prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the head of the developer of Simon?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Khrystyne Haje
Khrystyne Kamil Haje ( krist-EEN HOZH; born December 21, 1968) is an American actress  She is known for her role as Simone Foster in the sitcom series Head of the Class  After the series ended in 1991, she continued acting in both television and films  Haje was named as one of the "50 Most Beautiful People" in People magazine's first edition of that list in 1990 

Career
Haje began her career at age 14 as a fashion model while attending North Hollywood High School  Her acting career started at 17 in the television movie Crime of Innocence 
After appearing in several other television roles, including an appearance in the movie Bates Motel, Haje landed the role of sensitive poet Simone Foster on Head of the Class  After the series ended in 1991, she continued acting in both television and films  She was named as one of the "50 Most Beautiful People" in People Magazine's first edition of that list in 1990 That same year, Haje won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Class Program for hosting the special Spaceship Earth: Our Global Environment  In 1995, Haje voiced the character of Rebecca Fallbrook in an episode of Batman: The Animated Series 
In the late 1990s, she began working in theatre productions and appearing less in television productions In 2001, People Magazine reported that Haje was "quarter owner of a Silicon Valley company" worth $500 million  Haje explained, "I was really lucky and made a smart move "

Personal life
Haje was born in Santa Clara, California and has four brothers  Her parents are of Lebanese and Czech origin  Haje is a founding board member of the Earth Communication Office (ECO), which helps to protect ecosystems She appeared on the March 23, 2012 episode of the Rachael Ray Show to have her hair cut as part of National Donate Your Hair Day (April 27) for women with cancer In 2015, Haje was diagnosed with stage IV breast cancer, three years after being successfully treated for invasive lobular breast cancer  Although doctors estimated she had only two years to live, a medical trial called the SM-88 treatment (consisting of daily pills and injections) was successful, leaving her with no evidence of cancer within two years  She said, "I'm so lucky    I found this treatment, and I responded to it  And I don't suffer "

Filmography
Film

Television

Awards and nominations
1992: Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Class Program; Spaceship Earth: Our Global Environment (shared with Kirk Bergstrom and Kit Thomas)
Young Artist Awards nominations:

1987: Exceptional Performance By a Young Actress in a New Television, Comedy or Drama Series, Head of the Class
1988: Exceptional Performance by a Young Actress in a Television Comedy Series, Head of the Class
1989: Best Young Actress – Starring in a Television Comedy Series, Head of the Class
Passage 2:
The Dinner Party (play)
The Dinner Party is a one-act comedy written by Neil Simon, about marriage and divorce  This is Simon's 31st play 

Production
The Dinner Party had its world premiere at the Mark Taper Forum, Los Angeles, in December 1999 and then ran at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, DC  in June and July 2000 The play opened on Broadway at the Music Box Theatre on October 19, 2000 and closed on September 1, 2001 after 364 performances and 20 previews  Directed by John Rando, the cast featured Len Cariou (Andre Bouville), Veanne Cox (Yvonne Fouchet), Penny Fuller (Gabrielle Buonocelli), Jan Maxwell (Mariette Levieux), John Ritter (Claude) and Henry Winkler (Albert)   The sets were by John Lee Beatty, costumes by Jane Greenwood and lighting by Brian MacDevitt Near the end of the run, Ritter and Winkler were replaced by Jon Lovitz and Larry Miller Fuller received a Tony nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Play 

Background
In an interview in The New York Times (as reported by talkinbroadway com), Simon said that "he was trying to write a play very different from anything he had done before, and that he 'had the concept of creating a farce up to a certain point, and then instead of continuing the farce, to make a turn to where it becomes quite serious  [He] wanted to break the concept that farces can never get real, even for a minute ' "

Plot overview
Playwright Neil Simon, himself married five times, mines his own experience to create the thematic material for this unique farce-turned-dramedy 
Six unknowing guests have RSVP'd to a dinner at a private dining room in a first-rate restaurant in Paris  Arriving in a staggered manner, they eventually realize they are three divorced couples—providing the makings of the farce Simon intends the first half of the play to be  Five of them were mistaken into thinking a man they hold in high regard (who happens to be the divorce lawyer) is hosting the party, but he never shows up, and appearances prove to be deceiving 
Claude Pichon and Albert Donay are the first to arrive, and Claude asks what the party is for, but Albert does not know either  As the three male guests arrive first and the female guests later, it only gradually unfolds that they are three divorced couples and that somebody has designs for them to be together 
After the shock wears off, the characters inevitably begin to analyze and emotionally process their past marriages, and the play ends on a hopeful note 
The play treats similar themes to Stephen Sondheim's Follies, but has a generally more upbeat ending and a more positive spin on breakups and the meaning of relationships 

Reception
Ben Brantley in his New York Times review wrote: "The Dinner Party obviously hopes to invert a traditional comic form to reveal the truly absurd messes that so many people make of their marriages  Mr  Simon, who has been married five times, has reason to consider this subject  But no matter how profound his intentions, the play keeps shifting into automatic pilot, reflexively delivering barbs that glide over the surface instead of piercing it  The Dinner Party concludes on a tender, truly stirring note of pathos, bewilderment and affection for the foolish mortals who create such havoc for themselves  This sentimental moment is so palpably sincere, you wish you had been able to believe for a single instant in the events leading up to it "
Passage 3:
Love, Simon
Love, Simon is a 2018 American romantic comedy-drama film directed by Greg Berlanti, written by Isaac Aptaker and Elizabeth Berger, and based on the novel Simon vs  the Homo Sapiens Agenda by Becky Albertalli  The film stars Nick Robinson, Josh Duhamel, and Jennifer Garner  It centers on Simon Spier, a closeted gay high school boy who struggles to balance his friends, his family, and the blackmailer threatening to out him to the entire school, while simultaneously attempting to discover the identity of the anonymous classmate with whom he has fallen in love online 
Love, Simon premiered at the Mardi Gras Film Festival on February 27, 2018, and was released in the United States on March 16, 2018, by 20th Century Fox  Critics praised the film for its "big heart, diverse and talented cast, and revolutionary normalcy", describing it as "tender, sweet, and affecting" and a "hugely charming crowd-pleaser" that is "funny, warm-hearted and life-affirming", with reviews comparing it to the romantic comedy-drama films of John Hughes  Notable as the first film by a major Hollywood studio to focus on a gay teenage romance, it grossed $66 million worldwide  A television series titled Love, Victor, set in the same universe as the film, premiered on June 17, 2020, on Hulu, with Robinson serving as the series' narrator for the first season 

Plot
Simon Spier is a closeted gay teenager living in a suburb of Atlanta, Georgia  He has a close and loving family—parents Emily and Jack, and sister Nora—as well as three best friends: Nick and Leah, whom he has known most of his life, and newcomer Abby 
Leah informs Simon about an online confession of a closeted gay student at their high school, known only by the pseudonym "Blue"  Simon begins communicating with Blue via email using the pseudonym "Jacques"  The two confide personal details and form a connection  Their emails are accidentally discovered by another student, Martin, who is infatuated with Abby  After learning his secret, Martin threatens to make Simon's emails public unless he helps Martin win over Abby  Simon begins trying to figure out which of his classmates is actually Blue 
At a Halloween party, Simon suspects his classmate Bram might be Blue and attempts to connect with him, but later walks in on Bram making out with a female student  Nick confides in Simon that he has feelings for Abby  Simon lies to Nick, telling him that Abby has a boyfriend in college  Leah walks an inebriated Simon home, where she speaks vaguely about how she feels that she is fated to love one person very intensely; Simon believes she is referring to Nick 
Simon meets up with Abby and Martin at a Waffle House after he convinces them to practice lines together for an upcoming school musical  Simon bonds with their server, a classmate named Lyle, and now suspects that Lyle may be Blue  That night, Simon comes out to Abby and is relieved when she reacts positively 
At a school football game, Simon crosses paths with Lyle; before he can summon the courage to ask if Lyle is Blue, he finds out Lyle is actually interested in Abby  An upset Simon tells a pestering Martin to either "go big or go home" when courting Abby  Martin interrupts the national anthem and publicly declares his feelings for Abby  When Abby admits she does not share those feelings, Martin is humiliated and becomes the subject of ridicule 
On Christmas Eve, to distract people from his own humiliation, Martin outs Simon by posting his emails on the school's gossip site  Simon's sister, Nora, tries to comfort Simon but he shuts her out and does not return his friends' texts and calls  Simon comes out to his parents on Christmas morning, to their surprise and acceptance 
After the holidays, Nick and Abby, now a couple, confront Simon about the lies he told and learn that he tried to keep them apart due to Martin's blackmail  Leah confesses to Simon that she was in love with him, not Nick, and is upset he came out to Abby first  After his friends break off from him, Simon receives a final email from Blue, who is upset that their emails have been leaked  Blue tells Simon that they should stop speaking and deletes his email account 
In the cafeteria, Simon and an openly gay student, Ethan, are mocked by classmates  Ethan and Simon bond over the difficulties they have faced coming out  After his mother reaches out and comforts him, Simon apologizes to Leah and tells her he is in love with Blue  Simon posts a confession on the gossip site apologizing to his friends, seeking out Blue and asking him to meet at the school carnival 
After the school musical, Leah, Nick and Abby make amends with Simon and invite him to go to the carnival with them  Waiting for Blue at the carnival, Simon rides the Ferris wheel, drawing a large crowd of peers  When Simon runs out of tickets, Martin buys him one more ride  Just before the ride begins, Bram sits next to Simon, revealing himself as Blue after all; the kiss Simon saw with the female student was a drunken misunderstanding  They ride the Ferris wheel together and kiss as their friends cheer them on 
Simon's life gradually returns to normal and he begins a relationship with Bram  While picking up his friends and boyfriend for school, Simon suggests that they forgo their usual morning routine and instead go "on a little adventure" 

Cast
Nick Robinson as Simon Spier
Bryson Pitts as 10-year-old Simon Spier
Nye Reynolds as 5-year-old Simon Spier
Josh Duhamel as Jack Spier, Simon's father
Jennifer Garner as Emily Spier, Simon's mother
Katherine Langford as Leah Burke, one of Simon's best friends
Alexandra Shipp as Abby Susso, one of Simon's best friends
Jorge Lendeborg Jr  as Nick Eisner, one of Simon's best friends
Keiynan Lonsdale as Abraham "Bram" Greenfeld, Simon's love interest
Miles Heizer as Cal Price, one of Simon's classmates
Logan Miller as Martin Addison, one of Simon's classmates who blackmails him
Tony Hale as Mr  Worth, the awkward vice principal of the school Simon attends
Talitha Bateman as Nora Spier, Simon's sister
Skye Mowbray as 6-year-old Nora Spier
Natasha Rothwell as Ms  Albright, Simon's drama teacher
Drew Starkey as Garrett Laughlin, one of Simon's classmates
Clark Moore as Ethan, one of Simon's classmates who is openly gay
Joey Pollari as Lyle, a flirty server at a local diner
Mackenzie Lintz as Taylor Metternich, one of Simon's classmates

Production
Principal photography began on March 6, 2017, in Atlanta, Georgia  Filming officially ended on April 23, 2017, two days earlier than scheduled, an effort that Berlanti made to offset the cost of paying royalties for the most expensive songs on the film's soundtrack Becky Albertalli, the author of the novel the film is based on, and YouTuber Doug Armstrong make cameo appearances as students in the film 

Music
Love, Simon (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) was released by RCA Records and Sony Music Entertainment, on March 16, 2018  It featured music by several artists including Bleachers, Troye Sivan, Amy Shark, Brenton Wood, The 1975, Normani and Khalid, among others  It featured at #37 on Billboard 200's chart, #3 on Billboard Top Soundtracks chart, and at #24 in Billboard Canadian Albums chart for the week beginning with March 31, 2018, while also featured at #161 on Billboard 200 year-ender chart Rob Simonsen's score was distributed by Lakeshore Records as Love, Simon (Original Motion Picture Score) and released along with the soundtrack album 

Release
Love, Simon premiered at the Mardi Gras Film Festival on February 27, 2018, and also screened at the Glasgow Film Festival and the Melbourne Queer Film Festival  The film was released by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on March 16, 2018, and was scheduled to be released in other countries on various dates throughout 2018 Following the film's release, several celebrities – including Jennifer Garner, Kristen Bell, Neil Patrick Harris, Joey Graceffa, Matt Bomer, Robbie Rogers, Benj Pasek, Tyler Oakley, Martin Gero, Andrew Rannells, and Jesse Tyler Ferguson – bought out theaters and offered free screenings of the film because they believed it conveyed an important message  Love, Simon is notable as the first film by a major Hollywood studio to focus on a gay teenage romance The film became available to pre-order on home video on January 17, 2018, was released digitally on May 29, 2018, and was released on 4K Blu-Ray, Blu-ray and DVD on June 12, 2018 

Reception
Box office
Love, Simon grossed $40 8 million in the United States and Canada, and $25 4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $66 3 million, against a production budget of $10–17 million  It is the 15th highest-grossing teen romance film since 1980, and the third-highest by 20th Century Fox after The Fault in Our Stars and Romeo + Juliet Love, Simon held early preview screenings on March 10 before its official release on March 16, where it grossed $800,000 from 927 theaters, which Deadline Hollywood considered "strong"  In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside Tomb Raider and I Can Only Imagine, and was projected to gross $10–12 million from 2,401 theaters in its opening weekend  The film made $4 6 million on its first day (including $850,000 from Thursday previews at 2,125 theaters)  The film went on to debut at $11 8 million, finishing fifth at the box office; 58% of its opening weekend audience was female and 59% was under 25  In its second weekend the film dropped 33% to $7 8 million, finishing 7th, and in its third weekend made $4 8 million, finishing ninth In the United Kingdom, the film debuted fourth at the box office, earning $1 6 million  In Australia, the film debuted fourth at the box office, earning $916,697  In Brazil, the film debuted fourth at the box office, earning $804,567  In Mexico, the film debuted third at the box office, earning $982,391 

Critical response
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 92% based on 239 reviews, with an average rating of 7 5/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "Love, Simon hits its coming-of-age beats more deftly than many entries in this well-traveled genre – and represents an overdue, if not entirely successful, milestone of inclusion " On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 90 films in the history of the service to earn such a score Benjamin Lee of The Guardian gave the film four out of five stars, calling it a "hugely charming crowd-pleaser"  Pete Hammond of Deadline Hollywood gave the film four out of five stars, stating that audiences "are guaranteed to fall in love with this sweet, funny coming-of-age film" Molly Freeman of Screen Rant gave the film four out of five stars or an Excellent rating, stating that "Love, Simon is a funny, heartfelt, and truly touching teen romantic comedy that instantly becomes a modern classic for today's generation " Josh Winning of GamesRadar+ gave the film four out five stars, describing it as a "warm, sensitive and engaging coming-out-of-ager" and "one of the freshest teen-coms in ages" Meredith Goldstein of The Boston Globe gave the film three and a half out of four stars and stated, "Love, Simon is a sweet, modern romantic comedy that manages to channel the teen movie classics of the late John Hughes, but only the good stuff " Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film 3/4 stars and wrote, "If John Hughes had gone on to make a smart LGBT coming-of-age charmer, most likely it would resemble this "Bruce Demara of the Toronto Star also gave it three out of four stars, stating "The casting is high quality, the script – with a tantalizing mystery at its heart – is particularly well-crafted and the story hits all the right emotional notes in delivering a funny, warm-hearted and life-affirming tale " Brian Truitt of USA Today gave the film three and a half out of four stars and wrote, "Young and old, jocks and nerds, geeks and freaks, and everyone in between should be able to find something to adore in Love, Simon "Joyce Slaton of Common Sense Media gave the film four out of five stars, describing it as "tender, sweet, and affecting", with the film also receiving The Common Sense Seal, which recognizes movies that offer families an exceptional media experience  MJ Franklin of Mashable wrote that "Love, Simon feels like an instant classic that you're going to want to watch again and again "Max Weiss of Baltimore gave Love, Simon three out of four stars, calling it a "sweet, funny, warm-hearted film" Peter Debruge of Variety, while stating that the film is average in execution, praised the content as "groundbreaking on so many levels, not least of which is just how otherwise familiar it all seems"  Jesse Hassenger of The A V  Club gave the film a C+ and wrote that the film "is touching as a gesture", but as entertainment "it's nothing Degrassi hasn't done better" Becky Albertalli, the author of the novel on which the film is based, watched an early cut and praised the film, stating: "It's funny and relevant and timeless and charming and honest and painful and so romantic  It says exactly what I wanted the book to say "

Accolades
Sequel television series
Although Berlanti indicated that, after witnessing the film's success, he would not necessarily be opposed to directing a sequel film based on the book's spin-off sequel, Leah on the Offbeat, stating "God willing that the movie is successful enough that people actually ask for something like that  I loved working with these people on this film so much  I would just like to spend more time with them, that would be good!" When asked about a sequel, Katherine Langford said "I mean, it's always a discussion of who would make it, but if the script was good and the filmmaker had a great vision, then I would be totally down  I'm always down to tell a good story "On April 11, 2019, it was announced that a spin-off television series would premiere on Disney+  The series is not an adaptation of Leah on the Offbeat but rather a new story set at the same high school and follows closeted basketball player Victor and his already out-of-the-closet hipster crush, Benji On June 13, 2019, actress Ana Ortiz was cast to star as Isabel, Victor's mother  On August 15, 2019, the rest of the cast was revealed, with Michael Cimino leading the series as Victor, James Martinez as Victor's father Armando, Isabella Ferreira as Victor's sister Pilar, Mateo Fernandez as Victor's brother Adrian, Rachel Naomi Hilson as Victor's friend Mia, Bebe Wood as Mia's friend Lake, George Sear as Victor's love interest Benji, Anthony Turpel as Victor's best friend Felix, and Mason Gooding as cocky jock Andrew  Additionally, Nick Robinson would return as narrator and a producer of the series In February 2020, the series – now titled Love, Victor – was announced to be premiering on Hulu instead in June 2020  It was released on Disney+ in February 2021 in territories where the Star content hub is available 
Passage 4:
Bruce Davis (video game industry)
Bruce L  Davis (born 1952) is an American businessman, most recently CEO and chairman of Digimarc  Formerly the head of both Imagic and Activision 

Early life and education
A native of New York, Davis earned a B S  in accounting and psychology and an M A  in criminal justice from University at Albany, SUNY, and a J D  degree from Columbia University 

Career
Davis began his professional career by establishing the intellectual property practice at the firm of Orrick, Herrington & Sutcliffe in San Francisco, California  He assumed leadership of Imagic as it was going out of business in the video game crash of 1983 From 1987 to 1991, Davis was first chief operating officer, then chairman and CEO of Activision  The board of directors promoted him from senior vice president to replace Jim Levy shortly after the acquisition of Infocom, in the hopes of stemming the continuing financial damage from the crash  He had opposed the merger, and many Infocom employees believed he was deliberately working against them, changing processes that had made the game business successful  Activision co-founder and programmer David Crane was also critical of Davis: "Bruce Davis’ biggest mistake was treating video games as commodities, rather than creative products " Nevertheless, Davis's leadership of Activision began well  He led the company to a profit in his first year at the helm on strong sales growth, following 16 consecutive quarters of multimillion-dollar losses  The turnaround effort was stymied after a huge damages award for infringement of Magnavox's original home video game patents was upheld on appeal in 1988  That year Activision changed its name to Mediagenic, as Davis sought to expand the company's product lines to non-gaming software  In February 1991, Robert Kotick, backed by Steve Wynn of Mirage Resorts, staged a successful hostile takeover  Kotick and his team then filed a Chapter 11 bankruptcy in cooperation with Magnavox parent company Philips in a leveraged recapitalization of Activision, as it was renamed in 1992  Kotick replaced Davis in this restructuring Starting in 1992, Davis founded and served as president of TV Guide on Screen, a joint venture of News Corporation and TCI that supplied electronic guides and navigational software for the cable television market  The company later merged with Prevue Networks, then with TV Guide  TV Guide later merged with Gemstar International  The resulting Gemstar-TV Guide International was acquired in 2008 by Macrovision  
Davis was the chairman and CEO of Digimarc until 2021  He led Digimarc from start up in 1997 to a more than US$100 million public company supplying digital watermarking technologies to national and state governments and to the media industry  In April 2021, Davis retired from his role as chairman and CEO of Digimarc Davis has been awarded more than 50 patents on television user interface and media management and security  In 2003, Davis was named Ernst & Young's Pacific Northwest Entrepreneur Of The Year for the technology category 
Passage 5:
Empire Interactive
Empire Interactive was a British video game developer and publisher based in London  Founded in 1987 by Ian Higgins and Simon Jeffrey, it was acquired by Silverstar Holdings in 2006 and went out of business in 2009 

