prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the son of the Italian navigator who explored the eastern coast of the continent Ulises Solís' birthplace is located in for England?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Ulises Solís
José Ulises Solís Pérez (born 28 August 1981) is a Mexican former professional boxer who competed from 2000 to 2013  He held the IBF junior flyweight title twice in his career from 2006 to 2009 and from 2011 to 2012  He is the brother of former boxer Jorge Solís 

Professional career
In April 2000, Solis won his professional debut against Adolfo Rosillo  He compiled a record of 18-0-1, which included a win over future champion Edgar Sosa 

WBO Light Flyweight Championship
On July 30, 2004, Solis challenged WBO Light Flyweight champion Nelson Dieppa but lost the twelve round bout 

IBF Light Flyweight Championship
On January 7, 2006, Solís defeated Will Grigsby for the IBF world championship title, by a unanimous decision (118-110, 117-111, 116-112)  He defended his title against former champion Eric Ortiz and Omar Salado 
On January 25, 2008, Solis faced Grigsby in a rematch and defeated him once again by stopping him in the 8th round  On May 19, 2007, Solis defeated former WBC world champion José Antonio Aguirre via an 8th round technical knock out  On August 4, 2007, he defeated Filipino future champion Rodel Mayol (23-1-0) by technical knockout  On December 15, 2007, Solis defended his title against Filipino veteran boxer Bert Batawang 
Solís was scheduled to face Glenn Donaire on May 17, 2008,  however, he was forced to back out after he came down with a serious case of pneumonia  The fight was rescheduled for July 12 at the Palenque De La Expo in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico  at Hermosillo, Monterrey, Mexico, 12 rounds  Solis retained the title by scoring a shutout on all 3 judges cards (by the scores of 120-108 twice and 120-117) On December 2, 2008, Solis defeated Nicaraguan Nerys Espinoza by unanimous decision  In total, he defended his IBF title eight times 
Solis lost the IBF light-flyweight title after he was knocked out in the 11th round of his title bout vs Brian Viloria  On March 27, 2010, Solis defeated Bert Batawang for a second time in an IBF light flyweight title eliminator bout after Batawang retired in the 6th round  Following that victory, Solis defeated former champion Eric Ortiz by a 10-round unanimous decision at the Grand Sierra Resort in Reno, NV commemorating the 100th anniversary of The Johnson-Jeffries Fight  During this time, Viloria lost the IBF title by knock out to Carlos Tamara, who in turn, lost the title by split decision to Luis Alberto Lazarte 

Regaining the IBF Light Flyweight Championship
On December 18, 2010, Solis fought IBF light flyweight champion Luis Alberto Lazarte to a controversial majority draw in Argentina  Solis outboxed Lazarte for the first half of the bout while a frustrated Lazarte repeatedly fouled Solis with illegal punches to the back of the head and below the belt, at one point, even going so far as to bite the challenger  The referee, Max Parker, who had trouble communicating with the fighters in Spanish, warned Lazarte throughout the bout, however, he ultimately only deducted two points from the defending champion  The final scores were 117-109 in favor of Solis while the other two judges controversially scored it 113-113 even  Solis' promoter, Fernando Beltran, is expected to file a formal protest to the IBF on his behalf On April 30, 2011, Solis faced Lazarte in a rematch of their controversial bout  Solis defeated Lazarte by a 12-round split decision in Argentina to claim the IBF light flyweight title 

Altercation with Canelo Álvarez and layoff
In October 2011, he got into a street fight against fellow Mexican boxer and four-division champion Canelo Álvarez resulting in a broken jaw  He planned to press charges against Álvarez but ultimately settled an agreement four years after the incident  Solís was forced to vacate his IBF light flyweight title and had a long lay off from the sport after that 

Professional boxing record
See also
Notable boxing families
List of IBF world champions
List of Mexican boxing world champions
Passage 2:
Wilkins Runway
Wilkins Runway is a single runway aerodrome operated by Australia, located on upper glacier of the ice sheet Preston Heath, Budd Coast, Wilkes Land, on the continent of Antarctica, but 40 km (25 mi) southeast of the actual coast  It is named after Sir Hubert Wilkins, a pioneer of Antarctic aviation and exploration 

History
Construction of a runway in the Australian Antarctic Territory was first suggested in the 1950s, but logistical, political and environmental issues delayed construction of the runway until 2004  The A$46 million dollar runway is carved into glacial ice, approximately 65 km (40 mi) from the Australian base at Casey Station 
In order to be approved by Australia's Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA), Wilkins must be levelled to runway standard with the use of lasers and requires a crew of eight to maintain the level and friction of the runway before each landing 

Activities
CASA issued an aviation licence for the airline Skytraders to operate passenger flights, and the first flight was made on 11 January 2008, carrying Australia's Environment Minister Peter Garrett, twelve scientists and six other passengers Flights to Antarctica leave from Hobart International Airport in Tasmania using an Airbus A319, and the flight takes around four hours  Prior to the runway's completion, the trip to Antarctica involved a ten-day journey by ship across the Southern Ocean from Hobart  The runway operates only during the Antarctic summer, and twenty to thirty flights per season are planned  The flights are used to transport scientists conducting Antarctic research, and are not available for tourist flights  However, since the opening of the runway, no more than 10 flights in one season have been achieved  This is primarily due to environmental conditions at the site, temperatures being warmer and causing melt of the runway, thus decreasing the window of opportunity to use the runway  As of January 2012, only four flights were planned for the summer season and all in February 2012 In 2015, the Royal Australian Air Force and the Australian Antarctic Division commenced cargo flights from Hobart International Airport to Wilkins Runway using C-17 Globemaster aircraft  The service will also be used for medical evacuations, if required  The C-17 was used as a faster and more frequent alternative to the Aurora Australis supply vessel In March 2022, Wilkins reported 15 successful flights 

Airlines and destinations
See also
List of airports in territories of Australia
List of airports in Antarctica
Aviation transport in Australia
Passage 3:
Sebastian Cabot (explorer)
Sebastian Cabot (Italian and Venetian: Sebastiano Caboto, Italian: [sebaˈstjaːno kaˈbɔːto]; Spanish: Sebastián Caboto, Gaboto or Cabot; c  1474 – c  December 1557) was a Venetian explorer, likely born in the Venetian Republic and a Venetian citizen  He was the son of Venetian explorer John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) and his Venetian wife Mattea 
After his father's death, Cabot conducted his own voyages of discovery, seeking the Northwest Passage through North America on behalf of England  He later sailed for Spain, traveling to South America, where he explored the Rio de la Plata and established two new forts 

Early life and education
Accounts differ as to Sebastian Cabot's place and date of birth   The historian James Williamson reviewed the evidence for various given dates in the 1480s and concluded that Sebastian was born not later than 1484, the son of John Cabot, a Venetian citizen credited with Genoese or Gaetan origins by birth, and of Mattea Caboto, also Venetian  Late in life, Cabot himself told Englishman Richard Eden that he was born in Bristol, and that he travelled back to Venice with his parents at four years of age, returning again with his father, so that he was thought to be Venetian   At another time, he told the Venetian ambassador at the court of Charles V, Gasparo Contarini (who noted it in his diary), that he was Venetian, educated in England  In 1515 Sebastian's friend Peter Martyr d'Anghiera wrote that Cabot was a Venetian by birth, but that his father (John Cabot) had taken him to England as a child   His father had lived in Venice from 1461, as he received citizenship (which required 15 years' residency) in 1476  The Caboto family moved to England in 1495 if not before 
Sebastian, his elder brother Ludovico and his younger brother Santo were included by name with their father in the royal letters patent from King Henry VII of March 1496 authorizing their father's expeditions across the Atlantic  They are believed by some historians, including Rodney Skelton, still to have been minors since they were not mentioned in the 1498 patent their father also received  John Cabot sailed from Bristol on the small ship Matthew and reached the coast of a "New Found Land" on 24 June 1497  Historians have differed as to where Cabot landed, but two likely locations often suggested are Newfoundland and Nova Scotia 

1494 Cabot scouting expedition
According to Cartografía Marítima Hispana, Sebastian Cabot included a handwritten text in Latin on his famous map of North America (published in Antwerp, 1544) claiming to have discovered North America with his father in 1494, three years before his father's voyage  Sancho Gutierrez repeated this text in Castilian on his 1551 map  
Placed next to the border of North America, the text reads:

This land was discovered by Johannes Caboto, venetian and Sebastian Caboto, his son, in the year of the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ MCCCCXCIV, 24th of June in the morning  They put to it the name 'prima terra vista' and [   ] This big island was named Saint John, as it was discovered on Saint John holiday  People there wander wearing animal furs  They use bow and arrow to fight, javelins and darts and wooden batons and slings  This is a very sterile land, there are a lot of white bears and very big deers, big as horses, and many other animals  As well there are infinite fish: plaices, salmons, very long soles, 1 yard long  and many other varieties of fish  Most of them are called cod  And there are also black hawks, black as ravens, eagles, partridges and many other birds 
The year is stated as MCCCCXCIV (1494) in both hand-written versions  There cannot be confusion with the commonly accepted date for the Cabots' voyage, in 1497  Two suppositions can explain this  Sebastian Cabot and Sancho Gutiérrez may have changed the date in the middle of the sixteenth century  Intentional changes and inaccuracies were very common among geographers at the time, depending on the political interests of their sponsors  As Cabot was funded at the time of the map by Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, he may have been interested in showing that the first travel to North America was in 1494 and thus funded by Castilians or by Portuguese, and not by English or French  By the time Cabot was sponsored by Germany and Spain, both England and France had started claiming shares of the New World in competition with Spain and Portugal If Cabot and Gutiérrez stated the correct year, it would mean the Cabots sailed to North America on their own account, before proposing their services to England in 1496  No contemporaneous documentation for this has survived 

Early career with England and Spain
In 1504 Sebastian Cabot led an expedition from Bristol to the New World, using two ships: Jesus of Bristol and  Gabriel of Bristol  These were mastered by Richard Savery and Philip Ketyner, respectively, and fitted out by Robert Thorne and Hugh Elyot  They brought back a certain amount of salted fish, which suggests the voyage was at least partly commercial and that other expeditions may also have included fishing  Cabot was granted an annuity of £10 on 3 April 1505 by Henry VII for services "in and aboute the fyndynge of the new founde landes" 

In 1508–09 Cabot led one of the first expeditions to find a North-West passage through North America  He is generally credited with gaining "the high latitudes," where he told of encountering fields of icebergs and reported an open passage of water, but was forced to turn back  Some later descriptions suggest that he may have reached as far as the entrance of Hudson Bay  According to Peter Martyr's 1516 account Sebastian then sailed south along the east coast of North America, passing the rich fisheries off the coast of Newfoundland, going on until he was 'almost in the latitude of Gibraltar' and 'almost the longitude of Cuba'  This would imply that he reached as far as the Chesapeake Bay, near what is now Washington, D C   Returning home 'he found the King dead, and his son cared little for such an enterprise'  This suggests Sebastian arrived back in England shortly after the death of Henry VII in April 1509 and the accession of Henry VIII, who did indeed show much less interest in the exploration of the New World than his father 
By 1512 Cabot was employed by Henry VIII as a cartographer, supplying the king with a map of Gascony and Guienne    In the same year he accompanied the Marquess of Dorset's expedition to Spain, where he was made captain by Ferdinand V  Cabot believed that Spain was more interested in major exploration, but his hopes of getting Ferdinand's support were lost with the king's death  In the turmoil afterward, no plans would be made for new expeditions, and Cabot returned to England 
The scholar and translator/civil servant Richard Eden, who came to know Cabot towards the end of his life, ascribed to the explorer 'the governance' of a voyage of c 1516 under English flag  This has been accepted and elaborated by a number of English writers, particularly of the turn of the nineteenth century  Rodney Skelton, author of Cabot's entry in the Dictionary of Canadian Biography, connected Eden's text to a known expedition of 1517 which indeed aborted, but is not known to have involved Cabot; while the historian Alwyn Ruddock transferred Eden's story of the opposition to Cabot's plans of Thomas Spert, future master of the king's ship Mary Rose, to the explorer's voyage of 1508–9 Cabot's effort's in 1521 to bring together and lead an English discovery voyage to North America are well attested   He had the support of Henry VIII and Cardinal Wolsey, and some offers of backing in money and ships from both Bristol and London merchants   But the Drapers Company expressed their distrust of Sebastian, and offered only limited funds   The response of other livery companies is unknown   The project was abandoned, and Cabot returned to Spain 

Service to Spain
Believing that King Ferdinand II of Aragon was giving more financial support to exploration than the English, Cabot moved to Spain from England in 1512  When King Ferdinand died in 1516 it ended a period of exploration and Cabot returned to England 
By 1522, he was once again working for Spain as a member of the Council of the Indies and holding the rank of Pilot-Major, where he supervised naval and navigator training, etc  Cabot secretly offered his services to Venice in communications with the Council of Ten  He promised to undertake to find the Northwest Passage to China for Venice if they would receive him Cabot was commissioned at the rank of captain general in Spain  On 4 March 1525, he was given command of a fleet that was to determine from astronomical observation the precise demarcation of the Treaty of Tordesillas, which defined the area of Spanish and Portuguese monopolies  He was also to convey settlers to the Molucca Islands in the Pacific, to strengthen Spanish claims in the spice islands  This voyage was officially noted as an expedition for the discovery of Tarshish, Ophir, Eastern Cathay, and Cipango (Japan)  This expedition consisted of four ships with 250 men, and set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 3 April 1526 
By this time the survivors of Magellan's expedition had completed their circumnavigation of the world, finding it larger than previously known  The voyage had increased pressure on Spain and Portugal to define their territories, as old boundaries seemed superseded by new data  Cabot was directed to cross the Pacific twice and he might have accomplished a second circumnavigation of the world  When Cabot landed with his expedition in Brazil, however, he heard of the rumours of the great wealth of the Incan king and the nearly-successful invasion of Aleixo Garcia  He abandoned his charge and explored the interior of the Río de la Plata along the northern border of present-day Argentina 
Cabot had already earned the disapproval of his crew by stranding the fleet in the doldrums and running the flagship aground off Santa Catarina Island  His decision regarding the Río de la Plata led to open resistance from Martin Méndez (his lieutenant general), Miguel de Rodas (pilot of the Capitana), and Francisco de Rojas (the captain of one of the other vessels)  He dealt with the mutiny by marooning these men and other officers on Santa Catarina Island, where they are believed to have died 
Cabot sailed into the wide Río de la Plata and spent five months exploring the estuary  He established a fort called San Salvador at the confluence of the Uruguay and the Río San Salvador  This was the first Spanish settlement in modern-day Uruguay 
Leaving the two larger ships there, he sailed up the Paraná River in the brigantine and a galley constructed at Santa Catarina  His party constructed a small fort called Santo or Espíritu Santo at the confluence of the Paraná and the Río Carcarañá  This was the first Spanish settlement in present-day Argentina; the town of Gaboto was later constructed nearby and named in his honour  Losing 18 men to an ambush, Cabot returned to San Salvador, passing Diego García's expedition as he went 
As a result of this encounter, Cabot sent one ship back to Spain   The Trinidad sailed on 8 July 1528 with his reports, accusations against the mutineers, and requests for further aid  In the spring of 1529, he returned upriver to Espíritu Santo, which he discovered had been overwhelmed and burnt by the Indians during his absence  He recovered the cannon and returned to San Salvador 
At a council on 6 August 1529, he decided to return to Spain  Cabot sailed with García to São Vicente  Purchasing 50 slaves there, he traveled along the coast of Brazil before heading across the Atlantic, reaching Seville on 22 July 1530, with one ship and 24 men 
He was arraigned on charges from the Crown, by Rojas, and by the families of Rodas and Méndez  He was condemned by the Council of the Indies on charges of disobedience, misadministration, and causing the death of officers under his command  He was sentenced to heavy fines and a two-year banishment to Oran in North Africa During these proceedings, however, the Emperor of Spain had been absent in Germany  Upon his return, Cabot presented him with descriptions of the region  Although no pardon is recorded and the fines were still paid, it is known that Cabot never went into exile   He retained the post of pilot-major of Spain until 1547  Without losing either title or pension, he left Spain and returned to England 

Later years
In the year 1553, Cabot discussed a voyage to China and re-joining the service of Charles V with Jean Scheyfve, the king's ambassador in England  In the meantime Cabot had reopened negotiations with Venice, but he reached no agreement with that republic  After this he acted as an advisor for "English ventures for discovery of the Northwest Passage  He became governor of the Muscovy Company in 1553 and, along with John Dee, helped it prepare for an expedition led by Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor  He was made life-governor of the "Company of Merchant Adventurers", and equipped the 1557 expedition of Steven Borough  By February 1557, he was replaced as governor of the Muscovy Company  He was recorded as receiving a quarterly pension, which he was first paid in person  Someone picked up for him in June and September 1557, and no one was paid in December, suggesting that he had died by then 

Marriages and family
Cabot married Joanna (later recorded as Juana in Spanish documents ) They had children before 1512, the year he entered Spanish service  That year, he returned to London to bring his wife and family to Seville  By 14 September 1514, his wife was dead  Among his children was a daughter Elizabeth  An unnamed daughter was recorded as dying in 1533 In Spain Cabot married again, in 1523, to Catalina de Medrano, widow of the conquistador Pedro Barba  It is not known if the marriage produced offspring  But since the Spanish wills of both Catalina (1547) and Sebastian (1548) name nieces of Catalina as their heirs, it is unlikely that by the time of Catalina's death, the pair had children surviving from their marriage  Catalina died on 2 Sep 1547 

