prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The city where Dmitry Borisovich was born is located where in Russia?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Kaributas
Kaributas (Koribut, Korybut, baptized Dmitry; after 1350 – after 1404) was a son of Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and reigned in Severian Novgorod until 1393 
Kaributas was born some time after 1350 (exact date is unknown) to Algirdas of Lithuania and Uliana of Tver  Born a pagan, around 1380 he was baptised in the Orthodox rite and became the prince of Severian Novgorod  He adopted the Christian name of Dmitry and hence is sometimes referred to as Dmitry Korybut (a combination of his Slavicised Lithuanian name Kaributas and his Christian name)  He appeared in politics during the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384) when he supported his brother Jogaila against his uncle Kęstutis and cousin Vytautas  In 1382 he began a rebellion in Severian Novgorod, engaging Kęstutis' forces so that Jogaila could attack and capture lightly guarded Vilnius, capital of the Grand Duchy  He also witnessed the Treaty of Dubysa with the Teutonic Knights 
For his service, he was awarded possessions in Navahrudak and Lida  Kaributas continued to support Jogaila: he witnessed the Union of Krewo and fought in the Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392)  After the Ostrów Agreement, he refused to recognize Vytautas' superiority and was defeated in a battle near Lida in early 1393  Kaributas was imprisoned and stripped of his possessions  However, he was soon released and given Zbarazh, Bratslav, and Vinnytsia  Severian Novgorod was given to Fedor, son of Liubartas  Kaributas appeared last in written sources in 1404 during a military campaign waged by Vytautas against the Principality of Smolensk 
Kaributas' male-line descendants included Princes Zbaraski, Wiśniowiecki and, in the Russian Empire, Woroniecki, and Nieswicki, making these families Gediminid  King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki was named Korybut to foreground his agnatic descent from Kaributas 

Marriage and issue
Kaributas married Princess Anastasia, daughter of Grand Prince Oleg II of Ryazan, with whom he had three daughters and three sons  
Kaributas issue originated the Korybut coat of arms 

Helena (wife of John II "the Iron" Duke of Racibórz),
Fedor of Nesvich, Volhynia
Sigismund Korybut (a claimant to the Bohemian Crown),
Nastasia (wife of Fedor of Kashin)
Ivan
Passage 2:
Gmina Tarnów
Gmina Tarnów is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Tarnów County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, in southern Poland  Its seat is the city of Tarnów, although the city is not part of the territory of the gmina 
The gmina covers an area of 82 81 square kilometres (32 0 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 23,060 

Villages
Gmina Tarnów contains the villages and settlements of Biała, Błonie, Jodłówka-Wałki, Koszyce Małe, Koszyce Wielkie, Łękawka, Nowodworze, Poręba Radlna, Radlna, Tarnowiec, Wola Rzędzińska, Zawada, Zbylitowska Góra and Zgłobice 

Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Tarnów is bordered by the city of Tarnów and by the gminas of Czarna, Lisia Góra, Pleśna, Skrzyszów, Tuchów, Wierzchosławice, Wojnicz and Żabno 
Passage 3:
Kis-Küküllő County
Kis-Küküllő was an administrative county (comitatus) of the Kingdom of Hungary  Its territory is now in central Romania (central Transylvania)  Kis-Küküllő is the Hungarian name for the river Târnava Mică  The capital of the county was Dicsőszentmárton (now Târnăveni) 

Geography
Kis-Küküllő county shared borders with the Hungarian counties Alsó-Fehér, Torda-Aranyos, Maros-Torda, Udvarhely and Nagy-Küküllő  The river Mureș formed part of its northern border, the river Târnava Mare its southern border  Târnava Mică river flowed through the county  Its area was 1,724 km² around 1910 

History
Kis-Küküllő county came into existence in 1876, when the administrative structure of Transylvania was changed and Küküllő County was split  In 1920, by the Treaty of Trianon, the county became part of Romania  After the Second Vienna Award, a little part of the former county became part of Hungary again and was assigned to the recreated Maros-Torda County  Its territory lies in the present Romanian counties Mureș (a o  Târnăveni), Alba (the south-west) and Sibiu (the south, a o  Dumbrăveni) 

Demographics
Subdivisions
In the early 20th century, the subdivisions of Kis-Küküllő county were:

Notes
Passage 4:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 5:
Rostov
Rostov (Russian: Росто́в, IPA: [rɐˈstof]) is a town in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, one of the oldest in the country and a tourist center of the Golden Ring  It is located on the shores of Lake Nero, 202 kilometers (126 mi) northeast of Moscow  Population: 30,406 (2021 Census); 31,792 (2010 Census); 34,141 (2002 Census); 35,707 (1989 Census) While the official name of the town is Rostov, it is popularly known to Russians as Rostov Veliky (Russian: Ростов Великий, Rostov the Great) to distinguish it from the much larger city of Rostov-on-Don  The name of the town railway station is Rostov Yaroslavsky, due to its location in Yaroslavl Oblast 

History
Rostov was preceded by Sarskoye Gorodishche, which some scholars interpret as the capital of the Finnic Merya tribe  Others believe it was an important Viking trade enclave and fortress guarding the Volga trade route  It is known from Norse sources as Raðstofa  Scythians also settled there  These different ethnicities, such as the Vikings, Scyths, Slavs and Finns, were likely the ancestors of many of today's people in that region  First mentioned in documents in the year 862 as an already important settlement, by the 10th century Rostov became the capital city of Vladimir-Suzdal, one of the most prominent principalities in Rus'  It was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1474 After losing its independent status, Rostov was still an ecclesiastic center – from 988 it was the see of the Diocese of Yaroslavl, one of the first Russian bishoprics  In the 14th century, the bishops of Rostov became archbishops, and late in the 16th century, metropolitans  One of those metropolitans, Iona (Jonah) Sysoyevich (c  1607–1690), commissioned the town's main landmark: the Rostov Kremlin  This is regarded by some as the finest outside that of Moscow Ravaged by the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries (last sack by Edigu in 1408), and the Poles in 1608, Rostov survived as a medium-sized town  Late in the 18th century, the metropolitan see was transferred to Yaroslavl 
Rostov is renowned for manufacturing enamels 
On August 24, 1953, the town was hit by an F3 tornado, causing severe damage  The tornado traveled 6 kilometers with a maximum width of up to 550 meters 

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Rostov serves as the administrative center of Rostovsky District, even though it is not a part of it  As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the town of oblast significance of Rostov—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts  As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Rostov is incorporated within Rostovsky Municipal District as Rostov Urban Settlement 

Main sights
The architecture of the city shows many examples of early Russian Orthodox architecture  The central square of Rostov is occupied by the Assumption Cathedral  It is unknown when the present building was erected, the mid-16th century being the most likely date  Lower parts of the cathedral walls are dated to the 12th century  The ponderous bell-tower was constructed mostly in the 17th century  Its bells are among the largest and most famous in Russia - each has its own name  The largest bell, cast in 1688, weighs 32,000 kilograms (71,000 lb)  It is named Sysoy to honor the city's founding father  The church is home to the incorrupt body of Saint Leontius of Rostov An area situated between the cathedral square and the lake was chosen by Iona Sysoevich as a place for his fairy-tale residence  All the construction works were carried out between 1667 and 1694  Major buildings include the ornate Savior Church-na-Senyakh (1675), the sombre Church of St  Gregory (1670), and the barbican churches of St  John the Apostle (1683) and of the Resurrection of Christ (1670)  The residence, often erroneously called kremlin, also includes eleven ornate tower bells, numerous palaces, several small belfries, and the diminutive baroque Church of Our Lady of Smolensk (1693)  All the churches are elaborately painted and decorated 
The cathedral and four tall kremlin churches with their silver "blind" domes were imitated throughout the city  This is particularly evident in the Savior-on-the-Market church and the cathedral church of the Nativity convent, both dating from the 17th century and situated near the kremlin walls  The oldest church within the town center was consecrated to St  Isidore the Blessed in 1565  They say that Ivan the Terrible had the architect executed, because his church was so much smaller than its predecessor 
The kremlin is flanked by two monasteries, both facing the Lake Nero  To the right from the kremlin stands the Abraham monastery, founded in the 11th century and one of the oldest in Russia  Its cathedral, commissioned by Ivan the Terrible in 1553 to commemorate the conquest of Kazan, inspired numerous churches in the region, particularly in Yaroslavl 
Spaso-Yakovlevsky Monastery, situated to the left from the Kremlin on the town's outskirts, has been venerated as the shrine of St  Dmitry of Rostov  Most of the monastery structures were built in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in the fine neoclassical style  There are also two 17th-century churches: the Conception of St  Anna, and the Transfiguration of Our Savior  Unlike most other churches in the town, the monastery belongs to the Russian Orthodoxy and houses a theological seminary 

Surroundings
The vicinity of Rostov is rich in old architecture  For example, an old wooden church (1687–1689) may be seen in Ishnya  One of the best preserved monasteries in Russia, named after the saints Boris and Gleb, is situated in Borisoglebsky, about 20 kilometers (12 mi) west of the town  The monastery was favored by Ivan the Terrible, who personally supervised the construction of towered walls and bell-tower around an even more ancient cathedral  The only addition made to the monastery after Ivan's death is a barbican church, commissioned by the metropolitan Iona Sysoyevich 

Twin towns/sister cities
Jämsä, Finland
 Stevens Point, Wisconsin, USA

Rostov in films
Peter I (Russian: Пётр Первый) (1937), by Vladimir Petov
Ivan Vasilievich: Back to the Future (Russian: Иван Васильевич меняет профессию, Ivan Vasilievich Changes His Profession) (1973), by Leonid Gaidai

Notable people
Dmitry Borisovich (1253–1294), Russian nobleman
Konstantin of Rostov (1186–1218), the eldest son of Vsevolod the Big Nest and Maria Shvarnovna
Vasilko Konstantinovich (1209–1238), the first Prince of Rostov
Olena Kryvytska (born 1987), Ukrainian fencer
Lev Naumov (1925–2005), Russian classical pianist, composer and educator
Yuri Alexandrovich Bilibin (1901–1952), geologist
Vera Dmitrievna Titova (1888–?), Russian scientist and educator
Passage 6:
Dmitry Liss
Dmitry Liss (born 1960) is a Russian conductor  He is also the artistic director and chief conductor of the Ural Philharmonic Orchestra 

Biography
Born in 1960, Dmitry Liss is a graduate of the Moscow Conservatory  Upon graduation from the conservatory in 1984 he became a conductor of the Kuzbass Symphony Orchestra  In 1991 he was appointed to the position of Chief Conductor of this orchestra and at this time became the youngest chief conductor in Russia  Since 1995, Dmitry Liss has served as Artistic Director/Chief Conductor of the Ural Philharmonic Orchestra  Most recently, Liss was appointed Associate Conductor of the Russian National Orchestra (1999)  In 1997–1999 he was Principal Russian Conductor of the American Russian Youth Orchestra 

Activities
He has taken part in numerous international festivals and has recorded CDs for a variety of American, Russian, Japanese, Taiwanese, Belgian and Swiss companies 

Awards
Winner of the 1st International Competition of Young Conductors Lovro von Matačić (Zagreb, 1995) 
Artist Emeritus of Russia

External links
Dmitry Liss on the web-site of the Ural Philharmonic Orchestra
Dmitry Liss on the web-site of the Russian National Orchestra
(in English) Productions Internationales Albert Sarfati (World Management) : Dmitry Liss
DMITRY LISS: CONDUCTING IS SORT OF A DISEASE
Passage 7:
Gallaratese
Gallaratese is a district ("quartiere") of Milan, Italy, part of the Zone 8 administrative division of the city  It is located about 7 km north-west of the city centre  It borders on the comune of Pero to the north and on the districts of Trenno to the west and Lampugnano to the south; to the east, its ideal border is the eponymous street, which in turn is named after Gallarate, the town it leads to 

Overview
The district is clearly subdivided into two parts; the first one, in the area of Via Cechov, has developed after the other one, enclosed between Via Cilea and Via Apennini; this latter, older part of the district is sometimes referred to as quartiere San Leonardo  These two parts are connected by a major shopping mall called Bonola  
Gallaratese is one of the largest districts in Italy to have been built "from scratch" in the 20th century (between the 1960s and 1980s) in a previously rural area  The Olona river, which traverses the district, has been laid underground  The first buildings to be created in Gallaratese were large apartment blocks; smaller palaces were added later  Today, the district has a population of about 60,000  The district is well connected by public transportation; it has four stops of the Milan Metro subway and five bus lines traversing it  It is also close to major thoroughfares such as the Tangenziale and the Strada del Sempione  
A major landmark of the Gallaratese district is Monte Amiata, a complex of apartment blocks that were designed by Carlo Aymonino, and that are characterized by a futuristic architecture  The most typical buildings are the so-called "tower houses" (case torri in Italian, tower-shaped apartment blocks 

History
The project for the Gallaraterse district was first laid down by architect Piero Bottoni in the mid 20th century  The objective was to create a low-income housing district with green areas, effective traffic connection to the city, and functional public services  Construction began in 1957, from a first core of the district named "Gallaratese G 1"  The original plan by Bottoni was then refined and developed by over 60 architects, led by Gianluigi Reggio   A second and third part of the district, named "Gallaratese G 2" and "San Leonardo" respectively, were developed between 1964 and 1974   In those years, the "tower houses" that now characterize the Gallaratese' skyline were built   The final outcome was quite different from the original plans; the district was in fact developed with less green areas and less services than it had been planned, resulting in a definitely "satellite" district  
In the last decades of the 20th century the district has grown larger, gradually extending north up to the borders of Pero; the Bonola shopping mall was also created 

Footnotes
External links
Portal of the Gallaratese district (in Italian)
Passage 8:
Pesanggrahan, South Jakarta
Pesanggrahan is a district of South Jakarta one of the administrative cities which forms the capital territory of Jakarta, Indonesia  The Pesanggrahan River flows along the eastern edge of Pesanggrahan District  To the west of Pesanggrahan District is Tangerang and South Tangerang, Banten Province 
Pesanggrahan District was originally part of the Kebayoran Lama District, which was later made into a separate district 
A southwestern portion of the Jakarta Outer Ring Road and the Serpong-Jakarta railway passed through Pesanggrahan District 

Toponym
The name Pesanggrahan is derived from the name of the river Pesanggrahan along the eastern edge of the district 

Kelurahan (Administrative villages)
The district of Pesanggrahan is divided into five administrative villages (kelurahan):

Ulujami - area code 12250
Petukangan Utara - area code 12260
Petukangan Selatan - area code 12270
Pesanggrahan - area code 12320
Bintaro - area code 12330

List of important places

Budi Luhur University
Darunnajah Islamic Boarding School
Metro Mall Cipulir
Taman Swadharma
Passage 9:
Anatoly Chubais
Anatoly Borisovich Chubais (Russian: Анатолий Борисович Чубайс; born 16 June 1955) is a Russian politician and economist who was responsible for privatization in Russia as an influential member of Boris Yeltsin's administration in the early 1990s  During this period, he was a key figure in introducing a market economy and the principles of private ownership to Russia after the fall of the Soviet Union  He has the federal state civilian service rank of 1st class Active State Councillor of the Russian Federation From 1998 to 2008, he headed the state-owned electrical power monopoly RAO UES  A 2004 survey conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers and the Financial Times named Chubais the world's 54th most respected business leader  He was the head of the Russian Nanotechnology Corporation (RUSNANO) in 2008–2020  He was a member of the Advisory Council for JPMorgan Chase from September 2008 until 2013  From December 2020, he served as a special envoy of the Russian president for relations with international organisations On 23 March 2022, Chubais resigned from his position of special envoy and left Russia due to his opposition to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, according to media reports  He is the highest ranked Russian figure to resign due to the invasion 

Early life
Chubais was born on 16 June 1955 in the town of Borisov, Belarus, which was then part of the Soviet Union, the son of Raisa Efimovna (Sagal) and Boris Matveyevich Chubais  His father was Russian and his mother was Lithuanian Jewish  His father, a retired army colonel and veteran of World War II, was in the military at the time of Chubais' birth, and later worked as a lecturer of Philosophy  Though his mother received a degree in economics at university, she opted to stay home to care for their children on the military bases where her husband was regularly assigned  Anatoly Chubais has an older brother, Igor Chubais (born 1947), a philosopher In 1977, Chubais graduated from the Leningrad Institute of Engineering and Economics (LEEI) in present-day St  Petersburg and joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union until 1991 when he left it 

Career
Early career (1977–1991)
While later working at LEEI, Chubais started a club called Reforma, which helped turn the city of Leningrad into a model of political reform by constructing platforms for both local and national elections  Reforma also engaged in drafting reformist legislation, an important step down the road when Chubais would work in the city government  In 1982, he attained the rank of associate professor (доцент) at LEEI, while in 1983, he received his Candidate of Sciences (Ph D ) degree in Economics for the dissertation entitled "Исследование и разработка методов планирования совершенствования управления в отраслевых научно-технических организациях" (Research and Development of Methods for the Planned Improvement of Management in Industrial Research and Development Organizations) Starting in the early 1980s, Chubais became a leader of an informal circle of market-oriented economists in Leningrad  In 1982, together with economists Yury Yarmagayev and Grigory Glazkov, he published an article titled "Вопросы расширения хозяйственной самостоятельности предприятий в условиях научно-технического прогресса" (Questions of Expanding the Autonomy of Business Enterprises under the conditions of Scientific and Technological Progress) in which the authors argue that no amount of central planning can predict the end-demand for products  In 1982, Chubais was introduced to the future Prime Minister of Russia Yegor Gaidar, who was invited to and attended seminars led by Chubais By 1987, Chubais had become the organiser of the Leningrad chapter of the club Perestroyka, whose mission was to promote and discuss democratic ideas among the local intelligentsia  Among the people involved were his brother, Igor, who had founded the Moscow-based chapter of the Perestroyka and Perestroyka-88 clubs, future Russian Deputy Prime Minister Alexei Kudrin, future Chubais associates Pyotr Mostovoy and Alexander Kazakov, the future President of Saint Petersburg bank Vladimir Kogan, future Minister of Anti-Monopoly Policy and Entrepreneurship Support Ilya Yuzhanov, and future Deputy Governor of Saint Petersburg Mikhail Manevich The dissident economists organized a tulip farm to finance their seminars  In the four days before the International Women's Day (8 March), they managed to get income equivalent to the price of several Lada cars  The tulip money was used to finance the elections of Anatoly Sobchak, Yury Boldyrev and many other democratic candidates  As a result, 2/3 of the deputies winning the 1990 elections to Leningrad Soviet were from the opposition  Chubais himself later stated that he personally did not participate in growing or selling of the flowers At the end of 1990, the economist Vitaly Nayshul proposed the idea of using vouchers to facilitate mass privatization in order to transform the Soviet Union into a market economy  Chubais strongly criticized the scheme at the time, citing the inevitable inequality and social tensions that would result if implemented as proposed  Ironically, Chubais would later become the champion of the same concept just several years later 

Privatization chief in Leningrad (1990–1994)
In 1990, upon the election of Anatoly Sobchak as Chairman of the Leningrad City Council, Chubais assumed the position of his Deputy  He was trying to implement Sobchak's idea of creating a Free Economic Zone in Leningrad  In 1991, Chubais declined the offer to become the Chairman of Leningrad Ispolkom to instead become an advisor to the mayoral administration in Leningrad (by now renamed St  Petersburg) where Sobchak had just been elected mayor  At the same time, Chubais worked as the president of newly established Wassily Leontief Center for Research in Economics 

In Yeltsin government (1992–1999)
In November 1991, Chubais became a minister in the Yeltsin Cabinet where he managed the portfolio of Rosimushchestvo (the Committee for the Management of State Property) which was handling privatization in Russia Chubais originally advocated rapid privatization in order to raise revenue, similar to the model used in Hungary  However, the Congress of People's Deputies of Russia rejected this model  Eventually, a compromise was proposed in the form of a voucher privatization program akin to the program used in the Czech Republic at the time  On 11 June 1991, the Supreme Soviet of Russia adopted this compromise and the massive program was officially initiated by decree of President Boris Yeltsin on 19 August 1991  This privatization program later came under heavy criticism  While most Russian citizens lost their savings in only a few weeks, a few oligarchs rapidly became billionaires by arbitraging the vast difference between the old domestic prices for Russian commodities versus the prices prevailing on the world market  The people who benefited from this arbitrage became known as "kleptocrats" because they stashed billions of dollars in Swiss bank accounts rather than investing in the Russian economy 
From November 1994 until January 1996, Chubais held the position of deputy prime minister for economic and financial policy in the Russian government  Thanks to liberalizing reforms carried out in 1995, the Russian Government was finally enjoying a measure of financial stability, something its politicians had been seeking ever since the resignation of Yegor Gaidar in 1993  By the end of 1995, the average annual inflation rate had declined from 18% down to 3% From April 1995 until February 1996, Chubais also represented Russia in two international financial institutions – the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) After resigning as deputy prime minister in January 1996, Chubais agreed to manage Boris Yeltsin's reelection campaign  By this time according to public opinion surveys, Yeltsin's approval rating had fallen to roughly 3%  Chubais established the Civil Society Foundation as well as Yeltsin's Campaign Analytical Group, which became one part of the Foundation  The group helped Yeltsin regain popularity and win re-election in the second round of the polls on 3 July 1994, capturing 53 82% of the popular vote From July 1996 until March 1997, Chubais was the chief of the Russian Presidential Administration  During his tenure, his office grew increasingly influential Chubais participated in the Bilderberg Club session in Turnberry, Scotland in 1998, and co-chaired the Round Table of Industrialists of Russia and the EU during the joint session of the Government Commission of the Russian Federation and the European Union  He was also elected to the Board of Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs in 2000 According to Yeltsin's daughter and chief of staff Tatyana Yumasheva, Chubais opposed the nomination of Vladimir Putin as Prime Minister of Russia and Yeltsin's successor in 1999  Although Chubais believed Putin was qualified for the position, he feared that his appointment would be rejected by the State Duma, allow the Communist Party of the Russian Federation to gain a large enough parliamentary majority to amend the constitution, and start a civil war 

