prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the majority party in the body which determines rules of the US House and US Senate gain control of the House?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Party leaders of the United States Senate
The positions of majority leader and minority leader are held by two United States senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate  They serve as the chief spokespersons for their respective political parties holding the majority and the minority in the United States Senate  They are each elected as majority leader and minority leader by the senators of their party caucuses: the Senate Democratic Caucus and the Senate Republican Conference 
By Senate precedent, the presiding officer gives the majority leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate  The majority leader serves as the chief representative of their party in the Senate, and is considered the most powerful member of the Senate  They also serve as the chief representative of their party in the entire Congress if the House of Representatives, and thus the office of the speaker of the House, is controlled by the opposition party  The Senate's executive and legislative business is also managed and scheduled by the majority leader                                                        
The assistant majority leader and assistant minority leader of the United States Senate, commonly called whips, are the second-ranking members of each party's leadership  The main function of the majority and minority whips is to gather votes of their respective parties on major issues  As the second-ranking members of Senate leadership, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader 

Current floor leaders
The Senate is currently composed of 49 Republicans, 48 Democrats, and 3 independents; all the independents caucus with the Democrats 
The current leaders are Senators Chuck Schumer (D) of New York and Mitch McConnell (R) of Kentucky  The current assistant leaders, or whips, are Senators Dick Durbin (D) of Illinois and John Thune (R) of South Dakota 

History
By at least 1850, parties in each chamber of Congress began naming chairs, and while conference and caucus chairs carried very little authority, the Senate party floor leader positions arose from the position of conference chair  Senate Democrats began the practice of electing their floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority  John W  Kern was a Democratic senator from Indiana  While the title was not official, the Senate website identifies Kern as the first Senate party leader, serving in that capacity from 1913 through 1917 (and in turn, the first Senate Democratic leader), while serving concurrently as chairman of the Senate Democratic Caucus  In 1925, the Republicans (who were in the majority at the time) also adopted this language when Charles Curtis became the first (official) majority leader, although his immediate predecessor Henry Cabot Lodge is considered the first (unofficial) Senate majority leader 
The United States Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as president of the Senate  The Constitution also calls for a president pro tempore, to serve as the presiding officer when the president of the Senate (the vice president) is absent  In practice, neither the vice president nor the president pro tempore—customarily the most senior (longest-serving) senator in the majority party—actually presides over the Senate on a daily basis; that task is given to junior Senators of the majority party  Since the vice president may be of a different party from the majority and is not a Senate member subject to discipline, the rules of procedure of the Senate give the Vice President no power beyond the presiding role  For these reasons, it is the majority leader who, in practice, manages the Senate  This is in contrast to the House of Representatives, where the elected speaker of the House has a great deal of discretionary power and generally presides over votes on legislative bills 

List of party leaders
The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920  The Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925 

See also
Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives
President pro tempore of the United States Senate
Vice President of the United States (President of the United States Senate)
Party divisions of United States Congresses
List of political parties in the United States

Notes
Passage 2:
2014 United States Senate elections
The 2014 United States Senate elections were held on November 4, 2014  A total of 36 seats in the 100-member U S  Senate were contested  Thirty-three Class 2 seats were contested for regular six-year terms to be served from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2021, and three Class 3 seats were contested in special elections due to Senate vacancies  The elections marked 100 years of direct elections of U S  senators  Going into the elections, 21 of the contested seats were held by the Democratic Party, while 15 were held by the Republican Party 
The Republicans regained the majority of the Senate in the 114th Congress, which started in January 2015; the Republicans had not controlled the Senate since January 2007  They needed a net gain of at least six seats to obtain a majority and were projected by polls to do so  On election night, they held all of their seats and gained nine Democratic-held seats  Republicans defeated five Democratic incumbents: Mark Begich of Alaska lost to Dan Sullivan, Mark Pryor of Arkansas lost to Tom Cotton, Mark Udall of Colorado lost to Cory Gardner, Mary Landrieu of Louisiana lost to Bill Cassidy, and Kay Hagan of North Carolina lost to Thom Tillis  Republicans also picked up another four open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia  Democrats did not pick up any Republican-held seats, but they did hold an open seat in Michigan 
This was the second consecutive election held in a president's sixth year where control of the Senate changed hands, the first being in 2006  This was also the first time that the Democrats lost control of the Senate in a sixth-year midterm since 1918  With a total net gain of nine seats, the Republicans made the largest Senate gain by any party since 1980  This is also the first election since 1980 in which more than two incumbent Democratic Senators were defeated by their Republican challengers  Days after the election, the United States Election Project estimated that 36 4% of eligible voters voted, 4% lower than the 2010 elections, and possibly the lowest turnout rate since the 1942 election As of 2022, this remains the last time that a Republican has won a U S  Senate election in Colorado  This is the most recent Senate elections where any Republican flipped an open Democratic-held seat  This is also the most recent election where the party winning control of the Senate won the popular vote  It also remains the last time that the president's party has suffered a net loss of Senate seats in a midterm 

Partisan composition
For a majority, Republicans needed at least 51 seats  Democrats could have retained a majority with 48 seats (assuming the two Independents continued to caucus with them) because the Democratic Vice President Joe Biden would become the tie-breaker  From 1915 to 2013, control of the U S  Senate flipped in 10 of 50 cycles, or 20% of the time  Republicans had lost ground in the 2012 elections, leading to an internal fight among the Republican leadership over the best strategies and tactics for the 2014 Senate races  By December 2013, eight of the twelve incumbent Republicans running for re-election saw Tea Party challenges  However, Republican incumbents won every primary challenge  Although Democrats saw some opportunities for pickups, the combination of Democratic retirements and numerous Democratic seats up for election in swing states and red states gave Republicans hopes of taking control of the Senate  7 of the 21 states with Democratic seats up for election in 2014 had voted for Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election compared to just 1 state with a Republican senator that voted for Barack Obama  Democrats also faced the lower voter turnout that accompanies mid-term elections Poll aggregation website FiveThirtyEight gave the Republican Party a 60% chance of taking control of the Senate as of September 28  Another poll aggregation website, RealClearPolitics, gave the Republican Party a net gain of 7 seats  Due to the closeness of several races, it was initially believed that Senate control might not be decided on election night  Both Louisiana and Georgia were seen as competitive, and both states require a run-off election if no candidate takes a majority of the vote 
Two independent candidates (in Kansas and South Dakota) refused to commit to caucusing with either party  In the final months of the race, polls showed them with viable chances of winning, leading some analysts to speculate on the possibility of an "Independent caucus" that could also include Maine Senator Angus King and possibly Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders  However, no Independent won a Senate race in 2014, and King and Sanders continue to caucus with the Democratic Party following the 2014 election 
By midnight ET, most major networks projected that the Republicans would take control of the Senate  The party held all three competitive Republican-held seats (Kentucky, Kansas, and Georgia), and defeated incumbent Democrats in North Carolina, Colorado, and Arkansas  Combined with the pick-ups of open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia, the Republicans made a net gain of 7 seats before the end of the night  Republicans defeated three incumbent Democrats, a task the party had not accomplished since the 1980 election  Five of the seven confirmed pickups were in states that voted for Mitt Romney in 2012, but two of the seats that Republicans won represent states that voted for Barack Obama in 2012 (Colorado and Iowa)  Of the three races that were not called by the end of election night, Alaska and Virginia were still too close to call, while Louisiana held a December 6 run-off election  Virginia declared Democrat Mark Warner the winner of his race by a narrow margin over Republican Ed Gillespie on November 7, and Alaska declared Dan Sullivan the winner against Democratic incumbent Mark Begich a week later, on November 12  Republican Bill Cassidy defeated Democratic incumbent Mary Landrieu in the Louisiana runoff on December 6 

Election spending
Altogether, at least $3 67 billion was spent by candidates, parties, committees and outside groups in the 2014 election  Spending on the 2014 Senate elections by outside groups (i e , organizations other than a candidate's campaign, such as super PACs and "dark money" nonprofit groups) more than doubled from 2010  In the 10 competitive races for which data was available, outside groups accounted for 47% of spending, candidates accounted for 41% of spending, and parties accounted for 12% of spending  The Senate race with the most outside spending was in North Carolina, at $80 million, a new record The top outside spenders in the 11 most competitive Senate races were the following:

On the Republican side, the National Republican Senatorial Committee, Crossroads GPS, U S  Chamber of Commerce, Ending Spending Action Fund, Freedom Partners Action Fund, American Crossroads, and the NRA Political Victory Fund 
On the Democratic side, the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, Senate Majority PAC, and NextGen Climate Action Committee 

Results summary
The Republican Party made a net gain of nine U S  Senate seats in the 2014 elections Going into the elections, there were 53 Democratic, 45 Republican and 2 independent senators (both of whom caucus with the Democrats)  In all, there were 36 elections: 33 senators were up for election this year as class 2 senators, and 3 faced special elections (all from Class 3)  Of all these seats, 21 were held by Democrats and 15 were held by Republicans 

Colored shading indicates party with largest share of that row 

Source: Clerk of the U S  House of Representatives

Change in composition
Before the elections
After the elections
Gains and losses
Retirements
Four Democrats and two Republicans retired instead of seeking re-election 

Resignations
One Republican resigned four years into his six-year term 

Nomination withdrawn
One Democrat was originally to seek election for a full 6-year term in office but withdrew 

Defeats
Five Democrats sought re-election but lost in the general election 

Race summaries
Special elections during the preceding Congress
In these special elections, the winners were elected during 2014 and seated before January 3, 2015 — except that one was seated on January 3, 2015, the effective date of the predecessor's resignation 

Elections leading to the next Congress
In these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning January 3, 2015; ordered by state 
All of the elections involved the Class 2 seats 

Closest races
In seven races the margin of victory was under 10% 

Final pre-election predictions
Predicted probability of Republican takeover
Several websites used poll aggregation and psephology to estimate the probability that the Republican Party would gain enough seats to take control of the Senate 

Predictions
Republicans needed to win at least six in order to gain a majority of 51 seats and Democrats needed to win at least seven in order to hold a majority of 50 seats (including the two independents who currently caucus with the Democrats) and the tie-breaking vote of Vice President Joe Biden 

Alabama
Three-term incumbent Republican Jeff Sessions had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Sessions sought re-election  Democrat Victor Sanchez Williams ran against Sessions as a write-in candidate  Sessions won with 97 3 percent of the vote against assorted write-in candidates 

Alaska
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Begich had been first elected with 48% of the vote in 2008, defeating six-term Senator Ted Stevens by 3,953 votes (a margin of 1 25%)  Begich was 52 years old in 2014 and was seeking re-election to a second term  Stevens, who would have been almost 91 years old at the time of the election, had already filed for a rematch back in 2009, but was killed in a plane crash the following year 
Republican Lieutenant Governor Mead Treadwell, 2010 nominee Joe Miller, State Natural Resources Commissioner Daniel S  Sullivan, and Air Force veteran John Jaramillo ran for the GOP nomination  In the August 19 primary, Sullivan won the Republican nomination with 40% and defeated Begich in the general election 

Arkansas
Two-term incumbent Democrat Mark Pryor had been re-elected with 80% of the vote without Republican opposition in 2008  Pryor was running for a third term Freshman Representative Tom Cotton of Arkansas's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee  In the general election, Cotton defeated Pryor 

Colorado
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Udall had been elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  Udall was running for re-election Congressman Cory Gardner of Colorado's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee; his late entry into the race caused numerous Republicans to withdraw their candidacies  Gaylon Kent was the Libertarian Party nominee  Unity Party of America founder and National Chairman Bill Hammons was the Unity Party nominee 

Delaware
Democrat Chris Coons won in the 2010 United States Senate special election in Delaware caused by Joe Biden's election as Vice President, winning by a 57% to 41% margin  Coons sought re-election  His Republican opponent was engineer Kevin Wade, whom Coons went on to defeat in the general election 

Georgia
Two-term incumbent Republican Saxby Chambliss had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008 in a runoff election with former state Representative Jim Martin; Georgia requires run-off elections when no Senate candidate wins over 50% of the vote  Chambliss did not seek a third term Political activist Derrick Grayson, Representatives Jack Kingston of Georgia's 1st congressional district, Paul Broun of Georgia's 10th congressional district, and Phil Gingrey of Georgia's 11th congressional district all declared their candidacy for the Republican nomination, as did former Secretary of State Karen Handel  In the May 20 primary, no candidate received a majority of votes, so the top two candidates faced each other in a runoff; Perdue narrowly won against Kingston in the runoff primary election on July 22 with 50 9% of the vote Michelle Nunn, CEO of Points of Light and the daughter of former U S  Senator Sam Nunn, won the Democratic nomination  Other declared Democratic candidates included former State Senator Steen Miles, psychiatrist Branko Radulovacki, and former US Army Ranger Todd Robinson  Amanda Swafford, a former Flowery Branch, Georgia, city councilwoman, received the Libertarian Party of Georgia nomination 

Hawaii (special)
Daniel Inouye, the second longest serving United States Senator in U S  history, died on December 17, 2012, after respiratory complications  Hawaii law allows the Governor of Hawaii, to appoint an interim Senator "who serves until the next regularly-scheduled general election, chosen from a list of three prospective appointees that the prior incumbent's political party submits"  Governor Neil Abercrombie did so, selecting Lieutenant Governor Brian Schatz to fill the Senate seat  Inouye had been re-elected in 2010 with 72% of the vote  Schatz was challenged in the Democratic primary by Congresswoman Colleen Hanabusa of Hawaii's 1st congressional district, who Inouye had hoped would be his successor  Schatz defeated Hanabusa in the primary with 48 5% to 47 8% Campbell Cavasso, former State Representative and nominee for the U S  Senate in 2004 and 2010, was the Republican nominee 

Idaho
One-term incumbent Republican Jim Risch had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Risch sought a second term Boise attorney Nels Mitchell was the Democratic nominee 

Illinois
Three-term incumbent and Senate Majority Whip Democrat Dick Durbin had been re-elected with 68% of the vote in 2008  Durbin ran for a fourth term State Senator Jim Oberweis was the Republican nominee  He defeated primary challenger Doug Truax with 56% of the vote 

Iowa
Five-term incumbent Democrat Tom Harkin had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Harkin announced on January 26, 2013, that he would not seek a sixth term  Congressman Bruce Braley was the Democratic nominee State Senator Joni Ernst was the Republican nominee Doug Butzier, who was the Libertarian Party's nominee, died in a plane crash on October 13, 2014, but still appeared on the ballot 

Kansas
Three-term incumbent Republican Pat Roberts had been re-elected with 60% of the vote in 2008  Roberts sought a fourth term  He faced a primary challenge from radiologist Milton Wolf, a conservative Tea Party supporter  Roberts defeated Wolf in the Republican primary by 48% to 41%  Shawnee County District Attorney Chad Taylor won the Democratic nomination  Randall Batson from Wichita was on the general election ballot as a Libertarian  Also, Greg Orman qualified for the ballot as an independent On September 3, Taylor announced he was dropping out of the election, leading to speculation that Democrats would support Orman's candidacy  On September 18, the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Taylor's name had to be removed from the ballot 

Kentucky
Five-term Republican incumbent and Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell had been re-elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  McConnell sought re-election to a sixth term  McConnell defeated businessman Matt Bevin in the Republican primary on May 20 Kentucky Secretary of State Alison Lundergan Grimes, with support from much of Kentucky's Democratic leadership, won the Democratic primary  Actress Ashley Judd publicly claimed to be considering a run for the Democratic nomination, but ultimately decided against it Ed Marksberry pursued an independent bid after dropping out of the Democratic field in September 2013 

Louisiana
Three-term incumbent Democrat Mary Landrieu had been re-elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Landrieu ran for a fourth term Louisiana uses a unique jungle primary system that eschews primaries in favor of run-off elections between the top two candidates; this run-off can be avoided if the winning candidate receives over 50% of the vote  Democrats Wayne Ables, Vallian Senegal, and William Waymire ran against Landrieu in the election, as did Republicans Bill Cassidy (representative of Louisiana's 6th congressional district), Thomas Clements (small business owner), and retired Air Force Colonel Rob Maness  Electrical Engineer Brannon McMorris ran as a Libertarian Because Republican candidate Maness took almost 14% of the votes in the primary, there was a runoff election on December 6, 2014, between Landrieu (42%) and Cassidy (41%)  Cassidy won the runoff with 56% of the vote 

Maine
Three-term incumbent Republican Susan Collins was seeking a fourth term  Shenna Bellows, former executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Maine, was the Democratic nominee 

Massachusetts
Five-term incumbent and 2004 Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry had been re-elected with 66% of the vote in 2008  Kerry resigned in early 2013 to become U S  Secretary of State  Governor Deval Patrick appointed Democrat Mo Cowan to the seat  Democratic Congressman Ed Markey beat Republican Gabriel E  Gomez in the June 25, 2013 special election by a 55% to 45% margin  Markey had served the remainder of Kerry's term before running for re-election to a first full term in 2014  Hopkinton Town Selectman Brian Herr was the Republican nominee 

Michigan
Six-term incumbent Senator and Chairman of the Armed Services Committee Democrat Carl Levin, the longest-serving senator in Michigan's history, had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Levin announced on March 7, 2013, that he would not seek re-election 
Three term Democratic Representative Gary Peters of MI-14 was the Democratic nominee  He defeated Republican former Secretary of State Terri Lynn Land who was unopposed for the Republican nomination 

Minnesota
One-term incumbent Democrat Al Franken unseated one-term Republican Norm Coleman by 312 votes in a contested three-way race with 42% of the vote in 2008; the third candidate in the race, former Senator Dean Barkley of the Independence Party of Minnesota, won 15% of the vote  Franken sought re-election  State Representative Jim Abeler, St  Louis County Commissioner Chris Dahlberg, co-CEO of Lazard Middle Market Mike McFadden, bison farmer and former hair salon owner Monti Moreno, state Senator Julianne Ortman, and U S  Navy reservist Phillip Parrish ran for the Republican nomination  McFadden won the Republican primary and was the Republican nominee in the general election Hannah Nicollet of the Independence Party of Minnesota also ran 

Mississippi
Six-term incumbent Republican Thad Cochran, re-elected with 62% of the vote in 2008, ran for re-election  Cochran was the last incumbent Senator to declare his plans, leading to widespread speculation that he might announce his retirement Tea Party candidate Chris McDaniel, a conservative Mississippi state senator, ran against Cochran in the Republican primary  Neither McDaniel nor Cochran was able to get 50% of the vote in the first round of the primary, so a runoff election was held June 24  Cochran won the runoff election by 51% to 49%, with the help of Democratic voters eligible to vote in the state's open primaries who chose Cochran as their preferred Republican  McDaniel filed a lawsuit to challenge the results of the run-off, but the challenge was rejected on appeal by the Supreme Court of Mississippi Former Congressman Travis Childers was the Democratic nominee 

Montana
Six-term incumbent Democrat Max Baucus, the longest-serving senator in Montana's history, had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Baucus announced on April 23, 2013, that he would retire in 2014, rather than seek re-election to a seventh term  Baucus was appointed as the United States Ambassador to China, leading him to resign from the Senate in February 2014 Following Baucus's confirmation as ambassador, Governor Steve Bullock appointed the Lieutenant Governor John Walsh to fill the vacant senate seat  Former Lieutenant Governor John Bohlinger was defeated by Walsh in the Democratic primary  Amid controversy over alleged plagiarism in a 2007 research paper, Walsh pulled out of the race  The Montana Democratic Party held a special nominating convention on August 16 to choose a replacement for Walsh  First-term State Representative Amanda Curtis won the nomination, thereby becoming the new Democratic nominee Congressman Steve Daines won the Republican nomination over state Representative Champ Edmunds of Missoula and David Leaser of Kalispell 

Nebraska
One-term incumbent Republican Mike Johanns had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  He did not seek a second term  Term limited Republican Governor Dave Heineman considered running for the Republican nomination, but ultimately decided not to do so  Former state Treasurer Shane Osborn, attorney Bart McLeay, banker Sid Dinsdale, and Midland University President Ben Sasse ran for the Republican nomination  In the May 13 primary, Sasse won the Republican nomination 
Trial lawyer David Domina was the Democratic nominee 

New Hampshire
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeanne Shaheen had been elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Shaheen ran for re-election  Shaheen defeated Republican nominee Scott Brown, who had represented neighboring Massachusetts in the Senate from 2010 to 2013 

New Jersey
Incumbent Democrat Frank Lautenberg had been re-elected with 56% of the vote in 2008  After announcing he would not seek re-election, Lautenberg died in June 2013, aged 89, after a long period of ill health Newark Mayor Cory Booker, a Democrat, defeated Republican nominee Steve Lonegan by 55%-to-45% in a 2013 special election to replace interim Republican appointee Jeffrey Chiesa  Booker ran for re-election to a full term in 2014  1978 and 1982 Republican candidate and political operative Jeff Bell was the Republican nominee 

New Mexico
One-term incumbent Democrat Tom Udall had been elected with 61% of the vote in 2008  Former Doña Ana County Republican Party Chairman David Clements and former New Mexico Republican Party Chairman Allen Weh sought the Republican nomination  Weh won the June 3 primary but lost to Udall in the general election 

North Carolina
One-term incumbent Democrat Kay Hagan had been elected with 53% of the vote against incumbent Republican Elizabeth Dole in 2008  Hagan was seeking re-election State House Speaker Thom Tillis was the Republican nominee  Sean Haugh won the Libertarian nomination 

Oklahoma
There were 2 elections in Oklahoma, due to the resignation of Tom Coburn 

Oklahoma (regular)
Three-term incumbent Republican Jim Inhofe had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008  Inhofe sought re-election  Matt Silverstein, an insurance agency owner, ran for the Democratic nomination 

Oklahoma (special)
Two-term incumbent Republican Tom Coburn had been re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2010, and was not scheduled to be up for election again until 2016  However, Coburn announced his intention to resign at the end of the 113th Congress  A special election to fill his seat took place in November 2014, concurrent with the other Senate elections  Congressman James Lankford was the Republican nominee  State Senator Connie Johnson was the Democratic nominee 

Oregon
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeff Merkley was narrowly elected with 49% of the vote in 2008  Merkley was running for a second term  State representative Jason Conger, attorney Tim Crawley, IT consultant Mark Callahan, neurosurgeon Dr  Monica Wehby, and former Linn County Republican Chair Jo Rae Perkins all ran for the Republican nomination, with Wehby ultimately winning the nomination in the May 20 primary 

Rhode Island
Three-term incumbent Democrat Jack Reed had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Reed defeated Republican nominee Mark Zaccaria in the 2014 election 

South Carolina
There were 2 elections in South Carolina, due to the resignation of Jim DeMint 

South Carolina (regular)
Two-term Republican Lindsey Graham had been re-elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Graham won the Republican nomination over a field that included state senator Lee Bright  State Senator Brad Hutto won the Democratic nomination 

South Carolina (special)
Jim DeMint had been elected to a second term in 2010, but resigned from the Senate in January 2013 to become president of The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank  Governor Nikki Haley appointed Congressman Tim Scott as DeMint's replacement  Scott, an African-American, was the Republican nominee to serve out the remainder of DeMint's term  Scott is the first African-American Republican since shortly after Reconstruction to represent a Southern state  Richland County Councilwoman Joyce Dickerson won the Democratic nomination 

South Dakota
Three-term incumbent Democrat Tim Johnson had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Johnson announced on March 26, 2013, that he would not run for re-election  Former Congressional aide Rick Weiland was the Democratic nominee Among Republicans, former two-term Governor Mike Rounds announced his candidacy for the GOP nomination on November 29, 2012  Rounds won the Republican nomination over state senator Larry Rhoden, state representative Stace Nelson, and physician Annette Bosworth Former Republican U S  Senator Larry Pressler and Republican State Senator Gordon Howie ran as independents  Pressler did not commit to caucusing with either party, while Howie said he would caucus with the Senate Republicans 

