prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the spouse of the actor that plays vision in avengers age of ultron?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
A Beautiful Mind (soundtrack)
A Beautiful Mind is the original soundtrack album, on the Decca Records label, of the 2001 film A Beautiful Mind starring Russell Crowe, Jennifer Connelly (who won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as "Alicia Nash"), Christopher Plummer and Paul Bettany  The original score and songs were composed and conducted by James Horner 
The album garnered nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score and the Academy Award for Best Original Score  Music critics felt that the musical score fit the film well, but believed it to be similar to several of Horner's previous films 

Development
Composer James Horner was a frequent collaborator with Ron Howard, the director of A Beautiful Mind  Horner desired to feature vocals reminiscent of being midway between a girl and woman, and wrote the score specifically for 15-year-old Welsh singer Charlotte Church  To convey "the beauty of mathematics", Horner decided to use the idea of a kaleidoscope, as its "patterns are always changing, and things move very quickly, but in moving so quickly, they create other patterns that move very slowly underneath"  He added that these changing patterns were conveyed with the piano and Church's voice 

Release and reception
Writing for Empire magazine, Danny Graydon gave the soundtrack four out of five stars  He thought the score contained elements of Horner's previous films Sneakers (1992) and Bicentennial Man (1999), but said "if you can forgive that, this is a clever, masterful and romantic score that captures a brilliant mind in conflict"  In the tracks "Creating Government Dynamics" and "Cracking The Russian Codes", Graydon opined that Church's "poignant vocals mix well with the frenetic piano and strings to represent Nash’s brilliance" and wished that her voice had been used more in the film Dan Goldwasser of Soundtrack net also found similarities to the score in Bicentennial Man, but thought Horner's work fit the film regardless, explaining "it effectively underscores the drama and romance, and even provides a few bits of tension for the action scene"  Goldwasser concluded that "while it all works well in the film, there is enough about this score that just seemed to  [sic] 'familiar' to make it stand out"  Contributing to National Public Radio, Andy Trudeau believed Church's particular voice adds a "human element  It's the sound that, I think, gives a sense of--the center of this character, if you will  I think it's the soul  And it's trying to be normal in a way, and underneath it it's trying to be crazy" Horner's score garnered nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score and the Academy Award for Best Original Score  It lost the Golden Globe to the film Moulin Rouge! and the Oscar to The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring 

Track listing
Adapted from:
Passage 2:
Christel Khalil
Christel Adnana Mina Khalil (born November 30, 1987) is an American actress 

Background
Khalil was born in Los Angeles, California, to a mother of Native American, African American, and European descent and a Pakistani father  Khalil has stated she identifies as mixed race  She has three older brothers and a younger paternal half-sister  In January 2017, in the wake of President Donald Trump's signing of Executive Order 13769, Khalil revealed that her father is an immigrant from his native country of Pakistan 

Career
Khalil is best known for her portrayal as Lily Winters on the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless  At the 39th Daytime Emmy Awards on June 23, 2012, she won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series after four nominations in the category  In August 2018, she announced her decision to downgrade from being on contract with the show and instead continue on a recurring basis  Khalil explained the decision was driven by her desire to have more freedom in both her professional and personal life  She continued to make sporadic appearances on the show until being approached by current head writer and co-executive producer Josh Griffith in January 2020, to return to filming on a regular basis Khalil has had small roles in movies such as Dragon Fury, Matilda, Interview With the Assassin and White Like the Moon  She voiced Cornelia Hale in W I T C H , and also appeared on That's So Raven and Malcolm in the Middle, among other shows  Khalil also performed in Los Angeles theater productions before landing her role on The Young and the Restless  In 2012, she was featured in musician Johnny Britt's music video  for his single Beautiful Queen  In  spring 2018, Khalil co-starred in the independent thriller, Good Deed, which premiered on the Lifetime network in November 2018 under the title Sorority Stalker  In spring 2019, she was cast in the independent comedy We Need To Talk by writer and director Todd Wolfe 

Personal life
In September 2008, she married musician Stephen Hensley  The Young and the Restless co-star Elizabeth Hendrickson served as a bridesmaid while Bryton James was a groomsman  Khalil gave birth to their son on April 17, 2010, during an at home water birth  Bryton James is his godfather and actress Fadhia Marcelin is his godmother  She and Hensley split in early 2011 and divorced later that year  In 2015, Khalil stated she had been in a relationship with bar runner Ray Wicks for 4 years  Khalil ended the relationship in August 2015   In the summer of 2018, Khalil stated that she in a relationship with Canadian businessman Sam Restagno, who works in private equity  The two met in 2016, during that years Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio, California  In 2019, Khalil and her son relocated to Toronto, Ontario to be with Restagno, who was born and based there  In July 2020, Khalil moved back to Los Angeles  In June 2023, she announced she was expecting her second child, her first with Restagno She is best friends with Bryton James, who portrays her character's brother, Devon Hamilton on The Young and the Restless  She is also friends with several former and current The Young and the Restless co-stars, including Mishael Morgan and Nadine Heimann  In October 2015, she modeled for Heimann's non-profit, True Connection In June 2015, after the United States Supreme Court's decision on Obergefell v  Hodges, she voiced her support for same-sex marriage  Khalil has said one of her favorite hobbies is traveling because she loves experiencing different cultures and travel makes her feel connected to who she is as a person 

Filmography
Awards and nominations
Passage 3:
Black Widow (Natasha Romanova)
Black Widow (Natalia Alianovna "Natasha" Romanova; Russian: Наталья Альяновна "Наташа" Романова) is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics  Created by editor and plotter Stan Lee, scripter Don Rico, and artist Don Heck, the character debuted in Tales of Suspense #52 (April 1964)  The character was introduced as a Russian spy, an antagonist of the superhero Iron Man  She later defected to the United States, becoming an agent of the fictional spy agency S H I E L D  and a member of the superhero team the Avengers 
The character has appeared in numerous forms of media, such as animated television series, video games, and films 
Scarlett Johansson portrayed Natasha Romanoff in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Iron Man 2 (2010), The Avengers (2012), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), Captain Marvel (2019), Avengers: Endgame (2019), and Black Widow (2021), with Lake Bell voicing the character in the animated series What If   ? (2021) 

Publication history
The Black Widow's first appearances were as a recurring, non-costumed, Russian-spy antagonist in the feature "Iron Man", beginning in Tales of Suspense #52 (April 1964)  Five issues later, she recruits the besotted costumed archer and later superhero Hawkeye to her cause  Her government later supplies her with her first Black Widow costume and high-tech weaponry, but she eventually defects to the United States after appearing, temporarily brainwashed against the U S , in the superhero-team series The Avengers #29 (July 1966)  The Widow later becomes a recurring ally of the team before officially becoming its 16th member many years later 
The Black Widow was visually updated in 1970: The Amazing Spider-Man #86 (July 1970) reintroduced her with shoulder-length red hair (instead of her former short black hair), a skintight black costume, and wristbands which fired spider threads John Romita, the artist responsible for the redesign elaborated on how the character was updated  "I did the costume on the Black Widow  One of my favorite strips from when I was a kid was Miss Fury  They had done a Miss Fury book at Marvel, and when I found out they had the rights to her, I said I'd love to do a Miss Fury book sometime  I had done an updated drawing of Miss Fury, and Stan said, "Why don't we redesign the Black Widow costume based on Miss Fury?" So I took the mask off her face, and made the Black Widow, the one in the patent leather jumpsuit "In short order, The Black Widow starred in her own series in Amazing Adventures #1–8 (Aug  1970–Sept  1971), sharing that split book with the feature Inhumans  The Black Widow feature was dropped after only eight issues (the Inhumans feature followed soon, ending with issue #10) Immediately after her initial solo feature ended, the Black Widow co-starred in Daredevil  #81–124 (Nov  1971–Aug  1975), of which #92-107 were cover titled Daredevil and the Black Widow  Daredevil writer Gerry Conway recounted, "It was my idea to team up Daredevil and the Black Widow, mainly because I was a fan of Natasha, and thought she and Daredevil would have interesting chemistry " Succeeding writers, however, felt that Daredevil worked better as a solo hero, and gradually wrote the Black Widow out of the series  She was immediately recast into the super-team series The Champions as the leader of the titular superhero group, which ran for 17 issues (Oct  1975–Jan  1978) Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the Black Widow appeared frequently as both an Avengers member and a freelance agent of S H I E L D  She starred in a serialized feature within the omnibus comic-book series Marvel Fanfare #10–13 (Aug  1983–March 1984), written by George Pérez and Ralph Macchio, with art by penciller Perez  These stories were later collected in the oversized one-shot Black Widow: Web of Intrigue #1 (June 1999) 
The Widow guest-starred in issues of Solo Avengers, Force Works, Iron Man, Marvel Team-Up, and other comics  She had made frequent guest appearances in Daredevil since the late 1970s 
She starred in a three-issue arc, "The Fire Next Time", by writer Scott Lobdell and penciller Randy Green, in Journey into Mystery #517–519 (Feb –April 1998) 
A new ongoing Black Widow comic title debuted in April 2010  The first story arc was written by Marjorie Liu with art by Daniel Acuña  Beginning with issue #6 (Sept  2010), the title was written by Duane Swierczynski, with artwork by Manuel Garcia and Lorenzo Ruggiero 
Black Widow appeared as a regular character throughout the 2010–2013 Secret Avengers series, from issue #1 (July 2010) through its final issue #37 (March 2013) 
Black Widow appears in the 2013 Secret Avengers series by Nick Spencer and Luke Ross Black Widow appears in a relaunched ongoing series by writer Nathan Edmondson and artist Phil Noto  The first issue debuted in Jan  2014 In October 2015, it was announced that Mark Waid and Chris Samnee would be launching a new Black Widow series for 2016 as part of Marvel's post-Secret Wars relaunch  The first issue was released in March 2016 

Limited series and specials
Aside from the arcs in Marvel Fanfare and Journey into Mystery, the Black Widow has starred in four limited series and four graphic novels 
The three-issue Black Widow (June-Aug  1999), under the Marvel Knights imprint, starred Romanova and fully introduced her appointed successor, Captain Yelena Belova, who had briefly appeared in an issue of the 1999 series Inhumans  The writer for the story arc, "The Itsy-Bitsy Spider" was Devin K  Grayson while J  G  Jones was the artist  The next three-issue, Marvel Knights mini-series, also titled Black Widow (Jan –March 2001) featured both Black Widows in the story arc "Breakdown", by writers Devin Grayson and Greg Rucka with painted art by Scott Hampton Romanova next starred in another solo miniseries titled Black Widow: Homecoming (Nov  2004–April 2005), also under the Marvel Knights imprint and written by science fiction novelist Richard K  Morgan, with art initially by Bill Sienkiewicz and later by Sienkiewicz over Goran Parlov layouts  A six-issue sequel, Black Widow: The Things They Say About Her (Nov  2005–April 2006; officially Black Widow 2: The Things They Say About Her in the series' postal indicia), by writer Morgan, penciller Sean Phillips, and inker Sienkiewicz, picks up immediately where the previous miniseries left off, continuing the story using many of the same characters She starred in the solo graphic novel Black Widow: The Coldest War (April 1990), and co-starred in three more: Punisher/Black Widow: Spinning Doomsday's Web (Dec  1992); Daredevil/Black Widow: Abattoir (July 1993); and Fury/Black Widow: Death Duty (June 1995), also co-starring Marvel UK's Night Raven Black Widow is also featured in the short story Love Is Blindness in I Heart Marvel: Marvel Ai (2006) #1 (April 2006), where she instigates a humorous fight with Elektra over Daredevil's affections  The comic is stylized to look like Japanese animation and uses images, not words, inside the speech and thought bubbles to convey what the characters are saying/thinking In 2010, the year in which the character, called only Natasha Romanoff, made her film debut in Iron Man 2, the Black Widow received two separate miniseries  Black Widow and the Marvel Girls was an all-ages, four-issue series that chronicled her adventures with various women of the Marvel Universe, including Storm, She-Hulk, the Enchantress, and Spider-Woman  It was written by Paul Tobin, with art by Salvador Espin, Veronica Gandini and Takeshi Miyazawa  The second four-issue miniseries, Black Widow: Deadly Origin, was written by Paul Cornell, and featured art by Tom Raney and John Paul Leon 

Fictional character biography
Early life
Natasha was born in Stalingrad (now Volgograd), Russian SFSR, USSR  The first and best-known Black Widow is a Russian agent trained as a spy, martial artist, and sniper, and outfitted with an arsenal of high-tech weaponry, including a pair of wrist-mounted energy weapons dubbed her "Widow's Bite"  She wears no costume during her first few appearances but simply evening wear and a veil  Romanova eventually defects to the U S  for reasons that include her love for the reluctant-criminal turned superhero archer, Hawkeye 
The first hints to Natasha Romanova's childhood come from Ivan Petrovich, who is introduced as her middle-aged chauffeur and confidant in the Black Widow's 1970s Amazing Adventures  Petrovich tells Matt Murdock that he had been given custody of little Natasha by a woman who died immediately afterwards, during the Battle of Stalingrad in autumn 1942  He consequently felt committed to raise the orphan as a surrogate father and she eventually trained as a Soviet spy, being eager to help her homeland  In another flashback, set in the fictional island of Madripoor in 1941, Petrovich helps Captain America and the mutant Logan, who would later become the Canadian super-agent and costumed hero Wolverine, to rescue Natasha from Nazis A revised, retconned origin establishes her as being raised from very early childhood by the U S S R 's "Black Widow Ops" program, rather than solely by Ivan Petrovitch  Petrovitch had taken her to Department X with other young female orphans, where she was brainwashed and trained in combat and espionage at the covert "Red Room" facility  There, she is biotechnologically and psycho-technologically enhanced—which provides a rationale for her unusually long and youthful lifespan  During that time she had some training under the Winter Soldier, and the pair even had a short romance  Each Black Widow is deployed with false memories to help ensure her loyalty  Romanova eventually discovers this, including the fact that she had never, as she had believed, been a ballerina  She further discovers that the Red Room is still active as "2R" 
The KGB arranged a marriage between Natasha and the renowned Soviet test pilot Alexei Shostakov  However, when the Soviet government decided to make Shostakov into their new operative, the Red Guardian, he is told that he can have no further contact with his wife  Natasha is told that he died and is trained as a secret agent separately 

The Avengers
Romanova grew up to serve as a femme fatale  She was assigned to assist Boris Turgenov in the assassination of Professor Anton Vanko for defecting from the Soviet Union, which served as her first mission in the United States  Natasha and Turgenov infiltrated Stark Industries as part of the plan  She attempted to manipulate information from American defense contractor Tony Stark, and inevitably confronted his superhero alter ego, Iron Man  The pair then battled Iron Man, and Turgenov stole and wore the Crimson Dynamo suit  Vanko sacrificed himself to save Iron Man, killing Turgenov in the process, using an unstable experimental laser light pistol  Romanova later meets the criminal archer Hawkeye and sets him against Iron Man, and later helped Hawkeye battle Iron Man Later, Natasha again attempted to get Hawkeye to help her destroy Iron Man  The pair almost succeeded, but when Black Widow was injured, Hawkeye retreated to get her to safety  During this period, Romanova was attempting to defect from the Soviet Union and began falling in love with Hawkeye, weakening her loyalty to her country  When her employers learned the truth, the KGB had her gunned down, sending her to a hospital, convincing Hawkeye to go straight and seek membership in the Avengers The Red Room kidnapped and brainwashed her again, and with the Swordsman and the first Power Man, she battled the Avengers  She eventually broke free from her psychological conditioning (with the help of Hawkeye), and successfully defected, having further adventures with Spider-Man, with Hawkeye, and with Daredevil  She ultimately joins the Avengers as a costumed hero herself 

S H I E L D  and Daredevil
Upon Nick Fury's request, she begins freelancing as an agent of the international espionage group S H I E L D  She is sent on a secret S H I E L D  mission to China by Nick Fury  There, with the Avengers, she battles Col  Ling, Gen  Brushov, and her ex-husband the Red Guardian  For a time, as writer Les Daniels noted in a contemporaneous study in 1971,

    her left-wing upbringing was put to better use, and she has lately taken to fighting realistic oppressor-of-the-people types  She helps young Puerto Ricans clean up police corruption and saves young hippies from organized crime       [The splash page of Amazing Adventures #3 (Nov  1970)] reflects the recent trend toward involving fantastic characters in contemporary social problems, a move which has gained widespread publicity for Marvel and its competitor, DC 
She investigates a plot by Egghead, the Puppet Master and the Mad Thinker to blackmail the US government using a laser-firing satellite During her romantic involvement with Matt Murdock in San Francisco, she operates as an independent superhero alongside Murdock's alter ego, Daredevil  There she tries unsuccessfully to find a new career for herself as a fashion designer  Eventually, her relationship with Murdock stagnates, and after briefly working with Avengers finally breaks up with Murdock, fearing that playing "sidekick" is sublimating her identity  During a HYDRA attempt to take over S H I E L D , she is tortured to such an extent that she regresses back to an old cover identity of schoolteacher Nancy Rushman, but she is recovered by Spider-Man in time to help Nick Fury and Shang-Chi work out what had happened and restore her memory, with "Nancy" developing an attraction to Spider-Man before her memory is restored during the final fight against Madam Viper, Boomerang, and the Silver Samurai  She later returns to Matt Murdock's life to find he is romantically involved with another woman, Heather Glenn, prompting her to leave New York  Natasha ultimately realizes that Matt still only thinks of her in platonic terms, and elects to restrain herself from any advances 

The Champions
After their breakup, the Widow moves to Los Angeles and becomes leader of the newly created and short-lived super team known as The Champions, consisting of her, Ghost Rider (Johnny Blaze), Hercules (with whom she has a brief romance), and former X-Men Angel and Iceman Her friends usually call her "Natasha", the informal version of "Natalia"  She has sometimes chosen the last-name alias "Romanoff"  She has hinted to be a descendant of the deposed House of Romanov and a relation to Nicholas II of Russia 

21st century
Natasha crosses Daredevil's (Matt Murdock) path again when he attempts to slay an infant he believes to be the Anti-Christ while under the influence of mind-altering drugs  After Daredevil's one-time love, Karen Page, dies protecting the child, Natasha reconciles with Murdock, revealing she still loves him, but noting that he is too full of anger to commit to a relationship with her Natasha is challenged by Yelena Belova, a graduate from the training program through which Natasha herself was taught the espionage trade, who is the first to ever surpass Natasha's marks and considers herself the rightful successor to the "Black Widow" mantle  Natasha refers to her as "little one" and "rooskaya (meaning "Russian"), and encourages her to discover her individuality rather than live in blind service, asking her "why be Black Widow, when you can be Yelena Belova?" After several confrontations, Natasha subjects Yelena to intense psychological manipulation and suffering in order to teach her the reality of the espionage business, and an angry but disillusioned Yelena eventually returns home and temporarily quits being a spy  Although Matt Murdock is appalled by the cruelty of Natasha's treatment of Yelena, Nick Fury describes the action as Natasha's attempt at saving Yelena's life  After bringing the Avengers and the Thunderbolts together to overcome Count Nefaria, Natasha supported Daredevil's short-lived efforts to form a new super-team to capture the Punisher, originally believed to be Nick Fury's murderer  Despite recruitment endeavors, however, this vigilante group folded shortly after she and her teammate Dagger fought an army of renegade S H I E L D  androids; ironically, she soon afterward worked with both Daredevil and Punisher against the European crime syndicate managed by the Brothers Grace  Months later, her pursuit of war criminal Anatoly Krylenko led to a clash with Hawkeye, whose pessimism regarding heroic activities now rivaled her own Shortly after the Scarlet Witch's insanity seemingly killed Hawkeye and again disbanded the Avengers, Natasha, weary of espionage and adventure, travelled to Arizona but was targeted  Andrea discovers that other women had been trained in the Black Widow Program, and all are now being hunted down and killed by the North Institute on behalf of the corporation Gynacon  Natasha's investigations led her back to Russia, where she was appalled to learn the previously unimagined extent of her past manipulation, and she discovered the Widows were being hunted because Gynacon, having purchased Russian biotechnology from Red Room's successor agency 2R, wanted all prior users of the technology dead  Natasha finds and kills the mastermind of the Black Widow murders: Ian McMasters, Gynacon's aging CEO, who intended to use part of their genetic structure to create a new chemical weapon  After killing McMasters, she clashed with operatives of multiple governments to help Sally Anne Carter, a girl Natasha had befriended in her investigations, whom she rescued with help from Daredevil and Yelena Belova  She soon returned the favor for Daredevil by reluctantly working with Elektra Natchios to protect his new wife, Milla Donovan, from the FBI and others, although Yelena proved beyond help when she agreed to be transformed into the new Super-Adaptoid by A I M  and HYDRA 

Civil War / Initiative
During the Superhero Civil War, Natasha becomes a supporter of the Superhuman Registration Act and a member of the taskforce led by Iron Man  Afterward, the registered Natasha joins the reconstituted Avengers  S H I E L D  director Nick Fury is presumed killed, and deputy director Maria Hill incapacitated, so Natasha assumes temporary command of S H I E L D  as the highest-ranking agent present Later, Tony Stark assigns Natasha to convey the late Captain America's shield to a secure location, but is intercepted by her former lover, Bucky Barnes, the Winter Soldier, who steals the shield  Natasha and the Falcon then rescue Barnes from the Red Skull's minions and bring him to the S H I E L D  Helicarrier, where Stark convinces Bucky to become the new Captain America  Afterward, Natasha accompanies Bucky as his partner for a brief time until she is called back by S H I E L D  She later rejoins him and Falcon for the final confrontation with the Red Skull, helping to rescue Sharon Carter  She and Bucky have restarted their relationship  She later plays an important role in the capture of Hercules  However, due to her respect of the Greek god, she let him go  Soon Natasha, along with the rest of the Avengers, gets involved in the current Skrull invasion  Afterwards, she stayed as Bucky's partner  She also assists former director Maria Hill in delivering a special form of data to Bucky 

Thunderbolts
Norman Osborn discovered Yelena Belova breaking into an abandoned S H I E L D  facility, and offered her the position of field leader of the new Thunderbolts  On her first mission, she and Ant-Man take control of Air Force One with the Goblin, Doc Samson, and the new President aboard  It was suggested she faked her apparent death (as the Adaptoid) but it is never explained how 
A conversation with the Ghost implies that Yelena is working as a mole for someone else and that she may even be someone else disguised as Yelena  She is later seen talking privately through a comm-link to Nick Fury Osborn orders Yelena to lead the current Thunderbolts to kill former Thunderbolt, Songbird  Fury orders "Yelena" to rescue and retrieve Songbird for the information she might possess about Osborn and his operations  Yelena finds Songbird and reveals to her that she was really Natasha Romanova in disguise  She tries delivering Songbird to Fury but the Thunderbolts have also followed them  The trio are captured as Osborn reveals he had been impersonating Fury in messages all along to set Natasha up in order to strengthen the Thunderbolts and lead him to Fury  She and Songbird are brought to be executed but manage to escape when Ant-Man, Headsmen, and Paladin turn on the rest of the Thunderbolts and let them go 

Heroic Age
At the start of the "Heroic Age," Natasha is recruited by Steve Rogers into a new black-ops wing of the Avengers dubbed the Secret Avengers  She travels to Dubai with her new teammate, Valkyrie, where they steal a dangerous artifact which the Beast then studies, noting that it seems like a distant cousin of the Serpent Crown  In the story "Coppelia", she encounters a teenage clone of herself, code named "Tiny Dancer", whom she rescues from an arms dealer 

Fear Itself
During the "Fear Itself" storyline, Black Widow and Peregrine are sent on a mission to free hostages being held in a Marseille cathedral by Rapido  He and a group of mercenaries are trying to exploit the panic over the events in Paris to steal France's nuclear arsenal 

Ends of the Earth
During the "Ends of the Earth" storyline involving one of Doctor Octopus' schemes, Natasha is one of only three heroes left standing after the defeat of the Avengers by the Sinister Six, joining Silver Sable and Spider-Man to track the Six (albeit because she was closest to Sable's cloaked ship after the Avengers were defeated rather than for her prowess)  She is later contacted by the Titanium Man to warn her and her allies about Doctor Octopus' attempt to rally other villains against Spider-Man  She is knocked out along with Hawkeye by Iron Man during a battle against the Avengers when they were temporarily under Octavius' remote control 

