Septima Clark Expressway, the Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Meeting Street  Heading northwest, it connects the city to North Charleston, the Charleston International Airport, I-95, and Columbia  The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Septima Clark Expressway are part of U S  Route 17 (US 17), which travels east–west through the cities of Charleston and Mount Pleasant  The Mark Clark Expressway, or I-526, is the bypass around the city and begins and ends at US 17  US 52 is Meeting Street and its spur is East Bay Street, which becomes Morrison Drive after leaving the east side  This highway merges with King Street in the city's Neck area (industrial district)  US 78 is King Street in the downtown area, eventually merging with Meeting Street 

Major highways
Interstate 26 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
Interstate 526
U S  Route 17
U S  Route 52 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
U S  Route 78 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
State Highway 7 (Sam Rittenberg Boulevard)
State Highway 30 (James Island Expressway)
State Highway 61 (St  Andrews Boulevard/Ashley River Road)
State Highway 171 (Old Towne Road/Folly Road)
State Highway 461 (Paul Cantrell Boulevard/Glenn McConnell Parkway)
South Carolina Highway 700 (Maybank Highway)

Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge
The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge across the Cooper River opened on July 16, 2005, and was the longest cable-stayed bridge in the Americas at the time of its construction  The bridge links downtown Charleston with Mount Pleasant, and has eight lanes plus a 12-foot lane shared by pedestrians and bicycles  The height of the bridge varies, but it is estimated that it has a height of 573 feet  It replaced the Grace Memorial Bridge (built in 1929) and the Silas N  Pearman Bridge (built in 1966)  They were considered two of the more dangerous bridges in America and were demolished after the Ravenel Bridge opened 

City bus service
The city is also served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA)  Most of the urban area is served by regional fixed route buses, which are equipped with bike racks as part of the system's Rack and Ride program  CARTA offers connectivity to historic downtown attractions and accommodations with the Downtown Area Shuttle trolley buses, and it offers curbside pickup for disabled passengers with its Tel-A-Ride buses  A bus rapid transit system is in development, called Lowcountry Rapid Transit that will connect Charleston to Summerville through North Charleston 
Rural parts of the city and metropolitan area are served by a different bus system, operated by Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Rural Transportation Management Association  The system is also commonly called the TriCounty Link 

Port
The Port of Charleston, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, is one of the largest ports in the United States, ranked seventh in the top 25 by containerized cargo volume in 2018  It consists of six terminals, with the sixth having opened in April 2021  Port activity at the two terminals located in the city of Charleston is one of the city's leading sources of revenue, behind tourism 
Today, the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal  A harbor-deepening project is currently underway to take the Port of Charleston's entrance channel to 54 feet and harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide  With an average high tide of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and 58 feet, respectively 
Part of Union Pier Treminal, in the city of Charleston, is a cruise ship passenger terminal which hosted numerous cruise departures annually through 2019  Beginning in May 2019, until cruise operations were interrupted in April 2020, the Carnival Sunshine was permanently stationed in Charleston, offering 4, 5, and 7-day cruises to the Caribbean With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc  signed a long-term lease  With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc  is one of the largest commercial marine repair facilities on the East Coast  Projects include military, commercial, and cruise ships 

Schools, colleges, and universities
Because most of the city of Charleston is located in Charleston County, it is served by the Charleston County School District  Part of the city, however, is served by the Berkeley County School District in northern portions of the city, such as the Cainhoy Industrial District, Cainhoy Historical District and Daniel Island 
Charleston is also served by a large number of independent schools, including Porter-Gaud School (K-12), Charleston Collegiate School (K-12), Ashley Hall (Pre K-12), Charleston Day School (K-8), First Baptist Church School (K-12), Palmetto Christian Academy (K-12), Coastal Christian Preparatory School (K-12), Mason Preparatory School (K-8), and Addlestone Hebrew Academy (K-8) 
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston Office of Education also operates out of the city and oversees several K-8 parochial schools, such as Blessed Sacrament School, Christ Our King School, Charleston Catholic School, Nativity School, and Divine Redeemer School, all of which are "feeder" schools into Bishop England High School, a diocesan high school within the city  Bishop England, Porter-Gaud School, and Ashley Hall are the city's oldest and most prominent private schools, and are a significant part of Charleston history, dating back some 150 years 
Public institutions of higher education in Charleston include the College of Charleston, The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, and the Medical University of South Carolina  The city is also home to private schools including the Charleston Southern University and Charleston School of Law  Charleston is also home to the Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing, and the city has a downtown satellite campus for the region's technical school, Trident Technical College  Charleston has the only college in the country that offers bachelor's degrees in the building arts, The American College of the Building Arts 

Media
Broadcast television
Charleston is the nation's 89th-largest Designated market area (DMA), with 332,770 households and 0 27% of the U S  TV population  These stations are licensed in Charleston and have significant operations or viewers in the city:
WCBD-TV (2, NBC) and (14, CW)
WGWG (4, MeTV)
WCSC-TV (5, CBS, Bounce TV, Grit)
WITV (7, PBS)
WLCN-CD (18, CTN)
WTAT-TV (24, Fox)
WAZS-CD (29, Azteca America Independent)
WJNI-CD (31, America One Independent)
WCIV (36, MyNetworkTV, ABC)

Notable people
As a population and wealth center with colleges and cultural outlets, Charleston has produced many notable people in all fields  Among the most notable historical and contemporary figures are:

Jarrell Brantley (born 1996), basketball player
Madelyn Cline, Actress in Outer Banks
Stephen Colbert, comedian and host of The Late Show
Wesley Donehue, political strategist, Internet consultant, CEO
Ann Drayton, 18th-century landowner
Shepard Fairey, graffiti artist
Robert F  Furchgott, recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1998)
Thomas Gibson, actor and star of Criminal Minds
Fritz Hollings, former US Senator and Governor of South Carolina
Lauren Hutton, model and actress, starring in American Gigolo and The Gambler (1974)
Robert Jordan (James Oliver Rigney Jr ), fantasy author, notable for Wheel of Time series
John Laurens, American revolutionary lieutenant colonel in the continental army
Peter Manigault, wealthiest person in British North America in 1770
Khris Middleton, NBA basketball player for the Milwaukee Bucks, gold medal Olympian
Darius Rucker, country music artist, former member of Hootie & The Blowfish
Robert Smalls, African American civil war hero, businessman, politician, and civil rights activist
Denmark Vesey, revolutionary
Joseph Wragg, a pioneer of the large-scale slave trade

Sister cities
Charleston's sister cities are:
Doha, Qatar
Freetown, Sierra Leone
Panama City, Panama
Speightstown, Barbados
Spoleto, ItalyThe relationship with Spoleto began when Pulitzer Prize-winning Italian composer Gian Carlo Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto's annual Festival of Two Worlds  "Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location  The historic city provided a perfect fit: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure "Sister city relation with Panama City was described as follows:
As you may be aware, the city of Charleston, like the city of Panama City, is a historic port City that shares a proud and prosperous history  Our stories are very similar as reflected by our citizens of European, African, Caribbean, native descent, our cuisine, our architecture, and our mutual modern growth in meritime commerce  As Panama City is enjoying a global surge of interest so is Charleston, being ranked as a top destination for travellers, commerce, technology, education, culture and fashion 
Charleston is also twinned with Speightstown  The first colonists to settle in the region designed the original parts of Charlestown based on the plans of Barbados's capital city, Bridgetown  Many indigo, tobacco, and cotton planters relocated their slaves and plantation operations from Speightstown to Charleston after the sugarcane industry came to dominate agricultural production in Barbados 

See also
List of municipalities in South Carolina
USS Charleston, 6 ships

Notes
Passage 4:
Fairhope Plantation
Fairhope Plantation is a historic Carpenter Gothic plantation house and historic district, located one mile east of Uniontown, Alabama, US  The 2+1⁄2-story wood-framed main house was built in the Gothic Revival style in the late 1850s   The plantation historic district includes six other contributing buildings, in addition to the main house   It was added to the Alabama Register of Landmarks and Heritage on December 19, 1991, and subsequently to the National Register of Historic Places on May 29, 1992, due to its architectural and historical significance 

History
Fairhope Plantation was built for Joseph Selden, a native of Virginia   He was born on June 4, 1831, and grew up at Westover Plantation in Charles City County, Virginia   Selden married Elizabeth Collier Minge, of Weynoke Plantation, Virginia, near Faunsdale, in 1854  Elizabeth was born on May 30, 1833  Her family was also originally from Charles City County   Joseph and Elizabeth established Fairhope on property given to them by Elizabeth's family   The main house was built by Theophilus Gilliam Fowler, a local builder  Construction began in 1857 and was completed by 1861   The 1860 United States Census of Perry County indicates that Joseph Selden owned 80 slaves in that year   Selden organized Selden's Battery, an artillery unit, at his own expense during the American Civil War   The unit saw action in several major engagements, including the battles of Kennesaw Mountain, Franklin and Nashville   Elizabeth Selden died following childbirth in 1868, Joseph died in a hotel fire in 1900   Fairhope continued to be owned by Selden descendants and operated as a farm for another century after their deaths 

Architecture
The inspiration for the main house at Fairhope Plantation is thought by architectural historians to be an enlarged adaptation of a design by Alexander Jackson Davis, published in Andrew Jackson Downing's Cottage Residences in 1842   The house features numerous Gothic Revival details, including intricate bargeboards on the eaves and gables,  hood moldings over the doors and windows, octagonal brick chimneys, and central gables topped by finials on all four sides   Additionally, it has a one-story cast-iron veranda around three sides of the ground floor   It is one of only about twenty Gothic Revival residential structures remaining in Alabama   Other historic Gothic Revival residences in the area include Waldwic in Gallion and Ashe Cottage in Demopolis 
Passage 5:
Union Oyster House
Union Oyster House, open to diners since 1826, is amongst the oldest operating restaurants in the United States, and the oldest known that has been continuously operating since being opened  The building was listed as a National Historic Landmark on May 27, 2003 

History
The building itself was built prior to 1714, most likely in 1704  Before it became a restaurant, Hopestill Capen's dress goods business occupied the property  In 1771 printer Isaiah Thomas published his newspaper, The Massachusetts Spy, from the second floor  The restaurant originally opened as the Atwood & Bacon Oyster House on August 3, 1826 The Union Oyster House has had a number of famous people in history as diners, including the Kennedy family and Daniel Webster  Webster was known for regularly consuming at least six plates of oysters  Perhaps most surprisingly, in 1796 Louis Philippe, King of the French from 1830 to 1848, lived in exile on the second floor  He earned his living by teaching French to young women  Labor economist and president of Haverford College John Royston Coleman worked here incognito as a "salad-and-sandwich man" for a time in the 1970s and documented the experience in his book The Blue Collar Journal The menu is traditional New England fare, including seafoods such as oysters, clams, and lobsters, as well as poultry, baked beans, steak and chops 

Image gallery
See also
List of the oldest restaurants in the United States
Cuisine of New England
List of National Historic Landmarks in Boston
List of seafood restaurants
National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts



ground_truth: College of Charles Towne

Charles Towne

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In which county was Zhu Qinan born?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
British nationality law
The primary law governing nationality in the United Kingdom is the British Nationality Act 1981, which came into force on 1 January 1983  Regulations apply to the British Islands, which include the UK itself and the Crown dependencies, and the 14 British Overseas Territories 
The six classes of British nationality each have varying degrees of civil and political rights, due to the UK's historical status as a colonial empire  The principal class of British nationality is British citizenship, which is associated with the British Islands  British nationals associated with an overseas territory are British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs)  Almost all BOTCs (except for those from Akrotiri and Dhekelia) have also been British citizens since 2002  Individuals connected with former British colonies may hold residual forms of British nationality, which do not confer an automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom and generally may no longer be acquired  These residual nationalities are the statuses of British Overseas citizen, British subject, British National (Overseas), and British protected person 
All persons born in the British Islands before 1 January 1983 were automatically granted citizenship by birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents  Individuals born in those territories since that date only receive citizenship at birth if at least the mother is a British citizen or holds settled status  Foreign nationals may naturalise as British citizens after meeting a minimum residence requirement (usually five years) and acquiring settled status 
The United Kingdom was previously a member state of the European Union (EU) and British citizens held full EU citizenship  They had held automatic and permanent permission to live and work in any EU or European Free Trade Association (EFTA) country and were able to vote in elections to the European Parliament  Despite the UK's withdrawal from the union in 2020, British citizens continue to hold permanent permission to work and reside in the Republic of Ireland as part of the Common Travel Area 

Terminology
The distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country  Generally, nationality refers to a person's legal belonging to a sovereign state and is the common term used in international treaties when addressing members of a country, while citizenship usually means the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation  This distinction is clearly defined in many non-English speaking countries but not in the Anglosphere  Historically, an individual associated with Britain was neither a national nor a citizen, but a British subject  British citizenship was not created until passage of the British Nationality Act 1981  This Act defined six types of nationality with varying degrees of civil and political rights, dependent on a person's connections with the United Kingdom, overseas territories, or former colonies  British citizens hold their status because of a close connection with the British Islands, usually through their own (or parents' or grandparents') birth, adoption, naturalisation, or registration as citizens of the UK 

Types of British nationality
There are six types of British nationality: any person who is a British citizen, British Overseas Territories citizen (BOTC), British Overseas citizen (BOC), British National (Overseas) (BN(O)), British subject, or British protected person is a British national  Of these statuses, only British citizenship grants automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom  British Overseas Territories are areas outside of the British Islands where the UK holds sovereignty  Since 2002, nearly all BOTCs also hold British citizenship, except for those associated with Akrotiri and Dhekelia The other four categories are residual nationality classes that generally cannot be acquired  BOCs are people connected with former British colonies who have no close ties to the UK or overseas territories  BN(O)s are Hong Kong residents who voluntarily registered for this status before the territory's transfer to China in 1997  British subjects hold their status through a connection either to former  British India or to what is now the Republic of Ireland as they existed before 1949  British protected persons come from areas controlled by the British Empire but were never formally incorporated as Crown territory; this includes protectorates, protected states, mandated territories, and Indian princely states 

History
Development from feudal allegiance
Before the concept of nationality was codified in legislation, inhabitants of English communities owed allegiance to their feudal lords, who were themselves vassals of the monarch  This system of loyalty, indirectly owed to the monarch personally, developed into a general establishment of subjecthood to the Crown  Calvin's Case in 1608 established the principle of jus soli, that all those who were born within Crown dominions were natural-born subjects  After passage of the Acts of Union 1707, English and Scottish subjects became British subjects  Similarly, the Kingdom of Ireland was merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801  Natural-born subjects were considered to owe perpetual allegiance to the Crown and could not voluntarily renounce British subject status until this was first permitted in 1870 Prior to 1708, foreigners could only be naturalised through Acts of Parliament  Protestants fleeing religious persecution in mainland Europe were allowed to naturalise as subjects in 1708, but this was quickly repealed in 1711 in response to the number of migrants exercising that ability  A standard administrative process was not introduced until 1844, when applicants were first able to acquire naturalisation grants from the Home Office  Despite the creation of this pathway, personalised naturalising legislation continued to be enacted until 1975 The monarch could personally make any individual a subject by royal prerogative  By this method, a foreigner became a denizen – although they were no longer considered an alien, they could not pass subject status to their children by descent and were barred from Crown service and public office  This mechanism was no longer used after 1873 Until the mid-19th century, it was unclear whether nationality regulations in the United Kingdom were applicable elsewhere in the British Empire  Individual colonies had each developed their own procedures and requirements for naturalisation, granting subject status at the discretion of the local governments  In 1847, Parliament formalised a clear distinction between subjects who were naturalised in the UK and those who became British subjects in other territories  Individuals who naturalised in the UK were deemed to have received the status by imperial naturalisation, which was valid throughout the Empire  Those naturalising in colonies were said to have gone through local naturalisation and were given subject status valid only within the relevant territory; a subject who locally naturalised in Canada was a British subject there, but not in England or New Zealand  When travelling outside of the Empire, British subjects who were locally naturalised in a colony were still entitled to imperial protection Certain territories that came under British jurisdiction were not formally incorporated as Crown territory proper  These included protectorates, protected states, mandated territories, and Indian princely states  Because domestic law treated these areas as foreign territory, birth in one of these areas did not automatically confer British subject status  Instead, most people associated with these territories were designated as British protected persons  British protected persons were treated as aliens in the United Kingdom, but both British subjects and protected persons could be issued British passports  Protected persons could not travel to the UK without first requesting permission, but were afforded the same consular protection as British subjects when travelling outside of the Empire 

Imperial common code
Parliament brought regulations for British subject status into codified statute law for the first time with passage of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914  British subject status was standardised as a common nationality across the Empire  Dominions that adopted Part II of this Act as part of local legislation were authorised to grant subject status to aliens by imperial naturalisation The 1914 regulations codified the doctrine of coverture into imperial nationality law, where a woman's consent to marry a foreigner was also assumed to be intent to denaturalise; British women who married foreign men automatically lost their British nationality  There were two exceptions to this: a wife married to a husband who lost his British subject status was able to retain British nationality by declaration, and a British-born widow or divorcée who had lost her British nationality through marriage could reacquire that status without meeting residence requirements after the dissolution or termination of her marriage By the end of the First World War, the Dominions had exercised increasing levels of autonomy in managing their own affairs and each by then had developed a distinct national identity  Britain formally recognised this at the 1926 Imperial Conference, jointly issuing the Balfour Declaration with all the Dominion heads of government, which stated that the United Kingdom and Dominions were autonomous and equal to each other within the British Commonwealth of Nations  Full legislative independence was granted to the Dominions with passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931 Women's rights groups throughout the Empire pressured the imperial government during this time to amend nationality regulations that tied a married woman's status to that of her husband  Because the government could no longer enforce legislative supremacy over the Dominions after 1931 and wanted to maintain a strong constitutional link to them through the common nationality code, it was unwilling to make major changes without unanimous agreement among the Dominions on this issue, which it did not have  Imperial legal uniformity was nevertheless eroded during the 1930s; New Zealand and Australia amended their laws in 1935 and 1936 to allow women denaturalised by marriage to retain their rights as British subjects, and Ireland changed its regulations in 1935 to cause no change to a woman's nationality after her marriage 

