prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the experimental satellite being forerunner to communication satellite of INSAT-4CR's manufacturer called?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Lockheed Martin A2100
The A2100 is a model of communications satellite spacecraft made by Lockheed Martin Space Systems  It is used as the foundation for telecommunications payloads in geosynchronous orbit, as well as GOES-R weather satellites and GPS Block IIIA satellites  Over 40 satellites use the A2100 bus 

History
The first satellite, AMC-1, was launched September 8, 1996, and has achieved 15-year on-orbit service life   Since 1996 there have been over 45 of the A2100 based satellites launched, with over 400 years of total on-orbit service 
Other A2100 spacecraft include JCSAT-13 and VINASAT-2, which were launched May, 2012 on an Ariane 5 rocket, as well as Arabsat-6A and Hellas Sat 4/SaudiGeoSat-1 of Saudi Arabia's Arabsat-6G program In 2002, Lockheed Martin Commercial Space Systems was given a Frost and Sullivan Satellite Reliability Award for excellence in the production of flexible and reliable communications satellites used in geosynchronous Earth orbit A2100 customers includes communications companies around the world, including Astra, Telesat, SKY Perfect JSAT Group and others 

Design
The Lockheed Martin A2100 geosynchronous spacecraft series is designed for a variety of telecommunications needs including Ka band broadband and broadcast services, fixed satellite services in C-band and Ku band payload configurations, high-power direct broadcast services using the Ku band frequency spectrum, and mobile satellite services using UHF, L-band and S-band payloads The A2100 satellite system was developed by the Astro Space team at its East Windsor, New Jersey facility, with team members delivering a flexible common bus with fewer components, lower spacecraft weight, and reduced customer delivery time The A2100 is being supplanted by the LM2100, an evolutionary upgrade with several new features  The military version is the LM2100 Combat Bus 

Propulsion system
The attitude control system includes reaction wheels, with momentum desaturation and main motor maneuver attitude control propulsion provided by small monopropellant hydrazine motors  This hydrazine supply is contained in a central propellant tank of 0 90 m diameter and up to 2 00 m length depending on the customer's requirements 
This tank's maximum length was later increased to 2 55 m 
The liquid apogee engine uses hydrazine fuel from the central tank along with nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer from two flanking tanks of 0 54 m diameter and up to 1 65 m long 
Orbit maintenance is performed by the small hydrazine motors and ion thrusters 
The maximum propellant supply (with the largest tanks at 95% fill factor) are 1368 kg of hydrazine fuel and 627 kg of nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer 
According to Moog-ISP, the A2100 platform uses its LEROS bipropellant Liquid Apogee Engine 

Satellite orders
A2100A
A2100AX
A2100AXS
A2100M (Military)
LM2100 (Modernized)
LM2100M (Modernized Military)
Cancelled orders
Passage 2:
Communications satellite
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunication signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth  Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications   Many communications satellites are in geostationary orbit 22,300 miles (35,900 km) above the equator, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore the satellite dish antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite  Others form satellite constellations in low Earth orbit, where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently 
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of sight and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth   The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points   Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies  To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use  This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference 

History
Origins
In October 1945, Arthur C  Clarke published an article titled "Extraterrestrial Relays" in the British magazine Wireless World  The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits to relay radio signals  Because of this, Arthur C  Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the concept of the communications satellite, and the term 'Clarke Belt' is employed as a description of the orbit 

The first artificial Earth satellite was Sputnik 1 which was put into orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957  It was developed by Mikhail Tikhonravov and Sergey Korolev, building on work by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky  Sputnik 1 was equipped with an on-board radio transmitter that worked on two frequencies of 20 005 and 40 002 MHz, or 7 and 15 meters wavelength  The satellite was not placed in orbit to send data from one point on Earth to another; the radio transmitter was meant to study the properties of radio wave distribution throughout the ionosphere   The launch of Sputnik 1 was a major step in the exploration of space and rocket development, and marks the beginning of the Space Age 

Early active and passive satellite experiments
There are two major classes of communications satellites, passive and active  Passive satellites only reflect the signal coming from the source, toward the direction of the receiver  With passive satellites, the reflected signal is not amplified at the satellite, and only a very small amount of the transmitted energy actually reaches the receiver   Since the satellite is so far above Earth, the radio signal is attenuated due to free-space path loss, so the signal received on Earth is very, very weak  Active satellites, on the other hand, amplify the received signal before retransmitting it to the receiver on the ground  Passive satellites were the first communications satellites, but are little used now 
Work that was begun in the field of electrical intelligence gathering at the United States Naval Research Laboratory in 1951 led to a project named Communication Moon Relay  Military planners had long shown considerable interest in secure and reliable communications lines as a tactical necessity, and the ultimate goal of this project was the creation of the longest communications circuit in human history, with the moon, Earth's natural satellite, acting as a passive relay  After achieving the first transoceanic communication between Washington, D C , and Hawaii on 23 January 1956, this system was publicly inaugurated and put into formal production in January 1960 

The first satellite purpose-built to actively relay communications was Project SCORE,  led by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and launched on 18 December 1958, which used a tape recorder to carry a stored voice message, as well as to receive, store, and retransmit messages  It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U S  President Dwight D  Eisenhower  The satellite also executed several realtime transmissions before the non-rechargeable batteries failed on 30 December 1958 after eight hours of actual operation The direct successor to SCORE was another ARPA-led project called Courier  Courier 1B was launched on 4 October 1960 to explore whether it would be possible to establish a global military communications network by using "delayed repeater" satellites, which receive and store information until commanded to rebroadcast them  After 17 days, a command system failure ended communications from the satellite NASA's satellite applications program launched the first artificial satellite used for passive relay communications in Echo 1 on 12 August 1960  Echo 1 was an aluminized balloon satellite acting as a passive reflector of microwave signals  Communication signals were bounced off the satellite from one point on Earth to another  This experiment sought to establish the feasibility of worldwide broadcasts of telephone, radio, and television signals 

More firsts and further experiments
Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications commercial satellite and marked the first transatlantic transmission of television signals  Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on 10 July 1962, in the first privately sponsored space launch Another passive relay experiment primarily intended for military communications purposes was Project West Ford, which was led by Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Laboratory  After an initial failure in 1961, a launch on 9 May 1963 dispersed 350 million copper needle dipoles to create a passive reflecting belt  Even though only about half of the dipoles properly separated from each other, the project was able to successfully experiment and communicate using frequencies in the SHF X band spectrum An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was the Hughes Aircraft Company's Syncom 2, launched on 26 July 1963  Syncom 2 was the first communications satellite in a geosynchronous orbit  It revolved around the earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still had north–south motion, special equipment was needed to track it  Its successor, Syncom 3, launched on 19 July 1964, was the first geostationary communications satellite  Syncom 3 obtained a geosynchronous orbit, without a north–south motion, making it appear from the ground as a stationary object in the sky A direct extension of the passive experiments of Project West Ford was the Lincoln Experimental Satellite program, also conducted by the Lincoln Laboratory on behalf of the United States Department of Defense  The LES-1 active communications satellite was launched on 11 February 1965 to explore the feasibility of active solid-state X band long-range military communications  A total of nine satellites were launched between 1965 and 1976 as part of this series 

International commercial satellite projects
In the United States, 1962 saw the creation of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) private corporation, which was subject to instruction by the US Government on matters of national policy  Over the next two years, international negotiations led to the Intelsat Agreements, which in turn led to the launch of Intelsat 1, also known as Early Bird, on 6 April 1965, and which was the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit  Subsequent Intelsat launches in the 1960s provided multi-destination service and video, audio, and data service to ships at sea (Intelsat 2 in 1966–67), and the completion of a fully global network with Intelsat 3 in 1969–70  By the 1980s, with significant expansions in commercial satellite capacity, Intelsat was on its way to become part of the competitive private telecommunications industry, and had started to get competition from the likes of PanAmSat in the United States, which, ironically, was then bought by its archrival in 2005 When Intelsat was launched, the United States was the only launch source outside of the Soviet Union, who did not participate in the Intelsat agreements  The Soviet Union launched its first communications satellite on 23 April 1965 as part of the Molniya program  This program was also unique at the time for its use of what then became known as the Molniya orbit, which describes a highly elliptical orbit, with two high apogees daily over the northern hemisphere  This orbit provides a long dwell time over Russian territory as well as over Canada at higher latitudes than geostationary orbits over the equator 

Satellite orbits
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital classifications are used to further specify orbital details  MEO and LEO are non-geostationary orbit (NGSO) 

Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is 22,236 miles (35,785 km) from Earth's surface  This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky   This is because the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth   The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in the sky the satellite appears 
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth  Orbital altitudes range from 2,000 to 36,000 kilometres (1,200 to 22,400 mi) above Earth 
The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth orbit (LEO), and is about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth beyond the visible horizon  Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so that one of these satellites will always be visible in the sky for transmission of communication signals   However, due to their closer distance to the Earth, LEO or MEO satellites can communicate to ground with reduced latency and at lower power than would be required from a geosynchronous orbit 

Low Earth orbit (LEO)
A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above the earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the sub-satellite point  In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly  So even for local applications, many satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity 
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal strength (signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is considerable)  Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost 
In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions 

Satellite constellation
A group of satellites working in concert is known as a satellite constellation  Two such constellations, intended to provide satellite phone and low-speed data services, primarily to remote areas, are the Iridium and Globalstar systems  The Iridium system has 66 satellites, which orbital inclination of 86 4° and inter-satellite links provide service availability over the entire surface of Earth  Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by SpaceX, that aims for global satellite Internet access coverage 
It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over another part   This will be the case with the CASCADE system of Canada's CASSIOPE communications satellite  Another system using this store and forward method is Orbcomm 

Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
A medium Earth orbit is a satellite in orbit somewhere between 2,000 and 35,786 kilometres (1,243 and 22,236 mi) above the earth's surface   MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality  MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 and 8 hours  MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites  A MEO satellite's longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network  One disadvantage is that a MEO satellite's distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, although these limitations are not as severe as those of a GEO satellite 
Like LEOs, these satellites do not maintain a stationary distance from the earth   This is in contrast to the geostationary orbit, where satellites are always 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) from the earth 
Typically the orbit of a medium earth orbit satellite is about 16,000 kilometres (10,000 mi) above earth  In various patterns, these satellites make the trip around earth in anywhere from 2 to 8 hours 

Examples of MEO
In 1962, the communications satellite, Telstar, was launched  It was a medium earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals  Although it was the first practical way to transmit signals over the horizon, its major drawback was soon realised  Because its orbital period of about 2 5 hours did not match the Earth's rotational period of 24 hours, continuous coverage was impossible  It was apparent that multiple MEOs needed to be used in order to provide continuous coverage 
In 2013, the first four of a constellation of 20 MEO satellites was launched  The O3b satellites provide broadband internet services, in particular to remote locations and maritime and in-flight use, and orbit at an altitude of 8,063 kilometres (5,010 mi)) 

Geostationary orbit (GEO)
To an observer on Earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky   This is because it revolves around the Earth at Earth's own angular velocity (one revolution per sidereal day, in an equatorial orbit) 
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion  This is relatively inexpensive 
In applications that require many ground antennas, such as DirecTV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit 

Examples of GEO
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on 19 August 1964, and used for communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics  Shortly after Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was launched on 6 April 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude  It was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean 
On 9 November 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, Anik A1, was launched by Telesat Canada, with the United States following suit with the launch of Westar 1 by Western Union on 13 April 1974 
On 30 May 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be three-axis stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-6 built for NASA 
After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE Americom, now SES) launched Satcom 1 in 1975   It was Satcom 1 that was instrumental in helping early cable TV channels such as WTBS (now TBS), HBO, CBN (now Freeform) and The Weather Channel become successful, because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local cable TV headends using the satellite   Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast television networks in the United States, like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute programming to their local affiliate stations   Satcom 1 was widely used because it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in America (24 transponders as opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in lower transponder-usage costs  Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher transponder numbers By 2000, Hughes Space and Communications (now Boeing Satellite Development Center) had built nearly 40 percent of the more than one hundred satellites in service worldwide  Other major satellite manufacturers include Space Systems/Loral, Orbital Sciences Corporation with the Star Bus series, Indian Space Research Organisation, Lockheed Martin (owns the former RCA Astro Electronics/GE Astro Space business), Northrop Grumman, Alcatel Space, now Thales Alenia Space, with the Spacebus series, and Astrium 

Molniya orbit
Geostationary satellites must operate above the equator and therefore appear lower on the horizon as the receiver gets farther from the equator  This will cause problems for extreme northerly latitudes, affecting connectivity and causing multipath interference (caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground antenna) 
Thus, for areas close to the North (and South) Pole, a geostationary satellite may appear below the horizon  Therefore, Molniya orbit satellites have been launched, mainly in Russia, to alleviate this problem 
Molniya orbits can be an appealing alternative in such cases  The Molniya orbit is highly inclined, guaranteeing good elevation over selected positions during the northern portion of the orbit  (Elevation is the extent of the satellite's position above the horizon  Thus, a satellite at the horizon has zero elevation and a satellite directly overhead has elevation of 90 degrees )
The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprint moves only slightly  Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation over the targeted region for six to nine hours every second revolution  In this way a constellation of three Molniya satellites (plus in-orbit spares) can provide uninterrupted coverage 
The first satellite of the Molniya series was launched on 23 April 1965 and was used for experimental transmission of TV signals from a Moscow uplink station to downlink stations located in Siberia and the Russian Far East, in Norilsk, Khabarovsk, Magadan and Vladivostok  In November 1967 Soviet engineers created a unique system of national TV network of satellite television, called Orbita, that was based on Molniya satellites 

Polar orbit
In the United States, the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) was established in 1994 to consolidate the polar satellite operations of
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)  NPOESS manages a number of satellites for various purposes; for example, METSAT for meteorological satellite, EUMETSAT for the European branch of the program, and METOP for meteorological operations 
These orbits are sun synchronous, meaning that they cross the equator at the same local time each day  For example, the satellites in the NPOESS (civilian) orbit will cross the equator, going from south to north, at times 1:30 P M , 5:30 P M , and 9:30 P M 

Beyond geostationary orbit
There are plans and initiatives to bring dedicated communications satellite beyond geostationary orbits 
NASA proposed LunaNet as a data network aiming to provide a „Lunar Internet for cis-lunar spacecraft and Installations 
The Moonlight Initiative is an equivalent ESA project that is stated to be compatible and providing navigational services for the lunar surface  Both programmes are satellite constellstions of several satellites in various orbits around the Moon 
Other orbits are also planned to be used  Positions in the Earth-Moon-Libration points are also proposed for communication satellites covering the Moon alike communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit cover the Earth  Also, dedicated communication satellites in orbits around Mars supporting different missions on surface and other orbits are considered, such as the Mars Telecommunications Orbiter 

Structure
Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems:

Communication Payload, normally composed of transponders, antennas, and switching systems
Engines used to bring the satellite to its desired orbit
A station keeping tracking and stabilization subsystem used to keep the satellite in the right orbit, with its antennas pointed in the right direction, and its power system pointed towards the sun
Power subsystem, used to power the Satellite systems, normally composed of solar cells, and batteries that maintain power during solar eclipse
Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground control stations  The ground control Earth stations monitor the satellite performance and control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided by the satellite  Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission  This is typically known as link budgeting and a network simulator can be used to arrive at the exact value 

Frequency allocation for satellite systems
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international coordination and planning  This is carried out under the auspices of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 
To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions:

Region 1: Europe, Africa, the Middle East, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia
Region 2: North and South America and Greenland
Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia, and the southwest PacificWithin these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given service may be allocated different frequency bands in different regions  Some of the services provided by satellites are:

Fixed satellite service (FSS)
Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)
Mobile-satellite service
Radionavigation-satellite service
Meteorological-satellite service

Applications
Telephony
The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony  The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from land line telephones to an earth station, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite   The downlink follows an analogous path   Improvements in submarine communications cables through the use of fiber-optics caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century 
Satellite communications are still used in many applications today  Remote islands such as Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Diego Garcia, and Easter Island, where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones  There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to non existent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, and Australia  Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of Antarctica and Greenland  Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a backup for hospitals, military, and recreation  Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones Satellite phone systems can be accomplished by a number of means  On a large scale, often there will be a local telephone system in an isolated area with a link to the telephone system in a main land area  There are also services that will patch a radio signal to a telephone system  In this example, almost any type of satellite can be used  Satellite phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-Earth-orbit satellites  Calls are then forwarded to a satellite teleport connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network  

Television
As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats   Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio: Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS) 
The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous  Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same linear polarization as FSS-class satellites  Examples of these are the Astra, Eutelsat, and Hotbird spacecraft in orbit over the European continent  Because of this, the terms FSS and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in Europe 
Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of the Ku band  They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, live shots, and backhauls), as well as being used for distance learning by schools and universities, business television (BTV), Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications  FSS satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends 
Free-to-air satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the Ku band  The Intelsat Americas 5, Galaxy 10R and AMC 3 satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their Ku band transponders 
The American Dish Network DBS service has also recently used FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's "must-carry" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels 
A direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter)  Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave Ku band  DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV, DISH Network and Orby TV in the United States, Bell Satellite TV and Shaw Direct in Canada, Freesat and Sky in the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand and DSTV in South Africa 
Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2 5 m) in diameter for Ku band, and 12 feet (3 6 m) or larger for C band)   They use linear polarization for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to circular polarization used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice  FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of TVRO (Television Receive Only) receivers and dishes  It was also used in its Ku band form for the now-defunct Primestar satellite TV service 
Some satellites have been launched that have transponders in the Ka band, such as DirecTV's SPACEWAY-1 satellite, and Anik F2  NASA and ISRO have also launched experimental satellites carrying Ka band beacons recently Some manufacturers have also introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television  Using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no matter where or how the vehicle (on which the antenna is mounted) is situated   These mobile satellite antennas are popular with some recreational vehicle owners   Such mobile DBS antennas are also used by JetBlue Airways for DirecTV (supplied by LiveTV, a subsidiary of JetBlue), which passengers can view on-board on LCD screens mounted in the seats 

Radio broadcasting
Satellite radio offers audio broadcast services in some countries, notably the United States  Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere 
A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals 

Amateur radio
Amateur radio operators have access to amateur satellites, which have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio traffic  Most such satellites operate as spaceborne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped with UHF or VHF radio equipment and highly directional antennas such as Yagis or dish antennas  Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time  Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using the X 25 or similar protocols 

Internet access
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections  This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access a broadband connection, or require high availability of services 

Military
Communications satellites are used for military communications applications, such as Global Command and Control Systems  Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are the MILSTAR, the DSCS, and the FLTSATCOM of the United States, NATO satellites, United Kingdom satellites (for instance Skynet), and satellites of the former Soviet Union  India has launched its first Military Communication satellite GSAT-7, its transponders operate in UHF, F, C and Ku band bands  Typically military satellites operate in the UHF, SHF (also known as X-band) or EHF (also known as Ka band) frequency bands 

Data collection
Near-ground in situ environmental monitoring equipment (such as weather stations, weather buoys, and radiosondes), may use satellites for one-way data transmission or two-way telemetry and telecontrol  It may be based on a secondary payload of a weather satellite (as in the case of GOES and METEOSAT and others in the Argos system) or in dedicated satellites (such as SCD)  The data rate is typically much lower than in satellite Internet access 

See also
Passage 3:
INSAT-4CR
INSAT-4CR was a communications satellite operated by ISRO as part of the Indian National Satellite System  Launched in September 2007, it replaced the INSAT-4C satellite which had been lost in a launch failure the previous year  The satellite was initially stationed in geostationary orbit at a longitude of 74 degrees east, with expected operational life of at least ten years, however this may have been reduced by the underperformance of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle which placed it into orbit  INSAT-4CR is planned to be replaced by GSAT-31, which was launched on February 6, 2019 