Secret Wars
During the incursion event between Earth-616 and Earth-1610, Natasha is involved in the final battle between the Marvel Universe's superheroes and the Ultimate Universe's Children of Tomorrow  She pilots a ship holding a handpicked few to restart humanity after the universe ends, copiloted by Jessica Drew  Her ship is shot down during the battle though, and she is killed in the ensuing explosion As the evacuation of Earth-616 begins in light of the fact that Earth-1610 is about to come crashing down as part of the "Last Days" storyline, Black Widow is seen standing atop a building with Captain America who gives her a list of people to save and bring aboard the lifeboat  As she tells Sam she cannot save them all, Sam explains it's Natasha's job to assist in the effort to save as many people as possible before Earth as they know it is destroyed  As she leaves, her mind transitions to Cold War Russia, where a young Natasha (here called Natalia) speaks with two Russian functionaries in the infamous "Red Room"  She is given her first mission: travel to Cuba and locate a family called the Comienzas, who are at risk from Raúl Castro's regime and who may have information of vital importance to Russia  She is told to rendezvous with another agent, her classmate Marina, and befriend the family under the guise of a Russian businesswoman  Natasha assures them of her competency and leaves  When one of the officers questions her youth, the other assures him, "she's a killer  She will not disappoint " Natasha meets Marina in Cuba and the two friends catch up before meeting with the Comienzas that night at a local bar  Using her talent for deception, she casually and politely convinces the husband and wife that she's seeking inside information to help her import various goods into the country  The Comienzas explain they cannot reveal said information, prompting Natasha to later explain to Marina that the family might need "a little push"  Not too soon she effectively began terrorizing the family into desperation  First, she plants an American flag on their doorstep to mimic someone accusing them of defecting to the United States  Later after meeting with one of the Russian officers from the Red Room to report her progress, she detonated a car bomb outside their home when the first attempt did not make them "nearly desperate enough"  Following the car bomb explosion, Natasha declares the family is indeed desperate enough to reproach for information  Before letting Natasha go, the officer announces she has one additional task before her mission is over: Marina has become too much enamored with her civilian guise, and is now a security risk  Natasha will have to eliminate her  Flipping to the present, Black Widow is saving as many people as she can, but she quickly flashbacks to Havana  Natasha and her then Red Room partner Marina are trying to help a family defect  Natasha's orders are simple: Kill the parents and make it public  When Natasha asks if she should kill the child too, her boss looks horrified that she would be so OK with that and tells her no  Having no problem following orders she sets up a meet and using a sniper rifle she takes out the pair without blinking  Next she shoots Marina's boyfriend then Marina herself  Next she shoots Marina's cat  Flipping back to the present, Black Widow is back saving people from the incursion as the reason that triggered Natasha's flashback is revealed     a man she saved is holding his cat  This dark, heartless side of the Black Widow shows why she is trying so hard to do good today 

Secret Empire
During the "Secret Empire" storyline, Black Widow appears as a member of the underground resistance at the time when most of the United States has been taken over by Hydra and Captain America who was brainwashed by Red Skull's clone using the powers of the sentient Cosmic Cube Kobik into believing that he was a Hydra sleeper agent  While Hawkeye assembles a strike force of Hercules and Quicksilver to find the Cosmic Cube fragments, Black Widow sets off to kill Rogers herself reasoning that even if Rick's theory is true, the man Rogers was would prefer to die than be used in this manner  She finds herself followed by the Champions as she establishes her version of the Red Room  While preparing to shoot Captain America with a sniper rifle, she rushes to prevent Miles Morales from killing him as predicted by Ulysses, and is struck by his shield, breaking her neck and killing her  Despite the return of the real Steve Rogers and the downfall of Hydra, Natasha's death, along with other casualties, remains 

Clone of Natalia Romanova
However, while observing a dictator who recently rose to power due to his support of Hydra, Bucky witnesses the man being assassinated in such a manner that he believes only Natasha could have pulled off the kill and believes he sees the Black Widow (actually Yelena Belova) depart from her chosen vantage point It was later discovered that a series of clones of the original Black Widow had been produced by the Black Widow Ops Program following her death  Its member Ursa Major bribed Epsilon Red to let him add the current memories of the deceased Natalia Romanova to one such clone while secretly disposing of the bad programming  The Black Widow Ops Program tasked the clone into taking out the remnants of Hydra and S H I E L D  She revealed herself to Winter Soldier and Hawkeye while also killing Orphan Maker  To keep them from interfering, the Black Widow clone locked Winter Soldier and Hawkeye in a safe room within the Red Room  The Black Widow clone rose to the ranks of the Red Room while secretly persuading the recruits to turn against their masters  When Winter Soldier and Hawkeye arrived at the Red Room, the Black Widow clone dropped her cover where she began to kill her superiors, liberate the recruits and destroy all the clones and Epsilon Red  When the authorities arrived, The Black Widow clone, adopting the name Natasha Romanoff, left the Red Room, where she left a note for Hawkeye to stop following her and for Winter Soldier to join her in ending the Red Room During the "Infinity Countdown" storyline, the Black Widow clone traced a dead drop signal left by a revived Wolverine in Madripoor  She discovered that Wolverine had left the Space Infinity Gem in her care  The Black Widow clone meets up with Doctor Strange who wants to dispose of the Space Stone  Doctor Strange did not want to take it as he knows what would happen if they are in the same proximity  She is among the Infinity Gem holders who are contacted by Doctor Strange stating that they need to reform the Infinity Watch in order to safeguard the Infinity Gems from such calamities like Thanos Captain America had Black Widow's clone infiltrate Roxxon as an ex-S H I E L D  operative-turned-contractor named Angel to spy on Roxxon and keep an eye on Weapon H  As Angel, she accompanied Weapon H and his assigned team to Weirdworld up to the point where Morgan le Fay of Earth-15238 exposed her identity to Weapon H  After getting out of the wreckage of the Roxxon Research Outpost, Black Widow reveals to Blake that she was sent to get the Roxxon group out of Weirdworld  Dr  Carrie Espinoza and the Roxxon soldiers with her salvage a Weirdworld Adamantine Crystal filled with Morgan le Fay's mystic energies which Dr  Esponoza states to Black Widow and Blake that it can power all of New York for 10 years  As the group arrives near the Inaku village, they witness Weapon H fighting Korg as Black Widow is contacted by Sonia Sung from Roxxon's headquarters  Black Widow tries to help Sonia get through to Weapon H until Dario Agger arrives  Black Widow is among those that are evacuated through the portal 

Powers and abilities
Black Widow has been enhanced by biotechnology that makes her body resistant to aging and disease and she heals faster than the average human  The white blood cells in her body are also enhanced by these implants, making them efficient enough to fight off most microbes, foreign bodies and other threats to her body, keeping her healthy and immune to most, if not all, infections, diseases and physical disorders Romanova has a gifted intellect  She displays an uncanny affinity for psychological manipulation and can mask her real emotions perfectly  Like Steve Rogers, she possesses the ability to quickly process multiple information streams (such as threat assessment) and rapidly respond to changing tactical situations, as well as having extensive espionage training Black Widow is a world-class athlete, gymnast, acrobat, and aerialist, capable of numerous complex maneuvers and feats  She can coordinate her body with balance, flexibility, and dexterity easily, and is an accomplished ballerina  She has mastered several martial arts such as jiu jitsu, aikido, boxing, judo, karate, savate, ninjutsu, various styles of kung fu and kenpo, as well as the Russian martial art sambo  She also underwent training on how to masterfully use sidearms, marksman rifles and melee weapons such as batons and combat knives 
She is also a skilled hypnotist  She uses a combination of techniques such as direct eye contact, hypnotic speech patterns and a soothing voice to influence a subjects' mind, planting thoughts, ideas or post-hypnotic commands, or even affecting memories and personality traits 

Equipment
Black Widow uses a variety of equipment invented by Soviet scientists and technicians, with later improvements by S H I E L D  scientists and technicians  She usually wears distinctively shaped bracelets which fire the Widow's Bite electro-static energy blasts that can deliver charges up to 30,000 volts, as well as "Widow's Line" grappling hooks, tear gas pellets, and a new element introduced during her ongoing series during the "Kiss or Kill" arc called the "Widow's Kiss"—an aerosol instant knock-out gas she has modified  She wears a belt of metallic discs; some are disc-charges containing plastic explosives, while others have been shown to be compartments for housing other equipment  Her costume consists of synthetic stretch fabric equipped with micro-suction cups on fingers and feet, enabling her to adhere to walls and ceilings  In the 2006 "Homecoming" mini-series, she was seen using knives, unarmed combat, and various firearms, but she has since begun using her bracelets again  While in disguise as Yelena Belova, when infiltrating the then Osborn-sanctioned Thunderbolts during "Dark Reign", she used a specialized multi-lens goggle/head-carapace that demonstrated various technical abilities, such as enhancing vision and communication  Later, she has used a modified gun based on her Widow's Bite wrist cartridge during her adventures alongside the new Captain America 

Supporting characters
Reception
Critical response
Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair included Black Widow in their "Stan Lee’s Most Iconic Characters" list  Jesse Schedeen of IGN included Black Widow in their "Marvel's Femme Fatales" list, writing, "Whatever happens, at least it can be said that Natasha's life still hasn't become boring after all these years," and ranked her 42nd in their "Top 50 Avengers" list, and 74th in their "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes" list  Deirdre Kaye of Scary Mommy ranked Black Widow 1st in their "Looking For A Role Model? These 195+ Marvel Female Characters Are Truly Heroic" list  Matthew Perpetua and Daniel Kibblesmith of BuzzFeed ranked Black Widow 3rd in their "84 Avengers Members Ranked From Worst To Best" list  Madeline Catalano of MovieWeb ranked Black Widow 4th in their "Toughest Female Superheroes" list  Gavia Baker-Whitelaw of The Daily Dot ranked Black Widow 9th in their "Top 33 female Superheroes Of All Time" list  The A V  Club ranked Black Widow 10th in their "100 Best Marvel Characters" list Jo-Anne Rowney of Daily Mirror ranked Black Widow 11th in their "Best female superheroes of all time" list  Rob Bricken of Gizmodo ranked Black Widow 13th in their "Every Member Of The Avengers" list, saying, "She's been one of the most venerable Avengers " Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly ranked Black Widow 14th in their "Let's Rank Every Avenger Ever" list  Sarah Prado of Game Rant ranked Black Widow 14th in their "Marvel: 14 Best Villains Turned Heroes" list  Comics Buyer's Guide ranked Black Widow 31st in their "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list  Lance Cartelli of Comicbook com ranked Black Widow 41st in their "50 Most Important Superheroes Ever" list  Lance Cartelli of GameSpot ranked Black Widow 46th in their "50 Most Important Superheroes" list  Wizard Magazine ranked Black Widow 176th in their "Top 200 Comic Book Characters" list Screen Rant included Black Widow in their "10 Best Villains Who Became Heroes In Marvel Comics" list, and in their "10 Most Powerful Members Of The Lady Liberators" list  CBR com ranked Black Widow 6th in their "Avengers' Greatest Leaders" list, 6th in their "10 Most Powerful Russians In Comics" list, and 32nd in their "35 Strongest Avengers" list 

Other versions
1602
In Marvel 1602, a world where superheroes have started to appear several hundred years early, Natasha is a freelance spy and "the most dangerous woman in Europe " Initially allied with Matthew Murdoch (Daredevil's 1602 counterpart), she later betrays him to Count Otto Von Doom, whom she shares a romantic relationship with  It is Natasha who later comes to Doom's rescue when he is horribly burned by Thor's lightning & the accompanying discharge of Blake's golden sphere Natasha is still working with Count von Doom during Marvel 1602: Fantastick Four where she is the captain of his flying ship  However, when she questions his plan to take the ship to the edge of the world, he pushes her over the side and appoints the Wizard captain 

1872
The Secret Wars War Zone of 1872 reimagines Natasha in the Wild West in the town of Timely  Natasha Barnes is a widow who was married to Deputy Bucky Barnes, who was killed by Mayor Fisk's men when he tried to stop a lynching  Fisk had her believe the Native Americans were responsible for his death until Sheriff Rogers told her the truth  After Sheriff Rogers was killed by Fisk and his men, Natasha teams up with Red Wolf and Doctor Bruce Banner to take Fisk down and destroy the dam separating the Cheyenne from their water 

Age of Ultron
In the Age of Ultron story, Black Widow is shown after Ultron's attack with disfiguring scars on the right side of her face from an unknown source, disarming a desperate and panicked man who attempts to threaten her for resources before meeting up with Moon Knight in one of Nick Fury's old bases 

The Avengers: United They Stand
Natasha Romanoff/Black Widow appeared in the comic-book series based on the animated television series The Avengers: United They Stand 

Earth X
Natasha Romanova appeared in the Earth X miniseries much the same as her 616 counterpart  After Absorbing Man was broken to pieces by The Vision after killing The Avengers (Giant Man, Wasp, Scarlet Witch, Quicksilver and Hawkeye), part of his body was given to her to guard in order to prevent anyone from putting Absorbing man back together   She was killed sometime before the start of Earth X  Later in the series, she is revealed in the Realm of the Dead and is recruited by Mar-Vell into his legion of the undead 

House of M
Natasha is seen as a member of the Soviet Super Soldiers  Natasha later appears a member of Shang-Chi's Red Dragons, and is mentioned as a member of S H I E L D 

Marvel Mangaverse
She appears in the New Dawn arc where The Executioner and she are hired by Mordo to kidnap Bruce Banner  They manage to succeed in doing so, with her escaping with Bruce while Tigra is dealing with The Executioner intent on keeping the reward for the job herself  However, during her escape, Bruce turns into The Hulk and destroys the submarine they were in, presumably killing her 

Marvel Zombies
Black Widow is among the Avengers who are infected by the Sentry in Marvel Zombies vs  the Army of Darkness  She is seen consuming a Yorkshire Terrier puppy  Later, in the original Marvel Zombies series, she is among the zombies who attack the Silver Surfer 

Ultimate Marvel
Under the Ultimate Marvel imprint Natasha Romanova is a member of the Ultimates, this universe's analogue of the Avengers  She debuted in Ultimate Marvel Team-Up #14 (June 2002) in a story written by Brian Michael Bendis and drawn by Terry Moore, before becoming one of the major characters in writer Mark Millar and penciller Bryan Hitch's The Ultimates, debuting there in #7 (Sept  2002) Romanova is a former KGB spy and assassin, code-named the Black Widow, known for killing her ex-husbands, notably Alexi Shostakov  She was originally part of the Ultimates' covert operations ("black ops") team, but with the emergence of the Chitauri threat was subsequently moved to public status after a publicly acceptable background was written for her  She has genetic or cybernetic enhancements making her far better in combat than the average human  After accepting a marriage proposal from Tony Stark, she receives a black suit of Iron Man armor as an engagement present, along with a set of nanites to control the armor Romanova is later revealed as a traitor—claiming that she betrayed the Ultimates because she feels that America has turned her country into a collection of drug-runners and prostitutes—responsible for killing Hawkeye's wife and children, revealing Bruce Banner's connection to the Hulk to the public, helping to frame Captain America as a traitor, and collaborating with the Liberators in their invasion of the United States  After she murders Edwin Jarvis and holds Stark hostage in an attempt to extort his fortune, Stark activates the nanites in her bloodstream, freezing her body in place, before knocking her unconscious with a wine bottle  She appears later in an emergency clinic, having cut open her wrists to bleed out the disabling nanites  Hawkeye kills her in revenge for her part in the murder of his family By The Ultimates 3 #1 a sex tape between Natasha and Stark has been leaked to the public  According to Janet Pym, the tape is of unknown origin and seems to have been professionally done with "close ups"  Stark is shown to be in a state of depression over Natasha's betrayal and subsequent death  It is later revealed that one of the Ultrons calling himself Yellowjacket had leaked the tape  During the Brotherhood's attack on the Stark Mansion, Mystique shapeshifts into Natasha to get close to Tony in an attempt to kill him but is knocked unconscious by Wasp 

What If?
In What If? Age of Ultron #3, where Thor was killed, Natasha becomes the new wielder of Mjolnir to hold off an assault by the World-Serpent in Thor's absence 

In other media
Television
Black Widow was to appear in a proposed live-action 1975 series, portrayed by series creator Angie Bowie  However, the series was not picked up by a studio 
Black Widow appears in the "Iron Man" segment of The Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Margaret Griffin 
Black Widow appears in The Super Hero Squad Show episode "Deadly is the Black Widow's Bite!," voiced by Lena Headey 
Black Widow appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, voiced by Vanessa Marshall  This version is an agent of S H I E L D  and member of Nick Fury's Secret Warriors 
A young Black Widow appears in Iron Man: Armored Adventures, voiced by Ashleigh Ball  This version is initially a freelancer before eventually joining S H I E L D 
Black Widow appears in Avengers Assemble, voiced by Laura Bailey  This version is a member of the Avengers 
Black Widow appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes: Maximum Overload, voiced by again by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears in Ultimate Spider-Man, voiced again by Laura Bailey  This version is a member of the Avengers 
Black Widow appears in Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers 
Black Widow appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes: Avengers Reassembled, voiced again by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears in the Spider-Man episode "Spider-Island" Part 2, voiced again by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes - Black Panther: Trouble in Wakanda, voiced again by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears in Marvel Future Avengers, voiced by Mayumi Asano in Japanese and Laura Bailey in English 

Film
In 2004, Lionsgate Entertainment announced that a Black Widow motion picture by screenwriter-director David Hayter and starring Natasha Romanoff was in the script stage  Lionsgate subsequently dropped the project 
The Ultimate Marvel incarnation of Black Widow appears in Ultimate Avengers and Ultimate Avengers 2, voiced by Olivia d'Abo 
Black Widow makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Next Avengers: Heroes of Tomorrow, in which she joined the Avengers in stopping Ultron  Though she was killed in battle, she is survived by her and Captain America's son James Rogers 
Black Widow appears in Iron Man: Rise of Technovore, voiced by Clare Grant 
Black Widow appears in Avengers Confidential: Black Widow & Punisher, voiced by Jennifer Carpenter 

Marvel Cinematic Universe
Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow appears in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), portrayed by Scarlett Johansson  This version is a former assassin for the Red Room before joining S H I E L D  and becoming an Avenger  She first appears in the live-action film Iron Man 2 before making subsequent appearances in the live-action films The Avengers (2012), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), Captain Marvel (2019), Avengers: Endgame (2019), and a self-titled film (2021)  Additionally, alternate timeline versions of Romanoff appear in the Disney+ animated series What If   ?, voiced by Lake Bell 

Video games
Black Widow appears in The Punisher, voiced by Saffron Henderson 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in PlayStation Portable (PSP) and the PC versions of Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Nika Futterman 
Black Widow appears in Spider-Man: Web of Shadows, voiced by Salli Saffioti 
Black Widow appears as a boss in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, voiced again by Nika Futterman 
Black Widow, based on the MCU incarnation, appears in the Iron Man 2 tie-in game, voiced by Catherine Campion 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad: The Infinity Gauntlet, voiced by Grey DeLisle 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Strike Force 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance 
Black Widow appears as a card in Ultimate Marvel vs Capcom 3's Heroes vs Heralds mode
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Avengers: Battle for Earth 
Black Widow appears in LittleBigPlanet via the "Marvel Costume Kit 5" DLC 
Black Widow appears in Zen Pinball 2 via the "Women of Power" DLC pack's A-Force table 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Heroes, voiced by Julianne Buescher 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes voiced again by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Avengers Alliance Tactics 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Disney Infinity 2 0, voiced again by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Disney Infinity 3 0, voiced again by Laura Bailey 
Five variants of Black Widow appear in Marvel Puzzle Quest 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Scarlett Johansson 
A teenage version of Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Avengers Academy, voiced by Alison Brie 
Black Widow appears as a downloadable playable character in Marvel vs  Capcom: Infinite, voiced again by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2, voiced by Maria Teresa Creasey 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Powers United VR, voiced again  by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel's Avengers, voiced again by Laura Bailey 
Black Widow appears as a playable character in Marvel Future Revolution, voiced again by Laura Bailey  Additionally, several alternate universe incarnations of Black Widow appear as NPCs, such as one who went undercover in the Hydra Empire and one who joined a secret rebellion against the Maestro on Sakaar 
Black Widow's mainstream and MCU incarnations, with the latter based on her appearances in Avengers: Endgame and her self-titled film, appear as unlockable outfits in Fortnite Battle Royale 
Black Widow appears in Marvel Snap 

Novels
Black Widow appears in the novels Black Widow: Forever Red (2015) and Black Widow: Red Vengeance (2016), by Margaret Stohl 
Black Widow appears in the prose novel adaptation of The Death of Captain America 
Black Widow appears in the prose novel adaptation of Civil War 
The MCU incarnation of Black Widow appears in Avengers: Everybody Wants To Rule The World 

Miscellaneous
Black Widow appears in the Spider-Woman motion comic, voiced by JoEllen Anklam 
Black Widow appears in Marvel Universe: LIVE!, portrayed by Louise Forsley  This version is a member of the Avengers 
Black Widow appears in the Black Widow: Bad Blood audio novel 

Collected editions
See also
List of Russian superheroes
List of Marvel Comics superhero debuts
Passage 4:
Jeremy Staat
Jeremy Ray Staat (born October 10, 1976) is a former American football defensive lineman and offensive lineman who played in the National Football League (NFL) for the Pittsburgh Steelers from 1998 through 2000 and the St  Louis Rams for two games in 2003  He also played for the Los Angeles Avengers of the Arena Football League (AFL)  After his football career, he enlisted in the United States Marine Corps and was deployed to Iraq  On September 17, 2019, Staat, a registered Republican, announced his candidacy for Congress in California's 8th District 

Football career
Staat was a two-sport star in Bakersfield High School in Bakersfield, California, where he was All-Area selection  He then attended Bakersfield College, a junior college, where he played offensive and defensive line for two years while also excelling in track and field  After initially expressing interest in transferring to the University of Nebraska as a walk on, he was offered a full ride scholarship to Arizona State University as a defensive lineman At ASU, Staat became friends with free safety Pat Tillman, and was a roommate with Tillman's brother for a semester  While playing for the Sun Devils, he won the Morris Trophy as the best defensive lineman in the Pac-10 Conference in 1997 and was named a FWAA First-team All-American [1]In the 1998 NFL Draft, the Pittsburgh Steelers selected Staat with the 41st overall pick  The Steelers had debated about whether to take Staat or Alan Faneca with their first round pick but ultimately was able to take both  He played three seasons in Pittsburgh, starting in eleven games in the 1999 season  He would sign with the Seattle Seahawks in 2001 but would be cut from the team following the preseason  Cut by a football team for the first time in his life, Staat began seriously considering joining the military following the September 11, 2001 attacks  However, Tillman, who had quit a lucrative career with the Arizona Cardinals to become a U S  Army Ranger after the attacks, talked Staat into staying in the league for at least three more games to earn his NFL retirement benefits [2]In 2002, he signed with the Oakland Raiders and was moved to offensive guard by Bill Callahan  He would be cut during the preseason, however, after Jon Gruden was traded to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers  Despite speculation that he would reunite with Jake Plummer on the Arizona Cardinals, following an injury to defensive lineman Tom Burke, he would ultimately remain unsigned  Staat eventually earned his pension during a stint with the St  Louis Rams during the 2003 season after transitioning back to the defensive line  The following season, he joined the Los Angeles Avengers of the Arena Football League  During the season, he learned Tillman had been killed in action in Afghanistan, in what was later revealed to be a "friendly fire" incident  The loss of his friend further reduced his interest in football  He would throw his helmet during the middle of practice and storm off the field, leaving the Avengers and professional football forever 

Post-football career
Immediately after football, one of Staat's friends got him a job working at a Walgreens drug store  Staat, like Tillman's family, was dismayed by the United States Army's handling of the story surrounding Tillman's death; himself noting that "The fog around his death was thickened by lies " However, after spending time deciding on his own future, he opted to follow his deceased friend and teammate's example and join the military; but instead of the Army, he joined the United States Marine Corps [3]Staat joined the Marine Corps in 2006 [4] In March 2007, Lance Corporal Staat deployed with 1st Battalion 3rd Marines for a seven-month mission in Iraq [5] He was an infantry machine gunner and drove around in seven-ton armored trucks used to transport soldiers Staat's Iraq tour was fairly quiet, his unit suffered two injuries and no one was killed in action  His opinions changed: "It wasn't a blood fest, like some people make it out to be  It was pretty controlled  We had a pretty good sense of security  My eyes were opened up  They [the Iraqis] were just people  I expected to see guys running around with AK-47s, shouting about Allah and shooting into the sky " After returning from his tour, he started to have back, hip and heart problems  He was put on light duty and began the process of seeking a medical discharge Following his military career, Staat opted to return and finish his degree  He graduated from Arizona State University in 2009 with a master's degree, and returned to his hometown of Bakersfield, where he teaches welding at Bakersfield College In 2019, Staat announced that he would be running for Congress in the 2020 Election on the Republican Party ticket for California's 8th congressional district  He lost in the March primary to Jay Obernolte 
Passage 5:
Paul Bettany
Paul Bettany (born 27 May 1971) is a British actor  He is best known for his roles as J A R V I S  and Vision in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, and for starring in the Disney+ miniseries WandaVision (2021), for which he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie 
Bettany first gained popularity for appearing in the films Gangster No  1 (2000), A Knight's Tale (2001) and A Beautiful Mind (2001)  He was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for playing Stephen Maturin in the film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003)  Other films in which Bettany has appeared include Dogville (2003), Wimbledon (2004), The Da Vinci Code (2006), The Tourist (2010), Margin Call (2011), Legend (2015) and Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018)  He made his directorial debut with the film Shelter (2014), which he also wrote and co-produced 
In television and theatre, Bettany has portrayed Ian Campbell, 11th Duke of Argyll in the series A Very British Scandal and Andy Warhol in the play The Collaboration in the West End, which is set to transfer to Broadway 

Early life
Bettany was born on 27 May 1971 in London, to Anne (née Kettle), a stage singer, theatre teacher, and stage manager, and Thane Bettany, a dancer, actor, drama teacher and godfather to Sophie, Duchess of Edinburgh  Bettany was raised Roman Catholic, although his church attendance drifted after his confirmation  Bettany then experimented with other Christian denominations among which were Methodist and Church of England congregations with his father  Bettany is now an atheist  While his father taught at the all-girls boarding school Queenswood School, near Hatfield, Hertfordshire, the family lived on the school grounds When Bettany was 16, his brother Matthew died at age 8 after falling onto concrete from a tennis pavilion roof at Queenswood  Soon after, Bettany dropped out of school, left home, and became a street performer in London  He lived in a small flat and earned money by playing his guitar in the streets as a busker  His parents later divorced  After two years, he found a new job in a home for the elderly  After working there for a year, Bettany enrolled at the Drama Centre London  He had dyslexia prior to it being recognised as a learning difficulty 