Irish independence
Irish resistance to the Union and desire for local self-governance led to the Irish War of Independence  Following the war, the island of Ireland was partitioned into two parts  Southern Ireland became the Irish Free State in 1922, while Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom  Under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Northern Ireland was included in the Irish Free State on independence, but had the right to opt out of the new state within one month of its establishment  This option was exercised on 7 December 1922  The 24-hour period in which Northern Ireland was officially part of the Irish Free State meant that every person ordinarily resident in Northern Ireland on 6 December who fulfilled the citizenship provisions in the Constitution of the Irish Free State had automatically become an Irish citizen on that date At its inception, the Irish Free State gained independence as a Dominion within the British Empire  Imperial legislation at the time dictated that although individual Dominions could define a citizenship for their own citizens, that citizenship would only be effective within the local Dominion's borders  A Canadian, New Zealand, or Irish citizen who traveled outside of their own country would have been regarded as a British subject  This was reinforced by Article 3 of the 1922 Free State Constitution, which stated that Irish citizenship could be exercised "within the limits of the jurisdiction of the Irish Free State" When Free State authorities were first preparing to issue Irish passports in 1923, the British government insisted on the inclusion of some type of wording that described the holders of these passports as "British subjects"  The two sides could not reach agreement on this issue and when the Irish government began issuing passports in 1924, British authorities refused to accept these documents  British consular staff were instructed to confiscate any Irish passports that did not include the term "British subject" and replace them with British passports  This situation continued until 1930, when Irish passports were amended to describe its holders as "one of His Majesty's subjects of the Irish Free State"  Despite these disagreements, the two governments agreed not to establish border controls between their jurisdictions and all Irish citizens and British subjects continued to have the ability to move freely within the Common Travel Area  Although Irish citizens have not been considered British subjects under Irish law since 1935, the British government continued to treat virtually all Irish citizens as British subjects, except for those who had acquired Irish citizenship by naturalisation since the Free State had not incorporated Part II of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 into its legislation 

Changing relationship with the Empire and Commonwealth
Diverging developments in Dominion legislation, as well as growing assertions of local national identity separate from that of Britain and the Empire, culminated with the creation of a substantive Canadian citizenship in 1946, breaking the system of a common imperial nationality  Combined with the approaching independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, comprehensive reform to nationality law was necessary at this point to address ideas that were incompatible with the previous system The British Nationality Act 1948 redefined British subject as any citizen of the United Kingdom, its colonies, or other Commonwealth countries  Commonwealth citizen was first defined in this Act to have the same meaning  This alternative term was necessary to retain a number of newly independent countries in the Commonwealth that wished to become republics rather than preserve the monarch as head of state  The change in naming also indicated a shift in the base theory to this aspect of British nationality; allegiance to the Crown was no longer a requirement to possess British subject status and the common status would be maintained by voluntary agreement among the various members of the Commonwealth British subject/Commonwealth citizen status co-existed with the citizenships of each Commonwealth country  A person born in Australia would be both an Australian citizen and a British subject  British subjects under the previous meaning who held that status on 1 January 1949 because of a connection with the United Kingdom or a remaining colony became Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC)  CUKC status was the principal form of British nationality during this period of time There was also a category of people called British subjects without citizenship  Irish citizens who fulfilled certain requirements could file formal claims with the Home Secretary to remain British subjects under this definition  Additionally, those who did not qualify for CUKC status or citizenship in other Commonwealth countries, or were connected with a country that had not yet defined citizenship laws, would transitionally remain British subjects in this group 

Irish departure from the Commonwealth
Despite the accommodations for republics, Ireland ended its Commonwealth membership in 1948 when it formally declared itself a republic and removed the British monarch's remaining official functions in the Irish state  This was recognised by Britain after passage of the Ireland Act 1949  Although Irish citizens have no longer been defined as British subjects in British law since 1949, they continue to be treated as non-foreign in the United Kingdom and retain the same rights and privileges exercised by Commonwealth citizens; Irish citizens remain eligible to vote and stand for parliament in the UK The British Nationality Act 1948 unintentionally excluded certain British subjects associated with Ireland from acquiring CUKC status  The wording of that law did not take into account the 24-hour period during which Northern Ireland was part of the Irish Free State in 1922  Individuals born before 1922 in the area that became the Republic of Ireland to fathers also born in that area but were domiciled in Northern Ireland on Irish independence had nevertheless automatically acquired Irish citizenship  The Ireland Act 1949 specifically addresses this by deeming any person in such circumstances who had never registered for Irish citizenship and had not permanently resided in the Republic between 10 April 1935 and 1 January 1949 as a CUKC and having never ceased to be a British subject 

Restricting Commonwealth free movement
All British subjects under the reformed system initially continued to hold free movement rights in both the UK and Ireland  Non-white immigration into the UK was systemically discouraged, but strong economic conditions in Britain following the Second World War attracted an unprecedented wave of colonial migration  This entitlement was part of a wider initiative to preserve close relationships with certain Dominions and colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia) and to moderate nationalist attitudes within the Commonwealth  In response, Parliament imposed immigration controls on any subjects originating from outside the British Islands with the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962  This restriction was somewhat relaxed by the Immigration Act 1971 for patrials, subjects whose parents or grandparents were born in the United Kingdom, which gave effective preferential treatment to white Commonwealth citizens  Ireland mirrored this restriction and limited free movement only to people born on the islands of Great Britain or Ireland  However, individuals born in the UK since 1983 are only British citizens if at least one parent is already a British citizen  The Irish regulation created a legal anomaly where persons born in Britain without British citizenship nevertheless held an unrestricted right to settle in Ireland; this inconsistency was removed in 1999 In other parts of the Commonwealth, British subjects already did not have an automatic right to settle  Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa had immigration restrictions in place for British subjects from outside their jurisdictions targeted at non-white migrants since the late 19th century  After 1949, non-local British subjects under the new definition who were resident in these independent Commonwealth countries continued to retain certain privileges  This included eligibility to vote in elections, for preferred paths to citizenship, and for welfare benefits  British subjects were eligible to vote in New Zealand until 1975 and Australia until 1984 (though subjects on the electoral roll in that year are still eligible)  In Canada, voting eligibility was revoked at the federal level in 1975, but not fully phased out in provinces until 2006  All Commonwealth citizens remain eligible to vote and stand for public office in the UK 

Post-imperial redefinition of nationality classes
By the 1970s and 1980s, most colonies of the British Empire had become independent and remaining ties to the United Kingdom had been significantly weakened  The UK updated its nationality law to reflect the more modest boundaries of its remaining territory and possessions with the British Nationality Act 1981  CUKCs were reclassified in 1983 into different nationality groups based on their ancestry, birthplace, and immigration status: CUKCs who had right of abode in the United Kingdom became British citizens while those connected with a remaining colony became British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs)  Remaining CUKCs who were no longer associated with a British territory became British Overseas citizens  The definition of "British subject" became limited to include only the category of people previously called British subjects without citizenship who held that status through a connection with former British India or Ireland before 1949 

Former membership in the European Union
In 1973, the United Kingdom joined the European Communities (EC), a set of organisations that later developed into the European Union (EU)  British citizens were able to work in other EC/EU countries under the freedom of movement for workers established by the 1957 Treaty of Rome and participated in their first European Parliament elections in 1979  With the creation of European Union citizenship by the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, free movement rights were extended to all nationals of EU member states regardless of their employment status  The scope of these rights was further expanded with the establishment of the European Economic Area in 1994 to include any national of an EFTA member state except for Switzerland, which concluded a separate free movement agreement with the EU that came into force in 2002 Not all British nationals were EU citizens  Only British citizens, British Overseas Territories citizens connected with Gibraltar, and British subjects under the 1981 Act who held UK right of abode were defined as UK nationals for the purposes of EU law  Although the Crown dependencies were part of the European Union Customs Union, free movement of persons was never implemented in those territories  Following the UK's withdrawal from the EU on 31 January 2020, British nationals have no longer been EU citizens  Despite this, British citizens continue to have free movement in Ireland as part of the preexisting arrangement for the Common Travel Area While the UK was a member state of the EU, Cypriot and Maltese citizens held a particularly favoured status there  While non-EU Commonwealth citizens continued to need a residence visa to live in the UK, Cypriot and Maltese citizens were able to settle there and immediately hold full rights to political participation due to their status as both Commonwealth and EU citizens  This group of EU citizens (along with Irish citizens) domiciled in the UK were able to vote in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum while all other non-British EU citizens could not 

Acquisition and loss of nationality
British citizenship
Prior to 1983, all Individuals born within the British Islands (the United Kingdom and Crown Dependencies) received British citizenship at birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents  Individuals born afterwards only receive citizenship at birth if at least one parent is a British citizen or considered to have settled status in the UK  Children born overseas are British citizens by descent if either parent is a citizen otherwise than by descent, subject to regulations  Adopted children are treated as if they were naturally born to the adopting parents at the time of adoption  Children born abroad to members of the British Armed Forces or British citizens on Crown service are treated as if they were born in the UK Children born in the UK to a resident Irish citizen at any time are always British citizens at birth  Since 1983, the status of a child born in the UK is dependent on whether their parents held British citizenship or settled status at the time of their birth  Irish citizens residing in the UK are deemed to hold settled status upon arrival  Regulations concerning settled status for other European Union (EU), European Economic Area (EEA), and Swiss citizens have changed greatly over time, affecting the status of their children born during the different regulatory periods  EU/EEA citizens living in the UK before 2 October 2000 were automatically considered to be settled  Between that date and 29 April 2006, EU/EEA citizens were required to apply for permanent residency  Swiss citizens became subject to the same regulations on 1 June 2002  From 30 April 2006 until 30 June 2021, EU/EEA and Swiss citizens living in the UK for at least five years automatically received permanent resident status  Permanent resident status for these citizens expired on 1 July 2021, after which they have been required to hold settled status through the European Union Settlement Scheme or another path Foreign nationals may naturalise as British citizens after residing in the UK for more than five years and possessing indefinite leave to remain (ILR) for at least one year  The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a British citizen and they immediately become eligible for naturalisation after receiving ILR or equivalent  Applicants must demonstrate proficiency in the English, Welsh, or Scottish Gaelic languages and pass the Life in the United Kingdom test 

British Overseas Territories citizenship
Individuals born in a territory automatically receive BOTC status if at least one parent is a BOTC or has belonger status  Children born in an overseas territory to British citizen parents who are not settled in a territory are British citizens at birth, but not BOTCs  Parents do not necessarily need to be connected with the same overseas territory to pass on BOTC status  Alternatively, a child born in an overseas territory may be registered as a BOTC if either parent becomes a BOTC or settles in any overseas territory subsequent to birth  A child who lives in the same territory until age 10 and is not absent for more than 90 days in each year is also entitled to registration as a BOTC  Furthermore, an adopted child automatically become a BOTC on the effective day of adoption if either parent is a BOTC or has belonger status  In all cases that an individual is a British Overseas Territories citizen at birth or adoption within the territories, that person is a BOTC otherwise than by descent Individuals born outside of the territories are BOTCs by descent if either parent is a BOTC otherwise than by descent  Unmarried fathers cannot automatically pass on BOTC status, and it would be necessary for them to register children as BOTCs  If a parent is a BOTC by descent, additional requirements apply to register children as BOTCs  Parents in Crown service who have children abroad are exempted from these circumstances, and their children would be BOTCs otherwise than by descent, as if they had been born on their home territory Foreigners and non-BOTC British nationals may naturalise as British Overseas Territories citizens after residing in a territory for more than five years and possessing belonger status or permanent residency for more than one year  The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a BOTC  All applicants for naturalisation and registration are normally considered by the governor of the relevant territory, but the Home Secretary retains discretionary authority to grant BOTC status  Since 2004, BOTC applicants aged 18 or older are required to take an oath of allegiance to the Sovereign and loyalty pledge to the relevant territory during their citizenship ceremonies All British Overseas Territories citizens other than those solely connected with Akrotiri and Dhekelia became British citizens on 21 May 2002, and children born on qualified overseas territories to dual BOTC-British citizens since that date are both BOTCs and British citizens otherwise than by descent  Prior to 2002, only BOTCs from Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands were given unrestricted access to citizenship  BOTCs naturalised after that date may also become British citizens by registration at the discretion of the Home Secretary  Becoming a British citizen has no effect on BOTC status; BOTCs may also simultaneously be British citizens 

Other nationality classes
It is generally not possible to acquire other forms of British nationality  British Overseas citizenship, British subjecthood, and British protected person status are only transferred by descent if an individual born to a parent holding one of these statuses would otherwise be stateless  British Overseas citizens retain their status by association with most former British colonies, British subjects are connected specifically with Ireland or British India before 1949, and British protected persons are associated with territories that were under British control but not formally incorporated as part of the British Empire  British National (Overseas) status was exclusively granted by voluntary registration to Hong Kong residents who had been British Dependent Territories citizens prior to the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997 and cannot be newly acquired in any case  Noncitizen British nationals may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation, after residing in the United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing ILR for more than one year 

Renunciation and restoration
Any type of British nationality can be renounced by making a declaration to the Home Secretary, provided that the declarant possesses or intends to acquire another nationality  Former British citizens or BOTCs may subsequently apply for nationality restoration  Applicants who had originally renounced their British nationality in order to retain or acquire another nationality are entitled to register as British citizens or BOTCs once  Any subsequent renunciation and application for restoration, or someone applying for restoration who originally renounced their British nationality for a reason unrelated to acquiring or retaining an alternate nationality, would be subject to the discretionary approval of the Home Secretary 

Automatic loss of British nationality
British subjects (other than British subjects by virtue of a connection with the Republic of Ireland) and British protected persons lose British nationality upon acquiring any other form of nationality 

These provisions do not apply to British citizens 
British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs) who acquire another nationality do not lose their BOTC status but they may be liable to lose belonger status in their home territory under its immigration laws  Such persons are advised to contact the governor of that territory for information 
British Overseas citizens (BOCs) do not lose their BOC status upon acquisition of another citizenship, but any entitlement to registration as a British citizen on the grounds of having no other nationality no longer applies after acquiring another citizenship 

Deprivation of British nationality
The British government does not publish the number of people it strips of citizenship, but independent research by a lawyer-run website, in 2022, found at least 464 people's citizenship was revoked in the last 15 years  After the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 came into force British nationals could be deprived of their citizenship if and only if the Secretary of State was satisfied they were responsible for acts seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the United Kingdom or an Overseas Territory This was extended under the Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006: people with dual nationality who are British nationals can be deprived of their British citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied that "deprivation is conducive to the public good", or if nationality was obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact  Between 2006 and the end of 2021 at least 464 people have had their citizenship removed by the government since the law was introduced  There is a right of appeal  This provision has been in force since 16 June 2006 when the Immigration, Nationality and Asylum Act 2006 (Commencement No 1) Order 2006 brought it into force  Loss of British nationality in this way applies also to dual nationals who are British by birth  The Secretary of State may not deprive a person of British nationality, unless obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact, if they are satisfied that the order would make a person stateless This provision was again modified by the Immigration Act 2014 so as not to require that a third country would actually grant nationality to a person; British nationality can be revoked if "the Secretary of State has reasonable grounds for believing that the person is able, under the law of a country or territory outside the United Kingdom, to become a national of such a country or territory "The powers to strip citizenship were initially very rarely used  Between 2010 and 2015, 33 dual nationals had been deprived of their British citizenship  In the two years to 2013 six people were deprived of citizenship; then in 2013, 18 people were deprived, increasing to 23 in 2014  In 2017, over 40 people had been deprived as of July (at this time increased numbers of British citizens went to join "Islamic State" and then tried to return) The Home Office does not issue information on these cases and is resistant to answering questions, for example under the Freedom of Information Act 2000  It appears that the government usually waits until the person has left Britain, then sends a warning notice to their British home and signs a deprivation order a day or two later  Appeals are heard at the highly secretive Special Immigration Appeals Commission (SIAC), where the government can submit evidence that cannot be seen or challenged by the appellant Home Secretary Sajid Javid said in 2018 that until then deprivation of nationality had been restricted to "terrorists who are a threat to the country", but that he intended to extend it to "those who are convicted of the most grave criminal offences"  The acting director of Liberty responded "The home secretary is taking us down a very dangerous road      making our criminals someone else’s problem is     the government washing its hands of its responsibilities     Banishment belongs in the dark ages "A Nationality and Borders Bill was introduced to the British House of Commons in July 2021, sponsored by the Home Office under Home Secretary Priti Patel  In November 2021, an amendment to the Bill was introduced which, if passed, would allow people to be deprived of British citizenship without being given notice  At the time the Home Office reiterated its position on citizenship: "British citizenship is a privilege, not a right" 

British citizenship ceremonies
From 1 January 2004, all new applicants for British citizenship by naturalisation or registration aged 18 or over if their application is successful must attend a citizenship ceremony and either make an affirmation or take an oath of allegiance to the monarch, and make a pledge to the UK 
Citizenship ceremonies are normally organised by:

local councils in England, Scotland, and Wales
the Northern Ireland Office
the governments of the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey
the Governors of British Overseas Territories
British consular offices outside the United Kingdom and territories Persons from what is now the Republic of Ireland born before 1949 reclaiming British subject status under section 31 of the 1981 Act do not need to attend a citizenship ceremony  If such a person subsequently applies for British citizenship by registration or naturalisation, attendance at a ceremony is required 
For those who applied for British citizenship before 2004:

the oath of allegiance was administered privately through signing a witnessed form in front of a solicitor or other accredited person
those who already held British nationality (other than British protected persons) were exempt, as were those citizens of countries with the King as Head of State (such as Australia and Canada) 

See also
Visa policy of the United Kingdom
Visa requirements for British citizens
Visa requirements for British Nationals (Overseas)
Visa requirements for British Overseas citizens
Visa requirements for British Overseas Territories citizens

Notes
Passage 2:
Webex
Webex by Cisco is an American company that develops and sells web conferencing, videoconferencing  and contact center as a service applications  It was founded as WebEx in 1995 and taken over by Cisco Systems in 2007  Its headquarters are in San Jose, California Its software products include Webex App, Webex Suite, Webex Meetings, Webex Messaging, Webex Calling, Webex Contact Center, and Webex Devices  All Webex products are part of the Cisco Systems collaboration portfolio 