RAO Unified Energy System of Russia (1998–2008)
In 1998, Chubais was elected to the chairman of the board of RAO UES of Russia, the state-owned electricity monopoly, at a special general meeting of shareholders; he soon was also appointed chairman of the board Since 2000, Chubais consistently defended the need for further reform, which included dis-aggregating power generation, transmission, and distribution activities from the monopoly holding company in order to facilitate the subsequent sale of a majority of shares to private investors  Chubais was convinced that the un-bundling and privatization of the state monopoly were the only mechanisms able to raise the substantial funds needed to modernize Russia's electricity sector He was elected president of the CIS Electric Power Council (2000), and later was repeatedly re-elected to that post from 2001 to 2004 In addition to reforms, Chubais and his team raised more than $30 billion in private investments for the Russian electric power sector  The funds were used to finance the construction of new facilities: 130 new units with a total capacity of about 29,000 MW, 10,000 kilometers of transmission lines, 60,000 kilometers of distribution network lines, and thousands of electrical sub-stations of all classes of voltage  His reforms also helped eliminate the use of barter payments and significantly reduced the number of payment defaults in the sector On 17 March 2005, he survived an assassination attempt  Vladimir Kvachkov was charged for the crime, but was acquitted by a jury In 2007, the Russian newspaper Vedomosti named Chubais the "Professional of the Year"  The paper called him the only professional reformer in Russia because of his achievements in breaking of one monopoly into dozens of independent entities, introducing market forces into the electricity distribution system, and transforming a government institution structure into one attractive for private investment and management In July 2008, RAO UES of Russia ceased to exist as a legal entity 

RUSNANO (2008–2020)
Since September 2008, Chubais has been General Manager of the State Corporation Rosnanotech The official business of the corporation is to promote innovation and modernization in Russia's economy in several areas  For example, RUSNANO forms an important part of the government's strategy to find economic alternatives to fossil fuels   The corporation has set a target of 900 billions rubles in sales by 2015  In the past, Chubais has compared RUSNANO to a garden in which the corporation cultivates innovative business ventures  Over its eight years of operation (2007–2015), RUSNANO has completed over 100 investment projects which resulted in the opening of 68 new plants and 28 R&D centers  As stated in the annual RUSNANO groups' financial report, the value of RUSNANO's portfolio was estimated in 2015 at 227 7 billion rubles and its net income at 17 billion rubles Chubais has been a member of the Skolkovo Foundation Council since 2010, and in 2011 was elected chairman of the board of LTD RUSNANO He left the organization in December 2020 

Resignation (2022)
On 23 March 2022, after Russia launched a large-scale invasion of Ukraine, Chubais quit his official positions, including that as climate envoy, stating that he was opposed to the invasion, according to media reports  Kremlin spokesperson Dmitry Peskov confirmed that Chubais had resigned, but did not specify why, stating: "Whether he left or not is his personal matter"  Chubais left Russia, arriving in Istanbul, Turkey, on the same day, planning to remain abroad  Alexei Navalny's spokesperson, Kira Yarmysh, suggested that Chubais had "left Russia only out of fear for his own skin and his own money"  He was the highest ranked Kremlin official to resign following the start of the invasion, though he is not a member of Putin's inner circle 

Personal life
Chubais is married to Dunya Smirnova (a screenwriter and TV presenter), and has two children from his first marriage: a son, Aleksey, and a daughter, Olga On 1 August 2022, Chubais told Russian journalist Ksenia Sobchak that he had been hospitalised with the neurological disorder Guillain-Barré syndrome, though Sardinian newspaper L’Unione Sarda reported that Italian authorities had not yet ruled out poisoning, and Italian intelligence services are awaiting his blood toxicology results in order to make sure he was not poisoned Chubais currently lives in Israel and received Israeli citizenship in May 2023 

Involvement in political parties
In June 1993, Anatoly Chubais co-founded the "Russia's Choice" electoral bloc (Vybor Rossii), which was headed by Yegor Gaidar  In December 1993, running under this bloc, Chubais was elected as a deputy to the Russian State Duma in its first convocation On 12–13 July 1994, Chubais was elected to the governing council of the party "Democratic Choice of Russia", which had been built off the electoral bloc "Russia's Choice"  In December 1998, Chubais became a member of the Organizing Committee of Right Cause coalition and was elected to the Steering Committee of the Organizing Committee of this coalition In July 1996, Chubais founded the "Center for Protection of Private Property" Foundation In May 2000, Chubais was elected co-chairman of the Coordinating Council of the Russian National Political Organization "Union of Right Forces" at its founding congress  He was also later elected co-president and a member of the Federal Political Council on 26 May 2001, during the founding congress of the "Union of Right Forces" Party (SPS) On 24 January 2004, he resigned from his post as co-chair of the party but remained on the Federal Political Council of the SPS party In May 2010, Chubais became the chairman of the board of trustees of the Gaidar Foundation, jointly established by the Gaidar Institute for Economic Policy and Maria Strugatsky 

Awards
In 1997, the British magazine Euromoney named him the world's best Minister of Finance In December 2001, Chubais was awarded an honorary diploma of International Award by the International Union of Economists for his significant contributions to the Russian Federation, specifically his work applying advanced international experience to introduce contemporary methods of organizing administration, economics, finances and production processes In 2008, Chubais was awarded a Presidential Commendation for helping draft part of the Russian Constitution as well as his overall contributions to democracy in Russia In 2010, Chubais was honored by with IV degree Order For Merit to the Fatherland "for outstanding contribution to the implementation of state policy in the field of nanotechnology and many years of favorable work" Chubais received three presidential commendations (awarded in 1995, 1997 and 1998) and as well as one honorary Ph D  from the St  Petersburg State Engineering and Economic University 
Passage 10:
Sokolniki District
Sokolniki District (Russian: райо́н Соко́льники) is a district of the Eastern Administrative Okrug of the federal city of Moscow located in the north-east corner of the city  Population: 57,444 (2010 Census); 54,975 (2002 Census) 

Etymology
Sokolniki derives its name from the word "сокол" (sokol,  meaning "falcon") in view of the Tsar's falcon hunting grounds which were located there, primarily on the territory of the present-day Sokolniki Park  The district also provides the name for one of its metro stations: Sokolniki Metro Station 

Sports
The district is home to the FC and HC Spartak Moscow  The latter plays its games in the Sokolniki Sports Palace located within Sokolniki Park 

Miscellaneous
 
In 2006, after twenty years of construction and changing ownership, a twenty-storey hotel finally opened overlooking the Sokolniki metro station and Sokolniki Square  This hotel is now the Holiday Inn Sokolniki 
In Tolstoy's War and Peace, Pierre fights a duel in Sokolniki 
The Elite House in Sokolniki will soon be one of the largest buildings in the world with DuPont Tyvek used as a weather and water barrier 
Passage 11:
Dmitri N  Smirnov (footballer)
Dmitri Nikolayevich Smirnov (Russian: Дмитрий Николаевич Смирнов; born 9 November 1980) is a Russian former footballer  He is not related to Dmitry Alexandrovich Smirnov with whom he played on the same team for several years for FC Torpedo-ZIL Moscow, Luch and Tom  To avoid confusion, he is usually referred to as Dmitri N  Smirnov 

External links
(in Russian) Player page on the official Luch website
Dmitri N  Smirnov at Russian Premier League
Passage 12:
Cyprus Popular Bank
Cyprus Popular Bank (from 2006 to 2011 known as Marfin Popular Bank) was the second-largest banking group in Cyprus behind the Bank of Cyprus until it was 'shuttered' in March 2013 and split into two parts  The 'good' Cypriot part was merged into the Bank of Cyprus (including insured deposits under 100,000 Euro) and the 'bad' part or legacy entity holds all the overseas operations as well as uninsured deposits above 100,000 Euro, old shares and bonds  The uninsured depositors were subject to a bail-in and became the new shareholders of the legacy entity   As at May 2017, the legacy entity is one of the largest shareholders of Bank of Cyprus with 4 8% but does not hold a board seat  All the overseas operations, of the now defunct Cyprus Popular Bank, are also held by the legacy entity, until they are sold by the Special Administrator, at first Ms Andri Antoniadou, who ran the legacy entity for two years, from March 2013 until 3 March 2015  She tendered her resignation due to disagreements, with the Governor of the Central Bank of Cyprus and the Central Bank Board members, who amended the lawyers of the legacy entity, without consulting her  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou who is an expert in Treasury and risk management took over as Special Administrator of the legacy entity in April 2015 until December 2016  The legacy entity is pursuing legal action against former major shareholder Marfin Investment Group 
Its shares were listed on the Cyprus Stock Exchange and the Athens Stock Exchange  CPB had a network of more than 295 branches in Cyprus, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, the UK and Malta  The bank had applied to open a representative office in Beijing, People's Republic of China Trading on the island as Laiki Bank (Laiki being the Greek word for Popular), as of September 2012 it held a 16% share of the market in loans and a 14 4% share of deposits   The Bank made a series of large loans, many to Greek companies prior to and during their financial crisis  What followed has been described as "billions handed out in bad loans created a financial time-bomb"  After the bank collapsed, it was rescued by the Cypriot government, which took 84% ownership on 30 June 2012 and as of March 2013 it is being dismantled as part of the 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis 

History
In 1901, four leading citizens of Limassol—Agathoclis Francoudis, Ioannis Kyriakides, Christodoulos Sozos and Neoklis Ioannides—established the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to encourage saving among the workforce  More than two decades later, in 1924, the bank changed its name from the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to the Popular Bank of Limassol  The bank also became the first company in Cyprus to register as a public-traded company 
Then in 1967, the Popular Bank of Limassol changed its name to Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) to reflect the bank’s expansion beyond Limassol  Expansion beyond Limassol followed quickly, with the establishment of its first branches in Nicosia,  Famagusta (1969), and Paphos and Larnaca (1970)  Also in 1970, Midland Bank acquired 22% of the company's shares, making Midland a major shareholder in CPB  The next year CPB relocated its headquarters from Limassol to Nicosia 

1974 CPB established its first London branch 
1983 CPB acquired all the Cyprus operations of Grindlays Bank located in the area under government control 
1992 CPB opened the first branch of European Popular Bank in Athens  CPB owned 58% of the shares of the bank; other shareholders included HSBC (formerly Midland Bank) and Greek and Cypriot investors  CPB retained branches in Heraklion and Thessaloniki
1995 CPB opened its first representative offices in South Africa and in Toronto, Ontario, Canada 
1996 CPB opened its first representative offices in Australia 
1997 CPB opened its first representative offices in Serbia and in Russia ("Rosprombank")
1998 CPB establishes a representative office in New York  (NY State Banking Dept says State chartered) 
2000 The Cyprus Popular Bank Group changed its name to Laiki Group 
2001 The Laiki Group established a subsidiary in Australia with five branches 
2005 The Group established Laiki Bank (Guernsey), and purchased Bank Centrobank in Serbia 
2006 The Greek Marfin Investment Group acquired HSBC's shares in Laiki Bank, establishing a strong minority share position   Subsequently, the Marfin Investment Group through more acquisitions managed to take control of Laiki Bank, which it re-branded as Marfin Popular Bank   In Greece, the Marfin Group consolidated Egnatia, Laiki and Marfin to form Marfin Egnatia Bank, which is the 95%-owned Greek subsidiary of Marfin Popular Bank 
2007 The bank announced the planned takeover of 50 12% of the share capital of AS SBM Pank, a bank in Estonia MPB also acquired 99 2% of the shares of Marine Transport Bank Ukraine for US$156 million  This bank was founded in 1993 as Marine Trade Bank and changed its name to Marine Transport Bank in 1996  It has its headquarters in the Odesa region and has 86 branches 
Lastly, MPB acquired 43% of the share capital of Lombard Bank Malta for €48 million from Banca della Svizzera Italiana (BSI) of Lugano  CPB now holds c  49% of Lombard Bank Malta In 2007, the bank announced a multi-million financial deal to sponsor the football First Division in Cyprus until 2010 
2008 Marfin Popular Bank completed its acquisition of 50 4% of the shares of CJSC RPB Holding, parent company of the Rossisysky Promishlenny Bank (Rosprombank), for €83 million  The acquisition makes Marfin the first Greek or Cypriot bank to acquire control of a bank in Russia 
In 2010, they launched a new mobile banking and mobile trading service  In the same year, the company was selected as the bank of the year in Cyprus by the Banker 
2010 MPB sold 85% of Laiki Bank Australia to Bank of Beirut  The Australian bank received a new name, Beirut Hellenic Bank  At the time, the bank had a branch in Adelaide, four branches in Melbourne and five branches in Sydney 
2011 MPB sold the majority of its shareholding in its Estonian subsidiary and returned to its historic name of Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) 
In 2012 CPB converted its Greek subsidiary into a branch of the parent bank 
The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis resulted in financial difficulties at CPB  The Cypriot state recapitalized CPB on 30 June 2012 with the result that the government acquired 84% of the bank's equity  This increased the bank's core tier 1 capital ratio towards 9%, the level mandated by the European Banking Authority 
In early 2013 CPB renamed its Greek branches to CPB Bank and on 26 March the bank sold them to Piraeus Bank  Laiki was split into a good and bad bank, the good bank (Cyprus operations) merged with Bank of Cyprus and the bad bank is in the process of being sold and finally shuttered  The board and CEO were replaced on 27 March  The bad bank was being run by a Special Administrator Ms Andri Antoniadou who was acting CEO until 3 March 2015  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou took over as Special Administrator in April 2015 until December 2016 In 2018 European Court dismisses compensation claim in Cyprus 2013 deposit-grab 
Passage 13:
Shostakovich Peninsula
Shostakovich Peninsula is an ice-covered peninsula lying north of Stravinsky Inlet and extending into Bach Ice Shelf in southern Alexander Island, Antarctica  The peninsula was first mapped by Directorate of Overseas Surveys from satellite imagery of Antarctica supplied by U S  National Aeronautics and Space Administration in cooperation with U S  Geological Survey  Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian composer (1906-1975)  Shostakovich Peninsula is one of the eight peninsulas of Alexander Island 

See also
Derocher Peninsula
Harris Peninsula
Pesce Peninsula
 This article incorporates public domain material from "Shostakovich Peninsula"  Geographic Names Information System  United States Geological Survey 
Passage 14:
Sikyona
Sikyona (Greek: Σικυώνα) is a municipality in Corinthia, Greece  The seat of the municipality is in Kiato  Sikyona takes its name from the ancient city Sicyon, which was located in the same territory 

Municipality
The municipality Sikyona was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities, that became municipal units:
Feneos
Sikyona
StymfaliaThe municipality has an area of 602 539 km2, the municipal unit 171 268 km2  The municipal unit Sikyona is subdivided into the following communities:
Archaia Sikyona-Vasiliko
Bozikas
Diminio
Gonoussa
Kato Diminio
Sikyona (Kiato)
Klimenti
Kryoneri
Laliotis
Megas Valtos
Mikros Valtos
Moulki
Paradeisi
Pasi
Souli
Titani

Historical population
Passage 15:
Federalism
Federalism is a combined and compound mode of government that combines a general government (the central or "federal" government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial, or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system, dividing the powers between the two  Federalism in the modern era was first adopted in the unions of states during the Old Swiss Confederacy Federalism differs from confederalism, in which the general level of government is subordinate to the regional level, and from devolution within a unitary state, in which the regional level of government is subordinate to the general level  It represents the central form in the pathway of regional integration or separation, bounded on the less integrated side by confederalism and on the more integrated side by devolution within a unitary state Examples of a federation or federal province or state include Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Iraq, Malaysia, Mexico, Micronesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States  Some characterize the European Union as the pioneering example of federalism in a multi-state setting, in a concept termed the "federal union of states" 

Overview
Etymology
The terms "federalism" and "confederalism" share a root in the Latin word foedus, meaning "treaty, pact or covenant"  Their common early meaning until the late eighteenth century was a simple league or inter-governmental relationship among sovereign states based on a treaty  They were therefore initially synonyms  It was in this sense that James Madison in Federalist No 39 had referred to the new US Constitution as "neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both" (i e  as constituting neither a single large unitary state nor a league/confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two)  In the course of the nineteenth century United States, the meaning of federalism would come to shift, strengthening to refer uniquely to the novel compound political form established at the Philadelphia Convention, while the meaning of confederalism would remain at a league of states 

Origin
In the narrow sense, federalism refers to the mode in which the body politic of a state is organized internally, and this is the meaning most often used in modern times  Political scientists, however, use it in a much broader sense, referring instead to a "multi-layer or pluralistic concept of social and political life "The first forms of federalism took place in ancient times, in the form of alliances between states  Some examples from the seventh to second century B C  were the Archaic League, the Aetolic League, the Peloponnesian League, and the Delian League  An early ancestor of federalism was the Achaean League in Hellenistic Greece  Unlike the Greek city states of Classical Greece, each of which insisted on keeping its complete independence, changing conditions in the Hellenistic period drove many city states to band together even at the cost of losing part of their sovereignty  Subsequent unions of states included the first and second Swiss Confederations (1291–1798 and 1815–48), the United Provinces of the Netherlands (1579–1795), the German Bund (1815–66), the first American union known as the Confederation of the United States of America (1781–89), and second American union formed as the United States of America (1789–1865) 

Political theory
Modern federalism is a political system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments  The term federalist describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context  Since the term federalization also describes distinctive political processes, its use as well depends on the context In political theory, two main types of federalization are recognized:

integrative, or aggregative federalization, designating various processes like: integration of non-federated political subjects by creating a new federation, accession of non-federated subjects into an existing federation, or transformation of a confederation into a federation
devolutive, or dis-aggregative federalization: transformation of a unitary state into a federation

Reasons for adoption
According to Daniel Ziblatt, there are four competing theoretical explanations in the academic literature for the adoption of federal systems:

Ideational theories, which hold that a greater ideological commitment to decentralist ideas in society makes federalism more likely to be adopted 
Cultural-historical theories, which hold that federal institutions are more likely to be adopted in societies with culturally or ethnically fragmented populations 
"Social contract" theories, which hold that federalism emerges as a bargain between a center and a periphery where the center is not powerful enough to dominate the periphery and the periphery is not powerful enough to secede from the center 
"Infrastructural power" theories, which hold that federalism is likely to emerge when the subunits of a potential federation already have highly developed infrastructures (e g  they are already constitutional, parliamentary, and administratively modernized states) Immanuel Kant noted that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils" so long as they possess an appropriate constitution which pits opposing factions against each other with a system of checks and balances  In particular individual states required a federation as a safeguard against the possibility of war Proponents for federal systems have historically argued that the power-sharing inherent in federal systems reduces both domestic security threats and foreign threats  Federalism allows states to be large and diverse, mitigating the risk of a tyrannical government through centralization of powers 

Examples
Many countries have implemented federal systems of government with varying degree of central and regional sovereignty  The federal government of these countries can be divided into minimalistic federations, consisting of only two sub-federal units or multi-regional, those that consist of three to dozens of regional governments  They can also be grouped based on their body polity type, such as emirate, provincial, republican or state federal systems  Another way to study federated countries is by categorizing them into those whose entire territory is federated as opposed to only part of its territory comprising the federal portion of the country  Some federal systems are national systems while others, like the European Union are supra national 
In general, two extremes of federalism can be distinguished: at one extreme, the strong federal state is almost completely unitary, with few powers reserved for local governments; while at the other extreme, the national government may be a federal state in name only, being a confederation in actuality  Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium or Bosnia and Herzegovina 
The governments of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, India, and Mexico, among others, are also organized along federalist principles 
In Canada, federalism typically implies opposition to sovereigntist movements (most commonly Quebec separatism)  In 1999, the Government of Canada established the Forum of Federations as an international network for exchange of best practices among federal and federalizing countries  Headquartered in Ottawa, the Forum of Federations partner governments include Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan and Switzerland 

Europe vs  the United States
In Europe, "federalist" is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels  The Union of European Federalists advocates for this development within the European Union, ultimately leading to the United States of Europe  Although there are medieval and early modern examples of European states which used confederal and federal systems, contemporary European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill's speech in Zürich in 1946 In the United States, federalism originally referred to belief in a stronger central government  When the U S  Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while "Anti-Federalists" wanted a weaker central government  This is very different from the modern usage of "federalism" in Europe and the United States  The distinction stems from the fact that "federalism" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state  The U S  Constitution was written as a replacement for the Articles of Confederation, under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government 
In contrast, Europe has a greater history of unitary states than North America, thus European "federalism" argues for a weaker central government, relative to a unitary state  The modern American usage of the word is much closer to the European sense  As the power of the U S  federal government has increased, some people have perceived a much more unitary state than they believe the Founding Fathers intended  Most people politically advocating "federalism" in the United States argue in favor of limiting the powers of the federal government, especially the judiciary (see Federalist Society, New Federalism) 
The contemporary concept of federalism came about with the creation of an entirely new system of government that provided for democratic representation at two governing levels simultaneously, which was implemented in the US Constitution  In the United States implementation of federalism, a bicameral general government, consisting of a chamber of popular representation proportional to population (the House of Representatives), and a chamber of equal State-based representation consisting of two delegates per State (the Senate), was overlaid upon the pre-existing regional governments of the thirteen independent States  With each level of government allocated a defined sphere of powers, under a written constitution and the rule of law (that is, subject to the independent third-party arbitration of a supreme court in competence disputes), the two levels were thus brought into a coordinate relationship for the first time 
In 1946, Kenneth Wheare observed that the two levels of government in the US were "co-equally supreme"  In this, he echoed the perspective of American founding father James Madison who saw the several States as forming "distinct and independent portions of the supremacy" in relation to the general government 