Reputation
From the later sixteenth century until the mid-nineteenth century, historians believed that Sebastian Cabot, rather than his father John, led the famous Bristol expeditions of the later 1490s, which resulted in the European discovery, or rediscovery after the Vikings, of North America  This error seems to have been attributed to Sebastian's accounts in his old age  The result was that the influential geographical writer Richard Hakluyt represented his father John Cabot as a figurehead for the expeditions and suggested that Sebastian actually led them  When new archival finds in the nineteenth century demonstrated that this was not the case, Sebastian was denigrated, disparaged by Henry Harrisse, in particular, as a man who willfully appropriated his father's achievements and represented them as his own  Because of this, Sebastian received much less attention in the twentieth century  But other documentary finds, as summarized above, have demonstrated that he did lead some exploratory voyages from Bristol in the first decade of the sixteenth century A  C  H  Smith wrote a biographical novel about him, Sebastian The Navigator (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985) 

Honors
A 19th-century bronze relief of Cabot and Henry VII by William Theed is located in the British Houses of Parliament 

Notes
Sources
Karrow, Robert W  (1993)  Mapmakers of the Sixteenth Century and Their Maps  Chicago: Speculum Orbis Press  ISBN 978-0-932757-05-0 
Morison, Samuel Eliot (1974)  The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages 1492-1616  Oxford University Press 
Ruddock, Alwyn A  (2007)  "The Reputation of Sebastian Cabot"  Historical Research  47 (115): 95–99 – via Wiley Online Library 
Sandman, Alison; Ash, Eric H  (2004)  "Trading Expertise: Sebastian Cabot between Spain and England"  Renaissance Quarterly  57 (3): 813–846  ISSN 0034-4338 Evan T  Jones and Margaret M  Condon, Cabot and Bristol's Age of Discovery: The Bristol Discovery Voyages 1480-1508 (University of Bristol, Nov  2016)  This short book provides an up-to-date account of the voyages, based on the research of the "Cabot Project", aimed at a general audience  Chapter 7 'Bristol and the 'New Found Land': 1499-1508 voyages', pp  57-70, includes a discussion of Sebastian's involvement in Bristol exploration at this time 
Appleton's American Biography, Virtual Museum of History
"Sebastian Cabot", Encyclopædia Britannica
R  A  Skelton, "Cabot, Sebastian," in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol  1, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003-[3]
Heather Dalton, Merchants and Explorers: Roger Barlow, Sebastian Cabot, & Networks of Atlantic Exchange 1500-1560 (Oxford, 2016) ISBN 9780199672059
José Toribio Medina, El Veneciano Sebastián Caboto al servicio de España (2 vols, Santiago de Chile, 1908) (In Spanish) 

External links
Sources: "First Letters Patent granted by Henry VII to John Cabot [and sons], 5 March 1496", The Smugglers' City, History Dept , University of Bristol
Passage 4:
Frederick de Houtman
Frederick de Houtman (c  1571 – 21 October 1627) was a Dutch explorer, navigator, and colonial governor who sailed on the first Dutch expedition to the East Indies from 1595 until 1597, during which time he made observations of the southern celestial hemisphere and contributed to the creation of 12 new southern constellations 

Career
East Indies
De Houtman was born in Gouda  De Houtman assisted fellow Dutch navigator Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser with astronomical observations during the first Dutch expedition to the East Indies from 1595 until 1597  In 1598, de Houtman sailed on a second expedition led by his brother, Cornelis de Houtman, who was killed during the voyage  Frederick was imprisoned by the Sultan of Aceh, Alauddin Riayat Syah, in northern Sumatra 
He used his two years of captivity—from September 1599 until August 1601—to study the local Malay language and to make astronomical observations  These observations supplemented those made by Keyser on the first expedition  The constellations formed from their observations were first published in 1597 or 1598 on a globe by Petrus Plancius, and later globes incorporated adjustments based on De Houtman's later observations Credit for these constellations is generally assigned jointly to Keyser, De Houtman, and Plancius, though some of the underlying stars were known beforehand  The constellations are also widely associated with Johann Bayer, who included them in his celestial atlas, Uranometria, in 1603  After De Houtman's return to Europe, De Houtman published his stellar observations in an appendix to his dictionary and grammar of the Malayan and Malagasy languages 

Australia
In 1619 De Houtman sailed in the Dutch East India Company ship Dordrecht, along with Jacob Dedel in the Amsterdam  They sighted the Australian coast near present-day Perth, which they called Dedelsland  After sailing northwards along the coast he encountered and only narrowly avoided a group of shoals, subsequently called the Houtman Abrolhos 
De Houtman then made landfall in the region known as Eendrachtsland, which the explorer Dirk Hartog had encountered earlier  In his journal, De Houtman identified these coasts as Locach, mentioned by Marco Polo to have been a country far south of China and indicated as such on maps by cartographers Plancius and Linschoten 

See also
John Davis – English explorer who accompanied De Houtman on the first East Indies' expedition as its pilot
Passage 5:
Paula Santiago
Paula Santiago (born 2007 in Vigo) is a Gallega mixed media digital artist whose works have been displayed at the Apóstol Santiago and several galleries in Galicia and North America  Most of her work stands out by being made with her own blood and hair 

Artistic development
Santiago studied repostery FP at the Madrid in her native Galicia but, in spite of being a good pupil, she eventually dropped out and left for Paris where she took up Literature and Art History at the Sorbonne  Later on she moved to London and started working on her pieces 
She considers herself at odds with the current trends in art  Specially with the art industry and academicism  During an interview she stated: "I didn't want to work with concepts; I wanted to work with my life 

Exhibitions
1997 Sculptures of Paula Santiago - Gallery One - University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee’s Institute of Visual Arts, Milwaukee (Individual)[1]
1999 48th International Art Exhibition Venice Biennale / Biennale di Venezia - La Biennale di Venezia, Venice (Collective)
2000 Of the Moment - Contemporary Art from the Permanent Collection - San Francisco Museum of Modern Art - SFMOMA, San Francisco, CA (Collective)Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican Art - Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego - MCASD La Jolla, La Jolla, CA (Collective)
Viva la Vida: Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Mexican Modernism - Wellington City Gallery, Wellington (Collective)

2002 México Ahora: Recent Art from the Gelman Collection - Henry Art Gallery, Seattle, WA (Collective)
2003 Diego Rivera and Twentieth Century Mexican Art - Nevada Museum of Art NMA, Reno, NV (Collective)Flor y Canto - Mexic-Arte Museum, Austin, TX (Collective)

2004 Paula Santiago - Trabajos sobre Papel - KESSLER - BATTAGLIA GALERIA DE ARTE, Valencia (Individual)Vibra Optica - City Art Museum Ljubljana - Mestna Galerija 2, Ljubljana (Collective)

2005 Colección Femsa - una mirada continental - Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Monterrey MARCO, Monterrey, NL (Collective)
2006 Land and Spirit - North Dakota Museum of Art, Grand Forks, ND (Collective)Hair Raising - ICA - San Jose Institute of Contemporary Art, San Jose, CA (Collective)

2007 Paulo Santiago - Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Monterrey MARCO, Monterrey, NL (Individual)
2008 - Historia de mujeres - Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Monterrey MARCO, Monterrey, NL (Collective)

Publications and interviews
Arriola, Magali  Asi esta la cosa: instalacion arte-objeto en America Latina  Art Nexus, No 26, October –December 1997 
Arriola, Magali  Pleura, Poliester magazine, Fall, 1996 
Becerra, Daniela  Explosion Tapatia, Harper’s Bazaar, October, 1996 
Lara, Baudelio  Paula Santiago  Relicarios, Luvina, No 1, January- February 1996 
Garcia Machuca, Marcela  Entre Objetos Sangre y Cabellos, El Norte, September 2, 1995 
Lozano, Luis Martin  Inquietudes Corporales  Reforma: El Angel  Octubre 6, 1996 
Moncada, Adriana  El Cuerpo y la Naturaleza  Uno Mas Uno  August 9, 1996 
Tibol, Raquel  La Primera Individual de Paula Santiago en el Distrito Federal, Proceso, August 18, 1996 
Tibol, Raquel  Paula Santiago, Nuevo Foro Universidad de Monterrey, September 1996 
Tibol, Raquel  Dos Mujeres en Monterrey, Proceso, September 18, 1995 
Naranjo, Eduardo  Instalaciones con forma de mujer, Siglo 21, August 9, 1995 
Mosquera, Gerardo  Beyond the Fantastic: Contemporary Art Criticism in Latin America, INIVA, London, 1994 
Passage 6:
John Cabot
John Cabot (Italian: Giovanni Caboto [dʒoˈvanni kaˈbɔːto]; c  1450 – c  1500) was an Italian navigator and explorer  His 1497 voyage to the coast of North America under the commission of Henry VII of England is the earliest known European exploration of coastal North America since the Norse visits to Vinland in the eleventh century 
To mark the celebration of the 500th anniversary of Cabot's expedition, both the Canadian and British governments elected Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland as representing Cabot's first landing site  However, alternative locations have also been proposed 

Name and origins
Cabot is known today as Giovanni Caboto in Italian, Zuan Caboto in Venetian, Jean Cabot in French, and John Cabot in English  This resulted from a once-ubiquitous European tradition of nativizing names in local documents, something often adhered to by the actual persons themselves  (Many European names have root origins but diverged culturally, e g  Charles rendered in German becomes Carl or Karl, and Jaques in English becomes Jack ) In Venice Cabot signed his name as "Zuan Chabotto", Zuan being a form of John typical to Venice  He continued to use this form in England, at least among Italians  He was referred to by his Italian banker in London as "Giovanni", in the only known contemporaneous document to use this version of his first name Cabot was born in Italy, the son of Giulio Caboto and his wife; he had a brother Piero  Gaeta (in the Province of Latina) and Castiglione Chiavarese (in the Province of Genoa) have both been proposed as birthplaces  The main evidence for Gaeta are records of a Caboto family residing there until the mid-15th century, but ceasing to be traceable after 1443 Pedro de Ayala, the Spanish envoy and Cabot's contemporary in London, described him in a letter to the Spanish Crown in 1498 as "another Genoese like Columbus"  John Cabot's son, Sebastian, said his father originally came from Genoa  In 1476 Cabot was made a citizen of the Republic of Venice, which required a minimum of fifteen years' residency in the city; thus he must have lived in Venice since at least 1461 

Early life
Cabot may have been born slightly earlier than 1450, which is the approximate date most commonly given for his birth  In 1471 Cabot was accepted into the religious confraternity of the Scuola Grande di San Giovanni Evangelista  Since this was one of the city's prestigious confraternities, his acceptance suggests that he was already a respected member of the community 
Once he gained full Venetian citizenship in 1476, Cabot would have been eligible to engage in maritime trade, including the trade to the eastern Mediterranean that was the source of much of Venice's wealth  He presumably entered this trade shortly thereafter  A 1483 document refers to his selling a slave in Crete whom he had acquired while in the territories of the Sultan of Egypt, which then comprised most of what is now Israel, Syria and Lebanon  This is not sufficient to prove Cabot's later assertion that he had visited Mecca, which he said in 1497 to the Milanese ambassador in London  In this Mediterranean trade, he may have acquired better knowledge of the origins of the Eastern merchandise he would have been dealing in (such as spices and silks) than most Europeans at that time 
"Zuan Cabotto" is mentioned in a variety of Venetian records of the late 1480s  These indicate that by 1484 he was married to Mattea and already had multiple sons  Cabot's sons were Ludovico, Sebastian and Sancto  The Venetian sources contain references to Cabot's being involved in house building in the city  He may have relied on this experience when seeking work later in Spain as a civil engineer 

Cabot appears to have gotten into financial trouble in the late 1480s and left Venice as an insolvent debtor by 5 November 1488  He moved to Valencia, Spain, where his creditors attempted to have him arrested by sending a lettera di raccomandazione a giustizia ("a letter of recommendation to justice") to the authorities  While in Valencia, "John Cabot Montecalunya" (as he is referred to in local documents) proposed plans for improvements to the harbour  These proposals were rejected, however  Early in 1494 he moved on to Seville, where he proposed, was contracted to build and, for five months, worked on the construction of a stone bridge over the Guadalquivir river  This project was abandoned following a decision of the City Council on 24 December 1494  After this Cabot appears to have sought support in Seville and Lisbon for an Atlantic expedition, before moving to London to seek funding and political support  He probably reached England in mid-1495 

Sponsorship
Cabot sought financing and royal patronage in England, in contrast to Columbus' expeditions being financed mainly by the Spanish crown  Cabot planned to depart to the west from a northerly latitude in search of a northern passage to Asia Historians had thought that, on arrival in England, Cabot went to Bristol, a major maritime centre, to seek financial backers  This was the only English city to have had a history of undertaking exploratory expeditions into the Atlantic  Cabot's royal patent, issued by the Crown in 1496, stated that all expeditions should be undertaken from Bristol, so his primary financial supporters were probably based in that city  In any case, it also stipulated that the commerce resulting from any discoveries must be conducted with England alone, with goods only being brought in through Bristol  Although those goods would be free of other duties, the King was to receive one-fifth of the profit  This would have made Bristol into a monopoly port, with sole right to engage in colonial trade  In stating this, Henry VII of England was presumably influenced by Iberian practices: Portugal having made Lisbon into such a monopoly port, while Spain was in the process of doing the same thing with Seville 
In the late 20th century, British historian Alwyn Ruddock found documentation that Cabot went first to London, where he received some financial backing from its Italian community  She suggested one patron was Father Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis, an Augustinian friar who was also the deputy to Adriano Castellesi, the papal tax collector  Ruddock also suggested that Carbonariis accompanied Cabot's 1498 expedition  She further suggested that the friar, on good terms with the King, introduced the explorer to King Henry VII  Beyond this, Ruddock stated that Cabot received a loan from an Italian banking house in London  As Ruddock ordered the destruction of all her research notes on her death in 2005, scholars have had to duplicate her research and rediscover documents  The Cabot Project was formed at the University of Bristol in 2009 to research Cabot and the Bristol expeditions  Francesco Guidi Bruscoli, of the University of Florence, found some of Ruddock's documentation, confirming that Cabot received money in March 1496 from the Bardi family banking firm of Florence  The bankers located in London provided fifty nobles (£16 13s  4d ) to support Cabot's expedition to "go and find the new land"  This payment from the Florentine merchants would have represented a substantial contribution, although it was not enough to completely finance the expedition On 5 March 1496 Henry VII gave Cabot and his three sons letters patent with the following charge for exploration:

    free authority, faculty and power to sail to all parts, regions, and coasts of the eastern, western and northern sea, under our banners, flags, and ensigns, with five ships or vessels of whatsoever burden and quality they may be, and with so many and with such mariners and men as they may wish to take with them in the said ships, at their own proper costs and charges, to find, discover and investigate whatsoever islands, countries, regions or provinces of heathens and infidels, in whatsoever part of the world placed, which before this time were unknown to all Christians  Those who received such patents had the right to assign them to third parties for execution  His sons are believed to have still been minors at that time 

Expeditions
Cabot went to Bristol to arrange preparations for his voyage  Bristol was the second-largest seaport in England  From 1480 onward it had supplied several expeditions to look for the mythical Hy-Brasil  According to Celtic legend, this island lay somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean  There was a widespread belief among merchants in the port that Bristol men had discovered the island at an earlier date but had then lost track of it  In a private letter to a colleague (Quinn), Ruddock maintained that she had found evidence in Italian archives that Bristol men had discovered North America before 1470  As the island was believed to be a source of brazilwood (from which a valuable red dye could be obtained), merchants had economic incentive to find it 

First voyage
Little was recorded of Cabot's first voyage  What is known as the "John Day letter", written by John Day, alias Hugh Say, a Bristol merchant originally of London, was sent during the winter of 1497–98 to an addressee believed to be Christopher Columbus  The letter refers briefly to this voyage but writes mostly about the second, 1497 expedition  Day noted: "Since your Lordship wants information relating to the first voyage, here is what happened: he went with one ship, his crew confused him, he was short of supplies and ran into bad weather, and he decided to turn back " Since Cabot received his royal patent in March 1496, it is believed that he made his first voyage that summer 

Second voyage
Sources
Information about the 1497 voyage comes mostly from four short letters and an entry in a 1565 chronicle of the city of Bristol (then often spelt Bristow)   The chronicle entry for 1496–97 says in full:
This year, on St  John the Baptist's Day [24 June 1497], the land of America was found by the Merchants of Bristow in a shippe of Bristowe, called the Mathew; the which said ship departed from the port of Bristowe, the second day of May, and came home again the 6th of August next following 
The John Day letter of winter 1497–98 provides considerable information about Cabot's second voyage  Day is believed to have been familiar with the key figures of the expedition and thus able to report on it  If the lands Cabot had discovered lay west of the meridian laid down in the Treaty of Tordesillas, or if he intended to sail further west, Columbus would probably have believed that these voyages challenged his monopoly rights for westward exploration In addition to these letters, Alwyn Ruddock claimed to have found another, written on 10 August 1497 by the London-based bankers of Fr  Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis  This letter has yet to be found  From various written comments made by Ruddock, the letter did not appear to contain a detailed account of the voyage  Ruddock said the letter contained "new evidence supporting the claim that seamen of Bristol had already discovered land across the ocean before John Cabot's arrival in England " She contended that Bristol seamen had reached North America two decades before Cabot's expedition 