History
Empire Interactive was established by Ian Higgins (chief executive officer) and Simon Jeffrey (managing director) in 1987  In November 2000, the company acquired development studio Razorworks As well as full priced titles, Empire also had a budget range of titles, Xplosiv, for PC and PS2  Initially launched for PC in January 2000, Xplosiv published titles in Europe from third parties such as Sega and Microsoft  Later, in 2003 Empire launched titles for PS2 In March 2002 Empire acquired music creation software eJay Silverstar Holdings, a U S  public company listed on NASDAQ, offered to acquired Empire Interactive in late October 2006  The deal was accepted by 90% of Empire Interactive's shareholders by late November, and so Silverstar Holdings acquired 85% of Empire Interactive's shares  The deal was valued at approximately £4 5 million  Admissions of further Empire Interactive shares on the Alternative Investments Market of the London Stock Exchange, were expected to be cancelled, effective on 20 December  Higgins stepped down from his position in May 2008  In July, Empire Interactive reduced its staff count by 30%, with the intent to sell Razorworks  Razorworks was sold to and absorbed by Rebellion Developments a few days later  After Silverstar Holdings was delisted from NASDAQ in March 2009, Empire Interactive was placed into administration on 1 May 2009, with KPMG Restructuring appointed as administrator  Subsequently, 49 out of 55 employees were laid off, with the remaining six staying to aiding KPMG Restructuring in the winding-down of the company  Empire Interactive's intellectual property was sold to U S -based company New World IP  Shortly thereafter, U S  publisher Zoo Publishing acquired an exclusive licence for the publishing and distribution of Empire Interactive from New World IP 

Games
Passage 6:
René Simon
René Simon (1898 in Troyes – 1971) was a French actor and founder in 1925 of the Cours Simon drama school in Paris  Notable alumni of Cours Simon include Benoît Petitjean and Jean Reno 
Passage 7:
Director of the National Security Agency
The director of the National Security Agency (DIRNSA) is the highest-ranking official of the National Security Agency, which is a defense agency within the U S  Department of Defense  The director of the NSA also concurrently serves as the Chief of the Central Security Service (CHCSS) and as the commander of U S  Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM)  As the director of the NSA and the chief of the CSC, the officeholder reports to the under secretary of defense for intelligence, and as the commander of U S  Cyber Command, the officeholder reports directly to the secretary of defense 
According to 10 U S C  § 201 of the United States Code, the director of the NSA is recommended by the secretary of defense and nominated for appointment by the president  The nominee must be confirmed via majority vote by the Senate  In accordance with Department of Defense Directive 5100 20, dated 23 December 1971, the director of the NSA must always be a commissioned officer of the military services  As the assignment is currently part of a tri-hatted position, the director of the NSA is appointed to the grade of a four-star general or admiral during the period of his incumbency  The director's deputy is always a technically experienced civilian 

AFSA directors
The Armed Forces Security Agency was the predecessor to the National Security Agency and existed from 1949 to 1952 

NSA directors
Passage 8:
Wishful Drinking
Wishful Drinking is an autobiographical humor book by American actress and author Carrie Fisher, published by Simon & Schuster in 2008  Fisher's book was based on her one-woman stage show, which she developed with writer/director Joshua Ravetch 
The show debuted at The Geffen Playhouse  Fisher performed with Ravetch co-creating and directing  It enjoyed a successful Broadway run and then toured in other cities  In 2010, HBO filmed a feature-length documentary of the stage play 

Book reception
Wishful Drinking received generally positive reviews from critics  The January 2009 New York Times review described it as a "funny, sardonic little memoir", but "pretty slight, padded out with big type, extra space between the lines and some family photographs, and it displays at times an almost antic need to entertain  The paragraphs are short, and the jokes – the puns, the wisecracks, the deadpan one-liners – come rattling along at the rate of one every other sentence or so "  Salon reviewer Rebecca Traister found the book quite funny in large part, but was disappointed that "instead of pushing aside the twinkling craziness of her outside life to meaningfully reveal the crazy on the inside, as she has always done so well, Fisher is now gathering all the starry stuff around her for comfort and reassurance about who she is and what she means "The author, who died on December 27, 2016, had written the following comment in the book, and it was widely published by the news media after her death:

Now I think that this would make for a fantastic obit—so I tell my younger friends that no matter how I go, I want it reported that I drowned in moonlight, strangled by my own bra 

Stage adaptation
The book followed Fisher's one-woman play in which Fisher had been performing  Developed originally at The Geffen Playhouse with Josh Ravetch co-creating and directing the world premiere, it moved to Berkeley Repertory Theatre near San Francisco at the beginning of 2008, the production opened in a limited run on Broadway at Studio 54 on September 22, 2009 (previews) and October 4, 2009, and closed on January 17, 2010  After its successful San Francisco Bay Area run and before moving to Broadway, Wishful Drinking played at, among other venues, the Arena Stage in Washington, D C  in September 2008, and Seattle Repertory Theatre April – May 2009 

Production rights dispute
While the show met with critical and popular success on Broadway in New York, Fisher was soon embroiled in a battle with producer Jonathan Reinis over its production rights  Each claimed lost revenue at the hands of the other 

Film documentary
HBO cable television released a filmed documentary of the stage show, directed by Fenton Bailey and Randy Barbato, and first broadcast in December 2010  The 76-minute film was released on DVD on September 13, 2011   The film production and DVD received a mixture of reviews   In the Los Angeles Times, Robert Lloyd described the performance captured: "Fisher can be broad, but that is also the person she plays everywhere now: a little larger than life, worn but not worn out  She's funny as an actress, and as a writer makes memorable phrases"   Boston Globe reviewer Matthew Gilbert wrote, "Fisher’s obsession with her parents and stepparents can be a little tiresome, to be honest, even while her tales of Hollywood absurdity remain outrageous     Fisher even starts to seem boastful about her dysfunction    "  Continuing, "Fortunately Fisher does have some self-awareness about the potential for her show to seem like a narcissistic screed  That helps " DVDTalk reviewer Jason Bailey wrote of the released DVD, "To put across the brilliance of Wishful Drinking, all Bailey and Barbato really needed to do was put Fisher on stage, and turn on the cameras  They do that skillfully and unobtrusively"  The DVD's content received 4/5 stars, video quality 3/5, audio quality 3 5/5, extras 2 5/5, replay 4/5, with final advice of "Highly Recommended" 
Passage 9:
Striking Out
Striking Out is an Irish television legal drama series, broadcast on RTÉ, that first aired on 1 January 2017  Produced by Bl!nder F!lms for RTÉ Television, Striking Out stars Amy Huberman as Dublin-based solicitor Tara Rafferty, who is currently working for a fledgling legal firm  Filmed in Dublin and Wicklow, the first series, comprising four episodes, was broadcast during January 2017, to critical acclaim  Subsequently, the series was sold to the United States, where it made its North American debut on Acorn TV on 17 March 2017  Internationally, the series has been distributed by DCD Rights and Acorn Media Enterprises The series drew the highest Sunday night ratings for RTÉ in over a year  Prior to the broadcast of the first episode, RTÉ's Head of Drama Jane Gogan confirmed to the Irish Examiner that a second series was already in development  Subsequently, a second series was officially confirmed by RTÉ, with filming taking place throughout the summer of 2017  The second series, extended to six episodes, commenced broadcasting in 2018, with Maria Doyle Kennedy, Moe Dunford and Jane Brennan amongst the new cast members  Simon Massey will also act as the director  In 2018, Channel 5 Broadcasting Ltd acquired the rights to air the series in the United Kingdom, with the first series airing on the newly launched 5Select from 13 February 2018 
There are currently no plans to develop a third season of the drama, despite the 'cliff hanger' ending of season 2 

Synopsis
Striking Out follows the professional and personal life of Dublin-based solicitor, Tara Rafferty 

Cast
Main cast
Amy Huberman as Tara Rafferty; a Dublin-based solicitor
Neil Morrissey as Vincent Pike; SC and close friend of Tara's
Rory Keenan as Eric Dunbar; Tara's cheating ex-fiancé and former colleague
Fiona O'Shaughnessy as Meg Reilly; a private investigator and tech guru
Emmet Byrne as Ray Lamont; a petty criminal represented by Tara whom she later employs
Maria Doyle Kennedy as George Cusack; Tara's new office partner (Series 2—)
Moe Dunford as Sam Dunbar; Eric's younger brother (Series 2—)
Paul Antony-Barber as Richard Dunbar; senior partner in the law firm and Eric's father
Nick Dunning as Conrad Rafferty; Tara's father, who works as a barrister
Ingrid Craigie as Irene Rafferty; Tara's mother and former legal secretary
Brahm Gallagher as Pete; a local cafe owner who allows Tara to set up her fledgling firm in his back office (Series 1 — Series 2, Episode 1)

Recurring cast
Conall Keating as Steve; Ray's partner
Kate Gilmore as Lucy Whelan; receptionist at Dunbar's
Sam McGovern as "Bookworm" Joe; a junior counsel
Natalie Radmall-Quirke as Caroline Walsh; an employee at Dunbar's
Elva Trill as Gillian; an employee at Dunbar's
Susannah De Wrixon as Joan Dunbar; Eric's mother
Enda Oates as Phillip McGrath (Series 2—)
Michael James Ford as Nigel Fitzjames (Series 2—)
Jane Brennan as Deidre York (Series 2—)

Episodes
Series 1 (2017)
Series 2 (2018)
Passage 10:
The Odd Couple (1970 TV series)
The Odd Couple (titled onscreen Neil Simon's The Odd Couple) is an American sitcom television series broadcast from September 24, 1970 to March 7, 1975 on ABC  The show, which stars Tony Randall as Felix Unger and Jack Klugman as Oscar Madison, was the first of several sitcoms developed by Garry Marshall for Paramount Television  The series is based on the 1965 play The Odd Couple written by Neil Simon, which was also adapted into the 1968 film The Odd Couple  The story examines two divorced men, Oscar and Felix, who share a Manhattan apartment and whose opposite personalities inevitably lead to conflict and laughter 
In 1997, the episodes "Password" and "The Fat Farm" were ranked No  5 and No  58, respectively, on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time  The show received three nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series 

History
The success of the 1968 film version of the stage play of The Odd Couple, which starred Jack Lemmon as Felix and Walter Matthau as Oscar, catalyzed production of the television show  Mickey Rooney and Martin Balsam were also considered for the part of Oscar and Dean Martin and Art Carney for Felix (Carney had originated the role on Broadway) 
Eventually Tony Randall (as Felix) and Jack Klugman (as Oscar) were hired; Klugman had replaced Walter Matthau as Oscar in the original Broadway production, and Randall had also appeared as Felix in other productions of the play  Randall, who was hired first, had still wanted Mickey Rooney to play Oscar  Co-executive producer Garry Marshall had to lobby hard to get Klugman successfully hired  Once the casting was in place, the show's writers (Marshall, Jerry Belson, Jerry Paris, Bob Brunner, Mark Rothman and Lowell Ganz, among others) came up with a multitude of situations for Felix and Oscar to be in, while staying true to the soul of the play, which always reverted to the human tensions between the two that created the comic situations 
The show premiered on ABC on September 24, 1970  The first season was filmed at Paramount studios using the single-camera method and a laugh track, utilizing the same apartment set seen in Paramount's 1968 film version  Klugman and Randall both expressed displeasure with using a laugh track without a live audience  Marshall also disliked the practice; theatre veteran Randall particularly resented the process of having to wait several seconds between punchlines in order to allot enough space for the laughter to be inserted  The production team eventually experimented with omitting the laugh track altogether for Season One's 21st episode, "Oscar's New Life" (laughter was subsequently added for syndication in order to maintain continuity)  By the second season, ABC relented, and the show was then filmed with three cameras and performed like a stage play in front of a live studio audience, with laugh sweetening completed during post-production 
The change also required construction of a new, larger apartment set with a new layout, within a theatre at Paramount Randall and Klugman both enjoyed the spontaneity that came with performing in front of a live audience; any missed or blown lines usually went by without stopping (they would be reshot during post-production)  In addition, it gave the show a certain edge that had been lost during the first season, although the actors had to deliver lines more loudly, since they were on a larger sound stage, as opposed to a quiet studio with only minimal crew present Klugman later recalled, "We spent three days rehearsing the show  We sat around a table the first day  We tore the script apart  We took out all the jokes and put in character  The only reason we leave in any jokes is for the rotten canned laughter  I hated it  I watch the shows at home, I see Oscar come in and he says, 'Hi,' and there is the laughter  'Hey,' I think, 'what the hell did I do?' I hate it; it insults the audience "Throughout its five years on ABC, The Odd Couple was juggled several times around the network's programming schedule, never reaching the Top 30 in the Nielsen ratings  However, ABC continually renewed the show because the ratings for the summer reruns were consistently high 
In the final first-run episode, "Felix Remarries", Felix finally wins his ex-wife Gloria back and they remarry, as Oscar regains the freedom of living alone again  The final scene unfolds in this way, as the two say their goodbyes:

Felix: Your dinner's in the oven; turn it off in 20 minutes  [pause] Oscar … what can I say? Five years ago you took me in: a broken man on the verge of … mental collapse  I leave here a cured human being  I owe it all to you  [gesturing toward apartment] It's all yours buddy  I salute you  [empties waste basket onto floor]
Oscar: Felix, you know how I'm gonna salute you? I'm gonna clean that up 
Felix: It has not been in vain 
[They shake hands and Felix exits stage left through front door  After door closes …]
Oscar: [swings his hand through the air] I'm not gonna clean that up  [exits stage right to bedroom to audience laughter]
[Felix sneaks back in stage left and looks at floor]
Felix: [disgustedly] I knew he wouldn't clean it up! [proceeds to pick up trash to audience applause] (fade out)The 114 episodes went on to syndication and home video 

Differences between the series and the play/film
In the TV series, Felix's last name was spelled Unger but in the play and film it is spelled Ungar 
In the stage play, Felix is a news writer for CBS (in the film he writes the news for "television"), while in the TV series he is a commercial photographer  (His slogan, which he is quick to vocalize, is "Portraits a specialty" )
Felix's wife is named Frances in the play and in the film, but is Gloria in the TV series 
In the play and the film, Oscar has at least two children (including a son "Brucey"), who are referred to but not seen  In the series, Oscar is childless  In the play and the film, Felix has a son and a younger daughter  In the series, the children's birth order is reversed, and they are named Leonard and Edna, after Tony Randall's middle name and the name of his sister 
In the series, Felix is portrayed as being rather highbrow with refined tastes in food, music and the arts in general; he is baffled by much of popular culture  In the play/film, Felix is much more of a “regular guy”: He ogles go-go dancers,   plays poker, goes bowling and shoots pool  Though the pre-TV Felix enjoys cooking and prepares well-crafted sandwiches for his friends, he mentions on different occasions preparing rather simple dinners like meatloaf, franks and beans and cole slaw  When the dinner he has prepared for the Pigeon Sisters  burns (meatloaf in the film, London Broil in the play), he suggests substituting corned beef sandwiches from the local delicatessen 

Supporting characters
The Pigeon Sisters (Monica Evans as Cecily and Carole Shelley as Gwendolyn, reprising their roles from the Broadway stage play and film) made four appearances during the first season  The sisters were never seen after that, but were occasionally mentioned later on  Oscar gained a steady girlfriend during that latter part of the first season and half of the second, Dr  Nancy Cunningham (portrayed by Joan Hotchkis), an attractive physician, whose colleague, Dr  Melnitz (played by Bill Quinn in several episodes), is a curmudgeonly and sardonic older doctor who treats both Felix and Oscar  Felix also gained a girlfriend in the third season, Miriam Welby (portrayed by Elinor Donahue), and they lasted into the fifth season, presumably breaking up before Felix and Gloria remarry in the series finale  Christopher Shea appeared in three episodes of the first season as Philip, Felix and Oscar's precocious 11-year-old neighbor  Oscar makes frequent references to "Crazy Rhoda Zimmerman", his occasional good-time girlfriend, but she never appears onscreen 
The TV show also featured their ex-wives  Janis Hansen appeared as Felix's former wife Gloria (named Frances in the play and film), and Jack Klugman's real-life wife Brett Somers portrayed Blanche, Oscar's acerbic ex-wife (The couple separated in real life during the final season of the series)  There were several episodes in which Felix felt he had not tried hard enough to reconcile with Gloria, and took comically drastic measures to try to win her back  In contrast, Oscar seemed quite happy to be divorced from Blanche, and she from him, as the two constantly traded sarcastic barbs  The only major drawback from Oscar's point of view was the alimony he was ordered to pay  Willie Aames and later Leif Garrett made a few appearances as Felix's son, Leonard  Pamelyn Ferdin and later Doney Oatman appeared as Felix's teenaged daughter, Edna 
The two other major supporting characters, Officer Murray Greshler and Myrna Turner, Oscar's secretary, were portrayed by Al Molinaro and Penny Marshall (Garry's sister) respectively  Alice Ghostley played Murray's wife Mimi in one episode of the first season when Felix quickly outstays his welcome after he moves out of Oscar's apartment after a falling-out  Jane Dulo made one appearance as Mimi in the second season  The regular cast was rounded out by Garry Walberg, Larry Gelman and Ryan McDonald who portrayed Oscar's poker cronies Homer "Speed" Deegan, the bald, bespectacled Vincent "Vinnie" Barella and Roy, Oscar's accountant, respectively  Ryan McDonald left the show after the seventh of the first season's eight episodes in which there was a poker game, and the character of Roy was mentioned occasionally after that, but never seen again 
Garry Walberg (who later appeared with his friend Klugman on the 1976-83 series Quincy M E ) as "Speed", and Larry Gelman as Vinnie, both made several scattered guest appearances after the first season  Character actor Richard Stahl was seen in nine episodes as, among other things, a florist, a pet-shop owner, a psychiatrist, a volunteer fireman and a non-denominational monk, never playing the same role twice  Veteran character actors Herbie Faye and Phil Leeds appeared on the series in different roles, five and three times respectively    Oscar's mother appeared in two different episodes, played once by Elvia Allman, and once by Jane Dulo, both veteran actresses   Character actor John Fiedler who portrayed Vinnie in the 1968 film version, made two guest appearances in different roles  Victor Buono guest-starred in two episodes, playing a different role in each  Veteran stand-up comedian Leonard Barr made appearances in five episodes 

Celebrity guest stars
As themselves
The show often had celebrity guest stars, who reflected the cultural leanings either of Oscar or Felix, either playing themselves or fictional characters 
Sportscaster Howard Cosell (2 episodes) and then ABC television producer Roone Arledge (1 episode) played themselves 
Pop singer Jaye P  Morgan played herself as one of Oscar's many girlfriends  Opera singers Martina Arroyo and Richard Fredricks appeared as themselves  Other celebrities appearing as themselves included Edward Villella, Monty Hall, Richard Dawson, Wolfman Jack, David Steinberg, Hugh Hefner, Rodney Allen Rippy, John Simon, Bubba Smith, Deacon Jones, John Barbour and Allen Ludden and Betty White (married in real life)  In one episode, noted tennis frenemies and real-life competitors Bobby Riggs and Billie Jean King appeared as themselves 
Singer-songwriter Paul Williams appeared in an episode where Felix's daughter Edna runs away to follow Williams on tour  (Williams dissuades her ) Dick Clark made an appearance as himself, a radio disc jockey who calls Oscar in a contest, where he wins a new car (The New Car, episode 76)  Neil Simon (the author of the play which the series is based upon) makes an uncredited cameo appearance during the fifth season in Two on the Aisle, as does Bob Hope in The Hollywood Story 

Fictional depictions
Marilyn Horne played Jackie Hartman, a shy but musically talented co-worker of Oscar's 
Roy Clark played "Wild" Willie Boggs, an old practical joke-playing friend of Oscar's, who nonetheless has enormous musical talent, impressing even Felix 
Jean Simmons played the visiting Princess Lydia from the fictional European country of Liechtenberg (Peggy Rea played her lady-in-waiting), who meets Felix in a photography session but goes out on a date with Oscar, and he comes home bragging of a wonderful time  He proudly relates that the Princess had a wonderful time also, and that "she knighted a wino" 
Pernell Roberts played country music impresario Billy Joe Babcock, to whom Oscar owes a lot of money in gambling debts, and who does NOT take IOUs 
Jack Soo played Chinese wrestler Chuk Mai Chin 
Reta Shaw played a tough retired Army Colonel, Claire Frost, who works as housekeeper when Oscar is sick and Felix is too busy  She hails from Bayonne, New Jersey, and her domineering ways cause Oscar to derisively refer to her as "The Beast of Bayonne" 
Penny Marshall, who played Oscar's secretary, Myrna Turner, made her last appearance in an episode in which she married "Sheldn" (his legal name since the "o" was omitted from his birth certificate), played by Rob Reiner, Marshall's husband at the time  Marshall's real-life brother and sister, Garry and Ronnie played Myrna's siblings, Werner Turner and Verna Turner, in the same episode 
Victor Buono appeared twice, as Mr  Lovelace, the eccentric new manager of the building in which Felix and Oscar live, who loves plants but hates people, and as Dr  Clove, an "exorcist" in an episode inspired by the film The Exorcist in which the boys think their apartment is haunted 
Albert Brooks, as Rudy Mandel, a pretentious advertising colleague of Felix (in two episodes in the show's first season)
William Redfield as Felix's brother Floyd Unger, owner of Unger Gum in Buffalo, New York 