Constitutional structure
Division of powers
In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution  Almost every country allows some degree of regional self-government, but in federations the right to self-government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched  Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence 
In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers  Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition  Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871  The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states  The Constitution of some countries, like Canada and India, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial/state governments are retained by the federal government  Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility  Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of Union competence or shared between the Union and the Member States as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent States 

Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find 'symmetric federalism'  Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do  This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions  In Spain, the Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians, spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the "historical communities" such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country  They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities (called also the "coffee for everyone" arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history  However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federation, but a system of asymmetric devolved government within a unitary state 
It is common that during the historical evolution of a federation there is a gradual movement of power from the component states to the centre, as the federal government acquires additional powers, sometimes to deal with unforeseen circumstances  The acquisition of new powers by a federal government may occur through formal constitutional amendment or simply through a broadening of the interpretation of a government's existing constitutional powers given by the courts 
Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities  Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities  Each state is divided into municipalities (municípios) with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government  Each municipality has a "little constitution", called "organic law" (lei orgânica)  Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full-autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities (municipio libre, "free municipality") is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions  Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states  However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly 
Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood) in themselves  For example, James Madison (author of the US Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No  39 that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both  In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national   " This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent  This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people 

Bicameralism
The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states  One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions  Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole  A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population 
Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913, or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in the Council of the European Union  The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats 

Intergovernmental relations
In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government  A First Ministers conference of the prime minister and the provincial premiers is the de facto highest political forum in the land, although it is not mentioned in the constitution 

Constitutional change
Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution  As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent  An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect  In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons  In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority 
Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state  The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent  In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states  Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces  The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system 

Other technical terms
Fiscal federalism – the relative financial positions and the financial relations between the levels of government in a federal system 
Formal federalism (or 'constitutional federalism') – the delineation of powers is specified in a written constitution, which may or may not correspond to the actual operation of the system in practice 
Executive federalism refers in the English-speaking tradition to the intergovernmental relationships between the executive branches of the levels of government in a federal system and in the continental European tradition to the way constituent units 'execute' or administer laws made centrally 
Gleichschaltung – the conversion from a federal governance to either a completely unitary or more unitary one, the term was borrowed from the German for conversion from alternating to direct current  During the Nazi era the traditional German states were mostly left intact in the formal sense, but their constitutional rights and sovereignty were eroded and ultimately ended and replaced with the Gau system  Gleichschaltung also has a broader sense referring to political consolidation in general 
defederalize – to remove from federal government, such as taking a responsibility from a national level government and giving it to states or provinces

In relation to conflict
It has been argued that federalism and other forms of territorial autonomy are a useful way to structure political systems in order to prevent violence among different groups within countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level  Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto-states  Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms that encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries Federalism is sometimes viewed in the context of international negotiation as "the best system for integrating diverse nations, ethnic groups, or combatant parties, all of whom may have cause to fear control by an overly powerful center " However, those skeptical of federal prescriptions sometimes believe that increased regional autonomy can lead to secession or dissolution of the nation  In Syria, for example, federalization proposals have failed in part because "Syrians fear that these borders could turn out to be the same as the ones that the fighting parties have currently carved out "

See also
Notes and references
Sources
External links

P -J  Proudhon (1863), The Principle of Federation 
Passage 16:
Yuri Chesnokov (volleyball)
Yuri Borisovich Chesnokov (Russian: Юрий Борисович Чесноков; January 22, 1933 – May 30, 2010) was a Russian volleyball player who competed for the Soviet Union in the 1964 Summer Olympics  He was born in Moscow 
Chesnokov was a two-time world champion, having won gold at the 1960 and the 1962 competitions  In 1964 he was part of the Soviet team which won the gold medal in the Olympic tournament  He played eight matches  After his active career, he coached the Soviet team at the 1972 and 1976 Olympics, and later served as a FIVB vice-president for many years  In 2000 he was inducted into the Volleyball Hall of Fame 
Passage 17:
Dmitry Borisovich
Dmitry Borisovich (Russian: Дмитрий Борисович; 11 September 1253, in Rostov – 1294, in Rostov) was a Russian nobleman  He was the eldest of the three sons of Prince Rostov Boris Vasylkovych from his marriage to Princess Maria Yaroslavna of Murom  He was Prince of Rostov (1278–1286 and 1288–1294) and Prince of Uglich (1285–1288) 

Sources
http://www biografija ru/show_bio aspx?id=112862
Context 2: Passage 1:
John Houseman
John Houseman (born Jacques Haussmann; September 22, 1902 – October 31, 1988) was a Romanian-born British-American actor and producer of theatre, film, and television  He became known for his highly publicized collaboration with director Orson Welles from their days in the Federal Theatre Project through to the production of Citizen Kane and his collaboration, as producer of The Blue Dahlia, with writer Raymond Chandler on the screenplay  He won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Professor Charles W  Kingsfield in the 1973 film The Paper Chase  He reprised the role of Kingsfield in the 1978 television series adaptation 

Early life
Houseman was born Jacques Haussmann on September 22, 1902, in Bucharest, Romania, the son of May (née Davies) a governess and Georges Haussmann, who ran a grain business  His mother was British, from a Christian family of Welsh and Irish descent  His father was an Alsatian-born Jew  He was educated in England at Clifton College, became a British subject, and worked in the grain trade in London before emigrating to the United States in 1925, where he took the stage name of John Houseman  He became a United States citizen in 1943 

Theatre producer
Houseman worked as a speculator in the international grain markets, only turning to the theater following the 1929 stock market crash 
On Broadway he co-wrote Three and One (1933) and And Be My Love (1934)  Composer Virgil Thomson recruited him to direct Four Saints in Three Acts (1934), Thomson's collaboration with Gertrude Stein  He later directed The Lady from the Sea (1934) and Valley Forge (1934) 

Collaboration with Orson Welles
In 1934, Houseman was looking to cast Panic, a play he was producing based on a drama by Archibald MacLeish concerning a Wall Street financier whose world crumbles about him when consumed by the crash of 1929  Although the central figure is a man in his late fifties, Houseman became obsessed by the notion that a young man named Orson Welles he had seen in Katharine Cornell's production of Romeo and Juliet was the only person qualified to play the leading role  Welles consented and, after preliminary conversations, agreed to leave the play he was in after a single night to take the lead in Houseman's production  Panic opened at the Imperial Theatre on March 15, 1935  Among the cast was Houseman's ex-wife, Zita Johann, who had co-starred with Boris Karloff three years earlier in Universal's The Mummy 
Although the play opened to indifferent notices and ran for a mere three performances, it nevertheless led to the forging of a theatrical team, a fruitful but stormy partnership in which Houseman said Welles "was the teacher, I, the apprentice "
He supervised the direction of Walk Together Chillun in 1936 

Federal Theatre Project
In 1936, the Federal Theatre Project of the Works Progress Administration put unemployed theatre performers and employees to work  The Negro Theatre Unit of the Federal Theatre Project was headed by Rose McClendon, a well-known black actress, and Houseman, a theatre producer  Houseman describes the experience in one of his memoirs:

Within a year of its formation, the Federal Theatre had more than fifteen thousand men and women on its payroll at an average wage of approximately twenty dollars a week  During the four years of its existence its productions played to more than thirty million people in more than two hundred theatres as well as portable stages, school auditoriums and public parks the country over 

Macbeth (1936)
Houseman immediately hired Welles and assigned him to direct Macbeth for the FTP's Negro Theater Unit, a production that became known as the "Voodoo Macbeth", as it was set in the Haitian court of King Henri Christophe (and with voodoo witch doctors for the three Weird Sisters) and starred Jack Carter in the title role  The incidental music was composed by Virgil Thomson  The play premiered at the Lafayette Theatre on April 14, 1936, to enthusiastic reviews and remained sold out for each of its nightly performances  The play was regarded by critics and patrons as an enormous, if controversial, success  After 10 months with the Negro Theater Project, however, Houseman felt he was faced with the dilemma of risking his future:

    on a partnership with a 20-year-old boy in whose talent I had unquestioning faith but with whom I must increasingly play the combined and tricky roles of producer, censor, adviser, impresario, father, older brother and bosom friend 
Houseman later produced for the Negro Theatre Unit Turpentine (1936) without Welles 
In 1936, Houseman and Welles were running a WPA unit in midtown Manhattan for classic productions called Project No  891  Their first production was Christopher Marlowe's Tragical History of Dr  Faustus which Welles directed while also playing the title role 
Houseman and Welles put on Horse Eats Hat (1936)  Houseman, without Welles, helped in the direction of Leslie Howard's production of Hamlet (1936) 

The Cradle Will Rock (1937)
In June 1937, Project No  891 produced their most controversial work with The Cradle Will Rock  Written by Marc Blitzstein, the musical was about Larry Foreman, a worker in Steeltown (played in the original production by Howard da Silva), which is run by the boss, Mister Mister (played in the original production by Will Geer)   The show was thought to have had left-wing and unionist sympathies (Foreman ends the show with a song about "unions" taking over the town and the country), and became legendary as an example of a "censored" show  Shortly before the show was to open, FTP officials in Washington announced that no productions would open until after July 1, 1937, the beginning of the new fiscal year 
In his memoir, Run-Through, Houseman wrote about the circumstances surrounding the opening night at the Maxine Elliott Theatre  All the performers had been enjoined not to perform on stage for the production when it opened on July 14, 1937  The cast and crew left their government-owned theatre and walked 20 blocks to another theatre, with the audience following  No one knew what to expect; when they got there Blitzstein himself was at the piano and started playing the introduction music  One of the amateur performers, Olive Stanton, who played the part of Moll, the prostitute, stood up in the audience, and began singing her part  All the other performers, in turn, stood up for their parts  Thus the "oratorio" version of the show was born  Apparently, Welles had designed some intricate scenery, which ended up never being used  The event was so successful that it was repeated several times on subsequent nights, with everyone trying to remember and reproduce what had happened spontaneously the first night  The incident, however, led to Houseman being fired and Welles's resignation from Project No  891 

Mercury Theatre
That same year, 1937, after detaching themselves from the Federal Theatre Project, Houseman and Welles did The Cradle Will Rock as an independent production on Broadway  They also founded the acclaimed New York drama company, the Mercury Theatre  Houseman wrote of their collaboration at this time:

On the broad wings of the Federal eagle, we had risen to success and fame beyond ourselves as America's youngest, cleverest, most creative and audacious producers to whom none of the ordinary rules of the theater applied 
Armed with a manifesto written by Houseman declaring their intention to foster new talent, experiment with new types of plays, and appeal to the same audiences that frequented the Federal Theater the company was designed largely to offer plays of the past, preferably those that "   seem to have emotion or factual bearing on contemporary life "  The company mounted several notable productions, the most remarkable being its first commercial production of Julius Caesar   Houseman called the decision to use modern dress "an essential element in Orson's conception of the play as a political melodrama with clear contemporary parallels "
Houseman and Welles later presented The Shoemaker's Holiday (1938), Heartbreak House (1938) and Danton's Death (1938) 

Radio
Beginning in the summer of 1938, the Mercury Theatre was featured in a weekly dramatic radio program on the CBS network, initially promoted as First Person Singular before gaining the official title The Mercury Theatre on the Air  An adaptation of Treasure Island was scheduled for the program's first broadcast, for which Houseman worked feverishly on the script  However, a week before the show was to air, Welles decided that a program far more dramatic was required  To Houseman's horror, Treasure Island was abandoned in favor of Bram Stoker's Dracula, with Welles playing the infamous vampire  During an all night session at Perkins' Restaurant, Welles and Houseman hashed out a script The Mercury Theatre on the Air featured an impressive array of talents, including Agnes Moorehead, Bernard Herrmann, and George Coulouris 

"The War of the Worlds" (1938)
The Mercury Theatre on the Air subsequently became famous for its notorious 1938 radio adaptation of H  G  Wells' The War of the Worlds, which had put much of the country in a panic  By all accounts, Welles was shocked by the panic that ensued  According to Houseman, "he hadn't the faintest idea what the effect would be"  CBS was inundated with calls; newspaper switchboards were jammed 
Without Welles, Houseman staged Douglas Moore's The Devil and Daniel Webster (1939) 

Film producer
Too Much Johnson (1938)
While Houseman was teaching at Vassar College, he produced Welles' never-completed second short film, Too Much Johnson (1938)  The film was never publicly screened and no print of the film was thought to have survived  Footage was rediscovered in 2013 

Citizen Kane (1941)
The Welles-Houseman collaboration continued in Hollywood  In the spring of 1939, Welles began preliminary discussions with RKO's head of production, George Schaefer, with Welles and his Mercury players being given a two-picture deal, in which Welles would produce, direct, perform, and have full creative control of his projects 
For his motion picture debut, Welles first considered adapting Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness for the screen  A 200-page script was written  Some models were constructed, while the shooting of initial test footage had begun  However, little, if anything, had been done either to whittle down the budgetary difficulties or begin filming  When RKO threatened to eliminate the payment of salaries by December 31 if no progress had been made, Welles announced that he would pay his cast out of his own pocket  Houseman proclaimed that there wasn't enough money in their business account to pay anyone  During a corporate dinner for the Mercury crew, Welles exploded, calling his partner a "bloodsucker" and a "crook"  As Houseman attempted to leave, Welles began hurling dish heaters at him, effectively ending both their partnership and friendship 
Houseman later, however, played a pivotal role in ushering Citizen Kane (1941), which starred Welles  Welles telephoned Houseman asking him to return to Hollywood to "babysit" screenwriter Herman J  Mankiewicz while he completed the script, and keep him away from alcohol  Still drawn to Welles, as was virtually everyone in his sphere, Houseman agreed  Although Welles took credit for the screenplay of Kane, Houseman stated that the credit belonged to Mankiewicz, an assertion that led to a final break with Welles  Houseman took some credit himself for the general shaping of the story line and for editing the script  In an interview with Penelope Huston for Sight & Sound magazine (Autumn, 1962) Houseman said that the writing of Citizen Kane was a delicate subject:

I think Welles has always sincerely felt that he, single-handed, wrote Citizen Kane and everything else that he has directed—except, possibly, the plays of Shakespeare  But the script of Kane was essentially Mankiewicz's  The conception and the structure were his, all the dramatic Hearstian mythology and the journalistic and political wisdom he had been carrying around with him for years and which he now poured into the only serious job he ever did in a lifetime of film writing  But Orson turned Kane into a film: the dynamics and the tensions are his and the brilliant cinematic effects—all those visual and aural inventions that add up to make Citizen Kane one of the world's great movies—those were pure Orson Welles 
In 1975, during an interview with Kate McCauley, Houseman stated that film critic Pauline Kael in her essay "Raising Kane", had caused an "idiotic controversy" over the issue: "The argument is Orson's own fault  He wanted to be given all the credit because he's a hog  Actually, it is his film  So it's a ridiculous argument "

Return to the theatre
After he and Welles went their separate ways, Houseman went on to direct The Devil and Daniel Webster (1939) and Liberty Jones (1941) and produced the Mercury Theatre's stage production of Native Son (1941) on Broadway, directed by Welles 

David O  Selznick
In Hollywood he became a vice-president of David O  Selznick Productions  His most notable achievement during that time was helping adapt and produce the adaptation of Jane Eyre (1943) which starred Joan Fontaine and Welles 

World War II
In the aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Houseman quit his job and became the head of the overseas radio division of the Office of War Information (OWI), working for the Voice of America whilst also managing its operations in New York City 

Paramount
In 1945 Houseman signed a contract with Paramount Pictures to produce movies  His first credit for that studio was The Unseen (1945)  He followed it with Miss Susie Slagle's (1945) and The Blue Dahlia (1946), both with Veronica Lake  The latter, starring Alan Ladd and written by Raymond Chandler, has become a classic 
He left Paramount and returned to Broadway to direct Lute Song (1946) with Mary Martin 
Back in Hollywood he produced Letter from an Unknown Woman (1948) for Max Ophuls at Universal 

RKO
Houseman went to RKO where he produced They Live by Night (1948) the directorial debut of Nicholas Ray  He also did The Company She Keeps (1949) and On Dangerous Ground (1951) 
He returned to Broadway to produce Joy to the World (1949) and King Lear (1950-51), the latter with Louis Calhern 

MGM
RKO's head of production had been Dore Schary  When Schary moved to MGM he offered Houseman a contract at the studio, which the producer accepted 
Houseman's stint at MGM began with Holiday for Sinners (1952); then he had a huge success with The Bad and the Beautiful (1952), directed by Vincente Minnelli  He followed it with the film adaptation of Julius Caesar (1953) (for which he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture)
Also popular was Executive Suite (1954), a highly creative adaptation by Ernest Lehman of Cameron Hawley's bestselling novel  However, although Her Twelve Men (1954), Minnelli's The Cobweb (1955) and Fritz Lang's Moonfleet (1955) all lost money  So did Lust for Life (1956), a biopic directed by Minnelli of Vincent van Gogh, although it was extremely well-received critically 

Television and theatre
Houseman moved into television producing, notably doing The Seven Lively Arts (1957) and episodes of Playhouse 90 
He also returned to theatre, producing revivals of Measure for Measure (1957) and The Duchess of Malfi (1957) 

Return to MGM
Houseman was enticed back to MGM as a producer, and given his own production company, John Houseman Productions  His films were All Fall Down (1962), Two Weeks in Another Town (1962) and In the Cool of the Day (1963) 

Return to television
Houseman returned to television where he made The Great Adventure and Journey to America (1964)  He returned to Hollywood briefly to produce This Property Is Condemned (1966), then returned to TV for Evening Primrose (1966) 
He returned to Broadway, directing Pantagleize (1967) 

Teaching
The Juilliard School and The Acting Company
Houseman became the founding director of the Drama Division at The Juilliard School, and held this position from 1968 until 1976  The first graduating class in 1972 included Kevin Kline and Patti LuPone; subsequent classes under Houseman's leadership included Christopher Reeve, Mandy Patinkin, and Robin Williams Unwilling to see that very first class disbanded upon graduation, Houseman and his Juilliard colleague Margot Harley formed them into an independent, touring repertory company they named the "Group 1 Acting Company " The organization was subsequently renamed The Acting Company, and has been active for more than 40 years  Houseman served as the producing artistic director through 1986, and Harley has been the company's producer since its founding   Writing in The New York Times in 1996, Mel Gussow called it "the major touring classical theater in the United States "

Theatre
Houseman continued to be involved in theatre, producing The School for Wives (1971), The Three Sisters (1973), The Beggar's Opera (1973), Scapin (1973), Next Time I'll Sing to You (1974), The Robber Bridegroom (1975), Edward II (1975), and The Time of Your Life (1975)
He directed The Country Girl (1972), Don Juan in Hell (1973), Measure for Measure  (1973), and Clarence Darrow (1974) (with Henry Fonda) 
In 1979, Houseman earned induction into the American Theater Hall of Fame

Acting
Houseman had acted occasionally during the early part of his career and he had a brief but important part in Seven Days in May (1964) 
Houseman first became widely known to the public for his Golden Globe and Academy Award-winning role as Professor Charles Kingsfield in the film The Paper Chase (1973)  The film was a success and launched Houseman into an unexpected late career as a character actor 
Houseman played Energy Corporation Executive Bartholomew in the film Rollerball (1975), and was in the thrillers Three Days of the Condor (1975) and St Ives (1976) 
Houseman appeared on TV in Fear on Trial (1975), The Adams Chronicles (1976), Truman at Potsdam (1976), Hazard's People (1976) and Six Characters in Search of an Author (1976)  Houseman was reunited with The Paper Chase co-star Lindsay Wagner in 1976's "Kill Oscar", a three-part joint episode of the popular science fiction series The Bionic Woman and The Six Million Dollar Man; he played the scientific genius Dr  Franklin 
He continued appearing on TV in Captains and the Kings (1976), The Displaced Person (1977), a version of Our Town (1977), Washington: Behind Closed Doors (1977), The Best of Families (1977), Aspen, The Last Convertible (1978), The French Atlantic Affair (1978) and The Associates (1980) 
In films he parodied Sydney Greenstreet in the Neil Simon film The Cheap Detective (1978) and was in Old Boyfriends (1980), John Carpenter's The Fog (1980), Wholly Moses! (1981) and My Bodyguard (1981) 
Houseman briefly returned to producing with the TV movie Gideon's Trumpet (1980), which he also appeared in and Choices of the Heart (1983)  He produced one more show on Broadway, The Curse of an Aching Heart (1982) 
He acted in The Babysitter (1980), A Christmas Without Snow (1980), Ghost Story (1981), Mork & Mindy, Murder by Phone (1982) (second billed), Marco Polo (1982), and American Playhouse (1982) 

Television star
Having played a Harvard Law School professor in the film The Paper Chase (1973), he reprised the role in a television series of the same name, which ran from 1978 to 1979 and 1983 to 1986  During that time, he received two Golden Globe nominations for "Best Actor in a TV Series—Drama" 
In the 1980s Houseman became more widely known for his role as grandfather Edward Stratton II in Silver Spoons, which starred Rick Schroder, and for his commercials for brokerage firm Smith Barney, which featured the catchphrase, "They make money the old fashioned way    they earn it " Another was Puritan brand cooking oil, with "less saturated fat than the leading oil", featuring the famous 'tomato test' 
He played Jewish author Aaron Jastrow (loosely based on the real life figure of Bernard Berenson) in the highly acclaimed 1983 miniseries The Winds of War (receiving a fourth Golden Globe nomination)  He declined to reprise the role in the sequel War and Remembrance miniseries (the role then went to Sir John Gielgud) 
However he was in the miniseries A D  (1984), Noble House (1986), and Lincoln (1986) 

Personal life
Houseman had an affair with actress Joan Fontaine after her marriage to actor Brian Aherne ended  "Ours was what was known in Hollywood as a 'romance,' -- which meant that we slept together three or four nights a week, got invited to parties together, went away together for weekends and sometimes talked about getting married without really meaning it," Houseman wrote in Front and Center, his second autobiography 