Spacecraft
INSAT-4CR was constructed by ISRO, and is based around the I-2K satellite bus  A 2,168-kilogram (4,780 lb) spacecraft, it is equipped with twelve Ku band transponders operating at a frequency of 36 MHz, with 140 Watt travelling wave tube amplifiers  The satellite has an effective isotropic radiated power of 51 5 dBW  An additional Ku band signal is used as a beacon for tracking 
INSAT-4CR operated in a geostationary orbit at a longitudes of 74° East and  48° East, providing communications to India  Broadcasting capacity on INSAT-4CR was allocated to Airtel Digital TV and Sun Direct DTH  At launch, the satellite was carrying 1,218 kilograms (2,685 lb) of fuel, for raising itself into geostationary orbit, and subsequently operating there for a planned twelve years  Increased expenditure of fuel reaching geostationary orbit, due to launch underperformance, may have resulted in a loss of up to five years of operational life 

Launch
INSAT-4CR was launched on 2 September 2007 by the fifth flight of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV-F04  The launch occurred at 12:51 UTC on 2 September 2007  The third stage of the carrier rocket underperformed, resulting in the satellite being placed into a lower than planned orbit 
As a result of the underperformance during its launch, INSAT-4CR had to expend maneuvering and station keeping propellant to raise its orbit by more than had originally been planned  It was subsequently reported by Indian news agencies that ISRO had lost track of the satellite's orbit, and could not locate the spacecraft until NASA identified it several days later, however, ISRO denied these claims  As a result of these failures, the operational lifetime of the satellite was reportedly decreased by up to five years 

End of life and replacement
Towards the end of its service life INSAT-4CR was relocated from 74°E to 48°E slot on 10 February 2017 where it stayed until being retired and placed into graveyard orbit on 24 November 2020  Services of INSAT-4CR were handed over to GSAT-31 
Passage 4:
NOAA-4
NOAA-4, also known as ITOS-G was a weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)  It was part of a series of satellites called ITOS, or improved TIROS  NOAA-4 was launched on a Delta rocket on November 15, 1974  The launch carried two other satellites: AMSAT-OSCAR 7 and Intasat  It remained operational for 1463 days until it was deactivated by NOAA on November 18, 1978 
Passage 5:
FedSat
FedSat (Australia's 'Federation Satellite'; sometimes FedSat 1; COSPAR 2002-056B, SATCAT 27598) was an Australian scientific research satellite launched from Tanegashima Space Center, Japan by a NASDA H-IIA launch vehicle  on 14 December 2002 (NASDA is now merged with JAXA)  The satellite was developed by the Cooperative Research Centre for Satellite Systems, a cooperative made up of several universities, commercial organisations and government bodies  The ground station was at the Institute for Telecommunications Research, part of the University of South Australia, near Adelaide  Since 2005 it was operated by the Australian Department of Defence 

Payloads
The satellite had six payloads, as given below:

Communications Payload: A collection of three components (UHF transponder, Ka-band transponder and base-band processor) used to perform several experiments in satellite communications 
High Performance Computing Experiment: A reconfigurable computer based on a Xilinx XQR4062 FPGA, the first of its kind to be used in space 
GPS Payload: A Global Positioning System receiver built by NASA  Conceived especially for ionospheric studies between GPS constellation levels and FedSat orbit 
NewMag Payload: A magnetometer built by the University of Newcastle, Australia, used to take measurements of the Earth's magnetic field near its poles 
Star Camera: An experimental star camera built by the University of Stellenbosch, used to determine the position of the satellite in space by analysing images of surrounding stars 
Compact Disk: A nickel "master" disk "cultural time capsule" with tracks including Paul Kelly's performance of the song he co-wrote with Kev Carmody, "From Little Things, Big Things Grow", and recorded statements from several hundred Australian school children about how they imagined a future Australia and its place in the Asia-Pacific The satellite platform, comprising the structural/thermal components, power system, attitude control system, onboard computer and groundlink, was originally developed in the United Kingdom by Space Innovations Limited  It was later completed along with integration of payloads in Canberra, Australia 

Declared Dead
The spacecraft's battery failed in May 2007 and the mission has been terminated, after lasting 18 months longer than expected 
Passage 6:
SICRAL 1B
SICRAL 1B is a military communications satellite built by Thales Alenia Space for Italian Armed Forces  It is a dual-use spacecraft: Telespazio will use some of the satellite's transmission capacity and some will be used by the Italian defense ministry and NATO  The spacecraft is based on the Italsat 3000 bus and includes one EHF/Ka band, three UHF-band and five active SHF-band transponders  It is designed to be operable for 13 years 

Construction
Thales Alenia Space was the prime contractor for development and construction of the SICRAL 1B satellite 

Launch
On April 20, 2009 Sea Launch used a Zenit-3SL to carry SICRAL 1B into a geosynchronous transfer orbit  Liftoff from the Ocean Odyssey launch platform took place at 08:16 GMT 
Passage 7:
ATS-6
ATS-6 (Applications Technology Satellite-6)  was a NASA experimental satellite, built by Fairchild Space and Electronics Division It has been called the world's first educational satellite as well as world's first experimental Direct Broadcast Satellite as part of the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment between NASA and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)  It was launched May 30, 1974, and decommissioned July 1979  At the time of launch, it was the most powerful telecommunication satellite in orbit  ATS-6 carried no fewer than 23 different experiments, and introduced several breakthroughs  It was the first 3-axis stabilized spacecraft in geostationary orbit  It was also the first to use experimentally with some success electric propulsion in geostationary orbit  It also carried several particle physics experiments, including the first heavy ion detector in geostationary orbit 
During its five-year life, ATS-6 transmitted connection programming to various countries, including India, the United States and other regions  The vehicle also conducted air traffic control tests, was used to practice satellite-assisted search and rescue techniques, carried an experimental radiometer subsequently carried as a standard instrument aboard weather satellites, and pioneered direct broadcast TV 
ATS-6 was a precursor to many technologies still in use today on geostationary spacecraft: large deployable antenna, 3-axis attitude control with slewing capabilities, antenna pointing through RF sensing, electric propulsion, meteorological radiometer in geostationary orbit, and direct to home broadcasting  It is also possible that ATS-6 was a forerunner of the large ELINT satellites such as Mentor 

Launch
ATS-6 was launched on May 30, 1974, by a Titan III-C launch vehicle  The spacecraft was inserted directly in the geosynchronous orbit  This reduced the on-board fuel requirements to less than 40 kilograms (88 lb) (for a total mass at launch of nearly 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb))  The highly accurate orbit insertion further lowered the amount of fuel required for final positioning to 9 kilograms (20 lb)  This enabled a life extension from the original 2 year to 5 years, even accounting for the premature failure of the electric propulsion subsystem (the station-keeping fuel requirement being around 1 6 kilograms per year (3 5 lb/a)) 

Structure, power subsystem and antenna
One of the major innovations of ATS-6 was an in-flight deployable antenna of more than 9 metres (30 ft) in diameter  The antenna reflector was furled during launch under the launch vehicle fairing, and was deployed in orbit much like an umbrella  The antenna reflector was built from 48 aluminum ribs, supporting a metallized Dacron mesh  The antenna feeds (in C, S, L, UHF and VHF bands) were placed on the spacecraft body, facing the antenna reflector, and linked to the antenna and the solar panels masts by a carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) truss  The solar panels were rigidly mounted on two deployable masts  They were of hemi-cylinder shape, thus providing a relatively constant power (595 W beginning of life)  Electric power was supplied during eclipses by two Nickel cadmium batteries of 15-A·h capacity, powering a regulated 30 5-V bus  The satellite dimensions in orbit were 15 8-metre (52 ft) width by 8 2-metre (27 ft) height 
This deployable antenna parabola was designed and developed by Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (LMSC), now Lockheed Martin, under subcontract to Fairchild Aerospace, after several years of small study contracts at LMSC   The program manager at LMSC was GKC (Colin) Campbell   The deployment of the reflector was initiated by pyrotechnically operated SQUIB cable cutters   Deployment time was on the order of 2 5 seconds producing 3,400 newton-metres (2,500 lb⋅ft) of torque at the spacecraft interface   The reflector surface was designed for optimal operation at S-Band frequencies  It weighed 83 kilograms (182 lb) at launch and stowed into a toroidal volume (doughnut shaped) approximately 1 8 metres (6 ft) in diameter and 250 millimetres (10 in) thick   Three models were fabricated, the STM or structural test model, the F reflector and the G reflector   The STM was destroyed by Fairchild shortly after the program was finished and the F model was launched with the spacecraft in 1972   The G model sat unprotected in the Farchild parking lot for several years before it was donated to the Smithsonian   Bill Wade, the assistant program manager and test manager on the program supported The Smithsonian in the restoration by providing a complete set of drawings and specifications and visited the Silver Hill facility to provide technical guidance At the time of launch it was the largest parabolic surface launched into orbit 

Three-axis stabilisation
ATS-6 has been the first geostationary satellite with three-axis stabilization and pointing , This subsystem was capable of a highly accurate pointing (better than 0 1° through the inertial measurement units, down to 0 002° by using a radio-frequency interferometer )  Furthermore, the satellite was able to follow low earth orbit satellites through slewing, by tracking the low earth-orbit satellite through an S-band RF sensing  The system was also able to perform orbitography of the tracked satellite, and was a precursor to the operational system TDRSS 
This highly advanced (for the time) pointing subsystem used earth and sun sensors, a star tracker pointed to the pole star, Polaris, and three inertial sensors  The sensor measurements were fed to two digital computers (nominal and redundant), as well to a back-up analog computer  It was also possible to orient the satellite by using radio-frequency sensors   Actuators were three momentum wheels, and hot gas (hydrazine mono-propellant) thrusters  One of the momentum wheels having failed in July 1975, an alternative scheme was developed, allowing station-keeping with the two remaining wheels and thrusters 

Electric propulsion
ATS-6 was equipped with two electric thrusters based on the acceleration of cesium ions, that were to be used for North-South Station Keeping  This subsystem development followed earlier failed attempts on the previous ATS spacecraft  Each of the thrusters had a mass of 16 kilograms (35 lb), used 150 W of electric power, and produced a thrust of 4 newton-metres (3 0 lbf⋅ft), with a specific impulse of 2500s  The on-board supply of cesium would have been sufficient for 4400 hours of thrust  Unfortunately, both thrusters failed prematurely, one after 1 hour of operation, one after 95 hours  However, some of the experiments objectives could be met, such as the measurement of the effective thrust, the absence of any interference with the radio-frequency payloads (from 150 MHz to 6 GHz), no cesium redeposition on the critical parts of the payload (such as the radiometer), and the correct neutralisation of the spacecraft versus its environment 

Payload
Radiometer
A radiometer was on board ATS-6, mounted on the earth-facing panel  This instrument was (for the time) of very high resolution  It operated on two channels: infra-red (10 5 to 12 5 µm) and visible light (0 55 to 0 75 µm)  Images taken with the radiometer covered the whole earth disk, with a resolution of 1,200 lines of 2,400 pixels each (11-kilometre (6 8 mi) square pixel in infra-red, and 5 5-kilometre (3 4 mi) square in visible light)  The IR detector was passively cooled at 115K, and the visible light detector maintained at 300K  A complete image of earth's disk was transmitted to ground every 25 minutes  Several hundreds images were taken and transmitted, until a mechanical component of the radiometer failed, two and a half months after launch 

Telecommunication experiments
The main mission of ATS-6 was to demonstrate the feasibility of direct-to-home (DTH) television broadcasting  To this end, in addition to the high-gain antenna, the spacecraft payload was able to receive in any of the VHF, C, S and L-bands, and to transmit in S-band (2 GHz) through a 20-W solid state transmitter, in L-band (1650 MHz) at 40W, in UHF (860 MHz) at 80W (which was used for the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)), and with a TWTA-based transmitter of 20 W in C-band (4 GHz)  The antenna produced two spots on earth of 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi) each, in which the TV broadcast could be received with 3 metres (9 8 ft) diameter antennas  This payload was first used over the United States for tele-education and tele-medicine experiments, from August 1974 to May 1975 as part of the HET, or Health, Education, Telecommunications experiment developed jointly by NASA and the US Department of Health, Education, & Welfare (now DHHS)  The spacecraft was then moved over the geo-stationary arc from 94 °W to 35 °E, in collaboration with the Indian Space Agency (ISRO), who had deployed in India more than 2500 receive ground stations  The move of the satellite from 94 degrees West to 35 degrees East, a journey of 12,800 kilometres (8,000 mi), was actioned from the ground station at Rosman North Carolina  This relocation involved 2 rocket burns of the onboard rocket motor  The 2nd burn lasting 5 hours 37 minutes and 17 seconds  The longest burn ever done by a chemical rocket in space at that time  A tele-education programme was started – Satellite Instructional Television Experiment or SITE – and run for one year  During the experiment, a receive station was offered by the Indian Government to Arthur C  Clarke, who was living in Sri Lanka  This experiment was highly successful, and encouraged ISRO to start building an operational program, with the Indian spacecraft  INSAT IB (launched 1983)  After the SITE experiment, the satellite was brought back over the United States, and served notably as a data-relay and tracking satellite for low-orbit spacecraft such as Nimbus 6, and for the Apollo-Soyuz flight 

Particle physics experiments
Several particle physics experiments were on board ATS-6  The most significant measured low energy protons (from 25 keV to 3 6 MeV), as well as detected heavy ions (up to 6 MeV)  This latter experiment allowed to detect the first heavy ions (Z > 6) with an energy  E > 4 MeV, in geostationary orbit 

Propagation experiments
Finally, ATS-6 embarked several radio beacons, which allowed to measure electromagnetic propagation properties of the atmosphere at 13, 18, 20 and 30 GHz 

Decommissioning
By June 30, 1979, only one of the four ATS-6 station keeping thrusters was working, and was showing signs of unreliability  This thruster was used to move ATS-6 out of geostationary orbit to an orbit several hundred kilometers higher  This was to vacate the geostationary slot for the next satellite 

See also
1974 in spaceflight
Applications Technology Satellite
Passage 8:
Optus
Singtel Optus Pty Limited (commonly referred to as Optus) is an Australian telecommunications company headquartered in Macquarie Park, a suburb in the Northern Sydney region of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia  It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Singaporean telecommunications company Singtel  
Optus is the second-largest wireless carrier in Australia, with over 10 million subscribers as of 2022, and it's mobile network covers 98 5% of the Australian population 

History
AUSSAT and deregulation (1981–1990)
Optus can trace its beginnings back to the formation of the Government-owned AUSSAT Pty Limited in 1981  In 1982, Aussat selected the Hughes 376 for their initial satellites, with the first, AUSSAT A1, launched in August 1985  AUSSAT satellites were used for both military and civilian satellite communications, and delivering television services to remote outback communities 

With Aussat operating at a loss and with moves to deregulate telecommunications in Australia, the government decided to sell Aussat, coupled with a telecommunications licence  The licence was sold to Optus Communications – a consortium including:
logistics firm Mayne Nickless (24 99%);
UK telecommunications company Cable & Wireless (24 50%);
US telecommunications company BellSouth (24 50%);
AIDC Limited (10 00%);
insurance and investment company AMP (10 00%); and
insurance and investment company National Mutual (6 02%) The new telecommunications company was designed to provide competition to then government owned telecommunications company Telecom Australia, now known as Telstra 

Founding of Optus (1991–present)
Optus gained the second general carrier licence in January 1991 After privatisation, AUSSAT became Optus and its first offering to the general public was to offer long-distance calls at cheaper rates than that of its competitor Telstra  The long-distance calling rates on offer were initially available by consumers dialing 1 before the area code and phone number  Following this, a ballot process was conducted by then regulator AUSTEL, with customers choosing their default long-distance carrier  Customers who made no choice or did not respond to the mailout campaign automatically remained as a Telstra long-distance customer  Customers who remained with Telstra could dial the override code of 1456 before the area code and phone number to manually select Optus as the carrier for that single call  Since 1 July 1998, consumers have the choice of preselecting their preferred long-distance carrier or dialling the override code before dialling a telephone number 
The group began by building an interstate fibre optic cable and a series of exchanges between Optus' interstate network and Telstra's local network  It also laid fibre optics into major office buildings and industrial areas, and focused on high bandwidth local, (interstate) long distance, and interstate calls for business  In its early years, Optus was only able to offer local and long-distance calls to residential customers through Telstra's local phone network  Telstra would carry residential to residential calls to Optus' exchanges, and then the calls would be switched to Optus' long-distance fibre optic network 
Optus was the main sponsor of the 1997 ARL season 

2022 cyberattack
Around 22 September 2022, Optus systems sustained a significant cyberattack that resulted in a major data breach of both current and former customers' personal information, including customers’ names, dates of birth, phone numbers and email addresses, with a smaller subset of customers having their street addresses, driving licence details and passport numbers leaked  Optus CEO Kelly Bayer Rosmarin urged customers to exercise "heightened awareness" regarding transactions with their Optus and other accounts  Rosmarin emphasised that passwords were not compromised  The CEO said that the "worst-case scenario" regarding the number of customers whose data had been leaked was 9 8 million customers, but believes the actual number to be far lower On 24 September 2022, Australian news outlets The Age and The Sydney Morning Herald reported that Optus was investigating the authenticity of a ransom demand of US$1 million made on a hacking forum  The demand gave Optus one week to pay the ransom in cryptocurrency else the data will be sold for US$300,000 to whoever else wants it On 6 October, the Australian Federal Police announced the arrest of a 19-year-old man who had allegedly threatened 93 Optus customers by saying that he would use their information leaked in the attack to commit financial crimes, unless they paid AUD $2,000 In response to the cyberattack, the Australian federal government announced emergency regulation on 6 October, in the form of a 12-month amendment to the Telecommunications Regulations 2021 to "enable telecommunications companies to temporarily share approved government identifier information with regulated financial services entities "On 11 October, the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner launched an investigation, the aim of which is to explore the company's handling of customers' data 

Corporate affairs
Chief Executive Officer
Kelly Bayer Rosmarin commenced as CEO of Optus and Consumer Australia on 1 April 2020 
A senior executive, Kelly joined Optus as Deputy CEO on 1 March 2019 following a variety of executive roles including Group Executive, Institutional Banking and Markets at the Commonwealth Bank of Australia 

The hybrid fibre-coax rollout
These practices meant that Optus was the largest customer of Telstra  To become competitive Optus would need to lay its own local phone network  To provide a killer application for this, the Australian Federal government sold subscription television licences  Optus, as well as the Seven Network, businessman Kerry Stokes and American cable company Cablevision, formed the Optus Vision consortium  News Corporation and Telstra created the rival Foxtel consortium 
Telstra's local phone network did not have the capability to deliver Foxtel pay television to consumers in the early 1990s, so Telstra identified a need to create a broadband network to support this new product 
As Telstra and Optus could not agree on terms for a joint broadband cable roll out, they laid two competing cable networks, in addition to Telstra's existing copper network, at a combined cost estimated of over A$6bn 
Whilst Telstra focused on creating a broadband network specifically for broadcast, Optus designed their cable network to provide telephony services in addition to broadcast television 
Optus is no longer a customer of Telstra's after deciding to move the funding used to lease Telstra's copper network into constructing their hybrid fibre-coaxial network, the first in Australia 

Takeovers
Cable and Wireless with 24 5% stakeholder bought out Bell South's equal 24 5% shareholding in July 1997  The company returned to profitability in 1998 and changed its name to Cable and Wireless Optus Pty Limited  Government relaxation of foreign ownership restrictions paved the way for the company to be floated - with Cable and Wireless increasing its holding to 52 5%) - and listed on the Australian Stock Exchange on 17 November 1998 During 2001, Singtel launched a takeover bid for Cable and Wireless Optus which was ultimately successful and the company became known as Singtel Optus Pty Limited 
In May 2004, Optus announced a $226 8 million bid for UEComm  The takeover was approved in July and completed in August In July 2005, Optus announced it would acquire Alphawest Ltd  for A$25 9 million  The buyout was completed in November 2005 and Alphawest is now an operating division of Optus Business 
On 12 January 2006, Optus acquired the remaining 74 15% of Virgin Mobile Australia for U$22 6 m, giving it 100% ownership 