Tennessee
Two-term incumbent Republican Lamar Alexander had been re-elected with 65% of the vote in 2008  Alexander sought re-election to a third term  On August 7, 2014, Alexander won the Republican nomination over six challengers, including State Representative Joe Carr On November 4, 2014, Alexander faced Democratic nominee Gordon Ball, Libertarian Party nominee Joshua James, Constitution Party nominee Joe Wilmothm, and independent Danny Page also ran in the general election 

Texas
Two-term incumbent Republican John Cornyn, the Senate Minority Whip, had been re-elected with 55% of the vote in 2008  Cornyn sought re-election, and won the 2014 Republican primary with 59% of the vote  David Alameel, a dentist, and Kesha Rogers, a volunteer for The Lyndon LaRouche Policy Institute, faced each other in a run-off election for the Democratic nomination  Alameel won the run-off and was the Democratic nominee 

Virginia
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Warner had been elected with 65% of the vote in 2008; he sought re-election  Ed Gillespie, former RNC Chairman and presidential adviser, ran for the Republican nomination  Robert Sarvis, the Libertarian nominee for Governor in 2013, also ran 

West Virginia
Five-term incumbent Democrat Jay Rockefeller had been re-elected with 64% of the vote in 2008  He announced on January 11, 2013, that he would not seek re-election to a sixth term  Secretary of State Natalie Tennant won the Democratic nomination On November 26, 2012, Republican Congresswoman Shelley Moore Capito announced her plans to run for the seat, in hopes of becoming the first Republican Senator elected from West Virginia since 1956  Moore Capito won the Republican nomination and the general election, the first woman to serve as United States Senator from West Virginia 

Wyoming
Three-term incumbent Republican Mike Enzi had been re-elected with 76% of the vote in 2008  Enzi sought re-election  Liz Cheney, daughter of former Vice President Dick Cheney, briefly entered the race for the Republican nomination, but dropped her bid in January 2014  On August 19, Enzi won the Republican primary election with 82% of the vote, and Democrat Charlie Hardy, a former Catholic priest, won his party's primary election with 48% of the vote 

See also
2014 United States elections
2014 United States gubernatorial elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
113th United States Congress
114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 3:
Standing Rules of the United States Senate
The Standing Rules of the Senate are the parliamentary procedures adopted by the United States Senate that govern its procedure  The Senate's power to establish rules derives from Article One, Section 5 of the United States Constitution: "Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings    "
There are currently forty-five rules, with the latest revision adopted on January 24, 2013  The most recent addition of a new rule occurred in 2006, when The Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006 introduced a 44th rule on earmarks  The stricter rules are often waived by unanimous consent 

Outline of rules
Quorum
The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business  Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed to be present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise  Any senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present  In practice, senators almost always request quorum calls not to establish the presence of a quorum, but to temporarily delay proceedings without having to adjourn the session  Such a delay may serve one of many purposes; often, it allows Senate leaders to negotiate compromises off the floor or to allow senators time to come to the Senate floor to make speeches without having to constantly be present in the chamber while waiting for the opportunity  Once the need for a delay has ended, any senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call 

Debate
The Senate is presided over by the Presiding Officer, either the President of the Senate (the Vice President) or more often the President pro tempore (in special cases the Chief Justice presides)  During debates, senators may speak only if called upon by the Presiding Officer  The Presiding Officer is, however, required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak  Thus, the Presiding Officer has little control over the course of debate  Customarily, the majority leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates, even if another senator rises first  All speeches must be addressed to the Presiding Officer, using the words "Mr  President" or "Madam President"  Only the Presiding Officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person  In most cases, senators refer to each other not by name, but by state, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia" or "the junior senator from California" 
There are very few restrictions on the content of speeches, and there is no requirement that speeches be germane to the matter before the Senate 
The Senate Rules provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day (a legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends when it adjourns; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day)  The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please  Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits  In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute  In general, however, the right to unlimited debate is preserved 

Filibuster
The filibuster is an obstructionary tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely  A filibuster may entail, but does not actually require, long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments  The longest filibuster speech in the history of the Senate was delivered by Strom Thurmond, who spoke for over twenty-four hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957  The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture  In most cases, cloture requires the support of three-fifths of the Senate  Cloture is invoked very rarely, particularly because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority  If the Senate does invoke cloture, debate does not end immediately; instead, further debate is limited to thirty additional hours unless increased by another three-fifths vote 

Closed session
On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session  During a closed session, the chamber doors are closed and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or not essential to the session  Closed sessions are rare and are usually held only under certain circumstances in which the Senate is discussing sensitive subject matter, such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or discussions of Senate deliberations during impeachment trials  Any Senator has the right to call a closed session as long as the motion is seconded 

Voting
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote  In many cases, the Senate votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye!" (in favor of the motion) or "No!" (against the motion)  The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote  Any senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer's assessment and request a recorded vote  The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one-fifth of the senators present  In practice, however, senators second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy  When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; each senator responds when their name is called  Senators who miss the roll call may still cast a vote as long as the recorded vote remains open  The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer but must remain open for a minimum of fifteen minutes  If the vote is tied, the Vice President, if present, is entitled to a casting vote  If the Vice President is not present, however, the motion is resolved in the negative 

Committees
Tasks in the Senate are divided among sixteen standing committees, four select committees, four joint committees, and occasionally temporary committees  Senate rules establish the policy jurisdictions of each committee; for example, the Committee on Foreign Relations deals with all matters relating to foreign policy  Committees act, in effect, as "little legislatures", monitoring ongoing governmental operations, identifying issues suitable for legislative review, gathering and evaluating information, and recommending courses of action to their parent body in matters relating to their jurisdiction  Senate rules give committees significant gatekeeping authority over legislation that falls under their jurisdiction, with proposed bills submitted to the relevant committee, which can hold hearings, "mark up" bills, consolidate bills into a "clean bill", or ignore the bill altogether (there exist some workarounds for Senators to circumvent committees, but in general Senators work through the committee system) The size of each standing committee is established by Senate rules  The makeup of committees are established through inter-party negotiations before each new Congress, with the percentage of a party's representation within the Senate determining the percentage of seats it will have on each committee 

Reconciliation
Legislation affecting spending, revenues, and the federal debt limit is governed under a special rules process called "Reconciliation" that prohibits filibusters by limiting debate to twenty hours  Congress can pass up to three reconciliation bills per year, with each bill addressing one of the topics of reconciliation (revenue, spending, or the debt limit)  However, if Congress passes a reconciliation bill affecting more than one of those topics, it cannot pass another reconciliation bill later in the year affecting one of the topics addressed by the previous reconciliation bill  In practice, reconciliation bills have usually been passed once per year at most  Reconciliation cannot be used to enact or rescind discretionary spending (which is controlled through the annual appropriations process) or adjust Social Security spending, and is limited by the Byrd Rule, which allows senators to block provisions that are "extraneous" to spending, revenues, or the debt limit Reconciliation was created by the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, and significantly altered with the introduction of the Byrd Rule in 1985 (amended in 1990)  Originally infrequently used (it did not see first use until 1980) 

Nominations
Selected public positions in the United States are appointed by the president but require Senate approval  Senate rule XXXI governs the Senate process for considering the president's nominations 
For most positions the nomination is passed first to a Senate committee for review  Generally it is the Senate committee with jurisdiction over the topic or department related to the position to be filled A public hearing by the committee is possible  Historically about half of civilian appointees were approved without a hearing  After consideration, the committee can report a favorable recommendation, or an unfavorable recommendation, or it can report no recommendation  It can also fail to act  To simplify the process, and with the support of the committee, the Senate by unanimous consent might discharge a nomination from the committee without the committee having acted It is up to the leadership of the Senate to then place the nomination on the Senate calendar for a vote in executive session  Some nominations are passed by unanimous consent  The leadership may delay putting a nomination on the calendar, in which case it may not be acted upon 

Nomination Time Limit
Paragraph 6 of rule XXXI specifies that if final action has not been taken before Congress adjourns the nomination is returned to the President  By the same rule nominations are returned when the Senate goes into recess for more than 30 days  However, in modern practice some nominations may stay active over long recesses if the Senate holds pro forma sessions during recess or agrees to suspend the rule by unanimous consent  When a nomination is returned without action, the president may nominate a different person or re-nominate the same person 

Rules by number
There are currently forty-four Standing Rules of the Senate:
SR Rule I: Appointment of a Senator to the Chair
SR Rule II: Presentation of Credentials and Questions of Privilege
SR Rule III: Oaths
SR Rule IV: Commencement of Daily Sessions
SR Rule V: Suspension and Amendment of the Rules
SR Rule VI: Quorum – Absent Senators May Be Sent For
SR Rule VII: Morning Business
SR Rule VIII: Order of Business
SR Rule IX: Messages
SR Rule X: Special Orders
SR Rule XI: Papers – Withdrawal, Printing, Reading of, and Reference
SR Rule XII: Voting Procedure
SR Rule XIII: Reconsideration
SR Rule XIV: Joint Resolutions, and Preambles Thereto
SR Rule XV: Amendments and Resolutions
SR Rule XVI: Appropriations and Amendments to General Appropriation Bills
SR Rule XVII: Reference to Committees; Motions to Discharge; Reports of Committees; and Hearings Available
SR Rule XVIII: Business Continued from Session to Session
SR Rule XIX: Debate
SR Rule XX: Questions for Order
SR Rule XXI: Session with Closed Doors
SR Rule XXII: Precedence of Motions
SR Rule XXIII: Privilege of the Floor
SR Rule XXIV: Appointments of Committee
SR Rule XXV: Standing Committees
SR Rule XXVI: Committee Procedure
SR Rule XXVII: Committee Staff
SR Rule XXVIII: Conference Committees; Reports; Open Meetings
SR Rule XXIX: Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXX: Executive Session – Proceedings on Treaties
SR Rule XXXI: Executive Session – Proceedings on Nominations
SR Rule XXXII: The President Furnished with Copies of Record Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXXIII: Senate Chamber – Senate Wing of the Capitol
SR Rule XXXIV: Public Financial Disclosure
SR Rule XXXV: Gifts
SR Rule XXXVI: Outside Earned Income
SR Rule XXXVII: Conflict of Interest
SR Rule XXXVIII: Prohibition of Unofficial Office Accounts
SR Rule XXXIX: Foreign Travel
SR Rule XL: Franking Privilege and Radio and Television Studios
SR Rule XLI: Political Fund Activity; Definitions
SR Rule XLII: Employment Practices
SR Rule XLIII: Representation by Members
SR Rule XLIV: Congressionally Directed Spending and Related ItemsThe latest change was the introduction in 2006 of a 44th rule on earmarks, by the Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act 
Passage 4:
Majority leader
In U S  politics (as well as in some other countries utilizing the presidential system), the majority floor leader is a partisan position in a legislative body 

United States
In the federal Congress of the United States, the roles of the House Majority Leader and the Senate Majority Leader differ slightly  At the state level, the majority leader of a given state legislative chamber usually performs a similar role to that of their federal counterpart 

Senate
In the Senate, the Vice President of the United States is officially the President of the Senate and the President pro tempore serves as the President of the Senate in the absence of the Vice President  However, in reality, the Vice President seldom enters the Senate, let alone directly presides over the chamber, unless a tied vote is expected, and the President pro tempore has become a ceremonial role deprived of any leadership ability 
Thus, the Majority Leader is seen as the de facto leader of the Senate, especially in modern times, and thus, in accordance with Senate rules, the Presiding Officer of the day gives the Majority Leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate and they determine which bills get voted on  The Majority Leader is seen as the chief spokesperson for their party in the Senate In the United States Senate, the current Majority Leader is Chuck Schumer, who assumed the office on January 20, 2021 

House of Representatives
In the House of Representatives the Majority Leader's presence and power often depends on the session  In some sessions, the Majority Leader takes precedence over the Speaker as House leader and legislative party leader either by force (which usually occurs when the Speaker of the House is unpopular) or because the Speaker of the House voluntarily surrenders power to the Majority Leader  In most sessions, the Speaker of the House takes precedence as house leader and party leader, with the Majority Leader being irrelevant and largely powerless outside the fact they might be Speaker of the House one day  Except, of course, for the fact that The Majority Leader (as well as the Speaker and the Minority Leader) are the only members of the House that can speak on the floor for an unlimited amount of time and cannot be interrupted by the chair 
In the United States House of Representatives, the current Majority Leader is Steve Scalise, who assumed office on January 3, 2023 

See also
Floor leader
Minority leader
Passage 5:
Party leaders of the United States Senate
The positions of majority leader and minority leader are held by two United States senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate  They serve as the chief spokespersons for their respective political parties holding the majority and the minority in the United States Senate  They are each elected as majority leader and minority leader by the senators of their party caucuses: the Senate Democratic Caucus and the Senate Republican Conference 
By Senate precedent, the presiding officer gives the majority leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate  The majority leader serves as the chief representative of their party in the Senate, and is considered the most powerful member of the Senate  They also serve as the chief representative of their party in the entire Congress if the House of Representatives, and thus the office of the speaker of the House, is controlled by the opposition party  The Senate's executive and legislative business is also managed and scheduled by the majority leader                                                        
The assistant majority leader and assistant minority leader of the United States Senate, commonly called whips, are the second-ranking members of each party's leadership  The main function of the majority and minority whips is to gather votes of their respective parties on major issues  As the second-ranking members of Senate leadership, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader 

Current floor leaders
The Senate is currently composed of 49 Republicans, 48 Democrats, and 3 independents; all the independents caucus with the Democrats 
The current leaders are Senators Chuck Schumer (D) of New York and Mitch McConnell (R) of Kentucky  The current assistant leaders, or whips, are Senators Dick Durbin (D) of Illinois and John Thune (R) of South Dakota 

History
By at least 1850, parties in each chamber of Congress began naming chairs, and while conference and caucus chairs carried very little authority, the Senate party floor leader positions arose from the position of conference chair  Senate Democrats began the practice of electing their floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority  John W  Kern was a Democratic senator from Indiana  While the title was not official, the Senate website identifies Kern as the first Senate party leader, serving in that capacity from 1913 through 1917 (and in turn, the first Senate Democratic leader), while serving concurrently as chairman of the Senate Democratic Caucus  In 1925, the Republicans (who were in the majority at the time) also adopted this language when Charles Curtis became the first (official) majority leader, although his immediate predecessor Henry Cabot Lodge is considered the first (unofficial) Senate majority leader 
The United States Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as president of the Senate  The Constitution also calls for a president pro tempore, to serve as the presiding officer when the president of the Senate (the vice president) is absent  In practice, neither the vice president nor the president pro tempore—customarily the most senior (longest-serving) senator in the majority party—actually presides over the Senate on a daily basis; that task is given to junior Senators of the majority party  Since the vice president may be of a different party from the majority and is not a Senate member subject to discipline, the rules of procedure of the Senate give the Vice President no power beyond the presiding role  For these reasons, it is the majority leader who, in practice, manages the Senate  This is in contrast to the House of Representatives, where the elected speaker of the House has a great deal of discretionary power and generally presides over votes on legislative bills 

List of party leaders
The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920  The Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925 

See also
Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives
President pro tempore of the United States Senate
Vice President of the United States (President of the United States Senate)
Party divisions of United States Congresses
List of political parties in the United States

Notes
Passage 6:
Party leaders of the United States Senate
The positions of majority leader and minority leader are held by two United States senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate  They serve as the chief spokespersons for their respective political parties holding the majority and the minority in the United States Senate  They are each elected as majority leader and minority leader by the senators of their party caucuses: the Senate Democratic Caucus and the Senate Republican Conference 
By Senate precedent, the presiding officer gives the majority leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate  The majority leader serves as the chief representative of their party in the Senate, and is considered the most powerful member of the Senate  They also serve as the chief representative of their party in the entire Congress if the House of Representatives, and thus the office of the speaker of the House, is controlled by the opposition party  The Senate's executive and legislative business is also managed and scheduled by the majority leader                                                        
The assistant majority leader and assistant minority leader of the United States Senate, commonly called whips, are the second-ranking members of each party's leadership  The main function of the majority and minority whips is to gather votes of their respective parties on major issues  As the second-ranking members of Senate leadership, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader 

Current floor leaders
The Senate is currently composed of 49 Republicans, 48 Democrats, and 3 independents; all the independents caucus with the Democrats 
The current leaders are Senators Chuck Schumer (D) of New York and Mitch McConnell (R) of Kentucky  The current assistant leaders, or whips, are Senators Dick Durbin (D) of Illinois and John Thune (R) of South Dakota 

History
By at least 1850, parties in each chamber of Congress began naming chairs, and while conference and caucus chairs carried very little authority, the Senate party floor leader positions arose from the position of conference chair  Senate Democrats began the practice of electing their floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority  John W  Kern was a Democratic senator from Indiana  While the title was not official, the Senate website identifies Kern as the first Senate party leader, serving in that capacity from 1913 through 1917 (and in turn, the first Senate Democratic leader), while serving concurrently as chairman of the Senate Democratic Caucus  In 1925, the Republicans (who were in the majority at the time) also adopted this language when Charles Curtis became the first (official) majority leader, although his immediate predecessor Henry Cabot Lodge is considered the first (unofficial) Senate majority leader 
The United States Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as president of the Senate  The Constitution also calls for a president pro tempore, to serve as the presiding officer when the president of the Senate (the vice president) is absent  In practice, neither the vice president nor the president pro tempore—customarily the most senior (longest-serving) senator in the majority party—actually presides over the Senate on a daily basis; that task is given to junior Senators of the majority party  Since the vice president may be of a different party from the majority and is not a Senate member subject to discipline, the rules of procedure of the Senate give the Vice President no power beyond the presiding role  For these reasons, it is the majority leader who, in practice, manages the Senate  This is in contrast to the House of Representatives, where the elected speaker of the House has a great deal of discretionary power and generally presides over votes on legislative bills 

List of party leaders
The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920  The Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925 

See also
Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives
President pro tempore of the United States Senate
Vice President of the United States (President of the United States Senate)
Party divisions of United States Congresses
List of political parties in the United States

Notes
Passage 7:
2010 United States House of Representatives elections
The 2010 United States House of Representatives elections were held on November 2, 2010, as part of the 2010 midterm elections during President Barack Obama's first term in office  Voters of the 50 U S  states chose 435 U S  Representatives to serve in the 112th United States Congress  Also, voters of the U S  territories, commonwealths and District of Columbia chose their non-voting delegates  U S  Senate elections and various state and local elections were held on the same date 
Republicans regained control of the U S  House they had lost in the 2006 midterm election, picking up a net total of 63 seats and erasing the gains Democrats made in 2006 and 2008  Although the sitting President's party usually loses seats in a midterm election, the 2010 election resulted in the highest losses by a party in a House midterm election since 1938, as well as the largest House swing since 1948  In total, 52 House Democrats were defeated, including 34 freshman and sophomore representatives 
Republicans made their largest gain in House seats since 1938  Three Democratic committee chairmen were defeated: transportation chairman Jim Oberstar of Minnesota, armed services chairman Ike Skelton of Missouri, and budget chairman John Spratt of South Carolina  Democrats made three pick-ups, winning an open seat in Delaware and defeating Republican incumbents in Hawaii and Louisiana 
The heavy Democratic Party losses in 2010 were attributed to anger at President Obama, opposition to the Affordable Care Act and American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, large budget deficits, and the weak economy As of 2023, this is the last election in which Democrats won a seat in Arkansas 

Background
Following the 2006 elections, Democrats took control of the House as well as the Senate  In the 2008 elections, which coincided with Democrat Barack Obama's victory over Republican John McCain for the presidency, Democrats increased their majorities in both chambers  Of the 435 congressional districts, 242 were carried by Obama, while 193 voted for McCain  Of the districts Obama won, 34 elected a Republican to the House, while 49 of the districts McCain won elected a Democrat 

Republican gains
The Republicans' 63-seat pickup in the House to take control of that chamber, as well as their gain of six Senate seats, signified a dramatic rollback of recent Democratic gains  In the election, Republicans won their greatest number of House seats since 1946  This has been attributed to the continued economic recession, as well as President Obama's controversial stimulus and health care reform bills  Republicans also took control of 29 of the 50 state governorships and gained 690 seats in state legislatures, to hold their greatest number since the 1928 elections Republicans also made historic gains in state legislatures, adding more than 675 state legislative seats, by far surpassing their state-legislative gains in 1994  Republicans gained control of dozens of state legislative chambers, and took control of "seven more legislatures outright than they did after 1994 and the most since 1952 " Republicans picked up control of the Alabama Legislature for the first time since Reconstruction; control of the North Carolina Senate for the first time since 1870; and control of the Minnesota Senate for the first time since the state returned to partisan elections in 1974 The Great Lakes region, which until then had recently favored the Democratic Party, went strongly Republican  In California and the Pacific Northwest, however, the Democrats retained the upper hand  The biggest change in 2010 occurred in the Southeastern United States, which had previously been roughly evenly split between Democrats and Republicans for everything except for president  Just one white Democrat from the Deep South won reelection to the US House in 2010  Prior to 2010, many white conservative southerners had voted Republican for president, but Democratic for other offices 

Results summary
Federal
Sources: House Clerk – Statistics of the Congressional Election, 2010

Voter demographics
Source: CNN exit poll

Retiring incumbents
37 incumbents retired 

Democrats
17 incumbent Democrats retired 

Alabama 7: Artur Davis: To run for Governor of Alabama 
Arkansas 1: Marion Berry: Retired due to health concerns 
Arkansas 2: Vic Snyder: Retired to spend more time with family 
California 33: Diane Watson: Retired; "It should be a seat inherited by someone who can represent everyone in this district "
Florida 17: Kendrick Meek: To run for U S  Senator 
Indiana 8: Brad Ellsworth: To run for U S  Senator 
Kansas 3: Dennis Moore: Retired; "Time for a new generation of leadership "
Louisiana 3: Charlie Melançon: To run for U S  Senator 
Massachusetts 10: Bill Delahunt: Retired; "Life is about change  I think it's healthy  It's time "
Michigan 1: Bart Stupak: Retired; "I've accomplished what I want to do "
New Hampshire 2: Paul Hodes: To run for U S  Senator 
Pennsylvania 7: Joe Sestak: To run for U S  Senator 
Rhode Island 1: Patrick J  Kennedy: Retired to "[take] a new direction "
Tennessee 6: Bart Gordon: Retired; "…it's time for a new chapter "
Tennessee 8: John S  Tanner: Retired; decided 20 years was long enough 
Washington 3: Brian Baird: Retired, to pursue other options 
Wisconsin 7: Dave Obey: Retired; "But even more frankly, I am bone tired " Media reports indicated Obey's future plans included joining a DC lobbying firm run by former Representative Dick Gephardt 

Republicans
19 incumbent Republicans retired 

Arkansas 3: John Boozman: to run for U S  Senator 
Arizona 3: John Shadegg: to pursue other interests 
California 19: George Radanovich: to put family obligations first 
Delaware at-large: Mike Castle: to run for U S  Senator 
Florida 5: Ginny Brown-Waite: due to health issues 
Florida 12: Adam Putnam: to run for Florida Commissioner of Agriculture 
Florida 21: Lincoln Díaz-Balart: to return to law practice 
Georgia 7: John Linder
Illinois 10: Mark Kirk: to run for U S  Senator 
Indiana 4: Steve Buyer: due to wife's illness
Kansas 1: Jerry Moran: to run for U S  Senator 
Kansas 4: Todd Tiahrt: to run for U S  Senator 
Michigan 2: Pete Hoekstra: to run for Governor of Michigan 
Michigan 3: Vern Ehlers
Missouri 7: Roy Blunt: to run for U S  Senator 
Oklahoma 5: Mary Fallin: to run for Governor of Oklahoma 
South Carolina 1: Henry E  Brown Jr : to spend more time with his family 
South Carolina 3: Gresham Barrett: to run for Governor of South Carolina 
Tennessee 3: Zach Wamp: to run for Governor of Tennessee 