Final years and death
Later film appearances included Bright Lights, Big City (1988) and Another Woman (1988) 
In 1988, he appeared in his last two roles—cameos in the films The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! and Scrooged  He played a driving instructor (whose mannerisms parodied many of his prior roles) in the former, and himself in the latter  Both films were released after his death 
On October 31, 1988, Houseman died at age 86 of spinal cancer at his home in Malibu, California  He was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea 

In popular culture
Houseman was portrayed by Cary Elwes in the Tim Robbins–directed film Cradle Will Rock (1999)  Actor Eddie Marsan plays the role of Houseman in Richard Linklater's film Me & Orson Welles (2009)  Houseman was played by actor Jonathan Rigby in the Doctor Who audio drama Invaders from Mars set around the War of the Worlds broadcast  Actor Sam Troughton portrayed Houseman in the 2020 film Mank 
In the Seinfeld episode "The Face Painter", Jerry tells Elaine that Alec Berg has "a good John Houseman name"  Jerry then imitates Houseman, speaking Alec Berg's name in a non-rhotic, gravelly rasp 
In the SCTV episode "Jane Eyrehead", guest star Robin Williams portrayed Houseman in the sketch commercial "An Evening with John Houseman", in which he reads the Mellonville phonebook to a cheering theater audience 

Filmography
Film
As actor (film)
As producer (film)
Television
As actor (television)
As producer (television)
Passage 2:
Indutiomarus
Indutiomarus (died 53 BC) was a leading aristocrat of the Treveri (the people of the area around present-day Trier) at the time of Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul  He was the head of the anti-Roman party and the political rival of his pro-Roman son-in-law Cingetorix for "supreme power" in the state 

Biography
In 54 BC, Indutiomarus made preparations for war against the Romans and evacuated non-combatants to the Ardennes  However, when Caesar arrived in the territory of the Treveri en route to Britain, Indutiomarus was deserted by many of his leading supporters and submitted to Caesar in the hopes of preserving his position  Caesar accepted his submission, taking 200 hostages including several of Indutiomarus' close family members, but he also took the opportunity to promote Cingetorix to power among the Treveri at Indutiomarus' expense Deprived of much of his power, Indutiomarus became all the more bitter an enemy of the Romans, and waited for a favourable opportunity to take his revenge  Such an opportunity arrived soon  To ensure adequate food supplies, Caesar had separated his troops into winter quarters dispersed in different parts of Gaul  Indutiomarus encouraged Ambiorix and Cativolcus, chiefs of the Eburones, to attack the Roman legion stationed in their country; he himself soon afterwards marched against Titus Labienus, who was encamped among the Remi, immediately west of the Treveri  Forewarned of Caesar's victory over the Nervii, Indutiomarus withdrew his forces into Treveran country and raised fresh troops  He also spent the winter sending ambassadors to the Germans in search of allies  Other peoples began sending ambassadors to Indutiomarus of their own accord as well – these included the Senones, the Carnutes, the Nervii and the Aduatuci Now emboldened, Indutiomarus declared Cingetorix an enemy of the state and confiscated his property 
He marched against Labienus again and surrounded the Roman camp  Indutiomarus took to riding around the camp with his cavalry force almost daily, both to reconnoitre and to intimidate the Romans within  Labienus one day sneaked a large contingent of auxiliary cavalry into the Roman camp, and during one of these exercises the auxiliaries surprised the Treveran force with a sudden sally  Indutiomarus himself was killed in the rout while crossing a river  His death was still a source of anger and rebellion as of 51 BC, when the Treveri remained in the field on the side of Ambiorix 
Passage 3:
Et tu, Brute?
Et tu, Brute? (pronounced [ɛt ˈtuː ˈbruːtɛ]) is a Latin phrase literally meaning "and you, Brutus?" or "also you, Brutus?", often translated as "You as well, Brutus?", "You too, Brutus?", or "Even you, Brutus?"  The quote appears in Act 3 Scene 1 of William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, where it is spoken by the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, at the moment of his assassination, to his friend Marcus Junius Brutus, upon recognizing him as one of the assassins  The first known occurrences of the phrase are said to be in two earlier Elizabethan plays; Henry VI, Part 3 by Shakespeare, and an even earlier play, Caesar Interfectus, by Richard Edes  The phrase is often used apart from the plays to signify an unexpected betrayal by a friend  
There is no evidence that the historical Caesar spoke these words  Though the historical Caesar's last words are not known with certainty, the Roman historian Suetonius, a century and a half after the incident, claims Caesar said nothing as he died, but that others reported that Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase Kai su, teknon (Και συ τέκνον), which means "You too, child" or "You too, young man" to Brutus  Contrary to popular belief, the words are not Caesar's last in the play, as he says "Then fall Caesar!" right after 

Etymology
The name Brutus, a second declension masculine noun, appears in the phrase in the vocative case, and so the -us ending of the nominative case is replaced by -e 

Context
On March 15 (the Ides of March), 44 BC, the historic Caesar was attacked by a group of senators, including Brutus, who was Caesar's friend and protégé  Caesar initially resisted his attackers, but when he saw Brutus, he reportedly responded as he died  Suetonius mentions the quote merely as a rumor, as does Plutarch who also reports that Caesar said nothing, but merely pulled his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators Caesar saying Et tu, Brute? in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (1599) was not the first time the phrase was used in a dramatic play  Edmond Malone claimed that it appeared in a work that has since been lost—Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582  The phrase had also occurred in another play by Shakespeare, The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke, and the death of good King Henrie the Sixth, with the Whole Contention betweene the two Houses Lancaster and Yorke of 1595, which is the earliest printed version of Henry VI, Part 3 

Interpretation
It has been argued that the phrase can be interpreted as a curse or warning  One theory states that the historic Caesar adapted the words of a Greek sentence which to the Romans had long since become proverbial: The complete phrase is said to have been "You too, my son, will have a taste of power", of which Caesar only needed to invoke the opening words to foreshadow Brutus' own violent death, in response to his assassination  The poem Satires; Book I, Satire 7 by Horace, written approximately 30 BC, mentions Brutus and his tyrannicide; in discussing that poem, author John Henderson considers that the expression E-t t-u Br-u-t-e, (as he hyphenates it), can be interpreted as a complaint containing a "suggestion of mimetic compulsion" 

See also
List of Latin phrases (E)
Passage 4:
Assassination of Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar was  assassinated by a group of senators on the Ides of March (15 March) of 44 BC during a meeting of the Senate at the Curia of Pompey of the Theatre of Pompey in Rome where the senators stabbed Caesar 23 times  They claimed to be acting over fears that Caesar's unprecedented concentration of power during his dictatorship was undermining the Roman Republic  At least 60 to 70 senators were party to the conspiracy, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, Gaius Cassius Longinus, and Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus  Despite the death of Caesar, the conspirators were unable to restore the institutions of the Republic  The ramifications of the assassination led to his Martyrdom, the Liberators' civil war and ultimately to the Principate period of the Roman Empire 

Causes
Caesar had served the Republic for eight years in the Gallic Wars, fully conquering the region of Gaul (roughly equivalent to modern-day France)  After the Roman Senate demanded that Caesar disband his army and return home as a civilian, he refused, crossing the Rubicon with his army and plunging Rome into Caesar's Civil War in 49 BC  After defeating the last of the opposition, Caesar was appointed dictator perpetuo ("dictator in perpetuity") in early 44 BC  Roman historian Titus Livius describes three incidents that occurred from 45 to 44 BC as the final causes of Caesar's assassination – the "three last straws" as far as some Romans were concerned The first incident took place in December 45 BC or possibly early 44 BC  According to Roman historian Cassius Dio, after the Senate had voted to bestow a large group of honours upon Caesar, they decided to present them to him formally, and marched as a senatorial delegation to the Temple of Venus Genetrix  When they arrived, etiquette called for Caesar to stand up to greet the senators, but he did not rise  He also joked about their news, saying that his honours needed to be cut back instead of increased  Roman historian Suetonius wrote (almost 150 years later) that Caesar failed to rise in the temple, either because he was restrained by the consul Lucius Cornelius Balbus or that he balked at the suggestion he should rise  Regardless of the reasoning, by practically rejecting a senatorial gift and not acknowledging the delegation's presence with proper etiquette, Caesar gave the strong impression that he no longer cared about the Senate The second incident occurred in 44 BC  One day in January, the tribunes Gaius Epidius Marullus and Lucius Caesetius Flavus discovered a diadem on the head of the statue of Caesar on the Rostra in the Roman Forum  According to Suetonius, the tribunes ordered the wreath be removed as it was a symbol of Jupiter and royalty  Nobody knew who had placed the diadem, but Caesar suspected that the tribunes had arranged for it to appear so that they could have the honour of removing it  Matters escalated shortly after on the 26th, when Caesar was riding on horseback to Rome on the Appian Way  A few members of the crowd greeted him as rex ("king"), to which Caesar replied, "I am not Rex, but Caesar" ("Non sum Rex, sed Caesar")  This was wordplay; "Rex" was a family name as well as a Latin title  Marullus and Flavus, the aforementioned tribunes, were not amused, and ordered the man who first cried "rex" arrested  In a later senate meeting, Caesar accused the tribunes of attempting to create opposition to him, and had them removed from office and membership in the Senate  The Roman plebs took their tribunes seriously as the representatives of the common people; Caesar's actions against the tribunes put him on the wrong side of public opinion The third incident took place at the festival of the Lupercalia, on 15 February 44 BC  Mark Antony, who had been elected co-consul with Caesar, climbed onto the Rostra and placed a diadem on Caesar's head, saying "The People give this to you through me " While a few members of the crowd applauded, most responded with silence  Caesar removed the diadem from his head; Antony again placed it on him, only to get the same response from the crowd  Finally, Caesar put it aside to use as a sacrifice to Jupiter Optimus Maximus  "Jupiter alone of the Romans is king", Caesar said, which received an enthusiastic response from the crowd  At the time, many believed that Caesar's rejection of the diadem was a way for him to see if there was enough support for him to become king, and despised him for it According to Suetonius, Caesar's assassination ultimately occurred primarily due to concerns that he wished to crown himself the king of Rome  These concerns were exacerbated by the "three last straws" of 45 and 44 BC  In just a few months, Caesar had disrespected the Senate, removed People's Tribunes, and toyed with monarchy  By February, the conspiracy that caused his assassination was being born 

Conspiracy
The conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar began with a meeting between Cassius Longinus and his brother-in-law Marcus Brutus in the evening of 22 February 44 BC, when after some discussion the two agreed that something had to be done to prevent Caesar from becoming king of the Romans The two men then began to recruit others  While it took only one man to murder another, Brutus believed that for the assassination of Caesar to be considered a legitimate removal of a tyrant, done for the sake of their country, it must include a large number of Rome's leading men  They attempted to strike a balance: they aimed to recruit enough men to surround Caesar and fight his supporters, but not so many that they would risk being discovered  They preferred friends to acquaintances and recruited neither reckless youths nor feeble elders  In the end, the conspirators recruited senators near the age of forty, as were they  The men assessed each potential recruit with innocent-sounding questions  The ancient sources report that in the end, around sixty to eighty conspirators joined the plot, although the latter number may be a scribal error Notable conspirators included Pacuvius Labeo, who answered affirmatively on 2 March when Brutus asked him whether it was wise for a man to put himself into danger if it meant overcoming evil or foolish men; Decimus Brutus, who joined on 7 March after being approached by Labeo and Cassius; Gaius Trebonius, Tillius Cimber, Minucius Basilus, and the brothers Casca (Publius and another whose name is unknown), all men from Caesar's own ranks; and Pontius Aquila, who had been personally humiliated by Caesar  According to Nicolaus of Damascus, the conspirators included Caesar's soldiers, officers, and civilian associates, and while some joined the conspiracy due to concerns over Caesar's authoritarianism, many had self-interested motives such as jealousy: feeling that Caesar had not rewarded them enough or that he had given too much money towards Pompey's former supporters  The conspirators did not meet openly but instead secretly assembled at each other's homes and in small groups in order to work out a plan First, the conspirators discussed the addition of two other men to the conspiracy  Cicero, the famous orator, was trusted by both Cassius and Brutus, and had made it no secret that he considered Caesar's rule oppressive  He also had great popularity among the common people and a large network of friends, which would help attract others to join their cause  However, the conspirators considered Cicero too cautious; at that time, Cicero was over sixty, and the conspirators thought he would be too likely to put safety over speed when planning the assassination  Next, the conspirators considered Mark Antony, aged thirty-nine and one of Caesar's best generals  The conspirators were agreeing to attempt to recruit him until Gaius Trebonius spoke  He revealed that he had personally approached Antony the summer before and asked him to join a different conspiracy to end Caesar's life, and Antony had turned him down  This rejection to the old conspiracy caused the conspirators to decide against recruiting Antony Now, however, a new idea took place  Antony was strong because of his familiarity with the soldiers, and powerful due to his consulship  If Antony was not to join them, then they must assassinate Antony as well, lest he interfere with the conspiracy  Eventually, this idea was expanded upon and split the conspirators into two factions  The optimates, the "Best Men" of Rome, among the conspirators wanted to go back to the way things were before Caesar  This would entail killing both Caesar and all the men around him, including Antony, and reverting Caesar's reforms  The former supporters of Caesar among the conspirators did not agree to this  They liked Caesar's reforms, and did not want a purge of Caesar's supporters  However, even they agreed to kill Antony Brutus disagreed with both  He argued that killing Caesar, and doing nothing else, was the option they should choose  The conspirators claimed to be acting based on the principles of law and justice, he told them, and it would be unjust to kill Antony  While the assassination of Caesar would be viewed as the killing of a tyrant, killing his supporters would be seen only as a politicized purge and the work of Pompey's former supporters  By keeping Caesar's reforms intact, they would both keep the support of the Roman people, who Brutus believed opposed Caesar the king, not Caesar the reformer, and the support of Caesar's soldiers and other supporters  His argument convinced the other conspirators  They began making plans for Caesar's assassination The conspirators believed that how and where they assassinated Caesar would make a difference  An ambush in a secluded area would have a different impact on public opinion than an assassination in the heart of Rome  The conspirators came up with multiple ideas for the assassination  They considered an attack on Caesar while he was walking on the Via Sacra, the "Sacred Street"  Another idea was to wait to attack him during the elections for new consuls  The conspirators would wait for Caesar to begin crossing the bridge that all voters crossed as part of the election procedures, and then topple him over the rail and into the water  There would be conspirators waiting in the water for Caesar, with daggers drawn  Another plan was to attack at a gladiatorial game, which had the benefit that nobody would be suspicious of armed men Finally, somebody brought up the idea to assassinate Caesar at one of the senate meetings  All other plans had one detriment: while Caesar had no official bodyguards, he asked his friends to protect him in public  Most of these friends were imposing and dangerous-looking and the conspirators were afraid that they would interfere with the assassination  Here, this would not be an issue, since only senators were allowed in the Senate House  Some also said that the murder of a tyrant in full view of the Senate would not be seen as a political plot, but as a noble act, done on behalf of their country  The conspirators ultimately settled on this as the chosen plan  Caesar would be leaving the city on 18 March to embark on a military campaign against the Getae and the Parthians  The last senate meeting before that date was on the 15th, the Ides of March, and so the conspirators chose this as the day of the assassination In the days leading up to the Ides, Caesar was not completely oblivious to what was being planned  According to the ancient historian Plutarch, a seer had warned Caesar that his life would be in danger no later than the Ides of March  The Roman biographer Suetonius identifies this seer as a haruspex named Spurinna  In addition, on 1 March, Caesar watched Cassius speaking with Brutus at the senate house and said to an aide, "What do you think Cassius is up to? I don't like him, he looks pale "Two days before the assassination, Cassius met with the conspirators and told them that, should anyone discover the plan, they were to turn their knives on themselves 

Ides of March
On the Ides of March of 44 BC, conspirators and non-conspirators met at the Senate House of Pompey, located in the Theatre of Pompey, for the senate meeting  Usually, the senators would be meeting at the Roman Forum, but Caesar was financing a reconstruction of the forum and so the senators met in other venues throughout Rome, this being one of them  There were gladiatorial games underway at the Theatre, and Decimus Brutus, who owned a company of gladiators, stationed them in the Portico of Pompey, also located in the Theatre of Pompey  The gladiators could be useful to the conspirators: if a fight broke out to protect Caesar, the gladiators could intervene; if Caesar was killed but the conspirators came under attack, the gladiators could protect them; and since it was impossible to enter the Senate House without going through the Portico, the gladiators could block entrance to both if necessary The senators waited for Caesar's arrival, but he did not come  The reason for this is that early that morning, Calpurnia, Caesar's wife, was awoken from a nightmare  She had dreamt that she was holding a murdered Caesar in her arms and mourning him  Other versions have Calpurnia dream that the front pediment of their house had collapsed and that Caesar had died; yet another shows Caesar's body streaming with blood  Calpurnia had no doubt heard Spurinna's warnings of great peril to Caesar's life, which helps explain her visions  Around 5 a m , Calpurnia begged Caesar not to go to the senate meeting that day  After some hesitation, Caesar acquiesced  Although not superstitious, he knew that Spurinna and Calpurnia were involved in Roman politics, and decided to be cautious  Caesar sent Mark Antony to dismiss the Senate  When the conspirators heard of this dismissal, Decimus went to Caesar's home to try to talk him into coming to the Senate meeting  "What do you say, Caesar?" Decimus said  "Will someone of your stature pay attention to a woman's dreams and the omens of foolish men?" Caesar eventually decided to go Caesar was walking to the senate house when he caught sight of Spurinna  "Well, the Ides of March have come!" Caesar called out playfully  "Aye, the Ides have come," said Spurinna, "but they are not yet gone " Mark Antony started to enter with Caesar, but was intercepted by one of the plotters (either Trebonius or Decimus Brutus) and detained outside  He remained there until after the assassination, at which point he fled 
According to Plutarch, as Caesar took his seat, Lucius Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother  The other conspirators crowded round to offer their support  Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed Caesar's shoulders and pulled down Caesar's toga  Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!")  At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck  Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm  According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" Casca, frightened, shouted simultaneously "Brother! Help me!" (Ancient Greek: ἀδελφέ, βοήθει, romanized: adelphe, boethei)  Though Caesar was able to violently throw Casca away, Gaius Servilius Casca stabbed him in the side  Within moments, Caesar was attacked from all directions, with Cassius, slashing Caesar's face, Bucilianus stabbing at the back and Decimus slicing his thigh  Caesar attempted to fight back, but tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenseless on the lower steps of the portico  Caesar was stabbed 23 times  Suetonius relates that a physician who performed an autopsy on Caesar established that only one wound (the second one to his ribs) had been fatal  This autopsy report (the earliest known post-mortem report in history) describes that Caesar's death was mostly attributable to blood loss from his stab wounds Caesar was killed at the base of the Curia of Pompey in the Theatre of Pompey The dictator's last words are a contested subject among scholars and historians  Suetonius himself says he said nothing, nevertheless, he mentions that others have written that Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "καὶ σύ, τέκνον;" (transliterated as "Kai su, teknon?": "You too, child?" in English)  Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators  According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators not involved in the plot; they, however, fled the building  Brutus and his companions then marched through the city, announcing: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumours of what had taken place began to spread  According to Suetonius, after the murder all the conspirators fled; Caesar's body lay untouched for some time afterwards, until finally three slaves put him on a litter and carried him home, with one arm hanging down 

Preceding events
Virgil wrote in the Georgics that several unusual events took place preceding Caesar's assassination  This should be read in the context of the ancient Romans' belief in omens 

Who dare say the Sun is false? He and no other warns us when dark uprising threaten, when treachery and hidden wars are gathering strength  He and no other was moved to pity Rome on the day that Caesar died, when he veiled his radiance in gloom and darkness, and a godless age feared everlasting night  Yet in this hour Earth also and the plains of Ocean, ill-boding dogs and birds that spell mischief, sent signs which heralded disaster  How oft before our eyes did Etna deluge the fields of the Cyclopes with a torrent from her burst furnaces, hurling thereon balls of fire and molten rocks  Germany heard the noise of battle sweep across the sky and, even without precedent, the Alps rocked with earthquakes  A voice boomed through the silent groves for all to hear, a deafening voice, and phantoms of unearthly pallor were seen in the falling darkness  Horror beyond words, beasts uttered human speech; rivers stood still, the earth gaped upon; in the temples ivory images wept for grief, and beads of sweat covered bronze statues  King of waterways, the Po swept forests along in the swirl of his frenzied current, carrying with him over the plain cattle and stalls alike  Nor in that same hour did sinister filaments cease to appear in ominous entrails or blood to flow from wells or our hillside towns to echo all night with the howl of wolves  Never fell more lightning from a cloudless sky; never was comet's alarming glare so often seen 