OptusNet
Optus Communications offered its first business-focused internet products in 1998 under the OptusNet product family, offering in-house developed dial-up and high-speed services  Optus purchased one of Australia's pioneer ISPs, Microplex, in 1998 to provide consumer dial-up internet services  Separate to this, under the Optus Vision brand, a cable broadband arm began as a joint venture with U S  cable and content provider Excite@Home and was known as Optus@Home from its introduction in 1999 until it was renamed in 2002  ADSL services were offered from February 2004  ADSL2+ services were provided from December 2005 

OPEL Networks
In June 2007, joint venture subsidiary OPEL Networks was awarded government funding towards the cost of building a regional broadband network  Optus was to be contracted to build the network on behalf of OPEL In April 2008, after a change of the Federal Government from the Liberal Party of Australia coalition to the Australian Labor Party, the new government terminated the funding agreement and the project was halted, with its functions to be replaced by the National Broadband Network 

Terria
Optus is part of a consortium – now known as Terria – that in July 2006 announced their intention to make a combined bid to build the proposed National Broadband Network 

Products and services
Optus's Customer Solutions and Services (CS&S) organisation is responsible for providing support to Optus Business customers  CS&S works with Optus' subsidiary Alphawest to support information technology services across Optus' large business, corporate and government client base 
Retail services are sold to customers via phone, internet or through retail outlets, especially franchise chains such as Optus World, Network Communications, Strathfield, Telechoice, and Allphones 
Key Optus products and services include:

Voice
Residential and Commercial POTS for local and long-distance telephony
Commercial VoIP and VoDSL
Intelligent Network applications, such as free call, 1300 and Interactive voice response services

Wireless
GSM/GPRS utilising 900 MHz/1800 MHz covering 98 5% of the population
3G/HSPA provided by 2100 MHz for large regional centres and metropolitan and 900 MHz for regional as well as metropolitan coverage  The dual frequencies covers 98 5% (98 8% with the use of an external antenna) of the population
4G/LTE provided by 700 / 1800 / 2100 / 2300 / 2600 MHz Covering 95 9% of the Australian population (As of July 2017) 
5G provided by 2300 MHz and 3500 MHz
Satellite Telephony covering all of Australia 

Internet access
NBN Internet (via Cable, FTTB, FTTC, FTTN, FTTP, Fixed wireless and Satellite)
Residential Dial-Up Internet in all states
Residential Broadband Internet (via cable and DSL) in all states (except the Northern Territory) 
Commercial and wholesale internet access
Secure Gateway services for Federal Government departments
NBN WIRELESS - not continued for new connects

Television
Optus Television service provided in Sydney, Melbourne & Brisbane, including Foxtel Digital

Subsidiaries
A number of notable wholly owned subsidiaries operate as part of the Singtel Optus group  These are:

Information Technology & Network Services
Alphawest
Uecomm
Mobile Telephony
SIMplus
Virgin Mobile AustraliaUntil 20 January 2013, Optus sold mobile services under the brand name Boost Mobile Optus also has a 50% stake in the now defunct OPEL Networks Other wholly owned subsidiaries of note no longer have a significant active role as individual entities  These are as follows:
Reef Networks was formed in 1999 to provide an optical fibre link between Brisbane and Cairns in Queensland  Optus gained exclusive access to this link in 2001, ahead of acquiring the organisation in 2005 XYZed was established by Optus in 2000 to provide wholesale business-grade DSL services under an individual brand, but today provides a collection of products only as part of the Optus Wholesale & Satellite division  XYZed established a network of DSLAMs inside Telstra telephone exchanges, utilising Unconditioned Local Loop services to reach end users 

Infrastructure
Optus' fully owned network infrastructure consists of the following:

Network backbone
ExtraTerrestrial Fibre Optic Network
Cairns to Brisbane
Brisbane to Sydney (fully diverse over two physically separate paths)
Sydney to Melbourne (fully diverse over two physically separate paths, one via Canberra, one via the coast)
Melbourne to Adelaide
Adelaide to Perth
SDH Digital Microwave
Hobart to Launceston
Satellite
Fleet of geostationary satellites (See Optus fleet of satellites)
International Earth Stations in Sydney and Perth
National Earth Stations in Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, Hobart and Darwin
Regional exchanges in Sydney (Rosebery), Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra, Adelaide and Perth 
Telehousing Data Centres in Melbourne and Sydney

Customer access network
Hybrid fibre-coaxial (HFC) network in Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne, providing consumer fixed telephony, cable internet and cable television services 
CBD optical fibre rings in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, Canberra and Wollongong, providing direct access for corporate and government services 
DSLAMs in certain Telstra local telephone exchanges in all states  Originally only providing business-grade DSL services, newer installations also provide consumer DSL and POTS telephony OptusNet also provides Cable internet  In August 2010, OptusNet released an upgrade of its HFC network to the DOCSIS 3 0 standard, which enabled customers to access a maximum theoretical downstream bandwidth of 100 Megabits  OptusNet is also one of the few ISPs in Australia to currently provide ADSL2+ via its own DSLAMs, which it also resells to other ISPs 

Mobile network
Mobile network equipment is from Nortel, Nokia and Huawei and antennas are sourced from Andrews, RFS, Argus and Kathrein The Optus network operates on the following bandwidth frequencies across Australia:

3G UMTS 900/2100 MHz
4G LTE 700 / 1800 / 2100 / 2300 / 2600 MHz network which has been in progressive rollout since 2012  VoLTE is currently being rolled out across Australia  For now, VoLTE is only available in CBD and metro areas in Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, Perth and Canberra on selected devices purchased on postpaid contracts  Until VoLTE has been fully rolled out, voice calling is still reliant on the 3G network (and formerly the 2G network until it was terminated) 
5G NR 3500 MHz rollout started in October 2019The 2G GSM 900/1800 MHz network was terminated on 3 April 2017 in Western Australia and Northern Territory  2G GSM was completely terminated on 1 August 2017 when 2G was disconnected in Victoria, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Queensland, Tasmania and South Australia  To remain connected, a device that is capable of running 3G at 900 MHz is now required after 2G was completely disconnected across Australia 

Partly owned infrastructure
Part-owned network infrastructure includes:

3G mobile network, a joint venture with Vodafone Australia
Southern Cross Cable, a fully diverse submarine optical fibre link across the Pacific Ocean between Sydney, New South Wales and California in the United States  The Singtel group owns a 40% interest in Southern Cross Cables Limited  This interest was originally owned by Singtel Optus Pty Limited, before ownership was transferred to parent company Singtel during the March 2006 - June 2006 quarter 

Advertising and sponsorship
Between 1994 and 2005 Optus had the naming rights to the Carlton football clubs original home ground in Princes Park  It was called Optus Oval until the ground was retired by the AFL in 2005  
In 2016, Optus signed a 10-year partnership agreement with the Australian Olympic Committee to be the official partner of the Australian Olympic Team and the Australian Paralympic Team until 2026 In 2017, Optus won naming rights to Perth Stadium where it would be known as Optus Stadium  Optus and the Government of Western Australia agreed to a 10-year naming right worth approximately A$50 million Optus also has a long-term partnership with the Adelaide Crows in the AFL  Optus has been a partner of the Collingwood Magpies in the AFL Women's since 2018 Optus is the current major sponsor for the No  25 Walkinshaw Andretti United Holden ZB Commodore driven by Chaz Mostert

Outsourcing
Since 2005, Optus has outsourced some customer service functions to Concentrix and 247 ai, with the outsourcer providing 800 staff operating offshore in India, supplementing Optus' 3,000-plus onshore call centre staff  Some functions have also been supplemented in the Philippines  Optus also uses 24/7 Inc  for telephone & chat based offshore support 
In October 2006, Optus announced that it would outsource 100 contracting jobs to another Singtel subsidiary, IT company NCS, in Singapore 

Achievement and Rewards
See also
4G Australia
Internet in Australia
National Broadband Network
Telecommunications in Australia
Passage 9:
TDRS-6
TDRS-6, known before launch as TDRS-F, is an American communications satellite, of first generation, which is operated by NASA as part of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System  It was constructed by TRW, and is based on a custom satellite bus which was used for all seven first generation TDRS satellites 

History
TDRS-F was deployed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-54 mission in 1993  Endeavour was launched from Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center, at 13:59:30 UTC on 13 January 1993  TDRS-F was deployed from Endeavour around six hours after launch, and was raised to geosynchronous orbit by means of an Inertial Upper Stage 

Deployment
The two-stage solid-propellent Inertial Upper Stage made two burns  The first stage burn occurred shortly after deployment from Endeavour, and placed the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO)  At 02:26 UTC on 14 January 1993, it reached apogee, and the second stage fired, placing TDRS-F into geosynchronous orbit  At this point, it received its operational designation, TDRS-6 

Operation
In 1994, it was placed at a longitude 46 0° West of the Greenwich Meridian, to serve as an on-orbit spare  In 1996, it was moved to 47 0° West, where it remained until 2005, when it was repositioned to 174 0° West, where, as of August 2009, it was used to provide communications with spacecraft in Earth orbit, such as the International Space Station (ISS) and spacecraft bringing astronauts to the ISS 

See also
List of TDRS satellites
Passage 10:
Hans K  Ziegler
Hans K  Ziegler (March 1, 1911, Munich, Germany – December 11, 1999 Colts Neck Township, New Jersey, United States) was a pioneer in the field of communication satellites and the use of photovoltaic solar cells as a power source for satellites 

Life
Hans Ziegler was born in Munich, Germany  There, he studied at the Technische Hochschule, which is today the Technische Universität München (TUM), and began his career as Wissenschaftlicher Assistant (Scientific Assistant)  Following that, he was a researcher in German industry for ten years  During the Second World War, he worked for the company Rosental Selb in Bavaria on high tension porcelain 
In 1947, he came to the US with Wernher von Braun under Operation Paperclip, by means of which the USA gained Nazi engineers and scientists  He went to the US Army Signal Corps' Laboratories in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and became a US citizen in 1954 
Ziegler's work in the US was very influential in the development of military electronics, especially in the electronics for the early phases of the US space program  During the thirty years he worked as an engineer in the field of electronics and electrical engineering in the research and development department of the U S  Army in Fort Monmouth, N J  (from 1947 to 1976), he held the top position of Chief Scientist for 12 years  In Fort Monmouth, he worked as a Scientific Consultant, Assistant Director of Research, Director of the Astro-Electronics Division and Chief Scientist (1959)  After the Army was restructured, he became Deputy for Science and Chief Scientist of the US Army Electronics Command in 1963 and Director of the US Army Electronics Technology & Devices Laboratory from 1971 until his retirement 
In May 1954, after examining the solar cells of Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson at Bell Laboratories, Ziegler wrote, "Future development [of the silicon solar cell] may well render it into an important source of electrical power [as] the roofs of all our buildings in cities and towns equipped with solar [cells] would be sufficient to produce this country's entire demand for electrical power "Referring to silicon solar cells, he said to the head of the U  S  Signal Corps, General James O'Connell, at a meeting in September 1955, "In fact, in the long run, mankind has no choice but to turn to the sun if it wants to survive "He and his team produced a report on the prospects for application of this technique in the field of communication and they named the supply of energy for artificial satellites as the most important application  He knew that he was not the first to suggest this application  For example, the science fiction author, Arthur C  Clarke had already made this suggestion in 1945, but without having a concrete technology for it at that time 
Ziegler participated in the development of the first planned satellites  The first satellite,
Explorer 1, still went into space without solar cells, since it was a quick, less-than-ideal solution after the start of the Sputnik to show the American public that America's scientists could also start a satellite  The actual scheduled satellite project, Project Vanguard, successfully put a satellite named Vanguard I in orbit around Earth on March 17, 1958 
Over the objections of the Navy, which still thought that solar cells were not a mature technology, this satellite had four solar cells on its outer hull, due to the persistent work of Ziegler, which powered the instruments and performed their duties reliably for more than seven years  After this success, solar cells were established as the energy supply for satellites  He was also involved with the development of the first communication satellite in the world, SCORE, which was started in 1958 
He was awarded the Meritorious Civilian Service Award by the US Department of Defense in 1963 as a " world pioneer in communications satellites and solar energy systems to power satellites"  When he retired in 1977, he was decorated with the highest award of the Army for "exceptional civilian service" 
Ziegler was the author of many technical papers, a member of the IEEE, and represented the US, in military and civilian matters, in many national and international committees  In 1958, he was a member of the US delegation to the International Geophysical Year in Moscow, USSR, and in 1964, he gave advice on the scientific activities in Antarctica and at the South Pole, under the direction of the US National Science Foundation 
Ziegler's wife Friederike died in 1996  He last lived in Colts Neck Township, New Jersey and died at the age of 88 on December 11, 1999  He was survived by his daughters, Christine Griffith and Friederike Meindl, and his son, Hans 

See also
Solar power
Solar panel
Active solar
Photovoltaic components, projects and howtos
Context 2: Passage 1:
Zeferino Martins
Zeferino Martins, also known as Ze Martins (born September 5, 1985) is an East Timorese footballer who plays as midfielder for Ad  Dili Oeste and the Timor-Leste national team 
Passage 2:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1264
United Nations Security Council resolution 1264, adopted unanimously on 15 September 1999, after recalling previous resolutions on East Timor (Timor-Leste), the Council authorised the establishment of the multinational International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) to restore peace and security in the territory, facilitate humanitarian assistance and protect the United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) The Security Council welcomed the successful conduct of the East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum on 30 August 1999, in which the East Timorese people voted for independence from Indonesia  Meanwhile, there was concern about the deteriorating security situation and the violence that had displaced many residents  Attacks also took place against UNAMET and other international and national humanitarian personnel and this had particularly affected vulnerable groups  There were reports of widespread violations of international humanitarian and human rights law across East Timor, and Indonesia had accepted the presence of a United Nations international peacekeeping force in the region Acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the Council condemned the violence in East Timor, called for those responsible to be brought to justice and emphasised the need for immediate unrestricted humanitarian assistance to the area  In this regard, it authorised the establishment of an Australian-led multinational force under joint command with the task of restoring peace, protecting the UNAMET mission and assisting in humanitarian operations using all necessary measures  The force consisted of 8,000 personnel from 17 countries  The Government of Indonesia, which had temporary responsibility for the security of East Timor, would co-operate with the multinational force or INTERFET 
The resolution noted that part of the agreement between Indonesia and Portugal on the future of East Timor stipulated a peaceful and orderly transfer of authority in East Timor to the United Nations and INTERFET was asked to support the process  The multinational force would be present in East Timor for four months until replaced by a United Nations peacekeeping force and would be required to submit periodic reports on its progress Finally, the Secretary-General was asked to make preparations for a transitional administration in East Timor that would include a peacekeeping operation during the implementation phase following the referendum 

See also
1999 East Timorese crisis
Indonesian occupation of East Timor
List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1201 to 1300 (1998–2000)
United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
Passage 3:
Kiwil
Wildan Delta known as Kiwil (born August 10, 1972) is an Indonesian actor and comedian of Minangkabau descent  His first film appearance was in the horror film Tiren: Mati Kemaren in 2008 

Career
Kiwil began his career as a stand-up comedian and film actor in Indonesia  He has since appeared in the films Tulalit, Paku Kuntilanak, Setan Budeg, and Nenek Gayung  Kiwil also become one of the cast of the Indonesian comedy show Yuk Keep Smile 

Personal life
Wildan Delta was born on August 10, 1972, in Jakarta  Kiwil married his first wife, Rochimah, on February 28, 1998, and they have four sons  His second wife is Meggy Wulandari 

Filmography
Film
Television
Passage 4:
List of Ramon Magsaysay Award winners
The Ramon Magsaysay Award (Filipino: Gawad Ramon Magsaysay) is an annual award established to perpetuate former Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay's example of integrity in governance, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society  The prize was established in April 1957 by the trustees of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund based in New York City with the concurrence of the Philippine government  It is often called the "Nobel Prize of Asia" 

History
In May 1957, seven prominent Filipinos were named to the founding board of trustees of the Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, the non-profit corporation tasked with implementing the awards program  Later on, the board of trustees diversified and included prominent Asians from all over the Asian continent and outlying islands  The Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation gives the prize to Asian individuals achieving excellence in their respective fields 
The award is named after Ramon Magsaysay, the seventh president of the Republic of the Philippines after World War II  This has generated criticism due to allegations of brutal suppression of dissent and subserviency to the US government during Magsaysay's tenure as defence secretary and president 

Award categories
The award recognizes and honors individuals and organizations in Asia regardless of race, creed, sex, or nationality, who have achieved distinction in their respective fields and have helped others generously without anticipating public recognition   
The awards used to be given in six categories, five of which were discontinued in 2009:

Government Service (1958–2008)
Public Service (1958–2008)
Community Leadership (1958–2008)
Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008)
Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008)
Emergent Leadership (2001– )
Uncategorized (2009– )

Awardees
The winners of the Ramon Magsaysay Awards come from different parts of Asia, although there are some instances where the winners came from countries outside Asia who had served, worked or accomplished something in different Asian countries  As of 2021, recipients have come from twenty-two Asian countries 
The following is a partial list of the awardees of the Ramon Magsaysay Award  Awardees' individual nationality or country of origin and citizenship are indicated 
Starting 2009, the Award is no longer being given in fixed categories except for Emergent Leadership 

Government Service (1958–2008)
Public Service (1958–2008)
Community Leadership (1958–2008)
Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008)
Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008)
Emergent Leadership (2001–present)
Uncategorized (2009–present)
Passage 5:
The Trouble with the Truth (song)
"The Trouble with the Truth" is a song written by Gary Nicholson, and recorded by American country music artist Patty Loveless  It was released in April 1997 as the fifth and final single and title track from her album  The Trouble with the Truth 
The song charted for 20 weeks on the Billboard Hot Country Singles and Tracks chart, reaching number 15 during the week of July 12, 1997 

Other versions
Joan Baez also cut a version of the song during an early 1990s recording session in Nashville, but the recording remained unissued until released in 2012 as a bonus track on the remastered rerelease of her 1992 album Play Me Backwards 

Chart positions
Passage 6:
Johan Ferrier
Johan Henri Eliza Ferrier (12 May 1910 – 4 January 2010) was a Surinamese politician who served as the 1st president of Suriname from 1975 to 1980  He was also the country's last governor-general before independence, serving from 1968 to 1975, before becoming the first president upon independence from the Netherlands in 1975 
He was named the twentieth century's most important politician in Suriname in 1999 

Early life
Ferrier was born in 1910 in Suriname's largest city and capital, Paramaribo  He trained as a teacher  In 1946 he assisted in the establishment of the country's National Party, while Suriname was a colony of the Netherlands 

Scouting
Ferrier was co-founder of the Boy Scouts van Suriname and its first Chief Scout  At age 16 he was a teacher in the Saramacca District and founded his first Scout Group  This group still exists and now bears the name "De Johan Ferrier groep, de groep 2 Oranje Dassers" 

Politics
In 1946, Ferrier was one of the founding members of the National Party of Suriname  Ferrier was a member of the National Council from 1946 until 1948  He then went to Amsterdam in the Netherlands to learn education theory  In 1950, he received his doctorate  When he went back to Suriname, which had by then become an autonomous country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, he continued to study and to have a career in education  He served as both prime minister and interior minister for a three-year period from 1955 until 1958  He also spent time as Suriname's head of education  From 1968 until 1975 he retained the post of governor   On 25 November 1975, Suriname was made independent, and Ferrier was sworn in as the first president of the country  Dési Bouterse's 1980 coup d'état prompted Ferrier to resign within six months Prime Minister Henk Chin A Sen succeeded Ferrier as president   Ferrier was made a Grand Cordon in the Honorary Order of the Yellow Star by Chin A Sen on 3 September 1980   His wife was also made a Grand Officer in the Honorary Order of the Palm 

Later life
Ferrier then accompanied his relatives to live in the Netherlands  He lived with them in Oegstgeest  Ferrier used to tell stories about the spider Anansi on Dutch children's television  In 1986, Het Grote Anansi Boek, a picture book was released with illustrations by Noni Lichtveld  The original release was monochrome  In 2010, it was re-released in colour His daughter, Kathleen Ferrier, is a former member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands for the Christian Democratic Appeal  In 2005, Ferrier's memoirs Last Governor, First President: The Century of Johan Ferrier, Surinamese were published  The Dutch Queen gave him a knighthood  An obituary in the national morning daily De Volkskrant said he had claimed: "Even in the darkest days, I kept my optimism" 

Death
Ferrier died from heart failure while sleeping at home in Oegstgeest at the age of 99, four months before his 100th birthday  His body was found in the early morning on 4 January 2010 Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands paid tribute  Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende said Ferrier was "an authoritative and wise statesman"  Politician and diplomat Jan Pronk paid tribute to his work at uniting divisions Ferrier was buried on 11 January 2010, in the Dutch town of Oegstgeest, where he had been living since 1980 

Johan Ferrier Fund
On 12 May 2010, the day Ferrier would have celebrated his 100th birthday, the Johan Ferrier Fund was officially launched  The fund strives to follow in his footsteps in supporting Surinamese projects with educational and cultural goals  The Johan Ferrier Fund is an initiative of his daughter Joan Ferrier, who first presented the fund in the presence of her father in September 2009 
Passage 7:
My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic (season 8)
The eighth season of the animated television series My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic, developed by Lauren Faust, originally aired on the Discovery Family channel in the United States  The series is based on Hasbro's My Little Pony line of toys and animated works and is often referred by collectors to be the fourth generation, or "G4", of the My Little Pony franchise  Season 8 of the series premiered on March 24, 2018, on Discovery Family, an American pay television channel partly owned by Hasbro, and concluded on October 13 
The season focuses on Twilight running her newly established School of Friendship to teach ponies and creatures from Equestria and beyond about the benefits of friendship with her friends serving as the teachers  However, one of the students, a seemingly innocent pegasus filly named Cozy Glow, is secretly plotting against them 

Development
On May 25, 2017, supervising director Jim Miller announced via Twitter an eighth season for the series  At Hasbro's first self-themed convention (aptly named HasCon) on September 9, an animatic from an upcoming episode was shown On February 8, 2018, Discovery Family's March press release states that this season, "viewers will witness major milestones featuring the introduction of Starlight Glimmer’s parents and Princess Celestia's big acting debut  Additionally, the Mane 6’s Twilight Sparkle, Rarity, Applejack, Pinkie Pie, Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy are accompanied by six new creatures including Ocellus the Changeling, Silverstream the Hippogriff/Seapony, Smolder the Dragon, Gallus the Griffin, Yona the Yak and Sandbar the Pony, joining them on epic adventures throughout new and familiar lands such as Mount Aris, Everfree Forest, Las Pegasus and more  Fan-favorite characters Maud Pie, Spike, the Cutie Mark Crusaders, Queen Chrysalis and Discord return with exciting storylines and a whole lot of magic!"