History
WebEx was founded in 1995 by Subrah Iyar and Min Zhu  It had its initial public offering in July 2000  WebEx was listed on the NASDAQ National Market, and then the NASDAQ Global Select Market, when that was introduced in 2006 

Services
At the time of the acquisition, all Webex applications were built on the MediaTone platform and supported by the Webex MediaTone Network (originally called the Webex interactive network), a global network intended for use with on-demand programs  The network was designed by Shaun Bryant, Webex's Chief Network Architect, and Zaid Ali Sr, Network Architect, to be one of the first SaaS platforms on the Internet In July 2006, AOL and Webex launched a business version of AOL's instant messaging software, AIM Pro, with additional features to help workers collaborate using conferencing tools offered by Webex On September 26, 2006, the company announced plans to offer a web collaboration "mashup" platform called "Webex Connect" On November 17, 2014, Cisco announced an evolution of Webex called Project Squared  On March 17, 2015 this effort was re-branded as Cisco Spark On April 18, 2018, Cisco announced that Cisco Spark would be combined into the Cisco Webex platform  On this same date, Cisco rebranded all of the rest of their Spark products to Webex, including the Spark Room Kit—now Webex Room Kit—and Spark Board—now Webex Board 

On May 15, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Cisco CFO Kelly Kramer reported in the month of April 2020, they had 500 million meeting attendees, and that equated to 25 billion meeting minutes, using its video-conferencing application Webex In September 2020, Cisco launched a new platform Webex Classrooms for virtual homeroom encounters On October 26, 2021, Cisco launched an update aimed to enhance virtual and hybrid in-person meetings and events, using AI-powered technology for their Webex portfolio 

Acquisition
The company acquired Intranets com in 2005, providing entrance into the small- and mid-size business market through the company's customer base of businesses with fewer than 100 employees  It acquired the ability to offer online collaboration tools such as discussion forums, document sharing and calendaring while Intranets com provided access to the Webex communications environment for its customers On March 15, 2007, Cisco Systems announced it would acquire WebEx for $3 2 billion  Cisco has said that its long-term plan is to absorb WebEx at both a technology and a sales level In October 2020, Cisco acquired BabbleLabs In February 2021, Cisco acquired imimobile, a provider of communications platform as a service (CPaaS) solutions for its Webex  collaboration portfolio imimobile 

Legal proceedings and inquiries
Goldman Sachs securities fraud investigation
As a result of a securities fraud investigation initiated by the SEC and by various state Attorney General offices, Goldman Sachs faced charges of issuing unfair research, including coverage of WebEx, and IPO violations for the period 1999 to 2001  Webex management allegedly dictated to Goldman Sachs analysts what the research should and should not include  Webex maintains the management's information was accurate  Another charge accuses Goldman Sachs of violating securities law in its allocation of shares in WebEx's initial public offering 

Raindance lawsuit for patent infringement
On September 27, 2005, Webex sued Raindance Communications, Inc , a competitor, for patent infringement  On October 14, 2005, Raindance filed a countersuit against Webex for patent infringement  Both parties sought both damages and an injunction enjoining further acts they claim to be infringing on patents  On March 31, 2006, the parties agreed to the dismissal of both actions, releases of claims for past infringement, payments associated with those releases, and cross-licenses to each other's patents  The agreement resulted in Webex receiving 1 million dollars from Raindance 

See also
Collaborative software
Comparison of web conferencing software
Comparison of remote desktop software
Zoom (software)
Passage 3:
Central Library (Kansas City, Missouri)
The Central Library is the main library of the Kansas City Public Library system, which is located in the Library District of Downtown Kansas City, Missouri, United States  It is situated at 14 West 10th Street, at the corner of West 10th Street and Baltimore Avenue, across Baltimore Avenue from the Kansas City Club and up from the New York Life Building  It contains the administration of Kansas City's library system Within the Central Library, the Missouri Valley Room contains a wide collection of items related to Kansas City local history, including original and published materials, news articles, postcards, photographs, maps, and directories dating from the city's earliest history   The Library's Ramos Collection includes books, pamphlets, journal articles, and other materials relating to African-American history and culture 
Passage 4:
Salamá
Salamá is a city in Guatemala  It is the capital of the department of Baja Verapaz and it is situated at 940 m above sea level  The municipality of Salamá, for which the city of Salamá serves as the administrative centre, covers a total surface area of 764 km² and contains 65,275 people 

Etymology
Salamá comes from Kʼicheʼ Tz'alam Ha meaning table on water 

History
Salamá was settled as a doctrine by the Order of Preachers in the 1550s, as part of the Tezulutlán Capitulations that friar Bartolome de las Casas lobbied from the Crown  The friars had thousands of acres with hills, forest, a section of the plain and abundant water supply  Both location and weather were ideal for vines; the characteristic soil and dried grass from the rest of the plain was replaced by vines thanks to a superb irrigation system the friars built inspired by the Romans After independence in 1821, the Central Ameran liberal criollos tried to remove the Catholic Church from power, along with the Guatemalan aristocrats of the Aycinena family  By 1829, the liberal forces of general Francisco Morazán expelled both the aristocrats and the regular orders from Central America, including the Order of Preachers, one of the richest  In Salamá, they had to leave behind their monastery, church and vines, which were confiscated by the Guatemalan State government, but remained abandoned due to the political turmoil of the times 

Battle of Salamá of 1839
In early 1838, Morazán's liberal forces were back in Guatemala after a peasant revolt ousted Guatemalan governor Mariano Galvez  Morazán and his Guatemalan ally José Francisco Barrundia invaded Guatemalan soil and when they arrived in San Sur, they summarily executed Chúa Álvarez, general Rafael Carrera's father-in-law, because Carrera was the leader of the revolt  Morazán's soldiers placed Álvarez' head on top of a spike as a warning to Carrera's followers  Upon learning the news, both Carrera and his wife, Petrona Álvarez – who had left Guatemala City to face Morazán and were in Mataquescuintla – promised to avenge Chúa even after Morazán's death  The liberals sent several envoys to try to meet with Carrera, but he did not want to talk to them –especially not to Barrundia, who was told that he should not try to come in to talk to Carrera if he wanted to remain alive  After this, Morazán began a strong offensive, destroying every single town in his path, stealing the few belongings and forcing Carrera militants to hide in the mountains Thinking that Carrera was completely defeated, Morazán and Barrundia went on to Guatemala City, where governor Valenzuela and the conservative criollos of the Aycinena family celebrated finally having a leader like Morazán, who had defeated Carrera and his peasant revolt once and for all  The Guatemalans offered to sponsor any campaign that Morazán wanted at that point  Morazán helped Los Altos and appointed Mariano Rivera Paz, who was close to the Aycinena family; however he did not return to the former aristocrats any of their confiscated possessions  In return, Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol, leader of the family, voted in favor of dissolving the Central American Federation, thus forcing Morazán to return to El Salvador to try to save what was left of his presidential powers  On his way to El Salvador, he increased repression, on anybody suspect of helping Carrera in the past Knowing that Morazán was on his way to El Salvador, Carrera tried to take Salamá with the little forces that he still had left, but was defeated and even lost his brother Laureano in the battle   With only a handful of men he was able to escape, badly wounded, to Sanarate  After a halfway recovery, Carrera had a few more battles where he won, but suffered considerable casualties Finally, the liberal forces captured Carrera, but could not shoot him, because the Central American Federation was in turmoil and they needed the caudillo to keep the peasants in check  Morazán was forced to appoint him as commander in Mita  Morazán would come to regret that decision, as Carrera would eventually defeat him in 1840, finishing the Honduran general run as the main political figure of Central America As of 1850, the population was estimated to be 4,500 

Miguel Enríquez and president Barillas in 1892
In 1892, president general Manuel Barillas called an election  It was the first time a Guatemalan president had become tired of the office and it was also the first election in Guatemala that allowed the candidates to run propaganda in the local newspapers  Among the candidates who ran for office were:

Lorenzo Montúfar y Rivera: a well known a respected liberal intellectual  He was the only one of all candidates who made an engraving of his portrait to publish it in the newspapers and was accused of wasting resources for doing this 
General José María Reyna Barrios: nephew of former president Justo Rufino Barrios and eventual winner 
Miguel Enríquez: a Salamá landowner  Enríquez had been a liberal, but became a conservative after the persecution that he suffered from the Barillas administration Barillas was unique among all liberal presidents of Guatemala between 1871 and 1944: he handed over power to his successor peacefully  When election time approached, he sent for the three Liberal candidates to ask them what their government plan would be  Satisfied with the response of Reyna Barrios, Barillas made sure a huge column of Quetzaltenango and Totonicapán Indigenous people came down from the mountains to vote for the general  The official agents did their job: Reyna was elected president and, so as not to offend the losing candidates, Barillas gave them checks to cover the costs of their presidential campaigns  Reyna Barrios of course received nothing, but he went on to become President on March 15, 1892 Only Enríquez was not compensated; on the contrary, after the elections he had to run away from his farmland in Salamá after being accused of sedition; he was captured and executed near Zacapa 

Miguel Ángel Asturias in Salamá
In 1904, the father of future Literature Nobel Prize awardee Miguel Ángel Asturias, who was a judge, freed several students that had been detained after rioting  In consequence president Manuel Estrada Cabrera, and removed him from his post  In 1905, the family was forced to move to Salamá, where Miguel Ángel Asturias lived on his grandparents' farm and came in contact with Guatemalan natives for the first time  His nanny, Lola Reyes, was a native girl who told him stories, myths and legends from her culture which eventually would impact heavily in his work  In 1908, when Asturias was nine years old, his family returned to Guatemala City 

Anticommunist rebellion in 1953
During the revolutionary government of colonel Jacobo Árbenz, the opposition – mainly formed by Guatemalan landlords and United Fruit Company executives – was completely against any reform that the government of Juan José Arévalo had established: social security, creation of commercial and public labor unions, democracy and freedom of press, among others  At the election of Árbenz in 1950, the Guatemalan elite was desperate, but most of its members hoped that the new president would back out of the policies of his predecessor, whom they accused of communism  Árbenz' image convinced them of that: the Guatemalan colonel was married to María Cristina Vilanova, a lady from the Salvadorian elite  He was an Army officer, lived in a mansion in zone 10 in Guatemala City and had the proper aristocratic presence  But their hopes were shattered when Árbenz supported the formation of the Guatemalan Communist Party and then pushed for aggressive agrarian reform  Confronted with the situation, the opposition had only one clear goal: to defend the privileges that they had enjoyed in Guatemala for generations and so they embraced anticommunism to justify their fight against the government  On the other hand, the middle class enjoyed benefits that allowed them to prosper and they were loyal to Árbenz  The peasants were for the first time since the Rafael Carrera government treated with respect and dignity This was the political and economic situation of the country when on 29 March 1953 the anticommunist opposition assaulted Salamá at dawn: approximately 100 rebels invaded Salamá and neighboring San Jerónimo  The invasion was not properly organized and by 6:00 a m  was completedly defeated by army forces that arrived from Cobán  This event however began government prosecution of anticommunist elements, which gradually escalated until it became pure repression in May 1954, when CIA Operation PBSuccess and the Carlos Castillo Armas invasion were well in progress and the Arbenz regime was practically doomed 

Festivals
The annual festival takes place from September 17 to September 22 

Climate
Salamá has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen: Aw) 

Geography and location
Settlements
Salamá has 146 settlements, being the main ones:

San Rafael Chilasco is the largest settlement and is a tourist attraction given that it has one of the tallest waterfalls in Central America 

Geographic location
Salamá is surrounded by Baja Verapaz municipalities, except by South, where it borders Chuarrancho, a Guatemala Department municipality 

See also
Guatemala portal
 Geography portal
Baja Verapaz
History of Guatemala
Order of Preachers
List of places in Guatemala

Notes and references
Passage 5:
Zhu Yunlai
Levin Zhu Yunlai (born 29 July 1958) is a Chinese businessman  He is the eldest son of Zhu Rongji, a former Premier of the People's Republic of China  In 1994, he graduated from the University of Wisconsin, studying atmospheric science 
In 1998, Zhu was invited by Wang Qishan to join China International Capital Corporation, which was then fledgling investment bank based in China, with Morgan Stanley as a shareholder  Zhu served as CEO of the firm between 2004 and 2014 Zhu and his father, Zhu Rongji, by family tradition, are descendants of Zhu Yuanzhang, the Hongwu Emperor, the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, through the line of Zhu Pian, Zhu Yuanzhang's 18th son 
Passage 6:
Cyprus Popular Bank
Cyprus Popular Bank (from 2006 to 2011 known as Marfin Popular Bank) was the second-largest banking group in Cyprus behind the Bank of Cyprus until it was 'shuttered' in March 2013 and split into two parts  The 'good' Cypriot part was merged into the Bank of Cyprus (including insured deposits under 100,000 Euro) and the 'bad' part or legacy entity holds all the overseas operations as well as uninsured deposits above 100,000 Euro, old shares and bonds  The uninsured depositors were subject to a bail-in and became the new shareholders of the legacy entity   As at May 2017, the legacy entity is one of the largest shareholders of Bank of Cyprus with 4 8% but does not hold a board seat  All the overseas operations, of the now defunct Cyprus Popular Bank, are also held by the legacy entity, until they are sold by the Special Administrator, at first Ms Andri Antoniadou, who ran the legacy entity for two years, from March 2013 until 3 March 2015  She tendered her resignation due to disagreements, with the Governor of the Central Bank of Cyprus and the Central Bank Board members, who amended the lawyers of the legacy entity, without consulting her  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou who is an expert in Treasury and risk management took over as Special Administrator of the legacy entity in April 2015 until December 2016  The legacy entity is pursuing legal action against former major shareholder Marfin Investment Group 
Its shares were listed on the Cyprus Stock Exchange and the Athens Stock Exchange  CPB had a network of more than 295 branches in Cyprus, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, the UK and Malta  The bank had applied to open a representative office in Beijing, People's Republic of China Trading on the island as Laiki Bank (Laiki being the Greek word for Popular), as of September 2012 it held a 16% share of the market in loans and a 14 4% share of deposits   The Bank made a series of large loans, many to Greek companies prior to and during their financial crisis  What followed has been described as "billions handed out in bad loans created a financial time-bomb"  After the bank collapsed, it was rescued by the Cypriot government, which took 84% ownership on 30 June 2012 and as of March 2013 it is being dismantled as part of the 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis 

History
In 1901, four leading citizens of Limassol—Agathoclis Francoudis, Ioannis Kyriakides, Christodoulos Sozos and Neoklis Ioannides—established the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to encourage saving among the workforce  More than two decades later, in 1924, the bank changed its name from the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to the Popular Bank of Limassol  The bank also became the first company in Cyprus to register as a public-traded company 
Then in 1967, the Popular Bank of Limassol changed its name to Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) to reflect the bank’s expansion beyond Limassol  Expansion beyond Limassol followed quickly, with the establishment of its first branches in Nicosia,  Famagusta (1969), and Paphos and Larnaca (1970)  Also in 1970, Midland Bank acquired 22% of the company's shares, making Midland a major shareholder in CPB  The next year CPB relocated its headquarters from Limassol to Nicosia 

1974 CPB established its first London branch 
1983 CPB acquired all the Cyprus operations of Grindlays Bank located in the area under government control 
1992 CPB opened the first branch of European Popular Bank in Athens  CPB owned 58% of the shares of the bank; other shareholders included HSBC (formerly Midland Bank) and Greek and Cypriot investors  CPB retained branches in Heraklion and Thessaloniki
1995 CPB opened its first representative offices in South Africa and in Toronto, Ontario, Canada 
1996 CPB opened its first representative offices in Australia 
1997 CPB opened its first representative offices in Serbia and in Russia ("Rosprombank")
1998 CPB establishes a representative office in New York  (NY State Banking Dept says State chartered) 
2000 The Cyprus Popular Bank Group changed its name to Laiki Group 
2001 The Laiki Group established a subsidiary in Australia with five branches 
2005 The Group established Laiki Bank (Guernsey), and purchased Bank Centrobank in Serbia 
2006 The Greek Marfin Investment Group acquired HSBC's shares in Laiki Bank, establishing a strong minority share position   Subsequently, the Marfin Investment Group through more acquisitions managed to take control of Laiki Bank, which it re-branded as Marfin Popular Bank   In Greece, the Marfin Group consolidated Egnatia, Laiki and Marfin to form Marfin Egnatia Bank, which is the 95%-owned Greek subsidiary of Marfin Popular Bank 
2007 The bank announced the planned takeover of 50 12% of the share capital of AS SBM Pank, a bank in Estonia MPB also acquired 99 2% of the shares of Marine Transport Bank Ukraine for US$156 million  This bank was founded in 1993 as Marine Trade Bank and changed its name to Marine Transport Bank in 1996  It has its headquarters in the Odesa region and has 86 branches 
Lastly, MPB acquired 43% of the share capital of Lombard Bank Malta for €48 million from Banca della Svizzera Italiana (BSI) of Lugano  CPB now holds c  49% of Lombard Bank Malta In 2007, the bank announced a multi-million financial deal to sponsor the football First Division in Cyprus until 2010 
2008 Marfin Popular Bank completed its acquisition of 50 4% of the shares of CJSC RPB Holding, parent company of the Rossisysky Promishlenny Bank (Rosprombank), for €83 million  The acquisition makes Marfin the first Greek or Cypriot bank to acquire control of a bank in Russia 
In 2010, they launched a new mobile banking and mobile trading service  In the same year, the company was selected as the bank of the year in Cyprus by the Banker 
2010 MPB sold 85% of Laiki Bank Australia to Bank of Beirut  The Australian bank received a new name, Beirut Hellenic Bank  At the time, the bank had a branch in Adelaide, four branches in Melbourne and five branches in Sydney 
2011 MPB sold the majority of its shareholding in its Estonian subsidiary and returned to its historic name of Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) 
In 2012 CPB converted its Greek subsidiary into a branch of the parent bank 
The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis resulted in financial difficulties at CPB  The Cypriot state recapitalized CPB on 30 June 2012 with the result that the government acquired 84% of the bank's equity  This increased the bank's core tier 1 capital ratio towards 9%, the level mandated by the European Banking Authority 
In early 2013 CPB renamed its Greek branches to CPB Bank and on 26 March the bank sold them to Piraeus Bank  Laiki was split into a good and bad bank, the good bank (Cyprus operations) merged with Bank of Cyprus and the bad bank is in the process of being sold and finally shuttered  The board and CEO were replaced on 27 March  The bad bank was being run by a Special Administrator Ms Andri Antoniadou who was acting CEO until 3 March 2015  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou took over as Special Administrator in April 2015 until December 2016 In 2018 European Court dismisses compensation claim in Cyprus 2013 deposit-grab 
Passage 7:
Pesanggrahan, South Jakarta
Pesanggrahan is a district of South Jakarta one of the administrative cities which forms the capital territory of Jakarta, Indonesia  The Pesanggrahan River flows along the eastern edge of Pesanggrahan District  To the west of Pesanggrahan District is Tangerang and South Tangerang, Banten Province 
Pesanggrahan District was originally part of the Kebayoran Lama District, which was later made into a separate district 
A southwestern portion of the Jakarta Outer Ring Road and the Serpong-Jakarta railway passed through Pesanggrahan District 