Incumbents defeated
There were nine Democrats who survived reelection in the 1994 Republican Revolution, but were defeated this year 

Lost renomination
Democrats
Two Democrats lost renomination  One seat was held by Democrats, while the other flipped to Republicans 

Michigan 13: Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick lost to Hansen Clarke 
West Virginia 1: Alan Mollohan lost to Mike Oliverio, who lost the general election to David McKinley 

Republicans
Two Republicans lost renomination  Both seats were eventually held by Republicans 

Alabama 5: Parker Griffith (first elected in 2008 as a Democrat; switched parties in 2009) lost to Mo Brooks 
South Carolina 4: Bob Inglis lost to Trey Gowdy 

Lost re-election
54 incumbents lost in the general election; all but two were Democrats  Many of the Democrats who lost had been initially elected in the Democratic wave years of 2006 and 2008, and several others were longtime incumbents from the southeast 

Democrats
52 Democrats lost re-election 

Alabama 2, Bobby Bright (first elected in 2008) lost to Martha Roby
Arizona 1, Ann Kirkpatrick (first elected in 2008) lost to Paul Gosar
Arizona 5, Harry Mitchell (first elected in 2006) lost to David Schweikert
Colorado 3, John Salazar (first elected in 2004) lost to Scott Tipton
Colorado 4, Betsy Markey (first elected in 2008) lost to Cory Gardner
Florida 2, Allen Boyd (first elected in 1996) lost to Steve Southerland
Florida 8, Alan Grayson (first elected in 2008) lost to Daniel Webster
Florida 22, Ron Klein (first elected in 2006) lost to Allen West
Florida 24, Suzanne Kosmas (first elected in 2008) lost to Sandy Adams
Georgia 8, Jim Marshall (first elected in 2002) lost to Austin Scott
Idaho 1, Walt Minnick (first elected in 2008) lost to Raúl Labrador
Illinois 8, Melissa Bean (first elected in 2004) lost to Joe Walsh
Illinois 11, Debbie Halvorson (first elected in 2008) lost to Adam Kinzinger
Illinois 14, Bill Foster (first elected in 2008) lost to Randy Hultgren
Illinois 17, Phil Hare (first elected in 2006) lost to Bobby Schilling
Indiana 9, Baron Hill (originally elected in 1998) lost to Todd Young
Maryland 1, Frank Kratovil (first elected in 2008) lost to Andrew P  Harris
Michigan 7, Mark Schauer (first elected in 2008) lost to Tim Walberg
Minnesota 8, Jim Oberstar (first elected in 1974) lost to Chip Cravaack
Mississippi 1, Travis Childers (first elected in 2008) lost to Alan Nunnelee
Mississippi 4, Gene Taylor (first elected in 1989) lost to Steven Palazzo
Missouri 4, Ike Skelton (first elected in 1976) lost to Vicky Hartzler
Nevada 3, Dina Titus (first elected in 2008) lost to Joe Heck
New Hampshire 1, Carol Shea-Porter (first elected in 2006) lost to Frank Guinta
New Jersey 3, John Adler (first elected in 2008) lost to Jon Runyan
New Mexico 2, Harry Teague (first elected in 2008) lost to Steve Pearce
New York 13, Michael McMahon (first elected in 2008) lost to Michael Grimm
New York 19, John Hall (first elected in 2006) lost to Nan Hayworth
New York 20, Scott Murphy (first elected in 2009) lost to Chris Gibson
New York 24, Mike Arcuri (first elected in 2006) lost to Richard L  Hanna
New York 25, Dan Maffei (first elected in 2008) lost to Ann Marie Buerkle
North Carolina 2, Bob Etheridge (first elected in 1996) lost to Renee Ellmers
North Dakota at-large, Earl Pomeroy (first elected in 1992) lost to Rick Berg
Ohio 1, Steve Driehaus (first elected in 2008) lost to Steve Chabot
Ohio 6, Charlie Wilson (first elected in 2006) lost to Bill Johnson
Ohio 15, Mary Jo Kilroy (first elected in 2008) lost to Steve Stivers
Ohio 16, John Boccieri (first elected in 2008) lost to Jim Renacci
Ohio 18, Zack Space (first elected in 2006) lost to Bob Gibbs
Pennsylvania 3, Kathy Dahlkemper (first elected in 2008) lost to Mike Kelly
Pennsylvania 8, Patrick Murphy (first elected in 2006) lost to Mike Fitzpatrick
Pennsylvania 10, Chris Carney (first elected in 2006) lost to Tom Marino
Pennsylvania 11, Paul E  Kanjorski (first elected in 1984) lost to Lou Barletta
South Carolina 5, John Spratt (first elected in 1982) lost to Mick Mulvaney
South Dakota at-large, Stephanie Herseth Sandlin (first elected in 2004) lost to Kristi Noem
Tennessee 4, Lincoln Davis (first elected in 2002) lost to Scott DesJarlais
Texas 17, Chet Edwards (first elected in 1990) lost to Bill Flores
Texas 23, Ciro Rodriguez (originally elected in 1996) lost to Quico Canseco
Texas 27, Solomon P  Ortiz (first elected in 1982) lost to Blake Farenthold
Virginia 2, Glenn Nye (first elected in 2008) lost to Scott Rigell
Virginia 5, Tom Perriello (first elected in 2008) lost to Robert Hurt
Virginia 9, Rick Boucher (first elected in 1982) lost to Morgan Griffith
Wisconsin 8, Steve Kagen (first elected in 2006) lost to Reid Ribble

Republicans
Two Republicans lost re-election 

Hawaii 1, Charles Djou (first elected in 2010) lost to Colleen Hanabusa
Louisiana 2, Joseph Cao (first elected in 2008) lost to Cedric Richmond

Open seats that changed parties
Democratic seats won by Republicans
14 open seats, held by Democrats, were won by Republicans 

Arkansas 1: Won by Rick Crawford
Arkansas 2: Won by Tim Griffin
Indiana 8: Won by Larry Bucshon
Kansas 3: Won by Kevin Yoder
Louisiana 3: Won by Jeff Landry
Michigan 1: Won by Dan Benishek
New Hampshire 2: Won by Charles Bass
New York 29: Won by Tom Reed
Pennsylvania 7: Won by Pat Meehan
Tennessee 6: Won by Diane Black
Tennessee 8: Won by Stephen Fincher
Washington 3: Won by Jaime Herrera Beutler
West Virginia 1: Won by David McKinley
Wisconsin 7: Won by Sean Duffy

Republican seats won by Democrats
One open seat, held by a Republican, was won by a Democrat 

Delaware at-large: Won by John Carney

Closest races
Eighty-four races were decided by 10% or lower 

Election ratings
Special elections
There were six special elections in 2010 to the 111th United States Congress, listed here by date and district 

Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Non-voting delegates
The House of Representatives includes five Delegates from the District of Columbia and outlying territories elected to two-year terms and one Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico elected to a four-year term (for which the last election was held in 2008, so the seat was not up for reelection in 2010)  These delegates are not allowed to vote on the floor of the House of Representatives 

See also
2010 United States elections
2010 United States gubernatorial elections
2010 United States Senate elections
111th United States Congress
112th United States Congress

Notes
Context 2: Passage 1:
Kabompo River
The Kabompo River is one of the main tributaries of the upper Zambezi River  It flows entirely in Zambia, rising to the east of the source of the Zambezi, in North-Western Province along the watershed between the Zambezi and Congo river basins which also forms the border between Zambia and DR Congo  It is the second deepest river in Africa and one of the top five in the world 

Geography
The Kabompo River flows south-west through miombo woodland, then a remote Cryptosepalum dry forest ecoregion, with the West Lunga National Park on its west bank  After flowing past the town of Kabompo, it develops a swampy floodplain up to 5 km wide  The Kabompo Ferry on its lower course carries the main north–south gravel highway on the eastern side of the Zambezi  The river enters the Zambezi north of the town of Lukulu, at the north end of the Barotse Floodplain  Its main tributaries are the Western Lunga River which flows from the north, and the Dongwe River from the east 

See also
List of rivers of Africa
Passage 2:
Chapare River
The Chapare River is a river in Bolivia, which is a tributary of the Mamoré River in the Amazon Basin  The river has its source at the confluence of Espíritu Santo River and San Mateo River in the Cochabamba Department at Villa Tunari  It is the main waterway of Chapare Province 

See also
Tunari National Park

External links
 Media related to Río Chapare at Wikimedia Commons

Chapare River Floods
Passage 3:
Rhonelle
The Rhonelle is a river of northern France  It is 32 km (20 mi) long  It is a right tributary of the Scheldt  Its source is near Locquignol  It flows generally northwest along Le Quesnoy, Villers-Pol and Famars  It flows into the Scheldt in Valenciennes 
Passage 4:
Utva River (Perm Krai)
The Utva (Russian: Утьва) is a river in Perm Krai, Russia, a right tributary of the Veslyana, which in turn is a tributary of the Kama  The river is 76 kilometres (47 mi) long, and its drainage basin covers 697 square kilometres (269 sq mi)  The source of the river is in the extreme southwest of the Gaynsky District of Perm Krai, near the border with Kirov Oblast and the Komi Republic  The main tributaries are the Chugrum (right) and the Yuzhnaya Anva (left) 
Passage 5:
Hushe River
The Hushe River is a tributary river to the Shyok River which itself is tributary to the Indus River  The main source of the Hushe River is the Gondogoro Glacier  Some streams also flow from other glaciers of the Hushe valley  The Hushe river joins with Saltoro River at Haldi village before joining the Shyok River  Both the Hushe and Saltoro rivers join the Shyok river at the Tsa thang Ghursa village 
Passage 6:
Loimijoki
The river Loimijoki is a river in Finland and the longest tributary of the river Kokemäenjoki  The river originates at the lake Pyhäjärvi in Tammela and joins the river Kokemäenjoki in Huittinen  There is a 54-metre (177 ft) difference in elevation between the source and the mouth of the river, which is 114 kilometres (71 mi) long  The river drains a catchment area of 3,140 square kilometres (1,210 sq mi)  The river has several dams at Forssa, Jokioinen and Loimaa The Loimijoki river runs through the most fertile lands of Finland making its water  relatively muddy  The river was badly polluted by sewage of industry and population centers along the river, but since the 1980s the river has been starting to recover and currently the river sees also recreational use like fishing and water sports 
Passage 7:
Kraai River
The Kraai River (literally "Crow River") is a tributary of the Orange River (also called Gariep River by locals) that flows near Barkly East in the Eastern Cape, South Africa 

The Kraai River originates in the mountains south of Lesotho and flows westward from the confluence of the Bell River and the Sterk Spruit at Moshesh's Ford at 30°51′09″S 27°46′40″E all the way to Aliwal North, where it joins the Orange River at 30°40′02″S 26°45′06″E The river flows almost entirely over sandstone rocks of the Clarens Formation 
The Kraai is fishable, containing rainbow trout, brown trout and smallmouth yellowfish 

In 1881
a sandstone arch bridge called the J W Sauer bridge was completed over the river   The bridge linked communities in the Kraai River basin with Aliwal North  The Sauer bridge and the Loch Bridge on the farm
Tyger Krantz, are now Provincial Heritage sites 

Major tributaries
Bell River and a tributary of the Bell, the Kloppershoek Spruit
Sterk Spruit, its tributaries are the Bok Spruit and Rifle Spruit
Joggem Spruit
Langkloof Spruit
Diep Spruit and its tributary, the Three Drifts Stream
Carlisleshoek Spruit and the Maartenshoek Spruit
Klein Wildebeest Spruit
Saalboom Spruit and its tributary, the Vaalhoek Spruit
Karnmelk Spruit

See also

List of rivers of South Africa
List of reservoirs and dams in South Africa
Passage 8:
Shaksgam River
The Shaksgam River (Chinese: 沙克思干河; pinyin: Shakesigan He, Hindi: शक्सगाम नदी, romanized: Shaksgām Nadi, Urdu: دریائے شکسگام, romanized: Daryá-e-Shaksgám) is a left tributary of the Yarkand River  The river is also known as the Kelechin River (Chinese: 克勒青河) and Muztagh River (Chinese: 穆斯塔格河)  It rises in the Gasherbrum, Urdok, Staghar, Singhi and Kyagar Glaciers in the Karakoram  It then flows in a general northwestern direction parallel to the Karakoram ridge line in  the Shaksgam Valley  It receives the waters of the Shimshal Braldu river and the Oprang river from the Pakistan-administered Hunza District before turning east and joining the Yarkand River  The stretch of the river's course between Shimshal Braldu and Oprang is used as the Pakistan–China border Administratively, the Chinese part of the valley is within the southernmost portions of Yarkand County (the source) and the Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County (lower course)  India claims the entire valley as part of its Jammu and Kashmir state, now part of Ladakh 

History
The river valley was explored in 1889 by Francis Younghusband (who referred to the Shaksgam as the Oprang) , and again in 1926 by Kenneth Mason, who confirmed the sources of the river 

Geography
The upper river valley is used by climbers approaching the north face of K2   The approach requires a crossing of the river, which is hazardous   Between its confluence with the Shimshal Braldu River and its confluence with the Oprang River the river forms the border between China and Pakistan administered Kashmir   The area is used as winter pastures by yak herdsmen from the village of Shimshal  Historically, the bed of the Yarkand river where Shaksgam joins it, was used for cultivation by farmers from the state of Hunza  The rulers of Hunza are said to have obtained these "territorial rights to Shaksgam" in the distant past The average annual temperature in the region can fall below freezing 

See also
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Dafdar
Yinsugaiti Glacier
Sarpo Laggo Glacier
Passage 9:
Neste (river)
The Neste (French pronunciation: ​[nɛst]; Occitan: Nestés) is a river in southern France, a left tributary of the Garonne  It is 73 1 km (45 4 mi) long  It rises from several sources around Saint-Lary-Soulan, central Pyrenees and flows through
the following departments and towns:

Hautes-Pyrénées: Saint-Lary-Soulan, Arreau, La Barthe-de-Neste
Haute-Garonne: MontréjeauTwo rivers, the Neste d'Aure and the Neste du Louron, join to form the Neste at Arreau  The Neste flows into the Garonne in Montréjeau 
Passage 10:
Bolshaya Lyampa
The Bolshaya Lyampa (Russian: Большая Лямпа) is a river in Perm Krai, Russia, a right tributary of the Uls which in turn is a tributary of the Vishera  The river is 34 kilometres (21 mi) long  Its source is near the border with Sverdlovsk Oblast  It flows into the Uls 55 kilometres (34 mi) from the larger river's mouth  The Bolshaya Lyampa's main tributary is the Malaya Lyampa 
Passage 11:
Raba (river)
The Raba is a river in the south of Poland (Lesser Poland Voivodeship), right tributary to the river Vistula  Its source is in the Beskids, between the towns of Rabka-Zdrój and Nowy Targ  It flows to the north and then to the northeast  Towns along the river Raba include Rabka-Zdrój, Mszana Dolna, Myślenice, Dobczyce and Bochnia 
For centuries, the Raba was an important artery, along which several towns and villages were established  Its name probably comes from Celtic languages, and the Raba is divided into three parts: the Upper Raba (60 kilometres [37 mi] long located in the Beskids), the Middle Raba (in the Carpathian Foothills), and the Lower Raba (in the Sandomierz Basin) 
The Raba has its source at the Sieniawa mountain pass, at the height of 750 metres (2,460 ft) above sea level  It flows into the Vistula near Uscie Solne, after 134 7 kilometres (83 7 mi), while the area of its drainage basin is  1,537 1 square kilometres (593 5 sq mi)  From its source downstream to the town of Myślenice, the Raba is a typical mountain river, with narrow valley, rock-covered bed, fast currents and big drops  Below Lake Dobczyce it retains its mountain features for several kilometers  The river has no tributaries for its last 19 kilometres (12 mi) 
The Raba marks the boundary between the Makow Beskids and the Island Beskids, as well as the boundary between the Wieliczka Foothills, and the Wisnicz Foothills  Its tributaries are mainly mountain streams, such as Poniczanka, Slonka, Krzyworzeka, Mszanka, Kasinianka, Kaczanka, Krzczonówka, Trzemesnianka, Stradomka, Babica 

See also
Rivers of Poland
1934 flood in Poland

Sources
Description of the Raba

External links
Fishing on the Raba
Kayaking on the Raba
Passage 12:
Congo River
The Congo River (Kongo: Nzâdi Kôngo, French: Fleuve Congo, Portuguese: Rio Congo), formerly also known as the Zaire River, is the second-longest river in Africa, shorter only than the Nile, as well as the third largest river in the world by discharge volume, following the Amazon and the Ganges rivers  It is also the world's deepest recorded river, with measured depths of around 220 m (720 ft)  The Congo-Lualaba-Chambeshi River system has an overall length of 4,700 km (2,900 mi), which makes it the world's ninth-longest river  The Chambeshi is a tributary of the Lualaba River, and Lualaba is the name of the Congo River upstream of Boyoma Falls, extending for 1,800 km (1,100 mi) 
Measured along with the Lualaba, the main tributary, the Congo River has a total length of 4,370 km (2,720 mi)  It is the only major river to cross the Equator twice  The Congo Basin has a total area of about 4,000,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi), or 13% of the entire African landmass 

Name
The name Congo/Kongo originates from the Kingdom of Kongo once located on the southern bank of the river  The kingdom in turn was named for the indigenous Bantu Kongo people, known in the 17th century as "Esikongo"  South of the Kingdom of Kongo proper lay the similarly named Kakongo kingdom, mentioned in 1535  Abraham Ortelius labeled "Manicongo" as the city at the mouth of the river in his world map of 1564  The tribal names in Kongo possibly derive from a word for a public gathering or tribal assembly  The modern name of the Kongo people or Bakongo was introduced in the early 20th century The name Zaire is from a Portuguese adaptation of a Kikongo word, nzere ("river"), a truncation of nzadi o nzere ("river swallowing rivers")  The river was known as Zaire during the 16th and 17th centuries; Congo seems to have replaced Zaire gradually in English usage during the 18th century, and Congo is the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to Zahir or Zaire as the name used by the inhabitants remained common  The Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo are named after it, as was the previous Republic of the Congo which had gained independence in 1960 from the Belgian Congo  The Republic of Zaire during 1971–1997 was also named after the river's name in French and Portuguese 

Basin and course
The Congo's drainage basin covers 4,014,500 km2 (1,550,000 sq mi), an area nearly equal to that of the European Union  The Congo's discharge at its mouth ranges from 23,000 to 75,000 m3/s (810,000 to 2,650,000 cu ft/s), with an average of 41,000 m3/s (1,400,000 cu ft/s)  The river transports annually 86 million tonnes of suspended sediment to the Atlantic Ocean and an additional 6% of bedload The river and its tributaries flow through the Congo rainforest, the second largest rainforest area in the world, after the Amazon rainforest in South America  The river also has the second-largest flow in the world, behind the Amazon; the second-largest drainage basin of any river, behind the Amazon; and is one of the deepest rivers in the world, at depths greater than 220 m (720 ft)  Because its drainage basin includes areas both north and south of the Equator, its flow is stable, as there is always at least one part of the river experiencing a rainy season The sources of the Congo are in the highlands and mountains of the East African Rift, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru, which feed the Lualaba River, which then becomes the Congo below Boyoma Falls  The Chambeshi River in Zambia is generally taken as the source of the Congo in line with the accepted practice worldwide of using the longest tributary, as with the Nile River 
The Congo flows generally toward the northwest from Kisangani just below the Boyoma Falls, then gradually bends southwestward, passing by Mbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River and running into the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool)  Kinshasa (formerly Léopoldville) and Brazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool, where the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons (collectively known as the Livingstone Falls), running by Matadi and Boma, and into the sea at Muanda 
Lower Congo constitutes the 'lower' parts of the great river; that is the section of the river from the river mouth at the Atlantic coast to the twin capitals of Brazzaville and Kinshasa  In this section of the river, there are two significant tributaries, both on the left or south side  The Kwilu River originates in the hills near the Angolan border and enters the Congo some 100 km upstream from Matadi  The other being the Inkisi River, that flows in a northerly direction from the Uíge Province in Angola to the confluence with the Congo at Zongo some 80 km downstream from the twin capitals  Because of the vast number of rapids, in particular the Livingstone Falls, this section of the river is not operated continuously by riverboats 

Drainage basin
The Congo basin covers ten countries and accounts for about 13% of Africa  The highest point in the Congo basin is in the Ruwenzori Mountains, at an altitude of around 4,340 m (14,240 ft) above sea level 

Distribution of the Congo basin area between countries:
The most important hydrological stations along the Congo river are:

Discharge
The Congo River discharge at Kinshasa/Brazzaville stations since the start of measurements (1902 to 2021):

Tributaries
The main river and tributaries are (sorted in order from the mouth heading upstream):

Lower Congo (river mouth to Kinshasa)
Downstream of Kinshasa, from the river mouth at Banana, there are a few major tributaries 

M'pozo (left)
Kwilu (left)
Inkisi (left)
Djoué (right)Middle Congo (Kinshasa to the Boyoma Falls)

Kwa-Kassai (left)
Fimi
Lukenie
Kwango
Kwilu
Sankuru
Alima (right)
Likouala-Mossaka (right)
Sangha (right)
Kadéï (570 km, 41,000 km², 466 m³/s)
Ubangi (right)
Mbomou
Uele
Tshuapa or Ruki (left)
Lulonga (left)
Lopori
Maringa
Mongala (right)
Itimbiri (right)
Aruwimi (right)
Lomami (left)
Lindi (right)Upper Congo (Lualaba; upstream from the Boyoma Falls)

Lowa (right)
Ulindi (right)
Elila (right)
Luama (right)
Lukuga (right)
Luvua (right)
Luapula (740 km, 173,386 km², 741 m³/s)
Chambeshi (500 km, 44,427 km², 185 m³/s)

Economic importance
Although the Livingstone Falls prevent access from the sea, nearly the entire Congo above them is readily navigable in sections, especially between Kinshasa and Kisangani  Large river steamers worked the river until quite recently  The Congo River still is a lifeline in a land with few roads or railways  Railways now bypass the three major falls, and much of the trade of Central Africa passes along the river, including copper, palm oil (as kernels), sugar, coffee, and cotton 

Hydroelectric power
The Congo River is the most powerful river in Africa  During the rainy season over 50,000 cubic metres (1,800,000 cu ft) of water per second flows into the Atlantic Ocean  Opportunities for the Congo River and its tributaries to generate hydropower are therefore enormous  Scientists have calculated that the entire Congo Basin accounts for 13 percent of global hydropower potential  This would provide sufficient power for all of Sub-Saharan Africa's electricity needs Currently, there are about 40 hydropower plants in the Congo Basin  The largest are the Inga dams, about 200 kilometres (120 mi) southwest of Kinshasa  The project was launched in the early 1970s, when the first dam was completed  The plan (as originally conceived) called for the construction of five dams that would have had a total generating capacity of 34,500 megawatts (MW)  To date only the Inga I and Inga II dams have been built, generating 1,776 MW In February 2005, South Africa's state-owned power company, Eskom, announced a proposal to expand generation through improvements and the construction of a new hydroelectric dam  The project would bring the maximum output of the facility to 40,000 megawatt (GW)  It is feared that these new hydroelectric dams could lead to the extinction of many of the fish species that are native to the river 