Aftermath
A wax statue of Caesar was erected at the Forum displaying the 23 stab wounds  A crowd who had amassed there expressed their anger at the assassins by burning the Senate House  Two days after the assassination, Mark Antony summoned the senate and managed to work out a compromise in which the assassins would not be punished for their acts, but all of Caesar's appointments would remain valid  By doing this, Antony most likely hoped to avoid large cracks in government forming as a result of Caesar's death  Simultaneously, Antony diminished the goals of the conspirators  The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic  The Roman lower classes, with whom Caesar was popular, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had sacrificed Caesar  Antony capitalized on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself  But, to his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavius his sole heir, bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name as well as making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic  Upon hearing of his adoptive father's death, Octavius abandoned his studies in Apollonia and sailed across the Adriatic Sea to Brundisium  Octavius became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus or Octavian, the son of the great Caesar, and consequently also inherited the loyalty of much of the Roman populace  Octavian, aged only 18 at the time of Caesar's death, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position  Antony did not initially consider Octavius a true political threat due to his young age and inexperience, but Octavius quickly gained the support and admiration of Caesar's friends and supporters To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the money from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them  With passage of the Lex Titia on 27 November 43 BC, the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's Master of the Horse Lepidus  It formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became Divi filius ("Son of the Divine")  Seeing that Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate brought back proscription, abandoned since Sulla  It engaged in the legally sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents in order to fund its forty-five legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius  Antony and Octavian defeated them at Philippi The Second Triumvirate was ultimately unstable and could not withstand internal jealousies and ambitions  Antony detested Octavian and spent most of his time in the East, while Lepidus favoured Antony but felt himself obscured by both his colleagues  Following the Sicilian revolt, led by Sextus Pompey, a dispute between Lepidus and Octavian regarding the allocation of lands broke out  Octavian accused Lepidus of usurping power in Sicily and of attempted rebellion and, in 36 BC, Lepidus was forced into exile in Circeii and stripped of all his offices except that of Pontifex Maximus  His former provinces were awarded to Octavian  Antony, meanwhile, married Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome  A third civil war subsequently broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other  This final civil war culminated in the latter's defeat at Actium in 31 BC; Octavian's forces would then chase Antony and Cleopatra to Alexandria, where they would both commit suicide in 30 BC  With the complete defeat of Antony and the marginalisation of Lepidus, Octavian, having been restyled "Augustus", a name that raised him to the status of a deity, in 27 BC, remained as the sole master of the Roman world and proceeded to establish the Principate as the first Roman "Emperor" 

List of conspirators
Most of the conspirators' names are lost to history and only about twenty are known  Nothing is known about some of those whose names have survived  The known members are:

Marcus Tullius Cicero was not a member of the conspiracy and was surprised by it  He later wrote to the conspirator Trebonius that he wished he had been "invited to that superb banquet" and believed that the conspirators should also have killed Mark Antony 

Gallery
See also
List of assassinated and executed heads of state and government
Acta Caesaris
Death of Alexander the Great
Death of Cleopatra
Julius Caesar, a play by William Shakespeare
The Ides of March, a novel by Thornton Wilder
The Throne of Caesar, a novel by Steven Saylor
Amanita caesarea

Notes
Passage 5:
Julius Caesar (1953 film)
Julius Caesar (billed on-screen as William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar) is a 1953 American film adaptation of the Shakespearean play, directed by Joseph L  Mankiewicz and produced by John Houseman for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer  It stars Marlon Brando as Mark Antony, James Mason as Brutus, John Gielgud as Cassius, Louis Calhern as Caesar, Edmond O'Brien as Casca,  Greer Garson as Calpurnia, and Deborah Kerr as Portia 
The film opened to positive reviews, and was nominated in five categories at the 26th Academy Awards (including Best Picture and Best Actor for Brando), winning Best Art Direction - Black-and-White  Brando and Gielgud both won BAFTA Awards, Brando for Best Foreign Actor and Gielgud for Best British Actor 

Plot
"Upon Caesar's return to Rome, after defeating Pompey in the civil war, his countrymen chose him a fourth time consul and then dictator for life      thus he became odious to moderate men through the extravagance of the titles and powers that were heaped upon him "Plutarch's LivesThe film is a largely-faithful adaptation of Shakespeare's play, with no significant cuts or alterations to the original text  The only notable exception is the Messenger's text recounting the Battle of Philippi, which is substituted with a visual depiction of the battle 

Cast
Cast as listed in end credits
Production
Producer John Houseman says the film was made because Laurence Olivier's 1944 production of Henry V had been a success  MGM's head of production Dore Schary offered the project to Houseman, who said he wanted Joseph L  Mankiewicz to direct because he thought he and William Wyler were "probably the two best dialogue directors in the business" and that Mankiewicz was "younger and more flexible "Houseman did not want to use an all-British cast  "I'd done a lot of Shakespeare in America," he said  "If it was going to be cast all-English, it should be an English picture, made in England and we might as well forget about it "Houseman says MGM wanted to make the film in color but he and Mankiewicz refused, "partly because we wanted people to relate to the newsreels, to the Fascist movements in Europe, which were still relevant" and also because they would be "using a lot of the Quo Vadis sets, and it seemed idiotic to invite comparison with Quo Vadis "Though Houseman originally intended to shoot the film in Italy, production ultimately took place in Los Angeles instead  Many of the sets and costumes were repurposed from Quo Vadis (1951), with several setpieces deconstructed, flown from Rome to California, and rebuilt on MGM's Culver City studio backlot 
Houseman says they "decided to do it as a small production, not a spectacle; to do it for what it really is—the drama of a political power play "

Casting
Many actors in this film had experience in the play  John Gielgud had played Mark Antony at the Old Vic Theatre in 1930 and Cassius at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1950, James Mason had played Brutus at the Abbey Theatre in Dublin in the 1940s, and John Hoyt, who plays Decius Brutus, also played him in the Mercury Theatre's 1937 stage version  Gielgud later played the title role in the 1970 film with Charlton Heston, Jason Robards and Richard Johnson (as Cassius) and in a stage production directed by John Schlesinger at the Royal National Theatre  John Houseman, who had produced the famous 1937 Broadway version of the play starring Orson Welles and the Mercury Theatre, also produced the MGM film  By this time, however, Welles and Houseman had had a falling out, and Welles had nothing to do with the 1953 film  P  M  Pasinetti, Italian-American writer, scholar, and teacher at UCLA served as a technical advisor 

Brando's casting was met with some skepticism when it was announced, as he had acquired the nickname of "The Mumbler" following his performance in A Streetcar Named Desire (1951)   Director Joseph L  Mankiewicz even considered Paul Scofield for the role of Mark Antony if Brando's screen test was unsuccessful   Brando asked John Gielgud for advice in declaiming Shakespeare, and adopted all of Gielgud's recommendations  Brando's performance turned out so well that the New York Times' Bosley Crowther stated in his review of the film: “Happily, Mr  Brando's diction, which has been guttural and slurred in previous films, is clear and precise in this instance  In him a major talent has emerged ”  Brando was so dedicated in his performance during shooting that Gielgud offered to direct him in a stage production of Hamlet, a proposition that Brando seriously considered but ultimately turned down   During filming, James Mason became concerned that Brando was stealing the audience's sympathy away from him and his character, Brutus, so Mason appealed to Mankiewicz, with whom he had bonded earlier while making the film 5 Fingers, requesting that the director stop Brando from dominating the film and "put the focus back where it belongs  Namely on me!"  The subsequent shift in directorial attention didn't escape Brando, who threatened to walk off the film if Mankiewicz "threw one more scene to Mason", alleging a ménage à trois  among Mankiewicz, Mason and his wife Pamela Mason   Despite the feuding, production continued with only minimal disruption, thanks to what Gielgud called, "Mankiewicz's consummate tact that kept us together as a working unit "O  Z  Whitehead is listed on the Internet Movie Database as having played Cinna the Poet in the film and not receiving screen credit, but his one scene was deleted before release, and it is not included in any DVD or video releases of the film  (However, Cinna the Conspirator does appear — he is played by actor William Cottrell )

Release
The film premiered at the Booth Theatre in New York City on June 3, 1953 

Reception
Critical response
The film received highly favorable reviews  Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called it "a stirring and memorable film," while Variety wrote: "A triumphant achievement in film-making, it will be rated one of the great pictures of Hollywood " Harrison's Reports raved, "Excellent! Sumptuously produced, expertly directed and brilliantly acted, 'Julius Caesar' is an artistic triumph that ranks with the best of the Shakespearean plays that have been put on film " John McCarten of The New Yorker called the film "a very chilly exercise" and opined that Brando "plainly shows he needs a bit of speech training before he can graduate into an acting league where the spoken word is a trifle more significant than the flexed biceps and the fixed eye," but praised Mason and Gielgud as "a pleasure to watch and listen to " The Monthly Film Bulletin called it "an excellent film, excellent cinema, excellent entertainment, and pretty respectable art "In the second volume of his book The Story of Cinema, author David Shipman pointed to Gielgud "negotiating the verse as in no other Shakespeare film to date except Olivier's"  On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 95% based on reviews from 22 critics The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:
Nominated Epic Film

Box office
According to MGM records, the film earned $2,021,000 in the U S  and Canada and $1,899,000 in other markets, resulting in a profit of $116,000 In 1976, Houseman said "It's still shown a lot—in theaters and schools and on TV  I suspect it finally made more money than any other picture I made "

Awards and nominations
The film won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction (Cedric Gibbons, Edward Carfagno, Edwin B  Willis, Hugh Hunt), and was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role (Marlon Brando), Best Cinematography, Black-and-White, Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture and Best Picture  Brando's nomination was his third consecutive for Best Actor, following 1951's A Streetcar Named Desire and 1952's Viva Zapata!  He would win the following year for On the Waterfront 
Julius Caesar won BAFTA awards for Best British Actor (John Gielgud) and Best Foreign Actor (Marlon Brando), and was also nominated for Best Film  It was Brando's second of three consecutive BAFTA Best Actor awards, for Viva Zapata! (1952), Julius Caesar (1953),  and On the Waterfront (1954) 
The National Board of Review awarded Julius Caesar Best Film and Best Actor (James Mason), and it also won the Golden Leopard at the Locarno International Film Festival 

Soundtrack
Intrada Records released an album featuring a 1995 re-recording of Miklós Rózsa’s film score  The re-recording was performed by the Sinfonia of London and conducted by Bruce Broughton 

See also
List of historical drama films
List of films set in ancient Rome
Julius Caesar (1950 film)
Julius Caesar (1970 film)
Passage 6:
Caesar Must Die
Caesar Must Die (Italian: Cesare deve morire) is a 2012 Italian drama film directed by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani  The film competed at the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival where it won the Golden Bear  The film is set in Rebibbia Prison (suburb of Rome), and follows convicts in their rehearsals ahead of a prison performance of Julius Caesar 

Cast
Salvatore Striano as Bruto (Brutus)
Cosimo Rega as Cassio (Cassius)
Giovanni Arcuri as Cesare (Caesar)
Antonio Frasca as Marcantonio (Mark Antony)
Juan Dario Bonetti as Decio (Decius Brutus)
Vincenzo Gallo as Lucio (Lucius)
Rosario Majorana as Metello (Metellus Cimber)
Francesco De Masi as Trebonio (Trebonius)
Gennaro Solito as Cinna (Cinna)
Vittorio Parrella as Casca (Casca)
Pasquale Crapetti as Legionär
Francesco Carusone as Wahrsager (Soothsayer)
Fabio Rizzuto as Stratone (Strato)
Maurilio Giaffreda as Ottavio (Octavius)
Fabio Cavalli as Theatre director

Accolades
Caesar Must Die won the Golden Bear at the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival in February 2012 where British director Mike Leigh led the judging panel  The Hollywood Reporter described the outcome as "a major upset"  Der Spiegel said it was a "very conservative selection"  Der Tagesspiegel criticised the outcome, saying that the "jury shunned almost all the contemporary films that were admired or hotly debated at an otherwise pretty remarkable festival"  The film was also selected as the Italian entry for the Best Foreign Language Oscar at the 85th Academy Awards, but it did not make the final shortlist Critics praised the use of actual prisoners in the film, saying it brought a higher intensity to the piece  Filmed largely in black-and-white, it has been described as a "deeply humanist film" that "blends gentle humour with an emotional punch"  Paolo Taviani said that he hoped moviegoers would "say to themselves or even those around them    that even a prisoner with a dreadful sentence, even a life sentence, is and remains a human being"  Vittorio Taviani read out the names of the cast At Metacritic, the film was given a rating of 76/100 based on 12 critics, which evaluates as generally favorable reviews

See also
List of black-and-white films produced since 1970
List of submissions to the 85th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Italian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Passage 7:
Ides of March
The Ides of March (; Latin: Idus Martiae, Late Latin: Idus Martii) is the 74th day in the Roman calendar, corresponding to 15 March  It was marked by several religious observances and was a deadline for settling debts in Rome  In 44 BC, it became notorious as the date of the assassination of Julius Caesar, which made the Ides of March a turning point in Roman history 

Ides
The Romans did not number each day of a month from the first to the last day  Instead, they counted back from three fixed points of the month: the Nones (the 5th or 7th, 8 days before the Ides), the Ides (the 13th for most months, but the 15th in March, May, July, and October), and the Kalends (1st of the following month)  Originally the Ides were supposed to be determined by the full moon, reflecting the lunar origin of the Roman calendar  In the earliest calendar, the Ides of March would have been the first full moon of the new year 

Religious observances
The Ides of each month were sacred to Jupiter, the Romans' supreme deity  The Flamen Dialis, Jupiter's high priest, led the "Ides sheep" (ovis Idulis) in procession along the Via Sacra to the arx, where it was sacrificed In addition to the monthly sacrifice, the Ides of March was also the occasion of the Feast of Anna Perenna, a goddess of the year (Latin annus) whose festival originally concluded the ceremonies of the new year  The day was enthusiastically celebrated among the common people with picnics, drinking, and revelry  One source from late antiquity also places the Mamuralia on the Ides of March  This observance, which has aspects of scapegoat or ancient Greek pharmakos ritual, involved beating an old man dressed in animal skins and perhaps driving him from the city  The ritual may have been a new year festival representing the expulsion of the old year In the later Imperial period, the Ides began a "holy week" of festivals celebrating Cybele and Attis, being the day Canna intrat ("The Reed enters"), when Attis was born and found among the reeds of a Phrygian river  He was discovered by shepherds or the goddess Cybele, who was also known as the Magna Mater ("Great Mother") (narratives differ)  A week later, on 22 March, the solemn commemoration of Arbor intrat ("The Tree enters") commemorated the death of Attis under a pine tree  A college of priests, the dendrophoroi ("tree bearers") annually cut down a tree, hung from it an image of Attis, and carried it to the temple of the Magna Mater with lamentations  The day was formalized as part of the official Roman calendar under Claudius (d  54 AD)  A three-day period of mourning followed, culminating with celebrating the rebirth of Attis on 25 March, the date of the vernal equinox on the Julian calendar 

Assassination of Caesar
In modern times, the Ides of March is best known as the date on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC  Caesar was stabbed to death at a meeting of the Senate  As many as 60 conspirators, led by Brutus and Cassius, were involved  According to Plutarch, a seer had warned that harm would come to Caesar on the Ides of March  On his way to the Theatre of Pompey, where he would be assassinated, Caesar passed the seer and joked, "Well, the Ides of March are come", implying that the prophecy had not been fulfilled, to which the seer replied "Aye, they are come, but they are not gone " This meeting is famously dramatised in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, when Caesar is warned by the soothsayer to "beware the Ides of March " The Roman biographer Suetonius identifies the "seer" as a haruspex named Spurinna 
Caesar's assassination opened the final chapter in the crisis of the Roman Republic  After his victory in Caesar's civil war, his death triggered a series of further Roman civil wars that would finally result in the rise to sole power of his adopted heir Octavian  In 27 BC, Octavian was raised to be emperor Augustus, and thus he finally terminated the Roman Republic  Writing under Augustus, Ovid portrays the murder as a sacrilege, since Caesar was also the pontifex maximus of Rome and a priest of Vesta  On the fourth anniversary of Caesar's death in 40 BC, after achieving a victory at the siege of Perugia, Octavian executed 300 senators and equites who had fought against him under Lucius Antonius, the brother of Mark Antony  The executions were one of a series of actions taken by Octavian to avenge Caesar's death  Suetonius and the historian Cassius Dio characterised the slaughter as a religious sacrifice, noting that it occurred on the Ides of March at the new altar to the deified Julius 

See also
The Ides of March – a 1948 novel by Thornton Wilder
The Ides of March (est  1964) – an American musical group
The Ides of March – a 2011 film by George Clooney, Beau Willimon and Grant Heslov
The Ides of March – a 2021 music album by Myles Kennedy
Passage 8:
Et tu, Brute?
Et tu, Brute? (pronounced [ɛt ˈtuː ˈbruːtɛ]) is a Latin phrase literally meaning "and you, Brutus?" or "also you, Brutus?", often translated as "You as well, Brutus?", "You too, Brutus?", or "Even you, Brutus?"  The quote appears in Act 3 Scene 1 of William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, where it is spoken by the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, at the moment of his assassination, to his friend Marcus Junius Brutus, upon recognizing him as one of the assassins  The first known occurrences of the phrase are said to be in two earlier Elizabethan plays; Henry VI, Part 3 by Shakespeare, and an even earlier play, Caesar Interfectus, by Richard Edes  The phrase is often used apart from the plays to signify an unexpected betrayal by a friend  
There is no evidence that the historical Caesar spoke these words  Though the historical Caesar's last words are not known with certainty, the Roman historian Suetonius, a century and a half after the incident, claims Caesar said nothing as he died, but that others reported that Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase Kai su, teknon (Και συ τέκνον), which means "You too, child" or "You too, young man" to Brutus  Contrary to popular belief, the words are not Caesar's last in the play, as he says "Then fall Caesar!" right after 

Etymology
The name Brutus, a second declension masculine noun, appears in the phrase in the vocative case, and so the -us ending of the nominative case is replaced by -e 

Context
On March 15 (the Ides of March), 44 BC, the historic Caesar was attacked by a group of senators, including Brutus, who was Caesar's friend and protégé  Caesar initially resisted his attackers, but when he saw Brutus, he reportedly responded as he died  Suetonius mentions the quote merely as a rumor, as does Plutarch who also reports that Caesar said nothing, but merely pulled his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators Caesar saying Et tu, Brute? in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (1599) was not the first time the phrase was used in a dramatic play  Edmond Malone claimed that it appeared in a work that has since been lost—Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582  The phrase had also occurred in another play by Shakespeare, The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke, and the death of good King Henrie the Sixth, with the Whole Contention betweene the two Houses Lancaster and Yorke of 1595, which is the earliest printed version of Henry VI, Part 3 

Interpretation
It has been argued that the phrase can be interpreted as a curse or warning  One theory states that the historic Caesar adapted the words of a Greek sentence which to the Romans had long since become proverbial: The complete phrase is said to have been "You too, my son, will have a taste of power", of which Caesar only needed to invoke the opening words to foreshadow Brutus' own violent death, in response to his assassination  The poem Satires; Book I, Satire 7 by Horace, written approximately 30 BC, mentions Brutus and his tyrannicide; in discussing that poem, author John Henderson considers that the expression E-t t-u Br-u-t-e, (as he hyphenates it), can be interpreted as a complaint containing a "suggestion of mimetic compulsion" 

See also
List of Latin phrases (E)
Context 3: Passage 1:
History of the San Diego Chargers
The San Diego Chargers were a professional American football team that played in San Diego from 1961 until the end of the 2016 season, before relocating back to Los Angeles, where the franchise had played its inaugural 1960 season  The team is now known as the Los Angeles Chargers 
The Chargers' first home game in San Diego was at Balboa Stadium against the Oakland Raiders on September 17, 1961  Their final game as a San Diego-based club was played at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego at the end of the 2016 season against the Kansas City Chiefs, who defeated them 37–27 

First Los Angeles season (1960)
In 1959, the team began as the "Los Angeles Chargers" when they entered the American Football League (AFL), joining seven other teams: the Denver Broncos, Dallas Texans, Oakland Raiders, New York Titans, Houston Oilers, Buffalo Bills, and Boston Patriots  The Chargers' first owner was Barron Hilton, the son of Conrad Hilton, founder of the Hilton Hotels corporation  Lamar Hunt, who was instrumental in organizing the AFL, said that he had asked Gene Mako for a suggestion for somebody to start a team in Los Angeles and he recommended Hilton  Hunt said that he visited Hilton for less than an hour and Hilton immediately agreed to start a team Barron Hilton held a contest to find a name for his team  The prize was a trip to Mexico  A man from Hollywood named Gerald Courtney submitted the name "Chargers" and won : p 20  Conrad Hilton said, "I liked [the name] because they were yelling "charge" and sounding the bugle at Dodger Stadium and at USC games"  Hunt said he thought Hilton picked the team name from the first batch of letters as publicity for his new charge account business Carte Blanche The team's first general manager was Frank Leahy, a former University of Notre Dame football coach  The team's first head coach was Sid Gillman from the Los Angeles Rams  His strength lay in offense innovation and he was later honoured in the Hall of Fame  Gillman (87–57–6) signed a contract with the team for three years  When Frank Leahy resigned due to poor health, Gillman became the general manager in addition to his coaching role 
The Chargers originally planned to play at the Rose Bowl, but instead signed a lease to play at the Los Angeles Coliseum The Chargers were to host the first ever AFL national championship game at the Los Angeles Coliseum in 1961 (for the 1960 season)  However, as attendances for home games were falling below 10,000, league and ABC television officials, fearing that showing empty seats in the 100,000+ seat Coliseum might jeopardize the entire league, persuaded the Chargers to give up the advantage and move the game to Houston (where they lost) 

Early history (1961–1977)
1961-1966
The Chargers played in four of the first five AFL national championship games after their move (1961, 1963, 1964, 1965), although they won only in 1963 
In the early years wide receiver Lance Alworth made 543 receptions for 10,266 yards in a career of eleven AFL and NFL seasons  He set a record of 96 consecutive games with a reception  With players such as Alworth, Paul Lowe, Keith Lincoln and John Hadl, the Chargers reached the AFL championship game four times and won it once 