Career
In 1990, at the age of 19, Bettany began a three-year course at the Drama Centre London in Chalk Farm  He made his stage debut in Stephen Daldry's acclaimed West End revival of An Inspector Calls at the Aldwych Theatre, playing the part of Eric Birling  He also appeared in the Royal Shakespeare Company's productions of Richard III, Romeo and Juliet, and Julius Caesar (for which he received a Charleson Award nomination)  When Bettany was 21, he appeared in a BBC production of Oliver Twist, playing Bill Sikes 
After appearing in the finale of Sean Bean's series Sharpe as William II of the Netherlands at the Battle of Waterloo, he made his film debut with a small part in Bent, a Holocaust drama which also featured Clive Owen, Jude Law, and Ian McKellen  He continued doing work in stage and television: these included Joe Penhall's Love and Understanding, which played at London's Bush Theatre and then ran in Connecticut  He had roles in the television productions Killer Net and Coming Home, during which he met and dated Emily Mortimer  His last stage work was in One More Wasted Year and Stranger's House at the Royal Court Theatre  He filmed several more movies, including his first leading role in Gangster No  1  The British Independent Film Awards nominated him for Best Actor, and the London Film Critics' Circle nominated him for British Newcomer of the Year Back in Hollywood, writer/director Brian Helgeland (L A  Confidential) was planning a new film called The Sin Eater (also known as The Order)  He was impressed by Bettany's audition tape, though Helgeland eventually decided to film A Knight's Tale instead  The studio executives were not impressed, but Helgeland was determined to cast him, even writing the part of Chaucer for him  A Knight's Tale would be Bettany's first big Hollywood production  He received critical acclaim for A Knight's Tale, including winning the London Film Critics Circle Award for Best British Supporting Actor  After the movie wrapped, Helgeland, determined that Hollywood should recognize Bettany's talent, showed the audition tape to many of his peers, including Ron Howard, who promptly cast Bettany in A Beautiful Mind alongside Russell Crowe and Jennifer Connelly  After A Beautiful Mind, Bettany was offered the role of serial killer Francis Dolarhyde in Red Dragon, opposite Edward Norton and Anthony Hopkins  He turned down the role due to his commitment to a role in Lars von Trier's Dogville Bettany's next major project saw him starring again alongside A Beautiful Mind costar Russell Crowe in Peter Weir's Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World  His portrayal of surgeon and naturalist Stephen Maturin brought him a BAFTA nomination, and he was named British Actor of the Year (London Film Critics' Circle), and Best Actor (Evening Standard) 
On 28 June 2004, Bettany and 13 other actors were included in the 2004 invitation to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences  Dogville and The Reckoning were released in limited cinemas in 2004  In September of that year, Bettany made his leading-man debut in Wimbledon, a romantic comedy with Kirsten Dunst  The film's cast would also introduce him to Jon Favreau, playing his manager, a relationship that would return when Favreau cast him as the voice of J A R V I S  in Iron Man  In mid-2005, Bettany filmed Firewall in Vancouver, Canada, a thriller also starring Harrison Ford and Virginia Madsen, which reunited him with Wimbledon director Richard Loncraine  He spent the autumn of 2005 filming The Da Vinci Code, based on Dan Brown's best-selling novel and starring Tom Hanks, Audrey Tautou and Ian McKellen  In the film, he played an Opus Dei monk named Silas 
In 2007, Bettany went to London to star in There For Me, written by his friends Dan Fredenburgh and Doraly Rosen  In 2008, he appeared in the New Line Cinema family fantasy Inkheart, playing the part of a fire-eater named Dustfinger  In 2009, he appeared as Charles Darwin in Creation, starring opposite his own wife Jennifer Connelly  In 2010, Bettany appeared alongside Johnny Depp and Angelina Jolie in The Tourist and portrayed the archangel Michael in Legion, a film depicting divine vengeance upon humanity  He starred in the films Priest and Margin Call, both released in 2011 
Bettany reprised his voice role as J A R V I S  in 2010's Iron Man 2, 2012's The Avengers, 2013's Iron Man 3, and Disneyland's Innoventions attraction  In 2014, Bettany starred alongside Johnny Depp and fellow British actor Rebecca Hall in the feature film Transcendence  He was once again paired with Depp in Mortdecai, a 2015 motion picture also starring Gwyneth Paltrow and Ewan McGregor  After voicing J A R V I S  for five years, Bettany made his first onscreen appearance in a Marvel Cinematic Universe film in the 2015 film Avengers: Age of Ultron, playing Vision  He reprised the role in the sequels Captain America: Civil War (2016) and Avengers: Infinity War (2018) Bettany portrayed Ted Kaczynski in the Discovery Channel television show, Manhunt: Unabomber  Bettany replaced Michael K  Williams in Solo: A Star Wars Story, after Williams was removed from the final film, as he was unable to return to set during the film's reshoots  Bettany was cast in his place, with the character being reworked from a motion-capture alien to a human  On 20 January 2018, it was reported that Bettany was nearing a deal to play Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh on the Netflix series The Crown, succeeding Matt Smith  Days later, on 25 January, it was reported by TVLine that Bettany was ultimately unable to sign on due to scheduling conflicts Bettany starred alongside Elizabeth Olsen in the Marvel television miniseries WandaVision, portraying a new version of his Marvel Cinematic Universe character, Vision, with Olsen portraying the titular Wanda  It premiered on Disney+ in January 2021, garnering praise from critics  Reviewing the series, Matt Purslow of IGN wrote Bettany "effortlessly takes to the comedic skits" and that he and Olsen "provide a fantastic amount of life, wit, and emotion"  For his performance, Bettany received nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie and Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film Bettany starred in the 2021 miniseries A Very British Scandal  He played artist Andy Warhol in a production of the play The Collaboration by Anthony McCarten at the Young Vic in London from February to April 2022  He is slated to reprise the role in a film adaptation of the play  Bettany is attached to portray businessman Alexander Nix in a film about the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal as well as co-write and star in the dramedy film Harvest Moon Bettany will reprise his role as Vision in the television series Vision Quest 

Personal life
On 1 January 2003, Bettany married American actress Jennifer Connelly in Scotland; they met when they starred together in the 2001 film A Beautiful Mind  They did not become a couple until some time after filming, as both were in other relationships at the time  As a teenager, he had developed a crush on her after seeing her in the 1986 film Labyrinth  The September 11 attacks motivated him to act on his feelings for her, and after two days of attempting to contact her, he proposed, despite the fact that they were not yet in a relationship  Soon after their marriage, they moved to Brooklyn Heights after living in Tribeca  The couple have two children together  Bettany is stepfather to Connelly's son from a previous relationship Bettany is close friends with actor Johnny Depp  Text messages between Bettany and Depp from 2013 were used as evidence in 2020 during Depp's defamation trial against The Sun and in 2022 as part of Depp's defamation trial against his ex-wife, actress Amber Heard 

Acting credits
Film
Television
Theatre
Awards and nominations
Notes
Passage 6:
The New Adventures of the Elusive Avengers
The New Adventures of the Elusive Avengers (Russian: Новые приключения Неуловимых, translit  Novye prikluchenya Neulovimykh) is a 1968 Soviet action film, a sequel of The Elusive Avengers, directed by Edmond Keosayan and made on Mosfilm  The film was followed by The Crown of the Russian Empire, or Once Again the Elusive Avengers released in 1971 

Plot
The film continues the story of the Elusive Avengers, a posse of young Red Partisans, including Valerka, a former schoolboy, Yashka, a devil-may-care gypsy, and two orphan siblings, Danka and his sister Ksanka  They join the Red Army and fight Baron Wrangel's White Guards  They intercept an airplane that was carrying a letter to the Baron  The letter reveals that the map of fortifications in Crimea is in possession of the White counter-intelligence officer, Colonel Kudasov  This map is vital for the Red Army assault, and the Avengers are sent on a secret mission to steal the map 
They enter Sevastopol on a fishing boat and disguise themselves  Danka assumes the guise of a shoe cleaner, and Valerka fashions himself as a young monarchist nobleman  Meanwhile, the Red agent they were sent to is arrested by Kudasov and killed when he tries to escape, leaving the Avengers on their own 
Ksanka meets Bubba Castorsky, a popular singer and dancer who helped the Avengers in the first film, and Bubba tells them about a White officer who probably knows the combination for Kudasov's safe  Valerka visits the cabaret often visited by this officer, captain Ovechkin, and befriends him  But Danka is arrested, because Ataman Burnash comes to the city and recognizes him  Yashka meets the local Gypsies and persuades them to help freeing Danka 
Then Captain Ovechkin recognizes Valerka for what he is, gloats at him and tells him the combination, intending to arrest him immediately, but Valerka detonates a pool ball filled with explosives and escapes  He dashes to the Counterintelligence Service headquarters, infiltrates it and steals the map  The headquarters is surrounded by soldiers, but Danka, Yashka and Ksanka distract the soldiers and let him escape with the map  The Avengers, along with Bubba, flee the city, but a White officer shoots Bubba when they are already escaping on a boat 

Cast
Mikhail Metyolkin – Valerka Meshcheryakov
Vasily Vasilyev – Yashka the Gypsy
Viktor Kosykh – Danka Shchus
Valentina Kurdyukova – Ksanka Shchus
Armen Dzhigarkhanyan – captain Pyotr Sergeyevich Ovechkin
Boris Sichkin – Buba Kastorsky, actor and singer
Arkady Tolbuzin – colonel Leopold Sergeyevich Kudasov
Vladimir Ivashov – lieutenant Perov, Kudasov's adjutant
Yefim Kopelyan – chieftain Ignat Burnash
Konstantin Sorokin – Mefody Kuzmich, carousel owner
Ivan Pereverzev – Smirnov, chief of staff of Red Cavalry Army
Nikolay Fedortsov – Andrei, underground fighter
Yevgeny Vesnik – drunk colonel
Sergey Filippov – Koshkin, apothecary, expert on explosions
Savely Kramarov – Ilyukha Verekhov, cross-eyed convoy, former bandit
Eduard Abalov – episode
Yan Frenkel – violinist (uncredited)

External links
The New Adventures of the Elusive Avengers at IMDb
Context 2: Passage 1:
Mary Jo Catlett
Mary Jo Catlett (born September 2, 1938) is an American actress  She is a main cast member on the animated series SpongeBob SquarePants, providing the voice of Mrs  Puff  She is also known for originating the role of Ernestina in the 1964 Broadway production of Hello, Dolly! and for playing Pearl Gallagher, the third housekeeper on Diff'rent Strokes Catlett was born in Denver, Colorado, where she performed in a variety of plays and eventually directed a company of Pirates of Penzance  Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, she performed in Off-Broadway and Broadway musicals, often taking light-hearted, humorous roles  Since the late 1960s, Catlett has appeared in television shows such as M*A*S*H, The Dukes of Hazzard, and General Hospital  Catlett received Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Awards in 1978 and 1980, a nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical at the Ovation Awards in 1995, and a Daytime Emmy Award nomination in 1990 In 1998, Catlett joined the main cast of the then-upcoming cartoon SpongeBob SquarePants as the voice of Mrs  Puff, the title character's teacher, who has become her longest-running and most well-known role  Series creator Stephen Hillenburg had seen Catlett perform on stage and sought her out for the part himself  She quickly accepted and has since voiced Mrs  Puff in every season of the cartoon, in addition to all of the theatrical SpongeBob films and video games  In 2001, she received an Annie Award nomination for her voice-over work as Mrs  Puff 

Early life
Catlett was born in Denver, Colorado, on September 2, 1938, the daughter of Cornelia M  (née Callaghan) and Robert J  Catlett  She has a sister, Patricia Marie, who is a nun with the Dominican Order  Catlett is a Catholic 

Career
In 1974, Catlett originated the role of Mrs  Tiffany in Fashion: or, Life in New York  Her performance was well-received; The New York Times' theater critic Clive Barnes called Catlett and co-star Henrietta Valor "exceptional     both particular delights," and Jerry Tallmer of the New York Post said that the play's casting was "top-notch, with particular praise from this quarter for Mary Jo Catlett " Catlett would reprise her role in the 1994 revival of Fashion Catlett described herself as a character actress  In a 1988 interview with the Orlando Sentinel, she said, "It has been a plus to be a character actress  There are plenty of them out there but far fewer than ingenues and leading ladies, who perhaps eventually become character actresses  But I always was a character actress  I always was round and funny "

In 1976 and 1980, Catlett received Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Awards for her roles in Come Back, Little Sheba and Philadelphia, Here I Come!, respectively  In 1995, Catlett's role as Madame de la Grande Bouche in Beauty and the Beast earned her a nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical at the Ovation Awards  Catlett became a main cast member on Diff'rent Strokes in its fifth season, playing the third housekeeper, Pearl Gallagher  She also played characters on General Hospital (for which she was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award) and in several episodes of the television sitcom M*A*S*H 
In 1987, Catlett directed a production of Dan Goggin's Nunsense after meeting with Goggin and discussing the character of Sister Mary Regina  It was staged at the Mark Two Dinner Theatre in Orlando, Florida  Catlett decided to play Sister Mary as well, taking on a dual role as both director and performer  She was partially inspired to direct the show after witnessing directors' unfair treatment of her castmates in previous productions  She said, "I have worked with many directors who were tyrannical  You get afraid to do anything because he'll yell, 'Don't do that!' It makes you crazy    as a director, I believe that there can be a democracy "

SpongeBob SquarePants
In 1998, Catlett was cast as the voice of Mrs  Puff, one of the main characters of Nickelodeon's then-upcoming animated series SpongeBob SquarePants  She is one of the show's nine main cast members and has performed in every season, as well as in all of the theatrical SpongeBob films and video games  Mrs  Puff has become her longest-running and most well-known role  Stephen Hillenburg, the creator of the cartoon, specifically sought out Catlett to voice Mrs  Puff  He had seen her perform on stage and had a strong vision for Mrs  Puff as a character  Catlett quickly accepted and attended early practice sessions with the rest of the voice cast  Her first official recording as Mrs  Puff took place on August 24, 1998; she recorded dialogue with Tom Kenny as SpongeBob SquarePants and Bill Fagerbakke as Patrick Star in a single booth at Nickelodeon Animation Studio for the episode "Boating School" 
In 2001, Catlett was nominated for an Annie Award for her voice-over work as Mrs  Puff, placing in the category "Best Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Production " Kenny was also nominated at the same ceremony, making Catlett and Kenny the first two SpongeBob cast members to be nominated for an award 
As of 2017, voicing Mrs  Puff is Catlett's only regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she is good friends with the other SpongeBob cast members, making the SpongeBob recording booth an easy environment that requires less preparation than in-person performances  The About Group's Nancy Basille noted in 2016 that Catlett's "rich, low tones as teacher Mrs  Puff recall other roles she has had," citing Diff'rent Strokes and M*A*S*H as programs on which she had used a similar voice 

Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Theatre
Passage 2:
Annelid
The annelids  (Annelida , from Latin anellus, "little ring"), also known as the segmented worms, are a large phylum, with over 22,000 extant species including ragworms, earthworms, and leeches  The species exist in and have adapted to various ecologies – some in marine environments as distinct as tidal zones and hydrothermal vents, others in fresh water, and yet others in moist terrestrial environments 
The Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms  They also have parapodia for locomotion  Most textbooks still use the traditional division into polychaetes (almost all marine), oligochaetes (which include earthworms) and leech-like species  Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes  In addition, the Pogonophora, Echiura and Sipuncula, previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes  Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa, a "super-phylum" of protostomes that also includes molluscs, brachiopods, and nemerteans 
The basic annelid form consists of multiple segments  Each segment has the same sets of organs and, in most polychates, has a pair of parapodia that many species use for locomotion  Septa separate the segments of many species, but are poorly defined or absent in others, and Echiura and Sipuncula show no obvious signs of segmentation  In species with well-developed septa, the blood circulates entirely within blood vessels, and the vessels in segments near the front ends of these species are often built up with muscles that act as hearts  The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments, which facilitates movement by peristalsis ("ripples" that pass along the body) or by undulations that improve the effectiveness of the parapodia  In species with incomplete septa or none, the blood circulates through the main body cavity without any kind of pump, and there is a wide range of locomotory techniques – some burrowing species turn their pharynges inside out to drag themselves through the sediment 
Earthworms are oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil  The burrowing of marine polychaetes, which may constitute up to a third of all species in near-shore environments, encourages the development of ecosystems by enabling water and oxygen to penetrate the sea floor  In addition to improving soil fertility, annelids serve humans as food and as bait  Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water  Although blood-letting is used less frequently by doctors than it once was, some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over-harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries  Ragworms' jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer an exceptional combination of lightness and strength 
Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare – mostly jaws and the mineralized tubes that some of the species secreted  Although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids, the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period  Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous, about 299 million years ago  Palaeontologists disagree about whether some body fossils from the mid Ordovician, about 472 to 461 million years ago, are the remains of oligochaetes, and the earliest indisputable fossils of the group appear in the Paleogene period, which began 66 million years ago 

Classification and diversity
There are over 22,000 living annelid species, ranging in size from microscopic to the Australian giant Gippsland earthworm and Amynthas mekongianus, which can both grow up to 3 meters (9 8 ft) long  to the largest annelid, Microchaetus rappi which can grow up to 6 7 m (22 ft)  Although research since 1997 has radically changed scientists' views about the evolutionary family tree of the annelids, most textbooks use the traditional classification into the following sub-groups:
Polychaetes (about 12,000 species)  As their name suggests, they have multiple chetae ("hairs") per segment  Polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, and nuchal organs that are thought to be chemosensors  Most are marine animals, although a few species live in fresh water and even fewer on land 
Clitellates (about 10,000 species )  These have few or no chetae per segment, and no nuchal organs or parapodia  However, they have a unique reproductive organ, the ring-shaped  clitellum ("pack saddle") around their bodies, which produces a cocoon that stores and nourishes fertilized eggs until they hatch  or, in moniligastrids, yolky eggs that provide nutrition for the embryos  The clitellates are sub-divided into:Oligochaetes ("with few hairs"), which includes earthworms  Oligochaetes have a sticky pad in the roof of the mouth  Most are burrowers that feed on wholly or partly decomposed organic materials 
Hirudinea, whose name means "leech-shaped" and whose best known members are leeches  Marine species are mostly blood-sucking parasites, mainly on fish, while most freshwater species are predators  They have suckers at both ends of their bodies, and use these to move rather like inchworms The Archiannelida, minute annelids that live in the spaces between grains of marine sediment, were treated as a separate class because of their simple body structure, but are now regarded as polychaetes  Some other groups of animals have been classified in various ways, but are now widely regarded as annelids:

Pogonophora / Siboglinidae were first discovered in 1914, and their lack of a recognizable gut made it difficult to classify them  They have been classified as a separate phylum, Pogonophora, or as two phyla, Pogonophora and Vestimentifera  More recently they have been re-classified as a family, Siboglinidae, within the polychaetes 
The Echiura have a checkered taxonomic history: in the 19th century they were assigned to the phylum "Gephyrea", which is now empty as its members have been assigned to other phyla; the Echiura were next regarded as annelids until the 1940s, when they were classified as a phylum in their own right; but a molecular phylogenetics analysis in 1997 concluded that echiurans are annelids 
Myzostomida live on crinoids and other echinoderms, mainly as parasites  In the past they have been regarded as close relatives of the trematode flatworms or of the tardigrades, but in 1998 it was suggested that they are a sub-group of polychaetes  However, another analysis in 2002 suggested that myzostomids are more closely related to flatworms or to rotifers and acanthocephales 
Sipuncula was originally classified as annelids, despite the complete lack of segmentation, bristles and other annelid characters  The phylum Sipuncula was later allied with the Mollusca, mostly on the basis of developmental and larval characters  Phylogenetic analyses based on 79 ribosomal proteins indicated a position of Sipuncula within Annelida  Subsequent analysis of the mitochondrion's DNA has confirmed their close relationship to the Myzostomida and Annelida (including echiurans and pogonophorans)  It has also been shown that a rudimentary neural segmentation similar to that of annelids occurs in the early larval stage, even if these traits are absent in the adults Mitogenomic and phylogenomic analysis also implies that Orthonectida, a group of extremely simplified parasites traditionally placed in Mesozoa, are actually reduced annelids 

Distinguishing features
No single feature distinguishes Annelids from other invertebrate phyla, but they have a distinctive combination of features  Their bodies are long, with segments that are divided externally by shallow ring-like constrictions called annuli and internally by septa ("partitions") at the same points, although in some species the septa are incomplete and in a few cases missing  Most of the segments contain the same sets of organs, although sharing a common gut, circulatory system and nervous system makes them inter-dependent  Their bodies are covered by a cuticle (outer covering) that does not contain cells but is secreted by cells in the skin underneath, is made of tough but flexible collagen and does not molt – on the other hand arthropods' cuticles are made of the more rigid α-chitin, and molt until the arthropods reach their full size  Most annelids have closed circulatory systems, where the blood makes its entire circuit via blood vessels 

Description
Segmentation
Most of an annelid's body consists of segments that are practically identical, having the same sets of internal organs and external chaetae (Greek χαιτη, meaning "hair") and, in some species, appendages  The frontmost and rearmost sections are not regarded as true segments as they do not contain the standard sets of organs and do not develop in the same way as the true segments  The frontmost section, called the prostomium (Greek προ- meaning "in front of" and στομα meaning "mouth") contains the brain and sense organs, while the rearmost, called the pygidium (Greek πυγιδιον, meaning "little tail") or periproct contains the anus, generally on the underside  The first section behind the prostomium, called the peristomium (Greek περι- meaning "around" and στομα meaning "mouth"), is regarded by some zoologists as not a true segment, but in some polychaetes the peristomium has chetae and appendages like those of other segments The segments develop one at a time from a growth zone just ahead of the pygidium, so that an annelid's youngest segment is just in front of the growth zone while the peristomium is the oldest  This pattern is called teloblastic growth  Some groups of annelids, including all leeches, have fixed maximum numbers of segments, while others add segments throughout their lives 
The phylum's name is derived from the Latin word annelus, meaning "little ring" 

Body wall, chaetae and parapodia
Annelids' cuticles are made of collagen fibers, usually in layers that spiral in alternating directions so that the fibers cross each other  These are secreted by the one-cell deep epidermis (outermost skin layer)  A few marine annelids that live in tubes lack cuticles, but their tubes have a similar structure, and mucus-secreting glands in the epidermis protect their skins  Under the epidermis is the dermis, which is made of connective tissue, in other words a combination of cells and non-cellular materials such as collagen  Below this are two layers of muscles, which develop from the lining of the coelom (body cavity): circular muscles make a segment longer and slimmer when they contract, while under them are longitudinal muscles, usually four distinct strips,  whose contractions make the segment shorter and fatter  But several families have lost the circular muscles, and it has been suggested that the lack of circular muscles is a plesiomorphic character in Annelida  Some annelids also have oblique internal muscles that connect the underside of the body to each side The setae ("hairs") of annelids project out from the epidermis to provide traction and other capabilities  The simplest are unjointed and form paired bundles near the top and bottom of each side of each segment  The parapodia ("limbs") of annelids that have them often bear more complex chetae at their tips – for example jointed, comb-like or hooked  Chetae are made of moderately flexible β-chitin and are formed by follicles, each of which has a chetoblast ("hair-forming") cell at the bottom and muscles that can extend or retract the cheta  The chetoblasts produce chetae by forming microvilli, fine hair-like extensions that increase the area available for secreting the cheta  When the cheta is complete, the microvilli withdraw into the chetoblast, leaving parallel tunnels that run almost the full length of the cheta  Hence annelids' chetae are structurally different from the setae ("bristles") of arthropods, which are made of the more rigid α-chitin, have a single internal cavity, and are mounted on flexible joints in shallow pits in the cuticle Nearly all polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, while other major annelid groups lack them  Parapodia are unjointed paired extensions of the body wall, and their muscles are derived from the circular muscles of the body  They are often supported internally by one or more large, thick chetae  The parapodia of burrowing and tube-dwelling polychaetes are often just ridges whose tips bear hooked chetae  In active crawlers and swimmers the parapodia are often divided into large upper and lower paddles on a very short trunk, and the paddles are generally fringed with chetae and sometimes with cirri (fused bundles of cilia) and gills 