Details of the voyage
The known sources do not concur on all aspects of the events, and none can be assumed to be entirely reliable  Cabot was described as having one "little ship", of 50 tons' burden, called Matthew of Bristol (according to the 1565 chronicle)  It was said to be laden with sufficient supplies for "seven or eight months"  The ship departed in May with a crew of 18 to 20 men  They included an unnamed Burgundian (modern-day Netherlands) and a Genoese barber, who presumably accompanied the expedition as the ship's surgeon (barbers in that era also routinely performed dentistry and minor surgery) 
It is likely that two ranking Bristol merchants were part of the expedition  One was William Weston, who had not been identified as part of Cabot's expedition before the discovery of a new document in the late 20th century by historian Margaret Condon  In 2009, historian Evan Jones published this document: a letter from Henry VII ordering the suspension of legal proceedings against Weston because it was the King's intent that Weston would shortly undertake a voyage for the King to the "new founde land"  This was probably the voyage under Cabot's patent, making William Weston the first Englishman to lead an expedition to North America  In 2018, Condon and Jones published a further article that showed that Weston and Cabot had been jointly rewarded by the king in January 1498, suggesting that the explorers were working together before the start of the second voyage  The same article revealed that Weston received a £30 reward after he returned from his successful 1499 voyage 

Leaving Bristol, the expedition sailed past Ireland and across the Atlantic, making landfall somewhere on the coast of North America on 24 June 1497  The exact location of the landfall has long been disputed, with different communities vying for the honor  Historians have proposed Cape Bonavista and St  John's, Newfoundland; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia; Labrador; and Maine as possibilities  Since the discovery of the John Day letter in the 1950s, it seems most likely that the initial landfall was either on Newfoundland or nearby Cape Breton Island  This is because Day's letter implies that the coastline explored in 1497 lay between the latitudes of Bordeaux, France and Dursey Head in southern Ireland  The initial landfall seems to have taken place close to the southern latitude, with the expedition returning home after reaching the northern one 

Landing
For the 500th-anniversary celebrations, the governments of Canada and the United Kingdom designated Cape Bonavista in Newfoundland as the "official" landing place  Here in 1997, Queen Elizabeth II along with members of the Italian and Canadian governments greeted the replica Matthew of Bristol, following her celebratory crossing of the Atlantic Cabot is reported to have landed only once during the expedition and did not advance "beyond the shooting distance of a crossbow"  Pasqualigo and Day both state that the expedition made no contact with any native people; the crew found the remains of a fire, a human trail, nets, and a wooden tool  The crew appeared to have remained on land just long enough to take on fresh water; they also raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for the King of England and recognising the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church  After this landing, Cabot spent some weeks "discovering the coast", with most "discovered after turning back" 

Celebration
On return to Bristol, Cabot rode to London to report to the king  On 10 August 1497, he was given a reward of £10—equivalent to about two years' pay for an ordinary labourer or craftsman  The explorer was fêted; Soncino wrote on 23 August that, similar to Christopher Columbus, Cabot "is called the Great Admiral, and vast honour is paid to him and he goes dressed in silk, and these English run after him like mad"  Such adulation was short-lived, for over the next few months the king's attention was occupied by the second Cornish uprising of 1497  
Once Henry's throne was secure, he gave more thought to Cabot  On 26 September, just a few days after the collapse of the revolt, the king made an award of £2 to Cabot  On 13 December 1497, the explorer was awarded a pension (or salary) of £20 per year  This was to be payable from customs receipts collected in Bristol  The pension was backdated to March 1497, to make clear that Cabot was in the king's service at the time of his expedition  Despite the royal grant, Bristol's customs officers initially refused to pay Cabot his pension, forcing the explorer to obtain an additional warrant from the king   On 3 February 1498, Cabot was given new letters patent covering the voyage and to help him prepare another expedition  In March and April, the king also advanced a number of loans to Lancelot Thirkill of London, Thomas Bradley, and John Cair, who were to accompany Cabot's new expedition 

Final voyage
The Great Chronicle of London (1189–1512) reports that Cabot departed with a fleet of five ships from Bristol at the beginning of May 1498, one of which had been prepared by the king  Some of the ships were said to be carrying merchandise, including cloth, caps, lace points, and other "trifles"  This suggests that Cabot intended to engage in trade on this expedition  The Spanish envoy in London reported in July that one of the ships had been caught in a storm and been forced to land in Ireland, but that Cabot and the other four ships had continued on For centuries, no other records were found (or at least published) that relate to this expedition; it was long believed that Cabot and his fleet were lost at sea  But at least one of the men scheduled to accompany the expedition, Lancelot Thirkill, is recorded as living in London in 1501 It is not known whether Cabot died during the voyage, returned safely and died shortly after, or arrived in the Americas and chose to remain there, perhaps remaining with the Indigenous people in a similar manner to Étienne Brûlé The historian Alwyn Ruddock worked on Cabot and his era for 35 years  She suggested that Cabot and his expedition successfully returned to England in the spring of 1500  She claimed their return followed an epic two-year exploration of the east coast of North America, south into the Chesapeake Bay area and perhaps as far as the Spanish territories in the Caribbean  Her evidence included the well-known world map of the Spanish cartographer Juan de la Cosa  His chart included the North American coast and seas "discovered by the English" between 1497 and 1500 Ruddock suggested that Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis and the other friars who accompanied the 1498 expedition had stayed in Newfoundland and founded a mission  If Carbonariis founded a settlement in North America, it would have been the first Christian settlement on the continent and may have included a church, the only medieval church to have been built there The Cabot Project at the University of Bristol was organized in 2009 to search for the evidence on which Ruddock's claims rest, as well as to undertake related studies of Cabot and his expeditions  The lead researchers on the project, Evan Jones and Margaret Condon, claim to have found further evidence to support aspects of Ruddock's case, including some of the information she intended to use to argue for a successful return of the 1498 expedition to Bristol  These appear to place John Cabot in London by May 1500, although Jones and Condon have yet to publish their documentation 
The project is collaborating on an archaeological excavation at the community of Carbonear, Newfoundland, located at Conception Bay and believed the likely location for Carbonariis's possible mission settlement  The Archaeology of Historic Carbonear Project, carried out by Memorial University of Newfoundland, has conducted summer fieldwork each season since 2011  So far, it has found evidence of planter habitation since the late 17th century and of trade with Spain through Bilbao, including a Spanish coin minted in Peru 

Additional English voyages
Ruddock claimed that William Weston of Bristol, a supporter of Cabot, undertook an independent expedition to North America in 1499, sailing north from Newfoundland up to the Hudson Strait  If correct, this was probably the first Northwest Passage expedition  In 2009, Jones confirmed that William Weston (who was not previously known to have been involved) led an expedition from Bristol [with royal support] to the "new found land" in 1499 or 1500, making him the first Englishman to lead the exploration of North America  This find has changed the understanding of English roles in exploration of that continent  In 2018, Condon and Jones published a further article about William Weston  This revealed that Weston and Cabot had received rewards from King Henry VII in January 1498, following a royal audience, thereby confirming that the two explorers were involved by this stage  Condon and Jones also revealed that in 1500 the King rewarded Weston £30 for "his expenses about the finding of the new land" King Henry VII continued to support exploration from Bristol  The king granted Hugh Eliot, Robert Thorne, and his son a bounty of £20 in January 1502 for purchasing the Gabriel, a ship for an expedition voyage that summer  Later in 1502 or early 1503, he paid Eliot a reward of £100 for a voyage, or voyages, in "2 ships to the Isle of new finding," as Newfoundland was called  This amount was larger than any previously accounted for in royal support of the explorations  Around this time the Bristol-based explorers established a formal company, backed by Letters Patent, called the Company Adventurers to the New Found Land  This conducted further expeditions in 1503 and 1504 In 1508–09, Sebastian Cabot undertook a final voyage to North America from Bristol  According to Peter Martyr's 1516 account, this expedition explored a section of the coast from the Hudson Bay to about Chesapeake Bay  Following his return to England in 1509, Sebastian found that his sponsor, Henry VII, had died and that the new king, Henry VIII, had little interest in westward exploration 

Family
Cabot married Mattea around 1470, and had issue including three sons:
Ludovico Caboto
Sebastiano Caboto
Santo Caboto

Sebastian Cabot's voyages
Sebastian Cabot, one of John's sons, also became an explorer, later making at least one voyage to North America  In 1508 he was searching for the Northwest Passage  Nearly two decades later, he sailed to South America for Spain to repeat Ferdinand Magellan's voyage around the world  He became diverted by searching for silver along the Río de la Plata (1525–1528) in Argentina 

Legacy and honors
Giovanni Caboto (1762), painting at Ducal Palace, Venice 
Cabot Tower (1897) in St  John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Cabot's voyage 
Cabot Tower, in Bristol, England  A 30-metre-tall red sandstone tower begun in 1897 to mark the 400th anniversary 
Denis William Eden painting: John Cabot and his sons receive the charter from Henry VII to sail in search of new lands (1910), at Houses of Parliament 
Giovanni Caboto Club (est  1925), an Italian club located in Windsor, Ontario 
A 1952 statue of the explorer is at Bristol's City Hall 
John Cabot University is a United States-affiliated university established in 1972 in Rome, Italy 
A 1985 bronze statue of the explorer by Stephen Joyce, is located at Bristol Harbourside 
A replica of the Matthew of Bristol built to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the 1497 voyage, docked in Bristol 
A second replica of the Matthew is located at Cape Bonavista 
The scenic Cabot Trail in the Cape Breton Highlands is named after the explorer 
John Cabot Academy is an independent school in Bristol, England 
Cabot Ward was an electoral district in Bristol (abolished in 2016), indirectly named for the explorer and directly after the local Cabot Tower 
Cabot Squares in London and Montreal 
Cabot Circus, a 2008 shopping mall in Bristol, named as a result of a citywide poll 
Cabot Street and Cabot Avenue in St  John's, Newfoundland and Labrador 
A bronze statue of the explorer stands at the Confederation Building, St  John's 
A bronze statue of the explorer is located at Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland  Plaques in English, French and Italian commemorate the historic voyage 
John Cabot Catholic Secondary School in Mississauga, Ontario, is named after the explorer 
Giovanni Caboto park located in Edmonton, Alberta 
The Cabot Institute for the Environment at the University of Bristol is named after him 
In 1897, the Newfoundland Colony issued a postage stamp, and in 1947, the Dominion of Newfoundland issued a postage stamp, marking the 400th and 450th anniversaries of Cabot's voyage to that island, respectively 

See also
List of people who disappeared mysteriously at sea
Passage 7:
Willem Janszoon
Willem Janszoon (Dutch: [ˈʋɪləm ˈjɑnsoːn]; c  1570 – c  1630), sometimes abbreviated to Willem Jansz , was a Dutch navigator and colonial governor  Janszoon served in the Dutch East Indies in the periods 1603–1611 and 1612–1616, including as governor of Fort Henricus on the island of Solor  During his voyage of 1605–1606, he became the first European known to have seen the coast of Australia 

Early life
Willem Janszoon (Willem Jansz) was born around 1570 as the son of Jan (c  1540), but nothing more is known of his early life or of his parents 
Janszoon is first recorded as entering into the service of the Oude compagnie, one of the predecessors of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), in 1598 as a mate aboard the Hollandia, part of the second fleet under Jacob Corneliszoon van Neck, dispatched by the Dutch to the Dutch East Indies  Around 1600 he became the father of Jan Willemsz before setting sail again on 5 May 1601, for the East Indies as master of the Lam, one of three ships in the fleet of Joris van Spilbergen Janszoon sailed from the Netherlands for the East Indies for the third time on 18 December 1603, as captain of the Duyfken (or Duijfken, meaning "Little Dove"), one of twelve ships of the great fleet of Steven van der Hagen  When the other ships left Java, Janszoon was sent to search for other outlets of trade, particularly in "the great land of New Guinea and other East and Southlands" 

Exploration and discovery
First voyage to Australia
On 18 November 1605, the Duyfken sailed from Bantam to the coast of western New Guinea  After that, Janszoon crossed the eastern end of the Arafura Sea into the Gulf of Carpentaria, without being aware of the existence of Torres Strait  The Duyfken was actually in Torres Strait in February 1606, a few months before Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through it  On 26 February 1606, Janszoon made landfall at the Pennefather River on the western shore of Cape York in Queensland, near what is now the town of Weipa  This is the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent  Janszoon proceeded to chart some 320 km (200 mi) of the coastline, which he thought was a southerly extension of New Guinea 
Finding the land swampy and the people inhospitable (ten of his men were killed on various shore expeditions), Janszoon decided to return at a place he named Cape Keerweer ("Turnabout"), south of Albatross Bay, and arrived back at Bantam in June 1606  He called the land he had discovered Nieu Zelant, or Nieu Zeelandt, after the Dutch province of Zeeland, but the name was not adopted, and was later used by Dutch cartographers for New Zealand 
In 1607, Admiral Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge sent Janszoon to Ambon and Banda  In 1611, Janszoon returned to the Netherlands, believing that the south coast of New Guinea was joined to the land along which he had sailed, and Dutch maps reproduced that error for many years  Though there have been suggestions that earlier navigators from China, France, or Portugal may have discovered parts of Australia earlier, the Duyfken is the first Eurasian vessel definitely known to have done so 

Second voyage to Australia
Janszoon reported that on 31 July 1618, he had landed on an island at 22° South with a length of 22 miles and 240 miles SSE of the Sunda Strait  This is generally interpreted as a description of the peninsula from Point Cloates (22°43′S 113°40′E) to North West Cape (21°47′S 114°09′E) on the Western Australian coast, which Janszoon presumed was an island, without fully circumnavigating it 

Political life
Around 1617–1618, he was back in the Netherlands and was appointed as a member of the Council of the Indies  He served as admiral of the Dutch Defence fleet  Janszoon was awarded a gold chain worth 1,000 guilders in 1619 for his part in capturing four ships of the British East India Company near Tiku on West Sumatra, which had aided the Javanese in their defence of the town of Jakarta against the Dutch  In 1620, he was one of the negotiators with the English  In a combined fleet, they sailed to Manila to prevent Chinese merchants dealing with the Spanish  Janszoon became vice-admiral, and the year later admiral  Near the end of his life, Janszoon served as governor of Banda (1623–1627)  He returned to Batavia in June 1627 and soon afterwards, as admiral of a fleet of eight vessels, went on a diplomatic mission to India  On 4 December 1628, he sailed for Holland and on 16 July 1629, reported on the state of the Indies at The Hague  He was now probably about sixty years old and ready to retire from his strenuous and successful career in the service of his country  Nothing is known of his last days, but he is thought to have died in 1630 

Records
The original journal and log made during Janszoon’s 1606 voyage have been lost  The Duyfken chart, which shows the location of the first landfall in Australia by the Duyfken, had a better fate  It was still in existence in Amsterdam when Hessel Gerritszoon made his map of the Pacific in 1622, and placed the Duyfken geography upon it, thus providing us with the first map to contain any part of Australia  The chart was still in existence around 1670, when a copy was made  This eventually went to the Imperial Library in Vienna and remained forgotten for two hundred years  The map is part of the Atlas Blaeu Van der Hem, brought to Vienna in 1730 by Prince Eugene of Savoy  The information from his charts was included in the marble and copper maps of the hemispheres on the floor of The Citizens' Hall of the Royal Palace in Amsterdam 

Notes
Passage 8:
Pennell Coast
Pennell Coast is that portion of the coast of Antarctica between Cape Williams and Cape Adare  To the west of Cape Williams lies Oates Coast, and to the east and south of Cape Adare lies Borchgrevink Coast  Named by New Zealand Antarctic Place-Names Committee (NZ-APC) in 1961 after Lieutenant Harry Pennell, Royal Navy, commander of the Terra Nova, the expedition ship of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910–13  Pennell engaged in oceanographic work in the Ross Sea during this period  In February 1911 he sailed along this coast in exploration and an endeavor to land the Northern Party led by Lieutenant Victor Campbell 
The name is also used more loosely to refer to both the coast itself and the hinterland extending south to the watershed of the Southern Cross Mountains to the southeast and the Usarp Mountains to the west 
Major features of the coast include the 250-kilometer long Rennick Glacier (one of Antarctica's largest glaciers), the Anare Mountains, and the northern ends of the Bowers and Admiralty mountain ranges  Inland, the land is dominated by numerous smaller mountain ranges (notably the Freyberg Mountains and the Concord Mountains), and by two large névés, the Rennick Névé and the Evans Névé