Toponym
The name Pesanggrahan is derived from the name of the river Pesanggrahan along the eastern edge of the district 

Kelurahan (Administrative villages)
The district of Pesanggrahan is divided into five administrative villages (kelurahan):

Ulujami - area code 12250
Petukangan Utara - area code 12260
Petukangan Selatan - area code 12270
Pesanggrahan - area code 12320
Bintaro - area code 12330

List of important places

Budi Luhur University
Darunnajah Islamic Boarding School
Metro Mall Cipulir
Taman Swadharma
Passage 8:
Sanjiang Church
Sanjiang Church (三江基督教堂) was a Christian church located in Yongjia County, near Wenzhou, in Zhejiang Province, China  The church was completed in December 2013   The city of Wenzhou is a port city believed to have China's largest Christian community   Local Christians claim as many as 15 percent of the residents Christians with the majority being Protestant   British missionaries George and Grace Stott had set up churches in this area towards the end of the 19th century 
The Sanjiang Church was completed in 2013 after almost six years and after local Christians pooled together between 3 2 and 4 9 million US dollars (20-30 million yuan) for the construction costs   The building was large enough to hold up to 2,000 people with the church complex occupying more than 100,000 square feet of land  The church had been registered with the government authorities  The demolition was preceded by a petition by local believers of the Chinese folk faith accusing the church to disrupt the area's feng shui (cosmic harmony), highlighting the tensions between indigenous religious groups and Christianity 

2014 Protests
In April 2014, thousands of Chinese Christians camped around a church to prevent it from being demolished after several crosses had been torn down   In February 2014, local officials began an antireligious campaign to demolish any church buildings that violated local regulations   Local Christians claim that Communist Party officials object to the bright, prominent crosses that some churches use to advertise their presence and want these crosses to be replaced with smaller crosses inside   Government officials claim that the building is structurally unsound 

Demolition
As of April 28, 2014, the entire church had been toppled over 
Passage 9:
Biłgoraj County
Biłgoraj County (Polish: powiat biłgorajski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lublin Voivodeship, eastern Poland  It was established on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998  Its administrative seat and largest town is Biłgoraj, which lies 79 kilometres (49 mi) south of the regional capital Lublin  The county contains three other towns: Tarnogród, lying 21 km (13 mi) south of Biłgoraj, Józefów, lying 24 km (15 mi) east of Biłgoraj, and Frampol, 16 km (10 mi) north of Biłgoraj 
The county covers an area of 1,677 79 square kilometres (647 8 sq mi)  As of 2008, its total population is 103,661, which includes 26,306 in Biłgoraj, 3,333 in Tarnogród, 2,486 in Józefów, 1,428 in Frampol, and a rural population of 
67,596 

Neighbouring counties
Biłgoraj County is bordered by Lublin County and Krasnystaw County to the north, Zamość County and Tomaszów Lubelski County to the east, Lubaczów County and Przeworsk County to the south, Leżajsk County to the south-west, Nisko County to the west, and Janów Lubelski County to the north-west 

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into 14 gminas (one urban, three urban-rural and 10 rural)  These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population 
Passage 10:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory  Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria  The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located  The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government  Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs)  There are 774 local governments in Nigeria  Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government  The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation 

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria 

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives  It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list 

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature)  The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state 

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government  The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly 

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007)  The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control  Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press  ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3 
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999)  The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research  ISBN 978-181-238-9 
Rotimi T  Suberu (1994)  1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan  ISBN 978-2015-28-8 

External links
"New States of Nigeria"  Statoids 
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors 
Passage 11:
Gmina Tarnów
Gmina Tarnów is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Tarnów County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, in southern Poland  Its seat is the city of Tarnów, although the city is not part of the territory of the gmina 
The gmina covers an area of 82 81 square kilometres (32 0 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 23,060 

Villages
Gmina Tarnów contains the villages and settlements of Biała, Błonie, Jodłówka-Wałki, Koszyce Małe, Koszyce Wielkie, Łękawka, Nowodworze, Poręba Radlna, Radlna, Tarnowiec, Wola Rzędzińska, Zawada, Zbylitowska Góra and Zgłobice 

Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Tarnów is bordered by the city of Tarnów and by the gminas of Czarna, Lisia Góra, Pleśna, Skrzyszów, Tuchów, Wierzchosławice, Wojnicz and Żabno 
Passage 12:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 13:
Zhu Qinan
Zhu Qinan (simplified Chinese: 朱启南; traditional Chinese: 朱啟南; pinyin: Zhū Qǐnán; born November 15, 1984, in Wenzhou, Zhejiang) is a male Chinese sport shooter  He won the gold medal at the 2004 Athens Olympics in the Men's 10 m Air Rifle event and a silver medal at the 2008 Beijing Olympics in the Men's 10 m Air Rifle event  Zhu currently is studying at Zhejiang University Zhu began shooting training at Wenzhou Sports School in 1999  From there, in February 2002, he joined the Zhejiang province shooting team  Zhu joined the national shooting team on December 14, 2003  At the time of his Olympic victory, he was still a junior, and his qualification round score of 599 was an equalled junior world record  He repeated this achievement at the 2004 ISSF World Cup Final in Bangkok, which he also won  He has since then won several ISSF World Cup competitions in 10 m Air Rifle 
On September 22, 2011, Zhu shot a perfect 600 in the qualification round  He scored 103 8 in the final round making a total score of 703 8 to gain the 10 m Air Rifle final world record 
His best result in 50 m Rifle is a bronze medal from the 2004 Asian Championships  Zhu is 5'11" tall and weighs 148 pounds  At the 51st ISSF World Championship held in Granada, Spain, Zhu got gold medal in 50m Rifle 3 Positions 

World record
Context 3: Passage 1:
East Timor
East Timor ( (listen)), also known as Timor-Leste (; Portuguese pronunciation: [tiˈmoɾ ˈlɛʃtɨ]), officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia  It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, of which the western half is administered by Indonesia, the exclave of Oecusse on the island's north-western half, and the minor islands of Atauro and Jaco  Australia is the country's southern neighbour, separated by the Timor Sea  The country's size is 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi)  Dili is its capital and largest city 
East Timor came under Portuguese influence in the sixteenth century, remaining a Portuguese colony until 1975  Internal conflict preceded a unilateral declaration of independence and an Indonesian invasion and annexation  Resistance continued throughout Indonesian rule, and, in 1999, a United Nations–sponsored act of self-determination led to Indonesia relinquishing control of the territory  On 20 May 2002, as Timor-Leste, it became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century  That same year, relations with Indonesia were established and normalized, with Indonesia also supporting East Timor's accession into ASEAN  
The national government runs on a semi-presidential system, with the popularly elected president sharing power with a prime minister appointed by the National Parliament  Power is centralised under the national government, although many local leaders have informal influence  The country maintains a policy of international cooperation, and is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, an observer of the Pacific Islands Forum, and an applicant for ASEAN membership  The country remains relatively poor, with an economy that relies heavily on natural resources, especially oil, and foreign aid 
The total population is over 1 1 million, and is heavily skewed towards young people due to a high fertility rate  Education has led to increasing literacy over the past half-century, especially in the two official languages of Portuguese and Tetum  High ethnic and linguistic diversity is reflected by the 30 indigenous languages spoken in the country  The majority of the population is Catholic, which exists alongside strong local traditions, especially in rural areas 

Name
"Timor" is derived from timur, meaning 'east' in Malay, thus resulting in a tautological place name meaning 'East East'  In Indonesian, this results in the name Timor Timur  (this name only refers to the former de facto Indonesian province, Timor Leste is used instead to refer this country)  In Portuguese, the country is called Timor-Leste (Leste meaning 'east')  In Tetum it is Timór Lorosa'e (Lorosa'e can be literally translated as 'where the sun rises') The official names under its constitution are "Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste" in English, "República Democrática de Timor-Leste" in Portuguese, and "Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste" in Tetum  The official short form of the name is "Timor-Leste", and it uses the ISO codes TLS & TL 

History
Prehistory and Classical era
Cultural remains at Jerimalai on the eastern tip of East Timor have been dated to 42,000 years ago  The first known inhabitants are those who arrived during the Australo-Melanesian migration through the region, likely bringing the precursors to today's Papuan languages  A later migration of Austroasiatic-speakers is suspected, although no such languages remain  The arrival of Austronesian peoples brought new languages, and merged with existing cultures on the island  Timorese origin myths recount settlers sailing around the eastern end of the island before landing in the south  These people are sometimes noted as being from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra  Austronesian migration to Timor may be associated with the development of agriculture on the island While information is limited about the political system of Timor during this period, the island had developed an interconnected series of polities governed by customary law  Small communities, centred around a particular sacred house, were part of wider sucos (or principalities), which were themselves part of larger kingdoms led by a liurai  Authority within these kingdoms was held by two individuals, with the worldly power of the liurai balanced by the spiritual power of a rai nain, who was generally associated with the primary sacred house of the kingdom  These polities were numerous and saw shifting alliances and relations, but many were stable enough that they survived from initial European documentation in the 16th century until the end of Portuguese rule : 11–15 From perhaps the thirteenth century, the island exported sandalwood,: 267  which was valued both for its use in crafting and as a source of perfume  Timor was included in Southeast Asian, Chinese, and Indian trading networks by the fourteenth century, exporting sandalwood, honey, and wax  The island was recorded by the Majapahit Empire as a source of tribute : 89  It was sandalwood that attracted European explorers to the island in the early sixteenth century  Early European presence was limited to trade, with the first Portuguese settlement being on the nearby island of Solor : 90

Portuguese era (1769–1975)
Early Portuguese presence on Timor was very limited; trade was directed through Portuguese settlements on nearby islands  Only in the 17th century did they establish a more direct presence on the island, a consequence of being driven out of other islands by the Dutch : 267  After Solor was lost in 1613 the Portuguese moved to Flores  In 1646 the capital moved to Kupang on Timor's west, before Kupang too was lost to the Dutch in 1652  The Portuguese then moved to Lifau, in what is now East Timor's Oecusse exclave : 90  Effective European occupation in the east of the island only began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded, although actual control remained highly limited  A definitive border between the Dutch and Portuguese parts of the island was established by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1914 and remains the international boundary between the successor states Indonesia and East Timor, respectively For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post, with minimal investment in infrastructure and education, until the late nineteenth century  Even when Portugal established actual control over the interior of its colony, investment remained minimal : 269, 273  Sandalwood continued to be the main export crop and coffee exports became significant in the mid-nineteenth century At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering domestic economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies, which was met with East Timorese resistance  The colony was seen as an economic burden during the Great Depression and received little support or management from Portugal : 269 During World War II, Dili was occupied by the Allies in 1941, and later by the Japanese beginning in 1942  The mountainous interior of the colony became the scene of a guerrilla campaign, known as the Battle of Timor  Waged by East Timorese volunteers and Allied forces against the Japanese, the struggle killed between 40,000 and 70,000 East Timorese civilians  The Japanese eventually drove the last of the Australian and Allied forces out in early 1943  Portuguese control resumed, however, after Japanese surrender at the end of World War II Portugal began investment in the colony in the 1950s, funding education and promoting coffee exports, but the economy did not improve substantially and infrastructure improvements were limited : 269  Growth rates remained low, near 2%  Following the 1974 Portuguese revolution, Portugal effectively abandoned its colony in Timor, and civil war between East Timorese political parties broke out in 1975 
The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) resisted a Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) coup attempt in August 1975, and unilaterally declared independence on 28 November 1975  Fearing a communist state within the Indonesian archipelago, the Indonesian military launched an invasion of East Timor in December 1975  Indonesia declared East Timor its 27th province on 17 July 1976  The United Nations Security Council opposed the invasion, and the territory's nominal status in the UN remained as "non-self-governing territory under Portuguese administration" 

Indonesian occupation (1975–1999)
Fretilin resisted the invasion, initially as an army, holding territory until November 1978, and then as a guerrilla resistance  The Indonesian occupation of Timor was marked by violence and brutality  A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a minimum of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period between 1974 and 1999, including approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 excess deaths from hunger and illness  The total number of conflict-related deaths during this period is difficult to determine due to a lack of data  One estimate based on Portuguese, Indonesian, and Catholic Church data suggests it may have been as high as 200,000  Repression and restrictions counteracted improvements in health and education infrastructure and services, meaning there was little overall improvement in living standards; economic growth mostly benefited immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia : 271  A huge expansion of education was intended to increase Indonesian language use and internal security as much as it was for development The 1991 massacre of more than 200 demonstrators by the Indonesian military was a turning point for the independence cause, and brought increased international pressure on Indonesia  Following the resignation of Indonesian President Suharto, the new President BJ Habibie, prompted by a letter from Australian Prime Minister John Howard, decided to hold a referendum on independence  A UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia and Portugal allowed for a UN-supervised popular referendum in August 1999  A clear vote for independence was met with a punitive campaign of violence by East Timorese pro-integration militias supported by elements of the Indonesian military  In response, the Indonesian government allowed a multinational peacekeeping force, INTERFET, to restore order and aid East Timorese refugees and internally displaced persons  On 25 October 1999, the administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)  INTERFET deployment ended in February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN 

Contemporary era
On 30 August 2001, the East Timorese voted in their first election organised by the UN to elect members of the Constituent Assembly  On 22 March 2002, the Constituent Assembly approved the Constitution  By May 2002, more than 205,000 refugees had returned  On 20 May 2002, the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor came into force and East Timor was recognised as independent by the UN  The Constituent Assembly was renamed the National Parliament, and Xanana Gusmão was elected as the country's first president  On 27 September 2002 the country became a UN member state In 2006, a crisis of unrest and factional fighting forced 155,000 people to flee their homes; the United Nations sent in security forces to restore order  The following year, Gusmão declined to run for another term  While there were minor incidents in the build-up to the mid-year presidential elections, the process was peaceful overall and José Ramos-Horta was elected president  In June 2007, Gusmão ran in the parliamentary elections and became prime minister at the head of the National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction (CNRT) party  In February 2008, Ramos-Horta was critically injured in an attempted assassination; Prime Minister Gusmão also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed  Australian reinforcements were immediately sent to help keep order  In March 2011, the UN handed over operational control of the police force to the East Timor authorities  The United Nations ended its peacekeeping mission on 31 December 2012 Francisco Guterres of the centre-left Fretilin party became president in May 2017  The leader of Fretilin, Mari Alkatiri, formed a coalition government after the July 2017 parliamentary election  This government soon fell, leading to a second general election in May 2018  In June 2018, former president and independence fighter, Taur Matan Ruak, became the new prime minister  José Ramos-Horta again became president on 20 May 2022 after winning the April 2022 presidential election runoff against Francisco Guterres 

Politics and government
The political system of East Timor is semi-presidential, based upon the Portuguese system : 175  The constitution establishes both this separation of executive powers between the president and the prime minister; and the separation of powers between the executive, legislature, and judiciary : 12  Individuals are not allowed to participate in both the legislature and the executive branch  The legislature is intended to provide a check on the executive; in practice the executive has maintained control of the legislature under all political parties, reflecting the dominance of individual leaders within political parties and coalitions : 174  The executive, through the council of ministers, also holds some formal legislative powers : 175  The judiciary operates independently, although there are instances of executive interference : 13, 39  Some courts shift between locations, to improve access for those in more isolated areas  Despite political rhetoric, the constitution and democratic institutions have been followed by politicians, and changes of government are peaceful : 15, 42  Elections are run by an independent body,: 216  and turnout is high, ranging from around 70% to 85% : 17  The political system has wide public acceptance : 17 : 106 The head of state of East Timor is the president of the republic, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term,: 244  and can serve a maximum of two terms  Formally, the directly elected president holds relatively limited powers compared to those in similar systems, with no power over the appointment and dismissal of the prime minister and the council of ministers  However, as they are directly elected, past presidents have wielded great informal power and influence : 175  The president does have the power to veto government legislation, initiate referendums, and to dissolve parliament in the event that it is unable to form a government or pass a budget : 244  If the president vetoes a legislative action, the parliament can overturn the veto with a two-thirds majority : 10  The prime minister is chosen by the parliament, with the president appointing the leader of the majority party or coalition as prime minister of East Timor and the cabinet on the proposal of the latter : 10  As head of government, the prime minister presides over the cabinet 