Nervous system and senses
The brain generally forms a ring round the pharynx (throat), consisting of a pair of ganglia (local control centers) above and in front of the pharynx, linked by nerve cords either side of the pharynx to another pair of ganglia just below and behind it  The brains of polychaetes are generally in the prostomium, while those of clitellates are in the peristomium or sometimes the first segment behind the prostomium  In some very mobile and active polychaetes the brain is enlarged and more complex, with visible hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain sections  The rest of the central nervous system, the ventral nerve cord, is generally "ladder-like", consisting of a pair of nerve cords that run through the bottom part of the body and have in each segment paired ganglia linked by a transverse connection  From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body  However, in most polychaetes the two main nerve cords are fused, and in the tube-dwelling genus Owenia the single nerve chord has no ganglia and is located in the epidermis As in arthropods, each muscle fiber (cell) is controlled by more than one neuron, and the speed and power of the fiber's contractions depends on the combined effects of all its neurons  Vertebrates have a different system, in which one neuron controls a group of muscle fibers  Most annelids' longitudinal nerve trunks include giant axons (the output signal lines of nerve cells)  Their large diameter decreases their resistance, which allows them to transmit signals exceptionally fast  This enables these worms to withdraw rapidly from danger by shortening their bodies  Experiments have shown that cutting the giant axons prevents this escape response but does not affect normal movement The sensors are primarily single cells that detect light, chemicals, pressure waves and contact, and are present on the head, appendages (if any) and other parts of the body  Nuchal ("on the neck") organs are paired, ciliated structures found only in polychaetes, and are thought to be chemosensors  Some polychaetes also have various combinations of ocelli ("little eyes") that detect the direction from which light is coming and camera eyes or compound eyes that can probably form images  The compound eyes probably evolved independently of arthropods' eyes  Some tube-worms use ocelli widely spread over their bodies to detect the shadows of fish, so that they can quickly withdraw into their tubes  Some burrowing and tube-dwelling polychaetes have statocysts (tilt and balance sensors) that tell them which way is down  A few polychaete genera have on the undersides of their heads palps that are used both in feeding and as "feelers", and some of these also have antennae that are structurally similar but probably are used mainly as "feelers" 

Coelom, locomotion and circulatory system
Most annelids have a pair of coelomata (body cavities) in each segment, separated from other segments by septa and from each other by vertical mesenteries  Each septum forms a sandwich with connective tissue in the middle and mesothelium (membrane that serves as a lining) from the preceding and following segments on either side  Each mesentery is similar except that the mesothelium is the lining of each of the pair of coelomata, and the blood vessels and, in polychaetes, the main nerve cords are embedded in it   The mesothelium is made of modified epitheliomuscular cells; in other words, their bodies form part of the epithelium but their bases extend to form muscle fibers in the body wall  The mesothelium may also form radial and circular muscles on the septa, and circular muscles around the blood vessels and gut  Parts of the mesothelium, especially on the outside of the gut, may also form chloragogen cells that perform similar functions to the livers of vertebrates: producing and storing glycogen and fat; producing the oxygen-carrier hemoglobin; breaking down proteins; and turning nitrogenous waste products into ammonia and urea to be excreted 

Many annelids move by peristalsis (waves of contraction and expansion that sweep along the body), or flex the body while using parapodia  to crawl or swim  In these animals the septa enable the circular and longitudinal muscles to change the shape of individual segments, by making each segment a separate fluid-filled "balloon"  However, the septa are often incomplete in annelids that are semi-sessile or that do not move by peristalsis or by movements of parapodia – for example some move by whipping movements of the body, some small marine species move by means of cilia (fine muscle-powered hairs) and some burrowers turn their pharynges (throats) inside out to penetrate the sea-floor and drag themselves into it The fluid in the coelomata contains coelomocyte cells that defend the animals against parasites and infections  In some species coelomocytes may also contain a respiratory pigment – red hemoglobin in some species, green chlorocruorin in others (dissolved in the plasma) – and provide oxygen transport within their segments  Respiratory pigment is also dissolved in the blood plasma  Species with well-developed septa generally also have blood vessels running all long their bodies above and below the gut, the upper one carrying blood forwards while the lower one carries it backwards  Networks of capillaries in the body wall and around the gut transfer blood between the main blood vessels and to parts of the segment that need oxygen and nutrients  Both of the major vessels, especially the upper one, can pump blood by contracting  In some annelids the forward end of the upper blood vessel is enlarged with muscles to form a heart, while in the forward ends of many earthworms some of the vessels that connect the upper and lower main vessels function as hearts  Species with poorly developed or no septa generally have no blood vessels and rely on the circulation within the coelom for delivering nutrients and oxygen However, leeches and their closest relatives have a body structure that is very uniform within the group but significantly different from that of other annelids, including other members of the Clitellata  In leeches there are no septa, the connective tissue layer of the body wall is so thick that it occupies much of the body, and the two coelomata are widely separated and run the length of the body  They function as the main blood vessels, although they are side-by-side rather than upper and lower  However, they are lined with mesothelium, like the coelomata and unlike the blood vessels of other annelids  Leeches generally use suckers at their front and rear ends to move like inchworms  The anus is on the upper surface of the pygidium 

Respiration
In some annelids, including earthworms, all respiration is via the skin  However, many polychaetes and some clitellates (the group to which earthworms belong) have gills associated with most segments, often as extensions of the parapodia in polychaetes  The gills of tube-dwellers and burrowers usually cluster around whichever end has the stronger water flow 

Feeding and excretion
Feeding structures in the mouth region vary widely, and have little correlation with the animals' diets  Many polychaetes have a muscular pharynx that can be everted (turned inside out to extend it)  In these animals the foremost few segments often lack septa so that, when the muscles in these segments contract, the sharp increase in fluid pressure from all these segments everts the pharynx very quickly  Two families, the Eunicidae and Phyllodocidae, have evolved jaws, which can be used for seizing prey, biting off pieces of vegetation, or grasping dead and decaying matter  On the other hand, some predatory polychaetes have neither jaws nor eversible pharynges   Selective deposit feeders generally live in tubes on the sea-floor and use palps to find food particles in the sediment and then wipe them into their mouths  Filter feeders use "crowns" of palps covered in cilia that wash food particles towards their mouths  Non-selective deposit feeders ingest soil or marine sediments via mouths that are generally unspecialized  Some clitellates have sticky pads in the roofs of their mouths, and some of these can evert the pads to capture prey  Leeches often have an eversible proboscis, or a muscular pharynx with two or three teeth The gut is generally an almost straight tube supported by the mesenteries (vertical partitions within segments), and ends with the anus on the underside of the pygidium  However, in members of the tube-dwelling family Siboglinidae the gut is blocked by a swollen lining that houses symbiotic bacteria, which can make up 15% of the worms' total weight  The bacteria convert inorganic matter – such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from hydrothermal vents, or methane from seeps – to organic matter that feeds themselves and their hosts, while the worms extend their palps into the gas flows to absorb the gases needed by the bacteria Annelids with blood vessels use metanephridia to remove soluble waste products, while those without use protonephridia  Both of these systems use a two-stage filtration process, in which fluid and waste products are first extracted and these are filtered again to re-absorb any re-usable materials while dumping toxic and spent materials as urine  The difference is that protonephridia combine both filtration stages in the same organ, while metanephridia perform only the second filtration and rely on other mechanisms for the first – in annelids special filter cells in the walls of the blood vessels let fluids and other small molecules pass into the coelomic fluid, where it circulates to the metanephridia  In annelids the points at which fluid enters the protonephridia or metanephridia are on the forward side of a septum while the second-stage filter and the nephridiopore (exit opening in the body wall) are in the following segment  As a result, the hindmost segment (before the growth zone and pygidium) has no structure that extracts its wastes, as there is no following segment to filter and discharge them, while the first segment contains an extraction structure that passes wastes to the second, but does not contain the structures that re-filter and discharge urine 

Reproduction and life cycle
Asexual reproduction
Polychaetes can reproduce asexually, by dividing into two or more pieces or by budding off a new individual while the parent remains a complete organism  Some oligochaetes, such as Aulophorus furcatus, seem to reproduce entirely asexually, while others reproduce asexually in summer and sexually in autumn  Asexual reproduction in oligochaetes is always by dividing into two or more pieces, rather than by budding  However, leeches have never been seen reproducing asexually Most polychaetes and oligochaetes also use similar mechanisms to regenerate after suffering damage  Two polychaete genera, Chaetopterus and Dodecaceria, can regenerate from a single segment, and others can regenerate even if their heads are removed  Annelids are the most complex animals that can regenerate after such severe damage  On the other hand, leeches cannot regenerate 

Sexual reproduction
It is thought that annelids were originally animals with two separate sexes, which released ova and sperm into the water via their nephridia  The fertilized eggs develop into trochophore larvae, which live as plankton  Later they sink to the sea-floor and metamorphose into miniature adults: the part of the trochophore between the apical tuft and the prototroch becomes the prostomium (head);  a small area round the trochophore's anus becomes the pygidium (tail-piece); a narrow band immediately in front of that becomes the growth zone that produces new segments; and the rest of the trochophore becomes the peristomium (the segment that contains the mouth) However, the lifecycles of most living polychaetes, which are almost all marine animals, are unknown, and only about 25% of the 300+ species whose lifecycles are known follow this pattern  About 14% use a similar external fertilization but produce yolk-rich eggs, which reduce the time the larva needs to spend among the plankton, or eggs from which miniature adults emerge rather than larvae  The rest care for the fertilized eggs until they hatch – some by producing jelly-covered masses of eggs which they tend, some by attaching the eggs to their bodies and a few species by keeping the eggs within their bodies until they hatch  These species use a variety of methods for sperm transfer; for example, in some the females collect sperm released into the water, while in others the males have a penis that inject sperm into the female  There is no guarantee that this is a representative sample of polychaetes' reproductive patterns, and it simply reflects scientists' current knowledge Some polychaetes breed only once in their lives, while others breed almost continuously or through several breeding seasons  While most polychaetes remain of one sex all their lives, a significant percentage of species are full hermaphrodites or change sex during their lives  Most polychaetes whose reproduction has been studied lack permanent gonads, and it is uncertain how they produce ova and sperm  In a few species the rear of the body splits off and becomes a separate individual that lives just long enough to swim to a suitable environment, usually near the surface, and spawn Most mature clitellates (the group that includes earthworms and leeches) are full hermaphrodites, although in a few leech species younger adults function as males and become female at maturity  All have well-developed gonads, and all copulate  Earthworms store their partners' sperm in spermathecae ("sperm stores") and then the clitellum produces a cocoon that collects ova from the ovaries and then sperm from the spermathecae  Fertilization and development of earthworm eggs takes place in the cocoon  Leeches' eggs are fertilized in the ovaries, and then transferred to the cocoon  In all clitellates the cocoon also either produces yolk when the eggs are fertilized or nutrients while they are developing  All clitellates hatch as miniature adults rather than larvae 

Ecological significance
Charles Darwin's book The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms (1881) presented the first scientific analysis of earthworms' contributions to soil fertility  Some burrow while others live entirely on the surface, generally in moist leaf litter  The burrowers loosen the soil so that oxygen and water can penetrate it, and both surface and burrowing worms help to produce soil by mixing organic and mineral matter, by accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and thus making it more quickly available to other organisms, and by concentrating minerals and converting them to forms that plants can use more easily  Earthworms are also important prey for birds ranging in size from robins to storks, and for mammals ranging from shrews to badgers, and in some cases conserving earthworms may be essential for conserving endangered birds Terrestrial annelids can be invasive in some situations  In the glaciated areas of North America, for example, almost all native earthworms are thought to have been killed by the glaciers and the worms currently found in those areas are all introduced from other areas, primarily from Europe, and, more recently, from Asia   Northern hardwood forests are especially negatively impacted by invasive worms through the loss of leaf duff, soil fertility, changes in soil chemistry and the loss of ecological diversity  Especially of concern is Amynthas agrestis and at least one state (Wisconsin) has listed it as a prohibited species 
Earthworms migrate only a limited distance annually on their own, and the spread of invasive worms is increased rapidly by anglers and from worms or their cocoons in the dirt on vehicle tires or footwear 
Marine annelids may account for over one-third of bottom-dwelling animal species around coral reefs and in tidal zones  Burrowing species increase the penetration of water and oxygen into the sea-floor sediment, which encourages the growth of populations of aerobic bacteria and small animals alongside their burrows Although blood-sucking leeches do little direct harm to their victims, some transmit flagellates that can be very dangerous to their hosts  Some small tube-dwelling oligochaetes transmit myxosporean parasites that cause whirling disease in fish 

Interaction with humans
Earthworms make a significant contribution to soil fertility  The rear end of the Palolo worm, a marine polychaete that tunnels through coral, detaches in order to spawn at the surface, and the people of Samoa regard these spawning modules as a delicacy  Anglers sometimes find that worms are more effective bait than artificial flies, and worms can be kept for several days in a tin lined with damp moss   Ragworms are commercially important as bait and as food sources for aquaculture, and there have been proposals to farm them in order to reduce over-fishing of their natural populations  Some marine polychaetes' predation on molluscs causes serious losses to fishery and aquaculture operations Scientists study aquatic annelids to monitor the oxygen content, salinity and pollution levels in fresh and marine water Accounts of the use of leeches for the medically dubious practise of blood-letting have come from China around 30 AD, India around 200 AD, ancient Rome around 50 AD and later throughout Europe  In the 19th century medical demand for leeches was so high that some areas' stocks were exhausted and other regions imposed restrictions or bans on exports, and Hirudo medicinalis is treated as an endangered species by both IUCN and CITES  More recently leeches have been used to assist in microsurgery, and their saliva has provided anti-inflammatory compounds and several important anticoagulants, one of which also prevents tumors from spreading Ragworms' jaws are strong but much lighter than the hard parts of many other organisms, which are biomineralized with calcium salts  These advantages have attracted the attention of engineers  Investigations showed that ragworm jaws are made of unusual  proteins that bind strongly to zinc 

Evolutionary history
Fossil record
Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare  Polychaetes' fossil record consists mainly of the jaws that some species had and the mineralized tubes that some secreted  Some Ediacaran fossils such as Dickinsonia in some ways resemble polychaetes, but the similarities are too vague for these fossils to be classified with confidence  The small shelly fossil Cloudina, from 549 to 542 million years ago, has been classified by some authors as an annelid, but by others as a cnidarian (i e  in the phylum to which jellyfish and sea anemones belong)  Until 2008 the earliest fossils widely accepted as annelids were the polychaetes Canadia and Burgessochaeta, both from Canada's Burgess Shale, formed about 505 million years ago in the early Cambrian  Myoscolex, found in Australia and a little older than the Burgess Shale, was possibly an annelid  However, it lacks some typical annelid features and has features which are not usually found in annelids and some of which are associated with other phyla   Then Simon Conway Morris and John Peel reported Phragmochaeta from Sirius Passet, about 518 million years old, and concluded that it was the oldest annelid known to date  There has been vigorous debate about whether the Burgess Shale fossil Wiwaxia was a mollusc or an annelid  Polychaetes diversified in the early Ordovician, about 488 to 474 million years ago   It is not until the early Ordovician that the first annelid jaws are found, thus the crown-group cannot have appeared before this date and probably appeared somewhat later  By the end of the Carboniferous, about 299 million years ago, fossils of most of the modern mobile polychaete groups had appeared  Many fossil tubes look like those made by modern sessile polychaetes, but the first tubes clearly produced by polychaetes date from the Jurassic, less than 199 million years ago  In 2012, a 508 million year old species of annelid found near the Burgess shale beds in British Columbia, Kootenayscolex, was found that changed the hypotheses about how the annelid head developed  It appears to have bristles on its head segment akin to those along its body, as if the head simply developed as a specialized version of a previously generic segment 
The earliest good evidence for oligochaetes occurs in the Tertiary period, which began 65 million years ago, and it has been suggested that these animals evolved around the same time as flowering plants in the early Cretaceous, from 130 to 90 million years ago  A trace fossil consisting of a convoluted burrow partly filled with small fecal pellets may be evidence that earthworms were present in the early Triassic period from 251 to 245 million years ago  Body fossils going back to the mid Ordovician, from 472 to 461 million years ago, have been tentatively classified as oligochaetes, but these identifications are uncertain and some have been disputed 

Internal relationships
Traditionally the annelids have been divided into two major groups, the polychaetes and clitellates  In turn the clitellates were divided into oligochaetes, which include earthworms, and hirudinomorphs, whose best-known members are leeches  For many years there was no clear arrangement of the approximately 80 polychaete families into higher-level groups  In 1997 Greg Rouse and Kristian Fauchald attempted a "first heuristic step in terms of bringing polychaete systematics to an acceptable level of rigour", based on anatomical structures, and divided polychaetes into:
Scolecida, less than 1,000 burrowing species that look rather like earthworms 
Palpata, the great majority of polychaetes, divided into:
Canalipalpata, which are distinguished by having long grooved palps that they use for feeding, and most of which live in tubes 
Aciculata, the most active polychaetes, which have parapodia reinforced by internal spines (aciculae) 
Also in 1997 Damhnait McHugh, using molecular phylogenetics to compare similarities and differences in one gene, presented a very different view, in which: the clitellates were an offshoot of one branch of the polychaete family tree; the pogonophorans and echiurans, which for a few decades had been regarded as a separate phyla, were placed on other branches of the polychaete tree  Subsequent molecular phylogenetics analyses on a similar scale presented similar conclusions In 2007 Torsten Struck and colleagues compared three genes in 81 taxa, of which nine were outgroups, in other words not considered closely related to annelids but included to give an indication of where the organisms under study are placed on the larger tree of life  For a cross-check the study used an analysis of 11 genes (including the original 3) in ten taxa  This analysis agreed that clitellates, pogonophorans and echiurans were on various branches of the polychaete family tree  It also concluded that the classification of polychaetes into Scolecida, Canalipalpata and Aciculata was useless, as the members of these alleged groups were scattered all over the family tree derived from comparing the 81 taxa  It also placed sipunculans, generally regarded at the time as a separate phylum, on another branch of the polychaete tree, and concluded that leeches were a sub-group of oligochaetes rather than their sister-group among the clitellates  Rouse accepted the analyses based on molecular phylogenetics, and their main conclusions are now the scientific consensus, although the details of the annelid family tree remain uncertain In addition to re-writing the classification of annelids and three previously independent phyla, the molecular phylogenetics analyses undermine the emphasis that decades of previous writings placed on the importance of segmentation in the classification of invertebrates  Polychaetes, which these analyses found to be the parent group, have completely segmented bodies, while polychaetes' echiurans and sipunculan offshoots are not segmented and pogonophores are segmented only in the rear parts of their bodies  It now seems that segmentation can appear and disappear much more easily in the course of evolution than was previously thought  The 2007 study also noted that the ladder-like nervous system, which is associated with segmentation, is less universal than previously thought in both annelids and arthropods The updated phylogenetic tree of the Annelid phylum is comprised by a grade of basal groups of polychaetes: Palaeoannelida, Chaetopteriformia and the Amphinomida/Sipuncula/Lobatocerebrum clade  This grade is followed by Pleistoannelida, the clade containing nearly all of annelid diversity, divided into two highly diverse groups: Sedentaria and Errantia  Sedentaria contains the clitellates, pogonophorans, echiurans and some archiannelids, as well as several polychaete groups  Errantia contains the eunicid and phyllodocid polychaetes, and several archiannelids  Some small groups, such as the Myzostomida, are more difficult to place due to long branching, but belong to either one of these large groups 

External relationships
Annelids are members of the protostomes, one of the two major superphyla of bilaterian animals – the other is the deuterostomes, which includes vertebrates  Within the protostomes, annelids used to be grouped with arthropods under the super-group Articulata ("jointed animals"), as segmentation is obvious in most members of both phyla  However, the genes that drive segmentation in arthropods do not appear to do the same in annelids  Arthropods and annelids both have close relatives that are unsegmented  It is at least as easy to assume that they evolved segmented bodies independently as it is to assume that the ancestral protostome or bilaterian was segmented and that segmentation disappeared in many descendant phyla  The current view is that annelids are grouped with molluscs, brachiopods and several other phyla that have lophophores (fan-like feeding structures) and/or trochophore larvae as members of Lophotrochozoa  Meanwhile, arthropods are now regarded as members of the Ecdysozoa ("animals that molt"), along with some phyla that are unsegmented 
The "Lophotrochozoa" hypothesis is also supported by the fact that many phyla within this group, including annelids, molluscs, nemerteans and flatworms, follow a similar pattern in the fertilized egg's development  When their cells divide after the 4-cell stage, descendants of these four cells form a spiral pattern  In these phyla the "fates" of the embryo's cells, in other words the roles their descendants will play in the adult animal, are the same and can be predicted from a very early stage  Hence this development pattern is often described as "spiral determinate cleavage" 

Fossil discoveries lead to the hypothesis that Annelida and the lophophorates are more closely related to each other than any other phyla  Because of the body plan of lophotrochozoan fossils, a phylogenetic analysis found the lophophorates as the sister group of annelids  Both groups share in common: the presence of chaetae secreted by microvilli; paired, metameric coelomic compartments; and a similar metanephridial structure 

Notes
Passage 3:
Lori Alan
Lori Alan is an American actress  She has played a long-running role as Pearl Krabs on the animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants  She also voiced Diane Simmons on Family Guy, the Invisible Woman on Fantastic Four, and The Boss in the Metal Gear video game series 

Personal life
Alan had a mixed-faith family: her mother is a Southern Baptist and her father is Jewish  Both of her parents were performers and supported her choice to be an actress  Alan lives in Los Angeles 
She started acting at age five, making her television debut in a Shakey's Pizza commercial Alan is active in animal rescue and welfare causes  She has spoken out against animal cruelty and has campaigned for the anti-dog meat charity World Protection for Dogs and Cats in the Meat Trade  She is also on the board of Pickle Pants Rescue, an animal rescue organization in Los Angeles 

Career
Alan has done vocal work for over three decades  Her process of getting to the authentic personality of the character she is providing the voice for is to improvise and trust her own choices, something she learned at her first voice acting job Alan voices Pearl the Whale on SpongeBob SquarePants, Sue Richards (the Invisible Woman) on Marvel Comics' The Fantastic Four, newsreader-turned-murderer Diane Simmons on Family Guy, and The Boss in the Metal Gear series  Lori has done voices in feature films: Monsters University, Toy Story 3, Despicable Me 2, WALL·E, Inside Out, and each movie in the SpongeBob SquarePants film series  She has also voiced roles for Henry Hugglemonster, Cow and Chicken, Animaniacs, and Futurama  Her rendition of The Boss was rated as one of the top 25 "Greatest Acting Performances in Video Games" by Complex In 2005, she joined Warren Beatty, Rob Reiner, Kurtwood Smith and Jason George to help voice commercials against proposals made by California's Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger In 2014, she won a Voice Arts Award (VAA) for outstanding body of work and outstanding national television commercial Alan's on-camera roles include Desperate Housewives, Ray Donovan, Comedy Central's Workaholics, Bones, Southland, CSI, 90210, Law & Order: LA, Law & Order and many more  On stage credits include The Pee-wee Herman Show, solo show Lori Alan: The Musical, Queen Celia in the hit musical Sneaux!, and the award-winning musical Reefer Madness  Her 1999 performance in Reefer Madness as a "Reefer Madam" was praised by the Los Angeles Times She revisited her role in the Reefer Madness tenth Anniversary Cast in 2015  Her vocals on the song "The Stuff" was considered both sultry and comical by Broadway World 

Filmography
Film
Television
Web
Video games
Passage 4:
Hilo March
"Hilo March" is a Hawaiian popular song written by Joseph Kapeau Ae`a  It was originally called "Ke Ala Tuberose"  It has been covered by a number of musicians, Polynesian and non-Polynesian alike  It was also used in the soundtrack of SpongeBob SquarePants (arranged by The Hawaiian Serenaders as "Hilo March", and arragnged by Kapono Beamer as "Old Hilo March") 

About the song
It has been adopted as the school song by the University of Hawaii at Hilo  Along with another popular song, "Aloha ʻOe", every person from child to senior citizen know is said to the words and music to these songs  Originally the song was called "Ke Ala Tuberose" and was composed by Joseph Kapeau Ae`a, who was a member of the Royal Hawaiian Band and also a friend of Princess Liliuokalani  The princess requested  Ae`a and the band come to Hilo and that is where he composed the song  In August 1881, the title was changed from "Ke Ala Tuberose" to "Hilo March" and played by the Royal Hawaiian band under Captain Henri Berger's direction  Besides being a favorite of the Royal Hawaiian band and its popularity in the Islands, it has been picked up as a favorite by many steel guitarists on the mainland  The lyrics of the song tell of Hilo's beauty as well as the beauty of the Lehua flower 

Covers
It has been covered by artists such as Trevor Edmondson, Christopher Homer & Raney Van Vink, the Four Hawaiians, Lani McIntyre and his Aloha Islanders, the Mena Moeria Minstrels, Tau Moe's Original Hawaiians, Johnny Pineapple And His Orchestra, Hank Snow, Bashful Brother Oswald, and Bill Wolfgramme and his Islanders
Passage 5:
Derek Drymon
Derek Drymon (born November 19, 1968) is an American animator, writer, storyboard artist, director, comedian, and producer  He has worked on numerous animated cartoon productions of the 1990s and 2000s, best known for his work on Rocko's Modern Life, SpongeBob SquarePants and Adventure Time 

Early life
Derek Drymon was born in New Jersey  He attended Jefferson Township and Dover public schools as a child and enjoyed drawing and making comic books  Drymon graduated from Jefferson Township High School in 1987  Drymon attended the School of Visual Arts (SVA) in New York, where he majored in Illustration, sharpening his drawing skills and moving from still images to animation  He graduated from SVA in 1992 