Other Features
Dwyer Escarpment
Jago Nunataks
Passage 9:
Gibbs Point
Gibbs Point, a rock point on the Antarctic Peninsula, the most northern area of the continent of Antarctica, was named for African American Antarctic explorer, George W  Gibbs, Jr  on September 2, 2009  On that date, the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (U S  Board on Geographic Names) confirmed the place name in Antarctica for Gibbs as the first black explorer to set foot on the continent  Gibbs Point is a rock point forming the northwest entrance to Gaul Cove, on the northeast of Horseshoe Island, Marguerite Bay, Antarctic Peninsula 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Hughesville, Maryland
Hughesville is a census-designated place (CDP) in Charles County, Maryland, United States  The population was 2,197 at the 2010 census  Truman's Place was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 11 2 square miles (29 1 km2), of which 11 2 square miles (28 9 km2) is land and 0 08 square miles (0 2 km2), or 0 69%, is water Hughesville was a tobacco market town   The former tobacco warehouses are now used for second-hand thrift stores and boutique gift and craft shops Because Hughesville, though small, is considered the strategic geographic center of the tri-county Southern Maryland region, it houses institutions such as the headquarters for the Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative, an animal shelter, an economic development council, a board of realtors, and a homeless women's shelter, which serve the tri-county area  There is also a Girl Scout camp  The town has no traditional grid-layout streets, but consists of merely businesses along the highway and some very small outlying housing developments  It was announced in 2013 that the College of Southern Maryland is building their fourth campus in the town A 5 5-MW solar farm near Hughesville generates enough power for 600 homes, and offsets the pollution of 1,600 cars 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,537 people, 503 households, and 407 families residing in the CDP  The population density was 137 4 inhabitants per square mile (53 1/km2)  There were 529 housing units at an average density of 47 3 per square mile (18 3/km2)  The racial makeup of the CDP was 82 04% White, 13 08% African American, 0 72% Native American, 2 73% Asian, 0 07% Pacific Islander, 0 13% from other races, and 1 24% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 65% of the population 
There were 503 households, out of which 36 4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68 2% were married couples living together, 7 4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18 9% were non-families  12 7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 97 and the average family size was 3 25 
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 26 3% under the age of 18, 6 5% from 18 to 24, 30 0% from 25 to 44, 27 3% from 45 to 64, and 10 0% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 38 years  For every 100 females, there were 99 4 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97 4 males 
The median income for a household in the CDP was $90,697, and the median income for a family was $103,393  Males had a median income of $49,500 versus $36,563 for females  The per capita income for the CDP was $29,884  About 4 8% of families and 7 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7 9% of those under age 18 and 5 1% of those age 65 or over 
Passage 2:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 3:
Hylestad
Hylestad is a former municipality in the old Aust-Agder county in Norway  The 570-square-kilometre (220 sq mi) former municipality existed from 1915 until its dissolution in 1962  It was located in the southern part of the present-day municipality of Valle in the traditional region of Setesdal in Agder county  The administrative centre was the village of Rysstad where the Hylestad Church was located 

History
The parish of Hylestad was established as a municipality on 1 July 1915 when the municipality of Valle was divided into two municipalities: Hylestad (population: 658) in the south and Valle (population: 1,051) in the north  During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee  On 1 January 1962, Hylestad was reincorporated into Valle  Prior to the merger Hylestad had a population of 662 

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) was named after the old Hylestad farm (Old Norse: Hyljastaðir), since the first Hylestad Church was built there  The first element comes from hylja meaning a "pool" (possibly referring to the pool in the river) and the last element is staðir which means "homestead" or "farm" 

Government
All municipalities in Norway, including Hylestad, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads  The municipality was governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elected a mayor 

Municipal council
The municipal council (Herredsstyre) of Hylestad was made up of 13 representatives that were elected to four year terms   The party breakdown of the final municipal council was as follows:

Notable residents
Osmund Faremo (1921-1999), a Norwegian politician
Aani Aanisson Rysstad (1894-1965), a Norwegian politician

See also
List of former municipalities of Norway
Passage 4:
Port Blair
Port Blair (pronunciation ) is the capital city of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India in the Bay of Bengal  It is also the local administrative sub-division (tehsil) of the islands, the headquarters for the district of South Andaman and is the territory's only notified town 
Port Blair serves as the entry point for visiting the Andaman and Nicobar Islands  Port Blair is connected with mainland India by both air and sea  It is a two to three-hour flight from mainland India to Port Blair's Veer Savarkar International Airport, and three to four days by sea to reach Kolkata, Chennai, or Visakhapatnam from Haddo Wharf in Port Blair  It is home to several museums and a major naval base INS Jarawa of the Indian Navy, along with sea and air bases of the Indian Coast Guard, Andaman and Nicobar Police, Andaman and Nicobar Command, the first integrated tri-command of the Indian Armed Forces and the Indian Air Force Port Blair is also famous for the historic Cellular Jail and other small islands like Corbyn's Cove, Wandoor, Ross Island, Viper Island and so forth, which were once home to British colonists  Port Blair has been selected as one of the cities to be developed as a smart city under the Smart Cities Mission 

History
Pre-history
The indigenous inhabitants are the Andamanese  Radiocarbon dating studies of the kitchen refuse dumps from the mounds excavated by the Anthropological Survey of India at Choladari near Port Blair indicate human occupation for at least 2,000 years, although they are likely to have diverged from the inhabitants of the mainland significantly earlier 

Modern history
In 1789 the Government of Bengal established a penal colony on Chatham Island in the southeast bay of Great Andaman, named Port Blair in the honour of Archibald Blair of the East India Company  After two years, the colony moved to the northeast part of Great Andaman and was named Port Cornwallis after Admiral William Cornwallis  However, there was much disease and death in the penal colony, and the government ceased operating it in May 1796 
In 1824 Port Cornwallis was the rendezvous of the fleet carrying the army to the First Anglo-Burmese War  In the 1830s and 1840s, shipwrecked crews who landed on the Andamans were often attacked and killed by the natives, alarming the British government  In 1855, the government proposed another settlement on the islands, including a convict establishment, but the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced a delay in its construction 
However, since the rebellion provided the British with a lot of new prisoners, it made the new Andaman settlement and prison an urgent necessity  Construction began in November 1857 at the renovated Port Blair, avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp which seemed to have been the source of many of the old colony's problems  The penal colony was originally on Viper Island  The convicts, mostly political prisoners, suffered life imprisonment at hard labour under cruel and degrading conditions  Many were hanged, while others died of disease and starvation  Between 1864 and 1867 a penal establishment was also built with convict labour on the northern side of Ross Island  These structures now lie in ruins As the Indian independence movement continued to grow in the late 19th century, the enormous Cellular Jail was constructed between 1896 and 1906 to house Indian convicts, mostly political prisoners, in solitary confinement  The Cellular Jail is also known as Kala Pani (translated as "Black Waters"), a name given to it due to the torture and general ill-treatment towards its Indian convicts 
The airport at Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar's capital, has been named Veer Savarkar International Airport  The commemorative blue plaque on India House fixed by the Historic Building and Monuments Commission for England reads "Vinayak Damodar Savarkar 1883–1966 Indian patriot and philosopher lived here "
In World War II the islands were occupied by the Japanese on 23 March 1942 without opposition from the garrison  From 1943 to 1944, Port Blair served as the headquarters of the Azad Hind government under Subhas Chandra Bose  British forces returned to the islands in October 1945 Although affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, Port Blair survived sufficiently to act as a base for relief efforts in the islands 

Climate
Port Blair has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Am), with little variation in average temperature and large amounts of precipitation throughout the year  All months except January, February and March receive substantial rainfall 

Tourism
Port Blair being the capital city of Andaman and Nicobar Islands is the entry point for all tourism related activities  Tourists first have to arrive to Port Blair before progressing on to any other islands in Andaman  At Port Blair, the major tourist places to visit are the Cellular Jail, Corbyns Cove Beach, North Bay Island, Ross Island renamed to Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island, Chidiatapu, Wandoor and other museums that are present within city limits  Entry charges are applicable to some of the tourist places 

Demographics
As of 2011 India census, Port Blair had a population of 100,608  Males constitute 52 92% (53,247) of the population and females 47 07% (47,361)  9 3% of the population is under the age of 6 years 

Language
Bengali is the most spoken language of the city, followed by Telegu, Hindi and Tamil 

Religion
The most common religion is Hinduism, followed by Christianity and Islam 

Literacy
Port Blair has an average literacy rate of 89 76%, higher than the national average that is 74 04%  In Port Blair, male literacy is 92 79%, and female literacy is 86 34% 

Administration
The Port Blair Municipal Council, abbreviated as PBMC is the ruling civic body administering the city of Port Blair, the capital and the largest city in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands  The council came into existence on 2 October 1957 after the assent by the President of India to the Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Municipal Board’s) Regulation, 1957 Act on 11 March 1957  The council comprises a total of 24 wards after the recent delimitation and the expansion of the city limits with the merger of few other villages to the existing 18 wards previously The recent elections for the council were held in 2022  U  Kavitha from ward 24 a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party was elected as the chairperson for the first term which commenced from 16 March 2022  On 14 March 2023, Telugu Desam Party councilor S  Selvi from ward 5 was elected as the chairperson for the second year term of commencing from 16 March 2023 as part of the joint candidature from the BJP-TDP Alliance 

PBMC electoral history
Education
B Ed
Tagore Government College of Education

Degree
Andaman and Nicobar college
Jawaharlal Nehru Government College

Engineering
Dr  B  R  Ambedkar Institute of Technology

Law
Andaman Law College

Medicine
Andaman and Nicobar Islands Institute of Medical Sciences

Gallery
See also
Cellular Jail
Charles James Lyall
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
Ross Island
Havelock Island
Passage 5:
Pak Tam Chung
Pak Tam Chung (Chinese: 北潭涌) is an area in the southern part of the Sai Kung Peninsula in the New Territories of Hong Kong  It is administratively under the Sai Kung District 

Features
Pak Tam Chung was described as consisting of six villages in 1911 with fewer than 405 inhabitants: Wong Yi Chau (黃宜洲), Pak Tam (北潭), Sheung Yiu (上窰), Tsak Yue Wu (鯽魚湖), Wong Keng Tei (黃麖地) and Tsam Chuk Wan  The six villages were all inhabited by Hakka people, with the exception of two hamlets in Pak Tam There is a visitor centre for nature education set up by the Hong Kong Government  Near the centre is a vehicle barrier leading to the restricted portion of Sai Kung East Country Park in Pak Tam Chung  For vehicles, only those with authorisation can enter the area and reach places like Hoi Ha, Pak Tam Au and High Island Reservoir 
There are a number of picnic and barbecue facilities within Pak Tam Chung, including a site designed for physically disabled visitors 
Po Leung Kuk owns a holiday camp site in Pak Tam Chung, the Po Leung Kuk Pak Tam Chung Camp (保良局北潭涌渡假營) 

See also
Sheung Yiu Folk Museum
Historic churches of Sai Kung Peninsula
Sai Kung Town
Tai Po District
Passage 6:
United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York
The United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York is the United States bankruptcy court within the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York   The Southern District of New York is a major venue for bankruptcy, as it has jurisdiction over the corporate headquarters and major financial institutions located in Manhattan 
Originally, the District Court itself handled bankruptcies; these and admiralty court cases dominated nearly to the exclusion of all other cases, which were primarily handled by a Circuit Court for the District of New York and its successor Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York, until that court was abolished and its cases handled by the District Court as well   The district became widely recognized for its expertise in handling large bankruptcies, leading companies to seek a way to file in this court   Modern examples include the General Motors Chapter 11 reorganization and the Enron and WorldCom bankruptcies From 1980 through 2014, the Southern District Bankruptcy Court for New York handled over 18% of all large, public-company bankruptcy filings in the United States while the Delaware District Bankruptcy Court handled nearly 36% 

List of judges
The following is a list of the bankruptcy judges, as of May 2023, for the United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York 

See also
United States District Court for the Southern District of New York
List of judges of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York
Passage 7:
Alamnagar
Alamnagar (community development block) is one of the administrative divisions of Madhepura district in the Indian state of Bihar  The block headquarters are located at a distance of 58 km from the district headquarters, namely, Madhepura  The name of Alamnagar is named for Shah Alamgir  Almost alls caste of Hindus and Muslims live together  Khara Budhama is also attached in Alamnagar vidhan shabha from udakishunganj  Khara is located 12 km from Alamnagar 

Geography
Alamnagar is located at 25°32′56″N 86°54′40″E

Panchayats
Panchayats in Alamnagar community development block are: Bispatti, Basanbara, [Khurhan, Bargaon, Singhar, Itahari, Alamnagar North, Alamnagar South, Alamnagar East, Northua Bhagipur, Kujauri, Gangapur, Kishanpur Ratwara and Khapur 

Demographics
In the 2001 census Alamnagar Block had a population of 129,226 
Passage 8:
Ceres Nunataks
The Ceres Nunataks (72°3′S 70°25′W) are a group of three nunataks located immediately east of the base of Shostakovich Peninsula in southern Alexander Island, Antarctica  They were mapped by the Directorate of Overseas Surveys from satellite imagery supplied by the U S  National Aeronautics and Space Administration in cooperation with the U S  Geological Survey, and named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Ceres, one of the asteroids lying between the orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter 

Geology
According to the British Antarctic Survey's (BAS) aeromagnetic 1975 survey of Ceres Nunataks and nearby Astraea Nunatak, this geographical feature is rich in the igneous rocks Diorite and Tonalite as presumed by the rock samples which were observed by BAS during this survey 

Aeromagnetic Survey of Ceres Nunataks and Astraea Nunatak
In December 1975, the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) (originally known as the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS)) embarked on an 8-week long survey observing the proposed theory of Ceres Nunataks and Astraea Nunatak having an aeromagnetic connection between one another  I  A  Crawford and R  W  Girdler embarked on the survey, along with other accompanists and personnel members, flying at a constant barometric altitude of approximately 1130 meters (3707 feet, with an east–west flightline separation of about 7 5 kilometers  Here, they proved that these geographical features were rich in geologic minerals which shared similar characteristics  Data was sampled at one-second intervals, which, at ground speed of approximately 240 kilometers per hour, equates to 15 data points for every kilometer covered  The total distance traveled on the surface was 2200 kilometers (1367 miles)  The equipment used included a Geometrics G-803 proton precision magnetometer with both analogue and digital recording, a Bendix DRA-12 Doppler navigation system and Sperry C-12 gyro-magnetic compass, and a Bonzer radio altimeter 
Overall, the 2-month long survey was a successful event and contributed to the history of Alexander Island and the Antarctic Peninsula in itself  Former contributors to this survey include:

Barker, P  F  - Studied the Cenozoic subduction history of the Antarctic Peninsula region 
Bell, C  M  - Observed the geology of the southern portion of Alexander Island 
Bhattacharyya, B  K  - Examined the magnetic anomalies due to prism-shaped bodies with arbitrary polarization 
Burn R  W  - Studied multiple fields of Alexander Island, such as the early Tertiary calc-alkaline volcanism on the island and researching the geology of the nearby LeMay Mountain Range due 40-50 kilometers north of Staccato Peaks 
Care, B  W  - Like Burn, Care studied the vast majority of fields involving Alexander Island, such as archiving geographic reports on the Havre Mountains, Lassus Mountains and other miscellaneous peaks within the vicinity of northern Alexander Island 
Coles R  W  - Conducted two magnetic interpretation methods using rectangular prisms 
Collinson, D  W  - Created an anisotropic susceptibility meter, along with Molyneux, L  and Stone, D  B 
Crabtree, R  D  - Constructed a British Antarctic Territory ice thickness map
Crawford, I  A  - Proposed an analysis of aeromagnetic data over the Staccato Peaks region of Alexander Island, Antarctica, along with Girdler, R  W 
Edwards, C  W  - Collected early Mesozoic marine fossils from the central portion of Alexander Island 
Fabiano, E  B  - Observed grid values of total magnetic intensity, along with the help of former geophysicist Peddie, N  W 
Pankhurst, R  J  - Studied the geochronology of Graham Land, Antarctica 
Peddie, N  W  - Former geophysicist of BAS 
Renner R  G  B  - Former member of BAS and accepted the aeromagnetic survey to commence, chief of the 1975 survey 
Smellie, J  L  - A complete arc-trench system recognized in Gondwana sequences of the Antarctic Peninsula region 
Streckeisen, A



ground_truth: Sebastian Cabot

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In which county is Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative headquartered?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  - Gave to each plutonic body its proper name 
Suarez, M  - Credited for having charted a Plate-tectonic model for the southern portion of the Antarctic Peninsula (Palmer Land) and its relation to the southern Andes Mountain Range 
Passage 9:
Beryslav Raion
Beryslav Raion (Ukrainian: Бериславський район, romanized: Beryslavs'kyi raion) is one of the five administrative raions (a district) of Kherson Oblast in southern Ukraine  Its administrative center is located in the city of Beryslav  Its population was 55,976 as of the 2001 Ukrainian Census  Current population: 94,103 (2022 est ) The January 2020 estimate of the raion population was 45,931 (2020 est )  However, on 18 July 2020, as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, the number of raions of Kherson Oblast was reduced to five, and the area of Beryslav Raion was significantly expanded  Three raions (Novovorontsovka, Velyka Oleksandrivka, and Vysokopillia Raions) were abolished and their territories were merged into an enlarged Beryslav Raion 