Cast
Main
Tara Strong as Twilight Sparkle
Rebecca Shoichet as Twilight Sparkle (singing voice)
Tabitha St  Germain as Rarity
Kazumi Evans as Rarity (singing voice)
Ashleigh Ball as Applejack and Rainbow Dash
Andrea Libman as Fluttershy and Pinkie Pie
Shannon Chan-Kent as Pinkie Pie (singing voice)
Cathy Weseluck as Spike

Recurring
Minor
Single roles
Multiple roles
Ingrid Nilson as Maud Pie, Limestone Pie, and Marble Pie
Peter New as Big McIntosh and Goldie Delicious
Tabitha St  Germain as Granny Smith, Mrs  Cake, Princess Flurry Heart, and Muffins
Kathleen Barr as Queen Chrysalis and Trixie Lulamoon

Notes
Guest stars
Single roles
Multiple roles
Tariq Leslie as Big Bucks and Hoo'Far

Episodes
Directors for each episode are Denny Lu and Mike Myhre

Notes
Songs
DVD release
Equestria Daily reported that while Shout! Factory has not yet released season 8 on DVD or Blu-ray in North America, Myth Entertainment released the entire season on DVD in Malaysia themselves on December 18, 2019 
Passage 8:
East Timor
East Timor ( (listen)), also known as Timor-Leste (; Portuguese pronunciation: [tiˈmoɾ ˈlɛʃtɨ]), officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia  It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, of which the western half is administered by Indonesia, the exclave of Oecusse on the island's north-western half, and the minor islands of Atauro and Jaco  Australia is the country's southern neighbour, separated by the Timor Sea  The country's size is 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi)  Dili is its capital and largest city 
East Timor came under Portuguese influence in the sixteenth century, remaining a Portuguese colony until 1975  Internal conflict preceded a unilateral declaration of independence and an Indonesian invasion and annexation  Resistance continued throughout Indonesian rule, and, in 1999, a United Nations–sponsored act of self-determination led to Indonesia relinquishing control of the territory  On 20 May 2002, as Timor-Leste, it became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century  That same year, relations with Indonesia were established and normalized, with Indonesia also supporting East Timor's accession into ASEAN  
The national government runs on a semi-presidential system, with the popularly elected president sharing power with a prime minister appointed by the National Parliament  Power is centralised under the national government, although many local leaders have informal influence  The country maintains a policy of international cooperation, and is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, an observer of the Pacific Islands Forum, and an applicant for ASEAN membership  The country remains relatively poor, with an economy that relies heavily on natural resources, especially oil, and foreign aid 
The total population is over 1 1 million, and is heavily skewed towards young people due to a high fertility rate  Education has led to increasing literacy over the past half-century, especially in the two official languages of Portuguese and Tetum  High ethnic and linguistic diversity is reflected by the 30 indigenous languages spoken in the country  The majority of the population is Catholic, which exists alongside strong local traditions, especially in rural areas 

Name
"Timor" is derived from timur, meaning 'east' in Malay, thus resulting in a tautological place name meaning 'East East'  In Indonesian, this results in the name Timor Timur  (this name only refers to the former de facto Indonesian province, Timor Leste is used instead to refer this country)  In Portuguese, the country is called Timor-Leste (Leste meaning 'east')  In Tetum it is Timór Lorosa'e (Lorosa'e can be literally translated as 'where the sun rises') The official names under its constitution are "Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste" in English, "República Democrática de Timor-Leste" in Portuguese, and "Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste" in Tetum  The official short form of the name is "Timor-Leste", and it uses the ISO codes TLS & TL 

History
Prehistory and Classical era
Cultural remains at Jerimalai on the eastern tip of East Timor have been dated to 42,000 years ago  The first known inhabitants are those who arrived during the Australo-Melanesian migration through the region, likely bringing the precursors to today's Papuan languages  A later migration of Austroasiatic-speakers is suspected, although no such languages remain  The arrival of Austronesian peoples brought new languages, and merged with existing cultures on the island  Timorese origin myths recount settlers sailing around the eastern end of the island before landing in the south  These people are sometimes noted as being from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra  Austronesian migration to Timor may be associated with the development of agriculture on the island While information is limited about the political system of Timor during this period, the island had developed an interconnected series of polities governed by customary law  Small communities, centred around a particular sacred house, were part of wider sucos (or principalities), which were themselves part of larger kingdoms led by a liurai  Authority within these kingdoms was held by two individuals, with the worldly power of the liurai balanced by the spiritual power of a rai nain, who was generally associated with the primary sacred house of the kingdom  These polities were numerous and saw shifting alliances and relations, but many were stable enough that they survived from initial European documentation in the 16th century until the end of Portuguese rule : 11–15 From perhaps the thirteenth century, the island exported sandalwood,: 267  which was valued both for its use in crafting and as a source of perfume  Timor was included in Southeast Asian, Chinese, and Indian trading networks by the fourteenth century, exporting sandalwood, honey, and wax  The island was recorded by the Majapahit Empire as a source of tribute : 89  It was sandalwood that attracted European explorers to the island in the early sixteenth century  Early European presence was limited to trade, with the first Portuguese settlement being on the nearby island of Solor : 90

Portuguese era (1769–1975)
Early Portuguese presence on Timor was very limited; trade was directed through Portuguese settlements on nearby islands  Only in the 17th century did they establish a more direct presence on the island, a consequence of being driven out of other islands by the Dutch : 267  After Solor was lost in 1613 the Portuguese moved to Flores  In 1646 the capital moved to Kupang on Timor's west, before Kupang too was lost to the Dutch in 1652  The Portuguese then moved to Lifau, in what is now East Timor's Oecusse exclave : 90  Effective European occupation in the east of the island only began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded, although actual control remained highly limited  A definitive border between the Dutch and Portuguese parts of the island was established by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1914 and remains the international boundary between the successor states Indonesia and East Timor, respectively For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post, with minimal investment in infrastructure and education, until the late nineteenth century  Even when Portugal established actual control over the interior of its colony, investment remained minimal : 269, 273  Sandalwood continued to be the main export crop and coffee exports became significant in the mid-nineteenth century At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering domestic economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies, which was met with East Timorese resistance  The colony was seen as an economic burden during the Great Depression and received little support or management from Portugal : 269 During World War II, Dili was occupied by the Allies in 1941, and later by the Japanese beginning in 1942  The mountainous interior of the colony became the scene of a guerrilla campaign, known as the Battle of Timor  Waged by East Timorese volunteers and Allied forces against the Japanese, the struggle killed between 40,000 and 70,000 East Timorese civilians  The Japanese eventually drove the last of the Australian and Allied forces out in early 1943  Portuguese control resumed, however, after Japanese surrender at the end of World War II Portugal began investment in the colony in the 1950s, funding education and promoting coffee exports, but the economy did not improve substantially and infrastructure improvements were limited : 269  Growth rates remained low, near 2%  Following the 1974 Portuguese revolution, Portugal effectively abandoned its colony in Timor, and civil war between East Timorese political parties broke out in 1975 
The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) resisted a Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) coup attempt in August 1975, and unilaterally declared independence on 28 November 1975  Fearing a communist state within the Indonesian archipelago, the Indonesian military launched an invasion of East Timor in December 1975  Indonesia declared East Timor its 27th province on 17 July 1976  The United Nations Security Council opposed the invasion, and the territory's nominal status in the UN remained as "non-self-governing territory under Portuguese administration" 

Indonesian occupation (1975–1999)
Fretilin resisted the invasion, initially as an army, holding territory until November 1978, and then as a guerrilla resistance  The Indonesian occupation of Timor was marked by violence and brutality  A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a minimum of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period between 1974 and 1999, including approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 excess deaths from hunger and illness  The total number of conflict-related deaths during this period is difficult to determine due to a lack of data  One estimate based on Portuguese, Indonesian, and Catholic Church data suggests it may have been as high as 200,000  Repression and restrictions counteracted improvements in health and education infrastructure and services, meaning there was little overall improvement in living standards; economic growth mostly benefited immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia : 271  A huge expansion of education was intended to increase Indonesian language use and internal security as much as it was for development The 1991 massacre of more than 200 demonstrators by the Indonesian military was a turning point for the independence cause, and brought increased international pressure on Indonesia  Following the resignation of Indonesian President Suharto, the new President BJ Habibie, prompted by a letter from Australian Prime Minister John Howard, decided to hold a referendum on independence  A UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia and Portugal allowed for a UN-supervised popular referendum in August 1999  A clear vote for independence was met with a punitive campaign of violence by East Timorese pro-integration militias supported by elements of the Indonesian military  In response, the Indonesian government allowed a multinational peacekeeping force, INTERFET, to restore order and aid East Timorese refugees and internally displaced persons  On 25 October 1999, the administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)  INTERFET deployment ended in February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN 

Contemporary era
On 30 August 2001, the East Timorese voted in their first election organised by the UN to elect members of the Constituent Assembly  On 22 March 2002, the Constituent Assembly approved the Constitution  By May 2002, more than 205,000 refugees had returned  On 20 May 2002, the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor came into force and East Timor was recognised as independent by the UN  The Constituent Assembly was renamed the National Parliament, and Xanana Gusmão was elected as the country's first president  On 27 September 2002 the country became a UN member state In 2006, a crisis of unrest and factional fighting forced 155,000 people to flee their homes; the United Nations sent in security forces to restore order  The following year, Gusmão declined to run for another term  While there were minor incidents in the build-up to the mid-year presidential elections, the process was peaceful overall and José Ramos-Horta was elected president  In June 2007, Gusmão ran in the parliamentary elections and became prime minister at the head of the National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction (CNRT) party  In February 2008, Ramos-Horta was critically injured in an attempted assassination; Prime Minister Gusmão also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed  Australian reinforcements were immediately sent to help keep order  In March 2011, the UN handed over operational control of the police force to the East Timor authorities  The United Nations ended its peacekeeping mission on 31 December 2012 Francisco Guterres of the centre-left Fretilin party became president in May 2017  The leader of Fretilin, Mari Alkatiri, formed a coalition government after the July 2017 parliamentary election  This government soon fell, leading to a second general election in May 2018  In June 2018, former president and independence fighter, Taur Matan Ruak, became the new prime minister  José Ramos-Horta again became president on 20 May 2022 after winning the April 2022 presidential election runoff against Francisco Guterres 

Politics and government
The political system of East Timor is semi-presidential, based upon the Portuguese system : 175  The constitution establishes both this separation of executive powers between the president and the prime minister; and the separation of powers between the executive, legislature, and judiciary : 12  Individuals are not allowed to participate in both the legislature and the executive branch  The legislature is intended to provide a check on the executive; in practice the executive has maintained control of the legislature under all political parties, reflecting the dominance of individual leaders within political parties and coalitions : 174  The executive, through the council of ministers, also holds some formal legislative powers : 175  The judiciary operates independently, although there are instances of executive interference : 13, 39  Some courts shift between locations, to improve access for those in more isolated areas  Despite political rhetoric, the constitution and democratic institutions have been followed by politicians, and changes of government are peaceful : 15, 42  Elections are run by an independent body,: 216  and turnout is high, ranging from around 70% to 85% : 17  The political system has wide public acceptance : 17 : 106 The head of state of East Timor is the president of the republic, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term,: 244  and can serve a maximum of two terms  Formally, the directly elected president holds relatively limited powers compared to those in similar systems, with no power over the appointment and dismissal of the prime minister and the council of ministers  However, as they are directly elected, past presidents have wielded great informal power and influence : 175  The president does have the power to veto government legislation, initiate referendums, and to dissolve parliament in the event that it is unable to form a government or pass a budget : 244  If the president vetoes a legislative action, the parliament can overturn the veto with a two-thirds majority : 10  The prime minister is chosen by the parliament, with the president appointing the leader of the majority party or coalition as prime minister of East Timor and the cabinet on the proposal of the latter : 10  As head of government, the prime minister presides over the cabinet 

Representatives in the unicameral National Parliament are elected by popular vote to a five-year term  The number of seats can vary from a minimum of fifty-two to a maximum of sixty-five  Parties must achieve 3% of the vote to enter parliament, with seats for qualifying parties allocated using the D'Hondt method  Elections occur within the framework of a competitive multi-party system  Upon independence, power was held by the Fretilin political party, which was formed shortly before the Indonesian invasion and led its resistance  Given its history, Fretilin viewed itself as the natural party of government and supported a multi-party system, expecting the development of a dominant-party system  Support from the United Nations and the international community, both before and after independence, allowed the nascent political system to survive shocks such as the 2006 crisis : 173 Candidates in parliamentary elections run in a single national district in a party-list system  One in three of all candidates presented by political parties must be women  This system promotes a diversity of political parties, but gives voters little influence over the individual candidates selected by each party : 175–176  Women hold more than a third of parliamentary seats, with parties required by law to run female candidates, but they are less prominent at other levels and within party leadership Political divisions exist along class lines and along geographical lines  There is broadly a divide between eastern and western areas of the country, stemming from differences that arose under Indonesian rule  Fretilin in particular is strongly linked to the Eastern areas : 176–177  Political parties are more closely associated with prominent personalities more than with ideology : 16  The National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction became the main opposition to Fretilin, following its establishment to allow Xanana Gusmão to run for Prime Minister in the 2007 parliamentary elections : 168–169  While both major parties have been relatively stable, they remain led by an "old guard" of individuals who came to prominence during the resistance against Indonesia : 175 : 10–11 Politics and administration is centred in the capital Dili, with the national government responsible for most civil services : 9, 36  Oecusse, separated from the rest of the country by Indonesian territory, is a special administrative region with some autonomy : 180  The National Police of East Timor and Timor Leste Defence Force have held a monopoly on violence since 2008 and very few guns are present outside of these organisations : 8  While there are allegations of abuse of power, there is some judicial oversight of police and public trust in the institution has grown  An active civil society functions independently of the government, as do media outlets : 11–12  Civil society organisations are concentrated in the capital, including student groups  Due to the structure of the economy, there are no powerful trade unions : 17  The Catholic Church has strong influence in the country : 40

Foreign relations and military
International cooperation has always been important to East Timor; donor funds made up 80% of the budget before oil revenues began to replace them : 42–44  International forces also provided security, with five UN missions sent to the country from 1999  The final one, the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor, began after the 2006 East Timorese crisis and concluded in 2012 : 4, 14 East Timor formally applied to join ASEAN in 2011,: 42–44  and was granted observer status and accepted "in principle" in November 2022  Despite the nationalist political leadership promoting closer ties with Melanesian states, the country has targeted ASEAN membership since before its independence, with its leaders stating that joining Pacific bodies would have precluded ASEAN membership  ASEAN membership was sought for economic and security reasons, including to improve the relationship with Indonesia  Nonetheless, the process has been slow due to a lack of support from some ASEAN states : 10–11  East Timor is thus an observer to the Pacific Islands Forum and the Melanesian Spearhead Group  More broadly, the country is a leader within the Group of Seven Plus (g7+), an organisation of fragile states  It is also a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries : 42–44 Continuing bilateral donors include Australia, Portugal, Germany, and Japan, and East Timor has a reputation for effectively and transparently using donor funds  Good relations with Australia and with Indonesia are a policy goal for the government, despite historical and more-recent tensions  These countries are important economic partners and provide most transport links to the country : 42–44  China has also increased its presence by contributing to infrastructure in Dili : 12 The relationship with Australia was dominated from before independence by disputes over natural resources in the ocean between them, hampering the establishment of a mutually agreed border  The dominance of Australian hard power led East Timor to utilise public diplomacy and forums for international law to push their case  The dispute was resolved in 2018 following negotiations at the Permanent Court of Arbitration, when a maritime boundary between the two was established along with an agreement on natural resource revenues The Timor Leste Defence Force (F-FDTL) was established in 2001, replacing Falintil, and was restructured following the events of 2006  It is responsible not only for safeguarding against external threats, but also for addressing violent crime, a role it shares with the National Police of East Timor  These forces remain small: 2,200 soldiers in the regular army and 80 in a naval component  A single aircraft and seven patrol boats are operated, and there are plans to expand the naval component  There is some military cooperation with Australia, Portugal, and the United States 