Awards and nominations
During its original run, the show had mediocre ratings at best (the show was never among the Top 30 programs on the Nielsen ratings list during its entire run)  Nonetheless, both actors were nominated for Emmy Awards in each year of the show's run  Jack Klugman won two Emmy Awards for his work (in 1971 and 1973), and Tony Randall won an Emmy as well (in 1975, upon accepting the award, he commented on the fact that he wished he "had a job,” as the show had recently been cancelled) 
Klugman was nominated for a Golden Globe in 1972 and won one in 1974  The show itself was also nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in the years 1971, 1972, and 1974  To date, these are the last Emmy nominations to a sitcom airing on a Friday night 

Opening narration and credit sequence
For the first three seasons, the program's opening credit sequence consisted of Felix and Oscar in various humorous situations around New York City  These scenes included Felix trying, to no avail, to help an old lady cross the street, Oscar walking into wet cement while ogling a girl with a revealing dress, Oscar eating a hot dog and getting chili on his shirt, and both men cavorting around a Maypole  The end of the introduction title sequence (for the series entire run) showed the duo sitting on a park bench in front of the William Tecumseh Sherman Monument in Grand Army Plaza at West 58th Street and Fifth Avenue, where Oscar throws his lunch wrapper on the ground, while Felix beckons him to pick it up 
Halfway through the show's debut season, a "prologue" was added to the introduction and featured a narration (the voice of actor Bill Woodson) retelling how Felix and Oscar came to live together:

"On November 13, Felix Unger was asked to remove himself from his place of residence " (Unger's unseen wife slams door, only to reopen it and hand Felix his pan ) "That request came from his wife  Deep down, he knew she was right  But he also knew that, someday, he would return to her  With nowhere else to go, he appeared at the home of his childhood friend, Oscar Madison  Sometime earlier, Madison's wife had thrown him out, requesting that he never return  Can two divorced men share an apartment, without driving each other crazy?"
ABC apparently added the narration because it did not want the audience to speculate about a homosexual subtext, given the changing perceptions of masculinity at the time  ABC insisted that every episode mention that the characters were both divorced  It was noted that Oscar had been thrown out of his home like Felix, when several episodes had shown that Oscar had lived in the same apartment before and during his marriage (as in the original play and film)  Later, the opening narrative stated that when Felix moved into Oscar's apartment, Oscar was already divorced 
In another case, the fourth episode showed Felix and Oscar meeting during jury duty  Later, the opening narration included a retcon that they were childhood friends  During the second season, the narration changed it to them being “simply friends,” and the "sometime earlier" narrative was also changed to "several years earlier ”  Later, in an episode aired in 1973, the two were in the Army together, with Felix being Oscar's superior at the time Oscar and wife Blanche (Brett Somers) married  An episode aired in 1974, the epilogue showed Oscar's recollection of meeting Felix when they were children In later seasons, the opening sequence featured highlights from past episodes, mixed with the previous footage as well as another clip (recreated from a scene on the show), in which Felix reprimands Oscar for drying his hands on the curtains, only to have Oscar use Felix's shirt as a towel as well 
For the first three seasons of the show, the closing credits of the show consisted of more of the duo's zany antics, such as Felix talking to a man repairing a street clock and Oscar indiscreetly looking at a peep show  During the fourth season, the credits included a scene where Oscar throws his cigar into a fountain in Columbus Circle, Felix barks at him to pick it up, and Oscar scoops it up with his shoe and then places the wet, soiled cigar butt in Felix's pocket  For the final season, the credits were shown against a blue background 

Related appearances by Klugman and Randall
Over the years, Klugman and Randall  appeared in many television commercials and public service announcements for several different products as Felix and Oscar, including 1972 ads for Yoplait yogurt (Klugman later appeared in commercials without Randall for the product in the early 1980s); in 1974, for the game Challenge Yahtzee; for a while, their likenesses also appeared on the game's packaging, with the slogan "You play your way—I'll play mine!"; in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Klugman and Randall reprised their Odd Couple characters in a series of commercials for Eagle Snacks, although in some of these spots they called each other by their real names 
Klugman and Randall also reprised their roles as Felix and Oscar in several regional productions of the original Neil Simon play  They toured in the play during the TV version's summertime off-season in the early to mid-1970s; they later appeared in several performances of the play during the late 1980s and early 1990s  In 1997, they appeared in a Broadway revival of the Simon play, The Sunshine Boys In the early 1980s, while starring in the NBC drama Quincy, M E , Klugman appeared in TV commercials for Canon copiers  Minolta countered by hiring Randall, then on the NBC sitcom Love, Sidney, to do a commercial for that company's copiers where he channeled his Felix role, mentioning that he "can change copy colors without getting that disgusting black powder all over my hands!" He closed by saying "But that doesn't mean I'm a neat freak  Of course, I'm not a slob, either, like, uh    " and waved his hand, to suggest Klugman as Oscar Randall and Klugman reunited for the 1993 television movie, The Odd Couple Together Again to a mixed reception  Klugman had lost a vocal cord to throat cancer and this real-life struggle was written into the script  In the film, Felix tries to help Oscar recover following surgery; he also becomes overly involved in his daughter Edna's upcoming wedding, much to her and Gloria's (Barbara Barrie) dismay 

Other versions
An ABC cartoon version of The Odd Couple premiered on September 6, 1975 titled The Oddball Couple during the network's  Saturday morning kids' programming block, Funshine Saturday  Although authorized by Neil Simon (who received a "based on" credit) completely different characters were created: "Spiffy" (a fussy cat voiced by Frank Nelson) and "Fleabag" (a sloppy dog voiced by Paul Winchell) who live together in a house that is half rundown and messy and half pristine and tidy along with a matching car  It was directed and produced by  David DePatie and Friz Freleng, along with Gerry Chiniquy, and Robert McKimson among others, who directed several episodes  The characters' professions in this version were reversed from the original series, with the fastidious Spiffy working as a reporter and the rumpled Fleabag a photographer, often working together  The cartoon was canceled in 1977 In 1982, as a hedge against the 1981 Writers Guild of America strike, ABC aired an African-American version of The Odd Couple, starring  Ron Glass as Felix and Demond Wilson as Oscar  It was called The New Odd Couple, and initially used eight previously-filmed scripts from the original series; when the strike ended during the series' production, union writers returned, and original episodes were written from then on  It was canceled after only half a season A Chilean version titled Una Pareja Dispareja began airing in January 2009 on TVN (which had aired the series during the 1970s)  This version takes several of its cues from Two and a Half Men, a Chuck Lorre-created sitcom with a similar premise to The Odd Couple (even alluded to the similarities between the two in the episode "Whipped Unto The Third Generation")  Some of the details taken from Two and a Half Men include Felix and Oscar being siblings instead of friends, as well as Felix being a doctor and Oscar a musician Another American remake, also called The Odd Couple, aired on CBS for three seasons from 2015 to 2017  This version, a multi-camera sitcom, was co-created and co-produced by Matthew Perry, who played Oscar, while Thomas Lennon played Felix 

Episodes
Home media
The Complete First Season of The Odd Couple was released on DVD in Region 1 on August 18, 2006 by Time Life Video under license from Paramount Home Entertainment (Paramount Television was the program's original distributor)  Some episodes, mainly from the first season, were available on a VHS videotape set during the 1990s, and distributed by Columbia House 
Each episode on the First Season DVDs contain an introduction from the show's producer Garry Marshall  Also included as extras are Emmy Awards speeches, bloopers, TV interviews with the show's stars and a clip of The Odd Couple on Broadway Paramount/CBS DVD have since released the remaining seasons (two through five) of The Odd Couple on DVD in Region 1  Season 1 was released in Region 2 on April 28, 2008  While the Time/Life Season 1 DVD release contained only unedited episodes as originally broadcast, CBS Home Entertainment opted to edit their DVDs of seasons two through five, removing short segments or occasionally entire scenes which included music sung by Felix or some other character  A notable example of this can be seen in the Season 5 episode "Strike Up the Band or Else" where, in the epilogue, guest star Pernell Roberts' character is going to sing, and the episode abruptly ends and closing credits roll  Fans and critics alike lambasted CBS/Paramount for the shoddy treatment The Odd Couple DVD releases received, concluding that the studio has misled consumers by labeling their DVD sets as "complete" when they have been intentionally edited to avoid paying royalties required by the music publishers On June 16, 2015, CBS DVD released The Odd Couple- The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1, albeit with the same edits and removal of scenes with music In Australia (Region 4), Paramount released The First Season in 2008, and no further releases were made  In 2016, Via Vision Entertainment obtained the rights to release the entire series from July 2016 through until September 2016  Followed by a Complete Series boxset in November 2016 
Passage 11:
Simon (cipher)
Simon is a family of lightweight block ciphers publicly released by the National Security Agency (NSA) in June 2013  Simon has been optimized for performance in hardware implementations, while its sister algorithm, Speck, has been optimized for software implementations The NSA began working on the Simon and Speck ciphers in 2011  The agency anticipated some agencies in the US federal government would need a cipher that would operate well on a diverse collection of Internet of Things devices while maintaining an acceptable level of security 

Description of the cipher
The Simon block cipher is a balanced Feistel cipher with an n-bit word, and therefore the block length is 2n   The key length is a multiple of n by 2, 3, or 4, which is the value m   Therefore, a Simon cipher implementation is denoted as Simon2n/nm   For example, Simon64/128 refers to the cipher operating on a 64-bit plaintext block (n = 32) that uses a 128-bit key  The block component of the cipher is uniform between the Simon implementations; however, the key generation logic is dependent on the implementation of 2, 3 or 4 keys 
Simon supports the following combinations of block sizes, key sizes and number of rounds:

Description of the key schedule
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Description of the constant sequence
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Cryptanalysis
The designers claim that Simon, though a "lightweight" cipher, is designed to have the full security possible for each block and key size, against standard chosen-plaintext (CPA) and chosen-ciphertext (CCA) attacks   Resistance against related-key attacks was also stated as a goal, though a less crucial one as attacks in that model are not relevant for typical use cases : 2   No effort was made to resist attacks in the known-key distinguishing attack model, nor did the designers evaluate Simon for use as a hash function As of 2018, no successful attack on full-round Simon of any variant is known   Due to interest in Simon and Speck, about 70 cryptanalysis papers have been published on them : 10   As is typical for iterated ciphers, reduced-round variants have been successfully attacked   The best published attacks on Simon in the standard attack model (CPA/CCA with unknown key) are differential cryptanalysis attacks; these make it through about 70–75% of the rounds of most variants, though these best attacks are only marginally faster than brute-force : 12   The design team states that while designing Simon, they found differential attacks to be the limiting attacks, i e  the type of attack that makes it through the most rounds; they then set the number of rounds to leave a security margin similar to AES-128's at approximately 30% : 12–13 
Simon has been criticized for having too small a security margin, i e  too few rounds between the best attacks and the full cipher, in comparison to more conservative ciphers such as ChaCha20 
Ciphers with small security margins are more likely to be broken by future advances in cryptanalysis   Simon's design team counters that there is a real-world cost to unnecessarily large security margins, especially on lightweight devices, that cryptanalysis during the design phase allowed the number of rounds to be set appropriately, and that they targeted AES's security margin : 17 Simon includes a round counter in the key schedule   The designers state this was included to block slide and rotational cryptanalysis attacks : 16   Still, rotational-XOR cryptanalysis has been used to find distinguishers against reduced-round versions of related ciphers like Speck  Though the authors don't describe standard key-recovery attacks based on their distinguishers, their best distinguishers on Simon32 and Simon48 in the known-key distinguishing attack model for certain weak key classes make it through slightly more rounds than the best differential distinguishers   One of the authors has said that his research was resource-constrained and that rotational-XOR distinguishers on more rounds are probably possible  The designers also state that Simon was not designed to resist known-key distinguishing attacks (which do not directly compromise the confidentiality of ciphers) : 8 The designers state that NSA cryptanalysis found the algorithms to have no weaknesses, and security commensurate with their key lengths : 2   The design team says that their cryptanalysis included linear and differential cryptanalysis using standard techniques such as Matsui's algorithm and SAT/SMT solvers, though a full list of techniques used is not given : 10   Simon's designers have been criticized for not providing more details on NSA cryptanalysis of the ciphers The NSA has approved Simon128/256 and Speck128/256 for use in U S  National Security Systems, though AES-256 is still recommended for non-constrained applications 

Standardization efforts and controversies
Initial attempts to standardise Simon and Speck failed to meet International Organization for Standardization super-majority required by the process and the ciphers were not adopted  Expert delegates to the ISO from several countries including Germany, Japan and Israel opposed the efforts by the NSA to standardise the Simon and Speck ciphers, citing concerns that the NSA is pushing for their standardisation with knowledge of exploitable weaknesses in the ciphers  The position was based on partial evidence of weaknesses in the ciphers, lack of clear need for standardisation of the new ciphers, and the NSA's previous involvement in the creation and promotion of the backdoored Dual_EC_DRBG cryptographic algorithm In response to concerns, the NSA stated that more than 70 security analysis papers from some of the world's leading cryptographers support NSA's conclusion that the algorithms are secure and NSA affirmed that it is not aware of any cryptanalytic techniques that would allow them or anyone else to exploit Simon or Speck 
After initial attempts to standardise the ciphers failed, the ISO standardised Simon and Speck in other working groups  As of October 2018, the Simon and Speck ciphers have been standardized by ISO as a part of the RFID air interface standard, International Standard ISO/29167-21 (for Simon) and International Standard ISO/29167-22 (for Speck), making them available for use by commercial entities 

See also
Balanced boolean function
Bent function
Passage 12:
Sam's Game
Sam's Game was a celebrity poker program on Playboy TV  It featured a lineup of comedians, Playmates, and professional Texas Hold 'Em players and was hosted by Simpsons' co-developer, Sam Simon 

Format
Shot at Hugh Hefner's private sky villa at the Palms Resort, the show featured celebrities playing traditional Texas Hold 'Em with their own actual money, as opposed to charity contributions 
Women in Playboy bunny costumes served as the card dealers and cocktail waitresses  A variety of comedians, actresses, professional card players, and ex-Playmates made up the rotating table of players, with Sam Simon being the only constant 

Featured players
Norm Macdonald
Artie Lange
Brande Roderick
Dave Attell
Jennifer Tilly
Jeff Ross
Deanna Brooks
Andrea Lowell
Phil Laak
Jay Kogen
Passage 13:
The Essential Simon and Garfunkel
The Essential Simon & Garfunkel is the second 2-CD compilation album of greatest hits by Simon & Garfunkel, released by Columbia Records on October 14, 2003 
This two-disc anthology was released to coincide with Simon & Garfunkel's 2003 reunion tour  It contains all of the duo's 16 singles originally released between 1964 and 1975 to reach the Hot 100 (including the 1975 reunion hit, "My Little Town")  The remaining 17 songs include non-hits like “Richard Cory”, and eight live performances from 1967 to 1969 

Track listing
All songs composed by Paul Simon, except where noted 

US version
Disc one

Disc two

Disc three (3 0 edition)

1 He Was My Brother
2	April Come She Will
3 7 O'Clock News/Silent Night
4	Punky's Dilemma
5	Why Don't You Write Me
6	Citizen of the Planet

European version
Disc one

Disc two

Charts
Certifications
Context 2: Passage 1:
CDC SCOPE
SCOPE (Supervisory Control of Program Execution) is a series of Control Data Corporation batch operating systems developed in the 1960s 

Variants
SCOPE for the CDC 3000 series
SCOPE for the CDC 6000 series
SCOPE and SCOPE-2 for the CDC 7600/Cyber-76

SCOPE for the CDC 3000 series
SCOPE for the CDC 6000 series
This operating system was based on the original Chippewa Operating System  In the early 1970s, it was renamed NOS/BE for the CDC Cyber machines  The SCOPE operating system is a file-oriented system using mass storage, random access devices  It was designed to make use of all capabilities of CDC 6000 computer systems and exploits fully the multiple-operating modes of all segments of the computer  Main tasks of SCOPE are controlling job execution, storage assignment, performing segment and overlay loading  Its features include comprehensive input/output functions and library maintenance routines  The operating system chronologically records all jobs run and any problems encountered  To aid debugging, dumps and memory maps are available 

Description
SCOPE is a multiprogramming operating system capable of running up to eight jobs, called control points, at one time  One control point is used for system functions : p 1-2  Later versions increased this limit to 15 
SCOPE runs on the 6x00's peripheral processors (PPs)  "A central processor (CP)… is completely within the power of every PP at all times " One PP, identified as PP0 runs the Monitor Program (MTR) "that oversees or controls all other activities " PP9 is assigned to control the system console typewriter and displays  The other PPs perform input/output functions as directed by MTR : p 1-1 A portion of the central processor's memory (called central memory, or CM) the Central Memory Resident (CMR) "is reserved for various system tables accessible by the PPs ”: p 1-2  Part of this CMR is a communications area for each PP  Each communications area contains an "input register" and an "output register", followed by a message buffer : p 1-1 When the computer is deadstarted, all PP's are loaded with system code from magnetic tape  PP0 will begin running the monitor code  The remaining PPs will loop reading their input registers waiting for requests from the monitor : p 1-1

Software
As of SCOPE 3 3 a number of programming language compilers and utilities were supported  Major languages were ALGOL, BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, and COMPASS (assembler)  Other languages were APT, CSSL 3 (Continuous System Simulation Language), JOVIAL, SIMSCRIPT, and SIMULA  Other software included IGS (Interactive Graphics System), PERT, and SORT/MERGE CDC systems were considered supercomputers, and customers were often large government agencies and research facilities  Most of these had specialized requirements, and often wrote their own software 

Competition
SCOPE was written by a programming team in Sunnyvale, California, about 2,000 miles from the CDC hardware division   It was considered by them a buggy and inefficient piece of software, though not much different than many operating systems of the era   At the CDC Arden Hills, Minnesota laboratories (where they referred to SCOPE as Sunnyvale's Collection Of Programming Errors) they had a competing operating system, MACE   This was the Mansfield And Cahlander Executive (from Greg Mansfield and Dave Cahlander, the authors of the system)   It had started as an engineering test executive, but eventually developed into a complete operating system — a modularized rewrite and enhancement of the original Chippewa Operating System (COS)   While never an official CDC product, a copy was freely given to any customer who asked for one   Many customers did, especially the more advanced ones (like University and research sites) 
When Control Data decided to write its next operating system Kronos, it considered both the current SCOPE system and the unofficial MACE alternative   They chose to abandon the SCOPE system and base Kronos on the MACE software   Eventually, Kronos was replaced by the new Network Operating System (NOS)   Though many smaller CDC customers continued to use the SCOPE system rather than Kronos   When NOS became the primary Control Data operating system, some customers running mainly batch operations were reluctant to switch to the NOS system, as they saw no benefit for their shop   So the SCOPE system was maintained, and renamed as NOS/BE (Batch Environment), primarily so that CDC Marketing could say that all mainframe customers were using the NOS operating system 

Current status
The computer emulation community has made repeated attempts to recover and preserve CDC software  It is now running under a CDC CYBER and 6000 series emulator 

See also
CDC Kronos
NOS
Passage 2:
Standing Rules of the United States Senate
The Standing Rules of the Senate are the parliamentary procedures adopted by the United States Senate that govern its procedure  The Senate's power to establish rules derives from Article One, Section 5 of the United States Constitution: "Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings    "
There are currently forty-five rules, with the latest revision adopted on January 24, 2013  The most recent addition of a new rule occurred in 2006, when The Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006 introduced a 44th rule on earmarks  The stricter rules are often waived by unanimous consent 

Outline of rules
Quorum
The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business  Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed to be present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise  Any senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present  In practice, senators almost always request quorum calls not to establish the presence of a quorum, but to temporarily delay proceedings without having to adjourn the session  Such a delay may serve one of many purposes; often, it allows Senate leaders to negotiate compromises off the floor or to allow senators time to come to the Senate floor to make speeches without having to constantly be present in the chamber while waiting for the opportunity  Once the need for a delay has ended, any senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call 

Debate
The Senate is presided over by the Presiding Officer, either the President of the Senate (the Vice President) or more often the President pro tempore (in special cases the Chief Justice presides)  During debates, senators may speak only if called upon by the Presiding Officer  The Presiding Officer is, however, required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak  Thus, the Presiding Officer has little control over the course of debate  Customarily, the majority leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates, even if another senator rises first  All speeches must be addressed to the Presiding Officer, using the words "Mr  President" or "Madam President"  Only the Presiding Officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person  In most cases, senators refer to each other not by name, but by state, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia" or "the junior senator from California" 
There are very few restrictions on the content of speeches, and there is no requirement that speeches be germane to the matter before the Senate 
The Senate Rules provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day (a legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends when it adjourns; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day)  The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please  Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits  In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute  In general, however, the right to unlimited debate is preserved 

Filibuster
The filibuster is an obstructionary tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely  A filibuster may entail, but does not actually require, long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments  The longest filibuster speech in the history of the Senate was delivered by Strom Thurmond, who spoke for over twenty-four hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957  The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture  In most cases, cloture requires the support of three-fifths of the Senate  Cloture is invoked very rarely, particularly because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority  If the Senate does invoke cloture, debate does not end immediately; instead, further debate is limited to thirty additional hours unless increased by another three-fifths vote 