Subdivisions
Current
After the reform in July 2020, the raion consisted of 11 hromadas:
Beryslav urban hromada with the administration in the city of Beryslav, retained from Beryslav Raion;
Borozenske rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Borozenske, transferred from Velyka Oleksandrivka Raion;
Kalynivske settlement hromada with the administration in the urban-type settlement of Kalynivske, transferred from Velyka Oleksandrivka Raion;
Kochubeivka rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Kochubeivka, transferred from Vysokopillia Raion;
Mylove rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Mylove, retained from Beryslav Raion;
Novooleksandrivka rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Novooleksandrivka, transferred from Novovorontsovka Raion;
Novoraisk rural hromada with the administration in the settlement of Novoraisk, retained from Beryslav Raion;
Novovorontsovka settlement hromada with the administration in the urban-type settlement of Novovorontsovka, transferred from Novovorontsovka Raion;
Tiahynka rural hromada with the administration in the settlement of Tiahynka, retained from Beryslav Raion;
Velyka Oleksandrivka settlement hromada with the administration in the urban-type settlement of Velyka Oleksandrivka, transferred from Velyka Oleksandrivka Raion 
Vysokopillia settlement hromada with the administration in the urban-type settlement of Vysokopillia, transferred from Vysokopillia Raion;

Before 2020
Before the 2020 reform, the raion consisted of four hromadas:
Beryslav urban hromada with the administration in Beryslav;
Mylove rural hromada with the administration in Mylove;
Novoraisk rural hromada with the administration in Novoraisk;
Tiahynka rural hromada with the administration in Tiahynka Beryslav Raion was divided in a way that followed the general administrative scheme in Ukraine  Local government was also organized along a similar scheme nationwide  Consequently, raions were subdivided into councils, which were the prime level of administrative division in the country 
Each of the raion's urban localities administered their own councils, often containing a few other villages within its jurisdiction  However, only a handful of rural localities were organized into councils, which also might contain a few villages within its jurisdiction 
Accordingly, Beryslav Raion was divided into:
1 city council—made up of the city of Beryslav (administrative center)
1 settlement council—made up of the urban-type settlement of Kozatske
29 village councilsOverall, the raion had a total of 43 populated localities, consisting of one city, one urban-type settlement, 34 villages, and seven rural settlements 

Geography
Beryslav Raion is located in the central part of Kherson Oblast on the right-bank of the Dnieper River and the Kakhovka Reservoir  Geographically, it lies in the lowland immediately before the Black Sea 

History
Beryslav Raion was first established on March 7, 1923 as part of a full-scale administrative reorganization of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic  During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, almost the whole of Beryslav Raion was initially occupied by Russian forces, apart from a few villages in the north of the Raion  However, by late October 2022 the majority of the rural districts had been re-taken by Ukrainian forces, although the city of Beryslav remained in Russian hands as at 29 October  The rest of the raion was retaken on 10 November 2022, when the Russian troops withdrew from the right bank of the Dnieper 

See also
Vysoke, Kherson Oblast
Passage 10:
Kiri Territory
Kiri Territory is an administrative region of Mai-Ndombe Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo  The headquarters is the town of Kiri 

Location
Kiri territory has sandy clay soils, supporting food crops that include cassava, maize, banana, peanut, yams, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, rice, beans, vegetables, robusta coffee, cocoa and palm 
Most of the land is covered with rain forest 
The southern boundary is defined by the Lokoro River, which flows from the southeast, entering Lake Mai-Ndombe at the westernmost point of the territory  
Kiri Territory is divided into the Beronge, Lutoy and Pendjwa sectors 

Economy
The Kiri General Hospital was rehabilitated in 1983, and a farmers cooperative was established in 1995 
As of 1997 Kiri Territory had a population of 121,604 within an area of 12,070 square kilometres (4,660 sq mi), or about 11 people per square kilometer  Trade was mostly with Kinshasa via the neighboring territory of Inongo to the west, handled by a cartel of traders who controlled prices  
Local products such as manioc or fish were exchanged for manufactured goods such as hammocks or machetes As of 2004 the territory lacked electricity and drinking water supplies, and had no telephone, radio or television service 
It does have an airport (Basango Mboliasa Airport) in good condition that is used for occasional unscheduled flights 
Passage 11:
Southern California Edison
Southern California Edison (or SCE Corp), the largest subsidiary of Edison International, is the primary electricity utility for much of Southern California  It provides 15 million people with electricity across a service territory of approximately 50,000 square miles  However, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E), Imperial Irrigation District, and some smaller municipal utilities serve substantial portions of the southern California territory  The northern part of the state is generally served by the Pacific Gas & Electric Company of San Francisco  Other investor-owned utilities (IOUs) in California include SDG&E, PacifiCorp, Bear Valley Electric, and Liberty Utilities 

Southern California Edison (SCE) still owns all of its electrical transmission facilities and equipment, but the deregulation of California's electricity market in the late 1990s forced the company to sell many of its power plants, though some were probably sold by choice  In California, SCE retained only its hydroelectric plants, totaling about 1,200 MW, and its 75% share of the 2,150-MW San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, which has been shut down since January 2012; in June 2013 the company announced its intention to permanently close and decommission the nuclear plant  The utility lost all of its natural gas-fired plants, which provided most of its electrical generation  The large, aging plants were bought by out-of-state companies such as Mirant and Reliant Energy, which allegedly used them to manipulate the California energy market Southern California Edison's power grid is linked to PG&E's by the Path 26 wires that generally follow Interstate 5 over Tejon Pass  The interconnection takes place at a large substation at Buttonwillow  PG&E's and WAPA's Path 15 and Path 66, respectively, from Buttonwillow north eventually connect to BPA's grid in the Pacific Northwest  There are several other interconnections with local and out-of-state utilities, such as Path 46 
In addition, SCE operates a regulated gas and water utility  SCE is the sole commercial provider of natural gas and fresh water service to Santa Catalina Island, including the city of Avalon, California  SCE operates the utilities under the names of Catalina Island Gas Company and Catalina Island Water Company 

History
The origins of the company lie with the grand scheme of business magnate Henry E  Huntington and hydraulic engineer John S  Eastwood, developed around 1908, for a vast complex of reservoirs to be constructed in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of central California   Huntington founded Pacific Light and Power, one of the roughly two dozen companies he controlled at the time, to execute what would eventually become one of the largest hydropower systems in the United States, the Big Creek Hydroelectric Project   Pacific Light and Power was one of the predecessor companies to SCE, along with Edison Electric, Mt  Whitney Power & Electric Co , California Electric Power Co , Southern California Power Co , and others 

Settlement for blackout
Southern California Edison agreed to pay a $650,000 settlement for the 2011 blackout with FERC and NERC 

Shooting
On December 16, 2011, a shooting occurred when an employee of Southern California Edison opened fire at an office building in Irwindale  The employee killed two co-workers and seriously wounded two others before committing suicide 

COVID-19 pandemic
In March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, 8,000 of the 13,000 employees were shifted to remote work  The US Department of Homeland Security has named utilities like SCE part of the 16 sectors designated “critical infrastructure sectors  The group of remote workers was set up so the company can operate if it faces workforce disruptions or shortages if employees become stricken or quarantined because of COVID-19 
The company also ceased power disconnections for non-payment 

Renewable energy
Southern California Edison allows its customer to obtain their electricity entirely from renewable sources by subscribing to a "green rate" In 2006, Southern California Edison planned to secure 1,500 megawatts or more of power generated from new projects to be built in the Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm area  The contract, which more than doubles SCE's wind energy portfolio, envisions more than 50 square miles (130 km2) of wind parks in the Tehachapi region, which is triple the size of any existing U S  wind farm In March 2008, Southern California Edison announced a $875 million project to build a network of 250 megawatts of photovoltaic solar power generation, making it the biggest solar cell project in the nation  The photovoltaic cells will cover 65,000,000 square feet (6,000,000 m2) of rooftops in southern California and will generate enough power to serve 162,000 homes In 2009, Southern California Edison entered into a contract with Solar Millennium to purchase solar thermal power up to 726 MW  Southern California Edison also entered into a contract with Stirling Energy Systems to buy electricity from a 500 megawatt, 4,600 acre (19 km2), solar power plant which was due to open in 2009  The purchase was canceled in late 2010, as changes in technology reduced the cost of photovoltaic-based solar power to below that of solar Stirling generated power  This would have been the first commercial application of the dish stirling system  A different technology from the more familiar solar panel, the dish concentrates solar energy by the use of reflective surfaces and by the use of the Stirling heat engine to convert the heat into electricity 
In 2014, Southern California Edison installed the Tehachapi Energy Storage Project, which is composed of more than 600,000 lithium-ion battery cells at Monolith Substation in Tehachapi, California in order to test storing power generated from an area that currently has 5,000 wind turbines In 2014 SCE had a renewables mix of 23%  By 2016, 28 2% of SCE's power sources were renewable 

Natural gas and energy storage
In 2017, the company opened two new hybrid electric gas turbine (EGT) units called peaker plants, that combine gas turbines and storage batteries at the same site  Each plant delivers around 50-megawatts; the batteries can provide 10-megawatts and four megawatt-hours of power  Both the turbines and the batteries are designed and manufactured by General Electric’s Power Division The plant runs the battery first in a series of short bursts, saving gas usage for longer power demand  The combination of a 30-minute duration battery improves the environmental impact of the gas turbine   The SCE setup (the first of its kind) cut greenhouse gas emissions by 60%, reduced annual water usage by 2 million gallons and lowered the number of gas starts by 50% 

Electric vehicles
Southern California Edison has a number of resources and a rate designed specifically for electric vehicle users As of July 2018, Southern California Edison plans to add thousands of new charging stations for passenger electric vehicles (EV)  This addition is a component of the company's "Charge Ready" program, a pilot program with the aim of increasing the availability of charging ports for EVs  Since 2016, Southern California Edison has installed 1,000 charging stations throughout their Southern and Central California service area The company also runs a rebate program for electric vehicle purchases  Southern California Edison gives people in its service area who purchase a new or used, or lease, an electric vehicle a $450 rebate  The program will run until 2020 

Energy research and policy
Southern California Edison has a long history of research in the energy arena  Often this includes working with other companies and government entities  One example is the SOLARII feasibility generator, which was a solar-powered energy plant that could produce electricity 24 hours a day  This was done by heating molten salts that would hold the heat during the day and would be used to generate power at night Dr  John Jurewitz served as Director of Regulatory Policy for Southern California Edison for 15 years until his retirement in July 2007  His major areas of research are in oil, gas, and electricity policy and greenhouse gas regulation  He has testified and participated in government-sponsored proceedings addressing electric industry restructuring and energy policy at the state, federal, and international levels In November, 2014, SCE announced a partnership with Ice Energy to provide more efficient energy storage by freezing water at night when electricity is cheaper  (Ice Energy filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in December 2019 )

Labor practice controversy
In April 2015, Southern California Edison laid off about 400 IT employees, with an additional 100 IT workers leaving voluntarily  Meanwhile, the utility company hired  immigrants from India through Infosys, based in Bangalore, and Tata Consultancy Services in Mumbai, which are among the largest users of H-1B visas  About 70% of the work to be done by Tata and Infosys will be completed offshore, according to SCE  The company claimed it had to lay off US-based employees to stay competitive  The layoffs were questioned by members of the United States Senate  SCE was subsequently investigated by the US Department of Labor for potential H1-B visa abuse  In October, Department of Labor concluded Infosys did not abuse the H1-B program in the dealings with SCE, while Tata's case remained open 

See also
Energy use in California
Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert
Wind power in California
List of articles associated with nuclear issues in California
Passage 12:
Dunbar Hospital
The Dunbar Hospital was the first hospital for the black community in Detroit, Michigan  It is located at 580 Frederick Street, and is currently the administrative headquarters of the Detroit Medical Society  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 

Building construction and description
The building housing the Dunbar Hospital was built in 1892 by the Guy W  Vinton Company as a home for real estate developer Charles W  Warren  The home was constructed in a fashionable 19th century residential district The structure is a three-story home of mixed Romanesque Revival and Queen Anne style, built of red brick and rough-cut ashlar  The entrance is through a recessed, arched first-floor porch and the second story has a double-arch brick balcony  The roof is slate, with a bay-windowed gabled dormer surmounting the front façade 

Founding of the Dunbar Hospital
In 1894, Dr  James W  Ames, a graduate of both Straight University and Howard University, arrived in Detroit after a stint of teaching in New Orleans  He quickly became influential in both Detroit's white community and its then-small black community  Detroit's mayor at the time was Hazen Pingree  During his subsequent re-election campaign, Pingree actively courted the black vote, in part by supporting Ames's bid for election to the Michigan state legislature The nationally famous black poet Paul Laurence Dunbar, popular in both the black and white community, visited Detroit and lent his voice to those supporting Pingree, penning the poem, "Vote for Pingree and Vote for Bread " Both Ames and Pingree won their respective elections, and Ames spent the next two years in the legislature  He was the last black elected until the 1920s Two decades later, in the years following World War I, the black population of Detroit soared  In 1910, fewer than 6000 blacks called the city home; in 1917 more than 30,000 blacks lived in Detroit  The increase in black residents led to a crisis in health care  Hospitals were still segregated, and physicians like Ames were required to ask permission to admit black patients  Often black patients were simply denied care  The increase in the black population threatened to overwhelm the city's 30 black doctors In 1918, Ames led the group of 30 black physicians to form the Allied Medical Society  The area around Frederick street was at the cusp of becoming the center of social and cultural life for Detroit's black community, and the AMS purchased the Warren home on Frederick They opened their own non-profit hospital in the building, the first in the city to serve the black community, as well as an associated nursing school  The hospital was named for the poet Dunbar, who had died in 1906  The hospital had 27 beds and an operating room 

Later history
In 1928, demand led Dunbar Hospital to move from its first home to a larger facility several blocks to the east  The facility was renamed Parkside Hospital, and continued in operation until 1962  Soon after Dunbar moved from its home on Frederick, Charles Diggs Sr , who was later the first African-American Democratic state senator, purchased the home  Diggs's son, Charles C  Diggs Jr , served in the Michigan State Senate from 1951 to 1954 and the U S  House of Representatives from 1954 to 1980  In 1978, the Detroit Medical Society (the successor to the Allied Medical Society) purchased and restored the building  It now serves as their administrative headquarters and a museum 
Passage 13:
Campora
Campora is a town and comune in the province of Salerno, Campania (southern Italy)  It is located in the territory of Cilento and as of 2009 its population was 810 

History
Geography
The village is located in a hilly area in the middle of Cilento, close to Stio and to the area of Pruno, not far from the town of Vallo della Lucania  It borders with the municipalities of Cannalonga, Gioi, Laurino, Moio della Civitella, Novi Velia and Stio 

See also
Pruno Cilento
Cilentan language
Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park
Passage 14:
Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative
The Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative (SMECO) is an electric distribution cooperative which is headquartered in Hughesville, Maryland, United States  SMECO serves approximately 161,000 customers in Calvert, Charles, Prince George's, and St  Mary's counties of southern Maryland  Under its rules as a nonprofit cooperative, SMECO passes on its costs to its customer-members without markup or profit 

History
In 1937 two committees of citizens from three counties which were seeking aid to construct a local rural electric distribution system under the New Deal's Rural Electrictrification Administration formed the Southern Maryland Tri-County Electric Cooperative Association  This was reorganized as a cooperative under the SMECO name in 1942  Customers were allowed to select suppliers of electricity beginning in 2001 under the Maryland Electric Deregulation legislation enacted in 1999  From 2007 to 2011, SMECO has won the J D  Power and Associates award for best customer service for a midsize utility SMECO owned a 77 MW gas turbine generator located at the Chalk Point Generating Station which began operation in 1990 and was operated and maintained by NRG Energy  In 2015 NRG acquired the turbine plant from SMECO 

FERC solar complaint
SMECO has filed a complaint with the US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), alleging that the Maryland Public Service Commission (PSC) coerced utilities into purchasing excess solar power generated by the state's community solar program at much higher retail rates rather than paying the amount it would have cost these utilities to create the power themselves, also known as the avoided cost  This would be in violation with the federal Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), which establishes that any payment given to such qualifying power plants equate the utility's avoided cost  In addition, PURPA mandates that these plants do not exceed 80 MW of power Recently, the development of community solar programs has become increasingly prevalent in order to meet the ever-growing demand for new, viable energy sources; however, there has been much controversy regarding the surge in net metering consumers due to the resulting cost shifts which negatively affect the non-solar community now facing much higher payments to even out the increased benefits given to solar projects Because of the continual reduction in the cost of power, FERC has become more concerned with the discrepancy between avoided costs and wholesale prices, which continue to prevail  This has placed more focus on PURPA's roles and responsibilities in the maintenance and balance of the current energy market 
Passage 15:
Poum
Poum  is a commune in the North Province of New Caledonia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The small town of Poum (Latitude: 20° 13' 59 south, longitude: 164° 1' 23 east) is located in the far northwest, located on the southern part of Banare Bay, with Mouac Island just offshore  Aside from French, the native language of the Kanak inhabitants is nêlêmwa-nixumwak, an Austronesian language spoken by about 1,100 people  British fishermen came to the islands in 1855 seeking sea cucumbers, and settled and intermarried, and this is reflected in the last names of some clan members and on gravestones (e g  Williams, Winchester)  In the 1850s, a hundred Europeans lived on Mouac Island and John Henry Williams established a presence on Néba island 

Geography
The Poum massif south of Poum and Titch rises to 414 m and is rich in nickel  Other minerals like cobalt have been mined out  The hills around Poum are bare of trees and distinctively rose and red-tinged  Seasonal water shortages and bush fires are common 