San Diego
In December 1960, reports surfaced that the Chargers were considering relocation offers from San Diego, Atlanta and Seattle  Greg Gregston of the San Diego Union reported that the Chargers "have learned in one season that Los Angeles has been saturated beyond sensible proportions with sports " In January 1961, the team announced the move to Balboa Stadium in Balboa Park, San Diego  Hilton was reported to have lost $900,000 in the first season  San Diego would spend $250,000 to increase stadium seating from 22,000 to 30,000; adding back rests for reserved seats; raising the scoreboard; upgrading the locker rooms; moving the football field closer to the stands and reseeding it; and improving security measures  The Junior Chamber Commerce reported that there were 10,000 firm commitments for season tickets  Seating was increased even more in May 1961 with upper deck bring the total capacity to 34,000; both Atlanta and Seattle would later get NFL teams of their own, when the Falcons were enfranchised in 1966, and when the Seahawks began play in 1976, respectively 
By then, Detroit native George Pernicano (1917–2016) had become a minor shareholder in the team 
In the 1961 season, their first in San Diego, the team's defense made forty-nine pass interceptions  The term "Fearsome Foursome" described the 1961 Chargers' defensive players' lineup  The anchoring players were Earl Faison and Ernie Ladd  The "Fearsome Foursome" phrase was later used by other NFL teams  In 1961, the Chargers lost the championship to Houston 10–3, with 29,556 patrons attending the game at Balboa Stadium 
In 1962, the team went 4–10, losing eight of the final nine games of the season, mostly due to injuries 
In the 1963 season, eight Charger players scored in the final week  Paul Lowe rushed over 183 yards, scoring 2 touchdowns on 17 carries  In the final regular season game, the Chargers beat Denver 58–20 and became the AFL West champions  The season ended a week late due to a postponement of games after the assassination of President John F  Kennedy on November 22, 1963  The Chargers won the 1963 AFL title when they defeated the Boston Patriots 51–10  Spectators numbering 30,127 attended the game at Balboa Stadium  Keith Lincoln's effort made up 349 yards of the total offense 
In 1964, the Chargers played the New York Jets resulting in a 17–17 tie  A reported attendance of 50,222 attended the game at Shea Stadium, New York  The game earned $46,828 in entrance fees  On Thanksgiving Day, Buffalo defeated the Chargers 27–24 at Balboa Stadium  The attendance was 34,865 spectators  The Chargers won their fourth AFL West title by defeating the Jets 38–3 before 25,753 spectators at Balboa Stadium  Lance Alworth left the game with a knee injury, and the fullback, Keith Lincoln was sidelined in the first quarter with a fractured rib  At the 1964 championship game in Buffalo, the Chargers were beaten 20–7  The AFL teams signed a five-year television contract with the National Broadcasting Company for $36 million to commence in 1965 
On December 12, 1965, San Diego (9–2–3) won their fifth AFL West title by defeating Houston 37–26  Lowe came first and Alworth second in the AFL Player of the Year honors  However, Buffalo would shutout the Chargers 23–0 in front of 30,361 spectators at Balboa Stadium for the AFL championship  At half time, a new automobile, the "Charger," was introduced by Chrysler officials  It would enter production branded as a Dodge the following year 
In 1966, Hilton sold the Chargers to a 21-member group of business executives for $10 million  The leading investors were Eugene V  Klein and Sam Schulman  The Chargers finished third in the AFL West that season, 7–6–1  During the sale process, a then-23 year old Jerry Jones (who would go on to become the owner of the Dallas Cowboys) offered $5 8 million for the team, but backed off after his father disapproved of his plans In 1967, the Chargers and three NFL clubs (the Los Angeles Rams, the Pittsburgh Steelers, and the Detroit Lions) played preseason games at the new San Diego Stadium, while the AFL and the NFL announced plans to merge for the 1970 season 

1967–1970
In August 1967, the Chargers moved to newly completed San Diego Stadium, and played the NFL's Detroit Lions in a pre-season game with 45,988 spectators in attendance  Detroit defeated the Chargers 38–17  In the fifth week of the season, Leslie "Speedy" Duncan had 203 yards in returns, 35 yards on a fumble recovery for a touchdown, 68 yards on four kickoff returns, and 100 yards for a touchdown  In the Chargers' game against Kansas City, the team won 45–31 with a combined effort was 897 yards offense and 622 yards in returns  In the 11th week, the Chargers were defeated by Oakland 41–21 with 52,661 spectators at the game, alongside 2,018 closed-circuit television viewers in the San Diego Sports Arena 
In 1968, the Chargers played a first pre-season game at the San Diego Stadium against the NFL's San Francisco 49ers  The Chargers won 30–18, before 39,553 spectators  "Speedy" Duncan set an AFL record with a 95-yard punt return for a touchdown in a game where the Chargers were defeated by the New York Jets 37–15  The Chargers came third in the West Division, with a 9–5 record  Quarterback John Hadl led the AFL that year with 440 pass attempts, 208 completions, 3,473 yards taken and 27 touchdown passes  He also led in passes intercepted, with 32 In the 1969 season, the Chargers lost their first two games  They then defeated the Jets at home in front of 54,042 spectators  Joe Namath played for the Jets  Hadl and Alworth played for the Chargers  Hadl made a professional record with a pass reception in his 96th consecutive game  The Chargers won the next three games and then lost four  Their last game was against Buffalo where they won 45–6  The team finished with an 8–6 record and out of the playoffs  Charlie Waller, the offensive backfield coach was named head coach  Gillman had resigned after the season's ninth game due to illness but continued as the team's general manager 

1970–1977: joining the NFL
In 1970, the San Diego Chargers settled into the AFC West division following the NFL merger with the AFL  The years after the merger were difficult for the Chargers  Charlie Waller took over as the head coach, but after finishing 5–6–3, he stepped down, and Gillman returned to the job  Gillman resigned midway through the 1971 season, which finished with six wins and eight losses 
On May 19, 1971, Ron East was sent to the San Diego Chargers as part of the "Bambi trade" that also involved Pettis Norman and Tony Liscio  In 1972, Duane Thomas and Deacon Jones joined the team, which finished with a 4–9–1 record  In 1973, veteran quarterback Johnny Unitas, formerly from the Baltimore Colts joined the Chargers  Unitas was almost 40 and had chronic injuries  He played three games and then was replaced by the rookie Dan Fouts  The Chargers finished with a 2–11–1 record 
In the 1974 season, Fouts was named the new the starting quarterback  Don Woods also joined the team  Woods ran for over 1,000 yards but the team had a 5–9 record  However, in 1975, Woods and Fouts underperformed and the team finished 2–12 after facing the possibility of the first-ever 0–14 season until beating the Kansas City Chiefs in their twelfth game In 1976, the Chargers began with a three-game win streak but finished with a 6–8 record  In 1977, the Chargers again began strongly  However, the team lost four out of five games  Fouts in a contract dispute did not report to training camp; and held out until it was resolved when he rejoined his team for the eleventh game  They went 2–2, losing to the powerhouse Steelers and Broncos by a combined total of nine points  The team finished 7–7 

Air Coryell era (1978–1986)
In 1978, San Diego hired head coach Don Coryell, who would coach the team until 1986  Coryell developed a pass-heavy offensive scheme and philosophy called Air Coryell and also known as the "Coryell offense" or the "vertical offense"  With Dan Fouts as quarterback, the San Diego Chargers' offense was among the greatest and most exciting passing offenses in National Football League history, setting league and individual offensive records  The Chargers led the league in passing yards an NFL record six consecutive years from 1978 to 1983 and again in 1985  They also led the league in total yards in offense in each of those seasons  Under the tutelage of Coryell, Dan Fouts, wide receiver Charlie Joiner, and tight end Kellen Winslow blossomed on the field and would all be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame  The Chargers earned four consecutive playoff appearances (1979 to 1982) during the Air Coryell era, including three AFC West division championships from 1979 to 1981) 

1978
In 1978, the NFL increased the season schedule to sixteen games  The rules were changed so that defensive backs could no longer block wide receivers more than five yards beyond the line of scrimmage 
In the opening game of the season, the Chargers beat Seattle 24–20  On September 10, 1978, the second game was played against the Oakland Raiders at Jack Murphy Stadium in San Diego  The game became known as the "Holy Roller" game, or, the "Immaculate Deception" because the Raiders made a game-winning play  With 10 seconds left in the game, the Raiders had possession of the ball at the Chargers' 14-yard line  The Chargers were ahead 20–14  The Raiders quarterback, Ken Stabler, took the snap but was about to be sacked by the Chargers' line-backer, Woodrow Lowe on the 24-yard line  Stabler fumbled the ball forward, and it rolled forward towards the San Diego goal line  Running back, Pete Banaszak, tried to recover the ball on the 12-yard line, but could not keep his footing, and the ball was pushed even closer to the end zone  The Raiders' tight end, Dave Casper, was the next player to reach the ball but he also could not get a hand on it  He batted and kicked the ball into the end zone, where he fell on it for the game-tying touchdown as time ran out  With the ensuing extra point by kicker, Errol Mann, the Raiders won 21–20 The Chargers' fans saw the fumble as an incomplete pass or an intentional grounding  In the remaining minutes of the game, the teams battled for the ball towards the end zone where the Raiders ultimately recovered it for a touchdown The Chargers lost their third game to Denver and then in week four played the Green Bay Packers in an interconference match in San Diego  At the kickoff, the temperature was around 102 °F or 38 9 °C  The Packers won 24–3  After this loss, the Chargers' head coach, Tommy Prothro was dismissed  He was replaced by Don Coryell of the St  Louis Cardinals 
In New England, the Chargers won their first game under Coryell's coaching  When they returned, San Diego was still recovering from the recent PSA Flight 182  The Chargers' defeating Denver in San Diego was morale boosting for the city  Coryell coached the team in his "Air Coryell" offense: Fouts threw to a trio of receivers (Charlie Joiner, John Jefferson and tight end Kellen Winslow)  The Chargers won nine games and lost seven, thus missing the playoffs 

1979
In 1979, The Sporting News named the Chargers' team general manager, Johnny Sanders, the NFL Executive of the Year  Fouts set an NFL record by playing four consecutive 300-yard passing games  His achievement was established in a game in which he threw over 303 yards against the Oakland Raiders  The Chargers defeated the New Orleans Saints 35 points to nil and proceeded to the playoffs, the first time in fourteen years  On December 17, 1979, the Chargers won their first AFC West division title by defeating the Denver Broncos 17–7 before a national Monday Night Football television audience and their home crowd  In the divisional round, the Houston Oilers defeated the Chargers 17–14  Ron Mix became the second AFL player and second Charger to be nominated to the Pro Football Hall of Fame  The announcement was made during the half-time of the AFC-NFC Pro Bowl 

1980
In 1980, running back Chuck Muncie was traded to the team from the New Orleans Saints  Fouts set a club record with 444 yards passing in the Chargers' 44–7 defeat of the New York Giants  Kellen Winslow caught 10 passes for 171 yards  The Chargers defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 26–17, winning their second straight AFC West title  They finished the season with 11–5 losses, a record for the team 
Jefferson (1,340), Winslow (1,290), and Joiner (1,132) became the first three players on the same team to have 1,000 yards receiving in a season  The Chargers' defense led the NFL in sacks (60)  The defensive front line included the 1975 Chargers' draftees Fred Dean, Gary "Big Hands" Johnson and Louie Kelcher  Together with Leroy Jones, the front line was known as the "Bruise Brothers" 
In the playoffs, the Chargers defeated the Buffalo Bills 20–14  However, their season ended in the AFC Championship Game at the hands of the eventual Super Bowl champion Oakland Raiders 34–27 

1981
In 1981, the Chargers won their third straight AFC West title with a 10–6 record  After the division titles of the 1979 and 1980 seasons, contract disputes arose  Klein, the team owner, refused to renegotiate players' contracts  The Chargers' owner traded the wide receiver, John Jefferson, to the Green Bay Packers after a salary raise could not be agreed upon  Jefferson was replaced by Wes Chandler  Defensive end Dean was traded to the 49ers, again after a pay dispute  Dean said his wage was similar to that of his brother, a truck driver  Playing only eleven games, Dean would nonetheless become the UPI NFC Defensive Player of the Year  In 1980 and 1981, without Jefferson, the Chargers no longer had the most passing yards in the NFL 

"I can't say how much it [Dean's leaving] affected us, because we did make it to the AFC championship game", said Johnson on the loss of fellow lineman Dean  "But I could say if we had more pass rush from the corner, it might've been different "In the 1981 playoffs divisional round, the Chargers defeated the Miami Dolphins 41–38 at the Miami Orange Bowl where the temperature on a humid day was 85 °F or 29 4 °C  The game became known as "The Epic in Miami"  ESPN journalists named the epic the best game in NFL history  Both teams showed strong offense  The Chargers were led by Fouts who made an NFL single season record of 4,802 yards and 33 touchdowns This game set records for the most points scored in a playoff game (79 points); the greatest total yards by both teams (1,036 yards); and the most passing yards by both teams (809 yards) The Chargers placekicker, Rolf Benirschke kicked the winning 29-yard field goal after 13 minutes and 52 seconds overtime  The tight end, Kellen Winslow, made 13 receptions for 166 yards, a touchdown and one blocked field goal  He became exhausted and was assisted from the field by his teammates  The win sent the Chargers to their second consecutive AFC Championship Game 
At the championship game in Cincinnati, the Bengals defeated the Chargers 27–7  The game became known as the "Freezer Bowl"  The temperature was a record low −9 °F or −22 8 °C with a wind-chill factor of −59 °F or −50 6 °C 

1982–1986
During the strike-shortened 1982 season, Fouts averaged 320 yards passing per game  At that time, that average was a record  The Chargers defeated San Francisco 41 points to 37 and Cincinnati 50 points to 34  In each game, Fouts threw for over 400 yards  In the game against Cincinnati on December 20, 1982, the Chargers' made 501 yards passing and 175 yards rushing  Chandler set a record of 129 yards receiving per game  The Chargers reached the playoffs for the fourth straight year, finishing fifth in the AFC (divisional standings were disregarded due to the abbreviated schedule)  The team upset the Pittsburgh Steelers in Pittsburgh 31–28, but the Dolphins would exact revenge from their loss the previous year the next week 34–17 
1983 saw the Chargers fall to 6–10 and equal last in their division, despite having the league's most passing yards for the sixth consectuve season  In 1984, Klein decreased salaries in preparation for the team's sale  The defensive linemen, Johnson and Kelcher, left for San Francisco  On August 1, 1984, Alex Spanos purchased a majority interest in the Chargers  Benirschke was named "Miller Man of the Year"  Joiner set an NFL record with his 650th pass reception in the fourth quarter of the game at Pittsburgh In 1985 offensive guard Ed White set an NFL record by playing in 241 NFL games  Lionel "Little Train" James, a 5'6", 171 pound running back, set an NFL record of 2,535 all-purpose yards and of 1,027 receiving yards by a running back 

Changing head coaches (1986–1993)
During the 1986 season, following the resignation of Coryell, Al Saunders was named head coach 
In 1987, Joiner retired to become the Chargers' receivers' coach  The team finished the season 8–7, including a 3–0 record by the "replacement" team during the player's strike  The only other team to go undefeated during that time was the Super Bowl Champion Washington Redskins  In 1988 Fouts retired after a 15-year career  He set seven NFL records and 42 club records, and became the NFL's second most prolific passer of all time with 43,040 yards  Fouts's jersey, the number 14, was retired at halftime at the "Dan Fouts Day" game in San Diego In the 1989 season, Dan Henning, a former Chargers' quarterback, Washington Redskins assistant, and Atlanta Falcons head coach, became the Chargers' head coach  A first year running back, Marion Butts, set a club record with 39 carries and a team rookie record of 176 yards in the Chargers' 20 points to 13 win against Kansas City  Steve Ortmayer, the director of football operations for the past three years, left and was replaced by Bobby Beathard  The team would post double-digit losses between 1988 and 1991 
In the 1992 season, Bobby Ross became the Chargers' head coach  Quarterback, Stan Humphries was obtained in a trade with the Washington Redskins  The Chargers finished the season 11–5 and won the AFC West title, making their first playoff appearance in a decade  Ross was named AFC Coach of the Year  In the wild-card round, the Chargers shut out the Kansas City Chiefs 17–0  Then, they were shut out by the Miami Dolphins in the divisional round, 31–0 
In 1993, the Chargers finished 8–8, finishing fourth in the division 

1994–2005
1994: AFC Champions
In the 1994 season, the Chargers won 11–5  Quarterback Stan Humphries and wide receiver Tony Martin, worked together to make a 99-yard touchdown completion  The players contributing to the Chargers' 1994 AFC West Division championship included linebacker Junior Seau, defensive tackles Reuben Davis and Shawn Lee and defensive end, Leslie O'Neal, and running back Natrone Means, Humphries and Martin who made offensive moves  In the playoffs, the Chargers unexpectedly defeated the Dolphins 22–21 in the divisional round and the Steelers 17–13 in the AFC Championship Game  The Chargers were defeated by the 49ers 49–26 in Super Bowl XXIX 
Despite the Super Bowl loss, Beathard, who was responsible for the team lineup and choice of coach, was named the "NFL's Smartest Man" by Sports Illustrated  However, the Chargers' 1995 season proved less successful  The team reached the playoffs with a 9–7 record but was defeated by the Indianapolis Colts 35–20 

1996–2001
During the 1996 season, running back Rodney Culver was killed in the crash of ValuJet Flight 592 in the Florida Everglades  Linebacker David Griggs had been killed in a single-car crash in Davie, Florida eleven months earlier In the 1997 season, Beathard dismissed Ross  Kevin Gilbride became the Chargers' new head coach  Gilbride encouraged a more open passing attack, a major change in offensive style  Humphries suffered several concussions due to a lack of pass protection and retired  After trades of players and draft choices to the Arizona Cardinals, Beathard selected quarterback Ryan Leaf with the second pick of the 1998 NFL Draft 
In the 1998 season, the Chargers went 5–11  Rodney Harrison said, "If I had to go through another year like that, I'd probably quit playing " When Gilbride left, he was replaced by an interim head coach, June Jones, a member of the Chargers' staff  Jones left the team at the end of the 1998 season to coach at the University of Hawaii  The Chargers' new head coach was Mike Riley from  Oregon State University  Due to his poor play and attitude, Leaf was released after the 2000 season  Jim Harbaugh, who was acquired in a trade with the Baltimore Ravens for a conditional draft choice in 2000, became the Chargers' starting quarterback 
Beathard retired in April 2000 and was replaced in January 2001 by John Butler, former general manager of the Bills  From 1996 to 2003, the Chargers had eight consecutive seasons where they finished with just as many, if not more losses than wins In 2001, Riley chose Norv Turner, a former head coach of the Redskins, as his offensive coordinator  Turner proposed an offense method which he had employed at the Dallas Cowboys  The Chargers signed former Buffalo Bills quarterback Doug Flutie and also traded the team's first overall selection in the 2001 NFL Draft to the Atlanta Falcons in return for the first-round selection (fifth overall) and third-round selection in the same draft  In addition the Chargers obtained the wide receiver-kick returner, Tim Dwight, and the Falcons' second-round draft selection in the 2002 NFL Draft  The Chargers used those selections in the 2001 draft to select Texas Christian University running back LaDainian Tomlinson and Purdue University quarterback Drew Brees 

2002–2005: Marty Schottenheimer era
For the 2002 season, Marty Schottenheimer replaced Riley  Under Schottenheimer, the Chargers won their first four games 
Butler would succumb to cancer after a nine-month struggle in April 2003, and was replaced by A  J  Smith, who was named Executive Vice President and General Manager In 2003, the Chargers traded Seau to the Dolphins for a draft pick in the 2004 NFL Draft  Before he left, Seau's teammates awarded him the Emil Karas Award for the team's Most Inspirational Player  Tomlinson accumulated 195 total yards from scrimmage in a late season game against the Packers to raise his season total to 2,011  He became the first Charger and the eighth player in NFL history to record consecutive 2,000-yard seasons  Tomlinson also became the first player in NFL history to rush for 1,000 yards and catch 100 passes in the same season 
The Chargers were the host team for the Super Bowl XXXII and Super Bowl XXXVII 
The 2004 season saw the Chargers win their first divisional title since 1994 with a 12–4 record  They quickly were eliminated by the New York Jets in the first round of the playoffs, 20–17 in overtime 
During the 2005 NFL Draft, the Chargers drafted key rookies who would help carry the momentum from the 2004 success  The Chargers used their first pick to gain Shawne Merriman from the University of Maryland  Their next picks included Luis Castillo from Northwestern University, Vincent Jackson from Northern Colorado, Darren Sproles from Kansas State, Wesley Britt from Alabama University, Wes Sims from Oklahoma University, and center, Scott Mruczkowski from Bowling Green State 
The Chargers lost their first game of the 2005 season to the Dallas Cowboys at home 28–24, and their second game 20–17 in Denver against the Broncos  Through Tomlinson's efforts, the Chargers won their third game at home against the New York Giants  Tomlinson took 220 yards in total, 3 rushing touchdowns, and threw for a touchdown helping the team to win 45–23  The Chargers then defeated the defending Super Bowl Champion New England Patriots 41–17  For their fifth game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Chargers wore their throwback uniforms  The Steelers defeated the Chargers 24–22 after Jeff Reed made a 40-yard field goal  The Chargers won the sixth game against the Oakland Raiders, 27–14  In the seventh game, against the Eagles in Philadelphia, the Chargers were leading 17–13 until late in the game  Then, a Chargers' field goal was blocked and returned 65 yards by Matt Ware  This led to a game-winning touchdown for the Eagles to prevail by 20 to 17 
After winning three games and losing four, the Chargers won the following five games  These included a 28–20 win at home against the Kansas City Chiefs and a 31–26 away win against the New York Jets  The tenth week was a bye, followed by a 48–10 home win in throwback uniforms against the Buffalo Bills  Then, the team won against the Washington Redskins, 23–17 in overtime and the next week against the Oakland Raiders at home, 34–10 
The Chargers were defeated 23–21 by the Miami Dolphins  On December 18, 2005, the Chargers defeated the Indianapolis Colts, 26–17 who had won their previous 13 games  The Kansas City Chiefs then defeated the Chargers 20–7, and the team was officially eliminated from playoff contention  The Chargers lost their final game of the season 23–7 to the Denver Broncos  The Chargers completed the 2005 season with a 9–7 record 

