prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Kiwil's birth country participated in a Commission of Truth and Friendship. Who is the president of the other country that participated?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Zeferino Martins
Zeferino Martins, also known as Ze Martins (born September 5, 1985) is an East Timorese footballer who plays as midfielder for Ad  Dili Oeste and the Timor-Leste national team 
Passage 2:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1264
United Nations Security Council resolution 1264, adopted unanimously on 15 September 1999, after recalling previous resolutions on East Timor (Timor-Leste), the Council authorised the establishment of the multinational International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) to restore peace and security in the territory, facilitate humanitarian assistance and protect the United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) The Security Council welcomed the successful conduct of the East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum on 30 August 1999, in which the East Timorese people voted for independence from Indonesia  Meanwhile, there was concern about the deteriorating security situation and the violence that had displaced many residents  Attacks also took place against UNAMET and other international and national humanitarian personnel and this had particularly affected vulnerable groups  There were reports of widespread violations of international humanitarian and human rights law across East Timor, and Indonesia had accepted the presence of a United Nations international peacekeeping force in the region Acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the Council condemned the violence in East Timor, called for those responsible to be brought to justice and emphasised the need for immediate unrestricted humanitarian assistance to the area  In this regard, it authorised the establishment of an Australian-led multinational force under joint command with the task of restoring peace, protecting the UNAMET mission and assisting in humanitarian operations using all necessary measures  The force consisted of 8,000 personnel from 17 countries  The Government of Indonesia, which had temporary responsibility for the security of East Timor, would co-operate with the multinational force or INTERFET 
The resolution noted that part of the agreement between Indonesia and Portugal on the future of East Timor stipulated a peaceful and orderly transfer of authority in East Timor to the United Nations and INTERFET was asked to support the process  The multinational force would be present in East Timor for four months until replaced by a United Nations peacekeeping force and would be required to submit periodic reports on its progress Finally, the Secretary-General was asked to make preparations for a transitional administration in East Timor that would include a peacekeeping operation during the implementation phase following the referendum 

See also
1999 East Timorese crisis
Indonesian occupation of East Timor
List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1201 to 1300 (1998–2000)
United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
Passage 3:
Kiwil
Wildan Delta known as Kiwil (born August 10, 1972) is an Indonesian actor and comedian of Minangkabau descent  His first film appearance was in the horror film Tiren: Mati Kemaren in 2008 

Career
Kiwil began his career as a stand-up comedian and film actor in Indonesia  He has since appeared in the films Tulalit, Paku Kuntilanak, Setan Budeg, and Nenek Gayung  Kiwil also become one of the cast of the Indonesian comedy show Yuk Keep Smile 

Personal life
Wildan Delta was born on August 10, 1972, in Jakarta  Kiwil married his first wife, Rochimah, on February 28, 1998, and they have four sons  His second wife is Meggy Wulandari 

Filmography
Film
Television
Passage 4:
List of Ramon Magsaysay Award winners
The Ramon Magsaysay Award (Filipino: Gawad Ramon Magsaysay) is an annual award established to perpetuate former Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay's example of integrity in governance, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society  The prize was established in April 1957 by the trustees of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund based in New York City with the concurrence of the Philippine government  It is often called the "Nobel Prize of Asia" 

History
In May 1957, seven prominent Filipinos were named to the founding board of trustees of the Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, the non-profit corporation tasked with implementing the awards program  Later on, the board of trustees diversified and included prominent Asians from all over the Asian continent and outlying islands  The Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation gives the prize to Asian individuals achieving excellence in their respective fields 
The award is named after Ramon Magsaysay, the seventh president of the Republic of the Philippines after World War II  This has generated criticism due to allegations of brutal suppression of dissent and subserviency to the US government during Magsaysay's tenure as defence secretary and president 

Award categories
The award recognizes and honors individuals and organizations in Asia regardless of race, creed, sex, or nationality, who have achieved distinction in their respective fields and have helped others generously without anticipating public recognition   
The awards used to be given in six categories, five of which were discontinued in 2009:

Government Service (1958–2008)
Public Service (1958–2008)
Community Leadership (1958–2008)
Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008)
Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008)
Emergent Leadership (2001– )
Uncategorized (2009– )

Awardees
The winners of the Ramon Magsaysay Awards come from different parts of Asia, although there are some instances where the winners came from countries outside Asia who had served, worked or accomplished something in different Asian countries  As of 2021, recipients have come from twenty-two Asian countries 
The following is a partial list of the awardees of the Ramon Magsaysay Award  Awardees' individual nationality or country of origin and citizenship are indicated 
Starting 2009, the Award is no longer being given in fixed categories except for Emergent Leadership 

Government Service (1958–2008)
Public Service (1958–2008)
Community Leadership (1958–2008)
Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008)
Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008)
Emergent Leadership (2001–present)
Uncategorized (2009–present)
Passage 5:
The Trouble with the Truth (song)
"The Trouble with the Truth" is a song written by Gary Nicholson, and recorded by American country music artist Patty Loveless  It was released in April 1997 as the fifth and final single and title track from her album  The Trouble with the Truth 
The song charted for 20 weeks on the Billboard Hot Country Singles and Tracks chart, reaching number 15 during the week of July 12, 1997 

Other versions
Joan Baez also cut a version of the song during an early 1990s recording session in Nashville, but the recording remained unissued until released in 2012 as a bonus track on the remastered rerelease of her 1992 album Play Me Backwards 

Chart positions
Passage 6:
Johan Ferrier
Johan Henri Eliza Ferrier (12 May 1910 – 4 January 2010) was a Surinamese politician who served as the 1st president of Suriname from 1975 to 1980  He was also the country's last governor-general before independence, serving from 1968 to 1975, before becoming the first president upon independence from the Netherlands in 1975 
He was named the twentieth century's most important politician in Suriname in 1999 

Early life
Ferrier was born in 1910 in Suriname's largest city and capital, Paramaribo  He trained as a teacher  In 1946 he assisted in the establishment of the country's National Party, while Suriname was a colony of the Netherlands 

Scouting
Ferrier was co-founder of the Boy Scouts van Suriname and its first Chief Scout  At age 16 he was a teacher in the Saramacca District and founded his first Scout Group  This group still exists and now bears the name "De Johan Ferrier groep, de groep 2 Oranje Dassers" 

Politics
In 1946, Ferrier was one of the founding members of the National Party of Suriname  Ferrier was a member of the National Council from 1946 until 1948  He then went to Amsterdam in the Netherlands to learn education theory  In 1950, he received his doctorate  When he went back to Suriname, which had by then become an autonomous country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, he continued to study and to have a career in education  He served as both prime minister and interior minister for a three-year period from 1955 until 1958  He also spent time as Suriname's head of education  From 1968 until 1975 he retained the post of governor   On 25 November 1975, Suriname was made independent, and Ferrier was sworn in as the first president of the country  Dési Bouterse's 1980 coup d'état prompted Ferrier to resign within six months Prime Minister Henk Chin A Sen succeeded Ferrier as president   Ferrier was made a Grand Cordon in the Honorary Order of the Yellow Star by Chin A Sen on 3 September 1980   His wife was also made a Grand Officer in the Honorary Order of the Palm 

Later life
Ferrier then accompanied his relatives to live in the Netherlands  He lived with them in Oegstgeest  Ferrier used to tell stories about the spider Anansi on Dutch children's television  In 1986, Het Grote Anansi Boek, a picture book was released with illustrations by Noni Lichtveld  The original release was monochrome  In 2010, it was re-released in colour His daughter, Kathleen Ferrier, is a former member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands for the Christian Democratic Appeal  In 2005, Ferrier's memoirs Last Governor, First President: The Century of Johan Ferrier, Surinamese were published  The Dutch Queen gave him a knighthood  An obituary in the national morning daily De Volkskrant said he had claimed: "Even in the darkest days, I kept my optimism" 

Death
Ferrier died from heart failure while sleeping at home in Oegstgeest at the age of 99, four months before his 100th birthday  His body was found in the early morning on 4 January 2010 Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands paid tribute  Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende said Ferrier was "an authoritative and wise statesman"  Politician and diplomat Jan Pronk paid tribute to his work at uniting divisions Ferrier was buried on 11 January 2010, in the Dutch town of Oegstgeest, where he had been living since 1980 

Johan Ferrier Fund
On 12 May 2010, the day Ferrier would have celebrated his 100th birthday, the Johan Ferrier Fund was officially launched  The fund strives to follow in his footsteps in supporting Surinamese projects with educational and cultural goals  The Johan Ferrier Fund is an initiative of his daughter Joan Ferrier, who first presented the fund in the presence of her father in September 2009 
Passage 7:
My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic (season 8)
The eighth season of the animated television series My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic, developed by Lauren Faust, originally aired on the Discovery Family channel in the United States  The series is based on Hasbro's My Little Pony line of toys and animated works and is often referred by collectors to be the fourth generation, or "G4", of the My Little Pony franchise  Season 8 of the series premiered on March 24, 2018, on Discovery Family, an American pay television channel partly owned by Hasbro, and concluded on October 13 
The season focuses on Twilight running her newly established School of Friendship to teach ponies and creatures from Equestria and beyond about the benefits of friendship with her friends serving as the teachers  However, one of the students, a seemingly innocent pegasus filly named Cozy Glow, is secretly plotting against them 

Development
On May 25, 2017, supervising director Jim Miller announced via Twitter an eighth season for the series  At Hasbro's first self-themed convention (aptly named HasCon) on September 9, an animatic from an upcoming episode was shown On February 8, 2018, Discovery Family's March press release states that this season, "viewers will witness major milestones featuring the introduction of Starlight Glimmer’s parents and Princess Celestia's big acting debut  Additionally, the Mane 6’s Twilight Sparkle, Rarity, Applejack, Pinkie Pie, Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy are accompanied by six new creatures including Ocellus the Changeling, Silverstream the Hippogriff/Seapony, Smolder the Dragon, Gallus the Griffin, Yona the Yak and Sandbar the Pony, joining them on epic adventures throughout new and familiar lands such as Mount Aris, Everfree Forest, Las Pegasus and more  Fan-favorite characters Maud Pie, Spike, the Cutie Mark Crusaders, Queen Chrysalis and Discord return with exciting storylines and a whole lot of magic!"

Cast
Main
Tara Strong as Twilight Sparkle
Rebecca Shoichet as Twilight Sparkle (singing voice)
Tabitha St  Germain as Rarity
Kazumi Evans as Rarity (singing voice)
Ashleigh Ball as Applejack and Rainbow Dash
Andrea Libman as Fluttershy and Pinkie Pie
Shannon Chan-Kent as Pinkie Pie (singing voice)
Cathy Weseluck as Spike

Recurring
Minor
Single roles
Multiple roles
Ingrid Nilson as Maud Pie, Limestone Pie, and Marble Pie
Peter New as Big McIntosh and Goldie Delicious
Tabitha St  Germain as Granny Smith, Mrs  Cake, Princess Flurry Heart, and Muffins
Kathleen Barr as Queen Chrysalis and Trixie Lulamoon

Notes
Guest stars
Single roles
Multiple roles
Tariq Leslie as Big Bucks and Hoo'Far

Episodes
Directors for each episode are Denny Lu and Mike Myhre

Notes
Songs
DVD release
Equestria Daily reported that while Shout! Factory has not yet released season 8 on DVD or Blu-ray in North America, Myth Entertainment released the entire season on DVD in Malaysia themselves on December 18, 2019 
Passage 8:
East Timor
East Timor ( (listen)), also known as Timor-Leste (; Portuguese pronunciation: [tiˈmoɾ ˈlɛʃtɨ]), officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia  It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, of which the western half is administered by Indonesia, the exclave of Oecusse on the island's north-western half, and the minor islands of Atauro and Jaco  Australia is the country's southern neighbour, separated by the Timor Sea  The country's size is 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi)  Dili is its capital and largest city 
East Timor came under Portuguese influence in the sixteenth century, remaining a Portuguese colony until 1975  Internal conflict preceded a unilateral declaration of independence and an Indonesian invasion and annexation  Resistance continued throughout Indonesian rule, and, in 1999, a United Nations–sponsored act of self-determination led to Indonesia relinquishing control of the territory  On 20 May 2002, as Timor-Leste, it became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century  That same year, relations with Indonesia were established and normalized, with Indonesia also supporting East Timor's accession into ASEAN  
The national government runs on a semi-presidential system, with the popularly elected president sharing power with a prime minister appointed by the National Parliament  Power is centralised under the national government, although many local leaders have informal influence  The country maintains a policy of international cooperation, and is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, an observer of the Pacific Islands Forum, and an applicant for ASEAN membership  The country remains relatively poor, with an economy that relies heavily on natural resources, especially oil, and foreign aid 
The total population is over 1 1 million, and is heavily skewed towards young people due to a high fertility rate  Education has led to increasing literacy over the past half-century, especially in the two official languages of Portuguese and Tetum  High ethnic and linguistic diversity is reflected by the 30 indigenous languages spoken in the country  The majority of the population is Catholic, which exists alongside strong local traditions, especially in rural areas 

Name
"Timor" is derived from timur, meaning 'east' in Malay, thus resulting in a tautological place name meaning 'East East'  In Indonesian, this results in the name Timor Timur  (this name only refers to the former de facto Indonesian province, Timor Leste is used instead to refer this country)  In Portuguese, the country is called Timor-Leste (Leste meaning 'east')  In Tetum it is Timór Lorosa'e (Lorosa'e can be literally translated as 'where the sun rises') The official names under its constitution are "Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste" in English, "República Democrática de Timor-Leste" in Portuguese, and "Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste" in Tetum  The official short form of the name is "Timor-Leste", and it uses the ISO codes TLS & TL 

History
Prehistory and Classical era
Cultural remains at Jerimalai on the eastern tip of East Timor have been dated to 42,000 years ago  The first known inhabitants are those who arrived during the Australo-Melanesian migration through the region, likely bringing the precursors to today's Papuan languages  A later migration of Austroasiatic-speakers is suspected, although no such languages remain  The arrival of Austronesian peoples brought new languages, and merged with existing cultures on the island  Timorese origin myths recount settlers sailing around the eastern end of the island before landing in the south  These people are sometimes noted as being from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra  Austronesian migration to Timor may be associated with the development of agriculture on the island While information is limited about the political system of Timor during this period, the island had developed an interconnected series of polities governed by customary law  Small communities, centred around a particular sacred house, were part of wider sucos (or principalities), which were themselves part of larger kingdoms led by a liurai  Authority within these kingdoms was held by two individuals, with the worldly power of the liurai balanced by the spiritual power of a rai nain, who was generally associated with the primary sacred house of the kingdom  These polities were numerous and saw shifting alliances and relations, but many were stable enough that they survived from initial European documentation in the 16th century until the end of Portuguese rule : 11–15 From perhaps the thirteenth century, the island exported sandalwood,: 267  which was valued both for its use in crafting and as a source of perfume  Timor was included in Southeast Asian, Chinese, and Indian trading networks by the fourteenth century, exporting sandalwood, honey, and wax  The island was recorded by the Majapahit Empire as a source of tribute : 89  It was sandalwood that attracted European explorers to the island in the early sixteenth century  Early European presence was limited to trade, with the first Portuguese settlement being on the nearby island of Solor : 90

Portuguese era (1769–1975)
Early Portuguese presence on Timor was very limited; trade was directed through Portuguese settlements on nearby islands  Only in the 17th century did they establish a more direct presence on the island, a consequence of being driven out of other islands by the Dutch : 267  After Solor was lost in 1613 the Portuguese moved to Flores  In 1646 the capital moved to Kupang on Timor's west, before Kupang too was lost to the Dutch in 1652  The Portuguese then moved to Lifau, in what is now East Timor's Oecusse exclave : 90  Effective European occupation in the east of the island only began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded, although actual control remained highly limited  A definitive border between the Dutch and Portuguese parts of the island was established by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1914 and remains the international boundary between the successor states Indonesia and East Timor, respectively For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post, with minimal investment in infrastructure and education, until the late nineteenth century  Even when Portugal established actual control over the interior of its colony, investment remained minimal : 269, 273  Sandalwood continued to be the main export crop and coffee exports became significant in the mid-nineteenth century At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering domestic economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies, which was met with East Timorese resistance  The colony was seen as an economic burden during the Great Depression and received little support or management from Portugal : 269 During World War II, Dili was occupied by the Allies in 1941, and later by the Japanese beginning in 1942  The mountainous interior of the colony became the scene of a guerrilla campaign, known as the Battle of Timor  Waged by East Timorese volunteers and Allied forces against the Japanese, the struggle killed between 40,000 and 70,000 East Timorese civilians  The Japanese eventually drove the last of the Australian and Allied forces out in early 1943  Portuguese control resumed, however, after Japanese surrender at the end of World War II Portugal began investment in the colony in the 1950s, funding education and promoting coffee exports, but the economy did not improve substantially and infrastructure improvements were limited : 269  Growth rates remained low, near 2%  Following the 1974 Portuguese revolution, Portugal effectively abandoned its colony in Timor, and civil war between East Timorese political parties broke out in 1975 
The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) resisted a Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) coup attempt in August 1975, and unilaterally declared independence on 28 November 1975  Fearing a communist state within the Indonesian archipelago, the Indonesian military launched an invasion of East Timor in December 1975  Indonesia declared East Timor its 27th province on 17 July 1976  The United Nations Security Council opposed the invasion, and the territory's nominal status in the UN remained as "non-self-governing territory under Portuguese administration" 

Indonesian occupation (1975–1999)
Fretilin resisted the invasion, initially as an army, holding territory until November 1978, and then as a guerrilla resistance  The Indonesian occupation of Timor was marked by violence and brutality  A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a minimum of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period between 1974 and 1999, including approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 excess deaths from hunger and illness  The total number of conflict-related deaths during this period is difficult to determine due to a lack of data  One estimate based on Portuguese, Indonesian, and Catholic Church data suggests it may have been as high as 200,000  Repression and restrictions counteracted improvements in health and education infrastructure and services, meaning there was little overall improvement in living standards; economic growth mostly benefited immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia : 271  A huge expansion of education was intended to increase Indonesian language use and internal security as much as it was for development The 1991 massacre of more than 200 demonstrators by the Indonesian military was a turning point for the independence cause, and brought increased international pressure on Indonesia  Following the resignation of Indonesian President Suharto, the new President BJ Habibie, prompted by a letter from Australian Prime Minister John Howard, decided to hold a referendum on independence  A UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia and Portugal allowed for a UN-supervised popular referendum in August 1999  A clear vote for independence was met with a punitive campaign of violence by East Timorese pro-integration militias supported by elements of the Indonesian military  In response, the Indonesian government allowed a multinational peacekeeping force, INTERFET, to restore order and aid East Timorese refugees and internally displaced persons  On 25 October 1999, the administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)  INTERFET deployment ended in February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN 

Contemporary era
On 30 August 2001, the East Timorese voted in their first election organised by the UN to elect members of the Constituent Assembly  On 22 March 2002, the Constituent Assembly approved the Constitution  By May 2002, more than 205,000 refugees had returned  On 20 May 2002, the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor came into force and East Timor was recognised as independent by the UN  The Constituent Assembly was renamed the National Parliament, and Xanana Gusmão was elected as the country's first president  On 27 September 2002 the country became a UN member state In 2006, a crisis of unrest and factional fighting forced 155,000 people to flee their homes; the United Nations sent in security forces to restore order  The following year, Gusmão declined to run for another term  While there were minor incidents in the build-up to the mid-year presidential elections, the process was peaceful overall and José Ramos-Horta was elected president  In June 2007, Gusmão ran in the parliamentary elections and became prime minister at the head of the National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction (CNRT) party  In February 2008, Ramos-Horta was critically injured in an attempted assassination; Prime Minister Gusmão also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed  Australian reinforcements were immediately sent to help keep order  In March 2011, the UN handed over operational control of the police force to the East Timor authorities  The United Nations ended its peacekeeping mission on 31 December 2012 Francisco Guterres of the centre-left Fretilin party became president in May 2017  The leader of Fretilin, Mari Alkatiri, formed a coalition government after the July 2017 parliamentary election  This government soon fell, leading to a second general election in May 2018  In June 2018, former president and independence fighter, Taur Matan Ruak, became the new prime minister  José Ramos-Horta again became president on 20 May 2022 after winning the April 2022 presidential election runoff against Francisco Guterres 