Career
Drymon obtained an internship with Disney on the strength of his life drawings Drymon was discovered by Nickelodeon in 1993  He moved to California to work as an animator for Nickelodeon  In 1993, Drymon also began working as a storyboard artist and writer for Rocko's Modern Life  It was here he met two of his future employers, Tim Hill and Stephen Hillenburg; Hill was a writer, Hillenburg a co-producer and storyboard artist  In 1997, Hillenburg created SpongeBob SquarePants  Drymon performed many duties on SpongeBob, including being a writer on all episodes, the creative director, and, on his last season with the show, supervising producer  Drymon also worked on the Cartoon Network animated series Camp Lazlo  Drymon worked on Tim Hill's side project, the popular KaBlam! skit Action League Now!, as a storyboard artist  He also wrote the Emmy Award-nominated episode of CatDog "Doggone" Drymon met Stephen Hillenburg on the Nickelodeon cartoon Rocko's Modern Life  Hillenburg recalled Drymon as "one of the main people in the genesis of SpongeBob"  Drymon teamed up with Hillenburg, Hill, and Nick Jennings who was also a companion from Nickelodeon  Drymon was the creative director for the first three seasons and became Supervising Producer in season 3 until being replaced by Paul Tibbitt starting in season 4  Along with Stephen Hillenburg, Drymon approved the writers' ideas and outlines for episodes and controlled the creative and production process on SpongeBob Drymon was eventually promoted to Executive producer on television show Adventure Time, and become a lead writer for DreamWorks Pictures, and a director at Illumination Entertainment  During the first three seasons of SpongeBob, Drymon being creative director allowed him to work with executive story editor Merriwether Williams and the rest of the writing team 
Staff writer Kent Osborne responded to the writing process with Drymon and other writers by saying  "By the third season we had done 26 half-hours  I came up with millions of ideas"  Despite the issues with writing new episodes, Drymon collaborated with the writers to create episode ideas like the half-hour specials and episodes that focused on other characters, for example the season three episodes "The Algae Always Greener" and "Plankton's Army" focused on Sheldon Plankton and "Doing Time" focused on Mrs  Puff  Drymon said in an interview "Coming up with episode ideas was always tough"  The writers were influenced for the episode "The Secret Box", which was influenced by Drymon because he told them when he was younger he kept a "secret box", the writers thought it was hilarious and weird and used Drymon's idea to create the story of the episode   Drymon co-wrote the pilot episode "Help Wanted"  Drymon earned two Emmy nominations and along with the crew of SpongeBob won the "Best Animated Television Production" Annie award in 2005 for season 3 of SpongeBob Drymon hired a large amount of the staff writers, including Sam Henderson, a friend and fellow alumnus of SVA, along with Kent Osborne and Walt Dohrn From 2008 to 2017, Drymon work as a Storyboard Artist for DreamWorks Animation, working on films such as the Kung Fu Panda trilogy, Monsters vs  Aliens, Shrek Forever After, Puss in Boots, Turbo, Penguins of Madagascar, and Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie 
Drymon was an executive producer (with Fred Seibert) on the Cartoon Network series Adventure Time, created by Pendleton Ward for the show's first season  He was no longer credited on episodes starting with the second season On September 17, 2020, Drymon was set to co-direct Hotel Transylvania: Transformania with story artist Jennifer Kluska In April 2023, Drymon was announced as the director of the fourth SpongeBob SquarePants theatrical film titled The SpongeBob Movie: Search for SquarePants 

Filmography
Television
Film
Bibliography
Passage 6:
List of SpongeBob SquarePants cast members
SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated television series created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg that debuted on Nickelodeon in the United States on May 1, 1999  The regular voice cast consists of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Doug Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan  Most one-off and background characters are voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, Sirena Irwin, Bob Joles, Mark Fite, Thomas F  Wilson, Carlos Alazraqui and Jess Harnell  Throughout the show's run, it has employed numerous guest stars from many ranges of professions  Repeat guests include Ernest Borgnine, Tim Conway, Brian Doyle-Murray, Marion Ross, John O'Hurley and Michael McKean 
SpongeBob SquarePants chronicles the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom  Many of the ideas for the show originated in an unpublished, educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in the mid-1980s  He began developing SpongeBob SquarePants into a television series in 1996 upon the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, another Nickelodeon animated series which Hillenburg directed  While creating the show, Hillenburg, with colleague Derek Drymon, was also conducting auditions to find voices for the show's characters  He turned to Kenny, who had worked with him on Rocko's Modern Life, to voice the title character 
The cast members receive residuals every time a new episode they appeared in has aired, which Carolyn Lawrence described as "a very complicated mathematical calculation " Lawrence said in 2008 that it was a "declining scale" and the entertainment industry were "still in negotiations    both sides are still talking " She further stated that "they're still trying to work it out "Kenny and Catlett were the first cast members to receive award nominations for their performance on SpongeBob SquarePants  They each received Annie Award nominations in 2001, but did not win  In 2010, Kenny won the Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in a Television Production, making it the first time a cast member had won this type of award  Bumpass was the first cast member to be nominated for an Emmy Award, receiving a nomination in 2012  In 2018, Kenny won both an Annie Award and an Emmy Award for his performance as SpongeBob 

Regular cast
Background
SpongeBob SquarePants has featured the voices of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke,  Rodger Bumpass,  Clancy Brown, Mr  Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan since it began  Stephen Hillenburg started developing the SpongeBob concept into a television series in 1996 upon the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, which he directed  While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997, he and the show's then-creative director Derek Drymon were also conducting auditions to find voices for the show's characters For the voice of SpongeBob, the main character, Hillenburg approached Kenny, who previously worked with him on Rocko's Modern Life  Drymon said, "Steve [Hillenburg] wanted to find an original sounding voice [for SpongeBob] " Hillenburg utilized Kenny's and other people's personalities to help create the personality of SpongeBob  The voice of SpongeBob was originally used by Kenny for a minor character in Rocko's Modern Life  Kenny forgot the voice initially as he created it only for that single use  Hillenburg, however, remembered it when he was coming up with SpongeBob and used a video clip of the episode to remind Kenny of the voice  Kenny says that SpongeBob's high-pitched laugh was specifically created to be unique   They wanted an annoying laugh in the tradition of Popeye and Woody Woodpecker  Fagerbakke voices SpongeBob's best friend, a starfish named Patrick Star  He auditioned for the role after Kenny had been cast as SpongeBob  Fagerbakke said, "Steve is such a lovely guy, and I had absolutely no feeling for the material whatsoever " He described his experience in the audition, saying "I was just going in for another audition, and I had no idea what was in store there in terms of the remarkable visual wit and really the kind of endearing child-like humanity in the show  I couldn't pick that up from the audition material at all  I was just kind of perfunctorially trying to give the guy what he wanted "Rodger Bumpass provides the voice of Squidward Tentacles, and other characters  Squidward was "a very nasally, monotone kind of guy", said Bumpass  He said that the character "became a very interesting character to do" because of "his sarcasm, and then his frustration, and then his apoplexy, and so he became a wide spectrum of emotions"  Voice acting veteran Clancy Brown voices Mr  Krabs, SpongeBob's boss at the Krusty Krab  For the character, Brown uses a voice that he describes as "piratey" with "a little Scottish brogue"  According to Brown, his Mr  Krabs voice was improvised during his audition and it was not challenging for him to find the correct voice Mr  Lawrence had met Hillenburg previously on Rocko's Modern Life  When working on the pilot episode of SpongeBob, Hillenburg invited him to audition for all of the characters  Since other voices had been found for the main cast already, Lawrence started out by voicing a variety of minor characters  This included Plankton, who was initially only set to appear in one episode  Mr  Lawrence stated in an interview with Thomas F  Wilson that Nickelodeon executives told Hillenburg, "'we could stunt-cast this  You know, we could have Bruce Willis do this voice ' And Steve was just like, 'it's Doug [Lawrence], don't you hear it? This is the character! This is the guy!'" Jill Talley, Tom Kenny's wife, voices Karen Plankton  Being a Chicago native, she uses a Midwestern accent for the character  Electronic sound effects are underlaid by the series' audio engineers to create a robotic sound whenever she speaks  Talley and Lawrence often improvise their characters' dialogue  In 2009, Lawrence called improvisation his "favorite part of the voice over"  He elaborated in a 2012 interview, saying, "I always enjoy the back-and-forth  [Talley and I] start to actually overlap so much talking to each other that [the voice directors] have to tell us, 'hey, stop doing that, separate what you're saying!'"Carolyn Lawrence provides Sandy Cheeks' voice  When Lawrence was on a sidewalk in Los Feliz, Los Angeles with a friend who knew SpongeBob SquarePants casting director Donna Grillo, her friend said to the director that Lawrence had "an interesting voice"  Grillo invited Lawrence to audition and she then got the role  American actress Mary Jo Catlett, who is known for her live-action roles on television programs from the 1970s such as Diff'rent Strokes and M*A*S*H, provides Mrs  Puff's voice  As of 2017, voicing Mrs  Puff has become her only regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she is good friends with the other SpongeBob cast members, making the SpongeBob recording booth an easy environment that requires less preparation than in-person performances  Lori Alan voices Pearl  During her audition for the role, she was shown an early drawing of Pearl and took note of how the character was much larger than the rest of the cast  She decided to reflect the character's size in her voice by making it deep and full in tone  She aimed to make Pearl's voice invoke the sound of whales’ low vocalizations while also sounding "spoiled and lovable " In an interview with AfterBuzz TV, Alan said that she knew Pearl "had to sound somewhat like a child," but at the same time needed "an abnormally large voice "In the Christmas special "Christmas Who?", the characters of Patchy the Pirate, the president of the fictional SpongeBob SquarePants fan club, and his pet called Potty the Parrot debuted  The former is portrayed by Kenny in live-action, while series creator Hillenburg voiced the latter  After Hillenburg's departure as the series' showrunner in 2004, staff writer Paul Tibbitt was given the role voicing Potty the Parrot  Mr  Krabs' mother, Mama Krabs, who debuted in the episode "Sailor Mouth", was voiced by Tibbitt  However, voice actress Sirena Irwin overtook Tibbitt's role as the character reappeared in the fourth season episode "Enemy In-Law" in 2005  Irwin also provides the voices of other characters in the show, including Margaret SquarePants, SpongeBob's mother 
Voice recording sessions always include a full cast of actors, which Kenny describes as "getting more unusual"  Kenny said, "That's another thing that's given SpongeBob its special feel  Everybody's in the same room, doing it old radio-show style  It's how the stuff we like was recorded"  It takes about four hours to record an 11-minute episode  For the first three seasons, Hillenburg and Drymon sat in on recording sessions at Nickelodeon Studios, and they directed the actors  In the fourth season, Andrea Romano took over the role as the voice director  Wednesday is recording day, the same schedule followed by the crew since 1999  Casting supervisor Jennie Monica Hammond said, "I loved Wednesdays" 

Main cast
Other regular cast
Recurring guest voices
Former cast members
Awards and nominations
Notes
Passage 7:
List of SpongeBob SquarePants episodes
SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated television series created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg that premiered on Nickelodeon on May 1, 1999  The series is set in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom, and centers on the adventures and endeavors of SpongeBob SquarePants, an over-optimistic sea sponge  Many of the ideas for the show originated in an unpublished, educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in the mid-1980s  He began developing SpongeBob SquarePants into a television series in 1996 after the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, another Nickelodeon television series that Hillenburg previously directed As of April 7, 2023, 288 episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants have aired, currently in its thirteenth season  The thirteenth season consists of 26 episodes  The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, a feature-length film, was released in theaters on November 19, 2004, and grossed over US$140 million worldwide  Atlantis SquarePantis, a television film guest starring David Bowie, debuted as part of the fifth season  In 2009, Nickelodeon celebrated the show's tenth anniversary with Square Roots: The Story of SpongeBob SquarePants and SpongeBob's Truth or Square  The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water, a stand-alone sequel, was released in theaters on February 6, 2015, and grossed over US$324 million worldwide Episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants have been nominated for a variety of different awards, including 17 Annie Awards (with six wins), 17 Golden Reel Awards (with eight wins), 15 Emmy Awards (with one win), 21 Kids' Choice Awards (with 20 wins), and four BAFTA Children's Awards (with two wins)  Several compilation DVDs have been released  In addition, the first twelve seasons have been released on DVD, and are available for Regions 1, 2 and 4 as of January 12, 2021 

Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (1999–2001)
The first season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (41 segments, since the first episode has three segments)  This is the only season that used cel animation  The episodes are ordered according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 2 (2000–03)
The second season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (39 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 3 (2001–04)
The third season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (37 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 4 (2005–07)
The fourth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (38 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 5 (2007–09)
The fifth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (41 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 6 (2008–10)
The sixth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (47 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 7 (2009–11)
The seventh season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (50 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 8 (2011–12)
The eighth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (47 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 9 (2012–17)
The ninth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (49 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 10 (2016–17)
The tenth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 11 episodes (22 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order  It is the shortest season, lacking the usual 26 episode length 

Season 11 (2017–18)
The eleventh season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (50 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 12 (2018–22)
The twelfth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 31 episodes (53 segments), including 5 specials, which are ordered according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order  This was the last season that series creator Stephen Hillenburg was involved in, before his death from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis on November 26, 2018, at age 57 

Season 13 (2020–23)
The thirteenth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes, which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Films
Notes
DVD Notes
Passage 8:
Nannochoristidae
Nannochoristidae is a family of scorpionflies with many unusual traits  It is a tiny, relict family with a single extant genus, Nannochorista, with eight species occurring in New Zealand, southeastern Australia, Tasmania, Argentina and Chile  Due to the group's distinctiveness from other scorpionflies, it is sometimes placed in its own order, the Nannomecoptera  Some studies have placed them as the closest living relatives of fleas  Most mecopteran larvae are eruciform, or shaped like caterpillars  Nannochoristid larvae, however, are elateriform, and have elongated and slender bodies  The larvae are aquatic, which is unique among mecopterans  The larvae are predatory, hunting on the beds of shallow streams, primarily on the larvae of aquatic Diptera like chironomids Fossils indicate that Nannochoristidae formerly had a wider distribution, being present in the Northern Hemisphere during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Some research suggests the nannochoristids are the only holometabolous insects with true larval compound eyes  All other eyed larvae have stemmata, which are structurally different from adult compound eyes with ommatidia  This is unusual, since most adult features are present as imaginal discs in larvae and not formed until pupation  The presence of compound eyes in nannochoristid larvae suggests the timing of the development of adult features can be initiated earlier in development, which has important implications for insect evolutionary development 

Phylogeny
The cladogram of external relationships, based on a 2008 DNA and protein analysis, shows the family as a clade, sister to the Siphonaptera (fleas) and rest of Mecoptera, and more distantly related to the Diptera (true flies) and Mecoptera (scorpionflies) 
A more recent study in 2021 found Nannochoristidae to be the sister group to fleas, with strong support 

Genera
After Cao et al  2022 
Nannochorista Tillyard, 1917 (8 species: Argentina, Chile, Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand) Koonwarra fossil bed, Australia, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
†Dahurochorista Sukatsheva 1985 (one species: Ichetuy Formation, Russia, Late Jurassic (Oxfordian)
†Dahurolarva Sukatsheva 1985 (one species: Ichetuy Formation, Oxfordian, Russia) (based on larvae only)
†Itaphlebia Sukatsheva 1985 (14 species) Itat Formation, Russia, Middle Jurassic (Bathonian), Daohugou, China, Middle Jurassic (Callovian), Karabastau Formation, Kazakhstan, Late Jurassic (Oxfordian) Doronino Formation, Russia, Early Cretaceous (Barremian)
†Namdyrus Sukacheva 1993 Khaya Formation, Russia, Late Jurassic (Tithonian)
†Tarantogus Sukatsheva, 1985 Itat Formation, Russia, Bathonian (based on larvae only)
†Undisca Sukatsheva, 1990 Glushkovo Formation, Russia, Tithonian
Context 3: Passage 1:
American Horror Story: Freak Show
The fourth season of the American horror anthology television series American Horror Story, subtitled Freak Show, is set in 1952 Jupiter, Florida, telling the story of one of the last remaining freak shows in the United States and their struggle for survival  The ensemble cast includes Sarah Paulson, Evan Peters, Michael Chiklis, Frances Conroy, Denis O'Hare, Emma Roberts, Finn Wittrock, Angela Bassett, Kathy Bates, and Jessica Lange, with all returning from previous seasons, except newcomers Chiklis and Wittrock  The season marks the first not to be strictly anthological, with Lily Rabe, Naomi Grossman, and John Cromwell reprising their roles from the series' second cycle, Asylum 
Created by Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk for cable network FX, the series is produced by 20th Century Fox Television  Freak Show was broadcast between October 8, 2014, to January 21, 2015, consisting of 13 episodes  Like its predecessors, the season was met with positive reviews and consistently strong ratings  The premiere episode attracted a series high of 6 13 million viewers, making it the most viewed episode of the series  It ultimately became FX's most-watched program ever, surpassing its previous installment, Coven  The season garnered a total of twenty Emmy Award nominations, the most for any season of American Horror Story to date, including nominations for Outstanding Limited Series, and six acting nominations for Lange, O'Hare, Wittrock, Paulson, Bassett, and Bates  In addition, Paulson won for Best Supporting Actress in a Movie or Limited Series at the 5th Critics' Choice Television Awards 

Cast and characters
Main
Sarah Paulson as Bette and Dot Tattler
Evan Peters as Jimmy Darling
Michael Chiklis as Dell Toledo
Frances Conroy as Gloria Mott
Denis O'Hare as Stanley
Emma Roberts as Maggie Esmerelda
Finn Wittrock as Dandy Mott
Angela Bassett as Desiree Dupree
Kathy Bates as Ethel Darling
Jessica Lange as Elsa Mars

Special guest stars
Wes Bentley as Edward Mordrake
Celia Weston as Lillian Hemmings
Gabourey Sidibe as Regina Ross
Matt Bomer as Andy
Danny Huston as Massimo Dolcefino
Lily Rabe as Sister Mary Eunice McKee
Neil Patrick Harris as Chester Creb

Recurring
Naomi Grossman as Pepper
Grace Gummer as Penny
Chrissy Metz as Barbara / Ima Wiggles
Malcolm-Jamal Warner as Angus T  Jefferson
Erika Ervin as Amazon Eve
Mat Fraser as Paul the Illustrated Seal
Jyoti Amge as Ma Petite
Rose Siggins as Legless Suzi
Ben Woolf as Meep
Lee Tergesen as Vince
Christopher Neiman as Salty
Drew Rin Varick as Toulouse
PJ Marshall as Detective Colquitt
John Carroll Lynch as Twisty the Clown
Major Dodson as Corey Bachman
Skyler Samuels as Bonnie Lipton
Patti LaBelle as Dora Ross

Guest stars
Jamie Brewer as Marjorie
Mare Winningham as Rita Gayheart
Matthew Glave as Larry Gayheart
David Burtka as Michael Beck
Heather Langenkamp as Female Toulouse
Jerry Leggio as Dr  Bonham
Dalton E  Gray as Mike
Shauna Rappold as Lucy Creb
Kathy Deitch as young Ethel Darling
Edward Gelhaus as young Dell Toledo
Jyoti Amge as Ma Petite
Angela Sarafyan as Alice
John Cromwell as young Arthur Arden

Episodes
Production
Development
In November 2013, FX announced that the show had been renewed for a fourth season  Series co-creator Ryan Murphy hinted that clues about the fourth season would be hidden in the final episodes of the third season  In March 2014, the season was revealed to be set at a carnival, according to co-executive producer/writer Douglas Petrie  It was also revealed that Lange would be playing a role similar to Marlene Dietrich  Murphy revealed that the season would take place in 1950, adding: "If you look historically what happened in the year 1950, there's some more clues in that year  It's a period piece  We try and do the opposite of what we've done before  Jessica Lange has already started practicing her German accent, so I'm very excited!" Murphy indicated that this season drew inspiration from Tod Browning's Freaks and Herk Harvey's Carnival of Souls  This season featured the largest set ever constructed for American Horror Story, with Murphy stating: "We had to build an entire city  We built an entire huge compound, and then we had to build the interior of all those buildings on set  It's all, period  And it's all based on [production designer] Mark Worthington's immaculate research "

Casting
Ryan Murphy confirmed that Jessica Lange would be returning for a fourth season, although said to be in a reduced capacity  She portrayed Elsa Mars, the owner of the freak show  In November 2013, Murphy said he approached Kathy Bates and Angela Bassett to return  Bassett later confirmed in an interview with Access Hollywood that she would be indeed coming back  They portrayed Ethel Darling and Desiree Dupree, respectively  In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Sarah Paulson revealed she would be returning, possibly for a main role, which was later revealed to be the conjoined twins Bette and Dot Tattler  It was announced at the PaleyFest 2014 that the cast members present at the panel would all be returning for the fourth season in some capacity, including Denis O'Hare (Stanley), Emma Roberts (Maggie Esmerelda), Frances Conroy (Gloria Mott), Evan Peters (Jimmy Darling), and Gabourey Sidibe (Regina Ross)  Jamie Brewer was also added to the present roster, although Murphy later indicated Brewer may not appear during the season  She was later confirmed to portray the ventriloquist dummy Marjorie after appearing in a promo for the final episodes  Additionally, Michael Chiklis was announced to play the father of Peters' character and ex-husband of Bates' character, the strongman Dell Toledo  Finn Wittrock was the last lead actor joining the cast  He portrayed the psychopathic Dandy Mott 
In July 2014, TVLine reported that Wes Bentley would appear in the season' two-part Halloween episode as Edward Mordrake  At the Comic-Con 2014, it was announced that John Carroll Lynch would portray one of the central antagonist during the season, Twisty the Clown  In August 2014, R&B singer Patti LaBelle joined the cast for a four-episode story arc as the mother of Sidibe's character, named Dora, the Motts' housekeeper  Also in August 2014, it was revealed that Matt Bomer would  be guest-starring in one episode as Andy, Dell's secret lover  Murphy took to his Twitter account to announce that the world's smallest woman Jyoti Amge has joined the cast as Ma Petite  Murphy had written a role specifically for Coven alum Leslie Jordan, but he did not appear on the show due to scheduling conflicts In September 2014, it was reported that Asylum alum Naomi Grossman would return to portray Pepper, which marked the first time a character appeared in multiple seasons of the series  Lily Rabe also reprised her Asylum character Sister Mary Eunice McKee in the tenth episode, "Orphans"  Mare Winningham made an appearance in the same episode, as Pepper's sister Rita  Neil Patrick Harris guest starred in two episodes as Chester, who takes over the freak show when Elsa leaves for Hollywood  Harris' husband, David Burtka, appeared in the season finale as Elsa's husband 

Filming
At Paley Center for Media's 2014 PaleyFest event, Ryan Murphy announced that the season's filming would take place again in New Orleans, Louisiana, although the show's setting is in Jupiter, Florida  The premiere episode was directed by co-creator Murphy, his first effort since the pilot  Principal photography for the season began on July 15, 2014  Production on the season concluded on December 19, 2014 

Marketing
A video released in July 2014, entitled "Fallen Angel", was reported by many news sources to be an official Freak Show trailer  The video – which featured the American Horror Story title card – was later taken down after FX confirmed it was fan-made  Before the debut of the fan-made video, FX had not released any official trailers concerning the upcoming season  The first official teaser was released on August 20, 2014, entitled "Admit One" As with previous seasons, FX released a series of teaser trailers on the show's YouTube page  FX also used the marketing hashtag #WirSindAlleFreaks in the German language, and its English translation #WeAreAllFreaks 

Reception
Critical response
American Horror Story: Freak Show has received mostly positive reviews from critics  On Metacritic, it scored a 69 out of 100 based on 19 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 77% approval rating with an average rating of 7 29/10 based on 35 reviews  The website's consensus reads, "Though it may turn off new viewers unaccustomed to its unabashed weirdness, Freak Show still brings the thrills, thanks to its reliably stylish presentation and game cast "

Awards and nominations
In its fourth season, the series was nominated for 76 awards, 21 of which were won 

Home media
Soundtrack
The opening theme for the 4th season of AHS is "Carousel" by Melanie Martinez, a song from her debut album "Cry Baby" 
Every cover song performed in Freak Show was released by 20th Century Fox TV Records in online music stores following the broadcast of the episode in which it appeared, except the cover of David Bowie's "Heroes", performed by Jessica Lange in "Curtain Call "
Passage 2:
Adelaide Malanotte
Adelaide Malanotte (1785 – 31 December 1832) was an Italian operatic contralto who performed in major opera houses in Italy from 1806–1821  She is best known for creating the title role in the world premiere of Gioachino Rossini's Tancredi in 1813  After her marriage, she performed under the name Adelaide Montresor  Her son, Giovanni Battista Montresor, had a career as a tenor and impresario in the United States  From 1812 until her death 20 years later she carried on an extra-marital affair with the poet Luigi Lechi 

Life and career
Born in Verona, Malanotte made her professional opera debut in her native city in 1806  In 1808 she was heard at the Teatro Comunale di Bologna as Ariodante in Simon Mayr's Ginevra di Scozia  In 1809 she performed the role of Enrico in the world premiere of Stefano Pavesi's Elisabetta regina d'Inghilterra at the Teatro Regio di Torino  She returned to that theatre the following year to perform the role of Itaferne in the premiere of Giuseppe Nicolini's Dario Istaspe  She also appeared at the Teatro Valle in Rome in 1810 in the premiere of Nicola Antonio Manfroce's Alzira In 1811 Malanotte made appearances at the opera house in Ravenna and sang in Alzira again at the opera house in Monza  In 1812 she sang at La Fenice in the title role of Gaetano Rossi's Teodoro for the work's world premiere  She was also heard that year in Florence  She had a major triumph at La Fenice in 1813 when she performed the title role in the world premiere of Gioachino Rossini's Tancredi  She later performed that role in Ferrara (1814), Bologna (1814), Livorno (1816), and Naples (1818)  The latter performance was attended by composer Ferdinand Hérold who "did not like the timbre of her voice but thought her style, taste and intonation perfect" Malanotte sang in two more world premieres at La Fenice during her career: Pavesi's Le Danaidi romane (1816, Cajo Valerio) and Francesco Basili's L'ira d'Achille (1817, Achille)  She retired from the stage in 1821  She died in Salò in 1832 at the age of 47 
Passage 3:
Today Is the Day (Lincoln Brewster album)
Today Is the Day is the fourth studio album from contemporary Christian musician Lincoln Brewster  It was released on September 23, 2008 and debuted at No  56 on the Billboard 200  Lincoln has embedded many personal connections into the audio on this record, the foremost of which is his son's unborn heartbeat, setting the tempo in the first seconds of "The Power of Your Name" 