Natural history
The current course of the Congo River formed between 1 5 and 2 million years BP, during the Pleistocene  It is likely that during this period many upper tributaries of the Congo were captured from adjacent river basins, including the Uele and upper Ubangi from the Chari system and the Chambeshi River alongside a number of upper Kasai River tributaries from the Zambezi system The Congo's formation may have led to the allopatric speciation of the bonobo and the common chimpanzee from their most recent common ancestor  The bonobo is endemic to the humid forests in the region, as are other iconic species like the Allen's swamp monkey, dryas monkey, aquatic genet, okapi, and Congo peafowl In terms of aquatic life, the Congo River Basin has a very high species richness and among the highest known densities of endemics  As of 2009, almost 800 fish species have been recorded from the Congo River Basin (not counting Lake Tanganyika, which is connected but ecologically very different), and large sections remain virtually unstudied  For example, the section in Salonga National Park, which is about the size of Belgium, had still not been sampled at all in 2006  New fish species are scientifically described with some regularity from the Congo River Basin, and many undescribed species are known The Congo has by far the highest diversity of any African river system; in comparison, the next richest are the Niger, Volta and Nile with about 240, 140 and 130 fish species, respectively  Because of the great ecological differences between the regions in the Congo basin —including habitats such as river rapids, deep rivers, swamps, and lakes— it is often divided into multiple ecoregions (instead of treating it as a single ecoregion)  Among these ecoregions, the Livingstone Falls cataracts has more than 300 fish species, including approximately 80 endemics while the southwestern part (Kasai River basin) has more than 200 fish species, of which about a quarter are endemic The dominant fish families – at least in parts of the river – are Cyprinidae (carp/cyprinids, such as Labeo simpsoni), Mormyridae (elephant fishes), Alestidae (African tetras), Mochokidae (squeaker catfishes), and Cichlidae (cichlids)  Among the natives in the river is the huge, highly carnivorous giant tigerfish  Three of the more unusual endemics are the whitish (non-pigmented) and blind Lamprologus lethops, which is believed to live as deep as 160 metres (520 ft) below the surface, Heterochromis multidens, which is more closely related to cichlids of the Americas than other African cichlids, and Caecobarbus geertsii, the only known cavefish in Central Africa  There are also numerous endemic frogs and snails  Several hydroelectric dams are planned on the river, and these may lead to the extinction of many of the endemics Several species of turtles and the slender-snouted, Nile and dwarf crocodile are native to the Congo River Basin  African manatees inhabit the lower parts of the river 

History
Pre-colonial history
The entire Congo basin is populated by Bantu peoples, divided into several hundred ethnic groups  Bantu expansion is estimated to have reached the middle Congo by about 500 BC and the upper Congo by the first century AD  Remnants of the aboriginal population displaced by the Bantu migration, Pygmies/Abatwa of the Ubangian phylum, remain in the remote forest areas of the Congo Basin 
The Kingdom of Kongo was formed in the late 14th century from a merging of the kingdoms of Mpemba Kasi and Mbata Kingdom on the left banks of the lower Congo River  Its territorial control along the river remained limited to what corresponds to the modern Kongo Central province  European exploration of the Congo began in 1482 when Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão discovered the river estuary (likely in August 1482), which he marked by a Padrão, or stone pillar (still existing, but only in fragments) erected on Shark Point  Cão sailed up the river for a short distance, establishing contact with the Kingdom of Kongo  The full course of the river remained unknown throughout the early modern period The upper Congo basin runs west of the Albertine Rift  Its connection to the Congo was unknown until 1877  The extreme northeast of the Congo basin was reached by the Nilotic expansion at some point between the 15th and 18th centuries, by the ancestors of the Southern Luo speaking Alur people  Francisco de Lacerda followed the Zambezi and reached the uppermost part of the Congo basin (the Kazembe in the upper Luapula basin) in 1796 
The upper Congo River was first reached by the Arab slave trade by the 19th century  Nyangwe was founded as a slavers' outpost around 1860  David Livingstone was the first European to reach Nyangwe in March 1871  Livingstone proposed to prove that the Lualaba connected to the Nile, but on 15 July, he witnessed a massacre of about 400 Africans by Arab slavers in Nyangwe, which experience left him too horrified and shattered to continue his mission to find the sources of the Nile, so he turned back to Lake Tanganyika 

Early European colonization
The Europeans had not reached the central regions of the Congo basin from either the east or west, until Henry Morton Stanley's expedition of 1876–77, supported by the Committee for Studies of the Upper Congo  At the time one of the last open questions of the European exploration of Africa was whether the Lualaba River fed the Nile (Livingstone's theory), the Congo, or even the Niger River  Financed in 1874, Stanley's first trans-Africa exploration started in Zanzibar and reached the Lualaba on October 17, 1876  Overland he reached Nyangwe, the center of a lawless area containing cannibal tribes at which Tippu Tip based his trade in slaves  Stanley managed to hire a force from Tippu Tip to guard him for the next 150 kilometres (90 mi) or so, for 90 days  
The party left Nyangwe overland through the dense Matimba forest  On November 19 they reached the Lualaba again  Since the going through the forest was so heavy, Tippu Tip turned around with his party on December 28, leaving Stanley on his own, with 143 people, including eight children and 16 women  They had 23 canoes  His first encounter with a local tribe was with the cannibal Wenya  In total Stanley reports 32 unfriendly meetings on the river, some violent, even though he attempted to negotiate a peaceful thoroughfare  But the tribes were wary as their only experience of outsiders was with slave traders 
On January 6, 1877, after 640 kilometres (400 mi), they reached Boyoma Falls (called Stanley Falls for some time after), consisting of seven cataracts spanning 100 kilometres (60 mi) which they had to bypass overland  It took them to February 7 to reach the end of the falls  Here Stanley learned that the river was called Ikuta Yacongo, proving to him that he had reached the Congo and that the Lualaba did not feed the Nile 
From this point, the tribes were no longer cannibals but possessed firearms, apparently as a result of Portuguese influence  Some four weeks and 1,900 kilometres (1,200 mi) later he reached Stanley Pool (now Pool Malebo), the site of the present day cities Kinshasa and Brazzaville  Further downstream were the Livingstone Falls, misnamed as Livingstone had never been on the Congo: a series of 32 falls and rapids with an elevation change of 270 metres (900 ft) over 350 kilometres (220 mi)  On 15 March they started the descent of the falls, which took five months and cost numerous lives  From the Isangile Falls, five falls from the foot, they beached the canoes and Lady Alice and left the river, aiming for the Portuguese outpost of Boma via land  
On August 3 they reached the hamlet Nsada  From there Stanley sent four men with letters forward to Boma, asking for food for his starving people  On August 7 relief came, being sent by representatives from the Liverpool trading firm Hatton & Cookson  On August 9 they reached Boma, 1,001 days since leaving Zanzibar on November 12, 1874  The party then consisted of 108 people, including three children born during the trip  Most probably (Stanley's own publications give inconsistent figures), he lost 132 people through disease, hunger, drowning, killing and desertion Kinshasa was founded as a trading post by Stanley in 1881 and named Léopoldville in honor of Leopold II of Belgium  The Congo Basin was privately claimed by Leopold II as Congo Free State in 1885 where the many Atrocities in the Congo Free State were committed until the region was called the Belgian Congo 

See also
List of crossings of the Congo River
2021 Congo River disaster

Notes
Passage 13:
Rufiji River
The Rufiji River lies entirely within Tanzania  It is also the largest and longest river in the country  The river is formed by the confluence of the Kilombero and Luwegu rivers  It is approximately 600 kilometres (370 mi) long, with its source in southwestern Tanzania and its mouth on the Indian Ocean opposite Mafia Island across the Mafia Channel, in Pwani Region  Its principal tributary is the Great Ruaha River  It is navigable for approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) 
The Rufiji river is approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi) south of Dar es Salaam  The river's delta contains the largest mangrove forest in eastern Africa 

History
A branch of ancient sea routes led down the East African coast called "Azania" by the Greeks and Romans in the 1st century CE as described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (and, very probably, Chinese: 澤散 in the 3rd century by the Chinese), at least as far as the port known to the Romans as Rhapta, which was probably located in the delta of the Rufiji River in modern Tanzania During the First World War, from October 1914 to July 1915, the river delta was the scene of a protracted naval operation  These were the attempts, and later achievement, by the Royal Navy to neutralize and destroy the German cruiser Konigsberg 

Basin
The catchment basin for the Rufiji River complex is 177,429 square kilometres (68,506 sq mi) 

Hydroelectric Project
Tanzania president John Magufuli has approved the construction of a controversial new dam and power station on the river at Stiegler's Gorge  The power station is expected to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more than triple Tanzania's existing installed hydropower capacity which is only 562 megawatts  Construction of the dam started on July 26, 2019, and it is expected be ready by 2022 
Passage 14:
Mangalam River
Mangalam River is the main tributary of the river Gayathripuzha, which in turn is a tributary of Bharathapuzha, the second longest river in Kerala, India   It is around 30 km long in length, with its source from Nelliyampathi forests, and passing through Vadakkencherry, Kannambra, Puthucode, Padur, etc  and joining Gayathripuzha at Plazhi in the border of Thrissur and Palakkad districts 
Cherukunnapuzha is a tributary of Mangalam River and Mangalam Dam is constructed across this river  A canal system for irrigation purpose was completed and opened in 1966, in Alathur taluk, Palakkad district 

Tributaries of the river Mangalam river
Cherukunnapuzha

See also
Bharathapuzha - Main river
Gayathripuzha - One of the main  tributaries of the river Bharathapuzha

Other tributaries of the river Gayathripuzha
Ayalurpuzha
Vandazhippuzha
Meenkarappuzha
Chulliyar
Passage 15:
Cagne
The Cagne is a river that flows through the Alpes-Maritimes department of southeastern France  Its source is near Coursegoules, and it flows into the Mediterranean Sea in Cagnes-sur-Mer  It is 27 5 km (17 1 mi) long  The Malvan is one of its tributaries 
Passage 16:
Thoré
The Thoré (French pronunciation: ​[tɔʁe]) is a 61 6-kilometre-long (38 3 mi) river in the Hérault and Tarn departments in southern France  Its source is in the northern part of Rieussec  It flows generally northwest  It is a left tributary of the Agout, into which it flows between Navès and Castres 

Departments and communes along its course
This list is ordered from source to mouth: 

Hérault: Rieussec, Verreries-de-Moussans,
Tarn: Labastide-Rouairoux, Anglès, Lacabarède, Rouairoux, Sauveterre, Albine, Saint-Amans-Valtoret, Saint-Amans-Soult, Bout-du-Pont-de-Larn, Mazamet, Pont-de-Larn, Aussillon, Payrin-Augmontel, Aiguefonde, Caucalières, Labruguière, Castres, Navès,
Passage 17:
Klehini River
The Klehini River is a large, glacially fed stream in the vicinity of Haines in the U S  state of Alaska 
The Klehini River is about 42 miles (68 km) long from its source in British Columbia to its mouth at the Chilkat River, of which it is the largest tributary   The Klehini River is renowned for its salmon runs, its biannual congregation of bald eagles—the second largest in the Haines area after the Chilkat River's Council Grounds—and for the Klehini Falls  The Klehini also delineates the northern boundary of the Chilkat Range 
The name Klehini appears to be derived from the Tlingit phrase l’éiw héeni, which translates to river with sand or gravel in it    The Klehini River contains abundances of both sand and gravel 
The lower Klehini is located within the Alaska Chilkat Bald Eagle Preserve 
Walt Disney's 1991 rendition of White Fang was filmed along the Klehini River 

Klehini Falls
The Klehini Falls are a series of four cataracts in far northwestern British Columbia occurring in a narrow gorge near the headwaters of the Klehini River  The falls are separated from one another by a distance of approximately 300 feet (91 m), with an average plunge of 30 to 40 feet (9 1 to 12 2 m)  The individual cataracts are currently unnamed 

See also
List of rivers of Alaska
List of British Columbia rivers
Passage 18:
Orange River
The Orange River (from Afrikaans/Dutch: Oranjerivier) is a river in Southern Africa  It is the longest river in South Africa  With a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi), the Orange River Basin extends from Lesotho into South Africa and Namibia to the north  It rises in the Drakensberg mountains in Lesotho, flowing westwards through South Africa to the Atlantic Ocean  The river forms part of the international borders between South Africa and Lesotho and between South Africa and Namibia, as well as several provincial borders within South Africa  Except for Upington, it does not pass through any major cities  The Orange River plays an important role in the South African economy by providing water for irrigation and hydroelectric power  The river was named the Orange River in honour of the Dutch ruling family, the House of Orange, by the Dutch explorer Robert Jacob Gordon  Other names include simply the word for river, in Khoekhoegowab orthography written as !Garib, which is rendered in Afrikaans as Gariep River with the intrusion of a velar fricative in place of the alveolar click, Groote River (derived from Kai !Garib) or Senqu River (used in Lesotho), derived from ǂNū "Black"  It is known in isiZulu as isAngqu 

Course
The Orange rises in the Drakensberg mountains along the border between South Africa and Lesotho, about 193 km (120 mi) west of the Indian Ocean and at an altitude of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft)  The extremity of the Orange River inside Lesotho is known as the Senqu  Parts of the Senqu River freeze in winter because of the high altitude  This creates droughts downstream, which mainly affect goat and cattle production 

The Orange River then runs westward through South Africa, forming the south-western boundary of the Free State province  In this section, the river flows first into the Gariep Dam and later into the Vanderkloof Dam  From the border of Lesotho to below the Vanderkloof Dam, the river bed is deeply incised  Further downstream, the land is flatter, and the river is used extensively for irrigation 
At the western point of the Free State, southwest of Kimberley, the Orange meets with its main tributary, the Vaal River, which forms much of the northern border of the province  From here, the river flows further westward through the arid wilderness of the southern Kalahari region and Namaqualand in the Northern Cape province to meet with Namibia at 20°E longitude  From here, it flows westward for 550 km (340 mi), forming the international border between the province and Namibia's ǁKaras Region  On the border, the river passes the town of Vioolsdrif, the main border post between South Africa and Namibia 

In the last 800 km (500 mi) of its course, the Orange receives many intermittent streams, and several large wadis lead into it  In this section, the Namib Desert terminates on the north bank of the river, so under normal circumstances, the volume of water added by these tributaries is negligible  Here, the bed of the river is once again deeply incised  The Augrabies Falls are located on this section of the Orange, where the river descends 122 m (400 ft) in a course of 26 km (16 mi) 
The Orange empties into the Atlantic Ocean between the small towns of Oranjemund (meaning "Orange mouth") in Namibia and Alexander Bay in South Africa, about equidistant between Walvis Bay and Cape Town  Some 33 km (21 mi) from its mouth, it is obstructed by rapids and sand bars and is generally not navigable for long stretches 
The river has a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi) 

Catchment and rainfall
In the dry season, the volume of the water in the river is considerably reduced because of the rapid run-off and evaporation  At the source of the Orange, the rainfall is about 2,000 mm (79 in) per annum, but precipitation decreases as the river flows westward; at its mouth, the rainfall is less than 50 mm (2 0 in) per year  The factors that support evaporation, though, tend to increase in a westerly direction  In the wet season (summer), the Orange river becomes a brown colored torrent  The huge mass of sediment carried constitutes a long-term threat to engineering projects on the river The total catchment of the Orange River (including the Vaal) extends over 973,000 km2 (376,000 sq mi), i e  equivalent to about 77% of the land area of South Africa (1,221,037 km2 (471,445 sq mi))  Around 366,000 km2 (141,000 sq mi) (38%), however, are situated outside the country in Lesotho, Botswana, and Namibia 

Tributaries
Vaal River - 1,458 km (906 mi)
Caledon River - 642 km (399 mi)
Khubelu River - 144 km (89 mi)

Dams
Armenia Dam
Egmont Dam
Gariep Dam
Newberry Dam
Vanderkloof Dam
Welbedacht Dam

History
Etymology
Some of the earliest precolonial inhabitants called the river ǂNūǃarib, referring to its black colour, or sometimes just Kai !Arib ("Great River"), from which is derived the Afrikaans version Gariep, and translation "Groote Rivier"  The early Dutch name for the river was just that translation, Groote Rivier, meaning "Great River"  The river was named the Orange River by Colonel Robert Gordon, commander of the United East India Company (VOC) garrison at Cape Town, on a trip to the interior in 1779  Gordon named the river in honor of William V of Orange  A popular but incorrect belief is that the river was named after the supposedly orange color of its water, as opposed to the color of its tributary, the Vaal River, which name is derived from the name ǀHaiǃarib "pale river" (vaal being Afrikaans for pale or grey)  Since the end of apartheid, the name "Gariep" has had greater favour in official correspondence in South Africa, although the name "Orange" has greater international recognition  In Lesotho, where the river rises, it is known as the Senqu River, derived from the original Khoemana name 

The Eastern Cape Geographical Names Committee has advertised its intention to consider a name change from the colonial name, for that portion of the river that forms the border between the Eastern Cape and the Free State, with suggestions being IGqili or Senqu  The advertisement placed in the Aliwal Weekblad newspaper states that the "present name is perceived to have a strong association with the history of colonial subjugation and has therefore no place under the current democratic dispensation "

The Grootslang
In South African folklore, the Orange River is often associated with the Grootslang, a mythical being resembling a giant serpent, which is often connected to the river's alluvial diamonds  The Grootslang is described as living in a gem-filled cave connected to the Orange River by a natural pipe through which the diamonds gradually enter the river  Other sites said to be lairs of the creature include the pool beneath the King George Cataract at Aughrabies Falls, which is also said to be a source of diamonds, and a large rock in the middle of the river itself  In this version of the legend, the Grootslang is also said to prey on cattle from the river's banks 

Economy
As the collection point for the majority of South Africa's water, the Orange River plays a major role in supporting agriculture, industry, and mining  To assist in this, two large water schemes have been created, the Orange River Project and the Lesotho Highlands Water Project  Historically, the river played an important role in the South African diamond rush, with the first diamonds in the country being discovered in alluvial deposits on the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate along the final stretch of the Orange River and around its mouth 
Because of the lack of dangerous animals and high water levels during summer, the river is used for recreational canoeing and rafting  Orange River rafting has become very popular with many companies using their camps along the river from which to operate  The most popular trips are four-day and six-day river trips that take place either along the gorge below the Augrabies Falls or along the Richtersveld area 

Orange River Project
The Orange River Project (ORP) was one of the largest and most imaginative projects of its kind in South Africa  It was constructed by Hendrik Verwoerd's government at the height of the apartheid era  The ORP was built to exploit the waters of the Orange River—which, without the Vaal River, represents some 14 1% of the total runoff in South Africa—and in the process, to satisfy an increasing demand for water  The main objectives of the project were:

to stabilise river flow,
the generation and transmission of hydroelectric power,
to provide a reliable water supply for users in the Orange River basin, and
to give a new lease on life to water-deficient areas in the Eastern Cape, such as the Great Fish and Sundays River valleys The Gariep Dam near Colesberg is the main storage structure within the Orange River  From here, the water is supplied in two directions, westward along the Orange River (via hydroelectric power generators) to the Vanderkloof Dam and southward through the Orange-Fish Tunnel to the Eastern Cape 

Hydroelectricity
Eskom operates hydroelectric power stations at both the Gariep Dam and the Vanderkloof Dam  The hydroelectric power station at the Vanderkloof Dam was the first power-generation station in South Africa situated entirely underground  The towns Oviston and Oranjekrag were established to facilitate the construction and operation of the new infrastructure 

Irrigation
Irrigation in the vast area downstream of the Vanderkloof Dam, which has turned thousands of hectares of arid veld into highly productive agricultural land, was made possible by the construction of the Gariep and Vanderkloof Dams  Old established irrigation schemes such as those at Buchuberg, Upington, Kakamas, and Vioolsdrif have also benefitted because regulation of the flow is now possible  On the Namibian side of the river, Aussenkehr produces grapes with the help of water from the Orange 
In recent years, the wine-producing areas along the Orange River have grown in importance  Irrigation in the Eastern Cape has also received a tremendous boost, not only from the additional water being made available, but also owing to improvement in water quality  Without this improvement, the citrus farmers along the Lower Sundays River would almost certainly have continued to suffer losses of productivity 

Lesotho Highlands Water Project
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was conceived to supplement the water supply in the Vaal River System  Water is delivered to South Africa by means of the delivery tunnel which passes under the Lesotho South Africa border at the Caledon River, and then under the Little Caledon River south of Clarens in the Free State, and discharges into the Ash River about 30 kilometres (19 mi) further to the north  The scheme became viable when water demands in Gauteng reached levels that could no longer be supported economically by alternative schemes such as the Tugela River-Vaal River pumped storage scheme, which used the Sterkfontein Dam, located near Harrismith in the Free State 

Alluvial diamonds
In 1867, the first diamond discovered in South Africa, the Eureka Diamond, was found near Hopetown on the Orange River  Two years later, a much larger diamond known as the Star of South Africa was found in the same area, causing a diamond rush  This was soon eclipsed by the diamond rush to mine diamonds directly from kimberlite at Kimberley in 1871, although alluvial diamonds continued to be found in the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate on the last stretch of the river, as well as the beaches around its mouth  Diamond mines also operate on the middle stretch of the river 

Rafting and canoeing
During the temperate months of March and April, given good rains and the sluices of the dams being open, a canoeist (or rafter) can easily travel 30 kilometres (19 mi) per day  The lower reaches of the river are most popular, because of the spectacular topography  Commercial tours are available, and these expeditions depart from the border town of Vioolsdrif 

Wildlife
The Orange River has no large animals  It lies outside the range of the Nile crocodile, and although hippopotami were once abundant, they were hunted to extermination in the 19th century  The Orange River has a relative paucity of species diversity  A 2011 survey of 13,762 fish found only 16 species of fish present   Three of these, the common carp, the Mozambique tilapia, and the western mosquitofish are not indigenous   Another exotic species, rainbow trout, is found in the river headwaters in Lesotho 
Seven species are endemic to the Vaal-Orange River system:
Rock-catfish (Austroglanis sclateri)
Maluti redfin or Maloti minnow (Pseudobarbus quathlambae)
Namaquab barb (Barbus hospes)
River sardine (Mesobola brevianalis)
Smallmouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus aeneus)
Largemouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus kimberlyensis)
Orange River Mudfish (Labeo capensis)

See also
List of rivers in South Africa
List of international border rivers
List of crossings of the Orange River
Passage 19:
Bhilangna River
Bhilangna River is a Himalayan river in Uttarakhand, India, which is the major tributary of the Bhagirathi river, the source stream of the Ganges River of India  Bhilangana is a combination of Bhil and Ganga The mainstem, Bhilangna, rises at the foot of the Khatling Glacier (elevation 3,717 m (12,195 ft)) approximately 50 km (31 mi) south of the ice cave at Gaumukh, traditionally considered the source of both the Bhagirathi and the Ganges and flows into the Bhagirathi at Old Tehri, the site of the Tehri dam   It meets its major tributary the Bal Ganga at Ghansali (elevation 976 m (3,202 ft)) 
The Bal Ganga, whose headwaters are formed at the foot of Mount Kukhli Dhar (elevation 4,600 m (15,100 ft)), itself has a minor tributary, the Dharam Ganga, which meets it at Thati Kathur (also Budha Kedar) at elevation 1,524 m (5,000 ft)
The Khatling trek route passes alongside the Bhilangna, starting from the last point accessible by road, Ghuttu, until the glacier, which stands at 3700 metres  If one were to go further on the trail past the glacier, one could reach Kedarnath 

See also
Bhagirathi River
Ganges
Alaknanda River



ground_truth: the 2010 election

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the source of the river of which Kraai River is a tributary?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Clan Gordon
Clan Gordon is a Highland Scottish clan, historically one of the most powerful Scottish clans  The Gordon lands once spanned a large territory across the Highlands  Presently, Gordon is seated at Aboyne Castle, Aberdeenshire  The Chief of the clan is the Earl of Huntly, later the Marquess of Huntly  
During the Wars of Scottish  Independence in the 13th century, the Gordons supported William Wallace in the cause of independence  In the 15th century, the chiefship of the clan passed to an heiress, who married into the Seton family and her male descendants assumed the surname Gordon and continued as chiefs of the clan  The Gordons assisted in defeating the rebellion of the Earl of Douglas also in the 15th century  In the 16th  century, the Gordons as Catholics feuded with their Protestant neighbors the Clan Forbes and also defeated at the Battle of Glenlivet, the Protestant Earl of Argyll  During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms of the 17th century, the Gordons supported the Royalist cause  During the Jacobite rising of 1715 the Clan Gordon was Jacobite  During the Jacobite rising of 1745, their chief, then the Duke of Gordon, pledged his support to the British-Hanoverian Government, but his clan remained Jacobite 