Politics and government
The political system of East Timor is semi-presidential, based upon the Portuguese system : 175  The constitution establishes both this separation of executive powers between the president and the prime minister; and the separation of powers between the executive, legislature, and judiciary : 12  Individuals are not allowed to participate in both the legislature and the executive branch  The legislature is intended to provide a check on the executive; in practice the executive has maintained control of the legislature under all political parties, reflecting the dominance of individual leaders within political parties and coalitions : 174  The executive, through the council of ministers, also holds some formal legislative powers : 175  The judiciary operates independently, although there are instances of executive interference : 13, 39  Some courts shift between locations, to improve access for those in more isolated areas  Despite political rhetoric, the constitution and democratic institutions have been followed by politicians, and changes of government are peaceful : 15, 42  Elections are run by an independent body,: 216  and turnout is high, ranging from around 70% to 85% : 17  The political system has wide public acceptance : 17 : 106 The head of state of East Timor is the president of the republic, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term,: 244  and can serve a maximum of two terms  Formally, the directly elected president holds relatively limited powers compared to those in similar systems, with no power over the appointment and dismissal of the prime minister and the council of ministers  However, as they are directly elected, past presidents have wielded great informal power and influence : 175  The president does have the power to veto government legislation, initiate referendums, and to dissolve parliament in the event that it is unable to form a government or pass a budget : 244  If the president vetoes a legislative action, the parliament can overturn the veto with a two-thirds majority : 10  The prime minister is chosen by the parliament, with the president appointing the leader of the majority party or coalition as prime minister of East Timor and the cabinet on the proposal of the latter : 10  As head of government, the prime minister presides over the cabinet 

Representatives in the unicameral National Parliament are elected by popular vote to a five-year term  The number of seats can vary from a minimum of fifty-two to a maximum of sixty-five  Parties must achieve 3% of the vote to enter parliament, with seats for qualifying parties allocated using the D'Hondt method  Elections occur within the framework of a competitive multi-party system  Upon independence, power was held by the Fretilin political party, which was formed shortly before the Indonesian invasion and led its resistance  Given its history, Fretilin viewed itself as the natural party of government and supported a multi-party system, expecting the development of a dominant-party system  Support from the United Nations and the international community, both before and after independence, allowed the nascent political system to survive shocks such as the 2006 crisis : 173 Candidates in parliamentary elections run in a single national district in a party-list system  One in three of all candidates presented by political parties must be women  This system promotes a diversity of political parties, but gives voters little influence over the individual candidates selected by each party : 175–176  Women hold more than a third of parliamentary seats, with parties required by law to run female candidates, but they are less prominent at other levels and within party leadership Political divisions exist along class lines and along geographical lines  There is broadly a divide between eastern and western areas of the country, stemming from differences that arose under Indonesian rule  Fretilin in particular is strongly linked to the Eastern areas : 176–177  Political parties are more closely associated with prominent personalities more than with ideology : 16  The National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction became the main opposition to Fretilin, following its establishment to allow Xanana Gusmão to run for Prime Minister in the 2007 parliamentary elections : 168–169  While both major parties have been relatively stable, they remain led by an "old guard" of individuals who came to prominence during the resistance against Indonesia : 175 : 10–11 Politics and administration is centred in the capital Dili, with the national government responsible for most civil services : 9, 36  Oecusse, separated from the rest of the country by Indonesian territory, is a special administrative region with some autonomy : 180  The National Police of East Timor and Timor Leste Defence Force have held a monopoly on violence since 2008 and very few guns are present outside of these organisations : 8  While there are allegations of abuse of power, there is some judicial oversight of police and public trust in the institution has grown  An active civil society functions independently of the government, as do media outlets : 11–12  Civil society organisations are concentrated in the capital, including student groups  Due to the structure of the economy, there are no powerful trade unions : 17  The Catholic Church has strong influence in the country : 40

Foreign relations and military
International cooperation has always been important to East Timor; donor funds made up 80% of the budget before oil revenues began to replace them : 42–44  International forces also provided security, with five UN missions sent to the country from 1999  The final one, the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor, began after the 2006 East Timorese crisis and concluded in 2012 : 4, 14 East Timor formally applied to join ASEAN in 2011,: 42–44  and was granted observer status and accepted "in principle" in November 2022  Despite the nationalist political leadership promoting closer ties with Melanesian states, the country has targeted ASEAN membership since before its independence, with its leaders stating that joining Pacific bodies would have precluded ASEAN membership  ASEAN membership was sought for economic and security reasons, including to improve the relationship with Indonesia  Nonetheless, the process has been slow due to a lack of support from some ASEAN states : 10–11  East Timor is thus an observer to the Pacific Islands Forum and the Melanesian Spearhead Group  More broadly, the country is a leader within the Group of Seven Plus (g7+), an organisation of fragile states  It is also a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries : 42–44 Continuing bilateral donors include Australia, Portugal, Germany, and Japan, and East Timor has a reputation for effectively and transparently using donor funds  Good relations with Australia and with Indonesia are a policy goal for the government, despite historical and more-recent tensions  These countries are important economic partners and provide most transport links to the country : 42–44  China has also increased its presence by contributing to infrastructure in Dili : 12 The relationship with Australia was dominated from before independence by disputes over natural resources in the ocean between them, hampering the establishment of a mutually agreed border  The dominance of Australian hard power led East Timor to utilise public diplomacy and forums for international law to push their case  The dispute was resolved in 2018 following negotiations at the Permanent Court of Arbitration, when a maritime boundary between the two was established along with an agreement on natural resource revenues The Timor Leste Defence Force (F-FDTL) was established in 2001, replacing Falintil, and was restructured following the events of 2006  It is responsible not only for safeguarding against external threats, but also for addressing violent crime, a role it shares with the National Police of East Timor  These forces remain small: 2,200 soldiers in the regular army and 80 in a naval component  A single aircraft and seven patrol boats are operated, and there are plans to expand the naval component  There is some military cooperation with Australia, Portugal, and the United States 

Administrative divisions
East Timor is divided into fourteen municipalities, which in turn are subdivided into 64 administrative posts, 442 sucos (villages), and 2,225 aldeias (hamlets)  The municipalities are: Aileu, Ainaro, Atauro, Baucau, Bobonaro, Cova Lima, Dili, Ermera, Lautém, Liquiçá, Manatuto, Manufahi, Oecusse, and Viqueque The existing system of municipalities and administrative posts was established during Portuguese rule : 3  While decentralisation is mentioned in the constitution, administrative powers generally remain with the national government operating out of Dili : 2  Upon independence there was debate about how to implement decentralisation; various proposed models would create different levels of administration between the sucos and the central government  In most proposals, there were no specific provisions for suco-level governance, and they were expected to continue to exist as mostly traditional spaces, identifying communities rather than being part of the civil administration  In the end, the existing districts were kept and renamed municipalities in 2009, and received very few powers : 88–92  In 2016 changes were made so that each municipality is led by a civil servant appointed by the central government  This civil servant is advised by locally elected leaders : 4, 7  The isolated Oecusse municipality, which has a strong identity and is fully surrounded by Indonesian territory, is specified by Articles 5 and 71 of the 2002 constitution to be governed by a special administrative policy and economic regime  Law 3/2014 of 18 June 2014 implemented this constitutional provision, which went into effect in January 2015, turning Oecusse into a Special Administrative Region  The region began operating its own civil service in June 2015  In January 2022 the island of Atauro, formerly an Administrative Post of Dili, became its own municipality Administration in the lowest levels of the administrative system of East Timor, the aldeias and sucos, generally reflects traditional customs,: 1  reflecting community identity and relationships between local households : 4  Sucos generally contain 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants  Their long persistence and links to local governance means the sucos are the level of government that is linked to community identities, rather than any high level of administration : 89  Such relationships, however, are associated specifically with the kinship groups within that land, rather than the land itself : 52–53  Relationships between sucos also reflect customary practices, for example through the reciprocal exchanging of support for local initiatives : 9  Laws passed in 2004 provided for the election of some suco officials, but assigned these positions no formal powers  An updated law in 2009 established the expected mandate of these positions, although it continued to leave them outside of the formal state system, reliant on municipal governments to provide formal administration and services : 94–97  Further clarification was given in 2016, which entrenched the treatment of sucos and aldeias more as communities than formal levels of administration  Despite this lack of formal association with the state, suco leaders hold great influence and are often seen by their community as representatives of the state  They have responsibilities usually associated with civic administration : 7–10

Geography
Located in between Southeast Asia and the South Pacific,: 2  the island of Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands, which lie within the Malay archipelago : 1  The island is surrounded by the Ombai and Wetar Straits of the rougher Banda Sea in the north, and the calmer Timor Sea in the south : 2  East Timor shares the island with Indonesia, with Indonesian territory separating the Oecusse exclave from the rest of the country  The island of Atauro lies north of the mainland,: 2  with the fourth area being the small island of Jaco  The Savu Sea lies north of Oecusse : 1  The country is about 265 kilometres (165 mi) long and 97 kilometres (60 mi) wide, with a total land area of 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi) : 1  This territory is situated between 8′15S – 10′30S latitude and 125′50E – 127′30E longitude : 2  The country's coastline covers around 700 kilometres (430 mi),: 27  while the main land border with Indonesia is 125 kilometres (78 mi) long, and the Oecusse land border is around 100 kilometres (62 mi) long : 1  Maritime borders exist with Australia to the south and Indonesia elsewhere  East Timor has an exclusive economic zone of 77,051 km2 (29,750 sq mi) The interior of the country is mountainous,: 2  with ridges of inactive volcanic mountains extending along the island : 2  Almost half of the country has a slope of at least 40%  The south is slightly less mountainous, and has some plains near the coastline : 2  The highest point is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 metres (9,721 ft)  Most rivers dry up at least partially during the dry season : 2  Outside of some coastal areas and river valleys, the soil is shallow and prone to erosion, and its quality is poor : 13 : 2  The capital and largest city is Dili  The second-largest city is the eastern town of Baucau : 22 

The climate is tropical with relatively stable temperatures throughout the year  A wet season lasts from December to May throughout the country, and lasts slightly longer in the south: 5  and the interior due to the effect of a monsoon from Australia : 2  During this period, rainfall can reach 222–252 millimetres (8 7–9 9 in) per month  In the dry season, it drops to 12–18 millimetres (0 47–0 71 in) : 5  The country is vulnerable to flooding and landslides that occur as a result of heavy rain, especially when rainfall levels are increased by the La Niña effect : 13  The mountainous interior is cooler than the coasts  Coastal areas are heavily dependent on groundwater, which faces pressure from mismanagement, deforestation, and climate change : 14  While the temperature is thought to have experienced a small increase due to climate change, there has been little change in annual rainfall : 6 Coastal ecosystems around the country are diverse and varied, with vary spatially between the north and south coastlines, as well as between the eastern tip and areas more to the west  These ecosystems include coral reefs, as the country's waters are part of the Coral Triangle biodiversity hotspot : 28  The easternmost area of East Timor consists of the Paitchau Range and the Lake Ira Lalaro area, which contains the country's first conservation area, the Nino Konis Santana National Park  It contains the last remaining tropical dry forested area within the country  It hosts a number of unique plant and animal species and is sparsely populated  The northern coast is characterised by a number of coral reef systems that have been determined to be at risk There are around 41,000 terrestrial plant species in the country  Forests covered 35% of East Timor's land in the mid 2010s : 1  The forests of the northern coast, central uplands, and southern coast are distinct : 2  East Timor is home to the Timor and Wetar deciduous forests ecoregion  There is some environmental protection in law, but it has not been a government priority : 27 : 10–14  In addition to climate change, local ecosystems are threatened by deforestation, land degradation, overfishing, and pollution : 2–3

Economy
The economy of East Timor is a market economy, although it is dependent upon the export of a few commodities and has a large public sector  Internally, market operations are limited by widespread poverty : 20  The country uses the United States dollar, producing its own coins to facilitate smaller transactions  The economy is generally open to foreign investment, although a prohibition on foreigners owning land means many require a local partner in the country : 20  Competition is limited by the small size of the economy, rather than any government barriers  There are far more imports than exports,: 21  and prices for goods are often higher than in nearby countries : 27  Inflation is strongly affected by government spending : 257  Growth has been slow, averaging just 2 5% per year from 2011 to 2021 : 24 Most of the country is very poor, with just more than 40% living under the national poverty line  This poverty is especially prevalent in rural areas, where many are subsistence farmers or fishermen  Even in urban areas, the majority are poor  Overall, women are poorer than men, often being employed in lower-paying careers : 18  Malnutrition is common, with over half of children showing stunted growth : 255  While 91% of married working age (15–49) men were employed as of 2016, only 43% of married working age women were  There are small disparities in favour of men in terms of home and land ownership and owning a bank account : 14  The eastern three municipalities, which contain around a quarter of the population, has less poverty than the western areas, which contain 50% of the population : 214 Sixty-six per cent of families are in part supported by subsistence activities; however, the country as a whole does not produce enough food to be self-sustaining, and thus relies on imports : 16  Agricultural work carries the implication of poverty, and the sector receives little investment from the government : 260  Ninety-four per cent of domestic fish catch comes from the ocean, especially coastal fisheries : 17  Those in the capital of Dili are on average better off, although they remain poor by international standards : 257  The small size of the private sector means the government is often the customer of public businesses  A quarter of the national population works in the informal economy, with the official public and private sectors employing 9% each : 18  Of those of working age, around 23% are in the formal sector, 21% are students, and 27% are subsistence farmers and fishers : 21  The economy is mostly cash-based, with little commercial credit available from banks : 11–12  Remittances from overseas workers add up to around $100 million annually : 257 

This poverty belies significant wealth in terms of natural resources, which at the time of independence had per capita value equivalent to the wealth of an upper-middle income country  Over half of this was in oil, and over a quarter natural gas  The Timor-Leste Petroleum Fund was established in 2005 to turn these non-renewable resources into a more sustainable form of wealth : 4–6  From 2005 to 2021, $23 billion earned from oil sales has entered the fund  $8 billion has been generated from investments, while $12 billion has been spent : 30  A decrease in oil and gas reserves led to decreasing HDI beginning in 2010 : 18–19  Eighty per cent of government spending comes from this fund, which as of 2021 had $19 billion, 10 times greater than the size of the national budget  As oil income has decreased, the fund is at risk of being exhausted  Withdrawals have exceeded sustainable levels almost every year since 2009 : 23  Resources within the Bayu-Undan field are expected to soon run out, while extracting those within the so far undeveloped Greater Sunrise field has proven technically and politically challenging  Remaining potential reserves are also losing value as oil and gas become less favoured sources of energy : 264–272 The country's economy is dependent on government spending and, to a lesser extent, assistance from foreign donors  Government spending decreased beginning in 2012, which had knock-on effects in the private sector over the following years  The government and its state-owned oil company often invest in large private projects  Decreasing government spending was matched with a decrease in GDP growth : 18  After the petroleum fund, the second largest source of government income is taxes  Tax revenue is less than 8% of GDP, lower than many other countries in the region and with similarly sized economies  Other government income comes from 23 "autonomous agencies", which include port authorities, infrastructure companies, and the National University of East Timor : 13, 28–309  Overall, government spending remains among the highest in the world,: 12  although investment into education, health, and water infrastructure is negligible : 260 

Private sector development has lagged due to human capital shortages, infrastructure weakness, an incomplete legal system, and an inefficient regulatory environment  Property rights remain ill-defined, with conflicting titles from Portuguese and Indonesian rule, as well as needing to accommodate traditional customary rights : 23  As of 2010, 87 7% of urban (321,043 people) and 18 9% of rural (821,459 people) households have electricity, for an overall average of 38 2%  The private sector shrank between 2014 and 2018, despite a growing working age population  Agriculture and manufacturing are less productive per capita than at independence : 255–256  Non-oil economic sectors have failed to develop, and growth in construction and administration is dependent on oil revenue : 256  The dependence on oil shows some aspects of a resource curse  Coffee made up 90% of all non-fossil fuel exports from 2013 to 2019, with all such exports totalling to around US$20 million annually : 257  In 2017, the country was visited by 75,000 tourists 

Demographics
East Timor recorded a population of 1,183,643 in its 2015 census  The population lives mainly along the coastline, where all urban areas are located : 27  Those in urban areas generally have more formal education, employment prospects, and healthcare  While a strong gender disparity exists throughout the country, it is less severe in the urban capital  The wealthy minority often go abroad for health, education and other purposes : 25  The population is young, with the median age being under 20 : 29  In particular, a large proportion of the population (almost 45% in 2015) are males between the ages of 15 and 24, the third largest male 'youth bulge' in the world : 212 The Government of Timor-Leste's website lists the English-language demonym for East Timor as Timorese  Other reference sources list it as East Timorese  The word Maubere formerly used by the Portuguese to refer to native East Timorese and often employed as synonymous with the illiterate and uneducated, was adopted by Fretilin as a term of pride Healthcare received 6% of the national budget in 2021 : 24  From 1990 to 2019 life expectancy rose from 48 5 to 69 5  Expected years of schooling rose from 9 8 to 12 4 between 2000 and 2010, while mean years of schooling rose from 2 8 to 4 4  Progress since 2010 for these has been limited  Gross national income per capita similarly peaked in 2010, and has decreased since : 3  As of 2016, 45 8% of East Timorese were impoverished, 16 3% severely so : 6  The fertility rate, which at the time of independence was the highest in the world at 7 8, dropped to 4 2 by 2016  It is relatively higher in rural areas, and among poorer: 3  and less literate households  As of 2016, the average household size was 5 3, with 41% of people aged under 15, and 18% of households headed by women : 2  Infant mortality stood at 30 per 1,000, down from 60 per 1,000 in 2003 : 7  46% of children under 5 showed stunted growth, down from 58% in 2010  Working age adult obesity increased from 5% to 10% during the same time period  As of 2016, 40% of children, 23% of women, and 13% of men had anemia : 11

Ethnicity and language
Timorese communities are not strictly defined by ethnic background or linguistic group  Separate communities may share ethnicity or language, and many areas show overlaps and hybridisation between ethnic and linguistic groups : 44  Familial relations and descent, which are interlinked with sacred house affiliation, are a more important indicator of identity : 47  Each family group generally identifies with a single language or dialect : 49  With this immense local variation in mind, there is a broad cultural and identity distinction between the east (Bacau, Lautém, and Viqueque Municipalities) and the west of the country, a product of history more than it is of linguistic and ethnic differences,: 45–47  although it is very loosely associated with the two language groups : 142–143  There is a small mestiço population of mixed Portuguese and local descent  There is a small Chinese minority, most of whom are Hakka  Many Chinese left in the mid-1970s, but a significant number have also returned to East Timor following the end of Indonesian occupation  East Timor has a small community of Timorese Indian, specifically Goan descent, as well as historical immigration from Africa and Yemen Likely reflecting the mixed origins of the different ethnolinguistic groups of the island, the indigenous languages fall into two language families: Austronesian and Papuan : 10  Depending on how they are classified, there are up to 19 indigenous languages with up to 30 dialects : 136  Aside from Tetum, Ethnologue lists the following indigenous languages: Adabe, Baikeno, Bunak, Fataluku, Galoli, Habun, Idaté, Kairui-Midiki, Kemak, Lakalei, Makasae, Makuv'a, Mambae, Nauete, Tukudede, and Waima'a  According to the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are six endangered languages in East Timor: Adabe, Habu, Kairui-Midiki, Maku'a, Naueti, and Waima'a  The largest Malayo-Polynesian group is the Tetum, mostly around Dili or the western border  Other Malayo-Polynesian languages with native speakers of more than 40,000 are Mambai in the central mountains south of Dili, Baikeno in Oecusse, Kemak in the north-west interior, and Tokodede on the northwest coast  The main Papuan languages spoken are Bunak in the centre of Timor, especially within Bobonaro Municipality; Makasae in the eastern Baucau and Viqueque municipalities; and Fataluku in the eastern Lautém Municipality : 43  The 2015 census found that the most commonly spoken mother tongues were Tetum Prasa (mother tongue for 30 6% of the population), Mambai (16 6%), Makasai (10 5%), Tetum Terik (6 05%), Baikenu (5 87%), Kemak (5 85%), Bunak (5 48%), Tokodede (3 97%), and Fataluku (3 52%)  Other indigenous languages accounted for 10 47%, while 1 09% of the population spoke foreign languages natively East Timor's two official languages are Portuguese and Tetum  In addition, English and Indonesian are designated by the constitution as "working languages" : 3  This is within the Final and Transitional Provisions, which do not set a final date  In 2012, 35% could speak, read, and write Portuguese, which is up significantly from less than 5% in the 2006 UN Development Report  Portuguese is recovering as it has now been made the main official language of Timor, and is being taught in most schools  The use of Portuguese for government information and in the court system provides some barriers to access for those who do not speak it  Tetum is also not understood by everyone in the country : 11  According to the Observatory of the Portuguese Language, the East Timorese literacy rate was 77 8% in Tetum, 55 6% in Indonesian, and 39 3% in Portuguese, and that the primary literacy rate increased from 73% in 2009 to 83% in 2012  According to the 2015 census, 50% of the population between the ages of 14 and 24 can speak and understand Portuguese  The 2015 census found around 15% of those over the age of five were literate in English 

