prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the person who provided evidence to suggest the existence of the neutron a participant of?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
James Chadwick
Sir James Chadwick,  (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was a British physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932  In 1941, he wrote the final draft of the MAUD Report, which inspired the U S  government to begin serious atom bomb research efforts  He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II  He was knighted in Britain in 1945 for his achievements in physics 
Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford (known as the "father of nuclear physics")  At Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913  The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851  He elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, and not discrete lines as had been thought  Still in Germany when World War I broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp 
After the war, Chadwick followed Rutherford to the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, where Chadwick earned his Doctor of Philosophy degree under Rutherford's supervision from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, in June 1921  He was Rutherford's assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory for over a decade at a time when it was one of the world's foremost centres for the study of physics, attracting students like John Cockcroft, Norman Feather, and Mark Oliphant  Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass  He anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer  Chadwick left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1935 to become a professor of physics at the University of Liverpool, where he overhauled an antiquated laboratory and, by installing a cyclotron, made it an important centre for the study of nuclear physics 
During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build an atom bomb, while his Manchester lab and environs were harassed by Luftwaffe bombing  When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he became part of the British Mission, and worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory and in Washington, D C  He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R  Groves, Jr  For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test  After this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, he became the Master of Gonville and Caius College in 1948  He retired in 1959 

Education and early life
James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph Chadwick, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant  He was named James after his paternal grandfather  In 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents  He went to Bollington Cross Primary School, and was offered a scholarship to Manchester Grammar School, which his family had to turn down as they could not afford the small fees that still had to be paid  Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester, rejoining his parents there  He now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert; a sister had died in infancy  At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908  He meant to study mathematics, but enrolled in physics by mistake  Like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles (6 4 km) to the university and back each day  At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics  The physics department was headed by Ernest Rutherford, who assigned research projects to final-year students, and he instructed Chadwick to devise a means of comparing the amount of radioactive energy of two different sources  The idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 gram (0 035 oz) of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie  Rutherford's suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, and eventually devised the required method  The results became Chadwick's first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912  He graduated with first class honours in 1911 Having devised a means of measuring gamma radiation, Chadwick proceeded to measure the absorption of gamma rays by various gases and liquids  This time the resulting paper was published under his name alone  He was awarded his Master of Science (MSc) degree in 1912, and was appointed a Beyer Fellow  The following year he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, which allowed him to study and research at a university in continental Europe  He elected to go to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin in 1913, to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, which provided more accuracy than the earlier photographic techniques, he was able to demonstrate that beta radiation did not produce discrete lines, as has been previously thought, but rather a continuous spectrum with peaks in certain regions  On a visit to Geiger's laboratory, Albert Einstein told Chadwick that: "I can explain either of these things, but I can't explain them both at the same time " The continuous spectrum would remain an unexplained phenomenon for many years Chadwick was still in Germany at the start of the First World War, and was interned in the Ruhleben internment camp near Berlin, where he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables and conduct scientific experiments using improvised materials such as radioactive toothpaste  With the help of Charles Drummond Ellis, he worked on the ionisation of phosphorus, and the photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine  He was released after the Armistice with Germany came into effect in November 1918, and returned to his parents' home in Manchester, where he wrote up his findings over the previous four years for the 1851 Exhibition commissioners Rutherford gave Chadwick a part-time teaching position at Manchester, allowing him to continue research  He looked at the nuclear charge of platinum, silver, and copper, and experimentally found that this was the same as the atomic number within an error of less than 1 5 per cent  In April 1919, Rutherford became director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and Chadwick joined him there a few months later  Chadwick was awarded a Clerk-Maxwell studentship in 1920, and enrolled as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) student at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge  The first half of his thesis was his work with atomic numbers  In the second, he looked at the forces inside the nucleus  His degree was awarded in June 1921  In November, he became a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College 

Researcher
Cambridge
Chadwick's Clerk-Maxwell studentship expired in 1923, and he was succeeded by the Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitza  The Chairman of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Sir William McCormick arranged for Chadwick to become Rutherford's assistant director of research  In this role, Chadwick helped Rutherford select PhD students  Over the next few years these would include John Cockcroft, Norman Feather and Mark Oliphant, who would become firm friends with Chadwick  As many students had no idea what they wanted to research, Rutherford and Chadwick would suggest topics  Chadwick edited all the papers produced by the laboratory 

In 1925, Chadwick met Aileen Stewart-Brown, the daughter of a Liverpool stockbroker  The two were married in August 1925, with Kapitza as Best Man  The couple had twin daughters, Joanna and Judith, who were born in February 1927 In his research, Chadwick continued to probe the nucleus  In 1925, the concept of spin had allowed physicists to explain the Zeeman effect, but it also created unexplained anomalies  At the time it was believed that the nucleus consisted of protons and electrons, so nitrogen's nucleus, for example, with a mass number of 14, was assumed to contain 14 protons and 7 electrons  This gave it the right mass and charge, but the wrong spin At a conference at Cambridge on beta particles and gamma rays in 1928, Chadwick met Geiger again  Geiger had brought with him a new model of his Geiger counter, which had been improved by his post-doctoral student Walther Müller  Chadwick had not used one since the war, and the new Geiger–Müller counter was potentially a major improvement over the scintillation techniques then in use at Cambridge, which relied on the human eye for observation  The major drawback with it was that it detected alpha, beta and gamma radiation, and radium, which the Cavendish laboratory normally used in its experiments, emitted all three, and was therefore unsuitable for what Chadwick had in mind  However, polonium is an alpha emitter, and Lise Meitner sent Chadwick about 2 millicuries (about 0 5 μg) from Germany In Germany, Walther Bothe and his student Herbert Becker had used polonium to bombard beryllium with alpha particles, producing an unusual form of radiation  Chadwick had his Australian 1851 Exhibition scholar, Hugh Webster, duplicate their results  To Chadwick, this was evidence of something that he and Rutherford had been hypothesising for years: the neutron, a theoretical nuclear particle with no electric charge  Then in January 1932, Feather drew Chadwick's attention to another surprising result  Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie had succeeded in knocking protons from paraffin wax using polonium and beryllium as a source for what they thought was gamma radiation  Rutherford and Chadwick disagreed; protons were too heavy for that  But neutrons would need only a small amount of energy to achieve the same effect  In Rome, Ettore Majorana came to the same conclusion: the Joliot-Curies had discovered the neutron but did not know it 

Chadwick dropped all his other responsibilities to concentrate on proving the existence of the neutron, assisted by Feather and frequently working late at night  He devised a simple apparatus that consisted of a cylinder containing a polonium source and beryllium target  The resulting radiation could then be directed at a material such as paraffin wax; the displaced particles, which were protons, would go into a small ionisation chamber where they could be detected with an oscilloscope 
In February 1932, after only about two weeks of experimentation with neutrons, Chadwick sent a letter to Nature titled "Possible Existence of a Neutron"  He communicated his findings in detail in an article sent to Proceedings of the Royal Society A titled "The Existence of a Neutron" in May  His discovery of the neutron was a milestone in understanding the nucleus  Reading Chadwick's paper, Robert Bacher and Edward Condon realised that anomalies in the then-current theory, like the spin of nitrogen, would be resolved if the neutron has a spin of 1/2 and that a nitrogen nucleus consisted of seven protons and seven neutrons The theoretical physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg considered whether the neutron could be a fundamental nuclear particle like the proton and electron, rather than a proton–electron pair   Heisenberg showed that the neutron was best described as a new nuclear particle, but its exact nature remained unclear   In his 1933 Bakerian Lecture, Chadwick estimated that a neutron had a mass of about 1 0067 u  Since a proton and an electron had a combined mass of 1 0078 u, this implied the neutron as a proton–electron composite had a binding energy of about 2 MeV, which sounded reasonable, although it was hard to understand how a particle with so little binding energy could be stable   Estimating such a small mass difference required challenging precise measurements, however, and several conflicting results were obtained in 1933–4   By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a large value for the mass of a neutron, but Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California produced a small one   Then Maurice Goldhaber, a refugee from Nazi Germany and a graduate student at the Cavendish Laboratory, suggested to Chadwick that deuterons could be photodisintegrated by the 2 6 MeV gamma rays of 208Tl (then known as thorium C"):

An accurate value for the mass of the neutron could be determined from this process  Chadwick and Goldhaber tried this and found that it worked   They measured the kinetic energy of the proton produced as 1 05 MeV, leaving the mass of the neutron as the unknown in the equation   Chadwick and Goldhaber calculated that it was either 1 0084 or 1 0090 atomic units, depending on the values used for the masses of the proton and deuteron   (The modern accepted value for the mass of the neutron is 1 00866 u ) The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron pair For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick was awarded the Hughes Medal by the Royal Society in 1932, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935, the Copley Medal in 1950 and the Franklin Medal in 1951  His discovery of the neutron made it possible to produce elements heavier than uranium in the laboratory by the capture of slow neutrons followed by beta decay  Unlike the positively charged alpha particles, which are repelled by the electrical forces present in the nuclei of other atoms, neutrons do not need to overcome any Coulomb barrier, and can therefore penetrate and enter the nuclei of even the heaviest elements such as uranium  This inspired Enrico Fermi to investigate the nuclear reactions brought about by collisions of nuclei with slow neutrons, work for which Fermi would receive the Nobel Prize in 1938 Wolfgang Pauli proposed another kind of particle on 4 December 1930 in order to explain the continuous spectrum of beta radiation that Chadwick had reported in 1914  Since not all of the energy of beta radiation could be accounted for, the law of conservation of energy appeared to be violated, but Pauli argued that this could be redressed if another, undiscovered, particle was involved  Pauli also called this particle a neutron, but it was clearly not the same particle as Chadwick's neutron  Fermi renamed it the neutrino, Italian for "little neutron"  In 1934, Fermi proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino   The neutrino could account for the missing energy, but a particle with little mass and no electric charge was difficult to observe  Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth, so the chances of detecting them were slim  Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan would confirm the neutrino on 14 June 1956 by placing a detector within a large antineutrino flux from a nearby nuclear reactor 

Liverpool
With the onset of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom, the government became more parsimonious with funding for science  At the same time, Lawrence's recent invention, the cyclotron, promised to revolutionise experimental nuclear physics, and Chadwick felt that the Cavendish laboratory would fall behind unless it also acquired one  He therefore chafed under Rutherford, who clung to the belief that good nuclear physics could still be done without large, expensive equipment, and turned down the request for a cyclotron 

Chadwick was himself a critic of Big Science in general, and Lawrence in particular, whose approach he considered careless and focused on technology at the expense of science  When Lawrence postulated the existence of a new and hitherto unknown particle that he claimed was a possible source of limitless energy at the Solvay Conference in 1933, Chadwick responded that the results were more likely attributable to contamination of the equipment  While Lawrence rechecked his results at Berkeley only to find that Chadwick was correct, Rutherford and Oliphant conducted an investigation at the Cavendish that found that deuterium fuses to form helium-3, thereby causing the effect that Lawrence had observed  This was another major discovery, but the Oliphant-Rutherford particle accelerator was an expensive state-of-the-art piece of equipment In March 1935, Chadwick received an offer of the Lyon Jones Chair of physics at the University of Liverpool, in his wife's home town, to succeed Lionel Wilberforce  The laboratory was so antiquated that it still ran on direct current electricity, but Chadwick seized the opportunity, assuming the chair on 1 October 1935  The university's prestige was soon bolstered by Chadwick's Nobel Prize, which was announced in November 1935  His medal was sold at auction in 2014 for $329,000 Chadwick set about acquiring a cyclotron for Liverpool  He started by spending £700 to refurbish the antiquated laboratories at Liverpool, so some components could be made in-house  He was able to persuade the university to provide £2,000 and obtained a grant for another £2,000 from the Royal Society  To build his cyclotron, Chadwick brought in two young experts, Bernard Kinsey and Harold Walke, who had worked with Lawrence at the University of California  A local cable manufacturer donated the copper conductor for the coils  The cyclotron's 50-ton magnet was manufactured in Trafford Park by Metropolitan-Vickers, which also made the vacuum chamber  The cyclotron was completely installed and running in July 1939  The total cost of £5,184 was more than Chadwick had received from the University and the Royal Society, so Chadwick paid the rest from his 159,917 kr (£8,243) Nobel Prize money At Liverpool the Medicine and Science faculties worked together closely  Chadwick was automatically a committee member of both faculties, and in 1938 he was appointed to a commission headed by Lord Derby to investigate the arrangements for cancer treatment in Liverpool  Chadwick anticipated that neutrons and radioactive isotopes produced with the 37-inch cyclotron could be used to study biochemical processes, and might become a weapon in the fight against cancer 

Second World War
Tube Alloys and the MAUD Report
In Germany, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons, and noted that barium, a lighter element, was among the products produced  Hitherto, only the same or heavier elements had been produced by the process  In January 1939, Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch astounded the physics community with a paper that explained this result  They theorised that uranium atoms bombarded with neutrons can break into two roughly equal fragments, a process they called fission  They calculated that this would result in the release of about 200 MeV, implying an energy release orders of magnitude greater than chemical reactions, and Frisch confirmed their theory experimentally  It was soon noted by Hahn that if neutrons were released during fission, then a chain reaction was possible  French scientists, Pierre Joliot, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, soon verified that more than one neutron was indeed emitted per fission  In a paper co-authored with the American physicist John Wheeler, Bohr theorised that fission was more likely to occur in the uranium-235 isotope, which made up only 0 7 percent of natural uranium 

Chadwick did not believe that there was any likelihood of another war with Germany in 1939, and took his family for a holiday on a remote lake in northern Sweden  The news of the outbreak of the Second World War therefore came as a shock  Determined not to spend another war in an internment camp, Chadwick made his way to Stockholm as fast as he could, but when he arrived there with his family, he found that all air traffic between Stockholm and London had been suspended  They made their way back to England on a tramp steamer  When he reached Liverpool, Chadwick found Joseph Rotblat, a Polish post-doctoral fellow who had come to work with the cyclotron, was now destitute, as he was cut off from funds from Poland  Chadwick promptly hired Rotblat as a lecturer, despite his poor grasp of English In October 1939, Chadwick received a letter from Sir Edward Appleton, the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, asking for his opinion on the feasibility of an atom bomb  Chadwick responded cautiously  He did not dismiss the possibility, but carefully went over the many theoretical and practical difficulties involved  Chadwick decided to investigate the properties of uranium oxide further with Rotblat  In March 1940, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham re-examined the theoretical issues involved in a paper that became known as the Frisch–Peierls memorandum  Instead of looking at unenriched uranium oxide, they considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium-235, and found that not only could a chain reaction occur, but that it might require as little as 1 kilogram (2 2 lb) of uranium-235, and unleash the energy of tons of dynamite 

A special subcommittee of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW), known as the MAUD Committee, was created to investigate the matter further  It was chaired by Sir George Thomson and its original membership included Chadwick, along with Mark Oliphant, John Cockcroft and Philip Moon  While other teams investigated uranium enrichment techniques, Chadwick's team at Liverpool concentrated on determining the nuclear cross section of uranium-235  By April 1941, it had been experimentally confirmed that the critical mass of uranium-235 might be 8 kilograms (18 lb) or less  His research into such matters was complicated by all-but-incessant Luftwaffe bombings of the environs of his Liverpool lab; the windows were blown out so often that they were replaced by cardboard In July 1941, Chadwick was chosen to write the final draft of the MAUD Report, which, when presented by Vannevar Bush to President Franklin D  Roosevelt in October 1941, inspired the U S  government to pour millions of dollars into the pursuit of an atom bomb  When George B  Pegram and Harold Urey visited Britain to see how the project, now known as Tube Alloys, was going, Chadwick was able to tell them: "I wish I could tell you that the bomb is not going to work, but I am 90 per cent sure that it will "In a recent book about the Bomb project, Graham Farmelo wrote that "Chadwick did more than any other scientist to give Churchill the Bomb      Chadwick was tested almost to the breaking point " So worried that he could not sleep, Chadwick resorted to sleeping pills, which he continued to take for most of his remaining years  Chadwick later said that he realised that "a nuclear bomb was not only possible—it was inevitable  Sooner or later these ideas could not be peculiar to us  Everybody would think about them before long, and some country would put them into action"  Sir Hermann Bondi suggested that it was fortunate that Chadwick, not Rutherford, was the doyen of UK physics at the time, as the latter's prestige might otherwise have overpowered Chadwick's interest in "looking forward" to the Bomb's prospects 

Manhattan Project
Owing to the danger from aerial bombardment, the Chadwicks sent their twins to Canada as part of a government evacuation scheme  Chadwick was reluctant to move Tube Alloys there, believing that the United Kingdom was a better location for the isotope separation plant  The enormous scope of the effort became more apparent in 1942: even a pilot separation plant would cost over £1 million and strain Britain's resources, to say nothing of a full-scale plant, which was estimated to cost somewhere in the vicinity of £25 million  It would have to be built in America  At the same time that the British became convinced that a joint project was necessary, the progress of the American Manhattan Project was such that British cooperation seemed less essential, although the Americans were still eager to utilise Chadwick's talents The matter of cooperation had to be taken up at the highest level  In September 1943, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and President Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which reinstated cooperation between Britain, the United States and Canada  Chadwick, Oliphant, Peierls and Simon were summoned to the United States by the director of Tube Alloys, Sir Wallace Akers, to work with the Manhattan Project  The Quebec Agreement established a new Combined Policy Committee to direct the joint project  The Americans disliked Akers, so Chadwick was appointed technical advisor to the Combined Policy Committee, and the head of the British Mission Leaving Rotblat in charge in Liverpool, Chadwick began a tour of the Manhattan Project facilities in November 1943, except for the Hanford Site where plutonium was produced, which he was not allowed to see  He became the only man apart from Groves and his second in command to have access to all the American research and production facilities for the uranium bomb  Observing the work on the K-25 gaseous diffusion facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Chadwick realised how wrong he had been about building the plant in wartime Britain  The enormous structure could never have been concealed from the Luftwaffe  In early 1944, he moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico, with his wife and their twins, who now spoke with Canadian accents  For security reasons, he was given the cover name of James Chaffee 

Chadwick accepted that the Americans did not need British help, but that it could still be useful in bringing the project to an early and successful conclusion  Working closely with the director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R  Groves, Jr , he attempted to do everything he could to support the effort  He also endeavoured to place British scientists in as many parts of the project as possible in order to facilitate a post-war British nuclear weapons project to which Chadwick was committed  Requests from Groves via Chadwick for particular scientists tended to be met with an immediate rejection by the company, ministry or university currently employing them, only to be overcome by the overriding priority accorded to Tube Alloys  As a result, the British team was critical to the Project's success Although he had more knowledge of the project than anyone else from Britain, Chadwick had no access to the Hanford site  Lord Portal was offered a tour of Hanford in 1946  "This was the only plant to which Chadwick had been denied access in wartime, and now he asked Groves if he could accompany Portal  Groves replied that he could, but if he did then 'Portal will not see very much' " For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  He considered this to be a recognition of the work of the whole Tube Alloys project By early 1945, Chadwick was spending most of his time in Washington, D C , and his family relocated from Los Alamos to a house on Washington's Dupont Circle in April 1945  He was present at the meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 4 July when Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson gave Britain's agreement to use the atom bomb against Japan, and at the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July, when the first atom bomb was detonated  Inside its pit was a polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator, a development of the technique that Chadwick had used to discover the neutron over a decade before  William L  Laurence, The New York Times reporter attached to the Manhattan Project, wrote that "never before in history had any man lived to see his own discovery materialize itself with such telling effect on the destiny of man "

Later life
Shortly after the war ended, Chadwick was appointed to the Advisory Committee on Atomic Energy (ACAE)  He was also appointed as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  He clashed with fellow ACAE member Patrick Blackett, who disagreed with Chadwick's conviction that Britain needed to acquire its own nuclear weapons; but it was Chadwick's position that was ultimately adopted  He returned to Britain in 1946, to find a country still beset by wartime rationing and shortages At this time, Sir James Mountford, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Liverpool, wrote in his diary "he had never seen a man 'so physically, mentally and spiritually tired" as Chadwick, for he "had plumbed such depths of moral decision as more fortunate men are never called upon even to peer into     [and suffered]     almost insupportable agonies of responsibility arising from his scientific work' "In 1948, Chadwick accepted an offer to become the Master of Gonville and Caius College  The job was prestigious but ill-defined; the Master was the titular head of the College, but authority actually resided in a council of 13 fellows, of whom one was the Master  As Master, Chadwick strove to improve the academic reputation of the college  He increased the number of research fellowships from 31 to 49, and sought to bring talent into the college  This involved controversial decisions, such as hiring in 1951 the Chinese biochemist Tien-chin Tsao and the Hungarian-born economist Peter Bauer  In what became known as the Peasants' Revolt, fellows led by Patrick Hadley voted an old friend of Chadwick's off the council and replaced him with Bauer  More friends of Chadwick's were removed over the following years, and he retired in November 1958  It was during his mastership that Francis Crick, a PhD student at Gonville and Caius College, and James Watson discovered the structure of DNA Over the years, Chadwick received many honours, including the Medal for Merit from the United States, and the Pour le Mérite from Germany  He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1927  He became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1946 and an International member of the American Philosophical Society in 1948  He was made a Companion of Honour in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1970 for "services to science", and went to Buckingham Palace for the investiture ceremony  He became more frail, and seldom left his flat, although he travelled to Liverpool for celebrations of his eightieth birthday   A lifelong atheist, he saw no reason to adopt religious faith in later life  He died in his sleep on 24 July 1974 His papers are held at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge, and are accessible to the public  The Chadwick Laboratory at the University of Liverpool is named after him, as is its Sir James Chadwick Chair of Experimental Physics, which was named after him in 1991 as part of celebrations of the centenary of his birth  A crater on the moon is also named after him  The James Chadwick Building, which houses part of the School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, University of Manchester is named in his honour  He was described by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority official historian Lorna Arnold as "a physicist, a scientist-diplomat, and a good, wise, and humane man "