2006–2012: Rise of Philip Rivers
In the 2006 season, the Chargers finished the season 14–2, their best record ever  Their only losses came against the Ravens and Chiefs  The team lost Drew Brees in free agency to the New Orleans Saints, setting the stage for 2004 draft pick Philip Rivers to take over at quarterback  They were seeded first in the AFC playoffs  In the divisional round, the Chargers were defeated by the Patriots 24–21  After the season, Schottenheimer left and Norv Turner became the head coach 
In the 2007 season, the Chargers went 11–5 and defeated the Tennessee Titans and Indianapolis Colts in the first two playoff rounds, before being defeated by the Patriots in the AFC championship game 
In the 2008 season, the Chargers posted an 8–8 record  Despite that, they won the AFC West title over a weak field  The Chargers defeated the Colts in the wild card round but lost to the Steelers in the divisional round 
In the 2009 season the Chargers won their first two games but lost their next three  For the rest of the season the Chargers won each game, including those against the NFC East teams  Having lost a game against the Broncos, the Chargers defeated them in the eleventh week, 32–3  In the twelfth week, the Chargers defeated the Cleveland Browns 30–23, and LaDainian Tomlinson broke Jim Brown's rushing record and Brown congratulated Tomlinson afterwards  The Chargers secured another division title and became the AFC second seed  The Chargers then played the Jets at home on January 17, 2010, and lost 17–14 

2010–2012
Prior to the 2010 season Tomlinson departed  He was aging and an expensive contract  The Chargers lost the first game to Kansas City, 21–14  The second game was at home was a win against the Jaguars  However, low ticket sales resulted in a blackout  The third game, an away game, was a 27–20 loss against Seattle  The fourth game was a win for the Chargers against the Cardinals, 41–10 at home, again with a local television blackout  Then in the next game, after many wins against the Raiders, the Chargers were defeated by them  The Chargers won the next four games then again were defeated by the Raiders at home, 28 points to 13  After a game where they tied with the Raiders, the Chargers were defeated by the Bengals 34–20 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2005  The Chargers defeated Denver and ended the season with a 9–7 record 
The Chargers finished the season as the eighth team in NFL history to rank first in overall offense (395 6 yards/game), and overall defense (271 6 yards/game)  Despite these statistics, the team did not make the playoffs, a situation only shared with the 1953 Eagles team  The Chargers ended the season second to the Colts in passing yards per game (282 4), second to the Patriots in points scored per game (27 6), first in passing yards allowed per game (177 8), fourth in rushing yards allowed per game (93 8), and tied for second in sacks (47)  In contrast, the Chargers gave up the most punt return yards per game (18 9) and gave 29 turnovers  Rivers had a career highlight of 4,710 yards, 294 yards passing per game, 66 percent completion; 30 TDs, 13 INTs and a 101 8 passer rating  Tolbert made 11 rushing TDs and Gates made 10 receiving TDs  Phillips made 11 sacks The Chargers started the 2011 season 4–1 before losing to the Patriots  They went on to lose to the Jets, Chiefs, Packers, Raiders, the Bears and Broncos  The team was fraught with injuries  On December 5, 2011, the Chargers defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars  Three wins followed including a solid defeat of the Ravens  The Chargers were then defeated 38–10 by the Detroit Lions  After a 38–26 win against the Raiders in the seventeenth week, the Chargers finished the season with an 8–8 record  The Chargers, Broncos and Raiders all finished 8–8, but the Broncos won the AFC West by virtue of tiebreakers 
During a game on October 21, 2012, a line judge saw what he thought was a suspicious substance, such as a banned adhesive, on hand towels used by the Chargers’ players  However, on November 7, the NFL announced that the Chargers did not cheat  Even so, the team was fined $20,000  After the 2012 season where the Chargers again failed to reach the playoffs, Smith and Turner were dismissed 

Final years in San Diego (2013–2016)
On January 9, 2013, the Chargers announced that Tom Telesco, former Vice President of Football Operations for the Indianapolis Colts, would become the Chargers' general manager  On January 15, 2013, Broncos offensive coordinator, Mike McCoy, was hired as the Chargers' new head coach and Ken Whisenhunt as offensive coordinator  D  J  Fluker, Manti Te'o, and Keenan Allen were selected in the first three rounds of the 2013 NFL Draft Under McCoy, the Chargers won two and lost three games  The team then defeated Indianapolis in the Monday Night Football and then Jacksonville  After a bye, the Chargers won four of the next five games  They then won all the remaining regular season games  The team finished 9–7, and made the playoffs as a Wild Card team  On the 50th anniversary of the 1963 AFL Championship, the Chargers beat Cincinnati 27–10  In the wild card playoff, Denver defeated the Chargers 24–17 
On January 13, 2014, Ken Whisenhunt left the team to join the Titans  On January 14, 2014, the Chargers announced Frank Reich, the quarterback coach, would replace Whisenhunt as the team's offensive coordinator  The Chargers also brought back Donald Butler, Chad Rinehart, and Darrell Stuckey; dismissed Derek Cox; and engaged the running back Donald Brown  The Chargers selected Jason Verrett, Jeremiah Attaochu, and Chris Watt in the first three rounds of the 2014 NFL Draft 
In September and October 2014, the Chargers won five games after losing their first game of the season and then lost a further three games  Some players sustained injuries and the team finished the season with nine wins and seven losses  The Chargers did not qualify to enter the playoffs  In three of their last four games, and five of their last eight, the Chargers did not score more than one touchdown  Compared to 2013, the offense dropped in points (from 12th in the league to 17th), yards (5th to 18th), first downs (3rd to 15th), net yards per pass (2nd to 8th), rushing yards (13th to 30th) and yards per rush (21st to 31st)  It was the second time in three years the team had finished second-to-last in yards per carry  In the AFC West division the Chargers finished the season with two wins and four losses 
In the 2015 NFL draft, the Chargers selected Melvin Gordon, Denzel Perryman, and Craig Mager in the first three rounds  The season started off with a win against the Detroit Lions at home  The Chargers lost to the Cincinnati Bengals and Minnesota Vikings in away games before defeating the Cleveland Browns on a last second field goal  Following their two wins and two losses, the Chargers lost their next six games to the Pittsburgh Steelers, Green Bay Packers, Baltimore Ravens, the Chicago Bears, and the Oakland Raiders and the Kansas City Chiefs  The Chargers then won against the Jaguars in an away game  In week 15, defeated the Miami Dolphins, 30–14  The Chargers finished the season in last place in the AFC West and third-last ahead of the Titans and the Browns in the American Football Conference with a 4–12 record 
The Chargers drafted defensive end Joey Bosa in the third overall pick of the 2016 draft  Other selections included Hunter Henry, Max Tuerk, Joshua Perry, Jatavis Brown, Drew Kaser, Derek Watt, and Donavon Clark 
The Chargers started their 2016 season in Kansas City, playing against the Chiefs and at half time, held a lead of 21–3  The Chiefs rallied in the second half, defeating the Chargers 33–27  In San Diego, the Chargers defeated the Jaguars 38–14  Running back Danny Woodhead did not play due to an anterior cruciate ligament injury  The Chargers then lost to the Colts, the Saints and the Raiders before winning against the Broncos 21–13 and the Falcons, 33–30  There were further losses including to the Dolphins, 31–24; to Kansas City, 37–27 in San Diego; and to the Browns in week 16 

Return to Los Angeles
The owner of the Chargers, Dean Spanos advocated for many years for the city of San Diego to build a new stadium  With no success, the Chargers, in association with the Raiders, planned to construct a new stadium in Carson, California Immediately after the conclusion of the 2015 season, the Chargers, Rams, and Raiders all filed applications to relocate to Los Angeles  On January 12, 2016, the NFL owners voted 30–2 to allow the Rams to return to Los Angeles, approving their Inglewood stadium project  The Chargers, however, were given an approval to relocate in one year's time, under the condition they negotiate a lease or partnership agreement with the Rams  The Chargers registered the trademark, "Los Angeles Chargers"  They submitted to the City of Santa Ana the grading and landscape plans for a five-acre parcel of land which would serve as an interim headquarters and training facility  The Chargers and Rams came to an agreement in principle on sharing the planned City of Champions Stadium to commence on January 29, 2016  The Chargers would contribute a $200 million stadium loan from the NFL and personal seat license fees to the construction costs, and they would pay $1 per year in rent to the Rams The NFL then encouraged the Chargers to stay in San Diego by offering the team $100 million if they were to enter into an agreement with the city of San Diego  On January 29, 2016, Spanos, the Chargers' chief executive officer, announced that the team would remain in San Diego for the season  The Chargers continued to seek public approval of a new stadium in San Diego  On February 23, 2016, the Chargers announced that their preferred location for a new stadium was the East Village, in Downtown San Diego  The funds for the stadium would come from the team, the NFL and the City of San Diego  Even though it was a more economical proposal, the Chargers dismissed the city's alternative plan for a stadium in Mission Valley  Between April 21 and June 10, 2016, the Chargers collected 110,786 signatures in support of a new Downtown stadium 
On July 9, 2016, the San Diego city clerk received the signatures and on July 18, 2016, the San Diego City Council voted unanimously to put the Downtown Stadium plan to a public ballot  On July 28, 2016, the San Diego Regional Chamber of Commerce announced its support of the Chargers' Downtown stadium proposal, and on October 3, 2016, Mayor Kevin Faulconer announced his support  However, on November 8, 2016, the proposal (Measure C) failed to receive support at public ballot (57 percent against and 43 percent for) 
In December 2016, the NFL owners approved the terms of a lease agreement between the Chargers and the Rams and the Chargers debt ceiling  On December 23, 2016, the Chargers leased a property of approximately 3 acres in Costa Mesa for offices, practice fields, and training facilities 
On January 12, 2017, Spanos announced the Chargers would move back to Los Angeles for the 2017 season  The team would play in Dignity Health Sports Park (known as the StubHub Center until 2019) in Carson, California, and beginning with the 2020 season, play at SoFi Stadium In 2017, when the Chargers moved their practice facility to Orange County, the Chargers removed all references to the city of San Diego from their website and merchandise In returning to Los Angeles, the Chargers became the third franchise to relocate to a previous home city (after the Raiders, who left Oakland in 1981 and returned in 1995, and the Rams, who left Los Angeles in 1994 and returned in 2016)  Additionally, they were the second former San Diego franchise to play in the City of Angels (after the Clippers, who relocated in 1984) 

Records
Seasons
Footnotes
A  As a result of the AFL–NFL merger, the league was broken into two conferences; the AFL teams moved into the American Football Conference 
B This season included the Holy Roller game 
C The Chargers finished ahead of Oakland in the AFC West based on better net points in division games 
D The Chargers finished ahead of the Denver Broncos based on better divisional record 
E This game is known as The Epic in Miami 
F This game was known as the Freezer Bowl 
G The 1982 season was shortened by a strike, so the league was divided up into two conferences instead of its normal divisional alignment 
H The strike of 1987 reduced the regular season schedule from 16 to 15 games 

Retired numbers
Chargers members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame
(*) Indicates Player or Coach began his tenure in Los Angeles

Chargers Hall of Fame
The Chargers Hall of Fame was founded in 1976  Eligible candidates must have been retired for at least four seasons  Selections for admission to the Hall of Fame are made by a five-member committee chaired by Spanos  The Chargers in 2012 allowed fans to vote for the newest member 

50th Anniversary Team
in 2009, the Chargers announced their 50th Anniversary Team  It honored the top players and coaches in the team's history  The team included 53 players and coaches selected from 103 nominees  Online voting accounted for fifty percent (400,000 votes) of the results  The remainder were from members of the Chargers Hall of Fame and five members of the local media  Dan Fouts and LaDainian Tomlinson were the most popular players  The resulting team included seven members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame and eleven players from the 2009 Chargers' team 

San Diego Hall of Champions
The San Diego Hall of Champions includes Lance Alworth, Ron Mix, John Hadl, Charlie Joiner, Don Coryell, Sid Gillman, Gary Garrison, Dan Fouts, Ed White, Kellen Winslow, Earl Faison, Rolf Benirschke, Keith Lincoln, Russ Washington, Stan Humphries, Ernie Ladd, and Doug Wilkerson  The Hall of Champions admits athletes from the San Diego area as well as those who have played for San Diego-based professional and collegiate teams 

Franchise records
Passing
∗ = minimum 15 attempts, # = min  100 attempts, + = min  500 attempts

Rushing
∗ = minimum 15 attempts, # = min  100 attempts, + = min  500 attempts

Receiving
∗ = minimum 4 receptions, # = min  20 receptions, + = min  200 receptions

Special teams, defense, other
∗ = minimum 20; # = min  5; + = min  3

Exceptional performances
Other career records
Team records
See also
History of the National Football League in Los Angeles
History of the Los Angeles Chargers
Passage 2:
Gambia women's national football team
The Gambia women's national football team represents the Gambia in international women's football  It is governed by the Gambia Football Federation  As of December 2019, it has only competed in one major international competition, the 2018 Africa Women Cup of Nations qualification  The Gambia has two youth teams, an under-17 side that has competed in FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup qualifiers, and an under-19 side that withdrew from regional qualifiers for an under-19 World Cup  The development of a national team faces challenges similar to those across Africa, although the national football association has four staff members focusing on women's football 

History
The team
In 1985, few countries had women's national football teams  While the sport gained popularity worldwide in later decades, the Gambia's national team only played its first game in 2007  That game was not FIFA-recognized 
The Gambian Senior National Team's first appearance at a major event occurred in April 2018 when they lost a 1–2 result at Burkina Faso in the opening round of qualifying for the 2018 Africa Cup of Nations  In the second leg of the fixture, the Gambia produced a 2–1 victory of their own  As the results of both legs were identical, a penalty shoot-out was required to determine which squad would advance  The Gambia converted all five of its penalty kicks, and advanced to the second round of qualifying  The Gambia drew the defending Cup of Nations champions Nigeria as their second round opponent  They failed to score against the Super Falcons, and were eliminated from the tournament with a 0–7 aggregate line The country did not have a FIFA-recognised youth national team until 2012, when the Gambia under-17 women's team competed in Confederation of African Football qualifiers for the FIFA U-17 World Cup, to be held in Azerbaijan in September 2012  The Gambia fielded a team of 24 players, narrowed from an initial pool of 49 young women  Two girls from the SOS Children’s Village Bakoteh were chosen as a members of the team  The Gambia first played Sierra Leone in a pair of qualifying matches for the tournament  The Gambia won the first match 3–0 in Banjul, the Gambia's capital  The return match was delayed for 24 hours and played in Makeni  The Gambia beat Sierra Leone 4–3 to qualify for the final round  The Gambia then beat Tunisia 1–0 at home and won 2–1 in the away fixture  Adama Tamba and Awa Demba scored the Gambia's goals  Tunisia's only goal was a Gambian own goal  The win qualified the Gambia for the 2012 Azerbaijan World Cup The Gambia also has an under-19 team that was to play in the 2002 African U-19 Women's Championship  That Gambian squad's first match was to be against Morocco, but the team withdrew from the competition 

Background and development
The development of women's football in Africa faces several challenges, including limited access to education, poverty amongst women, inequalities and human rights abuses targeting women  Funding is another issue impacting the game in Africa, where most financial assistance comes from FIFA and not national football associations  Another challenge is the retention of football players  Many women footballers leave the continent to seek greater opportunity in Europe or the United States Gambia's national football association was founded in 1952, and became affiliated with FIFA in 1968  Football is the most popular women's sport in the country, and was first played in an organized system in 1998  A national competition was launched in 2007, the same year FIFA started an education course on football for women 
Competition was active on both the national and scholastic levels by 2009  There are four staffers dedicated to women's football in the Gambia Football Association, and representation of women on the board is required by the association's charter 

Death of Fatim Jawara
In September 2016, Fatim Jawara, a member of the national team, left Serekunda in her homeland the Gambia and crossed the Sahara Desert to Libya  In November 2016, she travelled with others on two boats across the Mediterranean Sea, heading towards the Lampedusa island of Italy  She did this as she sought to smuggle herself into Europe, where the national team was due to play Casa Sports F C  from Senegal as part of a festival to celebrate women's football  Due to a severe storm, their boats capsized and Jawara drowned at the age of 19, with her family was contacted several days after the tragedy  Lamin Kaba Bajo, President of the Gambia Football Federation, said "We are grieving at the moment as this is a great loss to the national soccer team and the nation "

Team image
Home stadium
Results and fixtures
The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled 

Legend  Win
  Draw
  Lose
  Fixture

2022
2023
Coaching staff
Current coaching staff
Manager history
Bubacarr Jallow (????–2022)
   Bubacarr Jallow(2022–)

Players
Current squad
This is the   convened selection for the 2023 WAFU Zone A Women's Cup on January 2022  Caps and goals accurate up to and including 19 June 2021 

List of players still not update

Recent call-ups
The following players have been called up to a Gambia squad in the past 12 months 

Previous squads
WAFU Zone A Women's Cup2023 WAFU Zone A Women's Cup squads

Records
*Active players in bold, statistics correct as of 1 August 2021 

Competitive record
FIFA Women's World Cup
*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks 

Olympic Games
Africa Women Cup of Nations
*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks 

African Games
WAFU Women's Cup record
Honours
Regional
WAFU Zone A Women's Cup3rd Place (1): 2023

All−time record against FIFA recognized nations
The list shown below shows the Djibouti national football team all−time international record against opposing nations *As of xxxxxx after match against xxxx 

Key

Record per opponent
*As ofxxxxx after match against xxxxx 

Key

The following table shows Djibouti's all-time official international record per opponent:

See also
Sport in the Gambia
Football in the Gambia
Women's football in the Gambia
Gambia national football team
Women's football
Passage 3:
Charlotte 49ers
The Charlotte 49ers are the intercollegiate athletics teams that represent the University of North Carolina at Charlotte in Charlotte, North Carolina  The 49ers compete at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level as a member of the American The university sponsors 19 varsity athletic teams, nine for men, ten for women with the addition of women's lacrosse team in the 2024–25 school year  The other sports sponsored are baseball, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's cross country, men's and women's golf, football, men's and women's soccer, softball, men's and women's tennis, men's and women's outdoor and indoor track and field, and women's volleyball 

Overview and history
Name
The athletics department officially changed its name to simply Charlotte in 2000  Before then, the school's identity suffered from years of constant confusion, most commonly confused with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (Tar Heels)  While UNCC and UNC Charlotte were the officially accepted athletic names, media outlets frequently used unofficial nicknames such as N C -Charlotte, N C -Char, North Carolina-Charlotte, UNC, UNC-C, UNCC at Charlotte, and others  When the name change was made official, Athletics Director Judy Rose summarized the sentiment that drove the name change:

"We're proud to be members of the University of North Carolina university system  But, frankly, we are tired of being confused with other institutions or having our own identity misused and misconstrued  It's harder to make a name for yourself, when your name keeps getting confused  Not only will this logo simplify matters, but it gives the program an exciting new look that better captures our essence "
While the school's legal name remains the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, it changed its academic brand name in 2021 to simply "Charlotte" 

Nickname
The nickname "49ers" derives from the fact that the university's predecessor—Charlotte Center of the University of North Carolina (CCUNC – established in 1946) was saved from being shut down by the state in 1949 by Bonnie Cone, when CCUNC became Charlotte College  Due to this "49er spirit" that Cone felt embodied the university, referring to the settlers that endured much hardships in traveling across the United States to seek fortune in the California Gold Rush, students of the fledgling UNC Charlotte chose "49ers" as the school's mascot  The fact that the University's Main Campus front entrance is located on North Carolina Highway 49 is pure coincidence 
Prior to the "49ers" moniker, the athletic teams were known as the "Owls" due to CCUNC's beginnings as a night school 

Logo
The primary athletics logo, called the "All-In C", contains a pick-axe, a reference to the Gold Rush, inside a stylized block C placed at a 9° angle  According to the university, this signifies "positive energy and forward momentum" 

Conference affiliations
Conference realignment
Charlotte began regular intercollegiate athletics play as an inaugural member in the NAIA's Dixie Conference in 1962 After spending their first five seasons in the NCAA's Division I as an independent, UNC Charlotte became a charter member of the Sun Belt Conference in 1976  They would later join the Metro Conference in 1991, before becoming a founding member of Conference USA in 1995 when the Metro merged with the Great Midwest Conference 
Despite a popular and competitive Conference USA in which UNC Charlotte enjoyed rivalries with the likes of Memphis, Louisville, Cincinnati, Marquette, and others, the collegiate sports landscape underwent a major restructuring in 2004–2005  C-USA took the most serious hit of any conference, losing many of its most successful members, including Charlotte 
After this dramatic reshuffle, UNC Charlotte received an invitation to join the Atlantic 10 Conference, which it accepted  Upon joining the A-10, Charlotte experienced much success in nearly every category with the exception of the signature sport of men's basketball 
With the football program restarting, and an attempt to restore geographic rivalries, UNC Charlotte returned to a revised Conference USA starting with the 2013–2014 academic season, except for football, where they joined in 2015, and was fully eligible in 2016 On October 21, 2021 Charlotte was accepted along with 5 other Conference USA teams to join the American Athletic Conference, joining former Metro Conference and C-USA rivals there  The 2023 entry date was officially confirmed in June 2022  All Charlotte 49ers programs officially made the transition to the AAC on July 1, 2023 

Conference membership
Dixie Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (NAIA, 1965–1970)
NCAA Division I Independent (1970–1976)
Sun Belt Conference (1976–1991)
Metro Conference (1991–1995)
Conference USA (1995–2005)
Atlantic 10 Conference (2005–2013)
Conference USA (2013-2023, football 2015-2023)
American Athletic Conference (2022–present in men's soccer; 2023 for other sports)