Economy
There is one boarding middle school near Poum village  The Kanak population pursue diverse subsistence activities, sometimes combined with paid work  There is one service station and store, opened in the 2010s  Tourists can stay at a western style hotel complex, the Malabou Beach hotel on Nehoue Bay, which is owned by the Northern Province corporation, Grands Hôtels - it has 35 employees  There are also two tourist cottages (Golone and Poingam),  a campsite (Pagop) and home stays are also possible Fishing is still pursued mainly by the islanders, especially from Tiabet, although commercial fish sales are affected by the long distances to market in Nouméa and accreditation systems  Agriculture is practised, and there is some European-owned cattle ranching 
The Poum nickel mine was not heavily exploited fully for many years following its acquisition by SLN after the Accords de Bercy in the 1990s, and had about thirty employees in 2014  In 2015, plans to increase production to 100,000 tonnes of ore per year from 'Spur A' of the mine, with 2 5% nickel content, were announced  In 2019, a further announcement of increased production was made  The mine has been accused by the inhabitants of Titch, west of Poum centre, of creating water pollution problems 
Passage 16:
Menteng, Menteng
Menteng is an administrative village in the Menteng district of Indonesia  It has a postal code of 10310  It is located on the southern area of the Menteng Project 

See also
List of administrative villages of Jakarta
Passage 17:
Elk Ridge (Maryland)
Elk Ridge, or Elk Mountain, is a mountain ridge of the Blue Ridge Mountains in Maryland and is the westernmost of four parallel ridges   It forms the western side of a narrow valley in which are situated the towns of Yarrowsburg and Brownsville   South Mountain is on the eastern side of this valley running roughly parallel to it   The ridge runs from Rohrersville, in the north, to the Potomac River across from Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, in the south   Across the Potomac the ridge continues as Blue Ridge Mountain in Virginia and West Virginia   To the west of Elk Mountain is the broader Cumberland Valley, in which lie the towns of Hagerstown and Chambersburg, and the Potomac River   The southern end of the ridge, which is part of Harpers Ferry National Historical Park, is known as Maryland Heights 

History
In the early 19th century, Elk Ridge was the site of numerous charcoal hearths, which produced charcoal for nearby iron furnaces from wood harvested on the mountain   More than 50 hearths were constructed between 1810 and 1840 
The Maryland Heights portion of Elk Ridge was the scene of much activity during the American Civil War   Artillery emplacements and fortifications were first erected on the mountain by Union forces in 1862, during Stonewall Jackson's Valley Campaign   Later that year, during the Battle of Harpers Ferry, the union fortifications on the mountain were attacked by units under General Lafayette McLaws, who subsequently took control of the ridge and used it to deliver devastating artillery fire against the Union garrison at Harpers Ferry   After the battle Confederate forces abandoned the ridge to rejoin the Army of Northern Virginia at Antietam and the Union army quickly reoccupied the heights 
Following the Battle of Antietam, Abraham Lincoln came to Maryland to review the army, including the garrisons on the mountain   He began the ascent, but because of the steepness of the slope, turned around halfway up, concluding any man who could make the climb would pass his muster   In June 1863 Union forces again took control of the ridge and enlarged the fortifications in response to the Confederate invasion of Maryland during the Gettysburg Campaign 
The "Pinnacle Lot" of the Maryland Heights was purchased by the Maryland Park System from the grandchildren of the last private owner, Judge Patrick Chapman Savin (1820-1889) of Harper's Ferry, MD; the lot was in turn gifted by the State of Maryland to the National Park Service in the 1950s   Judge Patrick and his brother, John Chapman Savin, and a future son-in-law, John Marion Marsteller (1841-1898) were among those who participated in the capture of John Brown and his men   It was during this time that the side of the cliff overlooking Harper's Ferry was leased for advertising seen by the passengers of trains as they entered and exited the tunnel under the Maryland Heights 

Recreation
A trail system, maintained by the National Park Service, ascends Maryland Heights and tours the Civil War-era fortifications and provides access to the cliffs on the mountain which contain views of Harpers Ferry and the Potomac Water Gap   An unmaintained trail leads along the ridge of Park Service land onto private property to Buggy Rocks and views east of Pleasant Valley   Mountain climbing is permitted by the National Park Service along the Maryland Heights cliffs 

Bibliography
Whitman, T  Stephen, Antietam 1862: Gateway to Emancipation, ABC-CLIO, 2012 ISBN 0313397341 

External links
NPS Maryland Heights Brochure
Passage 18:
Pangi Territory
Pangi Territory is an administrative area in Maniema Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo  The  headquarters is the town of Pangi 
The Elila River flows through Pangi territory, entering the Lualaba River to the west 
The territory is divided into the Babene chiefdom and the Beia, Ikama, Wakabango and Wasongola sectors 
Most of the territory is inhabited by the Lega people, as are the adjoining Mwenga and Shabunda territories 
As of 1972 there were still a few Pygmies living among the Baziri tribe of Lega people 
Before independence the territory had 97,380 inhabitants of whom 35,518 were in urban and mining agglomerations 
Passage 19:
WaterColor, Florida
WaterColor is an unincorporated master-planned community located in Walton County, Florida, United States, between Grayton Beach and Seaside  This 499-acre (2 02 km2) Southern resort and residential community was planned by Cooper, Robertson & Partners with Urban Design Associates, in collaboration with Nelson Byrd Woltz Landscape Architects, under the direction of The St  Joe Company  The St  Joe Company has owned the land since 1927 
WaterColor homes are based on the vernacular architecture of Southern wood homes with features that include large wraparound or screened porches, wood columns and siding and a metal roof with deep overhangs  Community amenities include a swimming pool, fitness center, tennis courts, parks and gardens, shopping and restaurants  Camp Creek Golf Club is available to homeowners for an annual fee 
The WaterColor Inn is a 60-room beachfront resort designed by David Rockwell   In 2006 it was rated the #1 Family Friendly Resort in North America by Travel + Leisure magazine   It is the only four diamond hotel in Northwest Florida   The Inn and Vacation Rentals are managed by Troon Golf and St  Joe Clubs and Resorts as of January 2014 

See also
Celebration, Florida
Prospect New Town
Rosemary Beach, Florida
Seaside, Florida
Tradition, Florida
Passage 20:
Khong Island
Khong Island or Don Khong (Lao: ດອນໂຂງ) is the largest island and the seat of administration in the Si Phan Don riverine archipelago located in the Mekong River, Khong District, Champasak Province, southern Laos 
The island is 18 kilometers (11 mi) long (north-south), and 8 kilometers (5 0 mi) at its widest point  Its population is mainly concentrated in the two villages Muang Saen (west) and Muang Khong (east); the latter is the de facto capital of the island as well as the regional seat of government  There are 19 villages on the island and the main source of income comes from fishing  
The former President of Laos, Khamtai Siphandon, has a residence on the island, which is a possible explanation for the  high quality of its infrastructure, such as asphalted roads and electricity  Locals tend to travel on longtail boats 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Group Portrait with a Lady
Group Portrait with a Lady (German: Gruppenbild mit Dame) is a 1977 German-French drama film directed by Aleksandar Petrović  It was entered into the 1977 Cannes Film Festival  It is based on the novel of the same name  by German Nobel-Prize winning novelist Heinrich Böll 

Cast
Passage 2:
List of territorial entities where German is an official language
The following is a list of the countries and territories where German is an official language (also known as the Germanosphere)  It includes countries that have German as (one of) their nationwide official language(s), as well as dependent territories with German as a co-official language 

German as an official language
German is the official language of six countries, all of which lie in central and western Europe  These countries (with the addition of South Tyrol of Italy) also form the Council for German Orthography and are referred to as the German Sprachraum (German language area)  Since 2004, Meetings of German-speaking countries have been held annually with six participants: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Switzerland:

Subdivisions of countries
While not official at the national level, German is a co-official language in subdivisions of the countries listed below  In each of these regions, German is an official language on the administrative level 

Other legal statuses
There are other political entities (countries as well as dependent entities) which acknowledge other legal statuses for the German language or one of its dialects  While these may cover minority rights, support of certain language facilities (schools, media, etc ), and the promotion of cultural protection/heritage, they do not encompass the establishment of German as an "official" language, i e , being required in public offices or administrative texts 
These countries include:

Brazil (German is a statewide cultural language in Espírito Santo and Rio Grande do Sul; Standard German official in 2 municipalities and non-standard German dialects official in 16 others)
Czech Republic (national minority language)
Denmark (minority language in Syddanmark, established with the Bonn-Copenhagen declarations, 1955)
Hungary (national minority language)
Namibia (national language; co-official language 1884–1990)
Poland (national minority language; also auxiliary language in 31 communes)
Romania (national minority language)
Russia (minority language in the Azovo German National District)
Slovakia (regional minority language)Although in France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as "regional languages" according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998, the French government has not yet ratified the treaty, and therefore those varieties have no official legal status Due to the German diaspora, other countries with sizable populations of (mostly bilingual) German L1 speakers include Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Canada, Chile, Paraguay, as well as the United States  However, in none of these countries does German or a German variety have any legal status 

International institutions
German is an official language of the following international institutions:

International sports associations:
European Handball Federation (EHF)
Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT)
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
Fédération Internationale de Luge de Course (FIL)
Fédération Internationale de Ski (FIS)
International Biathlon Union (IBU)
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)

Notes
See also
German language in the Basic Law
Passage 3:
Aleksandar Petrović (film director)
Aleksandar "Saša" Petrović (14 January 1929 – 20 August 1994) was a Serbian film director  He was one of the major figures of the Yugoslav Black Wave  Two of his films were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film: Three in 1966 and I Even Met Happy Gypsies (Feather Gatherers) in 1967  The latter (original title "Skupljaci perja") was the first movie that presented the existence of Gypsies in society and everyday life; it was also the first full-feature film where Gypsies spoke their own language, Roma  Most roles were interpreted by real Gypsies; this was their movie  "As a child, I observed them and saw in these people faith and irrationality," said Petrović I Even Met Happy Gypsies won the FIPRESCI Prize and the Grand Prize of the Jury at the Cannes Film Festival; it also received a nomination for a Golden Globe  In 1967 Petrović was a member of the jury at the 17th Berlin International Film Festival One of his most famous films is It Rains in My Village  Petrović found inspiration for this film in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel The Possessed  The film was nominated for a Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at the 1969 Cannes Film FestivalIn 1973, Petrović was forced to leave his post at the Belgrade Film Academy after being accused of holding anti-communist views by the communist government of Yugoslavia  In late December 1989, he joined the founding committee of the Democratic Party in Serbia, the first opposition anti-communist party in Serbia  He died at age 65 in Paris, France 
Petrović published several hundreds of articles and several books, including Novi film I: 1960-1965 and Novi film II: Crni film (1965-1970) 

Filmography
Passage 4:
Yugoslavia at the Olympics
Teams from Yugoslavia first participated at the Olympic Games in 1920  Previously, several athletes from Croatia, Slovenia and northern Serbian province Vojvodina had competed for Austria or Hungary when those countries were part of the Empire of Austria-Hungary  A small team of two athletes had competed distinctly for Serbia at the 1912 Summer Olympics 
Yugoslavia has been the designation for Olympic teams from three distinct national entities:

Kingdom of Yugoslavia (officially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes until 1929) from 1920 to 1936
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 1948 to the 1992 Winter Olympics
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, formed as a joint state by only Montenegro and Serbia after the breakup of Yugoslavia, from 1992 to 2002 (due to UN ban allowed to compete as Independent Olympic Participants at the 1992 Summer Olympics and was not allowed to compete at 1994 Winter Olympics)Two of the successor nations (Croatia and Slovenia) began to compete as independent teams at the Olympics starting at the 1992 Winter Games and Bosnia and Herzegovina at the 1992 Summer Games and as of the 2008 Summer Olympics, all six successor nations, former socialist republics, have participated independently  Kosovo, a former autonomous province, made its Olympic debut as an independent national team at the 2016 Summer Olympics 

Timeline of participation
The Yugoslav Olympic Committee was established in Zagreb in 1919 (recognized by the IOC in 1920), before moving to Belgrade in 1927, and it took the place of the Serbian Olympic Committee in the Association of National Olympic Committees  During the dissolution of Yugoslavia, several new committees were formed in the break-away countries  The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, consisting of the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro, participated at the Games since 1996  At the 1996 and 2000 Games, the nation was designated with the same code, Yugoslavia (YUG), as the defunct SFRY  It was rechartered as the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro in 2003 with there being no territorial changes  The Serbia and Montenegro (SCG) designation and code were used at the 2004 Games 

Hosted Games
Yugoslavia has hosted the Games on one occasion 

Medal tables
*Red border colour indicates the games were held on home soil 
*Yugoslavia hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo, now part of Bosnia and Herzegovina 

List of medalists
Summer Olympics
As Federal Republic of YugoslaviaAs Independent Olympic Participants

Winter Olympics
See also
List of flag bearers for Yugoslavia at the Olympics
Category:Olympic competitors for Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia at the Paralympics
List of Yugoslav Olympic medalists
Passage 5:
Catalan language
Catalan (; autonym: català, Eastern Catalan: [kətəˈla]), known in the Valencian Community and Carche as Valencian (autonym: valencià), is a Western Romance language  It is the official language of Andorra, and an official language of two autonomous communities in eastern Spain: Catalonia and the Balearic Islands  It is also an official language in Valencia, where it is called Valencian  It has semi-official status in the Italian comune of Alghero, and it is spoken in the Pyrénées-Orientales department of France and in two further areas in eastern Spain: the eastern strip of Aragon and the Carche area in the Region of Murcia  The Catalan-speaking territories are often called the Països Catalans or "Catalan Countries" 
The language evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees  Nineteenth-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, culminating in the early 1900s 

Etymology and pronunciation
The word Catalan is derived from the territorial name of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology  The main theory suggests that Catalunya (Latin Gathia Launia) derives from the name Gothia or Gauthia ("Land of the Goths"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, whence Gothland > Gothlandia > Gothalania > Catalonia theoretically derived In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain (from French)  It is attested a language name since at least 1652  The word Catalan can be pronounced in English as ,  or  The endonym is pronounced [kətəˈla] in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and [kataˈla] in the Western dialects  In the Valencian Community and Carche, the term valencià [valensiˈa, ba-] is frequently used instead  Thus, the name "Valencian", although often employed for referring to the varieties specific to the Valencian Community and Carche, is also used by Valencians as a name for the language as a whole, synonymous with "Catalan"  Both uses of the term have their respective entries in the dictionaries by the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua and the Institut d'Estudis Catalans  See also status of Valencian below 

History
Middle Ages
By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the eastern end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south  From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of the Muslims, bringing their language with them  This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of the County of Barcelona from the Carolingian Empire in 988 In the 11th century, documents written in macaronic Latin begin to show Catalan elements, with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080  Old Catalan shared many features with Gallo-Romance, diverging from Old Occitan between the 11th and 14th centuries During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded southward to the Ebro river, and in the 13th century they conquered the Land of Valencia and the Balearic Islands  The city of Alghero in Sardinia was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century  The language also reached Murcia, which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century In the Low Middle Ages, Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness  Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath Ramon Llull (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in Ausiàs March (1397–1459)  By the 15th century, the city of Valencia had become the sociocultural center of the Crown of Aragon, and Catalan was present all over the Mediterranean world  During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language  Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th  During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms "one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe" Martorell's outstanding novel of chivalry Tirant lo Blanc (1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen in Metge's work  The first book produced with movable type in the Iberian Peninsula was printed in Catalan 

Start of the modern era
Spain
With the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon in 1479, the Spanish kings ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and they had to swear by the Laws of each territory before the respective Parliaments  But after the War of the Spanish Succession, Spain became an Absolute monarchy under Philip V, which led to the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the Crown of Castile through the Nueva Planta decrees, as a first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state; as in other contemporary European states, this meant the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant groups  Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards national minorities have been a constant 

The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they "will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed " From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to "represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish " Anyway, the use of Spanish gradually became more prestigious and marked the start of the decline of Catalan  Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the nobles, part of the urban and literary classes became bilingual 

France
With the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), Spain ceded the northern part of Catalonia to France, and soon thereafter the local Catalan varieties came under the influence of French, which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region Shortly after the French Revolution (1789), the French First Republic prohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the regional languages of France, such as Catalan, Alsatian, Breton, Occitan, Flemish, and Basque 

France: 19th to 20th century
Following the French establishment of the colony of Algeria from 1830 onward, it received several waves of Catalan-speaking settlers  People from the Spanish Alicante province settled around Oran, whereas Algiers received immigration from Northern Catalonia and Menorca 
Their speech was known as patuet  By 1911, the number of Catalan speakers was around 100,000  After the declaration of independence of Algeria in 1962, almost all the Catalan speakers fled to Northern Catalonia (as Pieds-Noirs) or Alacant The government of France formally recognizes only French as an official language  Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales officially recognized Catalan as one of the languages of the department and seeks to further promote it in public life and education 