Notes
Passage 2:
Neutron temperature
The neutron detection temperature, also called the neutron energy, indicates a free neutron's kinetic energy, usually given in electron volts  The term temperature is used, since hot, thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium with a certain temperature  The neutron energy distribution is then adapted to the Maxwell distribution known for thermal motion  Qualitatively, the higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the free neutrons  The momentum and wavelength of the neutron are related through the de Broglie relation  The large wavelength of slow neutrons allows for the large cross section 

Neutron energy distribution ranges
But different ranges with different names are observed in other sources The following is a detailed classification:

Thermal
A thermal neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy of about 0 025 eV (about 4 0×10−21 J or 2 4 MJ/kg, hence a speed of 2 19 km/s), which is the energy corresponding to the most probable speed at a temperature of 290 K (17 °C or 62 °F), the mode of the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for this temperature, Epeak = 1/2 k T 
After a number of collisions with nuclei (scattering) in a medium (neutron moderator) at this temperature, those neutrons which are not absorbed reach about this energy level 
Thermal neutrons have a different and sometimes much larger effective neutron absorption cross-section for a given nuclide than fast neutrons, and can therefore often be absorbed more easily by an atomic nucleus, creating a heavier, often unstable isotope of the chemical element as a result  This event is called neutron activation 

EpithermalNeutrons of energy greater than thermal
Greater than 0 025 eV

CadmiumNeutrons which are strongly absorbed by cadmium
Less than 0 5 eV 

EpicadmiumNeutrons which are not strongly absorbed by cadmium
Greater than 0 5 eV 

Cold (slow) neutronsNeutrons of lower (much lower) energy than thermal neutrons 
Less than 5 meV 
Cold (slow) neutrons are subclassified into cold (CN), very cold (VCN), and ultra-cold (UCN) neutrons, each having particular characteristics in terms of their optical interactions with matter  As the wavelength is made (chosen to be) longer,  lower values of the momentum exchange become accessible  Therefore, it is possible to study larger scales and slower dynamics  Gravity also plays a very significant role in the case of UCN  Nevertheless, UCN reflect at all angles of incidence  This is because their momentum is comparable to the optical potential of materials  This effect is used to store them in bottles and study their fundamental properties e g  lifetime, neutron electrical-dipole moment etc    The main limitations of the use of slow neutrons is the low flux and the lack of efficient optical devices (in the case of CN and VCN)  Efficient neutron optical components are being developed and optimized to remedy this lack 

ResonanceRefers to neutrons which are strongly susceptible to non-fission capture by U-238 
1 eV to 300 eV

IntermediateNeutrons that are between slow and fast
Few hundred eV to 0 5 MeV 

Fast
A fast neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy level close to 1 MeV (100 TJ/kg), hence a speed of 14,000 km/s or higher  They are named fast neutrons to distinguish them from lower-energy thermal neutrons, and high-energy neutrons produced in cosmic showers or accelerators Fast neutrons are produced by nuclear processes:

Nuclear fission produces neutrons with a mean energy of 2 MeV (200 TJ/kg, i e  20,000 km/s), which qualifies as "fast"  However the range of neutrons from fission follows a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution from 0 to about 14 MeV in the center of momentum frame of the disintegration, and the mode of the energy is only 0 75 MeV, meaning that fewer than half of fission neutrons qualify as "fast" even by the 1 MeV criterion 
Spontaneous fission is a mode of radioactive decay for some heavy nuclides  Examples include plutonium-240 and californium-252 
Nuclear fusion: deuterium–tritium fusion produces neutrons of 14 1 MeV (1400 TJ/kg, i e  52,000 km/s, 17 3% of the speed of light) that can easily fission uranium-238 and other non-fissile actinides 
Neutron emission occurs in situations in which a nucleus contains enough excess neutrons that the separation energy of one or more neutrons becomes negative (i e  excess neutrons "drip" out of the nucleus)  Unstable nuclei of this sort will often decay in less than one second Fast neutrons are usually undesirable in a steady-state nuclear reactor because most fissile fuel has a higher reaction rate with thermal neutrons  Fast neutrons can be rapidly changed into thermal neutrons via a process called moderation  This is done through numerous collisions with (in general) slower-moving and thus lower-temperature particles like atomic nuclei and other neutrons  These collisions will generally speed up the other particle and slow down the neutron and scatter it  Ideally, a room temperature neutron moderator is used for this process  In reactors, heavy water, light water, or graphite are typically used to moderate neutrons 

UltrafastRelativistic
Greater than 20 MeV

Other classifications
Pile

Neutrons of all energies present in nuclear reactors
0 001 eV to 15 MeV Ultracold

Neutrons with sufficiently low energy to be reflected and trapped
Upper bound of 335 neV

Fast-neutron reactor and thermal-neutron reactor compared
Most fission reactors are thermal-neutron reactors that use a neutron moderator to slow down ("thermalize") the neutrons produced by nuclear fission  Moderation substantially increases the fission cross section for fissile nuclei such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239  In addition, uranium-238 has a much lower capture cross section for thermal neutrons, allowing more neutrons to cause fission of fissile nuclei and propagate the chain reaction, rather than being captured by 238U  The combination of these effects allows light water reactors to use low-enriched uranium  Heavy water reactors and graphite-moderated reactors can even use natural uranium as these moderators have much lower neutron capture cross sections than light water An increase in fuel temperature also raises uranium-238's thermal neutron absorption by Doppler broadening, providing negative feedback to help control the reactor  When the coolant is a liquid that also contributes to moderation and absorption (light water or heavy water), boiling of the coolant will reduce the moderator density, which can provide positive or negative feedback (a positive or negative void coefficient), depending on whether the reactor is under- or over-moderated 
Intermediate-energy neutrons have poorer fission/capture ratios than either fast or thermal neutrons for most fuels  An exception is the uranium-233 of the thorium cycle, which has a good fission/capture ratio at all neutron energies 
Fast-neutron reactors use unmoderated fast neutrons to sustain the reaction, and require the fuel to contain a higher concentration of fissile material relative to fertile material (uranium-238)  However, fast neutrons have a better fission/capture ratio for many nuclides, and each fast fission releases a larger number of neutrons, so a fast breeder reactor can potentially "breed" more fissile fuel than it consumes 
Fast reactor control cannot depend solely on Doppler broadening or on negative void coefficient from a moderator  However, thermal expansion of the fuel itself can provide quick negative feedback  Perennially expected to be the wave of the future, fast reactor development has been nearly dormant with only a handful of reactors built in the decades since the Chernobyl accident due to low prices in the uranium market, although there is now a revival with several Asian countries planning to complete larger prototype fast reactors in the next few years 

See also
Passage 3:
Discovery of the neutron
The discovery of the neutron and its properties was central to the extraordinary developments in atomic physics in the first half of the 20th century  Early in the century, Ernest Rutherford developed a crude model of the atom,: 188  based on the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden  In this model, atoms had their mass and positive electric charge concentrated in a very small nucleus  By 1920, isotopes of chemical elements had been discovered, the atomic masses had been determined to be (approximately) integer multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom, and the atomic number had been identified as the charge on the nucleus : §1 1 2  Throughout the 1920s, the nucleus was viewed as composed of combinations of protons and electrons, the two elementary particles known at the time, but that model presented several experimental and theoretical contradictions : 298 The essential nature of the atomic nucleus was established with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 and the determination that it was a new elementary particle, distinct from the proton : 55 The uncharged neutron was immediately exploited as a new means to probe nuclear structure, leading to such discoveries as the creation of new radioactive elements by neutron irradiation (1934) and the fission of uranium atoms by neutrons (1938)  The discovery of fission led to the creation of both nuclear power and nuclear weapons by the end of World War II  Both the proton and the neutron were presumed to be elementary particles until the 1960s, when they were determined to be composite particles built from quarks 

Discovery of radioactivity
At the start of the 20th century, the vigorous debate as to the existence of atoms had not yet been resolved  Philosophers such as Ernst Mach and Wilhelm Ostwald denied that atoms were real, viewing them as a convenient mathematical construct, while scientists such as Arnold Sommerfeld and Ludwig Boltzmann saw that physical theories required the existence of atoms : 13–14 Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel, while working with phosphorescent materials   In 1898, Ernest Rutherford at Cavendish Laboratory distinguished two types of radioactivity, alpha rays and beta rays, which differed in their ability to penetrate, or travel into, ordinary objects or gases  Two years later, Paul Villard discovered gamma rays, which possessed even more penetrating power : 8–9  These radiations were soon identified with known particles:  beta rays were shown to be electrons by Walter Kaufmann in 1902; alpha rays were shown to be helium ions by Rutherford and Thomas Royds in 1907; and gamma rays were shown to be electromagnetic radiation, that is, a form of light, by Rutherford and Edward Andrade in 1914 : 61–62, 87  These radiations had also been identified as emanating from atoms, hence they provided clues to processes occurring within atoms   Conversely, the radiations were also recognized as tools that could be exploited in scattering experiments to probe the interior of atoms : 112–115

The gold foil experiment and the discovery of the atomic nucleus
At the University of Manchester between 1908 and 1913, Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden in a series of experiments to determine what happens when alpha particles scatter from metal foil  Now called the Rutherford gold foil experiment, or the Geiger–Marsden experiment, these measurements made the extraordinary discovery that although most alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil experienced little deflection, a few scattered to a high angle  The scattering indicated that some of the alpha particles ricocheted back from a small, but dense, component inside the atoms  Based on these measurements, by 1911 it was apparent to Rutherford that the atom consisted of a small, massive nucleus with positive charge surrounded by a much larger cloud of negatively charged electrons  The concentrated atomic mass was required to provide the observed deflection of the alpha particles, and Rutherford developed a mathematical model that accounted for the scattering The Rutherford model was very influential, motivating the Bohr model for electrons orbiting the nucleus in 1913 and eventually leading to quantum mechanics by the mid-1920s 

Discovery of isotopes
Concurrent with the work of Rutherford, Geiger, and Marsden, the radiochemist Frederick Soddy at the University of Glasgow was studying chemistry related problems on radioactive materials  Soddy had worked with Rutherford on radioactivity at McGill University  By 1910, about 40 different radioactive elements, referred to as radioelements, had been identified between uranium and lead, although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements  Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently found in 1913 that an element undergoing alpha decay will produce an element two places to the left in the periodic system and an element undergoing beta decay will produce an element one place to the right in the periodic system   Also, those radioelements that reside in the same places in the periodic system are chemically identical   Soddy called these chemically identical elements  isotopes : 3–5  For his study of radioactivity and the discovery of isotopes, Soddy was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 

Building from work by J  J  Thomson on the deflection of positively charged atoms by electric and magnetic fields, Francis Aston built the first mass spectrograph at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919  His aim, which he easily achieved, was to separate the two isotopes of neon, 20Ne and 22Ne  Aston discovered that the masses of all the particles are whole numbers (the whole number rule): that is, the masses of all the isotopes are whole number multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom  In these measurements, Aston arbitrarily computed his masses relative to oxygen-16, which he took to have a mass of exactly 16  (Today the atomic mass unit (amu) is relative to carbon-12 ) Ironically, the one exception to this rule was hydrogen itself, which had a mass value of 1 008  The excess mass was small, but well outside the limits of experimental uncertainty  Aston and others quickly realized that the discrepancy is due to the binding energy of atoms, that is, the mass of a number of hydrogen atoms bound into a single atom must be less than the sum of the masses of the separate hydrogen atoms   Aston's work on isotopes won him the 1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole number rule  Noting Aston's recent discovery of nuclear binding energy, in 1920 Arthur Eddington suggested that stars may obtain their energy by fusing hydrogen (protons) into helium and that the heavier elements may form in stars 

Atomic number and Moseley's law
Rutherford and others had noted the disparity between the mass of an atom, computed in atomic mass units, and the approximate charge required on the nucleus for the Rutherford model to work  The required charge of the atomic nucleus was usually about half its atomic mass : 82 Antonius van den Broek boldly hypothesized that the required charge, denoted by Z, was not half of the atomic weight for elements, but instead was exactly equal to the element's ordinal position in the periodic table : 228  At that time, the positions of the elements in the periodic table were not known to have any physical significance   If the elements were ordered based on increasing atomic mass, however, periodicity in chemical properties was exhibited   Exceptions to this periodicity were apparent, however, such as cobalt and nickel : 180 At the University of Manchester in 1913 Henry Moseley discussed the new Bohr model of the atom with the visiting Bohr  The model accounted for the electromagnetic emission spectrum from the hydrogen atom, and Moseley and Bohr wondered if the electromagnetic emission spectra of heavier elements such as cobalt and nickel would follow their ordering by weight, or by their position in the periodic table : 346  In 1913–1914 Moseley tested the question experimentally by using X-ray diffraction techniques  He found that the most intense short-wavelength line in the X-ray spectrum of a particular element, known as the K-alpha line, was related to the element's position in the periodic table, that is, its atomic number, Z  Indeed, Moseley introduced this nomenclature : §1 1 2  Moseley found that the frequencies of the radiation were related in a simple way to the atomic number of the elements for a large number of elements : 5 : 181 Within a year it was noted that the equation for the relation, now called Moseley's law, could be explained in terms of the 1913 Bohr model, with reasonable extra assumptions about atomic structure in other elements : 87  Moseley's result, by Bohr's later account, not only established atomic number as a measurable experimental quantity, but gave it a physical meaning as the positive charge on the atomic nucleus  The elements could be ordered in the periodic system in order of atomic number, rather than atomic weight : 127  The result tied together the organization of the periodic table, the Bohr model for the atom,: 56  and Rutherford's model for alpha scattering from nuclei  It was cited by Rutherford, Bohr, and others as a critical advance in understanding the nature of the atomic nucleus Further research in atomic physics was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I  Moseley was killed in 1915 at the Battle of Gallipoli,: 182  while Rutherford's student James Chadwick was interned in Germany for the duration of the war, 1914–1918  In Berlin, Lise Meitner's and Otto Hahn's research work on determining the radioactive decay chains of radium and uranium by precise chemical separation was interrupted : §4  Meitner spent much of the war working as a radiologist and medical X-ray technician near the Austrian front, while Hahn, a chemist, worked on research in poison gas warfare : 61–62, 68

Rutherford atom
In 1920 Rutherford gave a Bakerian lecture at the Royal Society entitled the "Nuclear Constitution of Atoms", a summary of recent experiments on atomic nuclei and conclusions as to the structure of atomic nuclei : 23 : 5  By 1920, the existence of electrons within the atomic nucleus was widely assumed   It was assumed the nucleus consisted of hydrogen nuclei in number equal to the atomic mass   But since each hydrogen nucleus had charge +1, the nucleus required a smaller number of "internal electrons" each of charge −1 to give the nucleus its correct total charge  The mass of protons is about 1800 times greater than that of electrons, so the mass of the electrons is incidental in this computation : 230–231   Such a model was consistent with the scattering of alpha particles from heavy nuclei, as well as the charge and mass of the many isotopes that had been identified   There were other motivations for the proton–electron model   As noted by Rutherford at the time, "We have strong reason for believing that the nuclei of atoms contain electrons as well as positively charged bodies   ",: 376–377  namely, it was known that beta radiation was electrons emitted from the nucleus : 21 : 5–6 In that lecture, Rutherford conjectured the existence of new particles   The alpha particle was known to be very stable, and it was assumed to retain its identity within the nucleus   The alpha particle was presumed to consist of four protons and two closely bound electrons to give it +2 charge and mass 4   In a 1919 paper, Rutherford had reported the apparent discovery of a new doubly charged particle of mass 3, denoted the X++, interpreted to consist of three protons and a closely bound electron   This result suggested to Rutherford the likely existence of two new particles: one of two protons with a closely bound electron, and another of one proton and a closely bound electron  The X++ particle was later determined to have mass 4 and to be just a low-energy alpha particle : 25  Nevertheless, Rutherford had conjectured the existence of the deuteron, a +1 charge particle of mass 2, and the neutron, a neutral particle of mass 1 : 396   The former is the nucleus of deuterium, discovered in 1931 by Harold Urey  The mass of the hypothetical neutral particle would be little different from that of the proton  Rutherford determined that such a zero-charge particle would be difficult to detect by available techniques : 396 About the time of Rutherford's lecture, other publications appeared with similar suggestions of a proton–electron composite in the nucleus, and in 1921 William Harkins, an American chemist, named the uncharged particle the neutron : 6  About that same time the word proton was adopted for the hydrogen nucleus   Neutron was apparently constructed from the Latin root for neutral and the Greek ending -on (by imitation of electron and proton)  References to the word neutron in connection with the atom can be found in the literature as early as 1899, however : 398 Rutherford and Chadwick immediately began an experimental program at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to search for the neutron : 27 : 398   The experiments continued throughout the 1920s without success Rutherford's conjecture and the hypothetical "neutron" were not widely accepted   In his 1931 monograph on the Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and Radioactivity, George Gamow, then at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen, did not mention the neutron   At the time of their 1932 measurements in Paris that would lead to the discovery of the neutron, Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot were unaware of the conjecture 

Problems of the nuclear electrons hypothesis
Throughout the 1920s, physicists assumed that the atomic nucleus was composed of protons and "nuclear electrons" : 29–32  Under this hypothesis, the nitrogen-14 (14N) nucleus would be composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons, so that it would have a net charge of +7 elementary charge units and a mass of 14 atomic mass units  This nucleus would also be orbited by another 7 electrons, termed "external electrons" by Rutherford,: 375  to complete the 14N atom  However problems with the hypothesis soon became apparent 
Ralph Kronig pointed out in 1926 that the observed hyperfine structure of atomic spectra was inconsistent with the proton–electron hypothesis  This structure is caused by the influence of the nucleus on the dynamics of orbiting electrons  The magnetic moments of supposed "nuclear electrons" should produce hyperfine spectral line splittings similar to the Zeeman effect, but no such effects were observed : 199   It seemed that the magnetic moment of the electron vanished when it was within the nucleus : 299 While on a visit to Utrecht University in 1928, Kronig learned of a surprising aspect of the rotational spectrum of N2+  The precision measurement made by Leonard Ornstein, the director of Utrecht's Physical Laboratory, showed that the spin of nitrogen nucleus must be equal to one  However, if the nitrogen-14 (14N) nucleus was composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons, an odd number of spin-1/2 particles, then the resultant nuclear spin should be half-integer  Kronig therefore suggested that perhaps "protons and  electrons do not retain their identity to the extent they do outside the nucleus" : 299–301 : 117 Observations of the rotational energy levels of diatomic molecules using Raman spectroscopy by Franco Rasetti in 1929 were inconsistent with the statistics expected from the proton–electron hypothesis  Rasetti obtained band spectra for H2 and N2 molecules   While the lines for both diatomic molecules showed alternation in intensity between light and dark, the pattern of alternation for H2 is opposite to that of the N2  After carefully analyzing these experimental results, German physicists Walter Heitler and Gerhard Herzberg showed that the hydrogen nuclei obey Fermi statistics and the nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics  However, a then unpublished result of Eugene Wigner showed that a composite system with an odd number of spin-1/2 particles must obey Fermi statistics; a system with an even number of spin-1/2 particle obeys Bose statistics  If the nitrogen nucleus had 21 particles, it should obey Fermi statistics, contrary to fact  Thus, Heitler and Herzberg concluded: "the electron in the nucleus     loses its ability to determine the statistics of the nucleus ": 117–118 The Klein paradox, discovered by Oskar Klein in 1928, presented further quantum mechanical objections to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus   Derived from the Dirac equation, this clear and precise paradox suggested that an  electron approaching a high potential barrier has a high probability of passing through the barrier by a pair creation process   Apparently, an electron could not be confined within a nucleus by any potential well  The meaning of this paradox was intensely debated at the time : 199–200 By about 1930 it was generally recognized that it was difficult to reconcile the proton–electron model for nuclei with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics : 199 : 299  This relation, Δx⋅Δp ≥ 1⁄2ħ, implies that an electron confined to a region the size of an atomic nucleus typically has a kinetic energy of about 40 MeV,: 299  which is larger than the observed energy of beta particles emitted from the nucleus  Such energy is also much larger than the binding energy of nucleons,: 89  which Aston and others had shown to be less than 9 MeV per nucleon : 511 In 1927, Charles Ellis and W  Wooster at the Cavendish Laboratory measured the energies of β-decay electrons   They found that the distribution of energies from any particular radioactive nuclei was broad and continuous, a result that contrasted notably with the distinct energy values observed in alpha and gamma decay  Further, the continuous energy distribution seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved by this "nuclear electrons" process   Indeed, in 1929 Bohr proposed to modify the law of energy conservation to account for the continuous energy distribution  The proposal earned the support of Werner Heisenberg  Such considerations were apparently reasonable, inasmuch as the laws of quantum mechanics had so recently overturned the laws of classical mechanics 
While all these considerations did not "prove" an electron could not exist in the nucleus, they were confusing and challenging for physicists to interpret   Many theories were invented to explain how the above arguments could be wrong : 4–5  In his 1931 monograph, Gamow summarized all these contradictions, marking the statements regarding electrons in the nucleus with warning symbols : 23

Discovery of the neutron
In 1930, Walther Bothe and his collaborator Herbert Becker in Giessen, Germany found that if the energetic alpha particles emitted from polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically beryllium (94Be), boron (115B), or lithium (73Li), an unusually penetrating radiation was produced  Beryllium produced the most intense radiation   Polonium is highly radioactive, producing energetic alpha radiation, and it was commonly used for scattering experiments at the time : 99–110  Alpha radiation can be influenced by an electric field, because it is composed of charged particles   The observed penetrating radiation was not influenced by an electric field, however, so it was thought to be gamma radiation  The radiation was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were difficult to interpret 