Representatives in the unicameral National Parliament are elected by popular vote to a five-year term  The number of seats can vary from a minimum of fifty-two to a maximum of sixty-five  Parties must achieve 3% of the vote to enter parliament, with seats for qualifying parties allocated using the D'Hondt method  Elections occur within the framework of a competitive multi-party system  Upon independence, power was held by the Fretilin political party, which was formed shortly before the Indonesian invasion and led its resistance  Given its history, Fretilin viewed itself as the natural party of government and supported a multi-party system, expecting the development of a dominant-party system  Support from the United Nations and the international community, both before and after independence, allowed the nascent political system to survive shocks such as the 2006 crisis : 173 Candidates in parliamentary elections run in a single national district in a party-list system  One in three of all candidates presented by political parties must be women  This system promotes a diversity of political parties, but gives voters little influence over the individual candidates selected by each party : 175–176  Women hold more than a third of parliamentary seats, with parties required by law to run female candidates, but they are less prominent at other levels and within party leadership Political divisions exist along class lines and along geographical lines  There is broadly a divide between eastern and western areas of the country, stemming from differences that arose under Indonesian rule  Fretilin in particular is strongly linked to the Eastern areas : 176–177  Political parties are more closely associated with prominent personalities more than with ideology : 16  The National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction became the main opposition to Fretilin, following its establishment to allow Xanana Gusmão to run for Prime Minister in the 2007 parliamentary elections : 168–169  While both major parties have been relatively stable, they remain led by an "old guard" of individuals who came to prominence during the resistance against Indonesia : 175 : 10–11 Politics and administration is centred in the capital Dili, with the national government responsible for most civil services : 9, 36  Oecusse, separated from the rest of the country by Indonesian territory, is a special administrative region with some autonomy : 180  The National Police of East Timor and Timor Leste Defence Force have held a monopoly on violence since 2008 and very few guns are present outside of these organisations : 8  While there are allegations of abuse of power, there is some judicial oversight of police and public trust in the institution has grown  An active civil society functions independently of the government, as do media outlets : 11–12  Civil society organisations are concentrated in the capital, including student groups  Due to the structure of the economy, there are no powerful trade unions : 17  The Catholic Church has strong influence in the country : 40

Foreign relations and military
International cooperation has always been important to East Timor; donor funds made up 80% of the budget before oil revenues began to replace them : 42–44  International forces also provided security, with five UN missions sent to the country from 1999  The final one, the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor, began after the 2006 East Timorese crisis and concluded in 2012 : 4, 14 East Timor formally applied to join ASEAN in 2011,: 42–44  and was granted observer status and accepted "in principle" in November 2022  Despite the nationalist political leadership promoting closer ties with Melanesian states, the country has targeted ASEAN membership since before its independence, with its leaders stating that joining Pacific bodies would have precluded ASEAN membership  ASEAN membership was sought for economic and security reasons, including to improve the relationship with Indonesia  Nonetheless, the process has been slow due to a lack of support from some ASEAN states : 10–11  East Timor is thus an observer to the Pacific Islands Forum and the Melanesian Spearhead Group  More broadly, the country is a leader within the Group of Seven Plus (g7+), an organisation of fragile states  It is also a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries : 42–44 Continuing bilateral donors include Australia, Portugal, Germany, and Japan, and East Timor has a reputation for effectively and transparently using donor funds  Good relations with Australia and with Indonesia are a policy goal for the government, despite historical and more-recent tensions  These countries are important economic partners and provide most transport links to the country : 42–44  China has also increased its presence by contributing to infrastructure in Dili : 12 The relationship with Australia was dominated from before independence by disputes over natural resources in the ocean between them, hampering the establishment of a mutually agreed border  The dominance of Australian hard power led East Timor to utilise public diplomacy and forums for international law to push their case  The dispute was resolved in 2018 following negotiations at the Permanent Court of Arbitration, when a maritime boundary between the two was established along with an agreement on natural resource revenues The Timor Leste Defence Force (F-FDTL) was established in 2001, replacing Falintil, and was restructured following the events of 2006  It is responsible not only for safeguarding against external threats, but also for addressing violent crime, a role it shares with the National Police of East Timor  These forces remain small: 2,200 soldiers in the regular army and 80 in a naval component  A single aircraft and seven patrol boats are operated, and there are plans to expand the naval component  There is some military cooperation with Australia, Portugal, and the United States 

Administrative divisions
East Timor is divided into fourteen municipalities, which in turn are subdivided into 64 administrative posts, 442 sucos (villages), and 2,225 aldeias (hamlets)  The municipalities are: Aileu, Ainaro, Atauro, Baucau, Bobonaro, Cova Lima, Dili, Ermera, Lautém, Liquiçá, Manatuto, Manufahi, Oecusse, and Viqueque The existing system of municipalities and administrative posts was established during Portuguese rule : 3  While decentralisation is mentioned in the constitution, administrative powers generally remain with the national government operating out of Dili : 2  Upon independence there was debate about how to implement decentralisation; various proposed models would create different levels of administration between the sucos and the central government  In most proposals, there were no specific provisions for suco-level governance, and they were expected to continue to exist as mostly traditional spaces, identifying communities rather than being part of the civil administration  In the end, the existing districts were kept and renamed municipalities in 2009, and received very few powers : 88–92  In 2016 changes were made so that each municipality is led by a civil servant appointed by the central government  This civil servant is advised by locally elected leaders : 4, 7  The isolated Oecusse municipality, which has a strong identity and is fully surrounded by Indonesian territory, is specified by Articles 5 and 71 of the 2002 constitution to be governed by a special administrative policy and economic regime  Law 3/2014 of 18 June 2014 implemented this constitutional provision, which went into effect in January 2015, turning Oecusse into a Special Administrative Region  The region began operating its own civil service in June 2015  In January 2022 the island of Atauro, formerly an Administrative Post of Dili, became its own municipality Administration in the lowest levels of the administrative system of East Timor, the aldeias and sucos, generally reflects traditional customs,: 1  reflecting community identity and relationships between local households : 4  Sucos generally contain 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants  Their long persistence and links to local governance means the sucos are the level of government that is linked to community identities, rather than any high level of administration : 89  Such relationships, however, are associated specifically with the kinship groups within that land, rather than the land itself : 52–53  Relationships between sucos also reflect customary practices, for example through the reciprocal exchanging of support for local initiatives : 9  Laws passed in 2004 provided for the election of some suco officials, but assigned these positions no formal powers  An updated law in 2009 established the expected mandate of these positions, although it continued to leave them outside of the formal state system, reliant on municipal governments to provide formal administration and services : 94–97  Further clarification was given in 2016, which entrenched the treatment of sucos and aldeias more as communities than formal levels of administration  Despite this lack of formal association with the state, suco leaders hold great influence and are often seen by their community as representatives of the state  They have responsibilities usually associated with civic administration : 7–10

Geography
Located in between Southeast Asia and the South Pacific,: 2  the island of Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands, which lie within the Malay archipelago : 1  The island is surrounded by the Ombai and Wetar Straits of the rougher Banda Sea in the north, and the calmer Timor Sea in the south : 2  East Timor shares the island with Indonesia, with Indonesian territory separating the Oecusse exclave from the rest of the country  The island of Atauro lies north of the mainland,: 2  with the fourth area being the small island of Jaco  The Savu Sea lies north of Oecusse : 1  The country is about 265 kilometres (165 mi) long and 97 kilometres (60 mi) wide, with a total land area of 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi) : 1  This territory is situated between 8′15S – 10′30S latitude and 125′50E – 127′30E longitude : 2  The country's coastline covers around 700 kilometres (430 mi),: 27  while the main land border with Indonesia is 125 kilometres (78 mi) long, and the Oecusse land border is around 100 kilometres (62 mi) long : 1  Maritime borders exist with Australia to the south and Indonesia elsewhere  East Timor has an exclusive economic zone of 77,051 km2 (29,750 sq mi) The interior of the country is mountainous,: 2  with ridges of inactive volcanic mountains extending along the island : 2  Almost half of the country has a slope of at least 40%  The south is slightly less mountainous, and has some plains near the coastline : 2  The highest point is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 metres (9,721 ft)  Most rivers dry up at least partially during the dry season : 2  Outside of some coastal areas and river valleys, the soil is shallow and prone to erosion, and its quality is poor : 13 : 2  The capital and largest city is Dili  The second-largest city is the eastern town of Baucau : 22 

The climate is tropical with relatively stable temperatures throughout the year  A wet season lasts from December to May throughout the country, and lasts slightly longer in the south: 5  and the interior due to the effect of a monsoon from Australia : 2  During this period, rainfall can reach 222–252 millimetres (8 7–9 9 in) per month  In the dry season, it drops to 12–18 millimetres (0 47–0 71 in) : 5  The country is vulnerable to flooding and landslides that occur as a result of heavy rain, especially when rainfall levels are increased by the La Niña effect : 13  The mountainous interior is cooler than the coasts  Coastal areas are heavily dependent on groundwater, which faces pressure from mismanagement, deforestation, and climate change : 14  While the temperature is thought to have experienced a small increase due to climate change, there has been little change in annual rainfall : 6 Coastal ecosystems around the country are diverse and varied, with vary spatially between the north and south coastlines, as well as between the eastern tip and areas more to the west  These ecosystems include coral reefs, as the country's waters are part of the Coral Triangle biodiversity hotspot : 28  The easternmost area of East Timor consists of the Paitchau Range and the Lake Ira Lalaro area, which contains the country's first conservation area, the Nino Konis Santana National Park  It contains the last remaining tropical dry forested area within the country  It hosts a number of unique plant and animal species and is sparsely populated  The northern coast is characterised by a number of coral reef systems that have been determined to be at risk There are around 41,000 terrestrial plant species in the country  Forests covered 35% of East Timor's land in the mid 2010s : 1  The forests of the northern coast, central uplands, and southern coast are distinct : 2  East Timor is home to the Timor and Wetar deciduous forests ecoregion  There is some environmental protection in law, but it has not been a government priority : 27 : 10–14  In addition to climate change, local ecosystems are threatened by deforestation, land degradation, overfishing, and pollution : 2–3

Economy
The economy of East Timor is a market economy, although it is dependent upon the export of a few commodities and has a large public sector  Internally, market operations are limited by widespread poverty : 20  The country uses the United States dollar, producing its own coins to facilitate smaller transactions  The economy is generally open to foreign investment, although a prohibition on foreigners owning land means many require a local partner in the country : 20  Competition is limited by the small size of the economy, rather than any government barriers  There are far more imports than exports,: 21  and prices for goods are often higher than in nearby countries : 27  Inflation is strongly affected by government spending : 257  Growth has been slow, averaging just 2 5% per year from 2011 to 2021 : 24 Most of the country is very poor, with just more than 40% living under the national poverty line  This poverty is especially prevalent in rural areas, where many are subsistence farmers or fishermen  Even in urban areas, the majority are poor  Overall, women are poorer than men, often being employed in lower-paying careers : 18  Malnutrition is common, with over half of children showing stunted growth : 255  While 91% of married working age (15–49) men were employed as of 2016, only 43% of married working age women were  There are small disparities in favour of men in terms of home and land ownership and owning a bank account : 14  The eastern three municipalities, which contain around a quarter of the population, has less poverty than the western areas, which contain 50% of the population : 214 Sixty-six per cent of families are in part supported by subsistence activities; however, the country as a whole does not produce enough food to be self-sustaining, and thus relies on imports : 16  Agricultural work carries the implication of poverty, and the sector receives little investment from the government : 260  Ninety-four per cent of domestic fish catch comes from the ocean, especially coastal fisheries : 17  Those in the capital of Dili are on average better off, although they remain poor by international standards : 257  The small size of the private sector means the government is often the customer of public businesses  A quarter of the national population works in the informal economy, with the official public and private sectors employing 9% each : 18  Of those of working age, around 23% are in the formal sector, 21% are students, and 27% are subsistence farmers and fishers : 21  The economy is mostly cash-based, with little commercial credit available from banks : 11–12  Remittances from overseas workers add up to around $100 million annually : 257 

This poverty belies significant wealth in terms of natural resources, which at the time of independence had per capita value equivalent to the wealth of an upper-middle income country  Over half of this was in oil, and over a quarter natural gas  The Timor-Leste Petroleum Fund was established in 2005 to turn these non-renewable resources into a more sustainable form of wealth : 4–6  From 2005 to 2021, $23 billion earned from oil sales has entered the fund  $8 billion has been generated from investments, while $12 billion has been spent : 30  A decrease in oil and gas reserves led to decreasing HDI beginning in 2010 : 18–19  Eighty per cent of government spending comes from this fund, which as of 2021 had $19 billion, 10 times greater than the size of the national budget  As oil income has decreased, the fund is at risk of being exhausted  Withdrawals have exceeded sustainable levels almost every year since 2009 : 23  Resources within the Bayu-Undan field are expected to soon run out, while extracting those within the so far undeveloped Greater Sunrise field has proven technically and politically challenging  Remaining potential reserves are also losing value as oil and gas become less favoured sources of energy : 264–272 The country's economy is dependent on government spending and, to a lesser extent, assistance from foreign donors  Government spending decreased beginning in 2012, which had knock-on effects in the private sector over the following years  The government and its state-owned oil company often invest in large private projects  Decreasing government spending was matched with a decrease in GDP growth : 18  After the petroleum fund, the second largest source of government income is taxes  Tax revenue is less than 8% of GDP, lower than many other countries in the region and with similarly sized economies  Other government income comes from 23 "autonomous agencies", which include port authorities, infrastructure companies, and the National University of East Timor : 13, 28–309  Overall, government spending remains among the highest in the world,: 12  although investment into education, health, and water infrastructure is negligible : 260 

Private sector development has lagged due to human capital shortages, infrastructure weakness, an incomplete legal system, and an inefficient regulatory environment  Property rights remain ill-defined, with conflicting titles from Portuguese and Indonesian rule, as well as needing to accommodate traditional customary rights : 23  As of 2010, 87 7% of urban (321,043 people) and 18 9% of rural (821,459 people) households have electricity, for an overall average of 38 2%  The private sector shrank between 2014 and 2018, despite a growing working age population  Agriculture and manufacturing are less productive per capita than at independence : 255–256  Non-oil economic sectors have failed to develop, and growth in construction and administration is dependent on oil revenue : 256  The dependence on oil shows some aspects of a resource curse  Coffee made up 90% of all non-fossil fuel exports from 2013 to 2019, with all such exports totalling to around US$20 million annually : 257  In 2017, the country was visited by 75,000 tourists 

Demographics
East Timor recorded a population of 1,183,643 in its 2015 census  The population lives mainly along the coastline, where all urban areas are located : 27  Those in urban areas generally have more formal education, employment prospects, and healthcare  While a strong gender disparity exists throughout the country, it is less severe in the urban capital  The wealthy minority often go abroad for health, education and other purposes : 25  The population is young, with the median age being under 20 : 29  In particular, a large proportion of the population (almost 45% in 2015) are males between the ages of 15 and 24, the third largest male 'youth bulge' in the world : 212 The Government of Timor-Leste's website lists the English-language demonym for East Timor as Timorese  Other reference sources list it as East Timorese  The word Maubere formerly used by the Portuguese to refer to native East Timorese and often employed as synonymous with the illiterate and uneducated, was adopted by Fretilin as a term of pride Healthcare received 6% of the national budget in 2021 : 24  From 1990 to 2019 life expectancy rose from 48 5 to 69 5  Expected years of schooling rose from 9 8 to 12 4 between 2000 and 2010, while mean years of schooling rose from 2 8 to 4 4  Progress since 2010 for these has been limited  Gross national income per capita similarly peaked in 2010, and has decreased since : 3  As of 2016, 45 8% of East Timorese were impoverished, 16 3% severely so : 6  The fertility rate, which at the time of independence was the highest in the world at 7 8, dropped to 4 2 by 2016  It is relatively higher in rural areas, and among poorer: 3  and less literate households  As of 2016, the average household size was 5 3, with 41% of people aged under 15, and 18% of households headed by women : 2  Infant mortality stood at 30 per 1,000, down from 60 per 1,000 in 2003 : 7  46% of children under 5 showed stunted growth, down from 58% in 2010  Working age adult obesity increased from 5% to 10% during the same time period  As of 2016, 40% of children, 23% of women, and 13% of men had anemia : 11

Ethnicity and language
Timorese communities are not strictly defined by ethnic background or linguistic group  Separate communities may share ethnicity or language, and many areas show overlaps and hybridisation between ethnic and linguistic groups : 44  Familial relations and descent, which are interlinked with sacred house affiliation, are a more important indicator of identity : 47  Each family group generally identifies with a single language or dialect : 49  With this immense local variation in mind, there is a broad cultural and identity distinction between the east (Bacau, Lautém, and Viqueque Municipalities) and the west of the country, a product of history more than it is of linguistic and ethnic differences,: 45–47  although it is very loosely associated with the two language groups : 142–143  There is a small mestiço population of mixed Portuguese and local descent  There is a small Chinese minority, most of whom are Hakka  Many Chinese left in the mid-1970s, but a significant number have also returned to East Timor following the end of Indonesian occupation  East Timor has a small community of Timorese Indian, specifically Goan descent, as well as historical immigration from Africa and Yemen Likely reflecting the mixed origins of the different ethnolinguistic groups of the island, the indigenous languages fall into two language families: Austronesian and Papuan : 10  Depending on how they are classified, there are up to 19 indigenous languages with up to 30 dialects : 136  Aside from Tetum, Ethnologue lists the following indigenous languages: Adabe, Baikeno, Bunak, Fataluku, Galoli, Habun, Idaté, Kairui-Midiki, Kemak, Lakalei, Makasae, Makuv'a, Mambae, Nauete, Tukudede, and Waima'a  According to the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are six endangered languages in East Timor: Adabe, Habu, Kairui-Midiki, Maku'a, Naueti, and Waima'a  The largest Malayo-Polynesian group is the Tetum, mostly around Dili or the western border  Other Malayo-Polynesian languages with native speakers of more than 40,000 are Mambai in the central mountains south of Dili, Baikeno in Oecusse, Kemak in the north-west interior, and Tokodede on the northwest coast  The main Papuan languages spoken are Bunak in the centre of Timor, especially within Bobonaro Municipality; Makasae in the eastern Baucau and Viqueque municipalities; and Fataluku in the eastern Lautém Municipality : 43  The 2015 census found that the most commonly spoken mother tongues were Tetum Prasa (mother tongue for 30 6% of the population), Mambai (16 6%), Makasai (10 5%), Tetum Terik (6 05%), Baikenu (5 87%), Kemak (5 85%), Bunak (5 48%), Tokodede (3 97%), and Fataluku (3 52%)  Other indigenous languages accounted for 10 47%, while 1 09% of the population spoke foreign languages natively East Timor's two official languages are Portuguese and Tetum  In addition, English and Indonesian are designated by the constitution as "working languages" : 3  This is within the Final and Transitional Provisions, which do not set a final date  In 2012, 35% could speak, read, and write Portuguese, which is up significantly from less than 5% in the 2006 UN Development Report  Portuguese is recovering as it has now been made the main official language of Timor, and is being taught in most schools  The use of Portuguese for government information and in the court system provides some barriers to access for those who do not speak it  Tetum is also not understood by everyone in the country : 11  According to the Observatory of the Portuguese Language, the East Timorese literacy rate was 77 8% in Tetum, 55 6% in Indonesian, and 39 3% in Portuguese, and that the primary literacy rate increased from 73% in 2009 to 83% in 2012  According to the 2015 census, 50% of the population between the ages of 14 and 24 can speak and understand Portuguese  The 2015 census found around 15% of those over the age of five were literate in English 