Administrative divisions
East Timor is divided into fourteen municipalities, which in turn are subdivided into 64 administrative posts, 442 sucos (villages), and 2,225 aldeias (hamlets)  The municipalities are: Aileu, Ainaro, Atauro, Baucau, Bobonaro, Cova Lima, Dili, Ermera, Lautém, Liquiçá, Manatuto, Manufahi, Oecusse, and Viqueque The existing system of municipalities and administrative posts was established during Portuguese rule : 3  While decentralisation is mentioned in the constitution, administrative powers generally remain with the national government operating out of Dili : 2  Upon independence there was debate about how to implement decentralisation; various proposed models would create different levels of administration between the sucos and the central government  In most proposals, there were no specific provisions for suco-level governance, and they were expected to continue to exist as mostly traditional spaces, identifying communities rather than being part of the civil administration  In the end, the existing districts were kept and renamed municipalities in 2009, and received very few powers : 88–92  In 2016 changes were made so that each municipality is led by a civil servant appointed by the central government  This civil servant is advised by locally elected leaders : 4, 7  The isolated Oecusse municipality, which has a strong identity and is fully surrounded by Indonesian territory, is specified by Articles 5 and 71 of the 2002 constitution to be governed by a special administrative policy and economic regime  Law 3/2014 of 18 June 2014 implemented this constitutional provision, which went into effect in January 2015, turning Oecusse into a Special Administrative Region  The region began operating its own civil service in June 2015  In January 2022 the island of Atauro, formerly an Administrative Post of Dili, became its own municipality Administration in the lowest levels of the administrative system of East Timor, the aldeias and sucos, generally reflects traditional customs,: 1  reflecting community identity and relationships between local households : 4  Sucos generally contain 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants  Their long persistence and links to local governance means the sucos are the level of government that is linked to community identities, rather than any high level of administration : 89  Such relationships, however, are associated specifically with the kinship groups within that land, rather than the land itself : 52–53  Relationships between sucos also reflect customary practices, for example through the reciprocal exchanging of support for local initiatives : 9  Laws passed in 2004 provided for the election of some suco officials, but assigned these positions no formal powers  An updated law in 2009 established the expected mandate of these positions, although it continued to leave them outside of the formal state system, reliant on municipal governments to provide formal administration and services : 94–97  Further clarification was given in 2016, which entrenched the treatment of sucos and aldeias more as communities than formal levels of administration  Despite this lack of formal association with the state, suco leaders hold great influence and are often seen by their community as representatives of the state  They have responsibilities usually associated with civic administration : 7–10

Geography
Located in between Southeast Asia and the South Pacific,: 2  the island of Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands, which lie within the Malay archipelago : 1  The island is surrounded by the Ombai and Wetar Straits of the rougher Banda Sea in the north, and the calmer Timor Sea in the south : 2  East Timor shares the island with Indonesia, with Indonesian territory separating the Oecusse exclave from the rest of the country  The island of Atauro lies north of the mainland,: 2  with the fourth area being the small island of Jaco  The Savu Sea lies north of Oecusse
Context 3: Passage 1:
Daylight saving time
Daylight saving time (DST), also referred to as daylight savings time, daylight time (United States, Canada, and Australia), or summer time (United Kingdom, European Union, and others), is the practice of advancing clocks (typically by one hour) during warmer months so that darkness falls at a later clock time  The typical implementation of DST is to set clocks forward by one hour in either the late winter or spring ("spring forward"), and to set clocks back by one hour in the fall ("fall back") to return to standard time  As a result, there is one 23-hour day in early spring and one 25-hour day in the middle of autumn 
The idea of aligning waking hours to daylight hours to conserve candles was first proposed in 1784 by U S  polymath Benjamin Franklin  In a satirical letter to the editor of The Journal of Paris, Franklin suggested that waking up earlier in the summer would economize on candle usage; and calculated considerable savings  In 1895, New Zealand entomologist and astronomer George Hudson proposed the idea of changing clocks by two hours every spring to the Wellington Philosophical Society  In 1907, British resident William Willett presented the idea as a way to save energy  After some serious consideration, it was not implemented In 1908, Port Arthur in Ontario, Canada (today merged into Thunder Bay), started using DST  Starting on 30 April 1916, the German Empire and Austria-Hungary each organized the first nationwide implementation in their jurisdictions  Many countries have used DST at various times since then, particularly since the 1970s energy crisis  DST is generally not observed near the Equator, where sunrise and sunset times do not vary enough to justify it  Some countries observe it only in some regions: for example, parts of Australia observe it, while other parts do not  Conversely, it is not observed at some places at high latitudes, because there are wide variations in sunrise and sunset times and a one-hour shift would relatively not make much difference  The United States observes it, except for the states of Hawaii and Arizona (within the latter, however, the Navajo Nation does observe it, conforming to federal practice)  A minority of the world's population uses DST; Asia, Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean generally do not 

Rationale
Industrialized societies usually follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year  The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, and the coordination of mass transit, for example, usually remain constant year-round  In contrast, an agrarian society's daily routines for work and personal conduct are more likely governed by the length of daylight hours and by solar time, which change seasonally because of the Earth's axial tilt  North and south of the tropics, daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater the farther one moves away from the equator 
After synchronously resetting all clocks in a region to one hour ahead of standard time in spring in anticipation of longer daylight hours, individuals following a clock-based schedule will be awakened an hour earlier in the solar day than they would have otherwise  They will begin and complete daily work routines an hour earlier: in most cases they will have an extra hour of daylight available to them after their workday activities Proponents of daylight saving time argue that most people prefer a greater increase in daylight hours after the typical "nine to five" workday  Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, but the actual effect on overall energy use is heavily disputed The shift in apparent time is also motivated by practicality  In American temperate latitudes, for example, the sun rises around 04:30 at the summer solstice and sets around 19:30  Since most people are asleep at 04:30, it is seen as more practical to treat 04:30 as if it is 05:30, thereby allowing people to wake closer to the sunrise and be active in the evening light 
Because sunrise and sunset times become significantly out of phase with standard working hours at higher latitudes (such as Iceland, Scandinavia, and Alaska), the manipulation of time would have little effect on daily life, and thus is not practiced DST is similarly of little use for locations near the Equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year 

Variation within a time zone
The effect of Daylight Savings Time also varies according to how far east or west the location is within its time zone, with locations farther east inside the time zone benefiting more from DST than locations farther west in the same time zone  In spite of a width spanning thousands of miles, all of China is located within a single time zone per government mandate, minimizing any potential benefit of Daylight Savings Time there 

History
Ancient civilizations adjusted daily schedules to the sun more flexibly than DST does, often dividing daylight into 12 hours regardless of daytime, so that each daylight hour became progressively longer during spring and shorter during autumn  For example, the Romans kept time with water clocks that had different scales for different months of the year; at Rome's latitude, the third hour from sunrise (hora tertia) started at 09:02 solar time and lasted 44 minutes at the winter solstice, but at the summer solstice it started at 06:58 and lasted 75 minutes  From the 14th century onward, equal-length civil hours supplanted unequal ones, so civil time no longer varied by season  Unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as monasteries of Mount Athos and in Jewish ceremonies Benjamin Franklin published the proverb "early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise," and published a letter in the Journal de Paris during his time as an American envoy to France (1776–1785) suggesting that Parisians economize on candles by rising earlier to use morning sunlight  This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells and firing cannons at sunrise  Despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST; 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules  However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks required a standardization of time unknown in Franklin's day In 1810, the Spanish National Assembly Cortes of Cádiz issued a regulation that moved certain meeting times forward by one hour from 1 May to 30 September in recognition of seasonal changes, but it did not change the clocks  It also acknowledged that private businesses were in the practice of changing their opening hours to suit daylight conditions, but they did so of their own volition 
 
New Zealand entomologist George Hudson first proposed modern DST  His shift-work job gave him leisure time to collect insects and led him to value after-hours daylight  In 1895, he presented a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society proposing a two-hour daylight-saving shift, and considerable interest was expressed in Christchurch; he followed up with an 1898 paper  Many publications credit the DST proposal to prominent English builder and outdoorsman William Willett, who independently conceived DST in 1905 during a pre-breakfast ride when he observed how many Londoners slept through a large part of a summer day  Willett also was an avid golfer who disliked cutting short his round at dusk  His solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, and he published the proposal two years later  Liberal Party member of parliament Robert Pearce took up the proposal, introducing the first Daylight Saving Bill to the British House of Commons on 12 February 1908  A select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearce's bill did not become law and several other bills failed in the following years  Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915 

Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada, was the first city in the world to enact DST, on 1 July 1908  This was followed by Orillia, Ontario, introduced by William Sword Frost while mayor from 1911 to 1912  The first states to adopt DST (German: Sommerzeit) nationally were those of the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary commencing 30 April 1916, as a way to conserve coal during wartime  Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed  Russia and a few other countries waited until the next year, and the United States adopted daylight saving in 1918  Most jurisdictions abandoned DST in the years after the war ended in 1918, with exceptions including Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Ireland, and the United States  It became common during World War II (some countries adopted double summer time), and was standardized in the U S  by federal law in 1966, and widely adopted in Europe from the 1970s as a result of the 1970s energy crisis  Since then, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals It is a common myth in the United States that DST was first implemented for the benefit of farmers  In reality, farmers have been one of the strongest lobbying groups against DST since it was first implemented  The factors that influence farming schedules, such as morning dew and dairy cattle's readiness to be milked, are ultimately dictated by the sun, so the time change introduces unnecessary challenges DST was first implemented in the US with the Standard Time Act of 1918, a wartime measure for seven months during World War I in the interest of adding more daylight hours to conserve energy resources  Year-round DST, or "War Time", was implemented again during World War II  After the war, local jurisdictions were free to choose if and when to observe DST until the Uniform Time Act which standardized DST in 1966   Permanent daylight saving time was enacted for the winter of 1974, but there were complaints of children going to school in the dark and working people commuting and starting their work day in pitch darkness during the winter months, and it was repealed a year later 

Procedure
The relevant authorities usually schedule clock changes to occur at (or soon after) midnight, and on a weekend, in order to lessen disruption to weekday schedules  A one-hour change is usual, but twenty-minute and two-hour changes have been used in the past  In all countries that observe daylight saving time seasonally (i e  during summer and not winter), the clock is advanced from standard time to daylight saving time in the spring, and they are turned back from daylight saving time to standard time in the autumn  
For a midnight change in spring, a digital display of local time would appear to jump from 23:59:59 9 to 01:00:00 0  For the same clock in autumn, the local time would appear to repeat the hour preceding midnight, i e  it would jump from 23:59:59 9 to 23:00:00 0 
In most countries that observe seasonal daylight saving time, the time reverts in winter to "standard time"  An exception exists in Ireland, where its winter clock has the same offset (UTC±00:00) and legal name as that in Britain (Greenwich Mean Time)—but while its summer clock also has the same offset as Britain's (UTC+01:00), its legal name is Irish Standard Time as opposed to British Summer Time Since 2019 Morocco observes daylight saving time every month but Ramadan  During the holy month (the date of which is determined by the lunar calendar and thus moves annually with regard to the Gregorian calendar), the country's civil clocks observe Western European Time (UTC+00:00, which geographically overlaps most of the nation)  At the close of that month, its clocks are turned forward to Western European Summer Time (UTC+01:00) The time at which to change clocks differs across jurisdictions  Members of the European Union conduct a coordinated change, changing all zones at the same instant, at 01:00 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which means that it changes at 02:00 Central European Time (CET), equivalent to 03:00 Eastern European Time (EET)  As a result, the time differences across European time zones remain constant  North America coordination of the clock change differs, in that each jurisdiction change at 02:00 local time, which temporarily creates an imbalance with the next time zone (until it adjusts its time, one hour later, at 2 AM there)  For example, Mountain Time is for one hour in the spring two hours ahead of Pacific Time instead of the usual one hour ahead, and instead of one hour in the autumn, briefly zero hours ahead of Pacific Time 
The dates on which clocks change vary with location and year; consequently, the time differences between regions also vary throughout the year  For example, Central European Time is usually six hours ahead of North American Eastern Time, except for a few weeks in March and October/November, while the United Kingdom and mainland Chile could be five hours apart during the northern summer, three hours during the southern summer, and four hours for a few weeks per year  Since 1996, European Summer Time has been observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October; previously the rules were not uniform across the European Union  Starting in 2007, most of the United States and Canada observed DST from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November, almost two-thirds of the year  Moreover, the beginning and ending dates are roughly reversed between the northern and southern hemispheres because spring and autumn are displaced six months  For example, mainland Chile observes DST from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March, with transitions at 24:00 local time  In some countries time is governed by regional jurisdictions within the country such that some jurisdictions change and others do not; this is currently the case in Australia, Canada, and the United States From year to year, the dates on which to change clock may also move for political or social reasons  The Uniform Time Act of 1966 formalized the United States' period of daylight saving time observation as lasting six months (it was previously declared locally); this period was extended to seven months in 1986, and then to eight months in 2005  The 2005 extension was motivated in part by lobbyists from the candy industry, seeking to increase profits by including Halloween (31 October) within the daylight saving time period  In recent history, Australian state jurisdictions not only changed at different local times but sometimes on different dates  For example, in 2008 most states there that observed daylight saving time changed clocks forward on 5 October, but Western Australia changed on 26 October 

Politics, religion and sport
The concept of daylight saving has caused controversy since its early proposals  Winston Churchill argued that it enlarges "the opportunities for the pursuit of health and happiness among the millions of people who live in this country" and pundits have dubbed it "Daylight Slaving Time"  Retailing, sports, and tourism interests have historically favored daylight saving, while agricultural and evening-entertainment interests (and some religious groups) have opposed it; energy crises and war prompted its initial adoption The fate of Willett's 1907 proposal illustrates several political issues  It attracted many supporters, including Arthur Balfour, Churchill, David Lloyd George, Ramsay MacDonald, King Edward VII (who used half-hour DST or "Sandringham time" at Sandringham), the managing director of Harrods, and the manager of the National Bank Ltd  However, the opposition proved stronger, including Prime Minister H  H  Asquith, William Christie (the Astronomer Royal), George Darwin, Napier Shaw (director of the Meteorological Office), many agricultural organizations, and theatre-owners  After many hearings, a parliamentary committee vote narrowly rejected the proposal in 1909  Willett's allies introduced similar bills every year from 1911 through 1914, to no avail  People in the US demonstrated even more skepticism; Andrew Peters introduced a DST bill to the House of Representatives in May 1909, but it soon died in committee 

Germany together with its allies led the way in introducing DST (German: Sommerzeit) during World War I on 30 April 1916, aiming to alleviate hardships due to wartime coal shortages and air-raid blackouts  The political equation changed in other countries; the United Kingdom used DST first on 21 May 1916  US retailing and manufacturing interests—led by Pittsburgh industrialist Robert Garland—soon began lobbying for DST, but railroads opposed the idea  The USA's 1917 entry into the war overcame objections, and DST started in 1918 The end of World War I brought change in DST use  Farmers continued to dislike DST, and many countries repealed it—like Germany itself, which dropped DST from 1919 to 1939 and from 1950 to 1979  Britain proved an exception; it retained DST nationwide but adjusted transition dates over the years for several reasons, including special rules during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid clock shifts on Easter mornings  As of 2009 summer time began annually on the last Sunday in March under a European Community directive, which may be Easter Sunday (as in 2016)  In the U S , Congress repealed DST after 1919  President Woodrow Wilson—an avid golfer like Willett—vetoed the repeal twice, but his second veto was overridden  Only a few U S  cities retained DST locally, including New York (so that its financial exchanges could maintain an hour of arbitrage trading with London), and Chicago and Cleveland (to keep pace with New York)  Wilson's successor as president, Warren G  Harding, opposed DST as a "deception", reasoning that people should instead get up and go to work earlier in the summer  He ordered District of Columbia federal employees to start work at 8 am rather than 9 am during the summer of 1922  Some businesses followed suit, though many others did not; the experiment was not repeated Since Germany's adoption of DST in 1916, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals of DST, with similar politics involved  The history of time in the United States features DST during both world wars, but no standardization of peacetime DST until 1966  St  Paul and Minneapolis, Minnesota, kept different times for two weeks in May 1965: the capital city decided to switch to daylight saving time, while Minneapolis opted to follow the later date set by state law  In the mid-1980s, Clorox and 7-Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension to U S  DST  Both senators from Idaho, Larry Craig and Mike Crapo, voted for it based on the premise that fast-food restaurants sell more French fries (made from Idaho potatoes) during DST A referendum on the introduction of daylight saving took place in Queensland, Australia, in 1992, after a three-year trial of daylight saving  It was defeated with a 54 5% "no" vote, with regional and rural areas strongly opposed, and those in the metropolitan southeast in favor In 2003, the United Kingdom's Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents supported a proposal to observe year-round daylight saving time, but it has been opposed by some industries, by some postal workers and farmers, and particularly by those living in the northern regions of the UK In 2005 the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to U S  DST In December 2008 the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland (DS4SEQ) political party was officially registered in Queensland, advocating the implementation of a dual-time-zone arrangement for daylight saving in South East Queensland, while the rest of the state maintained standard time  DS4SEQ contested the March 2009 Queensland state election with 32 candidates and received one percent of the statewide primary vote, equating to around 2 5% across the 32 electorates contested  After a three-year trial, more than 55% of Western Australians voted against DST in 2009, with rural areas strongly opposed  Queensland Independent member Peter Wellington introduced the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland Referendum Bill 2010 into the Queensland parliament on 14 April 2010, after being approached by the DS4SEQ political party, calling for a referendum at the next state election on the introduction of daylight saving into South East Queensland under a dual-time-zone arrangement  The Queensland parliament rejected Wellington's bill on 15 June 2011 Russia declared in 2011 that it would stay in DST all year long (UTC+4:00); Belarus followed with a similar declaration  (The Soviet Union had operated under permanent "summer time" from 1930 to at least 1982 ) Russia's plan generated widespread complaints due to the dark of winter-time mornings, and thus was abandoned in 2014  The country changed its clocks to standard time (UTC+3:00) on 26 October 2014, intending to stay there permanently In the United States, Arizona (with the exception of the Navajo Nation), Hawaii, and the five populated territories (American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the US Virgin Islands) do not participate in daylight saving time  Indiana only began participating in daylight saving time as recently as 2006  Since 2018, Florida Republican Senator Marco Rubio has repeatedly filed bills to extend daylight saving time permanently into winter, without success Mexico observed summertime daylight saving time starting in 1996  In late 2022, the nation's clocks "fell back" for the last time, in restoration of permanent standard time 

Religion
Some religious groups and individuals have opposed DST on religious grounds  For religious Muslims and Jews it makes religious practices such as prayer and fasting more difficult or inconvenient 
Some Muslim countries, such as Morocco, have temporarily abandoned DST during Ramadan In Israel, DST has been a point of contention between the religious and secular, resulting in fluctuations over the years, and a shorter DST period than in the EU and US  Religious Jews prefer a shorter DST due to DST delaying the time for morning prayers, thus conflicting with standard working and business hours  Additionally, DST is ended before Yom Kippur (a 25-hour fast day starting and ending at sunset, much of which is spent praying in synagogue until the fast ends at sunset) since DST would result in the day ending later, which many feel makes it more difficult In the US, Orthodox Jewish groups have opposed extensions to DST, as well as a 2022 bipartisan bill that would make DST permanent, saying it will "interfere with the ability of members of our community to engage in congregational prayers and get to their places of work on time "

Effects
Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy, promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening (in summer), and is therefore good for physical and psychological health, reduces traffic accidents, reduces crime or is good for business  Opponents argue the actual energy savings are inconclusive A 2017 meta-analysis of 44 studies found that DST leads to electricity savings of 0 3% during the days when DST applies  Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption, but a 2008 United States Department of Energy report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST  An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, once a primary use of electricity  Although energy conservation remains an important goal, energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then  Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, so the results of a study conducted in one place may not be relevant to another country or climate Later sunset times from DST are thought to affect behavior; for example, increasing participation in after-school sports programs or outdoor afternoon sports such as golf, and attendance at professional sporting events  Advocates of daylight saving time argue that having more hours of daylight between the end of a typical workday and evening induces people to consume other goods and services Many farmers oppose DST, particularly dairy farmers as the milking patterns of their cows do not change with the time



ground_truth: ATS - 6 (Applications Technology Satellite - 6)

ATS-6

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Kiwil's birth country participated in a Commission of Truth and Friendship. Who is the president of the other country that participated?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: : 1  The country is about 265 kilometres (165 mi) long and 97 kilometres (60 mi) wide, with a total land area of 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi) : 1  This territory is situated between 8′15S – 10′30S latitude and 125′50E – 127′30E longitude : 2  The country's coastline covers around 700 kilometres (430 mi),: 27  while the main land border with Indonesia is 125 kilometres (78 mi) long, and the Oecusse land border is around 100 kilometres (62 mi) long : 1  Maritime borders exist with Australia to the south and Indonesia elsewhere  East Timor has an exclusive economic zone of 77,051 km2 (29,750 sq mi) The interior of the country is mountainous,: 2  with ridges of inactive volcanic mountains extending along the island : 2  Almost half of the country has a slope of at least 40%  The south is slightly less mountainous, and has some plains near the coastline : 2  The highest point is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 metres (9,721 ft)  Most rivers dry up at least partially during the dry season : 2  Outside of some coastal areas and river valleys, the soil is shallow and prone to erosion, and its quality is poor : 13 : 2  The capital and largest city is Dili  The second-largest city is the eastern town of Baucau : 22 