Education
East Timor's adult literacy rate was 68% among adults, and 84% among those aged 15–24, as of 2021  It is slightly higher among women than men : 27  More girls than boys attend school, although some drop out upon reaching puberty : 25  As of 2016 22% of working age women (15–49) and 19% of working age men had no education, 15% of women and 18% of men had some primary education, 52% of women and 51% of men had some secondary education, and 11% of women and 12% of men had higher education  Overall, 75% of women and 82% of men were literate : 2  Primary schools exist throughout the country, although the quality of materials and teaching is often poor  Secondary schools are generally limited to municipal capitals  Education takes up 10% of the national budget : 27  The country's main university is the National University of East Timor  There are also four colleges Since independence, both Indonesian and Tetum have lost ground as media of instruction, while Portuguese has increased: in 2001 only 8 4% of primary school and 6 8% of secondary school students attended a Portuguese-medium school; by 2005 this had increased to 81 6% for primary and 46 3% for secondary schools  Indonesian formerly played a considerable role in education, being used by 73 7% of all secondary school students as a medium of instruction, but by 2005 Portuguese was used by most schools in Baucau, Manatuto, as well as the capital district  Portugal provides support to about 3% of the public schools in East Timor, focused on those in urban areas, further encouraging the use of the Portuguese language : 28

Religion
While the Constitution of East Timor enshrines the principles of freedom of religion and separation of church and state, Section 45 Comma 1 also acknowledges "the participation of the Catholic Church in the process of national liberation" in its preamble  Upon independence, the country joined the Philippines to become the only two predominantly Catholic states in Asia, although nearby parts of eastern Indonesia such as Flores and parts of Western New Guinea also have Catholic majorities According to the 2015 census, 97 57% of the population is Catholic; 1 96% Protestant; 0 24% Muslim; 0 08% Traditional; 0 05% Buddhist; 0 02% Hindu, and 0 08% other religions  A 2016 survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Survey programme showed that Catholics made up 98 3% of the population, Protestants 1 2%, and Muslims 0 3% The number of churches grew from 100 in 1974 to more than 800 in 1994, with Church membership having grown considerably under Indonesian rule as Pancasila, Indonesia's state ideology, requires all citizens to believe in one God and does not recognise traditional beliefs  East Timorese animist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia's constitutional monotheism, resulting in mass conversions to Christianity  Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests and Latin and Portuguese mass was replaced by Indonesian mass  While just 20% of East Timorese called themselves Catholics at the time of the 1975 invasion, the figure surged to reach 95% by the end of the first decade after the invasion  The Roman Catholic Church divides East Timor into three dioceses: the Archdiocese of Díli, the Diocese of Baucau, and the Diocese of Maliana  In rural areas, Roman Catholicism is syncretised with local animist beliefs  The number of Protestants and Muslims declined significantly after September 1999, as these groups were disproportionately represented among supporters of integration with Indonesia  Fewer than half of previous Protestant congregations existed after September 1999, and many Protestants were among those who remained in West Timor 

Culture
The many cultures within East Timor stem from the several waves of Austronesian and Melanesian migration that led to the current population, with unique identities and traditions developing within each petty kingdom  Portuguese authorities built upon traditional structures, blending Portuguese influence into the existing political and social systems : 91–92  The presence of the Catholic Church created a point of commonality across the various ethnic groups, despite full conversion remaining limited  The Portuguese language also provided common linkages, even if direct Portuguese impact was limited : 97–98  Under Indonesian rule, resistance strengthened cultural links to Catholicism and the Portuguese language  At the same time, Indonesian cultural influence was spread through schools and administration : 98–99 The preservation of traditional beliefs in the face of Indonesian attempts to suppress them became linked to the creation of the country's national identity : 7–13  This national identity only began to emerge at the very end of Portuguese rule, and further developed during Indonesian rule : 134–136  Following independence, a civic identity began to develop  This was most clearly expressed through enthusiasm for national-level democracy,: 155–156  and was reflected in politics through a shift from resistance narratives to development ones : 3  The capital has developed a more cosmopolitan culture, while rural areas maintain stronger traditional practices : 30  Internal migration into urban areas, especially Dili, creates cultural links between these areas and rural hinterlands  Those in urban areas often continue to identify with a specific rural area, even those with multiple generations born in Dili : 53–54 The presence of so many ethnic and linguistic groups means cultural practices vary across the country : 11  These practices reflect historical social structures and practices, where political leaders were regarded as having spiritual powers  Ancestry was an important part of cultural practices, and partly signified leadership  Leaders often had influence over land use, and these leaders continue to play an informal role in land disputes and other aspects of community practice today  An important traditional concept is lulik, or sacredness  Some lulik ceremonies continue to reflect animist beliefs, for example through divination ceremonies which vary throughout the country  Sacred status can also be associated with objects, such as Portuguese flags which have been passed down within families : 7–13 

Community life is centred around sacred houses (Uma Lulik), physical structures which serve as a representative symbol and identifier for each community : 47–49  The architectural style of these houses varies between different parts of the country, although following widespread destruction by Indonesian forces many were rebuilt with cheap modern materials : 22–25  The house as a concept extends beyond the physical object to the surrounding community : 92–93, 96  Kinship systems exist within and between houses  Traditional leaders, who stem from historically important families, retain key roles in administering justice and resolving disputes through methods that vary between communities : 47–49  Such leaders are often elected to official leadership positions, merging cultural and historical status with modern political status : 52  The concept of being part of a communal house has been extended to the nation, with Parliament serving as the national sacred house : 96 Art styles vary throughout the various ethnolinguistic groups of the island  Nonetheless, similar artistic motifs are present throughout, such as large animals and particular geometric patterns  Some art is traditionally associated with particular genders  For example, the Tais textiles that play a widespread role in traditional life throughout the island are traditionally handwoven by women  Different tais patterns are associated with different communities, and more broadly with linguistic groups : 137  Many buildings within central Dili maintain historical Portuguese architecture : I-5 Traditional rituals remain important, often mixed in with more modern aspects : 137  A strong oral history is highlighted in individuals able to recite long stories or poetry  This history, or Lia nain, passes down traditional knowledge : 16  There remains a strong tradition of poetry  Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão, for example, is a distinguished poet, earning the moniker "poet warrior" In the field of cinema, East Timor released its first feature-length film, a period thriller titled Beatriz's War, in 2013  Shot with a limited budget by a mix of local filmmakers and a volunteer Australian film crew, the film depicted East Timorese life under Indonesian occupation in the 1970s, with producer Lurdes Pires acknowledging their aim to diverge from the government's "friendship and forgiveness" policy for its past conflicts by telling a story of truth-seeking and justice 

See also
Outline of East Timor
Index of East Timor-related articles
List of topics on the Portuguese Empire in the East
Passage 9:
Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship
The Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission on Truth and Friendship (more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym CVA, Comissão Verdade e Amizade) was a truth commission established jointly by the governments of Indonesia and East Timor in August 2005  The commission was officially created to investigate acts of violence that occurred around the independence referendum held in East Timor in 1999 and sought to find the "conclusive truth" behind the events  After holding private hearings and document reviews, the commission handed in the final report on July 15, 2008 to the presidents of both nations, and was fully endorsed by Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, providing the first acknowledgement by the government of Indonesia of the human rights violations committed by state institutions in Timor  The commission is notable for being the first modern truth commission to be bilateral 

Background
East Timor was originally colonized by the Portuguese, and remained a colony up until the fall of the military dictatorship in 1974  East Timor declared independence soon afterwards, but Indonesia soon decided to intervene as it became clear that the government of the new state would most likely be leftist  The Indonesian government began Operation Komodo, which was intended to bring about the integration of the East Timorese territory  It began with a propaganda campaign, but after the outbreak of conflict in East Timor, the Indonesian military began a campaign on 7 October starting with an assault on a border post and accumulating with a full-scale invasion utilizing paratroopers and naval support  The United Nations quickly condemned the invasion via resolution, but due to resistance in the Security council, no further action was taken  The United States also tacitly gave their approval, as the dismantling of a pro-communist government helped advance the policy of containment being pursued by the government 
Indonesia occupied the territory for the following two decades  During the administration of the Habibie government, a referendum was held in the occupied area asking if the residents of the area wished to remain a part of Indonesia  Even before the referendum, there was harassment by militia groups in the area, with UN workers being attacked in Maliana  It soon became clear in the wake of the referendum that the referendum result would be overwhelmingly in favor of the "no" option on the ballot; this raised tensions to a boiling point, and within two hours of the announcement of the results, armed militia groups began attacking civilians  Militia continued to attack civilians as they withdrew from the country, and several massacres occurred as the troops filtered out of the area  A UN peacekeeping force known as INTERFET was deployed to stabilize the situation, made up of mostly Australian troops, and was withdrawn with the arrival of normal UN peacekeepers  East Timor eventually transitioned from a UN mandate to an independent country 

Report
The commission itself was announced in August 2006 and sought to establish "the conclusive truth regarding human rights violations to have occurred prior to, immediately after the Popular Consultation on 30 August 1999" as well as "prepare recommendations that can contribute to healing wounds of the past and strengthen friendship"  The timing of the commission's creation was criticized by some, as it was believed that it was created to intentionally subvert calls for an international tribunal to deal with the events surrounding the 1999 plebiscite  The commission's mandate allowed it to review documents pertaining to four other inquiries surrounding the events that predated it: "The Indonesian National Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights Violations in East Timor in 1999", "The Indonesian Ad Hoc Human Rights Court on East Timor", "The Special Panels for Serious Crimes", and "The Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation" The commission was made up of four members appointed from each nation, and these commissioners were instructed to conduct a document review and analyze previous trials and investigations into the subject, including the UN Special Panels for Serious Crimes and Serious Crime Units in Dili, and the report of the Commission of Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste  The commission also stated its intent to research the "historical background, political dynamics, and institutional structures that shaped events before and during 1999" to "inform its conclusions with a broader understanding of the way in which the causes of the violence in 1999 were connected to previously established institutional structures and practices "Operating over three years, the commission gave its final report on July 15, 2008, and presented it to the Presidents of Indonesia and East Timor, concluding that "gross human rights violations in the form of crimes against humanity did occur in East Timor in 1999" and that "pro-autonomy militia groups, TNI, the Indonesian civil government, and Polri must all bear institutional responsibility", as well as stating that "from a moral and political perspective the respective states must accept state responsibility for the violations identified in the report " The commission also made recommendations that both nations begin institutional reform enhancing the strength of investigative and prosecuting bodies involved with investigations into the events, as well as forming joint security policy to ensure the safety of individuals in case of the recurrence of violence  It also noted the need to resolve other standing border and security issues between the two nations to allow for more cooperation  Notably, the report gave no recommendations of amnesty or rehabilitation  The report was endorsed by the president of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, making it the first recognition of the Indonesian government's complicity in human rights violations in East Timor by Indonesia 

Reception
In Indonesia and Timor, the report was presented to both governments and accepted by both the Timorese and Indonesian governments  However, Timorese NGO Timor-Leste National Alliance for International Tribunal wrote an open letter in response to the commission's findings with several criticisms, including the lack of public consultation with victims and parliamentary approval of the commission, as well as noting that the commission assigned institutional responsibility rather than individual responsibility, "which is contrary to the principles of international laws which were ratified by the state of Timor-Leste and to Article 160 of its constitution which says that there must be a justice process for crimes against humanity ", as well as stating their belief that the CAVR was a more trustworthy and support worthy commission for the government to support Internationally, the report had a mixed reception  Some, such as the War Crimes Studies Center at the University of California, Berkeley, said that the commission could be seen as "widely acknowledged as credible and far-reaching ", noting that the Indonesian government's affirmation of the results was important and that the commission made arguments that "there was credible evidence to indicate that Timorese institutions were also responsible for illegal detentions and possibly other crimes "

See also
History of East Timor
Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor
Indonesian occupation of East Timor
Santa Cruz massacre
Context 2: Passage 1:
Roman numerals
Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages  Numbers are written with combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet, each letter with a fixed integer value  Modern style uses only these seven:

The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire  From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced by Arabic numerals; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persists in some applications to this day 
One place they are often seen is on clock faces  For instance, on the clock of Big Ben (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written as:

The notations IV and IX can be read as "one less than five" (4) and "one less than ten" (9), although there is a tradition favouring representation of "4" as "IIII" on Roman numeral clocks Other common uses include year numbers on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of movies and television programs  MCM, signifying "a thousand, and a hundred less than another thousand", means 1900, so 1912 is written MCMXII  For the years of the current (21st) century, MM indicates 2000  The current year is MMXXIII (2023) 

Description
Roman numerals use different symbols for each power of ten and no zero symbol, in contrast with the place value notation of Arabic numerals (in which place-keeping zeros enable the same digit to represent different powers of ten) 
This allows some flexibility in notation, and there has never been an official or universally accepted standard for Roman numerals  Usage varied greatly in ancient Rome and became thoroughly chaotic in medieval times  Even the post-renaissance restoration of a largely "classical" notation has failed to produce total consistency: variant forms are even defended by some modern writers as offering improved "flexibility"  On the other hand, especially where a Roman numeral is considered a legally binding expression of a number, as in U S  Copyright law (where an "incorrect" or ambiguous numeral may invalidate a copyright claim, or affect the termination date of the copyright period) it is desirable to strictly follow the usual style described below 

Standard form
The following table displays how Roman numerals are usually written:
 The numerals for 4 (IV) and 9 (IX) are written using subtractive notation, where the smaller symbol (I) is subtracted from the larger one (V, or X), thus avoiding the clumsier IIII and VIIII  Subtractive notation is also used for 40 (XL), 90 (XC), 400 (CD) and 900 (CM)  These are the only subtractive forms in standard use 
A number containing two or more decimal digits is built by appending the Roman numeral equivalent for each, from highest to lowest, as in the following examples:

   39 = XXX + IX = XXXIX 
  246 = CC + XL + VI = CCXLVI 
  789 = DCC + LXXX + IX = DCCLXXXIX 
2,421 = MM + CD + XX + I = MMCDXXI Any missing place (represented by a zero in the place-value equivalent) is omitted, as in Latin (and English) speech:

  160 = C + LX = CLX
  207 = CC + VII = CCVII
1,009 = M + IX = MIX
1,066 = M + LX + VI = MLXVIThe largest number that can be represented in this manner is 3,999 (MMMCMXCIX), but this is sufficient for the values for which Roman numerals are commonly used today, such as year numbers:

1776 = M + DCC + LXX + VI = MDCCLXXVI (the date written on the book held by the Statue of Liberty) 
1918 = M + CM + X + VIII = MCMXVIII (the first year of the Spanish flu pandemic)
1944 = M + CM + XL + IV = MCMXLIV (erroneous copyright notice of the 1954 movie The Last Time I Saw Paris)
2023 = MMXXIII (this year)Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals in the West, ancient and medieval users of Roman numerals used various means to write larger numbers; see large numbers below 

Other forms
Forms exist that vary in one way or another from the general standard represented above 

Other additive forms
While subtractive notation for 4, 40 and 400 (IV, XL and CD) has been the usual form since Roman times, additive notation to represent these numbers (IIII, XXXX and CCCC) continued to be used, including in compound numbers like XXIIII, LXXIIII, and CCCCLXXXX  The additive forms for 9, 90, and 900 (VIIII, LXXXX, and DCCCC) have also been used, although less often 
The two conventions could be mixed in the same document or inscription, even in the same numeral  For example, on the numbered gates to the Colosseum, IIII is systematically used instead of IV, but subtractive notation is used for XL; consequently, gate 44 is labelled XLIIII Modern clock faces that use Roman numerals still very often use IIII for four o'clock but IX for nine o'clock, a practice that goes back to very early clocks such as the Wells Cathedral clock of the late 14th century  However, this is far from universal: for example, the clock on the Palace of Westminster tower (commonly known as Big Ben) uses a subtractive IV for 4 o'clock 

Several monumental inscriptions created in the early 20th century use variant forms for "1900" (usually written MCM)  These vary from MDCCCCX for 1910 as seen on Admiralty Arch, London, to the more unusual, if not unique MDCDIII for 1903, on the north entrance to the Saint Louis Art Museum Especially on tombstones and other funerary inscriptions 5 and 50 have been occasionally written IIIII and XXXXX instead of V and L, and there are instances such as IIIIII and XXXXXX rather than VI or LX 

Other subtractive forms
There is a common belief that any smaller digit placed to the left of a larger digit is subtracted from the total, and that by clever choices a long Roman numeral can be "compressed"  The best known example of this is the ROMAN() function in Microsoft Excel, which can render "499" (usually CDXCIX) into LDVLIV, XDIX, VDIV or ID depending on the "Form" setting   There is no indication this is anything other than an invention by the programmer, and the universal-subtraction belief may be a result of modern users trying to rationalize the syntax of Roman numerals 

There is, however, some historic use of subtractive notation other than that described in the above "standard": in particular IIIXX for 17, IIXX for 18, IIIC for 97, IIC for 98, and IC for 99  A possible explanation is that the word for 18 in Latin is duodeviginti, literally "two from twenty", 98 is duodecentum (two from hundred), and 99 is undecentum (one from hundred)  However, the explanation does not seem to apply to IIIXX and IIIC, since the Latin words for 17 and 97 were septendecim (seven ten) and nonaginta septem (ninety seven), respectively 
There are multiple examples of IIX being used for 8  There does not seem to be a linguistic explanation for this use, but it is one stroke shorter than VIII  XIIX was used by officers of the XVIII Roman Legion to write their number  The notation appears prominently on the cenotaph of their senior centurion Marcus Caelius (c  45 BC – 9 AD)  On the publicly displayed official Roman calendars known as Fasti, XIIX is used for the 18 days to the next Kalends, and XXIIX for the 28 days in February  The latter can be seen on the sole extant pre-Julian calendar, the Fasti Antiates Maiores 

Rare variants
While irregular subtractive and additive notation has been used at least occasionally throughout history, some Roman numerals have been observed in documents and inscriptions that do not fit either system  Some of these variants do not seem to have been used outside specific contexts, and may have been regarded as errors even by contemporaries 

IIXX was how people associated with the XXII Roman Legion used to write their number  The practice may have been due to a common way to say "twenty-second" in Latin, namely duo et vice(n)sima (literally "two and twentieth") rather than the "regular" vice(n)sima secunda (twenty second)  Apparently, at least one ancient stonecutter mistakenly thought that the IIXX of "22nd Legion" stood for 18, and "corrected" it to XVIII 
There are some examples of year numbers after 1000 written as two Roman numerals 1–99, e g  1613 as XVIXIII, corresponding to the common reading "sixteen thirteen" of such year numbers in English, or 1519 as XCVXIX as in French quinze-cent-dix-neuf (fifteen-hundred and nineteen), and similar readings in other languages In some French texts from the 15th century and later, one finds constructions like IIIIXXXIX for 99, reflecting the French reading of that number as quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (four-score and nineteen)  Similarly, in some English documents one finds, for example, 77 written as "iiixxxvii" (which could be read "three-score and seventeen") A medieval accounting text from 1301 renders numbers like 13,573 as "XIII  M  V  C  III  XX  XIII", that is, "13×1000 + 5×100 + 3×20 + 13" Other numerals that do not fit the usual patterns – such as VXL for 45, instead of the usual XLV — may be due to scribal errors, or the writer's lack of familiarity with the system, rather than being genuine variant usage 