Education
East Timor's adult literacy rate was 68% among adults, and 84% among those aged 15–24, as of 2021  It is slightly higher among women than men : 27  More girls than boys attend school, although some drop out upon reaching puberty : 25  As of 2016 22% of working age women (15–49) and 19% of working age men had no education, 15% of women and 18% of men had some primary education, 52% of women and 51% of men had some secondary education, and 11% of women and 12% of men had higher education  Overall, 75% of women and 82% of men were literate : 2  Primary schools exist throughout the country, although the quality of materials and teaching is often poor  Secondary schools are generally limited to municipal capitals  Education takes up 10% of the national budget : 27  The country's main university is the National University of East Timor  There are also four colleges Since independence, both Indonesian and Tetum have lost ground as media of instruction, while Portuguese has increased: in 2001 only 8 4% of primary school and 6 8% of secondary school students attended a Portuguese-medium school; by 2005 this had increased to 81 6% for primary and 46 3% for secondary schools  Indonesian formerly played a considerable role in education, being used by 73 7% of all secondary school students as a medium of instruction, but by 2005 Portuguese was used by most schools in Baucau, Manatuto, as well as the capital district  Portugal provides support to about 3% of the public schools in East Timor, focused on those in urban areas, further encouraging the use of the Portuguese language : 28

Religion
While the Constitution of East Timor enshrines the principles of freedom of religion and separation of church and state, Section 45 Comma 1 also acknowledges "the participation of the Catholic Church in the process of national liberation" in its preamble  Upon independence, the country joined the Philippines to become the only two predominantly Catholic states in Asia, although nearby parts of eastern Indonesia such as Flores and parts of Western New Guinea also have Catholic majorities According to the 2015 census, 97 57% of the population is Catholic; 1 96% Protestant; 0 24% Muslim; 0 08% Traditional; 0 05% Buddhist; 0 02% Hindu, and 0 08% other religions  A 2016 survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Survey programme showed that Catholics made up 98 3% of the population, Protestants 1 2%, and Muslims 0 3% The number of churches grew from 100 in 1974 to more than 800 in 1994, with Church membership having grown considerably under Indonesian rule as Pancasila, Indonesia's state ideology, requires all citizens to believe in one God and does not recognise traditional beliefs  East Timorese animist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia's constitutional monotheism, resulting in mass conversions to Christianity  Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests and Latin and Portuguese mass was replaced by Indonesian mass  While just 20% of East Timorese called themselves Catholics at the time of the 1975 invasion, the figure surged to reach 95% by the end of the first decade after the invasion  The Roman Catholic Church divides East Timor into three dioceses: the Archdiocese of Díli, the Diocese of Baucau, and the Diocese of Maliana  In rural areas, Roman Catholicism is syncretised with local animist beliefs  The number of Protestants and Muslims declined significantly after September 1999, as these groups were disproportionately represented among supporters of integration with Indonesia  Fewer than half of previous Protestant congregations existed after September 1999, and many Protestants were among those who remained in West Timor 

Culture
The many cultures within East Timor stem from the several waves of Austronesian and Melanesian migration that led to the current population, with unique identities and traditions developing within each petty kingdom  Portuguese authorities built upon traditional structures, blending Portuguese influence into the existing political and social systems : 91–92  The presence of the Catholic Church created a point of commonality across the various ethnic groups, despite full conversion remaining limited  The Portuguese language also provided common linkages, even if direct Portuguese impact was limited : 97–98  Under Indonesian rule, resistance strengthened cultural links to Catholicism and the Portuguese language  At the same time, Indonesian cultural influence was spread through schools and administration : 98–99 The preservation of traditional beliefs in the face of Indonesian attempts to suppress them became linked to the creation of the country's national identity : 7–13  This national identity only began to emerge at the very end of Portuguese rule, and further developed during Indonesian rule : 134–136  Following independence, a civic identity began to develop  This was most clearly expressed through enthusiasm for national-level democracy,: 155–156  and was reflected in politics through a shift from resistance narratives to development ones : 3  The capital has developed a more cosmopolitan culture, while rural areas maintain stronger traditional practices : 30  Internal migration into urban areas, especially Dili, creates cultural links between these areas and rural hinterlands  Those in urban areas often continue to identify with a specific rural area, even those with multiple generations born in Dili : 53–54 The presence of so many ethnic and linguistic groups means cultural practices vary across the country : 11  These practices reflect historical social structures and practices, where political leaders were regarded as having spiritual powers  Ancestry was an important part of cultural practices, and partly signified leadership  Leaders often had influence over land use, and these leaders continue to play an informal role in land disputes and other aspects of community practice today  An important traditional concept is lulik, or sacredness  Some lulik ceremonies continue to reflect animist beliefs, for example through divination ceremonies which vary throughout the country  Sacred status can also be associated with objects, such as Portuguese flags which have been passed down within families : 7–13 

Community life is centred around sacred houses (Uma Lulik), physical structures which serve as a representative symbol and identifier for each community : 47–49  The architectural style of these houses varies between different parts of the country, although following widespread destruction by Indonesian forces many were rebuilt with cheap modern materials : 22–25  The house as a concept extends beyond the physical object to the surrounding community : 92–93, 96  Kinship systems exist within and between houses  Traditional leaders, who stem from historically important families, retain key roles in administering justice and resolving disputes through methods that vary between communities : 47–49  Such leaders are often elected to official leadership positions, merging cultural and historical status with modern political status : 52  The concept of being part of a communal house has been extended to the nation, with Parliament serving as the national sacred house : 96 Art styles vary throughout the various ethnolinguistic groups of the island  Nonetheless, similar artistic motifs are present throughout, such as large animals and particular geometric patterns  Some art is traditionally associated with particular genders  For example, the Tais textiles that play a widespread role in traditional life throughout the island are traditionally handwoven by women  Different tais patterns are associated with different communities, and more broadly with linguistic groups : 137  Many buildings within central Dili maintain historical Portuguese architecture : I-5 Traditional rituals remain important, often mixed in with more modern aspects : 137  A strong oral history is highlighted in individuals able to recite long stories or poetry  This history, or Lia nain, passes down traditional knowledge : 16  There remains a strong tradition of poetry  Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão, for example, is a distinguished poet, earning the moniker "poet warrior" In the field of cinema, East Timor released its first feature-length film, a period thriller titled Beatriz's War, in 2013  Shot with a limited budget by a mix of local filmmakers and a volunteer Australian film crew, the film depicted East Timorese life under Indonesian occupation in the 1970s, with producer Lurdes Pires acknowledging their aim to diverge from the government's "friendship and forgiveness" policy for its past conflicts by telling a story of truth-seeking and justice 

See also
Outline of East Timor
Index of East Timor-related articles
List of topics on the Portuguese Empire in the East
Passage 2:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1264
United Nations Security Council resolution 1264, adopted unanimously on 15 September 1999, after recalling previous resolutions on East Timor (Timor-Leste), the Council authorised the establishment of the multinational International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) to restore peace and security in the territory, facilitate humanitarian assistance and protect the United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) The Security Council welcomed the successful conduct of the East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum on 30 August 1999, in which the East Timorese people voted for independence from Indonesia  Meanwhile, there was concern about the deteriorating security situation and the violence that had displaced many residents  Attacks also took place against UNAMET and other international and national humanitarian personnel and this had particularly affected vulnerable groups  There were reports of widespread violations of international humanitarian and human rights law across East Timor, and Indonesia had accepted the presence of a United Nations international peacekeeping force in the region Acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the Council condemned the violence in East Timor, called for those responsible to be brought to justice and emphasised the need for immediate unrestricted humanitarian assistance to the area  In this regard, it authorised the establishment of an Australian-led multinational force under joint command with the task of restoring peace, protecting the UNAMET mission and assisting in humanitarian operations using all necessary measures  The force consisted of 8,000 personnel from 17 countries  The Government of Indonesia, which had temporary responsibility for the security of East Timor, would co-operate with the multinational force or INTERFET 
The resolution noted that part of the agreement between Indonesia and Portugal on the future of East Timor stipulated a peaceful and orderly transfer of authority in East Timor to the United Nations and INTERFET was asked to support the process  The multinational force would be present in East Timor for four months until replaced by a United Nations peacekeeping force and would be required to submit periodic reports on its progress Finally, the Secretary-General was asked to make preparations for a transitional administration in East Timor that would include a peacekeeping operation during the implementation phase following the referendum 

See also
1999 East Timorese crisis
Indonesian occupation of East Timor
List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1201 to 1300 (1998–2000)
United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
Passage 3:
Shark sanctuary
A shark sanctuary is an area that forbids commercial fishing operations from targeting and retaining caught sharks, including their fins  The first shark sanctuary was created by Palau in 2009  It was followed by Maldives, Honduras, The Bahamas and Tokelau 

Background
Every year, fishermen pull "up to 73 million" or "some 100 million" sharks from the world's oceans  The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that more than half of shark species are overexploited or depleted  Globally, 21% of shark species whose extinction risk has been assessed fall into the "threatened" categories, and 18% are "near threatened", while 35% lack sufficient data to decide, leaving 26% in the unthreatened category 
The search for shark fins drives the illegal hunting trade  Some jurisdictions permit fishing for fins and food  Sharks are also caught as bycatch when fishing for marlin, tuna and other varieties Sharks generally reach sexual maturity only after several years of life and produce very few offspring in comparison to other harvested fish  Harvesting sharks before they reproduce has severe impacts on future populations 

National and international status
Many nations restrict shark catches and shark finning 

Pacific Islands
Palau created the world's first so-named "shark sanctuary" on September 25, 2009  Palau forbids all commercial shark fishing within its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) waters  The sanctuary protects about 600,000 square kilometres (230,000 sq mi) of ocean, an area similar to the country of France  President Johnson Toribiong made the announcement at a meeting of the United Nations  President Toribiong also requested a worldwide ban on shark fishing  Palau is home to 135 endangered or vulnerable shark and ray species The Maldives created a sanctuary in March, 2010  Tokelau declared its entire EEZ a shark sanctuary in 2011 On February 25, 2011, Guam, a US island territory, voted to ban commerce in fins  Guam's Senate passed a bill banning the sale, possession and distribution of the fins In August, 2011, Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Guam announced plans to join Palau in a region-wide sanctuary that covers 2,000,000 square miles (5,200,000 km2) of ocean Kiribati, another Pacific island state, and the US operate Earth's largest marine reserve 

Americas
Honduras prohibited the taking of sharks in its national waters as of February 2010 The U S  bans shark finning on all U S -flagged vessels, forbids the taking 19 species of sharks including white, whale, and basking sharks and shares lists of illegal vessels with established fishing companies, helping them report illegal activities  The U S  also assesses the health of many of its shark populations and includes sharks in its various Fishery Management Plans  Hawaii has banned the sale and possession of shark fins  The states of California, Oregon and Washington are considering similar bans 

Africa
In 1991 South Africa became the first country in the world to declare great white sharks a legally protected species 

Europe
In February 2009, the European Commission proposed first-ever shark conservation rules for European waters, although these are not outright bans  EU countries account for one-third of global shark meat exports 
Shark steaks are increasingly served in restaurants  Shark parts are also used in lotions and leather sports shoes 

Asia
Taiwan banned shark finning in 2012 Israel - All elasmobranchs are fully protected in Israel's territorial waters, in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Gulf of Aqaba (northeastern Red Sea), since 2005, making these effective shark sanctuaries 

Shark fishery
After reaching about 0 9 million tonnes in 2003, catches of the “sharks, rays and chimaeras” group declined to 0 75 million tonnes in 2006, a drop of 15 percent , numbering some 100 million fish 

Drivers of the shark trade
Sharks are a common seafood in many places around the world, including China (shark-fin soup), Japan, Australia (fish and chips under the name flake), in India (under the name sora in Tamil language and Telugu language), and Icelanders eat Greenland sharks as hákarl 
The practice of live finning, where a fisherman removes the fin with a hot metal blade and releases the dying animal occurs with some frequency, but is  not a prevalent practice, with most fins taken with the entire animal  Around 80% of shark fins are derived as accidental by-catch, which are quickly sold to the market due to their high price  Shark finning has become a major trade within black markets all over the world with shark fins going at about $300/lb in 2009 European consumers consume dogfishes, smoothhounds, catsharks, makos, porbeagle and also skates and rays  However, the U S  FDA recommends that children and women who are or may be pregnant should refrain from eating shark 
For details see mercury in fish 
In the East Asian region, use of shark cartilage in preparing soups is considered a health tonic  Hong Kong imports it from North and South American countries, particularly for use in either a cooked format or to prepare boiled soup, as a health fad, by mixing it with herbals supplements 
Another large demand for shark cartilage is for manufacture of "Shark Cartilage Powder" or pills as a cure for cancer  The anti cancer claims of such powders marketed in many parts of the world has been discounted by the US Food and Drug Administration, Federal Trade Commissions and medical studies  In spite of such injunctions, the trade in this powder continues and the shark cartilage powder is still widely marketed as a cancer cure, stated to be selling at US$145 per gram  It is also stated that in Costa Rica, one single firm alone processed 235,000 sharks every month to manufacture cartilage pills Seafood Watch recommends that everyone avoid eating shark The majority of shark fisheries around the globe have little monitoring or management  With the rise in demand for shark products there is a greater pressure on fisheries  Sharks experience a long interval between birth and sexual maturity, such that many sharks never reach maturity  In some species, populations have declined by over 90% over the past 20–30 years with decline of 70% not unusual The practice of shark finning, attracts much controversy and regulations are being enacted to prevent it from occurring  The acclaimed 2007 documentary, Sharkwater exposed how sharks are being hunted to extinction, in part due to the massive Asian demand for shark fin soup 

See also
Grey nurse shark conservation
Shark Conservation Act
Sharkwater
Passage 4:
The Trouble with the Truth (song)
"The Trouble with the Truth" is a song written by Gary Nicholson, and recorded by American country music artist Patty Loveless  It was released in April 1997 as the fifth and final single and title track from her album  The Trouble with the Truth 
The song charted for 20 weeks on the Billboard Hot Country Singles and Tracks chart, reaching number 15 during the week of July 12, 1997 

Other versions
Joan Baez also cut a version of the song during an early 1990s recording session in Nashville, but the recording remained unissued until released in 2012 as a bonus track on the remastered rerelease of her 1992 album Play Me Backwards 

Chart positions
Passage 5:
Zeferino Martins
Zeferino Martins, also known as Ze Martins (born September 5, 1985) is an East Timorese footballer who plays as midfielder for Ad  Dili Oeste and the Timor-Leste national team 
Passage 6:
Sambas Regency
Sambas Regency is the most northerly regency in West Kalimantan Province of Indonesia  The regency is one of the original regencies in West Kalimantan, but on 20 April 1999 the southern districts were removed from Sambas Regency to form a new Bengkayang Regency (then including the town of Singkawang)  The residual regency now covers 6,394 70 km2, and had a population of 496,120 at the 2010 census and 629,905 at the 2020 census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 647,844  The principal town lies at Sambas 

History
The famous Sambas Treasure, a collection of 9th century Buddhist sculptures, was found near Sambas Town  It is now part of the British Museum's collection 
In the Sambas riots in 1999 Malays and Dayaks joined to massacre the Madurese during the conflict  Madurese were mutilated, raped, and killed by the Malays and Dayaks and 3,000 of them died in the massacres, with the Indonesian government doing little to stop the violence 

Adjoining Regencies and City
Population
At the 2010 census, Sambas Regency had a population of 496,120, which by the 2020 census had grown to 629,905 people, and by mid 2022 was estimated at 647,844 (consisting of 331,046 males and 316,798 females), with an average density of 101 3 people per km2 

Watershed
Sambas has three watersheds (total: 516,200 ha): the Sambas watershed (258,700 ha), the Paloh watershed (64,375 ha), and the Sebangkau watershed (193,125 ha) 

Administrative Districts
Sambas Regency consists of nineteen districts (kecamatan), tabulated below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 census and the 2020 census, and the official estimates as at mid 2022 (rounded to nearest 100 persons)  The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, the number of administrative villages in each district (all rural desa), and its post code 

List of Sambas Regents and Vice Regents
Passage 7:
Estanislau da Silva
Estanislau da Conceição Aleixo Maria da Silva (born 4 August 1952) is an East Timorese politician and a key member of Fretilin  He was acting Prime Minister from May 2007 to August 2007 
A member of Fretilin since 1974, Da Silva served on the diplomatic front for the East Timorese resistance during the years of the Indonesian occupation of Timor-Leste (1975 to 1999)  During the occupation, Da Silva resided in Mozambique (1976 to 1984), Portugal (1975 to 1976 and 1984 to 1985) and Australia (1985 to 1999), before returning to Timor-Leste in 1999 
After Timor-Leste achieved independence in 2002, Da Silva was appointed as the country's first Minister for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries  On 10 July 2006, he was sworn in as the First Deputy Prime Minister of Timor-Leste  He was sworn in as the acting Prime Minister on 19 May 2007 to replace José Ramos-Horta who had been elected President of the young nation  He left office when Xanana Gusmão was sworn in as Prime Minister on 8 August 2007, following the June 2007 parliamentary election 

Early life
Da Silva was born in Dili in 1952 to Luis da Silva and Genoveva Aleixo  He attended primary school from 1961-1962 to 1964-1965 in Fuiloro - Lautém district, and Dili Technical School from 1965-1966 to 1970-1971  Upon graduation from Dili Technical School, Da Silva went to Lisbon to pursue further training in electrical and mechanical engineering 