The climate is tropical with relatively stable temperatures throughout the year  A wet season lasts from December to May throughout the country, and lasts slightly longer in the south: 5  and the interior due to the effect of a monsoon from Australia : 2  During this period, rainfall can reach 222–252 millimetres (8 7–9 9 in) per month  In the dry season, it drops to 12–18 millimetres (0 47–0 71 in) : 5  The country is vulnerable to flooding and landslides that occur as a result of heavy rain, especially when rainfall levels are increased by the La Niña effect : 13  The mountainous interior is cooler than the coasts  Coastal areas are heavily dependent on groundwater, which faces pressure from mismanagement, deforestation, and climate change : 14  While the temperature is thought to have experienced a small increase due to climate change, there has been little change in annual rainfall : 6 Coastal ecosystems around the country are diverse and varied, with vary spatially between the north and south coastlines, as well as between the eastern tip and areas more to the west  These ecosystems include coral reefs, as the country's waters are part of the Coral Triangle biodiversity hotspot : 28  The easternmost area of East Timor consists of the Paitchau Range and the Lake Ira Lalaro area, which contains the country's first conservation area, the Nino Konis Santana National Park  It contains the last remaining tropical dry forested area within the country  It hosts a number of unique plant and animal species and is sparsely populated  The northern coast is characterised by a number of coral reef systems that have been determined to be at risk There are around 41,000 terrestrial plant species in the country  Forests covered 35% of East Timor's land in the mid 2010s : 1  The forests of the northern coast, central uplands, and southern coast are distinct : 2  East Timor is home to the Timor and Wetar deciduous forests ecoregion  There is some environmental protection in law, but it has not been a government priority : 27 : 10–14  In addition to climate change, local ecosystems are threatened by deforestation, land degradation, overfishing, and pollution : 2–3

Economy
The economy of East Timor is a market economy, although it is dependent upon the export of a few commodities and has a large public sector  Internally, market operations are limited by widespread poverty : 20  The country uses the United States dollar, producing its own coins to facilitate smaller transactions  The economy is generally open to foreign investment, although a prohibition on foreigners owning land means many require a local partner in the country : 20  Competition is limited by the small size of the economy, rather than any government barriers  There are far more imports than exports,: 21  and prices for goods are often higher than in nearby countries : 27  Inflation is strongly affected by government spending : 257  Growth has been slow, averaging just 2 5% per year from 2011 to 2021 : 24 Most of the country is very poor, with just more than 40% living under the national poverty line  This poverty is especially prevalent in rural areas, where many are subsistence farmers or fishermen  Even in urban areas, the majority are poor  Overall, women are poorer than men, often being employed in lower-paying careers : 18  Malnutrition is common, with over half of children showing stunted growth : 255  While 91% of married working age (15–49) men were employed as of 2016, only 43% of married working age women were  There are small disparities in favour of men in terms of home and land ownership and owning a bank account : 14  The eastern three municipalities, which contain around a quarter of the population, has less poverty than the western areas, which contain 50% of the population : 214 Sixty-six per cent of families are in part supported by subsistence activities; however, the country as a whole does not produce enough food to be self-sustaining, and thus relies on imports : 16  Agricultural work carries the implication of poverty, and the sector receives little investment from the government : 260  Ninety-four per cent of domestic fish catch comes from the ocean, especially coastal fisheries : 17  Those in the capital of Dili are on average better off, although they remain poor by international standards : 257  The small size of the private sector means the government is often the customer of public businesses  A quarter of the national population works in the informal economy, with the official public and private sectors employing 9% each : 18  Of those of working age, around 23% are in the formal sector, 21% are students, and 27% are subsistence farmers and fishers : 21  The economy is mostly cash-based, with little commercial credit available from banks : 11–12  Remittances from overseas workers add up to around $100 million annually : 257 

This poverty belies significant wealth in terms of natural resources, which at the time of independence had per capita value equivalent to the wealth of an upper-middle income country  Over half of this was in oil, and over a quarter natural gas  The Timor-Leste Petroleum Fund was established in 2005 to turn these non-renewable resources into a more sustainable form of wealth : 4–6  From 2005 to 2021, $23 billion earned from oil sales has entered the fund  $8 billion has been generated from investments, while $12 billion has been spent : 30  A decrease in oil and gas reserves led to decreasing HDI beginning in 2010 : 18–19  Eighty per cent of government spending comes from this fund, which as of 2021 had $19 billion, 10 times greater than the size of the national budget  As oil income has decreased, the fund is at risk of being exhausted  Withdrawals have exceeded sustainable levels almost every year since 2009 : 23  Resources within the Bayu-Undan field are expected to soon run out, while extracting those within the so far undeveloped Greater Sunrise field has proven technically and politically challenging  Remaining potential reserves are also losing value as oil and gas become less favoured sources of energy : 264–272 The country's economy is dependent on government spending and, to a lesser extent, assistance from foreign donors  Government spending decreased beginning in 2012, which had knock-on effects in the private sector over the following years  The government and its state-owned oil company often invest in large private projects  Decreasing government spending was matched with a decrease in GDP growth : 18  After the petroleum fund, the second largest source of government income is taxes  Tax revenue is less than 8% of GDP, lower than many other countries in the region and with similarly sized economies  Other government income comes from 23 "autonomous agencies", which include port authorities, infrastructure companies, and the National University of East Timor : 13, 28–309  Overall, government spending remains among the highest in the world,: 12  although investment into education, health, and water infrastructure is negligible : 260 

Private sector development has lagged due to human capital shortages, infrastructure weakness, an incomplete legal system, and an inefficient regulatory environment  Property rights remain ill-defined, with conflicting titles from Portuguese and Indonesian rule, as well as needing to accommodate traditional customary rights : 23  As of 2010, 87 7% of urban (321,043 people) and 18 9% of rural (821,459 people) households have electricity, for an overall average of 38 2%  The private sector shrank between 2014 and 2018, despite a growing working age population  Agriculture and manufacturing are less productive per capita than at independence : 255–256  Non-oil economic sectors have failed to develop, and growth in construction and administration is dependent on oil revenue : 256  The dependence on oil shows some aspects of a resource curse  Coffee made up 90% of all non-fossil fuel exports from 2013 to 2019, with all such exports totalling to around US$20 million annually : 257  In 2017, the country was visited by 75,000 tourists 

Demographics
East Timor recorded a population of 1,183,643 in its 2015 census  The population lives mainly along the coastline, where all urban areas are located : 27  Those in urban areas generally have more formal education, employment prospects, and healthcare  While a strong gender disparity exists throughout the country, it is less severe in the urban capital  The wealthy minority often go abroad for health, education and other purposes : 25  The population is young, with the median age being under 20 : 29  In particular, a large proportion of the population (almost 45% in 2015) are males between the ages of 15 and 24, the third largest male 'youth bulge' in the world : 212 The Government of Timor-Leste's website lists the English-language demonym for East Timor as Timorese  Other reference sources list it as East Timorese  The word Maubere formerly used by the Portuguese to refer to native East Timorese and often employed as synonymous with the illiterate and uneducated, was adopted by Fretilin as a term of pride Healthcare received 6% of the national budget in 2021 : 24  From 1990 to 2019 life expectancy rose from 48 5 to 69 5  Expected years of schooling rose from 9 8 to 12 4 between 2000 and 2010, while mean years of schooling rose from 2 8 to 4 4  Progress since 2010 for these has been limited  Gross national income per capita similarly peaked in 2010, and has decreased since : 3  As of 2016, 45 8% of East Timorese were impoverished, 16 3% severely so : 6  The fertility rate, which at the time of independence was the highest in the world at 7 8, dropped to 4 2 by 2016  It is relatively higher in rural areas, and among poorer: 3  and less literate households  As of 2016, the average household size was 5 3, with 41% of people aged under 15, and 18% of households headed by women : 2  Infant mortality stood at 30 per 1,000, down from 60 per 1,000 in 2003 : 7  46% of children under 5 showed stunted growth, down from 58% in 2010  Working age adult obesity increased from 5% to 10% during the same time period  As of 2016, 40% of children, 23% of women, and 13% of men had anemia : 11

Ethnicity and language
Timorese communities are not strictly defined by ethnic background or linguistic group  Separate communities may share ethnicity or language, and many areas show overlaps and hybridisation between ethnic and linguistic groups : 44  Familial relations and descent, which are interlinked with sacred house affiliation, are a more important indicator of identity : 47  Each family group generally identifies with a single language or dialect : 49  With this immense local variation in mind, there is a broad cultural and identity distinction between the east (Bacau, Lautém, and Viqueque Municipalities) and the west of the country, a product of history more than it is of linguistic and ethnic differences,: 45–47  although it is very loosely associated with the two language groups : 142–143  There is a small mestiço population of mixed Portuguese and local descent  There is a small Chinese minority, most of whom are Hakka  Many Chinese left in the mid-1970s, but a significant number have also returned to East Timor following the end of Indonesian occupation  East Timor has a small community of Timorese Indian, specifically Goan descent, as well as historical immigration from Africa and Yemen Likely reflecting the mixed origins of the different ethnolinguistic groups of the island, the indigenous languages fall into two language families: Austronesian and Papuan : 10  Depending on how they are classified, there are up to 19 indigenous languages with up to 30 dialects : 136  Aside from Tetum, Ethnologue lists the following indigenous languages: Adabe, Baikeno, Bunak, Fataluku, Galoli, Habun, Idaté, Kairui-Midiki, Kemak, Lakalei, Makasae, Makuv'a, Mambae, Nauete, Tukudede, and Waima'a  According to the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are six endangered languages in East Timor: Adabe, Habu, Kairui-Midiki, Maku'a, Naueti, and Waima'a  The largest Malayo-Polynesian group is the Tetum, mostly around Dili or the western border  Other Malayo-Polynesian languages with native speakers of more than 40,000 are Mambai in the central mountains south of Dili, Baikeno in Oecusse, Kemak in the north-west interior, and Tokodede on the northwest coast  The main Papuan languages spoken are Bunak in the centre of Timor, especially within Bobonaro Municipality; Makasae in the eastern Baucau and Viqueque municipalities; and Fataluku in the eastern Lautém Municipality : 43  The 2015 census found that the most commonly spoken mother tongues were Tetum Prasa (mother tongue for 30 6% of the population), Mambai (16 6%), Makasai (10 5%), Tetum Terik (6 05%), Baikenu (5 87%), Kemak (5 85%), Bunak (5 48%), Tokodede (3 97%), and Fataluku (3 52%)  Other indigenous languages accounted for 10 47%, while 1 09% of the population spoke foreign languages natively East Timor's two official languages are Portuguese and Tetum  In addition, English and Indonesian are designated by the constitution as "working languages" : 3  This is within the Final and Transitional Provisions, which do not set a final date  In 2012, 35% could speak, read, and write Portuguese, which is up significantly from less than 5% in the 2006 UN Development Report  Portuguese is recovering as it has now been made the main official language of Timor, and is being taught in most schools  The use of Portuguese for government information and in the court system provides some barriers to access for those who do not speak it  Tetum is also not understood by everyone in the country : 11  According to the Observatory of the Portuguese Language, the East Timorese literacy rate was 77 8% in Tetum, 55 6% in Indonesian, and 39 3% in Portuguese, and that the primary literacy rate increased from 73% in 2009 to 83% in 2012  According to the 2015 census, 50% of the population between the ages of 14 and 24 can speak and understand Portuguese  The 2015 census found around 15% of those over the age of five were literate in English 

Education
East Timor's adult literacy rate was 68% among adults, and 84% among those aged 15–24, as of 2021  It is slightly higher among women than men : 27  More girls than boys attend school, although some drop out upon reaching puberty : 25  As of 2016 22% of working age women (15–49) and 19% of working age men had no education, 15% of women and 18% of men had some primary education, 52% of women and 51% of men had some secondary education, and 11% of women and 12% of men had higher education  Overall, 75% of women and 82% of men were literate : 2  Primary schools exist throughout the country, although the quality of materials and teaching is often poor  Secondary schools are generally limited to municipal capitals  Education takes up 10% of the national budget : 27  The country's main university is the National University of East Timor  There are also four colleges Since independence, both Indonesian and Tetum have lost ground as media of instruction, while Portuguese has increased: in 2001 only 8 4% of primary school and 6 8% of secondary school students attended a Portuguese-medium school; by 2005 this had increased to 81 6% for primary and 46 3% for secondary schools  Indonesian formerly played a considerable role in education, being used by 73 7% of all secondary school students as a medium of instruction, but by 2005 Portuguese was used by most schools in Baucau, Manatuto, as well as the capital district  Portugal provides support to about 3% of the public schools in East Timor, focused on those in urban areas, further encouraging the use of the Portuguese language : 28

Religion
While the Constitution of East Timor enshrines the principles of freedom of religion and separation of church and state, Section 45 Comma 1 also acknowledges "the participation of the Catholic Church in the process of national liberation" in its preamble  Upon independence, the country joined the Philippines to become the only two predominantly Catholic states in Asia, although nearby parts of eastern Indonesia such as Flores and parts of Western New Guinea also have Catholic majorities According to the 2015 census, 97 57% of the population is Catholic; 1 96% Protestant; 0 24% Muslim; 0 08% Traditional; 0 05% Buddhist; 0 02% Hindu, and 0 08% other religions  A 2016 survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Survey programme showed that Catholics made up 98 3% of the population, Protestants 1 2%, and Muslims 0 3% The number of churches grew from 100 in 1974 to more than 800 in 1994, with Church membership having grown considerably under Indonesian rule as Pancasila, Indonesia's state ideology, requires all citizens to believe in one God and does not recognise traditional beliefs  East Timorese animist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia's constitutional monotheism, resulting in mass conversions to Christianity  Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests and Latin and Portuguese mass was replaced by Indonesian mass  While just 20% of East Timorese called themselves Catholics at the time of the 1975 invasion, the figure surged to reach 95% by the end of the first decade after the invasion  The Roman Catholic Church divides East Timor into three dioceses: the Archdiocese of Díli, the Diocese of Baucau, and the Diocese of Maliana  In rural areas, Roman Catholicism is syncretised with local animist beliefs  The number of Protestants and Muslims declined significantly after September 1999, as these groups were disproportionately represented among supporters of integration with Indonesia  Fewer than half of previous Protestant congregations existed after September 1999, and many Protestants were among those who remained in West Timor 

Culture
The many cultures within East Timor stem from the several waves of Austronesian and Melanesian migration that led to the current population, with unique identities and traditions developing within each petty kingdom  Portuguese authorities built upon traditional structures, blending Portuguese influence into the existing political and social systems : 91–92  The presence of the Catholic Church created a point of commonality across the various ethnic groups, despite full conversion remaining limited  The Portuguese language also provided common linkages, even if direct Portuguese impact was limited : 97–98  Under Indonesian rule, resistance strengthened cultural links to Catholicism and the Portuguese language  At the same time, Indonesian cultural influence was spread through schools and administration : 98–99 The preservation of traditional beliefs in the face of Indonesian attempts to suppress them became linked to the creation of the country's national identity : 7–13  This national identity only began to emerge at the very end of Portuguese rule, and further developed during Indonesian rule : 134–136  Following independence, a civic identity began to develop  This was most clearly expressed through enthusiasm for national-level democracy,: 155–156  and was reflected in politics through a shift from resistance narratives to development ones : 3  The capital has developed a more cosmopolitan culture, while rural areas maintain stronger traditional practices : 30  Internal migration into urban areas, especially Dili, creates cultural links between these areas and rural hinterlands  Those in urban areas often continue to identify with a specific rural area, even those with multiple generations born in Dili : 53–54 The presence of so many ethnic and linguistic groups means cultural practices vary across the country : 11  These practices reflect historical social structures and practices, where political leaders were regarded as having spiritual powers  Ancestry was an important part of cultural practices, and partly signified leadership  Leaders often had influence over land use, and these leaders continue to play an informal role in land disputes and other aspects of community practice today  An important traditional concept is lulik, or sacredness  Some lulik ceremonies continue to reflect animist beliefs, for example through divination ceremonies which vary throughout the country  Sacred status can also be associated with objects, such as Portuguese flags which have been passed down within families : 7–13 

Community life is centred around sacred houses (Uma Lulik), physical structures which serve as a representative symbol and identifier for each community : 47–49  The architectural style of these houses varies between different parts of the country, although following widespread destruction by Indonesian forces many were rebuilt with cheap modern materials : 22–25  The house as a concept extends beyond the physical object to the surrounding community : 92–93, 96  Kinship systems exist within and between houses  Traditional leaders, who stem from historically important families, retain key roles in administering justice and resolving disputes through methods that vary between communities : 47–49  Such leaders are often elected to official leadership positions, merging cultural and historical status with modern political status : 52  The concept of being part of a communal house has been extended to the nation, with Parliament serving as the national sacred house : 96 Art styles vary throughout the various ethnolinguistic groups of the island  Nonetheless, similar artistic motifs are present throughout, such as large animals and particular geometric patterns  Some art is traditionally associated with particular genders  For example, the Tais textiles that play a widespread role in traditional life throughout the island are traditionally handwoven by women  Different tais patterns are associated with different communities, and more broadly with linguistic groups : 137  Many buildings within central Dili maintain historical Portuguese architecture : I-5 Traditional rituals remain important, often mixed in with more modern aspects : 137  A strong oral history is highlighted in individuals able to recite long stories or poetry  This history, or Lia nain, passes down traditional knowledge : 16  There remains a strong tradition of poetry  Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão, for example, is a distinguished poet, earning the moniker "poet warrior" In the field of cinema, East Timor released its first feature-length film, a period thriller titled Beatriz's War, in 2013  Shot with a limited budget by a mix of local filmmakers and a volunteer Australian film crew, the film depicted East Timorese life under Indonesian occupation in the 1970s, with producer Lurdes Pires acknowledging their aim to diverge from the government's "friendship and forgiveness" policy for its past conflicts by telling a story of truth-seeking and justice 

See also
Outline of East Timor
Index of East Timor-related articles
List of topics on the Portuguese Empire in the East
Passage 9:
Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship
The Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission on Truth and Friendship (more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym CVA, Comissão Verdade e Amizade) was a truth commission established jointly by the governments of Indonesia and East Timor in August 2005  The commission was officially created to investigate acts of violence that occurred around the independence referendum held in East Timor in 1999 and sought to find the "conclusive truth" behind the events  After holding private hearings and document reviews, the commission handed in the final report on July 15, 2008 to the presidents of both nations, and was fully endorsed by Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, providing the first acknowledgement by the government of Indonesia of the human rights violations committed by state institutions in Timor  The commission is notable for being the first modern truth commission to be bilateral 

Background
East Timor was originally colonized by the Portuguese, and remained a colony up until the fall of the military dictatorship in 1974  East Timor declared independence soon afterwards, but Indonesia soon decided to intervene as it became clear that the government of the new state would most likely be leftist  The Indonesian government began Operation Komodo, which was intended to bring about the integration of the East Timorese territory  It began with a propaganda campaign, but after the outbreak of conflict in East Timor, the Indonesian military began a campaign on 7 October starting with an assault on a border post and accumulating with a full-scale invasion utilizing paratroopers and naval support  The United Nations quickly condemned the invasion via resolution, but due to resistance in the Security council, no further action was taken  The United States also tacitly gave their approval, as the dismantling of a pro-communist government helped advance the policy of containment being pursued by the government 
Indonesia occupied the territory for the following two decades  During the administration of the Habibie government, a referendum was held in the occupied area asking if the residents of the area wished to remain a part of Indonesia  Even before the referendum, there was harassment by militia groups in the area, with UN workers being attacked in Maliana  It soon became clear in the wake of the referendum that the referendum result would be overwhelmingly in favor of the "no" option on the ballot; this raised tensions to a boiling point, and within two hours of the announcement of the results, armed militia groups began attacking civilians  Militia continued to attack civilians as they withdrew from the country, and several massacres occurred as the troops filtered out of the area  A UN peacekeeping force known as INTERFET was deployed to stabilize the situation, made up of mostly Australian troops, and was withdrawn with the arrival of normal UN peacekeepers  East Timor eventually transitioned from a UN mandate to an independent country 