Non-numeric combinations
As Roman numerals are composed of ordinary alphabetic characters, there may sometimes be confusion with other uses of the same letters  For example, "XXX" and "XL" have other connotations in addition to their values as Roman numerals, while "IXL" more often than not is a gramogram of "I excel", and is in any case not an unambiguous Roman numeral 

Zero
As a non-positional numeral system, Roman numerals have no "place-keeping" zeros  Furthermore, the system as used by the Romans lacked a numeral for the number zero itself (that is, what remains after 1 is subtracted from 1)  The word nulla (the Latin word meaning "none") was used to represent 0, although the earliest attested instances are medieval  For instance Dionysius Exiguus used nulla alongside Roman numerals in a manuscript from 525 AD  About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the initial of nulla or of nihil (the Latin word for "nothing") for 0, in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals The use of N to indicate "none" long survived in the historic apothecaries' system of measurement: used well into the 20th century to designate quantities in pharmaceutical prescriptions 

Fractions
The base "Roman fraction" is S, indicating 1⁄2  The use of S (as in VIIS to indicate 71⁄2) is attested in some ancient inscriptions and also in the now rare apothecaries' system (usually in the form SS): but while Roman numerals for whole numbers are essentially decimal, S does not correspond to 5⁄10, as one might expect, but 6⁄12 
The Romans used a duodecimal rather than a decimal system for fractions, as the divisibility of twelve (12 = 22 × 3) makes it easier to handle the common fractions of 1⁄3 and 1⁄4 than does a system based on ten (10 = 2 × 5)  Notation for fractions other than 1⁄2 is mainly found on surviving Roman coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit as  Fractions less than 1⁄2 are indicated by a dot (·) for each uncia "twelfth", the source of the English words inch and ounce; dots are repeated for fractions up to five twelfths  Six twelfths (one half), is S for semis "half"  Uncia dots were added to S for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to V for whole numbers from six to nine  The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear  Five dots arranged like (⁙) (as on the face of a die) are known as a quincunx, from the name of the Roman fraction/coin  The Latin words sextans and quadrans are the source of the English words sextant and quadrant 
Each fraction from 1⁄12 to 12⁄12 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins:

Other Roman fractional notations included the following:

Large numbers
The Romans developed two main ways of writing large numbers, the apostrophus and the vinculum, further extended in various ways in later times 

Apostrophus
Using the apostrophus method, 500 is written as IↃ, while 1,000 is written as CIↃ  This system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (imagine the Cs and Ↄs as parentheses) had its origins in Etruscan numeral usage 
Each additional set of C and Ↄ surrounding CIↃ raises the value by a factor of ten: CCIↃↃ represents 10,000 and CCCIↃↃↃ represents 100,000  Similarly, each additional Ↄ to the right of IↃ raises the value by a factor of ten: IↃↃ represents 5,000 and IↃↃↃ represents 50,000  Numerals larger than CCCIↃↃↃ do not occur 

Sometimes CIↃ is reduced to ↀ for 1,000  Similarly, IↃↃ for 5,000 is sometimes reduced to ↁ; CCIↃↃ for 10,000 to ↂ; IↃↃↃ for 50,000 to ↇ (ↇ); and CCCIↃↃↃ (ↈ) for 100,000 to ↈ 
IↃ and CIↃ most likely preceded, and subsequently influenced, the adoption of "D" and "M" in Roman numerals 
John Wallis is often credited for introducing the symbol for infinity ⟨∞⟩, and one conjecture is that he based it on ↀ, since 1,000 was hyperbolically used to represent very large numbers 

Vinculum
Using the vinculum, conventional Roman numerals are multiplied by 1,000 by adding a "bar" or "overline", thus:
IV = 4,000
XXV = 25,000It was a common alternative to the apostrophic ↀ during the Imperial era around the Roman world (M for '1000' was not in use until the Medieval period)  It continued in use in the Middle Ages, though it became known more commonly as titulus, and it appears in modern editions of classical and medieval Latin texts In an extension of the vinculum, a three-sided box (now sometimes printed as two vertical lines and a vinculum) is used to multiply by 100,000, thus:

XIII XXXII p  = 1,332,000 paces (1,332 Roman miles) Vinculum notation is distinct from the custom of adding an overline to a numeral simply to indicate that it is a number  Both usages can be seen on Roman inscriptions of the same period and general location, such as on the Antonine Wall 

Origin
The system is closely associated with the ancient city-state of Rome and the Empire that it created  However, due to the scarcity of surviving examples, the origins of the system are obscure and there are several competing theories, all largely conjectural 

Etruscan numerals
Rome was founded sometime between 850 and 750 BC  At the time, the region was inhabited by diverse populations of which the Etruscans were the most advanced  The ancient Romans themselves admitted that the basis of much of their civilization was Etruscan  Rome itself was located next to the southern edge of the Etruscan domain, which covered a large part of north-central Italy 
The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the Etruscan number symbols: ⟨𐌠⟩, ⟨𐌡⟩, ⟨𐌢⟩, ⟨𐌣⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩ for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (they had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number)  As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value  Thus, the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from right to left )The symbols ⟨𐌠⟩ and ⟨𐌡⟩ resembled letters of the Etruscan alphabet, but ⟨𐌢⟩, ⟨𐌣⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩ did not  The Etruscans used the subtractive notation, too, but not like the Romans  They wrote 17, 18, and 19 as 𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, 𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, and 𐌠𐌢𐌢, mirroring the way they spoke those numbers ("three from twenty", etc ); and similarly for 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, etc  However, they did not write 𐌠𐌡 for 4 (nor 𐌢𐌣 for 40), and wrote 𐌡𐌠𐌠, 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠 and 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠 for 7, 8, and 9, respectively 

Early Roman numerals
The early Roman numerals for 1, 10, and 100 were the Etruscan ones: ⟨𐌠⟩, ⟨𐌢⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩  The symbols for 5 and 50 changed from ⟨𐌡⟩ and ⟨𐌣⟩ to ⟨V⟩ and ⟨ↆ⟩ at some point  The latter had flattened to ⟨⊥⟩ (an inverted T) by the time of Augustus, and soon afterwards became identified with the graphically similar letter ⟨L⟩ The symbol for 100 was written variously as ⟨𐌟⟩ or ⟨ↃIC⟩, and was then abbreviated to ⟨Ↄ⟩ or ⟨C⟩, with ⟨C⟩ (which matched the Latin letter C) finally winning out  It might have helped that C was the initial letter of CENTUM, Latin for "hundred" 
The numbers 500 and 1000 were denoted by V or X overlaid with a box or circle  Thus, 500 was like a Ɔ superimposed on a ⋌ or ⊢, making it look like Þ  It became D or Ð by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letter D  It was later identified as the letter D; an alternative symbol for "thousand" was a CIↃ, and half of a thousand or "five hundred" is the right half of the symbol, IↃ, and this may have been converted into D The notation for 1000 was a circled or boxed X: Ⓧ, ⊗, ⊕, and by Augustinian times was partially identified with the Greek letter Φ phi  Over time, the symbol changed to Ψ and ↀ  The latter symbol further evolved into ∞, then ⋈, and eventually changed to M under the influence of the Latin word mille "thousand" According to Paul Kayser, the basic numerical symbols were I, X, C and Φ (or ⊕) and the intermediate ones were derived by taking half of those (half an X is V, half a C is L and half a Φ/⊕ is D) 

Classical Roman numerals
The Colosseum was constructed in Rome in CE 72–80, and while the original perimeter wall has largely disappeared, the numbered entrances from XXIII (23) to LIIII (54) survive, to demonstrate that in Imperial times Roman numerals had already assumed their classical form: as largely standardised in current use  The most obvious anomaly (a common one that persisted for centuries) is the inconsistent use of subtractive notation - while XL is used for 40, IV is avoided in favour of IIII: in fact, gate 44 is labelled XLIIII 

Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance
Lower case, or minuscule, letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, and since that time lower-case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: i, ii, iii, iv, and so on 

Since the Middle Ages, a "j" has sometimes been substituted for the final "i" of a "lower-case" Roman numeral, such as "iij" for 3 or "vij" for 7  This "j" can be considered a swash variant of "i"  Into the early 20th century, the use of a final "j" was still sometimes used in medical prescriptions to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it was written Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are called "medieval Roman numerals"  Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as "A" for "V", or "Q" for "D"), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals ("O" for "XI", or "F" for "XL")  Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries, they are long out of use 
Chronograms, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during the Renaissance era  The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, and M  By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a number, usually indicating a particular year 

Modern use
By the 11th century, Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises  Roman numerals, however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records (where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus)  Replacement by their more convenient "Arabic" equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts  A few examples of their current use are:

Names of monarchs and popes, e g  Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Pope Benedict XVI  These are referred to as regnal numbers and are usually read as ordinals; e g  II is pronounced "the second"  This tradition began in Europe sporadically in the Middle Ages, gaining widespread use in England during the reign of Henry VIII  Previously, the monarch was not known by numeral but by an epithet such as Edward the Confessor  Some monarchs (e g  Charles IV of Spain and Louis XIV of France) seem to have preferred the use of IIII instead of IV on their coinage (see illustration) 
Generational suffixes, particularly in the U S , for people sharing the same name across generations, for example William Howard Taft IV  These are also usually read as ordinals 
In the French Republican Calendar, initiated during the French Revolution, years were numbered by Roman numerals – from the year I (1792) when this calendar was introduced to the year XIV (1805) when it was abandoned 
The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art within the work itself  Outside reference to the work will use regular Arabic numerals 
Hour marks on timepieces  In this context, 4 is often written IIII 
The year of construction on building façades and cornerstones 
Page numbering of prefaces and introductions of books, and sometimes of appendices and annexes, too 
Book volume and chapter numbers, as well as the several acts within a play (e g  Act iii, Scene 2) 
Sequels to some films, video games, and other works (as in Rocky II, Grand Theft Auto V, Myst III: Exile) 
Outlines that use numbers to show hierarchical relationships 
Occurrences of a recurring grand event, for instance:
The Summer and Winter Olympic Games (e g  the XXI Olympic Winter Games; the Games of the XXX Olympiad) 
The Super Bowl, the annual championship game of the National Football League (e g  Super Bowl XLII; Super Bowl 50 was a one-time exception) 
WrestleMania, the annual professional wrestling event for the WWE (e g  WrestleMania XXX)  This usage has also been inconsistent 

Specific disciplines
In astronautics, United States rocket model variants are sometimes designated by Roman numerals, e g  Titan I, Titan II, Titan III, Saturn I, Saturn V 
In astronomy, the natural satellites or "moons" of the planets are designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet's name  For example, Titan's designation is Saturn VI In chemistry, Roman numerals are sometimes used to denote the groups of the periodic table, but this has officially been deprecated in favour of Arabic numerals  They are also used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, for the oxidation number of cations which can take on several different positive charges  They are also used for naming phases of polymorphic crystals, such as ice 
In education, school grades (in the sense of year-groups rather than test scores) are sometimes referred to by a Roman numeral; for example, "grade IX" is sometimes seen for "grade 9" 
In entomology, the broods of the thirteen- and seventeen-year periodical cicadas are identified by Roman numerals 
In graphic design stylised Roman numerals may represent numeric values 
In law, Roman numerals are commonly used to help organize legal codes as part of an alphanumeric outline 

In mathematics (including trigonometry, statistics, and calculus), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using I, II, III, and IV  These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the X axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the Y axis, respectively  The use of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph 
In military unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels  This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps  In particular, army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals (for example the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the WW2-era German III Panzerkorps) with Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies 
In music, Roman numerals are used in several contexts:

Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals 
In Roman numeral analysis, harmonic function is identified using Roman numerals 
Individual strings of stringed instruments, such as the violin, are often denoted by Roman numerals, with higher numbers denoting lower strings In pharmacy, Roman numerals were used with the now largely obsolete apothecaries' system of measurement: including SS to denote "one half" and N to denote "zero" In photography, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote varying levels of brightness when using the Zone System 
In seismology, Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the Mercalli intensity scale of earthquakes 
In sport the team containing the "top" players and representing a nation or province, a club or a school at the highest level in (say) rugby union is often called the "1st XV", while a lower-ranking cricket or American football team might be the "3rd XI" 
In tarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are often used to denote the cards of the Major Arcana 
In theology and biblical scholarship, the Septuagint is often referred to as LXX, as this translation of the Old Testament into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators (septuaginta being Latin for "seventy") 

Modern use in European languages other than English
Some uses that are rare or never seen in English speaking countries may be relatively common in parts of continental Europe and in other regions (e g  Latin America) that use a European language other than English  For instance:
Capital or small capital Roman numerals are widely used in Romance languages to denote centuries, e g  the French XVIIIe siècle and the Spanish siglo XVIII (not XVIII siglo) for "18th century"  Slavic languages in and adjacent to Russia similarly favor Roman numerals (xviii век)  On the other hand, in Slavic languages in Central Europe, like most Germanic languages, one writes "18 " (with a period) before the local word for "century" 

Mixed Roman and Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (especially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones)  The month is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Arabic numerals: "4 VI 1789" and "VI 4 1789" both refer unambiguously to 4 June 1789 

Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent the days of the week in hours-of-operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses, and also sometimes in railway and bus timetables  Monday, taken as the first day of the week, is represented by I  Sunday is represented by VII  The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time  In the example case (left), the business opens from 10 AM to 7 PM on weekdays, 10 AM to 5 PM on Saturdays and is closed on Sundays  Note that the listing uses 24-hour time 

Roman numerals may also be used for floor numbering  For instance, apartments in central Amsterdam are indicated as 138-III, with both an Arabic numeral (number of the block or house) and a Roman numeral (floor number)  The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as 138-huis 
In Italy, where roads outside built-up areas have kilometre signs, major roads and motorways also mark 100-metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals from I to IX for the smaller intervals  The sign IX/17 thus marks 17 9 km 
Certain romance-speaking countries use Roman numerals to designate assemblies of their national legislatures  For instance, the composition of the Italian Parliament from 2018 to 2022 (elected in the 2018 Italian general election) is called the XVIII Legislature of the Italian Republic (or more commonly the "XVIII Legislature") 
A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, where Greek numerals (based on the Greek alphabet) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere 

Unicode
The "Number Forms" block of the Unicode computer character set standard has a number of Roman numeral symbols in the range of code points from U+2160 to U+2188  This range includes both upper- and lowercase numerals, as well as pre-combined characters for numbers up to 12 (Ⅻ or XII) 
One justification for the existence of pre-combined numbers is to facilitate the setting of multiple-letter numbers (such as VIII) on a single horizontal line in Asian vertical text  The Unicode standard, however, includes special Roman numeral code points for compatibility only, stating that "[f]or most purposes, it is preferable to compose the Roman numerals from sequences of the appropriate Latin letters" 
The block also includes some apostrophus symbols for large numbers, an old variant of "L" (50) similar to the Etruscan character, the Claudian letter "reversed C", etc 

See also
Passage 2:
Warren Covered Bridge
The Warren Covered Bridge is a wooden covered bridge that crosses the Mad River in Warren, Vermont on Covered Bridge Road   It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974 The bridge is of queen post truss design   A sign on the bridge also identifies it as the Lincoln Gap covered bridge, despite no official reference to that name   A unique oddity with this bridge is the fact that the eastern portal extends further over the approaching roadway than the western, according to a sign posted in the bridge by the Vermont Festival of the Arts   This trusses on this bridge are covered not only on the outside, but on the inside as well    one of only two bridges left in the state with similar construction (the other being the School House Covered Bridge) 

Recent history
The bridge deck was strengthened and roof replaced in 1995   In 1999 it was closed to all traffic after inspections found problems that were being hidden by the covering on the inside of the trusses   The bridge was extensively rehabilitated and re-dedicated on October 6, 2000 On August 28, 2011, one of the abutments of the bridge received damage due to flooding caused by Hurricane Irene   It appears the bridge itself was not damaged and as of 2020 the bridge is open to traffic 

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington County, Vermont
List of Vermont covered bridges
List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
Passage 3:
Flatford
Flatford is a small hamlet close to East Bergholt  in Suffolk  It is most famous for Flatford Mill, Willy Lott's Cottage and Bridge Cottage, immortalised in the paintings of John Constable 

Access by road
Flatford is accessible by Road from East Bergholt, with a limited access route looping down to the main Flatford Car park  The route is a two way road at the top section, allowing access to the properties there  From the car park onwards though the route is one way, back into East Bergholt, emerging near the village War memorial and the church 

Access by foot and public transport
As well as being able to walk from East Bergholt along the road route, Flatford can also be accessed on foot from Manningtree and Dedham, Essex  The hamlet is approximately 1 5 miles (2 4 km) from Manningtree railway station, to which it is linked by an off-road footpath 

External links
 Media related to Flatford at Wikimedia Commons
Passage 4:
Goodpasture Bridge
The Goodpasture Bridge spans the McKenzie River near the community of Vida in Lane County, Oregon, United States  It is the second longest covered bridge and one of the most photographed covered bridges in the state  The Goodpasture Bridge is listed on the National Register of Historic Places 

History
Lane County was the first Oregon county to build covered bridges on a large scale  Today, the county has more surviving covered bridges than any other county west of the Mississippi River, with a total of 17 bridges, including 14 that are still open to traffic  The county's engineering division maintains the covered bridges that are open to traffic, including the Goodpasture Bridge The Goodpasture Bridge was built in 1938, and cost $13,154 to construct  It was named for Benjamin Franklin Goodpasture, a pioneer farmer who had settled near the bridge site  The bridge crosses the McKenzie River two miles west of the community of Vida  At 165 feet (50 m) long, it the second longest covered bridge in Oregon  Because of its unique scenic beauty and its importance to Oregon's transportation history, the Goodpasture Bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 Over time, bridge traffic significantly weakened the structure  In 1987, Lane County officials decided to restore the original covered bridge instead of bypassing it with a modern concrete span  The county spent $750,000 to renovate the bridge structure, road surface, and approaches  The project also added a right-turn lane for traffic exiting Oregon Route 126 onto the bridge, and built a concrete retaining wall along the north bank of the McKenzie River to stabilize the area  Today, the Goodpasture Bridge handles a normal load of traffic including logging trucks In 2005, the Lane County Public Works Department began issuing a series of 17 commemorative coins to honor the county's covered bridges  Income from coin sales is used to help maintain the historic bridges  The first coin, struck in the fall of 2005, honored the Goodpasture Bridge   The remaining sixteen coins are being released at a rate of two per year through 2013 In 2010, Lane County reported receiving $2 million in a federal transportation grant to repair the bridge and raise its derated load limit from 15 short tons (14 t) back to 40 short tons (36 t) beginning in 2012 It was rumored that the bridge was destroyed in the Holiday Farm wildfire on September 8, 2020, but these was later confirmed to be false 

