prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the first black student admitted to where Robert Khayat was educated?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
John Camm
John Camm may refer to:

John Camm (Anglican priest) (1718–1778), president of the College of William & Mary
John Camm (Quaker preacher) (1604/5–1657), English Quaker preacher and writer
Passage 2:
Kenjgewin Teg Educational Institute
Kenjgewin Teg (formerly Kenjgewin Teg Educational Institute) is an Aboriginal-owned and controlled post-secondary institution at M'Chigeeng First Nation, on Mnidoo Mnising Manitoulin Island, Ontario, Canada  In the Ojibwe language, Kenjgewin Teg means a place of knowledge 
Programs are offered to its eight-member First Nations: 

Aundeck Omni Kaning First Nation
Constance Lake First Nation
M'Chigeeng First Nation
Sagamok First Nation
Sheguiandah First Nation
Sheshegwaning First Nation
Whitefish River First Nation
Zhiibaahaasing First Nation

History
In April 1994 the Wautebek Training Institute and Nda-Gkenjge-Gamig Educational Institute merged to create the Kenjgewin Teg Educational Institute (KTEI)  Kenjgewin Teg developed Joint Management Committees with the affiliated educational institutions In January, 2022, Kenjgewin Teg received accreditation from the Indigenous Advanced Education and Skills Council to offer certificates, diplomas and degrees 

Partnerships
University
Indigenous Teacher Education Program, Queens' University
Master of Education in World Indigenous Studies in Education (WISE), Queens' University
Master of Social Work, Indigenous Field of Study, Laurentian University

College
Practical Nursing, Fleming College
Personal Support Worker, Canadore College
Anishinaabemowin Early Childhood Education, Canadore College
Renovation Techniques: Construction Carpentry, Canadore College

See also
United Chiefs and Councils of Manitoulin
Passage 3:
Robert Ray Hamilton
Robert Ray Hamilton (March 18, 1851 – August 23, 1890) was an American politician from New York 

Early life
He was the son of Gen  Schuyler Hamilton (1822–1903); grandson of John Church Hamilton (1792–1882); and great-grandson of Alexander Hamilton (1755/7–1804) and Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton 
Robert Ray Hamilton graduated from Columbia College and Columbia Law School  He was admitted to the bar, and practiced law in New York City 

Career
He was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co , 11th D ) in 1881, 1886, 1887, 1888 and 1889 
Hamilton bought a half interest in a ranch owned by John Sargent in Idaho where he intended to live permanently  In May 1890, he left New York City for his ranch, to go hunting 

Personal life
In August 1889, it became known that he was married to Evangeline L  Mann (née Steele), a "notorious woman" who had ensnared him by claiming that he was the father of her child Beatrice  Evangeline Mann assaulted her maid, and was sentenced to two years in prison  In October 1889, Hamilton sued for divorce  He stated that the marriage had been performed on January 7, 1889, and told the truth about Beatrice which had been in fact some foundling used for the scheme to get money out of Hamilton (who had an income of about $40,000 a year inherited from his maternal grandfather Robert Ray)  It was later proved in court that Eva had been married already to one Joshua L  Mann before she ever knew Hamilton, and Mann sued for divorce in 1893 
In September 1890, he was found dead in the Snake River, near the Southern end of Yellowstone Park, apparently having drowned and having been in the water for several days, making identification somewhat difficult  An investigation accused John I  Sergent of murdering Hamilton, but Sergent was found to be legally insane and was never prosecuted for the crime 
Passage 4:
Maltepe University
Maltepe University (Turkish: Maltepe Üniversitesi) is a private university located in Maltepe district of Istanbul, Turkey  It was established on July 9, 1997 by "Istanbul Marmara Education Foundation" (İMEV)   The institution has a broad scope of education starting from the elementary level to university  The first students graduated in June 2001 

Medium of teaching
Turkish is chosen as the medium of teaching, unlike many other private universities in Turkey, with the belief that an individual can best learn and perform in the mother tongue  However, having the awareness that English is indispensable in the international scientific arena, the university includes an English teaching program  Those students who are not exempt in the proficiency exam of the English language department enroll in the two-semester intensive English preparatory program  All students take compulsory English courses during their undergraduate education 

Academic programs
Undergraduate programs
Faculty of paedagogy (psychological guidance, English language)
Faculty of natural sciences and literature (philosophy, mathematics, psychology)
Faculty of fine arts (acting, film, plastic arts, cartoon making-animation, photography)
Faculty of law
Faculty of economics and business administration (economics, business administration, international relations and European Union)
Faculty of communication sciences (visual communication and design, public relations and publicity, radio-cinema-TV)
Faculty of architecture (graphic design, interior decoration, architecture)
Faculty of engineering (computer engineering, electronics, industrial engineering)
Faculty of medicine (Nursing)Vocational school
Radio–TV programming
Tourism and hotel management
Computer technology and programming
Film production techniquesPost-graduate and doctorate programs
Institute of social sciences (education administration, economics policy, business administration, law, psychology, human sciences, philosophy, radio-cinema-TV)
Institute of natural sciences (computer science, industrial engineering, mathematics, architecture, civil engineering-earthquake engineering)General
Atatürk's reforms and history of the Republic of Turkey
Foreign languages

Academic staff
As of 2003 academic year, the university holds 300 teaching staff of which 205 are full-time 

Campus
Maltepe University has three campuses  The main campus in Maltepe Eğitim Köyü (Maltepe Education Village), located at Maltepe, Büyükbakkalköy, was opened in September 2003  The President's Office and administrative units are situated on this campus, which extends over an area of 100 hectares comprising faculty buildings, indoor/outdoor sports facilities, an olympic-size swimming pool and student social activities centers 
The university's Dragos campus is located at Dragos, close to the shore on an area of 15,000 m²  The Vocational School, The Science Institute, The Social Sciences Institute and The Continuous Education Center are all located on this campus 
The Faculty of medicine and its hospital, which serves its students as an application hospital, are both located in Maltepe, on the campus where the university was first founded 

Affiliations
The university is a member of the Caucasus University Association 

Gallery
See also
List of universities in Turkey
Passage 5:
Jeffrey Black
Jeffrey Black (born September 6, 1962) is an Australian baritone who has had an active international performance career since the early 1980s  A frequent performer with Opera Australia and the Glyndebourne Festival Opera, he has performed leading role with the Metropolitan Opera, Opéra Bastille, Lyric Opera of Chicago, Bavarian State Opera, and the Royal Opera, Covent Garden among other opera houses  He is particularly known for his portrayals of Guglielmo in Mozart's Così fan tutte, Count Almaviva in Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro, and Figaro in Rossini's The Barber of Seville 

Early life and education
Born in Brisbane, Black was educated at the Anglican Church Grammar School  In his youth he was a boy soprano in the choir at the Cathedral of St Stephen, Brisbane for several years  He studied singing at the Queensland Conservatorium of Music where graduated with a Bachelor of Music degree in 1983  At the Conservatorium he participated in opera workshops led by tenor Donald Smith whose influence oriented his career towards opera  He appeared in many of the operas staged by the conservatorium students and post-graduate students, including appearing in the role of Figaro, as a first year opera student, in the conservatorium's 1981 production of The Marriage of Figaro at the Basil Jones Theatre (now called the QUT Gardens Theatre) In 1983 Black won the Marianne Mathy Scholarship in the Australian Singing Competition which enabled him to pursue further vocal training at the National Opera Studio in London in 1984  In 1985 he was awarded the Armstrong-Martin Scholarship  He later pursued further vocal training with Audrey Langford and Jane Chapman in London 

Performance career
Black began his professional career in the early 1980s as a concert baritone  He made his debut as a principal singer with the Opera Australia (OA) in 1984 as a featured soloist in a concert of works by Jean-Philippe Rameau at the Sydney Opera House  His first role in an opera with the OA was in 1985 as Mercutio in Charles Gounod's Roméo et Juliette  He notably performed the role of Nevers in Les Huguenots with the OA in 1990 for the farewell performance of Joan Sutherland as Marguerite de Valois  He also performed and recorded the roles of Nerone and Ottone, both transposed down an octave from the original score, in Claudio Monteverdi's L'incoronazione di Poppea with the AO in 1988 Black performed regularly at the Sydney Opera House with the OA for twenty years  His roles with that company included Papageno in Mozart's The Magic Flute (1986),  Schaunard in Giacomo Puccini's La bohème (1986), Dr  Falke in Die Fledermaus (1986), Dandini in Rossini's La Cenerentola (1987),  Figaro in The Barber of Seville (1989),  Guglielmo in Così fan tutte (1990),  Enrico in Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor (1996 and 2003), the title role of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin (1997), Wolfram in Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser (1998) Rodrigo in Verdi's Don Carlo (1999), the Count in Richard Strauss's Capriccio (2000), Belcore in L'elisir d'amore (2001), Count Almaviva in The Marriage of Figaro (2002), and Danilo in  The Merry Widow (2004)  In 1991 he had a critical triumph with the OA in the title role of Mozart's Don Giovanni; later reprising the role with the company in 2003 In 1986 Black made his first appearance in the United Kingdom with the Glyndebourne Festival Opera (GFO)  He returned to the GFO numerous times, portraying such roles as Demetrius in Benjamin Britten's A Midsummer Night's Dream (1989), the Count in Richard Strauss's Capriccio (1990), and Count Almaviva in The Marriage of Figaro (1991)  In 1987 he made his debut at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden as Harlequin in Richard Strauss's Ariadne auf Naxos, and appeared at the Opera Queensland in Brisbane as Dandini in Rossini's La Cenerentola  He returned to Covent Garden as Sid in Britten's Albert Herring (1989), Figaro in Rossini's The Barber of Seville (1990), and Dandini in Rossini's La Cenerentola (1991) Black made his first appearance in the United States as Guglielmo in Così fan tutte with the Los Angeles Opera in 1988; a role which he repeated at the Lyric Opera of Chicago (1993), the Salzburg Festival (1993), and the Aix-en-Provence Festival  In 1991 he made his debut at the Opéra Bastille in Paris as Lescaut in Puccini's Manon Lescaut  In 1992 he portrayed the Pirate King in Gilbert and Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance with the Victoria State Opera  He performed the role of Fieramosca in Berlioz's Benvenuto Cellini at the Grand Théâtre de Genève in 1992, and returned there in 1995 as Riccardo in Bellini's I puritani In 1995 Black made his debut at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City as Figaro in The Barber of Seville; a role which he has also performed with the San Francisco Opera (1992), the San Diego Opera (1993), and the Bavarian State Opera (1995)  In 1994 he returned to the San Diego Opera in the title role of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin, appeared in Los Angeles as Marcello in La bohème', and performed the role of Demetrius in Britten's A Midsummer Night's Dream with the Israeli Opera In 2000 Black made his debut with the Michigan Opera Theatre as Captain Balstrode in Benjamin Britten's Peter Grimes  In 2004 he portrayed Escamillo in Opera Queensland's production of Georges Bizet's Carmen with Yvonne Fontane in the tile role  In 2005 he performed the role of Danilo in a staging celebrating the 100th anniversary of The Merry Widow with the Welsh National Opera In 2009 Black sang the title role in a concert version of Verdi's Simon Boccanegra with the Chelsea Opera Group at Queen Elizabeth Hall  That same year he performed the role of Frank in Die Fledermaus with the London Lyric Opera  In 2010 he portrayed Gianciotto in Riccardo Zandonai's Francesca da Rimini with Opera Holland Park Black has also performed in operas with the Netherlands Opera, Vlaamse Opera, Opéra de Monte-Carlo, Washington National Opera, Teatro Colón, and Opera North  His stage repertoire also included the role of Ford in Falstaff 

Personal life
He met his wife Janice on stage when playing Figaro in the Marriage of Figaro and she played Suzanna  They have a son and a daughter  Black's son has diabetes, and he has been active in fundraising in support of this cause 
Passage 6:
Bobelle Sconiers Harrell
Ina Bobelle "Bobbie" Wright Sconiers Harrell (1923-2012) was a pharmacist and pilot who was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal (as part of the Civil Air Patrol) on December 10, 2014 She was born in Fort Walton Beach, and was the first female student admitted to the School of Pharmacy at what is today Auburn University, and was then Alabama Polytechnic Institute  She graduated in 1944 at the top of her class with Phi Kappa Phi and Cardinal Key honors  She later became one of the first women licensed to practice pharmacy in Florida  She was also licensed to practice pharmacy in Alabama Bobelle had married at age 18, to 1st Lt  Ewart T  Sconiers, but he died while imprisoned as a POW during World War II in Stalag Luft III (of “The Great Escape” fame)  [13] Shortly before Bobelle died, she learned his remains had been found  She and her second husband, Philip B  Harrell, owned Harrell's Drug Store from 1956 through 1982 According to her own journal, she made her first solo flight on April 5, 1945  That year she received a pilot's license and was trained to fly missions with the Civil Air Patrol  Bobelle moved to Crestview in 1946, where she worked at Brackin's Pharmacy and flew with the patrol between Pensacola and Birmingham off and on for two years 
Passage 7:
HOSA (organization)
HOSA – Future Health Professionals, formerly known as Health Occupations Students of America (HOSA), is an international career and technical student organization (CTSO) endorsed by the U S  Department of Education and the Health Science Technology Education Division of ACTE  HOSA is composed of middle school, secondary, and post-secondary/collegiate students, along with professionals, alumni, and honorary members  It is headquartered in Southlake, Texas, and is the largest student organization that prepares students to enter healthcare and similar fields, with membership in the United States, U S  Territories, Canada, China, South Korea, and Mexico 

History
HOSA was founded in 1976 out of a task force from the American Vocational Association in order to determine whether a new student organization accommodating healthcare students was necessary 
From November 4–7, 1975, the State Department of Education and Division of Vocational Education in New Jersey with 18 representatives from Alabama, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma and Texas voted to form the American Health Occupations Education Student Organization 
On November 10–13, 1976, in a constitutional convention in Arlington, Texas AHOESO adopted bylaws, which also changed the organization's name to Health Occupations Students of America; elected national leaders; selected colors and a motto; made plans to design an emblem; and set the first National Leadership Conference for the spring of 1978 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma In 2004, the organization dropped the acronym from its name, and began publishing all documents under the brand "HOSA – Future Health Professionals "

Chartered associations
As of 2020, HOSA has grown to more than 50 chartered associations in several countries, including the United States and its territories, Canada, China, South Korea, and Mexico  HOSA's chartered associations are:

Mission statement
The mission of HOSA is to empower HOSA-Future Health Professionals to become leaders in the global health community through education, collaboration, and experience 

Uniform
The official HOSA uniform consists of a navy-blue suit with maroon accent in the form of a tie for men or a scarf for women  The HOSA emblem is affixed to the suit jacket 

International Leadership Conferences (ILCs)
Members meet annually at an International Leadership Conference held in late June in cities across the United States  Selected major cities for hosting the conference rotate every few years  Over 7,500 students participate in general sessions, competitive events, and leadership experiences, all while networking with health sciences students representing nearly all 50 states and countries including Canada, China, and Mexico 

Competitive events
HOSA offers 82 competitive events, ranging from skill-based to leadership and team-based  The event groups are as follows: Health science, health professions, leadership, and recognition events  Members compete at the regional, state, and international levels  Those who place in the top three positions at the state level are given the opportunity to compete at the international level 
Passage 8:
Roberts Vaux Junior High School
The Promise Academy at Roberts Vaux High School (commonly referred to as the Roberts Vaux Promise Academy) is an historic, American high school building that is located in the North Central neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 
Named for American jurist, abolitionist, and philanthropist Roberts Vaux (1786-1836), it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988 

History and architectural features
Designed by Irwin T  Catharine and built between 1936 and 1938, this historic structure is a four-story, twenty-three-bay, "U"-shaped, yellow brick building that was created in a Moderne/Art Deco style  It features projecting end pavilions, terra cotta decorative work, and a two-story, stone, Tudor-arched entryway It was named for American jurist, abolitionist, and philanthropist Roberts Vaux (1786-1836)  Jacob C  White, Jr  served as principal from 1864 to 1896 and was the first black school principal in Philadelphia  During his tenure, White reformed the institute and became the leading figure in the field of urban education in Philadelphia 
During the 1980s and 1990s, Vaux developed a positive reputation for creating national and state chess champions  Mathematics teacher Jeff Chesin coached the team that first decade, but the team disbanded when Chesin Vaux left for another school  It was then resurrected during the 1990s by special education teacher Salome Thomas-Elwho later became the school's principal  During the early 2000s, the chess program disbanded again  
While teaching at Vaux High in North Philadelphia during the 2000s, rugby player Larry Conlan saw a need for his students to positively channel their aggression and started an after-school rugby club in 2012  
Added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988, the school was closed in 2013 as part of Philadelphia's shutdown of twenty-three district-run schools  Displaced students were enrolled in Strawberry Mansion High School and Benjamin Franklin High School  The school then reopened for the 2017-2018 academic year under the new leadership of Big Picture Philadelphia 

See also
Passage 9:
Yeni Həyat, Khachmaz
Yeni Həyat (also, Yeni-Khayat) is a village and municipality in the Khachmaz Rayon of Azerbaijan   It has a population of 3,503 
Passage 10:
James Meredith
James Howard Meredith (born June 25, 1933) is an American civil rights activist, writer, political adviser, and United States Air Force veteran who became, in 1962, the first African-American student admitted to the racially segregated University of Mississippi after the intervention of the federal government (an event that was a flashpoint in the civil rights movement)  Inspired by President John F  Kennedy's inaugural address, Meredith decided to exercise his constitutional rights and apply to the University of Mississippi  His goal was to put pressure on the Kennedy administration to enforce civil rights for African Americans  The admission of Meredith ignited the Ole Miss riot of 1962 where Meredith's life was threatened and 31,000 American servicemen were required to quell the violence - the largest ever invocation of the Insurrection Act of 1807 In 1966, Meredith planned a solo 220-mile (350-kilometer) March Against Fear from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi; he wanted to highlight continuing racism in the South and encourage voter registration after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965  He did not want major civil rights organizations involved  The second day, he was shot by a white gunman and suffered numerous wounds  Leaders of major organizations vowed to complete the march in his name after he was taken to the hospital  While Meredith was recovering, more people from across the country became involved as marchers  He rejoined the march and when Meredith and other leaders entered Jackson on June 26, they were leading an estimated 15,000 marchers, in what was the largest civil rights march in Mississippi  During the march, more than 4,000 African Americans registered to vote, and it was a catalyst to continued community organizing and additional registration 
In 2002 and again in 2012, the University of Mississippi led year-long series of events to celebrate the 40th and 50th anniversaries of Meredith's integration of the institution  He was among numerous speakers invited to the campus, where a statue of him commemorates his role  The Lyceum-The Circle Historic District at the center of the campus has been designated as a National Historic Landmark for these events 

Early life and education
Meredith was born in 1933 in Kosciusko, Mississippi, the son of Roxie (Patterson) and Moses Meredith  He is of African-American, English Canadian, Scots and Choctaw heritage  His family nickname was "J-Boy"  European traders intermarried with some Choctaw during the colonial period  In the 1830s, thousands of Choctaw chose to stay in Mississippi and become United States citizens when most of the tribe left their traditional homeland for Indian Territory during the federally imposed removal  Those in the state had unions with European Americans and African Americans (some of whom were enslaved), adding to the multi-racial population in the developing territory Meredith completed 11th grade at Attala County Training School (which was segregated as "white" and "colored" under the state's Jim Crow laws) and completed 12th grade at Gibbs High School in St  Petersburg, Florida  He graduated from high school in 1951  Then, Meredith enlisted in the United States Air Force  He served from 1951 to 1960 Afterward Meredith attended Jackson State University for two years, achieving good grades 

University of Mississippi
Challenge to the University
In 1961, inspired the day before by U S  President John F  Kennedy, Meredith started to apply to the University of Mississippi, intending to insist on his civil rights to attend the state-funded university  It still admitted only white students under the state's culture of racial segregation, although the U S  Supreme Court ruled in Brown v  Board of Education (1954) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional, as they are supported by all the taxpayers 
Meredith wrote in his application that he wanted admission for his country, race, family, and himself  He said,

Nobody handpicked me   I believed, and believe now, that I have a Divine Responsibility    I am familiar with the probable difficulties involved in such a move as I am undertaking and I am fully prepared to pursue it all the way to a degree from the University of Mississippi 
He was twice denied admission  During this time, he was advised by Medgar Evers, who was head of the state chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 
On May 31, 1961, Meredith, with backing of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, filed suit in the U S  District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi, alleging that the university had rejected him only because of his race, as he had a highly successful record of military service and academic courses  The case went through many hearings, after which the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled that Meredith had the right to be admitted to the state school  The state appealed to the U S  Supreme Court, which supported the ruling of the appeals court On September 13, 1962, the District Court entered an injunction directing the members of the Board of Trustees and the officials of the University to register Meredith  The Democratic Governor of Mississippi, Ross Barnett, declared "no school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your governor"   The state legislature quickly created a plan  They passed a law that denied admission to any person "who has a crime of moral turpitude against him" or who had been convicted of any felony offense or not pardoned  The same day it became law, Meredith was accused and convicted of "false voter registration," in absentia, in Jackson County  The conviction against Meredith was trumped up: Meredith both owned land in northern Mississippi and was registered to vote in Jackson, where he lived  "Later the clerk testified that Meredith was qualified to register and vote in Jackson [where he was registered] "
On September 20, the federal government obtained an injunction against enforcement of this Act and of the two state court decrees that had barred Meredith's registration  That day Meredith was rebuffed again by Governor Barnett in his efforts to gain admission, though university officials were prepared to admit him  On September 28, the Court of Appeals, en banc and after a hearing, found the Governor in civil contempt and ordered that he be arrested and pay a fine of $10,000 for each day that he kept up the refusal, unless he complied by October 2  On September 29, Lieutenant Governor Paul B  Johnson Jr  (elected Governor on November 5, 1963) was also found in contempt by a panel of the court, and a similar order was entered against him, with a fine of $5,000 a day Attorney General Robert F  Kennedy had a series of phone calls with Governor Barnett between September 27 to October 1  Barnett reluctantly agreed to let Meredith enroll in the university, but secretly bargained with Kennedy on a plan which would allow him to save face 
Barnett committed to maintain civil order  Robert Kennedy ordered 127 U S  Marshals as well as 316 deputized U S  Border Patrol and 97 Federal Bureau of Prisons officers to accompany Meredith during his arrival and registration  On September 29, President Kennedy issued a proclamation commanding all persons engaged in the obstruction of the laws and the orders of the courts to "cease and desist therefrom and to disperse and retire peaceably forthwith", citing his authority under 10 U S C  § 332, § 333, and § 334 to use the militia or the armed forces to suppress any insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful combination, or conspiracy 