Report
The commission itself was announced in August 2006 and sought to establish "the conclusive truth regarding human rights violations to have occurred prior to, immediately after the Popular Consultation on 30 August 1999" as well as "prepare recommendations that can contribute to healing wounds of the past and strengthen friendship"  The timing of the commission's creation was criticized by some, as it was believed that it was created to intentionally subvert calls for an international tribunal to deal with the events surrounding the 1999 plebiscite  The commission's mandate allowed it to review documents pertaining to four other inquiries surrounding the events that predated it: "The Indonesian National Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights Violations in East Timor in 1999", "The Indonesian Ad Hoc Human Rights Court on East Timor", "The Special Panels for Serious Crimes", and "The Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation" The commission was made up of four members appointed from each nation, and these commissioners were instructed to conduct a document review and analyze previous trials and investigations into the subject, including the UN Special Panels for Serious Crimes and Serious Crime Units in Dili, and the report of the Commission of Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste  The commission also stated its intent to research the "historical background, political dynamics, and institutional structures that shaped events before and during 1999" to "inform its conclusions with a broader understanding of the way in which the causes of the violence in 1999 were connected to previously established institutional structures and practices "Operating over three years, the commission gave its final report on July 15, 2008, and presented it to the Presidents of Indonesia and East Timor, concluding that "gross human rights violations in the form of crimes against humanity did occur in East Timor in 1999" and that "pro-autonomy militia groups, TNI, the Indonesian civil government, and Polri must all bear institutional responsibility", as well as stating that "from a moral and political perspective the respective states must accept state responsibility for the violations identified in the report " The commission also made recommendations that both nations begin institutional reform enhancing the strength of investigative and prosecuting bodies involved with investigations into the events, as well as forming joint security policy to ensure the safety of individuals in case of the recurrence of violence  It also noted the need to resolve other standing border and security issues between the two nations to allow for more cooperation  Notably, the report gave no recommendations of amnesty or rehabilitation  The report was endorsed by the president of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, making it the first recognition of the Indonesian government's complicity in human rights violations in East Timor by Indonesia 

Reception
In Indonesia and Timor, the report was presented to both governments and accepted by both the Timorese and Indonesian governments  However, Timorese NGO Timor-Leste National Alliance for International Tribunal wrote an open letter in response to the commission's findings with several criticisms, including the lack of public consultation with victims and parliamentary approval of the commission, as well as noting that the commission assigned institutional responsibility rather than individual responsibility, "which is contrary to the principles of international laws which were ratified by the state of Timor-Leste and to Article 160 of its constitution which says that there must be a justice process for crimes against humanity ", as well as stating their belief that the CAVR was a more trustworthy and support worthy commission for the government to support Internationally, the report had a mixed reception  Some, such as the War Crimes Studies Center at the University of California, Berkeley, said that the commission could be seen as "widely acknowledged as credible and far-reaching ", noting that the Indonesian government's affirmation of the results was important and that the commission made arguments that "there was credible evidence to indicate that Timorese institutions were also responsible for illegal detentions and possibly other crimes "

See also
History of East Timor
Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor
Indonesian occupation of East Timor
Santa Cruz massacre
Context 3:  and others whose hours are set by the sun  There is concern for schoolchildren who are out in the darkness during the morning due to late sunrises  DST also hurts prime-time television broadcast ratings, drive-ins and other theaters It has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight-saving effect implied an estimated one-day loss of $31 billion on U S  stock exchanges, Others have asserted that the observed results depend on methodology and disputed the findings, though the original authors have refuted points raised by disputers 

Health
There are measurable adverse effects of time-shifts on human health  It has been shown to disrupt human circadian rhythms, negatively affecting human health in the process, and that the yearly DST time-shifts can increase health risks such as heart attack, and traffic accidents A 2017 study in the American Economic Journal: Applied Economics estimated that "the transition into DST caused over 30 deaths at a social cost of $275 million annually", primarily by increasing sleep deprivation A correlation between clock shifts and increase in traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden  Four reports have found that this effect is smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities  In 2018, the European Parliament, reviewing a possible abolition of DST, approved a more in-depth evaluation examining the disruption of the human body's circadian rhythms which provided evidence suggesting the existence of an association between DST time-shifts and a modest increase of occurrence of acute myocardial infarction, especially in the first week after the spring shift  However a Netherlands study found, against the majority of investigations, contrary or minimal effect  Year-round standard time (not year-round DST) is proposed by some to be the preferred option for public health and safety  Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent, and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency  Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks 

Social relations
DST likely reduces some kinds of crime, such as robbery and sexual assault, as fewer potential victims are outdoors after dusk  Artificial outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime In 2022, a publication of three replicating studies of individuals, between individuals, and transecting societies, demonstrated that sleep loss affects the human motivation to help others, which in its fMRI findings is "associated with deactivation of key nodes within the social cognition brain network that facilitates prosociality " Furthermore, they detected, through analysis of over 3 million real-world charitable donations, that loss of sleep inflicted by the transition to Daylight Saving Time reduces altruistic giving compared to controls (being states not implementing DST)  They conclude that implications for cooperative, civil society are "non-trivial" Another study, which also examined sleep manipulation due to the shift to daylight saving time in the spring, analyzed archival data from judicial punishment imposed by U S  federal courts which showed sleep-deprived judges exact more severe penalties 

Inconvenience
DST's clock shifts have the disadvantage of complexity  People must remember to change their clocks; this can be time-consuming, particularly for mechanical clocks that cannot be moved backward safely  People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules, as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way  The length of the calendar day becomes variable; it is no longer always 24 hours  Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, billing systems, and records management is common, and can be expensive  During an autumn transition from 02:00 to 01:00, a clock reads times from 01:00:00 through 01:59:59 twice, possibly leading to confusion 

Remediation
Some clock-shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously or at least more gradually—for example, Willett at first suggested weekly 20-minute transitions—but this would add complexity and has never been implemented  DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time  For example, when reading a sundial, one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies  Also, sun-exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect Andrew D  Huberman, a professor of neurobiology at Stanford University, suggests viewing sunlight before the sun is overhead & exercise, ideally outside, before 2 pm the day following the clock adjustment  This applies regardless of if the sky were to be covered by clouds 

Terminology
As explained by Richard Meade in the English Journal of the (American) National Council of Teachers of English, the form daylight savings time (with an "s") was already in 1978 much more common than the older form daylight saving time in American English ("the change has been virtually accomplished")  Nevertheless, even dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster's, American Heritage, and Oxford, which describe actual usage instead of prescribing outdated usage (and therefore also list the newer form), still list the older form first  This is because the older form is still very common in print and preferred by many editors  ("Although daylight saving time is considered correct, daylight savings time (with an "s") is commonly used ") The first two words are sometimes hyphenated (daylight-saving(s) time)  Merriam-Webster's also lists the forms daylight saving (without "time"), daylight savings (without "time"), and daylight time  The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style explains the development and current situation as follows: "Although the singular form daylight saving time is the original one, dating from the early 20th century—and is preferred by some usage critics—the plural form is now extremely common in AmE  [   ] The rise of daylight savings time appears to have resulted from the avoidance of a miscue: when saving is used, readers might puzzle momentarily over whether saving is a gerund (the saving of daylight) or a participle (the time for saving)  [   ] Using savings as the adjective—as in savings account or savings bond—makes perfect sense  More than that, it ought to be accepted as the better form "In Britain, Willett's 1907 proposal used the term daylight saving, but by 1911 the term summer time replaced daylight saving time in draft legislation  The same or similar expressions are used in many other languages: Sommerzeit in German, zomertijd in Dutch, kesäaika in Finnish, horario de verano or hora de verano in Spanish, and heure d'été in French The name of local time typically changes when DST is observed  American English replaces standard with daylight: for example, Pacific Standard Time (PST) becomes Pacific Daylight Time (PDT)  In the United Kingdom, the standard term for UK time when advanced by one hour is British Summer Time (BST), and British English typically inserts summer into other time zone names, e g  Central European Time (CET) becomes Central European Summer Time (CEST) 

The North American English mnemonic "spring forward, fall back" (also "spring ahead    ", "spring up    ", and "    fall behind") helps people remember in which direction to shift the clocks 

Computing
Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations  For example, the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required that many computer systems be upgraded, with the greatest onus on e-mail and calendar programs  The upgrades required a significant effort by corporate information technologists Some applications standardize on UTC to avoid problems with clock shifts and time zone differences  Likewise, most modern operating systems internally handle and store all times as UTC and only convert to local time for display However, even if UTC is used internally, the systems still require external leap second updates and time zone information to correctly calculate local time as needed  Many systems in use today base their date/time calculations from data derived from the tz database also known as zoneinfo 

IANA time zone database
The tz database maps a name to the named location's historical and predicted clock shifts  This database is used by many computer software systems, including most Unix-like operating systems, Java, and the Oracle RDBMS; HP's "tztab" database is similar but incompatible  When temporal authorities change DST rules, zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance  In Unix-like systems the TZ environment variable specifies the location name, as in TZ=':America/New_York'  In many of those systems there is also a system-wide setting that is applied if the TZ environment variable is not set: this setting is controlled by the contents of the /etc/localtime file, which is usually a symbolic link or hard link to one of the zoneinfo files  Internal time is stored in time-zone-independent Unix time; the TZ is used by each of potentially many simultaneous users and processes to independently localize time display 
Older or stripped-down systems may support only the TZ values required by POSIX, which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value  For example, TZ='EST5EDT,M3 2 0/02:00,M11 1 0/02:00' specifies time for the eastern United States starting in 2007  Such a TZ value must be changed whenever DST rules change, and the new value applies to all years, mishandling some older timestamps 

Permanent daylight saving time
A move to permanent daylight saving time (staying on summer hours all year with no time shifts) is sometimes advocated and is currently implemented in some jurisdictions such as Argentina, Belarus, Iceland, Kyrgyzstan, Morocco, Namibia, Saskatchewan, Singapore, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Yukon  Although Saskatchewan follows Central Standard Time, its capital city Regina experiences solar noon close to 13:00, in effect putting the city on permanent daylight time  Similarly, Yukon is classified as being in the Mountain Time Zone, though in effect it observes permanent Pacific Daylight Time to align with the Pacific time zone in summer, but local solar noon in the capital Whitehorse occurs nearer to 14:00, in effect putting Whitehorse on "double daylight time" 
The United Kingdom and Ireland put clocks forward by an extra hour during World War II and experimented with year-round summer time between 1968 and 1971  Russia switched to permanent DST from 2011 to 2014, but the move proved unpopular because of the extremely late winter sunrises; in 2014, Russia switched permanently back to standard time  However, the change to permanent DST has proven popular in Turkey, with the Minister of Energy and Natural Resources saying the practice saves "millions in energy costs and reduces depression and anxiety levels associated with short exposure to daylight" In September 2018, the European Commission proposed to end seasonal clock changes as of 2019  Member states would have the option of observing either daylight saving time all year round or standard time all year round  In March 2019, the European Parliament approved the commission's proposal, while deferring implementation from 2019 until 2021  In response to this proposition, the European Sleep Research Society stated "installing permanent Central European Time (CET, standard time or 'wintertime') is the best option for public health " As of October 2020, the decision has not been confirmed by the Council of the European Union  The council has asked the commission to produce a detailed assessment of its effects, but the Commission considers that the onus is on the Member States to find a common position in Council  As a result, progress on the issue is effectively blocked In the United States, several states have enacted legislation to implement permanent DST, but the bills would require Congress to change federal law in order to take effect  The Uniform Time Act of 1966 permits states to opt out of DST and observe permanent standard time, it does not permit permanent DST  Florida senator Marco Rubio in particular has promoted changing the federal law to implement permanent DST, with the support of the Florida Chamber of Commerce seeking to boost evening revenue  In 2022, Rubio's "Sunshine Protection Act" passed the United States Senate without committee review by way of voice consent, with many senators afterward stating they were unaware of the vote or its topic  The bill was stopped in the U S  House, where questions were raised as to whether permanent DST or standard time would be more beneficial Advocates cite the same advantages as normal DST without the problems associated with the twice yearly time shifts  Additional benefits have also been cited, including safer roadways, boosting the tourism industry, and energy savings  Detractors cite the relatively late sunrises, particularly in winter, that year-round DST entails Some experts in circadian rhythms and sleep health recommend year-round standard time as the preferred option for public health and safety  Several chronobiology societies have published position papers against adopting DST permanently  A paper by the Society for Research on Biological Rhythms states: "based on comparisons of large populations living in DST or ST or on western versus eastern edges of time zones, the advantages of permanent ST outweigh switching to DST annually or permanently " The World Federation of Societies for Chronobiology stated that "the scientific literature strongly argues against the switching between DST and Standard Time and even more so against adopting DST permanently " The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) holds the position that "seasonal time changes should be abolished in favor of a fixed, national, year-round standard time," and that "standard time is a better option than daylight saving time for our health, mood and well-being " The AASM's position is endorsed by 20 other nonprofits, including the American College of Chest Physicians, National Safety Council, and National PTA Current public opinion polls show mixed results  Surveys reported between 2021 and 2022 by the National Sleep Foundation, YouGov, CBS, and Monmouth University indicate more Americans would prefer permanent DST  A 2019 survey by National Opinion Research Center and a 2021 survey by the Associated Press indicate more Americans would prefer permanent Standard Time  The National Sleep Foundation, YouGov, and Monmouth University polls leaned significantly in favor of seeing Daylight Saving Time made permanent  The Monmouth University poll reported 44% preferring year-round DST and 13% preferring year-round standard time  In 1973 and 1974, NORC found 79% of Americans to be in favor of permanent DST before its implementation during the Oil Crisis, and only 42% to support permanent DST the following February 

See also
Daylight saving time by country
Daylight saving time in Africa
Daylight saving time in Asia
Summer time in Europe
Daylight saving time in the Americas
Daylight saving time in Oceania
Analysis of daylight saving time
Winter time (clock lag)

Notes
Passage 2:
International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples
The International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples is observed on 9 August each year to raise awareness and protect the rights of the world's indigenous population  This event also recognizes the achievements and contributions that indigenous people make to improve world issues such as environmental protection  It was first pronounced by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1994, marking the day of the first meeting of the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in 1982 

History
In December 1992 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a resolution to make 1993  the International Year of the World's Indigenous Peoples The International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples was first pronounced by the UN General Assembly in December 1994, to be celebrated every year during the first International Decade of the World's Indigenous Peoples (1995–2004)  In 2004, the Assembly proclaimed a Second International Decade, from 2005–2015, with the theme of "A Decade for Action and Dignity"  People from different nations are encouraged to participate in observing the day to spread the UN's message on indigenous peoples  Activities may include educational forums and classroom activities to gain an appreciation and a better understanding of indigenous peoples By resolution 49/214 of 23 December 1994, the United Nations General Assembly decided that the International Day of the World's Indigenous People shall be observed on 9 August every year during the International Decade of the World's Indigenous People  The date marks the day of the first meeting, in 1982, of the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights 

International Year of Indigenous Languages 2019
In the year 2016, it was reported that about 2,680 indigenous languages were in danger and on the verge of becoming extinct  Hence, UN designated 2019 to be the International Year of Indigenous Languages to persuade, convince and create awareness to people about indigenous languages 

Symbols
Artwork by Rebang Dewan, a Chakma boy from Bangladesh, was chosen as the visual identifier of the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues  It has also been seen on material to promote the International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples  It features two ears of green leaves facing each other and a globe resembling planet earth  Within the globe is a picture of a handshake (two different hands) in the middle and above the handshake is a landscape background  The handshake and the landscape background are encapsulated by blue at the top and bottom within the globe 

Celebration in Canada
International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples is celebrated as an all nations community celebration with artists, speakers, poets, performers, and a wide range of vendors and community service booths in Kingston, Ontario, by Ollin 

Celebration in Taiwan
In 2016, the administration under President Tsai Ing-wen approved a proposal that designated 1 August as Indigenous Peoples' Day in Taiwan  In celebration of the special day, President Tsai issued an official apology to the country's aboriginal people and outlined steps to further promote legislation and involve organizations related to aboriginal causes, like the Presidential Office's Indigenous Historical Justice and Transitional Justice Committee  The government hopes the day will remind the public of the diverse ethnic groups in Taiwan by bringing greater respect for indigenous peoples' cultures and history and promoting their rights 

See also
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous Peoples' Day
National Indigenous Peoples Day
Passage 3:
The Loneliest Planet
The Loneliest Planet is a 2011 German-American film written and directed by Julia Loktev, starring Gael García Bernal, Hani Furstenberg, and Georgian actor Bidzina Gujabidze  The plot centers around a young couple who travel with a local guide through a twisted backpacking trip across the Georgian wilderness 
The film had its international premiere at the 2011 Locarno International Film Festival followed by its North American premiere at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival  It then went on to be featured during the New York Film Festival, the BFI London Film Festival, and the 2011 AFI Fest in Los Angeles, where it won the Grand Jury Prize  On March 24, 2012, The Loneliest Planet was awarded the top prize of "Lady Harimaguada de Oro" (The Golden Lady) at the Las Palmas de Gran Canaria International Film Festival, where actress Hani Furstenberg also won for Best Actress  On April 14, 2012, the film also won the Golden Tulip International Competition award at the 31st International Istanbul Film Festival On October 11, 2011, it was announced that Sundance Selects, a division of IFC Films, had acquired North American distribution rights  The film's theatrical release in the United States was on October 26, 2012 
The film is adapted from McSweeney's writer Tom Bissell's short story "Expensive Trips Nowhere," published in his collection God Lives in St  Petersburg 

Plot
Alex (Gael García Bernal) and Nica (Hani Furstenberg) are in love and engaged to be married  They are seasoned travelers on a trip in the country of Georgia, formerly a republic of the Soviet Union  They hire a local guide (Bidzina Gujabidze) to take them backpacking through the breathtaking scenery of the Caucasus Mountains 
While on their journey, they meet an older man with two boys on their route; he is suspicious of the two foreigners  After a short conversation with their guide, the older man suddenly aims a hunting rifle aggressively at Alex and Nica at point-blank range   For a moment, Alex's reaction is to shield himself behind Nica  He immediately regains his composure and pushes himself in front of Nica to face the stranger's gun, while their guide in turn persuades the stranger to lower his gun and go on his way  A seemingly traumatized Nica walks away on her own 
A few scenes show the couple not speaking or walking together while on their journey to the mountains, although Alex repeatedly attempts to reconnect with Nica  At one point, they cross a stream where Nica accidentally falls only to be saved by the local guide  Alex tries to offer a shivering Nica some help, but she rebuffs him  At night, the local guide tells Nica the story of his failed marriage, and they kiss  Soon after, Nica returns to Alex and the couple have sex  At dawn, the trio start packing up their camps, and it remains ambiguous as to whether or not the couple have finally reconciled 

Cast
Gael García Bernal as Alex
Hani Furstenberg as Nica
Bidzina Gujabidze as local guide
Amiran Gudrshauri as kebab seller

Reception
The film was well-received by critics  The film holds a "certified fresh" approval rating of 70% on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 62 reviews with an average of 6 9/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "The source material that inspired The Loneliest Planet may be brief, but this adaptation of a Tom Bissell short story compensates with studious, finely detailed filmmaking, haunting visuals, and thought-provoking subtext " On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews" A O  Scott of The New York Times called The Loneliest Planet, "gripping and haunting, but also coy and elusive "Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 2 out of 4 and wrote: "All of this grows tiresome  We're given no particular reason at the outset of The Loneliest Planet to care about these people, our interest doesn't grow along the way, the landscape grows repetitive  



ground_truth: Francisco Guterres

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: At what local time does the country where Fuser and Alberto meet the indigenous couple traveling to look for work change their clocks for DST?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  "
Passage 4:
Le Défenseur du Temps
Le Défenseur du Temps (The Defender of Time) is a large mechanical work of art in the form of a clock created by the French artist Jacques Monestier 