Closed session
On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session  During a closed session, the chamber doors are closed and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or not essential to the session  Closed sessions are rare and are usually held only under certain circumstances in which the Senate is discussing sensitive subject matter, such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or discussions of Senate deliberations during impeachment trials  Any Senator has the right to call a closed session as long as the motion is seconded 

Voting
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote  In many cases, the Senate votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye!" (in favor of the motion) or "No!" (against the motion)  The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote  Any senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer's assessment and request a recorded vote  The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one-fifth of the senators present  In practice, however, senators second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy  When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; each senator responds when their name is called  Senators who miss the roll call may still cast a vote as long as the recorded vote remains open  The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer but must remain open for a minimum of fifteen minutes  If the vote is tied, the Vice President, if present, is entitled to a casting vote  If the Vice President is not present, however, the motion is resolved in the negative 

Committees
Tasks in the Senate are divided among sixteen standing committees, four select committees, four joint committees, and occasionally temporary committees  Senate rules establish the policy jurisdictions of each committee; for example, the Committee on Foreign Relations deals with all matters relating to foreign policy  Committees act, in effect, as "little legislatures", monitoring ongoing governmental operations, identifying issues suitable for legislative review, gathering and evaluating information, and recommending courses of action to their parent body in matters relating to their jurisdiction  Senate rules give committees significant gatekeeping authority over legislation that falls under their jurisdiction, with proposed bills submitted to the relevant committee, which can hold hearings, "mark up" bills, consolidate bills into a "clean bill", or ignore the bill altogether (there exist some workarounds for Senators to circumvent committees, but in general Senators work through the committee system) The size of each standing committee is established by Senate rules  The makeup of committees are established through inter-party negotiations before each new Congress, with the percentage of a party's representation within the Senate determining the percentage of seats it will have on each committee 

Reconciliation
Legislation affecting spending, revenues, and the federal debt limit is governed under a special rules process called "Reconciliation" that prohibits filibusters by limiting debate to twenty hours  Congress can pass up to three reconciliation bills per year, with each bill addressing one of the topics of reconciliation (revenue, spending, or the debt limit)  However, if Congress passes a reconciliation bill affecting more than one of those topics, it cannot pass another reconciliation bill later in the year affecting one of the topics addressed by the previous reconciliation bill  In practice, reconciliation bills have usually been passed once per year at most  Reconciliation cannot be used to enact or rescind discretionary spending (which is controlled through the annual appropriations process) or adjust Social Security spending, and is limited by the Byrd Rule, which allows senators to block provisions that are "extraneous" to spending, revenues, or the debt limit Reconciliation was created by the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, and significantly altered with the introduction of the Byrd Rule in 1985 (amended in 1990)  Originally infrequently used (it did not see first use until 1980) 

Nominations
Selected public positions in the United States are appointed by the president but require Senate approval  Senate rule XXXI governs the Senate process for considering the president's nominations 
For most positions the nomination is passed first to a Senate committee for review  Generally it is the Senate committee with jurisdiction over the topic or department related to the position to be filled A public hearing by the committee is possible  Historically about half of civilian appointees were approved without a hearing  After consideration, the committee can report a favorable recommendation, or an unfavorable recommendation, or it can report no recommendation  It can also fail to act  To simplify the process, and with the support of the committee, the Senate by unanimous consent might discharge a nomination from the committee without the committee having acted It is up to the leadership of the Senate to then place the nomination on the Senate calendar for a vote in executive session  Some nominations are passed by unanimous consent  The leadership may delay putting a nomination on the calendar, in which case it may not be acted upon 

Nomination Time Limit
Paragraph 6 of rule XXXI specifies that if final action has not been taken before Congress adjourns the nomination is returned to the President  By the same rule nominations are returned when the Senate goes into recess for more than 30 days  However, in modern practice some nominations may stay active over long recesses if the Senate holds pro forma sessions during recess or agrees to suspend the rule by unanimous consent  When a nomination is returned without action, the president may nominate a different person or re-nominate the same person 

Rules by number
There are currently forty-four Standing Rules of the Senate:
SR Rule I: Appointment of a Senator to the Chair
SR Rule II: Presentation of Credentials and Questions of Privilege
SR Rule III: Oaths
SR Rule IV: Commencement of Daily Sessions
SR Rule V: Suspension and Amendment of the Rules
SR Rule VI: Quorum – Absent Senators May Be Sent For
SR Rule VII: Morning Business
SR Rule VIII: Order of Business
SR Rule IX: Messages
SR Rule X: Special Orders
SR Rule XI: Papers – Withdrawal, Printing, Reading of, and Reference
SR Rule XII: Voting Procedure
SR Rule XIII: Reconsideration
SR Rule XIV: Joint Resolutions, and Preambles Thereto
SR Rule XV: Amendments and Resolutions
SR Rule XVI: Appropriations and Amendments to General Appropriation Bills
SR Rule XVII: Reference to Committees; Motions to Discharge; Reports of Committees; and Hearings Available
SR Rule XVIII: Business Continued from Session to Session
SR Rule XIX: Debate
SR Rule XX: Questions for Order
SR Rule XXI: Session with Closed Doors
SR Rule XXII: Precedence of Motions
SR Rule XXIII: Privilege of the Floor
SR Rule XXIV: Appointments of Committee
SR Rule XXV: Standing Committees
SR Rule XXVI: Committee Procedure
SR Rule XXVII: Committee Staff
SR Rule XXVIII: Conference Committees; Reports; Open Meetings
SR Rule XXIX: Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXX: Executive Session – Proceedings on Treaties
SR Rule XXXI: Executive Session – Proceedings on Nominations
SR Rule XXXII: The President Furnished with Copies of Record Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXXIII: Senate Chamber – Senate Wing of the Capitol
SR Rule XXXIV: Public Financial Disclosure
SR Rule XXXV: Gifts
SR Rule XXXVI: Outside Earned Income
SR Rule XXXVII: Conflict of Interest
SR Rule XXXVIII: Prohibition of Unofficial Office Accounts
SR Rule XXXIX: Foreign Travel
SR Rule XL: Franking Privilege and Radio and Television Studios
SR Rule XLI: Political Fund Activity; Definitions
SR Rule XLII: Employment Practices
SR Rule XLIII: Representation by Members
SR Rule XLIV: Congressionally Directed Spending and Related ItemsThe latest change was the introduction in 2006 of a 44th rule on earmarks, by the Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act 
Passage 3:
Festus Olabode Ola
Festus Olabode Ola (born 12 November 1956) was elected Senator for Ekiti Central constituency of Ekiti State, Nigeria, taking office on 30 June 2009  He is a member of the Action Congress (AC) party Ola obtained a Higher National Diploma in Accountancy in 1982 
He was employed in the Foreign Service (1983–2004) 
In the 2007 elections Adefemi Kila of the People's Democratic Party (PDP) was declared the winner for Ekiti Central  However, on 30 June 2009, the Court of Appeal quashed Kila's election and declared Bode Ola the lawful winner of the April 2007 poll  A deciding factor was that 19,000 of the ballots cast for Chief Kila had the same serial number 
Passage 4:
2018 Wisconsin gubernatorial election
The 2018 Wisconsin gubernatorial election took place on November 6, 2018   It occurred concurrently with a Senate election in the state, elections to the state's U S  House seats, and various other elections  Incumbent Republican Governor Scott Walker sought re-election to a third term, and was challenged by Democratic candidate and then-Superintendent of Public Instruction Tony Evers, as well as Libertarian Phil Anderson and independent Maggie Turnbull  Evers, along with his running mate Mandela Barnes, managed to defeat Walker and Lieutenant Governor Rebecca Kleefisch in a closely fought and widely watched race, ending unified Republican control of the state 
The result was considered "too close to call" on election night, with Walker and Evers being separated by a mere few hundred votes for much of the night as counties reported their results  Shortly after midnight on November 7, Milwaukee County reported around 46,000 late absentee ballots  From those late ballots, Evers received 38,674 votes, or 84% of the total, and Walker 7,181, giving Evers a narrow lead  The race was called for him shortly after Wisconsin was the only state in the 2018 gubernatorial election cycle to elect a Democratic governor while voting more Republican than the national average  With a margin of 1 1%, this election was also the second-closest race of the 2018 gubernatorial election cycle, behind only the election in Florida  Walker was one of two Republican incumbent governors to be defeated for re-election in 2018, the other being Bruce Rauner in neighboring Illinois, who had lost decisively to J B  Pritzker 

Republican primary
Governor
Candidates
Nominated
Scott Walker, incumbent governor

Eliminated in primary
Robert Meyer, businessman and candidate for mayor of Sun Prairie in 2007

Endorsements
Results
Lieutenant governor
Candidates
Nominated
Rebecca Kleefisch, incumbent lieutenant governor

Results
Democratic primary
Governor
The primary election for the Democratic nomination featured a crowded field of candidates  The race was ultimately won by Tony Evers with around 40% of the vote 

Candidates
Nominated
Tony Evers, Wisconsin state superintendent of public instruction

Eliminated in primary
Matt Flynn, former chair of the Democratic Party of Wisconsin, retired partner at Quarles & Brady and candidate for U S  Senate in 1986
Mike McCabe, former executive director of Wisconsin Democracy Campaign and candidate for the State Assembly in 1998
Mahlon Mitchell, president of the Professional Fire Fighters of Wisconsin and nominee for lieutenant governor in 2012
Josh Pade, lawyer
Kelda Roys, former state representative and candidate for WI-02 in 2012
Paul Soglin, Mayor of Madison and nominee for WI-02 in 1996
Kathleen Vinehout, state senator and candidate for governor in 2012

Withdrew
Mike Crute, liberal talk radio broadcaster (endorsed Mike McCabe)
Michele Doolan, businesswoman (endorsed Matt Flynn)
Andy Gronik, businessman (still on ballot; endorsed Kelda Roys)
Bob Harlow, candidate for CA-18 in 2016 (endorsed Matt Flynn)
Kurt Kober, businessman (running for lieutenant governor)
Jeff Rumbaugh, disability rights activist  (endorsed Mike McCabe)
Dana Wachs, state representative (still on ballot; endorsed Tony Evers)

Declined
Chris Abele, Milwaukee County Executive
Mark Bakken, businessman
Peter Barca, state representative and former U S  Representative
Tom Barrett, Mayor of Milwaukee, former U S  Representative and nominee for governor in 2010 and 2012 
John T  Chisholm, Milwaukee County District Attorney (endorsed Matt Flynn)
Kevin Conroy, president and CEO of Exact Sciences
Timothy Cullen, former state senator
Katherine Gehl, former president and CEO of Gehl Foods
Gordon Hintz, minority leader of the State Assembly
Brett Hulsey, former state representative and candidate for governor in 2014
Ron Kind, U S  Representative
James Kreuser, Kenosha County executive
Joe Parisi, Dane County executive
Mark Pocan, U S  representative
Jennifer Shilling, Democratic leader of the State Senate

Endorsements
Polling
An asterisk (*) denotes that a candidate withdrew before the primary but remains on the ballot 

Results
Lieutenant governor
Mandela Barnes, a former state representative from Milwaukee, defeated opponent Kurt Kober by a 2 to 1 margin for the nomination, becoming the first African American to be nominated by a major party for a Wisconsin gubernatorial ticket 

Candidates
Nominated
Mandela Barnes, former state representative, and candidate for state senate in 2016

Eliminated in primary
Kurt Kober, businessman

Results
Libertarian convention
Governor
Nominee
Phil Anderson, chairman of the Wisconsin Libertarian Party and Libertarian nominee for the U S  Senate in 2016

Endorsements
Lieutenant governor
Nominee
Patrick Baird, U S  Navy veteran

Green Party primary
Governor
Candidates
Nominated
Michael White

Withdrew
Nick De Leon, pastor (endorsed Matt Flynn)

Results
Lieutenant governor
Candidates
Nominated
Tiffany Anderson

Results
Independent candidates
Governor
Maggie Turnbull, astrobiologist

Lieutenant governor
Wil Losch, Turnbull's running mate

General election
Despite the fact that Scott Walker had won three prior races for governor in 2010, 2012, and 2014 by fairly comfortable margins, his bid for a third term was complicated by rising unpopularity due to his policies concerning public education and infrastructure  Walker also faced backlash for a deal his administration made with Taiwanese company Foxconn in 2017 to create jobs in the state in exchange for around $4 5 billion in taxpayer subsidies  In 2018, the deal resulted in around $90 million of funding for roads being diverted to a stretch of I-94 that was set to be near a future Foxconn plant from the rest of state  The poor condition of many roads around the state as well as the lack of work being done to redo them prompted a campaign where potholes were being labeled as “Scott”-holes Walker's approval ratings were hobbled further by the unpopularity of Republican U S  President Donald Trump in Wisconsin  Walker himself sounded the alarm on this several times in early 2018 after Democrats won two special elections to the Wisconsin State Senate in typically Republican districts and an election to the Wisconsin Supreme Court  In April 2018, Walker warned that Wisconsin was “at risk of a blue wave“ in November  The Walker campaign generally focused on promoting the popular parts of his record, such as a freeze on tuition at public universities and record low unemployment The result was expected to be close, with a record $93 million spent on the race by the two major campaigns and special interest groups from in and out of the state  In the end, Walker was ultimately defeated by Democrat Tony Evers, who garnered a slightly more than 1% margin of victory, as Democrats swept every statewide race up for election 

Predictions
Polling
Results
Evers won the election by a 1 09% margin 

Results by county
By congressional districts
Despite losing the state, Walker won 5 of the 8 congressional districts 

Aftermath
Despite the close result, Scott Walker was unable to request a recount due to a law he had signed himself two years prior, which requires the margin of difference to be within 1% 

Lame duck legislative session
Early in December 2018, a special legislative session was called by Walker to pass a series of bills to limit the powers of Governor-elect Evers, as well as incoming Democratic State attorney general Josh Kaul who had defeated incumbent Brad Schimel Other bills being considered included restrictions on early voting and the passage of Medicaid work requirements, which Walker had previously held off on due to the election  A similar law restricting early voting that was passed several years prior had been ruled as unconstitutional The bills were widely denounced by Democrats and others as a “power grab ” Congresswoman Gwen Moore described the move as a “coup” that “hijacked the voters’ will ”  Walker and other Republicans meanwhile argued that the bills were necessary ”checks on power” and that they did not actually strip any real powers from the executive  Lawsuits were filed by Evers and various labor unions almost immediately after Walker signed the bills into law 

See also
2018 Wisconsin elections
2018 United States gubernatorial elections
2018 United States elections

Notes
Passage 5:
1946 United States House of Representatives elections
The 1946 United States House of Representatives elections were elections for the United States House of Representatives to elect members to serve in the 80th United States Congress  They were held for the most part on November 5, 1946, while Maine held theirs on September 9  November 1946 was 19 months after President Harry S  Truman assumed office upon the death of Franklin D  Roosevelt 
While Democrats had controlled the House for 16 years since 1931 and Roosevelt had been elected to a record four terms in office, Truman did not garner the same support as the deceased president  The 1946 election resulted in Republicans picking up 55 seats to win majority control  Joseph Martin, Republican of Massachusetts, became Speaker of the House, exchanging places with Sam Rayburn, Democrat of Texas, who became the new Minority Leader  The Democratic defeat was the largest since they were trounced in the 1928 pro-Republican wave that brought Herbert Hoover to power  They also lost the Senate in the concurrent Senate elections 
The vote was largely seen as a referendum on Truman, whose approval rating had sunk to 32 percent over the president's controversial handling of a wave of post-war labor strikes, including a United Auto Workers strike against Ford and General Motors in 1945, a United Mine Workers strike starting in April 1946, and a national railroad worker strike that began in May  Further damage resulted from the back-and-forth over whether to end wartime price controls, unpopular with the American business constituency, to handle shortages, particularly in meat and other foodstuffs  While Truman's early months in the White House had been plagued with questions of "What would Roosevelt do if he were alive?" Republicans now began to joke "What would Truman do if he were alive?" and "To err is Truman " However, the Republican majority was short-lived, as Democrats regained control of the House two years later 

Overall results
Source: Election Statistics - Office of the Clerk

Special elections
In these special elections, the winner was seated during 1946 or before January 3, 1947; ordered by election date, then by district 

Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Non-voting delegates
Alaska Territory
See also
1946 United States elections
1946 United States Senate elections
1946 California's 12th congressional district election (the Richard Nixon-Jerry Voorhis race)
79th United States Congress
80th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 6:
Sulaiman Mohammed Nazif
Sulaiman Mohammed Nazif (born 14 April 1970) is a Nigerian politician, who represented the Bauchi North constituency of Bauchi State, Nigeria, in the Senate of Nigeria  He took office on 29 May 2007  He was elected on the Action Congress (AC) platform Nazif attended the Federal Polytechnic Staff School, Bauchi (1981–1983), the Nigerian Military School (1983–1988) and Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, graduating in 1990 as an Engineer 
After taking his seat in the Senate, he was appointed to committees on Women and Youth, Water Resources, Solid Minerals, Local & Foreign Debts, Land Transport (Vice Chairman), Drugs and Narcotics, Anti Corruption and Communications 
He was also appointed the Publicity Secretary of the Northern Senators Forum He was nominated to go to the U S  to witness the inauguration of President Barack Obama  However, when he arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport he was told his visa was not in order and was not allowed to enter the country 
In a mid-term evaluation of Senators in May 2009, ThisDay said that he had not sponsored any bill but co-sponsored some bills, including the Nigerian Railway Corporation (Repeal and Reenactment) Bill 2008  He co-sponsored fifteen motions and made brilliant contributions to debates in plenary Nazif was a contender to become governor of Bauchi State in the 28 April 2011 elections, running on the All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP) platform  He came fourth with 102,093 votes, losing to the incumbent Governor Isa Yuguda, who won 771,503 votes 

Incomplete project controversy
In January 2022, WikkiTimes reported on several incomplete constituency projects from Nazif's term in office, specifically two nonexistent skills acquisition centres that cost over ₦41 million in public funds  One "centre" was entirely on paper with no evidence of any construction while the other "centre" was simply an abandoned building that had never been utilized  The investigation also found that the contract awarding process did not follow legally required procedures and the companies given the construction contracts did not have any physical or recent presence  Nazif did not respond to requests for comment 
Passage 7:
2014 United States Senate elections
The 2014 United States Senate elections were held on November 4, 2014  A total of 36 seats in the 100-member U S  Senate were contested  Thirty-three Class 2 seats were contested for regular six-year terms to be served from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2021, and three Class 3 seats were contested in special elections due to Senate vacancies  The elections marked 100 years of direct elections of U S  senators  Going into the elections, 21 of the contested seats were held by the Democratic Party, while 15 were held by the Republican Party 
The Republicans regained the majority of the Senate in the 114th Congress, which started in January 2015; the Republicans had not controlled the Senate since January 2007  They needed a net gain of at least six seats to obtain a majority and were projected by polls to do so  On election night, they held all of their seats and gained nine Democratic-held seats  Republicans defeated five Democratic incumbents: Mark Begich of Alaska lost to Dan Sullivan, Mark Pryor of Arkansas lost to Tom Cotton, Mark Udall of Colorado lost to Cory Gardner, Mary Landrieu of Louisiana lost to Bill Cassidy, and Kay Hagan of North Carolina lost to Thom Tillis  Republicans also picked up another four open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia  Democrats did not pick up any Republican-held seats, but they did hold an open seat in Michigan 
This was the second consecutive election held in a president's sixth year where control of the Senate changed hands, the first being in 2006  This was also the first time that the Democrats lost control of the Senate in a sixth-year midterm since 1918  With a total net gain of nine seats, the Republicans made the largest Senate gain by any party since 1980  This is also the first election since 1980 in which more than two incumbent Democratic Senators were defeated by their Republican challengers  Days after the election, the United States Election Project estimated that 36 4% of eligible voters voted, 4% lower than the 2010 elections, and possibly the lowest turnout rate since the 1942 election As of 2022, this remains the last time that a Republican has won a U S  Senate election in Colorado  This is the most recent Senate elections where any Republican flipped an open Democratic-held seat  This is also the most recent election where the party winning control of the Senate won the popular vote  It also remains the last time that the president's party has suffered a net loss of Senate seats in a midterm 