Release
The song "Today is the Day" marked the first all-new studio single released by Brewster since 2002, in his album Amazed  Christianity Today's Russ Breimeier attributed this six-year hiatus in new material to Brewster's new family and to his responsibilities as Worship Arts pastor at Bayside Church nearby Sacramento, California  The song's lyrics were written by Paul Baloche, combining the themes of Bible verses Matthew 6 and Psalm 118  The second track, "Everywhere I Go", was written with Glenn Packiam, a member of Desperation Band 

Track listing
Personnel
Reception
Christianity Today's Russ Breimeier stated that "Today Is the Day" and "Everywhere I Go", the first two tracks of the album, were a "welcome return to form, even if the first two songs aren't the strongest way to start " He said that "Today Is the Day" was neither bad nor boring, but felt it was "on par with the average modern worship song " Russmeier compared the familiarity of "Today Is the Day" with the more experimental songs later in the eponymous album, praising Brewster's ability to experiment over his first few songs Breimeier noted the similarities in style between Brewster's "The Arms of My Savior" and John Mayer's Gravity, and between "This Love" and Mayer's Waiting on the World to Change  He also related the "bluesy gospel-rock"  song "Give Him Praise" to Robert Randolph and the Family Band, praising it for its "thrilling and joyful" feel 
Passage 4:
Hummingbird Heartbeat
"Hummingbird Heartbeat" is a song recorded by American singer Katy Perry for her third studio album, Teenage Dream (2010)  It was written by Perry, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, Stacy Barthe, and Monte Neuble  Stewart handled the production of the song, while Kuk Harrell produced Perry's vocals  "Hummingbird Heartbeat" was inspired by Perry's boyfriend at the time, Russell Brand Musically, it is a 1980s-styled hard rock song that contains a mixture of elements from rock and electronica  Lyrically, the song compares the feeling of being in love to the speed of a hummingbird's heartbeat  The song received generally positive reviews from music critics, many of whom labeled it as a potential single choice  Upon the release of Teenage Dream, "Hummingbird Heartbeat" charted on the lower regions of the South Korea Gaon International Chart, peaking at 124 

Background and composition
In an interview with YouTube about Teenage Dream in August 2010, Perry revealed that "Hummingbird Heartbeat" was one of the first songs she wrote for the album after she finished her Hello Katy Tour (2009)  When speaking about the song, Perry said she first had the idea for the song while she was in her hometown of Santa Barbara, California:
"I was at breakfast when I saw this hummingbird, and the hummingbird was having breakfast as well      and I don't know if you know this but hummingbirds are supposedly good luck and I was thinking 'How fast does their hearts beat?' , like 'how many beats per minute?' And using that idea for how someone makes you feel, instead of those butterflies, it makes your heart beat really, really fast ""Hummingbird Heartbeat" is a 1980s-styled hard rock song that contains a mixture of elements from rock and electronica  The song encompasses electric guitars, a piano, and synthesizers in its production  The song also features an acoustic drum kit, unlike the other songs in the album 

Reception
Upon the release of the Teenage Dream album, "Hummingbird Heartbeat" charted on the lower regions of the South Korea Gaon International Chart, peaking at 124  Tom Thorogood from MTV gave a positive review of the song, labeling it a strong single choice and calling it a: "nice companion to Teenage Dream, 'the story of the birds and the bees' is more grown up with proper guitars " Jeb Inge of The Journal called "Hummingbird Heartbeat" the strongest song on the album, while Michael Gallucci of Cleveland Scene declared the song an album highlight and compared it to "Teenage Dream", adding that they were both "top-down bangers " Gary Trust from Billboard compared "Hummingbird Heartbeat" to the first five Teenage Dream singles, and felt that if released as a single, would help Perry become the first artist with six number-one singles on the Billboard Hot 100  In July 2013, Robert Copsey and Lewis Corner of Digital Spy said "a full music video and worldwide push would have been more satisfactory" From February 20, 2011 to January 22, 2012, Perry embarked on the California Dreams Tour, where she performed "Hummingbird Heartbeat"  For most of its shows, the song was the second track performed  It preceded "Waking Up in Vegas" and followed "Teenage Dream" 

Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Teenage Dream 

Charts
Passage 5:
Eye of the Tiger
"Eye of the Tiger" is a song by American rock band Survivor  It was released as a single from their third album of the same name and was also the theme song for the 1982 film Rocky III, which was released a day before the single  The song was written by Survivor guitarist Frankie Sullivan and keyboardist Jim Peterik, and it was recorded at the request of Rocky III star, writer, and director Sylvester Stallone, after Queen denied him permission to use "Another One Bites the Dust", the song Stallone intended as the Rocky III theme  The version of the song that appears in the film is the demo version of the song  The film version also contained tiger growls, which did not appear on the album version  It features original Survivor singer Dave Bickler on lead vocals  The song is also the title song to the 1986 film of the same name  "Eye of the Tiger" is written in the key of C minor It gained tremendous MTV and radio airplay and topped charts worldwide during 1982  In the United States, it held No  1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for six consecutive weeks (the band's only song to top the chart) and was the No  2 single of 1982, behind Olivia Newton-John's "Physical"  It spent fifteen consecutive weeks in the top ten, the second-longest run of 1982, behind "Hurts So Good" by John Mellencamp (which was prevented from reaching the top of the Hot 100 by "Eye of the Tiger")  This top ten run is tied with the aforementioned "Another One Bites the Dust" as well as "Physical" as the longest run in the top ten for a number one song during the entire 1980s decade  The band won an award for "Best Rock Performance by Duo or Group with Vocal" at the 25th Annual Grammy Awards  In September 1982, it also peaked at No  1 in the United Kingdom, remaining at the top of the UK Singles Chart for four consecutive weeks  The single sold 956,000 copies in United Kingdom in 1982 It was certified platinum in August 1982 by the RIAA, signifying sales of 2 million vinyl copies  The song had sold over 4 1 million in digital downloads in the United States alone by February 2015  It was voted VH1's 63rd-greatest hard rock song 

Background
In an interview with Songfacts, co-writer Jim Peterik, who shared writing credit with Frankie Sullivan, explained the song's title 

At first, we wondered if calling it "Eye of the Tiger" was too obvious  The initial draft of the song, we started with "It's the eye of the tiger, it's the thrill of the fight, rising up to the spirit of our rival, and the last known survivor stalks his prey in the night, and it all comes down to survival " We were going to call the song "Survival"  In the rhyme scheme, you can tell we had set up "rival" to rhyme with "survival"  At the end of the day, we said, "Are we nuts?" That hook is so strong, and "rival" doesn't have to be a perfect rhyme with the word "tiger"  We made the right choice and went with "Eye of the Tiger" 

Accolades
The song was nominated for the 1982 Academy Award for Best Original Song (the only Oscar nomination for Rocky III), but it lost to "Up Where We Belong" from An Officer and a Gentleman The band won an award for "Best Rock Performance by Duo or Group with Vocal" at the 25th Annual Grammy Awards  The song was also nominated for the 1983 Grammy Award for Song of the Year, but lost to the Willie Nelson hit "Always on My Mind" 

Lawsuits
Newt Gingrich campaign
In 2012, Survivor sued Republican presidential candidate Newt Gingrich in Illinois federal court for using "Eye of the Tiger" without authorization as entrance music at his political rallies going back as far as 2009  The suit was later settled out of court 

Mitt Romney campaign
The same year Sullivan also demanded that Mitt Romney, also a Republican candidate for president, should stop using "Eye of the Tiger" at his campaign rallies  Romney agreed to drop the song from the campaign's playlists 

Mike Huckabee's campaign
Frankie Sullivan's company Rude Music filed a lawsuit in federal court in Chicago, Illinois, on November 18, 2015, against the former Governor of Arkansas and Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee's campaign organization for using "Eye of the Tiger" at a political rally without permission  The rally took place on September 8, 2015, when Kim Davis, a Kentucky county clerk, was released from jail after spending five days there for refusing to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples in Kentucky  In June 2016 it was reported by CNN that Huckabee had agreed, in a confidential, out-of-court settlement with Sullivan's Rude Music, to pay $25,000 in compensation 

Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the album Eye of the Tiger 
Dave Bickler – lead vocals
Frankie Sullivan – lead and rhythm guitars
Jim Peterik – grand piano, electric guitar
Stephan Ellis – bass
Marc Droubay – drums

Charts
Weekly charts
Certifications
See also
Passage 6:
Heartbeat (Nina Sky song)
"Heartbeat" is a song by American twins duo Nina Sky  It was released as a second single from their third studio album Nicole and Natalie on June 14, 2012  The song is released independently through their official website  Music video for the song is released on July 27, 2012, four days before the album's release  Later, Heartbeat: Remixes, a remix EP, was also released 

Music video
Its filming as started on May 26, 2012 when they put pictures of filming on Facebook  It was directed by Adam Sauermlich for the second time (he also has directed music video for the song "Day Dreaming")  Concerning the video, the band stated: "We knew we wanted it to be more about the feeling of the song and less about the story  The colors, environment, and everyone dancing in their own element creates this surreal feeling of freedom  It’s just about listening to the rhythm inside you and letting that rhythm guide you " On July 27 the music video was released  It features the sisters prancing through fields during a party with multi-colored smoke and dancing with many people 

Track listing
Digital download"Heartbeat" - 4:20Heartbeat – The Remixes EP"Heartbeat" (AC Slater Remix) - 4:45
"Heartbeat" (Bailey Smalls Remix) - 6:22
"Heartbeat" (The Sizzaandz Remix)
Passage 7:
Lovely to See You
On the Threshold of a Dream is the fourth album by The Moody Blues, released in April 1969 on the Deram label 

Content
The album begins with a poem derived from Cogito, ergo sum and inspired by I have no mouth and I must scream accompanied by electronic sounds, and these sounds also appear at the close of the album –  Most European vinyl pressings of the album continue the sounds into the album's run-out groove, causing them to play continuously until the record player's tonearm is lifted  Tape and CD versions of the album employ a slow fade 

Release
On the Threshold of a Dream was released on 25 April 1969 in the UK and 30 May 1969 in the US  On the Threshold of a Dream provided the Moody Blues with their first British number-one album, and also boosted their American fortunes by becoming their first top-20 album there  It proved to be one of the group's more enduring records in the US, staying in the Billboard LPs chart for more than two and a half years 
The album, along with the subsequent To Our Children's Children's Children, was among the tapes carried by Apollo 15 astronaut Al Worden to the moon In March 2006 the album was completely remastered into SACD format and repackaged with nine extra tracks  In 2008 a remaster for standard audio CD was issued with the same bonus tracks 

Track listing
Personnel
Justin Hayward – vocals, guitars, cello, Mellotron (7)
John Lodge – vocals, bass guitar, cello, double bass
Ray Thomas – vocals, harmonica, flute, tambourine, oboe, piccolo, EMS VCS 3
Graeme Edge – drums, percussion, vocals, EMS VCS 3
Mike Pinder – vocals, Mellotron, Hammond organ, piano, celloAdditional personnelTony Clarke - Producer
Pete Jackson – triangle
Phil Travers – cover artwork
Lionel Bart, David Symonds – sleeve note

Charts
Certifications
Passage 8:
Nina Sky
Nina Sky is an American musical duo consisting of identical twins Nicole and Natalie Albino  Their debut single "Move Ya Body", released from their self-titled debut album in 2004, was a success, reaching number four on the Billboard Hot 100  Their second album, Nicole & Natalie, was released in July 2012  Their third studio album, Brightest Gold, was announced for 2016 release through Tommy Boy Entertainment 

Early lives
The Albino sisters were born on March 13, 1984 to a Puerto Rican family in Queens, with Natalie being the older twin  Their parents later moved to New York City and divorced when the girls were young  The sisters grew up in Astoria, Queens in the Marine Terrace area  As a result of their stepfather working as a DJ, the twins were influenced by different types of music at an early age  By the age of 7, the twins had already written their first song, titled "Sisters"  By 10, they knew that they wanted to become singers  When they were 13, they learned how to DJ and two years later were playing concerts in many clubs 
The twins' parents were very supportive of their daughters' ambitions  Their stepfather provided guitar and drum lessons and took them to auditions  They even performed occasionally on some showcases 

History
Name origin
The sisters wanted to devise a band name of their own, so they used the first two syllables of their names ("Ni" and "Na"), to come up with Nina  They then added Sky, which for them represented "independent twins" 

2003–2006: Nina Sky and mixtapes
In 2003, The Jettsonz (Elijah Wells & Lionel Bermingham) introduced the girls to Cipha Sounds, a hip hop DJ under the Star Trak label owned by The Neptunes (Pharrell and Chad Hugo)  Cipha Sounds was impressed when he heard the duo sing and suggested that they use the "Coolie Dance" riddim  The duo then proceeded to write "Move Ya Body" (alongside The Jettsonz Elijah Wells & Lionel Bermingham, who also produced the record), mixing Caribbean, R&B, and pop rhythms  Eventually, a demo of the song was made  The demo fell into the hands of Eddie O'Loughlin, the president of Next Plateau Entertainment (which is a division of Universal Records)  O'Loughlin signed the twins to a contract and they started working on their debut album  On March 18, 2004, they had their first concert under their current name at Club Demara 
The single "Move Ya Body" was released on April 27, 2004 and reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100, and number 22 on the Billboard Year-End chart  Urban music and rhythmic top 40 stations quickly added the song to their play lists, sending the song up the charts  By July 17, "Move Ya Body" had gone to the top five on both sides of the Atlantic and had also reached the top five of a world combined R&B chart based on the US, UK, Germany, France and Australia  The song had also reached the top 50 of the Australian charts  On June 22, 2004 they released their first self-titled album, featuring Jabba and Betty Wright  The album charted #44 on the US Billboard 200 and number four on the U S  R&B chart  Another single from the album, titled "Turnin' Me On," was released on November 30, 2004  It didn't have the same success as "Move Ya Body", but charted at #5 on Billboard's Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart and was a minor success in France 
Nina Sky continued to work and promote their music  They have contributed to the reggaeton movement with songs such as "Oye Mi Canto", and "Más Maíz" with artist and producer N O R E  They were also a featured artist on Sean Paul's song "Connection" from his album The Trinity 
On October 25, 2005, they released their second mixtape called La Conexión, influenced by Latin music  The album contained the single "Ladies Night" (released April 17, 2006 and featuring Ivy Queen), released with the songs "Loving You" and "Your Time"  It also contained Kassanova's remix of their single "Turnin' Me On " The album features a lot of singers: Pitbull, N O R E , Notch, Richie Rivera, Mackie, and Yaga  It also included Tony Touch's hit "Play That Song," featuring Nina Sky and B-Real, released one month before the mixtape's release  In August 2006, Nina Sky were first featured on the cover of the publication The FADER, in its 39th issue  In 2006, their third mixtape "80's Babies" was released 

2007–2011: Label issues, marriages and The Other Side
Nina Sky collaborated with French singer Kenza Farah for the song "Celle Qu'Il Te Faut", and was released in both French and English versions  The video was shot in New York  Nina Sky were recording their second studio album, Starting Today  The album was originally due on July 27, 2007  Producers include Stereotypes, Bruno & Phil, Neo da Matrix, Ryan Leslie, Salaam Remi, and more  Guests include Rick Ross and others that have yet to be announced  In late 2007, Nina Sky left their label, Universal, and signed with Polo Grounds Music/J Records 
Nina Sky have also put together remixes of popular songs including J  Holiday's, "Bed," Elliott Yamin's, "Wait For You", Cassidy's, "My Drink n My 2 Step, and The-Dream's, "I Love Your Girl"  They have also worked with Brooklyn MC Red Cafe on his street album The Co-Op, and The Alchemist on his song "Key to the City"  In 2008, Nina Sky released two singles, for Starting Today: "Curtain Call" (featuring Rick Ross) and "On Some Bulls**t"  These singles were never a big success  On December 19, 2008 Nina Sky released their first Holiday album, an EP titled Christmas 
Nina Sky appeared on Major Lazer's album, Guns Don't Kill People    Lazers Do  They were in a battle with their record company Polo Grounds Records over the release of their album Starting Today  They have said they want to be released from their contract with the label because the label does not support them  In 2010, Nicole Albino revealed she is lesbian and married female fashion designer, Erin Magee  The couple had been dating since 2009  In an interview with Inked Magazine, Magee revealed that she had her last name legally changed to Nicole's and had gotten a tattoo of the name across her right breast  With a new masculine style, the duo independently released an eight-song EP for digital download in August 2010, entitled The Other Side, which features production from DJ Yonny, Salaam Remi, Kidz in the Hall and many more  A video for the lead single, "You Ain't Got It (Funk That)" was also released  In early 2011 they worked with Creep on their song "You"  On May 16, they released the music video on their official website 

2012–present: Nicole and Natalie, motherhood, new label contract and Brightest Gold
On February 2, 2012, Nina Sky released the lead single from their upcoming third studio album, Nicole and Natalie  The single, entitled "Day Dreaming", was produced by Beau Vallis  The video for the song, directed by Adam Sauermilch, was released on February 28  On June 14, the band released "Heartbeat", the second single from the new album  A month later, on July 27, the video for "Heartbeat" was released  Concerning the video, the band stated: "We knew we wanted it to be more about the feeling of the song and less about the story  The colors, environment, and everyone dancing in their own element creates this surreal feeling of freedom  It’s just about listening to the rhythm inside you and letting that rhythm guide you " On July 31 the album was released  Album had electro, house, pop and R&B elements in songs  The album failed to charts because of independent release  On October 14, 2012, Nina Sky released third and final single from their album "Comatose"  In 2012, they finally signed out from recording label Polo Grounds Music/J Records 
On June 9, 2012, Nina Sky performed at OUT/LOUD Queer Women's Music Festival in Eugene, Oregon along with artists such as Krudas Cubensi, Tender Forever and Andrea Gibson  Later, on November 15, Nina Sky hosted Women in Business' fourth annual "Dress for Success" fashion show at Baruch College  On March 11, 2013, group released their sixth mixtape, titled Valentine's Day, hosted by Miss KL  On December 12, group released their new promotional single titled "Overtime" for digital download  The song was produced by Slimmy Neutron, who produced their album Nicole and Natalie, released in 2012 
On March 9, 2014, Natalie Albino gave birth to her son, Max  In the same month, Nicole released her first solo project, a mixtape album titled Currently Vol  1 which contained her remixes to many popular songs by singers such as Madonna, Beyoncé, R  Kelly, Mariah Carey, etc  On April 17 they announced a new single via their official Facebook site  One day later, their new song "Stoners", featuring Smoke DZA was out  Single had better success than the previous one, released in 2013



ground_truth: Jennifer Connelly

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the voice of the character in Spongebob Squarepants with the same name as the creature that annelid larvae live like?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Neodymium
Neodymium is a chemical element with the symbol Nd and atomic number 60  It is the fourth member of the lanthanide series and is considered to be one of the rare-earth metals  It is a hard, slightly malleable, silvery metal that quickly tarnishes in air and moisture  When oxidized, neodymium reacts quickly producing pink, purple/blue and yellow compounds in the +2, +3 and +4 oxidation states  It is generally regarded as having one of the most complex spectra of the elements  Neodymium was discovered in 1885 by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach, who also discovered praseodymium  It is present in significant quantities in the minerals monazite and bastnäsite  Neodymium is not found naturally in metallic form or unmixed with other lanthanides, and it is usually refined for general use  Neodymium is fairly common—about as common as cobalt, nickel, or copper—and is widely distributed in the Earth's crust  Most of the world's commercial neodymium is mined in China, as is the case with many other rare-earth metals 
Neodymium compounds were first commercially used as glass dyes in 1927 and remain a popular additive  The color of neodymium compounds comes from the Nd3+ ion and is often a reddish-purple  However, this changes with the type of lighting because of the interaction of the sharp light absorption bands of neodymium with ambient light enriched with the sharp visible emission bands of mercury, trivalent europium or terbium  Neodymium-doped glasses are used in lasers that emit infrared with wavelengths between 1047 and 1062 nanometers  These lasers have been used in extremely high-power applications, such as experiments in inertial confinement fusion  Neodymium is also used with various other substrate crystals, such as yttrium aluminium garnet in the Nd:YAG laser 
Neodymium alloys are used to make high-strength neodymium magnets—a type of powerful permanent magnet  These magnets are widely used in products like microphones, professional loudspeakers, in-ear headphones, high-performance hobby DC electric motors, and computer hard disks, where low magnet mass (or volume) or strong magnetic fields are required  Larger neodymium magnets are used in electric motors with a high power-to-weight ratio (e g , in hybrid cars) and generators (e g , aircraft and wind turbine electric generators) 

Characteristics
Physical properties
Metallic neodymium has a bright, silvery metallic luster  Neodymium commonly exists in two allotropic forms, with a transformation from a double hexagonal to a body-centered cubic structure taking place at about 863 °C  Neodymium, like most of the lanthanides, is paramagnetic at room temperature and becomes an antiferromagnet upon cooling to 20 K (−253 2 °C)  Neodymium is a rare-earth metal that was present in the classical mischmetal at a concentration of about 18%  To make neodymium magnets it is alloyed with iron, which is a ferromagnet 

Electron configuration
In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides praseodymium to its left and the radioactive element promethium to its right, and above the actinide uranium  Its 60 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f46s2, of which the six 4f and 6s electrons are valence  Like most other metals in the lanthanide series, neodymium usually only uses three electrons as valence electrons, as afterwards the remaining 4f electrons are strongly bound: this is because the 4f orbitals penetrate the most through the inert xenon core of electrons to the nucleus, followed by 5d and 6s, and this increases with higher ionic charge  Neodymium can still lose a fourth electron because it comes early in the lanthanides, where the nuclear charge is still low enough and the 4f subshell energy high enough to allow the removal of further valence electrons 

Chemical properties
Neodymium is the fourth member of the lanthanide series  It has a melting point of 1,024 °C (1,875 °F) and a boiling point of 3,074 °C (5,565 °F)  Neodymium, like other lanthanides, usually has the oxidation state +3, but it can also form in the +2 and +4 oxidation states, and even, in very rare conditions, +0  Neodymium metal quickly oxidizes at ambient conditions, forming an oxide layer like iron rust that spalls off and exposes the metal to further oxidation; a centimeter-sized sample of neodymium corrodes completely in about a year  Nd3+ is generally soluble in water  Like its neighbor praseodymium, it readily burns at about 150 °C to form neodymium(III) oxide; the oxide peels off, exposing the bulk metal to the further oxidation:
4Nd + 3O2 → 2Nd2O3Neodymium is a quite electropositive element, and it reacts slowly with cold water, or quickly with hot water, to form neodymium(III) hydroxide:

2Nd (s) + 6H2O (l) → 2Nd(OH)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)Neodymium metal reacts vigorously with all the stable halogens:
2Nd (s) + 3F2 (g) → 2NdF3 (s) [a violet substance]
2Nd (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2NdCl3 (s) [a mauve substance]
2Nd (s) + 3Br2 (g) → 2NdBr3 (s) [a violet substance]
2Nd (s) + 3I2 (g) → 2NdI3 (s) [a green substance]Neodymium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions that contain the lilac Nd(III) ion  These exist as a [Nd(OH2)9]3+ complexes:
2Nd (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → 2Nd3+ (aq) + 3SO2−4 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

Compounds
Some of the most important neodymium compounds include:

halides: NdF3; NdCl2; NdCl3; NdBr3; NdI2; NdI3
oxides: Nd2O3
hydroxide: Nd(OH)3
carbonate: Nd2(CO3)3
sulfate: Nd2(SO4)3
acetate: Nd(CH3COO)3
neodymium magnets (Nd2Fe14B)Some neodymium compounds have colors that vary based on the type of lighting 

Organoneodymium compounds
Organoneodymium compounds are compounds that have a neodymium–carbon bond  These compounds are similar to those of the other lanthanides, characterized by an inability to undergo π backbonding  They are thus mostly restricted to the mostly ionic cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric 

Isotopes
Naturally occurring neodymium (60Nd) is composed of five stable isotopes—142Nd, 143Nd, 145Nd, 146Nd and 148Nd, with 142Nd being the most abundant (27 2% of the natural abundance)—and two radioisotopes with extremely long half-lives, 144Nd (alpha decay with a half-life (t1/2) of 2 29×1015 years) and 150Nd (double beta decay, t1/2 ≈ 7×1018 years)  In all, 33 radioisotopes of neodymium have been detected as of 2022, with the most stable radioisotopes being the naturally occurring ones: 144Nd and 150Nd  All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than twelve days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are shorter than 70 seconds; the most stable artificial isotope is 147Nd with a half-life of 10 98 days 
Neodymium also has 13 known metastable isotopes, with the most stable one being 139mNd (t1/2 = 5 5 hours), 135mNd (t1/2 = 5 5 minutes) and 133m1Nd (t1/2 ~70 seconds)  The primary decay modes before the most abundant stable isotope, 142Nd, are electron capture and positron decay, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay  The primary decay products before 142Nd are element Pr (praseodymium) isotopes and the primary products after are element Pm (promethium) isotopes  Four of the five stable isotopes have been predicted to decay to isotopes of cerium or samarium and are only observationally stable  Additionally, some observationally stable isotopes of samarium are predicted to decay to isotopes of neodymium Neodymium isotopes are used in various scientific applications  142Nd has been used for the production of short-lived Tm and Yb isotopes  146Nd has been suggested for the production of 147Pm, which is a source of radioactive power  Several neodymium isotopes have been used for the production of other promethium isotopes  The decay from 147Sm (t1/2 = 1 06×1011 y) to the stable 143Nd allows samarium–neodymium dating  150Nd has also been used to study double beta decay 