Structure
The Goodpasture Bridge was designed by the Oregon State Highway Department (now the Oregon Department of Transportation) and was built by Lane County  A C  Striker was the county bridge superintendent at the time of its construction  It was built to allow local families and commercial logging trucks to cross the McKenzie River The Goodpasture Bridge is a classic covered bridge in design  The deck is 17 7 feet (5 4 m) wide with a vertical clearance of 15 3 feet (4 7 m)  The bridge's two foundation tiers were concrete  Its wooden floor planks and shingled roof were intact, as is the weatherboard housing that protects the Howe truss infrastructure from the weather Most of Oregon's covered bridges, including the Goodpasture Bridge, were built using the Howe truss system, developed in 1840 by the Massachusetts architect William Howe  The system uses heavy timbers reinforced with iron or steel rods  The trusses have central beams and crossed timbers with adjustable, vertical iron rods to support the structural load The Goodpasture Bridge is one of the most photographed bridges in the state of Oregon  The bridge's architectural detailing includes false end beams, semi-elliptical portals, and ten Gothic style louvered windows on each side
Context 3: Passage 1:
British nationality law
The primary law governing nationality in the United Kingdom is the British Nationality Act 1981, which came into force on 1 January 1983  Regulations apply to the British Islands, which include the UK itself and the Crown dependencies, and the 14 British Overseas Territories 
The six classes of British nationality each have varying degrees of civil and political rights, due to the UK's historical status as a colonial empire  The principal class of British nationality is British citizenship, which is associated with the British Islands  British nationals associated with an overseas territory are British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs)  Almost all BOTCs (except for those from Akrotiri and Dhekelia) have also been British citizens since 2002  Individuals connected with former British colonies may hold residual forms of British nationality, which do not confer an automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom and generally may no longer be acquired  These residual nationalities are the statuses of British Overseas citizen, British subject, British National (Overseas), and British protected person 
All persons born in the British Islands before 1 January 1983 were automatically granted citizenship by birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents  Individuals born in those territories since that date only receive citizenship at birth if at least the mother is a British citizen or holds settled status  Foreign nationals may naturalise as British citizens after meeting a minimum residence requirement (usually five years) and acquiring settled status 
The United Kingdom was previously a member state of the European Union (EU) and British citizens held full EU citizenship  They had held automatic and permanent permission to live and work in any EU or European Free Trade Association (EFTA) country and were able to vote in elections to the European Parliament  Despite the UK's withdrawal from the union in 2020, British citizens continue to hold permanent permission to work and reside in the Republic of Ireland as part of the Common Travel Area 

Terminology
The distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country  Generally, nationality refers to a person's legal belonging to a sovereign state and is the common term used in international treaties when addressing members of a country, while citizenship usually means the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation  This distinction is clearly defined in many non-English speaking countries but not in the Anglosphere  Historically, an individual associated with Britain was neither a national nor a citizen, but a British subject  British citizenship was not created until passage of the British Nationality Act 1981  This Act defined six types of nationality with varying degrees of civil and political rights, dependent on a person's connections with the United Kingdom, overseas territories, or former colonies  British citizens hold their status because of a close connection with the British Islands, usually through their own (or parents' or grandparents') birth, adoption, naturalisation, or registration as citizens of the UK 

Types of British nationality
There are six types of British nationality: any person who is a British citizen, British Overseas Territories citizen (BOTC), British Overseas citizen (BOC), British National (Overseas) (BN(O)), British subject, or British protected person is a British national  Of these statuses, only British citizenship grants automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom  British Overseas Territories are areas outside of the British Islands where the UK holds sovereignty  Since 2002, nearly all BOTCs also hold British citizenship, except for those associated with Akrotiri and Dhekelia The other four categories are residual nationality classes that generally cannot be acquired  BOCs are people connected with former British colonies who have no close ties to the UK or overseas territories  BN(O)s are Hong Kong residents who voluntarily registered for this status before the territory's transfer to China in 1997  British subjects hold their status through a connection either to former  British India or to what is now the Republic of Ireland as they existed before 1949  British protected persons come from areas controlled by the British Empire but were never formally incorporated as Crown territory; this includes protectorates, protected states, mandated territories, and Indian princely states 

History
Development from feudal allegiance
Before the concept of nationality was codified in legislation, inhabitants of English communities owed allegiance to their feudal lords, who were themselves vassals of the monarch  This system of loyalty, indirectly owed to the monarch personally, developed into a general establishment of subjecthood to the Crown  Calvin's Case in 1608 established the principle of jus soli, that all those who were born within Crown dominions were natural-born subjects  After passage of the Acts of Union 1707, English and Scottish subjects became British subjects  Similarly, the Kingdom of Ireland was merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801  Natural-born subjects were considered to owe perpetual allegiance to the Crown and could not voluntarily renounce British subject status until this was first permitted in 1870 Prior to 1708, foreigners could only be naturalised through Acts of Parliament  Protestants fleeing religious persecution in mainland Europe were allowed to naturalise as subjects in 1708, but this was quickly repealed in 1711 in response to the number of migrants exercising that ability  A standard administrative process was not introduced until 1844, when applicants were first able to acquire naturalisation grants from the Home Office  Despite the creation of this pathway, personalised naturalising legislation continued to be enacted until 1975 The monarch could personally make any individual a subject by royal prerogative  By this method, a foreigner became a denizen – although they were no longer considered an alien, they could not pass subject status to their children by descent and were barred from Crown service and public office  This mechanism was no longer used after 1873 Until the mid-19th century, it was unclear whether nationality regulations in the United Kingdom were applicable elsewhere in the British Empire  Individual colonies had each developed their own procedures and requirements for naturalisation, granting subject status at the discretion of the local governments  In 1847, Parliament formalised a clear distinction between subjects who were naturalised in the UK and those who became British subjects in other territories  Individuals who naturalised in the UK were deemed to have received the status by imperial naturalisation, which was valid throughout the Empire  Those naturalising in colonies were said to have gone through local naturalisation and were given subject status valid only within the relevant territory; a subject who locally naturalised in Canada was a British subject there, but not in England or New Zealand  When travelling outside of the Empire, British subjects who were locally naturalised in a colony were still entitled to imperial protection Certain territories that came under British jurisdiction were not formally incorporated as Crown territory proper  These included protectorates, protected states, mandated territories, and Indian princely states  Because domestic law treated these areas as foreign territory, birth in one of these areas did not automatically confer British subject status  Instead, most people associated with these territories were designated as British protected persons  British protected persons were treated as aliens in the United Kingdom, but both British subjects and protected persons could be issued British passports  Protected persons could not travel to the UK without first requesting permission, but were afforded the same consular protection as British subjects when travelling outside of the Empire 

Imperial common code
Parliament brought regulations for British subject status into codified statute law for the first time with passage of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914  British subject status was standardised as a common nationality across the Empire  Dominions that adopted Part II of this Act as part of local legislation were authorised to grant subject status to aliens by imperial naturalisation The 1914 regulations codified the doctrine of coverture into imperial nationality law, where a woman's consent to marry a foreigner was also assumed to be intent to denaturalise; British women who married foreign men automatically lost their British nationality  There were two exceptions to this: a wife married to a husband who lost his British subject status was able to retain British nationality by declaration, and a British-born widow or divorcée who had lost her British nationality through marriage could reacquire that status without meeting residence requirements after the dissolution or termination of her marriage By the end of the First World War, the Dominions had exercised increasing levels of autonomy in managing their own affairs and each by then had developed a distinct national identity  Britain formally recognised this at the 1926 Imperial Conference, jointly issuing the Balfour Declaration with all the Dominion heads of government, which stated that the United Kingdom and Dominions were autonomous and equal to each other within the British Commonwealth of Nations  Full legislative independence was granted to the Dominions with passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931 Women's rights groups throughout the Empire pressured the imperial government during this time to amend nationality regulations that tied a married woman's status to that of her husband  Because the government could no longer enforce legislative supremacy over the Dominions after 1931 and wanted to maintain a strong constitutional link to them through the common nationality code, it was unwilling to make major changes without unanimous agreement among the Dominions on this issue, which it did not have  Imperial legal uniformity was nevertheless eroded during the 1930s; New Zealand and Australia amended their laws in 1935 and 1936 to allow women denaturalised by marriage to retain their rights as British subjects, and Ireland changed its regulations in 1935 to cause no change to a woman's nationality after her marriage 

Irish independence
Irish resistance to the Union and desire for local self-governance led to the Irish War of Independence  Following the war, the island of Ireland was partitioned into two parts  Southern Ireland became the Irish Free State in 1922, while Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom  Under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Northern Ireland was included in the Irish Free State on independence, but had the right to opt out of the new state within one month of its establishment  This option was exercised on 7 December 1922  The 24-hour period in which Northern Ireland was officially part of the Irish Free State meant that every person ordinarily resident in Northern Ireland on 6 December who fulfilled the citizenship provisions in the Constitution of the Irish Free State had automatically become an Irish citizen on that date At its inception, the Irish Free State gained independence as a Dominion within the British Empire  Imperial legislation at the time dictated that although individual Dominions could define a citizenship for their own citizens, that citizenship would only be effective within the local Dominion's borders  A Canadian, New Zealand, or Irish citizen who traveled outside of their own country would have been regarded as a British subject  This was reinforced by Article 3 of the 1922 Free State Constitution, which stated that Irish citizenship could be exercised "within the limits of the jurisdiction of the Irish Free State" When Free State authorities were first preparing to issue Irish passports in 1923, the British government insisted on the inclusion of some type of wording that described the holders of these passports as "British subjects"  The two sides could not reach agreement on this issue and when the Irish government began issuing passports in 1924, British authorities refused to accept these documents  British consular staff were instructed to confiscate any Irish passports that did not include the term "British subject" and replace them with British passports  This situation continued until 1930, when Irish passports were amended to describe its holders as "one of His Majesty's subjects of the Irish Free State"  Despite these disagreements, the two governments agreed not to establish border controls between their jurisdictions and all Irish citizens and British subjects continued to have the ability to move freely within the Common Travel Area  Although Irish citizens have not been considered British subjects under Irish law since 1935, the British government continued to treat virtually all Irish citizens as British subjects, except for those who had acquired Irish citizenship by naturalisation since the Free State had not incorporated Part II of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 into its legislation 

Changing relationship with the Empire and Commonwealth
Diverging developments in Dominion legislation, as well as growing assertions of local national identity separate from that of Britain and the Empire, culminated with the creation of a substantive Canadian citizenship in 1946, breaking the system of a common imperial nationality  Combined with the approaching independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, comprehensive reform to nationality law was necessary at this point to address ideas that were incompatible with the previous system The British Nationality Act 1948 redefined British subject as any citizen of the United Kingdom, its colonies, or other Commonwealth countries  Commonwealth citizen was first defined in this Act to have the same meaning  This alternative term was necessary to retain a number of newly independent countries in the Commonwealth that wished to become republics rather than preserve the monarch as head of state  The change in naming also indicated a shift in the base theory to this aspect of British nationality; allegiance to the Crown was no longer a requirement to possess British subject status and the common status would be maintained by voluntary agreement among the various members of the Commonwealth British subject/Commonwealth citizen status co-existed with the citizenships of each Commonwealth country  A person born in Australia would be both an Australian citizen and a British subject  British subjects under the previous meaning who held that status on 1 January 1949 because of a connection with the United Kingdom or a remaining colony became Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC)  CUKC status was the principal form of British nationality during this period of time There was also a category of people called British subjects without citizenship  Irish citizens who fulfilled certain requirements could file formal claims with the Home Secretary to remain British subjects under this definition  Additionally, those who did not qualify for CUKC status or citizenship in other Commonwealth countries, or were connected with a country that had not yet defined citizenship laws, would transitionally remain British subjects in this group 

Irish departure from the Commonwealth
Despite the accommodations for republics, Ireland ended its Commonwealth membership in 1948 when it formally declared itself a republic and removed the British monarch's remaining official functions in the Irish state  This was recognised by Britain after passage of the Ireland Act 1949  Although Irish citizens have no longer been defined as British subjects in British law since 1949, they continue to be treated as non-foreign in the United Kingdom and retain the same rights and privileges exercised by Commonwealth citizens; Irish citizens remain eligible to vote and stand for parliament in the UK The British Nationality Act 1948 unintentionally excluded certain British subjects associated with Ireland from acquiring CUKC status  The wording of that law did not take into account the 24-hour period during which Northern Ireland was part of the Irish Free State in 1922  Individuals born before 1922 in the area that became the Republic of Ireland to fathers also born in that area but were domiciled in Northern Ireland on Irish independence had nevertheless automatically acquired Irish citizenship  The Ireland Act 1949 specifically addresses this by deeming any person in such circumstances who had never registered for Irish citizenship and had not permanently resided in the Republic between 10 April 1935 and 1 January 1949 as a CUKC and having never ceased to be a British subject 

Restricting Commonwealth free movement
All British subjects under the reformed system initially continued to hold free movement rights in both the UK and Ireland  Non-white immigration into the UK was systemically discouraged, but strong economic conditions in Britain following the Second World War attracted an unprecedented wave of colonial migration  This entitlement was part of a wider initiative to preserve close relationships with certain Dominions and colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia) and to moderate nationalist attitudes within the Commonwealth  In response, Parliament imposed immigration controls on any subjects originating from outside the British Islands with the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962  This restriction was somewhat relaxed by the Immigration Act 1971 for patrials, subjects whose parents or grandparents were born in the United Kingdom, which gave effective preferential treatment to white Commonwealth citizens  Ireland mirrored this restriction and limited free movement only to people born on the islands of Great Britain or Ireland  However, individuals born in the UK since 1983 are only British citizens if at least one parent is already a British citizen  The Irish regulation created a legal anomaly where persons born in Britain without British citizenship nevertheless held an unrestricted right to settle in Ireland; this inconsistency was removed in 1999 In other parts of the Commonwealth, British subjects already did not have an automatic right to settle  Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa had immigration restrictions in place for British subjects from outside their jurisdictions targeted at non-white migrants since the late 19th century  After 1949, non-local British subjects under the new definition who were resident in these independent Commonwealth countries continued to retain certain privileges  This included eligibility to vote in elections, for preferred paths to citizenship, and for welfare benefits  British subjects were eligible to vote in New Zealand until 1975 and Australia until 1984 (though subjects on the electoral roll in that year are still eligible)  In Canada, voting eligibility was revoked at the federal level in 1975, but not fully phased out in provinces until 2006  All Commonwealth citizens remain eligible to vote and stand for public office in the UK 

Post-imperial redefinition of nationality classes
By the 1970s and 1980s, most colonies of the British Empire had become independent and remaining ties to the United Kingdom had been significantly weakened  The UK updated its nationality law to reflect the more modest boundaries of its remaining territory and possessions with the British Nationality Act 1981  CUKCs were reclassified in 1983 into different nationality groups based on their ancestry, birthplace, and immigration status: CUKCs who had right of abode in the United Kingdom became British citizens while those connected with a remaining colony became British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs)  Remaining CUKCs who were no longer associated with a British territory became British Overseas citizens  The definition of "British subject" became limited to include only the category of people previously called British subjects without citizenship who held that status through a connection with former British India or Ireland before 1949 

Former membership in the European Union
In 1973, the United Kingdom joined the European Communities (EC), a set of organisations that later developed into the European Union (EU)  British citizens were able to work in other EC/EU countries under the freedom of movement for workers established by the 1957 Treaty of Rome and participated in their first European Parliament elections in 1979  With the creation of European Union citizenship by the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, free movement rights were extended to all nationals of EU member states regardless of their employment status  The scope of these rights was further expanded with the establishment of the European Economic Area in 1994 to include any national of an EFTA member state except for Switzerland, which concluded a separate free movement agreement with the EU that came into force in 2002 Not all British nationals were EU citizens  Only British citizens, British Overseas Territories citizens connected with Gibraltar, and British subjects under the 1981 Act who held UK right of abode were defined as UK nationals for the purposes of EU law  Although the Crown dependencies were part of the European Union Customs Union, free movement of persons was never implemented in those territories  Following the UK's withdrawal from the EU on 31 January 2020, British nationals have no longer been EU citizens  Despite this, British citizens continue to have free movement in Ireland as part of the preexisting arrangement for the Common Travel Area While the UK was a member state of the EU, Cypriot and Maltese citizens held a particularly favoured status there  While non-EU Commonwealth citizens continued to need a residence visa to live in the UK, Cypriot and Maltese citizens were able to settle there and immediately hold full rights to political participation due to their status as both Commonwealth and EU citizens  This group of EU citizens (along with Irish citizens) domiciled in the UK were able to vote in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum while all other non-British EU citizens could not 

Acquisition and loss of nationality
British citizenship
Prior to 1983, all Individuals born within the British Islands (the United Kingdom and Crown Dependencies) received British citizenship at birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents  Individuals born afterwards only receive citizenship at birth if at least one parent is a British citizen or considered to have settled status in the UK  Children born overseas are British citizens by descent if either parent is a citizen otherwise than by descent, subject to regulations  Adopted children are treated as if they were naturally born to the adopting parents at the time of adoption  Children born abroad to members of the British Armed Forces or British citizens on Crown service are treated as if they were born in the UK Children born in the UK to a resident Irish citizen at any time are always British citizens at birth  Since 1983, the status of a child born in the UK is dependent on whether their parents held British citizenship or settled status at the time of their birth  Irish citizens residing in the UK are deemed to hold settled status upon arrival  Regulations concerning settled status for other European Union (EU), European Economic Area (EEA), and Swiss citizens have changed greatly over time, affecting the status of their children born during the different regulatory periods  EU/EEA citizens living in the UK before 2 October 2000 were automatically considered to be settled  Between that date and 29 April 2006, EU/EEA citizens were required to apply for permanent residency  Swiss citizens became subject to the same regulations on 1 June 2002  From 30 April 2006 until 30 June 2021, EU/EEA and Swiss citizens living in the UK for at least five years automatically received permanent resident status  Permanent resident status for these citizens expired on 1 July 2021, after which they have been required to hold settled status through the European Union Settlement Scheme or another path Foreign nationals may naturalise as British citizens after residing in the UK for more than five years and possessing indefinite leave to remain (ILR) for at least one year  The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a British citizen and they immediately become eligible for naturalisation after receiving ILR or equivalent  Applicants must demonstrate proficiency in the English, Welsh, or Scottish Gaelic languages and pass the Life in the United Kingdom test 

British Overseas Territories citizenship
Individuals born in a territory automatically receive BOTC status if at least one parent is a BOTC or has belonger status  Children born in an overseas territory to British citizen parents who are not settled in a territory are British citizens at birth, but not BOTCs  Parents do not necessarily need to be connected with the same overseas territory to pass on BOTC status  Alternatively, a child born in an overseas territory may be registered as a BOTC if either parent becomes a BOTC or settles in any overseas territory subsequent to birth  A child who lives in the same territory until age 10 and is not absent for more than 90 days in each year is also entitled to registration as a BOTC  Furthermore, an adopted child automatically become a BOTC on the effective day of adoption if either parent is a BOTC or has belonger status  In all cases that an individual is a British Overseas Territories citizen at birth or adoption within the territories, that person is a BOTC otherwise than by descent Individuals born outside of the territories are BOTCs by descent if either parent is a BOTC otherwise than by descent  Unmarried fathers cannot automatically pass on BOTC status, and it would be necessary for them to register children as BOTCs  If a parent is a BOTC by descent, additional requirements apply to register children as BOTCs  Parents in Crown service who have children abroad are exempted from these circumstances, and their children would be BOTCs otherwise than by descent, as if they had been born on their home territory Foreigners and non-BOTC British nationals may naturalise as British Overseas Territories citizens after residing in a territory for more than five years and possessing belonger status or permanent residency for more than one year  The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a BOTC  All applicants for naturalisation and registration are normally considered by the governor of the relevant territory, but the Home Secretary retains discretionary authority to grant BOTC status  Since 2004, BOTC applicants aged 18 or older are required to take an oath of allegiance to the Sovereign and loyalty pledge to the relevant territory during their citizenship ceremonies All British Overseas Territories citizens other than those solely connected with Akrotiri and Dhekelia became British citizens on 21 May 2002, and children born on qualified overseas territories to dual BOTC-British citizens since that date are both BOTCs and British citizens otherwise than by descent  Prior to 2002, only BOTCs from Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands were given unrestricted access to citizenship  BOTCs naturalised after that date may also become British citizens by registration at the discretion of the Home Secretary  Becoming a British citizen has no effect on BOTC status; BOTCs may also simultaneously be British citizens 

Other nationality classes
It is generally not possible to acquire other forms of British nationality  British Overseas citizenship, British subjecthood, and British protected person status are only transferred by descent if an individual born to a parent holding one of these statuses would otherwise be stateless  British Overseas citizens retain their status by association with most former British colonies, British subjects are connected specifically with Ireland or British India before 1949, and British protected persons are associated with territories that were under British control but not formally incorporated as part of the British Empire  British National (Overseas) status was exclusively granted by voluntary registration to Hong Kong residents who had been British Dependent Territories citizens prior to the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997 and cannot be newly acquired in any case  Noncitizen British nationals may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation, after residing in the United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing ILR for more than one year 