Partisan composition
For a majority, Republicans needed at least 51 seats  Democrats could have retained a majority with 48 seats (assuming the two Independents continued to caucus with them) because the Democratic Vice President Joe Biden would become the tie-breaker  From 1915 to 2013, control of the U S  Senate flipped in 10 of 50 cycles, or 20% of the time  Republicans had lost ground in the 2012 elections, leading to an internal fight among the Republican leadership over the best strategies and tactics for the 2014 Senate races  By December 2013, eight of the twelve incumbent Republicans running for re-election saw Tea Party challenges  However, Republican incumbents won every primary challenge  Although Democrats saw some opportunities for pickups, the combination of Democratic retirements and numerous Democratic seats up for election in swing states and red states gave Republicans hopes of taking control of the Senate  7 of the 21 states with Democratic seats up for election in 2014 had voted for Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election compared to just 1 state with a Republican senator that voted for Barack Obama  Democrats also faced the lower voter turnout that accompanies mid-term elections Poll aggregation website FiveThirtyEight gave the Republican Party a 60% chance of taking control of the Senate as of September 28  Another poll aggregation website, RealClearPolitics, gave the Republican Party a net gain of 7 seats  Due to the closeness of several races, it was initially believed that Senate control might not be decided on election night  Both Louisiana and Georgia were seen as competitive, and both states require a run-off election if no candidate takes a majority of the vote 
Two independent candidates (in Kansas and South Dakota) refused to commit to caucusing with either party  In the final months of the race, polls showed them with viable chances of winning, leading some analysts to speculate on the possibility of an "Independent caucus" that could also include Maine Senator Angus King and possibly Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders  However, no Independent won a Senate race in 2014, and King and Sanders continue to caucus with the Democratic Party following the 2014 election 
By midnight ET, most major networks projected that the Republicans would take control of the Senate  The party held all three competitive Republican-held seats (Kentucky, Kansas, and Georgia), and defeated incumbent Democrats in North Carolina, Colorado, and Arkansas  Combined with the pick-ups of open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia, the Republicans made a net gain of 7 seats before the end of the night  Republicans defeated three incumbent Democrats, a task the party had not accomplished since the 1980 election  Five of the seven confirmed pickups were in states that voted for Mitt Romney in 2012, but two of the seats that Republicans won represent states that voted for Barack Obama in 2012 (Colorado and Iowa)  Of the three races that were not called by the end of election night, Alaska and Virginia were still too close to call, while Louisiana held a December 6 run-off election  Virginia declared Democrat Mark Warner the winner of his race by a narrow margin over Republican Ed Gillespie on November 7, and Alaska declared Dan Sullivan the winner against Democratic incumbent Mark Begich a week later, on November 12  Republican Bill Cassidy defeated Democratic incumbent Mary Landrieu in the Louisiana runoff on December 6 

Election spending
Altogether, at least $3 67 billion was spent by candidates, parties, committees and outside groups in the 2014 election  Spending on the 2014 Senate elections by outside groups (i e , organizations other than a candidate's campaign, such as super PACs and "dark money" nonprofit groups) more than doubled from 2010  In the 10 competitive races for which data was available, outside groups accounted for 47% of spending, candidates accounted for 41% of spending, and parties accounted for 12% of spending  The Senate race with the most outside spending was in North Carolina, at $80 million, a new record The top outside spenders in the 11 most competitive Senate races were the following:

On the Republican side, the National Republican Senatorial Committee, Crossroads GPS, U S  Chamber of Commerce, Ending Spending Action Fund, Freedom Partners Action Fund, American Crossroads, and the NRA Political Victory Fund 
On the Democratic side, the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, Senate Majority PAC, and NextGen Climate Action Committee 

Results summary
The Republican Party made a net gain of nine U S  Senate seats in the 2014 elections Going into the elections, there were 53 Democratic, 45 Republican and 2 independent senators (both of whom caucus with the Democrats)  In all, there were 36 elections: 33 senators were up for election this year as class 2 senators, and 3 faced special elections (all from Class 3)  Of all these seats, 21 were held by Democrats and 15 were held by Republicans 

Colored shading indicates party with largest share of that row 

Source: Clerk of the U S  House of Representatives

Change in composition
Before the elections
After the elections
Gains and losses
Retirements
Four Democrats and two Republicans retired instead of seeking re-election 

Resignations
One Republican resigned four years into his six-year term 

Nomination withdrawn
One Democrat was originally to seek election for a full 6-year term in office but withdrew 

Defeats
Five Democrats sought re-election but lost in the general election 

Race summaries
Special elections during the preceding Congress
In these special elections, the winners were elected during 2014 and seated before January 3, 2015 — except that one was seated on January 3, 2015, the effective date of the predecessor's resignation 

Elections leading to the next Congress
In these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning January 3, 2015; ordered by state 
All of the elections involved the Class 2 seats 

Closest races
In seven races the margin of victory was under 10% 

Final pre-election predictions
Predicted probability of Republican takeover
Several websites used poll aggregation and psephology to estimate the probability that the Republican Party would gain enough seats to take control of the Senate 

Predictions
Republicans needed to win at least six in order to gain a majority of 51 seats and Democrats needed to win at least seven in order to hold a majority of 50 seats (including the two independents who currently caucus with the Democrats) and the tie-breaking vote of Vice President Joe Biden 

Alabama
Three-term incumbent Republican Jeff Sessions had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Sessions sought re-election  Democrat Victor Sanchez Williams ran against Sessions as a write-in candidate  Sessions won with 97 3 percent of the vote against assorted write-in candidates 

Alaska
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Begich had been first elected with 48% of the vote in 2008, defeating six-term Senator Ted Stevens by 3,953 votes (a margin of 1 25%)  Begich was 52 years old in 2014 and was seeking re-election to a second term  Stevens, who would have been almost 91 years old at the time of the election, had already filed for a rematch back in 2009, but was killed in a plane crash the following year 
Republican Lieutenant Governor Mead Treadwell, 2010 nominee Joe Miller, State Natural Resources Commissioner Daniel S  Sullivan, and Air Force veteran John Jaramillo ran for the GOP nomination  In the August 19 primary, Sullivan won the Republican nomination with 40% and defeated Begich in the general election 

Arkansas
Two-term incumbent Democrat Mark Pryor had been re-elected with 80% of the vote without Republican opposition in 2008  Pryor was running for a third term Freshman Representative Tom Cotton of Arkansas's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee  In the general election, Cotton defeated Pryor 

Colorado
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Udall had been elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  Udall was running for re-election Congressman Cory Gardner of Colorado's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee; his late entry into the race caused numerous Republicans to withdraw their candidacies  Gaylon Kent was the Libertarian Party nominee  Unity Party of America founder and National Chairman Bill Hammons was the Unity Party nominee 

Delaware
Democrat Chris Coons won in the 2010 United States Senate special election in Delaware caused by Joe Biden's election as Vice President, winning by a 57% to 41% margin  Coons sought re-election  His Republican opponent was engineer Kevin Wade, whom Coons went on to defeat in the general election 

Georgia
Two-term incumbent Republican Saxby Chambliss had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008 in a runoff election with former state Representative Jim Martin; Georgia requires run-off elections when no Senate candidate wins over 50% of the vote  Chambliss did not seek a third term Political activist Derrick Grayson, Representatives Jack Kingston of Georgia's 1st congressional district, Paul Broun of Georgia's 10th congressional district, and Phil Gingrey of Georgia's 11th congressional district all declared their candidacy for the Republican nomination, as did former Secretary of State Karen Handel  In the May 20 primary, no candidate received a majority of votes, so the top two candidates faced each other in a runoff; Perdue narrowly won against Kingston in the runoff primary election on July 22 with 50 9% of the vote Michelle Nunn, CEO of Points of Light and the daughter of former U
Context 3: Passage 1:
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is an expendable medium-lift launch vehicle designed and operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)  It was developed to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into sun-synchronous orbits, a service that was, until the advent of the PSLV in 1993, only commercially available from Russia  PSLV can also launch small size satellites into Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) Some notable payloads launched by PSLV include India's first lunar probe Chandrayaan-1, India's first interplanetary mission, Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) and India's first space observatory, Astrosat PSLV has gained credibility as a leading provider of rideshare services for small satellites, owing to its numerous multi-satellite deployment campaigns with auxiliary payloads, usually ride-sharing along with an Indian primary payload  As of June 2022, PSLV has launched 345 foreign satellites from 36 countries  Most notable among these was the launch of PSLV-C37 on 15 February 2017, successfully deploying 104 satellites in sun-synchronous orbit, tripling the previous record held by Russia for the highest number of satellites sent to space on a single launch, until 24 January 2021, when SpaceX launched the Transporter-1 mission on a Falcon 9 rocket carrying 143 satellites into orbit Payloads can be integrated in tandem configuration employing a Dual Launch Adapter  Smaller payloads are also placed on equipment deck and customized payload adapters 

Development
Studies by the PSLV Planning group under S Srinivasan to develop a vehicle capable of delivering a 600 kg payload to a 550 km sun-synchronous orbit from SHAR began in 1978  Among 35 proposed configurations, four were picked; by November 1980, a vehicle configuration with two strap-ons on a core booster (S80) with 80 tonne solid propellant loading each, a liquid stage with 30 tonne propellant load (L30), and an upper stage called the Perigee-Apogee System (PAS) was being considered By 1981, confidence grew in remote sensing spacecraft development with the launch of Bhaskara-1, and the PSLV project objectives were upgraded to have the vehicle deliver a 1000 kg payload into a 900 km SSO  As technology transfer of Viking rocket engine firmed up, a new lighter configuration with the inclusion of a liquid powered stage was selected  Funding was approved in July 1982 for the finalized design, employing a single large S125 solid core as first stage with six 9 tonne strap-ons (S9) derived from the SLV-3 first stage, liquid fueled second stage (L33), and two solid upper stages (S7 and S2 ) This configuration needed further improvement to meet the orbital injection accuracy requirements of IRS satellites, and hence, the solid terminal stage (S2) was replaced with a pressure fed liquid fueled stage (L1 8 or LUS) powered by twin engines derived from roll control engines of the first stage  Apart from increasing precision, liquid upper stage also absorbed any deviation in performance of solid third stage  The final configuration of PSLV-D1 to fly in 1993 was (6 × S9 + S125) + L37 5 + S7 + L2 The inertial navigation systems are developed by ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) at Thiruvananthapuram  The liquid propulsion for the second and fourth stages of the PSLV as well as the Reaction control systems (RCS) are developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) at Valiamala near Thiruvananthapuram, kerala  The solid propellant motors are processed at Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SHAR) at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, which also carries out launch operations 
The PSLV was first launched on 20 September 1993  The first and second stages performed as expected, but an attitude control problem led to the collision of the second and third stages at separation, and the payload failed to reach orbit  After this initial setback, the PSLV successfully completed its second mission in 1994  The fourth launch of PSLV suffered a partial failure in 1997, leaving its payload in a lower than planned orbit  In November 2014, the PSLV had launched 34 times with no further failures  (Although launch 41: August 2017 PSLV-C39 was unsuccessful )
PSLV continues to support Indian and foreign satellite launches especially for low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites  It has undergone several improvements with each subsequent version, especially those involving thrust, efficiency as well as weight  In November 2013, it was used to launch the Mars Orbiter Mission, India's first interplanetary probe In June 2018, the Union Cabinet approved ₹6,131 crore (equivalent to ₹72 billion or US$900 million in 2023) for 30 operational flights of the PSLV scheduled to take place between 2019 and 2024 ISRO is working towards handing over the production and operation of PSLV to private industry through a joint venture  On 16 August 2019, NewSpace India Limited issued an invitation to tender for manufacturing PSLV entirely by private industries  On 5 September 2022, NewSpace India Limited signed a contract with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Larsen & Toubro led conglomerate for the production of five PSLV-XL launch vehicles after they won competitive bidding  Under this contract, they have to deliver their first PSLV-XL within 24 months and the remaining four vehicles every six months 

Vehicle description
The PSLV has four stages, using solid and liquid propulsion systems alternately 

First stage (PS1)
The first stage, one of the largest solid rocket boosters in the world, carries 138 t (136 long tons; 152 short tons) of hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene-bound (HTPB) propellant and develops a maximum thrust of about 4,800 kN (1,100,000 lbf)  The 2 8 m (9 ft 2 in) diameter motor case is made of maraging steel and has an empty mass of 30,200 kg (66,600 lb) Pitch and yaw control during first stage flight is provided by the Secondary Injection Thrust Vector Control (SITVC) System, which injects an aqueous solution of strontium perchlorate into the S139 exhaust divergent from a ring of 24 injection ports to produce asymmetric thrust  The solution is stored in two cylindrical aluminium tanks strapped to the core solid rocket motor and pressurised with nitrogen  Underneath these two SITVC tanks, Roll Control Thruster (RCT) modules with small bi-propellant (MMH/MON) liquid engine are also attached On the PSLV-G and PSLV-XL, first stage thrust is augmented by six strap-on solid boosters  Four boosters are ground-lit and the remaining two ignite 25 seconds after launch  The solid boosters carry 9 t (8 9 long tons; 9 9 short tons) or 12 t (12 long tons; 13 short tons) (for PSLV-XL configuration) propellant and produce 510 kN (110,000 lbf) and 719 kN (162,000 lbf) thrust respectively  Two strap-on boosters are equipped with SITVC for additional attitude control  The PSLV-CA uses no strap-on boosters 
First stage separation is aided by four pairs of retro-rockets installed on inter-stage (1/2L)  During staging, these eight rockets help push away the spent stage away from second stage 

Second stage (PS2)
The second stage is powered by a single Vikas engine and carries 41 5 t (40 8 long tons; 45 7 short tons) of Earth store-able liquid propellant – unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as fuel and nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) as oxidiser in two tanks separated by a common bulkhead  It generates a maximum thrust of 800 kN (180,000 lbf)  The engine is gimbaled (±4°) in two planes to provide pitch and yaw control by two actuators, while roll control is provided by a Hot gas Reaction Control Motor (HRCM) that ejects hot gases diverted from gas generator of Vikas engine On inter-stage (1/2U) of PS2  there are two pairs of ullage rockets to maintain positive acceleration during PS1/PS2 staging and also two pairs of retro-rockets to help push away spent stage during PS2/PS3 staging Second stage also carries some quantity of water in a toroidal tank at its bottom  Water spray is used to cool hot gases from Vikas' gas generator to about 600 °C before entering turbopump  Propellant and water tanks of second stage are pressurized by Helium 

Third stage (PS3)
The third stage uses 7 6 t (7 5 long tons; 8 4 short tons) of HTPB solid propellant and produces a maximum thrust of 250 kN (56,000 lbf)  Its burn duration is 113 5 seconds  It has a Kevlar-polyamide fibre case and a submerged nozzle equipped with a flex-bearing-seal gimbaled nozzle with ±2° thrust vector for pitch and yaw control  Roll control is provided by the fourth stage reaction control system (RCS) during thrust phase as well as during combined-coasting phase under which burnt-out PS3 remains attached to PS4 

Fourth stage (PS4)
The fourth stage is powered by regeneratively cooled twin engines, burning monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and mixed oxides of nitrogen (MON)  Each pressure fed engine generates 7 4 kN (1,700 lbf) thrust and is gimbaled (±3°) to provide pitch, yaw and roll control during powered flight  Coast phase attitude control is provided by six 50N RCS thrusters  The stage is pressurized by Helium and carries up to 2,500 kg (5,500 lb) of propellant in the PSLV and PSLV-XL and 2,100 kg (4,600 lb) in the PSLV-CA On PSLV-C29/TeLEOS-1 mission, the fourth stage demonstrated re-ignition capability for the first time which was used in many subsequent flights to deploy payloads in multiple orbits on a single campaign As a space debris mitigation measure, PSLV fourth stage gets passivated by venting pressurant and propellant vapour after achieving main mission objectives  Such passivation prevents any unintentional fragmentation or explosion due to stored internal energy 

PS4 stage as orbital platform
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8, Rubin 9 1/Rubin 9 2 on PSLV-C14 and mRESINS on PSLV-C21  But now, PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of primary mission  PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns, as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity  It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank  Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST, experimental AIS payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize  To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters On PSLV-C53 campaign the PS4-OP was referred as PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM) and it hosted six payloads  POEM was first PSLV fourth stage based orbital platform to be actively stabilised using Helium based cold gas thrusters after the primary mission and stage passivization 

Payload fairing
Payload fairing of PSLV, also referred as its "Heatshield" consists of a conical upper section with spherical nose-cap, a cylindrical middle section and a lower boat-tail section  Weighing 1,182 kilograms (2,606 lb), it has 3 2 meter diameter and 8 3 meter height  It has Isogrid construction and is made out of 7075 aluminum alloy with a 3 mm thick steel nose-cap  The two halves of fairing are separated using a pyrotechnic device based jettisoning system consisting horizontal and lateral separation mechanisms  To protect spacecraft from damage due to excessive acoustic loads during launch, the heatshield interior is lined with acoustic blankets 

Variants
ISRO has envisaged a number of variants of PSLV to cater to different mission requirements  There are currently two operational versions of the PSLV — the core-alone (PSLV-CA) without strap-on motors, and the (PSLV-XL) version, with six extended length (XL) strap-on motors carrying 12 tonnes of HTPB based propellant each  These configurations provide wide variations in payload capabilities up to 3,800 kg (8,400 lb) in LEO and 1,800 kg (4,000 lb) in sun-synchronous orbit 

PSLV-G
The standard or "Generic" version of the PSLV, PSLV-G had four stages using solid and liquid propulsion systems alternately and six strap-on motors (PSOM or S9) with 9 tonne propellant loading  It had capability to launch 1,678 kg (3,699 lb) to 622 km (386 mi) into sun-synchronous orbit  PSLV-C35 was the last operational launch of PSLV-G before its discontinuation 

PSLV-CA
The PSLV-CA, CA meaning "Core Alone", model premiered on 23 April 2007  The CA model does not include the six strap-on boosters used by the PSLV standard variant but two SITVC tanks with Roll Control Thruster modules are still attached to the side of the first stage with addition of two cylindrical aerodynamic stabilizers  The fourth stage of the CA variant has 400 kg (880 lb) less propellant when compared to its standard version  It currently has capability to launch 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) to 622 km (386 mi) Sun-synchronous orbit 

PSLV-XL
PSLV-XL is the upgraded version of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle in its standard configuration boosted by more powerful, stretched strap-on boosters with 12 tonne propellant load  Weighing 320 t (310 long tons; 350 short tons) at lift-off, the vehicle uses larger strap-on motors (PSOM-XL or S12) to achieve higher payload capability  On 29 December 2005, ISRO successfully tested the improved version of strap-on booster for the PSLV  The first use of PSLV-XL was the launch of Chandrayaan-1 by PSLV-C11  The payload capability for this variant is 1,800 kg (4,000 lb) to Sun-synchronous orbit 

PSLV-DL
PSLV-DL variant has only two strap-on boosters with 12 tonne propellant load on them  PSLV-C44 on 24 January 2019 was the first flight to use PSLV-DL variant of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle  It is capable of launching 1,257 kg (2,771 lb) to 600 km (370 mi) Sun-synchronous orbit 

PSLV-QL
PSLV-QL variant has four ground-lit strap-on boosters, each with 12 tonnes of propellant  PSLV-C45 on 1 April 2019 was the first flight of PSLV-QL  It has the capacity to launch 1,523 kg (3,358 lb) to 600 km (370 mi) Sun-synchronous orbit 

PSLV-3S (concept)
PSLV-3S was conceived as a three-staged version of PSLV with its six strap-on boosters and second liquid stage removed  The total lift-off mass of PSLV-3S was expected to be 175 tonnes with capacity to place 500 kg in 550 km low Earth orbit 

Launch Profile
PSLV - XL:

The PS1 ignites at T+0 providing 4846  kN of thrust 
Within T+1, 4 out of the 6 boosters ignite on ground, each producing 703 kN of thrust  7658 kN of total thrust is produced by the combined propulsion of the PSOMs and the PS1 
At around T+23/26, the remaining 2 unlit boosters are air-lit bringing the rocket at its maximum thrust capacity 
At T+1:10, the first 4 ground-lit PSOMs have depleted its propellant and now separates and falls down to the  ocean  The remaining 2 PSOMs and the PS1 continue to burn 
At T+1:35, the remaining 2 PSOMs complete its 70 seconds burn and separate, leaving the rocket in a Core- Alone configuration 
At T+1:50, the PS1 has completed its 110-second burn and it separates and the Vikas Engine inside the PS2 ignites 
The second stage burns for around 130 seconds and around T+4 minutes, the second stages shuts off and separates 
The third stage, which is a solid rocket booster, and burns 80 seconds and then coasts for the remainder of time and around T+8/10 minutes, it separates and the 4th stage ignites to give the rocket a final push into the orbit 
This 4th stage burn is highly variable and depends on the mass and number of payloads and usually is around 500 seconds long  The 4th stage may shut off around T+16/18 minutes followed by the Payload Deployment 

Launch statistics
As of May 22, 2023 the PSLV has made 57 launches, with 54 successfully reaching their planned orbits, two outright failures and one partial failure, yielding a success rate of 94% (or 95% including the partial failure)  All launches have occurred from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, known before 2002 as the Sriharikota Range (SHAR) 

Launch system status

Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches:

See also
GSLV Mark II
LVM 3
Comparison of orbital launchers families
Medium-lift launch vehicle, 2,000 to 20,000 kg to LEO
Comparison of orbital rocket engines
Comparison of orbital launch systems
Passage 2:
USA-214
USA-214, also known as Advanced Extremely High Frequency-1 or AEHF-1, is a military communications satellite operated by the United States Air Force  It is the first of six satellites to be launched as part of the Advanced Extremely High Frequency program, which will replace the earlier Milstar system 

Satellite description
The USA-214 satellite was constructed by Lockheed Martin Space, and is based on the A2100 satellite bus  The satellite has a mass of 6,168 kg (13,598 lb) and a design life of 14 years  It will be used to provide super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF) communications for the United States Armed Forces, as well as those of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Canada 