Political activities
Da Silva joined Fretilin in 1974 and was a founding member of the Fretilin External Branch in Lisbon 
In 1976, Da Silva interrupted his studies in Lisbon and was sent to Australia by the Fretilin leadership to lobby support for Timor-Leste's independence struggle  During that time, Australian supporters of Timor-Leste's independence struggle (Campaign for Independence of East Timor - CIET) requested that Da Silva assist Neville Cunningham and António Belo to operate and maintain a radio connection to the Fretilin leadership based in Timor-Leste  As Da Silva was not an Australian resident, he had to operate the radio secretly and spent six months in bush of Australia's Northern Territory  
In September 1976, Da Silva and Cunningham were tracked down and arrested by the Northern Territory Police Force and the radio link severed  Da Silva was released after a one-day trial and left Australia for Mozambique  The radio link was later re-established by Fretilin members and Australian supporters of Timor-Leste's struggle for independence 
Upon his return to Australia in 1985, Da Silva campaigned tirelessly for Timor-Leste's independence  This included speaking at public forums, organising demonstrations against the illegal Indonesian occupation, organising fundraising activities and lobbying MPs  Da Silva also maintained regular contact with the clandestine movement and the Fretilin leadership in Timor-Leste and assisted in helping people at risk of persecution escape Timor-Leste and settle in Australia  In 1994 he became the Fretilin representative in Australia 
Da Silva was voted into the Fretilin Central Committee in 1998 at the Fretilin National Conference held in Sydney, Australia  His mandate was renewed at the First National Congress in 2001 as well as the Second National Congress which was held in May 2006  He was elected chairperson in both events  He is also one of the 15 members of the National Political Commission of Fretilin which leads the work of the party between the Fretilin Central Committee meetings 
He was re-elected to a seat in parliament in the June 2007 parliamentary election as the ninth name on Fretilin's candidate list 

Education and professional career
Da Silva studied Agronomy at Eduardo Mondlane University, and worked at Marracuene state enterprise as the Chief Agronomist for the Mozambican government  He also attended the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics in India for short training courses in agriculture systems for arid and semi arid regions 
Whilst in Australia, Da Silva continued his studies in agronomy at the University of Sydney, where he completed a post-graduate diploma in Agronomy in 1987  In 1988 Da Silva was employed by the New South Wales Agricultural Department at the Trangie Research Agricultural Centre and from 1994 to 1997 worked at the Australian Cotton Research Institute in Narrabri 
In 1999, Da Silva returned to Timor-Leste  He worked as a World Bank consultant for agriculture and later as Asian Development Bank project manager for infrastructure before becoming Minister for Agriculture during the second United Nations transitional government  In May 2002, upon the restoration of independence of Timor Leste, Da Silva became the Minister for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 
In 2002, Da Silva completed a two-year post-graduate training course in management and leadership provided by the Asian Development Bank Institute in Tokyo, Japan 
Da Silva is a capable and respected administrator and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is one of the success stories of an independent Timor Leste  Under Da Silva, Timor-Leste's rice production increased every year except for in 2006 where the political crisis had a negative effect on the country's institutions and economy as a whole  During this time Timor-Leste's rice import dependency was reduced from two thirds to one third of domestic consumption 
Da Silva is fluent in English, Portuguese and Tetum 
Passage 8:
Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship
The Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission on Truth and Friendship (more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym CVA, Comissão Verdade e Amizade) was a truth commission established jointly by the governments of Indonesia and East Timor in August 2005  The commission was officially created to investigate acts of violence that occurred around the independence referendum held in East Timor in 1999 and sought to find the "conclusive truth" behind the events  After holding private hearings and document reviews, the commission handed in the final report on July 15, 2008 to the presidents of both nations, and was fully endorsed by Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, providing the first acknowledgement by the government of Indonesia of the human rights violations committed by state institutions in Timor  The commission is notable for being the first modern truth commission to be bilateral 

Background
East Timor was originally colonized by the Portuguese, and remained a colony up until the fall of the military dictatorship in 1974  East Timor declared independence soon afterwards, but Indonesia soon decided to intervene as it became clear that the government of the new state would most likely be leftist  The Indonesian government began Operation Komodo, which was intended to bring about the integration of the East Timorese territory  It began with a propaganda campaign, but after the outbreak of conflict in East Timor, the Indonesian military began a campaign on 7 October starting with an assault on a border post and accumulating with a full-scale invasion utilizing paratroopers and naval support  The United Nations quickly condemned the invasion via resolution, but due to resistance in the Security council, no further action was taken  The United States also tacitly gave their approval, as the dismantling of a pro-communist government helped advance the policy of containment being pursued by the government 
Indonesia occupied the territory for the following two decades  During the administration of the Habibie government, a referendum was held in the occupied area asking if the residents of the area wished to remain a part of Indonesia  Even before the referendum, there was harassment by militia groups in the area, with UN workers being attacked in Maliana  It soon became clear in the wake of the referendum that the referendum result would be overwhelmingly in favor of the "no" option on the ballot; this raised tensions to a boiling point, and within two hours of the announcement of the results, armed militia groups began attacking civilians  Militia continued to attack civilians as they withdrew from the country, and several massacres occurred as the troops filtered out of the area  A UN peacekeeping force known as INTERFET was deployed to stabilize the situation, made up of mostly Australian troops, and was withdrawn with the arrival of normal UN peacekeepers  East Timor eventually transitioned from a UN mandate to an independent country 

Report
The commission itself was announced in August 2006 and sought to establish "the conclusive truth regarding human rights violations to have occurred prior to, immediately after the Popular Consultation on 30 August 1999" as well as "prepare recommendations that can contribute to healing wounds of the past and strengthen friendship"  The timing of the commission's creation was criticized by some, as it was believed that it was created to intentionally subvert calls for an international tribunal to deal with the events surrounding the 1999 plebiscite  The commission's mandate allowed it to review documents pertaining to four other inquiries surrounding the events that predated it: "The Indonesian National Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights Violations in East Timor in 1999", "The Indonesian Ad Hoc Human Rights Court on East Timor", "The Special Panels for Serious Crimes", and "The Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation" The commission was made up of four members appointed from each nation, and these commissioners were instructed to conduct a document review and analyze previous trials and investigations into the subject, including the UN Special Panels for Serious Crimes and Serious Crime Units in Dili, and the report of the Commission of Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste  The commission also stated its intent to research the "historical background, political dynamics, and institutional structures that shaped events before and during 1999" to "inform its conclusions with a broader understanding of the way in which the causes of the violence in 1999 were connected to previously established institutional structures and practices "Operating over three years, the commission gave its final report on July 15, 2008, and presented it to the Presidents of Indonesia and East Timor, concluding that "gross human rights violations in the form of crimes against humanity did occur in East Timor in 1999" and that "pro-autonomy militia groups, TNI, the Indonesian civil government, and Polri must all bear institutional responsibility", as well as stating that "from a moral and political perspective the respective states must accept state responsibility for the violations identified in the report " The commission also made recommendations that both nations begin institutional reform enhancing the strength of investigative and prosecuting bodies involved with investigations into the events, as well as forming joint security policy to ensure the safety of individuals in case of the recurrence of violence  It also noted the need to resolve other standing border and security issues between the two nations to allow for more cooperation  Notably, the report gave no recommendations of amnesty or rehabilitation  The report was endorsed by the president of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, making it the first recognition of the Indonesian government's complicity in human rights violations in East Timor by Indonesia 

Reception
In Indonesia and Timor, the report was presented to both governments and accepted by both the Timorese and Indonesian governments  However, Timorese NGO Timor-Leste National Alliance for International Tribunal wrote an open letter in response to the commission's findings with several criticisms, including the lack of public consultation with victims and parliamentary approval of the commission, as well as noting that the commission assigned institutional responsibility rather than individual responsibility, "which is contrary to the principles of international laws which were ratified by the state of Timor-Leste and to Article 160 of its constitution which says that there must be a justice process for crimes against humanity ", as well as stating their belief that the CAVR was a more trustworthy and support worthy commission for the government to support Internationally, the report had a mixed reception  Some, such as the War Crimes Studies Center at the University of California, Berkeley, said that the commission could be seen as "widely acknowledged as credible and far-reaching ", noting that the Indonesian government's affirmation of the results was important and that the commission made arguments that "there was credible evidence to indicate that Timorese institutions were also responsible for illegal detentions and possibly other crimes "

See also
History of East Timor
Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor
Indonesian occupation of East Timor
Santa Cruz massacre



ground_truth: Yongjia County

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the president of the newly declared independent country that is part of the Commission of Truth and Friendship with the country where Sambas is located?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: The King's Speech won the People's Choice Award at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival, Best British Independent Film at the 2010 British Independent Film Awards, and the 2011 Goya Award for Best European Film from the Academia de las Artes y las Ciencias Cinematográficas de España (Spanish Academy of Cinematic Art and Science) 

See also
Bertie & Elizabeth (2002), a television film which also addresses the stammering of the king (played by James Wilby)  It was a co-production of PBS (Masterpiece Theatre) and Carlton Television 
Passage 3:
Gunhilde
Gunhilde (or Gunnhild) (died 13 November 1002) is said to have been the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark, and the daughter of Harald Bluetooth  She was married to Pallig, a Dane who served the King of England, Æthelred the Unready, as ealdorman of Devonshire She is supposed to have been a hostage in England when she was killed in the St  Brice's Day massacre, ordered by Æthelred  Pallig is reported alternatively to have been killed in the massacre or to have provoked the massacre by deserting Æthelred's service Historians are divided about the strength of the evidence that she was Sweyn Forkbeard's sister  Ryan Lavelle is sceptical of the reliability of the later medieval sources, such as the Chronicle of John of Wallingford, which mention her  However, Frank Stenton described the claim as a "well recorded tradition", and considered that a desire to avenge her death was probably a principal motive for Sweyn's invasion of England in 1003, leading to the eventual conquest of England by his son Cnut 
Passage 4:
George VI
George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death on 6 February 1952  He was also the last Emperor of India from 1936 until the British Raj was dissolved in August 1947, and the first Head of the Commonwealth following the London Declaration of 1949 
The future George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Victoria; he was named Albert at birth after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort, and was known as "Bertie" to his family and close friends  His father ascended the throne as George V in 1910  As the second son of the king, Albert was not expected to inherit the throne  He spent his early life in the shadow of his elder brother, Prince Edward, the heir apparent  Albert attended naval college as a teenager and served in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force during the First World War  In 1920, he was made Duke of York  He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923, and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret  In the mid-1920s, he engaged speech therapist Lionel Logue to treat his stutter, which he learned to manage to some degree  His elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII after their father died in 1936, but Edward abdicated later that year to marry the twice-divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson  As heir presumptive to Edward VIII, Albert thereby became the third monarch of the House of Windsor, taking the regnal name George VI 
In September 1939, the British Empire and most Commonwealth countries—but not Ireland—declared war on Nazi Germany  War with the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively  George VI was seen as sharing the hardships of the common people and his popularity soared  Buckingham Palace was bombed during the Blitz while the King and Queen were there, and his younger brother the Duke of Kent was killed on active service  George became known as a symbol of British determination to win the war  Britain and its allies were victorious in 1945, but the British Empire declined  Ireland had largely broken away, followed by the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947  George relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948 and instead adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth  He was beset by smoking-related health problems in the later years of his reign and died at Sandringham House, aged 56, of a coronary thrombosis in 1952  He was succeeded by his elder daughter, Elizabeth II 

Early life
Albert was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria  His father was Prince George, Duke of York (later King George V), the second and only surviving son of the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra)  His mother, the Duchess of York (later Queen Mary), was the eldest child and only daughter of Francis, Duke of Teck, and Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck  His birthday, 14 December 1895, was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort  Uncertain of how the Prince Consort's widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been "rather distressed"  Two days later, he wrote again: "I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her "The Queen was mollified by the proposal to name the new baby Albert, and wrote to the Duchess of York: "I am all impatience to see the new one, born on such a sad day but rather more dear to me, especially as he will be called by that dear name which is a byword for all that is great and good " Consequently, he was baptised "Albert Frederick Arthur George" at St Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham on 17 February 1896  Formally he was His Highness Prince Albert of York; within the royal family he was known informally as "Bertie"  The Duchess of Teck did not like the first name her grandson had been given, and she wrote prophetically that she hoped the last name "may supplant the less favoured one"  Albert was fourth in line to the throne at birth, after his grandfather, father and elder brother, Edward 
Albert was ill often and was described as "easily frightened and somewhat prone to tears"  His parents were generally removed from their children's day-to-day upbringing, as was the norm in aristocratic families of that era  He had a stutter that lasted for many years  Although naturally left-handed, he was forced to write with his right hand, as was common practice at the time  He had chronic stomach problems as well as knock knees, for which he was forced to wear painful corrective splints Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901, and the Prince of Wales succeeded her as King Edward VII  Prince Albert moved up to third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother 

Military career and education
Beginning in 1909, Albert attended the Royal Naval College, Osborne, as a naval cadet  In 1911 he came bottom of the class in the final examination, but despite this he progressed to the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth  When his grandfather Edward VII died in 1910, his father became King George V  Prince Edward became Prince of Wales, with Albert second in line to the throne Albert spent the first six months of 1913 on the training ship HMS Cumberland in the West Indies and on the east coast of Canada  He was rated as a midshipman aboard HMS Collingwood on 15 September 1913  He spent three months in the Mediterranean, but never overcame his seasickness  Three weeks after the outbreak of World War I he was medically evacuated from the ship to Aberdeen, where his appendix was removed by Sir John Marnoch  He was mentioned in dispatches for his actions as a turret officer aboard Collingwood in the Battle of Jutland (31 May – 1 June 1916), the great naval battle of the war  He did not see further combat, largely because of ill health caused by a duodenal ulcer, for which he had an operation in November 1917 In February 1918 Albert was appointed Officer in Charge of Boys at the Royal Naval Air Service's training establishment at Cranwell  With the establishment of the Royal Air Force Albert transferred from the Royal Navy to the Royal Air Force  He served as Officer Commanding Number 4 Squadron of the Boys' Wing at Cranwell until August 1918, before reporting for duty on the staff of the RAF's Cadet Brigade at St Leonards-on-Sea and then at Shorncliffe  He completed a fortnight's training and took command of a squadron on the Cadet Wing  He was the first member of the British royal family to be certified as a fully qualified pilot Albert wanted to serve on the Continent while the war was still in progress and welcomed a posting to General Trenchard's staff in France  On 23 October, he flew across the Channel to Autigny  For the closing weeks of the war, he served on the staff of the RAF's Independent Air Force at its headquarters in Nancy, France  Following the disbanding of the Independent Air Force in November 1918, he remained on the Continent for two months as an RAF staff officer until posted back to Britain  He accompanied King Albert I of Belgium on his triumphal re-entry into Brussels on 22 November  Prince Albert qualified as an RAF pilot on 31 July 1919 and was promoted to squadron leader the following day In October 1919, Albert went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied history, economics and civics for a year, with the historian R  V  Laurence as his "official mentor"  On 4 June 1920 his father created him Duke of York, Earl of Inverness and Baron Killarney  He began to take on more royal duties  He represented his father and toured coal mines, factories, and railyards  Through such visits he acquired the nickname of the "Industrial Prince"  His stutter, and his embarrassment over it, together with a tendency to shyness, caused him to appear less confident in public than his older brother, Edward  However, he was physically active and enjoyed playing tennis  He played at Wimbledon in the Men's Doubles with Louis Greig in 1926, losing in the first round  He developed an interest in working conditions, and was president of the Industrial Welfare Society  His series of annual summer camps for boys between 1921 and 1939 brought together boys from different social backgrounds 

Marriage
In a time when royalty were expected to marry fellow royalty, it was unusual that Albert had a great deal of freedom in choosing a prospective wife  An infatuation with the already-married Australian socialite Lady Loughborough came to an end in April 1920 when the King, with the promise of the dukedom of York, persuaded Albert to stop seeing her  That year, he met for the first time since childhood Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, the youngest daughter of the Earl and Countess of Strathmore  He became determined to marry her  Elizabeth rejected his proposal twice, in 1921 and 1922, reportedly because she was reluctant to make the sacrifices necessary to become a member of the royal family  In the words of Lady Strathmore, Albert would be "made or marred" by his choice of wife  After a protracted courtship, Elizabeth agreed to marry him Albert and Elizabeth were married on 26 April 1923 in Westminster Abbey  Albert's marriage to someone not of royal birth was considered a modernising gesture  The newly formed British Broadcasting Company wished to record and broadcast the event on radio, but the Abbey Chapter vetoed the idea (although the Dean, Herbert Edward Ryle, was in favour) 

From December 1924 to April 1925, the Duke and Duchess toured Kenya, Uganda, and the Sudan, travelling via the Suez Canal and Aden  During the trip, they both went big-game hunting Because of his stutter, Albert dreaded public speaking  After his closing speech at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on 31 October 1925, one which was an ordeal for both him and his listeners, he began to see Lionel Logue, an Australian-born speech therapist  The Duke and Logue practised breathing exercises, and the Duchess rehearsed with him patiently  Subsequently, he was able to speak with less hesitation  With his delivery improved, Albert opened the new Parliament House in Canberra, Australia, during a tour of the empire with the Duchess in 1927  Their journey by sea to Australia, New Zealand and Fiji took them via Jamaica, where Albert played doubles tennis partnered with a black man, Bertrand Clark, which was unusual at the time and taken locally as a display of equality between races The Duke and Duchess had two children: Elizabeth (called "Lilibet" by the family, and the future Elizabeth II) who was born in 1926, and Margaret who was born in 1930  The close family lived at White Lodge, Richmond Park, and then at 145 Piccadilly, rather than one of the royal palaces  In 1931, the Canadian prime minister, R  B  Bennett, considered Albert for Governor General of Canada—a proposal that King George V rejected on the advice of the Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, J  H  Thomas 