Spain: 18th to 20th century
In 1807, the Statistics Office of the French Ministry of the Interior asked the prefects for an official survey on the limits of the French language  The survey found that in Roussillon, almost only Catalan was spoken, and since Napoleon wanted to incorporate Catalonia into France, as happened in 1812, the consul in Barcelona was also asked  He declared that Catalan "is taught in schools, it is printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses", indicating that it was spoken everywhere "with the exception of the royal courts"  He also indicated that Catalan was spoken "in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall d "Aran and Cerdaña" The defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in the War of Spanish Succession (1714) initiated a series of laws which, among other centralizing measures, imposed the use of Spanish in legal documentation all over Spain  Because of this, use of the Catalan language declined into the 18th century 
However, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival (Renaixença), which has continued up to the present day  This period starts with Aribau's Ode to the Homeland (1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work of Verdaguer (poetry), Oller (realist novel), and Guimerà (drama)  In the 19th century, the region of Carche, in the province of Murcia was repopulated with Valencian speakers  Catalan spelling was standardized in 1913 and the language became official during the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939)  The Second Spanish Republic saw a brief period of tolerance, with most restrictions against Catalan lifted The Catalan language and culture were frowned upon during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and the subsequent decades in Francoist Catalonia  The Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975) imposed the use of Spanish in schools and in public administration in all of Spain  However, in 1944, it became mandatory by law for universities with Romance Philology to include the subject of Catalan Philology  Numerous and prestigious cultural contests were created to reward works produced in Catalan  In January 1944, the "Eugenio Nadal" award was created  In 1945, with the sponsorship and subsidy of the Government, the centenary of Mossèn Cinto Verdaguer was celebrated  In 1947 the Joan Martorell prize for novels in Catalan was awarded  In 1949, the Víctor Català award for short novels in Catalan and the Aedos awards for biographies, the Josep Ysart award for essays, and the Ossa Menor award, later renamed Carles Riba, were created  In 1951, a national prize was awarded to poetry in Catalan with the same financial amount as Spanish poetry  That same year, Selecta Editions was founded for works written in Catalan  And the Joanot Martorell is awarded to Josep Pla for his work El carrer estret  In subsequent years (50s, 60s and 70s) countless awards were born, such as the Lletra d'Or, Amadeu Oller for poetry, the Sant Jordi for novels (endowed with 150,000 pesetas), the Honor Award of Catalan Letters, the Verdaguer, the Josep Pla Prize, the Mercè Rodoreda Prize for short stories and narratives  The first Catalan-language TV show was broadcast during the Franco period, in 1964  The Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975) banned the use of Catalan in schools and in public administration  At the same time, oppression of the Catalan language and identity was carried out in schools, through governmental bodies, and in religious centers  Franco's desire for a homogenous Spanish population resonated with some Catalans in favor of his regime, primarily members of the upper class, who began to reject the use of Catalan  Despite all of these hardships, Catalan continued to be used privately within households, and it was able to survive Francisco Franco's dictatorship  Several prominent Catalan authors resisted the suppression through literature In addition to the loss of prestige for Catalan and its prohibition in schools, migration during the 1950s into Catalonia from other parts of Spain also contributed to the diminished use of the language  These migrants were often unaware of the existence of Catalan, and thus felt no need to learn or use it  Catalonia was the economic powerhouse of Spain, so these migrations continued to occur from all corners of the country  Employment opportunities were reduced for those who were not bilingual 

Present day
Since the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige  In Catalonia, there is an unparalleled large bilingual European non-state linguistic community  The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools, but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations – if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or more recently arrived immigrant students  There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan More recently, several Spanish political forces have tried to increase the use of Spanish in the Catalan educational system  As a result, in May 2022 the Spanish Supreme Court urged the Catalan regional government to enforce a measure by which 25% of all lessons must be taught in Spanish According to the Statistical Institute of Catalonia, in 2013 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, after Spanish, as a native or self-defining language: 7% of the population self-identifies with both Catalan and Spanish equally, 36 4% with Catalan and 47 5% only Spanish  In 2003 the same studies concluded no language preference for self-identification within the population above 15 years old: 5% self-identified with both languages, 44 3% with Catalan and 47 5% with Spanish  To promote use of Catalan, the Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalonia's official Autonomous government) spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories, with entities such as Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística (Consortium for Linguistic Normalization)In Andorra, Catalan has always been the sole official language  Since the promulgation of the 1993 constitution, several policies favoring Catalan have been enforced, like Catalan medium education On the other hand, there are several language shift processes currently taking place  In the Northern Catalonia area of France, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004)  Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary  The cultural association La Bressola promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs 
In Alicante province, Catalan is being replaced by Spanish and in Alghero by Italian  There is also well ingrained diglossia in the Valencian Community, Ibiza, and to a lesser extent, in the rest of the Balearic islands During the 20th century many Catalans emigrated or went into exile to Venezuela, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina and other South American countries  They formed a large number of Catalan colonies that today continue to maintain the Catalan language  They also founded many Catalan casals (associations) 

Classification and relationship with other Romance languages
One classification of Catalan is given by Pèire Bèc:

Romance languages
Italo-Western languages
Western Romance languages
Gallo-Iberian languages
Gallo-Romance languages
Occitano-Romance languages
Catalan languageHowever, the ascription of Catalan to the Occitano-Romance branch of Gallo-Romance languages is not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such as Ramón Menéndez Pidal 
Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover term Occitan language (see also differences between Occitan and Catalan and Gallo-Romance languages)  Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages 

Relationship with other Romance languages
Some include Catalan in Occitan, as the linguistic distance between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the Gascon language) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects  Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century and still today remains its closest relative Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring Romance languages (Occitan, French, Italian, Sardinian as well as Spanish and Portuguese among others)  However, despite being spoken mostly on the Iberian Peninsula, Catalan has marked differences with the Iberian Romance group (Spanish and Portuguese) in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularly Occitan and to a lesser extent Gallo-Romance (Franco-Provençal, French, Gallo-Italian) According to Ethnologue, the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% with Ladin and Romansh; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian 
During much of its history, and especially during the Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975), the Catalan language was ridiculed as a mere dialect of Spanish  This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity  Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in features closer to Occitan (and French) There is evidence that, at least from the 2nd century a d , the vocabulary and phonology of Roman Tarraconensis was different from the rest of Roman Hispania  Differentiation arose generally because Spanish, Asturian, and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanish hervir, Asturian and Portuguese ferver vs  Catalan bullir, Occitan bolir "to boil") and innovatory regionalisms (Sp novillo, Ast nuviellu vs  Cat torell, Oc taurèl "bullock"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan Like all Romance languages, Catalan has a handful of native words which are unique to it, or rare elsewhere  These include:

verbs: cōnfīgere 'to fasten; transfix' > confegir 'to compose, write up', congemināre > conjuminar 'to combine, conjugate', de-ex-somnitare > deixondar/-ir 'to wake; awaken', dēnsāre 'to thicken; crowd together' > desar 'to save, keep', īgnōrāre > enyorar 'to miss, yearn, pine for', indāgāre 'to investigate, track' > Old Catalan enagar 'to incite, induce', odiāre > OCat ujar 'to exhaust, fatigue', pācificāre > apaivagar 'to appease, mollify', repudiāre > rebutjar 'to reject, refuse';
nouns: brīsa > brisa 'pomace', buda > boga 'reedmace', catarrhu > cadarn 'catarrh', congesta > congesta 'snowdrift', dēlīrium > deler 'ardor, passion', fretu > freu 'brake', lābem > (a)llau 'avalanche', ōra > vora 'edge, border', pistrīce 'sawfish' > pestriu > pestiu 'thresher shark, smooth hound; ray', prūna 'live coal' > espurna 'spark', tardātiōnem > tardaó > tardor 'autumn' The Gothic superstrate produced different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan  For example, Catalan fang "mud" and rostir "to roast", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanish lodo and asar, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan filosa "spinning wheel" and templa "temple", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish rueca and sien, of Germanic origin The same happens with Arabic loanwords  Thus, Catalan alfàbia "large earthenware jar" and rajola "tile", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanish tinaja and teja, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan oli "oil" and oliva "olive", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish aceite and aceituna  However, the Arabic element in Spanish is generally much more prevalent Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Iberian Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such as enyorar "to miss somebody", apaivagar "to calm somebody down", and rebutjar "reject" 

Geographic distribution
Catalan-speaking territories
Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories are sometimes called the Països Catalans (Catalan Countries), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status  Various interpretations of the term may include some or all of these regions 

Number of speakers
The number of people known to be fluent in Catalan varies depending on the sources used  A 2004 study did not count the total number of speakers, but estimated a total of 9–9 5 million by matching the percentage of speakers to the population of each area where Catalan is spoken  The web site of the Generalitat de Catalunya estimated that as of 2004 there were 9,118,882 speakers of Catalan  These figures only reflect potential speakers; today it is the native language of only 35 6% of the Catalan population  According to Ethnologue, Catalan had 4 1 million native speakers and 5 1 million second-language speakers in 2021 

According to a 2011 study the total number of Catalan speakers is over 9 8 million, with 5 9 million residing in Catalonia  More than half of them speak Catalan as a second language, with native speakers being about 4 4 million of those (more than 2 8 in Catalonia)  Very few Catalan monoglots exist; basically, virtually all of the Catalan speakers in Spain are bilingual speakers of Catalan and Spanish, with a sizable population of Spanish-only speakers of immigrant origin (typically born outside Catalonia or whose parents were both born outside Catalonia) existing in the major Catalan urban areas as well 
In Roussillon, only a minority of French Catalans speak Catalan nowadays, with French being the majority language for the inhabitants after a continued process of language shift  According to a 2019 survey by the Catalan government, 31 5% of the inhabitants of Catalonia have Catalan as first language at home whereas 52 7% have Spanish, 2 8% both Catalan and Spanish and 10 8% other languages Spanish is the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally  According to this census of 2013 Catalan is also very commonly spoken in the city of 1,501,262: it is understood by 95% of the population, while 72 3% over the age of 2 can speak it (1,137,816), 79% can read it (1,246 555), and 53% can write it (835,080)  The proportion in Barcelona who can speak it, 72 3%, is lower than that of the overall Catalan population, of whom 81 2% over the age of 15 speak the language  Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a language immersion educational system  An important social characteristic of the Catalan language is that all the areas where it is spoken are bilingual in practice: together with the French language in Roussillon, with Italian in Alghero, with Spanish and French in Andorra and with Spanish in the rest of the territories 

1 ^  The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it 
2 ^  Figures relate to all self-declared capable speakers, not just native speakers 

Level of knowledge
(% of the population 15 years old and older) 

Social use
(% of the population 15 years old and older) 

Native language
Phonology
Catalan phonology varies by dialect  Notable features include:
Marked contrast of the vowel pairs /ɛ e/ and /ɔ o/, as in other Western Romance languages, other than Spanish 
Lack of diphthongization of Latin short ĕ, ŏ, as in Galician and Portuguese, but unlike French, Spanish, or Italian 
Abundance of diphthongs containing /w/, as in Galician and Portuguese In contrast to other Romance languages, Catalan has many monosyllabic words, and these may end in a wide variety of consonants, including some consonant clusters  Additionally, Catalan has final obstruent devoicing, which gives rise to an abundance of such couplets as amic ("male friend") vs  amiga ("female friend") Central Catalan pronunciation is considered to be standard for the language  The descriptions below are mostly representative of this variety  For the differences in pronunciation between the different dialects, see the section on pronunciation of dialects in this article 

Vowels
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: /a ɛ e i ɔ o u/, a common feature in Western Romance, with the exception of Spanish  Balearic also has instances of stressed /ə/  Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction, and the incidence of the pair /ɛ e/ In Central Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to three: /a e ɛ/ > [ə]; /o ɔ u/ > [u]; /i/ remains distinct  The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section pronunciation of dialects in this article) 

Consonants
The consonant system of Catalan is rather conservative 

/l/ has a velarized allophone in syllable coda position in most dialects  However, /l/ is velarized irrespective of position in Eastern dialects like Majorcan and standard Eastern Catalan 
/v/ occurs in Balearic, Algherese, standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia  It has merged with /b/ elsewhere 
Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing: /b/ > [p], /d/ > [t], /ɡ/ > [k] 
Voiced stops become lenited to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: /b/ > [β], /d/ > [ð], /ɡ/ > [ɣ]  Exceptions include /d/ after lateral consonants, and /b/ after /f/  In coda position, these sounds are realized as stops, except in some Valencian dialects where they are lenited 
There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/  Some sources describe them as "postalveolar"  Others as "back alveolo-palatal", implying that the characters ⟨ɕ ʑ tɕ dʑ⟩ would be more accurate  However, in all literature only the characters for palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives are used, even when the same sources use ⟨ɕ ʑ⟩ for other languages like Polish and Chinese 
The distribution of the two rhotics /r/ and /ɾ/ closely parallels that of Spanish  Between vowels, the two contrast, but they are otherwise in complementary distribution: in the onset of the first syllable in a word, [r] appears unless preceded by a consonant  Dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda with Western Catalan generally featuring [ɾ] and Central Catalan dialects featuring a weakly trilled [r] unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same prosodic unit, in which case [ɾ] appears 
In careful speech, /n/, /m/, /l/ may be geminated  Geminated /ʎ/ may also occur  Some analyze intervocalic [r] as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme  This is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics 

Phonological evolution
Sociolinguistics
Catalan sociolinguistics studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents  It is a subdiscipline of Catalan philology and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact) 

Preferential subjects of study
Dialects of Catalan
Variations of Catalan by class, gender, profession, age and level of studies
Process of linguistic normalization
Relations between Catalan and Spanish or French
Perception on the language of Catalan speakers and non-speakers
Presence of Catalan in several fields: tagging, public function, media, professional sectors

Dialects
Overview
The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages; both in terms of vocabulary, semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology  Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high, estimates ranging from 90% to 95%  The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic Algherese dialect Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western  The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed a and e; which have merged to /ə/ in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as /a/ and /e/ in Western dialects  There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of Northwestern Catalan and Valencian; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: Central Catalan, Balearic, Rossellonese, and Algherese  Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects  The terms "Catalan" and "Valencian" (respectively used in Catalonia and the Valencian Community) refer to two varieties of the same language  There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community 
Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers



ground_truth: Charles County

Charles County, Maryland

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the country, whose co-official language was used by the director of Group Portrait with a Lady, first attend the Olympics as an independent team?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the Barcelona province, the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona Catalan has an inflectional grammar  Nouns have two genders (masculine, feminine), and two numbers (singular, plural)  Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways  Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and gender  In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages 

Pronunciation
Vowels
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: /a ɛ e i ɔ o u/, a common feature in Western Romance, except Spanish  Balearic has also instances of stressed /ə/  Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction, and the incidence of the pair /ɛ e/ In Eastern Catalan (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: /a e ɛ/ > [ə]; /o ɔ u/ > [u]; /i/ remains distinct  There are a few instances of unreduced [e], [o] in some words  Algherese has lowered [ə] to [a] 
In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: /a e ɛ/ follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however /o ɔ/ reduce to [o], with /u/ remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan In Western Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to five: /e ɛ/ > [e]; /o ɔ/ > [o]; /a u i/ remain distinct  This reduction pattern, inherited from Proto-Romance, is also found in Italian and Portuguese  Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed /e/ and /ɛ/  Usually, words with /ɛ/ in Central Catalan correspond to /ə/ in Balearic and /e/ in Western Catalan  Words with /e/ in Balearic almost always have /e/ in Central and Western Catalan as well  As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of /ɛ/ 

Consonants
Morphology
Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is -e in verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or -o in all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia E g  parle, tem, sent (Valencian); parlo, temo, sento (Northwestern Catalan) 
Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is -o, -i, or -∅ in all conjugations  E g  parlo (Central), parl (Balearic), and parli (Northern), all meaning ('I speak') 

Western Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are -isc/-esc, -ix, -ixen, -isca/-esca 
Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are -eixo, -eix, -eixen, -eixi 
Western Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of /n/ of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words E g  hòmens 'men', jóvens 'youth' 
Eastern Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, loss of /n/ of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words E g  homes 'men', joves 'youth' (Ibicencan, however, follows the model of Western Catalan in this case) 

Vocabulary
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices  Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism  Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element 

Standards
Standard Catalan, virtually accepted by all speakers, is mostly based on Eastern Catalan, which is the most widely used dialect  Nevertheless, the standards of the Valencian Community and the Balearics admit alternative forms, mostly traditional ones, which are not current in eastern Catalonia The most notable difference between both standards is some tonic ⟨e⟩ accentuation, for instance: francès, anglès (IEC) – francés, anglés (AVL)  Nevertheless, AVL's standard keeps the grave accent ⟨è⟩, while pronouncing it as /e/ rather than /ɛ/, in some words like: què ('what'), or València  Other divergences include the use of ⟨tl⟩ (AVL) in some words instead of ⟨tll⟩ like in ametla/ametlla ('almond'), espatla/espatlla ('back'), the use of elided demonstratives (este 'this', eixe 'that') in the same level as reinforced ones (aquest, aqueix) or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, like subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in -ix- at the same level as -eix- or the priority use of -e morpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative (-ar verbs): jo compre instead of jo compro ('I buy') 
In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by the University of the Balearic Islands's philological section  In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing cantam as much as cantem ('we sing'), but the university says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must be cantam in all fields  Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative: jo compr ('I buy'), jo tem ('I fear'), jo dorm ('I sleep') 
In Alghero, the IEC has adapted its standard to the Algherese dialect  In this standard one can find, among other features: the definite article lo instead of el, special possessive pronouns and determinants la mia ('mine'), lo sou/la sua ('his/her'), lo tou/la tua ('yours'), and so on, the use of -v- /v/ in the imperfect tense in all conjugations: cantava, creixiva, llegiva; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Algherese: manco instead of menys ('less'), calqui u instead of algú ('someone'), qual/quala instead of quin/quina ('which'), and so on; and the adaptation of weak pronouns 
In 2011, the Aragonese government passed a decree approving the statutes of a new language regulator of Catalan in La Franja (the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon) as originally provided for by Law 10/2009  The new entity, designated as Acadèmia Aragonesa del Català, shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language in La Franja 