History
Origins
The first Gordon on record is Richard of Gordon, previously of Swinton, said to have been the grandson of a famous knight who slew some monstrous animal in the Merse during the time of King Malcolm III of Scotland  This Richard was Lord of the Barony of Gordon in the Merse  Richard de (of) Gordon probably died around 1200  Between 1150 and 1160 he granted from his estate a piece of land to the Monks of St  Mary at Kelso, a grant which was confirmed by his son Thomas Gordon  Other notable Gordons from this time include Bertram de Gordon who wounded King Richard of England with an arrow at Châlons Alicia Gordon, IV of the Gordon family was the heiress who married her cousin, Adam Gordon  Adam Gordon was a soldier who King Alexander III of Scotland sent with King Louis of France to Palestine  One tradition is that from Adam's grandson, Sir Adam, all of the Gordons in Scotland are descended  This Adam Gordon supported Sir William Wallace in 1297 to recapture the Castle of Wigtown from the English and Adam was made the Governor 

Wars of Scottish Independence
During the Wars of Scottish Independence Sir Adam Gordon, who had supported William Wallace, renounced his subsequent acceptance of the claims of Edward I of England and became a staunch supporter of Robert the Bruce  Adam was killed leading the Clan Gordon at the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333 but his son Sir Alexander Gordon escaped and was the first Gordon to be designated "of Huntly" Chief Sir John Gordon was killed leading the clan at the Battle of Otterburn where the English were defeated in 1388  His son, Chief Sir Adam Gordon, was killed leading the clan at the Battle of Homildon Hill, also known as the Battle of Humbleton Hill on 14 September 1402  The chief left his only child, a daughter named Elizabeth Gordon who married Alexander Seton, who was the son of Sir William Seton, chief of Clan Seton 

15th century and clan conflicts
The Battle of Arbroath was fought in 1445 where Patrick Gordon of Methlic, a cousin of the Earl of Huntly, was killed fighting the Clan Lindsay  From this Patrick Gordon the Earls of Aberdeen descend In 1449 Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Huntly, the eldest son of Elizabeth Gordon and Alexander Seton, Lord Gordon, changed the family name from Seton to Gordon c  1457  His male heirs through his third wife Elizabeth Crichton continued to bear the name of Gordon and were chiefs of Clan Gordon 
The chief of Clan Lindsay, Alexander Lindsay, the 4th Earl of Crawford, was badly defeated by the Clan Gordon and Clan Ogilvy under Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly (previously Alexander Seton) at the Battle of Brechin in 1452 The Gordons became involved in the deadly feud between the king and the Clan Douglas for power  The Gordons supported the king but when Gordon moved his forces south, the Earl of Moray who was an ally of the Douglases devastated the Gordon lands and burned Huntly Castle  However, the Gordons returned and soon defeated their enemies  Huntly Castle was rebuilt and when the Douglases were finally defeated the power of the Gordons grew unchallenged  In 1454 the Douglasses broke out in rebellion again and when confronted with the king in the south and Huntly in the north were soundly defeated, effectively ending the confederacy of the Douglasses, Rosses and Crawfords  For his notable contributions Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly was styled Cock o' the North, a designation which has ever since been accorded to the heads of clan Gordon 

16th century and clan conflicts
In 1513, during the Anglo-Scottish Wars, the Clan Gordon led by Alexander Gordon, 3rd Earl of Huntly fought at the Battle of Flodden In 1515, the title of Earl of Sutherland and chiefship of the Clan Sutherland passed by right of marriage to Adam Gordon who was a younger son of George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly Later during the Anglo-Scottish Wars, George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly defeated an English army at the Battle of Haddon Rig in 1542 but the Gordons were later part of the Scottish army which was defeated at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in 1547 Chief George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly was General of the forces on the Borders who opposed the forces of Henry VIII of England and Gordon had many victorious encounters  He was however later killed at the Battle of Corrichie in 1562 fighting against the forces of James Stuart, Earl of Moray (half-brother to Mary Queen of Scots)  Gordon was killed and his son, Sir John, and other members of his family were later executed at Aberdeen Throughout the 16th century the Clan Gordon were involved in a long and bitter struggle against the Clan Forbes  In the 1520s there were murders by both sides, and one of the most prominent killed by the Forbeses was Seton of Meldrum who was a close connection of the Earl of Huntly, chief of Clan Gordon  The Earl of Huntly then became involved in a plot against the Master of Forbes, who was the son of the sixth Lord Forbes  The sixth Lord Forbes had been heavily implicated of the murder of Seton of Meldrum  The Master of Forbes was accused by the Earl of Huntly of conspiring to assassinate James V of Scotland in 1536 by shooting at him with a cannon  The Master of Forbes was tried and executed however just days later his conviction was reversed and the Forbes family was restored to favor  The Protestant Reformation added to the feud between the Clan Forbes and Clan Gordon in that the Gordons remained Catholic and the Forbeses became Protestant  The traditional enemies of the Forbses such as the Clan Leslie, Clan Irvine and Clan Seton sided with the Gordons while Protestant families such as the Clan Keith, Clan Fraser and Clan Crichton sided with the Clan Forbes  Twenty Gordons were killed at a banquet held at the Forbes's Druminnor Castle in 1571  Later in 1571 the feud climaxed with the Battle of Tillieangus, and the Battle of Craibstone, and Druminnor, then the seat of the chief of Clan Forbes was plundered  The Gordons followed this up with the massacre of twenty seven Forbeses of Towie at Corgarff Castle  It took two Acts of Parliament for the clans to put down their arms For two centuries from the mid-15th century the Clan Gordon and Clan Campbell controlled the north-east and west of Scotland respectively, as the magnates who straddled the divide between the Scottish Highlands and Scottish Lowlands  In 1594, Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll was granted a Royal Commission against George Gordon, 6th Earl of Huntly but was defeated at the Battle of Glenlivet 

17th century and Civil War
The register of the Privy Seal records that in 1615 a complaint was made from Alexander Leask of the Clan Leask that Adam Gordon, brother of the Laird of Gight, put violent hands upon him at the Yet of Leask, wounding him grievously  Later that year the Gordons again attacked the Leasks, setting upon a son of the chief for which George Gordon was outlawed  In 1616, William Leask of that Ilk was accosted by John Gordon of Ardlogy and a party of men with pistolets and hagbuts In the early 17th century Clan Gordon had a number of alliances by marriage or friendship  Among these was a strong bond to the Clan Burnett of Leys  The Gordon crest is emblazoned in plasterwork on the ceiling of the early 17th century great hall of Muchalls Castle built by Alexander Burnett In 1644 Alexander Bannerman of Pitmedden fought a duel with his cousin, Sir George Gordon of Haddo, and wounded him  Also in 1644 during the Civil War at the Battle of Aberdeen there were Gordons on both sides  Lord Lewis Gordon led his forces on the side of the Covenanters while Sir Nathaniel Gordon led his forces in support of the Royalists During the Civil War the second Marquess of Huntly was a fierce royalist and his followers have passed into history as the Gordon Horse and they figured very prominently in the campaigns of the great James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose  Cavalry from the Clan Gordon fought in support of the royalists at the Battle of Auldearn in 1645 where they helped to defeat the Covenanters of Lord Seaforth  The Clan Gordon fought at the Battle of Alford in 1645 where they were victorious, led by George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Huntly  The Marquess of Huntly's eldest son George Gordon fell at this battle  Also in 1645, Lewis Gordon, clan chief and 3rd Marquess of Huntly burned Brodie Castle of the Clan Brodie In 1682 William Gordon of Cardoness Castle, was killed in a fight with Sir Godfrey McCulloch  McCulloch fled Scotland for a time, but returned, only to be apprehended and executed in 1697 

18th century and Jacobite risings
Jacobite rising of 1715
The Gordons fought on both sides during both the Jacobite rising of 1715 and the Jacobite rising of 1745  The second Duke of Gordon followed the Jacobites in 1715 and fought at the Battle of Sheriffmuir  General Wade's report on the Highlands in 1724, estimated the clan strength at 1,000 men 

Jacobite rising of 1745
Cosmo Gordon, 3rd Duke of Gordon supported the British Government during the rising of 1745  However, his brother, Lord Lewis Gordon, raised two Jacobite regiments against the Hanoverians  The Gordon Jacobites fought at the Battle of Inverurie (1745), the Battle of Falkirk (1746) and the Battle of Culloden (1746) 

British Army regiments
Two regiments named the "Gordon Highlanders" have been raised from the Clan Gordon  The first was the 81st Regiment of Foot (Aberdeenshire Highland Regiment) formed in 1777 by the Hon  Colonel William Gordon, son of the Earl of Aberdeen and was disbanded in 1783  The second was the 92nd (Gordon Highlanders) Regiment of Foot raised by Alexander the 4th Duke of Gordon in 1794 

Chief and arms
The Chief of Clan Gordon is Granville Charles Gomer Gordon, 13th Marquess of Huntly, Earl of Enzie, Earl of Aboyne, Lord Gordon of Badenoch, Lord Gordon of Strathavon and Glenlivet, Baron Meldrum of Morven 
The Chief of Clan Gordon is known as: The Cock o' the North 
Chief's Arms: Quarterly, 1st Azure three boars’ heads couped Or langued Gules (for Gordon), 2nd, Or three lions heads erased Gules langued Azure (for Lordship of Badenoch), 3rd, Or three crescents within a Royal Tressure flory counter flory Gules (for Seton), 4th, Azure three fraises Argent (for Fraser, acquisition of the Aboyne lands)

Tartans
Clan Gordon has several recognized tartans, most of them predominantly green-blue-and-black, but also including dress patterns, some red-based ones, and some variants for specific branches of the clan The main Gordon tartan is based on that originally used by the 92nd (Gordon Highlanders) Regiment of Foot; the clan version has thinner black bands, and thin black "guard lines" on either side of the yellow over-check  The tartan is ultimately based on the Black Watch tartan, but with the yellow over-check added, and the single black over-check of Black Watch converted into a pair, like the rest of the black over-checks in the design  The 92nd later became the Gordon Highlanders in 1881, then amalgamated into the Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons) in 1994, which is now the Highlanders, 4th Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland (4 SCOTS)  The modern unit (for dress) uses the Cameron of Erracht tartan, not a Gordon variant 
The main Gordon tartan has been used for many years as the troop tartan for the 10th Finchley (Scottish) Scout Group, London N3  The Scout Group was and still is unique in being the only group south of the border to wear kilts and actively maintains its links with the Gordon clan  Every four years (with a few exceptions) they camp in the grounds of Aboyne Castle and the Marquess would often attend Burns Night dinners as the guest of honour at the scout hall  The group's pipe band always plays "The Cock of the North 6/8 March" when returning to their hall following parades and every member wears a badge bearing the stag's head that forms part of the clan crest  A picture of the band outside their current scout hall shows all members wearing Gordon Tartan kilts 
The ties go further, with the address of the scout hall being Gordon Hall, Huntly Drive, West Finchley, London, N3 

Castles
Castles that have been owned by the Clan Gordon include, amongst many others:

Gordon Castle, which once stood to the north of the village of Gordon, Scottish Borders, in Berwickshire was an old stronghold, although its exact location is not certain  The Gordons held the castle from the twelfth century, but as a result of supporting Robert the Bruce they were given lands in Strathbogie in Aberdeenshire  A mile from Strathbogie was Huntly where the Gordons also had a castle, and it was Huntly that gave its name to the Gordon's more famous stronghold that was originally known as Strathbogie, in Aberdeenshire 
Huntly Castle, just to the north of Huntly in Aberdeenshire is now a ruin that consists of a large rectangular block with a substantial round tower at one end, with the remains of a courtyard and other buildings  There are the remains of decorative stone work and three oriel windows on the upper part of the building  The lands had passed from the Clan Seton to the Clan Gordon in the fourteenth century  The original castle was torched by the Clan Douglas in 1452 and was re-built  The name of the property was changed from Strathbogie to Huntly in 1506  During the Jacobite rising of 1745 the castle was garrisoned by Hanoverian soldiers but by then had been abandoned as a residence  Some of the materials from Huntly Castle were used to build what is now the Huntly Castle Hotel 
Gordon Castle, is eight and a half miles east of Elgin, Moray, and the Gordons had a castle there since the fifteenth century  In the eighteenth century it was enlarged and remodeled for the Duke of Gordon  It was sold to the government in 1936 and became deteriorated during World War II  The castle was later bought back by the Gordon-Lennox family but most of it was demolished apart from the six story block and two separate wings 
Abergeldie Castle, five miles west of Ballater, Aberdeenshire, dates from the sixteenth century  Abergeldie was held by the Gordons from 1482  In 1547 James Gordon of Abergeldie was killed at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh and in 1562 Alexander Gordon of Abergeldie took part in the earl of Huntly's rising against Mary, Queen of Scots  He was also at the Battle of Glenlivet in 1594  During the feud with the Clan Forbes over land, seven sons of Gordon of Knock were murdered by Forbes of Strathgirnock and as a result Forbes was executed by Gordon of Abergeldie  The castle was burnt by the Clan Mackenzie in 1592 
Glenbuchat Castle, four miles west of Kildrummy, Aberdeenshire, dates from 1590  It was seized by James VI of Scotland during Huntly's rising of 1594  Brigadier-General John Gordon of Glenbuchat fought for the Jacobites in both the risings of 1715 and 1745, leading the Gordons and Farquharsons at the Battle of Culloden  He escaped to Norway and died in France  The castle was a ruin by 1738 and was sold to the Duff Earl of Fife  It was then replaced with Glenbuchat House and the old castle is now in the care of Historic Scotland 
Rothiemay Castle, at Milltown of Rothiemay, dated from the fifteenth century  It stood five miles north of Huntly  Mary, Queen of Scots may have stayed here during Huntly's rebellion of 1562  In 1618 the castle was attacked by George Gordon of Gight  In 1630 William Gordon of Rothiemay and others were burnt to death at the castle of Frendraught in suspicious circumstances  James Crichton of Frendraught had not been on good terms with Rothiemay but he was cleared of involvement  However, Lady Rothiemay employed Highlanders to attack Crichton's property and as a result she was imprisoned in 1635 but later released 
Haddo House, ten miles north west of Ellon, Aberdeenshire, stands on the site of a stronghold that was held by the Gordons from 1429  Patrick Gordon of Haddo was killed at the Battle of Arbroath in 1446  Sir John Gordon of Haddo was made a Baronet of Nova Scotia in 1642 and actively supported James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose during the Civil War, but was captured after being besieged in the castle  Haddo House is now in the care of the National Trust for Scotland 
Fyvie Castle, a mile north of Fyvie, Aberdeenshire, was held by the Gordon Earls of Aberdeen from 1733 to 1889 
Kenmure Castle, a mile south of New Galloway was originally held by the Balliols but passed to the Gordons of Lochinvar in about 1297  It was torched after the Gordons welcomed Mary, Queen of Scots there in 1568  In 1633 Sir John Gordon was made Viscount of Kenmure  The castle was burned again by Oliver Cromwell in 1650 after the Gordons had supported Charles I of England  William Gordon, sixth Viscount Kenmure was beheaded in the Tower of London after being captured at the Battle of Preston (1715) fighting for the Jacobites  The property and title were recovered in 1824 and the castle had been restored from a ruin  The castle was visited by Robert Burns but as a result of a fire in 1950 it was stripped of materials 
Auchindoun Castle near Dufftown is a ruinous L-plan tower house that was originally held by the Clan Ogilvy but passed to the Gordons in 1535  Adam Gordon of Auchindoun was the leader of a party of Gordons who torched the Forbes's Corgarff Castle killing Margaret Campbell who was the wife of Forbes of Towie along with her family and retainers  Auchindoun Castle itself may have been burned in 1544 or 1671  The castle was sacked after James Stewart, 2nd Earl of Moray was murdered at Donibristle by Gordon, Marquess of Huntly and Sir Patrick Gordon of Auchindoun in 1592  Sir Patrick Gordon of Auchindoun was later killed at the Battle of Glenlivet in 1594  The castle is in the care of Historic Scotland 
Gight Castle, at Gight, near Fyvie, Aberdeenshire, was held by the Gordons of Gight and William Gordon of Gight was killed at the Battle of Flodden in 1513  The sixth Gordon laird of Gight broke his sword across the head of the Laird of Leask  The seventh Gordon laird of Gight was a Tax collector who virtually plundered the town of Banff, Aberdeenshire and kept all of the money  The heiress, Catherine Gordon of Gight, married John "Mad Jack" Byron and they were the parents of the poet Lord Byron  John Byron had to sell the estate due to debts and it was acquired by the Gordon Earls of Aberdeen 
Aboyne Castle, near Aboyne, Aberdeenshire, is the current seat of the Marquess of Huntly, chief of Clan Gordon 

See also
Marquess of Huntly
Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair
Duke of Gordon
Lord Byron {George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron}
Gordon Highlanders
Gordon Riots


== Notes and references ==
Passage 2:
Battle of Brechin
The Battle of Brechin was fought on 18 May 1452 during the reign of James II of Scotland, about two and a half miles north north east of Brechin  It has been regarded as part of the civil war during his reign between the king and an alliance of powerful noble families led by the Black Douglases, which as the king won was significant in the development of a relatively strong centralised monarchy in Scotland during the Late Middle Ages A royalist army formed by the Clan Gordon and Clan Ogilvy, led by Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly, defeated the rebel Alexander Lindsay, 4th Earl of Crawford, a leading ally of the Black Douglases who was known as "The Tiger"  Shortly after Crawford submitted to the king, leaving the Black Douglases more isolated, to be defeated at the Battle of Arkinholm in 1455 However, it has been argued that it was a localised conflict in the north-east of Scotland, of only limited relevance to wider conflicts in Scotland as a whole in spite of the fact that the Gordons fought under the royal banner 
Passage 3:
Kearsarge-class battleship
The Kearsarge-class was a group of two pre-dreadnought battleships built for the United States Navy in the 1890s  The two ships—USS Kearsarge and USS Kentucky—represented a compromise between two preceding battleship designs, the low-freeboard Indiana class and the high-freeboard USS Iowa, though their design also incorporated several improvements  Their primary advances over earlier designs consisted of new quick-firing guns and improved armor protection, but their most novel feature was their two-story gun turrets that consisted of a secondary 8-inch (203 mm) gun turret fixed to the top of their primary 13-inch (330 mm) turrets  The ships suffered from a number of problems, however, including a tertiary battery mounted too low in the hull and poorly-designed turrets, though the latter were attempted again with the Virginia class in the early 1900s, also with negative results 
Kearsarge served as the flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron after entering service, while Kentucky was initially sent to East Asia  In 1904, Kearsarge was temporarily transferred to the European Squadron, also serving as its flagship  Both vessels returned to the North Atlantic Squadron in 1905, and in 1906, Kentucky carried marines to Cuba during unrest in the country  Both ships participated in the cruise of the Great White Fleet around the world between late 1907 and early 1908, and after their return, they were modernized between 1909 and 1911, thereafter being placed in reserve  The two ships were reactivated in mid-1915 and Kearsarge was used as a training ship, while Kentucky was sent to participate in the United States occupation of Veracruz 
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, both ships were used as training vessels for the rapidly-expanding fleet before being decommissioned in 1920  Kentucky was quickly discarded, being struck from the Naval Vessel Register in 1922 and sold for scrap the following year, but Kearsarge was converted into a crane ship  She was used in this capacity for the next twenty years, being involved in the recovery of the submarine Squalus and numerous warship construction, repair, and modernization projects  She was ultimately struck in 1955 and sold to ship breakers later that year 

Design
Following the authorization of the battleship Iowa in 1892, the United States Navy failed to order new vessels in 1893 and 1894; this was in part the result of an economic depression in 1893 that reduced naval budgets, and also the views of the new Secretary of the Navy Hilary A  Herbert, who had opposed fleets of expensive battleships earlier in the decade  Nevertheless, the Bureau of Construction and Repair (C&R) continued to work on new designs, and by 1893, Herbert had been convinced by Alfred Thayer Mahan's seminal work The Influence of Sea Power upon History  In his requested budget for 1893, Herbert requested Congress appropriate funds for at least one new battleship  Congress delayed until 1895, when it authorized funding for two ships that were to become the Kearsarge class by the Act of 2 March 1895 Work on the new design began immediately, and by late March, four proposals had been prepared  All four marked a compromise between the high-freeboard Iowa and the coastal battleships of the Indiana class; they had greater freeboard than the Indiana's, but lacked the raised forecastle that had rendered Iowa an excellent sea boat  Coal storage, again, represented a compromise between the two  Armor protection was increased compared to the earlier vessels, which included an improved arrangement of the armor deck so that it protected a greater volume of the hull  The main battery was to repeat the 12-inch (305 mm) guns used in Iowa, since they fired significantly faster than the 13-inch guns the Indianas carried The designs varied considerably with regard to their armament  By this time, a new 5-inch (127 mm) quick-firing gun had been developed, which significantly increased the offensive power of the tertiary battery  The designers initially considered adopting gun turrets for these weapons, but decided against it owing to the increased weight of such an arrangement, along with problems with ammunition magazines and fire control  All four designs arranged these in a central battery amidships, which forced the secondary battery of 8-inch guns to be pushed toward the ends of the ship  The four variants adopted different arrangements for these guns: "A" called for eight guns, two in centerline positions superfiring over the main battery and two wing turrets amidships  "B" discarded the forward turret and placed two wing turrets further forward and one superfiring aft; "C" retained the centerline turrets and discarded the wing mounts, and "D" opted for the reverse of "C" C&R preferred the "A" design, since it maximized firepower, while the Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd) believed that none of the proposals was worth pursuing  An ensign in BuOrd, Joseph Strauss, developed a two-story turret that solved the problem; it would carry the 8-inch guns in a separate turret mounted directly atop (and fixed to) the main battery turret  Strauss accordingly proposed a fifth version, "E", that incorporated his turret  Some officers questioned whether it was advisable that the 8-inch guns could not be directed against targets other than what the 12-inch guns were engaging, but Strauss pointed out that at long range, ships were relatively small targets, and at close range, the much greater reloading time of the large guns would permit the 8-inch guns to direct the rotation of the turret while the gun crews prepared the main guns  By this time, American naval engineers had made improvements to their gun turret designs and significant weight savings were achieved  In addition, the two-story, four-gun turret adopted for the Kearsarge class was lighter than the two-gun turrets used in the Indianas of just five years earlier At the same time, BuOrd registered its opposition to what it viewed as a regression to 12-inch guns; while the 13-inch weapons were slower to fire, BuOrd estimated that they were 30 percent more powerful  Experiments with 15 in (381 mm) armor plate demonstrated that 12-inch guns could not penetrate that thickness even at the relatively close range of 1,000 yards (910 m), while the 13-inch shells were capable of defeating the armor plate  C&R refused to accept BuOrd's objections, but further tests with a mock up of Iowa's belt demonstrated that the 13-inch shells could easily defeat the armor, while the 12-inch shells were kept out  The Navy decided to adopt "E", with 13-inch guns in place of the 12-inch weapons originally proposed The Navy repeated the two-story turret arrangement with the Virginia-class battleships designed in the early 1900s, with much the same reasoning, namely the goal of weight reduction and the belief that the faster-firing 8-inch guns could be operated without disrupting the 12-inch guns adopted for the Virginias  A new, sloped turret design remedied the problem with the overly-large gun ports of the Kearsarge turrets, but the advent of large-caliber, quick-firing guns rendered the concept a failure, since the 12-inch guns fired nearly as quickly as the 8-inch weapons, and the latter could not be fired without severe blast effects disrupting the crew of the former 