Renunciation and restoration
Any type of British nationality can be renounced by making a declaration to the Home Secretary, provided that the declarant possesses or intends to acquire another nationality  Former British citizens or BOTCs may subsequently apply for nationality restoration  Applicants who had originally renounced their British nationality in order to retain or acquire another nationality are entitled to register as British citizens or BOTCs once  Any subsequent renunciation and application for restoration, or someone applying for restoration who originally renounced their British nationality for a reason unrelated to acquiring or retaining an alternate nationality, would be subject to the discretionary approval of the Home Secretary 

Automatic loss of British nationality
British subjects (other than British subjects by virtue of a connection with the Republic of Ireland) and British protected persons lose British nationality upon acquiring any other form of nationality 

These provisions do not apply to British citizens 
British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs) who acquire another nationality do not lose their BOTC status but they may be liable to lose belonger status in their home territory under its immigration laws  Such persons are advised to contact the governor of that territory for information 
British Overseas citizens (BOCs) do not lose their BOC status upon acquisition of another citizenship, but any entitlement to registration as a British citizen on the grounds of having no other nationality no longer applies after acquiring another citizenship



ground_truth: Francisco Guterres

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the name of the famous bridge located in the birthplace of the composer of Nulla in mundo pax sincera?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  The windows were built to allow light into the long covered structure so drivers could see oncoming traffic  During the Christmas season, the bridge is hung with decorations, attracting many winter visitors 

See also
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Oregon
List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Oregon
List of Oregon covered bridges
Passage 5:
Carleton Bridge
The Carleton Bridge (or Carlton Bridge) is a historic wooden covered bridge that carries Carlton Road over the South Branch Ashuelot River in East Swanzey, New Hampshire   The bridge was built in 1869, and is the region's only surviving example of a 19th-century Queenspost truss bridge   The bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 

Description and history
The Carleton Bridge is located in central eastern Swanzey, in a rural setting on Carlton Road east of New Hampshire Route 32   Carlton Road is one of the main routes connecting Swanzey village with East Swanzey   The bridge is a single span 67 feet 3 inches (20 50 m) in length and 16 feet 6 inches (5 03 m) wide, resting on granite abutments   Its roadway is 12 feet 4 inches (3 76 m) wide, sufficient for one lane of traffic   Its exterior is sheathed in vertical board siding and is topped by a gabled roof   Its trusses have been reinforced with iron tie rods and other metal elements The bridge was built in 1869 on a site that is believed to have had a bridge since 1789   It is believed to be the only example of a Queenspost truss bridge in southern New Hampshire   This truss method is quite old, and is based on techniques used for building large structures such as churches and barns 

See also
List of New Hampshire covered bridges
List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in New Hampshire
National Register of Historic Places listings in Cheshire County, New Hampshire

Notes
Passage 6:
Orlando furioso (Vivaldi, 1714)
Orlando furioso RV 819 (Italian pronunciation: [orˈlando fuˈrjoːzo, -so], Teatro San Angelo, Venice 1714) is a three-act opera surviving in manuscript in Antonio Vivaldi's personal library, only partly related to his better known Orlando furioso (RV 728) of 1727  It is a recomposition of an Orlando furioso written by Giovanni Alberto Ristori which had been very successfully staged by Vivaldi and his father's impresa in 1713, and whose music survives in a few fragments retained in the score of RV 819  Therefore, Vivaldi's first cataloguer Peter Ryom did not assign the opera a RV number, but catalogued it as RV Anh  84  The libretto was by Grazio Braccioli 

Authorship
Federico Maria Sardelli, according to the studies of Reinhard Strohm, argues that Orlando RV 819 was entirely recomposed by Vivaldi, starting from the original Ristori's opera that Vivaldi himself had already changed during the numerous representations of the season 1713  He assigned to it the catalogue number RV 819  One suggestion is that Vivaldi avoided putting his own name on the opera having himself only recently taken direction of the Teatro San Angelo  Against this others consider that the bulk of the opera is a copy of Ristori's lost work 

Opera
Unlike the Orlando furioso (RV 728) of 1727, in which the role of Orlando is sung by a contralto, the 1714 opera assigns the title role to a bass  The third act is missing and the rest of the score (evidently used in performances by the composer) is incomplete  Two arias are lost, seven arias are incomplete (only the bass part is extant) and three arias are identical with extant arias in RV 727 and RV 729 

Recording
The French label Naïve, which had already recorded the more famous Orlando furioso and Orlando finto pazzo for its Vivaldi Edition, released a recording of the July 20, 2012 première at the Festival de Beaune, with Sardelli conducting Modo Antiquo and singers including Riccardo Novaro as Orlando, Gaëlle Arquez as Angelica, Romina Basso as Alcina and Teodora Gheorghiu as Bradamante  Given the heavily defective nature of the surviving manuscript, Sardelli had to reconstruct or compose ex novo the seven incomplete arias, in a Vivaldian style 

See also
List of operas by Antonio Vivaldi
Passage 7:
Royal Albert Bridge
The Royal Albert Bridge is a railway bridge which spans the River Tamar in England between Plymouth, Devon and Saltash, Cornwall  Its unique design consists of two 455-foot (138 7 m) lenticular iron trusses 100 feet (30 5 m) above the water, with conventional plate-girder approach spans  This gives it a total length of 2,187 5 feet (666 8 m)  It carries the Cornish Main Line railway in and out of Cornwall  It is adjacent to the Tamar Bridge which opened in 1961 to carry the A38 road 
The Royal Albert Bridge was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel  Surveying started in 1848 and construction commenced in 1854  The first main span was positioned in 1857 and the completed bridge was opened by Prince Albert on 2 May 1859  Brunel died later that year and his name was then placed above the portals at either end of the bridge as a memorial  During the 20th century the approach spans were replaced, and the main spans strengthened  It has attracted sightseers since its construction and has appeared in many paintings, photographs, guidebooks, postage stamps and on the UK £2 coin  Anniversary celebrations took place in 1959 and 2009 

Cornwall Railway
Two rival schemes for a railway to Falmouth, Cornwall, were proposed in the 1830s  The 'central' scheme was a route from Exeter around the north of Dartmoor, an easy route to construct but with little intermediate traffic  The other, the 'coastal' scheme, was a line with many engineering difficulties but which could serve the important naval town of Devonport and the industrial area around St Austell  The central scheme was backed by the London and South Western Railway while the coastal scheme was promoted by the Cornwall Railway and backed by the Great Western Railway which wanted it to join up with the South Devon Railway at Devonport  The Cornwall Railway applied for an Act of Parliament in 1845 but it was rejected, in part because of William Moorsom's plan to carry trains across the water of the Hamoaze on the Devonport-to-Torpoint Ferry  Following this Isambard Kingdom Brunel took over as engineer and proposed to cross the water higher upstream using a bridge at Saltash instead  The Act enabling this scheme was passed on 3 August 1846 

Design
The structure was the third in a series of three large wrought iron bridges built in the middle of the 19th century  It was influenced by the preceding two, both of which had been designed by Robert Stephenson  The two central sections of Brunel's bridge are novel adaptations of the design Stephenson employed for the High Level Bridge across the River Tyne in Newcastle Upon Tyne in 1849  Brunel was present when Stephenson raised the girders of his Britannia Bridge across the Menai Strait in the same year  From 1849 to 1853 Brunel was erecting an iron bridge of his own; the Chepstow Railway Bridge carried the South Wales Railway across the River Wye and featured a main truss of 300 feet (91 m) with a curving tubular main member and three conventional plate-girder approach spans of 100 feet (30 m), a similar solution to that adopted for crossing the River Tamar at Saltash The river is about 1,100 feet (340 m) wide at Saltash  Brunel's first thoughts had been to cross this on a double track timber viaduct with a central span of 255 feet (78 m) and six approach spans of 105 feet (32 m) with 80 feet (24 m) clearance above the water  This was rejected by the Admiralty, who had statutory responsibility for navigable waters, so Brunel produced a revised design to give 100 feet (30 m) clearance, with two spans of 300 feet (91 m) and two of 200 feet (61 m)  The Admiralty again rejected this plan, stipulating that there should not be more than one pier in the navigable part of the river 
Brunel now abandoned plans for a double track timber structure and instead proposed a single track wrought iron design consisting of a single 850-foot (259 1 m) span  As the cost of this structure would have been around £500,000 at 1846 prices (equivalent to £51,510,000 in 2021), he amended the design to one of two main spans of 455 feet (138 7 m) with 100 feet (30 5 m) clearance above mean high spring tide; this was approved by the Admiralty and the directors of the Cornwall Railway The two spans are lenticular trusses with the top chord of each truss comprising a heavy tubular arch in compression, which tend to expand in length under load, while the bottom chord comprises a pair of chains, which tend to contract in length under load  By design, these two effects cancel so that there is no net change in length under load  This in turn enables each of the trusses to be supported with no horizontal thrust exerted on the piers, which is crucial in view of the curved track on either side  Between these two chords are supporting cross-bracing members and suspension standards which hang beneath the bottom chord to carry the railway deck which is a continuous plate beam  There are also 17 shorter and more conventional plate-girder approach spans on the shore  On the Cornish side there are ten which measure (from Saltash station towards the river): 67 5 feet (20 6 m), 69 5 feet (21 2 m), 69 5 feet (21 2 m), 69 5 feet (21 2 m), 69 5 feet (21 2 m), 69 5 feet (21 2 m), 72 5 feet (22 1 m), 78 0 feet (23 8 m), 83 5 feet (25 5 m), 93 0 feet (28 3 m), and seven on the Devon side of (from the river towards St Budeaux): 93 0 feet (28 3 m), 83 5 feet (25 5 m), 78 0 feet (23 8 m), 72 5 feet (22 1 m), 69 5 feet (21 2 m), 69 5 feet (21 2 m), 69 5 feet (21 2 m)  This gives a total length for the nineteen spans of 2,187 5 feet (666 8 m) 

History
Construction
The first work was to properly survey the river bed  On 26 April 1848 a 6-foot (1 8 m) iron cylinder 85 feet (25 9 m) tall was launched into the Tamar  From the bottom of this the bed of the river could be examined to identify its nature and the location of solid foundations  The Cornwall Railway at this time was finding it difficult to raise funds and so most operations were suspended that summer, but a small fund was allowed for Brunel to continue the survey  The cylinder was positioned at 35 different places and a total of 175 borings made In 1853 the tenders for the bridge were considered by the Cornwall Railway Board, and it was decided to let the work to Charles John Mare, a shipbuilder from Blackwall who had built the ironwork for the Britannia Bridge  The fee he sought for building the Saltash Bridge was £162,000, but on 21 September 1855 while constructing the first of the two trusses he filed for bankruptcy  Brunel proposed that the company should complete this first truss itself by its own direct labour, to which the company agreed  A contract for the remainder of the building was awarded to Messrs Hudson and Male 

Mare's first task had been to establish an erecting yard on the Devon shore with a jetty and workshops  He then proceeded to construct a 37-foot (11 3 m) iron cylinder 90 feet (27 4 m) tall which was to form the work base for the construction of the central pier  This was launched in May 1854 and moored in the centre of the river between four pontoons  The bottom had been shaped to follow the rock surveyed in 1848  Once it was settled on the river bed the water was pumped out, the mud within it excavated, and a solid masonry pier built up clear of the water  This was completed in November 1856 The landward piers on the Cornish side of the river were completed in 1854 and the girders for these spans were hoisted up to their correct positions  Next to be built was the main truss for the Cornwall side of the river  The lower ties of the trusses formed of chains made from 20 feet (6 1 m) links  Many were obtained from the suspended works for Brunel's Clifton Suspension Bridge and others rolled new for Saltash  The Cornwall span was floated into position on 1 September 1857 and jacked up to full height in 3-foot (0 9 m) stages as the piers were built up beneath it, the central pier using cast iron octagonal columns; the landward one using ordinary masonry 

With the yard now cleared of the first truss, work could start on the main Devon span  This was similarly floated into position on 10 July 1858 and then raised in a similar manner  It was in its final position by 28 December 1858  After this had been removed, part of the yard had to be cleared to allow the construction of the final landward pier and then the Devon approach spans could be raised up to their final position  The work was sufficiently advanced that directors were able to make an inspection by train on 11 April 1859 The Cornwall span had been tested before it was launched  The two ends were supported on substantial timber piers and the remaining scaffolding removed  Static loads of 1 25 and 2 25 long tons per foot (4 2 and 7 5 t/m) were placed on the deck, the deflections measured and any permanent change measured once the load was removed  Now that it was completed, the bridge had its statutory inspection and tests by Colonel Yolland on behalf of the Board of Trade on 20 April 1859  He ran a heavy train over the bridge and measured deflections in the main trusses of 1 14 inches (29 mm) in the Devon truss, and 1 20 inches (30 mm) in the Cornwall one  Overall he described it as 'highly satisfactory' 

Opening day
Prince Albert had agreed to the bridge being named after him as early as 1853  He was invited to perform the opening ceremony, and on 2 May 1859 he travelled from Windsor on the Royal Train  Several thousand spectators attended that day, although guests from Cornwall were late for the ceremony as their train broke down at Liskeard  Illness prevented the attendance of Brunel who was instead represented by his chief assistant Robert Brereton   Public services commenced on 4 May 1859 

Changes since 1859
After Brunel's premature death on 15 September 1859 the directors of the Cornwall Railway Company decided to make the bridge a memorial to him by adding the words I K  BRUNEL, ENGINEER, 1859 in large metal letters on either end of the bridge  In 1921, new access platforms were added that obscured the lettering but in 2006 Network Rail relocated the platforms, allowing the name to be clearly seen again  The walkways had previously been temporarily removed in 1959 and the bridge floodlit during its centenary year Over the weekend of 21–22 May 1892 the track gauge on the bridge was converted from 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) to 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) during the final conversion of the whole Great Western Railway 401 new cross-girders were fitted in 1905 to allow heavier locomotives to pass over  In 1908 the two spans nearest Saltash station were replaced with wider ones to accommodate a new track layout  The remaining approach spans were replaced on both sides of the river during 1928 and 1929  During the 1930s new cross-bracing and diagonal sway-bracing were added between the vertical standards to further strengthen the bridge and keep the suspension chains hanging in the correct shape 

The bridge was Grade 1 listed in 1952 Additional links between the suspensions chains and the decking were added in 1969 to further strengthen the bridge  In 2011 Network Rail began a three-year £10 million refurbishment involving replacing 50,000 bolts and installation of 100 tonnes of new steelwork  The bridge has also been stripped back to the bare metal and repainted in the Goose Grey colour originally applied in 1952 

Viewing the bridge
The bridge can be crossed using a train on the Cornish Main Line which affords far-reaching views of the Tamar  Cruise boats operate between Phoenix Wharf, Plymouth, from Saltash, and Calstock  Main view points are:

Saltash railway station (50 40719°N 4 20924°W﻿ / 50 40719; -4 20924)The Cornish approach spans start right at the platform end  These were replaced in 1908 so that the single line on the bridge could split into two lines before reaching the station Saltash Quay (50 40779°N 4 20614°W﻿ / 50 40779; -4 20614)The foreshore at Saltash runs right up to the pier that supports the Cornish end of the main span   An inscribed stone commemorating the bridge can be found beneath the bridge on the hillside alongside Fore Street Tamar Bridge (50 40777°N 4 19974°W﻿ / 50 40777; -4 19974)The road bridge runs parallel to and slightly higher, on the north side   A toll-free foot and cycle path is on the south side of the road bridge from which it is possible to examine the bridge in detail   An area of grass beside the motor vehicle toll booths affords a view of the Devon end of the railway bridge Saltash Passage, St Budeaux (50 40585°N 4 20069°W﻿ / 50 40585; -4 20069)The Devon piers can be reached from the waterfront at St Budeaux   The yard where the spans were constructed was situated alongside the bridge at the foot of the road down the hill 

Cultural impact
The construction of such a large and distinctive bridge soon caught the attention of the general public  The launching of the Cornish span in 1857 attracted a crowd of around 20,000, with similar numbers said to have witnessed the launch of the Devonport span and the opening day  During its construction it was photographed many times and after its opening it was the subject for many paintings, including those by Devonport-born artist Alfred Wallis  It has also been the subject of many photographs and postcards It was already a feature in guidebooks in the year of its opening: "It is a labour of Hercules, but Mr Brunel has accomplished the feat," proclaimed one, and went on to report in detail the design and construction of the bridge that "for novelty and ingenuity of construction stands unrivalled in the world"  More than 100 years later it continues to appear in many travel guides and features  John Betjeman summed up its impact on the traveller:

The general grey slate and back gardens of Plymouth, as seen from the Great Western made the surprise of Saltash Bridge all the more exciting  Up and down stream, grey battleships were moored in the Tamar and its reaches  Hundreds of feet below, the pathetic steam ferry to Saltash from the Devon bank tried to compete with Brunel's mighty bridge 
The bridge has become a symbol of the transition from Devon to Cornwall  In the Great Western Railway's The Cornish Riviera travel guide, SPB Mais regarded it as "an almost magic means of transporting travellers from a county, which, if richer than others, is yet unmistakingly an English county, to a Duchy which is in every respect un-English  You shut your eyes going over the Saltash Bridge only to open them again on a foreign scene" The bridge is the backdrop of ITV1's The West Country Tonight during the old westcountry region 

Special events
Special occasions have been marked over the years by special events:

1859 – The bridge was opened by Prince Albert two days before the railway was opened to the public  He arrived by special train from Windsor, was shown around the bridge and the works yard, and then left aboard the Royal Yacht 
1959 – Floodlights lit up the bridge during 1959 in celebration of its centenary 
2006 – The 200th anniversary of Isambard Kingdom Brunel's birth was celebrated by Network Rail permanently removing the access ways that covered his name above the portals 
2009 – During the bank holiday weekend of 2–4 May there were many special events to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the opening of the bridge including a guided walk across the bridge and a re-enactment of the opening day 
Passage 8:
Rialto Bridge
The Rialto Bridge (Italian: Ponte di Rialto; Venetian: Ponte de Rialto) is the oldest of the four bridges spanning the Grand Canal in Venice, Italy  Connecting the sestieri (districts) of San Marco and San Polo, it has been rebuilt several times since its first construction as a pontoon bridge in 1173, and is now a significant tourist attraction in the city 

History
The first dry crossing of the Grand Canal was a pontoon bridge built in 1181 by Nicolò Barattieri  It was called the Ponte della Moneta, presumably because of the mint that stood near its eastern entrance The development and importance of the Rialto market on the eastern bank increased traffic on the floating bridge, so it was replaced in 1255 by a wooden bridge  This structure had two ramps meeting at a movable central section, that could be raised to allow the passage of tall ships  The connection with the market eventually led to a change of name for the bridge  During the first half of the 15th century, two rows of shops were built along the sides of the bridge  The rents brought an income to the State Treasury, which helped maintain the bridge 
Maintenance was vital for the timber bridge  It was partly burnt in the revolt led by Bajamonte Tiepolo in 1310  In 1444, it collapsed under the weight of a crowd rushing to see the marriage of the Marquis of Ferrara and it collapsed again in 1524 
The idea of rebuilding the bridge in stone was first proposed in 1503  Several projects were considered over the following decades  In 1551, the authorities requested proposals for the renewal of the Rialto Bridge, among other things  Plans were offered by famous architects, such as Jacopo Sansovino, Palladio and Vignola, but all involved a Classical approach with several arches, which was judged inappropriate to the situation  Michelangelo also was considered as designer of the bridge The present stone bridge, a single span designed by Antonio da Ponte, began to be constructed in 1588 and was completed in 1591  It is similar to the wooden bridge it succeeded  Two ramps lead up to a central portico  On either side of the portico, the covered ramps carry rows of shops  The engineering of the bridge was considered so audacious that architect Vincenzo Scamozzi predicted future ruin  The bridge has defied its critics to become one of the architectural icons, and top tourist attractions, in Venice 

Other names
It was called Shylock's bridge in Robert Browning's poem "A Toccata of Galuppi's" 