Launch
Though initially scheduled for launch on 30 July 2010, delays with the launch vehicle pushed flight back to 10 August 2010, and finally to 14 August 2010 USA-214 was launched by United Launch Alliance, aboard an Atlas V 531 flying from Space Launch Complex-41 (SLC-41) at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS)  The launch occurred at 11:07:00 UTC on 14 August 2010, and resulted in the satellite being deployed successfully into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) with a perigee of 221 km (137 mi), an apogee of 50,179 km (31,180 mi), and 22 2° Orbital inclination 

Anomaly
The satellite was intended to maneuver from the transfer orbit into which it was launched to its operational geosynchronous orbit by means of a liquid apogee engine (LAE) and several 
Hall-effect thrusters, a process which normally takes 105 days  However, the satellite's Liquid Apogee Engine malfunctioned shortly after ignition on both its first burn on 15 August 2010 and a second attempt on 17 August 2010, and it was declared inoperable To solve the problem, the perigee altitude was raised to 4,700 km (2,900 mi) using twelve firings of the smaller Reaction Engine Assembly thrusters, originally intended for attitude control during LAE maneuvers  From this altitude, the solar arrays were deployed and the orbit was raised toward the operational orbit over the course of nine months using the 0 27 Newton Hall effect thruster, a form of electric propulsion which is highly efficient, but produces very low thrust and is therefore very slow 
The problem with the liquid apogee engine was later blamed on a piece of cloth accidentally left in a fuel line leading up to the engine while the line was taken apart for repair during the manufacture of the satellite  The cloth was likely placed in the line to prevent impurities from entering the fuel line and did not get removed when the line was put back together 

See also
2010 in spaceflight
Passage 3:
Communications satellite
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunication signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth  Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications   Many communications satellites are in geostationary orbit 22,300 miles (35,900 km) above the equator, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore the satellite dish antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite  Others form satellite constellations in low Earth orbit, where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently 
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of sight and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth   The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points   Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies  To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use  This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference 

History
Origins
In October 1945, Arthur C  Clarke published an article titled "Extraterrestrial Relays" in the British magazine Wireless World  The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits to relay radio signals  Because of this, Arthur C  Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the concept of the communications satellite, and the term 'Clarke Belt' is employed as a description of the orbit 

The first artificial Earth satellite was Sputnik 1 which was put into orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957  It was developed by Mikhail Tikhonravov and Sergey Korolev, building on work by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky  Sputnik 1 was equipped with an on-board radio transmitter that worked on two frequencies of 20 005 and 40 002 MHz, or 7 and 15 meters wavelength  The satellite was not placed in orbit to send data from one point on Earth to another; the radio transmitter was meant to study the properties of radio wave distribution throughout the ionosphere   The launch of Sputnik 1 was a major step in the exploration of space and rocket development, and marks the beginning of the Space Age 

Early active and passive satellite experiments
There are two major classes of communications satellites, passive and active  Passive satellites only reflect the signal coming from the source, toward the direction of the receiver  With passive satellites, the reflected signal is not amplified at the satellite, and only a very small amount of the transmitted energy actually reaches the receiver   Since the satellite is so far above Earth, the radio signal is attenuated due to free-space path loss, so the signal received on Earth is very, very weak  Active satellites, on the other hand, amplify the received signal before retransmitting it to the receiver on the ground  Passive satellites were the first communications satellites, but are little used now 
Work that was begun in the field of electrical intelligence gathering at the United States Naval Research Laboratory in 1951 led to a project named Communication Moon Relay  Military planners had long shown considerable interest in secure and reliable communications lines as a tactical necessity, and the ultimate goal of this project was the creation of the longest communications circuit in human history, with the moon, Earth's natural satellite, acting as a passive relay  After achieving the first transoceanic communication between Washington, D C , and Hawaii on 23 January 1956, this system was publicly inaugurated and put into formal production in January 1960 

The first satellite purpose-built to actively relay communications was Project SCORE,  led by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and launched on 18 December 1958, which used a tape recorder to carry a stored voice message, as well as to receive, store, and retransmit messages  It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U S  President Dwight D  Eisenhower  The satellite also executed several realtime transmissions before the non-rechargeable batteries failed on 30 December 1958 after eight hours of actual operation



ground_truth: ADM Michael S. Rogers

Michael S. Rogers

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the party that gained control of Congress in the midterm elections in 1946 take control of the government branch that determines the rules of the US House?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: S  Senator Sam Nunn, won the Democratic nomination  Other declared Democratic candidates included former State Senator Steen Miles, psychiatrist Branko Radulovacki, and former US Army Ranger Todd Robinson  Amanda Swafford, a former Flowery Branch, Georgia, city councilwoman, received the Libertarian Party of Georgia nomination 

Hawaii (special)
Daniel Inouye, the second longest serving United States Senator in U S  history, died on December 17, 2012, after respiratory complications  Hawaii law allows the Governor of Hawaii, to appoint an interim Senator "who serves until the next regularly-scheduled general election, chosen from a list of three prospective appointees that the prior incumbent's political party submits"  Governor Neil Abercrombie did so, selecting Lieutenant Governor Brian Schatz to fill the Senate seat  Inouye had been re-elected in 2010 with 72% of the vote  Schatz was challenged in the Democratic primary by Congresswoman Colleen Hanabusa of Hawaii's 1st congressional district, who Inouye had hoped would be his successor  Schatz defeated Hanabusa in the primary with 48 5% to 47 8% Campbell Cavasso, former State Representative and nominee for the U S  Senate in 2004 and 2010, was the Republican nominee 

Idaho
One-term incumbent Republican Jim Risch had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Risch sought a second term Boise attorney Nels Mitchell was the Democratic nominee 

Illinois
Three-term incumbent and Senate Majority Whip Democrat Dick Durbin had been re-elected with 68% of the vote in 2008  Durbin ran for a fourth term State Senator Jim Oberweis was the Republican nominee  He defeated primary challenger Doug Truax with 56% of the vote 

Iowa
Five-term incumbent Democrat Tom Harkin had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Harkin announced on January 26, 2013, that he would not seek a sixth term  Congressman Bruce Braley was the Democratic nominee State Senator Joni Ernst was the Republican nominee Doug Butzier, who was the Libertarian Party's nominee, died in a plane crash on October 13, 2014, but still appeared on the ballot 

Kansas
Three-term incumbent Republican Pat Roberts had been re-elected with 60% of the vote in 2008  Roberts sought a fourth term  He faced a primary challenge from radiologist Milton Wolf, a conservative Tea Party supporter  Roberts defeated Wolf in the Republican primary by 48% to 41%  Shawnee County District Attorney Chad Taylor won the Democratic nomination  Randall Batson from Wichita was on the general election ballot as a Libertarian  Also, Greg Orman qualified for the ballot as an independent On September 3, Taylor announced he was dropping out of the election, leading to speculation that Democrats would support Orman's candidacy  On September 18, the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Taylor's name had to be removed from the ballot 

Kentucky
Five-term Republican incumbent and Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell had been re-elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  McConnell sought re-election to a sixth term  McConnell defeated businessman Matt Bevin in the Republican primary on May 20 Kentucky Secretary of State Alison Lundergan Grimes, with support from much of Kentucky's Democratic leadership, won the Democratic primary  Actress Ashley Judd publicly claimed to be considering a run for the Democratic nomination, but ultimately decided against it Ed Marksberry pursued an independent bid after dropping out of the Democratic field in September 2013 

Louisiana
Three-term incumbent Democrat Mary Landrieu had been re-elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Landrieu ran for a fourth term Louisiana uses a unique jungle primary system that eschews primaries in favor of run-off elections between the top two candidates; this run-off can be avoided if the winning candidate receives over 50% of the vote  Democrats Wayne Ables, Vallian Senegal, and William Waymire ran against Landrieu in the election, as did Republicans Bill Cassidy (representative of Louisiana's 6th congressional district), Thomas Clements (small business owner), and retired Air Force Colonel Rob Maness  Electrical Engineer Brannon McMorris ran as a Libertarian Because Republican candidate Maness took almost 14% of the votes in the primary, there was a runoff election on December 6, 2014, between Landrieu (42%) and Cassidy (41%)  Cassidy won the runoff with 56% of the vote 

Maine
Three-term incumbent Republican Susan Collins was seeking a fourth term  Shenna Bellows, former executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Maine, was the Democratic nominee 

Massachusetts
Five-term incumbent and 2004 Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry had been re-elected with 66% of the vote in 2008  Kerry resigned in early 2013 to become U S  Secretary of State  Governor Deval Patrick appointed Democrat Mo Cowan to the seat  Democratic Congressman Ed Markey beat Republican Gabriel E  Gomez in the June 25, 2013 special election by a 55% to 45% margin  Markey had served the remainder of Kerry's term before running for re-election to a first full term in 2014  Hopkinton Town Selectman Brian Herr was the Republican nominee 

Michigan
Six-term incumbent Senator and Chairman of the Armed Services Committee Democrat Carl Levin, the longest-serving senator in Michigan's history, had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Levin announced on March 7, 2013, that he would not seek re-election 
Three term Democratic Representative Gary Peters of MI-14 was the Democratic nominee  He defeated Republican former Secretary of State Terri Lynn Land who was unopposed for the Republican nomination 

Minnesota
One-term incumbent Democrat Al Franken unseated one-term Republican Norm Coleman by 312 votes in a contested three-way race with 42% of the vote in 2008; the third candidate in the race, former Senator Dean Barkley of the Independence Party of Minnesota, won 15% of the vote  Franken sought re-election  State Representative Jim Abeler, St  Louis County Commissioner Chris Dahlberg, co-CEO of Lazard Middle Market Mike McFadden, bison farmer and former hair salon owner Monti Moreno, state Senator Julianne Ortman, and U S  Navy reservist Phillip Parrish ran for the Republican nomination  McFadden won the Republican primary and was the Republican nominee in the general election Hannah Nicollet of the Independence Party of Minnesota also ran 

Mississippi
Six-term incumbent Republican Thad Cochran, re-elected with 62% of the vote in 2008, ran for re-election  Cochran was the last incumbent Senator to declare his plans, leading to widespread speculation that he might announce his retirement Tea Party candidate Chris McDaniel, a conservative Mississippi state senator, ran against Cochran in the Republican primary  Neither McDaniel nor Cochran was able to get 50% of the vote in the first round of the primary, so a runoff election was held June 24  Cochran won the runoff election by 51% to 49%, with the help of Democratic voters eligible to vote in the state's open primaries who chose Cochran as their preferred Republican  McDaniel filed a lawsuit to challenge the results of the run-off, but the challenge was rejected on appeal by the Supreme Court of Mississippi Former Congressman Travis Childers was the Democratic nominee 

Montana
Six-term incumbent Democrat Max Baucus, the longest-serving senator in Montana's history, had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Baucus announced on April 23, 2013, that he would retire in 2014, rather than seek re-election to a seventh term  Baucus was appointed as the United States Ambassador to China, leading him to resign from the Senate in February 2014 Following Baucus's confirmation as ambassador, Governor Steve Bullock appointed the Lieutenant Governor John Walsh to fill the vacant senate seat  Former Lieutenant Governor John Bohlinger was defeated by Walsh in the Democratic primary  Amid controversy over alleged plagiarism in a 2007 research paper, Walsh pulled out of the race  The Montana Democratic Party held a special nominating convention on August 16 to choose a replacement for Walsh  First-term State Representative Amanda Curtis won the nomination, thereby becoming the new Democratic nominee Congressman Steve Daines won the Republican nomination over state Representative Champ Edmunds of Missoula and David Leaser of Kalispell 

Nebraska
One-term incumbent Republican Mike Johanns had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  He did not seek a second term  Term limited Republican Governor Dave Heineman considered running for the Republican nomination, but ultimately decided not to do so  Former state Treasurer Shane Osborn, attorney Bart McLeay, banker Sid Dinsdale, and Midland University President Ben Sasse ran for the Republican nomination  In the May 13 primary, Sasse won the Republican nomination 
Trial lawyer David Domina was the Democratic nominee 

New Hampshire
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeanne Shaheen had been elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Shaheen ran for re-election  Shaheen defeated Republican nominee Scott Brown, who had represented neighboring Massachusetts in the Senate from 2010 to 2013 

New Jersey
Incumbent Democrat Frank Lautenberg had been re-elected with 56% of the vote in 2008  After announcing he would not seek re-election, Lautenberg died in June 2013, aged 89, after a long period of ill health Newark Mayor Cory Booker, a Democrat, defeated Republican nominee Steve Lonegan by 55%-to-45% in a 2013 special election to replace interim Republican appointee Jeffrey Chiesa  Booker ran for re-election to a full term in 2014  1978 and 1982 Republican candidate and political operative Jeff Bell was the Republican nominee 

New Mexico
One-term incumbent Democrat Tom Udall had been elected with 61% of the vote in 2008  Former Doña Ana County Republican Party Chairman David Clements and former New Mexico Republican Party Chairman Allen Weh sought the Republican nomination  Weh won the June 3 primary but lost to Udall in the general election 

North Carolina
One-term incumbent Democrat Kay Hagan had been elected with 53% of the vote against incumbent Republican Elizabeth Dole in 2008  Hagan was seeking re-election State House Speaker Thom Tillis was the Republican nominee  Sean Haugh won the Libertarian nomination 

Oklahoma
There were 2 elections in Oklahoma, due to the resignation of Tom Coburn 

Oklahoma (regular)
Three-term incumbent Republican Jim Inhofe had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008  Inhofe sought re-election  Matt Silverstein, an insurance agency owner, ran for the Democratic nomination 

Oklahoma (special)
Two-term incumbent Republican Tom Coburn had been re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2010, and was not scheduled to be up for election again until 2016  However, Coburn announced his intention to resign at the end of the 113th Congress  A special election to fill his seat took place in November 2014, concurrent with the other Senate elections  Congressman James Lankford was the Republican nominee  State Senator Connie Johnson was the Democratic nominee 

Oregon
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeff Merkley was narrowly elected with 49% of the vote in 2008  Merkley was running for a second term  State representative Jason Conger, attorney Tim Crawley, IT consultant Mark Callahan, neurosurgeon Dr  Monica Wehby, and former Linn County Republican Chair Jo Rae Perkins all ran for the Republican nomination, with Wehby ultimately winning the nomination in the May 20 primary 

Rhode Island
Three-term incumbent Democrat Jack Reed had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Reed defeated Republican nominee Mark Zaccaria in the 2014 election 

South Carolina
There were 2 elections in South Carolina, due to the resignation of Jim DeMint 

South Carolina (regular)
Two-term Republican Lindsey Graham had been re-elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Graham won the Republican nomination over a field that included state senator Lee Bright  State Senator Brad Hutto won the Democratic nomination 

South Carolina (special)
Jim DeMint had been elected to a second term in 2010, but resigned from the Senate in January 2013 to become president of The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank  Governor Nikki Haley appointed Congressman Tim Scott as DeMint's replacement  Scott, an African-American, was the Republican nominee to serve out the remainder of DeMint's term  Scott is the first African-American Republican since shortly after Reconstruction to represent a Southern state  Richland County Councilwoman Joyce Dickerson won the Democratic nomination 

South Dakota
Three-term incumbent Democrat Tim Johnson had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Johnson announced on March 26, 2013, that he would not run for re-election  Former Congressional aide Rick Weiland was the Democratic nominee Among Republicans, former two-term Governor Mike Rounds announced his candidacy for the GOP nomination on November 29, 2012  Rounds won the Republican nomination over state senator Larry Rhoden, state representative Stace Nelson, and physician Annette Bosworth Former Republican U S  Senator Larry Pressler and Republican State Senator Gordon Howie ran as independents  Pressler did not commit to caucusing with either party, while Howie said he would caucus with the Senate Republicans 

Tennessee
Two-term incumbent Republican Lamar Alexander had been re-elected with 65% of the vote in 2008  Alexander sought re-election to a third term  On August 7, 2014, Alexander won the Republican nomination over six challengers, including State Representative Joe Carr On November 4, 2014, Alexander faced Democratic nominee Gordon Ball, Libertarian Party nominee Joshua James, Constitution Party nominee Joe Wilmothm, and independent Danny Page also ran in the general election 

Texas
Two-term incumbent Republican John Cornyn, the Senate Minority Whip, had been re-elected with 55% of the vote in 2008  Cornyn sought re-election, and won the 2014 Republican primary with 59% of the vote  David Alameel, a dentist, and Kesha Rogers, a volunteer for The Lyndon LaRouche Policy Institute, faced each other in a run-off election for the Democratic nomination  Alameel won the run-off and was the Democratic nominee 

Virginia
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Warner had been elected with 65% of the vote in 2008; he sought re-election  Ed Gillespie, former RNC Chairman and presidential adviser, ran for the Republican nomination  Robert Sarvis, the Libertarian nominee for Governor in 2013, also ran 

West Virginia
Five-term incumbent Democrat Jay Rockefeller had been re-elected with 64% of the vote in 2008  He announced on January 11, 2013, that he would not seek re-election to a sixth term  Secretary of State Natalie Tennant won the Democratic nomination On November 26, 2012, Republican Congresswoman Shelley Moore Capito announced her plans to run for the seat, in hopes of becoming the first Republican Senator elected from West Virginia since 1956  Moore Capito won the Republican nomination and the general election, the first woman to serve as United States Senator from West Virginia 

Wyoming
Three-term incumbent Republican Mike Enzi had been re-elected with 76% of the vote in 2008  Enzi sought re-election  Liz Cheney, daughter of former Vice President Dick Cheney, briefly entered the race for the Republican nomination, but dropped her bid in January 2014  On August 19, Enzi won the Republican primary election with 82% of the vote, and Democrat Charlie Hardy, a former Catholic priest, won his party's primary election with 48% of the vote 

See also
2014 United States elections
2014 United States gubernatorial elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
113th United States Congress
114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 8:
115th United States Congress
The 115th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States of America federal government, composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives  It met in Washington, D C , from January 3, 2017, to January 3, 2019, during the final weeks of Barack Obama's presidency and the first two years of Donald Trump's presidency  The seats in the House were apportioned based on the 2010 United States census The Republican Party retained their majority in both the House and the Senate, and, with inauguration of Donald Trump on January 20, 2017, attained an overall federal government trifecta for the first time since the 109th Congress in 2005 
Several political scientists described the legislative accomplishments of this Congress as modest, considering that both Congress and the presidency were under unified Republican Party control  According to a contemporary study, "House and Senate GOP majorities struggled to legislate: GOP fissures and the president frequently undermined the Republican agenda  Most notably, clashes within and between the two parties (for example, on healthcare issues) strained old ways of doing business "

Major events
January 5, 2017: House of Representatives condemned United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334 
January 6, 2017: Joint session counted and certified the electoral votes of the 2016 presidential election 
January 11–12, 2017: Senate, in an all-night session, took first steps to repeal the Affordable Care Act, (ACA)  The final vote was 51 to 48 to approve a budget resolution to allow "broad swaths of the Affordable Care Act to be repealed through a process known as budget reconciliation "
January 20, 2017: Donald Trump became 45th President of the United States
February 7, 2017: Vice President Mike Pence cast the tie-breaking vote to confirm Betsy DeVos as Secretary of Education  This was the first time in United States history that a cabinet confirmation was tied in the Senate and required a tie-breaking vote 
February 28, 2017: President Trump addressed a joint session of Congress 
April 6, 2017: Senate invoked the "nuclear option" to weaken Supreme Court filibusters  Nominee Neil Gorsuch was then confirmed the next day 
June 14, 2017: Majority Whip Steve Scalise and several staffers were shot during the Congressional baseball shooting  They were practicing for the annual Congressional Baseball Game 
September 1, 2017: The Parliamentarian of the United States Senate decreed that the Senate had until the end of the month to pass ACA repeal via the reconciliation process, or the option would no longer be viable 
October 24 – December 14, 2017: 2017 United States political sexual scandals from the "Me too" movement:
Allegations that Democratic Congressman Ruben Kihuen sexually harassed a campaign staffer led some in congressional leadership to call for his resignation  Kihuen later announced he would not seek another term in office 
Democratic senator Al Franken announced he would resign "in the coming weeks" after photographs were made public suggesting that he sexually assaulted (groped) a Los Angeles-based radio personality during a USO tour in Iraq in 2006  He was also accused by multiple female constituents of groping at various Minnesota fair appearances that he attended 
Three members of Congress either resigned or announced their impending resignations  (See "Changes in membership")
Allegations that President Donald Trump previously raped and sexually harassed at least nineteen women, one girl, and Miss Teen USA contestants resulted in calls by members of Congress for him to resign 
Allegations that Republican Alabama Senate candidate Roy Moore previously raped and sexually harassed at least eight women and one girl contributed to his defeat by Democrat Doug Jones in a special Senate election to replace Attorney General Jeff Sessions 
Allegations that House member Blake Farenthold sexually harassed a former staffer resulted in the commencement of an investigation by the House Ethics Committee and his announcement he would not seek re-election in 2018  He subsequently resigned on April 6, 2018 
January 20–22, 2018: United States federal government shutdown of January 2018
January 30, 2018: 2018 State of the Union Address
February 9, 2018: United States federal government funding gap
October 6, 2018: Senate confirms Brett Kavanaugh's nomination to the U S  Supreme Court 
November 28, 2018: Senate discharges from committee and calendars S J Res  54, bill that ends US intervention in the Yemeni Civil War 
December 22, 2018 – January 25, 2019: 2018–19 United States federal government shutdown