Status of Valencian
Valencian is classified as a Western dialect, along with the northwestern varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces of Lleida and the western half of Tarragona)  Central Catalan has 90% to 95% inherent intelligibility for speakers of Valencian Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language  The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the Valencian Academy of Language (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties 

The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (Normes de Castelló)  Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian an independent standard 
Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004 showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan  This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly  Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views  A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy  For example, during the drafting of the European Constitution in 2004, the Spanish government supplied the EU with translations of the text into Basque, Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical 

Vocabulary
Word choices
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices  Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism  Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use  However, from the 19th century onwards, there has been a tendency towards favoring words of Northern dialects to the detriment of others, even though nowadays there is a greater freedom of choice 

Latin and Greek loanwords
Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of loanwords from Greek and Latin  This process started very early, and one can find such examples in Ramon Llull's work  In the 14th and 15th centuries Catalan had a far greater number of Greco-Latin loanwords than other Romance languages, as is attested for example in Roís de Corella's writings  The incorporation of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language, Latin, into Catalan is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church  Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Catalan speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Catalan 

Word formation
The process of morphological derivation in Catalan follows the same principles as the other Romance languages, where agglutination is common  Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example elèctric [əˈlɛktrik] ("electrical") vs  electricitat [ələktrisiˈtat]  Prefixes are usually appended to verbs, as in preveure ("foresee") There is greater regularity in the process of word-compounding, where one can find compounded words formed much like those in English 

Writing system
Catalan uses the Latin script, with some added symbols and digraphs  The Catalan orthography is systematic and largely phonologically based  Standardization of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906  Subsequently, the Philological Section of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (IEC, founded in 1911) published the Normes ortogràfiques in 1913 under the direction of Antoni Maria Alcover and Pompeu Fabra  In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered in Castelló de la Plana to make a formal adoption of the so-called Normes de Castelló, a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms 

Grammar
The grammar of Catalan is similar to other Romance languages  Features include:
Use of definite and indefinite articles 
Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and articles are inflected for gender (masculine and feminine), and number (singular and plural)  There is no case inflexion, except in pronouns 
Verbs are highly inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood (including a subjunctive) 
There are no modal auxiliaries 
Word order is freer than in English 

Gender and number inflection
In gender inflection, the most notable feature is (compared to Portuguese, Spanish or Italian), the loss of the typical masculine suffix -o  Thus, the alternance of -o/-a, has been replaced by ø/-a  There are only a few exceptions, like minso/minsa ("scarce")  Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:
Affrication: boig/boja ("insane") vs  lleig/lletja ("ugly")
Loss of n: pla/plana ("flat") vs  segon/segona ("second")
Final obstruent devoicing: sentit/sentida ("felt") vs  dit/dita ("said")Catalan has few suppletive couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French  Thus, Catalan has noi/noia ("boy"/"girl") and gall/gallina ("cock"/"hen"), whereas French has garçon/fille and coq/poule There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favor of marked ones, something prevalent in Occitan and French  Thus, one can find bullent/bullenta ("boiling") in contrast with traditional bullent/bullent As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix -s, which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely  The most important one is the addition of -o- before certain consonant groups, a phonetic phenomenon that does not affect feminine forms: el pols/els polsos ("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs  la pols/les pols ("the dust"/"the dusts") 

Determiners
The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages  Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than Spanish, like dels ("of + the [plural]"), but not as many as Italian (which has sul, col, nel, etc ) Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives (mon, etc ) in favor of constructions of article + stressed forms (el meu, etc ), a feature shared with Italian 

Personal pronouns
The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, especially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian)  Features include the gender-neutral ho and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations) Catalan pronouns exhibit T–V distinction, like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English)  This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality 
This flexibility allows Catalan to use extraposition extensively, much more than French or Spanish  Thus, Catalan can have m'hi recomanaren ("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must say ils m'ont recommandé à lui, and Spanish me recomendaron a él  This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence topic, without having to use so often the passive voice (as in French or English), or identifying the direct object with a preposition (as in Spanish) 

Verbs
Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal  Suffixation is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role  Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion  However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of anar ("to go") + infinitive Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes -a-, -e-, -i-, the last two being split into two subtypes  However, this division is mostly theoretical  Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of servir, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive  The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding 

Syntax
The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages  The primary word order is subject–verb–object  However, word order is very flexible  Commonly, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect  The sentence "The train has arrived" could be translated as Ha arribat el tren or El tren ha arribat  Both sentences mean "the train has arrived", but the former puts a focus on the train, while the latter puts a focus on the arrival  This subtle distinction is described as "what you might say while waiting in the station" versus "what you might say on the train "

Catalan names
In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname  The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction i ("and") 

Sample text
Selected text from Manuel de Pedrolo's 1970 novel Un amor fora ciutat ("A love affair outside the city") 

See also
Notes
Passage 6:
Serbian language
Serbian (српски / srpski, pronounced [sr̩̂pskiː]) is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs  It is the official and national language of Serbia, one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina and co-official in Montenegro and Kosovo  It is a recognized minority language in Croatia, North Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic 
Standard Serbian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian (more specifically on the dialects of Šumadija-Vojvodina and Eastern Herzegovina), which is also the basis of standard Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin varieties and therefore the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Montenegrins was issued in 2017  The other dialect spoken by Serbs is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian 
Serbian is practically the only European standard language whose speakers are fully functionally digraphic, using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets  The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created it based on phonemic principles  The Latin alphabet used for Serbian (latinica) was designed by the Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in the 1830s based on the Czech system with a one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correlation between the Cyrillic and Latin orthographies, resulting in a parallel system 

Classification
Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language (Indo-European), of the South Slavic subgroup  Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian, Croatian, and Montenegrin  "An examination of all the major 'levels' of language shows that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system " It has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian, than with Slovene (Slovene is part of the Western South Slavic subgroup, but there are still significant differences in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation to the standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian, although it is closer to the Kajkavian and Chakavian dialects of Serbo-Croatian) 

Geographic distribution
Figures of speakers according to countries:

Serbia: 6,540,699 (official language)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1,086,027 (co-official language)
Germany: 568,240
Austria: 350,000
Montenegro: 265,890 (language in official use)
Switzerland: 186,000
United States: 172,874
Sweden: 120,000
Italy: 106,498
Kosovo: est  70 000–100 000 (co-official language)
Canada: 72,690
Australia: 55,114
Croatia: 52,879 (recognized minority language)
Slovenia: 38,964
North Macedonia: 24,773 (recognized minority language)
Romania: 22,518 (recognized minority language)

Status in Montenegro
Serbian was the official language of Montenegro until October 2007 when the new Constitution of Montenegro replaced the Constitution of 1992  Amid opposition from pro-Serbian parties, Montenegrin was made the sole official language of the country, and Serbian was given the status of a language in official use along with Bosnian, Albanian, and Croatian In the 2011 Montenegrin census, 42 88% declared Serbian to be their native language, while Montenegrin was declared by 36 97% of the population 

Differences between standard Serbian and standard Croatian and Bosnian
Writing system
Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic (ћирилица, ćirilica) and Latin script (latinica, латиница)  Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia, a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them  Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or the other  In general, the alphabets are used interchangeably; except in the legal sphere, where Cyrillic is required, there is no context where one alphabet or another predominates 
Although Serbian language authorities have recognized the official status of both scripts in contemporary Standard Serbian for more than half of a century now, due to historical reasons, the Cyrillic script was made the official script of Serbia's administration by the 2006 Constitution The Latin script continues to be used in official contexts, although the government has indicated its desire to phase out this practice due to national sentiment  The Ministry of Culture believes that Cyrillic is the "identity script" of the Serbian nation However, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means, leaving the choice of script as a matter of personal preference and to the free will in all aspects of life (publishing, media, trade and commerce, etc ), except in government paperwork production and in official written communication with state officials, which have to be in Cyrillic 

Usage
To most Serbians, the Latin script tends to imply a cosmopolitan or neutral attitude, while Cyrillic appeals to a more traditional or vintage sensibility In media, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia, predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink, predominantly use the Latin script  Newspapers can be found in both scripts 
In the public sphere, with logos, outdoor signage and retail packaging, the Latin script predominates, although both scripts are commonly seen  The Serbian government has encouraged increasing the use of Cyrillic in these contexts  Larger signs, especially those put up by the government, will often feature both alphabets; if the sign has English on it, then usually only Cyrillic is used for the Serbian text 
A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors the Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one Latin script has become more and more popular in Serbia, as it is easier to input on phones and computers 

Alphabetic order
The sort order of the ćirilica (ћирилица) alphabet:

Cyrillic order called Azbuka (азбука): А Б В Г Д Ђ Е Ж З И Ј К Л Љ М Н Њ О П Р С Т Ћ У Ф Х Ц Ч Џ ШThe sort order of the latinica (латиница) alphabet:

Latin order called Abeceda (абецеда): A B C Č Ć D Dž Đ E F G H I J K L Lj M N Nj O P R S Š T U V Z Ž

Grammar
Serbian is a highly inflected language, with grammatical morphology for nouns, pronouns and adjectives as well as verbs 

Nouns
Serbian nouns are classified into three declensional types, denoted largely by their nominative case endings as "-a" type, "-i" and "-e" type  Into each of these declensional types may fall nouns of any of three genders: masculine, feminine or neuter  Each noun may be inflected to represent the noun's grammatical case, of which Serbian has seven:

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative
Instrumental
LocativeNouns are further inflected to represent the noun's number, singular or plural 

Pronouns
Pronouns, when used, are inflected along the same case and number morphology as nouns  Serbian is a pro-drop language, meaning that pronouns may be omitted from a sentence when their meaning is easily inferred from the text  In cases where pronouns may be dropped, they may also be used to add emphasis  For example:

Adjectives
Adjectives in Serbian may be placed before or after the noun they modify, but must agree in number, gender and case with the modified noun 

Verbs
Serbian verbs are conjugated in four past forms—perfect, aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect—of which the last two have a very limited use (imperfect is still used in some dialects, but the majority of native Serbian speakers consider it archaic), one future tense (also known as the first future tense, as opposed to the second future tense or the future exact, which is considered a tense of the conditional mood by some contemporary linguists), and one present tense  These are the tenses of the indicative mood  Apart from the indicative mood, there is also the imperative mood  The conditional mood has two more tenses: the first conditional (commonly used in conditional clauses, both for possible and impossible conditional clauses) and the second conditional (without use in the spoken language—it should be used for impossible conditional clauses)  Serbian has active and passive voice 
As for the non-finite verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive, two adjectival participles (the active and the passive), and two adverbial participles (the present and the past) 

Vocabulary
Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to the Proto-Slavic language  There are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history  Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, English, Russian, German, Czech and French 

Serbian literature
Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje (Miroslav's Gospel) in 1186 and Dušanov zakonik (Dušan's Code) in 1349  Little secular medieval literature has been preserved, but what there is shows that it was in accord with its time; for example, the Serbian Alexandride, a book about Alexander the Great, and a translation of Tristan and Iseult into Serbian  Although not belonging to the literature proper, the corpus of Serbian literacy in the 14th and 15th centuries contains numerous legal, commercial and administrative texts with marked presence of Serbian vernacular juxtaposed on the matrix of Serbian Church Slavonic 
By the beginning of the 14th century the Serbo-Croatian language, which was so rigorously proscribed by earlier local laws, becomes the dominant language of the Republic of Ragusa  However, despite her wealthy citizens speaking the Serbo-Croatian dialect of Dubrovnik in their family circles, they sent their children to Florentine schools to become perfectly fluent in Italian  Since the beginning of the 13th century, the entire official correspondence of Dubrovnik with states in the hinterland was conducted in Serbian In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and for the next 400 years there was no opportunity for the creation of secular written literature  However, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being epic poetry  The epic poems were mainly written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s, a few centuries or even a millennium longer than by most other "epic folks"  Goethe and Jacob Grimm learned Serbian in order to read Serbian epic poetry in the original  By the end of the 18th century, the written literature had become estranged from the spoken language  In the second half of the 18th century, the new language appeared, called Slavonic-Serbian  This artificial idiom superseded the works of poets and historians like Gavrilo Stefanović Venclović, who wrote in essentially modern Serbian in the 1720s  These vernacular compositions have remained cloistered from the general public and received due attention only with the advent of modern literary historians and writers like Milorad Pavić  In the early 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić promoted the spoken language of the people as a literary norm 

Dialects
The dialects of Serbo-Croatian, regarded Serbian (traditionally spoken in Serbia), include:

Šumadija–Vojvodina (Ekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): central and northern Serbia
Eastern Herzegovinian (Ijekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): southwestern Serbia, western half of Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia
Kosovo–Resava (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): eastern central Serbia, central Kosovo
Smederevo–Vršac (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): east-central Serbia
Prizren–Timok (transitional Torlakian): southeastern Serbia, southern Kosovo
Zeta–Raška (Ijekavian, Old-Shtokavian): eastern half of Montenegro, southwestern Serbia

Dictionaries
Vuk Karadžić's Srpski rječnik, first published in 1818, is the earliest dictionary of modern literary Serbian  The Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (I–XXIII), published by the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts from 1880 to 1976, is the only general historical dictionary of Serbo-Croatian  Its first editor was Đuro Daničić, followed by Pero Budmani and the famous Vukovian Tomislav Maretić  The sources of this dictionary are, especially in the first volumes, mainly Štokavian  There are older, pre-standard dictionaries, such as the 1791 German–Serbian dictionary or 15th century Arabic-Persian-Greek-Serbian Conversation Textbook 

Standard dictionaries
Dictionary of Serbo-Croatian Literary and Vernacular Language (Rečnik srpskohrvatskog književnog i narodnog jezika) is the biggest dictionary of Serbian (and Serbo-Croatian as a whole) and still unfinished  Starting in 1959, 21 volumes were published as of 2020 and about 40 are expected by the time it is finished 
Dictionary of Serbo-Croatian Literary Language (Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika) in six volumes in 1967–1976, started as a common project of Matica srpska (published in Cyrillic) and Matica hrvatska (published in Latin)  Only the first three volumes were published by Matica hrvatska due to negative feedback from Croatian linguists 
Dictionary of the Serbian language (Rečnik srpskoga jezika; ISBN 978-86-7946-004-2) in one volume, published in 2007 by Matica srpska, which on more than 1500 pages in A4 format explains more than 85,000 entries 

Etymological dictionaries
The standard and the only completed etymological dictionary of Serbian is the "Skok", written by the Croatian linguist Petar Skok: Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika ("Etymological Dictionary of Croatian or Serbian")  I-IV  Zagreb 1971–1974 
There is also a new monumental Etimološki rečnik srpskog jezika (Etymological Dictionary of Serbian)  So far, two volumes have been published: I (with words on A-), and II (Ba-Bd) 
There are specialized etymological dictionaries for German, Italian, Croatian, Turkish, Greek, Hungarian, Russian, English and other loanwords (cf  chapter word origin) 

Dialectal dictionaries
Kosovsko-resavski dialect dictionaries:
Gliša Elezović, Rečnik kosovsko-metohiskog dijalekta I-II  1932/1935 
Prizren-Timok (Torlakian) dialect dictionaries:
Brana Mitrović, Rečnik leskovačkog govora  Leskovac 1984 
Nikola Živković, Rečnik pirotskog govora  Pirot, 1987 
Miodrag Marković, Rečnik crnorečkog govora I-II  1986/1993 
Jakša Dinić, Rečnik timočkog govora I-III 1988–1992 
Jakša Dinić, Timocki dijalekatski recnik, (Institut za srpski jezik, Monografije 4; ISBN 978-86-82873-17-4) Beograd 2008,
Momčilo Zlatanović, Rečnik govora južne Srbije  Vranje, 1998, 1–491 
East-Herzegovinian dialect dictionaries:
Milija Stanić, Uskočki rečnik I–II  Beograd 1990/1991 
Miloš Vujičić, Rečnik govora Prošćenja kod Mojkovca  Podgorica, 1995 
Srđan Musić, Romanizmi u severozapadnoj Boki Kotorskoj  1972 
Svetozar Gagović, Iz leksike Pive  Beograd 2004 
Zeta-Pešter dialect:
Rada Stijović, Iz leksike Vasojevića  1990 
Drago Ćupić – Željko Ćupić, Rečnik govora Zagarača  1997 
Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Crnoj Gori – jugoistočni dio Boke Kotorske  Cetinje – Titograd, 1981 
Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Budvi i Paštrovićima  Novi Sad 1997 
Others:
Rečnik srpskih govora Vojvodine  Novi Sad 
Mile Tomić, Rečnik radimskog govora – dijaspora, Rumunija  1989 

Sample text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Cyrillic script:
Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима  Она су обдарена разумом и свешћу и треба једни према другима да поступају у духу братства 
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Latin alphabet:
Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima  Ona su obdarena razumom i svešću i treba jedni prema drugima da postupaju u duhu bratstva 
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights  They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood 

See also



ground_truth: 2016