Rioting at the University
On the evening of September 29, the day after State Senator George Yarbrough withdrew the State Highway Police, a riot broke out  Whites opposing integration had been gathering at the campus and began fighting with federal agents  Despite the Kennedy administration's reluctance to use force, it ordered the nationalized Mississippi National Guard and federal troops to the campus  In the violent clashes which followed, two civilians were killed by gunshot wounds, and white rioters burned cars, pelted federal agents and soldiers with rocks, bricks and small arms fire, and damaged university property 

Enrollment
The day after the riots, on October 1, 1962, after federal and state forces took control, Meredith became the first African-American student to enroll at the University of Mississippi  Meredith's admission is regarded as a pivotal moment in the history of civil rights in the United States 
Many students harassed Meredith during his two semesters on campus, but others accepted him  According to first-person accounts, students living in Meredith's dorm bounced basketballs on the floor just above his room through all hours of the night  Other students ostracized him: when Meredith walked into the cafeteria for meals, the students eating would turn their backs  If Meredith sat at a table with other students, all of whom were white, the students would immediately get up and go to another table  He persisted through harassment and extreme isolation to graduate on August 18, 1963, with a degree in political science 

Education and activism
Meredith continued his education, focusing on political science, at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria  He returned to the United States in 1965  He attended law school through a scholarship at Columbia University and earned an LL B (law degree) in 1968 In 1966, Meredith organized and led a solo, personal March Against Fear for 220 miles from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi, beginning on June 6, 1966  Inviting only black men to join him, he wanted to highlight continuing racial oppression in the Mississippi Delta, as well as to encourage blacks to register and vote following passage of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight and enforcement of rights  Governor Paul Johnson promised to allow the march and provide State Highway Police protection  Meredith wanted blacks in Mississippi to overcome fear of violence Despite police, on the second day, Meredith was shot and wounded by Aubrey James Norvell, a white man whose motives were never determined, and who pleaded guilty at trial  Meredith was quickly taken to a hospital  Leaders of major organizations rallied at the news and vowed to complete the march in Meredith's name  They struggled to reconcile differing goals, but succeeded in attracting more than 10,000 marchers from local towns and across the country by the end Meredith recovered from his wounds and rejoined the march before it reached Jackson on June 26, when 15,000 marchers entered the city in what had become the largest civil rights march in state history  During the march, more than 4,000 black Mississippians registered to vote  Continued community organizing was catalyzed by these events, and African Americans began to enter the political system again  Black voters in Mississippi have established a high rate of voter registration and voting participation 

Political career
In 1967, while living and studying in New York, Meredith decided to run as a Republican against incumbent Adam Clayton Powell Jr , a multi-term Democrat, in a special election for the Congressional seat in Harlem  He withdrew from the race and Powell was re-elected  Meredith said later of his campaign, "The Republican Party [of New York] made me an offer: full support in every way, everything " He had full access to top New York Republicans After returning to Mississippi to live, in 1972 Meredith ran for the US Senate against Democratic senator James Eastland, who had been the incumbent for 29 years in what had operated as a one-party state  Following provisions of a new state constitution in 1890 that made voter registration extremely difficult, African Americans had been effectively disenfranchised and the Republican Party had been crippled  Meredith conceded that he had little chance of winning unless Governor George Wallace of Alabama entered the presidential race and split the white vote An active Republican, Meredith served from 1989 to 1991 as a domestic adviser on the staff of United States Senator Jesse Helms  Faced with criticism from the civil rights community for working for the avowed segregationist, Meredith said that he had applied to every member of the Senate and House offering his services, and only Helms' office responded  He also wanted a chance to do research at the Library of Congress In 2002, officials at the University of Mississippi celebrated the 40th anniversary of Meredith's historic admission and integration of the institution with a year-long series of events  Of the celebration, Meredith said,

It was an embarrassment for me to be there, and for somebody to celebrate it, oh my God  I want to go down in history, and have a bunch of things named after me, but believe me that ain't it 
He said he had achieved his main goal at the time by getting the federal government to enforce his rights as a citizen  He saw his actions as "an assault on white supremacy " In 2003, he was far more proud that his son Joseph Meredith graduated as the top doctoral student at the university's graduate business school 

Legacy and honors
In 2002, the University of Mississippi honored the 40th anniversary of Meredith's admission with numerous events 
In 2006, a statue of him was dedicated on campus in his honor 
In 2012, the University commemorated the 50th anniversary of the historic admission, featuring a range of speakers, artists, lectures and events during the year 
That year Meredith received the Harvard Graduate School of Education 'Medal for Education Impact' and was the school's convocation speaker  Meredith said it was the first award in 50 years he had accepted 

Cultural depictions
In 2011 miniseries The Kennedys, he was portrayed by Matthew G  Brown in episode five of the series, Life Sentences 

Political viewpoint
A highly independent man, Meredith has identified as an individual American citizen who demanded and received the constitutional rights held by any American, not as a participant in the Civil Rights Movement  There have been tensions between him and leaders of major organizations of the movement  When interviewed in 2002, the 40th anniversary of his enrollment at University of Mississippi, Meredith said, "Nothing could be more insulting to me than the concept of civil rights  It means perpetual second-class citizenship for me and my kind "Meredith was a supporter of the unsuccessful 1967 gubernatorial bid of ex-Mississippi Governor (and avowed segregationist) Ross Barnett, as well as the 1991 gubernatorial campaign of Louisiana State Representative and ex-Klansman David Duke In a 2002 interview with CNN, Meredith said of his efforts to integrate Ole Miss, "I was engaged in a war  I considered myself engaged in a war from Day One  And my objective was to force the federal government—the Kennedy administration at that time—into a position where they would have to use the United States military force to enforce my rights as a citizen "

Personal life
On March 14, 1956, Meredith married Mary June Wiggins  She later worked as a high school English teacher  They had three sons, James, John and Joseph Howard Meredith   Mary June Meredith died of heart failure in December 1979 
In 1982, Meredith married Judy Alsobrooks in Gary, Indiana  She had one son, Kip Naylor, from a previous marriage  Jessica Howard Meredith was born to their union   The couple live in Jackson, Mississippi 

Works
In 1966, his memoir, Three Years in Mississippi, was published by the Indiana University Press 
He has self-published several books on politics and society 

See also
List of African-American pioneers in desegregation of higher education
List of civil rights leaders
School integration in the United States
Passage 11:
Student loans in the United States
In the United States, student loans are a form of financial aid intended to help students access higher education  In 2018, 70 percent of higher education graduates had used loans to cover some or all of their expenses  With notable exceptions, student loans must be repaid, in contrast to other forms of financial aid such as scholarships, which are not repaid, and grants, which rarely have to be repaid  Student loans may be discharged through bankruptcy, but this is difficult Student loan debt has proliferated since 2006, totaling $1 73 trillion by July 2021  In 2019, students who borrowed to complete a bachelor's degree had about $30,000 of debt upon graduation : 1   Almost half of all loans are for graduate school, typically in much higher amounts : 1   Loan amounts vary widely based on race, social class, age, institution type, and degree sought  As of 2017, student debt constituted the largest non-mortgage liability for US households  Research indicates that increasing borrowing limits drives tuition increases Student loan defaults are disproportionately common in the for-profit college sector  Around 2010, about 10 percent of college students attended for-profit colleges, but almost 40 percent of all defaults on federal student loans were to for-profit attendees  The schools whose students have the highest amount of debt are University of Phoenix, Walden University, Nova Southeastern University, Capella University, and Strayer University  Except for Nova Southeastern, they are all for-profit  In 2018, the National Center for Education Statistics reported that the 12-year student loan default rate for for-profit colleges was 52 percent The default rate for borrowers who do not complete their degree is three times the rate for those who did : 1  A Brookings Institution study from 2023 revealed that when the government pauses repayment on student loans, it most often "   benefit[s] affluent borrowers the most   " primarily due to affluent borrowers holding the largest student debt balances 

History
Federal student loans were first offered in 1958 under the National Defense Education Act (NDEA)  They were available only to select categories of students, such as those studying engineering, science, or education  The program was established in response to the Soviet Union's launch of the Sputnik satellite  It addressed the widespread perception that the United States had fallen behind in science and technology  Student loans became more broadly available in the 1960s under the Higher Education Act of 1965, with the goal of encouraging greater social mobility and equal opportunity In 1967, the publicly owned Bank of North Dakota made the first federally-insured student loan The US first major government loan program was the Student Loan Marketing Association (Sallie Mae), formed in 1973 Before 2010, federal loans included:

loans originated and funded directly by the Department of Education (DOE)
government guaranteed loans originated and funded by private investors Direct-to-consumer private loans were the fastest-growing segment of education finance  The "percentage of undergraduates obtaining private loans from 2003–04 to 2007–08 rose from 5 percent to 14 percent" and was under legislative scrutiny due to the lack of school certification The rules for disability discharge underwent major changes as a result of the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008  The regulations took effect July 1, 2010  In June 2010, the amount of student loan debt held by Americans exceeded the amount of credit card debt held by Americans  At that time, student loan debt totalled at least $830 billion, of which approximately 80% was federal and 20% was private  By the fourth quarter of 2015, total outstanding student loans owned and securitized had surpassed $1 3 trillion Guaranteed loans were eliminated in 2010 through the Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act and replaced with direct loans  The Obama administration claimed that guaranteed loans benefited private companies at taxpayer expense but did not reduce student costs The Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (HCERA) ended private-sector lending under the Federal Family Education Loan Program (FFELP) starting July 1, 2010; all subsidized and unsubsidized Stafford loans, PLUS loans, and Consolidation loans are under the Federal Direct Loan Program As of July 1, 2013, borrowers determined to be disabled by the Social Security Administration would be accepted for loan discharge if the SSA placed the individual on a five- to seven-year review cycle  As of January 1, 2018, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 established that debt discharged due to the death or disability of the borrower was no longer treated as taxable income  (This provision is scheduled to sunset on December 31, 2025 )In an effort to improve the student loan market, LendKey, SoFi (Social Finance, Inc ) and CommonBond began offering student loans and refinancing at lower rates than traditional lenders, using an alumni-funded model  According to a 2016 analysis by online student loan marketplace Credible, about 8 million borrowers could qualify for refinancing The Federal Reserve Bank of New York's February 2017 Quarterly Report on Household Debt and Credit reported 11 2% of aggregate student loan debt was 90 or more days delinquent On July 25, 2018, Education Secretary Betsy DeVos issued an order declaring that the Borrower Defense Program (enacted in November 2016), would be replaced with a stricter repayment policy, effective July 1, 2019  When a school closes for fraud before conferring degrees, students would have to prove that they were financially harmed  As of 2018, 10% of borrowers were in default after three years and 16 percent after five years In 2019, President Donald Trump ordered loan forgiveness for permanently disabled veterans, saving 25,000 veterans an average of $30,000 each  The same year, Theresa Sweet and other student loan debtors filed a claim against the US Department of Education, arguing that they had been defrauded by their colleges  The debtors filed under a rule known as Borrower Defense to Repayment In 2021, student loan servicers began dropping out of the federal student loan business, including FedLoan Servicing on July 8, Granite State Management and Resources on July 20, and Navient on September 28  According to Sallie Mae, as of 2021, 1 in 8 families lenders are using private student loans when federal financing doesn't cover all college costs In July 2021, the U S  Second Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that private student loans are dischargeable in bankruptcy, following two other cases In August 2021, the Biden administration announced it would use executive action to cancel $5 8 billion in student loans held by 323,000 people who are permanently disabled Starting in March 2020, federal student loan borrowers received temporary relief from student loan payments during the COVID-19 pandemic  This relief was subsequently extended multiple times, and is set to expire at the end of June 2023 According to repayment data released by the Education Department, in December 2021, just 1 2 percent of borrowers were continuing to pay down their loans during the over two years of optional deferment In November 2022, federal judge William Alsup ruled for immediate relief for about 200,000 student debtors and in April 2023 US Supreme Justice Elana Kagan declined to grant emergency relief to three for-profit colleges In February 2023, the U S  Supreme Court heard oral arguments in Biden v  Nebraska concerning President Biden's order to cancel student loan debt for an estimated 40 million debtors In June 2023, the Supreme Court voted in favour of Nebraska to block Biden’s plan to forgive federal student loans 

Overview
Student loans play a significant role in U S  higher education  Nearly 20 million Americans attend college each year, of whom close to 12 million –  or 60% –  borrow annually to help cover costs  As of 2021, approximately 45 million Americans held student debt, with an average balance of approximately $30,000 In Europe, higher education receives more government funding, making student loans less common  In parts of Asia and Latin America government funding for post-secondary education is lower –  usually limited to flagship universities, like UNAM in Mexico –  and government programs under which students can borrow money are uncommon In the United States, college is funded by government grants, scholarships, loans  The primary grant program is Pell grants Student loans come in several varieties, but are basically either federal loans or private student loans  Federal loans are either subsidized (the government pays the interest) and unsubsidized  Federal student loans are subsidized for undergraduates only  Subsidized loans generally defer payments and interest until some period (usually six months) after the student has left school  Some states have their own loan programs, as do some colleges  In almost all cases, these student loans have better conditions than private loans Student loans may be used for college-related expenses, including tuition, room and board, books, computers, and transportation 

Demographics
Approximately 30% of all college students do not borrow  In 2019, the average undergraduate who had taken on debt had a loan balance of about $30,000 upon graduation  Almost half of the student loans are for graduate education, and those loan amounts are typically much higher : 1

Social class
According to the Saint Louis Federal Reserve Bank, "existing racial wealth disparities and soaring higher education costs may replicate racial wealth disparities across generations by driving racial disparities in student loan debt load and repayment "Low-income students often prefer grants and scholarships over loans because of their difficulty repaying them  In 2004, 88 5% of Pell Grant recipients who had bachelor's degrees graduated with student loan debt  After college, students struggle to break into a higher income bracket because of the loans they owe  Though, it's been shown that when it comes to student loan forgiveness and advocacy around this issue, lower-socioeconomic groups are the ones most motivated to contact their legislators about student loans  In 1995, 64 percent of students whose family incomes falling below $35,000 were contacting their legislators concerning student loans 

Race and gender
According to the New York Times, "recent black graduates of four-year colleges owe, on average, $7,400 more than their white peers  Four years after graduation, they still owe an average of $53,000, almost twice as much as whites "According to an analysis by Demos, 12 years after entering college:

White men paid off 44 percent of their student-loan balance
White women paid off 28 percent
Black men saw their balances grow 11 percent
Black women saw their loan balances grow 13 percent

Age
According to a CNBC analysis, the highest student debt balances are carried by adults aged 25–49, with the lowest debt loads held by those aged 62 and older As of 2021, approximately 7 8 million Americans from 18 to 25 carry student loan debt, with an average balance of almost $15,000  For adults between the ages of 35 and 49, the average individual balance owed exceeded $42,000  The average debt for adults between 50 and 61 is slightly lower  These balances include loans for their education and their children 

Federal loans
Loans to students
Stafford and Perkins loans were federal loans made to students  These loans did not consider credit history (most students have no credit history); approval was automatic if the student met program requirements  Nearly all students are eligible to receive federal loans 

Payment/discharge
The student makes no payments while enrolled at least half-time  If a student drops below half time or graduates, a six-month deferment begins  If the student returns to least half-time status, the loans are again deferred, but a second episode no longer qualifies and repayment must begin  All Perkins loans and some undergraduate Stafford loans are subsidized  Loan amounts are limited 
Many deferment and forbearance options are offered in the Federal Direct Student Loan program Disabled borrowers have the possibility of discharge  Other discharge provisions are available for teachers in specific critical subjects or in a school that has more than 30% of its students on reduced-price lunch  They qualify for discharge of Stafford, Perkins, and Federal Family Education Loan Program loans up to $77,500 Any person employed full-time by a 501(c)(3) non-profit group, or another qualifying public service organization, or serving in a full-time AmeriCorps or Peace Corps position, qualifies for discharge after 120 qualifying payments  However, loan discharge is considered taxable income  Loans discharged that were not the result of long-term public service employment constitute taxable income 
Student loan borrowers may have their existing federal student loan debt removed if they can prove that their school misled them  The program is called Borrower Defense to Repayment or Borrower Defense Subsidies are conditional depending on financial need  Pricing and loan limits are determined by Congress  Undergraduates typically receive lower interest rates, while graduate students typically can borrow more  Disregarding risk has been criticized as contributing to inefficiency  Financial needs may vary from school to school  The government covers interest charges while the student is in college  For example, those who borrow $10,000 during college owe $10,000 upon graduation 

Terms
Loans are guaranteed by DOE, either directly or through guarantee agencies 
The dependent undergraduate limits are $5,500 per year for freshman undergraduates, $6,500 for sophomore undergraduates, and $7,500 per year for junior and senior undergraduates, as well as students enrolled in teacher certification or coursework preparatory for graduate programs For independent undergraduates, the limits are $9,500 per year for freshmen, $10,500 for sophomores, and $12,500 per year for juniors and seniors, as well as students enrolled in teacher certification or preparatory coursework for graduate programs 
Unsubsidized loans are also guaranteed, but interest accrues during study  Nearly all students are eligible for these loans regardless of financial need  Those who borrow $10,000 during college owe $10,000 plus interest upon graduation  Accrued interest is added to the loan amount, and the borrower makes payments on the total  Students can make payments while studying 
Graduate students have higher limits: $8,500 for subsidized Stafford and $12,500 (varying by course of study) for unsubsidized Stafford  For graduate students, the Perkins limit is $6,000 per year 

Stafford loan aggregate limits
Stafford borrowers cannot exceed aggregate limits for subsidized and unsubsidized loans  For dependent undergraduates, the aggregate limit is $57,500, while subsidized loans are limited to $23,000  Students who reach the maximum in subsidized loans may (based on grade level—undergraduate, graduate/professional, etc ) add a loan of less than or equal to the amount they would have been eligible for in subsidized loans  Once aggregate limits are met, the student is ineligible for additional Stafford loans until they pay back a portion of the borrowed funds  A student who has paid back some of these amounts regains eligibility up to the aggregate limits as before  Graduate students have a lifetime aggregate loan limit of $138,500 

Debt statistics
Direct loans ($1 15 trillion, 34 2 million borrowers)
FFEL loans ($281 8 billion, 13 5 million borrowers)  The program ended in 2010 
Perkins loans ($7 1 billion, 2 3 million borrowers)  The program ended in 2018 
Total ($1 4392 trillion, 42 9 million borrowers)

Loans to parents
PLUS loans are federal education loans made to parents  These have much higher loan limits, usually enough to cover costs that exceed student financial aid  Payments start immediately after education ends, although prepayment is allowed  Credit history is considered; thus, approval is not automatic 
Interest accrues during the time the student is in school  PLUS interest rates as of 2017 were 7% The parents are personally responsible for repayment  The parents sign the master promissory note and are accountable  Parents are advised to consider their monthly payments  Loan documents reflect the repayment schedule for a single year  Since most students borrow again each year, the ultimate payments are much higher  PLUS loans consider credit history, making it more difficult for low-income parents to qualify 
Graduate students are eligible to receive PLUS loans in their own names  Graduate PLUS loans have the same interest rates and terms as those to parents 
Federal Direct Student Loans, also known as Direct Loans or FDLP loans, originate with the United States Treasury  FDLP loans are distributed by the DOE, then to the college or university and then to the student 

Debt levels
Loan limits are below the cost of most four-year private institutions and most public universities  Students add private student loans to make up the difference The maximum amount that any student can borrow is adjusted as federal policies change 

Defaults
Out of 100 students who ever attended a for-profit institution, 23 defaulted in the 1996 cohort compared to 43 in the 2004 cohort (compared to an increase from 8 to 11 among borrowers who never attended a for-profit) As of 2018 black BA graduates defaulted at five times the rate of white BA graduates (21 versus 4 percent), and were more likely to default than white dropouts 

Private loans
Private loans are offered by banks or finance companies  They are not guaranteed by a government agency  Private loans cost more, offer less favorable terms, and are generally used only when students have exhausted the federal borrowing limit  They are not eligible for Income-Based Repayment plans, and frequently have less flexible payment terms, higher fees, and more penalties, than federal student loans  Private loans may be difficult to discharge through bankruptcy Private loans are made to students or parents  They have higher limits and no payments until after education, although interest starts to accrue immediately and the deferred interest is added to the principal  Interest rates are higher on federal loans, which are set by the United States Congress The advantage of private student loans is that they do not include loan or total debt limits  They typically offer a no-payment grace period of six months (occasionally 12 months) 
Most experts recommend private loans only as a last resort, because of the less favorable terms 

Loan types
Private student loans generally come in two types: school-channel and direct-to-consumer 
School-channel loans offer borrowers lower interest rates, but generally take longer to process  These loans are "certified" by the school, which means the school signs off on the borrowing amount, and the funds are disbursed directly to the school  The "certification" means only that the school confirms the loan funds will be used for educational expenses only and agrees to hold them and disburse them as needed  Certification does not mean that the school approves of, recommends, or has even examined the loan terms 
Direct-to-consumer private loans do not involve the school  The student supplies enrollment verification to the lender, and the loan proceeds are disbursed directly to the student  While direct-to-consumer loans generally carry higher interest rates than school-channel loans, they allow families access to funds more quickly — in some cases, in a matter of days  This convenience comes at the risk of student over-borrowing and/or use of funds for inappropriate purposes Loan providers range from large education finance companies to speciality companies that focus exclusively on this niche 