General characteristics and machinery
The two Kearsarge-class ships were 368 feet (112 m) long at the waterline and 375 ft 4 in (114 4 m) long overall, with a beam of 72 ft 3 in (22 02 m) and a draft of 23 ft 6 in (7 16 m)  They displaced 11,540 long tons (11,730 t) normally, which increased to 12,850 long tons (13,060 t) at full load  Like the Indiana class, the Kearsarge class also had a very low freeboard, amounting to 14 ft 6 in (4 42 m) forward under normal conditions, which resulted in her guns becoming unusable in bad weather  The ships' hulls incorporated a prominent ram bow, a common feature for battleships of the period Steering was controlled with a single rudder; while steaming at a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph), it took Kearsarge 475 yd (434 m) to complete a turn to port and 455 yd (416 m) to turn to starboard  As completed, both ships carried two heavy military masts that carried some of the vessels' light guns, along with spotting tops to help direct the aim of their guns  Kearsarge was manned by 38 officers and 548 enlisted men, while Kentucky carried 38 officers and 549 enlisted men  Their complement was later adjusted to 40 officers and 513 enlisted men The battleships had two 3-cylinder vertical triple-expansion steam engines that each drove a single screw propeller  Steam for the engines was provided by five coal-fired Scotch marine boilers, which were ducted into a pair of funnels  The ships' engines were designed to produce a total of 10,000 indicated horsepower (7,500 kW) for a top speed of 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph)  During sea trials, the indicated horsepower and speed exceeded the design, with Kearsarge's engines producing a total of 11,674 indicated horsepower (8,705 kW) for 16 8 knots (31 1 km/h; 19 3 mph) and Kentucky's propulsion system reaching 12,179 indicated horsepower (9,082 kW) for 16 9 knots (31 3 km/h; 19 4 mph)  Coal storage amounted to 410 long tons (420 t) normally and up to 1,591 long tons (1,617 t) at full load  At a cruising speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), the ships could steam for 5,070 nautical miles (9,390 km; 5,830 mi) 

Armament
The Kearsarge-class battleships had two double turrets, with two 13-inch (330 mm)/35 caliber guns and two 8 in (203 mm)/35 caliber guns each, stacked in two levels  The guns and turret armor were designed by BuOrd, while the turret itself was designed by C&R  Since the turrets retained the vertical walls of the type used in the first generation of American battleships, the ports had to be very large to allow for sufficient elevation  Then-Lieutenant William Sims noted that the floors of the turrets could be easily seen through the ports, and claimed that as a result, a shell fired into the port could reach the magazines below, disabling the guns The 13-inch weapons were built-up guns of the Mark II type, mounted in Mark III turrets that were electrically trained  They were originally supplied with brown powder propellant charges that weighed nearly 500 lb (230 kg), later being replaced by 180 lb (82 kg) smokeless charges  The shells had a muzzle velocity of 2,000 ft/s (610 m/s), and at the muzzle, could penetrate up to 25 in (640 mm) of standard steel, and at a range of 2,500 yd (2,300 m), could pierce 20 in (510 mm) of steel  The turrets allowed depression to −5 degrees and elevation to 15 degrees, which provided a maximum range of 12,100 yd (11,100 m), though this was significantly in excess of what could be achieved with the rudimentary gunnery direction equipment at the time; BuOrd recommended that crews open fire at 8,000 yd (7,300 m), and even this was optimistic  The rate of fire was one shot every 320 seconds, and the guns had to be returned to 2 degrees elevation to be reloaded The 8-inch guns were the Mark IV version, which had a muzzle velocity of 2,080 ft/s (630 m/s)  Also originally brown-powder guns, they, too, received updated smokeless charges in the early 1900s  The change improved the rate of fire from one shot per minute to one shot every forty seconds  Reloading was also fixed at 0 degrees  They were mounted in Mark IX turrets that were fixed atop the main battery turrets  The arrangement was adopted because the significantly higher rate of fire of the 8-inch guns was thought to reduce interference between the guns, but with the adoption of smokeless propellant and rapid fire for the main battery in the early 1900s proved this to be an incorrect assumption The turret guns were supported by a battery of fourteen 5 in/40 caliber guns mounted individually in casemates in the upper deck, seven on each broadside  Once the ships entered service, it was discovered that the central battery had been placed too close to the waterline, and the casemates were frequently washed out, rendering them unusable in all but calm seas  For defense against torpedo boats, they also carried twenty 6-pounder (57 mm or 2 2 in) Hotchkiss guns and eight 1-pounder (37 mm or 1 5 in) guns  These were also in individual open mounts distributed around the decks and fighting tops of the masts; eight of the 57 mm guns were placed in a broadside battery one deck above the 5-inch guns, four on either side  Four more were placed in casemates in the bow, and another four were similarly arranged toward the stern  The ships also carried a pair of M1895 Colt–Browning machine gun chambered in 6 mm (0 24 in) Lee Navy As was customary for battleships of the period, the Kearsarge-class carried four 18 in (457 mm) torpedo tubes  These were placed in above-water mounts in the hull; two were placed abreast of the forward main battery turret and the other two were placed on either side of the aft superstructure  The tubes were supplied with a total of six torpedoes  They were initially equipped with the Mark II Whitehead design, which carried a 140-pound (64 kg) warhead and had a range of 800 yards (730 m) at a speed of 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph) 

Armor
The ships were protected with face-hardened Harvey armor, an improvement over earlier compound plates  The main strake of the belt armor extended from the forward boiler room
to the aft main battery barbette, and covered a section of the hull from 3 ft 6 in (1 07 m) above the waterline and 4 ft (1 2 m) below the line  It was 16 5 in (419 mm) thick at the top, gradually tapering to 13 25 in (337 mm) at the waterline, and reducing further to 9 5 in (241 mm) at the bottom edge of the belt  Forward of the boiler rooms, the belt was reduced to a maximum thickness of 10 5 in (267 mm), and from the forward barbette, slimmed further to 4 in (102 mm)  Transverse bulkheads that were 10 in (254 mm) forward and 12 in (305 mm) aft connected the belt on both sides of the ships  Above the main strake was a second one that was 5 in thick, extending from the forward to aft barbette The belt structure was reinforced by a curved armor deck that was curved at the sides and connected to the bottom edge of the belt  The flat portion of the deck was level with the upper edge of the belt, and it was 2 75 in (70 mm) thick  Forward, where the belt was significantly reduced in thickness, the deck was increased slightly to 3 in (76 mm); aft, where were was no side protection, the deck was more significantly strengthened, being 5 in thick  The conning tower had 10 in thick sides and a 2-inch-thick (51 mm) roof Armor protection for the 13-inch turrets amounted to 15 to 17 in (381 to 432 mm) on the sides and 25 in (640 mm) on the rear to balance the turrets, while the 8-inch turrets received 6 to 11 in (152 to 279 mm) on the sides and 9 in (230 mm) on the rears  Their roofs were 3 5 in (89 mm) and 2 inches thick for the 13-inch and 8-inch turrets, respectively  The turrets rested in armored barbettes that were 12 5 to 15 in (318 to 381 mm) thick  The 5-inch gun battery, which was placed directly above the upper belt, received 6 in of armor plating  The casemate battery lacked splinter screens between each gun, a significant shortcoming since a single hit could disable numerous guns 

Modifications
After the US Navy introduced rapid-firing for main guns in 1903, Kearsarge and Kentucky had automatic shutters installed in the ammunition hoists to prevent an explosion in the turret from traveling down to the magazines  After a propellant charge was accidentally detonated by an electrical short aboard Kentucky in April 1906, most electrical equipment was removed from the ships' turrets and additional precautions were installed, including bulkheads between the guns in each turret and gas evacuators in the breeches of the guns to prevent propellant gasses from blowing back into the turrets Between 1909 and 1911, most of the 57 mm guns were removed and four more 5-inch guns were installed  The original military masts were replaced with lattice masts, and the torpedo tubes were also removed  The ships also had their original boilers replaced with eight Mosher boilers  The ships underwent another refit by 1919 that included the removal of all but eight of the 5-inch guns  The guns that were removed were used to arm merchant ships to defend themselves against German U-boat attacks  A pair of 3 in (76 mm) anti-aircraft guns were installed aboard each vessel  At some point in the ships' careers, splinter bulkheads were added to the 5-inch battery to improve survivability 

Ships in class
Service histories
USS Kearsarge (BB-5)
Kearsarge was laid down on 30 June 1896  She was launched on 24 March 1898 and was commissioned on 20 February 1900  From 1900 to 1905, Kearsarge served as flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron, except for a short period in 1904 when she was reassigned as flagship of the European Squadron  In 1905, the battleship Maine replaced Kearsarge as flagship of the North Atlantic Fleet, although she remained with the fleet  In April, the ship suffered an explosion in her forward 13-inch turret that killed ten of its crew; Isadore Nordstrom and George Breeman both received the Medal of Honor, the former for rescuing several badly wounded men and the latter for preventing the fire from reaching the propellant magazines 

In 1907, the Great White Fleet was ordered by U S  President Theodore Roosevelt to circle the world as a demonstration of the might of the United States Navy  Kearsarge was attached to the Fourth Division of the Second Squadron  The fleet left from Hampton Roads on 16 December 1907, circled South America, passed through San Francisco, and arrived at Hawaii  From there they sailed to New Zealand and Australia, visited the Philippine Islands, Japan, China, and Ceylon before transiting the Suez Canal  The fleet split at Port Said to visit various ports, with Kearsarge leaving for Malta and Algiers, before reforming with the rest of the fleet at Gibraltar  The ships arrived back in Hampton Roads on 22 February 1908 Between 1909 and 1911, Kearsarge was modernized at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, and thereafter was placed in reserve  She was recommissioned on 23 June 1915 and operated along the Atlantic coast for the next two years as a training ship for naval militia from Massachusetts and Maine  After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, she was used to train armed guard crews and naval engineers during cruises along the Atlantic seaboard  Following the end of the war, she continued training duties until being decommissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on either 10 May or 18 May 1920



ground_truth: Thaba Putsoa

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did Burroughs Corporation merge to form a new corporation?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Deanwood
Deanwood is a neighborhood in Northeast Washington, D C , bounded by Eastern Avenue to the northeast, Kenilworth Avenue to the northwest, Division Avenue to the southeast, and Nannie Helen Burroughs Avenue to the south 
One of Northeast's oldest neighborhoods, Deanwood's relatively low-density, small wood-frame and brick homes, and dense tree cover give it a small-town character that is unique in the District of Columbia  Much of its housing stock dates from the early 20th century  Several well-known African-American architects, including William Sidney Pittman and Howard D  Woodson, and many skilled local craftsmen designed and built many of its homes  The neighborhood was once home to Nannie Helen Burroughs, an early civil rights leader and the founder of the National Training School for Women and Girls, an independent boarding school for African-American girls founded in 1909 and located on 50th Street, NE  Marvin Gaye (1939–1984) was also born and raised in this neighborhood  From 1921 to 1940, Deanwood was also home to Suburban Gardens (50th and Hayes NE), a black-owned amusement park that served thousands of African-American residents during a time of racial segregation 
It is served by the Deanwood Metro station on the Orange Line 
The neighborhood is featured prominently in crime author Jim Beane's short story "Jeanette "

Schools
Integrated Design Electronics Academy
The Monroe School
Houston Elementary School
Aiton Elementary School
The Fishing School
H D  Woodson Senior High School

Churches
Beulah Baptist Church, of Deanwood Heights, DC

Libraries
Deanwood Neighborhood Library

Public transportation
Metro stations

Deanwood
Benning Road
Minnesota AvenueMajor bus routes

X-2 Minnesota Avenue to Lafayette Square
X-9 Express Capitol Heights to Metro Center
W-4 Deanwood to Anacostia

External links
Three Things About Deanwood
Passage 2:
William Amey
William Amey VC MM (5 March 1881 – 28 May 1940) was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces 
Amey was 37 years old, and a lance-corporal in the 1/8th Battalion, The Royal Warwickshire Regiment, British Army during the First World War when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC 
On 4 November 1918 at Landrecies, France, when many hostile machine-gun nests were missed by the leading troops owing to fog, Lance-Corporal Amey led his section against a machine-gun nest under heavy fire and drove the garrison into a neighbouring farm, finally capturing 50 prisoners and several machine-guns  Later, single-handed and under heavy fire he attacked a machine-gun post in a farmhouse, killed two of the garrison and drove the remainder into a cellar until assistance arrived  Subsequently, he rushed a strongly held post, capturing 20 more prisoners Amey later achieved the rank of corporal, and was demobilised in 1919  He is buried at Leamington Cemetery, Brunswick Street, Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, England  His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers Museum (Royal Warwickshire), in St John's House, Warwick, England 
Passage 3:
Mego Corporation
The Mego Corporation is an American toy company that in its original iteration was first founded in 1954   Originally known as a purveyor of dime store toys, in 1971 the company shifted direction and became famous for producing licensed action figures (including the long-running "World's Greatest Super Heroes" line), celebrity dolls, and the Micronauts toy line  For a time in the 1970s, their line of 8-inch-scale action figures with interchangeable bodies became the industry standard 
In 1982 Mego filed for bankruptcy, and by 1983, the Mego Corporation ceased to exist; today, Mego action figures and playsets can be highly prized collectibles, with some fetching hundreds, or even in some cases, thousands of dollars (depending on rarity) in the collectibles market In July 2018, the newly-reformed Mego Corporation announced they would be producing a limited run of their classic style clothed dolls in their traditional 1/9 scale, as well as some 1/5 figures sold exclusively through Target  These dolls, which include recreations of action figures released in the 1970s, began seeing release later in the year 

Corporate history
Mego was founded in 1954 by D  David Abrams and Madeline Abrams  The company thrived in the 1950s and early 1960s as an importer of dime store toys until the rising cost of newspaper advertising forced Mego to change its business model  In 1971, the Abrams's son Martin, a recent business school graduate, was named company president 
Under Martin Abrams's direction, the company shifted its production to dolls with interchangeable bodies  Generic bodies could be mass-produced and different dolls created by interposing different heads and costumes on them 
In 1972 Mego secured the licenses to create toys for both National Periodical Publications (DC Comics) and Marvel Comics  The popularity of this line of 8" dolls—dubbed "The World's Greatest Super Heroes"—created the standard action-figure scale for the 1970s 
Mego began to purchase the license rights of motion pictures, television programs, and comic books, eventually producing doll lines for Planet of the Apes, Star Trek, and the Wizard of Oz  Mego also obtained licenses from Edgar Rice Burroughs for his creations, such as Tarzan 
Beginning in 1974 Mego released the Planet of the Apes action-figures, the first such toys sold as film tie-ins  1975 saw the release of figures from Star Trek: The Original Series, which was steadily gaining fandom in syndication  The Planet of the Apes and Star Trek figures proved popular and inspired the rise of action figure series based on popular culture franchises During this period, Mego was known for the lavish parties the company threw at the annual New York American International Toy Fair  In 1975, Mego launched its Wizard of Oz film dolls with a gala whose special guests were every surviving member of the film's main cast  Mego's party at the Waldorf-Astoria with Sonny and Cher introducing their dolls drew a thousand people  Both dolls were formally unveiled on The Mike Douglas Show  The Cher doll was the number-1-selling doll in 1976, helping to make Mego the sixth-ranked American toy manufacturer, based on retail sales In 1976, Martin Abrams hashed out a deal with the Japanese toy manufacturer Takara to bring their popular lucite 3" fully articulated Microman figures to the United States under the name "Micronauts "  While Marty was in Japan, Fox's lawyer Mark Peders dropped by the office to show stills from the upcoming motion picture Star Wars, but no one in the office could sign the deal, so Peders visited Kenner in the same building and Kenner president Bernie Loomis was in the office and signed the deal   This decision seemed of little consequence to Mego at first, because the Micronauts figures initially sold well, earning the company more than $30 million at their peak  On the other hand, the Star Wars film was extremely popular and competitor Kenner Products sold substantial numbers of Star Wars action figures Following Star Wars' huge cultural impact, and Kenner's great success with its action figure line, Mego negotiated licenses for the manufacturing rights to a host of science fiction motion pictures and television shows, including Moonraker, Buck Rogers in the 25th Century, The Black Hole, and Star Trek: The Motion Picture  Although these lines of Mego dolls were of much higher quality than Kenner's 12" Star Wars figures, none were as successful  The widespread success of Kenner's Star Wars 3-3/4" toy line soon made the newer, smaller size the industry standard, shifting sales away from the 8" standard popularized by Mego 
In the late 1970s, Mego was earning about $100 million in sales  Around this time, Mego began shifting their focus toward electronic toys like the 2-XL toy robot and the Fabulous Fred hand-held game player, but sales were not commensurate with the company's investment, and Mego went deeply into debt  Other problems included a rat infestation in Mego's warehouse and a lawsuit from Kenner over illegal appropriation of trade secrets related to the manufacture of their stretch figures  In the fiscal years 1980 and 1981, Mego reported combined losses of $40 million  In fiscal year 1982, the company reported losses of between $18 and $20 million In February 1982 the remaining staff was let go and the Mego offices were closed  On June 14, 1982, Mego filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy; the company officially went under in 1983 In 1986, Martin Abrams co-founded Abrams Gentile Entertainment (AGE), in order to retain and manage Mego's licensing contracts, rights and deals  In October 1995 AGE attempted to reclaim the Mego trademark  In March 2002, they abandoned the effort  In early 2009, Martin Abrams announced that AGE had reclaimed the rights to the name Mego Mego Corporation is headquartered in Great Neck, NY, with manufacturing facilities in China and Mexico  In July 2018, Mego Corporation premiered an exclusive line
with Target stores of their classic 8 inch clothed action figures as well as several 14 inch DC Superheroes figures at San Diego Comic Con with Joe Namath on hand to autograph his own 14 inch action figure   The Target exclusive featured three waves of figures hitting Target stores in August, October, and November   These figures were limited to 10,000 of each character 
Starting in 2019, Mego has continued to work with Target and other major retailers like Wal-Mart to bring the classic Star Trek, monsters, celebrities, and superheroes back to store shelves and on-line   Mego created action figures from the iconic Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan movie, giving fans of that 1982 classic the Mego figures they expected to see back then   Mego has also expanded distribution internationally, working with distributors in other countries to bring the magic of Mego to the rest of the world as well 
In 2020 Mego launched new waves of action figures and products with the help of Dr  Mego (Paul Clarke) to a wide audience via Target Corporation stores around the United States; Marty Abrams is greeting old and new fans at comic-cons and conventions nationwide 

Products history
Fighting Yank
A toy similar to GI Joe; so similar, in fact, that Hasbro was able to show that the toy's body had been copied directly from authentic GI Joe tooling  Hasbro threatened a lawsuit and Mego discontinued the product 

Broadway Joe Namath
An action doll based on New York Jets quarterback Joe Namath  The 1970s toyline included Broadway Joe in New York Jets football uniform, plus additional fashions sold separately 

Action Jackson
One of Mego's first toys under Martin Adams was an original character, Action Jackson, meant to compete with Hasbro's popular G I  Joe line  Heavily promoted on television commercials and in newspaper advertisements, the Action Jackson line included dolls, vehicles, and playsets  It was a big seller on its 1971 launch, but soon faded in popularity and was discontinued after 1974  The body design was reused for 8-inch licensed dolls 

Dinah Mite
A fashion doll produced as a female counterpart to Action Jackson  The doll was not a success, but the body design was reused for 8-inch licensed female dolls 

World's Greatest Super Heroes!
Beginning in 1972, Mego released the first comprehensive line of DC Comics and Marvel Comics superhero and villain dolls, coining the term "World's Greatest Super Heroes!" (WGSH) as an umbrella title for all the dolls released in this line  To start the line, Mego produced Batman, Robin, Aquaman, and Superman dolls  (For the South African market, a local radio play hero, Jet Jungle, was included in the series ) The earliest dolls were released in a solid box, but these boxes were often damaged by shoppers who wanted to see the figure inside  The design was quickly changed to a "window" style box  The WGSH line was offered from 1972 until 1983 

Fashion dolls
Mego marketed various fashion doll lines designed to compete with Mattel's popular Barbie line  The company's first attempt was the 1973 "Maddie Mod" line, which included an extensive wardrobe and Maddie's boyfriend "Richie," was not a success  Next, Mego created "Dinah-Mite," a poseable eight-inch (203 mm) scale Barbie-like doll with a boyfriend named Don  Other fashion dolls included "Beautiful Lainie," a 19" doll that danced back and forth from the hips; and Candi, a line that included "Coppertone Candi," a "tanning" doll co-branded with Coppertone sunscreen 

TV and movie dolls
The popularity of the 1974 releases of the Planet of the Apes and Star Trek: The Original Series lines led Mego to produce a variety of licensed figures based on films and TV shows, including The Flintstones, Happy Days, Laverne & Shirley, Our Gang, Starsky & Hutch, The Waltons, and Wizard of Oz 

Mego introduced a Lynda Carter Wonder Woman doll line in 1977  The first edition of the Wonder Woman dolls and accessories included:

Wonder Woman (factory-painted bustier top with cloth star-spangled bottoms, bracelets, golden lasso, tiara, and red boots), as well as a Diana Prince Navy Yeoman outfit, featuring black glasses and black high-heeled shoes
Nubia, Wonder Woman's super-foe
Queen Hippolyta, Wonder Woman's mother
Major Steve Trevor, Wonder Woman's best friend and bossMego added 121⁄2" dolls from the Superman movie in 1978, which included Superman, Jor-El, Lex Luthor, and General Zod 
In the early 1980s Mego produced dolls and vehicles for the popular TV shows CHiPs, Dallas, Dukes of Hazzard, and The Greatest American Hero  The Dukes of Hazzard dolls sold well, but Mego failed with its CHiPs and Dallas dolls 

Comic Action Heroes!
Always thinking of ways to reduce costs of production, in 1975 Mego released a smaller plastic line of action toys called Comic Action Heroes! that had the costumes molded onto the figure (and later adopted by Star Wars and Super Powers lines), thus eliminating the extra cost of creating the suits  The line featured Batman, Robin, The Joker, and The Penguin, as well as other DC Comics characters, and Marvel characters such as Spider-Man, Captain America, and the Hulk  Later, in 1979, Mego re-released the line under the new name Pocket Super Heroes 

Celebrity dolls
In 1976, Mego launched a highly successful 12½-inch celebrity doll line  The first dolls were Sonny and Cher, with famed fashion designer Bob Mackie designing an extensive wardrobe for Cher  Farrah Fawcett, Jaclyn Smith, Diana Ross, Suzanne Somers, Captain and Tennille, and Kiss celebrity dolls followed in 1977 and 1978 

Micronauts
From 1976 to 1980 Mego produced a licensed line of Takara's Microman figures under the name Micronauts  The 3-3/4" toy line's popularity led Marvel Comics to launch a Micronauts comic book in 1979, which ran until 1986 

2-XL robot
In 1978, Martin Abrams purchased inventor Michael J  Freeman's toy robot, the 2-XL, which was introduced to the public and became a success  The toy was sold in different countries and was voiced in seven languages, including English  2-XL was a revolutionary idea, combining toys and education  A lot of games were also developed for the toy  By 1981, the 2-XL's popularity had waned, and it was later discontinued  However, the 2-XL robot was upgraded and reintroduced in the early 1990s by Tiger Electronics, a US based toy company  The programs for this version were also voiced by Freeman and sold worldwide The 2-XL was part of Mego's electronic games line, which included the handheld devices Mini-Vid and Fabulous Fred 

Military dolls
In 1976, Mego began producing a small collection of World War II-themed military dolls marketed in France, Italy (under the Polistil name), Germany, Australia, and the United Kingdom under different names  Most of these products were branded under the "Lion Rock" name, Mego's manufacturing arm  These dolls were released in United States the early 1980s as "Johnny Action" or "Combat Man " Using the 6-inch (150 mm) format, they were produced after the 12-inch (300 mm) G I  Joe dolls had lost their popularity and before the revival of the G I  Joe line in 3-¾" format; they were also intended to compete with Spain's Madelman line of soldier dolls  The 6-inch (150 mm) combat line was not a success 