Two years later Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot in Paris showed that if this unknown radiation fell on paraffin wax, or any other hydrogen-containing compound, it ejected protons of very high energy (5 MeV)  This observation was not in itself inconsistent with the assumed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but that interpretation (Compton scattering) had a logical problem   From energy and momentum considerations, a gamma ray would have to have impossibly high energy (50 MeV) to scatter a massive proton : §1 3 1  In Rome, the young physicist Ettore Majorana declared that the manner in which the new radiation interacted with
protons required a new neutral particle On hearing of the Paris results, neither Rutherford nor James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory believed the gamma ray hypothesis  Assisted by Norman Feather, Chadwick quickly performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable  The previous year, Chadwick, J E R  Constable, and E C  Pollard had already conducted experiments on disintegrating light elements using alpha radiation from polonium  They had also developed more accurate and efficient methods for detecting, counting, and recording the ejected protons  Chadwick repeated the creation of the radiation using beryllium to absorb the alpha particles: 9Be + 4He (α) →  12C + 1n  Following the Paris experiment, he aimed the radiation at paraffin wax, a hydrocarbon high in hydrogen content, hence offering a target dense with protons  As in the Paris experiment, the radiation energetically scattered some of the protons  Chadwick measured the range of these protons, and also measured how the new radiation impacted the atoms of various gases  He found that the new radiation consisted of not gamma rays, but uncharged particles with about the same mass as the proton  These particles were neutrons  Chadwick won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for this discovery The year 1932 was later referred to as the "annus mirabilis" for nuclear physics in the Cavendish Laboratory, with discoveries of the neutron, artificial nuclear disintegration by the Cockcroft–Walton particle accelerator, and the positron 

Proton–neutron model of the nucleus
Given the problems of the proton–electron model, it was quickly accepted that the atomic nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, although the precise nature of the neutron was initially unclear  Within months after the discovery of the neutron, Werner Heisenberg and Dmitri Ivanenko had proposed proton–neutron models for the nucleus  Heisenberg's landmark papers approached the description of protons and neutrons in the nucleus through quantum mechanics  While Heisenberg's theory for protons and neutrons in the nucleus was a "major step toward understanding the nucleus as a quantum mechanical system," he still assumed the presence of nuclear electrons  In particular, Heisenberg assumed the neutron was a proton–electron composite, for which there is no quantum mechanical explanation  Heisenberg had no explanation for how lightweight electrons could be bound within the nucleus  Heisenberg introduced the first theory of nuclear exchange forces that bind the nucleons  He considered protons and neutrons to be different quantum states of the same particle, i e , nucleons distinguished by the value of their nuclear isospin quantum numbers 
The proton–neutron model explained the puzzle of dinitrogen  When 14N was proposed to consist of 3 pairs each of protons and neutrons, with an additional unpaired neutron and proton each contributing a spin of 1⁄2 ħ in the same direction for a total spin of 1 ħ, the model became viable  Soon, neutrons were used to naturally explain spin differences in many different nuclides in the same way 
If the proton–neutron model for the nucleus resolved many issues, it highlighted the problem of explaining the origins of beta radiation  No existing theory could account for how electrons, or positrons, could emanate from the nucleus  In 1934, Enrico Fermi published his classic paper describing the process of beta decay, in which the neutron decays to a proton by creating an electron and a (as yet undiscovered) neutrino  The paper employed the analogy that photons, or electromagnetic radiation, were similarly created and destroyed in atomic processes  Ivanenko had suggested a similar analogy in 1932  Fermi's theory requires the neutron to be a spin-1⁄2 particle  The theory preserved the principle of conservation of energy, which had been thrown into question by the continuous energy distribution of beta particles  The basic theory for beta decay proposed by Fermi was the first to show how particles could be created and destroyed  It established a general, basic theory for the interaction of particles by weak or strong forces  While this influential paper has stood the test of time, the ideas within it were so new that when it was first submitted to the journal Nature in 1933 it was rejected as being too speculative 

The nature of the neutron
The question of whether the neutron was a composite particle of a proton and an electron persisted for a few years after its discovery  In 1932 Harrie Massey explored a model for a composite neutron to account for its great penetrating power through matter and its electrical neutrality, for example  The issue was a legacy of the prevailing view from the 1920s that the only elementary particles were the proton and electron 
The nature of the neutron was a primary topic of discussion at the 7th Solvay Conference held in October 1933, attended by Heisenberg, Niels Bohr, Lise Meitner, Ernest Lawrence, Fermi, Chadwick, and others  As posed by Chadwick in his Bakerian Lecture in 1933, the primary question was the mass of the neutron relative to the proton  If the neutron's mass was less than the combined masses of a proton and an electron (1 0078 u), then the neutron could be a proton-electron composite because of the mass defect from the nuclear binding energy  If greater than the combined masses, then the neutron was elementary like the proton  The question was challenging to answer because the electron's mass is only 0 05% of the proton's, hence exceptionally precise measurements were required 
The difficulty of making the measurement is illustrated by the wide-ranging values for the mass of the neutron obtained from 1932 to 1934  The accepted value today is 1 00866 u  In Chadwick's 1932 paper reporting on the discovery, he estimated the mass of the neutron to be between 1 005 u and 1 008 u  By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a high value of 1 012 u, while Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California measured the small value 1 0006 u using their new cyclotron In 1935 Chadwick and his doctoral student Maurice Goldhaber resolved the issue by reporting the first accurate measurement of the mass of the neutron  They used the 2 6 MeV gamma rays of Thallium-208 (208Tl) (then known as thorium C") to photodisintegrate the deuteron 
In this reaction, the resulting proton and neutron have about equal kinetic energy, since their masses are about equal   The kinetic energy of the resulting proton could be measured (0 24 MeV), and therefore the deuteron's binding energy could be determined (2 6 MeV − 2(0 24 MeV) = 2 1 MeV, or 0 0023 u)  The neutron's mass could then be determined by the simple mass balance

where md,p,n refer to the deuteron, proton, or neutron mass, and "b e " is the binding energy  The masses of the deuteron and proton were known; Chadwick and Goldhaber used values 2 0142 u and 1 0081 u, respectively   They found that the neutron's mass was slightly greater than the mass of the proton 1 0084 u or 1 0090 u, depending on the precise value used for the deuteron mass  The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron composite, and the neutron was therefore identified as an elementary particle   Chadwick and Goldhaber predicted that a free neutron would be able to decay into a proton, electron, and neutrino (beta decay) 

Neutron physics in the 1930s
Soon after the discovery of the neutron, indirect evidence suggested the neutron had an unexpected non-zero value for its magnetic moment  Attempts to measure the neutron's magnetic moment originated with the discovery by Otto Stern in 1933 in Hamburg that the proton had an anomalously large magnetic moment  By 1934 groups led by Stern, now in Pittsburgh, and I  I  Rabi in New York had independently deduced that the magnetic moment of the neutron was negative and unexpectedly large by measuring the magnetic moments of the proton and deuteron  Values for the magnetic moment of the neutron were also determined by Robert Bacher (1933) at Ann Arbor and I Y  Tamm and S A  Altshuler (1934) in the Soviet Union from studies of the hyperfine structure of atomic spectra  By the late 1930s accurate values for the magnetic moment of the neutron had been deduced by the Rabi group using measurements employing newly developed nuclear magnetic resonance techniques  The large value for the proton's magnetic moment and the inferred negative value for the neutron's magnetic moment were unexpected and raised many questions 

The discovery of the neutron immediately gave scientists a new tool for probing the properties of atomic nuclei  Alpha particles had been used over the previous decades in scattering experiments, but such particles, which are helium nuclei, have +2 charge  This charge makes it difficult for alpha particles to overcome the Coulomb repulsive force and interact directly with the nuclei of atoms  Since neutrons have no electric charge, they do not have to overcome this force to interact with nuclei  Almost coincident with their discovery, neutrons were used by Norman Feather, Chadwick's colleague and protege, in scattering experiments with nitrogen  Feather was able to show that neutrons interacting with nitrogen nuclei scattered to protons or induced nitrogen to disintegrate to form boron with the emission of an alpha particle  Feather was therefore the first to show that neutrons produce nuclear disintegrations 
In Rome, Enrico Fermi and his team bombarded heavier elements with neutrons and found the products to be radioactive  By 1934 they had used neutrons to induce radioactivity in 22 different elements, many of these elements of high atomic number  Noticing that other experiments with neutrons at his laboratory seemed to work better on a wooden table than a marble table, Fermi suspected that the protons of the wood were slowing the neutrons and so increasing the chance for the neutron to interact with nuclei  Fermi therefore passed neutrons through paraffin wax to slow them and found that the radioactivity of some bombarded elements increased by a factor of tens to hundreds  The cross section for interaction with nuclei is much larger for slow neutrons than for fast neutrons  In 1938 Fermi received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons" 

In Berlin, the collaboration of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, together with their assistant Fritz Strassmann, furthered the research begun by Fermi and his team when they bombarded uranium with neutrons  Between 1934 and 1938, Hahn, Meitner, and Strassmann found a great number of radioactive transmutation products from these experiments, all of which they regarded as transuranic  Transuranic nuclides are those that have an atomic number greater than uranium (92), formed by neutron absorption; such nuclides are not naturally occurring  In July 1938, Meitner was forced to escape antisemitic persecution in Nazi Germany after the Anschluss, and she was able to secure a new position in Sweden  The decisive experiment on 16–17 December 1938 (using a chemical process called "radium–barium–mesothorium fractionation") produced puzzling results: what they had understood to be three isotopes of radium were instead consistently behaving as barium  Radium (atomic number 88) and barium (atomic number 56) are in the same chemical group   By January 1939 Hahn had concluded that what they had thought were transuranic nuclides were instead much lighter nuclides, such as barium, lanthanum, cerium and light platinoids  Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch immediately and correctly interpreted these observations as resulting from nuclear fission, a term coined by Frisch Hahn and his collaborators had detected the splitting of uranium nuclei, made unstable by neutron absorption, into lighter elements  Meitner and Frisch also showed that the fission of each uranium atom would release about 200 MeV of energy  The discovery of fission electrified the global community of atomic physicists and the public   In their second publication on nuclear fission, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process  Frédéric Joliot and his team proved this phenomenon to be a chain reaction in March 1939  In 1945 Hahn received the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei "

After 1939
The discovery of nuclear fission at the end of 1938 marked a shift in the centers of nuclear research from Europe to the United States  Large numbers of scientists were migrating to the United States to escape the troubles and antisemitism in Europe and the looming war: 407–410  (See Jewish scientists and the Manhattan Project)  The new centers of nuclear research were the universities in the United States, particularly Columbia University in New York and the University of Chicago where Enrico Fermi had relocated, and a secret research facility at Los Alamos, New Mexico, established in 1942, the new home of the Manhattan project  This wartime project was focussed on the construction of nuclear weapons, exploiting the enormous energy released by the fission of uranium or plutonium through neutron-based chain reactions 
The discoveries of the neutron and positron in 1932 were the start of the discoveries of many new particles   Muons were discovered in 1936   Pions and kaons were discovered in 1947, while lambda particles were discovered in 1950   Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a large number of particles called hadrons were discovered   A classification scheme for organizing all these particles, proposed independently by Murray Gell-Mann and
George Zweig in 1964, became known as the quark model  By this model, particles such as the proton and neutron were not elementary, but composed of various configurations of a small number of other truly elementary particles called partons or quarks  The quark model received experimental verification beginning in the late 1960s and finally provided an explanation for the neutron's anomalous magnetic moment 

Videos
Ernest Rutherford summarizes the state of nuclear physics in 1935  (7 min , Nobelprize org)
Hans Bethe discusses Chadwick and Goldhaber's work on deuteron disintegration  (2 min , Web of Stories)

Explanatory notes
Context 2: Passage 1:
Mother lode
Mother lode is a principal vein or zone of gold or silver ore  The term is also used colloquially to refer to the real or imaginary origin of something valuable or in great abundance 

Term
The term probably came from a literal translation of the Spanish veta madre, a term common in old Mexican mining  Veta madre, for instance, is the name given to an 11-kilometre-long (6 8 mi) silver vein discovered in 1548 in Guanajuato, New Spain (modern-day Mexico) 

California Mother Lode
In the United States, Mother Lode is most famously the name given to a long alignment of hard-rock gold deposits stretching northwest-southeast in the Sierra Nevada of California, bounded on the east by the Melones Fault Zone  It was discovered in the early 1850s, during the California gold rush  The California Mother Lode is a zone from 1 5 to 6 kilometres (0 93 to 3 73 mi) wide and 190 kilometres (120 mi) long, between Georgetown on the north and Mormon Bar on the south     
The Mother Lode coincides with the suture line of a terrane, the Smartville Block  The zone contains hundreds of mines and prospects, including some of the best-known historic mines of the gold-rush era  Individual gold deposits within the Mother Lode are gold-bearing quartz veins up to 15 metres (49 ft) thick and a few thousand feet long  The California Mother Lode was one of the most productive gold-producing districts in the United States  Now it is known as a destination for tourism and for its vineyards As with most gold rushes, the California gold rush started with the discovery of placer gold in sands and gravels of streambeds, where the gold had eroded from hard-rock vein deposits  Placer miners followed the gold-bearing sands upstream to discover the source in the bedrock  This source was the "mother" of the gold in the river and so was dubbed the "mother lode" 

See also
Alaska Gold Rush (disambiguation)
Gold Country
Placer mining
Passage 2:
Passage to Zarahemla
Passage to Zarahemla is an adventure film directed and written by Chris Heimerdinger   It tells the story of a young pair of siblings seeking to find a new life following the abrupt death of their mother   Their exploits lead them to a relative's home in Utah and eventually a thrilling confrontation with their past and the merger of time  It is based partly on Book of Mormon people, including the Zarahemla of the title  It is only the second commercial theatrical release of a film with the Book of Mormon as a principal theme, the first being The Book of Mormon Movie (2003) 
This movie is based on the novel by the same name, originally published by Heimerdinger Entertainment in November 2003  The movie version of Passage to Zarahemla, was released to theaters October 15, 2007   Originally intended only as a film, the working title of this film was "Summer of the Nephite", but after unsuccessful attempts to gain backing for its production, the title was reworked and released in novel form as Passage to Zarahemla The film ranked 4th overall in Utah the first week of its release  According to BoxOfficeMojo the film currently ranks 125th on the all-time highest gross box office for a Christian film coming in behind Pride & Prejudice: A Latter-Day Comedy, ahead of Noëlle and 122nd for Fantasy Live-Action The film was released to DVD in June 2008 

Overview
Kerra (nicknamed "Sakura" by her father) and Brock McConnell are orphans on the run   To keep from being separated by state authorities, Kerra flees to the only relative she remembers from her earliest childhood - an aunt and uncle who are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and live near a wondrous place in the woods where parallel realities collide and where an ancient people called Nephites cross paths with the residents of a sleepy Utah town 

Plot
The story begins with its focus on a group of hunters illegally hunting game out in the woods   Originally thought to be dead, the hunter's target springs back to life and flees into the heavy brush and trees   Determined not to let the game suffer, one of the hunters decides to pursue the elk in its flight   After some amount of exploration he finds his elk   hanging over a branch, shot by an arrow   Hearing noises he turns around to an arrow shot at him and screams 
Kerra and Brock are introduced to the story line at their mother's funeral   With their father having apparently disappeared for some unknown reason years ago, their mother recently dying, and no other known relatives within the area, the two are set to become wards of the state   In an effort to keep the two together, Kerra decides that they must pack up their belongings and escape before the return of the social worker assigned to their case   Brock, having prior association with a local gang and a criminal record, assists his sister in stealing the social worker's vehicle   The two drive off in a fury in an effort to escape 
Remembering a relative from early on in her childhood, Kerra plots a course for Leeds, Utah, a small LDS rich community in the southern part of the state   Arriving at their aunt and uncle's house, the two concoct a story indicating that they are traveling across the country to meet up with their mother who had recently acquired a new place of employment   With the stolen car having problems, the pair is unable to travel any further until it is fixed, and are offered a place to stay until repairs are completed 
Shortly after their arrival, Kerra is confronted by her cousins with stories from her early childhood days   These stories recall "strange noises" in the woods behind their house and dealings with an "imaginary" being whom Kerra had termed to be "Kid Donni "  One night after the siblings arrival, an earthquake shakes the area with the epicenter believed to be near the property of their Aunt Corrine and Uncle Drew 
Following the quake, Kerra is reunited with her "imaginary" childhood friend Kiddoni, who is in reality a noted being from the Book of Mormon   The earthquake is revealed to have caused a "rift" in time - allowing Kerra contact with the ancient Nephite peoples and their adversaries, and allowing Kiddoni and his people to cross the time gap into the modern world 
As the story progresses, the time portal gap expands and eventually allows the Nephite and  Gadianton armies to exit the past near the  Whitman's home   Brock on the other hand is unaware of this time rift and eventually finds himself captured by the Gadianton armies   It is at this time that he comes into contact with a scraggly-bearded individual from "modern" times named Chris 
Meanwhile, during their escape from California, Brock had been given a bag by a former gang-member to take out of the area, which is later revealed to be a bag full of illegal drugs   Upon realizing who was in possession of the bag, the gang leader decides to make a trip to the small Utah community to recover the bag 
Near the end of the story the two worlds clash as the rift in time grows very large   The Gadianton army crosses the time border into the present day in an effort to find food for their armies   Through sheer coincidence Chris and Brock reunite with Kerra near the Whitman home, where it is revealed that Chris is the siblings father, who had disappeared during a hunting trip many years earlier   A major Nephite-Gadianton battle eventually ensues near the Whitman home while the trio of family retreats into hiding   Shortly thereafter, another quake hits the area and the division between the time periods is restored   Kerra is heartbroken at not getting to say goodbye to her Nephite friend, but both families are happy that they were kept safe and that father and children were reunited again 

Cast
Summer Naomi Smart as Kerra McConnell
Moronai Kanekoa as Kiddoni
Brian Kary as Brock McConnell
Jan Felt as Aunt Corrine
Seth Packard as Spree
Alex Petrovitch as Hitch
Bryce Chamberlain as Grandpa Lee
Spencer King as Lobo
Jose Bacio as Adder
Jenny Latimer as Natasha

Soundtrack
The soundtrack is titled Whispered Visions and is a compilation of songs with music and lyrics by Chris Heimerdinger

Reception
Critic Sean P  Means of The Salt Lake Tribute gave the film 2 5 stars out of a possible 4  He wrote that Heimerdinger made "a few rookie mistakes" in his debut as a film director, but also "squeezes a lot of visual flair from a minuscule budget" and effectively balances entertaining filmmaking with beliefs of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 
Passage 3:
List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower
On the Eiffel Tower, 72 names of French scientists, engineers, and mathematicians are engraved in recognition of their contributions  Gustave Eiffel chose this "invocation of science" because of his concern over the protests against the tower  The engravings are found on the sides of the tower under the first balcony, in letters about 60 cm (24 in) tall, and originally painted in gold  The engraving was painted over at the beginning of the 20th century and restored in 1986–87 by Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, the company that the city of Paris contracts to operate the Tower  The repainting of 2010–11 restored the letters to their original gold colour  There are also names of the engineers who helped build the Tower and design its architecture on a plaque on the top of the Tower, where a laboratory was built as well 

List
Location
The list is split in four parts (for each side of the tower)  The sides have been named after the parts of Paris that each side faces:

The North-East side (also known as La Bourdonnais side)
The South-East side (also known as the Military School side)
The South-West side (also known as the Grenelle side)
The North West side (also known as the Trocadéro side)

Names
In the table below are all the names on the four sides 

Criticism
Women
The list contains no women  The list has been criticized for excluding the name of Sophie Germain, a noted French mathematician whose work on the theory of elasticity was used in the construction of the tower itself  In 1913, John Augustine Zahm suggested that Germain was excluded because she was a woman 

Hydraulic engineers and scholars
Fourteen hydraulic engineers and scholars are listed on the Eiffel Tower  Eiffel acknowledged most of the leading scientists in the field  Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy is missing; some of his work did not come into wide use until the 20th century  Also missing are Antoine Chézy, who was less famous; Joseph Valentin Boussinesq, who was  early in his career at the time; and mathematician Évariste Galois 

Notes
Passage 4:
Jacob Folkema
Jacob Folkema (18 August 1692 – 3 February 1767), a Dutch designer and engraver, was born and died at Dokkum, in Friesland  He was first instructed by his father, Johann Jakob Folkema, a goldsmith, and studied afterwards under B  Picart at Amsterdam  During that time he worked for Royaumont's Bible, 1712, and Ruysch's Anatomy, 1737  Folkema was also an excellent engraver in mezzotint  He had a sister, Anna Folkema, who painted miniatures, assisted her brother, and engraved some few plates  She was born in 1695, and died in 1768  By Jakob Folkema there are, among others, the following plates:

An Emblematical Print on the Death of the Prince of Orange 
Time discovering the Bust of F  Rabelais, with figures and satirical and emblematical attributes 
The Martyrdom of St  Peter and St  Paul; after Niccolò dell'Abbate 
Several plates for the Dresden Gallery; after Le Brun and Niccolò dell'Abbate 

Portraits
Miguel Cervantes de Saavedra; after C  Kort 
Johannes Ens, Professor of Theology at Utrecht; after Colla 
Petrus de Maestricht, Professor of Theology at Frankfort; after the same 
Humphrey Prideaux, Dean of Norwich; after Seeman 
Suethlagius, Pastor at Amsterdam; after Anna Folkema 
Passage 5:
Étienne Ficquet
Étienne Ficquet (13 September 1719 – 11 December 1794) was a French engraver 
Ficquet was born in Paris in 1719, and was instructed by G  F  Schmidt and Le Bas  He acquired great reputation by a set of small portraits which he engraved of distinguished literary characters of France  They are executed with extraordinary neatness and delicacy, and are very correctly drawn  One of his best plates is a portrait of Madame de Maintenon, after Mignard, now become very scarce  He engraved also several of the plates for Descamps' Vie des Peintres Flamands et Hollandais, of which those of Rubens and Van Dyck are very highly finished  He died in Paris in 1794 