History
In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite  Thirty years later, fifteen-year-old Wilhelm Hisinger, a member of the family owning the mine, sent a sample to Carl Scheele, who did not find any new elements within  In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide, which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres, which had been discovered two years earlier  Ceria was simultaneously and independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth  Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who lived in the same house as Berzelius; he separated out two other oxides, which he named lanthana and didymia  He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid  The metals that formed these oxides were thus named lanthanum and didymium, officially discovered in Vienna in 1885 by Carl Gustaf Mosander  Von Welsbach confirmed the separation by spectroscopic analysis, but the products were of relatively low purity  Didymium was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1841, and pure neodymium was isolated from it in 1925  The name neodymium is derived from the Greek words neos (νέος), new, and didymos (διδύμος), twin Double nitrate crystallization was the means of commercial neodymium purification until the 1950s  Lindsay Chemical Division was the first to commercialize large-scale ion-exchange purification of neodymium  Starting in the 1950s, high purity (>99%) neodymium was primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite, a mineral rich in rare-earth elements  The metal is obtained through electrolysis of its halide salts  Currently, most neodymium is extracted from bastnäsite and purified by solvent extraction  Ion-exchange purification is used for the highest purities (typically >99 99%)  The evolving technology, and improved purity of commercially available neodymium oxide, was reflected in the appearance of neodymium glasses in collections today  Early neodymium glasses made in the 1930s have a more reddish or orange tinge than modern versions, which are more cleanly purple, because of the difficulties in removing traces of praseodymium using early technology, namely fractional crystallization Because of its role in permanent magnets used for direct-drive wind turbines, it has been argued that neodymium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy  This perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets, and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production 

Occurrence and production
Occurrence
Neodymium is rarely found in nature as a free element, instead occurring as ores, such as monazite and bastnäsite (these are mineral group names rather than single mineral names) that contain small amounts of all rare-earth metals  In these minerals neodymium is rarely dominant; some exceptions include monazite-(Nd) and kozoite-(Nd)  The main mining areas are in China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia  World reserves of neodymium are estimated at eight million tonnes The Nd3+ ion is similar in size to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those from lanthanum up to samarium and europium) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate, silicate and carbonate minerals, such as monazite (MIIIPO4) and bastnäsite (MIIICO3F), where M refers to all the rare-earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium (mostly Ce, La, and Y, with somewhat less Pr and Nd)  Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved  The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and silicon tetrafluoride  The product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution 

In space
Neodymium's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 0 083 ppb (parts per billion)  This figure is about two thirds of that of platinum, but two and a half times more than mercury, and nearly five times more than gold  The lanthanides are not usually found in space, and are much more abundant in the Earth's crust 

In the Earth's crust
Neodymium is classified as a lithophile under the Goldschmidt classification, meaning that it is generally found combined with oxygen  Although it belongs to the rare-earth metals, neodymium is not rare at all  Its abundance in the Earth's crust is about 38 mg/kg, making it the 27th most common element  It is similar in abundance to lanthanum  Cerium is the most common rare-earth metal, followed by neodymium, and then lanthanum 

Production
The world's production of neodymium was about 7,000 tons in 2004  The bulk of current production is from China  Historically, the Chinese government imposed strategic material controls on the element, causing large fluctuations in prices  The uncertainty of pricing and availability have caused companies (particularly Japanese ones) to create permanent magnets and associated electric motors with fewer rare-earth metals; however, so far they have been unable to eliminate the need for neodymium  According to the US Geological Survey, Greenland holds the largest reserves of undeveloped rare-earth deposits, particularly neodymium  Mining interests clash with native populations at those sites, due to the release of radioactive substances during the mining process 

Neodymium is typically 10–18% of the rare-earth content of commercial deposits of the light rare-earth-element minerals bastnäsite and monazite  With neodymium compounds being the most strongly colored for the trivalent lanthanides, it can occasionally dominate the coloration of rare-earth minerals when competing chromophores are absent  It usually gives a pink coloration  Outstanding examples of this include monazite crystals from the tin deposits in Llallagua, Bolivia; ancylite from Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada; or lanthanite from the Saucon Valley, Pennsylvania, United States  As with neodymium glasses, such minerals change their colors under the differing lighting conditions  The absorption bands of neodymium interact with the visible emission spectrum of mercury vapor, with the unfiltered shortwave UV light causing neodymium-containing minerals to reflect a distinctive green color  This can be observed with monazite-containing sands or bastnäsite-containing ore The demand for mineral resources, such as rare-earth elements (including neodymium) and other critical materials, has been rapidly increasing owing to the growing human population and industrial development  Recently, the requirement for a low-carbon society has led to a significant demand for energy-saving technologies such as batteries, high-efficiency motors, renewable energy sources, and fuel cells  Among these technologies, permanent magnets are often used to fabricate high-efficiency motors, with neodymium-iron-boron magnets (Nd2Fe14B sintered and bonded magnets; hereinafter referred to as NdFeB magnets) being the main type of permanent magnet in the market since their invention  NdFeB magnets are used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), electric vehicles (EVs), and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) (hereinafter referred to as xEVs), wind turbines, home appliances, computers, and many small consumer electronic devices  Furthermore, they are indispensable for energy savings  Toward achieving the objectives of the Paris Agreement, the demand for NdFeB magnets is expected to increase significantly in the future 

Applications
Neodymium has an unusually large specific heat capacity at liquid-helium temperatures, so is useful in cryocoolers 
Neodymium acetate can be a substitute for the radioactive and toxic uranyl acetate (used as a standard contrasting agent in electron microscopy) 
Probably because of similarities to Ca2+, Nd3+ has been reported to promote plant growth  Rare-earth element compounds are frequently used in China as fertilizer 
Samarium–neodymium dating is useful for determining the age relationships of rocks  and meteorites
Neodymium isotopes recorded in marine sediments are used to reconstruct changes in past ocean circulation 

Magnets
Neodymium magnets (an alloy, Nd2Fe14B) are the strongest permanent magnets known  A neodymium magnet of a few tens of grams can lift a thousand times its own weight, and can snap together with enough force to break bones  These magnets are cheaper, lighter, and stronger than samarium–cobalt magnets  However, they are not superior in every aspect, as neodymium-based magnets lose their magnetism at lower temperatures and tend to corrode, while samarium–cobalt magnets do not Neodymium magnets appear in products such as microphones, professional loudspeakers, headphones, guitar and bass guitar pick-ups, and computer hard disks where low mass, small volume, or strong magnetic fields are required  Neodymium is used in the electric motors of hybrid and electric automobiles and in the electricity generators of some designs of commercial wind turbines (only wind turbines with "permanent magnet" generators use neodymium)  For example, drive electric motors of each Toyota Prius require one kilogram (2 2 pounds) of neodymium per vehicle In 2020, physics researchers at Radboud University and Uppsala University announced they had observed a behavior known as "self-induced spin glass" in the atomic structure of neodymium  One of the researchers explained, "…we are specialists in scanning tunneling microscopy  It allows us to see the structure of individual atoms, and we can resolve the north and south poles of the atoms  With this advancement in high-precision imaging, we were able to discover the behavior in neodymium, because we could resolve the incredibly small changes in the magnetic structure "  Neodymium behaves in a complex magnetic way that had not been seen before in a periodic table element 

Glass
Neodymium glass (Nd:glass) is produced by the inclusion of neodymium oxide (Nd2O3) in the glass melt  Usually in daylight or incandescent light neodymium glass appears lavender, but it appears pale blue under fluorescent lighting  Neodymium may be used to color glass in delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm gray The first commercial use of purified neodymium was in glass coloration, starting with experiments by Leo Moser in November 1927  The resulting "Alexandrite" glass remains a signature color of the Moser glassworks to this day  Neodymium glass was widely emulated in the early 1930s by American glasshouses, most notably Heisey, Fostoria ("wisteria"), Cambridge ("heatherbloom"), and Steuben ("wisteria"), and elsewhere (e g  Lalique, in France, or Murano)  Tiffin's "twilight" remained in production from about 1950 to 1980  Current sources include glassmakers in the Czech Republic, the United States, and China The sharp absorption bands of neodymium cause the glass color to change under different lighting conditions, being reddish-purple under daylight or yellow incandescent light, but blue under white fluorescent lighting, or greenish under trichromatic lighting  This color-change phenomenon is highly prized by collectors  In combination with gold or selenium, red colors are produced  Since neodymium coloration depends upon "forbidden" f-f transitions deep within the atom, there is relatively little influence on the color from the chemical environment, so the color is impervious to the thermal history of the glass  However, for the best color, iron-containing impurities need to be minimized in the silica used to make the glass  The same forbidden nature of the f-f transitions makes rare-earth colorants less intense than those provided by most d-transition elements, so more has to be used in a glass to achieve the desired color intensity  The original Moser recipe used about 5% of neodymium oxide in the glass melt, a sufficient quantity such that Moser referred to these as being "rare-earth doped" glasses  Being a strong base, that level of neodymium would have affected the melting properties of the glass, and the lime content of the glass might have had to be adjusted accordingly Light transmitted through neodymium glasses shows unusually sharp absorption bands; the glass is used in astronomical work to produce sharp bands by which spectral lines may be calibrated  Another application is the creation of selective astronomical filters to reduce the effect of light pollution from sodium and fluorescent lighting while passing other colours, especially dark red hydrogen-alpha emission from nebulae  Neodymium is also used to remove the green color caused by iron contaminants from glass 

Neodymium is a component of "didymium" (referring to mixture of salts of neodymium and praseodymium) used for coloring glass to make welder's and glass-blower's goggles; the sharp absorption bands obliterate the strong sodium emission at 589 nm  The similar absorption of the yellow mercury emission line at 578 nm is the principal cause of the blue color observed for neodymium glass under traditional white-fluorescent lighting  Neodymium and didymium glass are used in color-enhancing filters in indoor photography, particularly in filtering out the yellow hues from incandescent lighting  Similarly, neodymium glass is becoming widely used more directly in incandescent light bulbs  These lamps contain neodymium in the glass to filter out yellow light, resulting in a whiter light which is more like sunlight  During World War I, didymium mirrors were reportedly used to transmit Morse Code across battlefields  Similar to its use in glasses, neodymium salts are used as a colorant for enamels 

Lasers
Certain transparent materials with a small concentration of neodymium ions can be used in lasers as gain media for infrared wavelengths (1054–1064 nm), e g  Nd:YAG (yttrium aluminium garnet), Nd:YAP (yttrium aluminium perovskite), Nd:YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride), Nd:YVO4 (yttrium orthovanadate), and Nd:glass  Neodymium-doped crystals (typically Nd:YVO4) generate high-powered infrared laser beams which are converted to green laser light in commercial DPSS hand-held lasers and laser pointers 

Trivalent neodymium ion Nd3+ was the first lanthanide from rare-earth elements used for the generation of laser radiation  The Nd:CaWO4 laser was developed in 1961  Historically, it was the third laser which was put into operation (the first was ruby, the second the U3+:CaF laser)  Over the years the neodymium laser became one of the most used lasers for application purposes  The success of the Nd3+ ion lies in the structure of its energy levels and in the spectroscopic properties suitable for the generation of laser radiation  In 1964 Geusic et al  demonstrated the operation of neodymium ion in YAG matrix Y3Al5O12  It is a four-level laser with lower threshold and with excellent mechanical and temperature properties  For optical pumping of this material it is possible to use non-coherent flashlamp radiation or a coherent diode beam 

The current laser at the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), the HELEN (High Energy Laser Embodying Neodymium) 1-terawatt neodymium-glass laser, can access the midpoints of pressure and temperature regions and is used to acquire data for modeling on how density, temperature, and pressure interact inside warheads  HELEN can create plasmas of around 106 K, from which opacity and transmission of radiation are measured Neodymium glass solid-state lasers are used in extremely high power (terawatt scale), high energy (megajoules) multiple beam systems for inertial confinement fusion  Nd:glass lasers are usually frequency tripled to the third harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion devices 

Substitute for uranyl acetate
Uranyl acetate has been the standard contrasting agent in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for decades  However, its use is increasingly hampered by regulations by governments due to its radioactive properties as well as its high toxicity  Therefore, alternatives are being searched for, including lanthanide acetates or platinum blue  as well as the use of less defined substances such as oolong tea extract  Despite these published alternatives, uranyl acetate (UAc) is still the standard for EM contrasting In the periodic table the vertical ordering of elements in groups is based on the presence of the same number of electrons in their outermost shell, which determines their chemical and physical properties  Because neodymium (Nd) is right above uranium (U) the chemical properties of UAc and NdAc would be very similar in binding to tissue in ultrathin sections thus leading to a similar amount of contrast 

Biological role and precautions
The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some methanotrophic bacteria living in volcanic mudpots, such as Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective  Neodymium is otherwise not known to have a biological role in any other organisms Neodymium metal dust is combustible and therefore an explosion hazard  Neodymium compounds, as with all rare-earth metals, are of low to moderate toxicity; however, its toxicity has not been thoroughly investigated  Neodymium salts are regarded as more toxic if they are soluble than if they are insoluble if they are ingested  Neodymium dust and salts are very irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes, and moderately irritating to skin  Breathing the dust can cause lung embolisms, and accumulated exposure damages the liver  Neodymium also acts as an anticoagulant, especially when given intravenously Neodymium magnets have been tested for medical uses such as magnetic braces and bone repair, but biocompatibility issues have prevented widespread application  Commercially available magnets made from neodymium are exceptionally strong and can attract each other from large distances  If not handled carefully, they come together very quickly and forcefully, causing injuries  For example, there is at least one documented case of a person losing a fingertip when two magnets he was using snapped together from 50 cm away Another risk of these powerful magnets is that if more than one magnet is ingested, they can pinch soft tissues in the gastrointestinal tract  This has led to an estimated 1,700 emergency room visits and necessitated the recall of the Buckyballs line of toys, which were construction sets of small neodymium magnets 

See also
Neodymium compounds
Category:Neodymium compounds
Lanthanides
Period 6 elements
Rare earth metals

Notes
Passage 2:
James Chadwick
Sir James Chadwick,  (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was a British physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932  In 1941, he wrote the final draft of the MAUD Report, which inspired the U S  government to begin serious atom bomb research efforts  He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II  He was knighted in Britain in 1945 for his achievements in physics 
Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford (known as the "father of nuclear physics")  At Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913  The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851  He elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, and not discrete lines as had been thought  Still in Germany when World War I broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp 
After the war, Chadwick followed Rutherford to the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, where Chadwick earned his Doctor of Philosophy degree under Rutherford's supervision from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, in June 1921  He was Rutherford's assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory for over a decade at a time when it was one of the world's foremost centres for the study of physics, attracting students like John Cockcroft, Norman Feather, and Mark Oliphant  Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass  He anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer  Chadwick left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1935 to become a professor of physics at the University of Liverpool, where he overhauled an antiquated laboratory and, by installing a cyclotron, made it an important centre for the study of nuclear physics 
During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build an atom bomb, while his Manchester lab and environs were harassed by Luftwaffe bombing  When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he became part of the British Mission, and worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory and in Washington, D C  He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R  Groves, Jr  For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test  After this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, he became the Master of Gonville and Caius College in 1948  He retired in 1959 

Education and early life
James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph Chadwick, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant  He was named James after his paternal grandfather  In 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents  He went to Bollington Cross Primary School, and was offered a scholarship to Manchester Grammar School, which his family had to turn down as they could not afford the small fees that still had to be paid  Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester, rejoining his parents there  He now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert; a sister had died in infancy  At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908  He meant to study mathematics, but enrolled in physics by mistake  Like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles (6 4 km) to the university and back each day  At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics  The physics department was headed by Ernest Rutherford, who assigned research projects to final-year students, and he instructed Chadwick to devise a means of comparing the amount of radioactive energy of two different sources  The idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 gram (0 035 oz) of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie  Rutherford's suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, and eventually devised the required method  The results became Chadwick's first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912  He graduated with first class honours in 1911 Having devised a means of measuring gamma radiation, Chadwick proceeded to measure the absorption of gamma rays by various gases and liquids  This time the resulting paper was published under his name alone  He was awarded his Master of Science (MSc) degree in 1912, and was appointed a Beyer Fellow  The following year he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, which allowed him to study and research at a university in continental Europe  He elected to go to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin in 1913, to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, which provided more accuracy than the earlier photographic techniques, he was able to demonstrate that beta radiation did not produce discrete lines, as has been previously thought, but rather a continuous spectrum with peaks in certain regions  On a visit to Geiger's laboratory, Albert Einstein told Chadwick that: "I can explain either of these things, but I can't explain them both at the same time " The continuous spectrum would remain an unexplained phenomenon for many years Chadwick was still in Germany at the start of the First World War, and was interned in the Ruhleben internment camp near Berlin, where he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables and conduct scientific experiments using improvised materials such as radioactive toothpaste  With the help of Charles Drummond Ellis, he worked on the ionisation of phosphorus, and the photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine  He was released after the Armistice with Germany came into effect in November 1918, and returned to his parents' home in Manchester, where he wrote up his findings over the previous four years for the 1851 Exhibition commissioners Rutherford gave Chadwick a part-time teaching position at Manchester, allowing him to continue research  He looked at the nuclear charge of platinum, silver, and copper, and experimentally found that this was the same as the atomic number within an error of less than 1 5 per cent  In April 1919, Rutherford became director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and Chadwick joined him there a few months later  Chadwick was awarded a Clerk-Maxwell studentship in 1920, and enrolled as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) student at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge  The first half of his thesis was his work with atomic numbers  In the second, he looked at the forces inside the nucleus  His degree was awarded in June 1921  In November, he became a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College 

Researcher
Cambridge
Chadwick's Clerk-Maxwell studentship expired in 1923, and he was succeeded by the Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitza  The Chairman of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Sir William McCormick arranged for Chadwick to become Rutherford's assistant director of research  In this role, Chadwick helped Rutherford select PhD students  Over the next few years these would include John Cockcroft, Norman Feather and Mark Oliphant, who would become firm friends with Chadwick  As many students had no idea what they wanted to research, Rutherford and Chadwick would suggest topics  Chadwick edited all the papers produced by the laboratory 

In 1925, Chadwick met Aileen Stewart-Brown, the daughter of a Liverpool stockbroker  The two were married in August 1925, with Kapitza as Best Man  The couple had twin daughters, Joanna and Judith, who were born in February 1927 In his research, Chadwick continued to probe the nucleus  In 1925, the concept of spin had allowed physicists to explain the Zeeman effect, but it also created unexplained anomalies  At the time it was believed that the nucleus consisted of protons and electrons, so nitrogen's nucleus, for example, with a mass number of 14, was assumed to contain 14 protons and 7 electrons  This gave it the right mass and charge, but the wrong spin



ground_truth: Mr. Lawrence

Doug Lawrence

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the performer of Heartbeat named after?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  It reached top 10 on New Electronic Music chart  The official music video for the single was released on July 25, via their official profiles  The extended remix for the song, made by Trayze, was also released  After the music video was released, they announced more of new music and new projects (and probably their third studio album) coming in 2015  On October 22, 2014, Nina Sky featured on Lady Bee's single "Do It All Again" from their album What Is a Jeffree?  Music video was also released 
After finishing their Euro Tour in May 2015, on June 2, their Vito Fun and Spaceplant produced electropop single titled "Forever" was released from their upcoming extended play Brightest Gold, set to release in September 2015  "We wanted something that was smooth but also had a bounce," Nina Sky told The FADER in an email  "Spaceplant finessed the verses with a modern '90s freestyle beat pattern and built up the hook just enough that song still has its original sweet vibe but if you drop it at the right time in a club, it will still go off!" twins added  EP will also be produced by Vito Fun and Spaceplant  Another tracks, including "The Brightest Gold", "Nancy", "Zero Gravity", "Champion Lover" and "Lock and Key" will also be on EP  The sample of "Champion Lover" was released on Nina Sky's official Instagram account, and is reported to be released as the second single from EP  In 2016, the twins signed a recording contract with Warner Music Group's independent recording label Tommy Boy Entertainment 

Discography
Nina Sky (2004)
The Other Side (2010)
Nicole and Natalie (2012)

See also
List of Puerto Ricans
List of twins
Passage 9:
Fischerspooner
Fischerspooner were an electroclash duo and performance troupe formed in 1998 in Chicago after meeting in school  The name is a combination of the founders' last names, Warren Fischer and Casey Spooner 

Career
Originally a duo formed by classically trained musician Warren Fischer and video-artist and experimental theater performer Casey Spooner for an impromptu rendition of their makeshift track "Indian Cab Driver" at the Astor Place Starbucks, the group grew to over 20 performers, most of whom are dancers and guest vocalists  "We started as a performance art piece about entertainment that ultimately became legitimate entertainment," said Casey Spooner, when talking about the group's origins in an April 2009 interview 

#1 (2001)
Their debut album, #1, has been released on several record labels, including International DJ Gigolo, Ministry of Sound and Capitol Records, and includes their hit singles "Sweetness", "Emerge", and a cover of Wire's "the 15th"  In the final months of 2004, Fischerspooner opened up their FS Studios in New York City to the public for a few hours once a week, allowing people to meet the band and production team, as well as preview new video, music and dance projects that they were working on 

Odyssey (2005)
In 2005, Odyssey, the band's second album, was released  The album featured songs that were more structured and more accurately described as electropop than electroclash  "Odyssey was really about being on Capitol, which was this icon of classic American music, trying to embrace that cliché and find a way to embody it and infiltrate it and take it apart at the same time", says Spooner 
The lead single, "Just Let Go", featuring live drums and guitars, possessed a markedly different sound than those heard on their debut album  "Just Let Go" was featured on season 2, episode 15 of Nip/Tuck; "All We Are" was also featured on the same TV series, in season 3, episode 1  The second single, "Never Win", went on to become the album's biggest hit, and was well received in both clubs and radio  Furthermore, it was also featured in the 2006 Happy Madison movie Grandma's Boy  "A Kick in the Teeth" was rumored to be the album's third, and possibly final, single but was only pressed on 12" that included a remix by Tiefschwarz  This was followed after a duration of silence by a 12" remix of "We Need a War" with a mix by DJ Hell  Other remixes believed to have been done are of "All We Are" and "Get Confused"  "All We Are" was featured as the credits track in the first episode of season two of Sweetbitter 
After the album's release, Fischerspooner toured a new, more elaborate show in Europe, but the band found themselves without the funds to tour the show fully in North America  "I was incredibly frustrated because I had worked two years on this huge record and I was only able to perform for three months", recalls Spooner, who subsequently retreated to his theatrical roots, joining experimental New York performance ensemble The Wooster Group  During this period, it was unclear whether the band would record together again; and, in May 2007, the band was released from its Capitol Records recording contract 

Entertainment (2009)
Early European gig recordings of "The Best Revenge" surfaced on the internet during summer 2007  "The Best Revenge" was released on January 14, 2008, with French label Kitsune Music  The track includes a remix package from the likes of Autokratz, Tocadisco, Alex Gopher, The Passions and Tony Senghore  Fischerspooner also released "Danse en France" as a single on the Kitsuné label 
Warren and Casey subsequently began to work on more material for a new album while Casey was performing the role of Ophelia's brother Laertes in The Wooster Group's production of Hamlet (Fischerspooner also contributed two original songs to the production) 
Released in North America via the band's own label FS Studios on May 4, 2009, Entertainment is their third full-length album and was produced by Jeff Saltzman (The Killers, The Black Keys, The Sounds) 
The album's cover was listed on Pitchfork's worst album covers of 2009 

Sir (2018)
The album Sir, executive-produced and co-written by Michael Stipe of R E M  and Boots, was released on February 16, 2018, on Ultra  The band released the first single "Have Fun Tonight" on June 19, 2017  The song "Top Brazil", was released on January 19, 2018; along with an electro-pop music video which Billboard called, "provocative " 
NPR interpreted the album as a retrospective collage of Reagan-era queer references framed in an undeniably contemporary style;
"Even the cheapskate metaphor passions in the lyrics, read as physical, often NSFW desires — 'raging motorcycle thoroughbred,' 'not opposed to humiliation,' 'denim on denim,' 'dorsal fins at night in Berlin,' 'Butterscotch Goddam,' 'dark pink Saturday night' — that are dated just enough to seem older and odder  Pairing these with layered synthesizer lines and drum-machines that invoke Reagan-era industrial and EBM reinforces nostalgic notions of sexual danger "In an interview with the album collaborators, it was said that, "[the album] explores Spooner’s 're-entry into the sexual playground now defined by technology, but also the muddled ways that feelings and self-image are present in that experience' while simultaneously examining the years of 'emotional and sexual turbulence' he experienced with his ex-partner "

Break-up
On October 30, 2019, the duo announced their breakup via Instagram 

Band members
Warren Fischer – composer
Casey Spooner – songwriter, vocals
Sam Kearney – guitar
Peanuts, aka Jeremiah Clancy – attendant to Casey, actor
Adam Crystal - keyboards
Cindy Greene – vocals
Lizzy Yoder – vocals
Ian Pai – musical director, drums
Vanessa Walters – choreographer, dancer
Stephanie Dixon – dancer