Major legislation
Enacted
January 31, 2017: GAO Access and Oversight Act of 2017, Pub L  115-3
February 28, 2017: Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act, Pub L  115-6
February 28, 2017: INSPIRE Women Act, Pub L  115-7
March 28, 2017: Vietnam War Veterans Recognition Act of 2017, Pub L  115-15
April 18, 2017: Weather Research and Forecasting Innovation Act of 2017, Pub L  115-25
May 5, 2017: Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2017, H R  244, Pub  L  115–31 (text) (PDF)
August 2, 2017: Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, H R  3364, Pub  L  115–44 (text) (PDF)
November 2, 2017: Strengthening State and Local Cyber Crime Fighting Act of 2017, Pub L  115-76
December 12, 2017: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2018, H R  2810, Pub  L  115–91 (text) (PDF)
December 22, 2017: Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, H R  1, Pub  L  115–97 (text) (PDF)
February 9, 2018: Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018, H R  1892, Pub  L  115–123 (text) (PDF)
February 14, 2018: Protecting Young Victims from Sexual Abuse and Safe Sport Authorization Act of 2017, Pub L  115-126
March 16, 2018: Taiwan Travel Act, H R  535, Pub  L  115–135 (text) (PDF)
March 23, 2018: Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2018 (including the CLOUD Act), H R  1625, Pub  L  115–141 (text) (PDF)
April 11, 2018: Stop Enabling Sex Traffickers Act, H R  1865, Pub  L  115–164 (text) (PDF)
May 9, 2018: Justice for Uncompensated Survivors Today (JUST) Act, Pub L  115-171
May 24, 2018: Economic Growth, Regulatory Relief and Consumer Protection Act, S  2155, Pub  L  115–174 (text) (PDF)
May 30, 2018: Trickett Wendler, Frank Mongiello, Jordan McLinn, and Matthew Bellina Right to Try Act of 2017, S  204, Pub  L  115–176 (text) (PDF)
August 13, 2018: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, H R  5515, Pub  L  115–232 (text) (PDF)
October 5, 2018: FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018, H R  302, Pub  L  115–254 (text) (PDF)
October 9, 2018: Marrakesh Treaty Implementation Act, Pub L  115-261
October 11, 2018: Music Modernization Act, H R  1551, Pub  L  115–264 (text) (PDF)
October 23, 2018: America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018, S  3021, Pub  L  115–270 (text) (PDF)
October 24, 2018: SUPPORT for Patients and Communities Act, H R  6, Pub  L  115–271 (text) (PDF)
November 16, 2018: Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency Act, H R  3359, Pub  L  115–278 (text) (PDF)
December 7, 2018: Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018, Pub L  115-299
December 11, 2018: Iraq and Syria Genocide Relief and Accountability Act of 2018, Pub L  115-300
December 20, 2018: Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018, H R  2, Pub  L  115–334 (text) (PDF)
December 21, 2018: National Quantum Initiative Act, Pub L  115-368
December 21, 2018: FIRST STEP Act, S  756, Pub  L  115–391 (text) (PDF)
January 14, 2019: Foundations for Evidence-Based Policymaking Act of 2018, Pub L  115-435
January 14, 2019: Elie Wiesel Genocide and Atrocities Prevention Act of 2018, Pub L  115-441

Proposed
May 4, 2017: American Health Care Act (H R  1628), passed House May 4, 2017
June 8, 2017: Financial CHOICE Act (H R  10), passed House June 8, 2017

Party summary
Resignations and new members are discussed in the "Changes in membership" section, below 

Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Section contents: Senate: Majority (R), Minority (D) • House: Majority (R),  Minority (D)

Senate
President: Joe Biden (D), until January 20, 2017
Mike Pence (R), from January 20, 2017
President pro tempore: Orrin Hatch (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Mitch McConnell
Majority Whip: John Cornyn
Republican Conference Chairman: John Thune
Republican Conference Vice Chairman: Roy Blunt
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Cory Gardner
Policy Committee Chairman: John Barrasso

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Chuck Schumer
Minority Whip: Dick Durbin
Assistant Minority Leader: Patty Murray
Chief Deputy Whip: Jeff Merkley
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Chuck Schumer
Policy Committee Chairwoman: Debbie Stabenow
Democratic Caucus Vice Chairs: Mark Warner and Elizabeth Warren
Democratic Caucus Secretary: Tammy Baldwin
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Chris Van Hollen
Policy Committee Vice Chairman: Joe Manchin
Steering Committee Chairwoman: Amy Klobuchar
Outreach Chair: Bernie Sanders

House of Representatives
Speaker: Paul Ryan (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Kevin McCarthy
Majority Whip: Steve Scalise
Republican Conference Chairman: Cathy McMorris Rodgers
Republican Conference Vice-Chairman: Doug Collins
Republican Conference Secretary: Jason T  Smith
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Steve Stivers
Policy Committee Chairman: Luke Messer

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Nancy Pelosi
Minority Whip: Steny Hoyer
Assistant Minority Leader: Jim Clyburn
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Joseph Crowley
Democratic Caucus Vice-Chairwoman: Linda Sánchez
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Ben Ray Luján
Steering and Policy Committee Co-Chairs: Rosa DeLauro and Eric Swalwell
Policy and Communications Chairmen: Cheri Bustos, David Cicilline, and Hakeem Jeffries

Demographics
Note: Demographics are accurate as of the commencement of the 115th Congress on January 3, 2017 
The average age of members of the House of Representatives during the 115th Congress was 57 8 years, while the average age of U S  senators was 61 8 years 
The most common occupation of senators prior to being elected to their posts was law, followed by public service/politics and business  In the House of Representatives, business was the dominant prior occupation, followed by public service/politics and law  In the 115th Congress, 94 1% of House members and 100% of senators had attained a bachelor's degree or a higher degree; this was a historically high level of education for a United States Congress  In addition, 167 members of the House and 55 members of the Senate had law degrees  Only 18 members of Congress had no college education Ethnic minorities in the 115th Congress consisted of 52 African American members, 45 Hispanic or Latino members, 18 Asian-American or Pacific Islander members, and two members of Native American ancestry  Women comprised 20 1% of the membership in the 115th Congress, which had 109 women and 326 men  This represented an increase of 21 women from the 114th Congress Seven openly LGBT members served in the 115th Congress  Tammy Baldwin, Jared Polis, Sean Patrick Maloney, Mark Takano, David Cicilline, and Mark Pocan are openly gay, while Kyrsten Sinema is openly bisexual The majority of the 115th Congress was religiously affiliated, with 90 7% identifying as Christians  Approximately half of the Christians were Protestant  Other religious faiths of congressmembers in the 115th Congress included Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism 

Members
Senate
The numbers refer to their Senate classes  All of the class 3 seats were contested in the November 2016 elections  Class 1 terms end with this Congress, requiring re-election in 2018; Class 2 began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 2020; and Class 3 began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 2022 

House of Representatives
All 435 seats were filled by the regular elections on November 8, 2016, or subsequent special elections thereafter 

Caucuses
Changes in membership
Senate
House of Representatives
Committees
Section contents: Senate, House, Joint

Senate
House of Representatives
Joint
Employees and legislative agency directors
Senate
Chaplain: Barry C  Black (Seventh-day Adventist)
Curator: Melinda Smith
Historian: Betty Koed
Librarian: Leona I  Faust
Parliamentarian: Elizabeth MacDonough
Secretary: Julie E  Adams
Sergeant at Arms: Frank J  Larkin, until April 16, 2018
Michael C  Stenger, starting April 16, 2018
Secretary for the Majority: Laura Dove
Secretary for the Minority: Gary B  Myrick

House of Representatives
Chaplain: Patrick J  Conroy (Roman Catholic)
Chief Administrative Officer: Phil Kiko
Clerk: Karen L  Haas
Historian: Matthew Wasniewski
Inspector General: Theresa M  Grafenstine then Michael Ptasienski
Parliamentarian: Thomas J  Wickham Jr 
Reading Clerks: Susan Cole and Joseph Novotny
Sergeant at Arms: Paul D  Irving

Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Stephen T  Ayers, until November 25, 2018
Christine A  Merdon (acting), starting November 25, 2018
Attending Physician of the United States Congress: Brian P  Monahan
Comptroller General of the United States: Eugene Louis Dodaro
Director of the Congressional Budget Office: Keith Hall
Librarian of Congress: Carla Diane Hayden
Public Printer of the United States: Jim Bradley

See also
Elections
2016 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
2016 United States presidential election
2016 United States Senate elections
2016 United States House of Representatives elections
2018 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
2018 United States Senate elections
2018 United States House of Representatives elections

Membership lists
List of new members of the 115th United States Congress

Notes
Context 3: The direct successor to SCORE was another ARPA-led project called Courier  Courier 1B was launched on 4 October 1960 to explore whether it would be possible to establish a global military communications network by using "delayed repeater" satellites, which receive and store information until commanded to rebroadcast them  After 17 days, a command system failure ended communications from the satellite NASA's satellite applications program launched the first artificial satellite used for passive relay communications in Echo 1 on 12 August 1960  Echo 1 was an aluminized balloon satellite acting as a passive reflector of microwave signals  Communication signals were bounced off the satellite from one point on Earth to another  This experiment sought to establish the feasibility of worldwide broadcasts of telephone, radio, and television signals 

More firsts and further experiments
Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications commercial satellite and marked the first transatlantic transmission of television signals  Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on 10 July 1962, in the first privately sponsored space launch Another passive relay experiment primarily intended for military communications purposes was Project West Ford, which was led by Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Laboratory  After an initial failure in 1961, a launch on 9 May 1963 dispersed 350 million copper needle dipoles to create a passive reflecting belt  Even though only about half of the dipoles properly separated from each other, the project was able to successfully experiment and communicate using frequencies in the SHF X band spectrum An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was the Hughes Aircraft Company's Syncom 2, launched on 26 July 1963  Syncom 2 was the first communications satellite in a geosynchronous orbit  It revolved around the earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still had north–south motion, special equipment was needed to track it  Its successor, Syncom 3, launched on 19 July 1964, was the first geostationary communications satellite  Syncom 3 obtained a geosynchronous orbit, without a north–south motion, making it appear from the ground as a stationary object in the sky A direct extension of the passive experiments of Project West Ford was the Lincoln Experimental Satellite program, also conducted by the Lincoln Laboratory on behalf of the United States Department of Defense  The LES-1 active communications satellite was launched on 11 February 1965 to explore the feasibility of active solid-state X band long-range military communications  A total of nine satellites were launched between 1965 and 1976 as part of this series 

International commercial satellite projects
In the United States, 1962 saw the creation of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) private corporation, which was subject to instruction by the US Government on matters of national policy  Over the next two years, international negotiations led to the Intelsat Agreements, which in turn led to the launch of Intelsat 1, also known as Early Bird, on 6 April 1965, and which was the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit  Subsequent Intelsat launches in the 1960s provided multi-destination service and video, audio, and data service to ships at sea (Intelsat 2 in 1966–67), and the completion of a fully global network with Intelsat 3 in 1969–70  By the 1980s, with significant expansions in commercial satellite capacity, Intelsat was on its way to become part of the competitive private telecommunications industry, and had started to get competition from the likes of PanAmSat in the United States, which, ironically, was then bought by its archrival in 2005 When Intelsat was launched, the United States was the only launch source outside of the Soviet Union, who did not participate in the Intelsat agreements  The Soviet Union launched its first communications satellite on 23 April 1965 as part of the Molniya program  This program was also unique at the time for its use of what then became known as the Molniya orbit, which describes a highly elliptical orbit, with two high apogees daily over the northern hemisphere  This orbit provides a long dwell time over Russian territory as well as over Canada at higher latitudes than geostationary orbits over the equator 

Satellite orbits
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital classifications are used to further specify orbital details  MEO and LEO are non-geostationary orbit (NGSO) 

Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is 22,236 miles (35,785 km) from Earth's surface  This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky   This is because the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth   The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in the sky the satellite appears 
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth  Orbital altitudes range from 2,000 to 36,000 kilometres (1,200 to 22,400 mi) above Earth 
The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth orbit (LEO), and is about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth beyond the visible horizon  Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so that one of these satellites will always be visible in the sky for transmission of communication signals   However, due to their closer distance to the Earth, LEO or MEO satellites can communicate to ground with reduced latency and at lower power than would be required from a geosynchronous orbit 

Low Earth orbit (LEO)
A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above the earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the sub-satellite point  In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly  So even for local applications, many satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity 
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal strength (signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is considerable)  Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost 
In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions 

Satellite constellation
A group of satellites working in concert is known as a satellite constellation  Two such constellations, intended to provide satellite phone and low-speed data services, primarily to remote areas, are the Iridium and Globalstar systems  The Iridium system has 66 satellites, which orbital inclination of 86 4° and inter-satellite links provide service availability over the entire surface of Earth  Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by SpaceX, that aims for global satellite Internet access coverage 
It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over another part   This will be the case with the CASCADE system of Canada's CASSIOPE communications satellite  Another system using this store and forward method is Orbcomm 

Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
A medium Earth orbit is a satellite in orbit somewhere between 2,000 and 35,786 kilometres (1,243 and 22,236 mi) above the earth's surface   MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality  MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 and 8 hours  MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites  A MEO satellite's longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network  One disadvantage is that a MEO satellite's distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, although these limitations are not as severe as those of a GEO satellite 
Like LEOs, these satellites do not maintain a stationary distance from the earth   This is in contrast to the geostationary orbit, where satellites are always 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) from the earth 
Typically the orbit of a medium earth orbit satellite is about 16,000 kilometres (10,000 mi) above earth  In various patterns, these satellites make the trip around earth in anywhere from 2 to 8 hours 

Examples of MEO
In 1962, the communications satellite, Telstar, was launched  It was a medium earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals  Although it was the first practical way to transmit signals over the horizon, its major drawback was soon realised  Because its orbital period of about 2 5 hours did not match the Earth's rotational period of 24 hours, continuous coverage was impossible  It was apparent that multiple MEOs needed to be used in order to provide continuous coverage 
In 2013, the first four of a constellation of 20 MEO satellites was launched  The O3b satellites provide broadband internet services, in particular to remote locations and maritime and in-flight use, and orbit at an altitude of 8,063 kilometres (5,010 mi)) 

Geostationary orbit (GEO)
To an observer on Earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky   This is because it revolves around the Earth at Earth's own angular velocity (one revolution per sidereal day, in an equatorial orbit) 
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion  This is relatively inexpensive 
In applications that require many ground antennas, such as DirecTV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit 

Examples of GEO
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on 19 August 1964, and used for communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics  Shortly after Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was launched on 6 April 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude  It was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean 
On 9 November 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, Anik A1, was launched by Telesat Canada, with the United States following suit with the launch of Westar 1 by Western Union on 13 April 1974 
On 30 May 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be three-axis stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-6 built for NASA 
After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE Americom, now SES) launched Satcom 1 in 1975   It was Satcom 1 that was instrumental in helping early cable TV channels such as WTBS (now TBS), HBO, CBN (now Freeform) and The Weather Channel become successful, because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local cable TV headends using the satellite   Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast television networks in the United States, like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute programming to their local affiliate stations   Satcom 1 was widely used because it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in America (24 transponders as opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in lower transponder-usage costs  Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher transponder numbers By 2000, Hughes Space and Communications (now Boeing Satellite Development Center) had built nearly 40 percent of the more than one hundred satellites in service worldwide  Other major satellite manufacturers include Space Systems/Loral, Orbital Sciences Corporation with the Star Bus series, Indian Space Research Organisation, Lockheed Martin (owns the former RCA Astro Electronics/GE Astro Space business), Northrop Grumman, Alcatel Space, now Thales Alenia Space, with the Spacebus series, and Astrium 

Molniya orbit
Geostationary satellites must operate above the equator and therefore appear lower on the horizon as the receiver gets farther from the equator  This will cause problems for extreme northerly latitudes, affecting connectivity and causing multipath interference (caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground antenna) 
Thus, for areas close to the North (and South) Pole, a geostationary satellite may appear below the horizon  Therefore, Molniya orbit satellites have been launched, mainly in Russia, to alleviate this problem 
Molniya orbits can be an appealing alternative in such cases  The Molniya orbit is highly inclined, guaranteeing good elevation over selected positions during the northern portion of the orbit  (Elevation is the extent of the satellite's position above the horizon  Thus, a satellite at the horizon has zero elevation and a satellite directly overhead has elevation of 90 degrees )
The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprint moves only slightly  Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation over the targeted region for six to nine hours every second revolution  In this way a constellation of three Molniya satellites (plus in-orbit spares) can provide uninterrupted coverage 
The first satellite of the Molniya series was launched on 23 April 1965 and was used for experimental transmission of TV signals from a Moscow uplink station to downlink stations located in Siberia and the Russian Far East, in Norilsk, Khabarovsk, Magadan and Vladivostok  In November 1967 Soviet engineers created a unique system of national TV network of satellite television, called Orbita, that was based on Molniya satellites 

Polar orbit
In the United States, the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) was established in 1994 to consolidate the polar satellite operations of
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)  NPOESS manages a number of satellites for various purposes; for example, METSAT for meteorological satellite, EUMETSAT for the European branch of the program, and METOP for meteorological operations 
These orbits are sun synchronous, meaning that they cross the equator at the same local time each day  For example, the satellites in the NPOESS (civilian) orbit will cross the equator, going from south to north, at times 1:30 P M , 5:30 P M , and 9:30 P M 

Beyond geostationary orbit
There are plans and initiatives to bring dedicated communications satellite beyond geostationary orbits 
NASA proposed LunaNet as a data network aiming to provide a „Lunar Internet for cis-lunar spacecraft and Installations 
The Moonlight Initiative is an equivalent ESA project that is stated to be compatible and providing navigational services for the lunar surface  Both programmes are satellite constellstions of several satellites in various orbits around the Moon 
Other orbits are also planned to be used  Positions in the Earth-Moon-Libration points are also proposed for communication satellites covering the Moon alike communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit cover the Earth  Also, dedicated communication satellites in orbits around Mars supporting different missions on surface and other orbits are considered, such as the Mars Telecommunications Orbiter 

Structure
Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems:

Communication Payload, normally composed of transponders, antennas, and switching systems
Engines used to bring the satellite to its desired orbit
A station keeping tracking and stabilization subsystem used to keep the satellite in the right orbit, with its antennas pointed in the right direction, and its power system pointed towards the sun
Power subsystem, used to power the Satellite systems, normally composed of solar cells, and batteries that maintain power during solar eclipse
Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground control stations  The ground control Earth stations monitor the satellite performance and control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided by the satellite  Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission  This is typically known as link budgeting and a network simulator can be used to arrive at the exact value 

Frequency allocation for satellite systems
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international coordination and planning  This is carried out under the auspices of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 
To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions:

Region 1: Europe, Africa, the Middle East, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia
Region 2: North and South America and Greenland
Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia, and the southwest PacificWithin these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given service may be allocated different frequency bands in different regions  Some of the services provided by satellites are:

Fixed satellite service (FSS)
Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)
Mobile-satellite service
Radionavigation-satellite service
Meteorological-satellite service

Applications
Telephony
The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony  The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from land line telephones to an earth station, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite   The downlink follows an analogous path   Improvements in submarine communications cables through the use of fiber-optics caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century 
Satellite communications are still used in many applications today  Remote islands such as Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Diego Garcia, and Easter Island, where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones  There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to non existent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, and Australia  Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of Antarctica and Greenland  Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a backup for hospitals, military, and recreation  Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones Satellite phone systems can be accomplished by a number of means  On a large scale, often there will be a local telephone system in an isolated area with a link to the telephone system in a main land area  There are also services that will patch a radio signal to a telephone system  In this example, almost any type of satellite can be used  Satellite phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-Earth-orbit satellites  Calls are then forwarded to a satellite teleport connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network  

Television
As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats   Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio: Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS) 
The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous  Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same linear polarization as FSS-class satellites  Examples of these are the Astra, Eutelsat, and Hotbird spacecraft in orbit over the European continent  Because of this, the terms FSS and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in Europe 
Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of the Ku band  They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, live shots, and backhauls), as well as being used for distance learning by schools and universities, business television (BTV), Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications  FSS satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends 
Free-to-air satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the Ku band  The Intelsat Americas 5, Galaxy 10R and AMC 3 satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their Ku band transponders 
The American Dish Network DBS service has also recently used FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's "must-carry" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels 
A direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter)  Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave Ku band  DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV, DISH Network and Orby TV in the United States, Bell Satellite TV and Shaw Direct in Canada, Freesat and Sky in the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand and DSTV in South Africa 
Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2 5 m) in diameter for Ku band, and 12 feet (3 6 m) or larger for C band)   They use linear polarization for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to circular polarization used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice  FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of TVRO (Television Receive Only) receivers and dishes  It was also used in its Ku band form for the now-defunct Primestar satellite TV service 
Some satellites have been launched that have transponders in the Ka band, such as DirecTV's SPACEWAY-1 satellite, and Anik F2  NASA and ISRO have also launched experimental satellites carrying Ka band beacons recently Some manufacturers have also introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television  Using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no matter where or how the vehicle (on which the antenna is mounted) is situated   These mobile satellite antennas are popular with some recreational vehicle owners   Such mobile DBS antennas are also used by JetBlue Airways for DirecTV (supplied by LiveTV, a subsidiary of JetBlue), which passengers can view on-board on LCD screens mounted in the seats 