Works
Françoise d'Aubigné; after P  Mignard 
J  de La Fontaine; after Rigaud 
J  F  Regnard; after the same 
J  J  Rousseau; after De La Tour  1763 
F  M  Arouet de Voltaire; after the same  1762 
Pierre Corneille; after Le Brun 
J  de Crébillon; after Aved 
J  B  P  de Molière; after Coypel 
René Descartes; after F  Hals 
M  Montaigne; after Dumonstier  1772 
De La Mothe Le Vayer; after Nanteuil 
F  de La Mothe Fénélon; after Vivien 
J  J   Vadé; after Richard 
P  P  Rubens; after Van Dyck 
Anton Van Dyck; after the same 
Passage 6:
Alma the Younger
According to the Book of Mormon, Alma, the son of Alma () was a Nephite prophet often referred to as Alma the Younger to distinguish him from his father, who is often referred to as Alma the Elder  These appellations, "the Younger" and "the Elder," are not used in the Book of Mormon; they are distinctions made by scholars, useful because both individuals were prominent during the same time period in the Book of Mormon's story and filled a similar cultural and religious role  Alma is the namesake of the Book of Alma 

Summary of his life
Alma the Younger lived in Zarahemla during the end of the reign of the Nephite King Mosiah  Adherents of Mormonism believe that he was born in 126 BC   As a young man, he, the four sons of Mosiah, and others wanted to destroy the church and actively persecuted its members  After they were visited personally by an angel and rebuked for their actions, Alma fell into an unconscious state where for three days and three nights he lay unable to move until he felt within that he had been forgiven of his sins  He later recounted that he had experienced a vision during unconsciousness, in which he renounced his behavior against the church and subsequently received a glimpse of God sitting on his throne (Alma 36:12–22)  He and those who persecuted church members with him abdicated their role as persecutors and became followers of Christ Alma the Younger subsequently became the first elected chief judge of the Nephites as well as their religious leader  He observed that the Nephites of the church were becoming increasingly wicked, proud, disdainful of outsiders and neglectful toward the poor and needy (Alma 4:11–12)  When the "unbelievers" began to follow their example, Alma feared the entire people were on the path to self-destruction (Alma 4:11)  He resigned his post as chief judge and began traveling from city to city to preach to the Nephites  He began in Zarahemla, where his efforts were successful  A thorough purge of the church leadership and membership took place, with those former insiders and leaders who refused to relinquish their pride being "rejected, and their names blotted out" (Alma 6:3) 
Alma moved on to the cities of Gideon and Melek, where his call to humility was also well received   From Melek he traveled three days journey north to Ammonihah, whose inhabitants proved much more hardened than those of the previous three cities In Ammonihah the people were very wicked  They considered themselves superior to outsiders, especially the Lamanites, and gloried in the strength of their city, which they considered indestructible  According to Alma chapter 9, Satan held such control over them that they would not listen to Alma   While trying to speak to them he was abused and thrown out of the city  Commanded by an angel to return, Alma slipped back into the city through a different route from the south  There he met Amulek, a lapsed believer (Alma 10:5-6) of some social prominence who fed Alma and housed him for a time   In the city streets, the two of them joined up and preached to the people, where they were challenged by a lawyer named Zeezrom   After Amulek had silenced Zeezrom through his teaching and aroused his conscience, Alma took his turn, preaching to the people with similar results  When finished, Alma and Amulek were cast into prison and delivered by a miracle  A repentant Zeezrom eventually joined Alma in his missionary work 
Several years later, Alma met up with a man named Korihor, whom the Book of Mormon describes as an anti-Christ  This Korihor tried to lead the Nephites astray  Alma confronted him, confounding his arguments and miraculously removing Korihor's power of speech  The stricken Korihor signaled acknowledgement that he had acted maliciously, knowing all along that he was wrong and bringing destruction upon others  He was reduced to begging and was eventually run down and killed in a city of Nephite dissenters called Zoramites These same Zoramites were found to practice things that perverted the ways of the Lord  This led Alma to extend his missionary work to these people  While among them, he was most successful with the poor Alma's final instruction was to his sons, Helaman, Shiblon, and Corianton   He gave each separate lessons, and finally gave the records of the church to Helaman  He then departed, in the 19th year of the reign of the judges (or 73 BC) as if to go to Melek, but was never heard from again  Both Mormon and Helaman believed that he was taken up like Moses of old, and buried by the Lord 

Descendants
The Book of Mormon narrative describes several of Alma's notable descendants as shown in the following family tree:

Alleged similarities to Saul
Various critics argue that there are similarities in both plot and language between Alma the Younger's conversion story and the conversion story of Saul of Tarsus in the Bible  Critic Grant H  Palmer argues for nine specific parallels between Alma and Paul's conversion narrative plus various similarities in language  FAIR, the Latter-day Saint apologetics organization, argues that the parallels are superficial or otherwise poorly contrived  Latter-day Saint philosopher and historian Alan Goff, in a long paper written for and published in Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship, argues that the "New and Old Testaments appropriate an ancient narrative genre called the prophetic commissioning story  Paul’s and Alma’s commissioning narratives hearken back to this literary genre, and to refer to either as pilfered is to misunderstand not just these individual narratives but the larger approach Hebraic writers used in composing biblical and Book of Mormon narrative "
Passage 7:
Johan Bara
Johan Bara or Johannes Barra (1581–1634) was a Dutch painter, designer and engraver 

Life
Barra was probably born in 's-Hertogenbosch or Middelburg  He was active in Augsburg and Neurenberg in 1599, in Middelburg in 1604, in London between 1624 and 1627, in Amsterdam in 1631, and back in London in 1634, where he died He called himself, sometimes, "sculptor et vitrearum imaginum pictor", and published, from 1598 to 1632, several engravings which resemble, without equalling, those of Aegidius Sadeler  His first plate, "Susanna in the Bath", signed Barra (1598), is very rare  His plates are numerous 
Passage 8:
Étienne Fessard
Étienne Fessard, a French engraver, was born in Paris in 1714  He was a pupil of Edme Jeaurat, and proved an artist of sufficient merit to be accepted for candidacy (agréé) at the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (1753)   A protegé of le comte de Caylus, whom he may have assisted in the development of skill in etching, Fessard received the appointment Engraver of the King's Library (graveur de la Bibliothèque du Roi) in 1756, with responsibility for the engravings of the royal collection of paintings and drawings, as a result of Caylus' influence   On his death in 1777, the position was given to his student Augustin de Saint-Aubin  Fessard executed a considerable number of plates, but his efforts to resume the engraving of the King's paintings did not obtain the support of the Acadmie royale and resulted in only two plates: "Feste Flamande" after Rubens and "L'Empire de Flore" after Poussin 

Portraits
Hortensia Mancini, Duchess of Mazarin; after Ferdinand 
Marie Madeleine de Lavergne, Countess de La Fayette; after the same 
J  P  de Bougainville, of the French Academy; after C  N  Cochin 
The Marquis de Mirabeau; after Van Loo 
The Duke de Choiseul; after the same 

Subjects after various masters
Diana and Actaeon; after Giacomo Bassano; for the Crozat Collection 
The Virgin enthroned, with SS  Francis, John, and Catharine; after Correggio 
The Holy Family, with St  Charles Borromeo; after Scarsellino 
The Four Liberal Arts, personified by Children; four plates; after C  van Loo 
Jupiter and Antiope; after the same  1758 
Herminia armed as Clorinda; after J  B  Pierre 
The Birth of Venus; after F  de Troy 
Jupiter and Leda; after the same 
The Triumph of Galatea; after Bouchardon; etched by Count de Caylus, and finished by Fessard 
The Triumph of Bacchus; after the same; etched by Count de Caylus, and finished by Fessard 
The Nativity; after Boucher 
A Flemish Festival; after Rubens  1762 
Psyche abandoned by Cupid; after Le Moine 
Passage 9:
Nicolaes Visscher II
Nicolaes Visscher II (1649, Amsterdam – 1702, Amsterdam) was a Dutch engraver, cartographer and publisher  He was the son of Nicolaes Visscher I and the grandson of Claes Janszoon Visscher  After his death, his wife, Elisabeth, continued the family tradition of mapmaking and publishing  The works, engraved plates, were then sold to Peter Schenk, who also reprinted them 

Works
Passage 10:
Jean Audran
Jean Audran (1667-1756) was a French engraver and printmaker  The brother of Benoit, and the third son of Germain Audran, he was born at Lyons in 1667  After learning the rudiments of the art under his father, he was placed under the care of his uncle, the famous Gérard Audran, in Paris  Before he was twenty years of age he displayed uncommon ability, and became a very celebrated engraver  In 1706 he was made engraver to the king, with a pension and apartments at the Gobelins  The hand of a great master is discernible in all his plates; and without having attained the extraordinary perfection of Gérard Audran, his claim to excellence is very considerable  He died in 1756  His principal prints are:

Portraits
Louis XV; full length; after Gobert 
Maximilian Emmanuel, Elector of Bavaria, with his Page; full length; after Vivien 
Clement Augustus of Bavaria, Elector-Archbishop of Cologne; after the same 
The Duke d'Antin; after Rigaud 
The Abbé Jean d'Estrées; after the same 
Victor Marie, Duke d'Estrées, Marshal of France; after Zargilliere 
Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni; after Trevisani 
François de Salignac de la Motte Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray; after Vivien 
François Pierre Gillet; after Tortebat 
Francois Robert Secousse, sitting; after Rigaud 
Peter Paul Rubens; after van Dyck; for the Luxembourg Gallery 
Noel Coypel, Painter to the King; after Coypel 
Antoine Coysevox, Sculptor to the King; after Rigaud  [The two last were engraved by Audran for his reception at the Academy in 1708 ]

Subjects after various masters
Our Saviour preaching to the Multitude; after Raphael 
The Infant Saviour regarding the Cross presented by Angels; after Albani 
The Nativity; after Pietro da Cortona; oval 
The Good Samaritan; after Ann  Carracci; arched 
St  John administering the Sacrament to the Virgin; after Lodovico Carracci 
Our Saviour on the Mount of Olives; after Domenichino 
St  Andrew led to Crucifixion; after Guido 
The Martyrdom of St  Peter; after Guido; on the plate improperly called after Domenichino 
St  Paul preaching at Athens; after Ciro Ferri; a small frieze 
The Triumph of Galatea; after Carlo Maratti; for the Crozat Collection 
The Miracle of the Loaves; after Claude Audran 
Six plates — Copies of the large Battles of Alexander; by G  Audran 
St  Augustine; after P  de Champagne 
Simeon holding the Infant Jesus; after M  Corneille 
Moses saved from the Nile; after Ant  Coypel 
Jacob and Laban; after the same 
Athaha and Joash; after the same 
Esther before Ahasuerus; after the same 
The Resurrection; after the same 
Cupid and Psyche; after the same 
Our Saviour curing the Sick; after Ant  Dieu 
Christ bearing His Cross; after the same 
The Elevation of the Cross; after Van Dijck 
The Crucifixion; after the same 
The French Parnassus; after the bronze by Gamier 
The Miraculous Draught of Fishes; after Jouvenet 
The Resurrection of Lazarus; after the same 
The Queen Blanche inspired with the Holy Spirit; after the same 
Acis and Galatea; after F  Marot 
Venus punishing Psyche; after J  M  Nattier 
Psyche consoled by Cupid; after the same 
The dead Christ, with the Marys, St  John, and Nicodemus; after Poussin 
The Rape of the Sabines; after Poussin; his most esteemed print 
St  Scholastica at the point of Death; after J  Restout 
Andromache entreating for her Son; after L  Silvestre 
Henri IV deliberating on his future Marriage; after Rubens 
Henri IV departing for the German War; after the same 
The Coronation of Marie de Médicis; after the same  [The three last form part of the Luxembourg Gallery ]
Passage 11:
Golden plates
According to Latter Day Saint belief, the golden plates (also called the gold plates or in some 19th-century literature, the golden bible) are the source from which Joseph Smith translated the Book of Mormon, a sacred text of the faith  Some accounts from people who reported handling the plates describe the plates as weighing from 30 to 60 pounds (14 to 27 kg), gold in color, and composed of thin metallic pages engraved with hieroglyphics on both sides and bound with three D-shaped rings Smith said that he found the plates on September 22, 1823, on a hill near his home in Manchester, New York, after the angel Moroni directed him to a buried stone box  He said that the angel prevented him from taking the plates but instructed him to return to the same location in a year  He returned to that site every year, but it was not until September 1827 that he recovered the plates on his fourth annual attempt to retrieve them  He returned home with a heavy object wrapped in a frock, which he then put in a box  He allowed others to heft the box but said that the angel had forbidden him to show the plates to anyone until they had been translated from their original "reformed Egyptian" language 
Smith dictated the text of the plates while a scribe wrote down the words which would later become the Book of Mormon  Eyewitnesses to the process said Smith translated the plates, not by looking directly at them, but by looking through a transparent seer stone in the bottom of his hat  Smith published the first edition of the translation in March 1830 as the Book of Mormon, with a print run of 5,000 copies at a production cost of $3,000 (or 60 cents per book) 
Smith eventually obtained testimonies from 11 men who said that they had seen the plates, known as the Book of Mormon witnesses  After the translation was complete, Smith said that he returned the plates to the angel Moroni; thus they could never be examined  Latter Day Saints believe the account of the golden plates as a matter of faith, while critics often assert that either Smith manufactured them himself or that the Book of Mormon witnesses based their testimony on visions rather than physical experience 

Origin and historicity
In the words of Mormon historian Richard Bushman, "For most modern readers, the plates are beyond belief, a phantasm, yet the Mormon sources accept them as fact " Smith said that he returned the plates to the angel Moroni after he finished translating them, and their authenticity cannot be determined by physical examination  They were reportedly shown to several close associates of Smith  Mormon scholars have formed collaborations such as Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies to provide apologetic answers to critical research about the golden plates and topics in the field of Mormon studies  The credibility of the plates has been a "troublesome item", according to Bushman



ground_truth: Manhattan Project

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the mother of the person who found the sacred writings that became the Book of Mormon?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: The Book of Mormon itself portrays the golden plates as a historical record, engraved by two pre-Columbian prophet-historians from around the year AD 400: Mormon and his son Moroni  Mormon and Moroni, the book says, had abridged earlier historical records from other sets of metal plates  Their script, according to the book, was described as "reformed Egyptian", a language unknown to linguists or Egyptologists  Scholarly reference works on languages do not acknowledge the existence of either a "reformed Egyptian" language or "reformed Egyptian" script as it has been described in Mormon belief, and there is no archaeological, linguistic, or other evidence of the use of Egyptian writing in ancient America  Historically, Latter Day Saint movement denominations have taught that the Book of Mormon's description of the plates' origin is accurate, and that the Book of Mormon is a translation of the plates  The Community of Christ, however, accepts the Book of Mormon as scripture but no longer takes an official position on the historicity of the golden plates  Some adherents accept the Book of Mormon as inspired scripture but do not believe that it is a literal translation of a physical historical record, even in the more theologically conservative Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) Non-Mormons and some liberal Mormons have advanced naturalistic explanations for the story of the plates  For example, it has been theorized that the plates were fashioned by Smith or one of his associates, that Smith had the ability to convince others of their existence through illusions or hypnosis, or that witnesses were having ecstatic visions 

Story
The story of the golden plates consists of how, according to Joseph Smith and his contemporaries, the plates were found, received from the angel Moroni, translated, and returned to the angel before the publication of the Book of Mormon  Smith is the only source for a great deal of the story because much of it occurred while he was the only human witness  Nevertheless, Smith told the story to his family, friends, and acquaintances, and many of them provided second-hand accounts  Other parts of the story are derived from the statements of those who knew Smith, including several witnesses who said that they saw the golden plates 
The best-known elements of the golden plates story are found in an account told by Smith in 1838 and incorporated into the official church histories of some Latter Day Saint movement denominations  The LDS Church has canonized part of this 1838 account as part of its scripture, the Pearl of Great Price 

Background
During the Second Great Awakening, Joseph Smith lived on his parents' farm near Palmyra, New York  At the time, churches in the region contended so vigorously for souls that western New York later became known as the "burned-over district" because the fires of religious revivals had burned over it so often  Western New York was also noted for its participation in a "craze for treasure hunting"  Beginning as a youth in the early 1820s, Smith was periodically hired, for about $14 per month, as a scryer, using what were termed "seer stones" in attempts to locate lost items and buried treasure  Smith's contemporaries described his method for seeking treasure as putting the stone in a white stovepipe hat, putting his face over the hat to block the light, and then "seeing" the information in the reflections of the stone According to Richard Bushman, Smith did not consider himself to be a "peeper" or "glass-looker", a practice he is said to have called "nonsense", despite his use of seer stones  Rather, Smith and his family viewed their folk magical practices as spiritual gifts  Although Smith later rejected his youthful treasure-hunting activities as frivolous and immaterial, he never repudiated the stones themselves,  denied their presumed power to find treasure, or ever relinquish the magic culture in which he was raised  He came to view seeing with a stone in religious terms as the work of a "seer"  Smith's first stone, apparently the same one that he used at least part of the time to translate the golden plates, was chocolate-colored and about the size of a chicken egg, found in a deep well he helped dig for one of his neighbors  The LDS Church released photographs of the stone on August 4, 2015 

Finding the plates
According to Smith, he found the plates after he was directed to them by a heavenly messenger whom he later identified as the angel Moroni  According to the story, the angel first visited Smith's bedroom late at night, on September 22 in 1822 or 1823  Moroni told Smith that the plates could be found buried in a prominent hill near his home, later called Cumorah, a name found in the Book of Mormon  Before dawn, Moroni reappeared two more times and repeated the information 
However, the angel would not allow Smith to take the plates until he obeyed certain "commandments"  Smith recorded some of these commandments but made it clear the main thrust of Moroni's message was that he had to keep God's commandments in general  Some contemporaries who later claimed he told them the story said there were others, some of which are relevant to the modern debate about whether or how closely events of early Mormonism were related to the practice of contemporary folk magic  Smith's writings say that the angel required at least the following: (1) that he have no thought of using the plates for monetary gain, (2) that he tell his father about the vision, and (3) that he never show the plates to any unauthorized person  Smith's contemporaries who claimed to have heard the story, both sympathetic and unsympathetic, generally agreed that Smith mentioned the following additional commandments: (4) that Smith take the plates and leave the site in which they had been buried without looking back, and (5) that the plates never directly touch the ground until they were safe at home in a locked chest  Some unsympathetic listeners who allegedly heard the story from Smith or his father recalled that Smith had said the angel required him (6) to wear "black clothes" to the place where the plates were buried, (7) to ride a "black horse with a switchtail", (8) to call for the plates by a certain name, and (9) to "give thanks to God "

In the morning, Smith began work as usual and did not mention the visions to his father because, he said, he did not think his father would believe him  Smith said he then fainted because he had been awake all night, and while unconscious, the angel appeared a fourth time and chastised him for failing to tell the visions to his father  When Smith then told all to his father, he believed his son and encouraged him to obey the angel's commands  Smith then set off to visit the hill, later stating that he used his seer stone to locate the place that the plates were buried but that he "knew the place the instant that [he] arrived there "Smith said he saw a large stone covering a box made of stone (or possibly iron)  Using a stick to remove dirt from the edges of the stone cover and prying it up with a lever, Smith saw the plates inside the box, together with other artifacts 

Unsuccessful retrieval attempts
According to Smith's followers, Smith said he took the plates from the box, put them on the ground, and covered the box with the stone to protect the other treasures that it contained  Nevertheless, the accounts say that when Smith looked back at the ground after closing the box, the plates had once again disappeared into it  When Smith once again raised the stone and attempted to retrieve the plates, he said that he was stricken by a supernatural force that hurled him to the ground as many as three times Disconcerted by his inability to obtain the plates, Smith said he briefly wondered whether his experience had been a "dreem of Vision" [sic]  Concluding that it was not, he said he prayed to ask why he had been barred from taking the plates In response to his question, Smith said the angel appeared and told him he could not receive the plates because he "had been tempted of the advisary and saught the Plates to obtain riches and kept not the commandments that I should have an eye single to the Glory of God" [sic]  According to Smith's followers, Smith had also broken the angel's commandment "not to lay the plates down, or put them for a moment out of his hands," and according to a nonbeliever, Smith said, "I had forgotten to give thanks to God," as required by the angel Smith said the angel instructed him to return the next year, on September 22, 1824, with the "right person": his older brother Alvin  Alvin had died in November 1823, and Smith returned to the hill in 1824 to ask what he should do  Smith said he was told to return the following year (1825) with the "right person" but the angel did not tell Smith who that person might be  However, Smith determined after looking into his seer stone that the "right person" was Emma Hale, his future wife  For the visit on September 22, 1825, Smith may have attempted to bring his treasure-hunting associate Samuel T  Lawrence Smith said that he visited the hill "at the end of each year" for four years after the first visit in 1823, but there is no record of him being in the vicinity of Palmyra between January 1826 and January 1827, when he returned to New York from Pennsylvania with his new wife  In January 1827, Smith visited the hill and then told his parents that the angel had severely chastised him for not being "engaged enough in the work of the Lord," which may have meant that he had missed his annual visit to the hill in 1826 