Discography
Albums
Bootleg (self-titled, with PS1 Cover Artwork) (1998)
Fischerspooner (2000) – "For Those Who Know" release
#1 or Best Album Ever, originally titled Best Album Ever, "International DJ Gigolos" release in 2001, Ministry of Sound release in 2002, Capitol Records reissue with DVD in 2003 - UK #92
Odyssey (2005) US #172, UK #110
Entertainment (2009)
Sir (2018)

Singles
Music videos
"Emerge" – Original version (2001)
"Emerge" – Skin version (2003)
"The 15th" (2003)
"Sweetness" (2003)
"Just Let Go" (2005)
"Never Win" (2005)
"Never Win" – Mirwais version (2005)
"All We Are" (made for a Coca-Cola project by Rex & Tennant) (2006)
"Get Confused" (2008)
"We Are Electric" (2009)
"The Best Revenge" (2011)
"Have Fun Tonight" (2017)
"Togetherness" (2017)
"TopBrazil" (2017)
Passage 10:
Rex (Live at the Fillmore)
Rex (Live at the Fillmore) is the thirteenth album by Keller Williams, recorded live on February 8, 2006 at the Fillmore Auditorium in Denver, Colorado The collaborative show features Williams, Keith Moseley (of The String Cheese Incident) and Jeff Austin (of Yonder Mountain String Band) performing bluegrass versions of Grateful Dead songs   The group performed under the name Grateful Grass The album is available only as a digital download only, and was released on April 30, 2008   Proceeds from the album go to the Rex Foundation 

Track listing
"One More Saturday Night" (Bob Weir)
"Mississippi Half Step Uptown Toodeloo" (Jerry Garcia, Robert Hunter)
"Eyes Of The World" (Garcia, Hunter)
"Candyman" (Garcia, Hunter)
"Loose Lucy" (Garcia, Hunter)
"Black Peter" (Garcia, Hunter)
"St  Stephen" (Garcia, Phil Lesh, Hunter)
"Casey Jones" (Garcia, Hunter)
"Brown-Eyed Women" (Garcia, Hunter)
"Bird Song" (Garcia, Hunter)
"Scarlet Begonias" > "Fire On The Mountain" (Garcia, Hunter / Mickey Hart, Hunter)

Notes
Passage 11:
Chen Peisi
Chen Peisi (Chinese: 陈佩斯; born 1 February 1954) is a Chinese sketch comedian, film and stage actor, and voice actor   Chen's oft-time comedy partner is Zhu Shimao 

Name
Chen Peisi is the second son of famous stage and film actor Chen Qiang  Chen Qiang's first son (Chen Peisi's brother) was born in 1951 while he was overseas in the Hungarian capital Budapest performing The White-Haired Girl, so he named his first son Chen Buda (陈布达) after Buda, the western half of Budapest, as he loved the city during the visit   When the second son was born three years later, he named the son Peisi after Pest, the eastern half of Budapest, as the Standard Chinese phonetic translation of Budapest is "Bù Dá Peì Sī"   Chen Qiang's youngest child and daughter Chen Lida (陈丽达) was also named after a part of Budapest — the Margaret Island in the Danube between Buda and Pest 

Biography
Chen was born in Changchun, Jilin on 1 February 1954  In 1966, Chen studied at The High School Affiliated to Beijing Normal University  In 1969, during the Cultural Revolution, he worked in Inner Mongolia Production and Construction Corps  In 1973, Chen worked in August First Film Studio as an actor  In 1991, Chen set up a company named Hainan Comedy Film and Television Limited Company (海南喜剧影视有限公司), then renamed it Dadao Film and Television Limited Company (大道影业有限公司)  In 2000, Chen and his partner Zhu Shimao sued the China International Television Corporation over royalties from broadcasts which they won, but they were then taken off air by the parent company, China Central Television On October 26, 2020, he returned to the CCTV stage and served as the first instructor of the variety show "Gold Medal Comedy Class" after 20 years 

Filmography
Film
Television
Variety show
Passage 12:
Song Beneath the Song
"Song Beneath the Song", also known as Grey's Anatomy: The Music Event, is the eighteenth episode of the seventh season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy, and the 144th episode overall  It was named after a song initially performed by American singer Maria Taylor  Written by series creator Shonda Rhimes and directed by Tony Phelan, it premiered on ABC in the United States on March 31, 2011  It is the series's first musical episode, and features the cast performing songs previously featured within the program  It is accompanied by a soundtrack album, titled Grey's Anatomy: The Music Event, also released on March 31, 2011 
The episode revolves around Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), just after they are involved in a vehicular collision  Various songs are performed by the cast members, as they attempt to save the life of Torres  Rhimes originally idealized the episode at the conception of the drama, while the show remained untitled  The episode opened to polarized reviews from television critics, and it was the second most-watched program of the night  "Song Beneath the Song" was ranked in several "best and worst" lists, and the soundtrack also charted on the Billboard 200 

Plot
En route to a weekend getaway, surgeons Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) are involved in a vehicular collision, moments after Robbins proposes marriage  Torres suffers severe injuries, which endanger both her life and the life of her unborn child  She and Robbins are taken to Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, the institute at which they both work  Their colleagues attempt to save Torres, while Robbins and Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), the father of Torres's baby, stand by  Torres's many injuries include neurological trauma  While barely conscious, she hallucinates an uninjured version of herself standing beside her  The hallucinatory Torres begins to sing, and is gradually joined by the doctors treating her  This singing continues throughout the episode, as Torres's projection of herself attempts to reach out to Robbins 
Torres goes into cardiac arrest and is taken into an operating room she is temporarily stabilized, pending further surgery  She is moved into intensive care, while neonatal surgeon Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) is flown in by helicopter in case the baby has to be delivered prematurely  Robbins and Sloan argue over Torres's treatment; Robbins believes that Torres would not risk endangering the baby, but Sloan argues for saving Torres at all costs  The attending surgeons devise a treatment plan, led by trauma surgeon Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd)  As they do so, Torres dreams about the moments preceding the accident  Her dream self sings to Robbins, interspersed with shots of the hospital staff singing and dancing with their own partners  Dr  Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) suggests treating Torres with a high-risk but potentially effective cardiothoracic procedure she learned from her old mentor, Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington)  Her current mentor, Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), refuses to perform it, but when Torres's condition deteriorates and she is rushed back into surgery, Hunt agrees that Yang should attempt the procedure 
When Torres again goes into cardiac arrest, Montgomery delivers her daughter at twenty-three week's gestation  The baby is initially unable to breathe, so with Sloan's support, Robbins steps in and is able to revive her  Across the operating room, Torres's condition begins to improve  Once the surgery is complete, the doctors deal with their own affairs; Sloan's former partner Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) commits to her new relationship with resident Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams); Lexie's sister, Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) confesses that she was jealous of Torres's pregnancy, which prompts her husband Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) to promise that they will have a child together; Altman tells Yang that she can no longer teach her; Sloan and Robbins bond over their shared parenthood  Later, as Robbins keeps a vigil by Torres's bedside, the hallucinatory Torres is able to rouse her recovering self  As she regains consciousness, Torres accepts Robbins's proposal 

Production
Conception
Since Grey's Anatomy began, series creator Shonda Rhimes had planned to produce a musical episode  She first discussed the idea during filming of the pilot episode, when the program was as yet untitled  Rhimes felt that seasons 6 and 7 were the right time for the crew to "try anything and everything [they had] always wanted to do," and explained that she "finally [had] the right idea and the right talent to make [a musical episode] happen " Filming began 7-and-a-half years after Rhimes initially raised the idea  The episode was shot in approximately 2 weeks  Though cast member Dempsey jokingly referred to the episode as Glee M D , Rhimes intended for it to differ from other musical television episodes  She called it the opposite of "Once More, with Feeling," the "all-out, show-stopping," musical episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, as she aimed to "do something that was musical without being a musical "Rhimes said she had difficulty getting the network's permission  She added: "I begged the studio people  I begged the network people  I took these people to dinner and begged  I jumped out at these people in bathrooms and begged  And they all smiled politely but what they were clearly really thinking was, 'This woman is an idiot '"Rhimes also told about delays in producing this episode: 

Explaining what the heck took us so long is too complicated to go into here  There are a lot of reasons – I was busy telling other awesome stories at Seattle Grace, [   ] I was raising my tiny human, my musical talent involves oboe-playing and nothing else, the network thought it was the dumbest idea they’d ever heard of and refused to do it  
The script was written by Rhimes in November 2010  She centered the episode around Ramirez's character, Callie, and stated that the storyline would have developed regardless of whether it involved musical performances  Sara Ramirez used the opportunity to launch their career as a singer-songwriter; an alternate version of "The Story" is included on their debut EP, released four days prior to the episode's premiere  In this episode, Mark and Arizona improve their relationship  Capshaw said, "The traumatic circumstance leads to them having a greater understanding of each other and then appreciation, and then need for each other and desire to be in each other’s lives  They come to care, I think, for one another "

Musical performances
Rhimes, executive producer Betsy Beers and director Tony Phelan selected songs that had become well-known by their use in Grey's Anatomy, and chose "the most iconic ones, the ones that best suited [their] singers, and the ones that made the most sense " The multiple cover versions include the program's theme tune, "Cosy in the Rocket" by Psapp  The primary vocalists are cast members Ramirez, McKidd, Leigh and Chandra Wilson  The soundtrack also includes "How to Save a Life" by The Fray and "Running on Sunshine" by Jesus Jackson, performed as ensemble pieces by Ramirez, McKidd, Leigh, Daniel Sunjata, Scott Foley, Ellen Pompeo, Justin Chambers, Raver, Dane, and Capshaw  Ramirez, McKidd and Wilson also perform together on Snow Patrol's "Chasing Cars " Ramirez is the lead vocalist on "The Story" by Brandi Carlile, and "Grace" by Kate Havnevik, which also features the other female cast members, including Leigh and Sarah Drew on the chorus  Capshaw duets with Ramirez on KT Tunstall's "Universe & U " Wilson is the lead vocalist on "Wait" by Get Set Go, McKidd on "How We Operate" by Gomez, and Leigh on Anna Nalick's "Breathe (2 AM) "

Leigh said that some actors were not "excited" about singing but still could participate in the episode  "There were certain ways in which the scenes were written, even if there was a song in there, that perhaps a line was spoken instead of sung," she said A vocal coach was enlisted to help the cast  Music director Chris Horvath was recruited to arrange the selected songs for the cast  The arrangements took around two months, with vocals recorded over four days in February 2011  Horvath praised the cast's response to the episode, noting that only four performers had "serious vocal talent," while some had "barely sung in the shower" before  Those with professional singing experience include Ramirez, who won a Tony Award for their role in the musical Spamalot, and Wilson, who appeared in the Broadway production of Caroline, or Change  Cast members' reactions toward the episode varied  Pompeo initially deemed the idea "crazy," but changed her mind following the first read-through  Recurring cast member Sunjata stated that singing was "a bit out of [his] comfort zone," but found it an "interesting challenge," and McKidd deemed it "very exciting to do something that's completely out on a limb for the show "

Reception
Pre-broadcast commentary
Critical response prior to broadcast was mixed  TVLine's Michael Ausiello assessed that the episode would "either be a show-stopping triumph or a spectacular failure," with no possible middle ground  William Keck of TV Guide initially had "serious doubts," which were allayed by a visit to the set, during which he listened to the soundtrack  Keck likened it to the "much-beloved early seasons of Grey's, when music played a vital role on the show " Entertainment Weekly's Dan Snierson predicted heavy use of Auto Tune, though fellow EW writer Jennifer Armstrong was optimistic that the episode would be a success, commenting: "I have faith  I like musicals, I like Grey's  I'm rooting for this to work "

Ratings
During its original broadcast, "Song Beneath the Song" was watched by an average of 13 09 million American viewers  It attained a 4 9/13 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic, making it the second highest-rated program of the night, behind only American Idol on the Fox network  The rating was the second-highest of the seventh season until that point, and a 30% increase from the previous episode, "This is How We Do It," which was watched by 2 4 million fewer viewers In Canada, where the episode also aired on March 31, 2011, it was watched by 3 18 million viewers  Viewership again increased on "This is How We Do It," which attained 2 63 million viewers  However, while the preceding episode was the most-viewed scripted show for the week of its original broadcast, "Song Beneath the Song" ranked second, behind The Big Bang Theory 

Post-broadcast commentary
Following the first minutes of the drama, reactions on Twitter were polarized  Nicole Golden from TV Fanatic gave the episode 4 5 stars out of 5 0  She found that "overall, the concept worked since music really has always played a big part in the show  Some songs were more appropriate and/or better performed than others, though " She also wrote the concept worked in part because it was new but noted "the format would probably not have the same effect if used in future episodes " Even though Boston Herald's critic Mark Perigard was not a fan of the concept, saying "the Grey's Anatomy event proved how tricky it is for an established show, especially a drama, to pull off a musical episode," he did like several actors' performances  He wrote: "Chandra Wilson and Chyler Leigh (whom I never have anything good to say about) delivered some impressive vocal work  Eric Dane did some of his best acting of his career last night as an anxious father-to-be terrified he would lose his best friend " Lyneka Little of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "If Glee and ER had a baby it would be tonight’s episode of the medical drama Grey’s Anatomy titled 'Song Beneath the Song' " In his review of the episode Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote "Like Grey's Anatomy as a whole, some parts were unintentionally silly, others were surprisingly powerful, and it was rarely dull, at least "Patrick Dempsey admitted that the musical episode might not have been showrunner Shonda Rhimes's best idea  He explained: "It's very difficult to keep it fresh when you're doing 24 episodes a year  Shonda Rhimes has a lot of ideas, and she is in a position where she can take more chances  Sometimes that works, sometimes it does not  Last year we had the singing episode, which I think was a big mistake  But you have to try "

Accolades
In 2011, the episode was ranked #19 on the TV Guide Network special, 25 Biggest TV Blunders 2  It was included in TV Guide's list "The Worst Of 2011" saying, "Sara Ramirez has powerhouse pipes, but what this episode desperately needed was a better playlist " BuddyTV, however, ranked it #43 on its list of 2011's 50 Best TV Episodes and it also appeared on Digital Spy's shortlist of "TV's Best Musical Episodes " Supervising Music Editor Jennifer Barak and Music Editors Carli Barber and Jessica Harrison were nominated in the Best Sound Editing: Short Form Musical in Television category at the 2012 Golden Reel Awards for their work on the episode 

Soundtrack
Track listing
Chart history
Grey's Anatomy: The Music Event debuted at #24 on the Billboard 200, with 19,000 copies sold  It reached #2 on the U S  Soundtracks chart, and was #5 on the Independent Album chart  "The Story" entered the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart at #69, and the Canadian Hot 100 at #72 
Passage 13:
Beckmann rearrangement
The Beckmann rearrangement, named after the German chemist Ernst Otto Beckmann (1853–1923), is a rearrangement of an oxime functional group to substituted amides  The rearrangement has also been successfully performed on haloimines and nitrones  Cyclic oximes and haloimines yield lactams 
The Beckmann rearrangement is often catalyzed by acid; however, other reagents have been known to promote the rearrangement  These include tosyl chloride, thionyl chloride, phosphorus pentachloride, phosphorus pentoxide, triethylamine, sodium hydroxide, trimethylsilyl iodide among others  The Beckmann fragmentation is another reaction that often competes with the rearrangement, though careful selection of promoting reagent and solvent conditions can favor the formation of one over the other, sometimes giving almost exclusively one product  The rearrangement occurs stereospecifically for ketoximes and N-chloro/N-fluoro imines, with the migrating group being anti-periplanar to the leaving group on the nitrogen  Certain conditions have been known to racemize the oxime geometry, leading to the formation of both regioisomers  The rearrangement of aldoximes occurs with stereospecificity in the gas phase and without stereospecificity in the solution phase  A few methodologies allow for the rearrangement of aldoximes to primary amides, but fragmentation commonly competes in these systems  Nitrone rearrangement also occurs without stereospecificity; the regioisomer formed has the amide nitrogen substituted with the group possessing the greatest migratory aptitude 

The archetypal Beckmann rearrangement is the conversion of cyclohexanone to caprolactam via the oxime  Caprolactam is the feedstock in the production of Nylon 6 The Beckmann solution consists of acetic acid, hydrochloric acid and acetic anhydride, and was widely used to catalyze the rearrangement   Other acids, such as sulfuric acid, polyphosphoric acid, and hydrogen fluoride have all been used  Sulfuric acid is the most commonly used acid for commercial lactam production due to its formation of an ammonium sulfate by-product when neutralized with ammonia  Ammonium sulfate is a common agricultural fertilizer providing nitrogen and sulfur 

Reaction mechanism
The most common reaction mechanism of the Beckmann rearrangement consists generally of an alkyl migration anti-periplanar to the expulsion of a leaving group to form a nitrilium ion  This is followed by solvolysis to an imidate and then tautomerization to the amide:
This nitrilium ion has been known to be intercepted by other nucleophiles, including the leaving group from the oxime 

Presumably after the phenyl group migrates and expels the cyanate, the latter then attacks the nitrilium ion formed  In carbon tetrachloride the isocyanate can be isolated, whereas in ethanol, the urethane is formed after solvolysis of the isocyanate 
One computational study has established the mechanism accounting for solvent molecules and substituents  The rearrangement of acetone oxime in the Beckmann solution involved three acetic acid molecules and one proton (present as an oxonium ion)  In the transition state leading to the iminium ion (σ-complex), the methyl group migrates to the nitrogen atom in a concerted reaction as the hydroxyl group is expelled  The oxygen atom in the hydroxyl group is stabilized by three acetic acid molecules  In the next step the electrophilic carbon atom in the nitrilium ion is attacked by water and a proton is donated back to acetic acid  In the transition state leading to the imidate, the water oxygen atom is coordinated to 4 other atoms  In the third step, an isomerization step protonates the nitrogen atom leading to the amide 

The same computation with a hydroxonium ion and 6 molecules of water has the same result, but when the migrating substituent is a phenyl group, the mechanism favors the formation of an intermediate three-membered π-complex  This π-complex is not found in the H3O+(H2O)6 

With the cyclohexanone-oxime, the relief of ring strain results in a third reaction mechanism, leading directly to the protonated caprolactam in a single concerted step without the intermediate formation of a π-complex or σ-complex 

Cyanuric chloride assisted Beckmann reaction
Beckmann rearrangement can be rendered catalytic using cyanuric chloride and zinc chloride as a co-catalyst  For example, cyclododecanone can be converted to the corresponding lactam, the monomer used in the production of Nylon 12 

The reaction mechanism for this reaction is based on a catalytic cycle with cyanuric chloride activating the hydroxyl group via a nucleophilic aromatic substitution  The reaction product is dislodged and replaced by new reactant via an intermediate Meisenheimer complex 

Beckmann fragmentation
The Beckmann fragmentation is a reaction that frequently competes with the Beckmann rearrangement  When the group α to the oxime is capable of stabilizing carbocation formation, the fragmentation becomes a viable reaction pathway  The reaction generates a nitrile and a carbocation, which is quickly intercepted to form a variety of products  The nitrile can also be hydrolyzed under reaction conditions to give carboxylic acids  Different reaction conditions can favor the fragmentation over the rearrangement 

Quaternary carbon centers promote fragmentation by stabilizing carbocation formation through hyperconjugation  As shown in the above picture, the "stable" carbocation is formed, which then loses a hydrogen to give a site of unsaturation  Oxygen and nitrogen atoms also promote fragmentation through the formation of ketones and imines respectively 
Sulfur is also capable of promoting fragmentation, albeit at a longer range than oxygen or nitrogen 

Silicon is capable of directing the fragmentation through the beta-silicon effect 
The carbocation intermediate in this reaction is intercepted by nucleophilic fluoride from diethylaminosulfur trifluoride (DAST):

Semmler–Wolff reaction
The oxime of cyclohexenone with acid forms aniline in a dehydration – aromatization reaction called the Semmler–Wolff reaction or Wolff aromatization 
The mechanism can be shown as below:

The reaction is intrinsically a special case of Beckmann rearrangement combined with neighbouring group participation 

Applications in drug synthesis
An industrial synthesis of paracetamol developed by Hoechst–Celanese involves the conversion of a methyl ketone to an acetanilide via a Beckmann rearrangement The thermal rearrangement that occurs in the synthesis of ketamine was claimed to be a Beckmann rearrangement according to: url 

See also
Curtius rearrangement
Dakin reaction
Schmidt reaction
Stieglitz rearrangement
Lossen rearrangement
Passage 14:
Heartbeat in the Brain
Heartbeat in the Brain is a 1970 documentary film produced and directed by Amanda Feilding, an advocate of trepanation  It was filmed by Joseph Mellen 

Summary
In the film, Feilding, a 27-year-old student at the time, drills a hole in her forehead with a dentist's drill  In the documentary, surgical scenes alternate with motion studies of Feilding's pet pigeon Birdie 

Release and rediscovery
In 1978, Feilding screened the movie at the Suydam Gallery in New York  More than one audience member fainted during the climax The 1998 documentary A Hole in the Head contains footage from Heartbeat in the Brain The documentary, long believed to be lost, was publicly screened at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London on 28 April 2011 
Passage 15:
Eye of the Tiger
"Eye of the Tiger" is a song by American rock band Survivor  It was released as a single from their third album of the same name and was also the theme song for the 1982 film Rocky III, which was released a day before the single  The song was written by Survivor guitarist Frankie Sullivan and keyboardist Jim Peterik, and it was recorded at the request of Rocky III star, writer, and director Sylvester Stallone, after Queen denied him permission to use "Another One Bites the Dust", the song Stallone intended as the Rocky III theme  The version of the song that appears in the film is the demo version of the song  The film version also contained tiger growls, which did not appear on the album version  It features original Survivor singer Dave Bickler on lead vocals  The song is also the title song to the 1986 film of the same name  "Eye of the Tiger" is written in the key of C minor It gained tremendous MTV and radio airplay and topped charts worldwide during 1982  In the United States, it held No  1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for six consecutive weeks (the band's only song to top the chart) and was the No  2 single of 1982, behind Olivia Newton-John's "Physical"  It spent fifteen consecutive weeks in the top ten, the second-longest run of 1982, behind "Hurts So Good" by John Mellencamp (which was prevented from reaching the top of the Hot 100 by "Eye of the Tiger")  This top ten run is tied with the aforementioned "Another One Bites the Dust" as well as "Physical" as the longest run in the top ten for a number one song during the entire 1980s decade  The band won an award for "Best Rock Performance by Duo or Group with Vocal" at the 25th Annual Grammy Awards  In September 1982, it also peaked at No  1 in the United Kingdom, remaining at the top of the UK Singles Chart for four consecutive weeks  The single sold 956,000 copies in United Kingdom in 1982 It was certified platinum in August 1982 by the RIAA, signifying sales of 2 million vinyl copies  The song had sold over 4 1 million in digital downloads in the United States alone by February 2015  It was voted VH1's 63rd-greatest hard rock song 

Background
In an interview with Songfacts, co-writer Jim Peterik, who shared writing credit with Frankie Sullivan, explained the song's title 

At first, we wondered if calling it "Eye of the Tiger" was too obvious  The initial draft of the song, we started with "It's the eye of the tiger, it's the thrill of the fight, rising up to the spirit of our rival, and the last known survivor stalks his prey in the night, and it all comes down to survival " We were going to call the song "Survival"  In the rhyme scheme, you can tell we had set up "rival" to rhyme with "survival"  At the end of the day, we said, "Are we nuts?" That hook is so strong, and "rival" doesn't have to be a perfect rhyme with the word "tiger"  We made the right choice and went with "Eye of the Tiger" 

Accolades
The song was nominated for the 1982 Academy Award for Best Original Song (the only Oscar nomination for Rocky III), but it lost to "Up Where We Belong" from An Officer and a Gentleman The band won an award for "Best Rock Performance by Duo or Group with Vocal" at the 25th Annual Grammy Awards  The song was also nominated for the 1983 Grammy Award for Song of the Year, but lost to the Willie Nelson hit "Always on My Mind" 

Lawsuits
Newt Gingrich campaign
In 2012, Survivor sued Republican presidential candidate Newt Gingrich in Illinois federal court for using "Eye of the Tiger" without authorization as entrance music at his political rallies going back as far as 2009  The suit was later settled out of court 

Mitt Romney campaign
The same year Sullivan also demanded that Mitt Romney, also a Republican candidate for president, should stop using "Eye of the Tiger" at his campaign rallies  Romney agreed to drop the song from the campaign's playlists 

Mike Huckabee's campaign
Frankie Sullivan's company Rude Music filed a lawsuit in federal court in Chicago, Illinois, on November 18, 2015, against the former Governor of Arkansas and Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee's campaign organization for using "Eye of the Tiger" at a political rally without permission  The rally took place on September 8, 2015, when Kim Davis, a Kentucky county clerk, was released from jail after spending five days there for refusing to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples in Kentucky  In June 2016 it was reported by CNN that Huckabee had agreed, in a confidential, out-of-court settlement with Sullivan's Rude Music, to pay $25,000 in compensation 

Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the album Eye of the Tiger 
Dave Bickler – lead vocals
Frankie Sullivan – lead and rhythm guitars
Jim Peterik – grand piano, electric guitar
Stephan Ellis – bass
Marc Droubay – drums

Charts
Weekly charts
Certifications
See also



ground_truth: Natalie Albino

Nina Sky