See also
Miracle of the Relic of the Cross at the Ponte di Rialto (depiction of wooden bridge)
List of buildings and structures in Venice
Passage 9:
Dufferin Street bridges
The Dufferin Street bridges are two inter-connected vehicular bridges in Toronto, Ontario, Canada  The bridges carry Dufferin Street over a railway corridor and the Gardiner Expressway to Exhibition Place  The bridges closed to vehicular traffic in 2013  Temporary structures were built in 2013-2014 to allow a resumption of traffic in early 2014  As of March 2019 the spans over the Gardiner Expressway remain in place and the bailey bridges replacing the older outer pedestrian bridges of the northern span with the inner vehicular steel plate box girder bridge still in place 

North span
The truss bridge is a 30 metres (98 ft) steel truss bridge, built from 1911 to 1912 to cross over railway tracks south of Springhurst Avenue  Four tracks pass under the bridge  A 2013 engineering study determined that the bridge was unsafe and not viable to be repaired  However, in 2014, Bailey bridges were added for pedestrian traffic on the east and west sides, while the inner steel plate box girder bridge for vehicular traffic remains in place 

South span
The south span is a 35 metres (115 ft) concrete overpass built in 1958 after demolition of the old Dufferin Gate to allow for clearance for the Gardiner Expressway below 

Deterioration and replacement
After a report from external inspections conducted in 2007 the city decided to replace both spans with a single span:
1911 steel plate girder bridge over rail corridor is structurally unsafe for vehicular traffic
lack space below to expanded rail corridor
need to provide space for future LRT corridor to the south end of the bridge
1958 concrete bridge over Gardiner Expressway needs maintenance to keep it structurally safe
eliminate the existing 10 metres (33 ft) gap between the two existing bridges spans
From June 2013 the bridges have been closed to vehicular traffic  In November 2013-early 2014, the north bridge superstructure were replaced by three temporary bridges - two for traffic, and a third for pedestrians  The temporary bridges were opened in 2014 and are still used as of September 11, 2021  

Toronto tried deciding the type of bridge that will span over the tracks, but the decision was canceled as of September 11, 2021    The four types were:

Steel plate box girder
Hung arch
Cable stay
Concrete box girder

Gallery
Passage 10:
Mundo Civilizado
Mundo Civilizado is the second solo album by American musician Arto Lindsay 

Critical reception
Rock critic Robert Christgau named the album his favorite of 1997 in the annual Pazz & Jop poll published by The Village Voice and among his 10 best albums from the 1990s 

Track listing
"Complicity" – 4:07
"Q Samba" – 3:27
"Simply Beautiful" (Al Green cover) – 3:59
"Mundo Civilizado" – 4:24
"Titled" – 3:19
"Horizontal" – 3:32
"Mar da Gávea" – 2:43
"Imbassaí" – 3:18
"Pleasure" – 2:38
"Erotic City" (Prince cover) – 5:02
"Clown" – 3:50
Passage 11:
Nulla in mundo pax sincera
Nulla in mundo pax sincera, RV 630, is a sacred motet composed by Antonio Vivaldi in 1735 to an anonymous Latin text, the title of which may be translated as "In this world there is no honest peace" or "There is no true peace in this world without bitterness"   Written in the key of E major and in the typical lyrical Italian Baroque style, it is scored for solo soprano, two violins, viola and basso continuo, this would normally be a cello and keyboard instrument, in Vivaldi's case often the organ  The text dwells on the imperfections of a world full of evil and sin, and praises Jesus for the salvation he offers from it   It is considered to be one of Vivaldi's most beautiful solo motets The motet consists of three parts (Aria; Recitative; Aria), followed by a concluding Alleluia  A full performance of the piece takes approximately 13 minutes 

Text
In popular culture
The first aria, sung by Jane Edwards, was featured in the 1996 film Shine 

Media
The instrumental version of Nulla in mundo pax sincera is used as the song for the phonograph in the video game We Need to Go Deeper

External links
Nulla in mundo pax sincera: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
Performance of Nulla in mundo pax sincera by A Far Cry with Amanda Forsythe (soprano) from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in M4A format
Passage 12:
Giovanni Cifolelli
Giovanni Cifolelli was an Italian mandolin virtuoso and dramatic composer whose date and place of birth are unknown  In 1764 he made his appearance in Paris as a mandolin virtuoso and was highly esteemed, both as a performer and teacher  He published his Method for the mandolin while residing in Paris, which met with great success throughout France, being the most popular of its period 
His chief works were the operas L'Italienne and Pierre et Lucette, the former being an opera bouffe in one act (with the storyline or libretto by Nicolas-Étienne Framery)  These works were commissioned by the Comedie Italienne, Paris, and were produced at this theatre successfully, in 1770 and 1774  Several of the songs and duets in Pierre and Lucette were exceedingly popular in France, and they were republished in Paris in 1775 and 1780 

Works
L'Italienne  : comédie en 1 acte, mêlée d'ariettes (Paris, 1770)
Pierre et Lucette, comédie en deux actes et en prose mêlée d'ariettes (Paris, 1774)
Airs détachés de Perin et Lucette, comédie en deux actes, mêlées d'ariettes par M  Davesne (Paris, 1775)
Ariette nouvelle avec accompagnement de deux violons et basse
Non, laisse moi, laisse moi, Lucas  Duo (1775)
Passage 13:
Mariefred Charterhouse
Mariefred Charterhouse, sometimes referred to as Gripsholm Charterhouse (Swedish: Mariefreds kloster, Latin: Monasterium Pacis Mariae or Pax Mariae), was a Carthusian monastery, or charterhouse, in the present town of Mariefred in Södermanland, Sweden, to which it gave its name; before the building of the monastery the place was known as Gripsholm  It was the only Carthusian monastery in Scandinavia, and one of the last monasteries established in Sweden before the Reformation 

History
The establishment of a Carthusian monastery in Sweden was brought about by the efforts of Jakob Ulvsson, Archbishop of Uppsala, and Kort Rogge, Bishop of Strängnäs, who in 1493 persuaded Sten Sture the elder, Regent of Sweden, to have the monks Fikke Dyssin and Johannes Sanderi together with two lay brothers sent from the Marienehe Charterhouse near Rostock to Sweden for a meeting with the riksrådet (Privy Council of Sweden)  Later that year Sten Sture enfeoffed the Carthusians with the Gripsholm estate in Selebo härad in Södermanland and in 1502 gave them other lands round about  
The monastery church was dedicated on 15 February 1504, and Sten Sture was buried here  The monastery was built on the high ground close to Gripsholm Castle on the site where Mariefred Church now stands In 1498 the lay brothers set up a printing press  The only book now known from this press is a tract for an ecstatic devotional movement based on the veneration of the rosary, the "Brotherhood of the Psalter of the Virgin Mary"  This was distributed across the whole of Europe, and had a powerful effect on the devotional life of late medieval period 
Mariefred Charterhouse was short-lived: in 1526 it was one of the first monasteries secularised by Gustav Vasa  In December 1525 he claimed its assets from the heirs of Sten Sture the Elder, who had given the estate to the monastery on the condition that it should pass to the right heirs of the monastery if it were ever wound up  This claim was legitimated by the Privy Council in January 1526 
Virtually no trace of the monastic buildings now remains above ground: Gustav Vasa had them dismantled for the construction of Gripsholm Castle  A cellar and a few traces of walls have been discovered to the south of the church  A small collection of stones discovered during excavations in the monastery grounds, is in the church tower 

Mariefred Church
Mariefred Church (Mariefreds kyrka) was built in 1621-1624 over the ruins of the old Carthusian monastery  It was built of stone and was burned down in 1682 but  rebuilt and  completed in 1697  Today it is the parish church of Mariefred and is associated with the Diocese of Strängnäs 
Next to the church stands the Sten Sture stone, erected in 1905, marking the site of the monastery  The inscription reads: "Sten Sture, riddare till Gripsholm, rikets föreståndare, grundade här klostret Mariefred och fick här sin lägerstad år 1504 " ("Sten Sture, knight at Gripsholm, regent of the realm, founded here the monastery of Mariefred and received here his resting place in the year 1504") 

Literary reference
August Strindberg describes the monks calling in an artist to paint an altarpiece for the newly built monastery  in the chapter entitled Utveckling from  his  collection of short stories entitled Svenska öden och äventyr  (Alb  Bonniers  1913) 

Notes and references
Further reading
Berg, Per E, 1949: August Strindberg och Sörmland  Årsboken Sörmlandsbygden 1949
Berg, Per E, 1949: Sörmländska kloster  Södermanlands Nyheter
Berntson, Martin, 2003: Klostren och reformationen  Artos och & Normas bokförlag
Collmar, Magnus, 1968: När klostermurarna revos  Årsboken Sörmlandsbygden 1968
Medeltidens ABC (2nd edition)  SHM 1985
Nordisk Familjebok  Uggleupplagan, nd
Nordisk tidskrift för bok- och biblioteksväsen, Årg  XXII, 1935
Context 3: 

Deprivation of British nationality
The British government does not publish the number of people it strips of citizenship, but independent research by a lawyer-run website, in 2022, found at least 464 people's citizenship was revoked in the last 15 years  After the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 came into force British nationals could be deprived of their citizenship if and only if the Secretary of State was satisfied they were responsible for acts seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the United Kingdom or an Overseas Territory This was extended under the Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006: people with dual nationality who are British nationals can be deprived of their British citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied that "deprivation is conducive to the public good", or if nationality was obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact  Between 2006 and the end of 2021 at least 464 people have had their citizenship removed by the government since the law was introduced  There is a right of appeal  This provision has been in force since 16 June 2006 when the Immigration, Nationality and Asylum Act 2006 (Commencement No 1) Order 2006 brought it into force  Loss of British nationality in this way applies also to dual nationals who are British by birth  The Secretary of State may not deprive a person of British nationality, unless obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact, if they are satisfied that the order would make a person stateless This provision was again modified by the Immigration Act 2014 so as not to require that a third country would actually grant nationality to a person; British nationality can be revoked if "the Secretary of State has reasonable grounds for believing that the person is able, under the law of a country or territory outside the United Kingdom, to become a national of such a country or territory "The powers to strip citizenship were initially very rarely used  Between 2010 and 2015, 33 dual nationals had been deprived of their British citizenship  In the two years to 2013 six people were deprived of citizenship; then in 2013, 18 people were deprived, increasing to 23 in 2014  In 2017, over 40 people had been deprived as of July (at this time increased numbers of British citizens went to join "Islamic State" and then tried to return) The Home Office does not issue information on these cases and is resistant to answering questions, for example under the Freedom of Information Act 2000  It appears that the government usually waits until the person has left Britain, then sends a warning notice to their British home and signs a deprivation order a day or two later  Appeals are heard at the highly secretive Special Immigration Appeals Commission (SIAC), where the government can submit evidence that cannot be seen or challenged by the appellant Home Secretary Sajid Javid said in 2018 that until then deprivation of nationality had been restricted to "terrorists who are a threat to the country", but that he intended to extend it to "those who are convicted of the most grave criminal offences"  The acting director of Liberty responded "The home secretary is taking us down a very dangerous road      making our criminals someone else’s problem is     the government washing its hands of its responsibilities     Banishment belongs in the dark ages "A Nationality and Borders Bill was introduced to the British House of Commons in July 2021, sponsored by the Home Office under Home Secretary Priti Patel  In November 2021, an amendment to the Bill was introduced which, if passed, would allow people to be deprived of British citizenship without being given notice  At the time the Home Office reiterated its position on citizenship: "British citizenship is a privilege, not a right" 

British citizenship ceremonies
From 1 January 2004, all new applicants for British citizenship by naturalisation or registration aged 18 or over if their application is successful must attend a citizenship ceremony and either make an affirmation or take an oath of allegiance to the monarch, and make a pledge to the UK 
Citizenship ceremonies are normally organised by:

local councils in England, Scotland, and Wales
the Northern Ireland Office
the governments of the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey
the Governors of British Overseas Territories
British consular offices outside the United Kingdom and territories Persons from what is now the Republic of Ireland born before 1949 reclaiming British subject status under section 31 of the 1981 Act do not need to attend a citizenship ceremony  If such a person subsequently applies for British citizenship by registration or naturalisation, attendance at a ceremony is required 
For those who applied for British citizenship before 2004:

the oath of allegiance was administered privately through signing a witnessed form in front of a solicitor or other accredited person
those who already held British nationality (other than British protected persons) were exempt, as were those citizens of countries with the King as Head of State (such as Australia and Canada) 

See also
Visa policy of the United Kingdom
Visa requirements for British citizens
Visa requirements for British Nationals (Overseas)
Visa requirements for British Overseas citizens
Visa requirements for British Overseas Territories citizens

Notes
Passage 2:
Pangi Territory
Pangi Territory is an administrative area in Maniema Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo  The  headquarters is the town of Pangi 
The Elila River flows through Pangi territory, entering the Lualaba River to the west 
The territory is divided into the Babene chiefdom and the Beia, Ikama, Wakabango and Wasongola sectors 
Most of the territory is inhabited by the Lega people, as are the adjoining Mwenga and Shabunda territories 
As of 1972 there were still a few Pygmies living among the Baziri tribe of Lega people 
Before independence the territory had 97,380 inhabitants of whom 35,518 were in urban and mining agglomerations 
Passage 3:
Love and War in the Apennines
Love and War in the Apennines is a 1971 Second World War memoir (with some changes of names and people and places, and some composite characters) by Eric Newby  In the United States the title was changed to When the Snow Comes, They Will Take You Away  It was dramatised as the 2001 film In Love and War starring Callum Blue and Barbora Bobuľová 

Overview
After the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces in 1943, the author left the prisoner-of-war camp in which he had been held for a year, PG 49 at Fontanellato, and evaded the Germans by going to ground high in the mountains and forests south of the Po River  In enforced isolation, he was sheltered and protected by an informal and highly courageous network of Italian peasants  Newby writes a powerful account of these idiosyncratic and selfless people and also of their bleak and very basic lifestyle  He undergoes a series of bizarre, funny and often dangerous incidents, and in the process meets Wanda, a local girl who later becomes his wife 

Summary
Newby takes part in a Special Boat Service operation on the east coast of Sicily  He and his colleagues fail to make their rendezvous with a British submarine and are picked up by a fishing boat 
Newby is imprisoned in an orphanage at Fontanellato in the Po valley  With the Armistizio, the Italians let the English prisoners escape  Because Newby has a broken ankle he is abandoned and is hidden in a farmer's hay loft until an Italian doctor takes him to the hospital  Here he is visited by Wanda, the daughter of a Slovene teacher, who gives him Italian lessons in exchange for English lessons and they fall in love  The Germans discover he is there but Newby escapes and hides, moving from one house to another 
Newby is nearly captured and moves into the mountains to stay with a shepherd; villagers build him a camouflaged cave  Further exciting adventures follow, and a meeting with Wanda 

Reception
The New York Times wrote of Love and War that "His memoir of that time became one of his most acclaimed books" The novelist Simon Mawer, writing on the NPR website, describes the book as follows:
Read the book and you are there in the Italian mountains with him: You can feel the stony soil, smell the wood smoke in the air, sense the snow on the wind  He conjures up the stubborn, fatalistic, bloody-minded locals who risked their lives for him so vividly that they seem to be standing in front of you  You share his fears and his hopes  He makes you laugh and he makes you weep  It's quite an achievement for an author commonly labeled as a travel writer  — Simon Mawer
Travel writer John Gimlette, writing in The Guardian, comments that "For sheer charm, there's nothing quite like Eric Newby's Love and War in the Apennines " He adds that while it is plainly a celebration of Italy, "At a more profound level, it's a beautifully philanthropic yet unsentimental work  However miserable the times and awkward the place, Newby's characters are usually endearing, and often complex "

Sources
Love and War in the Apennines, Picador (1983) ISBN 978-0-330-28024-2
Passage 4:
Essex County Park Commission Administration Building
The Essex County Park Commission Administration Building is located in Newark, Essex County, New Jersey, United States  The building was built in 1916 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 11, 1977 

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Essex County, New Jersey
Essex County Park System, New Jersey
Passage 5:
Tumaraa
Tumaraa is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The commune of Tumaraa is located on the island of Raiatea, in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, themselves part of the Society Islands  At the 2017 census it had a population of 3,721, making it the least populous commune on Raiatea Tumaraa consists of the following associated communes:

Fetuna
Tehurui
Tevaitoa
VaiaauThe administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Tevaitoa  The tallest mountain on Raiatea - Mont Temehani - is located within Tumaraa 
Passage 6:
Callum McManaman
Callum Henry McManaman (born 25 April 1991) is an English professional footballer who plays as a winger for EFL League One side Wigan Athletic 
Born in Whiston, Merseyside, lived and brought up in Rainhill, Merseyside, McManaman began his youth career at Everton before being released in 2007 and joining Wigan Athletic  He made his first team debut in 2009, and was the man of the match as they won the FA Cup in 2013  In January 2015, he joined West Bromwich Albion for £4 75 million 
On 13 October 2020, McManaman signed a two-year contract with A-League club Melbourne Victory ahead of the 2020–21 A-League season  In June 2023, he rejoined Wigan Athletic for his third spell at the club 

Club career
Wigan Athletic
McManaman was born in Huyton  He grew up as an Everton supporter, and joined the club's youth system when he was seven years old  After being released by the club at the age of sixteen, he signed for Wigan Athletic on a free transfer in 2007  He made his debut for the reserves toward the end of the 2007–08 season  He became a regular in the reserve team during the second half of the following season, appearing ten times and scoring four goals  He then made his first team debut on 24 May 2009 in a Premier League match against Portsmouth, becoming Wigan's youngest-ever player to play in the Premier League In July 2009, he signed his first professional contract with the club  McManaman remained in the reserve team during the 2009–10 season, scoring twice in a 5–0 win against Burnley  Although he did not appear in the first team, he earned a contract extension McManaman was an unused substitute in the first team at the start of the 2010–11 season, but Wigan manager Roberto Martínez felt the player was not yet ready for Premier League football  On 30 November 2010, he made his first appearance in over 18 months when he came on as a substitute in a League Cup match against Arsenal  Martínez suggested the player would feature more regularly later in the season  He scored his first goal for Wigan in his first start for the club against Hull City in the FA Cup on 8 January 2011  In April 2011, he extended his contract for a further two years, keeping him at the club until 2013 On 17 October 2011, McManaman joined Blackpool in a three-month loan deal  He made his debut a day later, appearing as a substitute against Doncaster Rovers, and made his first start for the club in the following game against Nottingham Forest  On 3 December 2011, he scored his first league goal in a 1–0 win against Reading 
After he returned from his loan spell at Blackpool, McManaman scored against Swindon Town in the FA Cup on 7 January 2012  He returned to Premier League football at the DW Stadium on 16 January 2012 as an 81st-minute substitute in a single-goal defeat to Manchester City McManaman scored as a substitute in the 89th minute in Wigan's first League Cup game of the 2012–13 season, capping off a 1–4 win over Nottingham Forest  In January 2013, he signed a new contract with Wigan until 2016  On 17 February 2013, in the fifth round of the FA Cup, McManaman scored one goal and was named man-of-the-match in a 4–1 win against Huddersfield Town, helping Wigan reach the quarter-finals for the first time in 26 years  In that quarter-final match, he scored against his former club Everton, at Goodison Park, in a 3–0 win that sent Wigan to the semi-finals at Wembley After the Everton game, McManaman made his first Premier League start against Newcastle United on 17 March 2013  His challenge on Massadio Haïdara in that game was the subject of a two-day review by The Football Association; the Association concluded it lacked the authority to penalise McManaman retrospectively  On 23 March 2013, The Daily Telegraph reported that the McManaman situation had prompted the FA "    to raise the issue with the other 'stakeholders' involved in setting disciplinary guidelines     at the end of the season "On 27 April 2013, he scored his first Premier League goal for Wigan in a 2–2 draw against Tottenham Hotspur  A week later, he scored the winning goal in a 3–2 win against West Bromwich Albion  On 11 May, he was named man-of-the-match in the FA Cup Final, leading Wigan to a 1–0 victory over Manchester City 

West Bromwich Albion
On 28 January 2015, McManaman signed for Premier League club West Bromwich Albion on a three-and-a-half-year contract for £4 75 million  He was the first signing for the club by Tony Pulis On 27 December 2016, McManaman signed for Championship club Sheffield Wednesday on loan for the remainder of the season  He played in their first match of 2017 against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 2 January 