Interest rates
Private student loans usually have substantially higher interest rates, and the rates fluctuate depending on the financial markets  Some private loans require substantial up-front origination fees ("points") along with lower interest rates  Interest rates also vary depending on the applicant's credit history 
Most private loan programs are tied to financial indexes such as the Wall Street Journal Prime rate or the BBA LIBOR rate, plus an overhead charge  Students and families with excellent credit generally receive lower rates and smaller loan origination fees than those with poorer credit histories  Interest payments are tax deductible 
Lenders rarely give complete details of loan terms until after an application is submitted  Many lenders advertise only the lowest interest rate they charge (for good credit borrowers)  Borrowers with damaged credit can expect interest rates that are as much as 6% higher, loan fees that are as much as 9% higher, and loan limits that are two-thirds lower than those advertised figures 

Loan fees
Private loans often carry an origination fee, which can be substantial  Origination fees are a one-time charge based on the amount of the loan  They can be paid from the loan proceeds or from personal funds independent of the loan amount, often at the borrower's preference  Some lenders offer low-interest, 0-fee loans  The origination fee gets paid once, while interest is paid throughout the loan  The loan amount accumulates to about 15 billion borrowed from private loans All lenders are legally required to provide a statement of the annual percentage rate (APR) prior to closure  Unlike the "base" rate, this rate includes any fees charged and can be thought of as the "effective" interest rate including interest, fees, etc  When comparing loans, comparing APR rather than "rate" ensures a valid comparison for loans that have the same repayment term  However, if the repayment terms are different, APR becomes a less-perfect comparison tool  In those circumstances comparing total financing costs may be more appropriate 

Loan terms
In contrast with federal loans, whose terms are standardized, private loan terms vary from loan to loan  However, it is not easy to compare them, as some conditions may not be revealed until signing  A common suggestion is to consider all terms, not just respond to advertised interest rates  Applying to multiple lenders (to create a comparison) can damage the borrower's credit score  Examples of other terms  that vary by lender are deferments (amount of time after leaving school before payments start) and forbearances (a period when payments are temporarily stopped due to financial or other hardship) 

Cosigners
Private student loan programs generally issue loans based on the credit history of the applicant and any applicable cosigner, co-endorser or coborrower  Students may find that their families have too much income or too many assets to qualify for federal aid, but lack sufficient assets and income to pay for school without assistance  Most students need a cosigner in order to qualify for a private loan Many international students can obtain private loans (they are usually ineligible for federal loans) with a cosigner who is a citizen or permanent resident  However, some graduate programs (notably top MBA programs) partner with private loan providers  In those cases, no cosigner is needed for international students 

Loan servicers
The U S  Department of Education contracts with companies to manage, or service, the loans it owns  These companies are the primary point of contact for borrowers after they graduate and enter repayment 
As of July 2023, the four companies which service the majority of student loans are Aidvantage, EdFinancial Services, MOHELA (Higher Education Loan Authority of the State of Missouri) and Nelnet  ECSI (Educational Computer Systems, Inc ) is the exclusive servicer for the remaining Perkins Loans  Borrowers who have defaulted on loans are assigned to the Department of Education’s Default Resolution Group for servicing 

Student loan asset-backed securities (SLABS)
FFELP and private loans are bundled, securitized, rated, then sold to institutional investors as student loan asset-backed securities (SLABS)  Navient and Nelnet are two major private lenders  Wells Fargo Bank, JP MorganChase, Goldman Sachs and other large banks package and sell SLABS in bundles  Moody's, Fitch Ratings, and Standard and Poor's rate SLAB quality The Asset-Backed Security (ABS) industry received financial relief in 2008 and in 2020 through the Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility (TALF) program, which was created to preserve the flow of credit to consumers and businesses, including student loans  In 2020, critics argued that the SLAB market was poorly regulated and could be headed toward a significant downturn, despite perceptions that it was low risk 

Repayment and default
Metrics
The industry metrics are repayment rate and default rate, such as the one-, three-, five-, and seven-year default rates  DOE's College Scorecard includes the following repayment statuses:

Making Progress
Forbearance
Deferment
Not Making Progress
Delinquent
Defaulted
Paid In Full
Discharged

Repayment rate
The three-year repayment rate for each school that receives Title IV funding is available at DOE's College Scorecard  This number may be a poor indicator of the overall default rate: some schools place loans into forebearance, deferring loans beyond the three-year window to present a low default rate 

Default rate
The default rate for borrowers who did not complete their degree is three times as high as the rate for those who did : 1

Standard repayment
Federal loans are initially designated as standard repayment  Standard repayment borrowers have 10 years to repay  The loan servicer calculates the monthly payment amount that will pay off the original loan amount plus all accrued interest after 120 equal payments 
Payments cover interest and part of the principal  Some loan terms may be shorter than 10 years  The minimum monthly payment is  $50 

Income-related repayment
Income-based repayment
If loan debt is high but income is modest or zero, borrowers may qualify for an income-driven repayment (IDR) plan  Most major types of federal student loans—except for PLUS loans for parents—are eligible  IDRs allow borrowers to cap their monthly payments at 10%, 15%, or 20% of disposable income for up to 20 or 25 years, after which the remaining balance is forgiven Four IDRs are available:

Income-Based Repayment (IBR)
Pay As You Earn (PAYE)
Revised Pay As You Earn (REPAYE)
Income-Contingent Repayment (ICR)

Income share agreements
An income share agreement is an alternative to a traditional loan  The borrower agrees to pay a percentage of their salary to the educational institution after graduation  Purdue University offers income share agreements 

Defenses to repayment
Under some circumstances, debt can be cancelled  For example, students who attended a school when it closed or the student was enrolled based on false claims may be able to escape repayment 

Leaving the country to evade repayment
Debt evasion is the intentional act of trying to avoid attempts by creditors to collect a debt  News accounts report that some individuals are departing the US to escape their debt  Emigration does not discharge the loan or stop interest and penalties from accruing 
International addresses make it more difficult to find people, and collection companies would usually need to hire an international counsel or a third party collector to recoup the debt, cutting into their profits and reducing their incentive to go after a debtor   'It increases our expenses to go overseas,' says Justin Berg of American Profit Recovery, a debt collection agency in Massachusetts  'Our revenues are cut by more than half,' he says "
Nations may enter into agreements with the US to facilitate the collection of student loans After default, co-signers remain liable for repayment 

Bankruptcy
Federal loans and some private loans can be discharged in bankruptcy by demonstrating that the loan does not meet the requirements of section 523(a)(8) of the bankruptcy code or by showing that repayment of the loan would constitute "undue hardship"  While credit card debt often can be discharged through bankruptcy proceedings, this option is not generally available for federally subsidize or insured student loans  Unless the loan can be proven not to be an educational benefit, those seeking to discharge their debt must initiate an adversary proceeding, a separate lawsuit within the bankruptcy case where they illustrate the required hardship  Many borrowers cannot afford the costs to retain an attorney or litigation costs associated with an adversary proceeding, such as a bankruptcy case  The undue hardship standard varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but is generally difficult to meet  In most circuit courts discharge depends on meeting the three prongs in the Brunner test: As noted by the district court, there is very little appellate authority on the definition of "undue hardship" in the context of 11 U S C  § 523(a)(8)(B)  Based on legislative history and the decisions of other district and bankruptcy courts, the district court adopted a standard for "undue hardship" requiring a three-part showing: (1) that the debtor cannot maintain, based on current income and expenses, a "minimal" standard of living for herself and her dependents if forced to repay the loans; (2) that additional circumstances exist indicating that this state of affairs is likely to persist for a significant portion of the repayment period of the student loans; and (3) that the debtor has made good faith efforts to repay the loans  For the reasons set forth in the district court's order, we adopt this analysis  The first part of this test has been applied frequently as the minimum necessary to establish "undue hardship " See, e g , Bryant v  Pennsylvania Higher Educ  Assistance Agency (In re Bryant), 72 B R  913, 915 (Bankr E D Pa 1987); North Dakota State Bd  of Higher Educ  v  Frech (In re Frech), 62 B R  235 (Bankr D Minn 1986); Marion v  Pennsylvania Higher Educ  Assistance Agency (In re Marion), 61 B R  815 (Bankr W D Pa 1986)  Requiring such a showing comports with common sense as well 
Federal student loans may be eligible for administrative discharge  Those provisions do not apply to private loans, although private loans may be subject to discharge in bankruptcy  One study found that a quarter million student debtors file for bankruptcy each year  Approximately 450 attempted to seek a discharge in 2017 by arguing that their loan was not an "educational benefit" as defined by section 523(a)(8), or they successfully argued for "undue hardship"  Of the completed cases, more than 60% were able to discharge their debts or achieve a settlement  The study concluded that the data showed: Creditors are settling unfavorable cases to avoid adverse precedent and litigating good cases to cultivate favorable precedent  Ultimately, this litigation strategy has distorted the law and cultivated the myth of nondischargeability The study found that debtors who obtain favorable outcomes do not possess unique characteristics differentiating them from those who do not seek discharge and estimates that 64,000 individuals who filed for bankruptcy in 2019 would have met the hardship standard  It concluded about half of all bankrupt debtors could obtain relief, except that they had become convinced that loans were not dischargeable For disabled debtors the standard is whether "substantial gainful activity" (SGA) is still possible Borrowers determined to be disabled by the Social Security Administration, are eligible if the SSA placed the individual on a five- to seven-year review cycle  Debt discharged due to death or total permanent disability is nontaxable In three circuit court jurisdictions private student loans are dischargeable in bankruptcy 

Criticisms
School effects
Some critics of financial aid in general claim that it allows schools to raise their fees, to accept unprepared students, and to produce too many graduates in some fields of study In 1987, then-Secretary of Education William Bennett argued that “    increases in financial aid in recent years have enabled colleges and universities blithely to raise tuition, confident that Federal loan subsidies would help cushion the increase ” This statement came to be known as the “Bennett Hypothesis” 
In July 2015, a Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Report concluded that institutions more exposed to increases in student loan program maximums tended to respond with disproportionate tuition increases  Pell Grant, subsidized, and unsubsidized loans led to increases of about 40, 60, and 15 cents on the dollar, respectively  In the 20 years between 1987 and 2007, tuition costs rose 326%  Public universities increased their fees by 27% over the five years ending in 2012, or 20% adjusted for inflation  Public university students paid an average of almost $8,400 annually for in-state tuition, while out-of-state students paid more than $19,000  For the two decades ending in 2013, college costs rose 1 6% more than inflation each year  By contrast, government funding per student fell 27% between 2007 and 2012 Many students cannot get loans or determine that the cost of going to school is not worth the debt, believing that they would still be unable to make enough income to pay it back Some universities steered borrowers to preferred lenders that charged higher interest rates  Some of these lenders allegedly paid kick backs to university financial aid staff  After the behavior became public, many universities rebated fees to affected borrowers 

Interest rates
The federal student loan program was criticized for not adjusting interest rates according to factors under students' control, such as the choice of academic major  Critics have contended that flat-rate pricing contributes to inefficiency and misallocation of resources in higher education and lower productivity in the labor market  However, one study found that high debt and default levels do not burden society substantially 

Bankruptcy
In 2009 student loans' non-dischargeability was claimed to provide a credit risk-free loan for the lender, averaging 7 percent a year 

Long-term debt and default
About one-third of borrowers never pay off their loans  Those who default shift their burden to taxpayers According to Harvard Business School researchers, "when student debt is erased, a huge burden is lifted and people take big steps to improve their lives: They seek higher-paying careers in new states, improve their education, get their other finances in order, and make more substantial contributions to the economy "

Sallie Mae and Nelnet
Sallie Mae and Nelnet are the largest lenders and are frequently defendants in lawsuits  The False Claims Suit was filed on behalf of the federal government by former DOE researcher Dr  Jon Oberg against Sallie Mae, Nelnet, and other lenders  Oberg argued that the lenders overcharged the United States Government and defrauded taxpayers of over $22 million  In August 2010, Nelnet settled and paid $55 million  Ultimately seven lenders returned taxpayer funds as a result of his lawsuits 

School quality
In April 2019, Brookings Institution fellow Adam Looney, a long-time analyst of student loans, claimed that:"It is an outrage that the federal government offers loans to students at low-quality institutions even when we know those schools don’t boost their earnings and that those borrowers won’t be able to repay their loans  It is an outrage that we make parent PLUS loans to the poorest families when we know they almost surely will default and have their wages and social security benefits garnished and their tax refunds confiscated, as $2 8 billion was in 2017  It is an outrage that we saddled several million students with loans to enroll in untested online programs that seem to have offered no labor market value  It is an outrage that our lending programs encourage schools like USC to charge $107,484 (and students to blithely enroll) for a master’s degree in social work (220 percent more than the equivalent course at UCLA) in a field where the median wage is $47,980  It’s no wonder many borrowers feel their student loans led to economic catastrophe "

Potential consequences of student loan debt
While college grads earn about 70% more than people with only a high school degree, student loan debt has been associated with several social, economic, and psychological consequences, including:

having to choose less satisfying work that pays more
lower credit ratings from missed payments that may disqualify borrowers from work opportunities given poor payment history
reduced wealth accumulation
reduced housing access
delayed marriage
delayed childbirth
decreased retirement security
increased anxiety

Reform proposals
Organizations that advocate for student loan reform include the Debt Collective and Student Loan Justice Some pundits proposed that colleges share liability on defaulted student loans Sen  Bernie Sanders (I-Vt ) and Rep  Pramila Jayapal (D-Wash ) introduced legislation in 2017 to "make public colleges and universities tuition-free for working families and to significantly reduce student debt " The policy would eliminate undergraduate tuition and fees at public colleges and universities, lower interest rates, and allow those with existing debt to refinance  Sanders offered a new proposal in 2019 that would cancel $1 6 trillion of student loan, undergraduate and graduate debt for around 45 million Americans Senator Brian Schatz (D-Hawaii) reintroduced the Debt Free College Act in 2019 In 2020, a majority of economists surveyed by the Initiative on Global Markets felt that forgiving all student loans would be more beneficial to higher income earners than lower income earners During the 2020 presidential election, then-candidate Joe Biden said he planned to allow $10,000 in debt forgiveness to all student debtors  On August 24, 2022, Biden announced that he would forgive an amount of $10,000 for an estimated 43 million borrowers, and an additional $10,000 for Pell Grant recipients, with this relief limited to singles earning under $125,000 and married couples earning under $250,000, including refunding payments during the forbearance period by any borrower who requests it  This would reduce debt for an estimated 43 million borrowers and eliminate student loan debt for an estimated 20 million   The Congressional Budget Office estimated that it would cost the government about $400 billion  The administration also proposed a new income-driven repayment plan  The U S  Supreme Court ruled June 30, 2023 that Biden's plan required action by Congress and that the HEROES Act did not permit the administration to act on its own Some borrowers still have loans issued under the Federal Family Education Loan Program which closed in 2010  The Biden forgiveness plan originally allowed these borrowers to receive forgiveness by consolidating into Direct Loans, but due to potential lawsuits stopped allowing this on September 29, 2022, potentially excluding 800,000 FFEL borrowers 

See also
Student financial aid in the United States
College tuition in the United States
EdFund
Free education
Higher Education Price Index
Tertiary education
Private university
Student debt
Student loan
Tuition payments
Tuition freeze
Passage 12:
Robert Khayat
Robert Conrad Khayat (born April 18, 1938) was the 15th Chancellor of the University of Mississippi  He also played American football as a placekicker, guard, and center for Ole Miss and in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins during the 1960, 1962 and 1963 seasons  He was appointed Chancellor in 1995 

Early years
Khayat was born in Moss Point, Mississippi, to Lebanese parents  He attended Moss Point High School and the University of Mississippi  He received both bachelor of arts and Juris Doctor degrees from the University of Mississippi  He also played football for the Ole Miss Rebels football team from 1957 to 1959  He also received an LL M  degree from Yale University 

Professional football career
Khayat was selected by the Cleveland Browns in the 1960 NFL Draft  He was then traded to the Washington Redskins in April 1960  He played for the Redskins during the 1960, 1962, and 1963 seasons  Following the 1960 season, he was named to the Pro Bowl squad  He appeared in a total of 40 NFL games and kicked 38 field goals and 90 extra points His brother Eddie Khayat also played and coached in the NFL 

Later years
Khayat later became a lawyer and taught law at the University of Mississippi School of Law He was appointed chancellor in 1995  In one of his first acts as chancellor, Khayat arranged for a $5 4 million gift from Jim and Sally Barksdale to establish an honors college at the university  In 1996, with enrollment declining, Khayat retained the public relations firm, Burson-Marsteller, to conduct a survey of public perception — including university symbols  When The New York Times reported on the review, which included the Confederate Flag and other Old South symbols, a media frenzy ensued 
On January 6, 2009, Khayat announced his retirement effective June 30, 2009  He was succeeded by Daniel Jones on June 15, 2009 
Khayat's memoir, The Education of a Lifetime, was published on September 10, 2013 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Bellevue (Accokeek, Maryland)
Bellevue is a historic plantation house located at 200 Manning Road East, in Accokeek, Prince George's County, Maryland, United States  This Greek Revival style home was constructed in about 1840  It is one of only three surviving examples in Prince George's County of the once-popular Tidewater house style, typical of successful small plantations of that period  Bellevue is in excellent condition, and retains its freestanding chimneys with brick pent, as well as a roughly contemporary kitchen wing  The house stands on a five-acre, partially wooded lot which exemplifies its original plantation setting Bellevue was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 
Passage 2:
Borough House Plantation
Borough House Plantation, also known as Borough House, Hillcrest Plantation and Anderson Place, is an historic plantation on South Carolina Highway 261, 0 8 miles (1 3 km) north of its intersection with U S  Route 76/US Route 378 in Stateburg, in the High Hills of Santee near Sumter, South Carolina   A National Historic Landmark, the plantation is noted as the largest assemblage of high-style pisé (rammed earth) structures in the United States   The main house and six buildings on the plantation were built using this technique, beginning in 1821   The plantation is also notable as the home of Confederate Army General Richard H  Anderson 

Description and history
The original house built in 1758 served at different times during the American Revolution as headquarters for both British General Lord Cornwallis and Continental Army General Nathanael Greene   The second house was built in 1820 of rammed earth by William Wallace Anderson, M D  It was designed by architect A C  Jones 
On October 7, 1821, Anderson's wife, the former Mary Jane Mackensie, gave birth at home to their son, Richard H  Anderson  He later served as a Confederate Army general in the American Civil War   Stateburg was originally called Stateborough, as when the town was laid out, Borough House was the only residence in it In 1850–1852, Dr  Anderson chaired the committee that built the Church of the Holy Cross of rammed earth across the road from Borough Hall  It was also designed by Jones 
In 1851, Joel Roberts Poinsett, physician, American statesman and botanist (for whom the poinsettia is named), died while visiting Dr  Anderson  He was buried in the churchyard across the road On March 23, 1972, Borough Hall plantation was added to the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark  It is also part of the defined Stateburg Historic District, as is the Church of the Holy Cross 

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places listings in Sumter County, South Carolina
Passage 3:
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the most populous city in the U S  state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston metropolitan area  The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina's coastline on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley, Cooper, and Wando rivers  Charleston had a population of 150,277 at the 2020 census  The 2020 population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester counties, was 799,636 residents, the third-largest in the state, 8th-largest in the Deep South and the 74th-largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States 
Charleston was founded in 1670 as Charles Town, honoring King Charles II, at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River (now Charles Towne Landing) but relocated in 1680 to its present site, which became the fifth-largest city in North America within ten years  It remained unincorporated throughout the colonial period; its government was handled directly by a colonial legislature and a governor sent by Parliament  Election districts were organized according to Anglican parishes, and some social services were managed by Anglican wardens and vestries  Charleston adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783  Population growth in the interior of South Carolina influenced the removal of the state government to Columbia in 1788, but Charleston remained among the ten largest cities in the United States through the 1840 census Charleston's significance in American history is tied to its role as a major slave trading port  Charleston slave traders like Joseph Wragg were the first to break through the monopoly of the Royal African Company and pioneered the large-scale slave trade of the 18th century; almost one-half of slaves imported to the United States arrived in Charleston  In 2018, the city formally apologized for its role in the American slave trade 

History
Colonial era (1670–1786)
King Charles II granted the chartered Province of Carolina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Proprietors, on March 24, 1663  In 1670, Governor William Sayle arranged for several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda and Barbados  These settlers established what was then called Charles Town at Albemarle Point, on the west bank of the Ashley River, a few miles northwest of the present-day city center  Charles Town became the first comprehensively planned town in the Thirteen Colonies  Its governance, settlement, and development was to follow a visionary plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lords Proprietors by John Locke  Because the Carolina's Fundamental Constitutions was never ratified, however, Charles Town was never incorporated during the colonial period  Instead, local ordinances were passed by the provincial government, with day-to-day administration handled by the wardens and vestries of St Philip's and St Michael's Anglican parishes At the time of European colonization, the area was inhabited by the indigenous Cusabo, whom the settlers declared war on in October 1671  The settlers initially allied with the Westo, a northern indigenous tribe that traded in enslaved Indians  The settlers abandoned their alliance with the Westo in 1679 and allied with the Cusabo instead The initial settlement quickly dwindled away and disappeared while another village—established by the settlers on Oyster Point at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers around 1672—thrived  This second settlement formally replaced the original Charles Town in 1680  (The original site is now commemorated as Charles Towne Landing ) The second location was more defensible and had access to a fine natural harbor  The new town had become the fifth largest in North America by 1690 A smallpox outbreak erupted in 1698, followed by an earthquake in February 1699  The latter caused a fire that destroyed about a third of the town  During rebuilding, a yellow fever outbreak killed about 15% of the remaining inhabitants  Charles Town suffered between five and eight major yellow fever outbreaks over the first half of the 18th century 
It developed a reputation as one of the least healthy locations in the Thirteen Colonies for ethnic Europeans  Malaria was endemic  Although malaria did not have such high mortality as yellow fever, it caused much illness  It was a major health problem through most of the city's history before dying out in the 1950s after use of pesticides cut down on the mosquitoes that transmitted it 

Charles Town was fortified according to a plan developed in 1704 under Governor Nathaniel Johnson  Both Spain and France contested Britain's claims to the region  Various bands of Native Americans and independent pirates also raided it 
On September 5–6, 1713 (O S ) a violent hurricane passed over Charles Town  The Circular Congregational Church manse was damaged during the storm, in which church records were lost  Much of Charles Town was flooded as "the Ashley and Cooper rivers became one " At least seventy people died in the disaster From the 1670s Charleston attracted pirates  The combination of a weak government and corruption made the city popular with pirates, who frequently visited and raided the city  Charles Town was besieged by the pirate Blackbeard for several days in May 1718  Blackbeard released his hostages and left in exchange for a chest of medicine from Governor Robert Johnson Around 1719, the town's name began to be generally written as Charlestown and, excepting those fronting the Cooper River, the old walls were largely removed over the next decade  Charlestown was a center for the inland colonization of South Carolina  It remained the southernmost point of the Southern Colonies until the Province of Georgia was established in 1732  As noted, the first settlers primarily came from Europe, Barbados and Bermuda  The Barbadian and Bermudan immigrants were planters who brought enslaved Africans with them, having purchased them in the West Indies 
Early immigrant groups to the city included the Huguenots, Scottish, Irish, and Germans, as well as hundreds of Jews, predominately Sephardi from London and major cities of the Dutch Republic, where they had been given refuge  As late as 1830, Charleston's Jewish community was the largest and wealthiest in North America By 1708, the majority of the colony's population were Black Africans  They had been brought to Charlestown via the Atlantic slave trade, first as indentured servants and then as slaves  In the early 1700s, Charleston's largest slave trader, Joseph Wragg, pioneered the settlement's involvement in the slave trade  Of the estimated 400,000 captive Africans transported to North America to be sold into slavery, 40% are thought to have landed at Sullivan's Island off Charlestown  Free people of color also migrated from the West Indies, being descendants of white planters and their Black consorts, and unions among the working classes In 1767 Gadsden's Wharf was constructed at the city port on the Cooper River; it ultimately extended 840 feet and was able to accommodate six ships at a time  Many slaves were sold from here  Devoted to plantation agriculture that depended on enslaved labor, South Carolina became a slave society: it had a majority-Black population from the colonial period until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century, when many rural Blacks moved to northern and midwestern industrial cities to escape Jim Crow laws 

At the foundation of the town, the principal items of commerce were pine timber and pitch for ships and tobacco  The early economy developed around the deerskin trade, in which colonists used alliances with the Cherokee and Creek peoples to secure the raw material 
At the same time, Indians took each other as captives and slaves in warfare  From 1680 to 1720, approximately 40,000 native men, women, and children were sold through the port, principally to the West Indies such as (Bermuda and the Bahamas), but also to other Southern colonies  The Lowcountry planters did not keep Indian slaves, considering them too prone to escape or revolt  They used the proceeds of their sale to purchase enslaved Black Africans for their own plantations  The slave raiding—and the European firearms it introduced—helped destabilize Spanish Florida and French Louisiana in the 1700s during the War of the Spanish Succession  But it also provoked the Yamasee War of the 1710s that nearly destroyed the colony  After that, South Carolina largely abandoned the Indian slave trade The area's unsuitability for growing tobacco prompted the Lowcountry planters to experiment with other cash crops  The profitability of growing rice led the planters to pay premiums for slaves from the "Rice Coast" who knew its cultivation; their descendants make up the ethnic Gullah who created their own culture and language in this area  Slaves imported from the Caribbean showed the planter George Lucas's daughter Eliza how to raise and use indigo for dyeing in 1747 
Throughout this period, the slaves were sold aboard the arriving ships or at ad hoc gatherings in town's taverns  Runaways and minor slave rebellions prompted the 1739 Security Act, which required all white men to carry weapons at all times (even to church on Sundays)  Before it had fully taken effect, the Cato or Stono Rebellion broke out  The white community had recently been decimated by a malaria outbreak, and the rebels killed about 25 white people before being stopped by the colonial militia  As a result of their fears of rebellion, whites killed a total of 35 to 50 Black people The planters attributed the violence to recently imported Africans and agreed to a 10-year moratorium on slave importation through Charlestown  They relied for labor upon the slave communities they already held  The 1740 Negro Act also tightened controls, requiring a ratio of one white for every ten Blacks on any plantation (which was often not achieved), and banning slaves from assembling together, growing their own food, earning money, or learning to read  Drums were banned because Africans used them for signaling; slaves were allowed to use string and other instruments  When the moratorium expired and Charlestown reopened to the slave trade in 1750, the memory of the Stono Rebellion resulted in traders avoiding buying slaves from the Congo and Angola, whose populations had a reputation for independence 
By the mid-18th century, Charlestown was the hub of the Atlantic slave trade in the Southern Colonies  Even with the decade-long moratorium, its customs processed around 40% of the enslaved Africans brought to North America between 1700 and 1775, and about half up until the end of the African trade 
The plantations and the economy based on them made this the wealthiest city in the Thirteen Colonies and the largest in population south of Philadelphia  In 1770, the city had 11,000 inhabitants—half slaves—and was the 4th-largest port in the colonies, after Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia 
The elite began to use their wealth to encourage cultural and social development  America's first theater building was constructed here in 1736; it was later replaced by today's Dock Street Theater  St Michael's was erected in 1753  Benevolent societies were formed by the Huguenots, free people of color, Germans, and Jews  The Library Society was established in 1748 by well-born young men who wanted to share the financial cost to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day 

American Revolution (1776–1783)
Delegates for the Continental Congress were elected in 1774, and South Carolina declared its independence from Britain on the steps of the Exchange  Slavery was again an important factor in the city's role during the Revolutionary War  The British attacked the settlement three times, assuming that the settlement had a large base of Loyalists who would rally to their cause once given some military support  The loyalty of white Southerners towards the Crown had largely been forfeited, however, by British legal cases (such as the 1772 Somersett case which marked the prohibition of slavery in England and Wales; a significant milestone in the abolitionist struggle) and military tactics (such as Dunmore's Proclamation in 1775) that promised the emancipation of slaves owned by Patriot planters; these efforts did, however, unsurprisingly win the allegiance of thousands of Black Loyalists 
The Battle of Sullivan's Island saw the British fail to capture a partially constructed palmetto palisade from Col  Moultrie's militia regiment on June 28, 1776  The Liberty Flag used by Moultrie's men formed the basis of the later South Carolina flag, and the victory's anniversary continues to be commemorated as Carolina Day 
Making the capture of Charlestown their chief priority, the British sent Sir Henry Clinton, who laid siege to Charleston on April 1, 1780, with about 14,000 troops and 90 ships  Bombardment began on March 11, 1780  The Patriots, led by Benjamin Lincoln, had about 5,500 men and inadequate fortifications to repel the forces against them  After the British cut his supply lines and lines of retreat at the battles of Monck's Corner and Lenud's Ferry, Lincoln's surrender on May 12, 1780 became the greatest American defeat of the war 
The British continued to hold Charlestown for over a year following their defeat at Yorktown in 1781, although they alienated local planters by refusing to restore full civil government  Nathanael Greene had entered the state after Cornwallis's pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse and kept the area under a kind of siege  British Army officer Alexander Leslie, commanding Charlestown, requested a truce in March 1782 to purchase food for his garrison and the town's inhabitants  Greene refused and formed a brigade under Mordecai Gist to counter British forays  Charlestown was finally evacuated by the British in December 1782  Greene presented the British leaders of the town with the Moultrie Flag 

Antebellum era (1783–1861)
Between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, Charleston experienced an economic boom, at least for the top strata of society  The expansion of cotton as a cash crop in the South both led to huge wealth for a small segment of society and funded impressive architecture and culture but also escalated the importance of slaves and led to greater and greater restrictions on Black Charlestonians 
By 1783, the growth of the city had reached a point where a municipal government became desirable; therefore on August 13, 1783, an act of incorporation for the city of Charleston was ratified  The act originally specified the city's name as "Charles Ton," as opposed to the previous Charlestown, but the spelling "Charleston" quickly came to dominate Although Columbia had replaced it as the state capital in 1788, Charleston became even more prosperous as Eli Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin sped the processing of the crop over 50 times  Britain's Industrial Revolution—initially built upon its textile industry—took up the extra production ravenously and cotton became Charleston's major export commodity in the 19th century  

The Bank of South Carolina, the second-oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798; branches of the First and Second banks of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817 
Throughout the Antebellum Period, Charleston continued to be the only major American city with a majority-slave population  The city's widespread use of slaves as workers was a frequent subject of writers and visitors: a merchant from Liverpool noted in 1834 that "almost all the working population are Negroes, all the servants, the carmen & porters, all the people who see at the stalls in Market, and most of the Journeymen in trades"  American traders had been prohibited from equipping the Atlantic slave trade in 1794 and all importation of slaves was banned in 1808, but American merchantmen frequently refused to permit British inspection for enslaved cargo, and smuggling remained common  Much more important was the domestic slave trade, which boomed as the Deep South was developed in new cotton plantations  As a result of the trade, there was a forced migration of more than one million slaves from the Upper South to the Lower South in the antebellum years  During the early 19th century, the first dedicated slave markets were founded in Charleston, mostly near Chalmers and State streets  Many domestic slavers used Charleston as a port in what was called the coastwise trade, traveling to such ports as Mobile and New Orleans 
Slave ownership was the primary marker of class and even the town's freedmen and free people of color typically kept slaves if they had the wealth to do so  Visitors commonly remarked on the sheer number of Blacks in Charleston and their seeming freedom of movement, though in fact—mindful of the Stono Rebellion and the slave revolution that established Haiti—the whites closely regulated the behavior of both slaves and free people of color  Wages and hiring practices were fixed, identifying badges were sometimes required, and even work songs were sometimes censored  Punishment was handled out of sight by the city's workhouse, whose fees provided the municipal government with thousands a year  In 1820, a state law mandated that each act of manumission (freeing a slave) required legislative approval, effectively halting the practice The effects of slavery were pronounced on white society as well  The high cost of 19th-century slaves and their high rate of return combined to institute an oligarchic society controlled by about ninety interrelated families, where 4% of the free population controlled half of the wealth, and the lower half of the free population—unable to compete with owned or rented slaves—held no wealth at all  The white middle class was minimal: Charlestonians generally disparaged hard work as the lot of slaves  All the slaveholders taken together held 82% of the city's wealth and almost all non-slaveholders were poor  Olmsted considered their civic elections "entirely contests of money and personal influence" and the oligarchs dominated civic planning: the lack of public parks and amenities was noted, as was the abundance of private gardens in the wealthy's walled estates In the 1810s, the town's churches intensified their discrimination against their Black parishioners, culminating in Bethel Methodist's 1817 construction of a hearse house over its Black burial ground  4,376 Black Methodists joined Morris Brown in establishing Hampstead Church, the African Methodist Episcopal church now known as Mother Emanuel  State and city laws prohibited Black literacy, limited Black worship to daylight hours, and required a majority of any church's parishioners be white  In June 1818, 140 Black church members at Hampstead Church were arrested and eight of its leaders given fines and ten lashes; police raided the church again in 1820 and pressured it in 1821 In 1822, members of the church, led by Denmark Vesey, a lay preacher and carpenter who had bought his freedom after winning a lottery, planned an uprising and escape to Haiti—initially for Bastille Day—that failed when one slave revealed the plot to his master  Over the next month, the city's intendant (mayor) James Hamilton Jr  organized a militia for regular patrols, initiated a secret and extrajudicial tribunal to investigate, and hanged 35 and exiled 35 or 37 slaves to Spanish Cuba for their involvement  Hamilton imposed more restrictions on both free and enslaved Blacks: South Carolina required free Black sailors to be imprisoned while their ships were in Charleston Harbor though international treaties eventually required the United States to quash the practice; free Blacks were banned from returning to the state if they left for any reason; slaves were given a 9:15 pm curfew; the city razed Hampstead Church to the ground and erected a new arsenal  This structure later was the basis of the Citadel's first campus  The AME congregation built a new church but in 1834 the city banned it and all Black worship services, following Nat Turner's 1831 rebellion in Virginia  The estimated 10% of slaves who came to America as Muslims never had a separate mosque  Slaveholders sometimes provided them with beef rations in place of pork in recognition of religious traditions The registered tonnage of Charleston shipping in 1829 was 12,410  In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts  Soon, federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston's forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor "to take possession of any vessel arriving from a foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with " This federal action became known as the Charleston incident  The state's politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs Charleston's embrace of classical architecture began after a devastating fire leveled much of the city  On April 27, 1838, Charleston suffered a catastrophic fire that burned more than 1000 buildings and caused about $3 million in damage at the time  The damaged buildings amounted to about one-fourth of all the businesses in the main part of the city  When the many homes and business were rebuilt or repaired, a great cultural awakening occurred  Previous to the fire, only a few homes were styled as Greek Revival; many residents decided to construct new buildings in that style after the conflagration  This tradition continued and made Charleston one of the foremost places to view Greek Revival architecture  The Gothic Revival also made a significant appearance in the construction of many churches after the fire that exhibited picturesque forms and reminders of devout European religion By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity  The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves bought and sold  The legal importation of African slaves had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant  However, the domestic trade was booming  More than one million slaves were transported from the Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cotton plantations were widely developed through what became known as the Black Belt  Many slaves were transported in the coastwise slave trade, with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston 

Civil War (1861–1865)
Charleston played a major part in the Civil War  As a pivotal city, both the Union and Confederate Armies vied for control of it  The Civil War began in Charleston Harbor in 1861, and ended mere months after the Union forces took control of Charleston in 1865 
Following the election of Abraham Lincoln, the South Carolina General Assembly voted on December 20, 1860, to secede from the Union  South Carolina was the first state to secede  On December 27, Castle Pinckney was surrendered by its garrison to the state militia and, on January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on the USS Star of the West as it entered Charleston Harbor 
The first full battle of the American Civil War occurred on April 12, 1861, when shore batteries under the command of General P  G  T  Beauregard opened fire on the US Army-held Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor  After a 34-hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort 
On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over 500 acres (200 ha) of the city 
Union control of the sea permitted the repeated bombardment of the city, causing vast damage  Although Admiral Du Pont's naval assault on the town's forts in April 1863 failed, the Union navy's blockade shut down most commercial traffic  Over the course of the war, some blockade runners got through but not a single one made it into or out of the Charleston Harbor between August 1863 and March 1864  The early submarine H L  Hunley made a night attack on the USS Housatonic on February 17, 1864 General Gillmore's land assault in July 1864 was unsuccessful but the fall of Columbia and advance of General William T  Sherman's army through the state prompted the Confederates to evacuate the town on February 17, 1865, burning the public buildings, cotton warehouses, and other sources of supply before their departure  Union troops moved into the city within the month  The War Department recovered what federal property remained and also confiscated the campus of the Citadel Military Academy and used it as a federal garrison for the next 17 years  The facilities were finally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E  Marichak 

Postbellum (1865–1945)
Reconstruction
After the defeat of the Confederacy, federal forces remained in Charleston during Reconstruction  The war had shattered the city's prosperity, but the African-American population surged (from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880) as freedmen moved from the countryside to the major city  Blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church and resumed open meetings of the African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches  They purchased dogs, guns, liquor, and better clothes—all previously banned—and ceased yielding the sidewalks to whites  Despite the efforts of the state legislature to halt manumissions, Charleston had already had a large class of free people of color as well  At the onset of the war, the city had 3,785 free people of color, many of mixed race, making up about 18% of the city's black population and 8% of its total population  Many were educated and practiced skilled crafts; they quickly became leaders of South Carolina's Republican Party and its legislators  Men who had been free people of color before the war comprised 26% of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876 By the late 1870s, industry was bringing the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality; new jobs attracted new residents  As the city's commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions  In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston's African American population  Gen  Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war  Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now a university-preparatory school, Porter-Gaud School 
In 1875, blacks made up 57% of the city's and 73% of the county's population  With leadership by members of the antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as "unique" in being able to defend themselves without provoking "massive white retaliation", as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction  In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as a violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to maintain white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and granting of citizenship to freedmen by federal constitutional amendments  After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by conservative Democratic paramilitary groups, known as the Red Shirts  Violent incidents took place in Charleston on King Street on September 6 and in nearby Cainhoy on October 15, both in association with political meetings before the 1876 election  The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks  The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of the state legislature  Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election, when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed 

Politics
In the early 20th century strong political machines emerged in the city reflecting economic, class, racial, and ethnic tensions  The factions nearly all opposed U S  Senator Ben Tillman who repeatedly attacked and ridiculed the city in the name of upstate poor farmers  Well organized factions within the Democratic Party in Charleston gave the voters clear choices and played a large role in state politics 

1886 earthquake
On August 31, 1886, Charleston experienced a strong earthquake  The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7 0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme)  It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda  It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($163 million in 2021 dollars), at a time when all the city's buildings were valued around $24 million ($653 million in 2021 dollars) 

Charleston race riots
The Charleston race riot of 1919 took place on the night of Saturday, May 10, between members of the US Navy and the local black population  They attacked black individuals, businesses, and homes killing six and injuring dozens 

Contemporary era (1945–present)
Charleston languished economically for several decades in the 20th century, though the large federal military presence in the region helped to shore up the city's economy  Charleston's tourism boom began in earnest following the publication of Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham's Architecture of Charleston in the 1920s The Charleston Hospital Strike of 1969, in which mostly black workers protested discrimination and low wages, was one of the last major events of the civil rights movement  It attracted Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Andrew Young, and other prominent figures to march with the local leader, Mary Moultrie 
Joseph P  Riley Jr  was elected mayor in the 1970s, and helped advance several cultural aspects of the city 
Between 1989 and 1996, Charleston saw two significant economic hits  First, the eye of Hurricane Hugo came ashore at Charleston Harbor in 1989, and though the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, three-quarters of the homes in Charleston's historic district sustained damage of varying degrees  The hurricane caused over $2 8 billion in damage  The city was able to rebound fairly quickly after the hurricane and has grown in population, reaching an estimated 124,593 residents in 2009  Second, in 1993, the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) directed that Naval Base Charleston be closed  Pursuant to BRAC action, Naval Base Charleston was closed on April 1, 1996, although some activities remain under the cognizance of Naval Support Activity Charleston, now part of Joint Base Charleston After having been a majority-minority city for most of its history, in the late 20th century many whites began returning to the urban core of Charleston and the area gentrified with rising prices and rents  From 1980 to 2010, the peninsula's population shifted from two-thirds black to two-thirds white; in 2010 residents numbered 20,668 whites to 10,455 blacks  Many African Americans moved to the less-expensive suburbs in these decades On June 17, 2015, 21-year-old white supremacist Dylann Roof entered the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church and sat in on part of a Bible study before shooting and killing nine people and injuring a tenth, all African Americans  Senior pastor Clementa Pinckney, who also served as a state senator, was among those killed during the attack  The deceased also included congregation members Susie Jackson, 87; Rev  Daniel Simmons Sr , 74; Ethel Lance, 70; Myra Thompson, 59; Cynthia Hurd, 54; Rev  Depayne Middleton-Doctor, 49; Rev  Sharonda Coleman-Singleton, 45; and Tywanza Sanders, 26  The attack garnered national attention, and sparked a debate on historical racism, Confederate symbolism in Southern states, and gun violence, in part based on Roof's online postings  A memorial service on the campus of the College of Charleston was attended by President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and Speaker of the House John Boehner 

Condemnation of role in the slave trade
On June 17, 2018, the Charleston City Council apologized for its role in the slave trade and condemned its "inhumane" history  It also acknowledged wrongs committed against African Americans by slavery and Jim Crow laws 

Geography
The city proper consists of six distinct districts 

Downtown, or sometimes referred to as "The Peninsula", is Charleston's center city separated by the Ashley River to the west and the Cooper River to the east 
West Ashley, residential area to the west of Downtown bordered by the Ashley River to the east and the Stono River to the west
Johns Island, far western limits of Charleston, bordered by the Stono River to the east, Kiawah River to the south and Wadmalaw Island to the west
James Island, popular residential area between Downtown and the town of Folly Beach with portions of the independent town of James Island intermixed
Cainhoy Peninsula, far eastern limits of Charleston bordered by the Wando River to the west and Nowell Creek to the east
Daniel Island, residential area to the north of downtown, east of the Cooper River and west of the Wando River

Topography
The incorporated city fitted into 4–5 sq mi (10–13 km2) as late as the First World War, but has since greatly expanded, crossing the Ashley River and encompassing James Island and some of Johns Island  The city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area  The present city has a total area of 127 5 sq mi (330 2 km2), of which 109 0 sq mi (282 2 km2) is land and 18 5 sq mi (47 9 km2) is covered by water  North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River 
Charleston Harbor runs about 7 mi (11 km) southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 mi (3 2 km), surrounded on all sides except its entrance  Sullivan's Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to the south  The entrance itself is about 1 mi (2 km) wide; it was originally only 18 ft (5 m) deep but began to be enlarged in the 1870s  The tidal rivers (Wando, Cooper, Stono, and Ashley) are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline  There is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor, and the Cooper River is deep 

Climate
Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with mild winters, hot humid summers, and significant rainfall all year long  Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers  Fall remains relatively warm through the middle of November  Winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain  Measurable snow (≥0 1 in or 0 25 cm) has a median occurrence of only once per decade at the airport, but freezing rain is more common; a snowfall/freezing rain event on January 3, 2018, was the first such event in Charleston since December 26, 2010  However, 6 0 in (15 cm) fell at the airport on December 23, 1989, during the December 1989 United States cold wave, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8 0 in (20 cm) snowfall Downtown Charleston's climate is considerably milder than the airport's due to stronger maritime influence  This is especially true in the winter, with the average January low in downtown being 43 6 °F (6 °C) to the airport's 38 9 °F (4 °C) for example 
The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F (40 °C) on June 2, 1985, and June 24, 1944; the lowest was 7 °F (−14 °C) on February 14, 1899



ground_truth: James Howard Meredith

James Meredith

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The author of Elizabeth and After attended which university?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Guy Gaunt
Admiral Sir Guy Reginald Archer Gaunt,  (25 May 1869 – 18 May 1953) was an Australian-born officer of the Royal Navy, counter-intelligence officer and a British Conservative Party politician 
Gaunt was born in Ballarat, Australia, to William Henry Gaunt and his wife Elizabeth Mary Palmer  Gaunt's brother-in-law was Alexander Stenson Palmer (banker and M P  for Victoria)  Gaunt's brother Ernest Gaunt was also an admiral  Their sister, Mary Gaunt, was a well-known author in Australia and wrote several travel books  Guy was educated at Melbourne Grammar School from 1881 to 1883 

Naval career
Gaunt's parents wanted him to become a lawyer, but he chose to go to sea  He began training for the merchant navy, but transferred to the Royal Navy in 1885, one of the "hungry hundred" merchant navy officers who were commissioned via the supplementary list 
Gaunt served as a lieutenant on several vessels in the Pacific Ocean, and was promoted to the rank of Commander in 1901  He became a captain in 1907, commanding a series of cruisers and the battleships HMS Majestic and HMS Thunderer  He saw action in the Philippines in 1897 and Samoa in 1901 In 1914 Gaunt was appointed naval attaché to the United States, and was instrumental in infiltrating the Hindu–German Conspiracy during the First World War  Gaunt headed the intelligence network operated by Courtenay Bennett's intelligence and liaised with the Czech intelligence network operated by E  V  Voska  On learning of the plot from the Czech European network at the outbreak of the war, Voska passed on the information to Gaunt and to Tomáš Masaryk who further passed on the information the American authorities  Voska's American network was a counter-espionage network of nearly 80 members who, as Habsburg subjects, were presumed to be German supporters but were involved in spying on German and Austrian diplomats 
When the U S  entered the war in 1917, Gaunt was appointed as liaison officer  In 1918 he served on convoys across the Atlantic and in June was appointed to the naval intelligence staff at the Admiralty 
Gaunt was promoted on the retired list to rear admiral in October 1918, vice admiral in July 1924 and admiral in February 1928  He was knighted as  in 1918 

Political career
Gaunt first stood as a candidate for parliament at the 1918 general election  He was the Liberal candidate for Leek and despite receiving the Coalition Coupon, he was unable to hold the seat  Gaunt was elected as Unionist Member of Parliament (MP) for the Buckrose constituency in the East Riding of Yorkshire at the 1922 general election, replacing the Liberal Algernon Moreing 
Gaunt resigned from the House of Commons in 1926, when he was cited as co-respondent in the divorce case between Sir Richard Cruise and his wife 

Family
Gaunt married a widow, Mrs Margaret Elizabeth Worthington (daughter of Sir Thomas Wardle) at Hong Kong in 1904  
She divorced him in 1927 following the scandal with Lady Cruise, and he retired to Tangier  He later remarried on 1 December 1932 a 35-year-old widow, Sybil Victoria Joseph, née Grant White and had two daughters  He returned to live in Cobham, Surrey and died at Woking Hospital on 18 May 1953 and was cremated Gaunt's autobiography, The Yield of the Years, was published in 1940  His brother Ernest Gaunt was also an admiral in the Royal Navy; his sister, Mary Gaunt, was a novelist 
Passage 2:
Comprehensive school
A comprehensive school is a secondary school for pupils aged 11–16 or 11–18, that does not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude, in contrast to a selective school system where admission is restricted on the basis of selection criteria, usually academic performance  The term is commonly used in relation to England and Wales, where comprehensive schools were introduced as state schools on an experimental basis in the 1940s and became more widespread from 1965  They may be part of a local education authority or be a self governing academy or part of a multi-academy trust 

About 90% of English secondary school pupils attend a comprehensive school (academy schools, community schools, faith schools, foundation schools, free schools, studio schools, university technical colleges, state boarding schools, City Technology Colleges, etc )  Specialist schools may however select up to 10% of their intake for aptitude in their specialism  A school may have a few specialisms, like arts (media, performing arts, visual arts), business and enterprise, engineering, humanities, languages, mathematics, computing, music, science, sports, and technology  They are not permitted to select on academic ability generally  Comprehensive schools correspond broadly to the public school in the United States, Canada and Australia 

England
Comprehensive schools provide an entitlement curriculum to all children, without selection whether due to financial considerations or attainment  A consequence of that is a wider ranging curriculum, including practical subjects such as design and technology and vocational learning, which were less common or non-existent in grammar schools  Providing post-16 education cost-effectively becomes more challenging for smaller comprehensive schools, because of the number of courses needed to cover a broader curriculum with comparatively fewer students  This is why schools have tended to get larger and also why many local authorities have organised secondary education into 11–16 schools, with the post-16 provision provided by sixth form colleges and further education colleges  Comprehensive schools do not select their intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude  In addition, government initiatives such as the City Technology Colleges and specialist schools programmes have expanded the comprehensive model  City Technology Colleges are independent schools in urban areas that are free to go to  They're funded by central government with company contributions and emphasise teaching science and technology 

English secondary schools are mostly comprehensive (i e  no entry exam), although the intake of comprehensive schools can vary widely, especially in urban areas with several local schools  Nearly 90% of state-funded secondary schools are specialist schools, receiving extra funding to develop one or more subjects (performing arts, business, humanities, art and design, languages, science, mathematics, technology, engineering, sports, etc ) in which the school specialises, which can select up to 10% of their intake for aptitude in the specialism  In these schools children could be selected on the basis of curriculum aptitude related to the school's specialism even though the schools do take quotas from each quartile of the attainment range to ensure they were not selective by attainment  In the selective school system, which survives in several parts of the United Kingdom, admission is dependent on selection criteria, most commonly a cognitive test or tests  Most comprehensives are secondary schools for children between the ages of 11 and 16, but in a few areas there are comprehensive middle schools, and in some places the secondary level is divided into two, for students aged 11 to 14 and those aged 14 to 18, roughly corresponding to the US middle school (or junior high school) and high school, respectively  With the advent of Key Stages in the National Curriculum some local authorities reverted from the Middle School system to 11–16 and 11–18 schools so that the transition between schools corresponds to the end of one key stage and the start of another  In principle, comprehensive schools were conceived as "neighbourhood" schools for all students in a specified catchment area 
Maths free schools like Exeter Mathematics School are for 16 to 19 year pupils who have a great aptitude for maths  As set out in the government's Industrial Strategy, maths schools help to encourage highly skilled graduates in sectors that depend on science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) skills  The aim of maths schools is to prepare the most mathematically able pupils to succeed in mathematics-related disciplines at highly selective maths universities and pursue mathematically intensive careers  Maths schools can also be centres of excellence in raising attainment, supporting and influencing the teaching of mathematics in their surrounding area, and are central to their associated universities' widening participation commitments 

Technical and vocational education in comprehensive schools are introduced during the secondary school years and goes on until further and higher education  Secondary vocational education is also known as further education  Further education incorporates vocational oriented education as well as a combination of general secondary education  Students can also go on to a further education college to prepare themselves for the Business and Technology Education Council, T-levels, and National Vocational Qualifications  Major provider of vocational qualifications in England include the City and Guilds of London Institute and Edexcel  Higher National Certificates and Higher National Diplomas typically require 1 and 2 years of full-time study and credit from either HNE or Diplomas can be transferred toward an undergraduate degree  Along with the HNC and HND, students who are interested in other vocational qualifications may pursue a foundation degree, which is a qualification that trains people to be highly skilled technicians  The National Apprenticeship Service also offers vocational education where people at ages of 16 and older enter apprenticeships in order to learn a skilled trade  There are over 60 different certifications can be obtained through an apprenticeship, which typically lasts from up to 3 years  Trades apprentices receive paid wages during training and spend one day at school and the rest in the workplace to hone their skills 
The first comprehensives were set up after the Second World War  At that time the terms "multi-lateral" or "multi-bias" were also used to describe non-selective secondary schools  In 1946 Walworth School was one of five 'experimental' comprehensive schools set up by the London County Council although London's first purpose built comprehensive was Kidbrooke School built in 1954  An early comprehensive school was Holyhead County School in Anglesey in 1949  Coventry opened two comprehensive schools in 1954 by combining grammar schools and secondary modern schools  These were Caludon Castle School and Woodlands School  Another early example was the 1956 Tividale Comprehensive School in Tipton  The first, purpose-built comprehensive in the North of England was Colne Valley High School near Huddersfield in 1956 
The largest expansion of comprehensive schools resulted from a policy decision taken in 1965 by Anthony Crosland, Secretary of State for Education in the 1964–1970 Labour government  The policy decision was implemented by Circular 10/65, a request to local education authorities to plan for conversion  Students sat the 11+ examination in their last year of primary education and were sent to one of a secondary modern, secondary technical or grammar school depending on their perceived ability  Secondary technical schools were never widely implemented and for 20 years there was a virtual bipartite system which saw fierce competition for the available grammar school places, which varied between 15% and 25% of total secondary places 
In 1970 Margaret Thatcher, the Secretary of State for Education in the new Conservative government, ended the compulsion on local authorities to convert, however, many local authorities were so far down the path that it would have been prohibitively expensive to attempt to reverse the process, and more comprehensive schools were established under Thatcher than any other education secretary  By 1975 the majority of local authorities in England and Wales had abandoned the 11-Plus examination and moved to a comprehensive system  Over that 10-year period many secondary modern schools and grammar schools were amalgamated to form large neighbourhood comprehensives, whilst a number of new schools were built to accommodate a growing school population  By the mid-1970s the system had been almost fully implemented, with virtually no secondary modern schools remaining  Many grammar schools were either closed or changed to comprehensive status  Some local authorities, including Sandwell and Dudley in the West Midlands, changed all of its state secondary schools to comprehensive schools during the 1970s 

In 1976 the future Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan launched what became known as the 'great debate' on the education system  He went on to list the areas he felt needed closest scrutiny: the case for a core curriculum, the validity and use of informal teaching methods, the role of school inspection and the future of the examination system  Comprehensive school remains the most common type of state secondary school in England, and the only type in Wales  They account for around 90% of pupils, or 64% if one does not count schools with low-level selection  This figure varies by region 
Since the 1988 Education Reform Act, parents have a right to choose which school their child should go to or whether to not send them to school at all and to home educate them instead  The concept of "school choice" introduces the idea of competition between state schools, a fundamental change to the original "neighbourhood comprehensive" model, and is partly intended as a means by which schools that are perceived to be inferior are forced either to improve or, if hardly anyone wants to go there, to close down  Government policy is currently promoting 'specialisation' whereby parents choose a secondary school appropriate for their child's interests and skills  Most initiatives focus on parental choice and information, implementing a pseudo-market incentive to encourage better schools  Both Conservative Party and Labour governments experimented with alternatives to the original neighbourhood comprehensive Experiments have included:

partnerships where successful schools share knowledge and best practice with nearby schools
federations of schools, where a partnership is formalised through joint governance arrangements
City Technology Colleges, 15 new schools where one fifth of the capital cost is privately funded
Academy schools, state schools not controlled by the local authority, which are allowed to select up to 10% of admissions by ability
Free schools, state schools not controlled by the local authority, which are allowed to select up to 10% of admissions by abilityFollowing the advice of Sir Cyril Taylor—former businessman and Conservative politician, and chairman of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSAT)—in the mid-1990s, all parties have backed the creation of specialist schools, which focus on excellence in a particular subject and are theoretically allowed to select up to 10% of their intake  This policy consensus had brought to an end the notion that all children will go to their local school, and assumes parents will choose a school they feel most meets their child's needs 

Curriculum
All maintained schools in England are required to follow the National Curriculum, which is made up of twelve subjects  Every state school must offer a curriculum which is balanced and broadly based and which promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils at the school and of society, and prepares pupils at the school for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of later life  For each of the statutory curriculum subjects, the Secretary of State for Education is required to set out a Programme of Study which outlines the content and matters which must be taught in those subjects at the relevant Key Stages  Teachers should set high expectations for every pupil  They should plan stretching work for pupils whose attainment is significantly above the expected standard  Teachers should use appropriate assessment to set targets which are deliberately ambitious Under the National Curriculum, all pupils undergo National Curriculum assessments at the end of Key Stage 2 in Year 6 in the core subjects of English, Mathematics and Science  Individual teacher assessment is used for foundation subjects, such as art and design, geography, history, design and technology, and computing  Pupils take GCSE exams at Key Stage 4 in Year 11, but may also choose to work towards the attainment of alternative qualifications, such as the National Vocational Qualifications and Business and Technology Education Council  Pupils take GCSEs examinations in the core English literature, English language, mathematics, science, and entitlement subjects from the arts, humanities, design and technology, and languages  The core subjects English, Mathematics and Science are compulsory for all pupils aged 5 to 16  A range of other subjects, known as foundation subjects, are compulsory in each Key Stage:

Art and design
Citizenship
Design and technology
Geography
History
Computing
Foreign languages
Music
Physical educationIn addition to the compulsory subjects, pupils at Key Stage 4 have a statutory entitlement to be able to study at least one subject from the arts (comprising art and design, music, photography, dance, drama and media arts), design and technology (comprising design and technology, electronics, engineering, food preparation and nutrition), the humanities (comprising geography and history), and modern foreign languages  Optional subjects include computer science, business studies, economics, astronomy, classical civilisation, film studies, geology, psychology, sociology, ancient languages, and ancient history The Department for Education has drawn up a list of preferred subjects known as the English Baccalaureate on the results in eight GCSEs including English, mathematics, the sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, computer science), history, geography, and an ancient or modern foreign language All schools are required to make provision for a daily act of collective worship and must teach religious education to pupils at every key stage and sex and relationships education to pupils in secondary education  Parents can withdraw their children for all or part of the lessons  Local councils are responsible for deciding the RE syllabus, but faith schools and academies can set their own  All schools should make provision for personal, social, health and economic education (PSHE)  Schools are also free to include other subjects or topics of their choice in planning and designing their own programme of education 

School years
Children are normally placed in year groups determined by the age they will attain at their birthday during the school year  In most cases progression from one year group to another is based purely on chronological age, although it is possible in some circumstances for a student to repeat or skip a year  Repetition may be due to a lack of attendance, for example from a long illness, and especially in Years requiring standard tests  A child significantly more advanced than their classmates may be forwarded one or more years 
State-funded nursery education is available from the age of 3, and may be full-time or part-time, though this is not compulsory  If registered with a state school, attendance is compulsory beginning with the term following the child's fifth birthday  Children can be enrolled in the reception year in September of that school year, thus beginning school at age 4 or 4 5  Unless the student chooses to stay within the education system, compulsory school attendance ends on the last Friday in June during the academic year in which a student attains the age of 16 In the vast majority of cases, pupils progress from primary to secondary levels at age 11; in some areas either or both of the primary and secondary levels are further subdivided  A few areas have three-tier education systems with an intermediate middle level from age 9 to 13  Years 12 and 13 are often referred to as "lower sixth form" and "upper sixth form" respectively, reflecting their distinct, voluntary nature as the A-level years  While most secondary schools enter their pupils for A-levels, some schools offer the International Baccalaureate or Cambridge Pre-U qualifications instead 

Scotland
Scotland has a very different educational system from England and Wales, though also based on comprehensive education  It has different ages of transfer, different examinations and a different philosophy of choice and provision  All publicly funded primary and secondary schools are comprehensive  The Scottish Government has rejected plans for specialist schools as of 2005 

Australia
When the first comprehensive schools appeared in the 1950s, the Australian Government started to transition to comprehensive schooling which has been expanding and improving ever since  Prior to the transition into comprehensive schooling systems, primary and secondary state schools regularly measured students' academic merit based on their performance in public examinations  The state of Western Australia was the first to replace selective school systems, then Queensland, and finally South Australia and Victoria The Australian education system is organised through three compulsory school types  Students commence their education in Primary school, which runs for seven or eight years, starting at kindergarten through to Year 6 or 7  The next is Secondary school which runs for three or four years, from Year 7 or 8 to Year 10  Finally, Senior Secondary school which runs for two years, completing Years 11 and 12  Each school tier follows a comprehensive curriculum that is categorised into sequences for each Year-level  The Year-level follows specific sequence content and achievement for each subject, which can be interrelated through cross-curricula  In order for students to complete and graduate each tier-level of schooling, they need to complete the subject sequences of content and achievement  Once students have completed Year 12, they may choose to enter into Tertiary education  The two-tier Tertiary education system in Australia includes both higher education (i e : university, college, other institutions) and vocational education and training (VET)  Higher education works off of the Australian Qualifications Framework and prepares Australians for an academic route that may take them into the theoretical and philosophical lenses of their career options 
Passage 3:
Elizabeth and After
Elizabeth and After is a novel by Matt Cohen, first published in 1999 by Knopf Canada  His final novel, it won the Governor General's Award for English-language fiction just a few weeks before Cohen's death 

Plot summary
The story is about the lives of a few people living in a small town north of Kingston, Ontario   Carl McKelvey, a "white trash male" as he describes himself, returns to the town after a three-year absence in the hope that he can live with his daughter again, and maybe even renew his relationship with his ex-wife, Chrissy   He carries deep in his heart his guilt of having driven his car into a tree, killing his mother, Elizabeth, many years earlier 
Elizabeth's sudden death ended not only an unhappy marriage she had with William McKelvey, a failed farmer, but also a secret relationship she had with Adam Goldsmith, Carl's real father   Elizabeth might have felt that the uncultured McKelvey ruined her life, or she might be too frightened to ruin her life herself by leaving him   In either case, her life has affected McKelvey, Adam and Carl so deeply that her influence is still felt eleven years later 
When Carl is attacked by Fred (Chrissy's boyfriend), Adam, even though reserved and gentle-natured, decides to do something for his son   Adam takes Fred in his car and drives him into the same tree that Elizabeth's car crashed into eleven years earlier   Both Adam and Fred are killed instantly   Carl learns about his relationship with Adam in a letter Adam left for him 

External links
Elizabeth and After weaves a twisted tale
Passage 4:
Matt Cohen (writer)
Matthew Cohen (30 December 1942 – 2 December 1999) was a Canadian writer who published both mainstream literature under his own name and children's literature under the pseudonym Teddy Jam 

History
Matt Cohen was born in Montreal, son of Morris Cohen and Beatrice Sohn, and was raised in Kingston and Ottawa  He studied political economy at the University of Toronto and taught political philosophy and religion at McMaster University in the late 1960s before publishing his first novel Korsoniloff in 1969 His fiction was translated into German, Dutch, French, Greek, Spanish and Portuguese   The Spanish Doctor, his biggest international success, continues to sell well in the French and Spanish markets 
His greatest critical success as a writer was his final novel Elizabeth and After which won the 1999 Governor General's Award for English-language Fiction only a few weeks before his death  He had been nominated twice previously, but had not won, in 1979 for The Sweet Second Summer of Kitty Malone and in 1997 for Last Seen 
A founding member of the Writers' Union of Canada, he served on the executive board for many years and as president in 1986  During his presidency, the Writer's Union was finally able to persuade the government of Canada to form a commission and establish a Public Lending Right program   He also served on the Toronto Arts Council as chair of the Literary Division and was able to obtain increased funding for writers  In recognition of this work, he was awarded a Toronto Arts Award and the Harbourfront Prize 
He also published a number of children's books under the pseudonym Teddy Jam  Cohen's authorship of the Teddy Jam books was not revealed until after his death  Dr  Kiss, illustrated by Joanne Fitzgerald won the Governor General's Award in 1991 and Fishing Summer was also nominated for a Governor General's Award for children's literature in 1997, making Cohen one of the few writers ever to be nominated for Governor General's Awards in two different categories in the same year 
He was married three times; first to Arden Ford, next to Susan Bricker and then to Patsy Aldana Cohen died at home in Toronto after a battle with lung cancer  His final book of short stories, Getting Lucky, and his final Teddy Jam title, The Kid's Line, were posthumously published in 2001  A Canadian literary award, the Matt Cohen Award, is presented in Cohen's memory by the Writers' Trust of Canada A film adaptation of his 1990 novel Emotional Arithmetic has been produced by Triptych films starring Max von Sydow, Christopher Plummer, Gabriel Byrne and Susan Sarandon  It was the closing gala at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival 

Bibliography
Years link to corresponding year in literature or, for poetry, to year in poetry 

Novels
Korsoniloff (1969)
Johnny Crackle Sings (1971)
The Disinherited (1974)
Wooden Hunters (1975)
The Colours of War (1977)
The Sweet Second Summer of Kitty Malone (1979)
Flowers of Darkness (1981)
The Spanish Doctor (1984)
Nadine (1987)
Emotional Arithmetic (1990)
Freud: The Paris Notebooks (1991)
The Bookseller (1993)
Last Seen (1997)
Elizabeth and After (1999)

Short stories
Columbus and the Fat Lady (1972)
Too Bad Galahad (1972)
Night Flights (1978)
The Leaves of Louise (1978)
The Expatriate (1982)
Café le Dog (1983)
Life on This Planet (1985)
Living on Water (1988)
Racial Memories (1990)
Lives of the Mind Slaves (1994)
Getting Lucky (2001)

Poetry
Peach Melba (1974)
In Search of Leonardo (1985)

Non-fiction
Typing: A Life in 26 Keys (2000)

Children's literature (as "Teddy Jam")
Night Cars (1987) illustrated by Eric Beddows
Doctor Kiss Says Yes (1991) illustrated by Joanne Fitzgerald
The Year of Fire (1993) illustrated by Ian Wallace
The Charlotte Stories (1994)
Jacob's Best Sisters (1996) illustrated by Joanne Fitzgerald
The Fishing Summer (1997) illustrated by Ange Zhang
This New Baby (1998)
The Stoneboat (1999) illustrated by Ange Zhang
ttuM (1999)
The Kid Line (2001) illustrated by Ange Zhang

See also
Canadian literature
Canadian poetry
List of Canadian poets
List of Canadian writers
Passage 5:
Algernon Methuen
Sir Algernon Marshall Stedman Methuen, Baronet (; 23 February 1856 – 20 September 1924) was an English publisher and a teacher of Classics and French   He is best known for founding the publishing company Methuen & Co 

Background and education
Methuen was born as Algernon Methuen Marshall Stedman in London, the third son of John Buck Stedman, FRCS, and Jane Elizabeth née Marshall  He was educated at Berkhamsted School and then Wadham College, Oxford, from which he graduated with an MA 

Career
After graduating from Oxford, Methuen entered teaching, and rose to become head of High Croft Preparatory School at Milford in Surrey from 1890 to 1895  While teaching he began, as a sideline, writing a number of school textbooks under the nom-de-plume A  W  S  Methuen, of which his series on French, Greek and Latin were best known  Among his works were books on gardening and current affairs  In June 1889, Methuen began to publish and market his own textbooks under the label Methuen & Co  (later Methuen Publishing Ltd )  Two months later he formally adopted Methuen as his surname  His first success at publishing came in 1892 with the publication of Rudyard Kipling's Barrack-Room Ballads  He later published works by Hilaire Belloc, Robert Louis Stevenson, and Oscar Wilde 
Methuen was an outspoken critic of the Boer War  He stood for Parliament as the Liberal party candidate for the seat of Guildford in the General Election of January 1910  The seat was a safe Conservative seat and he was unsuccessful  In 1916, he was created a baronet, of Haslemere in Surrey, and he later published his own memoir 

Personal life
Methuen married Emily Caroline Bedford in 1884  He died in September 1924, aged 68, when the baronetcy became extinct 
Passage 6:
Journal of Applied Philosophy
The Journal of Applied Philosophy is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Society for Applied Philosophy and edited by Elizabeth Brake (Rice University)  It covers a broad spectrum of issues in all areas of applied philosophy, including work on the environment, medicine, science, engineering, policy, law, politics, economics, and education 
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 1 018, ranking it 24th out of 51 journals in the category "Ethics" 

Journal for Applied Philosophy Annual Essay Prize
The Journal of Applied Philosophy awards an annual prize of £1,000 to the best article published in the year's volume 
2017: Natasha McKeever "Is the Requirement of Sexual Exclusivity Consistent with Romantic Love?"
2016: Federico Picinali "Base Rates of Negative Traits: Instructions for Use in Criminal Trials"
2015: Cheshire Calhoun "Geographies of Meaningful Living"
2014: Christopher Morgan-Knapp "Economic Envy"
2013: Daniel Friedrich "A Duty to Adopt"
2012: Avery Kolers "Floating Provisos and Sinking Islands"
2011: Jakob Elster "How Outlandish Can Imaginary Cases Be?"

Society for Applied Philosophy Annual Lectures
Each year since 2010, the Journal of Applied Philosophy has published the Annual Lecture hosted by the Society of Applied Philosophy [1]

2017: Philip Pettit presented the lecture, 'Three Mistakes about Doing Good (and Bad)'  Read the article here 
2016: Arthur Ripstein presented the lecture, 'Reclaiming Proportionality'  Read the article here 
2015: Shelley Kagan presented the lecture, 'What's Wrong with Speciesism?' 
2014: Julia Annas presented the lecture, 'Applying Virtue to Ethics'  Read the paper based on this talk here 
2013: Larry Temkin presented the lecture, 'Universal Healthcare in the Developing World: Solution or Siren? Some Preliminary Thoughts'  Read the paper based on this lecture here 
2012: Joseph Raz presented the lecture 'Death in Our Life'  The paper based on this lecture can be read here 
2011: Amartya Sen presented the lecture 'The Global Reach of Human Rights'  The paper based on this talk can be read here 
2010: Philip Kitcher presented the lecture 'Militant Modern Atheism'  The paper based on this talk can be found here 

See also
List of ethics journals
Passage 7:
The Landlord's Game
The Landlord's Game is a board game patented in 1904 by Elizabeth Magie as U S  Patent 748,626  It is a realty and taxation game intended to educate users about Georgism  It is the inspiration for the 1935 board game Monopoly 

History
In 1902 to 1903, Magie designed the game and play tested it in Arden, Delaware  The game was created to be a "practical demonstration of the present system of land grabbing with all its usual outcomes and consequences"  She based the game on the economic principles of Georgism, a system proposed by Henry George, with the object of demonstrating how rents enrich property owners and impoverish tenants  She knew that some people could find it hard to understand why this happened and what might be done about it, and she thought that if Georgist ideas were put into the concrete form of a game, they might be easier to demonstrate  Magie also hoped that when played by children the game would provoke their natural suspicion of unfairness, and that they might carry this awareness into adulthood The Landlord's Game has some similarities to the basic rules of the board game Zohn Ahl, played by the Kiowa Indians of North America  There are hints that suggest Elizabeth Magie might have known Zohn Ahl and incorporated some of the game's ideas 
In 1903, Magie filed for a patent on the game which was granted in 1904   Magie and fellow Georgists formed a company, Economic Game Company, in 1906 New York to publish the game  Besides Magie, the incorporators were E  H  Monroe of Chicago and E  G  Lenbusher of New York  Magie approached Parker Brothers to publish this and one other game in 1909  The other game was accepted while Landlord's was rejected as too complicated In the United Kingdom The Landlord's Game was first published in 1913 by the Newbie Game Company, formed by a Liberal Committee from the village of Newbie in Dumfries, under the title Brer Fox an' Brer Rabbit; although, despite the title change, it was recognizably the same game  Landlord sold well in the Northeast amongst its left-wing intellectuals, while Brer was unsuccessful Scott Nearing, socialist professor of economics at Wharton School of Finance from 1906 to 1915, lived in Arden in 1910, where Magie invented the game, learned about the game and taught it to his students  College students made up their own boards to use with her rules  Various versions of the game popped up over the following years under a variety of names, Monopoly, Finance, and Auction being among them  Among the Atlantic City and Philadelphia communities of Quakers, the game was particularly popular with college students and economics professors  Jesse and Eugene Raiford, Quakers in Atlantic City, used household items instead of pawns and changed the properties to those of Atlantic City With Magie's first patent having expired, in 1923, Magie decided to attempt to regain control by applying for another patent  On September 23, 1924, a second patent was issued to Magie for The Landlord's Game  Adgame Company (Inc ) published Landlord's Game and Prosperity under this patent in 1932 Robert Baron had Parker Brothers design its own version, Fortune, before negotiation to purchase her patents in case the discussion fell apart or she sold to another potential buyer, Dave Knapp, publisher of Finance  Magie held the patent until 1935, when she sold it to Parker Brothers for $500, equivalent to $10,672 in 2022  The company had recently started distributing Monopoly, which it purchased from Charles Darrow who claimed to have invented it   The company only printed a very small run of the game to secure the copyright  Surviving copies of The Landlord's Game by Parker Brothers are considered by many the rarest of all 20th century board games  Parker Brothers pushed her game aside for Darrow's by 1936  Magie then did two interviews showcasing copies of the original board with The Washington Post and The Evening Star to show that Darrow was not the inventor of the game In 1937, Carnival was published based on the 1904 version  Parker Brothers published their edition of the game in 1939 In a 2004 episode of PBS' History Detectives (title: "Monopoly; Japanese Internment Camp Artwork; The Lewis and Clark Cane"), the show investigated a game board belonging to a Delaware man, having an intermediate version of a game combining elements of The Landlord's Game and Monopoly  The investigators concluded that this game board was the missing link that proves that Monopoly was derived from The Landlord's Game 

Description
The set had rules for two different games, anti-monopolist and  Monopolist  The anti-monopolist rules reward all players during wealth creation, whereas the monopolist rules incentivize forming monopolies and forcing opponents out of the game  In the anti-monopolist or Single Tax version (later called "Prosperity"), the game is won when the player with the least money doubles their original stake The board featured a track around the outside edge of the board split into blocks representing properties and had their purchase price, and their rental value listed in the block  New York City's Broadway, Fifth Avenue, and Wall Street were the top properties in price and rent  The published game included Chance cards with quotes attributed to Thomas Jefferson, John Ruskin and Andrew Carnegie From the 1904 patented version to the published 1906 version, the property names were changed and the rule for increased rent for multiple railroads owned was added 

Patents
The game's first patent was the first issued for a game while claiming four features in the application, the most important feature was a continuous path game  At the time, most games had a start and end spot  With the first patent having expired in 1921, Magie applied for another patent with five new claims 
The claims of Magie's second patent could not include those of the first (now in the public domain) and leaned more towards the single tax theory of play  One common misconception is that Parker Brothers acquired the rights to Magie's original invention of Monopoly play and the unique design by purchasing the later 1924 patent  Parker Brothers acquired Magie's patent to The Landlord's Game but although both patents had the same name they covered different claims  The substitution or confusion of the early patent for the latter is still commonplace 

See also
Ralph Anspach's Anti-Monopoly
Bertell Ollman's Class Struggle
Passage 8:
Nicholas Eftimiades
Nicholas Eftimiades is an American government official, author, and educator best known for his work Chinese Intelligence Operations (1994)  He currently resides in the Tokyo area  He is a current professor at Penn State Harrisburg 

Education
Eftimiades graduated from George Washington University with a B A  in East Asian Studies and the National Defense Intelligence College with a M S  in Strategic Intelligence   He also did undergraduate and graduate work in Asia   He is a Visiting Research Fellow at King's College, War Studies Department, London, United Kingdom 

Government career
Nicholas Eftimiades' 30 year government career includes seven years at the National Security Space Office leading engineering teams designing "generation after next" national security space capabilities  He was also Senior Technical Officer in the Defense Intelligence Agency, Future's Division, and Chief of DIA's Space Division  He served as DIA's lead for national space policy and strategy development Mr  Eftimiades has provided numerous briefings and testimony on national security, technology, and space exploration issues to senior policy officials and the U S  Congress  He testified before the President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy   He has sponsored and chaired international conferences on U S  and foreign defense policy issues   He is a frequent lecturer and public speaker on future technology and societal changes and national security issues 

Chinese Intelligence Operations
Eftimiades first came into public view in 1994 with the publication of his book Chinese Intelligence Operations (Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland , March 1994)  The book is an examination of the structure, operations, and methodology of the intelligence services of the People's Republic of China  The book received worldwide recognition with the Chinese government declaring Eftimiades "an enemy of the people" in the People's Daily newspaper  To date, the book remains the only scholarly analysis of China's intelligence services and operational methodology Chinese Intelligence Operations gained worldwide attention when one of the Chinese companies identified as having a relationship with China's intelligence services was identified as a donor to the Bill Clinton presidential campaign through the Democratic National Committee  This revelation resulted in Eftimiades appearing on TV, radio, and being quoted in newspapers   He appeared on CBS Evening News with Connie Chung, Dateline NBC, ABC's Day One, BBC America, National Public Radio and many other television and radio broadcasts    Some organizations protested the CBS news broadcast as being racist  Eftimiades testified before the U S  Congress on several occasions 

Science Fiction
Eftimiades' most recent work is a political and philosophical satire entitled Edward of Planet Earth   The book is influenced by authors such as Alexander Zinoviev and Ignazio Silone—names not normally associated with science fiction   The story takes place 200 years in the future and centers on a man, his computer friends, a female companion and their quest to communicate with God 

Non-Profit Activity
In 2001, Eftimiades founded a non-profit educational organization entitled the Federation of Galaxy Explorers to inspire youth interest in science and engineering   Students in the Galaxy Explorers program attend after school "Mission Team" meetings where they participate in hands-on lessons that support National Science Education Standards  Mission Team members are rewarded for participation and achievements with ribbons, patches, medals, and certificates   In addition to Mission Teams, Galaxy Explorers also have Summer Camps, Star Parities, and the Battle of the Rockets Competition 
Passage 9:
Stephen Henry Parker
Sir Stephen Henry Parker  (7 November 1846 – 13 December 1927) was a lawyer and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Western Australia from 1906 to 1914 

Biography
Early life
Stephen Henry Parker was the second son of Stephen Stanley Parker (1817–1904) and his wife Elizabeth, née Sewell  He was the grandson of Stephen Parker (c  1795 – 1879), a pioneer settler in York, Western Australia  Parker was educated at the Bishop's School, Perth, and was called to the bar in 1868 

Career
He became a member of the Western Australian Legislative Council and advocated responsible government for the colony  In 1878 he moved for the introduction of a bill to amend the constitution, but this motion was defeated  A constitution bill for responsible government was passed by the Legislative Council on 26 April 1889, but was met with some opposition in the British House of Commons  It was suggested and agreed that a delegation consisting of the retiring governor, Sir Frederick Broome, Sir Thomas Cockburn-Campbell and Parker should go to London to see the bill through the British parliament  The delegation was able to give a good answer to all objections raised, and subsequently the bill was passed and became law 
He served as colonial secretary in the John Forrest ministry from October 1892 to December 1894 when he retired  He was also chairman of the Perth City Council from November 1877 to 1879, for a few months in 1880-81 and Mayor from February to October 1892  In 1881, he joined with his brother George to form the well known law firm Parker and Parker (which in 1997 merged with the Perth office of Freehill Hollingdale & Page) 

Personal life and death
He married Amey Katharine Leake, daughter of George Walpole Leake on 27 July 1872   She died in 1914   They had four sons and seven daughters who reached adulthood  Their second son Hubert Stanley Wyborn Parker (1883-1966) was the member of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly for North-East Fremantle in 1930-33, and of the Western Australian Legislative Council for Metropolitan-Suburban province in 1934-54  He was attorney-general for two months in 1933 and chief secretary in 1948-50 
Parker, and his brother George, were heavily involved with the East Perth (now known as Perth) Cricket Club in the W A C A  Competition  He was club President from 1899 to 1903 
He died on 13 December 1927 

See also
Judiciary of Australia
Passage 10:
Elizabeth Blanchard (educator)
Elizabeth Blanchard (1834–1891) was an American educator who was the seventh president of Mount Holyoke College (as Principal and Acting President) 
Blanchard graduated from Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in 1858, and taught there for twelve years before becoming the Associate Principal from 1872-1883   She served as Principal from 1883-1888   When Mount Holyoke Female Seminary received its collegiate charter and became Mount Holyoke College, she served as Acting President from 1888-1889 

See also
Presidents of Mount Holyoke College
Passage 11:
Elizabeth Gertrude Britton
Elizabeth Gertrude Britton (née Knight) (January 9, 1858 – February 25, 1934) was an American botanist, bryologist, and educator  She and her husband, Nathaniel Lord Britton played a significant role in the fundraising and creation of the New York Botanical Garden  She was a co-founder of the predecessor of the American Bryological and Lichenological Society  She was an activist for the protection of wildflowers, inspiring local chapter activities and the passage of legislation  Elizabeth Britton made major contributions to the literature of mosses, publishing 170 papers in that field 

Early life and family
Elizabeth Gertrude Knight was born on January 9, 1858, in New York City, one of five daughters, to James and Sophie Anne (née Compton) Knight  Her family operated a furniture factory and sugar plantation in the vicinity of Matanzas, Cuba, and she spent much of her childhood there  In later childhood, she attended a private school in New York before attending Normal College (later, Hunter College)  She graduated from Normal College in 1875, at the early age of seventeen  On August 27, 1885, she married Nathaniel Lord Britton, an assistant in geology at Columbia College who shared her growing interest in botany  The couple had no children 

Career
After graduation in 1875, Elizabeth Knight joined the staff of Normal College as a critic teacher  She joined the Torrey Botanical Club in 1879, and in 1881 she published her first scientific paper in that organization's Bulletin, reporting observations of unexpected white flowers in two species of plants  She also observed the presence of a curlygrass fern, Schizaea pusilla, in Nova Scotia  In 1883, she became a tutor in natural science  It was at this time that she began to specialize in bryology and her first paper concerning mosses appeared  Britton collected fertile specimens of Eustichium norvegicum in Wisconsin and wrote the first description of its fruits  Although known since 1827, the plant had hitherto been known only in a sterile condition  Her Observer articles were models of popular scientific writings on plants which had “fanciful” titles like “The Humpbacked Elves” and “The Brownies ”After her marriage in 1885, Britton resigned her teaching position at Normal College, and took charge of the moss collections at Columbia in an unofficial, unpaid capacity  She served as editor of the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club from 1886 to 1888; in 1889, she published the first of an eleven-part series of papers titled Contributions to American Bryology in that journal  Her catalogue of the mosses of West Virginia appeared in 1892, and the first of eight articles titled How to Study the Mosses for a popular magazine was published in 1894  These papers "sufficed to place Mrs  Britton in command of the bryological field in America " She worked with her husband to acquire for Columbia the moss herbarium of August Jaeger of Switzerland; Britton persuaded wealthy friends to contribute the necessary $6,000 
Britton, along with her husband, was one of the Torrey Botanical Club members who spurred the establishment of the New York Botanical Garden (NYBG)  The couple also travelled to England in 1888 where Nathaniel was performing research at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew  At Kew Nathaniel worked on the Bolivian botanical collections of Henry Hurd Rusby, a gift to Columbia; meanwhile, Elizabeth worked on mosses at the Linnean Society of London  Inspired by the quality and quantity of Kew's herbarium, library, and gardens, the couple set about organizing an institution of comparable stature for New York  A Club meeting was held in October, 1888 where rich and prominent citizens were recruited as incorporators  The Botanical Garden was established by act of the state legislature in 1891  Britton was important in the efforts to raise funds for the organization in the 1890s  Her husband became the first director of the Botanical Garden in 1896, whilst she volunteered there  It was largely through her interest that the collection of liverworts and mosses of William Mitten was acquired for the NYBG in 1906  In recognition of her service, Britton was named Honorary Curator of the Mosses in 1912, a post which she held until her death Britton enumerated the ferns in the Rusby collection in 1888 and she published her examination of the Rusby mosses in 1896 

Britton travelled to various locations in the United States to collect botanical specimens, including the Great Dismal Swamp, the Adirondack Mountains, and the mountains of North Carolina  She accompanied Nathaniel on 23 of the 25 trips he made to the islands of the Caribbean and West Indies  Under her own name, she published her findings in the Bulletin in 1913–1915  Britton wrote the chapters concerning mosses for Nathaniel's Flora of Bermuda and The Bahama Flora Britton worked with organizations to promote the study of mosses, especially by women scientists and she chaired the division of Bryophyta for the (Women's) National Science Club (NWSC) in 1897 As part of her unofficial position at Columbia, Britton acted as advisor to doctoral students, including James Franklin Collins and Abel Joel Grout  Together, in 1898 Grout and Britton founded the Sullivant Moss Chapter of the Agassiz Association  By 1908, it was known as the Sullivant Moss Society (and after 1949, as the American Bryological and Lichenological Society)  Although relations between the two researchers later became chilly, Britton continued to participate in the Society, contributing articles to The Bryologist, its journal, and serving as its president from 1916 to 1919 Britton continued to study plants other than mosses  She published A Revision of the North American Species of Ophioglossum, the adder's-tongue ferns, in 1897  With Delia West Marble, she collected the type specimen of Thelypteris brittonae, a species of maiden fern, in 1906  Britton collected the type specimen for the orchid now named Britton's shadow witch (Ponthieva brittoniae) 

In the first decade of the 20th century, Britton began to devote her time to the conservation of wildflowers  A gift of $3,000 by Olivia and Caroline Phelps Stokes to the NYBG spurred the creation of the Wild Flower Preservation Society of America  The first meeting was held on April 23, 1902 where Frederick Vernon Coville was elected president, Charles Louis Pollard was elected secretary, and Britton was elected to the Board of Managers  Other members of the board included Charles Edwin Bessey, Liberty Hyde Bailey, William Trelease, Charles Frederick Millspaugh and Alice Eastwood  Britton went on to serve as secretary and treasurer of the organization  The Society established numerous local chapters  It was incorporated in the state of New York in 1915, then reorganized as the Wild Flower Preservation Society in 1925, with Percy L  Ricker as its head  Britton promoted the cause for nearly 35 years, by publishing, lecturing, and conducting correspondence; her efforts led to adoption of legislation in various states, as well as local conservation activities in garden clubs and public schools  She published fourteen articles in the NYBG's Journal under the series title of Wild Plants Needing Protection 
In 1925, as chair of the conservation committee of the Federated Garden Clubs of New York State, Britton successfully led a boycott campaign against the common practice of harvesting wild American holly for use as a Christmas decoration  As a substitute, she promoted the propagation of the plant by cuttings for commercial use 
All told, during the period 1881 to 1930, Britton published 346 papers, of which 170 dealt with mosses  She wrote descriptions of six families of mosses for the New York Botanical Garden's Flora of America  Marshall Avery Howe described Britton as "a woman of extraordinary physical and mental energy—the possessor of a remarkably quick and brilliant intellect  She has left an enduring record in the literature of science, and her well-directed activities have had an outstanding influence in the conservation of the native flora of the United States "

Wild Plants Needing Protection
Wild Plants Needing Protection, written by Britton, is a New York Botanical Garden journal comprising fourteen articles  In the journal, she gives an in depth description of different wild plants and their importance to their environment  Each plant section included an illustration of the plant described, while also giving descriptions of both the scientific and historical background of the plants  This is shown in Britton’s journal of “Spring Beauty”: 

“The Spring Beauty was named by Linnaeus in 1753 in honor of John Clayton, an American botanist, and correspondent, who wrote, in 1743, a flora of Virginia " Britton then goes over how there are about twenty-five species of Claytonia plants  Her Journal entry of “Wild Pink” is an example of her descriptions which is conveyed within the writing when she states:“before the trees cast much shade, while their greens are still so exquisitely fresh and varied, a bright flash of color will attract the eye to the Wild Pink, growing in hilly places on rocks or often in their cracks and crevices with the Saxifrage "

Recognition and legacy
In 1893, Britton was the only woman among the 25 scientists nominated for charter membership in the Botanical Society of America  In 1905, she was one of three bryologists appointed to the nomenclature committee that would report to the 1910 meeting of the International Botanical Congress in Brussels  In 1906, Britton was one of only nineteen women listed in the first edition of American Men of Science  Her entry was marked with an asterisk: this "starred" listing was limited to the top 1,000 scientists in the book, as determined by the editors  Britton was starred in the five editions of the book that appeared through 1933 The moss genus Bryobrittonia is named for Elizabeth Britton, as well as fifteen species of plants and one of animals Mount Britton, a double peak in El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico, honors both of the Brittons In 1940, a memorial plaque in honor of Britton was installed in the new Wild Flower Garden of the New York Botanical Garden  A gift of the New York Bird and Tree Club, it is mounted on a ten-ton boulder of Bronx schist, and its text reads, "Let those who find pleasure in this garden remember Elizabeth Gertrude Knight Britton, lover of wildflowers and ardent advocate of their protection"  The garden is now known as the Native Plant Garden, and the boulder as Britton Rock Today, the Elizabeth Gertrude Knight Britton archive is held by the NYBG Mertz Library  It includes personal papers, manuscripts and published research, artwork and photographs, and printing plates  The archive documents Britton's teaching career at Normal College, as well as her participation in the Torrey Botanical Club and the NYBG  Her field notebooks can be found in the New York Botanical Garden Collectors' Field Notebook collection The character of Alma Whittaker in the 2013 novel The Signature of All Things, by Elizabeth Gilbert, is modeled in part on Britton 

Later life and death
Elizabeth Britton died at her home at 2965 Decatur Avenue in The Bronx on February 25, 1934, following an apoplectic stroke; her husband Nathaniel survived her by four months  Although she was nominally a member of the Episcopalian faith, she was buried in the Moravian Cemetery on Staten Island, where her husband's ancestors had been early settlers and he held property 

Selected publications
See also
The Britton Cottage
Timeline of women in science
Passage 12:
Mary Gaunt
Mary Eliza Bakewell Gaunt (20 February 1861 – 19 January 1942) was an Australian novelist and writer  born in Chiltern, Victoria  She also wrote collections of short stories, novellas, autobiographies, and non-fiction  She published her first novel Dave's Sweetheart in 1894  Gaunt visited many countries in her life and she wrote about her experiences in five travel books 

Early life and education
Mary was the elder daughter of William Henry Gaunt, a Victorian county court judge and Elizabeth Gaunt, née Palmer (c  1835–1922), and was born in Chiltern, Victoria  She was educated at Grenville College, Ballarat and the University of Melbourne, being one of the first two women students to be admitted there 

Career
She began writing for the press and in 1894 published her first novel Dave's Sweetheart  In the same year she married Dr Hubert Lindsay Miller (a widower) of Warrnambool, Victoria  He died in 1900, and, with only a small income, Gaunt (now also known as Mrs Mary Miller) went to London intending to earn a living by her writing  Gaunt left Melbourne on 15 March 1901 and never returned 
Gaunt had difficulties at first but eventually established herself, and was able to travel in the West Indies, in West Africa, and in China and other parts of the East  Her experiences were recorded in five pleasantly written travel books: Alone in West Africa (1912), A Woman in China (1914), A Broken Journey (1919), Where the Twain Meet (1922), Reflection - in Jamaica (1932)  In 1929 she also published George Washington and the Men Who Made the American Revolution  Between 1895 and 1934, 16 novels or collections of short stories were published, mostly with love and adventure interests  Three other novels were written in collaboration with John Ridgwell Essex  A collection of interviews with Mary were published in the 1925 Girls' Own Annual under the headings "Pioneering for Women" parts I, II, and III, and "Strange Journeys I Have Made" 
From the early 1920s, Gaunt lived mostly at Bordighera, Italy  In 1940 she fled Italy and died at Cannes in 1942  She had no children 
She had a sister Lucy, and brothers Cecil, Clive, Guy and Ernest; Guy and Ernest were both admirals of the Royal Navy, and Guy later became a Conservative Member of Parliament 

Bibliography
Novels
Dave's Sweetheart (1894)
Kirkham's Find (1897)
Deadman's: An Australian Story (1898)
Mistress Betty Carew (1903)
The Arm of the Leopard: A West African Story (1904) [with John Ridgwell Essex]
Fools Rush In (1906) [with John Ridgwell Essex]
The Silent Ones (1909) [with John Ridgwell Essex]
The Mummy Moves (1910)
The Uncounted Cost (1910)
Every Man's Desire (1913)
A Wind from the Wilderness (1919)
As the Whirlwind Passeth (1923)
The Forbidden Town (1926)
Saul's Daughter (1927)
The Lawless Frontier (1929)
Joan of the Pilchard (1930)
Harmony: A Tale of the Old Slave Days of Jamaica (1933)
Worlds Away (1934)

Novellas
Bingley's Gap (1888)
Down in the World (1893)
The Other Man (1894)

Short story collections
The Moving Finger (1895)
The Ends of the Earth : Stories (1915)
The Surrender and Other Happenings (1920)
Life at Deadman's : Stories of Colonial Victoria (2001)

Autobiography
Alone in West Africa (1912)
A Woman in China (1914)
A Broken Journey: Wanderings from the Hoang-Ho to Saghalien (1919)

Non-fiction
Where the Twain Meet (1922) - travel
Peeps at Great Men : George Washington and the Men Who Made the American Revolution (1929) - children's
Reflection in Jamaica (1932) - travel

Notes and references
Sources
E  Archer, 'Gaunt, Mary Eliza Bakewell (1861 - 1942)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 8, MUP, 1981, pp 632–633  Retrieved 30 October 2008
Serle, Percival (1949)  "Gaunt, Mary"  Dictionary of Australian Biography  Sydney: Angus & Robertson  Retrieved 30 October 2008 
Auslit Gaunt, Mary  (birth name: Gaunt, Mary Eliza Bakewell ) (a k a  Miller, Mary )

External links

Works by Mary Gaunt at Project Gutenberg
Works by Mary Gaunt at Project Gutenberg Australia
Works by or about Mary Gaunt at Internet Archive
Passage 13:
Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades
Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades, also referred to as PSAT, is a government institution of technical vocational education and training higher learning located in Alvear Street, Lingayen, Pangasinan, Philippines  PSAT is duly registered by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority  All PSAT programs are accredited by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) 
History: 
Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades (PSAT) is an outgrowth of the intermediate school organized by American Roy E  Blackman in 1904   It served as a normal training department for teachers who intended to teach shopwork in the different municipalities of Pangasinan   Through the late Provincial Governor, Hon  Isabelo Artacho, the Pangasinan Trade School building was constructed in its present site in 1907 
Mr  Jorge Garcia was the first Filipino principal and was succeeded by Martin Mendoza   It was during the incumbency of Mr  Mendoza in 1923 that the first year high school level of the trade school was introduced 
In 1920 the first batch of students of the four-year trade curriculum graduated   The shop courses offered then were Woodworking, Building Construction and Automotive 
In 1929 – 1930, the Pangasinan Vocational High School emerged as an offshoot of the merger of Home Economics Education, Normal Training Department and Trade Courses Program 
In 1935 – 1936, the Pangasinan High School and the Pangasinan Vocational High School were fused into one high school known as the Pangasinan Secondary School 
In 1939 – 1940, the Pangasinan Vocational High School became known as Pangasinan Trade School, an entirely separate entity from the Pangasinan High School of which it has earlier been a part 
On August 15, 1945, the Pangasinan Trade School was temporarily opened at Dagupan City due to the construction of the buildings in Lingayen 
On March 14, 1953, by virtue of Republic Act 704, the Pangasinan Trade School was converted into a National School of Arts and Trades and named as Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades (PSAT) whose curricular offerings were expanded to include Master of Arts in Vocational Technical Education, major in Practical Arts   This gave PSAT the distinction of being the only vocational school offering graduate studies, in Region I 
In 1987, the offering of post-secondary technical-vocational education was retrieved from the Pangasinan State University which brought with it all post-secondary courses upon its conversion as a state university in 1978 and only the secondary courses were left with PSAT 
In 1990, PSAT  was elevated as a Higher Technical Education institution by virtue of Republic Act 7078 
In 1995, PSAT was transferred t the administrative supervision of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) by virtue o Republic Act 7845  It was, however, only in 1997 that PSAT became a full-fledged CSI (CHED-Supervised Institution) 
On April 25, 2000, by virtue of CHED-TESDA Memorandum of Agreement, PSAT was transferred to the administrative supervision of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) 
On May 10, 2000 the Joint CHED-TESDA Memorandum Circular  No  1, s  2000, the Implementing Guidelines on the Transfer of CHED-Supervised Institutions (CSIs) to Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) was issued  Dr  Geronimo S  dela Cruz, Sr  was the first Vocational School Superintendent of PSAT under TESDA supervision 
On April 1, 2001, Dr  Lina C  Alcantara took over as the Officer-In-Charge   It was during her term when eleven (11) of the school offerings were registered under UTPRAS   Three courses (Garments, Computer Technician and Hotel and Restaurant Technology) were registered WTR and seven (7) courses were registered NTR 
On August 3, 2005, Manuel A  Jaramilla, Ph  D  assumed the position of Officer-In-Charge   It was during his term when Short-term courses were first offered which eventually boomed    It was also during his term when 16 courses were registered under WTR status in June, 2007   Technology Trainers were also granted Trainers’ Qualification I (TQ I) in support of the Competency Based Training Delivery 
On June 1, 2008, Clemencia T  Ibarra, CSEE and Civil Service Commission Local Scholarship Program – Masteral Degree Program and University of the Philippines Scholarship recipient assumed her post as Vocational School Superintendent I 
Her leadership and administration shall anchor in the full implementation of Competency Based Training Delivery, registration of short-term courses under WTR Status, institutional application and accreditation by Asia Pacific Accreditation and Certification Commission (APACC), improvement of school facilities, Instructional and Administrative Staff Development and Welfare Benefit Program, efficiency and transparency on school’s communication, financial, administrative, and supplies management, systems and processes, and institutionalization of income generating project 

Program Offerings
Junior & Senior High School
Automotive Servicing NC II
Bread and Pastry Production NC II
Commercial Cooking NC II
Computer Hardware Servicing NC II
Consumer Electronics Servicing NC II
Dressmaking NC II
Electrical Installation and Maintenance NC II
Food and Beverage Services NC II
Front Office Services NC II
Hairdressing NC II
Housekeeping NC II
Shielded Metal Arc Welding NC II
Trainer's Methodology Level I

External links
TESDA Accredited Assessment Centers – Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades
Passage 14:
Arthur Kroker
Arthur Kroker (born 1945) is a Canadian author, editor, educator and researcher of political science, technology and culture 

Life and career
He earned a PhD in political science from McMaster University in 1975  In addition to being a professor of political science at the University of Victoria, Kroker serves as director of the Pacific Centre for Technology and Culture (PACTAC), located at the university  Kroker was appointed to the Canada Research Chair in technology, culture and theory in 2003  He is the editor for the online academic journal CTheory, an international journal of theory, technology and culture 
Kroker has been an outspoken critic of the transformation of the early internet into a consumer-driven system ("virtual class")  Austrian magazine Monochrom interviewed him about his political motivations in 1996 He was married to Marilouise Kroker from 1971 until her death in 2018 

Bibliography
Books
Technology and the Canadian Mind: Innis, McLuhan, Grant (1984)
The Postmodern Scene: Excremental Culture and Hyper-Aesthetics (1987) (with David Cook)
Panic Encyclopedia: The Definitive Guide to the Postmodern Scene (1989) (with David Cook and Marilouise Kroker)
The Possessed Individual: Technology and the French Postmodern (1992)
SPASM: Virtual Reality, Android Music, and Electric Flesh (1993)
Data Trash: Theory of the Virtual Class (1994) (with Michael A  Weinstein)
Hacking the Future (1996) (with Marilouise Kroker)
The Will to Technology and the Culture of Nihilism: Heidegger, Nietzsche and Marx (2004)
Body Drift: Butler, Hayles, Haraway (2012)
Exits to the Posthuman Future (2014)
Technologies of the New Real: Viral Contagion and Death of the Social (2021) (with Marilouise Kroker)

As editor
Body Invaders: Panic Sex in America (1987) (with Marilouise Kroker)
The Hysterical Male: New Feminist Theory (1991) (with Marilouise Kroker)
The Last Sex: Feminism and Outlaw Bodies (1993) (with Marilouise Kroker)
Digital Delirium (1997) (with Marilouise Kroker)
Life in the Wires: The CTheory Reader (2004) (with Marilouise Kroker)
Critical Digital Studies: A Reader (2008) (with Marilouise Kroker)
Passage 15:
Poptropica
Poptropica is an online role-playing game, developed in 2007 by Pearson Education's Family Education Network, and targeted towards children aged 6 to 15  Poptropica was primarily the creation of Jeff Kinney, the author of the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series  As of 2015, he remains at the company as the Creative Director  The game primarily focuses on problem-solving through game quest scenarios, called "islands"  Islands all center on a problem that the player must resolve by going through multiple obstacles, collecting and using items, talking to various characters, and completing goals  All islands, upon completion, award "credits," which are non-negotiable currency that may be used to buy costumes and special effects in the Poptropica store 
In 2011, Poptropica was listed on Time magazine's list of "50 Websites that Make the Web Great", where it was described as "an inventive megasite for kids with a wholesome and slightly educational bent"  By 2012, the game had grown to have over 75 million registered users, with 35 million in the 15-25 age group  Versions of the game have been released on Nintendo DS and 3DS, iOS, and Android mobile devices  In May 2015, it was announced that Family Education Network was sold by Pearson to the interactive-education venture capitalist Sandbox Networks, and that Poptropica had "over 3 2 million monthly unique users in 200 countries and territories" In 2015, Poptropica was sold to educational-technology investment group, Sandbox Partners In 2020, because of the discontinuation of Adobe Flash, Poptropica began porting their old islands that were built on Adobe Flash over to an HTML5 format  As a result of Poptropica's utilization of varying Flash engines, a number of islands were unable to be ported immediately, and were effectively removed from the game  Fan archivists later made 35 islands available once again via the Basilisk browser within the Flashpoint program In April 2022, Poptropica announced that some of the old islands would return as part of a bundle on Steam  Though delayed by a day, the game was eventually released on May 26, 2022, and includes seventeen islands and Poptropica Realms 

Gameplay
When it first launched in 2007, Poptropica only had one island, titled Early Poptropica Island  By 2017, it had 58 islands to be explored, all with a different theme: examples include Back Lot Island, where the player helps produce a movie, and Super Power Island, where their goal is to defeat six super villains  Each island had its own quest, for which a player could receive an island medallion as well as 150 credits to spend in the in-game Poptropica Store  Starting July 6, 2011, Poptropica allowed players to replay islands without creating a new account, while still keeping track of all the Medallions the player had earned 

Advertisements
In addition to the available island quests, advertisers contract for temporary mini-games that appear on the site, sometimes targeted to players of a certain age group or gender  Regular advertisers have included Disney, Kellogg's Froot Loops, Lego toys, and various animated movies and DVD releases  Advertisement mini-games normally appear only during a two-week period  If the player completes an advertisement mini-game, they receive a temporary prize, usually related to the media being advertised 
A few Poptropica islands are themed after certain book series: these include Big Nate, Timmy Failure, Diary of a Wimpy Kid, and Magic Tree House  These islands are permanent, and can be played at any time  In 2015, a total of seven of these islands became members-only 

Mini-games
Poptropica features different mini-games that users can play with other people  These include Switch, Sudoku, Hoops, Sky Dive, Paint War, Star Link, Balloons, Soupwords and Pathwise  The game keeps track of how many times the player wins or loses a certain mini-game 

Spin-offs
Poptropica Adventures
In 2012, in partnership with Ubisoft, Poptropica released a video game for the Nintendo DS, titled Poptropica Adventures 

Poptropica: Forgotten Islands
On September 5, 2013, Poptropica launched Poptropica: Forgotten Islands, an iOS game, which allows players to meet new characters and discover story elements about Poptropica by finding artifacts littered throughout the game  It was also released on the Nintendo 3DS system through Ubisoft in 2014  It has been replaced on iOS and Android with a mobile version of the desktop Poptropica game 

Poptropica Worlds
On January 11, 2017, Poptropica announced via their blog that they were introducing another game called Poptropica Worlds, developed in Unity  It was released in spring 2017  Poptropica Worlds has new features, such as redesigned characters, customizable homes, and new islands  Returning players are able to port over their avatar's look and name to Poptropica Worlds  Poptropica Worlds can be played on both the web and mobile  If membership was bought for Poptropica, it carries over to Poptropica Worlds, and vice versa 



ground_truth: University of Toronto

UT

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the oldest college in the state that contains Borough House Plantation?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  At the airport, where official records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F (41 °C) on August 1, 1999, down to 6 °F (−14 °C) on January 21, 1985  Hurricanes are a major threat to the area during the summer and early fall, with several severe hurricanes hitting the area—most notably Hurricane Hugo on September 21, 1989 (a category 4 storm)  The dewpoint from June to August ranges from 67 8 to 71 4 °F (19 9 to 21 9 °C) 

Metropolitan Statistical Area
As defined by the U S  Office of Management and Budget, for use by the U S  Census Bureau and other U S  Government agencies for statistical purposes only, Charleston is included within the Charleston–North Charleston, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area and the smaller Charleston-North Charleston urban area  The Charleston–North Charleston metropolitan area consists of three counties: Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester  As of the 2020 U S  Census, the metropolitan statistical area had a total population of 799,636 people  North Charleston is the second-largest city in the metro area and ranks as the third-largest city in the state; Mount Pleasant and Summerville are the next-largest cities  These cities combined with other incorporated and unincorporated areas along with the city of Charleston form the Charleston–North Charleston urban area with a population of 548,404 as of 2010  The metropolitan statistical area also includes a separate and much smaller urban area within Berkeley County, Moncks Corner (with a 2000 population of 9,123) 
The traditional parish system persisted until the Reconstruction Era, when counties were imposed  Nevertheless, traditional parishes still exist in various capacities, mainly as public service districts  When the city of Charleston was formed, it was defined by the limits of the Parish of St  Philip and St  Michael, now also includes parts of St  James' Parish, St  George's Parish, St  Andrew's Parish, and St  John's Parish, although the last two are mostly still incorporated rural parishes 

Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 150,227 people, 58,902 households, and 31,780 families residing in the city 

Language
Given Charleston's high concentration of African Americans who spoke the Gullah language, a creole language that developed on the Sea Islands and in the Low Country, the local speech patterns were also influenced by this community  Today, Gullah is still spoken by many African American residents  However, rapid development since 1980, especially on the surrounding Sea Islands, has attracted residents from outside the area and led to a decline in Gullah's prominence 
The traditional educated Charleston accent has long been noted in the state and throughout the South  It is typically heard in wealthy European American older people who trace their families back generations in the city  It has ingliding or monophthongal long mid-vowels, raises ay and aw in certain environments, and is nonrhotic  Sylvester Primer of the College of Charleston wrote about aspects of the local dialect in his late 19th-century works: "Charleston Provincialisms" (1887) and "The Huguenot Element in Charleston's Provincialisms", published in a German journal  He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers  The disappearing "Charleston accent" spoken mainly by older natives is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city's name  Many Charleston natives ignore the 'r' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as "Chalston" 

Religion
Charleston is known as "The Holy City"  Despite beliefs that the term dates to the city's earliest days and refers to its religiously tolerant culture, the term was coined in the 20th century, likely as a mockery of Charlestonians' self-satisfied attitude about their city  Regardless of the nickname's origination, residents have embraced the term and explained it in more flattering terms 
The Anglican church was dominant in the colonial era, and the Cathedral of St  Luke and St  Paul is today the seat of the Anglican Diocese of South Carolina  St  John's Protestant Episcopal Church is another historic church in Charleston  Many French Huguenot refugees settled in Charleston in the early 18th century  The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal church in the Southern United States and houses the oldest black congregation south of Baltimore, Maryland South Carolina has long allowed Jews to practice their faith without restriction  Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim, founded in 1749 by Sephardic Jews from London, is the fourth-oldest Jewish congregation in the continental United States and was an important site for the development of Reform Judaism  Brith Sholom Beth Israel is the oldest Orthodox synagogue in the South, founded by Sam Berlin and other Ashkenazi German and Central European Jews in the mid-19th century The city's oldest Catholic parish, St  Mary of the Annunciation Catholic Church, is the mother church of Catholicism in South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia  In 1820, Charleston was established as the see city of the Diocese of Charleston, which at the time comprised the Carolinas and Georgia, and presently encompasses the state of South Carolina 
The Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite, established in Charleston in 1801, is considered the mother council of the world by Scottish Rite Freemasons 

Culture
Charleston's culture blends traditional Southern U S , English, French, and West African elements  The downtown peninsula has a number of art, music, local cuisine, and fashion venues  Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy 
Charleston's oldest community theater group, the Footlight Players, has provided theatrical productions since 1931  A variety of performing arts venues includes the historic Dock Street Theatre  The annual Charleston Fashion Week held each spring in Marion Square brings in designers, journalists, and clients from across the nation  Charleston is known for its local seafood, which plays a key role in the city's renowned cuisine, comprising staple dishes such as gumbo, she-crab soup, fried oysters, Lowcountry boil, deviled crab cakes, red rice, and shrimp and grits  Rice is the staple in many dishes, reflecting the rice culture of the Low Country  The cuisine in Charleston is also strongly influenced by British and French elements 

Annual cultural events and fairs
Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17-day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines  The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city  Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation's Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival  The Charleston Conference is a major library industry event, held in the city center since 1980 