Receiving the plates
The next annual visit on September 22, 1827, would be, Smith told associates, his last chance to receive the plates  According to Brigham Young, as the scheduled final date to obtain the plates approached, several Palmyra residents expressed concern "that they were going to lose that treasure" and sent for a skilled necromancer from 60 miles (96 km) away, encouraging him to make three separate trips to Palmyra to find the plates  During one of the trips, the unnamed necromancer is said to have discovered the location but was unable to determine the value of the plates  A few days prior to the September 22, 1827, visit to the hill, Smith's loyal treasure-hunting friends Josiah Stowell and Joseph Knight Sr  traveled to Palmyra, in part, to be there during Smith's scheduled visit to the hill Another of Smith's former treasure-hunting associates, Samuel T  Lawrence, was also apparently aware of the approaching date to obtain the plates, and Smith was concerned that he might cause trouble  Therefore, on the eve of September 22, 1827, the scheduled date for retrieving the plates, Smith dispatched his father to spy on Lawrence's house until dark  If Lawrence attempted to leave, the elder Smith was to tell him that his son would "thrash the stumps with him" if he found him at the hill  Late at night, Smith took a horse and carriage to the hill Cumorah with Emma  While Emma stayed behind kneeling in prayer, Smith walked to the site of the buried plates  Some time in the early morning hours, he said that he retrieved the plates and hid them in a hollow log on or near Cumorah  At the same time, Smith said he received a pair of large spectacles he called the Urim and Thummim or "Interpreters," with lenses consisting of two seer stones, which he showed his mother when he returned in the morning Over the next few days, Smith took a well-digging job in nearby Macedon to earn enough money to buy a solid lockable chest in which to put the plates  By then, however, some of Smith's treasure-seeking company had heard that Smith had said that he had been successful in obtaining the plates, and they wanted what they believed was their share of the profits from what they viewed as part of a joint venture in treasure hunting  Spying once again on the house of Samuel Lawrence, Smith Sr , determined that a group of ten to twelve of these men, including Lawrence and Willard Chase, had enlisted the talents of a renowned and supposedly talented seer from 60 miles (96 km) away, in an effort to locate where the plates were hidden by means of divination  When Emma heard of that, she rode a stray horse to Macedon and informed Smith, who reportedly determined through his Urim and Thummim that the plates were safe  He nevertheless hurriedly rode home with Emma Once home in Manchester, he said he walked to Cumorah, removed the plates from their hiding place, and walked home through the woods and away from the road with the plates wrapped in a linen frock under his arm  On the way, he said a man had sprung up from behind a log and struck him a "heavy blow with a gun     Knocking the man down with a single punch, Joseph ran as fast as he could for about a half mile before he was attacked by a second man trying to get the plates  After similarly overpowering the man, Joseph continued to run, but before he reached the house, a third man hit him with a gun  In striking the last man, Joseph said, he injured his thumb " He returned home with a dislocated thumb and other minor injuries  Smith sent his father, Joseph Knight, and Josiah Stowell to search for the pursuers, but they found no one Smith is said to have put the plates in a locked chest and hid them in his parents' home in Manchester  He refused to allow anyone, including his family, to view the plates or the other artifacts that he said he had in his possession, but some people were allowed to heft them or feel what were said to be the artifacts through a cloth  A few days after retrieving the plates, Smith brought home what he said was an ancient breastplate, which he said had been hidden in the box at Cumorah with the plates  After letting his mother feel through a thin cloth what she said was the breastplate, he placed it in the locked chest The Smith home was approached "nearly every night" by villagers hoping to find the chest, where Smith said the plates were kept  After hearing that a group of them would attempt to enter the house by force, Smith buried the chest under the hearth, and the family was able to scare away the intended intruders  Fearing the chest might still be discovered, Smith hid it under the floor boards of his parents' old log home nearby that was then being used as a cooper shop  Later, Smith told his mother he had taken the plates out of the chest, left the empty chest under the floor boards of the cooper shop, and hid the plates in a barrel of flax  Shortly thereafter the empty box was discovered and the place ransacked by Smith's former treasure-seeking associates, who had enlisted one of the men's sisters to find the hiding place by looking in her seer stone 

Translating the plates
Smith said that the plates were engraved in an unknown language, and he told associates that he was capable of reading and translating them  The translation took place mainly in Harmony, Pennsylvania (now Oakland Township), Emma's hometown, where Smith and his wife had moved in October 1827 with financial assistance from a prominent, though superstitious, Palmyra landowner Martin Harris  The translation occurred in two phases: the first, from December 1827 to June 1828, during which Smith transcribed some of the characters and then dictated 116 manuscript pages to Harris, which were lost  The second phase began sporadically in early 1829 and then in earnest in April 1829 with the arrival of Oliver Cowdery, a schoolteacher who volunteered to serve as Smith's full-time scribe  In June 1829, Smith and Cowdery moved to Fayette, New York, completing the translation early the following month 

Smith used scribes to write the words he said were a translation of the golden plates, dictating the words while peering into seer stones, which he said allowed him to see the translation  Smith's translation process evolved from his previous use of seer stones in treasure-seeking  During the earliest phase of translation, Smith said he used what he called Urim and Thummim, two stones set in a frame like a set of large spectacles  Witnesses said Smith placed the Urim and Thummim in his hat while he was translating After the loss of the first 116 manuscript pages, Smith translated with a single seer stone, which some sources say he had previously used in treasure-seeking  Smith placed the stone in a hat, buried his face in it to eliminate all outside light, and peered into the stone to see the words of the translation  A few times during the translation, a curtain or blanket was raised between Smith and his scribe or between the living area and the area where Smith and his scribe worked  Sometimes, Smith dictated to Harris from upstairs or from a different room Smith's translation did not require the use of the plates themselves  Though Smith himself said very little about the translation process, his friends and family said that as he looked into the stone, the written translation of the ancient script appeared to him in English  There are several proposed explanations for how Smith composed his translation  In the 19th century, the most common explanation among anti-Mormons was that he copied the work from a manuscript written by Solomon Spaulding  That theory is repudiated by Smith's preeminent modern biographers  The most prominent modern theory among many ex-Mormons is that Smith composed the translation in response to the provincial opinions of his time, perhaps while in a magical trance-like state  As a matter of faith, Latter Day Saints generally view the translation process as either an automatic process of transcribing text written within the stone or an intuitive translation by Smith, assisted by a mystical connection with God, through the stone  Some Latter Day Saint apologists argue that because of the length of the Book of Mormon (roughly 270,000 words) and the timeframe in which the Book was dictated, it is unlikely that he wrote it or memorized the words from elsewhere  It is also argued that Smith was unfamiliar with the text, often pausing to attempt to pronounce names of people and places that were unfamiliar to him, and therefore it is unlikely that he had read the text before or written it previously Smith's dictations were written down by a number of assistants, including Emma Smith, Martin Harris, and Oliver Cowdery  In May 1829, after Smith had lent 116 unduplicated manuscript pages to Harris, and Harris had lost them, Smith dictated a revelation explaining that Smith could not simply retranslate the lost pages because his opponents would attempt to see if he could "bring forth the same words again " According to Grant Palmer, Smith believed "a second transcription would be identical to the first  This confirms the view that the English text existed in some kind of unalterable, spiritual form rather than that someone had to think through difficult conceptual issues and idioms, always resulting in variants in any translation "

Location of the plates during translation
When Smith and Emma moved to Pennsylvania in October 1827, they transported a wooden box, which Smith said contained the plates, hidden in a barrel of beans  For a time, the couple stayed in the home of Emma's father, Isaac Hale, but when Smith refused to show Hale the plates, Hale banished the concealed objects from his house  Afterward, Smith told several of his associates that the plates were hidden in the nearby woods  Emma said that she remembered the plates being on a table in the house, wrapped in a linen tablecloth, which she moved from time to time when it got in the way of her chores  According to Smith's mother, the plates were also stored in a trunk on Emma's bureau  However, Smith did not require the physical presence of the plates to translate them In April 1828, Martin Harris's wife, Lucy, visited Harmony with her husband and demanded to see the plates  When Smith refused to show them to her, she searched the house, grounds, and woods  According to Smith's mother, during the search Lucy was frightened by a large, black snake and so was prevented from digging up the plates  As a result of Martin Harris's loss of the 116 pages of manuscript, Smith said that between July and September 1828, the angel Moroni took back both the plates and the Urim and Thummim as a penalty for his having delivered "the manuscript into the hands of a wicked man " According to Smith's mother, the angel returned the objects to Smith on September 22, 1828, the anniversary of the day that he first received them In March 1829, Martin Harris visited Harmony and asked to see the plates  Smith told him that he "would go into the woods where the Book of Plates was, and that after he came back, Harris should follow his tracks in the snow, and find the Book, and examine it for himself " Harris followed the directions but could not find the plates In early June 1829, the unwanted attentions of locals around Harmony necessitated Smith's move to the home of David Whitmer and his parents in Fayette, New York  Smith said that during this move the plates were transported by the angel Moroni, who put them in the garden of the Whitmer house, where Smith could recover them  The translation was completed at the Whitmer home 

Returning the plates
After translation was complete, Smith said he returned the plates to the angel, but he did not elaborate about this experience  According to accounts by several early Mormons, a group of Mormon leaders, including Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and possibly others accompanied Smith and returned the plates to a cave inside the Hill Cumorah  There, Smith is said to have placed the plates on a table near "many wagon loads" of other ancient records, and the Sword of Laban hanging on the cave wall  According to Brigham Young's understanding, which he said that he had gained from Cowdery, on a later visit to the cave, the Sword of Laban was said to be unsheathed and placed over the plates and inscribed with the words: "This sword will never be sheathed again until the kingdoms of this world become the kingdom of our God and his Christ "Smith taught that part of the golden plates were "sealed " The "sealed" portion is said to contain "a revelation from God, from the beginning of the world to the ending thereof " Many Latter Day Saints believe that the plates will be kept hidden until a future time, when the sealed part will be translated and, according to one early Mormon leader, transferred from the hill to one of the Mormon temples David Whitmer is quoted as stating that he saw just the untranslated portion of the plates sitting on the table with the sword (and also a breastplate)  Apparently, Whitmer was aware of expeditions at Cumorah to locate the sealed portion of the plates through "science and mineral rods," which, he said, "testify that they are there "

Descriptions of the plates
Smith said the angel Moroni had commanded him not to show the plates to any unauthorized person  However, Smith eventually obtained the written statement of several witnesses who saw the plates  It is unclear whether the witnesses believed they had seen the plates with their physical eyes or had seen them in a vision  For instance, although Martin Harris continued to testify to the truth of the Book of Mormon even when he was estranged from the church, at least during the early years of the movement, he "seems to have repeatedly admitted the internal, subjective nature of his visionary experience "According to some sources, Smith initially intended that the first authorized witness be his firstborn son; but this child was stillborn in 1828  In March 1829, Martin Harris came to Harmony to see the plates, but was unable to find them in the woods where Smith said they could be found  The next day, Smith dictated a revelation stating that Harris could eventually qualify himself to be one of three witnesses with the exclusive right to "view [the plates] as they are" By June 1829, Smith determined that there would be eight additional witnesses, a total of twelve including Smith  During the second half of June 1829, Smith took Harris, Oliver Cowdery and David Whitmer (known collectively as the Three Witnesses) into woods in Fayette, New York, where they said they saw an angel holding the golden plates and turning the leaves  The four also said they heard "the voice of the Lord" telling them that the translation of the plates was correct, and commanding them to testify of what they saw and heard  A few days later, Smith took a different group of Eight Witnesses to a location near Smith's parents' home in Palmyra where they said Smith showed them the golden plates  Statements over the names of these men, apparently drafted by Smith, were published in 1830 as an appendix to the Book of Mormon  According to later statements ascribed to Martin Harris, he viewed the plates in a vision and not with his "natural eyes "In addition to Smith and the other eleven who claimed to be witnesses, a few other early Mormons said they saw the plates  For instance, Smith's mother Lucy Mack Smith said she had "seen and handled" the plates  Smith's wife Emma and his younger brother William and younger sister Katharine also said they had examined and lifted the plates while they were wrapped in fabric  Others said they had visions of the plates or had been shown the plates by an angel, in some cases years after Smith said he had returned the plates 

Described format, binding, and dimensions
The plates were said to be bound at one edge by a set of rings  In 1828, Martin Harris, is reported to have said that the plates were "fastened together in the shape of a book by wires"  In 1859 Harris said that the plates "were seven inches [18 cm] wide by eight inches [20 cm] in length, and were of the thickness of plates of tin; and when piled one above the other, they were altogether about four inches [10 cm] thick; and they were put together on the back by three silver rings, so that they would open like a book"  David Whitmer, another of the Three Witnesses, was quoted by an 1831 Palmyra newspaper as having said the plates were "the thickness of tin plate; the back was secured with three small rings     passing through each leaf in succession"  Anomalously, Smith's father is quoted as saying that the plates were only half an inch (1 27 centimeter) thick  Smith's mother, who said she had "seen and handled" the plates, is quoted as saying they were "eight inches [20 cm] long, and six [15 cm] wide     all connected by a ring which passes through a hole at the end of each plate" Hyrum Smith and John Whitmer, also witnesses in 1829, are reported to have stated that the rings holding the plates together were, in Hyrum's words, "in the shape of the letter D, which facilitated the opening and shutting of the book"  Smith's wife Emma and his younger brother William said they had examined the plates while wrapped in fabric  Emma said she "felt of the plates, as they thus lay on the table, tracing their outline and shape  They seemed to be pliable like thick paper, and would rustle with a metallic sound when the edges were moved by the thumb, as one does sometimes thumb the edges of a book"  William agreed that the plates could be rustled with one's thumb like the pages of a book Smith did not provide his own published description of the plates until 1842, when he said in a letter that "each plate was six inches [15 cm] wide and eight inches [20 cm] long, and not quite so thick as common tin  They were     bound together in a volume, as the leaves of a book, with three rings running through the whole  The volume was something near six inches [15 cm] in thickness" 

Described composition and weight
The plates were first described as "gold", and beginning about 1827, the plates were widely called the "gold bible"  When the Book of Mormon was published in 1830, the Eight Witnesses described the plates as having "the appearance of gold"  The Book of Mormon describes the plates as being made of "ore"  In a June 1830 court hearing, Josiah Stowell testified that he inadvertently caught a glimpse of a corner of the plates (making him "the only witness to see the plates 'by accident,'") and said it "resembled a stone of a greenish caste " In 1831, a Palmyra newspaper quoted David Whitmer, one of the Three Witnesses, as having said that the plates were a "whitish yellow color", with "three small rings of the same metal" Smith's first published description of the plates said that the plates "had the appearance of gold", and Smith said that Moroni had referred to the plates as "gold " Late in life, Martin Harris stated that the rings holding the plates together were made of silver, and he said the plates themselves, based on their heft of "forty or fifty pounds" (18–23 kg), "were lead or gold"  Joseph's brother William, who said he felt the plates inside a pillow case in 1827, said in 1884 that he understood the plates to be "a mixture of gold and copper     much heavier than stone, and very much heavier than wood" Different people estimated the weight of the plates differently  According to Smith's one-time-friend Willard Chase, Smith told him in 1827 that the plates weighed between 40 and 60 pounds (18–27 kg), most likely the latter  Smith's father Joseph Smith Sr , who was one of the Eight Witnesses, reportedly weighed them and said in 1830 that they "weighed thirty pounds" (14 kg)  Smith's brother William, who had lifted the plates, thought they "weighed about sixty pounds [27 kg] according to the best of my judgment"  Others who lifted the plates while they were wrapped in cloth or enclosed in a box thought that they weighed about 60 pounds [27 kg]  Martin Harris said that he had "hefted the plates many times, and should think they weighed forty or fifty pounds [18–23 kg]"  Smith's wife Emma never estimated the weight of the plates but said they were light enough for her to "move them from place to place on the table, as it was necessary in doing my work" From descriptions of the plates' dimensions, had the plates been made of 24-karat gold (which Smith never claimed), they would have weighed about 140 pounds (64 kg)  Based on the plates' lighter weight and Stowell's description of its corner's "greenish cast", one scholar has hypothesized Smith made the plates from copper, which weighs less than gold and rusts green  LDS writers have speculated the plates could also exhibit those qualities if it were made of a copper-gold alloy like Mesoamerican tumbaga 

"Sealed" portion
According to Smith and others, the golden plates contained a "sealed" portion containing "a revelation from God, from the beginning of the world to the ending thereof " Smith never described the nature of the seal, and the language of the Book of Mormon may be interpreted to describe a sealing that was spiritual, metaphorical, physical, or a combination of these elements 
The Book of Mormon refers to other documents and plates as being "sealed" to be revealed at some future time  For example, the Book of Mormon says the entire set of plates was "sealed up, and hid up unto the Lord" and that separate records of John the Apostle were "sealed up to come forth in their purity" in the end times  One set of plates to which the Book of Mormon refers was "sealed up" in the sense that they were written in a language that could not be read Smith may have understood the sealing to be a supernatural or spiritual sealing "by the power of God" (2 Nephi 27:10), an idea supported by a reference in the Book of Mormon to the "interpreters" with which Smith said they were buried or "sealed " Oliver Cowdery also stated that when Smith visited the hill, he was stricken by a supernatural force because the plates were "sealed by the prayer of faith "Several witnesses described a physical sealing placed on part of the plates by Mormon or Moroni  David Whitmer said that when an angel showed him the plates in 1829, "a large portion of the leaves were so securely bound together that it was impossible to separate them," that the "sealed" part of the plates were held together as a solid mass "stationary and immovable," "as solid to my view as wood," and that there were "perceptible marks where the plates appeared to be sealed" with leaves "so securely bound that it was impossible to separate them " In 1842, Lucy Mack Smith said that some of the plates were "sealed together" while others were "loose " The account of the Eight Witnesses says they saw the plates in 1829 and handled "as many of the leaves as Smith has translated," implying that they did not examine untranslated parts, such as the sealed portion  In one interview, David Whitmer said that "about half" the book was unsealed; in 1881, he said "about one-third" was unsealed  Whitmer's 1881 statement is consistent with an 1856 statement by Orson Pratt, an associate of Smith's who never saw the plates himself but who had spoken with witnesses, that "about two-thirds" of the plates were "sealed up" 

Engravings
The golden plates were said to contain engravings that the Book of Mormon describes as reformed Egyptian  Smith described the writing as "Egyptian characters     small, and beautifully engraved," exhibiting "much skill in the art of engraving "John Whitmer, one of the Eight Witnesses, said the plates had "fine engravings on both sides," and Orson Pratt, who did not see the plates himself but who had spoken with witnesses, understood that there were engravings on both sides of the plates, "stained with a black, hard stain, so as to make the letters more legible and easier to be read "

Significance in the Latter Day Saint tradition
The golden plates are significant within the Latter Day Saint movement because they are the reputed source for the Book of Mormon, which Smith called the "most correct of any book on earth, and the keystone of our religion " However, the golden plates are just one of many known and reputed metal plates with significance in the Latter Day Saint movement  The Book of Mormon itself refers to a long tradition of writing historical records on plates, of which the golden plates are a culmination (see List of plates (Latter Day Saint movement)) 
Some Latter Day Saints, especially those within the Community of Christ, have doubted the historicity of the golden plates and downplayed their significance  For most adherents of the Latter Day Saint faith, however, the physical existence and authenticity of the golden plates are essential elements of their faith  For them, the message of the Book of Mormon is inseparable from the story of its origins Hugh Nibley, a Latter-day Saint scholar popular among church members, said in 1957 that he believed even proof of the actual existence of the golden plates would not settle disputes about the Book of Mormon and the story of its origin 

Other plates
A few other sets of plates have arisen to prominence in various denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement 

Kinderhook plates hoax
In 1843, after reading a missionary tract written by Orson Pratt, three men in Kinderhook, Pike County, Illinois—Robert Wiley, Wilburn Fugate, and Bridge Whitton—decided to collaborate to counterfeit a set of metal plates and "startle the natives," as one of Fugate's sons recalled  The trio forged plates from copper, etched them with acid, and buried them in a mound, digging them up on April 23, 1843, in a pretended discovery  The Quincy Whig published a story on the discovery, and the Times and Seasons and Nauvoo Neighbor, a publication of the church and of the city respectively, reprinted the story  The Mormon community soon expressed much interest in the plates 
By May 1, the plates had been brought to Nauvoo and Smith, apparently believing they were authentic, attempted to translate them  Smith's private secretary William Clayton recorded that upon receiving the plates, Smith sent for his "Hebrew Bible & Lexicon", suggesting that rather than translate the plates by direct revelation, Smith attempted to translate the plates by more conventional means  That day, Clayton wrote in his journal:
I have seen 6 brass plates     covered with ancient characters of language containing from 30 to 40 on each side of the plates  Prest J  [Joseph Smith] has translated a portion and says they contain the history of the person with whom they were found and he was a descendant of Ham through the loins of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and that he received his kingdom from the ruler of heaven and earth 
Scholars examining the Kinderhook plates in retrospect have found that one character coincidentally resembles a character in Smith's Egyptian Alphabet Book, the alleged meaning of which matches Smith's attempted translation of the Kinderhook plates, further suggesting Smith tried to translate the plates as an amateur linguist Apostles John Taylor and Wilford Woodruff, editors of the Nauvoo Neighbor, anticipated Smith would translate the plates in their entirety and promised in a June 1843 article that "The contents of the plates, together with a Fac-simile of the same, will be published in the 'Times and Seasons,' as soon as the translation is completed " However, the plates were returned untranslated to Wiley and Fugate in Kinderhook  Smith did not express reservations about the plates to any of his compatriots, but whether or not he recognized the Kinderhook plates as fraudulent, "he did not swing into a full-fledged translation" as he had with his earlier encounter with Egyptian scrolls In 1886, a signed letter from Fugate was published in the book Joseph Smith the Prophet, His Family and His Friends: A Study Based on Facts and Documents, and in the letter Fugate revealed the hoax and the fabrication of the plates  Nevertheless, many members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (a denomination of Mormons who followed Brigham Young after Smith's death) refused to accept Fugate's confession and defended the Kinderhook plates as authentic and Smith's translation as legitimate until 1980, when Northwestern University materials science professor D  Lynn Johnson examined a plate still held by the Chicago Historical Society and conclusively proved it was a nineteenth-century creation 