Eagle Force
One of Mego's final large product lines was Eagle Force, a 2+3⁄4-inch-high (70 mm) die-cast action figure toy line co-designed by Paul Kirchner and marketed in 1981-1982  Produced during Ronald Reagan's first term as president, the Eagle Force toy line was marketed as a counter-terrorist task force, to send the message that the United States wasn't going to be "pushed around" anymore 
The line was similar to Hasbro's G I  Joe: A Real American Hero dolls 

Reissued Marx playsets
Mego acquired the moulds of World War II soldiers, vehicles and landscape terrain from Louis Marx and Company, reissuing their Battleground (1980) and Navarone (1981) playsets  Mego also reissued a Prehistoric Dinosaur, Fort Apache and Galaxy Command playsets 

Toys and games manufactured by Mego
"Mego Melt"
Several different (but not all) plastic dolls made by Mego have suffered from "Mego Melt" (also known as "Mego Molt"), a term coined by toy collectors to describe the material deteriorating over time  The plastic used for the doll's torso reacts with the rubberized plastic used for the arms and legs  The result is a melting of the torso at those joining points: shoulder, underarm, hips, and buttocks  Even when stored carefully, this melting often results in the costumes becoming stuck to the dolls  Excessive heat from storage in hot attics or garages exacerbates this problem  The dolls' hair and eyelashes are prone to similar deterioration when exposed to high temperatures 

In popular culture
From 1996–2011, Mego's 8-inch (200 mm) dolls, particularly the superhero line, found new life in Twisted ToyFare Theater (originally called "Twisted Mego Theatre"), a humorous photo comic strip appearing in ToyFare, a monthly magazine published by Wizard Entertainment  ToyFare staff posed and took photos depicting the dolls in bizarre situations, with added dialogue balloons  The series was well known in comic book and collectors' circles for its distinctive, off-the-wall sense of humor  The popular strips were later published separately in their own collections 
Mego dolls as well as similarly styled figures are used in sexually perverted adult oriented situations in the Cartoon Network/Adult Swim program Robot Chicken  The show, which debuted in February 2005, is directly based on Twisted ToyFare Theater and features three of its writers 

See also
Hasbro
Kenner Products
Mattel
Trendmasters
Passage 4:
David Ferguson Hunter
David Ferguson Hunter VC (28 November 1891 – 14 February 1965) was a Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces 
Hunter was 26 years old, and a corporal in the 1/5th Battalion, The Highland Light Infantry, British Army during the First World War when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC on 23 October 1918 On 16/17 September 1918 at Moeuvres, France, Corporal Hunter was detailed to take on an advanced post which was established in shell holes close to the enemy  There was no opportunity for reconnoitring adjacent ground, and the following afternoon Corporal Hunter found that the enemy had established posts all round him, isolating his command  He determined to hold out and despite being exceedingly short of food and water this NCO managed to maintain his position for over 48 hours until a counter-attack relieved him  He repelled frequent enemy attacks and also barrage from our attacks, which came right across his post 
He was subsequently promoted to the rank of sergeant on 23 October 1918  He died 14 February 1965
On 12 August 2004, his previously unmarked grave in Dunfermline Cemetery was marked by a memorial stone in a ceremony 

Freemasonry
He was initiated into Freemasonry in Lodge Union, No  250, (Dunfermline, Scotland) on 3 January, Passed on 6 February and Raised 3 May 1919 

The Medal
His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Museum of The Royal Highland Fusiliers, Glasgow, Scotland 
Passage 5:
John Burroughs Medal
The John Burroughs Medal, named for nature writer John Burroughs (1837–1921), is awarded each year in April by the John Burroughs Association to the author of a book that the association has judged to be distinguished in the field of natural history  Only twice has the award been given to a work of fiction 

List of recipients of the John Burroughs Medal
1926 - William Beebe, Pheasants of the World
1927 - Ernest Thompson Seton, Lives of Game Animals
1928 - John Russell McCarthy, Nature Poems
1929 - Frank M  Chapman, Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America (published 1906)
1930 - Archibald Rutledge, Peace in the Heart
1931 - no award
1932 - Frederick S  Dellenbaugh, A Canyon Voyage: A Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition, ISBN 0-8165-0880-1
1933 - Oliver P  Medsker, Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter (set)
1934 - W W  Christman, Wild Pasture Pine
1935 - no award
1936 - Charles Crawford Gorst, Recordings of Bird Calls
1937 - no award
1938 - Robert Cushman Murphy, Oceanic Birds of South America
1939 - T  Gilbert Pearson, Adventures in Bird Protection
1940 - Arthur Cleveland Bent, Life Histories of North American Birds (18 title series, United States Government Printing Office)
1941 - Louis J  Halle, Jr , Birds Against Men
1942 - Edward A  Armstrong, Birds of the Grey Wind
1943 - Edwin Way Teale, Near Horizons: The Story of an Insect Garden
1944 - no award
1945 - Rutherford Platt, This Green World ISBN 0-396-09188-1
1946 - Florence Page Jaques and Francis Lee Jaques (illustrator), Snowshoe Country, ISBN 0-87351-236-7
1947 - no award
1948 - Theodora Stanwell-Fletcher, Driftwood Valley, ISBN 0-87071-524-0
1949 - Helen G  Cruickshank, Flight Into Sunshine: Bird Experiences in Florida
1950 - Roger Tory Peterson, Birds Over America, ISBN 0-396-08269-6
1951 - no award
1952 - Rachel Carson, The Sea Around Us, ISBN 0-451-61873-4
1953 - Gilbert Klingel, The Bay, ISBN 0-8018-2536-9
1954 - Joseph Wood Krutch, The Desert Year, ISBN 0-8165-0923-9
1955 - Wallace Byron Grange and Olaus J  Murie (illustrator), Those of the Forest, ISBN 1-55971-083-7
1956 - Guy Murchie, Song of the Sky
1957 - Archie Fairly Carr, The Windward Road: Adventures of a Naturalist on Remote Caribbean Shores, ISBN 0-8130-0639-2
1958 - Robert Porter Allen, On the Trail of the Vanishing Birds
1959 - no award
1960 - John Kieran, A Natural History of New York City, ISBN 0-8232-1086-3
1961 - Loren Eiseley, The Firmament of Time, ISBN 0-8032-6739-8
1962 - George Miksch Sutton, Iceland Summer: Adventures of a Bird Painter, ISBN 0-8061-0491-0
1963 - Adolph Murie, A Naturalist in Alaska, ISBN 0-8165-1168-3
1964 - John Hay, The Great Beach: A Naturalist Explores the Frontier Between Land and Sea on the Outer Reaches of Cape Cod, ISBN 0-345-02255-6
1965 - Paul Brooks, Roadless Area, ISBN 0-345-25276-4
1966 - Louis Darling, The Gull's Way, ISBN 0-688-21366-9
1967 - Charlton Ogburn, Jr , The Winter Beach, ISBN 0-688-09418-X
1968 - Hal Borland, Hill Country Harvest
1969 - Louise de Kiriline Lawrence, The Lovely and the Wild, ISBN 0-920474-43-8
1970 - Victor B  Scheffer, The Year of the Whale
1971 - John K  Terres, From Laurel Hill to Siler's Bog, ISBN 0-8078-4426-8
1972 - Robert S  Arbib, The Lord's Woods: The Passing of an American Woodland, ISBN 0-393-08639-9
1973 - Elizabeth Barlow, The Forests and Wetlands of New York City
1974 - Sigurd F  Olson, Wilderness Days, ISBN 0-394-47155-5
1975 - no award
1976 - Ann Haymond Zwinger, Run, River, Run, ISBN 0-06-014824-1
1977 - Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac, ISBN 0-915024-15-2
1978 - Ruth Kirk, The American Southwest Desert, ISBN 0-395-17209-8
1979 - Barry Lopez, Of Wolves and Men, ISBN 0-7432-4936-4
1980 - no award
1981 - Mary Durant and Michael Harwood, On the Road with John James Audubon, ISBN 0-396-07740-4
1982 - Peter Matthiessen, Sand Rivers, ISBN 0-906053-22-6
1983 - Alexander F  Skutch, A Naturalist on a Tropical Farm, ISBN 0-520-03802-9
1984 - David Rains Wallace, The Klamath Knot: Explorations of Myth and Evolution, ISBN 0-520-23659-9
1985 - Mark Owens and Delia Owens, Cry of the Kalahari, ISBN 0-395-64780-0
1986 - Gary Paul Nabhan, Gathering the Desert, ISBN 0-8165-0935-2
1987 - Robert Michael Pyle, Wintergreen: Rambles in a Ravaged Land, ISBN 0-684-18321-8
1988 - Tom Horton and Charles R  Hazard (illustrator), Bay Country, ISBN 0-8018-3525-9
1989 - Lawrence Kilham, On Watching Birds, ISBN 0-930031-14-8
1990 - John McPhee, The Control of Nature, ISBN 0-374-12890-1
1991 - Richard Nelson, The Island Within, ISBN 0-86547-404-4
1992 - Kenneth S  Norris, Dolphin Days: The Life and Times of the Spinner Dolphin, ISBN 0-393-02945-X
1993 - Vincent Dethier, Crickets and Katydids, Concerts and Solos, ISBN 0-674-17577-8
1994 - David G  Campbell, The Crystal Desert: Summers in Antarctica, ISBN 0-436-20049-X
1995 - Craig Packer, Into Africa, ISBN 0-226-64429-4
1996 - Bill Green, Water, Ice and Stone:Science and Memory on the Antarctic Lakes, ISBN 0-517-58759-9
1997 - David Quammen, The Song Of The Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction, ISBN 0-684-80083-7
1998 - John Alcock, In a Desert Garden:Love and Death Among the Insects, ISBN 0-8165-1970-6
1999 - Jan DeBlieu, Wind: How the Flow of Air Has Shaped Life, Myth, and the Land, ISBN 0-395-78033-0
2000 - Bernd Heinrich, Mind Of the Raven, ISBN 0-06-017447-1
2001 - David M  Carroll, Swampwalker's Journal, ISBN 0-395-64725-8
2002 - Ken Lamberton, Wilderness and Razor Wire, ISBN 1-56279-116-8
2003 - Carl Safina, Eye of the Albatross: Visions of Hope and Survival, ISBN 0-8050-6228-9
2004 - Ted Levin, Liquid Land: A Journey Through The Florida Everglades, ISBN 0-8203-2512-0
2005 - Robin Wall Kimmerer, Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses, ISBN 0-87071-499-6
2006 - Donald Kroodsma, The Singing Life of Birds, ISBN 0-618-40568-2
2007 - Ellen Meloy, Eating Stone: Imagination And The Loss Of The Wild, ISBN 0-375-42216-1
2008 - Julia Whitty, The Fragile Edge: Diving and Other Adventures in the South Pacific, ISBN 0-618-19716-8
2009 - Franklin Burroughs, Confluence: Merrymeeting Bay, ISBN 0-88448-282-0
2010 - Michael Welland, Sand: The Never-Ending Story, ISBN 0-520-26597-1
2011 - Elisabeth Tova Bailey, The Sound of a Wild Snail Eating, ISBN 978-1565126060
2012 - Edward (Ted) Hoagland, Sex and the River Styx, ISBN 978-1603583374
2013 - Thor Hanson, Feathers: The Evolution of a Natural Miracle, ISBN 978-0465028788
2014 - Kathleen Jamie, Sightlines, ISBN 978-0956308665
2015 - Sherry Simpson, Dominion of Bears, ISBN 978-0700619351
2016 - Sharman Apt Russell, Diary of a Citizen Scientist, ISBN 978-0870717529 
2017 - Brian Doyle, Martin Marten, ISBN 978-1250045201 
2018 - David George Haskell, The Songs of Trees, ISBN 978-0525427520; a special John Burroughs Medal was given for Lifetime Achievement in Nature Poetry to Pattiann Rogers
2020 - Marilyn Sigman, Entangled: People and Ecological Change in Alaska's Kachemak Bay, ISBN 978-1602233485
Passage 6:
Australia Day
Australia Day is the official national day of Australia  Observed annually on 26 January, it marks the 1788 landing of the First Fleet, and raising of the Union Flag by Arthur Phillip, at Sydney Cove in New South Wales  In present-day Australia, celebrations aim to reflect the diverse society and landscape of the nation and are marked by community and family events, reflections on Australian history, official community awards and citizenship ceremonies welcoming new members of the Australian community The meaning and significance of Australia Day has evolved and been contested over time, and not all states historically celebrated the same date as their date of historical significance  The date of 26 January 1788 marks the proclamation of British sovereignty over the eastern seaboard of Australia  Records of celebrations on 26 January date back to 1808, with the first official celebration of the formation of New South Wales held in 1818  It was not until 1935 that all Australian states and territories adopted use of the term "Australia Day" to mark the date of the 1788 landing of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove, and not until 1994 that 26 January was consistently marked by a public holiday on that day by all states and territories  Historically, the date was also variously named Anniversary Day, Foundation Day and ANA Day In contemporary Australia, the holiday is marked by the presentation of the Australian of the Year Awards on Australia Day Eve, announcement of the Australia Day Honours list and addresses from the Governor-General and Prime Minister  It is an official public holiday in every state and territory  With community festivals, concerts and citizenship ceremonies, the day is celebrated in large and small communities and cities around the nation  Australia Day has become the biggest annual civic event in Australia Indigenous Australian events are now included  However, since at least 1938, the date of Australia Day has also been marked by some Indigenous Australians and supporters mourning what is seen as the invasion of the land – which they had occupied for millennia – by the British and the start of colonisation, protesting its celebration as a national holiday  Invasion Day, Survival Day, or Day of Mourning is observed by many as a counter-observance on 26 January, with calls for the date of Australia Day to be changed or the holiday to be abolished entirely  Support for changing the date is a minority position; however, polls indicate some support, particularly among Australians under age 30 

History
Arrival of the First Fleet: 1788
On 13 May 1787 a fleet of 11 ships, which came to be known as the First Fleet, was sent by the British Admiralty from England to New Holland  Under the command of Naval Captain Arthur Phillip, the fleet sought to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay on the coast of New South Wales, which had been explored and claimed by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770  The settlement was seen as necessary because of the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America  The Fleet arrived between 18 and 20 January 1788, but it was immediately apparent that Botany Bay was unsuitable 
On 21 January, Phillip and a few officers travelled to Port Jackson, 12 kilometres (7 5 mi) to the north, to see if it would be a better location for a settlement  They stayed there until 23 January; Phillip named the site of their landing Sydney Cove, after the Home Secretary, Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney  They also made contact with the local Aboriginal people 
They returned to Botany Bay on the evening of 23 January, when Phillip gave orders to move the fleet to Sydney Cove the next morning, 24 January  That day, there was a huge gale blowing, making it impossible to leave Botany Bay, so they decided to wait till the next day, 25 January  However, during 24 January, they spotted the ships Astrolabe and Boussole, flying the French flag, at the entrance to Botany Bay; they were having as much trouble getting into the bay as the First Fleet was having getting out On 25 January the gale was still blowing; the fleet tried to leave Botany Bay, but only HMS Supply made it out, carrying Arthur Phillip, Philip Gidley King, some marines and about 40 convicts; they anchored in Sydney Cove in the afternoon  Meanwhile, back at Botany Bay, Captain John Hunter of HMS Sirius made contact with the French ships, and he and the commander, Captain de Clonard, exchanged greetings  Clonard informed Hunter that the fleet commander was Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse  Sirius successfully cleared Botany Bay, but the other ships were in great difficulty  Charlotte was blown dangerously close to rocks, Friendship and Prince of Wales became entangled, both ships losing booms or sails, Charlotte and Friendship collided, and Lady Penrhyn nearly ran aground  Despite these difficulties, all the remaining ships finally managed to clear Botany Bay and sail to Sydney Cove on 26 January  The last ship anchored there at about 3 pm 
 
So it was on 26 January that a landing was made at Sydney Cove and clearing of the ground for an encampment immediately began  Then, according to Phillip's account: In the evening of the 26th the colours were displayed on shore, and the Governor, with several of his principal officers and others, assembled round the flag-staff, drank the king's health, and success to the settlement, with all that display of form which on such occasions is esteemed propitious, because it enlivens the spirits, and fills the imagination with pleasing presages 
The formal establishment of the Colony of New South Wales did not however occur on 26 January as is commonly assumed  It did not occur until 7 February 1788, when the formal proclamation of the colony and of Arthur Phillip's governorship were read out  The vesting of all land in the reigning monarch King George III also dates from 7 February 1788 

1788–1838
Although there was no official recognition of the colony's anniversary, with the New South Wales Almanacks of 1806 and 1808 placing no special significance on 26 January, by 1808 the date was being used by the colony's immigrants, especially the emancipated convicts, to "celebrate their love of the land they lived in" with "drinking and merriment"  The 1808 celebrations followed this pattern, beginning at sunset on 25 January and lasting into the night, the chief toast of the occasion being Major George Johnston  Johnston had the honour of being the first officer ashore from the First Fleet, having been carried from the landing boat on the back of convict James Ruse  Despite suffering the ill-effects of a fall from his gig on the way home to Annandale, Johnston led the officers of the New South Wales Corps in arresting Governor William Bligh on the following day, 26 January 1808, in what became known as the "Rum Rebellion" 
Almanacs started mentioning "First Landing Day" or "Foundation Day" and successful immigrants started holding anniversary dinners  In 1817 The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser reported on one of these unofficial gatherings at the home of Isaac Nichols:

On Monday the 27th ult  a dinner party met at the house of Mr  Isaac Nichols, for the purpose of celebrating the Anniversary of the Institution of this Colony under Governor Philip, which took place on 26 Jan  1788, but this year happening upon a Sunday, the commemoration dinner was reserved for the day following   The party assembled were select, and about 40 in number  At 5 in the afternoon dinner was on the table, and a more agreeable entertainment could not have been anticipated  After dinner a number of loyal toasts were drank, and a number of festive songs given; and about 10 the company parted, well gratified with the pleasures that the meeting had afforded 
1818 was the 30th anniversary of the founding of the colony, and Governor Lachlan Macquarie chose to acknowledge the day with the first official celebration  The governor declared that the day would be a holiday for all government workers, granting each an extra allowance of "one pound [450 grams] of fresh meat", and ordered a 30-gun salute at Dawes Point – one for each year that the colony had existed  This began a tradition that was retained by the Governors that were to follow 

Foundation Day, as it was known at the time, continued to be officially celebrated in New South Wales, and in doing so became connected with sporting events  One of these became a tradition that is still continued today: in 1837 the first running of what would become the Australia Day regatta was held on Sydney Harbour  Five races were held for different classes of boats, from first class sailing vessels to watermen's skiffs, and people viewed the festivities from both onshore and from the decks of boats on the harbour, including the steamboat Australian and the Francis Freeling—the latter running aground during the festivities and having to be refloated the next day  Happy with the success of the regatta, the organisers resolved to make it an annual event  However, some of the celebrations had gained an air of elitism, with the "United Australians" dinner being limited to those born in Australia  In describing the dinner, the Sydney Herald justified the decision, saying:

The parties who associated themselves under the title of "United Australians" have been censured for adopting a principle of exclusiveness  It is not fair so to censure them  If they invited emigrants to join them they would give offence to another class of persons – while if they invited all they would be subject to the presence of persons with whom they might not wish to associate  That was a good reason  The "Australians" had a perfect right to dine together if they wished it, and no one has a right to complain 
The following year, 1838, was the 50th anniversary of the founding of the colony, and as part of the celebrations Australia's first public holiday was declared  The regatta was held for a second time, and people crowded the foreshores to view the events, or joined the five steamers (Maitland, Experiment, Australia, Rapid, and the miniature steamer Firefly) to view the proceedings from the water  At midday 50 guns were fired from Dawes' Battery as the Royal Standard was raised, and in the evening rockets and other fireworks lit the sky  The dinner was a smaller affair than the previous year, with only 40 in attendance compared to the 160 from 1837, and the anniversary as a whole was described as a "day for everyone" 

1839–1935
Prior to 1888, 26 January was very much a New South Wales affair, as each of the colonies had its own commemoration for its founding  In Tasmania, Regatta Day occurred initially in December to mark the anniversary of the landing of Abel Tasman  South Australia celebrated Proclamation Day on 28 December  Western Australia had its own Foundation Day (now Western Australia Day) on 1 June The decision to mark the occasion of the First Fleet’s arrival in 1788 at Sydney Cove and Captain Arthur Phillip’s proclamation of British sovereignty over the eastern continent on 26 January was first made outside NSW by the Australian Natives' Association (ANA), a group of white "native-born" middle-class men formed in Victoria in 1871  They dubbed the day "ANA Day" In 1888, all colonial capitals except Adelaide celebrated "Anniversary Day"  In 1910, South Australia adopted 26 January as "Foundation Day", to replace another holiday known as Accession Day, which had been held on 22 January to mark the accession to the throne of King Edward VII, who died in May 1910 The first Australia Day was established in response to Australia's involvement in World War I  In 1915, Ellen "Ellie" Wharton Kirke MBE, née Clements, mother of four servicemen, thought up the idea of a national day, with the specific aim of raising funds for wounded soldiers, and the term was coined to stir up patriotic feelings  In 1915 a committee to celebrate Australia Day was formed, and the date chosen was 30 July, on which many fund-raising efforts were run to support the war effort  It was also held in July in subsequent years of World War I: on 28 July 1916, 27 July 1917, and 26 July 1918 The idea of a national day to be celebrated on 26 January was slow to catch on, partly because of competition with Anzac Day  Victoria adopted 26 January as Australia Day in 1931, and by 1935, all states of Australia were celebrating 26 January as Australia Day (although it was still known as Anniversary Day in New South Wales)  The name "Foundation Day" persisted in local usage 

1936–1960s
The 150th anniversary of British settlement in Australia in 1938 was widely celebrated  Preparations began in 1936 with the formation of a Celebrations Council  In that year, New South Wales was the only state to abandon the traditional long weekend, and the annual Anniversary Day public holiday was held on the anniversary day – Wednesday 26 January The Commonwealth and state governments agreed to unify the celebrations on 26 January as "Australia Day" in 1946, although the public holiday was instead taken on the Monday closest to the anniversary The Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948 came into effect on 26 January 1949, creating Australian citizenship for the first time  Previously, the government-approved residents of Australia had only been "British nationals"; now they had both Australian and British nationality Historian Ken Inglis wrote in 1967 that Australia Day was not celebrated publicly in Canberra at that time 

1988: Bicentenary
In 1988, the celebration of 200 years since the arrival of the First Fleet was organised on a large scale as the Australian Bicentenary, with many significant events taking place in all major cities  Over 2 5 million people attended the event in Sydney  These included street parties, concerts, including performances on the steps and forecourt of the Sydney Opera House and at many other public venues, art and literary competitions, historic re-enactments, and the opening of the Powerhouse Museum at its new location  A re-enactment of the arrival of the First Fleet took place in Sydney Harbour, with ships that had sailed from Portsmouth a year earlier taking part 