Music
The Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music  In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country  The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake's "Charleston Rag" and later James P  Johnson's "Charleston", as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s  "Ballin' the Jack", which was a popular dance in the years before "Charleston", was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by the Rev  Daniel J  Jenkins in Charleston  The orphanage accepted donations of musical instruments and Rev  Jenkins hired local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music  As a result, Charleston musicians became proficient on a variety of instruments and were able to read music expertly  These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land some of them positions in big bands with Duke Ellington and Count Basie  William "Cat" Anderson, Jabbo Smith, and Freddie Green are but a few of the alumni who became professional musicians  Orphanages around the country began to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins Orphanage Band's success As many as five bands were on tour during the 1920s  The Jenkins Orphanage Band played in the inaugural parades of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft and toured the US and Europe  The band also played on Broadway for the play "Porgy" by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, a stage version of their novel of the same title  The story was based in Charleston and featured the Gullah community  The Heywards insisted on hiring the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on stage  Only a few years later, DuBose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel into the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess (so named so as to distinguish it from the play)  George Gershwin and Heyward spent the summer of 1934 at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing this "folk opera", as Gershwin called it  Porgy and Bess is considered one of the first Great American Operas and is widely performed To this day, Charleston is home to many musicians in all genres 

Live theater
Charleston has a vibrant theater scene and is home to America's first theater  Most of the theaters are part of the League of Charleston Theatres, better known as Theatre Charleston  Some of the city's theaters include:

The Dock Street Theatre, opened in the 1930s on the site of America's first purpose-built theater building, is home of the Charleston Stage Company, South Carolina's largest professional theater company 
Sottile Theater is on the campus of The College of Charleston 
The Queen Street Playhouse is a former cotton warehouse that was fully converted to a theater in 1986  It is the home of the Footlight Players, a Charleston theater troupe first organized in 1932 

Museums, historical sites, and other attractions
Charleston has many historic buildings, art and historical museums, public parks, and other attractions, including:

Halsey Institute of Contemporary Art at the College of Charleston is free a non-collecting contemporary arts organization 
The Calhoun Mansion, a 24,000-square-foot, 1876 Victorian home at 16 Meeting Street, is named for a grandson of John C  Calhoun who lived there with his wife, the builder's daughter  The private house is periodically open for tours 
The Charleston Museum, America's first museum, was founded in 1773 
The Exchange and Provost was built in 1767  It is operated as a museum by the Daughters of the American Revolution 
The Powder Magazine is a 1713 gunpowder magazine and museum  It is the oldest surviving public building in South Carolina 
The Gibbes Museum of Art, opened in 1905, houses principally American works with a Charleston or Southern connection 
The Fireproof Building houses the South Carolina Historical Society which has a rotating series of historical displays 
The Nathaniel Russell House is an important federal-style house open to the public as a house museum 
The Gov  William Aiken House, also known as the Aiken-Rhett House, is a house museum built in 1820 
The Heyward-Washington House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  Furnished for the late 18th century, the house includes a collection of Charleston-made furniture 
The Joseph Manigault House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  The house was designed by Gabriel Manigault and is significant for its Adam style architecture 
The Market Hall and Sheds, also known as the City Market or simply the Market, stretch several blocks behind 188 Meeting Street  Market Hall was built in the 1841 and houses the Daughters of the Confederacy Museum  The sheds house some permanent stores, but are mainly occupied by open-air vendors 
The Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture was established to collect, preserve, and make public the unique historical and cultural heritage of African Americans in Charleston and the South Carolina Low Country  Avery's archival collections, museum exhibitions, and public programming reflect these diverse populations, as well as the wider African Diaspora 
Fort Sumter, site of the first shots fired in the Civil War, is located in Charleston Harbor  The National Park Service maintains a visitor center for Fort Sumter at Liberty Square (near the South Carolina Aquarium), and boat tours including the fort depart nearby 
The Battery is an historic defensive seawall and promenade located at the tip of the peninsula along with White Point Garden, a park featuring several memorials and Civil War-era artillery pieces 
Rainbow Row is an iconic strip of homes along the harbor that date back to the mid-18th century  Though the homes are not open to the public, they are one of the most photographed attractions in the city and are featured heavily in local art 
The South Carolina Aquarium includes revolving exhibits while its permanent focus is on the aquatic life of South Carolina 
Waterfront Park located on the Cooper River 
Old Slave Mart museum – Located at 6 Chalmers St in the historic district is the first African American Museum  It has operated since 1938 

Sports
Charleston is home to a number of professional, minor league, and amateur sports teams:

The Charleston Battery, a professional soccer team, play in the USL Championship  The Battery play at Patriots Point Soccer Complex 
The South Carolina Stingrays, a professional hockey team, plays in the ECHL  The Stingrays play in North Charleston at the North Charleston Coliseum  The Stingrays are an affiliate of the Washington Capitals and Hershey Bears 
The Charleston RiverDogs, a Minor League Baseball team, plays in the Low-A East and are an affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays  The RiverDogs play at Joseph P  Riley Jr  Park 
The Charleston Outlaws RFC is a rugby union club in the Palmetto Rugby Union, USA Rugby South, and USA Rugby  It competes in Men's Division II against the Cape Fear, Columbia, Greenville, and Charlotte "B" clubs  The club also hosts a rugby sevens tournament during Memorial Day weekend 
The Charleston Gaelic Athletic Association is a Gaelic athletic club focusing on the sports of hurling and Gaelic football  The club competes in the Southeastern Division of the North American County Board of the GAA  The club hosts other division clubs in the Holy City Cup each spring 
The Lowcountry Highrollers is a women's flat-track roller derby league in the Charleston area  The league is a local member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association 
The Family Circle Tennis Center hosts the Volvo Car Open, a major Women's Tennis Association Event  The facility is located on Daniel Island Other notable sports venues in Charleston include Johnson Hagood Stadium (home of The Citadel Bulldogs football team), McAlister Field House (home of The Citadel Bulldogs basketball team), and Toronto Dominion Bank Arena at the College of Charleston, which seats 5,100 people who view the school's basketball and volleyball teams 

Books and films
Various books and films have been set in Charleston; some of the best known works are listed below  In addition, Charleston is a popular filming location for movies and television, both in its own right and as a stand-in for Southern and/or historic settings 

Porgy (1925), by DuBose Heyward, adapted into the play in 1927  George Gershwin's folk opera Porgy and Bess (1935), based on the novel Porgy, is set in Charleston and was partially written at Folly Beach, near Charleston  A film version was released in 1959 
North and South series of books by John Jakes, was partially set in Charleston  The North and South miniseries was partially set and filmed in Charleston 
Part of the 1989 film Glory, starring Matthew Broderick, Denzel Washington, and Morgan Freeman, features the 1863 Second Battle of Fort Wagner on Morris Island 
The movies Swamp Thing (1982) and The Lords of Discipline (1983) (based on the novel by Pat Conroy) were partly filmed in Charleston 

Economy
Commercial shipping is important to the economy  The city has two shipping terminals, of a total of five terminals owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority in the Charleston metropolitan area, which are part of the fourth-largest container seaport on the East Coast and the seventh-largest container seaport in the United States  The port is also used to transfer cars and car parts for Charleston's auto manufacturing business, such as Mercedes and Volvo Sometimes known as Silicon Harbor, the city is becoming a popular location for high tech and innovation, and this sector has had the highest rate of growth between 2011 and 2012, due in large part to the Charleston Digital Corridor  In 2013, the Milken Institute ranked the Charleston region as the ninth-best performing economy in the US because of its growing IT sector  Notable companies include Blackbaud, Greystar Real Estate Partners, Evening Post Industries, Le Creuset, SPARC a Booz Allen Hamilton subsidiary, BoomTown, CSS, and Benefitfocus 
In June 2017, the mean sales price for a home in Charleston was $351,186 and the median price was $260,000 

Government
Charleston has a strong mayor-council government, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive officer of the municipality  The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as other council members  The current mayor, since 2016, is John Tecklenburg  The council has 12 members who are each elected from single-member districts 

Fire department
The City of Charleston Fire Department consists over 300 full-time firefighters  These firefighters operate out of 21 companies located throughout the city: 16 engine companies, two tower companies, two ladder companies, a heavy rescue company, a HAZ-MAT unit and several special units  Training, Fire Marshall, Operations, and Administration are the divisions of the department  The department operates on a 24/48 schedule and is a Class 1 ISO rating  Russell (Rusty) Thomas served as Fire Chief until June 2008, and was succeeded by Chief Thomas Carr in November 2008  The department is presently led by Chief Daniel Curia 

Police department
The City of Charleston Police Department, with a total of 458 sworn officers, 117 civilians, and 27 reserve police officers, is South Carolina's largest police department  Luther Reynolds serves as the current Chief of Police  He follows Greg Mullen and Reuben Greenberg  Chief Reynolds is credited with continuing successful community outreach programs such as The Illumination Project and fostering a culture of mutual respect  Under Chief Reynolds, the agency has successfully withstood challenges such as the Coronavirus and downtown disturbances  Additionally, the agency continues to recruit police candidates in a competitive market 

EMS and medical centers
Emergency medical services (EMS) for the city are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services (CCEMS) & Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (BCEMS)  The city is served by the EMS and 911 services of both Charleston and Berkeley counties since the city is part of both counties 
Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state  The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H  Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital  MUSC is the state's first school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth-oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States  The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals  Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at another major hospital located in the West Ashley portion of the city: Bon Secours-St Francis Xavier Hospital  The Trident Regional Medical Center located in the City of North Charleston and East Cooper Regional Medical Center located in Mount Pleasant also serve the needs of residents of the city of Charleston 

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Station Charleston responds to search and rescue emergencies, conducts maritime law enforcement activities, and Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security (PWCS) missions  Personnel from Station Charleston are highly trained professionals, composed of federal law enforcement officers, boat crewmen, and coxswains who are capable of completing a wide range of missions  In 2020, the Coast Guard announced plans to construct a 2,800-acre (11 km2) "superbase" on the former Charleston Naval Shipyard complex to consolidate all its Charleston-area facilities and become the homeport for five Security cutters and additional offshore cutters Coast Guard Sector Charleston (District 7)

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Helicopter Air Facility, Johns Island, Charleston
Coast Guard Reserves, Charleston
USCGC Yellowfin, Marine Protector-class coastal patrol boat, Charleston
USCGC Anvil, 75-foot inland construction tender, Charleston
USCGC Willow, (WLB-202), Charleston

Military
Army Corps of Engineers, Charleston District Headquarters
U S  Coast Guard
Joint Base Charleston (Navy & Air Force)

Crime
The following table shows Charleston's crime rate for six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses to calculate the ranking of "America's most dangerous cities", in comparison to the national average  The statistics shown are for the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people  Since 1999, the overall crime rate of Charleston has declined markedly  The total crime index rate for Charleston in 1999 was 597 1 crimes committed per 100,000 people, while in 2011, the total crime index rate was 236 4 per 100,000 

Transportation
Airport and rail
The City of Charleston is served by the Charleston International Airport  It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 mi (19 km) northwest of downtown Charleston  It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS)  The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base  Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John's Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft  Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority  As of April 2019, British Airways does seasonal non-stop flights from Charleston to London-Heathrow 
Charleston is served by two daily Amtrak trains: The Palmetto and Silver Meteor at the Amtrak station located at 4565 Gaynor Avenue in the City of North Charleston located around 7 5 miles from downtown Charleston 

Interstates and highways
Interstate 26 (I-26) begins in downtown Charleston, with exits to the Septima Clark Expressway, the Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Meeting Street  Heading northwest, it connects the city to North Charleston, the Charleston International Airport, I-95, and Columbia  The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Septima Clark Expressway are part of U S  Route 17 (US 17), which travels east–west through the cities of Charleston and Mount Pleasant  The Mark Clark Expressway, or I-526, is the bypass around the city and begins and ends at US 17  US 52 is Meeting Street and its spur is East Bay Street, which becomes Morrison Drive after leaving the east side  This highway merges with King Street in the city's Neck area (industrial district)  US 78 is King Street in the downtown area, eventually merging with Meeting Street 

Major highways
Interstate 26 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
Interstate 526
U S  Route 17
U S  Route 52 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
U S  Route 78 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
State Highway 7 (Sam Rittenberg Boulevard)
State Highway 30 (James Island Expressway)
State Highway 61 (St  Andrews Boulevard/Ashley River Road)
State Highway 171 (Old Towne Road/Folly Road)
State Highway 461 (Paul Cantrell Boulevard/Glenn McConnell Parkway)
South Carolina Highway 700 (Maybank Highway)

Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge
The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge across the Cooper River opened on July 16, 2005, and was the longest cable-stayed bridge in the Americas at the time of its construction  The bridge links downtown Charleston with Mount Pleasant, and has eight lanes plus a 12-foot lane shared by pedestrians and bicycles  The height of the bridge varies, but it is estimated that it has a height of 573 feet  It replaced the Grace Memorial Bridge (built in 1929) and the Silas N  Pearman Bridge (built in 1966)  They were considered two of the more dangerous bridges in America and were demolished after the Ravenel Bridge opened 

City bus service
The city is also served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA)  Most of the urban area is served by regional fixed route buses, which are equipped with bike racks as part of the system's Rack and Ride program  CARTA offers connectivity to historic downtown attractions and accommodations with the Downtown Area Shuttle trolley buses, and it offers curbside pickup for disabled passengers with its Tel-A-Ride buses  A bus rapid transit system is in development, called Lowcountry Rapid Transit that will connect Charleston to Summerville through North Charleston 
Rural parts of the city and metropolitan area are served by a different bus system, operated by Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Rural Transportation Management Association  The system is also commonly called the TriCounty Link 

Port
The Port of Charleston, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, is one of the largest ports in the United States, ranked seventh in the top 25 by containerized cargo volume in 2018  It consists of six terminals, with the sixth having opened in April 2021  Port activity at the two terminals located in the city of Charleston is one of the city's leading sources of revenue, behind tourism 
Today, the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal  A harbor-deepening project is currently underway to take the Port of Charleston's entrance channel to 54 feet and harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide  With an average high tide of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and 58 feet, respectively 
Part of Union Pier Treminal, in the city of Charleston, is a cruise ship passenger terminal which hosted numerous cruise departures annually through 2019  Beginning in May 2019, until cruise operations were interrupted in April 2020, the Carnival Sunshine was permanently stationed in Charleston, offering 4, 5, and 7-day cruises to the Caribbean With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc  signed a long-term lease  With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc  is one of the largest commercial marine repair facilities on the East Coast  Projects include military, commercial, and cruise ships 

Schools, colleges, and universities
Because most of the city of Charleston is located in Charleston County, it is served by the Charleston County School District  Part of the city, however, is served by the Berkeley County School District in northern portions of the city, such as the Cainhoy Industrial District, Cainhoy Historical District and Daniel Island 
Charleston is also served by a large number of independent schools, including Porter-Gaud School (K-12), Charleston Collegiate School (K-12), Ashley Hall (Pre K-12), Charleston Day School (K-8), First Baptist Church School (K-12), Palmetto Christian Academy (K-12), Coastal Christian Preparatory School (K-12), Mason Preparatory School (K-8), and Addlestone Hebrew Academy (K-8) 
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston Office of Education also operates out of the city and oversees several K-8 parochial schools, such as Blessed Sacrament School, Christ Our King School, Charleston Catholic School, Nativity School, and Divine Redeemer School, all of which are "feeder" schools into Bishop England High School, a diocesan high school within the city  Bishop England, Porter-Gaud School, and Ashley Hall are the city's oldest and most prominent private schools, and are a significant part of Charleston history, dating back some 150 years 
Public institutions of higher education in Charleston include the College of Charleston, The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, and the Medical University of South Carolina  The city is also home to private schools including the Charleston Southern University and Charleston School of Law  Charleston is also home to the Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing, and the city has a downtown satellite campus for the region's technical school, Trident Technical College  Charleston has the only college in the country that offers bachelor's degrees in the building arts, The American College of the Building Arts 

Media
Broadcast television
Charleston is the nation's 89th-largest Designated market area (DMA), with 332,770 households and 0 27% of the U S  TV population  These stations are licensed in Charleston and have significant operations or viewers in the city:
WCBD-TV (2, NBC) and (14, CW)
WGWG (4, MeTV)
WCSC-TV (5, CBS, Bounce TV, Grit)
WITV (7, PBS)
WLCN-CD (18, CTN)
WTAT-TV (24, Fox)
WAZS-CD (29, Azteca America Independent)
WJNI-CD (31, America One Independent)
WCIV (36, MyNetworkTV, ABC)

Notable people
As a population and wealth center with colleges and cultural outlets, Charleston has produced many notable people in all fields  Among the most notable historical and contemporary figures are:

Jarrell Brantley (born 1996), basketball player
Madelyn Cline, Actress in Outer Banks
Stephen Colbert, comedian and host of The Late Show
Wesley Donehue, political strategist, Internet consultant, CEO
Ann Drayton, 18th-century landowner
Shepard Fairey, graffiti artist
Robert F  Furchgott, recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1998)
Thomas Gibson, actor and star of Criminal Minds
Fritz Hollings, former US Senator and Governor of South Carolina
Lauren Hutton, model and actress, starring in American Gigolo and The Gambler (1974)
Robert Jordan (James Oliver Rigney Jr ), fantasy author, notable for Wheel of Time series
John Laurens, American revolutionary lieutenant colonel in the continental army
Peter Manigault, wealthiest person in British North America in 1770
Khris Middleton, NBA basketball player for the Milwaukee Bucks, gold medal Olympian
Darius Rucker, country music artist, former member of Hootie & The Blowfish
Robert Smalls, African American civil war hero, businessman, politician, and civil rights activist
Denmark Vesey, revolutionary
Joseph Wragg, a pioneer of the large-scale slave trade

Sister cities
Charleston's sister cities are:
Doha, Qatar
Freetown, Sierra Leone
Panama City, Panama
Speightstown, Barbados
Spoleto, ItalyThe relationship with Spoleto began when Pulitzer Prize-winning Italian composer Gian Carlo Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto's annual Festival of Two Worlds  "Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location  The historic city provided a perfect fit: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure "Sister city relation with Panama City was described as follows:
As you may be aware, the city of Charleston, like the city of Panama City, is a historic port City that shares a proud and prosperous history  Our stories are very similar as reflected by our citizens of European, African, Caribbean, native descent, our cuisine, our architecture, and our mutual modern growth in meritime commerce  As Panama City is enjoying a global surge of interest so is Charleston, being ranked as a top destination for travellers, commerce, technology, education, culture and fashion 
Charleston is also twinned with Speightstown  The first colonists to settle in the region designed the original parts of Charlestown based on the plans of Barbados's capital city, Bridgetown  Many indigo, tobacco, and cotton planters relocated their slaves and plantation operations from Speightstown to Charleston after the sugarcane industry came to dominate agricultural production in Barbados 

See also
List of municipalities in South Carolina
USS Charleston, 6 ships

Notes
Passage 4:
Fairhope Plantation
Fairhope Plantation is a historic Carpenter Gothic plantation house and historic district, located one mile east of Uniontown, Alabama, US  The 2+1⁄2-story wood-framed main house was built in the Gothic Revival style in the late 1850s   The plantation historic district includes six other contributing buildings, in addition to the main house   It was added to the Alabama Register of Landmarks and Heritage on December 19, 1991, and subsequently to the National Register of Historic Places on May 29, 1992, due to its architectural and historical significance 

History
Fairhope Plantation was built for Joseph Selden, a native of Virginia   He was born on June 4, 1831, and grew up at Westover Plantation in Charles City County, Virginia   Selden married Elizabeth Collier Minge, of Weynoke Plantation, Virginia, near Faunsdale, in 1854  Elizabeth was born on May 30, 1833  Her family was also originally from Charles City County   Joseph and Elizabeth established Fairhope on property given to them by Elizabeth's family   The main house was built by Theophilus Gilliam Fowler, a local builder  Construction began in 1857 and was completed by 1861   The 1860 United States Census of Perry County indicates that Joseph Selden owned 80 slaves in that year   Selden organized Selden's Battery, an artillery unit, at his own expense during the American Civil War   The unit saw action in several major engagements, including the battles of Kennesaw Mountain, Franklin and Nashville   Elizabeth Selden died following childbirth in 1868, Joseph died in a hotel fire in 1900   Fairhope continued to be owned by Selden descendants and operated as a farm for another century after their deaths 

Architecture
The inspiration for the main house at Fairhope Plantation is thought by architectural historians to be an enlarged adaptation of a design by Alexander Jackson Davis, published in Andrew Jackson Downing's Cottage Residences in 1842   The house features numerous Gothic Revival details, including intricate bargeboards on the eaves and gables,  hood moldings over the doors and windows, octagonal brick chimneys, and central gables topped by finials on all four sides   Additionally, it has a one-story cast-iron veranda around three sides of the ground floor   It is one of only about twenty Gothic Revival residential structures remaining in Alabama   Other historic Gothic Revival residences in the area include Waldwic in Gallion and Ashe Cottage in Demopolis 
Passage 5:
Union Oyster House
Union Oyster House, open to diners since 1826, is amongst the oldest operating restaurants in the United States, and the oldest known that has been continuously operating since being opened  The building was listed as a National Historic Landmark on May 27, 2003 

History
The building itself was built prior to 1714, most likely in 1704  Before it became a restaurant, Hopestill Capen's dress goods business occupied the property  In 1771 printer Isaiah Thomas published his newspaper, The Massachusetts Spy, from the second floor  The restaurant originally opened as the Atwood & Bacon Oyster House on August 3, 1826 The Union Oyster House has had a number of famous people in history as diners, including the Kennedy family and Daniel Webster  Webster was known for regularly consuming at least six plates of oysters  Perhaps most surprisingly, in 1796 Louis Philippe, King of the French from 1830 to 1848, lived in exile on the second floor  He earned his living by teaching French to young women  Labor economist and president of Haverford College John Royston Coleman worked here incognito as a "salad-and-sandwich man" for a time in the 1970s and documented the experience in his book The Blue Collar Journal The menu is traditional New England fare, including seafoods such as oysters, clams, and lobsters, as well as poultry, baked beans, steak and chops 

Image gallery
See also
List of the oldest restaurants in the United States
Cuisine of New England
List of National Historic Landmarks in Boston
List of seafood restaurants
National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts



ground_truth: College of Charles Towne

Charles Towne