Strangite plates
Two other sets of alleged plates, the Voree plates and the Book of the Law of the Lord, were translated by James Strang—one of three major contenders to succeed Smith—who went on to lead the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)  The Voree plates were alleged to have been written by an ancient inhabitant of what is now Burlington, Wisconsin, while the Book of the Law of the Lord was alleged by Strang to be a translation of the Plates of Laban mentioned in the Book of Mormon  Neither of these alleged discoveries by Strang is accepted as authentic outside of the Strangite community 

Notes
Passage 12:
Jan van de Velde the Elder
Jan van de Velde the Elder (1568, Antwerp – 1623, Haarlem), was a Dutch calligrapher, writing teacher, and engraver  He was the father of the engraver Jan van de Velde 

Biography
According to the RKD he was possibly the pupil of Felix van Sambix  He married Mayken van Bracht from Turnhout, sister-in-law of the publisher Jan van Waesberghe, in 1592 in Rotterdam and opened a French school there  Their son, Jan van de Velde, became a painter  He published his calligraphy in the Spieghel der Schrijfkonste in 1605  In 1620 moved to Haarlem, where he was possibly the teacher of the Haarlem calligraphers Jean de la Chambre or Nicolaes Bodding van Laer 
Passage 13:
History of Joseph Smith by His Mother
History of Joseph Smith by His Mother is a biography of Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, according to his mother, Lucy Mack Smith   It was originally titled Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith, the Prophet, and His Progenitors for Many Generations and was published by Orson Pratt in Liverpool in 1853 

Background
Shortly following the death of Joseph Smith in 1844, and into 1845, Lucy Mack Smith dictated her recollections and family story to Nauvoo schoolteacher Martha Jane Coray  Coray worked with her husband to compile these books of notes and other sources into a manuscript, which was then copied 
One copy was given to apostle Brigham Young, and the other stayed with Lucy Smith in Nauvoo  Eventually, apostle Orson Pratt obtained Lucy's copy and published it in 1853, to great controversy 

Brigham Young's opposition
After its publication, Brigham Young declared the book to be a "tissue of lies" and wanted corrections made  In the Millennial Star in 1855, he said,

There are many mistakes in the work     I have had a written copy of those sketches in my possession for several years, and it contains much of the history of the Prophet Joseph  Should it ever be deemed best to publish these sketches, it will not be done until after they are carefully corrected 
In 1865, Young ordered the church members to have their copies destroyed  There was no "corrected" version until the church published a 1901 serialization and 1902 book, which were done under the direction of Joseph F  Smith, Lucy's grandson Later historians theorized that Young opposed the book because of his own conflicts with its publisher, Orson Pratt, as well as the book's favorable references to William Smith, Young's opponent and Lucy's son  Lucy Mack Smith portrayed the Smith family as the legitimate leaders of the church, which Young may also have seen as a challenge to his leadership 

Importance
LDS historian Leonard Arrington saw the book as "informative, basically accurate, and extremely revealing of Joseph Smith's early life and family background," and felt it "perhaps tells more about Mormon origins than any other single source   Richard L  Anderson called it one of "the essential sources for Mormon origins "  Non-Mormon historian Jan Shipps identifies this history as being "of central importance in the Mormon historical corpus "

Editions
The book has been republished several times, under various publishers, editors and titles   The following is a list of editions with significant changes to the text or title 

Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet, and His Progenitors for Many Generations, by Lucy Smith, Mother of the Prophet  Liverpool: S W  Richards for Orson Pratt  1853 
Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet and His Progenitors for Many Generations  Plano, Illinois: Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints  1880 
Smith, George A ; Smith, Elias, eds  (1902)  History of the Prophet Joseph, by His Mother, Lucy Smith, as Revised by George A  Smith and Elias Smith  Salt Lake City, Utah: Improvement Era  
Nibley, Preston, ed  (1945)  History of Joseph Smith, By His Mother, Lucy Mack Smith  Salt Lake City, Utah: Stevens & Wallis 
Nibley, Preston, ed  (1956)  History of Joseph Smith, By His Mother, Lucy Mack Smith  Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft 
Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith, the Prophet  New York: Arno Press  1969 
Tanner, Jerald and Sandra (1978)  Joseph Smith's History By His Mother: The Book Brigham Young Tried to Destroy  Salt Lake City, Utah: Modern Microfilm Co 
Proctor, Scot Facer; Proctor, Maurine Jensen, eds  (1996)  The Revised and Enhanced History of Joseph Smith By His Mother  Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft  ISBN 1-57008-267-7  
Anderson, Lavina Fielding, ed  (2001)  Lucy's Book: A Critical Edition of Lucy Mack Smith's Family Memoir  Salt Lake City, Utah: Signature Books  ISBN 1-56085-137-6 
Ingleton, R  Vernon, ed  (2005)  History of Joseph Smith by His Mother, Lucy Mack Smith; the Unabridged Original Version  Provo, Utah: Stratford Books  ISBN 0-929753-05-4 

Notes



ground_truth: Lucy Mack Smith

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the explorer reach the headquarters location of the group Con-Test's record label is part of?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Con-Test
Con-Test is the fifth album by FM, a progressive rock band from Toronto, Canada, released in 1985 

Background
In 1983, former group member Nash the Slash proposed a future double bill tour with FM, as the two artists seemed to share a common audience  FM's best known previous album was Black Noise which he made with them in 1977   But they had not yet found a replacement for Ben Mink who had replaced Nash in 1977, and then left the group in 1983   Nash resolved the problem by rejoining the band, although work on a new album, even in its demo phase, did not begin until May 1984   Con-Test has the same band line-up as Black Noise 
FM's former record company, Passport Records, ceased operations in 1984   Nash had been signed to Quality Records as a solo artist in 1983, and was about to release his solo album American Band-ages, which the proposed double bill tour was to promote   He was able to use his association with Quality to get FM signed to the label as well 
The double bill concept was retained, with Nash playing a solo set as the opening act for most FM concerts from 1983 to 1989 
Former group member Ben Mink also appears on the album, albeit as a guitarist 

Title and artwork
The album was titled Con-Test after the group ran a contest to come up with something that "FM" might stand for, and its cover art featured fine print listing several hundred submissions including Fluent Monkeys, Flunk Math, Floyd Meddle, Fashion Magazine, Free Money, Forgiven Mistake, Facing Mecca, False Mammaries, and so on   (One intriguing entry is "Framed Mulroney" which would appear to reference the scandals surrounding then-Prime Minister Brian Mulroney; however, these incidents did not occur until years later )
Despite the absence of pictorial graphics, the cover art was credited to surrealist painter Robert Vanderhorst, who has frequently collaborated with Nash the Slash on multi-media presentations from 1978 to the 2000s 

Releases
The album was initially available on Quality Records in 1985 (catalogue number SV-2138), but the label ceased operations in 1986, after more than 35 years of business   They had been Canada's biggest domestic label in the 1950s and 1960s 
MCA Records picked up the reissue rights for Con-Test, as well as Nash's American Band-ages in 1986, but the abrupt change in record labels led to a near-absence of promotion for both records 
Duke Street Records would release FM's next album, Tonight on vinyl and CD   This was FM's first CD release   The CD edition included five bonus tracks taken from Con-Test (tracks 1 to 4, and 6)   This acquisition of the rights to Con-Test led to a CD edition of the full album on Duke Street in 1987, but Duke Street did not reissue it on vinyl 

Track listing
All tracks composed by Cameron Hawkins, Martin Deller, and Nash the Slash—except where noted  All tracks arranged by FM and Michael Waite 

Side one"Just Like You" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash, Waite) – 4:05
"We Hold On" – 4:35
"All of the Dreams" – 4:05
"Until the Night Is Over" – 3:50
"The Only Way to Win" – 3:46Side two"Why Don't You Take It" – 4:10
"Distant Early Warning" – 4:08
"Friends and Neighbours" – 4:33
"Stop!" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash, Waite) – 5:00

Personnel
Nash the Slash – lead and background vocals, electric mandolin, electric violin, harmonica
Cameron Hawkins – lead and background vocals, synthesizers, bass guitar
Martin Deller – drums, electronic percussion

Guests
Ben Mink – electric guitars
Rob Yale – Fairlight C M I 
Glen Johansen and David Moses – background vocals on "Distant Early Warning"

Technical credits
Produced by Michael Waite for Eye to Ear Productions
Bed tracks recorded at Manta Sound, engineered by John Naslin assisted by Ron Searls and Mark Baldi
Overdubs recorded at Metal Works, engineered by Glen Johansen assisted by Noel Golden
Mixed at Manta Sound, engineered by John Naslin assisted by Mark Baldi and Mike Duncan
Mastered by Bob Ludwig at Masterdisk, New York City
Robert Vanderhorst – cover art

Singles
"Just Like You" – 1985 (Canadian chart #38)
"All of the Dreams" – 1986 (Canadian chart #86)
"Why Don't You Take It" / "Just Like You" – MCA 52840, 1986 (issued with cover, Canadian chart #90)The latter record was also issued as a 12-inch single on MCA 23634 with alternate versions:

"Why Don't You Take It (Flight Mix)" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash) – total 6:27
"Intro (Taxi)" – 0:50
"The Tune (Take Off)" – 5:37
"Just Like You (Fun Mix)" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash, Waite) – 7:06

Demo recordings
Demo versions of four songs for Con-Test appeared on FM's Lost in Space CD on Cut-throat Records in 2001, recorded at Cut-throat Studios in May 1984   Cut-throat is Nash's own record company and studio   These include a cover version of "It's My Life", a song by The Animals from 1965, that did not make it to the album 
In the liner notes, Nash the Slash heavily criticizes the production of the Con-Test versions, preferring the demos   He states that he reluctantly took over the lead vocals from Hawkins on "Friends and Neighbours" between the demo and Con-Test versions, at the insistence of the producer (Waite), and characterizes the LP version of this song as "bastardized" 
"The Only Way to Win" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash) – 3:05
"Friends and Neighbours" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash) – 4:03
"It's My Life" (Roger Atkins, Carl D'Errico) – 3:20
"Why Don't You Take It" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash) – 4:42
Passage 2:
National Car Test
The National Car Test (Irish: An tSeirbhís Náisiúnta Tástála Carranna; abbreviated NCT) is a roadworthiness test, which all cars in Ireland must undergo  Following a tender process, the Road Safety Authority awarded the National Car Testing Service contract for the operation of the vehicle inspection service in the Republic of Ireland to Applus 

History
The National Car Test (the NCT) was introduced in 2000, since then all cars four years and older must undergo an NCT  The NCT due date is calculated by reference to the date of first registration of the car, with tests due every two years for cars younger than 10 years  Annual Testing was introduced in June 2011 and is now a legal requirement for vehicles that present for their 10th anniversary test and each subsequent test  Vehicles can be inspected up to 90 days in advance of the anniversary of the registration date  The waiting lists have proven to be long, with even the 'priority list' taking in excess of a month 

Procedure
The NCT is available in 47 centres around the Republic of Ireland  and it tests various aspects of cars for safety, including tyres, brakes and shock absorbers  It also tests the exhaust fumes for compliance with EU emissions standards  Other safety features, such as the spare tyre, seat belts and lights are also checked 
As of 2012, the fee for the NCT is €55 for a full test, and €28 for a re-test that requires testing equipment (e g  emission levels, aiming of headlights, etc )  Re-tests that do not require the use of test equipment (such as obscured registration plate, faulty windscreen wiper, etc ) are free of charge  However, if a confirmed appointment is cancelled with less than five working days' notice (Mon  - Fri , not including the day of the test or the day you contact NCTS), or failure to show up for the test, a €22 00 surcharge will be applied when the car is next brought in for testing  A similar surcharge of €11 50 will apply in the case of a re-test 
Upon successful completion of the test a valid NCT certificate is issued and this must be displayed on the front windscreen of the vehicle 
A driver without a valid NCT on their car will incur three penalty points and a fine of €60, if paid within the first 28 days, and €90 if paid within the following 28 days  Thereafter, if the fine is not paid, a court appearance becomes mandatory and if convicted, five penalty points and a fine will be imposed by the court  This system was introduced on December 8, 2014, where previously all offenders were immediately faced with a mandatory court appearance and five penalty points upon conviction, in addition to a fine  Enforcement is the responsibility of the Garda Síochána  Local authorities can (in theory) refuse to issue a tax disc to a vehicle not having an NCT certificate and insurance companies could (in theory) declare cover for an untested (or failed) vehicle invalid 
There are exemptions for certain categories of vehicles such as vintage cars (registered before 1980) and vehicles based permanently on some offshore Islands 
NCTS centres are run by Applus Car Testing Services, who are independent of the motor industry 
If applicants cannot get an NCT appointment within 28 days of applying for it, the test is undertaken free of charge  This is assuming that the applicant:

Has not declined another appointment more than twice at a centre of their choosing 
Has not previously accepted a booking outside of the 4 week period 

Statistics
In August 2017 the Irish Sunday Independent reported that the best performing car in 2016 tests was the Nissan Juke and the worst the Hyundai Trajet  The same article revealed the existence of a data visualisation of 2016 NCT results 

Similar tests
In Northern Ireland, motor vehicles are subject to the MOT test, which is the standard in the United Kingdom 

See also
Vehicle inspection (general overview of roadworthiness tests around the world)
MOT test (UK)
Shaken (Japan)
Warrant of Fitness (New Zealand)
Passage 3:
MCA Records
MCA Records was an American record label owned by MCA Inc , which later became part of Universal Music Group 

Pre-history
MCA Inc , a talent agency and television production company, entered the recorded music business in 1962 with the purchase of the New York-based US Decca Records (established in 1934), including Coral Records and Brunswick Records  MCA was forced to exit the talent agency business in order to complete the merger  As American Decca owned Universal Pictures, MCA assumed full ownership of Universal and made it into a top film studio, producing several hits  In 1966, MCA formed Uni Records and in 1967, purchased Kapp Records which was placed under Uni Records management 

History
The early years
In 1937, the owner of Decca, Edward R  Lewis, chose to split off the UK Decca company from the US company (keeping his US Decca holdings), fearing the financial damage that would arise for UK Companies if the emerging hostilities of Nazi Germany should lead to war – correctly foreseeing World War II  Lewis sold the remainder of his US Decca holdings when war did break out   US-based Decca Records kept the rights to the Decca name in North and South America and parts of Asia including Japan  UK Decca owned the rights to the Decca name in the rest of the world  After the war, British Decca formed a new US subsidiary, London Records 
During this time, American Decca issued records outside North America on the Brunswick and Coral labels  In 1962, MCA acquired American Decca and became a wholly owned subsidiary  In 1967, Brunswick and Coral were replaced by the MCA label, which was used to release US Decca and Kapp label material outside North America  Initial activity as MCA Records was based in London and MCA Records UK was formally launched on February 16, 1968  Among the early artists on the MCA label, around 1971, were groups Wishbone Ash, Osibisa, Stackridge and Budgie, and solo artists Tony Christie, Mick Greenwood and Roy Young Early MCA UK releases were distributed by Decca, but moved to EMI in 1974  As the US division of MCA Records was not established until 1972, the earliest UK MCA Records material was released in the US on either Kapp or Decca  MCA UK also issued American Brunswick material on the MCA label until 1972, two years after MCA lost control of Brunswick, after which American Brunswick material was issued in the UK on the revived Brunswick label  Uni label material was issued on the Uni label worldwide 

MCA Records formation in Canada and the United States
In 1970, MCA reorganized its Canadian record company Compo Company Ltd  into MCA Records (Canada)  In April 1970, former Warner Bros  Records president Mike Maitland joined MCA and initially served as Decca's general manager  Maitland was unsuccessful in his attempt to consolidate Warner Bros  Records with co-owned Atlantic Records which led to his departure from Warner 
In April 1971, Maitland supervised the consolidation of the New York-based Decca and Kapp labels plus the California-based Uni label into MCA Records based in Universal City, California, with Maitland serving as president  The three labels maintained their identities for a short time, but were retired in favor of the MCA label in 1973  "Drift Away" by Dobie Gray became the final Decca pop label release in the U S in 1973  Beginning the same year, the catalogs of Decca, Uni and Kapp were reissued in the US on the MCA label under the supervision of veteran Decca producer Milt Gabler 

Early success
The first MCA Records release in the US was former Uni artist Elton John's "Crocodile Rock" single in 1972, which appeared on a plain black and white label  
Immediately following this, the US MCA label used a black with curved rainbow design until the late 1970s  This design was directly inspired by the US Decca label of the 1960s 
In December 1972, Neil Diamond, another Uni artist, reached  superstar status with his first MCA release, the live multi-platinum Hot August Night  Elton John's double album Goodbye Yellow Brick Road was released in October 1973 and was number one on the US Billboard 200 albums chart for eight straight weeks  The management of former Decca artists the Who had formed their own label Track Records in the UK, but were still under contract with MCA for US distribution  The Who's double album Quadrophenia was  released by Track/MCA also in October 1973  Quadrophenia peaked at number 2 as it was held back from the number 1 slot by Goodbye Yellow Brick Road 
Other successful artists on MCA, after the consolidation, included former Kapp artist Cher, and Uni artist Olivia Newton-John  MCA released the highly successful soundtrack album to the 1973 film The Sting  The soundtrack music was arranged and conducted by Marvin Hamlisch and won an Academy Award for Best Original Score (MCA issued many other soundtracks to films from Universal, along with some non-Universal films) 
One of the most successful MCA artists in this era was the rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd, who would become one of the most popular in the Southern rock genre  The group was discovered by Al Kooper and initially released on his "Sounds of the South" label imprint of MCA  The song "Free Bird" became one of the most popular songs of all time on album-oriented rock radio stations  On Second Helping, the group recorded a song about their relationship with the label called, "Workin' for MCA"  Street Survivors was released in October 1977, just prior to a tragic plane crash in which members of the group were either killed or severely injured  The original Street Survivors cover had a picture of the band members surrounded by flames, but this was quickly substituted for a design without flames  Though a latter version of the group enjoyed success, Lynyrd Skynyrd's streak of hits ended after the crash  Eventually, three Lynyrd Skynyrd albums reached the double platinum sales level and at least two others reached platinum or gold levels 
During the 1970s and 1980s, MCA profited from reissuing classic early rock and roll recordings made by artists who recorded for the numerous labels absorbed by MCA  One notable example was the 1954 Decca recording "Rock Around the Clock" by Bill Haley & His Comets, which was featured as the lead track of MCA's No  1-charting American Graffiti soundtrack album, and as a single returned to the American top 40 that year, 20 years after it was recorded 

Expansion and struggles
In 1977, MCA president Sidney Sheinberg set up the Infinity Records division, based in New York City with Ron Alexenberg as CEO  Alexenberg had been with the Epic division of CBS Records, now Sony Music Entertainment  The intention was to give MCA a stronger presence on the East Coast  The only big hit the Infinity label had was "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)" by Rupert Holmes, a #1 single at the end of 1979  Infinity also had some success with Hot Chocolate, Spyro Gyra, New England and TKO  But MCA pulled the plug on Infinity after it failed to sell most of the 1 million advance copies of an album featuring Pope John Paul II in October 1979  Infinity was fully absorbed by the parent company in 1980 
In 1979, Bob Siner replaced Maitland as MCA Records president  Shortly afterwards, MCA acquired ABC Records along with its subsidiaries Paramount, Dunhill, Impulse!, Westminster, and Dot  ABC had acquired the Paramount and Dot labels when they purchased Gulf+Western's record labels and Famous Music Corp  Thus, MCA now controlled material once owned by Paramount Pictures, the music released by Paramount's record labels, and the pre-1950 films by Paramount as well 
Also included in this deal were recordings controlled by ABC, including albums by Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers which were originally released by Shelter Records  Petty was furious about the reassignment of his contract and refused to record for MCA  This led to a series of lawsuits, which resulted in his bankruptcy in 1980  Petty and other ABC/Shelter artists eventually had their contracts transferred to the Backstreet Records label, which was distributed by MCA  ABC Records' independent distributors sued ABC and MCA for $1 3 million in damages for being stuck with unsold ABC recordings they could not return to MCA  The better selling ABC Records catalog albums were reissued on the MCA label MCA distribution in Europe and Asia moved to CBS in 1979, while releases in the 1980s were self-distributed, or through WEA  Distribution moved to  BMG during the 1990s 

The 1980s
The combined effects of the Infinity Records failure, the purchase of ABC, rising vinyl costs and a major slump in record sales produced tremendous losses for the company between 1979 and 1982  It was not until the mid-1980s that the record labels returned to significant profitability  In late 1980, MCA received negative publicity when it attempted to raise the list price of new releases by top selling artists from $8 98 to $9 98  This policy, known as "superstar pricing", ultimately failed  The Xanadu soundtrack album and Gaucho, by former ABC act Steely Dan, were the first releases with the higher list price  Backstreet artist Tom Petty succeeded in his campaign to force MCA to drop prices back to $8 98 for the release of his album Hard Promises, in May 1981 MCA had a distribution deal with the independent label Unicorn Records, which in turn signed an agreement with another rising independent label, SST Records to manufacture and distribute Black Flag's first album Damaged  Reportedly, MCA executive Al Bergman heard an advance copy of the album and refused to let MCA Distributing Inc  handle it, claiming that it was "an anti-parent record " The members of Black Flag found themselves covering the MCA Distributing logo on the first 25,000 copies with a sticker reading "As a parent    I found it an anti-parent record " SST Records partner Joe Carducci later claimed that Bergman's comments were actually a red herring for MCA to cut ties with Unicorn, which had not produced any successful releases; the fact that MCA would, not soon afterward, directly commission a new recording of "TV Party" from Black Flag and SST Records for the  Repo Man soundtrack seems to bear this out  Unicorn would later go out of business after going bankrupt, partially the result of a lawsuit between themselves and Black Flag 

Recovery, further expansion and MCA Music Entertainment Group
Irving Azoff became the head of MCA Records in 1983  Azoff is known as an experienced music industry veteran who received credit amongst MCA management and staff for saving the company from bankruptcy 
In 1983, rock musician Frank Zappa negotiated a distribution agreement for his Barking Pumpkin label with MCA  As the records were being manufactured, a woman in the quality control department objected to the lyrics of Zappa's album Thing-Fish  After this MCA cancelled the Zappa contract  At about the same time, Zappa publicly argued with members of the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) over censorship and warning stickers for albums with potentially offensive content  The experience with MCA prompted Zappa to create a satirical "WARNING/GUARANTEE" sticker of his own  Thing-Fish was released with Zappa's sticker in December 1984 under a new agreement with Capitol/EMI  Despite the conflict with Zappa, MCA later became the biggest label to oppose the PMRC and the use of warning stickers  In October 1985, Azoff said "Never will you find a sticker on one of our records "In the 1980s, MCA became commonly known as "Music Cemetery of America" due to a huge surplus of unprofitable records sitting unsold in MCA warehouses  A number of MCA associates, including Azoff and Zappa, disparaged the company in this way Starting in 1984, William Knoedelseder wrote a series of articles for the Los Angeles Times about the connections between organized crime and MCA  Knoedelseder told the story of mobster Sal Pisello and the corrupt deals he arranged with MCA for the liquidation sales of unsold cut-out recordings that had been deleted from the MCA catalog  The story was later adapted into the book Stiffed: A True Story of MCA, the Music Business, and the Mafia, which was published in 1993 
The Chess Records catalog was acquired from the remnants of Sugar Hill Records in 1985  Motown Records was bought in 1988  In the late 1980s, MCA formed Mechanic Records as a sub-label for releasing heavy metal music  Bands signed to Mechanic included Voivod, Dream Theater, Bang Tango, and Trixter  Another sub-label, called The Futurist Label, was created to release progressive rock and death metal albums MCA created a new holding company in 1989 called MCA Music Entertainment Group, headed by Al Teller, former President of United Artists Records, and Co-Chairman of Turf Classics, a concert production company, run by Producer Richard Flanzer  The same year the MCA Inc  parent company was purchased by the Matsushita group 
Azoff resigned from MCA in 1989 to form his own record label, Giant Records, now defunct   Richard Palmese was named president of MCA Records after Azoff in 1990 

The 1990s
GRP Records and Geffen Records were acquired in 1990  Unlike most of MCA's previous acquisitions, GRP (which began managing MCA's jazz holdings) and Geffen (which became a second mainstream subsidiary) labels kept their identities  MCA sold Motown Records to PolyGram in 1993 

Universal Music Group
In 1995, Seagram Company Ltd  acquired 80% of MCA   In November of that year, Teller was fired and replaced by former Warner Music Group head Doug Morris  Palmese left MCA a week later  Afterwards, Jay Boberg was named as the new president of MCA  On December 9, 1996, the new owners dropped the MCA name; the company became Universal Studios, Inc  and its music division, MCA Music Entertainment Group, was renamed Universal Music Group (UMG), headed by Morris 
In 1997, MCA Records adopted a new logo that featured the parent company's former full name  Many younger people had been unaware of what MCA had stood for in the past, hence the new logo  In conjunction with the new logo, the first MCA Records website was launched 
On May 21, 1998, Seagram acquired PolyGram (owner of British Decca) from Philips and merged it with Universal Music Group  Unlike several labels under PolyGram and UMG, who faced closure and job cuts of employees, MCA was the only label that was not affected by the merger  When Seagram's drinks business was bought by France-based Pernod Ricard, its media holdings (including Universal) were sold to Vivendi which became Vivendi Universal which was later renamed back to Vivendi SA after selling most of the entertainment division (which included Universal Pictures) to General Electric  Morris continued to head the combined company, still called Universal Music Group 

MCA label phaseout
On January 16, 2003, Jay Boberg resigned from his position as president of MCA Records  Boberg's resignation arrived in the wake of slumping sales at MCA, which had seen the label's overall album market share decline to just 2 61% in 2002, down from 9% the previous year  His demise was hastened by the relative commercial failure of Shaggy's Lucky Day, released in October 2002, which MCA hoped would sell well enough to turn around their declining fortunes  Richard Nichols, manager of The Roots, felt that MCA had been attempting to spend lots of money on different projects, and subsequently many acts on MCA were "underfinanced" by the label, leading to poor sales  Rob Hitt of Midtown (who was signed to MCA through Drive-Thru Records) stated that MCA had lost a substantial amount of money that year from investing in several unsuccessful bands Management of the label was subsequently handed over to the Interscope Geffen A&M umbrella label and Jimmy Iovine, although UMG chairman Doug Morris promised that MCA would continue to operate as a "full-service, free standing label"  Craig Lambert, previously the vice president of the label, was named as the interim head of MCA, with a successor expected to be chosen within a few months  Following Boberg's resignation, it was rumoured that MCA could possibly be merged into Universal Records, something which would have given the latter, New York City-based label a stronger presence in the West Coast of the United States On May 20, 2003, insider sources at Universal reporting to Billboard revealed that the MCA label was to be absorbed by sister UMG label Geffen Records by the end of the year  The reported reason behind the MCA brand phaseout was due to declining sales, as well as the MCA brand becoming "tarnished" by "a history of acquisitions and mergers"  On June 9, 2003, MCA laid off 75 of their staff, equivalent to a third of their personnel, although no employees from Geffen were let go  Geffen's president, Jordan Schur, was named president of the newly merged entity, which continued under the Geffen branding  In the subsequent months, the MCA name was phased out entirely  The last album to be released under the MCA Records branding was Twisted Method's Escape from Cape Coma, which was released on July 15, 2003 Today Universal Music Enterprises manages MCA's rock, pop, and urban back catalogues (including those from ABC Records and Famous Music Group) in conjunction with Geffen – UME and Geffen have re-released various albums from MCA in the years since, as well as several compilations  Its country music label MCA Nashville Records is still in operation, and is one of the only businesses using the MCA trademark as of 2016 along with MCA Records France (imprint of Universal Music France)  MCA's jazz catalogue is managed by Verve Records (through the Impulse! and GRP imprints, depending on whether the recording was acquired from ABC or not), while its classical music catalogue is managed by Deutsche Grammophon  MCA's musical theatre catalogue is managed by Decca Records on its Decca Broadway imprint 

Logos
Labels
MCA Records recording artists
Passage 4:
Ace Fu Records
Ace Fu Records is an independent record label founded in 1998 by Eric Speck  It is located in Williamsburg, Brooklyn  The label went on indefinite hiatus in 2007 

Roster
Acid Mothers Temple
Annuals
An Albatross
Aqui
The Dears
Devotchka
Ex Models
Illinois
Kaiser Chiefs
Man Man
Michael Leviton
Oneida
Officer May
Parts & Labor
Pinback
Priestess
Runner and the Thermodynamics
Secret Machines
The Sucka MCs
Ted Leo
Tunng

See also
List of record labels

External links
Official site
Passage 5:
EmArcy Records
EmArcy Records is a jazz record label founded in 1954 by the American Mercury Records  The name is a phonetic spelling of "MRC", the initials for Mercury Record Company During the 1950s and 1960s, musicians such as Max Roach, Clifford Brown, Cannonball Adderley, Dinah Washington, and Sarah Vaughan recorded for EmArcy Today, it is a European jazz label owned by Universal Music Group  The catalogue is managed by the Island Records subsidiary 

Discography
Mono 12" LP series (1954–c  1958)
Passage 6:
Santa Monica, California
Santa Monica (Spanish for 'Saint Monica'; Spanish: Santa Mónica) is a city in Los Angeles County, situated along Santa Monica Bay on California's South Coast  Santa Monica's 2020 U S  Census population was 93,076  Santa Monica is a popular resort town, owing to its climate, beaches, and hospitality industry  It has a diverse economy, hosting headquarters of companies such as Hulu, Universal Music Group, Lionsgate Films, and The Recording Academy 
Santa Monica traces its history to Rancho San Vicente y Santa Mónica, granted in 1839 to the Sepúlveda family of California  The rancho was later sold to John P  Jones and Robert Baker, who in 1875, along with his Californio heiress wife Arcadia Bandini de Stearns Baker, founded Santa Monica, which incorporated as a city in 1886  The city developed into a seaside resort during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the creation of tourist attractions such as Palisades Park, the Santa Monica Pier, Ocean Park, and the Hotel Casa del Mar 

History
Indigenous
The Tongva are Indigenous to the Santa Monica area  The village of Comicranga was established in the Santa Monica area  One of the village's notable residents was Victoria Reid, who was the daughter of the chief of the village  During the Spanish period, she was taken to Mission San Gabriel from her parents at the age of six 

Spanish era
The first non-indigenous group to set foot in the area was the party of explorer Gaspar de Portolá, which camped near the present-day intersection of Barrington and Ohio Avenues on August 3, 1769 
There are two different accounts of how the city's name came to be  One says it was named in honor of the feast day of Saint Monica (mother of Saint Augustine), but her feast day is May 4  Another version says it was named by Juan Crespí on account of a pair of springs, the Kuruvungna Springs, that were reminiscent of the tears Saint Monica shed over her son's early impiety 

Mexican era
In 1839, Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado granted Rancho San Vicente y Santa Mónica to Francisco Sepúlveda II, of the Sepúlveda family of California  As the definitions of the rancho grant were not precise, the Sepúlveda family came into conflict with the neighboring Rancho Boca de Santa Mónica, owned by Ysidro Reyes and Francisco Márquez  A small Californio community grew up on Rancho San Vicente y Santa Mónica, made up primarily of vaqueros working on the rancho and their families 

Post-conquest era
After the American conquest of California, Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which gave Mexicans and Californios living in state certain unalienable rights  U S  government sovereignty in California began on February 2, 1848 
In the 1870s, the Los Angeles and Independence Railroad connected Santa Monica with Los Angeles, and a wharf out into the bay  The first town hall was an 1873 brick building, later a beer hall, and now part of the Santa Monica Hostel  By 1885, the town's first hotel was the Santa Monica Hotel Amusement piers became popular in the first decades of the 20th century and the extensive Pacific Electric Railway brought people to the city's beaches from across the Greater Los Angeles Area 
Around the start of the 20th century, a growing population of Asian Americans lived in and around Santa Monica and Venice  A Japanese fishing village was near the Long Wharf while small numbers of Chinese lived or worked in Santa Monica and Venice  The two ethnic minorities were often viewed differently by White Americans, who were often well-disposed toward the Japanese but condescending to the Chinese  The Japanese village fishermen were an integral economic part of the Santa Monica Bay community 
Donald Wills Douglas Sr  built a plant in 1922 at Clover Field (Santa Monica Airport) for the Douglas Aircraft Company  In 1924, four Douglas-built planes took off from Clover Field to attempt the first aerial circumnavigation of the world  Two planes returned after covering 27,553 miles (44,342 km) in 175 days, and were greeted on their return September 23, 1924, by a crowd of 200,000  The Douglas Company (later McDonnell Douglas) kept facilities in the city until the 1970s The Great Depression hit Santa Monica deeply  One report gives citywide employment in 1933 of just 1,000  Hotels and office building owners went bankrupt  In the 1930s, corruption infected Santa Monica (along with neighboring Los Angeles)  The federal Works Project Administration helped build several buildings, most notably City Hall  The main Post Office and Barnum Hall (Santa Monica High School auditorium) were also among other WPA projects 

Modern era
Douglas's business grew with the onset of World War II, employing as many as 44,000 people in 1943  To defend against air attack, set designers from the Warner Brothers Studios prepared elaborate camouflage that disguised the factory and airfield  The RAND Corporation began as a project of the Douglas Company in 1945, and spun off into an independent think tank on May 14, 1948  RAND acquired a 15-acre (61,000 m2) campus across the street from the Civic Center and is still there today 
The completion of the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in 1958 eliminated Belmar, the first African American community in the city, and the Santa Monica Freeway in 1966 decimated the Pico neighborhood that had been a leading African American enclave on the Westside 
Beach volleyball is believed to have been developed by Duke Kahanamoku in Santa Monica during the 1920s Santa Monica has two hospitals: Saint John's Health Center and Santa Monica-UCLA Medical Center  Its cemetery is Woodlawn Memorial 
Santa Monica has several local newspapers including Santa Monica Daily Press, Santa Monica Mirror, and Santa Monica Star 

Geography
Santa Monica rests on a mostly flat slope that angles down toward Ocean Avenue and toward the south  High bluffs separate the north side of the city from the beaches  Santa Monica borders the L A  neighborhoods of Pacific Palisades to the north and Venice to the south  To the west, Santa Monica has a 3-mile coastline fronting Santa Monica Bay, and to the east of the city are the L A  communities of West Los Angeles and Brentwood 

Climate
Santa Monica has a coastal Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb)  It enjoys an average of 310 days of sunshine a year  It is in USDA plant hardiness zone 11a  Because of its location, nestled on the vast and open Santa Monica Bay, morning fog is a common phenomenon in May, June, July and early August (caused by ocean temperature variations and currents)  Like other inhabitants of the greater Los Angeles area, residents have a particular terminology for this phenomenon: the "May Gray", the "June Gloom" and even "Fogust"  Overcast skies are common on June mornings, but usually the strong sun burns the fog off by noon  In the late winter/early summer, daily fog is a phenomenon too  It happens suddenly and it may last some hours or past sunset time  Nonetheless, it will sometimes stay cloudy and cool all day during June, even as other parts of the Los Angeles area enjoy sunny skies and warmer temperatures  At times, the sun can be shining east of 20th Street while the beach area is overcast  As a general rule, the beach temperature is from 5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit (3 to 6 degrees Celsius) cooler than it is inland during summer days, and 5 to 10 degrees warmer during winter nights 
It is also in September that the highest temperatures tend to be reached  It is winter, however, when the hot, dry winds of the Santa Anas are most common  In contrast, temperatures exceeding 10 degrees below average are rare 

The rainy season is from late October through late March  Winter storms usually approach from the northwest and pass quickly through the Southland  There is very little rain during the rest of the year  Yearly rainfall totals are unpredictable as rainy years are occasionally followed by droughts  There has never been any snow or frost, but there has been hail 
Santa Monica usually enjoys cool breezes blowing in from the ocean, which tend to keep the air fresh and clean  Therefore, smog is less of a problem for Santa Monica than elsewhere around Los Angeles  However, from September through November, the Santa Ana winds sometimes blow from the east, bringing smoggy and hot inland air to the beaches 
The hottest temperature ever reported in Santa Monica was 100 °F (38 °C) on November 1, 1966, while the lowest is 33 °F (1 °C) on March 1, 1945, and again on March 21, 1952  The highest minimum temperature is 72 °F (22 °C) on October 24, 2007, and the lowest maximum temperature is 51 °F (11 °C) on 4 dates in February 2001 and again March 10, 2006  The snowiest months on record are January 1954 and March 1955, both with trace amounts  They are the only months to ever report snowfall  Many months have reported no rainfall at all  Conversely, the wettest month on record is January 1995 with a total of 17 82 inches (453 mm) of rainfall  The wettest year on record is 1998, with a total of 25 4 inches (650 mm) of rainfall; the driest is 1989, with a total of 4 04 inches (103 mm) of rainfall 

Environment
The city first proposed its Sustainable City Plan in 1992 and in 1994, was one of the first cities in the nation to formally adopt a comprehensive sustainability plan, setting waste reduction and water conservation policies for both public and private sector through its Office of Sustainability and the Environment  Eighty-two percent of the city's public works vehicles run on alternative fuels, including most of the municipal bus system, making it among the largest such fleets in the country  Santa Monica fleet vehicles and buses source their natural gas from Redeem, a Southern California-based supplier of renewable and sustainable natural gas obtained from non-fracked methane biogas generated from organic landfill waste Santa Monica adopted a Community Energy Independence Initiative, with a goal of achieving complete energy independence by 2020 (vs  California's already ambitious 33% renewables goal)  The city exceeded that aspiration when, in February 2019, it switched over to electricity from the Clean Power Alliance, with a citywide default of 100% renewably sourced energy   That same year, the Santa Monica City Council adopted a Climate Action and Adaptation Plan aimed at achieving an 80% cut in carbon emissions by 2030, and reaching community-wide carbon neutrality by 2050 or sooner 
An urban runoff facility (SMURFF), the first of its kind in the US, catches and treats 3 5 million US gallons (13,000 m3) of water each week that would otherwise flow into the bay via storm-drains and sells it back to end-users within the city for reuse as gray-water, while bioswales throughout the city allow rainwater to percolate into and replenish the groundwater  The groundwater supply plays an important role in the city's Sustainable Water Master Plan, whereby Santa Monica has set a goal of attaining 100% water independence by 2020  The city has numerous programs designed to promote water conservation among residents, including a rebate for those who convert lawns to drought-tolerant gardens that require less water 
Santa Monica has also instituted a green building-code whereby merely constructing to code automatically renders a building equivalent to the US Green Building Council's LEED Silver standards  The city's Main Library is one of many LEED certified or LEED equivalent buildings in the city  It is built over a 200,000 gallon cistern that collects filtered stormwater from the roof  The water is used for landscape irrigation 
Since 2009, Santa Monica has been developing the Zero Waste Strategic Operations Plan by which the city will set a goal of diverting at least 95% of all waste away from landfills, and toward recycling and composting, by 2030  The plan includes a food waste composting program, which diverts 3 million pounds of restaurant food waste away from landfills annually  As of 2013, 77% of all solid waste produced citywide is diverted from landfills Environmentally focused initiatives include curbside recycling, curbside composting bins (in addition to trash, yard-waste, and recycle bins), farmers' markets, community gardens, garden-share, an urban forest initiative, a hazardous materials home-collection service, and a green business certification As in other coastal beach communities, coastal erosion due to coastal infrastructure and high human usage is an increasing challenge, and will become worse due to sea level rise  Starting in 2016, local environmental groups began dune and beach restoration projects 

Demographics
2020
The  2020 United States Census reported Santa Monica had a population of 93,076  This corresponds to density of 11,067 3 people per square mile  The racial makeup of Santa Monica was 63,383 (68 1%) white, 8,602 (9 2%)  Asian, 3,776 (4 1%) Black or African American, 539 (0 6%) American Indian and Alaska Native, 123 (0 1%) Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 5,347 (5 7%) some other race, and 11,306 (12 1%) people were of two or more races Including all responses for people of two or more races, 73,996 (79 5%) were white alone or in combination with one or more other races, 11,864 (12 7%) were Asian alone or in combination with one or more other races, 5,459 (5 9%) were Black or African American alone or in combination, 1,877 (2 0%) were American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in combination, 415 (0 4%) were Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander alone or in combination, and 11,619 (12 5%) were some other race alone or in combination with one or more other races 13,544 (14 6%) were  Hispanic or  Latino of any race  Of those, 2,729 (2 9% of the total population) were white alone, 153 (0 2%) were Black or African American alone, 410 (0 4%) were American Indian and Alaska Native alone, 136 (0 1%) were Asian alone, 14 (0 0%) were Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone, 4,542 (4 9%) were some other race alone, and 5,560 (6 0%) were two or more races The census reported that Santa Monica had 52,389 housing units  Of those, 47,438 (90 5%) were occupied  12,856 (27 1%) of the occupied units were owner-occupied and 34,582 (72 9%) were renter-occupied  Of the vacant units, 2,540 (4 8% of total) were for rent, 230 (0 4%) were rented but not occupied, 183 (0 3%) were for sale only, 205 (0 4%) were sold but not occupied, 693 (1 3%) were for seasonal, recreational, or occasional use, and 1,100 (2 1%) were otherwise vacant  94 8% of households had a computer between 2017 and 2021, and 91 0% had broadband internet access 

2010
The 2010 United States Census reported Santa Monica had a population of 89,736  The population density was 10,662 6 inhabitants per square mile (4,116 9/km2)  The racial makeup of Santa Monica was 69,663 (77 6%) White (70 1% Non-Hispanic White), 3,526 (3 9%) African American, 338 (0 4%) Native American, 8,053 (9 0%) Asian, 124 (0 1%) Pacific Islander, 4,047 (4 5%) from other races, and 3,985 (4 4%) from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11,716 persons (13 1%), with Mexican Americans, Spanish Americans, and Argentine Americans making up 64 2%, 6 4%, and 4 7% of the Hispanic population respectively The Census reported 87,610 people (97 6% of the population) lived in households, 1,299 (1 4%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 827 (0 9%) were institutionalized 
There were 46,917 households, out of which 7,835 (16 7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,092 (27 9%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,510 (7 5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,327 (2 8%) had a male householder with no wife present  There were 2,867 (6 1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 416 (0 9%) same-sex married couples or partnerships  22,716 households (48 4%) were made up of individuals, and 5,551 (11 8%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 1 87  There were 17,929 families (38 2% of all households); the average family size was 2 79 
The population was spread out, with 12,580 people (14 0%) under the age of 18, 6,442 people (7 2%) aged 18 to 24, 32,552 people (36 3%) aged 25 to 44, 24,746 people (27 6%) aged 45 to 64, and 13,416 people (15 0%) who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 40 4 years  For every 100 females, there were 93 2 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91 2 males 
There were 50,912 housing units at an average density of 6,049 5 per square mile (2,335 7/km2), of which 13,315 (28 4%) were owner-occupied, and 33,602 (71 6%) were occupied by renters  The homeowner vacancy rate was 1 1%; the rental vacancy rate was 5 1%  30,067 people (33 5% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 57,543 people (64 1%) lived in rental housing units 
According to the 2010 United States Census, Santa Monica had a median household income of $73,649, with 11 2% of the population living below the federal poverty line 

2000
As of the census of 2000, there were 84,084 people, 44,497 households, and 16,775 families in the city  The population density was 10,178 7 inhabitants per square mile (3,930 0 inhabitants/km2)  There were 47,863 housing units at an average density of 5,794 0 per square mile (2,237 1/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 78 29% White, 7 25% Asian, 3 78% African American, 0 47% Native American, 0 10% Pacific Islander, 5 97% from other races, and 4 13% from two or more races  13 44% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race 
There were 44,497 households, out of which 15 8% had children under the age of 18, 27 5% were married couples living together, 7 5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 62 3% were non-families  51 2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 1 83 and the average family size was 2 80 
The city of Santa Monica is consistently among the most educated cities in the United States, with 23 8 percent of all residents holding graduate degrees The population was diverse in age, with 14 6% under 18, 6 1% from 18 to 24, 40 1% from 25 to 44, 24 8% from 45 to 64, and 14 4% 65 years or older  The median age was 39 years  For every 100 females, there were 93 0 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91 3 males 
According to a 2009 estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $71,095, and the median income for a family was $109,410  Males had a median income of $55,689 versus $42,948 for females  The per capita income for the city was $42,874  10 4% of the population and 5 4% of families were below the poverty line  Out of the total population, 9 9% of those under the age of 18 and 10 2% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line 

Crime
In 2006, crime in Santa Monica affected 4 41% of the population, slightly lower than the national average crime rate that year of 4 48%  The majority of this was property crime, which affected 3 74% of Santa Monica's population in 2006; this was higher than the rates for Los Angeles County (2 76%) and California (3 17%), but lower than the national average (3 91%)  These per-capita crime rates are computed based on Santa Monica's full-time population of about 85,000  However, the Santa Monica Police Department has suggested the actual per-capita crime rate is much lower, as tourists, workers, and beachgoers can increase the city's daytime population to between 250,000 and 450,000 people Hate crime has typically been minimal in Santa Monica, with only one reported incident in 2007  The city experienced a spike of anti-Islamic hate crime in 2001 after the September 11 attacks, but hate crime levels returned to their minimal 2000 levels by 2002 
Gang activityThe Pico neighborhood of Santa Monica (south of the Santa Monica Freeway) experiences some gang activity  The city estimates there are about 50 gang members based in Santa Monica, although some community organizers dispute this claim  Gang activity has been prevalent for decades in the Pico neighborhood 
In October 1998, alleged Culver City 13 gang member Omar Sevilla of Culver City was killed  A couple of hours after the shooting of Sevilla, German tourist Horst Fietze was killed  Several days later Juan Martin Campos, a Santa Monica city employee, was shot and killed  Police believe this was a retaliatory killing in response to Sevilla's killing  Less than 24 hours later, Javier Cruz was wounded in a drive-by shooting outside his home on 17th and Michigan In 1998, there was a double homicide in the Westside Clothing store on Lincoln Boulevard  During the incident, Culver City gang members David "Puppet" Robles and Jesse "Psycho" Garcia entered the store masked and began opening fire, killing Anthony and Michael Juarez  Police say the incident was in retaliation for a shooting committed by the Santa Monica 13 gang days before the Juarez brothers were shot down 

Homeless population
In 2022, there were 826 homeless individuals in Santa Monica 

Economy
Santa Monica is home to the headquarters of many notable businesses, such as Beachbody, Fatburger, Hulu, Illumination, Otter Media, Lionsgate, Macerich, Miramax, CBS Media Ventures, the RAND Corporation, Saban Capital Group, The Recording Academy (which presents the annual Grammy Awards), TOMS Shoes, and Universal Music Group  Atlantic Aviation is at the Santa Monica Airport  The National Public Radio member station KCRW is on the Santa Monica College campus  VCA Animal Hospitals is just outside the eastern city limit A number of game development studios are based in Santa Monica, making it a major location for the industry  These include:

Activision Blizzard (which includes Activision)
Cloud Imperium Games (Creators of Star Citizen)
Naughty Dog (Creators of Crash Bandicoot (1996–1999), Jak & Daxter, Uncharted and The Last of Us franchises)
PUBG Corporation (North American station, developed Miramar map in PUBG)
Riot Games, the creator of League of Legends, is just outside the eastern city limit 
TreyarchRecently, Santa Monica has emerged as the center of the Los Angeles region called Silicon Beach, and serves as the home of hundreds of venture capital funded startup companies 
Former Santa Monica businesses include Douglas Aircraft (now merged with Boeing), GeoCities (which in December 1996 was headquartered on the third floor of 1918 Main Street in Santa Monica), Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and MySpace (now headquartered in Beverly Hills) 

Top employers
According to the city's 2022 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top employers in the city were:

Arts and culture
The Santa Monica Looff Hippodrome (carousel) is a National Historic Landmark  It sits on the Santa Monica Pier, which was built in 1909  The La Monica Ballroom on the pier was once the largest ballroom in the US and the source for many New Year's Eve national network broadcasts 
The Santa Monica Civic Auditorium was an important music venue for several decades and hosted the Academy Awards in the 1960s  McCabe's Guitar Shop is a leading acoustic performance space as well as retail outlet  The Santa Monica Playhouse is a popular theater in the city 
Bergamot Station is a city-owned art gallery compound that includes the Santa Monica Museum of Art  The city is also home to the California Heritage Museum and the Angels Attic dollhouse and toy museum 

The New West Symphony is the resident orchestra of Barnum Hall  They are also resident orchestra of the Oxnard Performing Arts Center and the Thousand Oaks Civic Arts Plaza 
Santa Monica hosts the annual Santa Monica Film Festival The city's oldest movie theater is the Majestic  Opened in 1912 and also known as the Mayfair Theatre, it has been closed since the 1994 Northridge earthquake  The Aero Theater (now operated by the American Cinematheque) and Criterion Theater were built in the 1930s and still show movies 
Notable restaurants have included Madame Wu's Garden, Batterfish, Stout Burgers and Beers, and The Misfit 

Shopping districts
Santa Monica has three main shopping districts: Montana Avenue on the north side, the Downtown District in the city's core, and Main Street on the south end  Each has its own unique feel and personality  Montana Avenue is a stretch of luxury boutique stores, restaurants, and small offices that generally features more upscale shopping  The Main Street district offers an eclectic mix of clothing, restaurants, and other specialty retail 
The Downtown District is the home of the Third Street Promenade, a major outdoor pedestrian-only shopping district that stretches for three blocks between Wilshire Blvd  and Broadway  Third Street is closed to vehicles for those three blocks to allow people to stroll, congregate, shop and enjoy street performers 
The Santa Monica Place, featuring Bloomingdale's and Nordstrom in a three-level outdoor environment, is at the Promenade's southern end  After a period of redevelopment, the mall reopened in the fall of 2010 as a modern shopping, entertainment and dining complex with more outdoor space 

Public library system
The Santa Monica Public Library consists of a Main Library in the downtown area, plus four neighborhood branches: Fairview, Montana Avenue, Ocean Park, and Pico Boulevard 

Sports
The men's and women's marathon ran through parts of Santa Monica during the 1984 Summer Olympics  The Santa Monica Track Club has many prominent track athletes, including many Olympic gold medalists  Santa Monica is the home to Southern California Aquatics, which was founded by Olympic swimmer Clay Evans and Bonnie Adair  Santa Monica is also home to the Santa Monica Rugby Club, a semi-professional team that competes in the Pacific Rugby Premiership, the highest-level rugby union club competition in the United States 
During the 2028 Summer Olympics, Santa Monica will host beach volleyball and surfing 

Parks and recreation
Palisades Park stretches out along the crumbling bluffs overlooking the Pacific and is a favorite walking area to view the ocean  It includes public art, a totem pole, camera obscura, benches, picnic areas, pétanque courts, and restrooms 
Tongva Park occupies 6 acres between Ocean Avenue and Main Street, just south of Colorado Avenue  The park includes an overlook, amphitheater, playground, garden, fountains, picnic areas, and restrooms 
The Santa Monica Stairs, a long, steep staircase that leads from north of San Vicente down into Santa Monica Canyon, is a popular spot for outdoor workouts  Some area residents have complained that the stairs have become too popular, and attract too many exercisers to the wealthy neighborhood of multimillion-dollar properties Ishihara Park opened to the public in 2017 and acts as a buffer between the Los Angeles Metro Rail and the surrounding residential community 

Government
Local government
Santa Monica is governed by the Santa Monica City Council, a Council-Manager governing body with seven members elected at-large  The mayor is Gleam Davis, and the Mayor Pro Tempore is Lana Negrete  The other five council members are Phil Brock, Christine Parra, Oscar de la Torre, Jesse Zwick and Caroline Torosis 

Representation
In the California State Legislature, Santa Monica is in the  26th Senate District, represented by Democrat María Elena Durazo, and in the  50th Assembly District, represented by Democrat Eloise Reyes In the United States House of Representatives, Santa Monica is in California's  36th congressional district, represented by Democrat Ted Lieu 

Education
Public schools
The Santa Monica–Malibu Unified School District provides public education at the elementary and secondary levels  In addition to the traditional model of early education school houses, SMASH (Santa Monica Alternative School House) is "a K–8 public school of choice with team teachers and multi-aged classrooms"  The district maintains eight elementary schools, three middle schools, and three high schools in Santa Monica 

Private schools
Private schools in the city include Crossroads School and Saint Monica Catholic High School 
Asahi Gakuen, a weekend Japanese supplementary school system, operates its Santa Monica campus (サンタモニカ校･高等部 Santamonika-kō kōtōbu) at Webster Middle in the Sawtelle neighborhood of Los Angeles  All high school classes in the Asahi Gakuen system are held at the Santa Monica campus 

Post-secondary
Santa Monica College is a community college founded in 1929  Many SMC graduates transfer to the University of California system  It occupies 35 acres (14 hectares) and enrolls 30,000 students annually  The Frederick S  Pardee RAND Graduate School, associated with the RAND Corporation, is the U S 's largest producer of public policy PhDs  The Art Institute of California – Los Angeles is also in Santa Monica near the Santa Monica Airport 
Universities and colleges within a 22-mile (35 km) radius from Santa Monica include Santa Monica College, Antioch University Los Angeles, Loyola Marymount University, Mount St  Mary's University, Pepperdine University, California State University, Northridge, California State University, Los Angeles, UCLA, USC, West Los Angeles College, California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Occidental College (Oxy), Los Angeles City College, Los Angeles Southwest College, Los Angeles Valley College, and Emperor's College of Traditional Oriental Medicine 

Infrastructure
Transportation
Bicycles
Santa Monica has a bike action plan and launched a bicycle sharing system in November 2015  The city is traversed by the Marvin Braude Bike Trail  Santa Monica has received the Bicycle Friendly Community Award (Bronze in 2009, Silver in 2013) by the League of American Bicyclists  Local bicycle advocacy organizations include Santa Monica Spoke, a local chapter of the Los Angeles County Bicycle Coalition  Santa Monica is thought to be one of the leaders for bicycle infrastructure and programming in Los Angeles County although cycling infrastructure in Los Angeles County in general remains very poor compared to other major cities The city implemented a 5-year and 20-year Bike Action Plan with a goal of attaining 14 to 35% bicycle transportation mode share by 2030 through the installation of enhanced bicycle infrastructure throughout the city   In 2023, Santa Monica scored near the 90th percentile of cities surveyed in the PeopleForBikes City Ratings, which measures the quality of a city’s bike network In terms of number of bicycle accidents, Santa Monica ranks as one of the worst (#2) out of 102 California cities with population 50,000–100,000, a ranking consistent with the city's composite ranking 
In 2007 and 2008, local police cracked down on Santa Monica Critical Mass rides that had become controversial, putting a damper on the tradition 

Highways
The Santa Monica Freeway (Interstate 10) begins in Santa Monica near the Pacific Ocean and heads east  The Santa Monica Freeway between Santa Monica and downtown Los Angeles has the distinction of being one of the busiest highways in all of North America  After traversing the Greater Los Angeles area, I-10 crosses seven more states, terminating at Jacksonville, Florida  In Santa Monica, there is a road sign designating this route as the Christopher Columbus Transcontinental Highway  State Route 2 (Santa Monica Boulevard) begins in Santa Monica, barely grazing State Route 1 at Lincoln Boulevard, and continues northeast across Los Angeles County, through the Angeles National Forest, crossing the San Gabriel Mountains as the Angeles Crest Highway, ending in Wrightwood  Santa Monica is also the western terminus of Historic U S  Route 66  Close to the eastern boundary of Santa Monica, Sepulveda Boulevard reaches from Long Beach at the south, to the northern end of the San Fernando Valley  Just east of Santa Monica is Interstate 405, the San Diego Freeway, a major north–south route in Los Angeles and Orange counties 

Motorized vehicles
Santa Monica has purchased the first ZeroTruck all-electric medium-duty truck  The vehicle will be equipped with a Scelzi utility body, it is based on the Isuzu N series chassis, a UQM PowerPhase 100 advanced electric motor and is the only US built electric truck offered for sale in the United States in 2009 

Bus
The city of Santa Monica runs its own bus service, the Big Blue Bus, which also serves much of West Los Angeles and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)  A Big Blue Bus was featured prominently in the action movie Speed 
The city of Santa Monica is also served by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority's (Metro) bus lines  Metro also complements Big Blue service, as when Big Blue routes are not operational overnight, Metro buses make many Big Blue Bus stops, in addition to MTA stops 

Light rail
Design and construction on the 6 6-mile extension (10 6 km) of the Expo Line from Culver City to Santa Monica started in September 2011, with service beginning on May 20, 2016  Santa Monica Metro stations include Downtown Santa Monica, 17th Street/SMC, and 26th Street/Bergamot  Travel time between Downtown Santa Monica station and 7th Street/Metro Center station in Downtown Los Angeles is approximately 46 minutes, while the travel time between the downtown Santa Monica station and the terminal Atlantic station in East Los Angeles is approximately 1 hour and 9 minutes 
Historical aspects of the Expo line route are noteworthy  It uses the former Los Angeles region's electric interurban Pacific Electric Railway's right-of-way that ran from the Exposition Park area of Los Angeles to Santa Monica  This route was called the Santa Monica Air Line and provided electric-powered freight and passenger service between Los Angeles and Santa Monica beginning in the 1920s  Passenger service was discontinued in 1953, but diesel-powered freight deliveries to warehouses along the route continued until March 11, 1988  The abandonment of the line spurred future transportation considerations and concerns within the community, and the entire right-of-way was purchased from Southern Pacific by Los Angeles Metropolitan Transportation Authority  The line was built in 1875 as the steam-powered Los Angeles and Independence Railroad to bring mining ore to ships in Santa Monica harbor and as a passenger excursion train to the beach 

Airport and ports
The city owns and operates a general aviation airport, Santa Monica Airport, which has been the site of several important aviation achievements  Commercial flights are available for residents at LAX, a few miles south of Santa Monica 
Like other cities in Los Angeles County, Santa Monica is dependent upon the Port of Long Beach and the Port of Los Angeles for international ship cargo  In the 1890s, Santa Monica was once in competition with Wilmington, California, and San Pedro for recognition as the "Port of Los Angeles" (see History of Santa Monica, California) 

Other
Since the mid-1980s, various proposals have been made to extend the Purple Line subway to Santa Monica under Wilshire Boulevard  There are no current plans to complete the "subway to the sea," an estimated $5 billion project In August 2018, Santa Monica issued permits to Bird, Lime, Lyft, and Jump Bikes to operate dockless scooter-sharing systems in the city  As of April 2023, Lyft, Spin, Veo, and Wheels are licensed to provide micro-mobility transportation in city 

Emergency services
Two major hospitals are within the Santa Monica city limits, UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica and Saint John's Health Center  Four fire stations provide medical and fire response, staffed with six Paramedic Engines, a Truck company, a Hazardous Materials team and an Urban Search & Rescue team  Santa Monica Fire Department has its own Dispatch Center  Ambulance transportation is provided by McCormick Ambulance Services Law enforcement services are provided by the Santa Monica Police Department
The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Simms/Mann Health and Wellness Center in Santa Monica  The Department's West Area Health Office is in the Simms/Mann Center 

Internet services
Santa Monica has a municipal wireless network which provides several free city Wi-Fi hotspots distributed around the city 

In popular culture
Film and television
Hundreds of moving pictures have been shot or set in part in Santa Monica 

Films
One of the oldest exterior shots in Santa Monica is Buster Keaton's Spite Marriage (1929) which shows much of 2nd Street  The comedy It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963) included several scenes shot in Santa Monica, including those along the California Incline, which led to the movie's treasure spot, "The Big W"  The Sylvester Stallone film Rocky III (1982) shows Rocky Balboa and Apollo Creed training to fight Clubber Lang by running on the Santa Monica Beach, and Stallone's Demolition Man (1993) includes Santa Monica settings  In Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985), the theft of Pee-wee's bike occurs on the Third Street Promenade  Henry Jaglom's indie Someone to Love (1987), the last film in which Orson Welles appeared, takes place in Santa Monica's venerable Mayfair Theatre  Heathers (1988) used Santa Monica's John Adams Middle School for many exterior shots  The Truth About Cats & Dogs (1996) is set entirely in Santa Monica, particularly the Palisades Park area, and features a radio station that resembles KCRW at Santa Monica College  17 Again (2009) was shot at Samohi  Other films that show significant exterior shots of Santa Monica include Fletch (1985), Species (1995), Get Shorty (1995), and Ocean's Eleven (2001)  Richard Rossi's biopic Aimee Semple McPherson opens and closes at the beach in Santa Monica  Iron Man features the Santa Monica pier and surrounding communities as Tony Stark tests his experimental flight suit 
The documentary Dogtown and Z-Boys (2001) and the related dramatic film Lords of Dogtown (2005) are both about the influential skateboarding culture of Santa Monica's Ocean Park neighborhood in the 1970s 
Santa Monica (and in particular the Santa Monica Airport) was featured in Roland Emmerich's disaster film 2012 (2009)  A magnitude 10 9 earthquake destroys the airport and the surrounding area as a group of survivors escape in a personal plane  The Santa Monica Pier and the whole city sinks into the Pacific Ocean after the earthquake 

Television
A number of television series have been set in Santa Monica, including Baywatch, Goliath, Pacific Blue (1996-2000), Private Practice (2007-2013), and Three's Company (1977-1984)  The Santa Monica pier is shown in the main theme of CBS series NCIS: Los Angeles  In Buffy the Vampire Slayer, the main exterior set of the town of Sunnydale that includes the infamous "sun sign", was in Santa Monica in a lot on Olympic Boulevard 

Literature
Horace McCoy's 1935 novel They Shoot Horses, Don't They? is set at a dance marathon held in a ballroom on the Santa Monica Pier 
Raymond Chandler's most famous character, private detective Philip Marlowe, frequently has a portion of his adventures in a place called "Bay City", which is modeled on Depression-era Santa Monica  In Marlowe's world, Bay City is "a wide-open town", where gambling and other crimes thrive due to a massively corrupt and ineffective police force 
Tennessee Williams lived (while working at MGM Studios) in a hotel on Ocean Avenue in the 1940s  At that location he wrote the play The Glass Menagerie (that premiered in 1944)  His short story "The Mattress by the Tomato Patch" (1954) is set near Santa Monica Beach and mentions the clock visible in much of the city, high up on The Broadway Building, on Broadway near Second Street 

Music
Notable locationsThe band Linkin Park is named in homage to Santa Monica's Lincoln Park (now called Christine Emerson Reed Park) 
The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences is based in Santa Monica on Olympic Boulevard 
Universal Music Group is based in Santa Monica  Several of its labels, such as A&M Records, Aftermath Entertainment (started by Dr  Dre), G-Unit Records (created by 50 Cent & Sha Money XL), Geffen Records, Interscope (started by Jimmy Iovine), and Shady Records, are based in Santa Monica, CA 

Works
The folk Australian duo Angus and Julia Stone has a single titled "Santa Monica Dream" on its album Down the Way 
The ska/reggae band Bedouin Soundclash has a song called "Santa Monica" 
The band Everclear released a song titled "Santa Monica" in 1995, which became their first mainstream hit 
The British singer-songwriter Noel Harrison released a song and album titled Santa Monica Pier (1968) 
In 1948, bandleader Kay Kyser released a 78 record of the novelty song "When Veronica Plays the Harmonica (Down at the Pier in Santa Monica)" 
One of the few songs musical satirist Tom Lehrer has recorded since the 1970s is a tribute to the holidays of the Jewish calendar called "I'm Spending Hanukkah in Santa Monica" 
Richard Rossi released a song called "Santa Monica," celebrating the Santa Monica Pier, on his album Seasons of My Heart 
The band Savage Garden released a song titled "Santa Monica" from its album Savage Garden (1997) 
The modern rock band Theory of a Deadman's song "Santa Monica" is a first-person account of a girl leaving her significant other to start a new life in Santa Monica 
French Rapper Moha La Squale released the song "Santa Monica" in 2019 

Notable people
Sister cities
Mazatlán, Mexico
 Hamm, Germany
 Fujinomiya, Japan

See also
2013 Santa Monica shootings
Aragon Ballroom (Ocean Park, Santa Monica, California)
Arcadia Bandini de Stearns Baker, co-founder and benefactress of Santa Monica
List of cities and towns in California
List of City of Santa Monica Designated Historic Landmarks
List of people from Santa Monica, California
List of public art in Santa Monica, California
Muscle Beach
Passage 7:
The Right Stuff Records
The Right Stuff Records is an American reissue record label that was part of EMI, which is now owned by Universal Music Group and is based out of Santa Monica, California 
The label primarily released classic rock and R&B repertoire which included greatest hits collections, anthologies, boxed sets and compilations  The Right Stuff's repertoire was sourced from the various labels owned by EMI Records and also leased-in labels such as Dick Griffey's SOLAR (the Sound of Los Angeles Records), the post-1976 Philadelphia International Records, Hi Records, Tabu Records and Salsoul Records  The label also owned Leon Russell and Denny Cordell's Shelter Records and the New  York-based Laurie Records  The label also created many joint venture projects with outside brands such as Harley-Davidson, Hot Rod Magazine, Shape Magazine, and others  The label was started by former EMI and Capitol Records executive Tom Cartwright 

Selected artists on reissues



ground_truth: August 3, 1769