Reign
Reluctant king
King George V had severe reservations about Prince Edward, saying "After I am dead, the boy will ruin himself in twelve months" and "I pray God that my eldest son will never marry and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne " On 20 January 1936, George V died and Edward ascended the throne as King Edward VIII  In the Vigil of the Princes, Prince Albert and his three brothers (the new king, Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, and Prince George, Duke of Kent) took a shift standing guard over their father's body as it lay in state, in a closed casket, in Westminster Hall 
As Edward was unmarried and had no children, Albert was the heir presumptive to the throne  Less than a year later, on 11 December 1936, Edward abdicated in order to marry Wallis Simpson, who was divorced from her first husband and divorcing her second  Edward had been advised by British prime minister Stanley Baldwin that he could not remain king and marry a divorced woman with two living ex-husbands  He abdicated and Albert, though he had been reluctant to accept the throne, became king  The day before the abdication, Albert went to London to see his mother, Queen Mary  He wrote in his diary, "When I told her what had happened, I broke down and sobbed like a child "On the day of Edward's abdication, the Oireachtas, the parliament of the Irish Free State, removed all direct mention of the monarch from the Irish constitution  The next day, it passed the External Relations Act, which gave the monarch limited authority (strictly on the advice of the government) to appoint diplomatic representatives for Ireland and to be involved in the making of foreign treaties  The two acts made the Irish Free State a republic in essence without removing its links to the Commonwealth Across Britain, gossip spread that Albert was physically and psychologically incapable of being king  No evidence has been found to support the contemporaneous rumour that the government considered bypassing him, his children and his brother Prince Henry, in favour of their younger brother Prince George, Duke of Kent  This seems to have been suggested on the grounds that Prince George was at that time the only brother with a son 

Early reign
Albert assumed the regnal name "George VI" to emphasise continuity with his father and restore confidence in the monarchy  The beginning of George VI's reign was taken up by questions surrounding his predecessor and brother, whose titles, style and position were uncertain  He had been introduced as "His Royal Highness Prince Edward" for the abdication broadcast, but George VI felt that by abdicating and renouncing the succession, Edward had lost the right to bear royal titles, including "Royal Highness"  In settling the issue, George's first act as king was to confer upon his brother the title "Duke of Windsor" with the style "Royal Highness", but the letters patent creating the dukedom prevented any wife or children from bearing royal styles  George VI was forced to buy from Edward the royal residences of Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House, as these were private properties and did not pass to him automatically  Three days after his accession, on his 41st birthday, he invested his wife, the new queen consort, with the Order of the Garter 

George VI's coronation at Westminster Abbey took place on 12 May 1937, the date previously intended for Edward's coronation  In a break with tradition, his mother Queen Mary attended the ceremony in a show of support for her son  There was no Durbar held in Delhi for George VI, as had occurred for his father, as the cost would have been a burden to the Government of India  Rising Indian nationalism made the welcome that the royal party would have received likely to be muted at best, and a prolonged absence from Britain would have been undesirable in the tense period before the Second World War  Two overseas tours were undertaken, to France and to North America, both of which promised greater strategic advantages in the event of war The growing likelihood of war in Europe dominated the early reign of George VI  The King was constitutionally bound to support British prime minister Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler  When the King and Queen greeted Chamberlain on his return from negotiating the Munich Agreement in 1938, they invited him to appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with them  This public association of the monarchy with a politician was exceptional, as balcony appearances were traditionally restricted to the royal family  While broadly popular among the general public, Chamberlain's policy towards Hitler was the subject of some opposition in the House of Commons, which led historian John Grigg to describe George's behaviour in associating himself so prominently with a politician as "the most unconstitutional act by a British sovereign in the present century" 

In May and June 1939, the King and Queen toured Canada and the United States; it was the first visit of a reigning British monarch to North America, although George had been to Canada prior to his accession  From Ottawa, George and Elizabeth were accompanied by Canadian prime minister Mackenzie King, to present themselves in North America as King and Queen of Canada  Both Mackenzie King and the Canadian governor general, Lord Tweedsmuir, hoped that George's presence in Canada would demonstrate the principles of the Statute of Westminster 1931, which gave full sovereignty to the British Dominions  On 19 May, George personally accepted and approved the Letter of Credence of the new U S  ambassador to Canada, Daniel Calhoun Roper; gave royal assent to nine parliamentary bills; and ratified two   international treaties with the Great Seal of Canada  The official royal tour historian, Gustave Lanctot, wrote "the Statute of Westminster had assumed full reality" and George gave a speech emphasising "the free and equal association of the nations of the Commonwealth" The trip was intended to soften the strong isolationist tendencies among the North American public with regard to the developing tensions in Europe  Although the aim of the tour was mainly political, to shore up Atlantic support for the United Kingdom in any future war, the King and Queen were enthusiastically received by the public  The fear that George would be compared unfavourably to his predecessor was dispelled  They visited the 1939 New York World's Fair and stayed with President Franklin D  Roosevelt at the White House and at his private estate at Hyde Park, New York  A strong bond of friendship was forged between Roosevelt and the royal couple during the tour, which had major significance in the relations between the United States and the United Kingdom through the ensuing war years 

Second World War
Following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the United Kingdom and the self-governing Dominions other than Ireland declared war on Nazi Germany  The King and Queen resolved to stay in London, despite German bombing raids  They officially stayed in Buckingham Palace throughout the war, although they usually spent nights at Windsor Castle  The first night of the Blitz on London, on 7 September 1940, killed about one thousand civilians, mostly in the East End  On 13 September, the couple narrowly avoided death when two German bombs exploded in a courtyard at Buckingham Palace while they were there  In defiance, Elizabeth declared: "I am glad we have been bombed  It makes me feel we can look the East End in the face " The royal family were portrayed as sharing the same dangers and deprivations as the rest of the country  They were subject to British rationing restrictions, and U S  First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt remarked on the rationed food served and the limited bathwater that was permitted during a stay at the unheated and boarded-up Palace  In August 1942, the King's brother, the Duke of Kent, was killed on active service 

In 1940, Winston Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as prime minister, though personally George would have preferred to appoint Lord Halifax  After the King's initial dismay over Churchill's appointment of Lord Beaverbrook to the Cabinet, he and Churchill developed "the closest personal relationship in modern British history between a monarch and a Prime Minister"  Every Tuesday for four and a half years from September 1940, the two men met privately for lunch to discuss the war in secret and with frankness  George related much of what the two discussed in his diary, which is the only extant first-hand account of these conversations Throughout the war, George and Elizabeth provided morale-boosting visits throughout the United Kingdom, visiting bomb sites, munitions factories, and troops  George visited military forces abroad in France in December 1939, North Africa and Malta in June 1943, Normandy in June 1944, southern Italy in July 1944, and the Low Countries in October 1944  Their high public profile and apparently indefatigable determination secured their place as symbols of national resistance  At a social function in 1944, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Field Marshal Alan Brooke, revealed that every time he met Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, he thought Montgomery was after his job  George replied: "You should worry, when I meet him, I always think he's after mine!"In 1945, crowds shouted "We want the King!" in front of Buckingham Palace during the Victory in Europe Day celebrations  In an echo of Chamberlain's appearance, the King invited Churchill to appear with the royal family on the balcony to public acclaim  In January 1946, George addressed the United Nations at its first assembly, which was held in London, and reaffirmed "our faith in the equal rights of men and women and of nations great and small" 

Empire to Commonwealth
George VI's reign saw the acceleration of the dissolution of the British Empire  The Statute of Westminster 1931 had already acknowledged the evolution of the Dominions into separate sovereign states  The process of transformation from an empire to a voluntary association of independent states, known as the Commonwealth, gathered pace after the Second World War  During the ministry of Clement Attlee, British India became the two independent Dominions of India and Pakistan in August 1947  George relinquished the title of Emperor of India, and became King of India and King of Pakistan instead  In late April 1949, the Commonwealth leaders issued the London Declaration, which laid the foundation of the modern Commonwealth and recognised George as Head of the Commonwealth  In January 1950, he ceased to be King of India when it became a republic  He remained King of Pakistan until his death  Other countries left the Commonwealth, such as Burma in January 1948, Palestine (divided between Israel and the Arab states) in May 1948 and the Republic of Ireland in 1949 In 1947, George and his family toured southern Africa  The prime minister of the Union of South Africa, Jan Smuts, was facing an election and hoped to make political capital out of the visit  George was appalled, however, when instructed by the South African government to shake hands only with whites, and referred to his South African bodyguards as "the Gestapo"  Despite the tour, Smuts lost the election the following year, and the new government instituted a strict policy of racial segregation 

Illness and death
The stress of the war had taken its toll on George's health, made worse by his heavy smoking, and subsequent development of lung cancer among other ailments, including arteriosclerosis and Buerger's disease  A planned tour of Australia and New Zealand was postponed after George developed an arterial blockage in his right leg, which threatened the loss of the leg and was treated with a right lumbar sympathectomy in March 1949  His elder daughter and heir presumptive, Elizabeth, took on more royal duties as her father's health deteriorated  The delayed tour was re-organised, with Princess Elizabeth and her husband, Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, taking the place of the King and Queen 
George was well enough to open the Festival of Britain in May 1951, but on 4 June it was announced that he would need immediate and complete rest for the next four weeks, despite the arrival of Haakon VII of Norway the following afternoon for an official visit  On 23 September 1951, he underwent a surgical operation where his entire left lung was removed by Clement Price Thomas after a malignant tumour was found  In October 1951, Elizabeth and Philip went on a month-long tour of Canada; the trip had been delayed for a week due to George's illness  At the State Opening of Parliament in November, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Simonds, read the King's speech from the throne  The King's Christmas broadcast of 1951 was recorded in sections, and then edited together On 31 January 1952, despite advice from those close to him, George went to London Airport to see Elizabeth and Philip off on their tour to Australia via Kenya  It was his last public appearance  Six days later, at 07:30 GMT on the morning of 6 February, he was found dead in bed at Sandringham House in Norfolk  He had died in the night from a coronary thrombosis at the age of 56  His daughter flew back to Britain from Kenya as Queen Elizabeth II From 9 February George's coffin rested in St Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham, before lying in state at Westminster Hall from 11 February  His funeral took place at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, on the 15th  He was interred initially in the Royal Vault until he was transferred to the King George VI Memorial Chapel inside St George's on 26 March 1969  In 2002, fifty years after his death, the remains of his widow, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, and the ashes of his younger daughter, Princess Margaret, who both died that year, were interred in the chapel alongside him  In 2022, the remains of Queen Elizabeth II and her husband, Prince Philip, were also interred in the chapel 

Legacy
In the words of Labour Member of Parliament (MP) George Hardie, the abdication crisis of 1936 did "more for republicanism than fifty years of propaganda"  George VI wrote to his brother Edward that in the aftermath of the abdication he had reluctantly assumed "a rocking throne" and tried "to make it steady again"  He became king at a point when public faith in the monarchy was at a low ebb  During his reign, his people endured the hardships of war, and imperial power was eroded  However, as a dutiful family man and by showing personal courage, he succeeded in restoring the popularity of the monarchy The George Cross and the George Medal were founded at the King's suggestion during the Second World War to recognise acts of exceptional civilian bravery  He bestowed the George Cross on the entire "island fortress of Malta" in 1943  He was posthumously awarded the Order of Liberation by the French government in 1960, one of only two people (the other being Churchill in 1958) to be awarded the medal after 1946 Colin Firth won an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance as George VI in the 2010 film The King's Speech 

Titles, honours and arms
As Duke of York, Albert bore the royal arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing an anchor azure—a difference earlier awarded to his father, George V, when he was Duke of York, and then later awarded to his grandson Prince Andrew, Duke of York  As king, he bore the royal arms undifferenced 

Issue
Ancestry
Notes
Passage 5:
Raymond Márquez
Raymond Márquez (born 1930), a k a  "Spanish Raymond", is an American criminal  He was the "king" of the illegal numbers racket in Harlem from the 1950s until his retirement in 2001 

Early years
Márquez's parents moved from Puerto Rico to New York City in the late 1920s and settled in the Harlem section of Manhattan  He was born and raised in Harlem; there he also received his primary and secondary education  His father was able to establish a grocery store; however, the family economic situation was not a good one and when Márquez graduated from Textile High School in 1947, at the age of 17, his parents were unable to send him to college 

Harlem numbers racket and legal battles
In 1947, Márquez looked upon people who were prosperous, well dressed and involved in numbers activities as his role models  He began his career in the Harlem numbers racket as a pickup boy  As a pick up boy, he would go around Harlem, gathering the betting slips from the runners  The runners are those who solicited the wagers from the betting customers  Márquez would then turn in the slips to a regional controller and eventually the listed slips would end up at the headquarters of the gambling organization, known as a bank  Márquez branched out for himself within a year and gained a reputation for paying winning customers promptly Márquez had few legal scrapes during his early years  By 1958, law enforcement authorities publicly identified him as an underworld kingpin  and that is when an investigator from the New York Police Department (NYPD), nicknamed him "Spanish Raymond", a moniker which has stood since then  Also in 1958, Márquez was accused in a killing related to his gambling activities  A grand jury failed to indict him for the murder  Márquez acknowledged bribing the police in the 1950s and 1960s to prevent raids on his illicit network  Márquez also was believed to have paid a percentage of his profits to Mafia boss Anthony "Fat Tony" Salerno  Márquez denied that he did business with the Mafia, and said that while he was friends with Salerno he was not a business partner 

First conviction
In 1969, Márquez was arrested by the FBI on Federal gambling and extortion charges  He was convicted and sentenced to concurrent terms of three and five years imprisonment  He served a total of five years from 1970 to 1975  In 1975  he was released and continued in his former activities  This was during the post Knapp Commission era in which the NYPD was the focus of a scandal arising from pervasive corruption and the crackdown on the numbers racket was sidelined due to a moratorium on numbers gambling resulting from concerns that systemic corruption of the NYPD would continue to flourish  Protection payoffs to the police were no longer necessary Two years after his release from prison, in 1977, Márquez was briefly kidnapped, and was freed after payment of $8,100 in jewelry as ransom by his wife  He was found in the trunk of his car in Flushing, Queens  Márquez was identified in The New York Times as allegedly running a $25 million a year numbers racket Márquez received attention in the late 1970s, when a New York State Supreme Court justice, Andrew Tyler, was convicted of perjury for allegedly lying about a meeting with Márquez in 1975  The conviction was overturned in 1978 

Controversial investments
In April 1994, he was arrested on state gambling charges  Prosecutors claimed that he had amassed a small fortune by illegal means and that therefore said fortune should be confiscated  The indictment led to a legal battle over attempts by city authorities to seize $6 5 million from him in unpaid taxes from wealth that they say was generated by illegal activities from 1990 to 1993  The prosecutors contended that Márquez and his organization handled about $30 million a year in wagers that were made at 41 parlors and that his organization faxed the reported earnings to his wife's yacht  His wife, Alice, also pleaded guilty to a gambling charge Márquez claimed that his wife had accumulated a fortune, including three motels, a 63-foot yacht and a home in Great Neck, New York, through legitimate investments  It was later shown that the home, the yacht and motels had all been acquired prior to 1990 In 1995, Márquez was indicted on 221 counts of running a criminal enterprise  The charges were reduced to two counts, a "C" felony for attempted enterprise corruption and "E" felony for promoting gambling 

Dramatic arrests
On January 13, 1995, 500 NYPD police officers raided 69 locations, including nearly a dozen money banks, which were allegedly under the Márquez family's control  Police arrested 75 employees on felony gambling charges, confiscated over $100,000 in cash, and seized over a dozen keys to safety deposit boxes According to a law enforcement official, the operation was managed by his two nephews, Peter and Robert Márquez Jr , grossed between $25 and $30 million per year, and was headquartered in a row of four contiguous buildings on St  Nicholas Avenue and 113th Street which were connected by a series of doors, tunnels and trapdoors  Robert and Peter Márquez were arrested, along with their sister, Christine, and father Fernando 

An ill-advised plea bargain
In April 1996, Márquez pleaded guilty after making an agreement with the District Attorney's office to forfeit $1 million and to serve a 90-day jail sentence with four years and nine months of probation However, it was discovered by the Appeals Bureau at the D A 's office that a split sentence with a "C" felony was reserved only for those with a narcotics conviction, thus making the deal invalid  Márquez's lawyer sought to withdraw the guilty plea, which was denied by the court  Márquez was sentenced to five years' probation and a $1 million fine In 1998, Márquez and three associates were indicted on 52 counts and charged with running a criminal organization, in the culmination of a year-long NYPD investigation  The prosecution built a case on circumstantial evidence consisting of recordings of Márquez's cell-phone conversations and numerous surveillance videos and photographs of him driving by reputed gambling parlors  Márquez, who was represented by his son, claimed that he was doing research on his autobiography and that was the reason that he showed up on the surveillance tapes  He and three co-defendants were all acquitted after a three-month trial 

Lawsuit against New York City
In 2001, Márquez sued the City of New York for $15 million, claiming that he contracted bladder cancer caused by the secondhand cigarette smoke he inhaled at Rikers Island and the Tombs while confined there for 29 months in the 1990s  Márquez admitted he smoked for three decades before quitting in the 1970s  His son and lawyer, David Márquez, maintained that he had not inhaled deeply when he smoked, that the ventilation system at Rikers Island was inadequate, and that by the time he went to Rikers he hadn't smoked in 23 years  In 2008, a jury rejected the claim after a trial in New York State Supreme Court 

Retirement
Márquez announced his retirement in 2001, saying that he was fed up of being targeted by the office of Manhattan's District Attorney Robert M  Morgenthau  In an interview with the New York Daily News, Márquez described the numbers game as "a source of entertainment to the people" and professed his innocence to the various criminal charges that had been leveled against him over the years  Prosecutors responded that Márquez's "saint act doesn't ring true" and that numbers rackets enforce their control through violence Márquez runs and manages hotels in Commack, Long Island, and Fort Lauderdale, Florida  In 2011, Márquez was targeted by New York City authorities for owing $1 6 million in unincorporated business taxes, making him one of the city's top scofflaws  His son said Márquez would never pay it, saying that Márquez was judgement-proof 

See also
List of Puerto Ricans

Further reading
Gangsters of Harlem by Ron Chepesiuk; Publisher: Barricade Books; ISBN 1-56980-318-8; ISBN 978-1-56980-318-9



ground_truth: Francisco Guterres