Description
Le Défenseur du Temps is a clock made of automata  Close to the dial, a man perched on a rock with a sword and shield fights against a bird, a dragon, and a crab which respectively represent air, earth, and water  As originally designed, every hour from 9 am to 10 pm, he fights one of the three animals chosen randomly by a program  At noon, 6 pm, and 10pm, all three animals attack at the same time 
The time is announced by three strokes  While the man fights, he is accompanied by sounds of breaking waves, rumbling earth or the sound of wind, depending on the animal chosen 
Le Défenseur du temps is 4 meters high and weighs about 1 ton  The characters, animals and the clock face are hammered brass and gold leaf  The rock on which they sit is composed of oxidized brass  In its original configuration, a master electronic quartz circuit board controlled the random attacks chance, and used six cam timers and five tape recorders 

Location
Le Défenseur du temps is located at 8 rue Bernard de Clairvaux, in the Quartier de l'Horloge in Paris' 3rd arrondissement  The area around the clock owes its name to this work 

History
Le Défenseur du temps was commissioned in 1975 by COGEDIM  The scales of the dragon were made by Louis Desouches, and the construction of the steel structure was by Alain Moirod 
The clock was partially installed in September 1979  It was formally dedicated on 8 October 1979 by the Mayor of Paris, Jacques Chirac The clock underwent restoration in 1995  The master clock's quartz crystal was replaced by a radio clock, and the tape recorders were replaced by a compact disc player  Without funding for maintenance, the clock has been stopped since July 1, 2003 In February 2022, the clock was taken down and the restoration of the clock has begun to take place  The Defenseur Du Temps should be fixed and reinstalled by March 2023 

External links
Conception et réalisation du "Défenseur du Temps"
Le Defenseur du Temps clock
Passage 5:
The Motorcycle Diaries (film)
The Motorcycle Diaries (Spanish: Diarios de motocicleta) is a 2004 biopic about the journey and written memoir of the 23-year-old Ernesto Guevara, who would several years later become internationally known as the Marxist guerrilla leader and revolutionary leader Che Guevara  The film recounts the 1952 expedition, initially by motorcycle, across South America by Guevara and his friend Alberto Granado  As well as being a road movie, the film is a coming-of-age film; as the adventure, initially centered on youthful hedonism, unfolds, Guevara discovers himself transformed by his observations on the life of the impoverished indigenous peasantry  Through the characters they encounter on their continental trek, Guevara and Granado witness first hand the injustices that the destitute face and are exposed to people and social classes they would have never encountered otherwise  To their surprise, the road presents to them both a genuine and captivating picture of Latin American identity  As a result, the trip also plants the initial seed of radicalization within Guevara, who would later challenge the continent's endemic economic inequalities and political repression 
The screenplay is based primarily on Guevara's trip diary of the same name, with additional context supplied by Traveling with Che Guevara: The Making of a Revolutionary by Alberto Granado  Guevara is played by Gael García Bernal (who previously played Che in the 2002 miniseries Fidel), and Granado by the Argentine actor Rodrigo de la Serna, who incidentally is a second cousin to the real-life Guevara on his maternal side  Directed by Brazilian director Walter Salles and written by Puerto Rican playwright José Rivera, the film was an international co-production among production companies from Argentina, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Chile, Peru and France  The film's executive producers were Robert Redford, Paul Webster, and Rebecca Yeldham; the producers were Edgard Tenenbaum, Michael Nozik, and Karen Tenkhoff; and the co-producers were Daniel Burman and Diego Dubcovsky 

Plot
The Che of The Motorcycle Diaries is more akin to Jack Kerouac or Neal Cassady than Marx or Lenin "
In 1952, a semester before Ernesto "Fuser" Guevara is due to complete his medical degree, he and his older friend Alberto Granado, a biochemist, leave Buenos Aires to travel across South America  While there is a goal at the end of their journey - they intend to work in a leper colony in Peru - the main purpose is initially fun and adventure  They desire to see as much of Latin America as they can, more than 14,000 kilometres (8,700 mi) in just four and a half months, while Granado's purpose is also to bed as many women as will fall for his pickup lines  Their initial method of transport is Granado's dilapidated Norton 500 motorcycle christened La Poderosa ("The Mighty One") 
Their planned route is ambitious, bringing them north across the Andes, along the coast of Chile, through the Atacama Desert and into the Peruvian Amazon in order to reach Venezuela just in time for Granado's 30th birthday on 2 April  However, due to La Poderosa's breakdown, they are forced to travel at a much slower pace, often walking, and do not make it to Caracas until July 
During their expedition, Guevara and Granado encounter the poverty of the indigenous peasants, and the movie assumes a greater seriousness once the men gain a better sense of the disparity between the "haves" (to which they belong) and the obviously exploited "have-nots" (who make up the majority of those they encounter) by travelling on foot  In Chile, for instance, they encounter a penniless and persecuted couple forced onto the road because of their communist beliefs  In a fire-lit scene, Guevara and Granado ashamedly admit to the couple that they are not out looking for work as well  The duo then accompanies the couple to the Chuquicamata copper mine, where Guevara becomes angry at the treatment of the workers 
However, it is a visit to the ancient Incan ruins of Machu Picchu in Peru that solidifies something in Guevara  His musings are then somberly refocused to how an indigenous civilization capable of building such beauty could be destroyed by the creators of the eventually polluted urban decay of nearby Lima Later, in Peru, they volunteer for three weeks at the San Pablo leper colony  There, Guevara observes both literally and metaphorically the division of society, as the staff live on the north side of a river, separated from the deprived lepers living across the river to the south  To demonstrate his solidarity, and his medical belief that leprosy is not contagious, Guevara refuses to wear rubber gloves during his visit as the head nun requires, choosing instead to shake bare hands and interact normally with the surprised leper patients 
At the end of the film, after his sojourn at the leper colony, Guevara confirms his nascent egalitarian, revolutionary impulses, while making a birthday toast, which is also his first political speech  In it, he invokes a pan-Latin American identity that transcends the arbitrary boundaries of both nation and race  These encounters with social injustice transform the way Guevara sees the world and his purposes in it, and by implication motivates his later political activities as a Marxist revolutionary 
Guevara makes his symbolic "final journey" at night when, despite the danger and his asthma, he swims across the river that separates the two societies of the leper colony, to spend the night in a leper shack, instead of in the doctors' cabins  Later, as they bid each other farewell at an airport, Granado reveals that his birthday was not 2 April, but rather 8 August, and that the aforementioned goal was simply a motivator: Guevara replies that he knew all along  The film closes with an appearance by the real 82-year-old Alberto Granado, along with pictures from the actual journey and a brief mention of Che Guevara's eventual 1967 CIA-assisted execution in the Bolivian jungle 

Cast
Development
The film shows what we were, which was two young men - boys, really - who went looking for adventure and found the truth and tragedy of our homeland 
Gael García Bernal agreed to reprise his role as young Che Guevara having previously portrayed him in the television film Fidel (2002 film)  To prepare for the role, he went through six months of intense preparation  This groundwork included reading "every biography" about Guevara, traveling to Cuba to speak with Guevara's family, and consulting with Guevara's then still living travel partner Alberto Granado  Despite being in his eighties, Granado was also taken on as an adviser by Salles, and enthusiastically followed the film crew as they retraced his former journey 

Moreover, García Bernal (who is Mexican) adopted an Argentine accent and spent 14 weeks reading the works of José Martí, 
Karl Marx and Pablo Neruda (Guevara's favorite poet)  García Bernal told reporters "I feel a lot of responsibility  I want to do it well because of what Che represents to the world  He is a Romantic  He had a political consciousness that changed Latin America " According to García Bernal, the role crystallized his "own sense of duty" because Guevara "decided to live on the side of the mistreated, to live on the side of the people who have no justice - and no voice " In surmising the similarities between his transformation and Guevara's, García Bernal posits that "my generation is awakening, and we're discovering a world full of incredible injustice "Granado later stated that he appreciated the film's effort "to dig beneath the "mythical Che", whose defiant image appears on T-shirts and posters around the world, "to reveal the flawed, flesh-and-blood Ernesto beneath "

Film locales
We were re-enacting a journey that was done 50 years ago, and what's surprising is that the social problems of Latin America are the same  Which is heartbreaking in a way, but it also makes you feel how important it is to tell the story "
In a journey that lasts eight months, the partners travel over 14,000 kilometers (8,700 miles), from Argentina through Chile, Peru, and Colombia to Venezuela  Key locations along the journey described in the film include: in Argentina: Buenos Aires, Miramar, Villa Gesell, San Martín de los Andes, Lago Frías, Patagonia and Nahuel Huapi Lake; in Chile: Temuco, Los Angeles, Valparaiso, the Atacama desert, and Chuquicamata; in Peru: Cuzco, Machu Picchu, Lima, The San Pablo Leper Colony; as well as Leticia, Colombia and Caracas, Venezuela 
Reviewer Nick Cowen of The Daily Telegraph described the scenery as "visually stunning" while remarking that "the cinematography of fog-cloaked mountains, lush, green forests and sunburnt deserts is breathtakingly beautiful enough to serve as a travel advert for the entire continent "

Tourist trails
The Observer reported that shortly after the film's release, tour operators in the region received a surge of inquiries, with some of them even offering Che Guevara-themed trips, where travellers could "follow in the footsteps of the revolutionary icon "The crew filmed in the same San Pablo Leper Colony that Guevara himself had visited  According to Bernal, 85% of the people suffering leprosy in the film were actual lepers, with some of them having lived there when Che and Granado worked at the colony  In fact, when Granado returned with the film crew to the leprosarium of San Pablo, he found some of the people he had treated half a century earlier, remarking that "It was wonderful and amazing that they could still remember me " Granado was also pleased that buildings constructed for the scenes shot at the leprosarium were afterwards used by the patients themselves The scene which features Guevara's character swimming across to the other side of the river was filmed during three nights in which Bernal swam across the actual Amazon River 

Soundtrack
The score for The Motorcycle Diaries was composed by Gustavo Santaolalla  The film's soundtrack was released on the Deutsche Grammophon label in 2004 

Distribution
The film was first presented at the Sundance Film Festival on 15 January 2004  Granado had an invitation to the Sundance premiere, but he was refused an entry Visa by the United States  Later it was featured at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival on 19 May, and Granado was able to attend The film later screened at many other film festivals, including: the Auckland International Film Festival, New Zealand; the Copenhagen International Film Festival, Denmark; the Espoo Film Festival, Finland; the Telluride Film Festival, United States; the Toronto International Film Festival, Canada; the Vancouver International Film Festival, Canada; the Celebrating Literature in Cinema Film Festival Frankfurt, Germany; and the Morelia Film Festival, Mexico 
Release datesUnited States: 15 January 2004 (premiere at Sundance Film Festival)
France: 7 July 2004
Argentina: 29 July 2004
United Kingdom: 27 August 2004
United States: 24 September 2004
Chile:  21 October 2004
Germany: 28 October 2004

Critical reception
The Motorcycle Diaries may not provide any satisfactory answers as to how a 23-year-old medical student went on to become arguably the most famous revolutionary of the latter half of the 20th Century, but it has an undeniable charm in that it imbues the memories of youth with a sense of altruism and purity – which are complemented by the scenery  It's an incomplete portrait to be sure, but it's a gorgeous depiction of two best friends riding unknowingly into the history books "
The Motorcycle Diaries was released to very positive reviews by critics, and received a standing ovation at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival  The New York Times film critic, A O  Scott, wrote that "in Mr  Salles's hands what might have been a schematic story of political awakening becomes a lyrical exploration of the sensations and perceptions from which a political understanding of the world emerges " Gregory Weinkauf of the Dallas Observer espoused that the film "delivers as both biography and road movie, and proves itself a deceptively humble epic, an illuminating part of the Che legacy " Claudia Puig of USA Today postulated that "the movie achieves an impressive blend of emotional resonance and light entertainment" while describing it as "more coming-of-age story than biopic" and "a transformative adventure well worth watching " Keri Petersen of The Gainesville Sun referred to the film as "a gorgeous, poetic adventure "Paula Nechak of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer praised director Salles by remarking that he "presents the evolutionary course of a young man who coincidentally became the dorm-room poster boy for an idealistic generation, and captures the lovely, heart-and-eye-opening ode to youthful possibility with affection and compassion " Washington Post critic Desson Thomson lent praise for the film's starring actor by observing that "what Bernal and this well-wrought movie conveys so well is the charisma that would soon become a part of human history, and yes, T-shirts "Among the film's few detractors was Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times, who described the film's positive reviews as "a matter of political correctness, I think; it is uncool to be against Che Guevara " Ebert also criticized the film's characterization: "seen simply as a film, The Motorcycle Diaries is attenuated and tedious  We understand that Ernesto and Alberto are friends, but that's about all we find out about them; they develop none of the complexities of other on-the-road couples    Nothing is startling or poetic " Jessica Winter of The Village Voice also criticized the film's simplistic representation of the peasantry, describing "the young men's encounters with conscience-pricking, generically noble locals" who are occasionally assembled "to face the camera in a still life of heroic, art-directed suffering"  The film also received criticism for its positive representation of Guevara as a youthful idealist  Anthony Daniels, an outspoken critic of Guevara's, argued that the film helps to continue his wrongful glorification, noting "The film is thus the cinematic equivalent of the Che Guevara T-shirt; it is morally monstrous and emotionally trivial " Frans Weiser agreed, saying that the film's narrative is dominated by reductive images of Guevara as an idealistic, loveable rogue Online review aggregator Metacritic gives the film a score of 75 out of 100 based on 37 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  Meanwhile, Rotten Tomatoes records an 83% approval rating based on 157 reviews, with an average rating of 7 5/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "The Motorcycle Diaries is heartfelt and profound in its rendering of the formative experiences that turn Ernesto "Che" Guevara into a famous revolutionary " Furthermore, British historian Alex von Tunzelmann, who reviews films at The Guardian for historical accuracy, graded the film an A− in "History", while giving the film a B in "Entertainment"  After comparing scenes from the film to the actual diaries, Tunzelmann posited that "The Motorcycle Diaries gets a lot right, it's an entertaining and accurate portrayal of the formative youth of a revolutionary icon "

Awards won
Cannes Film Festival: François Chalais Award, Walter Salles; Prize of the Ecumenical Jury, Walter Salles; Technical Grand Prize, Eric Gautier; 2004 
Donostia-San Sebastián International Film Festival: Audience Award Walter Salles; 2004 
Academy Awards: Oscar; Best Achievement in Music Written for Motion Pictures, Original Song; Jorge Drexler; for the song "Al otro lado del río"; 2005 
Argentine Film Critics Association Awards: Best Actor, Rodrigo de la Serna; Best Music, Gustavo Santaolalla; Best Adapted Screenplay, Jose Rivera; 2005 
British Academy of Film and Television Arts: Best Film Not in the English Language, Michael Nozik, Edgard Tenenbaum, Karen Tenkhoff, Walter Salles; Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music, Gustavo Santaolalla; 2005 
Goya Awards: Goya; Best Adapted Screenplay, José Rivera; 2005 
Independent Spirit Awards: Independent Spirit Award; Best Cinematography, Eric Gautier; Best Debut Performance, Rodrigo de la Serna; 2005 

Related films
Passage 6:
Noon
Noon (or midday) is 12 o'clock in the daytime  It is written as 12 noon, 12:00 m  (for meridiem, literally 12:00 midday), 12 p m  (for post meridiem, literally "after midday"), 12 pm, or 12:00 (using a 24-hour clock) or 1200 (military time) 
Solar noon is the time when the Sun appears to contact the local celestial meridian  This is when the Sun reaches its apparent highest point in the sky, at 12 noon apparent solar time and can be observed using a sundial  The local or clock time of solar noon depends on the longitude and date, with Daylight Saving Time tending to place solar noon closer to 1:00pm 

Etymology
The word noon is derived from Latin nona hora, the ninth canonical hour of the day, in reference to the Western Christian liturgical term none, one of the seven fixed prayer times in traditional Christian denominations  The Roman and Western European medieval monastic day began at 6:00 a m  (06:00) at the equinox by modern timekeeping, so the ninth hour started at what is now 3:00 p m  (15:00) at the equinox  In English, the meaning of the word shifted to midday and the time gradually moved back to 12:00 local time – that is, not taking into account the modern invention of time zones  The change began in the 12th century and was fixed by the 14th century 

Solar noon
Solar noon, also known as the local apparent solar noon and Sun transit time (informally high noon), is the moment when the Sun contacts the observer's meridian (culmination or meridian transit), reaching its highest position above the horizon on that day and casting the shortest shadow  This is also the origin of the terms ante meridiem (a m ) and post meridiem (p m ), as noted below  The Sun is directly overhead at solar noon at the Equator on the equinoxes, at the Tropic of Cancer (latitude 23°26′10 4″ N) on the June solstice and at the Tropic of Capricorn (23°26′10 4″ S) on the December solstice  In the Northern Hemisphere, north of the Tropic of Cancer, the Sun is due south of the observer at solar noon; in the Southern Hemisphere, south of the Tropic of Capricorn, it is due north 
The elapsed time from the local solar noon of one day to the next is exactly 24 hours on only four instances in any given year  This occurs when the effects of Earth's obliquity of ecliptic and its orbital speed around the Sun offset each other  These four days for the current epoch are centered on 11 February, 13 May, 26 July, and 3 November  It occurs at only one particular line of longitude in each instance  This line varies year to year, since Earth's true year is not an integer number of days  This event time and location also varies due to Earth's orbit being gravitationally perturbed by the planets  These four 24-hour days occur in both hemispheres simultaneously  The precise UTC times for these four days also mark when the opposite line of longitude, 180° away, experiences precisely 24 hours from local midnight to local midnight the next day  Thus, four varying great circles of longitude define from year to year when a 24-hour day (noon to noon or midnight to midnight) occurs 
The two longest time spans from noon to noon occur twice each year, around 20 June (24 hours plus 13 seconds) and 21 December (24 hours plus 30 seconds) 
The shortest time spans occur twice each year, around 25 March (24 hours minus 18 seconds) and 13 September (24 hours minus 22 seconds) 
For the same reasons, solar noon and "clock noon" are usually not the same  The equation of time shows that the reading of a clock at solar noon will be higher or lower than 12:00 by as much as 16 minutes  Additionally, due to the political nature of time zones, as well as the application of daylight saving time, it can be off by more than an hour 

Nomenclature
In the US, noon is commonly indicated by 12 p m , and midnight by 12 a m  While some argue that such usage is "improper" based on the Latin meaning (a m  stands for ante meridiem and p m  for post meridiem, meaning "before midday" and "after midday" respectively), digital clocks are unable to display anything else, and an arbitrary decision must be made  An earlier standard of indicating noon as "12M" or "12m" (for "meridies"), which was specified in the U S  GPO Government Style Manual, has fallen into relative obscurity; the current edition of the GPO makes no mention of it  However, due to the lack of an international standard, the use of "12 a m " and "12 p m " can be confusing  Common alternative methods of representing these times are:

to use a 24-hour clock (00:00 and 12:00, 24:00; but never 24:01)
to use "12 noon" or "12 midnight" (though "12 midnight" may still present ambiguity regarding the specific date)
to specify midnight as between two successive days or dates (as in "midnight Saturday/Sunday" or "midnight December 14/15")
to avoid those specific times and to use "11:59 p m " or "12:01 a m " instead  (This is common in the travel industry to avoid confusion to passengers' schedules, especially train and plane schedules )

See also
Afternoon
Analemma
Dipleidoscope
Hour angle
Solar azimuth angle

Notes



ground_truth: 24:00