Contemporary celebrations
The various celebrations and civic ceremonies such as citizenship ceremonies, the Australian of the Year awards and the Australia Day Honours (introduced in 1975) only started to be performed on Australia Day from around the 1950s onwards Since 1988, participation in Australia Day has increased, and in 1994 all states and territories began to celebrate a unified public holiday on 26 January – regardless of the day of the week –  for the first time  Previously, some states had celebrated the public holiday on a Monday or Friday to ensure a long weekend  Research conducted in 2007 reported that 28% of Australians polled attended an organised Australia Day event and a further 26% celebrated with family and friends  This reflected the results of an earlier research project where 66% of respondents anticipated that they would actively celebrate Australia Day 2005 Outdoor concerts, community barbecues, sports competitions, festivals and fireworks are some of the many events held in communities across Australia  These official events are presented by the National Australia Day Council, an official council or committee in each state and territory, and local committees In Sydney, the harbour is a focus and boat races are held, such as a ferry race and the tall ships race  In Adelaide, the key celebrations are "Australia Day in the City" which is a parade, concert and fireworks display held in Elder Park, with a new outdoor art installation in 2019 designed to acknowledge, remember and recognise Aboriginal people who have contributed to the community  Featuring the People's March and the Voyages Concert, Melbourne's events focus strongly on the celebration of multiculturalism  In Perth, for many years until 2022, the Skyworks were the largest single event presented each Australia Day Citizenship ceremonies are also commonly held, with Australia Day now the largest occasion for the acquisition of Australian citizenship  On 26 January 2011, more than 300 citizenship ceremonies took place and around 13,000 people from 143 countries took Australian citizenship  In recent years many citizenship ceremonies have included an affirmation by existing citizens  Research conducted in 2007 reported that 78 6% of respondents thought that citizenship ceremonies were an important feature of the day  In September 2019, the Morrison government amended the Australian Citizenship Ceremonies Code to require local councils to hold a citizenship ceremony on Australia Day The official Australia Day Ambassador Program supports celebrations in communities across the nation by facilitating the participation of high-achieving Australians in local community celebrations  In 2011, 385 ambassadors participated in 384 local community celebrations  The Order of Australia awards are also a feature of the day  The Australia Day Achievement Medallion is awarded to citizens by local governments based on excellence in both government and non-government organisations  The governor-general and prime minister both address the nation  On the eve of Australia Day each year, the Prime Minister announces the winner of the Australian of the Year award, presented to an Australian citizen who has shown a "significant contribution to the Australian community and nation" and is an "inspirational role model for the Australian community"  Subcategories of the award include Young Australian of the Year and Senior Australian of the Year, and an award for Australia's Local Hero 
Research in 2009 indicated that Australians reflect on history and future fairly equally on Australia Day  Of those polled, 43% agreed that history is the most important thing to think about on Australia Day and 41% said they look towards "our future", while 13% thought it was important to "think about the present at this time" and 3% were unsure  Despite the date reflecting the arrival of the First Fleet, contemporary celebrations are not particularly historical in their theme  There are no large-scale re-enactments and the national leader's participation is focused largely on events such as the Australian of the Year Awards announcement and Citizenship Ceremonies Possibly reflecting a shift in Australians' understanding of the place of Indigenous Australians in their national identity, Newspoll research in November 2009 reported that ninety percent of Australians polled believed "it was important to recognise Australia's indigenous people and culture" as part of Australia Day celebrations  A similar proportion (89%) agreed that "it is important to recognise the cultural diversity of the nation"  Despite the strong attendance at Australia Day events and a positive disposition towards the recognition of Indigenous Australians, the date of the celebrations remains a source of challenge and national discussion 

Debate
Some Australians regard Australia Day as a symbol of the adverse impacts of British settlement on Australia's Indigenous peoples  In 1888, prior to the first centennial anniversary of the First Fleet landing on 26 January 1788, New South Wales premier Henry Parkes was asked about inclusion of Aboriginal people in the celebrations  He replied: "And remind them that we have robbed them?"The celebrations in 1938 were accompanied by an Aboriginal Day of Mourning  A large gathering of Aboriginal people in Sydney in 1988 led an "Invasion Day" commemoration marking the loss of Indigenous culture  Some Indigenous figures and others continue to label Australia Day as "Invasion Day", and protests occur almost every year, sometimes at Australia Day events  Thousands of people participate in protest marches in capital cities on Australia Day; estimates for the 2018 protest in Melbourne range into tens of thousands The anniversary is also termed by some as "Survival Day" and marked by events such as the Survival Day concert, first held in Sydney in 1992, celebrating the fact that the Indigenous people and culture have survived despite colonisation and discrimination  In 2016, National Indigenous Television chose the name "Survival Day" as its preferred choice on the basis that it acknowledges the mixed nature of the day, saying that the term "recognises the invasion", but does not allow that to frame the entire story of the Aboriginal people In response, official celebrations have tried to include Indigenous people, holding ceremonies such as the Woggan-ma-gule ceremony, held in Sydney, which honours the past and celebrates the present Several major employers, both public and private, including the Australian Public Service, permit employees to work on Australia Day and take another day off 

Polling
Polling by Essential Media since 2015 suggests that the number of people celebrating Australia Day is declining, indicating a shift in attitudes  In 2019, 40% celebrated the day; in 2020, 34%, and in 2021 it was down to 29% of over 1000 people surveyed  In 2021, 53% said that they were treating the day as just a public holiday A poll commissioned in December 2020 by the conservative think tank Institute of Public Affairs (IPA) was published in January 2021, showing that support for changing the date had remained a minority position  In January 2021, an Essential poll reported that 53% supported a separate day to recognise Indigenous Australians; however only 18% of these thought that it should replace Australia Day  A poll by Ipsos for The Age / The Sydney Morning Herald reported in January 2021 that 28% were in support of changing the date, 24% were neutral and 48% did not support changing the date  49% believed that the date would change within the next decade and 41% believed that selecting a new date would improve the lives of Indigenous Australians  Results were split by demographic factors, with age being a significant factor  47% of people aged 18–24 supported changing the date, compared to only 19% among those aged 55 years or older  Individuals who voted for the Greens were most likely to support the date change at 67%, followed by Labor voters at 31% and Coalition voters at 23% The 2022 IPA poll found 65% were opposed to changing the date, including 47% of 18–24 year olds, with 15% of the general population and 25% of 18–24 year olds in favour of changing it 

See also
Culture of Australia
Australian nationalism
Reconciliation in Australia

Notes
Passage 7:
Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997
The Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997 (Act No  33 of 1997) is an act of the Parliament of South Africa that abolished judicial corporal punishment  It followed the Constitutional Court's 1995 decision in the case of S v Williams and Others that caning of juveniles was unconstitutional  Although the ruling in S v Williams was limited to the corporal punishment of males under the age of 21, Justice Langa mentioned in dicta that there was a consensus that corporal punishment of adults was also unconstitutional The act contains two substantive sections  The first provides that "any law which authorises corporal punishment by a court of law, including a court of traditional leaders," is repealed to the extent that it authorises such a punishment  The second makes specific textual amendments various statutes, including the Black Administration Act, the Magistrates' Courts Act and the Criminal Procedure Act, to remove references to corporal punishment 
Passage 8:
Robert Smallwood
Robert F  Smallwood is an American writer, technologist, magazine publisher, and podcast host   A prolific writer and speaker on information technology topics, he has published 10 books, and over 100 articles in trade journals and given more than 60 conference presentations  He was a chapter founder and president for AIIM International and was elected to its international Board of Directors in 1997, and the Board's Executive Committee in 1998  In 2014 he founded the Institute for Information Governance; in 2018 he co-founded "Information Governance World" magazine, and in 2020 he founded the Certified Information Governance Officers Association 

Personal
Smallwood was born in 1959 in Davenport, Iowa   He grew up in nearby Bettendorf, where he was an academic,  athletic, and musical standout, earning All-State Honors in Band (as a drummer), and Cross Country  He broke the freshman, sophomore, and varsity track records in the 2-mile run, indoors and outdoors, running 9:32 5, and in the 3000 meters, 8:48 8  He was also part of record-breaking 2-mile and 4 mile relay teams  In 1977 he earned his varsity letter in cross country as a freshman at University of Northern Iowa 
After attending the University of Massachusetts Boston on a scholarly exchange program he graduated from the University of Northern Iowa in 1982 with honors and degrees in Business Management and Psychology  In 2000, Smallwood completed work on his Master of Business Administration degree at Loyola University New Orleans 
Smallwood moved to New Orleans where he worked for Burroughs Corporation (later Unisys after a merger with Sperry) implementing mainframe computer and document management systems for commercial banks and the Federal Reserve Bank branch in New Orleans   Later he worked for Wang Laboratories where he implemented some of the first commercially available document imaging systems, and law firm software 
In 1988 he published a paper, "Implementing Document Imaging in Financial Services Applications" internally for Wang   In 1991 he became an independent IT consultant and in 1995 he merged with and co-founded IMERGE Consulting  In 2014, he founded the Institute for Information Governance, and published the world's first textbook on Information Governance through Wiley & Sons  The second edition was released in 2020 

The Five People You Meet in Hell: Surviving Katrina
Smallwood's first book, The Five People You Meet in Hell: Surviving Katrina, was published in 2005  The book is Smallwood's account of his experience during the storm and in its aftermath  It was the first personal account of the disaster to be published   "One of the "five people" was Smallwood's friend and neighbor Harry Anderson, the comic actor who starred in Night Court, a popular 1980's sitcom In 2006, Smallwood embarked on a 21-city book tour and interviews on C-SPAN (BookTV), BBC Radio, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, ABCNews com and other major media outlets   The book was optioned for film in November, 2013, by Safier Entertainment under the working title, A Season in Hell The title was borrowed from the extended poem of the same name by French writer Arthur Rimbaud 

Other publications
2005 "Brando, Tennessee & Me " - his first play
2007 "Prisoners of Katrina"
2009 "Jackson Squared" - his first novel

Information governance publications
In 2008, Smallwood published his first nonfiction technology book, "Taming the Email Tiger" In 2012, Wiley & Sons published Smallwood's 'WikiLeaks prevention guide' entitled, "Safeguarding Critical E-Documents: Implementing a Program for Securing Confidential Information Assets" and in 2013, in collaboration with nine subject matter experts (SME), "Managing Electronic Records: Methods, Best Practices, and Technologies " A third book in the Wiley CIO series "Information Governance: Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices" was released in April 2014, and the second edition in January, 2020  That book is being used to guide corporate IG programs, and to teach information governance to graduate students at University of Oxford, Haaga-Helia University of Applied Sciences in Helsinki, Finland, San Jose State and other major universities  In April 2016 Smallwood published, "Information Governance for Executives: Fundamentals and Strategies, and in 2018, "Information Governance for Healthcare Professionals," was published by HIMSS and Taylor & Francis (under CRC imprint)  Also in 2018, Smallwood founded "Information Governance World" magazine, the first magazine dedicated to coverage of Information Governance  In 2020, "Information Governance" 2nd Edition was published by Wiley 

Black & White Ball - Hurricane Katrina fundraiser
As the executive director of the Louisiana Writers' Foundation, Smallwood was responsible for organizing a "Black & White Ball" at the Hotel Monteleone on the 40th anniversary of Truman Capote's famous New York event  The event was held to raise donations for writers struggling to return to post-Katrina New Orleans, in conjunction with Habitat for Humanity   Honorees included noted Romanian writer and New Orleans resident Andrei Codrescu, Louisiana Poet Laureate Brenda Marie Osbey, and poet Dave Brinks   News anchor Angela Hill emceed the festivities 
Passage 9:
John William Sayer
Lance Corporal John William Sayer  (12 April 1879 – 18 April 1918) was a British Army soldier and an English recipient of the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces 
He was 38 years old, and a Lance Corporal in the 8th Battalion, The Queen's (Royal West Surrey Regiment), British Army during the
First World War when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC 
On 21 March 1918 at Le Verguier, France, Lance Corporal Sayer held the flank of a small isolated post for two hours  Owing to mist the enemy approached from both sides to within 30 yards before being discovered, but the lance corporal, on his own initiative without assistance, beat off a succession of attacks, inflicting heavy losses  During the whole time he was exposed to heavy fire but his contempt of danger and skill in the use of his fire-arms enabled the post to hold out until nearly all the garrison had been killed and he himself wounded and captured  He died as a result of wounds four weeks later 
Passage 10:
Unisys
Unisys Corporation is an American multinational information technology (IT) services and consulting company founded in 1986 and headquartered in Blue Bell, Pennsylvania  The company provides digital workplace, cloud applications & infrastructure, enterprise computing and business process services 

History
Founding
Unisys was formed in 1986 through the merger of mainframe corporations Sperry and Burroughs, with Burroughs buying Sperry for $4 8 billion  The name was chosen from over 31,000 submissions in an internal competition when Christian Machen submitted the word "Unisys" which was composed of parts of the words united, information and systems The merger was the largest in the computer industry at the time and made Unisys the second largest computer company with annual revenue of $10 5 billion  Michael Blumenthal became CEO and Chairman  Soon after the merger, the market for proprietary mainframe-class systems—the mainstream product of Unisys and its competitors such as IBM—began a long-term decline that continues, at a lesser rate, today  In response, Unisys made the strategic decision to shift into high-end servers (e g , 32-bit processor Windows Servers), as well as information technology (IT) services such as systems integration, outsourcing, and related technical services, while holding onto the profitable revenue stream from maintaining its installed base of proprietary mainframe hardware and applications In 1988, the company acquired Convergent Technologies, makers of CTOS In 1990, Blumenthal resigned  James Unruh (formerly of Memorex and Honeywell) became the new CEO and Chairman after Blumenthal's departure and continued in that role until 1997, when Larry Weinbach of Arthur Andersen became the new CEO 

Product development and CEO changes
Joseph McGrath served as CEO and President from January 2005, until September, 2008  On October 7, 2008, J  Edward Coleman replaced J  McGrath as CEO and was named Chairman of the board as well  On November 10, 2008, the company was removed from the S&P 500 index as the market capitalization of the company had fallen below the S&P 500 minimum of $4 billion In 2010, Unisys sold its Medicare processing Health Information Management service to Molina Healthcare for $135 million On October 6, 2014, after six years as CEO and chairman, Unisys announced that Coleman was stepping down effective December 1, 2014 On January 1, 2015, Unisys officially named Peter Altabef as its new president and CEO, replacing Edward Coleman  Paul Weaver, who was formerly Lead Independent Director, was named Chairman 

2020–present time
In February 2020, SAIC announced plans to acquire Unisys Federal, the company’s federal defense contracting operation, for $1 2 billion  The company’s federal customer list included over a dozen military and civilian agencies   As part of the acquisition, Unisys has a licensing agreement with SAIC to continue providing its software to federal clients In June 2020, Australia’s Home Affairs’ biometric identification system, built in part through partnership with Unisys, was launched In June 2021, the company announced the acquisition of Unify Square  Unify Square provides software and services which help enterprises manage collaboration and communication platforms like Zoom and Microsoft Teams  In November, Mobinergy, a mobile device management software company, was acquired; and in December, Unisys acquired CompuGain, an Amazon Web Services Advanced Consulting Partner In July 2021, Unisys partnered with Vodafone to help the company boost its IT services  The two launched “Vodafone Digital Factory,” and Unisys helped Vodafone clients with technologies like AI, virtual and augmented reality, and blockchain In May 2022, the company joined the Plug and Play Enterprise Tech program  This allowed Unisys to source and partner with technology startups to access and use early-stage emerging technology 

Recognition and awards
In 2018, 2019, and 2020, Unisys was named an overall market segment leader in the NelsonHall Evaluation & Assessment Tool Vendor Evaluation for Advanced Digital Workplace Services 
NelsonHall: 2021 NEAT Assessment, Leader, Cognitive and Self-Healing IT Infrastructure Services
In August 2020, Unisys Corporation reported that for the third straight year, NelsonHall has listed the organization as the regional market sector leader in the Evaluation & Assessment Tool (NEAT) Vendor Analysis report for Advanced Digital Workplace Services 
Avasant: 2021 RadarView – Digital Workplace Services
NelsonHall: 2022 NEAT Assessment, Leader, End-to-end Cloud Infrastructure Services
Everest Group: 2022 PEAK Matrix - Cloud Services, Major Contender - North America and EuropeIn 2022, the company was named a Forbes’ America’s Best Employers For Women and a Leader in Advanced Digital Workplace Services Assessment 

Products and services
Unisys offers outsourcing managed services, systems integration and consulting services, application management and device management software, high end server technology, maintenance and support services, and cybersecurity services In line with larger trends in the information technology industry, an increasing amount of Unisys revenue comes from services rather than equipment sales; in 2014, the ratio was 86% for services, up from 65% in 1997  The company maintains a portfolio of over 1,500 U S  and non-U S  patents In 2014, Unisys phased out its CMOS processors, completing the migration of its ClearPath mainframes to Intel x86 chips, allowing clients to run the company's OS 2200 and MCP operating systems alongside more recent Windows and Linux workloads on Intel-based systems that support cloud and virtualization  The company announced its new ClearPath Dorado 8380 and 8390 systems in May, 2015  These new systems allowed the company to transition its ClearPath server families from proprietary CMOS processor technology to a software-based fabric architecture running on Intel processors Unisys operates data centers around the world 
Digital Workplace Services (DWS)In March 2022, Vision-Box awarded Unisys two digital workplace solutions contracts to help build automated “SmartGates,” electronic security gates, at New Zealand’s Auckland International Airport and Australia’s 10 international airports Cloud, Applications, and Infrastructure (CA & I)California State University used Unisys’ CloudForte and Managed Security Services to integrate its hybrid-cloud environment 
After acquiring Compugain, Unisys furthered its cloud capabilities, including hybrid cloud and cloud optimization, agile cloud migration, cloud-native capabilities, and data governance 
Cybersecurity
In November 2020, Unisys updated its Stealth platform to include visualization and dashboard tools to make it easier for an organization to track security in real-time  The new version made it possible for cybersecurity teams to see relationships between all network endpoints, including multiple clouds and edge computing platforms Enterprise Computing (ECS)Unisys was the first to develop a server architecture that supported four operating environments to run simultaneously on the same computer system in a single virtualized partition 
In 2013, Unisys won a $650 million Enterprise Computing Center Support contract to support the computer systems used by the Internal Revenue Service 
Business Processes (BPS)Unisys launched their business process consulting service in 2004  This service called Business Blueprints helped developers create high level models of their own software 
The company partners with Rubicon Technologies to deliver business process solutions 

Partnerships
Unisys’ company partnerships include the following:

VMware
Oracle
British Telecom
Dell Technologies
Amazon Web Services (AWS) MSP Partner and an AWS Government Competency
Microsoft Azure Expert MSP partner and a Microsoft Gold Partner
Global managed services partner to ServiceNow
Google Cloud Partner Advantage Program as a Google Cloud and Google Workspace Resell Partner

Clients
Clients include Bank ABC, Hershey, the Bank of China, Somos, Henkel, Flowserve, The Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), MASkargo (the cargo division of Malaysia Airlines), Nutreco,  California State University (CSU), Air India, RAMS Home Loans, and the Georgia Technology Authority Unisys systems are used for many industrial and government purposes, including banking, check processing, income tax processing, airline passenger reservations, biometric identification, newspaper content management, and shipping port management, as well as providing weather data services 

Projects
Additional projects include the following:

Consumerization of IT
A study sponsored by Unisys and conducted by IDC revealed the gap between the activities and expectations of the new generation of "iWorkers" and the ability of organizations to support their needs  The results showed that organizations continue to work with standardized command and control IT models of the past and are not able to profit from the widespread use of newer networked technologies 

Cloud 20/20
Cloud 20/20 is an annual technical paper contest for tertiary students from India in October 2009  The contest allows students to explore the possibilities and complexities of cloud computing in areas such as automation, virtualization, application development, security, consumerization of IT and airports  The contest has drawn participation from universities across India, with over 570 institutes taking part in 2009 and more than a thousand in 2010  The contest culminates in an event where five finalists present their papers before a panel of judges that comprise academicians and technologists  Prizes include the latest technology gadgets, internship projects and career opportunities with Unisys 

People and Culture
Unisys earned a score of 100% on the 2021 Disability Equality Index  The company was recognized as a “Best Place to Work for Disability Inclusion ” The Disability Equality Index is a joint initiative of Disability:IN and the American Association of People with Disabilities  It is a “comprehensive benchmarking tool to measure disability workplace inclusion ”In November 2021, Unisys launched its UGrow program to help its employees grow internally  The program makes different courses available; each one focuses on skills needed by Unisys employees  Company employees also have access to Unisys University, which offers free certifications for over 100 different skills   A few examples include courses focused on management and team leadership skills, communication skills, and culture courses  The courses are organized around Unisys’ core business functions 

Supplier Diversity Program
Unisys has a supplier diversity program, which is a program that “encourages using companies owned by either minorities, veterans, women, or historically underutilized companies as suppliers ”

Carbon Footprint Reduction
In 2006, Unisys committed to reducing its carbon footprint by 75% by 2026  It achieved this five years early in 2021  A year later, the company announced a new goal of net zero carbon emissions by 2030  The company also participates in the Carbon Disclosure Project and UN Global Compact 

Controversies
In 1987, Unisys was sued with Rockwell Shuttle Operations Company for $5 2 million by two former employees of the Unisys Corporation, one a subcontractor responsible for the computer programs for the space shuttle  The suit filed by Sylvia Robins, a former Unisys engineer, and Ria Solomon, who worked for Robins, charges that the two were forced from their jobs and harassed after complaining about safety violations and inflated costs 
Unisys overcharged the U S  government and in 1998 was found guilty of failure to supply adequate equipment  In 1998, Unisys Corporation agreed to pay the government $2 25 million to settle allegations that it supplied refurbished, rather than new, computer materials to several federal agencies in violation of the terms of its contract  Unisys admitted to supplying re-worked or refurbished computer components to various civilian and military agencies in the early 1990s, when the contract required the company to provide new equipment  The market price for the refurbished material was less than the price for new material which the government paid 
In 1998, Unisys was found guilty of price inflation and government contract fraud, with the company settling to avoid further prosecution  Lockheed Martin and Unisys paid the government $3 15 million to settle allegations that Unisys inflated the prices of spare parts sold to the U S  Department of Commerce for its NEXRAD Doppler Radar System, in violation of the False Claims Act, 31 U S C  § 3729, et seq  "[T]he settlement resolves allegations that Unisys knew that prices it paid Concurrent Computer Corporation for the spare parts were inflated when it passed on those prices to the government  Unisys had obtained price discounts from Concurrent on other items Unisys was purchasing from Concurrent at Unisys' own expense in exchange for agreeing to pay Concurrent the inflated prices" In October 2005, the Washington Post reported that the company had allegedly overbilled on the $1-to-3-billion Transportation Security Administration contract for almost 171,000 hours of labor and overtime at up to the maximum rate of $131 13 per hour, including 24,983 hours not allowed by the contract  Unisys denied wrongdoing In 2006, the Washington Post reported that the FBI was investigating Unisys for alleged cybersecurity lapses under the company's contract with the United States Department of Homeland Security  A number of security lapses supposedly occurred during the contract, including incidents in which data was transmitted to Chinese servers  Unisys denies all charges and said it has documentation disproving the allegations In 2007, Unisys was found guilty of misrepresentation of retiree benefits  A federal judge in Pennsylvania ordered Unisys Corp  to reinstate within 60 days free lifetime retiree medical benefits to 12 former employees who were employed by a Unisys predecessor, the Burroughs Corporation  The judge ruled that Unisys "misrepresented the cost and duration of retiree medical benefits" at a time "trial plaintiffs were making retirement decisions" and while it was advising them about the benefits the company would provide during retirement 
Also in 2007, Unisys was found guilty of willful trademark infringement in Visible Systems v  Unisys (Trademark Infringement)  Computer company Visible Systems prevailed over Unisys Corp  in a trademark infringement lawsuit filed in Massachusetts federal court  In November 2007, the court entered an injunction and final judgment ordering Unisys to discontinue its use of the "Visible" trademark, upholding the jury's award to Visible Systems of $250,000 in damages, and awarding an additional $17,555 in interest  Visible Systems claimed Unisys wrongfully used the name "Visible" in marketing its software and services  The jury found the infringement by Unisys was willful  Visible Systems appealed the final judgment, believing the court wrongly excluded the issues of bad faith and disgorgement of an estimated $17 billion in unjust profits from the consideration of the jury 
In 2010, Unisys Hungary terminated the local Workers' Union representative Gabor Pinter's employment contract with immediate effect for raising concerns on the company's practice about the overtime payments and the non-respect of the health regulations in its local Shared Services Center  According to the verdict of the Labour Court of Budapest, Unisys' act was illegal and the Company must reimburse all damages of the Workers' Union representative 

See also



ground_truth: 1986