Sunderland
McManaman signed for Championship club Sunderland on 31 August 2017 on a two-year contract for an undisclosed fee  He scored his first goal for Sunderland with a 96th-minute equaliser in a 3–3 draw with Middlesbrough on 24 February 2018 

Return to Wigan Athletic
On 20 July 2018, McManaman returned to his boyhood club Wigan Athletic for an undisclosed fee, signing onto a one-year rolling contract 

Luton Town
On 4 June 2019, McManaman signed for newly promoted Championship club Luton Town on a free transfer  He was released at the end of the 2019–20 season 

Melbourne Victory
On 13 October 2020, McManaman signed a two-year contract with A-League club Melbourne Victory ahead of the 2020–21 A-League season  In July 2021, he was released by Melbourne Victory, with one-year left on his contract 

Tranmere Rovers
On 9 July, it was announced that McManaman had made a return to English football, signing with League Two side Tranmere Rovers on a one-year deal  McManaman was released at the end of the 2021–22 season 

Third spell at Wigan Athletic
On 30 June 2023, McManaman returned to League One side Wigan Athletic for a third spell in his career, signing a one-year deal 

International career
McManaman is available to represent England and the Republic of Ireland, through Irish ancestry In June 2011, McManaman, along with teammate Lee Nicholls, was included in the England under-20s squad for the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup, the first time a Wigan Athletic player has been involved in the tournament  He made his debut in a group match – a 0–0 draw against North Korea, and went on to play in all of England's games during the tournament before the team were knocked out by Nigeria 
On 14 May, he was called up for the first time to the England Under 21s for the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship in Israel  However, he was ruled out of the tournament due to an ankle injury picked up in a game against Arsenal on the same day 

Personal life
McManaman is a distant relative of former Liverpool, Real Madrid, Manchester City and England player Steve McManaman 

Career statistics
As of end of 2021–22 season

Honours
Wigan Athletic

FA Cup: 2012–13
Passage 7:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 8:
List of territorial entities where English is an official language
The following is a list of countries and territories where English is an official language—that is, a language used in citizen interactions with government officials  As of 2020, there were 58 sovereign states and 28 non-sovereign entities where English was an official language  Many administrative divisions have declared English an official language at the local or regional level 
Most states where English is an official language are former territories of the British Empire  Exceptions include Rwanda and Burundi, which were formerly German and then Belgian colonies; Cameroon, where only part of national territory was under British mandate; and Liberia, the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which were American territories  English is the sole official language of the Commonwealth of Nations and of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)  English is one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, NAFTA, the African Union, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Caribbean Community, the Union of South American Nations, and many other international organisations  Although English is not de jure an official language at the national level in the United States, most states and territories within the United States have English as an official language, and only Puerto Rico uses a language other than English as a primary working language The United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, where the overwhelming majority of native English speakers reside, do not have English as an official language de jure, but English is considered their de facto official language because it dominates in these countries 

Sovereign states
Countries where English is a de jure official language
Countries where English is a predominant language conventionally spoken by both the government and main population, despite it having no de jure official status at national level
Countries where English is a de facto working language in government or education, but it is not recognized as de jure official, nor a primary language spoken by the main population
Non-sovereign entities
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de jure official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official, but not a primary language
Country subdivisions
In these country subdivisions, English has de jure official status, but English is not official in their respective countries at the national level 

See also
English-only movement
Anglo-America
Commonwealth of Nations
Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
British Overseas Territories
English-speaking world
List of countries by English-speaking population
List of languages by total number of speakers
British Empire

Footnotes
Passage 9:
Whiston, Merseyside
Whiston is a town and civil parish within the Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley in Merseyside, England  Previously recorded within the historic county of Lancashire, it is located eight miles (ten kilometres) east of Liverpool  The population was 13,629 at the 2001 Census, increasing to 14,263 at the 2011 Census A new village, Halsnead Garden Village, was approved with government support in 2017 and will be located in the Halsnead area of the town  The new village will contain over 1,500 houses, a primary school, a country park, and various community and leisure facilities  Construction is estimated to cost around £270 million 

History
The first record of Whiston comes in 1245, being rendered as "Quistan" and being within the West Derby Hundred in Lancashire  Archeological evidence such as a neolithic polished hand-axe and mesolithic tool fragments suggest that the region was host to pre-historic settlement up to 12,000 years, ago while other archaeological finds include remnants of a Roman tile workshop in nearby Tarbock and a medieval shovel head The main industry of Whiston's earlier documented history is agriculture, with the first recorded mill in the area being held by local lord Henry Travers from 1190  By 1521, the first documentation of coal mining is made, which would in time become Whiston's primary industry  By 1700, the coalfields of Whiston, Prescot, and Sutton were producing 25,000-50,000 tonnes of coal annually, and this would only increase as the Industrial Revolution progressed and the Whiston area became host to tens of collieries over the 18th and 19th Centuries The Church of St  Nicholas on Windy Arbor Road was consecrated on 30 July 1868  It hosts a war memorial, designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott, which was struck by lightning in 1928  The memorial was replaced in 1932



ground_truth: Rialto Bridge

Ponte di Rialto

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In which borough was Callum McManaman born?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Whiston was previously host to Halsnead Hall, a neoclassical manor that housed the Willis family, chief landholders in Whiston from 1684 until the auctioning of their estate in 1929  Halsnead Hall, demolished in 1932 and now the site of Halsnead static caravan park, was designed by the renowned architect Sir John Soane  Before its demolition, it was the sole example of Soane's work in either Lancashire or Cheshire 

Governance
Prior to boundary changes in 2016, Whiston consisted of the Whiston North and Whiston South wards of the Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley  The North and South wards were separated by the Liverpool to Manchester Railway, which runs directly through the town  The former borough wards of North and South are still used in the form of Town Council wards, but for the purposes of Borough representation, Whiston elects three councillors via the combined ward of Whiston and Cronton Whiston lent its name to and was formerly the headquarters of the Whiston Rural District within the County of Lancashire before the Local Government Act 1972  Today, Whiston Town Council oversees parish level administration 

Transport
Whiston is crossed by the historic Liverpool to Manchester Railway, and is served by Whiston railway station with services to Liverpool and Manchester, operated by Northern  Local bus routes to Runcorn, Liverpool, St Helens and Huyton also serve the town  These are operated by, among other smaller local providers, Stagecoach and Arriva 

Health
St Helens and Knowsley Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust operates Whiston Hospital  The hospital supports the primary maternity department for the Knowsley and St Helens boroughs, alongside a regional Burns and Plastic Surgery Unit serving North West England, North Wales and the Isle of Man  The Trust is a member organisation of the teaching hospital system partnered with the University of Liverpool, Liverpool John Moores University and Edge Hill University 

Industries
Local industry includes Glen Dimplex Home Appliances, producing kitchen appliances and employing approximately 1,000 people 

Education
Primary education
St Luke's Catholic Primary School
Halsnead Primary School
Whiston Willis Primary School
St Leo's & Southmead Catholic Primary School

Secondary education
In 2010, two of Whiston's secondary schools were closed and redeveloped under the Labour Party governments 'Building Schools for the Future' scheme  This £150 million programme created seven new 'Centres for Learning' to replace the ten existing secondary schools within the Knowsley borough 
Knowsley Higher Side Comprehensive School, Cumber Lane Constructed in 1964, Knowsley Higher Side Comprehensive School was one of the first comprehensive schools in the local area, purpose built under the Labour Party's education reforms to formally abolish the tripartite system of education; to amalgamate grammar, technical and secondary modern schools into one appropriately named Comprehensive System  
In March 2010, after serving the local area for 46 years, Higher Side Comprehensive School was permanently closed and subsequently demolished to make way for the new St Edmund Arrowsmith Catholic Centre for Learning which was constructed on vacant land behind Higher Side's main buildings  The land on which Higher Side once stood now serves as a car park and recreational area for staff and pupils of the new St Edmund Arrowsmith 
The only remaining building of the former Higher Side School site is the former Whiston & Prescot City Learning Centre (CLC), now St Edmund Arrowsmith Science Hub  The building was originally constructed and opened in 2000  Pupils of the school who were still enrolled at Higher Side at the time its closure were transferred to its replacement Knowsley Park Centre for Learning (now The Prescot School) based on Knowsley Park Lane, Prescot 

St Edmund Arrowsmith Catholic Academy, Whiston, Cumber Lane Closed, relocated and rebuilt behind the former Knowsley Higher Side Comprehensive School on Cumber Lane  Renamed as 'St Edmund Arrowsmith Catholic Centre for Learning' for a while  The original St Edmund Arrowsmith Building on Scotchbarn Lane was retained for several years and redeveloped as a youth training academy, but has also since been demolished 

Notable people
Alan Allport, historian
Peter Briggs, screenwriter
Melanie C, singer, "Sporty Spice" of the Spice Girls
Martin Dwyer, jockey
Steven Gerrard, footballer
Steve Hampson, rugby league player
Jamie Harrison, cricketer
Craig Hignett, footballer
Martin Kelly, footballer
David Leather, cricketer
Stuart Maconie, radio presenter and author
Kym Marsh, actress and singer
Conor McAleny, footballer
Dave McCabe, lead singer and guitarist of The Zutons
Natalie McCool, songwriter and musician
Rachel McDowall, actress
James Roby, rugby league player
Willy Russell, screenwriter and playwright
Matty Smith, rugby league player
William Snowden, cricketer
Mark Ward, footballer

See also
List of hospitals in England
Listed buildings in Whiston, Merseyside
Passage 10:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory  Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria  The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located  The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government  Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs)  There are 774 local governments in Nigeria  Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government  The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation 

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria 

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives  It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list 

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature)  The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state 

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government  The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly 

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007)  The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control  Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press  ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3 
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999)  The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research  ISBN 978-181-238-9 
Rotimi T  Suberu (1994)  1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan  ISBN 978-2015-28-8 

External links
"New States of Nigeria"  Statoids 
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors 
Passage 11:
Sant Martí d'Empúries
Sant Martí d'Empúries is an entity of the town of L'Escala  It is located next to the ruins of Empúries or Empòrion  Ancient Greeks established the settlement in the 6th century BC  It was the county seat until 1079 Empúries moved to Castelló d'Empúries place less exposed to attack 
Sant Martí d'Empúries is a staging point on the GR 92 long distance footpath, which roughly follows the length of the Mediterranean coast of Spain  Stage 5, to the north, takes a route behind the coast to the El Cortalet pond in the Parc Natural dels Aiguamolls de l'Empordà, a distance of 20 2 kilometres (12 6 mi)  Stage 6, to the south, follows the coast to l'Escala and then takes an inland route across the Montgri Massif to reach the next staging point of Torroella de Montgrí, a distance of 20 0 kilometres (12 4 mi) 

History
It was an inhabited place since the arrival of Greeks from Massalia, actual Marseille (France) in the 6th century BC  Greeks established a settlement there called it, Kypsela (Greek: Κύψελα)  At the ancient times there is a possibility that there was a temple of Artemis on the island It was Christianized by Saint Feliu, an African martyr who died in 304 in Girona  He was bishop between 516 and 693  Charlemagne mentions Ermenguer as first Count of Empúries in 812 
Passage 12:
Cyprus Popular Bank
Cyprus Popular Bank (from 2006 to 2011 known as Marfin Popular Bank) was the second-largest banking group in Cyprus behind the Bank of Cyprus until it was 'shuttered' in March 2013 and split into two parts  The 'good' Cypriot part was merged into the Bank of Cyprus (including insured deposits under 100,000 Euro) and the 'bad' part or legacy entity holds all the overseas operations as well as uninsured deposits above 100,000 Euro, old shares and bonds  The uninsured depositors were subject to a bail-in and became the new shareholders of the legacy entity   As at May 2017, the legacy entity is one of the largest shareholders of Bank of Cyprus with 4 8% but does not hold a board seat  All the overseas operations, of the now defunct Cyprus Popular Bank, are also held by the legacy entity, until they are sold by the Special Administrator, at first Ms Andri Antoniadou, who ran the legacy entity for two years, from March 2013 until 3 March 2015  She tendered her resignation due to disagreements, with the Governor of the Central Bank of Cyprus and the Central Bank Board members, who amended the lawyers of the legacy entity, without consulting her  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou who is an expert in Treasury and risk management took over as Special Administrator of the legacy entity in April 2015 until December 2016  The legacy entity is pursuing legal action against former major shareholder Marfin Investment Group 
Its shares were listed on the Cyprus Stock Exchange and the Athens Stock Exchange  CPB had a network of more than 295 branches in Cyprus, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, the UK and Malta  The bank had applied to open a representative office in Beijing, People's Republic of China Trading on the island as Laiki Bank (Laiki being the Greek word for Popular), as of September 2012 it held a 16% share of the market in loans and a 14 4% share of deposits   The Bank made a series of large loans, many to Greek companies prior to and during their financial crisis  What followed has been described as "billions handed out in bad loans created a financial time-bomb"  After the bank collapsed, it was rescued by the Cypriot government, which took 84% ownership on 30 June 2012 and as of March 2013 it is being dismantled as part of the 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis 

History
In 1901, four leading citizens of Limassol—Agathoclis Francoudis, Ioannis Kyriakides, Christodoulos Sozos and Neoklis Ioannides—established the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to encourage saving among the workforce  More than two decades later, in 1924, the bank changed its name from the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to the Popular Bank of Limassol  The bank also became the first company in Cyprus to register as a public-traded company 
Then in 1967, the Popular Bank of Limassol changed its name to Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) to reflect the bank’s expansion beyond Limassol  Expansion beyond Limassol followed quickly, with the establishment of its first branches in Nicosia,  Famagusta (1969), and Paphos and Larnaca (1970)  Also in 1970, Midland Bank acquired 22% of the company's shares, making Midland a major shareholder in CPB  The next year CPB relocated its headquarters from Limassol to Nicosia 

1974 CPB established its first London branch 
1983 CPB acquired all the Cyprus operations of Grindlays Bank located in the area under government control 
1992 CPB opened the first branch of European Popular Bank in Athens  CPB owned 58% of the shares of the bank; other shareholders included HSBC (formerly Midland Bank) and Greek and Cypriot investors  CPB retained branches in Heraklion and Thessaloniki
1995 CPB opened its first representative offices in South Africa and in Toronto, Ontario, Canada 
1996 CPB opened its first representative offices in Australia 
1997 CPB opened its first representative offices in Serbia and in Russia ("Rosprombank")
1998 CPB establishes a representative office in New York  (NY State Banking Dept says State chartered) 
2000 The Cyprus Popular Bank Group changed its name to Laiki Group 
2001 The Laiki Group established a subsidiary in Australia with five branches 
2005 The Group established Laiki Bank (Guernsey), and purchased Bank Centrobank in Serbia 
2006 The Greek Marfin Investment Group acquired HSBC's shares in Laiki Bank, establishing a strong minority share position   Subsequently, the Marfin Investment Group through more acquisitions managed to take control of Laiki Bank, which it re-branded as Marfin Popular Bank   In Greece, the Marfin Group consolidated Egnatia, Laiki and Marfin to form Marfin Egnatia Bank, which is the 95%-owned Greek subsidiary of Marfin Popular Bank 
2007 The bank announced the planned takeover of 50 12% of the share capital of AS SBM Pank, a bank in Estonia MPB also acquired 99 2% of the shares of Marine Transport Bank Ukraine for US$156 million  This bank was founded in 1993 as Marine Trade Bank and changed its name to Marine Transport Bank in 1996  It has its headquarters in the Odesa region and has 86 branches 
Lastly, MPB acquired 43% of the share capital of Lombard Bank Malta for €48 million from Banca della Svizzera Italiana (BSI) of Lugano  CPB now holds c  49% of Lombard Bank Malta In 2007, the bank announced a multi-million financial deal to sponsor the football First Division in Cyprus until 2010 
2008 Marfin Popular Bank completed its acquisition of 50 4% of the shares of CJSC RPB Holding, parent company of the Rossisysky Promishlenny Bank (Rosprombank), for €83 million  The acquisition makes Marfin the first Greek or Cypriot bank to acquire control of a bank in Russia 
In 2010, they launched a new mobile banking and mobile trading service  In the same year, the company was selected as the bank of the year in Cyprus by the Banker 
2010 MPB sold 85% of Laiki Bank Australia to Bank of Beirut  The Australian bank received a new name, Beirut Hellenic Bank  At the time, the bank had a branch in Adelaide, four branches in Melbourne and five branches in Sydney 
2011 MPB sold the majority of its shareholding in its Estonian subsidiary and returned to its historic name of Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) 
In 2012 CPB converted its Greek subsidiary into a branch of the parent bank 
The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis resulted in financial difficulties at CPB  The Cypriot state recapitalized CPB on 30 June 2012 with the result that the government acquired 84% of the bank's equity  This increased the bank's core tier 1 capital ratio towards 9%, the level mandated by the European Banking Authority 
In early 2013 CPB renamed its Greek branches to CPB Bank and on 26 March the bank sold them to Piraeus Bank  Laiki was split into a good and bad bank, the good bank (Cyprus operations) merged with Bank of Cyprus and the bad bank is in the process of being sold and finally shuttered  The board and CEO were replaced on 27 March  The bad bank was being run by a Special Administrator Ms Andri Antoniadou who was acting CEO until 3 March 2015  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou took over as Special Administrator in April 2015 until December 2016 In 2018 European Court dismisses compensation claim in Cyprus 2013 deposit-grab 
Passage 13:
Dunbar Hospital
The Dunbar Hospital was the first hospital for the black community in Detroit, Michigan  It is located at 580 Frederick Street, and is currently the administrative headquarters of the Detroit Medical Society  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 

Building construction and description
The building housing the Dunbar Hospital was built in 1892 by the Guy W  Vinton Company as a home for real estate developer Charles W  Warren  The home was constructed in a fashionable 19th century residential district The structure is a three-story home of mixed Romanesque Revival and Queen Anne style, built of red brick and rough-cut ashlar  The entrance is through a recessed, arched first-floor porch and the second story has a double-arch brick balcony  The roof is slate, with a bay-windowed gabled dormer surmounting the front façade 

Founding of the Dunbar Hospital
In 1894, Dr  James W  Ames, a graduate of both Straight University and Howard University, arrived in Detroit after a stint of teaching in New Orleans  He quickly became influential in both Detroit's white community and its then-small black community  Detroit's mayor at the time was Hazen Pingree  During his subsequent re-election campaign, Pingree actively courted the black vote, in part by supporting Ames's bid for election to the Michigan state legislature The nationally famous black poet Paul Laurence Dunbar, popular in both the black and white community, visited Detroit and lent his voice to those supporting Pingree, penning the poem, "Vote for Pingree and Vote for Bread " Both Ames and Pingree won their respective elections, and Ames spent the next two years in the legislature  He was the last black elected until the 1920s Two decades later, in the years following World War I, the black population of Detroit soared  In 1910, fewer than 6000 blacks called the city home; in 1917 more than 30,000 blacks lived in Detroit  The increase in black residents led to a crisis in health care  Hospitals were still segregated, and physicians like Ames were required to ask permission to admit black patients  Often black patients were simply denied care  The increase in the black population threatened to overwhelm the city's 30 black doctors In 1918, Ames led the group of 30 black physicians to form the Allied Medical Society  The area around Frederick street was at the cusp of becoming the center of social and cultural life for Detroit's black community, and the AMS purchased the Warren home on Frederick They opened their own non-profit hospital in the building, the first in the city to serve the black community, as well as an associated nursing school  The hospital was named for the poet Dunbar, who had died in 1906  The hospital had 27 beds and an operating room 

Later history
In 1928, demand led Dunbar Hospital to move from its first home to a larger facility several blocks to the east  The facility was renamed Parkside Hospital, and continued in operation until 1962  Soon after Dunbar moved from its home on Frederick, Charles Diggs Sr , who was later the first African-American Democratic state senator, purchased the home  Diggs's son, Charles C  Diggs Jr , served in the Michigan State Senate from 1951 to 1954 and the U S  House of Representatives from 1954 to 1980  In 1978, the Detroit Medical Society (the successor to the Allied Medical Society) purchased and restored the building  It now serves as their administrative headquarters and a museum 



ground_truth: Knowsley

Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley