prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What undertaking included the person who discovered that the number of protons in each element's atoms is unique?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Neodymium
Neodymium is a chemical element with the symbol Nd and atomic number 60  It is the fourth member of the lanthanide series and is considered to be one of the rare-earth metals  It is a hard, slightly malleable, silvery metal that quickly tarnishes in air and moisture  When oxidized, neodymium reacts quickly producing pink, purple/blue and yellow compounds in the +2, +3 and +4 oxidation states  It is generally regarded as having one of the most complex spectra of the elements  Neodymium was discovered in 1885 by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach, who also discovered praseodymium  It is present in significant quantities in the minerals monazite and bastnäsite  Neodymium is not found naturally in metallic form or unmixed with other lanthanides, and it is usually refined for general use  Neodymium is fairly common—about as common as cobalt, nickel, or copper—and is widely distributed in the Earth's crust  Most of the world's commercial neodymium is mined in China, as is the case with many other rare-earth metals 
Neodymium compounds were first commercially used as glass dyes in 1927 and remain a popular additive  The color of neodymium compounds comes from the Nd3+ ion and is often a reddish-purple  However, this changes with the type of lighting because of the interaction of the sharp light absorption bands of neodymium with ambient light enriched with the sharp visible emission bands of mercury, trivalent europium or terbium  Neodymium-doped glasses are used in lasers that emit infrared with wavelengths between 1047 and 1062 nanometers  These lasers have been used in extremely high-power applications, such as experiments in inertial confinement fusion  Neodymium is also used with various other substrate crystals, such as yttrium aluminium garnet in the Nd:YAG laser 
Neodymium alloys are used to make high-strength neodymium magnets—a type of powerful permanent magnet  These magnets are widely used in products like microphones, professional loudspeakers, in-ear headphones, high-performance hobby DC electric motors, and computer hard disks, where low magnet mass (or volume) or strong magnetic fields are required  Larger neodymium magnets are used in electric motors with a high power-to-weight ratio (e g , in hybrid cars) and generators (e g , aircraft and wind turbine electric generators) 

Characteristics
Physical properties
Metallic neodymium has a bright, silvery metallic luster  Neodymium commonly exists in two allotropic forms, with a transformation from a double hexagonal to a body-centered cubic structure taking place at about 863 °C  Neodymium, like most of the lanthanides, is paramagnetic at room temperature and becomes an antiferromagnet upon cooling to 20 K (−253 2 °C)  Neodymium is a rare-earth metal that was present in the classical mischmetal at a concentration of about 18%  To make neodymium magnets it is alloyed with iron, which is a ferromagnet 

Electron configuration
In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides praseodymium to its left and the radioactive element promethium to its right, and above the actinide uranium  Its 60 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f46s2, of which the six 4f and 6s electrons are valence  Like most other metals in the lanthanide series, neodymium usually only uses three electrons as valence electrons, as afterwards the remaining 4f electrons are strongly bound: this is because the 4f orbitals penetrate the most through the inert xenon core of electrons to the nucleus, followed by 5d and 6s, and this increases with higher ionic charge  Neodymium can still lose a fourth electron because it comes early in the lanthanides, where the nuclear charge is still low enough and the 4f subshell energy high enough to allow the removal of further valence electrons 

Chemical properties
Neodymium is the fourth member of the lanthanide series  It has a melting point of 1,024 °C (1,875 °F) and a boiling point of 3,074 °C (5,565 °F)  Neodymium, like other lanthanides, usually has the oxidation state +3, but it can also form in the +2 and +4 oxidation states, and even, in very rare conditions, +0  Neodymium metal quickly oxidizes at ambient conditions, forming an oxide layer like iron rust that spalls off and exposes the metal to further oxidation; a centimeter-sized sample of neodymium corrodes completely in about a year  Nd3+ is generally soluble in water  Like its neighbor praseodymium, it readily burns at about 150 °C to form neodymium(III) oxide; the oxide peels off, exposing the bulk metal to the further oxidation:
4Nd + 3O2 → 2Nd2O3Neodymium is a quite electropositive element, and it reacts slowly with cold water, or quickly with hot water, to form neodymium(III) hydroxide:

2Nd (s) + 6H2O (l) → 2Nd(OH)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)Neodymium metal reacts vigorously with all the stable halogens:
2Nd (s) + 3F2 (g) → 2NdF3 (s) [a violet substance]
2Nd (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2NdCl3 (s) [a mauve substance]
2Nd (s) + 3Br2 (g) → 2NdBr3 (s) [a violet substance]
2Nd (s) + 3I2 (g) → 2NdI3 (s) [a green substance]Neodymium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions that contain the lilac Nd(III) ion  These exist as a [Nd(OH2)9]3+ complexes:
2Nd (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → 2Nd3+ (aq) + 3SO2−4 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

Compounds
Some of the most important neodymium compounds include:

halides: NdF3; NdCl2; NdCl3; NdBr3; NdI2; NdI3
oxides: Nd2O3
hydroxide: Nd(OH)3
carbonate: Nd2(CO3)3
sulfate: Nd2(SO4)3
acetate: Nd(CH3COO)3
neodymium magnets (Nd2Fe14B)Some neodymium compounds have colors that vary based on the type of lighting 

Organoneodymium compounds
Organoneodymium compounds are compounds that have a neodymium–carbon bond  These compounds are similar to those of the other lanthanides, characterized by an inability to undergo π backbonding  They are thus mostly restricted to the mostly ionic cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric 

Isotopes
Naturally occurring neodymium (60Nd) is composed of five stable isotopes—142Nd, 143Nd, 145Nd, 146Nd and 148Nd, with 142Nd being the most abundant (27 2% of the natural abundance)—and two radioisotopes with extremely long half-lives, 144Nd (alpha decay with a half-life (t1/2) of 2 29×1015 years) and 150Nd (double beta decay, t1/2 ≈ 7×1018 years)  In all, 33 radioisotopes of neodymium have been detected as of 2022, with the most stable radioisotopes being the naturally occurring ones: 144Nd and 150Nd  All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than twelve days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are shorter than 70 seconds; the most stable artificial isotope is 147Nd with a half-life of 10 98 days 
Neodymium also has 13 known metastable isotopes, with the most stable one being 139mNd (t1/2 = 5 5 hours), 135mNd (t1/2 = 5 5 minutes) and 133m1Nd (t1/2 ~70 seconds)  The primary decay modes before the most abundant stable isotope, 142Nd, are electron capture and positron decay, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay  The primary decay products before 142Nd are element Pr (praseodymium) isotopes and the primary products after are element Pm (promethium) isotopes  Four of the five stable isotopes have been predicted to decay to isotopes of cerium or samarium and are only observationally stable  Additionally, some observationally stable isotopes of samarium are predicted to decay to isotopes of neodymium Neodymium isotopes are used in various scientific applications  142Nd has been used for the production of short-lived Tm and Yb isotopes  146Nd has been suggested for the production of 147Pm, which is a source of radioactive power  Several neodymium isotopes have been used for the production of other promethium isotopes  The decay from 147Sm (t1/2 = 1 06×1011 y) to the stable 143Nd allows samarium–neodymium dating  150Nd has also been used to study double beta decay 

History
In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite  Thirty years later, fifteen-year-old Wilhelm Hisinger, a member of the family owning the mine, sent a sample to Carl Scheele, who did not find any new elements within  In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide, which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres, which had been discovered two years earlier  Ceria was simultaneously and independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth  Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who lived in the same house as Berzelius; he separated out two other oxides, which he named lanthana and didymia  He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid  The metals that formed these oxides were thus named lanthanum and didymium, officially discovered in Vienna in 1885 by Carl Gustaf Mosander  Von Welsbach confirmed the separation by spectroscopic analysis, but the products were of relatively low purity  Didymium was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1841, and pure neodymium was isolated from it in 1925  The name neodymium is derived from the Greek words neos (νέος), new, and didymos (διδύμος), twin Double nitrate crystallization was the means of commercial neodymium purification until the 1950s  Lindsay Chemical Division was the first to commercialize large-scale ion-exchange purification of neodymium  Starting in the 1950s, high purity (>99%) neodymium was primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite, a mineral rich in rare-earth elements  The metal is obtained through electrolysis of its halide salts  Currently, most neodymium is extracted from bastnäsite and purified by solvent extraction  Ion-exchange purification is used for the highest purities (typically >99 99%)  The evolving technology, and improved purity of commercially available neodymium oxide, was reflected in the appearance of neodymium glasses in collections today  Early neodymium glasses made in the 1930s have a more reddish or orange tinge than modern versions, which are more cleanly purple, because of the difficulties in removing traces of praseodymium using early technology, namely fractional crystallization Because of its role in permanent magnets used for direct-drive wind turbines, it has been argued that neodymium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy  This perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets, and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production 

Occurrence and production
Occurrence
Neodymium is rarely found in nature as a free element, instead occurring as ores, such as monazite and bastnäsite (these are mineral group names rather than single mineral names) that contain small amounts of all rare-earth metals  In these minerals neodymium is rarely dominant; some exceptions include monazite-(Nd) and kozoite-(Nd)  The main mining areas are in China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia  World reserves of neodymium are estimated at eight million tonnes The Nd3+ ion is similar in size to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those from lanthanum up to samarium and europium) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate, silicate and carbonate minerals, such as monazite (MIIIPO4) and bastnäsite (MIIICO3F), where M refers to all the rare-earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium (mostly Ce, La, and Y, with somewhat less Pr and Nd)  Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved  The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and silicon tetrafluoride  The product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution 

In space
Neodymium's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 0 083 ppb (parts per billion)  This figure is about two thirds of that of platinum, but two and a half times more than mercury, and nearly five times more than gold  The lanthanides are not usually found in space, and are much more abundant in the Earth's crust 

In the Earth's crust
Neodymium is classified as a lithophile under the Goldschmidt classification, meaning that it is generally found combined with oxygen  Although it belongs to the rare-earth metals, neodymium is not rare at all  Its abundance in the Earth's crust is about 38 mg/kg, making it the 27th most common element  It is similar in abundance to lanthanum  Cerium is the most common rare-earth metal, followed by neodymium, and then lanthanum 

Production
The world's production of neodymium was about 7,000 tons in 2004  The bulk of current production is from China  Historically, the Chinese government imposed strategic material controls on the element, causing large fluctuations in prices  The uncertainty of pricing and availability have caused companies (particularly Japanese ones) to create permanent magnets and associated electric motors with fewer rare-earth metals; however, so far they have been unable to eliminate the need for neodymium  According to the US Geological Survey, Greenland holds the largest reserves of undeveloped rare-earth deposits, particularly neodymium  Mining interests clash with native populations at those sites, due to the release of radioactive substances during the mining process 

Neodymium is typically 10–18% of the rare-earth content of commercial deposits of the light rare-earth-element minerals bastnäsite and monazite  With neodymium compounds being the most strongly colored for the trivalent lanthanides, it can occasionally dominate the coloration of rare-earth minerals when competing chromophores are absent  It usually gives a pink coloration  Outstanding examples of this include monazite crystals from the tin deposits in Llallagua, Bolivia; ancylite from Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada; or lanthanite from the Saucon Valley, Pennsylvania, United States  As with neodymium glasses, such minerals change their colors under the differing lighting conditions  The absorption bands of neodymium interact with the visible emission spectrum of mercury vapor, with the unfiltered shortwave UV light causing neodymium-containing minerals to reflect a distinctive green color  This can be observed with monazite-containing sands or bastnäsite-containing ore The demand for mineral resources, such as rare-earth elements (including neodymium) and other critical materials, has been rapidly increasing owing to the growing human population and industrial development  Recently, the requirement for a low-carbon society has led to a significant demand for energy-saving technologies such as batteries, high-efficiency motors, renewable energy sources, and fuel cells  Among these technologies, permanent magnets are often used to fabricate high-efficiency motors, with neodymium-iron-boron magnets (Nd2Fe14B sintered and bonded magnets; hereinafter referred to as NdFeB magnets) being the main type of permanent magnet in the market since their invention  NdFeB magnets are used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), electric vehicles (EVs), and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) (hereinafter referred to as xEVs), wind turbines, home appliances, computers, and many small consumer electronic devices  Furthermore, they are indispensable for energy savings  Toward achieving the objectives of the Paris Agreement, the demand for NdFeB magnets is expected to increase significantly in the future 

Applications
Neodymium has an unusually large specific heat capacity at liquid-helium temperatures, so is useful in cryocoolers 
Neodymium acetate can be a substitute for the radioactive and toxic uranyl acetate (used as a standard contrasting agent in electron microscopy) 
Probably because of similarities to Ca2+, Nd3+ has been reported to promote plant growth  Rare-earth element compounds are frequently used in China as fertilizer 
Samarium–neodymium dating is useful for determining the age relationships of rocks  and meteorites
Neodymium isotopes recorded in marine sediments are used to reconstruct changes in past ocean circulation 

Magnets
Neodymium magnets (an alloy, Nd2Fe14B) are the strongest permanent magnets known  A neodymium magnet of a few tens of grams can lift a thousand times its own weight, and can snap together with enough force to break bones  These magnets are cheaper, lighter, and stronger than samarium–cobalt magnets  However, they are not superior in every aspect, as neodymium-based magnets lose their magnetism at lower temperatures and tend to corrode, while samarium–cobalt magnets do not Neodymium magnets appear in products such as microphones, professional loudspeakers, headphones, guitar and bass guitar pick-ups, and computer hard disks where low mass, small volume, or strong magnetic fields are required  Neodymium is used in the electric motors of hybrid and electric automobiles and in the electricity generators of some designs of commercial wind turbines (only wind turbines with "permanent magnet" generators use neodymium)  For example, drive electric motors of each Toyota Prius require one kilogram (2 2 pounds) of neodymium per vehicle In 2020, physics researchers at Radboud University and Uppsala University announced they had observed a behavior known as "self-induced spin glass" in the atomic structure of neodymium  One of the researchers explained, "…we are specialists in scanning tunneling microscopy  It allows us to see the structure of individual atoms, and we can resolve the north and south poles of the atoms  With this advancement in high-precision imaging, we were able to discover the behavior in neodymium, because we could resolve the incredibly small changes in the magnetic structure "  Neodymium behaves in a complex magnetic way that had not been seen before in a periodic table element 

Glass
Neodymium glass (Nd:glass) is produced by the inclusion of neodymium oxide (Nd2O3) in the glass melt  Usually in daylight or incandescent light neodymium glass appears lavender, but it appears pale blue under fluorescent lighting  Neodymium may be used to color glass in delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm gray The first commercial use of purified neodymium was in glass coloration, starting with experiments by Leo Moser in November 1927  The resulting "Alexandrite" glass remains a signature color of the Moser glassworks to this day  Neodymium glass was widely emulated in the early 1930s by American glasshouses, most notably Heisey, Fostoria ("wisteria"), Cambridge ("heatherbloom"), and Steuben ("wisteria"), and elsewhere (e g  Lalique, in France, or Murano)  Tiffin's "twilight" remained in production from about 1950 to 1980  Current sources include glassmakers in the Czech Republic, the United States, and China The sharp absorption bands of neodymium cause the glass color to change under different lighting conditions, being reddish-purple under daylight or yellow incandescent light, but blue under white fluorescent lighting, or greenish under trichromatic lighting  This color-change phenomenon is highly prized by collectors  In combination with gold or selenium, red colors are produced  Since neodymium coloration depends upon "forbidden" f-f transitions deep within the atom, there is relatively little influence on the color from the chemical environment, so the color is impervious to the thermal history of the glass  However, for the best color, iron-containing impurities need to be minimized in the silica used to make the glass  The same forbidden nature of the f-f transitions makes rare-earth colorants less intense than those provided by most d-transition elements, so more has to be used in a glass to achieve the desired color intensity  The original Moser recipe used about 5% of neodymium oxide in the glass melt, a sufficient quantity such that Moser referred to these as being "rare-earth doped" glasses  Being a strong base, that level of neodymium would have affected the melting properties of the glass, and the lime content of the glass might have had to be adjusted accordingly Light transmitted through neodymium glasses shows unusually sharp absorption bands; the glass is used in astronomical work to produce sharp bands by which spectral lines may be calibrated  Another application is the creation of selective astronomical filters to reduce the effect of light pollution from sodium and fluorescent lighting while passing other colours, especially dark red hydrogen-alpha emission from nebulae  Neodymium is also used to remove the green color caused by iron contaminants from glass 

Neodymium is a component of "didymium" (referring to mixture of salts of neodymium and praseodymium) used for coloring glass to make welder's and glass-blower's goggles; the sharp absorption bands obliterate the strong sodium emission at 589 nm  The similar absorption of the yellow mercury emission line at 578 nm is the principal cause of the blue color observed for neodymium glass under traditional white-fluorescent lighting  Neodymium and didymium glass are used in color-enhancing filters in indoor photography, particularly in filtering out the yellow hues from incandescent lighting  Similarly, neodymium glass is becoming widely used more directly in incandescent light bulbs  These lamps contain neodymium in the glass to filter out yellow light, resulting in a whiter light which is more like sunlight  During World War I, didymium mirrors were reportedly used to transmit Morse Code across battlefields  Similar to its use in glasses, neodymium salts are used as a colorant for enamels 

Lasers
Certain transparent materials with a small concentration of neodymium ions can be used in lasers as gain media for infrared wavelengths (1054–1064 nm), e g  Nd:YAG (yttrium aluminium garnet), Nd:YAP (yttrium aluminium perovskite), Nd:YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride), Nd:YVO4 (yttrium orthovanadate), and Nd:glass  Neodymium-doped crystals (typically Nd:YVO4) generate high-powered infrared laser beams which are converted to green laser light in commercial DPSS hand-held lasers and laser pointers 

Trivalent neodymium ion Nd3+ was the first lanthanide from rare-earth elements used for the generation of laser radiation  The Nd:CaWO4 laser was developed in 1961  Historically, it was the third laser which was put into operation (the first was ruby, the second the U3+:CaF laser)  Over the years the neodymium laser became one of the most used lasers for application purposes  The success of the Nd3+ ion lies in the structure of its energy levels and in the spectroscopic properties suitable for the generation of laser radiation  In 1964 Geusic et al  demonstrated the operation of neodymium ion in YAG matrix Y3Al5O12  It is a four-level laser with lower threshold and with excellent mechanical and temperature properties  For optical pumping of this material it is possible to use non-coherent flashlamp radiation or a coherent diode beam 

The current laser at the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), the HELEN (High Energy Laser Embodying Neodymium) 1-terawatt neodymium-glass laser, can access the midpoints of pressure and temperature regions and is used to acquire data for modeling on how density, temperature, and pressure interact inside warheads  HELEN can create plasmas of around 106 K, from which opacity and transmission of radiation are measured Neodymium glass solid-state lasers are used in extremely high power (terawatt scale), high energy (megajoules) multiple beam systems for inertial confinement fusion  Nd:glass lasers are usually frequency tripled to the third harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion devices 

Substitute for uranyl acetate
Uranyl acetate has been the standard contrasting agent in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for decades  However, its use is increasingly hampered by regulations by governments due to its radioactive properties as well as its high toxicity  Therefore, alternatives are being searched for, including lanthanide acetates or platinum blue  as well as the use of less defined substances such as oolong tea extract  Despite these published alternatives, uranyl acetate (UAc) is still the standard for EM contrasting In the periodic table the vertical ordering of elements in groups is based on the presence of the same number of electrons in their outermost shell, which determines their chemical and physical properties  Because neodymium (Nd) is right above uranium (U) the chemical properties of UAc and NdAc would be very similar in binding to tissue in ultrathin sections thus leading to a similar amount of contrast 

Biological role and precautions
The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some methanotrophic bacteria living in volcanic mudpots, such as Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective  Neodymium is otherwise not known to have a biological role in any other organisms Neodymium metal dust is combustible and therefore an explosion hazard  Neodymium compounds, as with all rare-earth metals, are of low to moderate toxicity; however, its toxicity has not been thoroughly investigated  Neodymium salts are regarded as more toxic if they are soluble than if they are insoluble if they are ingested  Neodymium dust and salts are very irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes, and moderately irritating to skin  Breathing the dust can cause lung embolisms, and accumulated exposure damages the liver  Neodymium also acts as an anticoagulant, especially when given intravenously Neodymium magnets have been tested for medical uses such as magnetic braces and bone repair, but biocompatibility issues have prevented widespread application  Commercially available magnets made from neodymium are exceptionally strong and can attract each other from large distances  If not handled carefully, they come together very quickly and forcefully, causing injuries  For example, there is at least one documented case of a person losing a fingertip when two magnets he was using snapped together from 50 cm away Another risk of these powerful magnets is that if more than one magnet is ingested, they can pinch soft tissues in the gastrointestinal tract  This has led to an estimated 1,700 emergency room visits and necessitated the recall of the Buckyballs line of toys, which were construction sets of small neodymium magnets 

See also
Neodymium compounds
Category:Neodymium compounds
Lanthanides
Period 6 elements
Rare earth metals

Notes
Passage 2:
James Chadwick
Sir James Chadwick,  (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was a British physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932  In 1941, he wrote the final draft of the MAUD Report, which inspired the U S  government to begin serious atom bomb research efforts  He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II  He was knighted in Britain in 1945 for his achievements in physics 
Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford (known as the "father of nuclear physics")  At Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913  The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851  He elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, and not discrete lines as had been thought  Still in Germany when World War I broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp 
After the war, Chadwick followed Rutherford to the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, where Chadwick earned his Doctor of Philosophy degree under Rutherford's supervision from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, in June 1921  He was Rutherford's assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory for over a decade at a time when it was one of the world's foremost centres for the study of physics, attracting students like John Cockcroft, Norman Feather, and Mark Oliphant  Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass  He anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer  Chadwick left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1935 to become a professor of physics at the University of Liverpool, where he overhauled an antiquated laboratory and, by installing a cyclotron, made it an important centre for the study of nuclear physics 
During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build an atom bomb, while his Manchester lab and environs were harassed by Luftwaffe bombing  When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he became part of the British Mission, and worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory and in Washington, D C  He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R  Groves, Jr  For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test  After this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, he became the Master of Gonville and Caius College in 1948  He retired in 1959 

Education and early life
James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph Chadwick, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant  He was named James after his paternal grandfather  In 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents  He went to Bollington Cross Primary School, and was offered a scholarship to Manchester Grammar School, which his family had to turn down as they could not afford the small fees that still had to be paid  Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester, rejoining his parents there  He now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert; a sister had died in infancy  At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908  He meant to study mathematics, but enrolled in physics by mistake  Like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles (6 4 km) to the university and back each day  At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics  The physics department was headed by Ernest Rutherford, who assigned research projects to final-year students, and he instructed Chadwick to devise a means of comparing the amount of radioactive energy of two different sources  The idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 gram (0 035 oz) of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie  Rutherford's suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, and eventually devised the required method  The results became Chadwick's first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912  He graduated with first class honours in 1911 Having devised a means of measuring gamma radiation, Chadwick proceeded to measure the absorption of gamma rays by various gases and liquids  This time the resulting paper was published under his name alone  He was awarded his Master of Science (MSc) degree in 1912, and was appointed a Beyer Fellow  The following year he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, which allowed him to study and research at a university in continental Europe  He elected to go to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin in 1913, to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, which provided more accuracy than the earlier photographic techniques, he was able to demonstrate that beta radiation did not produce discrete lines, as has been previously thought, but rather a continuous spectrum with peaks in certain regions  On a visit to Geiger's laboratory, Albert Einstein told Chadwick that: "I can explain either of these things, but I can't explain them both at the same time " The continuous spectrum would remain an unexplained phenomenon for many years Chadwick was still in Germany at the start of the First World War, and was interned in the Ruhleben internment camp near Berlin, where he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables and conduct scientific experiments using improvised materials such as radioactive toothpaste  With the help of Charles Drummond Ellis, he worked on the ionisation of phosphorus, and the photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine  He was released after the Armistice with Germany came into effect in November 1918, and returned to his parents' home in Manchester, where he wrote up his findings over the previous four years for the 1851 Exhibition commissioners Rutherford gave Chadwick a part-time teaching position at Manchester, allowing him to continue research  He looked at the nuclear charge of platinum, silver, and copper, and experimentally found that this was the same as the atomic number within an error of less than 1 5 per cent  In April 1919, Rutherford became director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and Chadwick joined him there a few months later  Chadwick was awarded a Clerk-Maxwell studentship in 1920, and enrolled as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) student at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge  The first half of his thesis was his work with atomic numbers  In the second, he looked at the forces inside the nucleus  His degree was awarded in June 1921  In November, he became a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College 

Researcher
Cambridge
Chadwick's Clerk-Maxwell studentship expired in 1923, and he was succeeded by the Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitza  The Chairman of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Sir William McCormick arranged for Chadwick to become Rutherford's assistant director of research  In this role, Chadwick helped Rutherford select PhD students  Over the next few years these would include John Cockcroft, Norman Feather and Mark Oliphant, who would become firm friends with Chadwick  As many students had no idea what they wanted to research, Rutherford and Chadwick would suggest topics  Chadwick edited all the papers produced by the laboratory 

In 1925, Chadwick met Aileen Stewart-Brown, the daughter of a Liverpool stockbroker  The two were married in August 1925, with Kapitza as Best Man  The couple had twin daughters, Joanna and Judith, who were born in February 1927 In his research, Chadwick continued to probe the nucleus  In 1925, the concept of spin had allowed physicists to explain the Zeeman effect, but it also created unexplained anomalies  At the time it was believed that the nucleus consisted of protons and electrons, so nitrogen's nucleus, for example, with a mass number of 14, was assumed to contain 14 protons and 7 electrons  This gave it the right mass and charge, but the wrong spin At a conference at Cambridge on beta particles and gamma rays in 1928, Chadwick met Geiger again  Geiger had brought with him a new model of his Geiger counter, which had been improved by his post-doctoral student Walther Müller  Chadwick had not used one since the war, and the new Geiger–Müller counter was potentially a major improvement over the scintillation techniques then in use at Cambridge, which relied on the human eye for observation  The major drawback with it was that it detected alpha, beta and gamma radiation, and radium, which the Cavendish laboratory normally used in its experiments, emitted all three, and was therefore unsuitable for what Chadwick had in mind  However, polonium is an alpha emitter, and Lise Meitner sent Chadwick about 2 millicuries (about 0 5 μg) from Germany In Germany, Walther Bothe and his student Herbert Becker had used polonium to bombard beryllium with alpha particles, producing an unusual form of radiation  Chadwick had his Australian 1851 Exhibition scholar, Hugh Webster, duplicate their results  To Chadwick, this was evidence of something that he and Rutherford had been hypothesising for years: the neutron, a theoretical nuclear particle with no electric charge  Then in January 1932, Feather drew Chadwick's attention to another surprising result  Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie had succeeded in knocking protons from paraffin wax using polonium and beryllium as a source for what they thought was gamma radiation  Rutherford and Chadwick disagreed; protons were too heavy for that  But neutrons would need only a small amount of energy to achieve the same effect  In Rome, Ettore Majorana came to the same conclusion: the Joliot-Curies had discovered the neutron but did not know it 

Chadwick dropped all his other responsibilities to concentrate on proving the existence of the neutron, assisted by Feather and frequently working late at night  He devised a simple apparatus that consisted of a cylinder containing a polonium source and beryllium target  The resulting radiation could then be directed at a material such as paraffin wax; the displaced particles, which were protons, would go into a small ionisation chamber where they could be detected with an oscilloscope 
In February 1932, after only about two weeks of experimentation with neutrons, Chadwick sent a letter to Nature titled "Possible Existence of a Neutron"  He communicated his findings in detail in an article sent to Proceedings of the Royal Society A titled "The Existence of a Neutron" in May  His discovery of the neutron was a milestone in understanding the nucleus  Reading Chadwick's paper, Robert Bacher and Edward Condon realised that anomalies in the then-current theory, like the spin of nitrogen, would be resolved if the neutron has a spin of 1/2 and that a nitrogen nucleus consisted of seven protons and seven neutrons The theoretical physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg considered whether the neutron could be a fundamental nuclear particle like the proton and electron, rather than a proton–electron pair   Heisenberg showed that the neutron was best described as a new nuclear particle, but its exact nature remained unclear   In his 1933 Bakerian Lecture, Chadwick estimated that a neutron had a mass of about 1 0067 u  Since a proton and an electron had a combined mass of 1 0078 u, this implied the neutron as a proton–electron composite had a binding energy of about 2 MeV, which sounded reasonable, although it was hard to understand how a particle with so little binding energy could be stable   Estimating such a small mass difference required challenging precise measurements, however, and several conflicting results were obtained in 1933–4   By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a large value for the mass of a neutron, but Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California produced a small one   Then Maurice Goldhaber, a refugee from Nazi Germany and a graduate student at the Cavendish Laboratory, suggested to Chadwick that deuterons could be photodisintegrated by the 2 6 MeV gamma rays of 208Tl (then known as thorium C"):

An accurate value for the mass of the neutron could be determined from this process  Chadwick and Goldhaber tried this and found that it worked   They measured the kinetic energy of the proton produced as 1 05 MeV, leaving the mass of the neutron as the unknown in the equation   Chadwick and Goldhaber calculated that it was either 1 0084 or 1 0090 atomic units, depending on the values used for the masses of the proton and deuteron   (The modern accepted value for the mass of the neutron is 1 00866 u ) The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron pair For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick was awarded the Hughes Medal by the Royal Society in 1932, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935, the Copley Medal in 1950 and the Franklin Medal in 1951  His discovery of the neutron made it possible to produce elements heavier than uranium in the laboratory by the capture of slow neutrons followed by beta decay  Unlike the positively charged alpha particles, which are repelled by the electrical forces present in the nuclei of other atoms, neutrons do not need to overcome any Coulomb barrier, and can therefore penetrate and enter the nuclei of even the heaviest elements such as uranium  This inspired Enrico Fermi to investigate the nuclear reactions brought about by collisions of nuclei with slow neutrons, work for which Fermi would receive the Nobel Prize in 1938 Wolfgang Pauli proposed another kind of particle on 4 December 1930 in order to explain the continuous spectrum of beta radiation that Chadwick had reported in 1914  Since not all of the energy of beta radiation could be accounted for, the law of conservation of energy appeared to be violated, but Pauli argued that this could be redressed if another, undiscovered, particle was involved  Pauli also called this particle a neutron, but it was clearly not the same particle as Chadwick's neutron  Fermi renamed it the neutrino, Italian for "little neutron"  In 1934, Fermi proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino   The neutrino could account for the missing energy, but a particle with little mass and no electric charge was difficult to observe  Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth, so the chances of detecting them were slim  Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan would confirm the neutrino on 14 June 1956 by placing a detector within a large antineutrino flux from a nearby nuclear reactor 

Liverpool
With the onset of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom, the government became more parsimonious with funding for science  At the same time, Lawrence's recent invention, the cyclotron, promised to revolutionise experimental nuclear physics, and Chadwick felt that the Cavendish laboratory would fall behind unless it also acquired one  He therefore chafed under Rutherford, who clung to the belief that good nuclear physics could still be done without large, expensive equipment, and turned down the request for a cyclotron 

Chadwick was himself a critic of Big Science in general, and Lawrence in particular, whose approach he considered careless and focused on technology at the expense of science  When Lawrence postulated the existence of a new and hitherto unknown particle that he claimed was a possible source of limitless energy at the Solvay Conference in 1933, Chadwick responded that the results were more likely attributable to contamination of the equipment  While Lawrence rechecked his results at Berkeley only to find that Chadwick was correct, Rutherford and Oliphant conducted an investigation at the Cavendish that found that deuterium fuses to form helium-3, thereby causing the effect that Lawrence had observed  This was another major discovery, but the Oliphant-Rutherford particle accelerator was an expensive state-of-the-art piece of equipment In March 1935, Chadwick received an offer of the Lyon Jones Chair of physics at the University of Liverpool, in his wife's home town, to succeed Lionel Wilberforce  The laboratory was so antiquated that it still ran on direct current electricity, but Chadwick seized the opportunity, assuming the chair on 1 October 1935  The university's prestige was soon bolstered by Chadwick's Nobel Prize, which was announced in November 1935  His medal was sold at auction in 2014 for $329,000 Chadwick set about acquiring a cyclotron for Liverpool  He started by spending £700 to refurbish the antiquated laboratories at Liverpool, so some components could be made in-house  He was able to persuade the university to provide £2,000 and obtained a grant for another £2,000 from the Royal Society  To build his cyclotron, Chadwick brought in two young experts, Bernard Kinsey and Harold Walke, who had worked with Lawrence at the University of California  A local cable manufacturer donated the copper conductor for the coils  The cyclotron's 50-ton magnet was manufactured in Trafford Park by Metropolitan-Vickers, which also made the vacuum chamber  The cyclotron was completely installed and running in July 1939  The total cost of £5,184 was more than Chadwick had received from the University and the Royal Society, so Chadwick paid the rest from his 159,917 kr (£8,243) Nobel Prize money At Liverpool the Medicine and Science faculties worked together closely  Chadwick was automatically a committee member of both faculties, and in 1938 he was appointed to a commission headed by Lord Derby to investigate the arrangements for cancer treatment in Liverpool  Chadwick anticipated that neutrons and radioactive isotopes produced with the 37-inch cyclotron could be used to study biochemical processes, and might become a weapon in the fight against cancer 

Second World War
Tube Alloys and the MAUD Report
In Germany, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons, and noted that barium, a lighter element, was among the products produced  Hitherto, only the same or heavier elements had been produced by the process  In January 1939, Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch astounded the physics community with a paper that explained this result  They theorised that uranium atoms bombarded with neutrons can break into two roughly equal fragments, a process they called fission  They calculated that this would result in the release of about 200 MeV, implying an energy release orders of magnitude greater than chemical reactions, and Frisch confirmed their theory experimentally  It was soon noted by Hahn that if neutrons were released during fission, then a chain reaction was possible  French scientists, Pierre Joliot, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, soon verified that more than one neutron was indeed emitted per fission  In a paper co-authored with the American physicist John Wheeler, Bohr theorised that fission was more likely to occur in the uranium-235 isotope, which made up only 0 7 percent of natural uranium 

Chadwick did not believe that there was any likelihood of another war with Germany in 1939, and took his family for a holiday on a remote lake in northern Sweden  The news of the outbreak of the Second World War therefore came as a shock  Determined not to spend another war in an internment camp, Chadwick made his way to Stockholm as fast as he could, but when he arrived there with his family, he found that all air traffic between Stockholm and London had been suspended  They made their way back to England on a tramp steamer  When he reached Liverpool, Chadwick found Joseph Rotblat, a Polish post-doctoral fellow who had come to work with the cyclotron, was now destitute, as he was cut off from funds from Poland  Chadwick promptly hired Rotblat as a lecturer, despite his poor grasp of English In October 1939, Chadwick received a letter from Sir Edward Appleton, the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, asking for his opinion on the feasibility of an atom bomb  Chadwick responded cautiously  He did not dismiss the possibility, but carefully went over the many theoretical and practical difficulties involved  Chadwick decided to investigate the properties of uranium oxide further with Rotblat  In March 1940, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham re-examined the theoretical issues involved in a paper that became known as the Frisch–Peierls memorandum  Instead of looking at unenriched uranium oxide, they considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium-235, and found that not only could a chain reaction occur, but that it might require as little as 1 kilogram (2 2 lb) of uranium-235, and unleash the energy of tons of dynamite 

A special subcommittee of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW), known as the MAUD Committee, was created to investigate the matter further  It was chaired by Sir George Thomson and its original membership included Chadwick, along with Mark Oliphant, John Cockcroft and Philip Moon  While other teams investigated uranium enrichment techniques, Chadwick's team at Liverpool concentrated on determining the nuclear cross section of uranium-235  By April 1941, it had been experimentally confirmed that the critical mass of uranium-235 might be 8 kilograms (18 lb) or less  His research into such matters was complicated by all-but-incessant Luftwaffe bombings of the environs of his Liverpool lab; the windows were blown out so often that they were replaced by cardboard In July 1941, Chadwick was chosen to write the final draft of the MAUD Report, which, when presented by Vannevar Bush to President Franklin D  Roosevelt in October 1941, inspired the U S  government to pour millions of dollars into the pursuit of an atom bomb  When George B  Pegram and Harold Urey visited Britain to see how the project, now known as Tube Alloys, was going, Chadwick was able to tell them: "I wish I could tell you that the bomb is not going to work, but I am 90 per cent sure that it will "In a recent book about the Bomb project, Graham Farmelo wrote that "Chadwick did more than any other scientist to give Churchill the Bomb      Chadwick was tested almost to the breaking point " So worried that he could not sleep, Chadwick resorted to sleeping pills, which he continued to take for most of his remaining years  Chadwick later said that he realised that "a nuclear bomb was not only possible—it was inevitable  Sooner or later these ideas could not be peculiar to us  Everybody would think about them before long, and some country would put them into action"  Sir Hermann Bondi suggested that it was fortunate that Chadwick, not Rutherford, was the doyen of UK physics at the time, as the latter's prestige might otherwise have overpowered Chadwick's interest in "looking forward" to the Bomb's prospects 

Manhattan Project
Owing to the danger from aerial bombardment, the Chadwicks sent their twins to Canada as part of a government evacuation scheme  Chadwick was reluctant to move Tube Alloys there, believing that the United Kingdom was a better location for the isotope separation plant  The enormous scope of the effort became more apparent in 1942: even a pilot separation plant would cost over £1 million and strain Britain's resources, to say nothing of a full-scale plant, which was estimated to cost somewhere in the vicinity of £25 million  It would have to be built in America  At the same time that the British became convinced that a joint project was necessary, the progress of the American Manhattan Project was such that British cooperation seemed less essential, although the Americans were still eager to utilise Chadwick's talents The matter of cooperation had to be taken up at the highest level  In September 1943, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and President Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which reinstated cooperation between Britain, the United States and Canada  Chadwick, Oliphant, Peierls and Simon were summoned to the United States by the director of Tube Alloys, Sir Wallace Akers, to work with the Manhattan Project  The Quebec Agreement established a new Combined Policy Committee to direct the joint project  The Americans disliked Akers, so Chadwick was appointed technical advisor to the Combined Policy Committee, and the head of the British Mission Leaving Rotblat in charge in Liverpool, Chadwick began a tour of the Manhattan Project facilities in November 1943, except for the Hanford Site where plutonium was produced, which he was not allowed to see  He became the only man apart from Groves and his second in command to have access to all the American research and production facilities for the uranium bomb  Observing the work on the K-25 gaseous diffusion facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Chadwick realised how wrong he had been about building the plant in wartime Britain  The enormous structure could never have been concealed from the Luftwaffe  In early 1944, he moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico, with his wife and their twins, who now spoke with Canadian accents  For security reasons, he was given the cover name of James Chaffee 

Chadwick accepted that the Americans did not need British help, but that it could still be useful in bringing the project to an early and successful conclusion  Working closely with the director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R  Groves, Jr , he attempted to do everything he could to support the effort  He also endeavoured to place British scientists in as many parts of the project as possible in order to facilitate a post-war British nuclear weapons project to which Chadwick was committed  Requests from Groves via Chadwick for particular scientists tended to be met with an immediate rejection by the company, ministry or university currently employing them, only to be overcome by the overriding priority accorded to Tube Alloys  As a result, the British team was critical to the Project's success Although he had more knowledge of the project than anyone else from Britain, Chadwick had no access to the Hanford site  Lord Portal was offered a tour of Hanford in 1946  "This was the only plant to which Chadwick had been denied access in wartime, and now he asked Groves if he could accompany Portal  Groves replied that he could, but if he did then 'Portal will not see very much' " For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  He considered this to be a recognition of the work of the whole Tube Alloys project By early 1945, Chadwick was spending most of his time in Washington, D C , and his family relocated from Los Alamos to a house on Washington's Dupont Circle in April 1945  He was present at the meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 4 July when Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson gave Britain's agreement to use the atom bomb against Japan, and at the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July, when the first atom bomb was detonated  Inside its pit was a polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator, a development of the technique that Chadwick had used to discover the neutron over a decade before  William L  Laurence, The New York Times reporter attached to the Manhattan Project, wrote that "never before in history had any man lived to see his own discovery materialize itself with such telling effect on the destiny of man "

Later life
Shortly after the war ended, Chadwick was appointed to the Advisory Committee on Atomic Energy (ACAE)  He was also appointed as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  He clashed with fellow ACAE member Patrick Blackett, who disagreed with Chadwick's conviction that Britain needed to acquire its own nuclear weapons; but it was Chadwick's position that was ultimately adopted  He returned to Britain in 1946, to find a country still beset by wartime rationing and shortages At this time, Sir James Mountford, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Liverpool, wrote in his diary "he had never seen a man 'so physically, mentally and spiritually tired" as Chadwick, for he "had plumbed such depths of moral decision as more fortunate men are never called upon even to peer into     [and suffered]     almost insupportable agonies of responsibility arising from his scientific work' "In 1948, Chadwick accepted an offer to become the Master of Gonville and Caius College  The job was prestigious but ill-defined; the Master was the titular head of the College, but authority actually resided in a council of 13 fellows, of whom one was the Master  As Master, Chadwick strove to improve the academic reputation of the college  He increased the number of research fellowships from 31 to 49, and sought to bring talent into the college  This involved controversial decisions, such as hiring in 1951 the Chinese biochemist Tien-chin Tsao and the Hungarian-born economist Peter Bauer  In what became known as the Peasants' Revolt, fellows led by Patrick Hadley voted an old friend of Chadwick's off the council and replaced him with Bauer  More friends of Chadwick's were removed over the following years, and he retired in November 1958  It was during his mastership that Francis Crick, a PhD student at Gonville and Caius College, and James Watson discovered the structure of DNA Over the years, Chadwick received many honours, including the Medal for Merit from the United States, and the Pour le Mérite from Germany  He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1927  He became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1946 and an International member of the American Philosophical Society in 1948  He was made a Companion of Honour in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1970 for "services to science", and went to Buckingham Palace for the investiture ceremony  He became more frail, and seldom left his flat, although he travelled to Liverpool for celebrations of his eightieth birthday   A lifelong atheist, he saw no reason to adopt religious faith in later life  He died in his sleep on 24 July 1974 His papers are held at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge, and are accessible to the public  The Chadwick Laboratory at the University of Liverpool is named after him, as is its Sir James Chadwick Chair of Experimental Physics, which was named after him in 1991 as part of celebrations of the centenary of his birth  A crater on the moon is also named after him  The James Chadwick Building, which houses part of the School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, University of Manchester is named in his honour  He was described by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority official historian Lorna Arnold as "a physicist, a scientist-diplomat, and a good, wise, and humane man "

Notes
Passage 3:
Synthetic element
A synthetic element is one of 24 known chemical elements that do not occur naturally on Earth: they have been created by human manipulation of fundamental particles in a nuclear reactor, a particle accelerator, or the explosion of an atomic bomb; thus, they are called "synthetic", "artificial", or "man-made"  The synthetic elements are those with atomic numbers 95–118, as shown in purple on the accompanying periodic table: these 24 elements were first created between 1944 and 2010  The mechanism for the creation of a synthetic element is to force additional protons into the nucleus of an element with an atomic number lower than 95  All known (see: Island of stability) synthetic elements are unstable, but they decay at widely varying rates: the half-lives of their longest-lived isotopes range from microseconds to millions of years  
Five more elements that were first created artificially are strictly speaking not synthetic because they were later found in nature in trace quantities: 43Tc, 61Pm, 85At, 93Np, and 94Pu, though are sometimes classified as synthetic alongside exclusively artificial elements  The first, technetium, was created in 1937  Plutonium (Pu, atomic number 94), first synthesized in 1940, is another such element  It is the element with the largest number of protons (atomic number) to occur in nature, but it does so in such tiny quantities that it is far more practical to synthesize it  Plutonium is known mainly for its use in atomic bombs and nuclear reactors No elements with atomic numbers greater than 99 have any uses outside of scientific research, since they have extremely short half-lives, and thus have never been produced in large quantities 

Properties
All elements with atomic number greater than 94 decay quickly enough into lighter elements such that any atoms of these that may have existed when the Earth formed (about 4 6 billion years ago) have long since decayed  Synthetic elements now present on Earth are the product of atomic bombs or experiments that involve nuclear reactors or particle accelerators, via nuclear fusion or neutron absorption Atomic mass for natural elements is based on weighted average abundance of natural isotopes in Earth's crust and atmosphere  For synthetic elements, there is no "natural isotope abundance"  Therefore, for synthetic elements the total nucleon count (protons plus neutrons) of the most stable isotope, i e , the isotope with the longest half-life—is listed in brackets as the atomic mass 

History
Technetium
The first element to be synthesized, rather than discovered in nature, was technetium in 1937  This discovery filled a gap in the periodic table, and the fact that technetium has no stable isotopes explains its natural absence on Earth (and the gap)  With the longest-lived isotope of technetium, 97Tc, having a 4 21-million-year half-life, no technetium remains from the formation of the Earth  Only minute traces of technetium occur naturally in Earth's crust—as a product of spontaneous fission of 238U, or from neutron capture in molybdenum—but technetium is present naturally in red giant stars 

Curium
The first entirely synthetic element to be made was curium, synthesized in 1944 by Glenn T  Seaborg, Ralph A  James, and Albert Ghiorso by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles 

Eight others
Synthesis of americium, berkelium, and californium followed soon  Einsteinium and fermium were discovered by a team of scientists led by Albert Ghiorso in 1952 while studying the composition of radioactive debris from the detonation of the first hydrogen bomb  The isotopes synthesized were einsteinium-253, with a half-life of 20 5 days, and fermium-255, with a half-life of about 20 hours  The creation of mendelevium, nobelium, and lawrencium followed 

Rutherfordium and dubnium
During the height of the Cold War, teams from the Soviet Union and the United States independently created rutherfordium and dubnium  The naming and credit for synthesis of these elements remained unresolved for many years, but eventually shared credit was recognized by IUPAC/IUPAP in 1992  In 1997, IUPAC decided to give dubnium its current name honoring the city of Dubna where the Russian team worked since American-chosen names had already been used for many existing synthetic elements, while the name rutherfordium (chosen by the American team) was accepted for element 104 

The last thirteen
Meanwhile, the American team had created seaborgium, and the next six elements had been created by a German team: bohrium, hassium, meitnerium, darmstadtium, roentgenium, and copernicium  Element 113, nihonium, was created by a Japanese team; the last five known elements, flerovium, moscovium, livermorium, tennessine, and oganesson, were created by Russian–American collaborations and complete the seventh row of the periodic table 

List of synthetic elements
The following elements do not occur naturally on Earth  All are transuranium elements and have atomic numbers of 95 and higher 

Other elements usually produced through synthesis
All elements with atomic numbers 1 through 94 occur naturally at least in trace quantities, but the following elements are often produced through synthesis: technetium, promethium, astatine, neptunium, and plutonium, which were discovered through synthesis before being found in nature 
Passage 4:
Atomic number
The atomic number or nuclear charge number (symbol Z) of a chemical element is the charge number of an atomic nucleus  For ordinary nuclei composed of protons and neutrons, this is equal to the proton number (np) or the number of protons found in the nucleus of every atom of that element  The atomic number can be used to uniquely identify ordinary chemical elements  In an ordinary uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons 
For an ordinary atom which contains protons, neutrons and electrons, the sum of the atomic number Z and the neutron number N gives the atom's atomic mass number A  Since protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass (and the mass of the electrons is negligible for many purposes) and the mass defect of the nucleon binding is always small compared to the nucleon mass, the atomic mass of any atom, when expressed in daltons (making a quantity called the "relative isotopic mass"), is within 1% of the whole number A 
Atoms with the same atomic number but different neutron numbers, and hence different mass numbers, are known as isotopes  A little more than three-quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture of isotopes (see monoisotopic elements), and the average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element (called the relative atomic mass) in a defined environment on Earth, determines the element's standard atomic weight  Historically, it was these atomic weights of elements (in comparison to hydrogen) that were the quantities measurable by chemists in the 19th century 
The conventional symbol Z comes from the German word Zahl 'number', which, before the modern synthesis of ideas from chemistry and physics, merely denoted an element's numerical place in the periodic table, whose order was then approximately, but not completely, consistent with the order of the elements by atomic weights  Only after 1915, with the suggestion and evidence that this Z number was also the nuclear charge and a physical characteristic of atoms, did the word Atomzahl (and its English equivalent atomic number) come into common use in this context 
The rules above do not always apply to exotic atoms which contain short-lived elementary particles other than protons, neutrons and electrons 

History
The periodic table and a natural number for each element
Loosely speaking, the existence or construction of a periodic table of elements creates an ordering of the elements, and so they can be numbered in order 
Dmitri Mendeleev claimed that he arranged his first periodic tables (first published on March 6, 1869) in order of atomic weight ("Atomgewicht")  However, in consideration of the elements' observed chemical properties, he changed the order slightly and placed tellurium (atomic weight 127 6) ahead of iodine (atomic weight 126 9)  This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number, Z, but that number was not known or suspected at the time 

A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory, however  Besides the case of iodine and tellurium, later several other pairs of elements (such as argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel) were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties  However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar lanthanide elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from lutetium (element 71) onward (hafnium was not known at this time) 

The Rutherford-Bohr model and van den Broek
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford gave a model of the atom in which a central nucleus held most of the atom's mass and a positive charge which, in units of the electron's charge, was to be approximately equal to half of the atom's atomic weight, expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms  This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight (though it was almost 25% different from the atomic number of gold (Z = 79, A = 197), the single element from which Rutherford made his guess)  Nevertheless, in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 (but was element Z = 79 on the periodic table), a month after Rutherford's paper appeared, Antonius van den Broek first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom was exactly equal to its place in the periodic table (also known as element number, atomic number, and symbolized Z)  This proved eventually to be the case 

Moseley's 1913 experiment
The experimental position improved dramatically after research by Henry Moseley in 1913  Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab (and who had used Van den Broek's hypothesis in his Bohr model of the atom), decided to test Van den Broek's and Bohr's hypothesis directly, by seeing if spectral lines emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of Z 
To do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions (K and L lines) produced by the elements from aluminium (Z = 13) to gold (Z = 79) used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an x-ray tube  The square root of the frequency of these photons (x-rays) increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression  This led to the conclusion (Moseley's law) that the atomic number does closely correspond (with an offset of one unit for K-lines, in Moseley's work) to the calculated electric charge of the nucleus, i e  the element number Z  Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the lanthanide series (from lanthanum to lutetium inclusive) must have 15 members—no fewer and no more—which was far from obvious from known chemistry at that time 

Missing elements
After Moseley's death in 1915, the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium (Z = 92) were examined by his method  There were seven elements (with Z < 92) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered, corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87 and 91  From 1918 to 1947, all seven of these missing elements were discovered  By this time, the first four transuranium elements had also been discovered, so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as curium (Z = 96) 

The proton and the idea of nuclear electrons
In 1915, the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of Z, which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood  An old idea called Prout's hypothesis had postulated that the elements were all made of residues (or "protyles") of the lightest element hydrogen, which in the Bohr-Rutherford model had a single electron and a nuclear charge of one  However, as early as 1907, Rutherford and Thomas Royds had shown that alpha particles, which had a charge of +2, were the nuclei of helium atoms, which had a mass four times that of hydrogen, not two times  If Prout's hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms 
In 1917, Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a nuclear reaction between alpha particles and nitrogen gas, and believed he had proven Prout's law  He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 (alternate names being proutons and protyles)  It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of hydrogen nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra protons presumed present in all heavy nuclei  A helium nucleus was presumed to be composed of four protons plus two "nuclear electrons" (electrons bound inside the nucleus) to cancel two of the charges  At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of +79, consistent with its atomic number 

The discovery of the neutron makes Z the proton number
All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with James Chadwick's discovery of the neutron in 1932  An atom of gold now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons, and its positive nuclear charge now was realized to come entirely from a content of 79 protons  Since Moseley had previously shown that the atomic number Z of an element equals this positive charge, it was now clear that Z is identical to the number of protons of its nuclei 

Chemical properties
Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom, which is Z (the atomic number)  The configuration of these electrons follows from the principles of quantum mechanics  The number of electrons in each element's electron shells, particularly the outermost valence shell, is the primary factor in determining its chemical bonding behavior  Hence, it is the atomic number alone that determines the chemical properties of an element; and it is for this reason that an element can be defined as consisting of any mixture of atoms with a given atomic number 

New elements
The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers  As of 2023, all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed  Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created  In general, the half-life of a nuclide becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though undiscovered nuclides with certain "magic" numbers of protons and neutrons may have relatively longer half-lives and comprise an island of stability  
A hypothetical element composed only of neutrons has also been proposed and would have atomic number 0 

See also
Context 2: Passage 1:
Robert Robinson Taylor
Robert Robinson Taylor (June 8, 1868 – December 13, 1942) was an American architect and educator  Taylor was the first African-American student enrolled at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and the first accredited African-American architect when he graduated in 1892  He was an early and influential member of the Tuskegee Institute faculty 
A native of Wilmington, North Carolina, Taylor remained in architectural practice in the American South for over forty years  He was part of what was possibly the nation’s first black architecture firm, Taylor and Persley, a partnership founded in July 1920 with Louis H  Persley  He designed many of the early buildings of the Tuskegee Institute, and at several other Historically black colleges and universities  As second-in-command to Booker T  Washington, the Tuskegee Institute's founder, Taylor was instrumental in both campus planning and inventing the school's industrial curriculum 

Early life
Robert Robinson Taylor was born on June 8, 1868, in Wilmington, North Carolina  His father, Henry Taylor, worked as a carpenter and businessman, born into slavery but freed in 1847 by his father and owner Angus Taylor  His mother, Emily Still, was the daughter of freedmen even prior to the Civil War  He left home for MIT in 1888, where he studied architecture  In June 1890 and again in September 1891, he was recommended for the Loring Scholarship, which he held for two consecutive academic years: 1890–1891 and 1892–1893 During his course of study at MIT, he talked in person on more than one occasion with Booker T  Washington  What Washington had in mind was for Taylor to develop the industrial program at Tuskegee and to plan and direct the construction of new buildings for the campus  At the MIT faculty meeting on May 26, 1892, Taylor was one of twelve students in Course IV, the architectural program, recommended for a degree  The class of 1892 was the largest on record since MIT's founding  After graduation Taylor did not head directly to Tuskegee  He finally accepted the Tuskegee offer in the fall or winter of 1892 

Career
Taylor's first building project on the Tuskegee University campus was the Science Hall (Thrasher Hall) completed in 1893  The new Science Hall was constructed entirely by students, using bricks made also by students under Taylor's supervision  The project epitomized Washington's philosophy of instilling in Tuskegee students, the descendants of former enslaved Africans, the value and dignity of physical labor   It exemplified of the capabilities of African Americans in the building trades, and it underscored the larger potential of the manual training curricula being developed at Tuskegee  A number of other buildings followed, including the original Tuskegee Chapel, erected between 1895 and 1898, and The Oaks, built in 1899 as Tuskegee's presidential residence From 1899 to 1902, he returned to Cleveland, Ohio, to work on his own and for the architectural firm of Charles W  Hopkinson  Upon his return to Tuskegee from Cleveland in 1902, he was architect and director of "mechanical industries" until his retirement in the mid-1930s  To develop a sound curriculum at Tuskegee, both Washington and Taylor drew inspiration from MIT as a model  Taylor's own admiration for MIT as a model for Tuskegee's development was conveyed in a speech that he delivered at MIT in 1911  Taylor cited examples to the 1911 US Congress in a paper to illustrate the kinds of rigorous ideas, approaches, and methods that Tuskegee had adopted from MIT and successfully applied within the context of a black educational institution Taylor also designed buildings that were not at Tuskegee  These include Carnegie libraries at Wiley College in Marshall, Texas, and at Livingstone College in Salisbury, North Carolina  With his later partner, the black architect Louis H  Persley, he did large buildings at Selma University in Selma, Alabama, and the Colored Masonic Temple, which is also an office building and entertainment venue, in Birmingham, Alabama He served for a period as vice-principal of Tuskegee, beginning in 1925  In 1929, under the joint sponsorship of the Phelps-Stokes Fund, the Liberian government, and Firestone Rubber, he went to Kakata, Liberia to lay out architectural plans and devise a program in industrial training for the proposed Booker Washington Institute – "the Tuskegee of Africa " Robert Taylor served on the Mississippi Valley Flood Relief Commission, appointed by President Herbert Hoover, and was chairman of the Tuskegee chapter of the American Red Cross Following his retirement to his native Wilmington, North Carolina, in 1935, the governor of North Carolina appointed Taylor to the board of trustees of what is now Fayetteville State University  Moreover, in 1942, less than a decade after his retirement from Tuskegee, he wrote to the secretary of his MIT class indicating that he had just been released from treatment for an unspecified illness at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota  "Thanks to a kind Providence and skillful physicians," he said, "I am much better now "

Personal life
In 1898, he married Beatrice Rochon Taylor  They had four children, one of whom, Robert Rochon Taylor, became a noted housing advocate in Chicago  Beatrice's younger sister was teacher and pharmacist Etnah Rochon Boutte  After Beatrice died in 1906, Robert remarried in 1912 to Nellie Chestnutt; they had one child 

Death
He died on December 13, 1942, while attending services in the Tuskegee Chapel, the building that he considered his most outstanding achievement as an architect  He was buried at the Pine Forest Cemetery in Wilmington, North Carolina 

Legacy
The Taylor School of Architecture and Construction Science at Tuskegee University is named for Taylor  The housing project in Chicago, Robert Taylor Homes, was named after his son, Robert Rochon Taylor, a civic leader and former Chairman of the Chicago Housing Authority 
The US Postal Service has a postage stamp with his likeness His great-granddaughter, Valerie Jarrett, was a senior advisor to Former President Barack Obama 

Projects
Huntington Hall (1900)
Emery dormitories 4 buildings (1900)
Dorothy Hall (1901) Tuskegee Institute
Women's Trades Building (1901)
Carnegie Library (1901)
Administration Building (1902–03)
Rockefeller Hall (1903)
Men's residence Hall (1904)
Douglass Hall (1904)
Collis P  Huntington Memorial Building academic building(1904–05)
Tantum Hall (1907)
Milbank Agriculture Building (1909)
Tompkins Hall, dining facility (1910)
White Hall, women's dormitory (1910)
John A  Andrew Memorial Hospital (1913)
Laundry, now The George Washington Carver Museum (1915)
James Hall (1921)
Prince Hall Masonic Temple (1924)
Sage Hall (1927)
Wilcox Trade Buildings, architecture buildings (1928)
Logan Hall, old gym (1931)
Armstrong Science Building (1932)
Hollis Burke Frissell Library (1932)

See also
African-American architects
Robert Charles Bates, an early architecture teacher at Claflin University
Passage 2:
Helen Eugenia Hagan
Helen Eugenia Hagan (January 10, 1891 – March 6, 1964) was an American pianist, music educator and composer of African descent 

Life
Helen Eugenia Hagan was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the daughter of John A  and Mary Estella Neal Hagan  She studied piano with her mother and then in the public schools of New Haven, Connecticut  Around the age of nine, she began playing organ for the Dixwell Avenue Congregational United Church in New Haven She studied at Yale School of Music with pianist H Stanley Knight and composer Horatio Parker, graduating in 1912 with a bachelor's degree in music  In doing so, she became the first known African American woman to earn a Yale degree She performed as soloist on her own Piano Concerto in C Minor in May 1912 with the New Haven Symphony Orchestra conducted by Parker  She received the Samuel Simmons Stanford scholarship to study in Paris, with Blanche Selva and Vincent d'Indy, and graduated from Schola Cantorum in 1914 Hagan returned to the United States as World War I began and began a career as a concert pianist, touring from 1915 to 1918  In 1918 she was music director (i e  music department chair) at Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State College  In early 1919 she left for France to entertain black troops of the American Expeditionary Forces, along with spirituals singer Joshua Blanton and the Rev  Henry Hugh Proctor, under the auspices of the YMCA  General John Pershing personally requested that Ms  Hagan entertain the troops In 1920 Hagan married John Taylor Williams of Morristown, New Jersey but continued her concert career  They divorced ca  1931 She had a music studio in Morristown for at least a decade and was the first African American woman admitted to the Morristown Chamber of Commerce  She taught at the Mendelssohn Conservatory of Music in Chicago and pursued a Masters of Arts degree from Teachers College, Columbia University  In the 1930s she served as dean of music at Bishop College in Marshall, Texas  She also continued to work as a choir director and church organist  She died in New York City after an extended illness On September 29, 2016, a crowdfunded monument for Hagan's previously unmarked grave was unveiled at New Haven's Evergreen Cemetery, and the day was declared "Women Making Music Day" by New Haven mayor Toni Harp  The New Haven Symphony Orchestra's season opening concert that evening was performed in Ms  Hagan's honor The only known video footage of Helen Hagen is in the 1954 New York Board of Education documentary Let Us Break Bread Together, where she is shown performing in a school context 

Works
The Piano Concerto is the only work by Helen Hagan to survive  In 2014 Lola Perrin and the Ivory Duo Piano Ensemble made a transcription from the 1912 manuscript to create a performable version in a piano reduction  In 2022, pianist Samantha Ege recorded a two piano version on her album Black Renaissance Woman  Composer and Yale School of Music alum Soomin Kim has re-orchestrated the work based on the existing sources  The new version was first performed by the Yale Philharmonia and Samantha Ege on October 21, 2022 Her other compositions, including songs, piano pieces, a violin sonata (pre-1912), and string quartets, have all been lost  The New Haven Symphony Orchestra is an active advocate for Ms  Hagan's legacy and encourages anyone who might be in possession of a score or manuscript of her music to please contact the Symphony 
Passage 3:
Todd Duncan
Robert Todd Duncan (February 12, 1903 – February 28, 1998) was an American baritone opera singer and actor  One of the first African-Americans to sing with a major opera company, Duncan is also noted for appearing as Porgy in the premier production of Porgy and Bess (1935) 

Early life
Duncan was born February 12, 1903, in Danville, Kentucky, to John and Lettie (Cooper) Duncan   They were married in Danville 1901, he being born in Danville, and she born in Frankfort  John was a garage owner and Lettie was a music teacher   He obtained his musical training at Butler University in Indianapolis with a B A  in music followed by an M A  from Columbia University Teachers College 

Career
In 1934, Duncan debuted in Pietro Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana at the Mecca Temple in New York with the Aeolian Opera, a black opera company Duncan was George Gershwin's personal choice as the first performer of the role of Porgy in Porgy and Bess in 1935 and played the role more than 1,800 times   He led the cast during the Washington run of Porgy and Bess at the National Theatre in 1936, to protest the theatre's policy of segregation  Duncan stated that he "would never play in a theater which barred him from purchasing tickets to certain seats because of his race " Eventually management would give into the demands and allow for the first integrated performance at National Theatre   Duncan was also the first performer for the role of Stephen Kumalo in Kurt Weill's Lost in the Stars which opened on Broadway at the Music Box Theatre on October 30, 1949, and closed on July 1, 1950, after 281 performances 
In 1938, Duncan appeared on the London stage at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in C B Cochran's musical production The Sun Never Sets  The cast included fellow American Adelaide Hall, Leslie Banks, Edna Best and Stewart Granger  The musical was adapted by Pat Wallace and Guy Bolton from various stories written by Edgar Wallace and the show included original music by Cole Porter  Costumes were designed by Elizabeth Haffenden  One of the numbers Duncan sang was 'River God'  After the London run closed, Duncan and Adelaide Hall from the original cast toured Britain with the production 
Duncan taught voice at Howard University in Washington, D C  from 1930 until 1945  While teaching at Howard, he continued touring as a soloist with pianists William Duncan Allen and George Malloy   He had a very successful career as a concert singer with over 2,000 performances in 56 countries and two film roles  He retired from Howard and opened his own voice studio teaching privately and giving periodic recitals 
In 1945, he became the first African American to sing with a major opera company, and the first black person to sing in an opera with an otherwise white cast, when he performed the role of Tonio in Leoncavallo's Pagliacci with the New York City Opera   In the same year he sang the role of Escamillo, the bullfighter, in Bizet's Carmen   In 1954, Duncan was the first to record "Unchained Melody", a popular song with music by Alex North and lyrics by Hy Zaret   The recording was made for the soundtrack of the obscure prison film Unchained, in which Duncan also played a minor character   Following Duncan's version, the song went on to become one of the most recorded songs of the 20th century 
In his final interview, Todd Duncan spoke of his love for spirituals: "    spirituals are so deep inside of me, it's difficult for me to find words that are meaningful   Spirituals are a part of whatever I am   When I sing them my being sings them, not my throat     It is very difficult for me to put into words something that is at the bottom of my very being "In addition to singing, Duncan was also a voice teacher  Among his notable pupils was operatic bass Philip Booth who was a mainstay at the Metropolitan Opera for two decades 

Honors and death
In 1978, the Washington Performing Arts Society presented his 75th birthday gala   Duncan was awarded the George Peabody Medal of Music from the Peabody Conservatory of Music of Johns Hopkins University in 1984   Other awards he received include a medal of honor from Haiti, an NAACP award, the Donaldson Award, the New York Drama Critics' Award for Lost in the Stars, and honorary doctorates from Valparaiso University and Butler University 
Duncan was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity He died of a heart ailment at his home in Washington, D C , February 28, 1998, survived by his wife, Gladys Jackson Duncan, and adopted son, Charles, a successful attorney 

See also
List of African American firsts
Passage 4:
Franklinton Elementary School (North Carolina)
Franklin County Schools is a PK–12 graded school district serving Franklin County, North Carolina, United States  Its 16 schools serve 7,769 students as of the 2022–23 school year  The administrative offices are located in Louisburg 

Student demographics
For the 2022–23 school year, Franklin County Schools had a total population of 7,769 students and 582 66 teachers on a (FTE) basis  This produced a student-teacher ratio of 14 87:1  That same year, out of the student total, the gender ratio was 52% male to 48% female  The demographic group makeup was: 37% White, 31% Black, 25% Hispanic, 6% Two or more Races,  6% Asian,  4% American Indian  For the same school year, 72% of the students received free and reduced-cost lunches 

Governance
The primary governing body of Franklin County Schools follows a council–manager government format with a seven-member Board of Education appointing a Superintendent to run the day-to-day operations of the system  The school system currently resides in the North Carolina State Board of Education's Third District 

Board of education
The seven members of the Board of Education are elected by district (five districts and two at-large seats) in staggered four-year terms with general elections being held during the North Carolina State Primary on even numbered years   They generally meet on the second Monday of each month  The current members of the board are: Dr  Elizabeth Keith (District 3, Chair), Meghan Jordan (District 5), Bernard Hall (District 1), Tommy Piper (District 2), Debra Brodie (District 4), Rosemary Champion (At-large, Vice-Chair), and Paige Sayles (At-large) 

Superintendent
Dr  Rhonda Schuhler currently serves as the Franklin County Schools Superintendent 

Member schools
Franklin County Schools has 16 schools ranging from pre-kindergarten to twelfth grade  Those 16 schools are separated into four high schools, four middle schools, and eight elementary schools 

High schools
Bunn High School (Bunn)
Franklin County Early College (Louisburg)
Franklinton High School (Franklinton)
Louisburg High School (Louisburg)

Middle schools
Bunn Middle School (Bunn)
Cedar Creek Middle School (Youngsville)
Franklinton Middle School (Franklinton)
Terrell Lane Middle School (Louisburg)

Elementary schools
Bunn Elementary School (Bunn)
Edward Best Elementary School (Louisburg)
Franklinton Elementary School (Franklinton)
Laurel Mill Elementary School (Louisburg)
Long Mill Elementary School (Youngsville)
Louisburg Elementary School (Louisburg)
Royal Elementary School (Louisburg)
Youngsville Elementary School [year-round] (Youngsville)

Athletics
According to the North Carolina High School Athletic Association, for the 2021-2025 conference realignment: Bunn, Franklinton and Louisburg high schools are all in the Big East Conference, with Bunn and Louisburg being Class 2A and Franklinton being Class 3A  The early college does not have any athletic teams, but students that attend the early college are eligible to try out for the high school team in their home district 

See also
List of school districts in North Carolina
Passage 5:
Sierra Linda High School
Sierra Linda High School is a high school located in the west part of Phoenix, Arizona, USA, administered by the Tolleson Union High School District  It had 1,787 students as of October 1, 2013, but currently holds about 1,867 as of the 2018–19 school year  It opened in 2008; due to facility issues, students attended the first semester of classes at La Joya Community High School, then moved into the campus in January 2009  Students of the 2012 cohort were the first graduating class, with approximately 355 students 
Passage 6:
Oblate Sisters of Providence
The Oblate Sisters of Providence (OSP) is a Catholic women's religious institute founded by Mother Mary Elizabeth Lange, and James Nicholas Joubert in 1829 in Baltimore, Maryland for the education of girls of African descent  It was the first permanent community of Black Catholic sisters in the United States  
The Oblate Sisters were free women of color who sought to provide Baltimore's African American population with education and "a corps of teachers from its own ranks " The congregation is also a member of the Women of Providence in Collaboration 

History
Founding
James Nicholas Joubert was born in France, and working in Saint-Domingue, (Haiti), when he was forced by the Revolution to escape to the United States  Arriving in Baltimore, he entered St  Mary's Seminary to become a Sulpician priest  After his ordination, he was given charge of the black French-speaking Catholics of St  Mary's chapel  Finding he was making no headway as the children were having trouble reading and learning their catechism he had the idea of founding a school for the purpose of educating these children  In this he was encouraged by his two friends, Fathers Babade and Tessier He was introduced to two women of African descent who kept a small private school and had a hope of consecrating their lives to God  Father Joubert made known to them his plans for a school for girls of African descent and they offered to be at his service  Father Joubert proposed that they also form a religious institute as well as conducting a school  This idea would become St  Frances Academy in 1828 With the approval of James Whitfield, Archbishop of Baltimore, a novitiate was begun  A little over a year later, on 2 July 1829, the first four sisters, Miss Elisabeth Lange from Santiago, Cuba, Miss Mary Rosine Boegues of Saint Domingue, Miss Mary Frances Balas of Saint Domingue, Miss Mary Theresa Duchemin of Baltimore made their vows Sister Mary Lange was chosen superior, and Rev  Father Joubert was appointed director  Pope Gregory XVI approved the institute on 2 October 1831 under the title of Oblate Sisters of Providence  The sisters opened other Catholic schools for African American girls in the city as well as teaching adult women in evening classes and opened a home for widows  The sisters educated youth and nursed the terminally ill during the cholera epidemic of 1832  They provided a home for orphans and sheltered the elderly  The sisters took in washing, ironing and mending to care for the "children of the house"  The organization did not consider "previous condition of servitude a liability for Oblate membership" and eight of the forty women who joined in the antebellum years (1828-1860) had been slaves 

Expansion
In 1871 the sisters vacated the motherhouse on Richmond St  because the city needed the property  A new location was found on a knoll on what was then the outskirts of the city and a new motherhouse was built on Chase St  The sisters continued to operate an orphanage as well as a day and boarding school within the convent walls 
Foreign missions began in 1900 when the Oblates opened their first mission in Havana, Cuba  The OSPs established seven missions in Cuba but left in 1961 when the regime of Fidel Castro made it impossible for them to continue their work  In 1903 a convent and school opened on Old Providence Island in the western Caribbean  Due to extremely harsh conditions, the mission closed after fifteen months 
By 1910 the sisters conducted schools and orphanages at Baltimore, Washington, Leavenworth, St  Louis, and Normandy, Missouri  Eventually the institute founded schools in eighteen states  Some missions only lasted a few years while others endured and changed with the needs of the community 

Modern era
By the 1950s there were over 300 Oblate Sisters of Providence teaching and caring for African American children  The Oblates had missions in the Dominican Republic and opened missions in Costa Rica in 1964, where they continue today The motherhouse remained on Chase Street in Baltimore until a new motherhouse was built in 1961 at 701 Gun Rd  in southwest Baltimore County  It is called Our Lady of Mount Providence and remains the motherhouse today  Several missions operated on the motherhouse property including Mt  Providence Junior College from 1963–1966  
The sisters began a Child Development Center and Reading and Math Center in 1972 on the motherhouse property  The sisters continue to operate St  Francis Academy on Chase Street in Baltimore 

Bill and Camille Cosby donations
In 2005, Camille Cosby (wife of Bill Cosby), an alumna of a school in Washington run by the Oblates, made a donation to the school to create an endowment that will pay the tuition for 16 students a year The Cosbys made another donation in 2012 to assist St  Frances Academy in building a community center in East Baltimore  The community center was originally named after her and her husband, but his name was removed after the revelation of multiple sexual offenses 

Charism
"The original inspiration of the Oblate Sisters of Providence is that gift of the Spirit so evident in the life of Mother Mary Lange   This charism enables us, with total trust in God's Providence, to bring joy, healing and the liberating, redemptive love of the suffering Jesus to the victims of poverty, racism, and injustice despite contradictions, prejudice and pain "Currently the institute has approximately eighty members  The Oblate Sisters continue in Baltimore, Maryland, Miami, Florida, Buffalo, New York, Alajuela and Siquirres, Costa Rica 

Motherhouse
The motherhouse houses the administrative offices, a health care unit, a novitiate (there is also a novitiate in Costa Rica), the Mother Lange Guild (supporting the cause for canonization of Mother Lange), and the Oblate Sisters of Providence Archives and Special Collections Library  Offices for the affiliated organizations of the National Oblate Sisters of Providence Alumni Association and Cojourners of the Oblate Sisters of Providence are also located at the Motherhouse 

See also
Oblate (religion)
Passage 7:
Robert Swirsky
Robert Swirsky (born December, 1962, Brooklyn, NY) is a computer scientist, author and pianist  In the early 1980s, he was one of the first regular contributors to the nascent computer magazine industry, including Popular Computing, Kilobaud Microcomputing, and Interface Age to Creative Computing Swirsky holds bachelor's and master's degrees in computer science from Hofstra University, and is one of Hofstra's Alumni of Distinction  While there, he met VOIP pioneer Jeff Pulver who attended Hofstra as an undergraduate student  After graduating, Swirsky worked on projects ranging from aircraft avionics to one of the first all-software digital radio receivers for a VLF submarine application 
In 1989, Swirsky moved to California and joined Olivetti Advanced Technology's Unix group  He was a frequent speaker at Uniforum, Usenix, and other Unix shows, and hosted parties where he entertained people with song parodies about the Unix computer operating system, some of which were featured in a special Evatone Soundsheet issue of Interface Age magazine  He studied music and piano at Hofstra University with professor Morton Estrin 
After Olivetti, Swirsky went to Adobe Systems, where he was a member of the core PostScript team, and the team that developed the first versions of Photoshop for Microsoft Windows, including Win32s on Microsoft Windows for Workgroups 3 11  His work made him a participant in many industry standards committees, such as TWAIN, and he was a frequent speaker and contributor at ACM SIGGRAPH events  Before leaving Adobe in 1998, he worked with Will Harvey on HTML rendering technology 

The Disney years
In 1998, Swirsky began working for Walt Disney Imagineering R&D as Director, Creative Technology, under Bran Ferren, developing electronic games and digital imaging systems  He developed technology to play interactive games synchronized with live television shows, and electronic toys including Disney's Magical Moments Pin  His digital photography projects included systems to synchronize picture-taking with ride vehicles, and active infrared badges to identify picture-takers 
Swirsky was a major technical contributor to ABC's Enhanced TV, an Emmy Award-winning technology that allowed television viewers to play along with game shows and sporting events, and to answer live polls during talk shows  His interactive media research also involved working with nerdcore rapper Monzy, then an intern at Walt Disney Imagineering, on a variety of cutting-edge display technologies, including the display of digital data on a spherical surface 
Swirsky continues to work as a consultant for the themed entertainment industry, including Disney 

3D photography
Swirsky is known for his work in 3D digital photography  He has developed algorithms for generating full-color anaglyph images from stereo pairs that can be viewed through red/cyan glasses  A popular freeware program, Callipygian 3D, is widely used and has been featured on TechTV's The Screen Savers show several times, with Swirsky demonstrating it  The popularity of anaglyph images from Mars, and of anaglyph movies like Spy Kids 3D, introduced new audiences to anaglyph technology  Swirsky's software played a major role in enabling people to create their own anaglyph images 

Production company
In 2003, Swirsky started a production company, Thrill Science, Inc  "Thrill Science" , to produce and distribute short films and related media for the portable media player market  The company has a 20-acre (81,000 m2) lot adjacent to Walt Disney World in Florida  The property, known as Swampworth, is used as a filming location for productions, and as a studio for Swirsky's other projects 

Code used in The Terminator
Some of Swirsky's computer code, from the May 1984 issue of 73 Magazine, was used in the movie The Terminator in a scene where COBOL code was briefly displayed 
Passage 8:
Emma Azalia Hackley
Emma Azalia Hackley, also known as E  Azalia Hackley and Azalia Smith Hackley (1867–1922), was a concert soprano, newspaper editor, teacher, and political activist  An African American, she promoted racial pride through her support and promotion of music education for African-Americans  She was a choir director and she organized Folk Songs Festivals in African American churches and schools  Hackley studied music for years, including in Paris under opera singer Jean de Reszke  She was a music teacher who taught Roland Hayes, Marian Anderson, and R  Nathaniel Dett  She founded the Vocal Normal Institute in Chicago 
She co-founded both the Imperial Order of Libyans and the Colored Women's League  She was a newspaper editor for the women's section of The Statesman and an author  Hackley published The Colored Girl Beautiful, a "how to" on becoming an accomplished and refined African American lady 

Early life
Born Emma Azalia Smith on June 29, 1867, in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, she was the daughter of Henry B  and Corilla (Carrilla) Smith  Her mother, formerly Corilla Beard, lived in Detroit and her father was from Murfreesboro  They moved south after their marriage  The daughter of an escaped slave, Corilla founded a school in Murfreesboro for former enslaved people and their children  She gave voice lessons at night  In 1870, the school was threatened and attacked by the Ku Klux Klan and other hostile groups during evening singing lessons  Concerned for the safety of their family, the Smiths moved to Detroit, Michigan, in 1870 or in the 1870s  Her father was a blacksmith  Corilla was a teacher and supported herself and the girls after the Smiths separated  Hackley had a younger sister named Marietta Hackley learned to play the piano at age three and took voice and violin lessons as a child  She was the first African American student to attend public school there  She sang and played piano at high school dances, which contributed to the Smith family's income  She completed her education at Capital High School and a normal school at the same time, graduating with honors from the Washington Normal School in 1886  She received a teaching certificate in 1887 and taught at Clinton Elementary School in Detroit from that year to 1894 She continued her voice and violin lessons, and she also took French lessons  She sang for the Detroit Musical Society  She paid for her lessons by giving piano lessons  Hackley also gave voice recitals  Due to her very light skin color and auburn hair, many people suggested that she try to pass for white in order to further her musical career  She refused to deny her heritage and remained intensely proud of her roots throughout her life 

Marriage
She married Edwin Henry Hackley, an attorney and newspaper publisher from Denver, Colorado in 1894  After the marriage, she moved to Colorado with him  Edwin Henry Hackley, educated at the University of Michigan, was the first African American admitted to the Colorado bar  He co-founded The Statesman with Joseph D D  Rivers Hackley and her husband co-founded the Imperial Order of Libyans, to combat racial prejudice and foment equality  At the turn of the twentieth century, Edwin sold his interest in The Statesman and published the Statesman-cum-Denver Star with his wife Her health suffered due to the high altitude and Hackley decided to move east for her health  In 1901 or 1905, Hackley separated from her husband and left Denver for Philadelphia, Pennsylvania  Hackley lived with her husband in Philadelphia in 1910 and 1912  Her mother-in-law lived with them in 1910  At the time, Edwin worked as a letter carrier and she was a singer and a music teacher  There is no record of the Hackleys having divorced  She was identified as a married woman on her death certificate of 1922; Edwin H  Hackley was identified as her husband  Identified as a widower and a playwright, Edwin died in 1940  Hackley was on his birth certificate as his deceased wife 

Career
She received her bachelor's degree from the Denver School of Music in 1900  She was the first African American graduate  Trained in the bel canto vocal style, she was a concert soprano  While receiving her education, she was the assistant director of a large choir in Denver and was the choir director at her church She promoted racial pride through music  She defined herself as a "race musical missionary"  She wanted children to be inspired, stimulated, and trained at her concerts  The Denver Post acknowledged her efforts to draw African Americans into music and said that she was "one of the best vocalists in the city "She established the Colorado branch of the Colored Women's League and was the editor of the Statesman Exponent, the woman's section of The Colorado Statesman  She wrote articles about African American literature and music, including the influence of music on children and home life  Other topics include civil government, current events, and the importance of compiling facts on blacks  She also wrote about household economies and hygiene  In one column she wrote of the Colored Women's League:

In mapping out this program we have borne in mind the great need for thought and talk on the practical as well as cultural side of woman's life  Our first work will be toward the education and improvement of our Colored women and the promotion of their interests 
She held her first performance of a concert tour in Denver in 1901  In 1901, Hackley moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to continue her career as a notable choral director  She was the director of music at the Episcopal Church of the Crucifixion  In 1904, she founded and led the 100-member People's Choir, which became known as the Hackley Choral She organized Folk Songs Festivals to present African American Spirituals  She introduced Black folk music to an international audience at the World Sunday School Convention in Tokyo  She held large community concerts with programs that included classical music, operatic arias, and African American spirituals performed by her and local performers  She financed the programs and provided training sessions for local performers about ten days before the concert In Paris, she studied under Jean de Reszke, a well-known opera singer and vocal coach in 1905 and 1906  She trained artists such as Roland Hayes, Marian Anderson, and R  Nathaniel Dett Hackley wrote newspaper and magazine articles and short books  She gave lectures at churches, colleges, and schools throughout the United States and Canada  Hackley raised funds by holding benefit concerts, which was used to provide foreign scholarships for African American classical musicians In 1912, she formed the Vocal Normal Institute in Chicago, Illinois, which operated until 1916  She had intended for it to be her headquarters and a central location for the school that she could return to between her tours  Instead it put a strain on her  As a result, her health began to decline She gathered recommendations that she had made during her lecture tours for Black woman to succeed  In 1916, Hackley published The Colored Girl Beautiful, a "how to" on becoming a refined African American lady  She defined beauty, duty, and career and leadership opportunities for black women  She was described as one of W  E  B  Du Bois's Talented Tenth by Lois Brevard, her biographer She was driven by a philosophy to uplift people, which she did by delivering lectures inspired by the 19th-century New Thought spiritual movement  She also enjoyed giving music lessons to large audiences  Juanita Karpf wrote the book Performing Racial Uplift: E  Azalia Hackley and African American Activism in the Post-Bellum to Pre-Harlem Era 

Death
Hackley collapsed on stage while performing in San Diego in 1921 and was brought back to Detroit  She died on December 13, 1922, at the home of her sister, Mrs
Context 3: Passage 1:
Clan Gordon
Clan Gordon is a Highland Scottish clan, historically one of the most powerful Scottish clans  The Gordon lands once spanned a large territory across the Highlands  Presently, Gordon is seated at Aboyne Castle, Aberdeenshire  The Chief of the clan is the Earl of Huntly, later the Marquess of Huntly  
During the Wars of Scottish  Independence in the 13th century, the Gordons supported William Wallace in the cause of independence  In the 15th century, the chiefship of the clan passed to an heiress, who married into the Seton family and her male descendants assumed the surname Gordon and continued as chiefs of the clan  The Gordons assisted in defeating the rebellion of the Earl of Douglas also in the 15th century  In the 16th  century, the Gordons as Catholics feuded with their Protestant neighbors the Clan Forbes and also defeated at the Battle of Glenlivet, the Protestant Earl of Argyll  During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms of the 17th century, the Gordons supported the Royalist cause  During the Jacobite rising of 1715 the Clan Gordon was Jacobite  During the Jacobite rising of 1745, their chief, then the Duke of Gordon, pledged his support to the British-Hanoverian Government, but his clan remained Jacobite 

History
Origins
The first Gordon on record is Richard of Gordon, previously of Swinton, said to have been the grandson of a famous knight who slew some monstrous animal in the Merse during the time of King Malcolm III of Scotland  This Richard was Lord of the Barony of Gordon in the Merse  Richard de (of) Gordon probably died around 1200  Between 1150 and 1160 he granted from his estate a piece of land to the Monks of St  Mary at Kelso, a grant which was confirmed by his son Thomas Gordon  Other notable Gordons from this time include Bertram de Gordon who wounded King Richard of England with an arrow at Châlons Alicia Gordon, IV of the Gordon family was the heiress who married her cousin, Adam Gordon  Adam Gordon was a soldier who King Alexander III of Scotland sent with King Louis of France to Palestine  One tradition is that from Adam's grandson, Sir Adam, all of the Gordons in Scotland are descended  This Adam Gordon supported Sir William Wallace in 1297 to recapture the Castle of Wigtown from the English and Adam was made the Governor 

Wars of Scottish Independence
During the Wars of Scottish Independence Sir Adam Gordon, who had supported William Wallace, renounced his subsequent acceptance of the claims of Edward I of England and became a staunch supporter of Robert the Bruce  Adam was killed leading the Clan Gordon at the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333 but his son Sir Alexander Gordon escaped and was the first Gordon to be designated "of Huntly" Chief Sir John Gordon was killed leading the clan at the Battle of Otterburn where the English were defeated in 1388  His son, Chief Sir Adam Gordon, was killed leading the clan at the Battle of Homildon Hill, also known as the Battle of Humbleton Hill on 14 September 1402  The chief left his only child, a daughter named Elizabeth Gordon who married Alexander Seton, who was the son of Sir William Seton, chief of Clan Seton 

15th century and clan conflicts
The Battle of Arbroath was fought in 1445 where Patrick Gordon of Methlic, a cousin of the Earl of Huntly, was killed fighting the Clan Lindsay  From this Patrick Gordon the Earls of Aberdeen descend In 1449 Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Huntly, the eldest son of Elizabeth Gordon and Alexander Seton, Lord Gordon, changed the family name from Seton to Gordon c  1457  His male heirs through his third wife Elizabeth Crichton continued to bear the name of Gordon and were chiefs of Clan Gordon 
The chief of Clan Lindsay, Alexander Lindsay, the 4th Earl of Crawford, was badly defeated by the Clan Gordon and Clan Ogilvy under Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly (previously Alexander Seton) at the Battle of Brechin in 1452 The Gordons became involved in the deadly feud between the king and the Clan Douglas for power  The Gordons supported the king but when Gordon moved his forces south, the Earl of Moray who was an ally of the Douglases devastated the Gordon lands and burned Huntly Castle  However, the Gordons returned and soon defeated their enemies  Huntly Castle was rebuilt and when the Douglases were finally defeated the power of the Gordons grew unchallenged  In 1454 the Douglasses broke out in rebellion again and when confronted with the king in the south and Huntly in the north were soundly defeated, effectively ending the confederacy of the Douglasses, Rosses and Crawfords  For his notable contributions Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly was styled Cock o' the North, a designation which has ever since been accorded to the heads of clan Gordon 

16th century and clan conflicts
In 1513, during the Anglo-Scottish Wars, the Clan Gordon led by Alexander Gordon, 3rd Earl of Huntly fought at the Battle of Flodden In 1515, the title of Earl of Sutherland and chiefship of the Clan Sutherland passed by right of marriage to Adam Gordon who was a younger son of George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly Later during the Anglo-Scottish Wars, George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly defeated an English army at the Battle of Haddon Rig in 1542 but the Gordons were later part of the Scottish army which was defeated at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in 1547 Chief George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly was General of the forces on the Borders who opposed the forces of Henry VIII of England and Gordon had many victorious encounters  He was however later killed at the Battle of Corrichie in 1562 fighting against the forces of James Stuart, Earl of Moray (half-brother to Mary Queen of Scots)  Gordon was killed and his son, Sir John, and other members of his family were later executed at Aberdeen Throughout the 16th century the Clan Gordon were involved in a long and bitter struggle against the Clan Forbes  In the 1520s there were murders by both sides, and one of the most prominent killed by the Forbeses was Seton of Meldrum who was a close connection of the Earl of Huntly, chief of Clan Gordon  The Earl of Huntly then became involved in a plot against the Master of Forbes, who was the son of the sixth Lord Forbes  The sixth Lord Forbes had been heavily implicated of the murder of Seton of Meldrum  The Master of Forbes was accused by the Earl of Huntly of conspiring to assassinate James V of Scotland in 1536 by shooting at him with a cannon  The Master of Forbes was tried and executed however just days later his conviction was reversed and the Forbes family was restored to favor  The Protestant Reformation added to the feud between the Clan Forbes and Clan Gordon in that the Gordons remained Catholic and the Forbeses became Protestant  The traditional enemies of the Forbses such as the Clan Leslie, Clan Irvine and Clan Seton sided with the Gordons while Protestant families such as the Clan Keith, Clan Fraser and Clan Crichton sided with the Clan Forbes  Twenty Gordons were killed at a banquet held at the Forbes's Druminnor Castle in 1571  Later in 1571 the feud climaxed with the Battle of Tillieangus, and the Battle of Craibstone, and Druminnor, then the seat of the chief of Clan Forbes was plundered  The Gordons followed this up with the massacre of twenty seven Forbeses of Towie at Corgarff Castle  It took two Acts of Parliament for the clans to put down their arms For two centuries from the mid-15th century the Clan Gordon and Clan Campbell controlled the north-east and west of Scotland respectively, as the magnates who straddled the divide between the Scottish Highlands and Scottish Lowlands  In 1594, Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll was granted a Royal Commission against George Gordon, 6th Earl of Huntly but was defeated at the Battle of Glenlivet 

17th century and Civil War
The register of the Privy Seal records that in 1615 a complaint was made from Alexander Leask of the Clan Leask that Adam Gordon, brother of the Laird of Gight, put violent hands upon him at the Yet of Leask, wounding him grievously  Later that year the Gordons again attacked the Leasks, setting upon a son of the chief for which George Gordon was outlawed  In 1616, William Leask of that Ilk was accosted by John Gordon of Ardlogy and a party of men with pistolets and hagbuts In the early 17th century Clan Gordon had a number of alliances by marriage or friendship  Among these was a strong bond to the Clan Burnett of Leys  The Gordon crest is emblazoned in plasterwork on the ceiling of the early 17th century great hall of Muchalls Castle built by Alexander Burnett In 1644 Alexander Bannerman of Pitmedden fought a duel with his cousin, Sir George Gordon of Haddo, and wounded him  Also in 1644 during the Civil War at the Battle of Aberdeen there were Gordons on both sides  Lord Lewis Gordon led his forces on the side of the Covenanters while Sir Nathaniel Gordon led his forces in support of the Royalists During the Civil War the second Marquess of Huntly was a fierce royalist and his followers have passed into history as the Gordon Horse and they figured very prominently in the campaigns of the great James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose  Cavalry from the Clan Gordon fought in support of the royalists at the Battle of Auldearn in 1645 where they helped to defeat the Covenanters of Lord Seaforth  The Clan Gordon fought at the Battle of Alford in 1645 where they were victorious, led by George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Huntly  The Marquess of Huntly's eldest son George Gordon fell at this battle  Also in 1645, Lewis Gordon, clan chief and 3rd Marquess of Huntly burned Brodie Castle of the Clan Brodie In 1682 William Gordon of Cardoness Castle, was killed in a fight with Sir Godfrey McCulloch  McCulloch fled Scotland for a time, but returned, only to be apprehended and executed in 1697 

18th century and Jacobite risings
Jacobite rising of 1715
The Gordons fought on both sides during both the Jacobite rising of 1715 and the Jacobite rising of 1745  The second Duke of Gordon followed the Jacobites in 1715 and fought at the Battle of Sheriffmuir  General Wade's report on the Highlands in 1724, estimated the clan strength at 1,000 men 

Jacobite rising of 1745
Cosmo Gordon, 3rd Duke of Gordon supported the British Government during the rising of 1745  However, his brother, Lord Lewis Gordon, raised two Jacobite regiments against the Hanoverians  The Gordon Jacobites fought at the Battle of Inverurie (1745), the Battle of Falkirk (1746) and the Battle of Culloden (1746) 

British Army regiments
Two regiments named the "Gordon Highlanders" have been raised from the Clan Gordon  The first was the 81st Regiment of Foot (Aberdeenshire Highland Regiment) formed in 1777 by the Hon  Colonel William Gordon, son of the Earl of Aberdeen and was disbanded in 1783  The second was the 92nd (Gordon Highlanders) Regiment of Foot raised by Alexander the 4th Duke of Gordon in 1794 

Chief and arms
The Chief of Clan Gordon is Granville Charles Gomer Gordon, 13th Marquess of Huntly, Earl of Enzie, Earl of Aboyne, Lord Gordon of Badenoch, Lord Gordon of Strathavon and Glenlivet, Baron Meldrum of Morven 
The Chief of Clan Gordon is known as: The Cock o' the North 
Chief's Arms: Quarterly, 1st Azure three boars’ heads couped Or langued Gules (for Gordon), 2nd, Or three lions heads erased Gules langued Azure (for Lordship of Badenoch), 3rd, Or three crescents within a Royal Tressure flory counter flory Gules (for Seton), 4th, Azure three fraises Argent (for Fraser, acquisition of the Aboyne lands)

Tartans
Clan Gordon has several recognized tartans, most of them predominantly green-blue-and-black, but also including dress patterns, some red-based ones, and some variants for specific branches of the clan The main Gordon tartan is based on that originally used by the 92nd (Gordon Highlanders) Regiment of Foot; the clan version has thinner black bands, and thin black "guard lines" on either side of the yellow over-check  The tartan is ultimately based on the Black Watch tartan, but with the yellow over-check added, and the single black over-check of Black Watch converted into a pair, like the rest of the black over-checks in the design  The 92nd later became the Gordon Highlanders in 1881, then amalgamated into the Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons) in 1994, which is now the Highlanders, 4th Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland (4 SCOTS)  The modern unit (for dress) uses the Cameron of Erracht tartan, not a Gordon variant 
The main Gordon tartan has been used for many years as the troop tartan for the 10th Finchley (Scottish) Scout Group, London N3  The Scout Group was and still is unique in being the only group south of the border to wear kilts and actively maintains its links with the Gordon clan  Every four years (with a few exceptions) they camp in the grounds of Aboyne Castle and the Marquess would often attend Burns Night dinners as the guest of honour at the scout hall  The group's pipe band always plays "The Cock of the North 6/8 March" when returning to their hall following parades and every member wears a badge bearing the stag's head that forms part of the clan crest  A picture of the band outside their current scout hall shows all members wearing Gordon Tartan kilts 
The ties go further, with the address of the scout hall being Gordon Hall, Huntly Drive, West Finchley, London, N3 

Castles
Castles that have been owned by the Clan Gordon include, amongst many others:

Gordon Castle, which once stood to the north of the village of Gordon, Scottish Borders, in Berwickshire was an old stronghold, although its exact location is not certain  The Gordons held the castle from the twelfth century, but as a result of supporting Robert the Bruce they were given lands in Strathbogie in Aberdeenshire  A mile from Strathbogie was Huntly where the Gordons also had a castle, and it was Huntly that gave its name to the Gordon's more famous stronghold that was originally known as Strathbogie, in Aberdeenshire 
Huntly Castle, just to the north of Huntly in Aberdeenshire is now a ruin that consists of a large rectangular block with a substantial round tower at one end, with the remains of a courtyard and other buildings  There are the remains of decorative stone work and three oriel windows on the upper part of the building  The lands had passed from the Clan Seton to the Clan Gordon in the fourteenth century  The original castle was torched by the Clan Douglas in 1452 and was re-built  The name of the property was changed from Strathbogie to Huntly in 1506  During the Jacobite rising of 1745 the castle was garrisoned by Hanoverian soldiers but by then had been abandoned as a residence  Some of the materials from Huntly Castle were used to build what is now the Huntly Castle Hotel 
Gordon Castle, is eight and a half miles east of Elgin, Moray, and the Gordons had a castle there since the fifteenth century  In the eighteenth century it was enlarged and remodeled for the Duke of Gordon  It was sold to the government in 1936 and became deteriorated during World War II  The castle was later bought back by the Gordon-Lennox family but most of it was demolished apart from the six story block and two separate wings 
Abergeldie Castle, five miles west of Ballater, Aberdeenshire, dates from the sixteenth century  Abergeldie was held by the Gordons from 1482  In 1547 James Gordon of Abergeldie was killed at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh and in 1562 Alexander Gordon of Abergeldie took part in the earl of Huntly's rising against Mary, Queen of Scots  He was also at the Battle of Glenlivet in 1594  During the feud with the Clan Forbes over land, seven sons of Gordon of Knock were murdered by Forbes of Strathgirnock and as a result Forbes was executed by Gordon of Abergeldie  The castle was burnt by the Clan Mackenzie in 1592 
Glenbuchat Castle, four miles west of Kildrummy, Aberdeenshire, dates from 1590  It was seized by James VI of Scotland during Huntly's rising of 1594  Brigadier-General John Gordon of Glenbuchat fought for the Jacobites in both the risings of 1715 and 1745, leading the Gordons and Farquharsons at the Battle of Culloden  He escaped to Norway and died in France  The castle was a ruin by 1738 and was sold to the Duff Earl of Fife  It was then replaced with Glenbuchat House and the old castle is now in the care of Historic Scotland 
Rothiemay Castle, at Milltown of Rothiemay, dated from the fifteenth century  It stood five miles north of Huntly  Mary, Queen of Scots may have stayed here during Huntly's rebellion of 1562  In 1618 the castle was attacked by George Gordon of Gight  In 1630 William Gordon of Rothiemay and others were burnt to death at the castle of Frendraught in suspicious circumstances  James Crichton of Frendraught had not been on good terms with Rothiemay but he was cleared of involvement  However, Lady Rothiemay employed Highlanders to attack Crichton's property and as a result she was imprisoned in 1635 but later released 
Haddo House, ten miles north west of Ellon, Aberdeenshire, stands on the site of a stronghold that was held by the Gordons from 1429  Patrick Gordon of Haddo was killed at the Battle of Arbroath in 1446  Sir John Gordon of Haddo was made a Baronet of Nova Scotia in 1642 and actively supported James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose during the Civil War, but was captured after being besieged in the castle  Haddo House is now in the care of the National Trust for Scotland 
Fyvie Castle, a mile north of Fyvie, Aberdeenshire, was held by the Gordon Earls of Aberdeen from 1733 to 1889 
Kenmure Castle, a mile south of New Galloway was originally held by the Balliols but passed to the Gordons of Lochinvar in about 1297  It was torched after the Gordons welcomed Mary, Queen of Scots there in 1568  In 1633 Sir John Gordon was made Viscount of Kenmure  The castle was burned again by Oliver Cromwell in 1650 after the Gordons had supported Charles I of England  William Gordon, sixth Viscount Kenmure was beheaded in the Tower of London after being captured at the Battle of Preston (1715) fighting for the Jacobites  The property and title were recovered in 1824 and the castle had been restored from a ruin  The castle was visited by Robert Burns but as a result of a fire in 1950 it was stripped of materials 
Auchindoun Castle near Dufftown is a ruinous L-plan tower house that was originally held by the Clan Ogilvy but passed to the Gordons in 1535  Adam Gordon of Auchindoun was the leader of a party of Gordons who torched the Forbes's Corgarff Castle killing Margaret Campbell who was the wife of Forbes of Towie along with her family and retainers  Auchindoun Castle itself may have been burned in 1544 or 1671  The castle was sacked after James Stewart, 2nd Earl of Moray was murdered at Donibristle by Gordon, Marquess of Huntly and Sir Patrick Gordon of Auchindoun in 1592  Sir Patrick Gordon of Auchindoun was later killed at the Battle of Glenlivet in 1594  The castle is in the care of Historic Scotland 
Gight Castle, at Gight, near Fyvie, Aberdeenshire, was held by the Gordons of Gight and William Gordon of Gight was killed at the Battle of Flodden in 1513  The sixth Gordon laird of Gight broke his sword across the head of the Laird of Leask  The seventh Gordon laird of Gight was a Tax collector who virtually plundered the town of Banff, Aberdeenshire and kept all of the money  The heiress, Catherine Gordon of Gight, married John "Mad Jack" Byron and they were the parents of the poet Lord Byron  John Byron had to sell the estate due to debts and it was acquired by the Gordon Earls of Aberdeen 
Aboyne Castle, near Aboyne, Aberdeenshire, is the current seat of the Marquess of Huntly, chief of Clan Gordon 

See also
Marquess of Huntly
Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair
Duke of Gordon
Lord Byron {George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron}
Gordon Highlanders
Gordon Riots


== Notes and references ==
Passage 2:
Battle of Brechin
The Battle of Brechin was fought on 18 May 1452 during the reign of James II of Scotland, about two and a half miles north north east of Brechin  It has been regarded as part of the civil war during his reign between the king and an alliance of powerful noble families led by the Black Douglases, which as the king won was significant in the development of a relatively strong centralised monarchy in Scotland during the Late Middle Ages A royalist army formed by the Clan Gordon and Clan Ogilvy, led by Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly, defeated the rebel Alexander Lindsay, 4th Earl of Crawford, a leading ally of the Black Douglases who was known as "The Tiger"  Shortly after Crawford submitted to the king, leaving the Black Douglases more isolated, to be defeated at the Battle of Arkinholm in 1455 However, it has been argued that it was a localised conflict in the north-east of Scotland, of only limited relevance to wider conflicts in Scotland as a whole in spite of the fact that the Gordons fought under the royal banner 
Passage 3:
Kearsarge-class battleship
The Kearsarge-class was a group of two pre-dreadnought battleships built for the United States Navy in the 1890s  The two ships—USS Kearsarge and USS Kentucky—represented a compromise between two preceding battleship designs, the low-freeboard Indiana class and the high-freeboard USS Iowa, though their design also incorporated several improvements  Their primary advances over earlier designs consisted of new quick-firing guns and improved armor protection, but their most novel feature was their two-story gun turrets that consisted of a secondary 8-inch (203 mm) gun turret fixed to the top of their primary 13-inch (330 mm) turrets  The ships suffered from a number of problems, however, including a tertiary battery mounted too low in the hull and poorly-designed turrets, though the latter were attempted again with the Virginia class in the early 1900s, also with negative results 
Kearsarge served as the flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron after entering service, while Kentucky was initially sent to East Asia  In 1904, Kearsarge was temporarily transferred to the European Squadron, also serving as its flagship  Both vessels returned to the North Atlantic Squadron in 1905, and in 1906, Kentucky carried marines to Cuba during unrest in the country  Both ships participated in the cruise of the Great White Fleet around the world between late 1907 and early 1908, and after their return, they were modernized between 1909 and 1911, thereafter being placed in reserve  The two ships were reactivated in mid-1915 and Kearsarge was used as a training ship, while Kentucky was sent to participate in the United States occupation of Veracruz 
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, both ships were used as training vessels for the rapidly-expanding fleet before being decommissioned in 1920  Kentucky was quickly discarded, being struck from the Naval Vessel Register in 1922 and sold for scrap the following year, but Kearsarge was converted into a crane ship  She was used in this capacity for the next twenty years, being involved in the recovery of the submarine Squalus and numerous warship construction, repair, and modernization projects  She was ultimately struck in 1955 and sold to ship breakers later that year 

Design
Following the authorization of the battleship Iowa in 1892, the United States Navy failed to order new vessels in 1893 and 1894; this was in part the result of an economic depression in 1893 that reduced naval budgets, and also the views of the new Secretary of the Navy Hilary A  Herbert, who had opposed fleets of expensive battleships earlier in the decade  Nevertheless, the Bureau of Construction and Repair (C&R) continued to work on new designs, and by 1893, Herbert had been convinced by Alfred Thayer Mahan's seminal work The Influence of Sea Power upon History  In his requested budget for 1893, Herbert requested Congress appropriate funds for at least one new battleship  Congress delayed until 1895, when it authorized funding for two ships that were to become the Kearsarge class by the Act of 2 March 1895 Work on the new design began immediately, and by late March, four proposals had been prepared  All four marked a compromise between the high-freeboard Iowa and the coastal battleships of the Indiana class; they had greater freeboard than the Indiana's, but lacked the raised forecastle that had rendered Iowa an excellent sea boat  Coal storage, again, represented a compromise between the two  Armor protection was increased compared to the earlier vessels, which included an improved arrangement of the armor deck so that it protected a greater volume of the hull  The main battery was to repeat the 12-inch (305 mm) guns used in Iowa, since they fired significantly faster than the 13-inch guns the Indianas carried The designs varied considerably with regard to their armament  By this time, a new 5-inch (127 mm) quick-firing gun had been developed, which significantly increased the offensive power of the tertiary battery  The designers initially considered adopting gun turrets for these weapons, but decided against it owing to the increased weight of such an arrangement, along with problems with ammunition magazines and fire control  All four designs arranged these in a central battery amidships, which forced the secondary battery of 8-inch guns to be pushed toward the ends of the ship  The four variants adopted different arrangements for these guns: "A" called for eight guns, two in centerline positions superfiring over the main battery and two wing turrets amidships  "B" discarded the forward turret and placed two wing turrets further forward and one superfiring aft; "C" retained the centerline turrets and discarded the wing mounts, and "D" opted for the reverse of "C" C&R preferred the "A" design, since it maximized firepower, while the Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd) believed that none of the proposals was worth pursuing  An ensign in BuOrd, Joseph Strauss, developed a two-story turret that solved the problem; it would carry the 8-inch guns in a separate turret mounted directly atop (and fixed to) the main battery turret  Strauss accordingly proposed a fifth version, "E", that incorporated his turret  Some officers questioned whether it was advisable that the 8-inch guns could not be directed against targets other than what the 12-inch guns were engaging, but Strauss pointed out that at long range, ships were relatively small targets, and at close range, the much greater reloading time of the large guns would permit the 8-inch guns to direct the rotation of the turret while the gun crews prepared the main guns  By this time, American naval engineers had made improvements to their gun turret designs and significant weight savings were achieved  In addition, the two-story, four-gun turret adopted for the Kearsarge class was lighter than the two-gun turrets used in the Indianas of just five years earlier At the same time, BuOrd registered its opposition to what it viewed as a regression to 12-inch guns; while the 13-inch weapons were slower to fire, BuOrd estimated that they were 30 percent more powerful  Experiments with 15 in (381 mm) armor plate demonstrated that 12-inch guns could not penetrate that thickness even at the relatively close range of 1,000 yards (910 m), while the 13-inch shells were capable of defeating the armor plate  C&R refused to accept BuOrd's objections, but further tests with a mock up of Iowa's belt demonstrated that the 13-inch shells could easily defeat the armor, while the 12-inch shells were kept out  The Navy decided to adopt "E", with 13-inch guns in place of the 12-inch weapons originally proposed The Navy repeated the two-story turret arrangement with the Virginia-class battleships designed in the early 1900s, with much the same reasoning, namely the goal of weight reduction and the belief that the faster-firing 8-inch guns could be operated without disrupting the 12-inch guns adopted for the Virginias  A new, sloped turret design remedied the problem with the overly-large gun ports of the Kearsarge turrets, but the advent of large-caliber, quick-firing guns rendered the concept a failure, since the 12-inch guns fired nearly as quickly as the 8-inch weapons, and the latter could not be fired without severe blast effects disrupting the crew of the former 

General characteristics and machinery
The two Kearsarge-class ships were 368 feet (112 m) long at the waterline and 375 ft 4 in (114 4 m) long overall, with a beam of 72 ft 3 in (22 02 m) and a draft of 23 ft 6 in (7 16 m)  They displaced 11,540 long tons (11,730 t) normally, which increased to 12,850 long tons (13,060 t) at full load  Like the Indiana class, the Kearsarge class also had a very low freeboard, amounting to 14 ft 6 in (4 42 m) forward under normal conditions, which resulted in her guns becoming unusable in bad weather  The ships' hulls incorporated a prominent ram bow, a common feature for battleships of the period Steering was controlled with a single rudder; while steaming at a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph), it took Kearsarge 475 yd (434 m) to complete a turn to port and 455 yd (416 m) to turn to starboard  As completed, both ships carried two heavy military masts that carried some of the vessels' light guns, along with spotting tops to help direct the aim of their guns  Kearsarge was manned by 38 officers and 548 enlisted men, while Kentucky carried 38 officers and 549 enlisted men  Their complement was later adjusted to 40 officers and 513 enlisted men The battleships had two 3-cylinder vertical triple-expansion steam engines that each drove a single screw propeller  Steam for the engines was provided by five coal-fired Scotch marine boilers, which were ducted into a pair of funnels  The ships' engines were designed to produce a total of 10,000 indicated horsepower (7,500 kW) for a top speed of 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph)  During sea trials, the indicated horsepower and speed exceeded the design, with Kearsarge's engines producing a total of 11,674 indicated horsepower (8,705 kW) for 16 8 knots (31 1 km/h; 19 3 mph) and Kentucky's propulsion system reaching 12,179 indicated horsepower (9,082 kW) for 16 9 knots (31 3 km/h; 19 4 mph)  Coal storage amounted to 410 long tons (420 t) normally and up to 1,591 long tons (1,617 t) at full load  At a cruising speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), the ships could steam for 5,070 nautical miles (9,390 km; 5,830 mi) 

Armament
The Kearsarge-class battleships had two double turrets, with two 13-inch (330 mm)/35 caliber guns and two 8 in (203 mm)/35 caliber guns each, stacked in two levels  The guns and turret armor were designed by BuOrd, while the turret itself was designed by C&R  Since the turrets retained the vertical walls of the type used in the first generation of American battleships, the ports had to be very large to allow for sufficient elevation  Then-Lieutenant William Sims noted that the floors of the turrets could be easily seen through the ports, and claimed that as a result, a shell fired into the port could reach the magazines below, disabling the guns The 13-inch weapons were built-up guns of the Mark II type, mounted in Mark III turrets that were electrically trained  They were originally supplied with brown powder propellant charges that weighed nearly 500 lb (230 kg), later being replaced by 180 lb (82 kg) smokeless charges  The shells had a muzzle velocity of 2,000 ft/s (610 m/s), and at the muzzle, could penetrate up to 25 in (640 mm) of standard steel, and at a range of 2,500 yd (2,300 m), could pierce 20 in (510 mm) of steel  The turrets allowed depression to −5 degrees and elevation to 15 degrees, which provided a maximum range of 12,100 yd (11,100 m), though this was significantly in excess of what could be achieved with the rudimentary gunnery direction equipment at the time; BuOrd recommended that crews open fire at 8,000 yd (7,300 m), and even this was optimistic  The rate of fire was one shot every 320 seconds, and the guns had to be returned to 2 degrees elevation to be reloaded The 8-inch guns were the Mark IV version, which had a muzzle velocity of 2,080 ft/s (630 m/s)  Also originally brown-powder guns, they, too, received updated smokeless charges in the early 1900s  The change improved the rate of fire from one shot per minute to one shot every forty seconds  Reloading was also fixed at 0 degrees  They were mounted in Mark IX turrets that were fixed atop the main battery turrets  The arrangement was adopted because the significantly higher rate of fire of the 8-inch guns was thought to reduce interference between the guns, but with the adoption of smokeless propellant and rapid fire for the main battery in the early 1900s proved this to be an incorrect assumption The turret guns were supported by a battery of fourteen 5 in/40 caliber guns mounted individually in casemates in the upper deck, seven on each broadside  Once the ships entered service, it was discovered that the central battery had been placed too close to the waterline, and the casemates were frequently washed out, rendering them unusable in all but calm seas  For defense against torpedo boats, they also carried twenty 6-pounder (57 mm or 2 2 in) Hotchkiss guns and eight 1-pounder (37 mm or 1 5 in) guns  These were also in individual open mounts distributed around the decks and fighting tops of the masts; eight of the 57 mm guns were placed in a broadside battery one deck above the 5-inch guns, four on either side  Four more were placed in casemates in the bow, and another four were similarly arranged toward the stern  The ships also carried a pair of M1895 Colt–Browning machine gun chambered in 6 mm (0 24 in) Lee Navy As was customary for battleships of the period, the Kearsarge-class carried four 18 in (457 mm) torpedo tubes  These were placed in above-water mounts in the hull; two were placed abreast of the forward main battery turret and the other two were placed on either side of the aft superstructure  The tubes were supplied with a total of six torpedoes  They were initially equipped with the Mark II Whitehead design, which carried a 140-pound (64 kg) warhead and had a range of 800 yards (730 m) at a speed of 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph) 

Armor
The ships were protected with face-hardened Harvey armor, an improvement over earlier compound plates  The main strake of the belt armor extended from the forward boiler room
to the aft main battery barbette, and covered a section of the hull from 3 ft 6 in (1 07 m) above the waterline and 4 ft (1 2 m) below the line  It was 16 5 in (419 mm) thick at the top, gradually tapering to 13 25 in (337 mm) at the waterline, and reducing further to 9 5 in (241 mm) at the bottom edge of the belt  Forward of the boiler rooms, the belt was reduced to a maximum thickness of 10 5 in (267 mm), and from the forward barbette, slimmed further to 4 in (102 mm)  Transverse bulkheads that were 10 in (254 mm) forward and 12 in (305 mm) aft connected the belt on both sides of the ships  Above the main strake was a second one that was 5 in thick, extending from the forward to aft barbette The belt structure was reinforced by a curved armor deck that was curved at the sides and connected to the bottom edge of the belt  The flat portion of the deck was level with the upper edge of the belt, and it was 2 75 in (70 mm) thick  Forward, where the belt was significantly reduced in thickness, the deck was increased slightly to 3 in (76 mm); aft, where were was no side protection, the deck was more significantly strengthened, being 5 in thick  The conning tower had 10 in thick sides and a 2-inch-thick (51 mm) roof Armor protection for the 13-inch turrets amounted to 15 to 17 in (381 to 432 mm) on the sides and 25 in (640 mm) on the rear to balance the turrets, while the 8-inch turrets received 6 to 11 in (152 to 279 mm) on the sides and 9 in (230 mm) on the rears  Their roofs were 3 5 in (89 mm) and 2 inches thick for the 13-inch and 8-inch turrets, respectively  The turrets rested in armored barbettes that were 12 5 to 15 in (318 to 381 mm) thick  The 5-inch gun battery, which was placed directly above the upper belt, received 6 in of armor plating  The casemate battery lacked splinter screens between each gun, a significant shortcoming since a single hit could disable numerous guns 

Modifications
After the US Navy introduced rapid-firing for main guns in 1903, Kearsarge and Kentucky had automatic shutters installed in the ammunition hoists to prevent an explosion in the turret from traveling down to the magazines  After a propellant charge was accidentally detonated by an electrical short aboard Kentucky in April 1906, most electrical equipment was removed from the ships' turrets and additional precautions were installed, including bulkheads between the guns in each turret and gas evacuators in the breeches of the guns to prevent propellant gasses from blowing back into the turrets Between 1909 and 1911, most of the 57 mm guns were removed and four more 5-inch guns were installed  The original military masts were replaced with lattice masts, and the torpedo tubes were also removed  The ships also had their original boilers replaced with eight Mosher boilers  The ships underwent another refit by 1919 that included the removal of all but eight of the 5-inch guns  The guns that were removed were used to arm merchant ships to defend themselves against German U-boat attacks  A pair of 3 in (76 mm) anti-aircraft guns were installed aboard each vessel  At some point in the ships' careers, splinter bulkheads were added to the 5-inch battery to improve survivability 

Ships in class
Service histories
USS Kearsarge (BB-5)
Kearsarge was laid down on 30 June 1896  She was launched on 24 March 1898 and was commissioned on 20 February 1900  From 1900 to 1905, Kearsarge served as flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron, except for a short period in 1904 when she was reassigned as flagship of the European Squadron  In 1905, the battleship Maine replaced Kearsarge as flagship of the North Atlantic Fleet, although she remained with the fleet  In April, the ship suffered an explosion in her forward 13-inch turret that killed ten of its crew; Isadore Nordstrom and George Breeman both received the Medal of Honor, the former for rescuing several badly wounded men and the latter for preventing the fire from reaching the propellant magazines 

In 1907, the Great White Fleet was ordered by U S  President Theodore Roosevelt to circle the world as a demonstration of the might of the United States Navy  Kearsarge was attached to the Fourth Division of the Second Squadron  The fleet left from Hampton Roads on 16 December 1907, circled South America, passed through San Francisco, and arrived at Hawaii  From there they sailed to New Zealand and Australia, visited the Philippine Islands, Japan, China, and Ceylon before transiting the Suez Canal  The fleet split at Port Said to visit various ports, with Kearsarge leaving for Malta and Algiers, before reforming with the rest of the fleet at Gibraltar  The ships arrived back in Hampton Roads on 22 February 1908 Between 1909 and 1911, Kearsarge was modernized at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, and thereafter was placed in reserve  She was recommissioned on 23 June 1915 and operated along the Atlantic coast for the next two years as a training ship for naval militia from Massachusetts and Maine  After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, she was used to train armed guard crews and naval engineers during cruises along the Atlantic seaboard  Following the end of the war, she continued training duties until being decommissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on either 10 May or 18 May 1920 Kearsarge was converted into a crane ship, and was given hull classification symbol IX-16 on 17 July 1920, but it was changed to AB-1 on 5 August  Her turrets, superstructure, and armor were removed, and were replaced by a large revolving crane with a lifting capacity of 250 long tons (254 t), as well as 10-foot (3 m) blisters, which improved her stability  The crane ship was used often over the next 20 years, including the raising of USS Squalus in 1939  On 6 November 1941, Kearsarge was renamed Crane Ship No  1, allowing her name to be given to the aircraft carrier that was eventually renamed Hornet, and later to the carrier Kearsarge  She continued her service, however, handling guns, turrets, armor, and other heavy lifts for vessels such as the battleships Indiana, Alabama, and  Pennsylvania and the cruisers Savannah and Chicago  She was transferred to the San Francisco Naval Shipyard in 1945, where she participated in the construction of Hornet, the carrier Boxer, and the re-construction of the carrier Saratoga  In 1948, she left the West Coast for the Boston Naval Shipyard  On 22 June 1955, her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register, and she was sold for scrap on 9 August 

USS Kentucky (BB-6)
Kentucky laid down on the same day as her sister ship, and was launched the same day as well  She was commissioned on 15 May 1900  Later that year, she left for China to join the Eight Nation Alliance then in the process of suppressing the Boxer Rebellion  Kentucky arrived in East Asia in early 1901 and she saw no action during the final stage of the uprising  The ship operated in the region until early 1904  After returning to the United States, she joined the North Atlantic Squadron in 1905  During the 1906 Cuban Insurrection, she carried Marines to the island, embarking them in Provincetown and landing them at Havana, Cuba for the Second Occupation of Cuba In 1907, Kentucky participated in the Great White Fleet, as part of the Fourth Division with her sister  The fleet left from Hampton Roads on 16 December 1907, circled South America, passed through San Francisco, and arrived at Hawaii  From there, they sailed to New Zealand and Australia, visited the Philippine Islands, Japan, China, and Ceylon before transiting the Suez Canal  The fleet split at Port Said, with Kentucky visiting Tripoli and Algiers, before reforming with the fleet at Gibraltar  She returned to Hampton Roads on 22 February From 1909–1911, Kentucky was modernized at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard  She was thereafter placed in reserve, where she remained until she was recommissioned at Philadelphia on 23 June 1915  Following the United States occupation of Veracruz, she sailed to Mexico, patrolling the coast off Veracruz until 1916  She then returned to New York, where she laid until the United States entered World War I  During the war, she operated as a training ship as part of the mobilization effort, training several thousand men along the Atlantic coast In late 1918 and early 1919, Kentucky was overhauled at the Boston Navy Yard  She then left for exercises in Guantanamo Bay, Norfolk, and along the New England coast, and later trained United States Naval Academy midshipmen  Kentucky was decommissioned on 29 March 1920; the Navy briefly considered rebuilding her into a crane ship as well, but ultimately decided against it  Her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 27 May 1922 and she was sold for scrap to Dravo Corporation on 24 March 1923 

Footnotes
Passage 4:
Otho Holland Williams
Otho Holland Williams (March 1, 1749 – July 15, 1794) was a Continental Army officer from Maryland in the American Revolutionary War  He participated in many battles throughout the war in the New York, New Jersey  and Southern theaters, eventually ending his career as a brigadier general 
Born in rural Prince George's County, Maryland, Williams spent his childhood on Springfield Farm near present-day Williamsport  He was orphaned at age thirteen and was put in the care of his father's brother-in-law, Mr  Ross  Williams took an apprenticeship under Mr  Ross and studied his profession in the Clerk's office of Frederick, eventually taking charge of the office  At age eighteen, Williams moved to Baltimore and undertook a similar trade  Williams returned to Frederick in 1774 and entered into a commercial life 
In response to Congress's call for soldiers at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in the spring of 1775, Williams joined a Continental Army rifle unit as a commissioned officer  Soon thereafter, he and his unit marched off to the Siege of Boston  Seeing his first significant combat action in late 1776 at the Battle of Fort Washington, Williams was captured by the British and imprisoned in New York  He was released in early 1778 and returned to the Continental Army as colonel of the 6th Maryland Regiment, a position he had acquired during his captivity  From thereafter, Williams led his regiment through much of the southern campaign, most notably in the battles of Camden, Guilford Court House, and Eutaw Springs  Near the end of the War, Williams was sent by his commanding officer General Greene with documents to Congress and was promoted to brigadier general in 1782 
After the war, Williams later served as an associate justice for Baltimore County, and as the first commissioner of the Port of Baltimore  He returned to Springfield Farm in 1787, bought the house and the surrounding land, and began laying out the town of Williamsport   In 1792, Washington offered Williams to be brigadier general of the army, though he declined due to his failing health  Williams died two years later in 1794 while travelling to Sweet Springs, Virginia 

Early life
Otho Holland Williams was born on March 1, 1749, the third generation of his family born on the North American Continent, his ancestors having emigrated from Wales   For the first year of his life, he lived with his parents Joseph and Prudence Williams in Prince George's County until the family settled at the mouth of the Conecocheague near present-day Williamsport  His family home was Springfield Farm, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974  Shortly before Joseph Williams death, he placed his thirteen-year-old son into the care of his brother-in-law Mr  Ross, who worked in the clerk's office in Frederick County   After studying the duties of the office, Williams took charge of the office himself before moving to Baltimore for similar employment at the age of eighteen   In the spring of 1774, Williams returned to Frederick and entered into commercial life 

Early War
On June 14, 1775, upon the call for soldiers by the Continental Congress, Williams joined Capt  Thomas Price's Independent Rifle Company of Maryland as first lieutenant  The company then marched to the Siege of Boston  Soon after the company's arrival in Boston, Williams was promoted to the command of the company   By order of the Continental Congress on June 27, 1776, the rifle company was integrated into the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment, with Hugh Stephenson as colonel, Moses Rawlings as lieutenant colonel and Williams as major The regiment did not see much action until the Battle of Fort Washington, where Williams was taken prisoner by the British   He was taken to New York, where due to his rank he was permitted to go at large on his parole   During this time in New York, it was common for British officers to amuse themselves by insulting American prisoners with pointed questions such as "What Trade were you of before you entered the service?"  When a high ranking British officer asked this question of Williams he replied:

That he was in a profession which taught him to resist tyranny and punish insolence, and that proofs of his profession would follow a reputation towards him 
It is suggested that the officer offended by this retort informed William Phillips—then in command of the New York garrison—that Williams was sending military information to George Washington contrary to the terms of his parole   Williams was promptly arrested and confined to a sixteen square foot (1 5 square meter) room without ventilation in the city's provost jail which he shared with Ethan Allen   Due to possible maltreatment by his captors and malnourishment, his health was affected to the point where he never fully recovered from his imprisonment 
After the surrender of General John Burgoyne after the Battles of Saratoga, Williams was exchanged on January 16, 1778   During his imprisonment, Williams had been  promoted to colonel and given command of the 6th Maryland Regiment of the Maryland Line   Shortly after his release, he stated in a letter to the governor of Maryland that the regiment contained "   not above a hundred effective men    and that those are very indifferently clothed "  He further stated: "I heartily desire to join the army as soon as possible but certainly it had better be reinforced by a regiment without a colonel than by a colonel without a regiment " After joining Washington's army shortly before the Battle of Monmouth he learned that the regiment was noted for a looseness of discipline and was unable to stand with others in the line during battle  Soon after he took effective command, the 6th Maryland Regiment became known as the equal, if not superior, to any in the whole army 

Southern campaign
After the unsuccessful attempt to capture Savannah, Georgia, under the command of General Benjamin Lincoln, the Southern Department of the Continental Army retreated to Charleston, South Carolina   General Sir Henry Clinton moved his forces, surrounded the city where Lincoln's army was located and cut off any chance of relief for the Continental Army   Prior to his surrender, Lincoln had been able to get messages to General Washington and Congress requesting aid   At the end of April 1780, Washington dispatched General Johann de Kalb with 1,400 Maryland and Delaware troops   The Maryland Line made up a large portion of this force, with Williams serving in the post of Adjutant general to General De Kalb 
General de Kalb's forces took almost a month to descend the Chesapeake Bay and did not arrive in Petersburg, Virginia, until the middle of June, almost a month after Lincoln had surrendered his army  The Continental Congress appointed Horatio Gates to command the Southern Department  He assumed command on July 25, 1780, and immediately marched into South Carolina with the intent of engaging the British Army, now under the command of Charles Cornwallis  Williams served as Deputy Adjutant-General under Gates 

Battle of Camden
After brief aggressive maneuvering which threatened the British position in the Carolinas, Cornwallis moved his forces to engage the American forces   The two armies met in the Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780, six miles (9 5 km) north of Camden, South Carolina   Due to several tactical errors on the part of General Gates, Cornwallis achieved a decisive victory   Deserted by their commander and facing opposition on all sides, the Continental Army was forced to retreat   During this engagement, Williams had been stationed to the rear of the army and was unable to contribute until the end  and General de Kalb was mortally wounded   Prior to his death three days later, de Kalb paid a glowing tribute to the Maryland Troop under his command 

Battle of Guilford Court House
After the successful retreat across the Dan River, during which Williams led his men during many highly successful rear guard actions checking the enemy's advance and baffling every British attempt to bring the American army into a general engagement, General Nathanael Greene chose to offer battle to General Cornwallis's forces on March 15, 1781, on ground of his own choosing at Guilford Court House, inside the city limits of present-day Greensboro, North Carolina After the British forces had broken Greene's first line made up of North Carolina Militia and the second line made up of Virginia Militia they threatened the third line made up by the 1st Maryland Regiment, under the command of Colonel John Gunby, and the 2nd Maryland Regiment  The Brigade of Guards, under the command of a Colonel Stewart, broke through the 2nd Maryland Regiment, captured two field pieces and threatened the rear of the 1st Maryland forces whom were already engaged with sizable force under the command of a Colonel Webster 
The 1st Maryland Regiment charged and swept Webster's forces from the field   They then turned to face the oncoming guards unit   After a brief exchange of musket fire, in which 1st Maryland's commander's horse was shot from under him, the 1st Maryland Regiment charged the Guards unit who were quickly routed 
Greene, not able to see this part of the battle from his vantage point, had already ordered a retreat   Thus, unsupported, the Maryland troops were soon forced to withdraw  During this retreat the 6th Maryland Regiment under Williams again acted as the rear guard of the army and is credited with holding off the British forces allowing Greene to move his forces to safety   In recognition of Williams' gallantry, Greene appointed him to the post of Adjutant general of the Army 

Battle of Eutaw Springs
The Battle of Eutaw Springs can be divided into two distinct engagements   During the first action, Greene had given the following order to Williams:

Let Williams advance and sweep the field with his bayonets "
The 6th Maryland Regiment advanced and broke the British line forcing them to fall back several miles and allowing the Continental Army to gain control of the British Camp   The Americans then began to pillage the camp which allowed time for the British to form a new line anchored by a stone house that the Continental Army was unable to move later in the day Near the close of the War, he was sent by General Greene with dispatches to congress and on May 9, 1782, promoted to brigadier general 

Later life
After the War, Williams returned to Maryland and settled in Baltimore   He was soon appointed commissioner of the port by the governor of Maryland, an appointment that was renewed when George Washington assumed the Presidency of the United States  He was also admitted as an original member of The Society of the Cincinnati of Maryland in November 1783 and was later elected as the first assistant secretary general of the National Society at its first general meeting in 1784 In 1786 he married his wife, Mary, the second daughter of William Smith with whom he had four sons  In the year following his marriage, Williams bought his father's house near the Potomac River and dedicated himself to improving the farm and laying out the town of Williamsport, Maryland, which was named in his honor  Williams wanted the capital of the United States to be located in Williamsport and wrote a letter to Washington to that effect on November 1, 1790, enclosing a map of the town Washington thought so highly of Williams that in 1792, when Daniel Morgan refused the rank of brigadier general of the American Army, the president had Henry Knox, the United States Secretary of War, write Williams asking him to accept the position  The position would have made Williams the second in command of the American Army, but citing poor health and no ambition for the position, Williams declined the appointment  However, on December 21, 1792, Williams accepted the Maryland State Legislature's invitation for him to serve as an associate justice for Baltimore County His health deteriorating, Williams was induced to try the "sea airs" and in 1793 journeyed to Barbados which afforded him some benefits   In 1794 upon reaching Woodstock on his way to Sweet Springs, Virginia, Williams became too ill to travel   On Tuesday, July 15, 1794, at the age of 46, Otho Holland Williams died   His remains were interred under a simple monument on the summit of a hill on his Williamsport homestead   His wife died one year later leaving their children orphaned and under the care of her father 

Footnotes
Passage 5:
Battle of Kazan (1774)
The Battle of Kazan (1774) was a major battle during Pugachev's Rebellion  It took place on 12–15 July 1774 in Kazan, Russia, and the surrounding area  The first stage began in the morning of 12 July, when rebels under Yemelyan Pugachev defeated government troops and besieged them in the Kazan Kremlin  During the battle some government forces defected to the rebels' side  However, in the evening, tsarist forces under Johann Michelson reached Kazan and defeated the rebels in two battles which took place on 13 and 15 July, forcing Pugachev to retreat to Tsaryovokokshaysk and then to cross the Volga  Out of 25,000 and 15,000 rebels who participated in the first and last stages of the battle respectively, only 500 escaped 

Prelude to the battle
Kazan was threatened by Pugachev as early as the autumn of 1773  Many of the town's nobles escaped to Moscow, inspiring fear there  A defensive plan was formulated by the Russian high command and was approved personally by Catherine the Great 

Kazan's defenders
There were 3 sectors of defense in Kazan  The first, under general Banner, extended from Kazanka and Arsk Field to Qaban lakes  There, government troops were reinforced by gymnasium pupils under headmaster Kanitsa and armed town militiamen  The second was from the Pleteni to Yamskoy quarter under general-mayor Larionov, and the third was from Yamskoy to Kazanka, under colonel Svechin  The area north from the citadel was defended by Admiralty troops under Shchelin  The citadel itself was reinforced and the garrison under Letskoy was ready to fight  Zilantov Monastery and the Admiralty were turned into strongholds, redoubts were installed at Kazanka's bank and Arsk Field, and a system of knife-rests was installed around the city  Nine cannons were placed behind the knife-rests  The suburban settlements were left to defend themselves without government assistance 
There were 1,500 regular troops in Kazan, along with policemen, Admiralty troops and firemen the defenders numbered 2,000  On 2 July the governor von Brandt announced a coming siege 

Rebels
Ten mullahs sent by Catherine's officers to agitate against Pugachev were killed by rebels  The Orthodox bishop Veniamin appealed to Christians to refuse from joining Pugachev army  However, many peasants from the entire region of modern Tatarstan joined the rebellion and marched to Kazan 
On 10 and 11 July Pugachev's troops encamped to the north-east of Kazan, between Troitskaya Noksa and Tsaritsyno  The army numbered 25,000, mostly Cossacks supported by Tatar and Udmurt peasants and Bashkir cavalry  Only the Cossacks had firearms; the Bashkirs were armed with bows while the peasants were mostly equipped with clubs and stakes  On 11 July, Pugachev, with an interpreter, approached Kazan borders and demanded that the loyalist forces surrender  The Tatar community was invited to support the rebellion  Von Brandt refused to disarm; however, the Tatars quarters sent seventy emissaries with presents to Pugachev  They also disclosed weaknesses in the Kazan defense 
On 12 July, at four o'clock in the morning, Pugachev convened a council of war, dividing his army into 4 groups  The first two under Beloborodov and Mineyev should attack Arsk Field, the main group under Pugachev himself attacked Sukonny (Broadcloth Manufactory) quarter  The group under Ovchinnikov and Bakhmutov should attack Tatar quarters  The storm started at six o'clock after Pugachev's prayer 

Battle
Storm of Kazan
Beloborodov took Neyelova grove, the area of modern-day Gorky Park and approached the citadel by the avenue now known as Karl Marx Street  Pugachev's cannons neutralized government artillery and shelled the defenders of the cloth factory under manufacturer Dryablov  Workers joined the rebel army  The fourth group of rebels reached Mokry quarter and Admiralty 
Government troops were forced to retreat and were besieged in the citadel  Nearly half of the defenders, mostly ethnic Tatars, defected to the rebels  The central stone part of Kazan, mostly settled by Russian nobles and merchants, was set on fire  Sukonny and Tatar quarters, however, stayed safe 
Pugachev ordered his troops to safeguard the lives of civilians and captives  They were convoyed to the nearby village of Savinovo, where Pugachev invited them to join his troops  Among others, a captive Lutheran priest was appointed colonel in Pugachev's army, but nobles and resisters were massacred 

Pugachev's family
Pugachev's family, his wife Sofia Dmitrievna, his 11-year-old son Trofim, daughters Khristina and Agrafena and his brother, were imprisoned in Kazan during the rebellion  Sofia Pugacheva should confirm, that Yemelyan is not Peter III, but a Cossack  She could visit markets to spread this information  When Pugachev's group marched they occasionally met his family  Trofim called him, but Pugachev said that he is simply a friend of this family  So, he took them to unit transport 

Michelson's arrival
The Kremlin surrounded, rebel cannons were installed near Spasskaya Tower and started shelling  After noon, Pugachev stopped the storm and retreated to Arsk Field  There he participated in thanksgiving service  Then he had a dinner at Tatar merchant Musa Apanayev's house 
In the evening governmental troops from Ufa under Johann Michelson reached Kazan  A harsh battle took place at the modern Gogol street, but neither side won  Pugachev retreated to Savinovo and Sukhaya Reka villages  On 13 July he tried to prevent the end of the siege of the citadel, but under the pressure of Michelson and Potyomkin the rebels were defeated and were forced to retreat  On 15 July Pugachyov's army of 15,000 was defeated in the battle of Arsk Field  Pugachev with 500 men escaped to Tsaryovokokshaysk, to cross the Volga on 18 July and to continue his struggle then  Michelson didn't follow him, as government forces had no horses 
Before the trial captives were imprisoned in a camp near the suburb of Bishbalta  In autumn two gallows were placed in Kazan, one in Sukonny, another in Tatar quarter  Many captive rebels were executed, including Beloborodov and Mineyev 

Aftermath
After Pugachev's escape some rebel groups under Bäxtiär Qanqayıv and Usman Timerev continued the resistance, but they were shortly neutralized by governmental troops 
The battle of Kazan had a significant role in Tatarstan's history  The Tatar participation in the rebellion numbered up to 85,000  Nevertheless, the participants of the rebellion were harshly punished  The Tsar's government continued its policy of the support of Muslim nobility and clergy, to prevent similar uprisings as a result of religious oppression in the future  Feudal oppression, however, stayed for a long time This battle took a major place in the Soviet culture  The first Tatar movie Bulat-Batır was devoted to Pugachev's rebellion in Tatarstan and the siege of Kazan 

See also
Pugachov's oak


== References and footnotes ==
Passage 6:
HMS Galatea (1914)
HMS Galatea was one of eight Arethusa-class light cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the 1910s  She fought in the First World War, participating in the Battle of Jutland  Following the war, she was scrapped 

Design and description
The Arethusa-class cruisers were intended to lead destroyer flotillas and defend the fleet against attacks by enemy destroyers  The ships were 456 feet 6 inches (139 1 m) long overall, with a beam of 49 feet 10 inches (15 2 m) and a deep draught of 15 feet 3 inches (4 6 m)  Displacement was 5,185 long tons (5,268 t) at normal and 5,795 long tons (5,888 t) at full load  Arethusa was powered by four Parsons steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, which produced a total of 40,000 indicated horsepower (30,000 kW)  The turbines used steam generated by eight Yarrow boilers which gave her a speed of about 28 5 knots (52 8 km/h; 32 8 mph)  She carried 840 long tons (853 t) tons of fuel oil that gave a range of 5,000 nautical miles (9,300 km; 5,800 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph) The main armament of the Arethusa-class ships was two BL 6-inch (152 mm) Mk XII guns that were mounted on the centreline fore and aft of the superstructure and six QF 4-inch Mk V guns in waist mountings  They were also fitted with a single QF 3-pounder 47 mm (1 9 in) anti-aircraft gun and four 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes in two twin mounts 

Service history
She was launched on 14 May 1914 at William Beardmore and Company shipyard  On her commissioning she was assigned as the leader to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Harwich Force, guarding the eastern approaches to the English Channel  On 4 May 1916, she took part in the shooting down of Zeppelin L 7  At the Battle of Jutland, she was the flagship of the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron under Commodore E S  Alexander-Sinclair  She was the first ship to report the presence of German ships, triggering the battle  Galatea was also the first to receive a hit by the German light cruiser SMS Elbing, but no explosion occurred  She was sold for scrapping on 25 October 1921  Mount Galatea in Alberta, Canada is named after this ship 

Notes
Bibliography
Colledge, J  J ; Warlow, Ben (2006) [1969]  Ships of the Royal Navy: The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy (Rev  ed )  London: Chatham Publishing  ISBN 978-1-86176-281-8 
Corbett, Julian (March 1997)  Naval Operations to the Battle of the Falklands  History of the Great War: Based on Official Documents  Vol  I (2nd, reprint of the 1938 ed )  London and Nashville, Tennessee: Imperial War Museum and Battery Press  ISBN 0-89839-256-X 
Corbett, Julian (1997)  Naval Operations  History of the Great War: Based on Official Documents  Vol  II (reprint of the 1929 second ed )  London and Nashville, Tennessee: Imperial War Museum in association with the Battery Press  ISBN 1-870423-74-7 
Friedman, Norman (2010)  British Cruisers: Two World Wars and After  Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Seaforth  ISBN 978-1-59114-078-8 
Friedman, Norman (2011)  Naval Weapons of World War One  Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Seaforth  ISBN 978-1-84832-100-7 
Gardiner, Robert & Gray, Randal, eds  (1985)  Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921  Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press  ISBN 0-85177-245-5 
Newbolt, Henry (1996)  Naval Operations  History of the Great War Based on Official Documents  Vol  V (reprint of the 1931 ed )  Nashville, Tennessee: Battery Press  ISBN 0-89839-255-1 
Pearsall, Alan (1984)  "Arethusa Class Cruisers, Part I"  Warship  London: Conway Maritime Press  VIII: 203–11  ISBN 0-87021-983-9 
Pearsall, Alan (1984)  "Arethusa Class Cruisers, Part II"  Warship  London: Conway Maritime Press  VIII: 258–65  ISBN 0-87021-983-9 

External links

Ships of the Arethusa class
Battle of Jutland Crew Lists Project - HMS Galatea Crew List
Passage 7:
Jakub Jasiński
Jakub Krzysztof Jasiński (Lithuanian: Jokūbas Kristupas Jasinskis) of Rawicz Clan (24 July 1761 – 4 November 1794) was a Polish general, and poet of Enlightenment  He participated in the War in Defence of the Constitution in 1792, was an enemy of the Targowica Confederation and organized an action against its supporters in Vilnius  He participated also in the Kościuszko Uprising, during the course of which he was killed in the Battle of Praga in 1794 
A graduate of the Warsaw-based Szkoła Rycerska, with time he became the tutor of engineering at his alma mater  He fought with distinction in the War in Defense of the Constitution of 1792  After the king joined the Targowica Confederation he remained loyal to the new authorities  In 1789 he became the commanding officer of the Engineering Corps for Lithuania 

War in Defence of the Constitution
He participated in the Battle of Brześć in July 1792, for which he was awarded the military award Virtuti Militari Despite his antipathy towards the Confederation of Targowica, opposed the Constitution of 3 May which Jasiński had defended, during this time he pledged his loyalty to it, not giving up conspiratorial activities against it 

The war of liberation
During the Kościuszko Uprising of 1794 Jasiński was among the most prominent members of the radical wing of the Polish Jacobins and at the same time a successful military commander of partisan forces in the area of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  In April of that year he liberated the city of Vilnius by leading a successful uprising there  Supported by Tadeusz Kościuszko and appointed the commander in chief of all the partisan forces in the former Grand Duchy, he managed to defeat numerous Russian garrisons in the area  However, accusations of radical republicanism brought him into conflict with the state authorities, and by the beginning of June he was forced to resign as commander-in-chief of Lithuanian forces and pass his office to General Michał Wielhorski  Jakub Jasiński continued to harass enemy forces in Lithuania and then withdrew with a small partisan troop towards Warsaw  There he perished in November during the defense of Warsaw against the forces of Alexander Suvorov 
Among his literary works are numerous poems of satirical and fabled character, under huge influence of Voltaire, for example Jasiński's better-known "Sprzeczki" (Quarrels)  He was also an author of many patriotic and revolutionary poems and songs against injustices, inspired by the French Revolution, and arousing hope of a similar one in his homeland 

Commemoration

In Poland, there are or were a number of streets named after Jakub Jasiński, including in Warsaw, Chorzów, Częstochowa, Gliwice, Inowrocław, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Przemyśl, Radom, Świdnica, and Zielona Góra 
Outside Poland, he is also commemorated in the names of Streets in Belarus, where there is a street named after him in Maladzyechna as well in Lithuania, where he has a street both in the Old Town of Vilnius and in Kaunas  Belarus also released a stamp with his image in 1994 



ground_truth: Manhattan Project

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the first African American student at the university Robert Khayat was educated at?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Marieta Johnson, in Detroit, Michigan  She is buried at the Elmwood Cemetery in Detroit A special collection, the E  Azalia Hackley Collection of African Americans in the Performing Arts, was founded in her name at the Detroit Public Library in 1943 

In popular culture
A portrait of Hackley, painted by Detroit artist Telitha Cumi Bowens, was included in the 1988/89 exhibit Ain't I A Woman at the Museum of African American History, Detroit  The exhibit featured a dozen prominent Black women from the state of Michigan, including the Honorable Cora M  Brown, Ethelene Jones Crockett, M D , and teacher Fannie M  Richards 

See also
List of African American pioneers of Colorado

Notes
Passage 9:
Thurgood Marshall College
Thurgood Marshall College (Marshall) is one of the seven undergraduate colleges at the University of California, San Diego   The college, named after Thurgood Marshall, the first African-American Supreme Court Justice and lawyer for the landmark 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v  Board of Education, emphasizes "scholarship, social responsibility and the belief that a liberal arts education must include an understanding of [one's] role in society " Marshall College's general education requirements emphasize the culture of community involvement and multiculturalism; accordingly Marshall houses the minors in Public Service and Film Studies for the campus  Significant academic programs and departments have come out of the college over many decades: Communication, Ethnic Studies, Third World Studies, African American Studies, Urban Studies & Planning, and Education Studies 
Founded as Third College in 1970 amid the student activism of the period, TMC's original aim was to help students understand their own community through a critical examination of diversity and community in the United States  Marshall College's required writing program is called Dimensions of Culture (DOC), and is a 3 quarter (1 year) sequence that explores race, identity, imagination, tradition, and the law in the United States  During President Obama's administration, the White House honored UC San Diego and Marshall College's Public Service minor and charter school outreach as exemplary community service institutions serving the United States 

Early history
In November 1965, the College III Preliminary Planning Committee released the first substantial report on what form UCSD's third college would take  The committee, comprising faculty members George Backus, Henry Booker, Gabriel Jackson, C D  Keeling, and committee chair Andrew Wright, suggested that College III should focus itself on history and theory 
The Wright Committee report suggested that the college have a muse—namely Clio, the Greek muse of history  History was chosen by the committee because it mixed humanism with science—College III would be a sort of "common ground" between the science of Revelle and the humanities of Muir 
In a quiet act of rebelliousness (or perhaps it was just individuality), the committee planned that College III students would only have to take three courses per quarter to graduate in four years, as opposed to the four it took at the other UCSD colleges  Citing the three-course "full load" at UC Santa Cruz, the committee suggested that taking four courses in one quarter would "make the students ride off in all directions," and that three-in depth courses would be preferable 
The final note of the Wright Committee report described what the committee felt was needed in a College III Provost "a paragon of intellectual vitality, scholarly accomplishment, and administrative talent    sympathetic with the aims of College III, but independent enough    to be able to shape the College in important ways " They asked that a provost be appointed as soon as possible 
By 1967, College III had found its first provost, Armin Rappaport, a history professor at U C  Berkeley  It was appropriate that the provost of a college with Clio as its muse would be a historian, and Rappaport was that  By the time May rolled around, College III was now "Third College "
However, with the swirling political changes of the late 1960s, the college of Clio and Rappaport was never to be  Once the controversy and battles among students, faculty, and administration commenced—featuring lively figures such as Herbert Schiller, Herbert Marcuse, and Angela Davis—the future of Third College would be in a turmoil that didn't fully clear until it finally received its official name, Thurgood Marshall College, in 1993 
Chancellor William J  McGill persuaded Dr  Joseph Watson to become the first operational provost of Third College during this very turbulent time in 1970  Provost Watson's term lasted eleven years as he then assumed a higher campus position as Vice Chancellor for Student Affairs   Professor Faustina Solís then followed as the second college administrator and was also the university's first Latina provost  She served in that capacity from 1981 to 1988  Solís established public health coursework for undergraduates and medical students, following years of social work and health care for under-served populations  She was honored in 1990 when Thurgood Marshall Lecture Hall was renamed the Faustina F  Solís Hall 

Student activism
Naming controversy
At its inception, students pushed for the new college to be named "Lumumba-Zapata College" in honor of the legendary twentieth century revolutionaries Patrice Lumumba and Emiliano Zapata  Unable to get approval for this name from UC Administration, the college was renamed Third College  This name did also inspire the idea that the student body would be one-third white students, one-third black students, and one-third definable minority students  Third College took up much of the activism that the campus was lacking, and the naming controversy was a catalyst for this movement  However, UCSD failed to attract enough black students for this plan to reach fruition and the UC Regents would not allow large scale deviation from the University of California's admission guidelines In the early 1990s, an attempt was made to name the college after Martin Luther King Jr , but failed when UCSD students objected to naming the college after someone who was charged with plagiarizing his doctoral dissertation  More to the point, King's family announced that they would rather see a full-fledged King College built in the South, and preferably in Atlanta 
In 1993 UCSD's Third College finally received its official name in honor of the famous lawyer and Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall  Before becoming the first African American Supreme Court Justice, Marshall argued the 1954 landmark civil rights case Brown v  Board of Education  Justice Marshall was widely known and recognized for his historic contributions to American life and dedication to breaking down barriers to education, civil rights, freedom of speech, women's rights, and the right to privacy  Today Thurgood Marshall College continues to honor the legacy of its namesake by promoting a curriculum and environment that empowers students to become both scholars and citizens 

DOC controversy
In the early 1990s, Thurgood Marshall College created a core freshman writing program that provided a critical examination of identity and diversity in American culture  The intellectual program was inspired by the University of Chicago and Columbia University's freshman humanities programs  The program, Dimensions of Culture (DOC), periodically generated heated debates among students, families, and alumni, based on difficult political issues 
In the spring of 2007, a new curriculum controversy arose pertaining to DOC as students at TMC began protesting against the administrators of the college  The Lumumba-Zapata Coalition (which had resurfaced with the addition of graduate students) along with other students claimed that DOC had lost some of its original messages, protesting against what they termed a "new and diluted" core writing requirement with a decreased focus on race and the ethnic significance of the individual within society  The protests, including picketing, began with the controversial non-renewal of two DOC Teaching Assistants’ contracts for the subsequent year  Others believed that the coalition was pushing an agenda of political indoctrination that conflicted with the academic goals of the Dimensions of Culture Program and the sensibility of a science oriented campus 
The protests had mixed effects  In response to the complaints in regards to the curriculum a new committee was set up to review and change the curriculum accordingly with an emphasis on hiring tenured faculty to teach DOC  Student positions with voting rights were included on the permanent committee so an equitable curriculum will be created reflecting full community input from both students and faculty  Thurgood Marshall College Student Council (TMCSC) issued a report recommending that DOC have an upper division course which also sparked the public service course  In August 2009, Co-Director of the DOC Program, Robert Horwitz stated, "Various criticisms were leveled at DOC in the last few years, and faculty and student investigations concluded that changes needed to be made  Those changes have been implemented and have resulted in a new DOC ”

College programs
Minors
Thurgood Marshall College has created more academic departments and programs than any other college at UCSD, including Third World Studies, Ethnic Studies, Education Studies, African American Studies Minor, and Urban Studies and Planning  TMC is now home to two UCSD Minors: the Public Service Minor and the Film Studies Minor 
The Public Service Minor encourages students to understand the history and practices of public service and to work towards the development of civic skills  Those skills and practices are essential cornerstones of participation in a democratic society regardless of one's chosen profession  The coursework for the minor emphasizes the history and emergence of the non-profit sector as a national institution distinct from the private and public spheres  The practicum aspects of the minor couples with the traditional academic work encourages students to see the connection between the deeds of charitable service and the historic worth of citizens participation in the common public franchise The Film Studies Minor provides students an exciting opportunity to examine the many facets of American and International cinema  Students interested in exploring cinema as a multidimensional art medium will engage in the analysis of cinematic works of various forms  Study of film genres, history, theories, directors, cultural perspectives and more allow students to gain a robust understanding of cinema as a historical and contemporary means of expression  The interdisciplinary nature of the minor provides investigation of cinematic art through its connection to related fields such as Communication, Literature, Sociology and Visual Arts  Students pursuing the Film Studies Minor exhibit a wide range of interests; from those who plan graduate study in film to those who simply wish to understand better this powerful and influential medium 

Morehouse/Spelman/Xavier Student Exchange Program
The Morehouse/Spelman Student Exchange Program was officially launched in the fall quarter of 1989  This formal exchange program with two distinguished Historically Black Colleges was developed by Thurgood Marshall College and is open to all UCSD undergraduates  Morehouse College and Spelman College are both located in Atlanta, Georgia 
Xavier University in New Orleans became the third historic Black college to have this exchange with Marshall College in 2016 

Marshall partnership schools
Then Thurgood Marshall College Provost Cecil Lytle and Sociology Professor Bud Mehan were instrumental in founding the Preuss School at UCSD, which opened in 1999 on campus despite strong opposition  The project was seen by faculty as a deviation from UC San Diego's focus on science and medicine  However, providing the impetus for the founding of The Preuss School reflected the social justice oriented mission of Marshall College  Between 2007 and 2012 Preuss has consistently been listed among the top 50 American high schools by both Newsweek and U S  News & World Report After Preuss was established successfully, the idea and structure of the UCSD-supported charter school model was expanded to Gompers Preparatory Academy  Based on educational theories, the successes of Preuss should be able to be recreated in a different environment, which was why Gompers was selected   Gompers was historically one of the most dangerous and low performing schools in the district, and yet has been transformed into an academically rigorous school with 100% graduation rate with the transition to the charter school model The College maintains strong links to both charter schools by providing them with hundreds of undergraduate tutors and mentors every year from all six colleges  In addition, the College's Provost is a Preuss School Board Member 

Artist in residence
The artist-in-residence program, begun in 2006, brings to campus leading performers and visual artists from San Diego and Southern California to UC San Diego  Each artist is featured for one year and given the opportunity to develop new showcase work, which often goes on to fuller production off campus  Marshall College is the first college at UCSD to commission public art on campus, and has contributed in the creation of a vibrant campus community  Allan Havis, a professor from the Theatre Department, launched these programs during his term as college provost from 2006 to 2016 

Student life
Student involvement
Marshall College is home to an eclectic mix of student-led organizations, programs to facilitate students' success, and opportunities to give back to the Marshall community 

Student organizations
ACT (Active Community at TMC)
Commuter Board
CAUSE (Cultural Association Uniting Students through Education)
Graduation Committee
Judicial Board
LC3 (Leadership Committee for Cultural Celebration)
MAC (Marshall Activities Committee)
Marshall Memos
MSC (Marshall Spirit Crew)
Marshallpalooza Committee
SCORE (Student Committee on Residential Engagement)
TMCSC (Thurgood Marshall College Student Council)
TMTV (Thurgood Marshall Television)
TRES (Transfer and Re-Entry Student Organizations)

Student programs
Dine-with-a-Prof
Each One Reach One
Marshall Mentor Program
Transfer Connect & Success

Leadership Development
Dean's Office Internship
Lift as You Climb
Orientation Leaders (OL)
Resident Advisors (RA)
Resident Life Interns
Passage 10:
Robert Khayat
Robert Conrad Khayat (born April 18, 1938) was the 15th Chancellor of the University of Mississippi  He also played American football as a placekicker, guard, and center for Ole Miss and in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins during the 1960, 1962 and 1963 seasons  He was appointed Chancellor in 1995 

Early years
Khayat was born in Moss Point, Mississippi, to Lebanese parents  He attended Moss Point High School and the University of Mississippi  He received both bachelor of arts and Juris Doctor degrees from the University of Mississippi  He also played football for the Ole Miss Rebels football team from 1957 to 1959  He also received an LL M  degree from Yale University 

Professional football career
Khayat was selected by the Cleveland Browns in the 1960 NFL Draft  He was then traded to the Washington Redskins in April 1960  He played for the Redskins during the 1960, 1962, and 1963 seasons  Following the 1960 season, he was named to the Pro Bowl squad  He appeared in a total of 40 NFL games and kicked 38 field goals and 90 extra points His brother Eddie Khayat also played and coached in the NFL 

Later years
Khayat later became a lawyer and taught law at the University of Mississippi School of Law He was appointed chancellor in 1995  In one of his first acts as chancellor, Khayat arranged for a $5 4 million gift from Jim and Sally Barksdale to establish an honors college at the university  In 1996, with enrollment declining, Khayat retained the public relations firm, Burson-Marsteller, to conduct a survey of public perception — including university symbols  When The New York Times reported on the review, which included the Confederate Flag and other Old South symbols, a media frenzy ensued 
On January 6, 2009, Khayat announced his retirement effective June 30, 2009  He was succeeded by Daniel Jones on June 15, 2009 
Khayat's memoir, The Education of a Lifetime, was published on September 10, 2013 
Passage 11:
Yeni Həyat, Khachmaz
Yeni Həyat (also, Yeni-Khayat) is a village and municipality in the Khachmaz Rayon of Azerbaijan   It has a population of 3,503 
Passage 12:
Fort Wagner
Fort Wagner or Battery Wagner was a beachhead fortification on Morris Island, South Carolina, that covered the southern approach to Charleston Harbor  It was the site of two American Civil War battles in the campaign known as Operations Against the Defenses of Charleston in 1863, in which United States forces took heavy casualties while trying to seize the fort 

Construction
Named for deceased Lt  Col  Thomas M  Wagner, Fort Wagner measured 250 yards (230 m) by 100 yards (91 m), and spanned an area between the Atlantic on the east and an impassable swamp on the west  Its walls, composed of sand and earth, rose 30 feet (9 1 m) above the level beach and were supported by palmetto logs and sandbags  The fort's arsenal included fourteen cannons, the largest a 10-inch (250 mm) Columbiad that fired a 128-pound shell  It was a large structure capable of sheltering nearly 1,000 of the fort's 1,700-man garrison and provided substantial protection against naval shelling  The fort's land face was protected by a water-filled trench, 10 feet (3 0 m) wide and 5 feet (1 5 m) deep, surrounded by buried land mines and sharpened palmetto stakes   The fort itself was supported by defenses throughout Morris Island 

History
The First Battle of Fort Wagner, occurred on July 11, 1863  Only 12 Confederate soldiers were killed, as opposed to 339 losses for the U S  side The Second Battle of Fort Wagner (pictured in Glory (1989 film)), a week later, is better known  It was the Union attack on July 18, 1863, led by the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, one of the first major American military units made up of black soldiers  Colonel Robert Gould Shaw led the 54th Massachusetts on foot while they charged, and was killed in the assault Although a tactical defeat, the publicity of the battle of Fort Wagner led to further action for black U S  troops in the Civil War, and it spurred additional recruitment that gave the Union Army a further numerical advantage in troops over the South Union forces besieged the fort after the unsuccessful assault  By August 25, Union entrenchments were close enough to attempt an assault on the Advanced Rifle Pits, 240 yards in front of the Battery, but the attempt was defeated  A second attempt, by the 24th Massachusetts Infantry, on August 26 was successful  After enduring almost 60 days of heavy U S  shelling, the Confederates abandoned it on the night of September 6–7, 1863, withdrawing all operable cannons and the garrison The main reason the fort was abandoned was a concern about the loss of the garrison due to artillery fire and the threat of imminent assault   On September 6, the garrison commander, Colonel Keitt, wrote to his superiors, "The garrison must be taken away immediately after dark, or it will be destroyed or captured  It is idle to deny that the heavy Parrott shells have breached the walls and are knocking away the bomb-proofs  Pray have boats immediately after dark at Cummings Point to take away the men  I say deliberately that this must be done or the garrison will be sacrificed  I am sending the wounded and sick now to Cummings Point, and will continue to do so, if possible, until all are gone  I have a number of them now there  I have not in the garrison 400 effective men, including artillery  The engineers agree in opinion with me, or, rather, shape my opinion  I shall say no more " A council of war in Charleston on the 4th had already reached the same conclusion, and the evacuation was carried out as planned Within twenty years of the Civil War, the remnants of the fort had been washed away by erosion on Morris Island  A group of three ex-servicemen traveled to the fort in May 1885 and reported that the entire fort and approaches to it had washed away into the ocean The fall of Battery Wagner would have considerable strategic significance  With its loss and that of Fort Gregg, Morris Island too fell to the United States  Although Charleston remained in the hands of the rebels its port was effectively closed   At the end of the year Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles could report that "the commerce of Charleston has ceased "  The impact also showed directly in rebel customs receipts, which fell drastically from 1863 to 1864   The labors and sacrifices of the United States forces during the storms and siege had in the end shut down a vital lifeline to the rebellion 

54th Massachusetts
The most famous regiment that fought for the Union in the battle of Fort Wagner was the 54th regiment, which was one of the first African-American regiments in the war  The 54th was controversial in the North, where many people supported the abolition of slavery but still treated African Americans as lesser or inferior to whites  Though some claimed blacks could not fight as well as whites, the actions of the 54th Massachusetts demonstrated once again the fallacy in that argument, as this was not the first time blacks ever fought in war or even for the United States 
William Carney, an African American and a sergeant with the 54th, is considered the first black recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions at Fort Wagner in recovering and returning the unit's American flag to Union lines  After the battle, the Confederates buried the regiment's commanding officer, Colonel Shaw, in an unmarked mass grave with the African-American soldiers of his regiment as an insult to him  Instead, his family considered it an honor that Shaw was buried with his men 
Morris Island is smaller than 1,000 acres and is subject to extensive erosion by storm and sea  Much of the site of Fort Wagner has been eroded away, including the place where the Union soldiers were buried  However, by the time that happened, the soldiers' remains were no longer there because soon after the end of the Civil War, the Army disinterred and reburied all the remains, including presumably those of Shaw, at the Beaufort National Cemetery in Beaufort, South Carolina, where their gravestones were marked as "unknown"     The number missing presumed dead at Battery Wagner was 391, among the 10 regiments involved  54th with the most at 146   100 NY with 119, 48th NY with 112  The number of unknowns at Beaufort on their Civil monument 1870s is 174 unknowns   These unknowns collected from three Southern states  Sites include East Florida,  Millen and Lawton Georgia  and Hilton Head   Two Confederate POW sites included  Given the missing at Morris island is  more than double the total unknowns at Beaufort National Cemetery, it appears many bodies were not removed and were lost to the shifting sea 

In popular culture
This fort plays a major part in the film Glory  The final scene portrays Shaw and the men of the 54th Massachusetts leading the attack and storming the fort unsuccessfully 
In the book Magnus Chase and the Ship of the Dead, a character named T J  dies charging the battlements at Fort Wagner 

Preservation
Although the Atlantic Ocean consumed Fort Wagner in the late 1800s and the original site is now offshore, the Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 118 acres (0 48 km2) of historic Morris Island, which had gun emplacements and other military installations during the war 
Passage 13:
James Meredith
James Howard Meredith (born June 25, 1933) is an American civil rights activist, writer, political adviser, and United States Air Force veteran who became, in 1962, the first African-American student admitted to the racially segregated University of Mississippi after the intervention of the federal government (an event that was a flashpoint in the civil rights movement)  Inspired by President John F  Kennedy's inaugural address, Meredith decided to exercise his constitutional rights and apply to the University of Mississippi  His goal was to put pressure on the Kennedy administration to enforce civil rights for African Americans  The admission of Meredith ignited the Ole Miss riot of 1962 where Meredith's life was threatened and 31,000 American servicemen were required to quell the violence - the largest ever invocation of the Insurrection Act of 1807 In 1966, Meredith planned a solo 220-mile (350-kilometer) March Against Fear from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi; he wanted to highlight continuing racism in the South and encourage voter registration after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965  He did not want major civil rights organizations involved  The second day, he was shot by a white gunman and suffered numerous wounds  Leaders of major organizations vowed to complete the march in his name after he was taken to the hospital  While Meredith was recovering, more people from across the country became involved as marchers  He rejoined the march and when Meredith and other leaders entered Jackson on June 26, they were leading an estimated 15,000 marchers, in what was the largest civil rights march in Mississippi  During the march, more than 4,000 African Americans registered to vote, and it was a catalyst to continued community organizing and additional registration 
In 2002 and again in 2012, the University of Mississippi led year-long series of events to celebrate the 40th and 50th anniversaries of Meredith's integration of the institution  He was among numerous speakers invited to the campus, where a statue of him commemorates his role  The Lyceum-The Circle Historic District at the center of the campus has been designated as a National Historic Landmark for these events 

Early life and education
Meredith was born in 1933 in Kosciusko, Mississippi, the son of Roxie (Patterson) and Moses Meredith  He is of African-American, English Canadian, Scots and Choctaw heritage  His family nickname was "J-Boy"  European traders intermarried with some Choctaw during the colonial period  In the 1830s, thousands of Choctaw chose to stay in Mississippi and become United States citizens when most of the tribe left their traditional homeland for Indian Territory during the federally imposed removal  Those in the state had unions with European Americans and African Americans (some of whom were enslaved), adding to the multi-racial population in the developing territory Meredith completed 11th grade at Attala County Training School (which was segregated as "white" and "colored" under the state's Jim Crow laws) and completed 12th grade at Gibbs High School in St  Petersburg, Florida  He graduated from high school in 1951  Then, Meredith enlisted in the United States Air Force  He served from 1951 to 1960 Afterward Meredith attended Jackson State University for two years, achieving good grades 

University of Mississippi
Challenge to the University
In 1961, inspired the day before by U S  President John F  Kennedy, Meredith started to apply to the University of Mississippi, intending to insist on his civil rights to attend the state-funded university  It still admitted only white students under the state's culture of racial segregation, although the U S  Supreme Court ruled in Brown v  Board of Education (1954) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional, as they are supported by all the taxpayers 
Meredith wrote in his application that he wanted admission for his country, race, family, and himself  He said,

Nobody handpicked me   I believed, and believe now, that I have a Divine Responsibility    I am familiar with the probable difficulties involved in such a move as I am undertaking and I am fully prepared to pursue it all the way to a degree from the University of Mississippi 
He was twice denied admission  During this time, he was advised by Medgar Evers, who was head of the state chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 
On May 31, 1961, Meredith, with backing of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, filed suit in the U S  District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi, alleging that the university had rejected him only because of his race, as he had a highly successful record of military service and academic courses  The case went through many hearings, after which the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled that Meredith had the right to be admitted to the state school  The state appealed to the U S  Supreme Court, which supported the ruling of the appeals court On September 13, 1962, the District Court entered an injunction directing the members of the Board of Trustees and the officials of the University to register Meredith  The Democratic Governor of Mississippi, Ross Barnett, declared "no school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your governor"   The state legislature quickly created a plan  They passed a law that denied admission to any person "who has a crime of moral turpitude against him" or who had been convicted of any felony offense or not pardoned  The same day it became law, Meredith was accused and convicted of "false voter registration," in absentia, in Jackson County  The conviction against Meredith was trumped up: Meredith both owned land in northern Mississippi and was registered to vote in Jackson, where he lived  "Later the clerk testified that Meredith was qualified to register and vote in Jackson [where he was registered] "
On September 20, the federal government obtained an injunction against enforcement of this Act and of the two state court decrees that had barred Meredith's registration  That day Meredith was rebuffed again by Governor Barnett in his efforts to gain admission, though university officials were prepared to admit him  On September 28, the Court of Appeals, en banc and after a hearing, found the Governor in civil contempt and ordered that he be arrested and pay a fine of $10,000 for each day that he kept up the refusal, unless he complied by October 2  On September 29, Lieutenant Governor Paul B  Johnson Jr  (elected Governor on November 5, 1963) was also found in contempt by a panel of the court, and a similar order was entered against him, with a fine of $5,000 a day Attorney General Robert F  Kennedy had a series of phone calls with Governor Barnett between September 27 to October 1  Barnett reluctantly agreed to let Meredith enroll in the university, but secretly bargained with Kennedy on a plan which would allow him to save face 
Barnett committed to maintain civil order  Robert Kennedy ordered 127 U S  Marshals as well as 316 deputized U S  Border Patrol and 97 Federal Bureau of Prisons officers to accompany Meredith during his arrival and registration  On September 29, President Kennedy issued a proclamation commanding all persons engaged in the obstruction of the laws and the orders of the courts to "cease and desist therefrom and to disperse and retire peaceably forthwith", citing his authority under 10 U S C  § 332, § 333, and § 334 to use the militia or the armed forces to suppress any insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful combination, or conspiracy 

Rioting at the University
On the evening of September 29, the day after State Senator George Yarbrough withdrew the State Highway Police, a riot broke out  Whites opposing integration had been gathering at the campus and began fighting with federal agents  Despite the Kennedy administration's reluctance to use force, it ordered the nationalized Mississippi National Guard and federal troops to the campus  In the violent clashes which followed, two civilians were killed by gunshot wounds, and white rioters burned cars, pelted federal agents and soldiers with rocks, bricks and small arms fire, and damaged university property 

Enrollment
The day after the riots, on October 1, 1962, after federal and state forces took control, Meredith became the first African-American student to enroll at the University of Mississippi  Meredith's admission is regarded as a pivotal moment in the history of civil rights in the United States 
Many students harassed Meredith during his two semesters on campus, but others accepted him  According to first-person accounts, students living in Meredith's dorm bounced basketballs on the floor just above his room through all hours of the night  Other students ostracized him: when Meredith walked into the cafeteria for meals, the students eating would turn their backs  If Meredith sat at a table with other students, all of whom were white, the students would immediately get up and go to another table  He persisted through harassment and extreme isolation to graduate on August 18, 1963, with a degree in political science 

Education and activism
Meredith continued his education, focusing on political science, at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria  He returned to the United States in 1965  He attended law school through a scholarship at Columbia University and earned an LL B (law degree) in 1968 In 1966, Meredith organized and led a solo, personal March Against Fear for 220 miles from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi, beginning on June 6, 1966  Inviting only black men to join him, he wanted to highlight continuing racial oppression in the Mississippi Delta, as well as to encourage blacks to register and vote following passage of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight and enforcement of rights  Governor Paul Johnson promised to allow the march and provide State Highway Police protection  Meredith wanted blacks in Mississippi to overcome fear of violence Despite police, on the second day, Meredith was shot and wounded by Aubrey James Norvell, a white man whose motives were never determined, and who pleaded guilty at trial  Meredith was quickly taken to a hospital  Leaders of major organizations rallied at the news and vowed to complete the march in Meredith's name  They struggled to reconcile differing goals, but succeeded in attracting more than 10,000 marchers from local towns and across the country by the end Meredith recovered from his wounds and rejoined the march before it reached Jackson on June 26, when 15,000 marchers entered the city in what had become the largest civil rights march in state history  During the march, more than 4,000 black Mississippians registered to vote  Continued community organizing was catalyzed by these events, and African Americans began to enter the political system again  Black voters in Mississippi have established a high rate of voter registration and voting participation 

Political career
In 1967, while living and studying in New York, Meredith decided to run as a Republican against incumbent Adam Clayton Powell Jr , a multi-term Democrat, in a special election for the Congressional seat in Harlem  He withdrew from the race and Powell was re-elected  Meredith said later of his campaign, "The Republican Party [of New York] made me an offer: full support in every way, everything " He had full access to top New York Republicans After returning to Mississippi to live, in 1972 Meredith ran for the US Senate against Democratic senator James Eastland, who had been the incumbent for 29 years in what had operated as a one-party state  Following provisions of a new state constitution in 1890 that made voter registration extremely difficult, African Americans had been effectively disenfranchised and the Republican Party had been crippled  Meredith conceded that he had little chance of winning unless Governor George Wallace of Alabama entered the presidential race and split the white vote An active Republican, Meredith served from 1989 to 1991 as a domestic adviser on the staff of United States Senator Jesse Helms  Faced with criticism from the civil rights community for working for the avowed segregationist, Meredith said that he had applied to every member of the Senate and House offering his services, and only Helms' office responded  He also wanted a chance to do research at the Library of Congress In 2002, officials at the University of Mississippi celebrated the 40th anniversary of Meredith's historic admission and integration of the institution with a year-long series of events  Of the celebration, Meredith said,

It was an embarrassment for me to be there, and for somebody to celebrate it, oh my God  I want to go down in history, and have a bunch of things named after me, but believe me that ain't it 
He said he had achieved his main goal at the time by getting the federal government to enforce his rights as a citizen  He saw his actions as "an assault on white supremacy " In 2003, he was far more proud that his son Joseph Meredith graduated as the top doctoral student at the university's graduate business school 

Legacy and honors
In 2002, the University of Mississippi honored the 40th anniversary of Meredith's admission with numerous events 
In 2006, a statue of him was dedicated on campus in his honor 
In 2012, the University commemorated the 50th anniversary of the historic admission, featuring a range of speakers, artists, lectures and events during the year 
That year Meredith received the Harvard Graduate School of Education 'Medal for Education Impact' and was the school's convocation speaker  Meredith said it was the first award in 50 years he had accepted 

Cultural depictions
In 2011 miniseries The Kennedys, he was portrayed by Matthew G  Brown in episode five of the series, Life Sentences 

Political viewpoint
A highly independent man, Meredith has identified as an individual American citizen who demanded and received the constitutional rights held by any American, not as a participant in the Civil Rights Movement  There have been tensions between him and leaders of major organizations of the movement  When interviewed in 2002, the 40th anniversary of his enrollment at University of Mississippi, Meredith said, "Nothing could be more insulting to me than the concept of civil rights  It means perpetual second-class citizenship for me and my kind "Meredith was a supporter of the unsuccessful 1967 gubernatorial bid of ex-Mississippi Governor (and avowed segregationist) Ross Barnett, as well as the 1991 gubernatorial campaign of Louisiana State Representative and ex-Klansman David Duke In a 2002 interview with CNN, Meredith said of his efforts to integrate Ole Miss, "I was engaged in a war  I considered myself engaged in a war from Day One  And my objective was to force the federal government—the Kennedy administration at that time—into a position where they would have to use the United States military force to enforce my rights as a citizen "

Personal life
On March 14, 1956, Meredith married Mary June Wiggins  She later worked as a high school English teacher  They had three sons, James, John and Joseph Howard Meredith   Mary June Meredith died of heart failure in December 1979 
In 1982, Meredith married Judy Alsobrooks in Gary, Indiana  She had one son, Kip Naylor, from a previous marriage  Jessica Howard Meredith was born to their union   The couple live in Jackson, Mississippi 

Works
In 1966, his memoir, Three Years in Mississippi, was published by the Indiana University Press 
He has self-published several books on politics and society 

See also
List of African-American pioneers in desegregation of higher education
List of civil rights leaders
School integration in the United States



ground_truth: James Howard Meredith

James Meredith

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: A participant of the Battle of Brechin is an instance of?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: 
In the first case, fans were displeased that a matchup between two teams at such a critical point in the season was not available on broadcast television except in the Dallas and Green Bay markets  To avoid such a problem with the potential sixteenth victory for the Patriots, CBS and NBC bought broadcast rights to the game so it could be seen by a nationwide audience on both cable and broadcast television  This ended up causing another controversy, however, as the move by the networks infringed on the exclusivity that would normally have been enjoyed by WWOR-TV in New York City and WCVB-TV in Boston, which were the Giants' and Patriots' respective local over-the-air broadcasters for cable-televised games (the game aired on these stations, as well as on WCBS-TV, WNBC, WBZ-TV and WHDH in the teams' market areas) 

Game quality and viewership
Thursday Night Football games on NFL Network are among the lowest-rated nationally televised NFL broadcasts  Critics have argued that the games televised on Thursday Night Football have been of lower quality than other prime time games, as they often featured match-ups between lesser or poor-performing teams, and that the shortened rest between games triggered by Thursday games also has an effect on their overall quality  In an analysis by Sports on Earth writer Aaron Roberts, it was determined that most Thursday games were of average or above-average quality in comparison to normal, non-prime time games, but that this was "by design" due to the leverage of other NFL broadcasters on how games are scheduled throughout the season (which traditionally prioritizes "major" games for either late-afternoon or Sunday and Monday nights) The move of selected games to CBS brought improved ratings: the inaugural game was the highest-rated program of the night, with an audience share of 13 7 and an average of 20 7 million viewers, representing a 108% increase in ratings over the first NFL Network game in 2013  The game, whose ratings were boosted by coverage of the Ray Rice scandal, also brought CBS its highest prime time ratings on a Thursday night since May 2006  While lower, at 9 6 million viewers, the Week 3 game between the Atlanta Falcons and Tampa Bay Buccaneers was also the highest-rated program of the night  The first four games of the package, however, featured blowout victories  In total, average viewership of the games increased from around 7 million to around 11 8 million in the 2014 season Controversy over ratings and the quality of play in Thursday night contests escalated when on November 28, 2016, a report circulated that the league was considering ending the franchise  The NFL, however, denied this rumor  The subsequent game on December 1, 2016 between the Dallas Cowboys and the Minnesota Vikings was the highest rated Thursday Night Football of the season During the 2016 season, current and former players including Richard Sherman, J  J  Watt, and Charles Woodson expressed their dislikes for Thursday Night Football, with Richard Sherman calling it a "poopfest" The September 20, 2018 game between the New York Jets and Cleveland Browns, which saw the debut of Cleveland's first overall pick Baker Mayfield, as well as the team breaking a nearly two-year losing streak, set a record for the highest-rated NFL Network-exclusive broadcast in Thursday Night Football history, with a 5 2 household rating and over 8 million viewers 

Player safety
As mentioned, a team needing to play a Thursday night game can result in a shortened rest period for players between games  On October 6, 2014, Arian Foster, then of the Houston Texans, made a statement considering it hypocritical for the NFL to emphasize the safety of players (particularly in regards to concussions) while allowing its players to play a game on only three days' rest, which he considered to be equally "dangerous"  Richard Sherman of the Seattle Seahawks has also voiced displeasure about Thursday night games reducing prep time, and wrote a 2016 editorial for The Players' Tribune about the games  Sherman's 2017 season (and his run with the Seahawks; he would sign a new deal with the San Francisco 49ers in the 2018 off-season) would end on November 9, 2017 during a Thursday night game against the Arizona Cardinals, when he ruptured his Achilles tendon On January 29, 2015, the NFL released its health and safety report, which states that an average of 4 8 injuries were sustained during Thursday games compared to 6 9 injuries per game on Sundays and Mondays During their September 29, 2022 game against Cincinnati, Miami Dolphins quarterback Tua Tagovailoa hit the ground with his left elbow, back and back of his helmet after taking a sack  Tagovailoa demonstrated a fencing response, and was stretchered off the field and transported to the University of Cincinnati Medical Center with head and neck injuries   He was discharged from the hospital later that night  The game took place only four days after the Dolphins' previous game against Buffalo, where Tagovailoa was briefly taken out of the game due to a head injury (initially reported by the team as a back injury), but returned to the game afterward  That decision prompted an investigation by the NFLPA as a possible violation of concussion protocol; the NFL stated there were indications that the concussion protocol had been followed in this case  The NFL faced scrutiny over its concussion policy following the game, with critics arguing that Tagovailoa should not have been cleared to play at all (especially with the shortened rest between the games and the multiple injuries); the league's chief medical officer Allen Sills stated that "we want to be thorough, and we want to be consistent and be fair to everyone involved and make sure that we have all the data on hand before we reach a final determination "The injury also prompted discussions over how such situations should be handled during broadcasts, as Amazon faced criticism for airing multiple, graphic replays of the injury during the telecast, and limiting discussion of the event during the halftime show  The first injury was discussed during a segment of the pre-game show, and acknowledged by color commentator Kirk Herbstreit after the second injury   A more extensive discussion did occur during the post-game show, where reporter Michael Smith stated that "I think there’s room for both concern for Tua — and frustration and outrage " ESPN analyst Cris Canty argued that the lack of discussion at halftime was an example of the NFL "protecting its own interest", while NBC Sports ProFootballTalk analyst Michael David Smith felt it was hypocritical of Richard Sherman to have signed with Amazon to join the Thursday Night Football studio panel, despite his previous criticisms of the games over player safety 

Notes
See also
NFL on Fox
NFL on CBS
NFL on NBC
NBC Sunday Night Football
Monday Night Football
Passage 2:
The Big Bang Theory (season 10)
The tenth season of the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory premiered on CBS on Monday, September 19, 2016  The series returned to its regular Thursday night time slot on October 27, 2016 after Thursday Night Football on CBS ended  The season concluded on May 11, 2017 On March 12, 2014, The Big Bang Theory was renewed for an additional three years, extending it through the 2016–17 television season for a total of ten seasons 

Production
Like the previous two seasons, the first five episodes of the tenth season aired on a different night due to CBS acquiring the rights to Thursday Night Football games  In May 2016, CBS announced at its annual upfront presentation that the series would begin its tenth season on Mondays, before returning to the Thursday slot once the football games ended Filming for the tenth season began on August 16, 2016, according to posts on Instagram and Twitter by several of the cast members including Kaley Cuoco and Mayim Bialik Several castings for the tenth season were announced before the season began airing  Variety announced on July 22, 2016, that Katey Sagal and Jack McBrayer had been cast as Penny's mother and brother, respectively  Information about the characters was that Sagal would play Susan, who was described as stressed out and neurotic from a life with her troubled son  McBrayer would play Randall, a cheerful former drug dealer and ex-con  Entertainment Weekly reported on August 10, 2016, a week before filming began, that Dean Norris would have a multi-episode arc in the tenth season, and would be playing Colonel Williams, a tough officer from the Air Force Research Laboratory, who is interested in the men's quantum gyroscope for military applications  On November 9, 2016, TVLine reported that Christopher Lloyd had been cast as Theodore for the season's December 1 episode 

Cast
Episodes
Ratings
Passage 3:
The Big Bang Theory (season 11)
The eleventh season of the American television sitcom The Big Bang Theory premiered on CBS on Monday, September 25, 2017  The series returned to its regular Thursday night time slot on November 2, 2017, after Thursday Night Football on CBS ended  The season concluded on May 10, 2018 
In March 2017, CBS renewed the series for two additional seasons, bringing its total to twelve and securing that the series would run through the 2018–19 television season 

Production
Like the previous three seasons, the first five episodes aired on Mondays due to CBS' contractual rights to air the Thursday Night Football games  After Thursday Night Football ended, the series returned to a Thursday schedule starting on November 2, 2017  Filming for the eleventh season began on August 15, 2017; it was also announced with the taping report that the premiere for the eleventh season would be titled "The Proposal Proposal"  Before the season premiered, five episodes were filmed from August 15 to September 19, 2017 According to TV Guide, Steve Holland announced on September 22, 2017, that both Bob Newhart and Wil Wheaton would return this season after their absences during Season 10 

Cast
Episodes
Ratings
Passage 4:
Roy Tuckman
Roy of Hollywood - real name, Roy Tuckman (23 June 1938 – 20 April 2023) was an American radio host  
He produced, engineered and hosted the "Something's Happening" show on Pacifica Radio station KPFK-FM in Los Angeles from 1977 until his death in 2023 Tuckman was born in Los Angeles in 1938, and earned a master's degree in social anthropology from UCLA in 1967  He joined KPFK in 1972  
Something's Happening ran from 12 midnight to 6:00 a m , Monday night/Tuesday mornings through Thursday night/Friday mornings  
Monday was "environment/anything goes" night, often featuring computer scientist and Ufologist Eben Rey  Tuesday was "health/alternative medicine" night, mainly featuring Gary Null  Wednesday was politics night, featuring anti-fascist researcher Dave Emory  Thursday was "spirituality/mysticism" night, often featuring Alan Watts, Jack Gariss, Colin Wilson, and J  Krishnamurti 
Tuckman's awards include a Major Armstrong Award for the documentary "Upton Sinclair: The Reverent Radical", and an AP Best Spot News Coverage award (shared with Elliot Mintz) for his live, on-air interview with Iranian hostage-takers inside the American embassy in Tehran in November 1979 
Passage 5:
Sports league ranking
In a sports league, the ranking of a team is the place where it is within the division  Generally, ranking is based on won-lost record of games, with the team with the best record at the top, and the worst record at the bottom  Another common method is a points-based ranking system, where a team is awarded a certain number of points per win, fewer points per tie, and none for a loss 
In most sports, with association football generally being an exception, teams with the better records are awarded the advantage of playing in the postseason and all the glory that accompanies this privilege 
In leagues that use promotion and relegation, being in or near last place typically results in relegation to the next-lower league, although in some leagues, teams that finish near but not at the bottom may enter a promotion/relegation playoff with one or more teams from the next-lower league, and some other leagues relegate teams based on performance over multiple seasons  In leagues with franchise systems, such as those in the US and Canada and in Australia, being in last place is only harmful to the team's reputation and not its place in the league  However, in some franchised leagues, the last place finisher may receive special compensation, such as being offered the first draft choice 

By sport
Association football
Most association football leagues do not directly use teams' won-drawn-lost record to determine ranking  Instead, a points system is used: 3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw and 0 points for a loss 
This system is also used in group stages of major international competitions (such as the FIFA World Cup) and international club competitions (such as the UEFA Champions League and Copa Libertadores) 
All competitions also have a tiebreaking procedure to separate teams that are level on points 
Most leagues determine their champions solely by regular-season standings  The most notable exceptions to this rule are leagues in North America and Australia  The top leagues in both regions—Major League Soccer (MLS) in the United States and Canada, Liga MX in Mexico, and the A-League in Australia (plus one team in New Zealand)—operate playoff systems to determine the season champion (or, in Mexico, two season champions)  MLS and the A-League are franchised, while Liga MX uses promotion and relegation 
As a general rule, teams that finish sufficiently high on the regular-season table also earn the right to play in the next edition of one of the international club competitions for their region  For example, European clubs (more precisely, clubs in areas governed by UEFA, which includes several countries that lie partially or totally outside geographic Europe) can qualify for the UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League, or UEFA Europa Conference League  Similarly, top teams in other parts of the world can qualify for the Copa Libertadores, AFC Champions League, CAF Champions League, CONCACAF Champions League, or OFC Champions League 

Cricket
In most T20 cricket leagues, the top four teams from the group stage advance to the playoffs, which are held under the Page playoff format  
Initially in the Indian Premier League, there were 52 matches in each league  This was increased to 96 matches in 2011  The top three teams in this league used to automatically make it to the now-defunct Champions League Twenty20, held by International Cricket Council every year 

Baseball
In Major League Baseball, there are three divisions in each league  The leader in each division automatically makes the playoffs, regardless of record  As of 2012, two additional teams, known as the wild cards, play one game to determine who will face the division winner with the best record  From 1995 to 2011, a single wild card team reached the playoffs; before 1969 one team from each league reached the World Series, and from 1969 to 1993 each league had two divisions, whose leaders played a series to determine the league champion and entrant in the World Series  The 1994 season was played using a three-division, one-wild-card setup, but a labor dispute ended the season before these honors could be earned by any team (the first time in 90 years the United States would be without a World Series) 
In the Division Series, the team with the best record of the three plays the wild card survivor, and the other two teams play each other in a best-of-five playoff  Beginning with the 2012 postseason, the team with the best record plays the wild-card survivor, regardless of divisional alignment  Previously, teams from the same division were not allowed to meet in the Division Series  The winners of each series play each other in a League Championship Series in a best-of-seven playoff to determine the pennant winner  The two pennant winners then play a best-of-seven series known as the World Series to determine the champion 

Basketball and Hockey
In the NBA and NHL, finishing in last place does not guarantee the first draft choice  Rather, a lottery is used between all of the lower-ranking teams (The 14 out of 30 that failed to reach the postseason)   The team with the worst record is given the highest odds of winning the lottery (often 4-to-1), but is not guaranteed the first choice   In the NBA, the first three draft choices are chosen via the lottery, and each winning team receives the draft place it won in the lottery   In the NHL, only one lottery winner is chosen, and if the team is not one of the four worst teams record-wise in the league, it improves four positions in the draft   If the team is one of the worst four, it receives the first draft choice   In both leagues, the remaining teams are sorted by their records during the regular season (lottery teams) or playoff performance   The lottery only affects the first round of the draft   This format is used to prevent a team from losing intentionally in order to automatically gain the first draft choice privilege 

American football
In the NFL, there are two conferences—the AFC and NFC—which are each divided into four divisions—North, South, East, and West   The winner of each division plus three "wild card" teams from each conference advance to the playoffs   The team with the best record in each conference receives a bye in the first round of the playoffs, known as the Wild Card Round, and automatically advances to the Divisional Round (second round)   The six other teams play single-elimination games; the lowest seed of the three winners advances to play the bye team, while the other two Wild Card Round winners play one another   The Divisional Round winners advance to the conference championship games and then to the Super Bowl, where the winner receives the Lombardi Trophy and title of Super Bowl Champion, along with championship rings for each member   The NFL Draft is held every April and the order of selection is based on the records from the 16-game regular season, from worst to best, with the Super Bowl champions selecting last   Trading rules are the same as in basketball and hockey, and trading the rights of players after they have been drafted but before they have signed a contract is not uncommon 

Rugby union
As with association football, most leagues in rugby union use a points system to determine ranking  The most commonly used system in the sport is:

Base points:  Win: 4, Draw: 2, Loss: 0
Bonus points:
1 point for scoring 4 or more tries  In France's professional league, the try bonus is awarded to a team that scores at least 3 more tries than its opponent 
1 point for losing by 7 points or less (the value of a converted try)This system is used in the group stages of all competitions operated by World Rugby, such as the Rugby World Cup  It is also used in group stages of most international club competitions, including the Heineken Cup 
While The Rugby Championship in the Southern Hemisphere has always used the standard bonus points system, its Northern Hemisphere counterpart, the Six Nations Championship, did not use said system until 2017  It instead used a system with no bonus points:  Win: 2 points, Draw: 1 point,  Loss: 0 points  When the Six Nations adopted the standard bonus points system, it added a provision that a team that completes the Grand Slam by defeating all other opponents receives 3 extra table points  This ensures that a Grand Slam winner will win the championship regardless of bonus points earned by any other teams  All competitions also have a tiebreaking procedure to separate teams that are level on points 
Unlike most association football leagues, rugby union leagues generally determine their champions in a knockout playoff  The most common system is a four-team Shaughnessy playoff, though France's Top 14 has a six-team playoff 

See also
Elimination from possibility of reaching postseason

Footnotes
Passage 6:
2018 College Football Playoff National Championship
The 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game played on January 8, 2018, at Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia, and was televised nationally by ESPN  The fourth College Football Playoff National Championship, the game determined a national champion in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2017 season  Aside from the all star games following this, this was the cumulating game of the 2017-18 bowl season  Sponsored by telecommunications company AT&T, the game was officially known as the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship presented by AT&T  
The Alabama Crimson Tide coming back from a 13–0 deficit at halftime, defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 26–23  This was the first CFP National Championship game to be decided into overtime, and the first overtime National Championship game since the 2003 Fiesta Bowl  True freshman quarterback Tua Tagovailoa and defensive tackle Daron Payne were respectively named the offensive and defensive players of the game 
The College Football Playoff selection committee chose the semifinalists following the conclusion of the 2017 regular season  Alabama and Georgia advanced to the national championship after winning the semifinal games hosted by the Sugar Bowl and Rose Bowl Game respectively on January 1, 2018 

Background
The Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia was announced as the host site for the fourth College Football National Championship on November 4, 2015 

2018 College Football Playoff
The College Football Playoff (CFP) selection committee selected four teams to advance to the playoff: the Clemson Tigers, Oklahoma Sooners, Georgia Bulldogs, and Alabama Crimson Tide  The semifinals were played on January 1, 2018  The first semifinal, played at the Rose Bowl, Georgia won 54-48, after a 27 yard run by Sony Michel, shortly after a blocked Oklahoma field goal in the second overtime  In the second semifinal, played at the Sugar Bowl, Alabama defeated defending national champion Clemson 24-6 

Teams
Alabama
The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Clemson Tigers in the 2018 Sugar Bowl by a score of 24–6 to reach the championship game  The Tide had a 12–1 season, becoming the SEC West Division co-champions with the Auburn Tigers  The Crimson Tide were coached by Nick Saban 

Georgia
The Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2018 Rose Bowl by a score of 54–48 in double overtime to reach the championship game  The Bulldogs had a 13–1 season claiming their 13th Southeastern Conference (SEC) championship with a rematch victory over the Auburn Tigers, 28–7  The Bulldogs were coached by Kirby Smart 

Starting lineups
Source:

Game summary
First half
After winning the coin toss, Alabama deferred to the second half and Georgia received the ball to begin the game  After two plays, quarterback Jake Fromm attempted a pass downfield and was intercepted by Tony Brown  Alabama began their first drive of the game, and, after eleven plays, that drive ended with kicker Andy Pappanastos missing a 40-yard field goal  The teams each had three-and-outs for the game's first two punts  During Georgia's ensuing drive, the quarter ended, with no score After a failed third down conversion, on the second play of the second quarter, Georgia kicker Rodrigo Blankenship hit a 41-yard field goal to open the scoring and put Georgia in the lead by three  Alabama's ensuing drive went nowhere, as they gained four yards on three plays and punted  Georgia took the ball and drove down the field, and found themselves with a first and goal at the Alabama 10-yard-line; the Tide defense held, however, and the Bulldogs settled for a second field goal and took a 6–0 lead with just over seven and a half minutes until half  On Alabama's next drive, the Georgia defense held yet again and Alabama's J  K  Scott punted for the third time  Just prior to the punt, Georgia wide receiver Javon Wims was shown walking to the locker room, reportedly with a left shoulder injury  Both defenses then forced punts, and Georgia took back over with 1:19 remaining in the half on their own 31-yard-line  Nine plays later, on Alabama's 1-yard-line, Mecole Hardman took a direct snap, faked a handoff, and ran into the end zone for the game's first touchdown, putting Georgia up 13–0 going into halftime 

Second half
Because they deferred the coin toss, Alabama received the ball first in the second half  They started their drive on their own 22-yard-line  Tua Tagovailoa, Alabama's backup quarterback, started the second half for the Tide; that drive quickly resulted in a three-and-out  The initial punt was blocked, but an offside call gave the Tide another chance to punt  Georgia started their drive on their own 36-yard-line, but punted on 4th & 17  Alabama took over on their own 44-yard-line  The teams then traded touchdowns on consecutive drives; Alabama scored their first points of the game on a 6-yard pass from Tagovailoa to Ruggs, but Georgia immediately responded with an 80-yard touchdown connection from Fromm to Mecole Hardman, putting Georgia up 20–7  On the second play of Alabama's ensuing drive, Tagovailoa, while scrambling to the left, threw into traffic and was intercepted by Georgia's Deandre Baker  Up 13, the Bulldogs took over possession of the ball on Alabama's 39-yard-line  The Tide defense responded immediately, however, as Raekwon Davis intercepted a Jake Fromm pass on the first play of Georgia's drive, returning the pick to the UGA 40-yard-line  The Tide gained fifteen yards on six plays and kicker Andy Pappanastos avenged his earlier miss with a 43-yard field goal that put Bama within ten  The teams then traded punts  Just prior to Alabama's punt, it was announced that an Alabama defensive back, Kyriq McDonald, had collapsed on the sideline; the situation was described as a "serious medical emergency"  He was loaded onto a medical stretcher awake and conscious  Georgia could not muster anything on offense that drive, and punted  The fourth quarter saw Tagovailoa lead the Tide to come back and tie the game at 20 with 3:49  Alabama regained possession, and with three seconds remaining in the game, Andy Pappanastos missed a potential game-winning 36-yard field goal wide left, sending the CFP Championship to overtime, the first in the era 

Overtime
In overtime, Georgia had an unsuccessful drive that resulted in both a three-and-out, and a 13-yard loss sack to Fromm   Georgia opted to attempt a 51-yard field goal, which they made  On Alabama's first offensive play in overtime, Tagovailoa was sacked for a 16-yard loss, but immediately followed that with a game-winning 41-yard touchdown pass to DeVonta Smith, in a play that has since been called 2nd and 26 by fans  Tagovailoa was named the offensive player of the game, and Daron Payne was named the defensive player of the game 

Scoring summary
Statistics
Broadcasting
The game was televised nationally by ESPN and ESPN Radio  On January 8, 2018, the network announced that its broadcast would feature a live performance by Kendrick Lamar during halftime  This performance was separate from the event proper at Mercedes-Benz Stadium (which featured a traditional halftime show with the marching bands of the participating teams), and originated from Centennial Olympic Park 

See also
Alabama–Georgia football rivalry
College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS
Super Bowl LIII, the NFL championship game contested at the same venue on February 3, 2019
Passage 7:
WNFL
WNFL (1440 AM) is an American all-sports radio station located in Green Bay, Wisconsin  The station is locally owned and operated by Midwest Communications, which owns six other stations in Northeast Wisconsin  WNFL simulcasts the programming of WRNW in Milwaukee from 6 a m  to 6 p m  on weekdays  The station is also an affiliate of Fox Sports Radio, carrying much of their line-up for the remainder of the day and on weekends  It airs one minute news updates from CBS at approximately 45 minutes past the hour  In addition to the station's sports-talk offerings, WNFL airs Milwaukee Bucks basketball play-by-play and local high school football and basketball games  Milwaukee Brewers baseball games during the work week are also on WNFL, with night and weekend games on sister station WTAQ 
Former programming on the station included The Steve Czaban Show and the station's local Maino & Nick (John Maino and Nick Vitrano) show 
WNFL's studios and transmitter are located on Bellevue Street in the Green Bay suburb of Bellevue  Weather updates are provided by the "FOX 11 Severe Weather Lab" at WLUK-TV 

History
The Green Bay Press-Gazette built WJPG – a daytimer – in 1947 and it began broadcasting with 1000 watts of power on 810 kHz on December 12, 1947  Nighttime service was added in the station's early ears, and WJPG changed AM frequencies from 810 to 1440 kHz on May 24, 1951  Daytime power was increased to 5,000 watts on June 16, 1954 WJPG was a CONELRAD authorized radio station, meaning that if CONELRAD were activated, WJPG would remain on the air and transmit emergency information  A CONELRAD alarm was incorrectly sent to the WJPG control station on the evening of November 5, 1959  The message sent to the control station was "This is an air defense radio alert", rather than what should have been sent for a test, "This is an air defense line check " Northeast Wisconsin's three television stations (WFRV, WLUK, and WBAY) and radio stations WBAY and WJPG were all taken offline for 20 minutes as they prepared to implement CONELRAD alert procedures, until the error was realized and the alert preparation was reversed WJPG changed its call letters to WNFL on August 7, 1967, several months after the Green Bay Packers won Super Bowl I  WNFL changed ownership several times until 1996, when Midwest Communications acquired the station, along with sister stations WNCY and WYDR (then WROE) 

WNFL personalities
Mark Daniels: "WNFL Sports Report" anchor and high school sports play-by-play
Doug Higgins: Weekend weather (from WLUK-TV)
Pete Petoniak: Morning/early-afternoon weather (from WLUK-TV)
Patrick Powell: Late-afternoon/evening/overnight weather (from WLUK-TV)
Jason Hillery: Program Director



ground_truth: Scottish clan