Radio broadcasting
Satellite radio offers audio broadcast services in some countries, notably the United States  Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere 
A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals 

Amateur radio
Amateur radio operators have access to amateur satellites, which have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio traffic  Most such satellites operate as spaceborne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped with UHF or VHF radio equipment and highly directional antennas such as Yagis or dish antennas  Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time  Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using the X 25 or similar protocols 

Internet access
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections  This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access a broadband connection, or require high availability of services 

Military
Communications satellites are used for military communications applications, such as Global Command and Control Systems  Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are the MILSTAR, the DSCS, and the FLTSATCOM of the United States, NATO satellites, United Kingdom satellites (for instance Skynet), and satellites of the former Soviet Union  India has launched its first Military Communication satellite GSAT-7, its transponders operate in UHF, F, C and Ku band bands  Typically military satellites operate in the UHF, SHF (also known as X-band) or EHF (also known as Ka band) frequency bands 

Data collection
Near-ground in situ environmental monitoring equipment (such as weather stations, weather buoys, and radiosondes), may use satellites for one-way data transmission or two-way telemetry and telecontrol  It may be based on a secondary payload of a weather satellite (as in the case of GOES and METEOSAT and others in the Argos system) or in dedicated satellites (such as SCD)  The data rate is typically much lower than in satellite Internet access 

See also
Passage 4:
ATS-6
ATS-6 (Applications Technology Satellite-6)  was a NASA experimental satellite, built by Fairchild Space and Electronics Division It has been called the world's first educational satellite as well as world's first experimental Direct Broadcast Satellite as part of the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment between NASA and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)  It was launched May 30, 1974, and decommissioned July 1979



ground_truth: January 2015

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the experimental satellite which was the forerunner to the communication satellite of the operator of GSAT-7 called?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  At the time of launch, it was the most powerful telecommunication satellite in orbit  ATS-6 carried no fewer than 23 different experiments, and introduced several breakthroughs  It was the first 3-axis stabilized spacecraft in geostationary orbit  It was also the first to use experimentally with some success electric propulsion in geostationary orbit  It also carried several particle physics experiments, including the first heavy ion detector in geostationary orbit 
During its five-year life, ATS-6 transmitted connection programming to various countries, including India, the United States and other regions  The vehicle also conducted air traffic control tests, was used to practice satellite-assisted search and rescue techniques, carried an experimental radiometer subsequently carried as a standard instrument aboard weather satellites, and pioneered direct broadcast TV 
ATS-6 was a precursor to many technologies still in use today on geostationary spacecraft: large deployable antenna, 3-axis attitude control with slewing capabilities, antenna pointing through RF sensing, electric propulsion, meteorological radiometer in geostationary orbit, and direct to home broadcasting  It is also possible that ATS-6 was a forerunner of the large ELINT satellites such as Mentor 

Launch
ATS-6 was launched on May 30, 1974, by a Titan III-C launch vehicle  The spacecraft was inserted directly in the geosynchronous orbit  This reduced the on-board fuel requirements to less than 40 kilograms (88 lb) (for a total mass at launch of nearly 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb))  The highly accurate orbit insertion further lowered the amount of fuel required for final positioning to 9 kilograms (20 lb)  This enabled a life extension from the original 2 year to 5 years, even accounting for the premature failure of the electric propulsion subsystem (the station-keeping fuel requirement being around 1 6 kilograms per year (3 5 lb/a)) 

Structure, power subsystem and antenna
One of the major innovations of ATS-6 was an in-flight deployable antenna of more than 9 metres (30 ft) in diameter  The antenna reflector was furled during launch under the launch vehicle fairing, and was deployed in orbit much like an umbrella  The antenna reflector was built from 48 aluminum ribs, supporting a metallized Dacron mesh  The antenna feeds (in C, S, L, UHF and VHF bands) were placed on the spacecraft body, facing the antenna reflector, and linked to the antenna and the solar panels masts by a carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) truss  The solar panels were rigidly mounted on two deployable masts  They were of hemi-cylinder shape, thus providing a relatively constant power (595 W beginning of life)  Electric power was supplied during eclipses by two Nickel cadmium batteries of 15-A·h capacity, powering a regulated 30 5-V bus  The satellite dimensions in orbit were 15 8-metre (52 ft) width by 8 2-metre (27 ft) height 
This deployable antenna parabola was designed and developed by Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (LMSC), now Lockheed Martin, under subcontract to Fairchild Aerospace, after several years of small study contracts at LMSC   The program manager at LMSC was GKC (Colin) Campbell   The deployment of the reflector was initiated by pyrotechnically operated SQUIB cable cutters   Deployment time was on the order of 2 5 seconds producing 3,400 newton-metres (2,500 lb⋅ft) of torque at the spacecraft interface   The reflector surface was designed for optimal operation at S-Band frequencies  It weighed 83 kilograms (182 lb) at launch and stowed into a toroidal volume (doughnut shaped) approximately 1 8 metres (6 ft) in diameter and 250 millimetres (10 in) thick   Three models were fabricated, the STM or structural test model, the F reflector and the G reflector   The STM was destroyed by Fairchild shortly after the program was finished and the F model was launched with the spacecraft in 1972   The G model sat unprotected in the Farchild parking lot for several years before it was donated to the Smithsonian   Bill Wade, the assistant program manager and test manager on the program supported The Smithsonian in the restoration by providing a complete set of drawings and specifications and visited the Silver Hill facility to provide technical guidance At the time of launch it was the largest parabolic surface launched into orbit 

Three-axis stabilisation
ATS-6 has been the first geostationary satellite with three-axis stabilization and pointing , This subsystem was capable of a highly accurate pointing (better than 0 1° through the inertial measurement units, down to 0 002° by using a radio-frequency interferometer )  Furthermore, the satellite was able to follow low earth orbit satellites through slewing, by tracking the low earth-orbit satellite through an S-band RF sensing  The system was also able to perform orbitography of the tracked satellite, and was a precursor to the operational system TDRSS 
This highly advanced (for the time) pointing subsystem used earth and sun sensors, a star tracker pointed to the pole star, Polaris, and three inertial sensors  The sensor measurements were fed to two digital computers (nominal and redundant), as well to a back-up analog computer  It was also possible to orient the satellite by using radio-frequency sensors   Actuators were three momentum wheels, and hot gas (hydrazine mono-propellant) thrusters  One of the momentum wheels having failed in July 1975, an alternative scheme was developed, allowing station-keeping with the two remaining wheels and thrusters 

Electric propulsion
ATS-6 was equipped with two electric thrusters based on the acceleration of cesium ions, that were to be used for North-South Station Keeping  This subsystem development followed earlier failed attempts on the previous ATS spacecraft  Each of the thrusters had a mass of 16 kilograms (35 lb), used 150 W of electric power, and produced a thrust of 4 newton-metres (3 0 lbf⋅ft), with a specific impulse of 2500s  The on-board supply of cesium would have been sufficient for 4400 hours of thrust  Unfortunately, both thrusters failed prematurely, one after 1 hour of operation, one after 95 hours  However, some of the experiments objectives could be met, such as the measurement of the effective thrust, the absence of any interference with the radio-frequency payloads (from 150 MHz to 6 GHz), no cesium redeposition on the critical parts of the payload (such as the radiometer), and the correct neutralisation of the spacecraft versus its environment 

Payload
Radiometer
A radiometer was on board ATS-6, mounted on the earth-facing panel  This instrument was (for the time) of very high resolution  It operated on two channels: infra-red (10 5 to 12 5 µm) and visible light (0 55 to 0 75 µm)  Images taken with the radiometer covered the whole earth disk, with a resolution of 1,200 lines of 2,400 pixels each (11-kilometre (6 8 mi) square pixel in infra-red, and 5 5-kilometre (3 4 mi) square in visible light)  The IR detector was passively cooled at 115K, and the visible light detector maintained at 300K  A complete image of earth's disk was transmitted to ground every 25 minutes  Several hundreds images were taken and transmitted, until a mechanical component of the radiometer failed, two and a half months after launch 

Telecommunication experiments
The main mission of ATS-6 was to demonstrate the feasibility of direct-to-home (DTH) television broadcasting  To this end, in addition to the high-gain antenna, the spacecraft payload was able to receive in any of the VHF, C, S and L-bands, and to transmit in S-band (2 GHz) through a 20-W solid state transmitter, in L-band (1650 MHz) at 40W, in UHF (860 MHz) at 80W (which was used for the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)), and with a TWTA-based transmitter of 20 W in C-band (4 GHz)  The antenna produced two spots on earth of 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi) each, in which the TV broadcast could be received with 3 metres (9 8 ft) diameter antennas  This payload was first used over the United States for tele-education and tele-medicine experiments, from August 1974 to May 1975 as part of the HET, or Health, Education, Telecommunications experiment developed jointly by NASA and the US Department of Health, Education, & Welfare (now DHHS)  The spacecraft was then moved over the geo-stationary arc from 94 °W to 35 °E, in collaboration with the Indian Space Agency (ISRO), who had deployed in India more than 2500 receive ground stations  The move of the satellite from 94 degrees West to 35 degrees East, a journey of 12,800 kilometres (8,000 mi), was actioned from the ground station at Rosman North Carolina  This relocation involved 2 rocket burns of the onboard rocket motor  The 2nd burn lasting 5 hours 37 minutes and 17 seconds  The longest burn ever done by a chemical rocket in space at that time  A tele-education programme was started – Satellite Instructional Television Experiment or SITE – and run for one year  During the experiment, a receive station was offered by the Indian Government to Arthur C  Clarke, who was living in Sri Lanka  This experiment was highly successful, and encouraged ISRO to start building an operational program, with the Indian spacecraft  INSAT IB (launched 1983)  After the SITE experiment, the satellite was brought back over the United States, and served notably as a data-relay and tracking satellite for low-orbit spacecraft such as Nimbus 6, and for the Apollo-Soyuz flight 

Particle physics experiments
Several particle physics experiments were on board ATS-6  The most significant measured low energy protons (from 25 keV to 3 6 MeV), as well as detected heavy ions (up to 6 MeV)  This latter experiment allowed to detect the first heavy ions (Z > 6) with an energy  E > 4 MeV, in geostationary orbit 

Propagation experiments
Finally, ATS-6 embarked several radio beacons, which allowed to measure electromagnetic propagation properties of the atmosphere at 13, 18, 20 and 30 GHz 

Decommissioning
By June 30, 1979, only one of the four ATS-6 station keeping thrusters was working, and was showing signs of unreliability  This thruster was used to move ATS-6 out of geostationary orbit to an orbit several hundred kilometers higher  This was to vacate the geostationary slot for the next satellite 

See also
1974 in spaceflight
Applications Technology Satellite
Passage 5:
FedSat
FedSat (Australia's 'Federation Satellite'; sometimes FedSat 1; COSPAR 2002-056B, SATCAT 27598) was an Australian scientific research satellite launched from Tanegashima Space Center, Japan by a NASDA H-IIA launch vehicle  on 14 December 2002 (NASDA is now merged with JAXA)  The satellite was developed by the Cooperative Research Centre for Satellite Systems, a cooperative made up of several universities, commercial organisations and government bodies  The ground station was at the Institute for Telecommunications Research, part of the University of South Australia, near Adelaide  Since 2005 it was operated by the Australian Department of Defence 

Payloads
The satellite had six payloads, as given below:

Communications Payload: A collection of three components (UHF transponder, Ka-band transponder and base-band processor) used to perform several experiments in satellite communications 
High Performance Computing Experiment: A reconfigurable computer based on a Xilinx XQR4062 FPGA, the first of its kind to be used in space 
GPS Payload: A Global Positioning System receiver built by NASA  Conceived especially for ionospheric studies between GPS constellation levels and FedSat orbit 
NewMag Payload: A magnetometer built by the University of Newcastle, Australia, used to take measurements of the Earth's magnetic field near its poles 
Star Camera: An experimental star camera built by the University of Stellenbosch, used to determine the position of the satellite in space by analysing images of surrounding stars 
Compact Disk: A nickel "master" disk "cultural time capsule" with tracks including Paul Kelly's performance of the song he co-wrote with Kev Carmody, "From Little Things, Big Things Grow", and recorded statements from several hundred Australian school children about how they imagined a future Australia and its place in the Asia-Pacific The satellite platform, comprising the structural/thermal components, power system, attitude control system, onboard computer and groundlink, was originally developed in the United Kingdom by Space Innovations Limited  It was later completed along with integration of payloads in Canberra, Australia 

Declared Dead
The spacecraft's battery failed in May 2007 and the mission has been terminated, after lasting 18 months longer than expected 
Passage 6:
NOAA-4
NOAA-4, also known as ITOS-G was a weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)  It was part of a series of satellites called ITOS, or improved TIROS  NOAA-4 was launched on a Delta rocket on November 15, 1974  The launch carried two other satellites: AMSAT-OSCAR 7 and Intasat  It remained operational for 1463 days until it was deactivated by NOAA on November 18, 1978 
Passage 7:
Hans K  Ziegler
Hans K  Ziegler (March 1, 1911, Munich, Germany – December 11, 1999 Colts Neck Township, New Jersey, United States) was a pioneer in the field of communication satellites and the use of photovoltaic solar cells as a power source for satellites 

Life
Hans Ziegler was born in Munich, Germany  There, he studied at the Technische Hochschule, which is today the Technische Universität München (TUM), and began his career as Wissenschaftlicher Assistant (Scientific Assistant)  Following that, he was a researcher in German industry for ten years  During the Second World War, he worked for the company Rosental Selb in Bavaria on high tension porcelain 
In 1947, he came to the US with Wernher von Braun under Operation Paperclip, by means of which the USA gained Nazi engineers and scientists  He went to the US Army Signal Corps' Laboratories in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and became a US citizen in 1954 
Ziegler's work in the US was very influential in the development of military electronics, especially in the electronics for the early phases of the US space program  During the thirty years he worked as an engineer in the field of electronics and electrical engineering in the research and development department of the U S  Army in Fort Monmouth, N J  (from 1947 to 1976), he held the top position of Chief Scientist for 12 years  In Fort Monmouth, he worked as a Scientific Consultant, Assistant Director of Research, Director of the Astro-Electronics Division and Chief Scientist (1959)  After the Army was restructured, he became Deputy for Science and Chief Scientist of the US Army Electronics Command in 1963 and Director of the US Army Electronics Technology & Devices Laboratory from 1971 until his retirement 
In May 1954, after examining the solar cells of Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson at Bell Laboratories, Ziegler wrote, "Future development [of the silicon solar cell] may well render it into an important source of electrical power [as] the roofs of all our buildings in cities and towns equipped with solar [cells] would be sufficient to produce this country's entire demand for electrical power "Referring to silicon solar cells, he said to the head of the U  S  Signal Corps, General James O'Connell, at a meeting in September 1955, "In fact, in the long run, mankind has no choice but to turn to the sun if it wants to survive "He and his team produced a report on the prospects for application of this technique in the field of communication and they named the supply of energy for artificial satellites as the most important application  He knew that he was not the first to suggest this application  For example, the science fiction author, Arthur C  Clarke had already made this suggestion in 1945, but without having a concrete technology for it at that time 
Ziegler participated in the development of the first planned satellites  The first satellite,
Explorer 1, still went into space without solar cells, since it was a quick, less-than-ideal solution after the start of the Sputnik to show the American public that America's scientists could also start a satellite  The actual scheduled satellite project, Project Vanguard, successfully put a satellite named Vanguard I in orbit around Earth on March 17, 1958 
Over the objections of the Navy, which still thought that solar cells were not a mature technology, this satellite had four solar cells on its outer hull, due to the persistent work of Ziegler, which powered the instruments and performed their duties reliably for more than seven years  After this success, solar cells were established as the energy supply for satellites  He was also involved with the development of the first communication satellite in the world, SCORE, which was started in 1958 
He was awarded the Meritorious Civilian Service Award by the US Department of Defense in 1963 as a " world pioneer in communications satellites and solar energy systems to power satellites"  When he retired in 1977, he was decorated with the highest award of the Army for "exceptional civilian service" 
Ziegler was the author of many technical papers, a member of the IEEE, and represented the US, in military and civilian matters, in many national and international committees  In 1958, he was a member of the US delegation to the International Geophysical Year in Moscow, USSR, and in 1964, he gave advice on the scientific activities in Antarctica and at the South Pole, under the direction of the US National Science Foundation 
Ziegler's wife Friederike died in 1996  He last lived in Colts Neck Township, New Jersey and died at the age of 88 on December 11, 1999  He was survived by his daughters, Christine Griffith and Friederike Meindl, and his son, Hans 

See also
Solar power
Solar panel
Active solar
Photovoltaic components, projects and howtos
Passage 8:
TDRS-6
TDRS-6, known before launch as TDRS-F, is an American communications satellite, of first generation, which is operated by NASA as part of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System  It was constructed by TRW, and is based on a custom satellite bus which was used for all seven first generation TDRS satellites 

History
TDRS-F was deployed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-54 mission in 1993  Endeavour was launched from Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center, at 13:59:30 UTC on 13 January 1993  TDRS-F was deployed from Endeavour around six hours after launch, and was raised to geosynchronous orbit by means of an Inertial Upper Stage 

Deployment
The two-stage solid-propellent Inertial Upper Stage made two burns  The first stage burn occurred shortly after deployment from Endeavour, and placed the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO)  At 02:26 UTC on 14 January 1993, it reached apogee, and the second stage fired, placing TDRS-F into geosynchronous orbit  At this point, it received its operational designation, TDRS-6 

Operation
In 1994, it was placed at a longitude 46 0° West of the Greenwich Meridian, to serve as an on-orbit spare  In 1996, it was moved to 47 0° West, where it remained until 2005, when it was repositioned to 174 0° West, where, as of August 2009, it was used to provide communications with spacecraft in Earth orbit, such as the International Space Station (ISS) and spacecraft bringing astronauts to the ISS 

See also
List of TDRS satellites
Passage 9:
GSAT-7
GSAT-7 or INSAT-4F is a multi-band military communications satellite developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation  The Indian Navy is the user of the multi-band communication spacecraft, which has been operational since September 2013  According to defense experts, the satellite will enable the navy to extend its blue water capabilities and stop relying on foreign satellites like Inmarsat, which provide communication services to its ships 

Satellite
GSAT-7, the multi-band communication satellite named Rukmini carries the payloads in UHF, C band and Ku band  It is the first dedicated military communication satellite (unlike earlier dual use satellites) built by ISRO that will provide services to the Indian Armed Forces with the main user being the Indian Navy  Its procured launch cost has been put at ₹480 crore, with the satellite costing ₹185 crore  Cost of whole project per Memorandum of Understanding with ISRO was ₹950 crores The multiple-band spacecraft will be used exclusively by the Navy to shore up secure, real-time communications among its warships, submarines, aircraft and land systems  GSAT-7/ INSAT-4F is said to significantly improve the country's naval operations around the world  
GSAT 7 satellite carrying payloads operating in UHF, S, C and Ku bands, had a lift-off mass of 2,650 kilograms (5,840 lb) and is based on ISRO's 2,000 kilograms (4,400 lb) class satellite bus I-2K with some new technological elements, including the antennae  After a flight of almost 34 minutes, the satellite was injected into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) of 249-kilometre (155 mi) perigee, 35,929-kilometre (22,325 mi) apogee and an inclination of 3 5 degree with respect to the equator ISRO launched a second satellite, GSAT-7A for Indian Air Force on 19 December 2018 on its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-F11) 

Launch
The satellite was launched early on 30 August 2013 atop an Ariane 5 ECA rocket from Kourou, French Guiana India's first dedicated military satellite was put into a geosynchronous orbit, about 36,000 kilometres (22,000 mi) above Earth, five days after it was launched after three orbit-raising manoeuvres from ISRO's Master Control Facility at Hassan in Karnataka  The 2 5-tonne spacecraft's antennae, including the ultra high frequency Helix antenna were deployed before it was stabilised on its three-axis in the orbit  All of the on-board transponders were switched on successfully on September 18, 2013

Capability
Rukmini will provide networking capabilities to various Indian Naval assets  During Theater-level Readiness and Operational Exercise (Tropex) in the Bay of Bengal in 2014, Rukmini was able to network about 60 ships and 75 aircraft seamlessly  Rukmini has a nearly 2,000 nautical mile 'footprint' over the Indian Ocean Region 

Replacement
The Indian Navy placed an order for GSAT-7R on June 11, 2019  GSAT-7R is expected to eventually replace GSAT-7 

See also
Indian military satellites
GSAT-7A
GSAT
Indian National Satellite System
List of Indian satellites



ground_truth: ATS - 6 (Applications Technology Satellite - 6)

ATS-6