Sports sponsored
A member of the AAC,  UNC Charlotte currently sponsors teams in nine men's and ten women's NCAA sanctioned sports:

Baseball
First season: 1979
Conference Championships (4)
1993, 2007, 2008, 2011
NCAA tournament Appearances (5)
1993 (0-2)
1998 (0-2)
2007 (2-2)
2008 (0-2)
2011 (1-2)
2021 (1-2)
Recognized Jerseys
7 Barry Shifflett
15 Tim Collie
5 Joey Anderson
31 Adam Mills
4 Bo Robinson

Men's basketball
First season: 1965-1966
Conference Championships (8)
1969, 1970, 1977, 1988, 1992, 1995, 1999, 2001
NCAA tournament Appearances (11)
1977 (Final Four)
1988 (1st Round)
1992 (1st Round)
1995 (1st Round)
1997 (2nd Round)
1998 (2nd Round)
1999 (2nd Round)
2001 (2nd Round)
2002 (1st Round)
2004 (1st Round)
2005 (1st Round)
NIT Appearances (7)
1976 (Finals), 1989, 1994, 2000, 2006, 2008, 2013
Recognized Jerseys
33 Cedric Maxwell
32 Melvin Watkins
34 Henry Williams
23 Jarvis Lang
4 Byron Dinkins
45 Charles Hayward
4 DeMarco Johnson
13 Eddie Basden
Coach Lee Rose
Coach Jeff Mullins

Women's basketball
First season: 1975-1976
Conference Championships (4)
1990, 2003, 2006, 2009
NCAA Appearances (2)
2003 (1st Round)
2009 (1st Round)
2022 (1st Round)
WNIT Appearances (13)
1990, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011 (WNIT Final Four), 2012, 2013, 2016, 2019, 2021
Recognized Jerseys
21 Paula Bennett
35 Kristen Wilson

Football
The first football program developed in 1946 and lasted until 1948  In 2006 students and alumni began a push for football to return to the school  The Board of Trustees approved it in 2008, and with funding approved in 2010, the school fielded its first official varsity football program since 1948 in 2013  The team would post a 5–6 record in their first season under coach Brad Lambert 
First season: 2013
Conference Championships (0)
Bowl Games (1; Bahamas Bowl, 2019)
Retired Jerseys (0)
NFL Draft Picks as of 2023 (5)

Track & Field
The Track & Field team boasted the most decorated athlete in school history, Shareese Woods  While at UNC Charlotte (2003-2007) she became a four time All American, placing 4th at multiple NCAA Championships, and breaking 12 school records 
She went on to compete internationally in the sprints and made numerous United States teams at the 2006 NACAC Under-23 Championships in Athletics, 2007 NACAC Championships, 2007 Pan American Games and 2008 IAAF World Indoor Championships, medaling at all of those competitions 

Men's golf
Consensus #1 in the nation by three major polls: Golfweek, Golfstat, and Nike – Fall 2007 (First National Number 1 Ranking in any varsity sport for Charlotte)
Conference Championships (6)
2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011
NCAA Championship 3rd Place – 2007
NCAA Championship 8th Place – 2008

Women's golf
Women's Golf was added to the Charlotte sports lineup for the 2017–18 school year  Holly Clark was hired to be the program's first coach 

Women's lacrosse
Women's Lacrosse will play their inaugural season in the 2024-25 season  Clare Short will head up the inaugural team 

Men's soccer
First Season: 1976
Conference Championships (6)
1983, 1992, 1994, 1996, 2010, 2013
Regular season Championships (dating back to 2011)
2011,  2012,  2014,  2016
NCAA Appearances (14)
1991, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021
NCAA Men's College Cup 1996, 2011
NCAA Men's Soccer Championship Game, 2011
Overall Record since 2011
85-29-16 (W% of 71 5)
Home Record since 2011
50-10-6 (W% of 80 3)
Charlotte alumnus Jon Busch named MLS Top Goalkeeper

Women's soccer
First Season: 1994
Conference Championships (7)
1997, 2002, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2016
NCAA Appearances (4)
1998, 2002, 2007, 2008
Women's 3-time defending Atlantic 10 Regular season Champions
Women's 2-time defending A-10 Tournament champions

Softball
The 49ers softball team began play in 1986  The team has not made an NCAA tournament appearance  The current head coach is Ashley Chastain 

Rivalries
Charlotte has had its fair share of intense rivalries  In men's basketball, one of their most heated rivalries was with Conference USA rival Cincinnati, who was coached by Bob Huggins for most of this period  From 1995-96 to 2004-05, after which Charlotte and Cincinnati left C-USA, Charlotte managed to upset Cincinnati teams ranked #3, #8, #18, #20 in the country  In what became known as the Cincinnati Incident, a brawl broke out between Cincinnati and the Charlotte student section, when a Cincinnati player threw the basketball into the stands  This led to the creation of a 'buffer zone' being implemented behind the visiting team's bench  ESPN commentator Andy Katz provided this explanation on why Charlotte-Cincinnati was one of the juiciest rivalries in the country: "The games are hotly contested usually and the fans in Charlotte don't like Cincinnati  They get up for this game more than any other "  Charlotte holds an all time record of 8-15 against Cincinnati, and haven't played each other since 2006Charlotte's 29-year men's basketball rivalry with the Davidson Wildcats sees two of the three Division I schools in Mecklenburg County go head-to-head for the Hornet's Nest Trophy  They had been the county's only D-I schools before Queens moved from NCAA Division II to the D-I ASUN Conference in 2022  Charlotte leads the series 26-11  Due to a scheduling conflict, the series was on hiatus until the 2010-11 season Recently Charlotte has started to develop a rivalry with the Appalachian State Mountaineers  Charlotte's establishment of a football team, and the competitiveness of the subsequent contests in that sport, have led to a renewed interest and developing rivalry, with games scheduled through 2030 

Facilities
Athletic facilities at Charlotte have improved dramatically over the past decade  In 1996, men's basketball returned to campus full-time for the first time in nearly 20 years with the opening of Dale F  Halton Arena  A new outdoor sports facility, the Irwin Belk Track and Field Center, opened in 1999 and serves as the home to the 49ers track and field teams in addition to both men's and women's soccer  Tom & Lib Phillips Field, the baseball facility, underwent a $6 million overhaul that was completed in 2007; the facility was renamed Robert and Mariam Hayes Stadium in honor of the renovation's benefactor and her late husband  The golf team's practice facility at Rocky River Golf Club in Concord was completed in October 2006 

Further reading
Bonnie Cone and Football at Charlotte
Passage 4:
2017–18 FA Cup
The 2017–18 FA Cup (also known as the FA Challenge Cup) was the 137th edition of the oldest recognised football tournament in the world  It was sponsored by Emirates, and known as The Emirates FA Cup for sponsorship purposes  737 clubs were accepted into the tournament  It began with the Extra preliminary round on 5 August 2017, and concluded with the final on 19 May 2018  The winners qualified for the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League group stage 
The third-round match between Brighton & Hove Albion and Crystal Palace on 8 January 2018 was the first competitive game in England where video assistant referee (VAR) technology was available, although it was not used Kelechi Iheanacho of Leicester City became the first player to score a goal awarded by a video assistant referee (VAR) in competitive English football as Leicester beat Fleetwood Town 2–0 in the FA Cup third-round replay on 16 January 2018  Referee Jon Moss initially disallowed the goal for offside but he consulted with video official Mike Jones, who told him Nathan Pond's trailing foot was keeping Iheanacho onside  The goal was awarded 67 seconds after it hit the back of the net 
Craig Pawson became the first referee in English football to watch a video recording at the sideline in the fourth round tie between Liverpool and West Bromwich Albion on 27 January 2018  He awarded a penalty to Liverpool 
Premier League side Arsenal were the defending champions, but they were eliminated by Nottingham Forest in the third round on 7 January 2018 

Calendar and prizes
Qualifying rounds
All of the competing teams that are not members of either the Premier League or English Football League had to compete in the qualifying rounds to secure one of 32 available places in the first round proper  The qualifying competition began with the Extra preliminary round on 5 August 2017  The final (fourth) qualifying round was played over the weekend of 14 October 2017 

First round proper
The first round draw took place on 16 October and was broadcast live on BBC Two and BT Sport  All 40 first round proper ties were played on the weekend of 4 November  32 teams from the qualifying competition joined the 48 teams from League One and League Two to compete in this round  The round included two teams from Level 8, Heybridge Swifts and Hyde United, who were the lowest-ranked teams still in the competition 

Second round proper
The second round draw took place on 6 November and was broadcast live on BBC Two and BT Sport  All 20 second round proper ties were played on the weekend of 2 December  This round included three teams from Level 7 – Hereford, Slough Town, and Leatherhead – who were the lowest-ranked teams still in the competition 

Third round proper
The third round draw took place on 4 December 2017 and was broadcast live on BBC Two and BT Sport before the final second round tie between Slough Town and Rochdale  All 32 third round proper ties took place on the weekend of 5–8 January 2018  A total of 64 clubs played in the third round; 20 winners of the second round, and 44 teams from Premier League and EFL Championship entering in this round  For the first time in 67 years no non-league team (i e  from Level 5 or below) made the third round proper, with all 32 such teams that advanced through qualifying being knocked out in the first two rounds, the last 10 in the second round proper 

Fourth round proper
The draw for the fourth round proper took place on 8 January 2018 at 19:10 GMT and was broadcast live on BBC Two and BT Sport  This round included four teams from Level 4 – Yeovil Town, Notts County, Coventry City, and Newport County – who were the lowest-ranked teams still in the competition 

Fifth round proper
The draw for the fifth round proper took place on 29 January 2018 at 19:20 GMT and was broadcast live on BBC One  This round included one team from Level 4 still in the competition, Coventry City, who were the lowest-ranked team in this round 

Quarter-finals
The draw for the quarter-finals took place on 17 February 2018 at 20:00 GMT and was broadcast live on BT Sport, the BBC Sport website and app, and BBC Radio 5 Live  This round included one team from Level 3 still in the competition, Wigan Athletic, who were the lowest-ranked team in this round There were no replays in the FA Cup quarter-finals, following a rule change introduced for the previous tournament  If a match was level after 90 minutes, 30 minutes of extra time were played  If the score had still been level, the tie would have been decided by a penalty shoot-out 

Semi-finals
The draw for the semi-finals took place on 18 March 2018, after the conclusion of the quarter-final match between Leicester City and Chelsea  The draw was conducted by Gianfranco Zola and Petr Čech  The semi-finals were played on Saturday 21 April and Sunday 22 April 2018 at Wembley Stadium 

Final
Bracket
The following is the bracket which the FA Cup resembled  Numbers in parentheses next to the match score represent the results of a replay, except for the quarter-finals stage onwards  Numbers in parentheses next to the replay score represents the results of a penalty shoot-out except for the quarter-finals stage onwards 

Top goalscorers
Television rights
The following matches were broadcast live on UK television:
Passage 5:
Ahmed Salah Hosny
Ahmed Salah Mohamed Hosni Hassan (Arabic: أحمد صلاح محمد حسني حسن; born 11 July 1979) is an Egyptian retired professional footballer who played as a striker  He turned to acting in 2012, after he composed songs for Mohamed Hamaki and others in 2011  He appeared in TV Shows that includes Kalabsh, Al Fetewa, and Hawary Bucharest 

International goals
Scores and results list Egypt's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Hosny goal 1 Egypt goalscorer in Kenya is also accredited to Ahmed Hossam Mido 

Honours
Al AhlyEgyptian Premier League: 1997-1998VfB Stuttgart

UEFA Intertoto Cup: 2000
Passage 6:
Gianluca Bollini
Gianluca Bollini (born 24 March 1980) is a Sammarinese footballer who played as a centre-back for the San Marino national team 
Passage 7:
BBC African Footballer of the Year
The BBC African Sports Personality of the Year (previously known as the BBC African Sports Star of the Year and the BBC African Footballer of the Year) was an annual award given to the best African sports personality of the year as voted by the BBC radio listeners  Voting is done via SMS and online 

History
Initially a sports award, the inaugural winner was Ghana's Abedi Pele in 1992  The only non-footballers to win the award was track and field athlete Frankie Fredericks in 1993, and long-distance track and road running athlete Haile Gebrselassie from Ethiopia, in 1998  The Zambia national football team were posthumous winners of the award in 1994, following the plane crash in the Atlantic Ocean a year previous  The award became centred around football from 2001 onwards, Cameroon's Patrick M'Boma was the last person to win it as a sports award 
Nigeria's Nwankwo Kanu and Jay-Jay Okocha, as well as the Ivory Coast's Yaya Touré and Egypt's Mohamed Salah are the only players to win the award more than once, with two wins 
In 2019, the award was changed back to its initial concept and renamed as the BBC African Sports Personality of the Year to reflect the balance between gender, disability and variety of sports on offer  However there were no awards in 2019 and in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic  In 2022, after it was returned back to the sports award, Christine Mboma became the first person to win the award for 2021 season 

Winners
Wins by country
Wins by club
See also
African Footballer of the Year
Passage 8:
Forbes' list of the most valuable sports teams
The world's most valuable sports teams, as ranked annually by the American magazine Forbes, include teams from association football, American football, baseball, and basketball 
In 2016, the National Football League (NFL)'s Dallas Cowboys simultaneously became both the first team to surpass $4 billion in value and the first non–association football team to top the ranking since its inception in 2010  Manchester United (2010–12) and Real Madrid (2013–15) have previously each been named the most valuable team three times 

Current ranking
Source:

Number one by year
Previous rankings
2020
Source

2019
Source

2018
Source

2017
Source

2016
Source

2015
Source

2014
Source

2013
Source

2012
Source

2011
Source

2010
Source

See also
Forbes' list of the most valuable association football clubs
Forbes' list of the most valuable NFL clubs
Forbes' list of the most valuable NBA clubs
Forbes' list of the most valuable MLB clubs
Forbes' list of the most valuable NHL clubs
Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada#Franchise valuations



ground_truth: Yaroslavl Oblast

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where did the producer of Julius Caesar study or work?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Secretary of State for India
His (or Her) Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for India, known for short as the India Secretary or the Indian Secretary, was the British Cabinet minister and the political head of the India Office responsible for the governance of the India, Aden, and Burma  The post was created in 1858 when the East India Company's rule in Bengal ended and India, except for the Princely States, was brought under the direct administration of the government in Whitehall in London, beginning the official colonial period under the British Empire 
In 1937, the India Office was reorganised which separated Burma and Aden under a new Burma Office, but the same Secretary of State headed both departments and a new title was established as His Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for India and Burma  The India Office and its Secretary of State were abolished in August 1947, when the United Kingdom granted independence in the Indian Independence Act, which created two new independent dominions, India and Pakistan  Burma soon achieved independence separately in early 1948 

Secretaries of State for India, 1858–1937
Before the establishment of the British Empire on 2 August 1858, Lord Stanley had served as President of the Board of Control 

Secretaries of State for India and Burma, 1937–1947
Secretaries of State for Burma, 1947–1948
See also
India Office
British Raj
British rule in Burma
Governor-General of India
Imperial Civil Service
Government of India Act

Notes


== External links ==
Passage 2:
Benjamin Pine
Sir Benjamin Chilley Campbell Pine (1809–1891) was at various times administrator of Natal, the Gold Coast, Antigua, the Leeward Islands and Western Australia 

Life
Born in 1809 in London, Benjamin Pine was educated in Brighton and at Trinity College, Cambridge  He became a career officer in the British Colonial Service   From 1850 to 1855, he was Lieutenant-Governor of Natal Colony, and from March 1857 until 17 April 1858 was Governor of the Gold Coast 
On 30 July 1868, Pine was appointed by letters patent to the position of Governor of Western Australia   Shortly afterwards, however, a vacancy occurred for the position of Governor of the Leeward Islands, and it was decided that he should fill that position instead   He never arrived in Western Australia, and six months passed before the colony received news that he would not be coming 
Pine served as Governor of the Leeward Islands from  1869 until 1871   His title then became Governor of Antigua until 1873, but the Leeward Islands continued under his governorship   He died in 1891 
The city of Pinetown, in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is named after him 
There is also a Primary school called Benjamin Pine Primary School named after him in Pinetown as well as the Pinetown High Schools (Boys and Girls) Honouring his name by the Pine Cones on the Badges 
He is buried on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery  His grave (no 29309) has no headstone or marker 

Status as Governor of Western Australia
In Burt (1996), Sir Francis Burt, who was a lawyer, a judge and himself a former Governor of Western Australia, analysed the question whether Pine should be considered to have served as Governor of Western Australia   He concluded that the appointment by letters patent, together with the publication of that appointment in the newspapers of the colony, legally implied that Pine was Governor of Western Australia, even though he never arrived at the colony and was never sworn in 
The person who actually administered the colony during the period of Pine's formal tenure (2 November 1868–29 September 1869) was Lieut Col John Bruce 
Passage 3:
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes  At the start of the war, the French colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 settlers, compared with 2 million in the British colonies  The outnumbered French particularly depended on their native allies Two years into the French and Indian War, in 1756, Great Britain declared war on France, beginning the worldwide Seven Years' War  Many view the French and Indian War as being merely the American theater of this conflict; however, in the United States the French and Indian War is viewed as a singular conflict which was not associated with any European war  French Canadians call it the guerre de la Conquête ('War of the Conquest') The British colonists were supported at various times by the Iroquois, Catawba, and Cherokee tribes, and the French colonists were supported by Wabanaki Confederacy member tribes Abenaki and Mi'kmaq, and the Algonquin, Lenape, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Shawnee, and Wyandot (Huron) tribes  Fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from the Province of Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north  It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny River and Monongahela River called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne at the location that later became Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania  The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22-year-old George Washington ambushed a French patrol In 1755, six colonial governors met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French   None succeeded, and the main effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755, and died a few days later  British operations failed in the frontier areas of the Province of Pennsylvania and the Province of New York during 1755–57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadian scouts, French regular forces, and Native warrior allies  In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755–64) soon afterwards  Orders for the deportation were given by Commander-in-Chief William Shirley without direction from Great Britain  The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to the king  Natives likewise were driven off the land to make way for settlers from New England The British Pitt government fell due to disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry; this last was followed by the Natives torturing and massacring their colonial victims  William Pitt came to power and significantly increased British military resources in the colonies at a time when France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the limited forces that they had in New France, preferring to concentrate their forces against Prussia and its allies who were now engaged in the Seven Years' War in Europe  The conflict in Ohio ended in 1758 with the British–American victory in the Ohio Country  Between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture French Canada  They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec (1759)  The following year the British were victorious in the Montreal Campaign in which the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1763) 
France also ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain, as well as French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain's loss to Britain of Spanish Florida  (Spain had ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for the return of Havana, Cuba ) France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Great Britain's position as the dominant colonial power in northern America 

Nomenclature
In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William's War or Queen Anne's War  There had already been a King George's War in the 1740s during the reign of King George II, so British colonists named this conflict after their opponents, and it became known as the French and Indian War  This continues as the standard name for the war in the United States, although Indians fought on both sides of the conflict  It also led into the Seven Years' War overseas, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain that did not involve the American colonies; some historians make a connection between the French and Indian War and the Seven Years' War overseas, but most residents of the United States consider them as two separate conflicts—only one of which involved the American colonies, and American historians generally use the traditional name  Less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for the Empire 

In Europe, the French and Indian War is conflated into the Seven Years' War and not given a separate name  "Seven Years" refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756—two years after the French and Indian War had started—to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763  The French and Indian War in America, by contrast, was largely concluded in six years from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to the capture of Montreal in 1760 Canadians conflate both the European and American conflicts into the Seven Years' War (Guerre de Sept Ans)  French Canadians also use the term "War of Conquest" (Guerre de la Conquête), since it is the war in which New France was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire  In Quebec, this term was promoted by popular historians Jacques Lacoursière and Denis Vaugeois, who borrowed from the ideas of Maurice Séguin in considering this war as a dramatic tipping point of French Canadian identity and nationhood 

Background
At this time, North America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Great Britain or France  Large areas had no colonial settlements  The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily concentrated along the St  Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present-day New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia), including Île Royale (Cape Breton Island)  Fewer lived in New Orleans; Biloxi, Mississippi; Mobile, Alabama; and small settlements in the Illinois Country, hugging the east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries  French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St  Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women  Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high-ranking unions 
British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1 with a population of about 1 5 million ranged along the Atlantic coast of the continent from Nova Scotia and the Colony of Newfoundland in the north to the Province of Georgia in the south  Many of the older colonies' land claims extended arbitrarily far to the west, as the extent of the continent was unknown at the time when their provincial charters were granted  Their population centers were along the coast, but the settlements were growing into the interior  The British captured Nova Scotia from France in 1713, which still had a significant French-speaking population  Britain also claimed Rupert's Land where the Hudson's Bay Company traded for furs with local Indian tribes 

Between the French and British colonists, large areas were dominated by Indian tribes  To the north, the Mi'kmaq and the Abenakis were engaged in Father Le Loutre's War and still held sway in parts of Nova Scotia, Acadia, and the eastern portions of the province of Canada, as well as much of Maine  The Iroquois Confederation dominated much of upstate New York and the Ohio Country, although Ohio also included Algonquian-speaking populations of Delaware and Shawnee, as well as Iroquoian-speaking Mingos  These tribes were formally under Iroquois rule and were limited by them in their authority to make agreements  The Iroquois Confederation initially held a stance of neutrality to ensure continued trade with both French and British  Though maintaining this stance proved difficult as the Iroquois Confederation tribes sided and supported French or British causes depending on which side provided the most beneficial trade The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan-speaking Catawbas, Muskogee-speaking Creeks and Choctaw, and the Iroquoian-speaking Cherokee tribes  When war broke out, the French colonists used their trading connections to recruit fighters from tribes in western portions of the Great Lakes region, which was not directly subject to the conflict between the French and British; these included the Hurons, Mississaugas, Ojibwas, Winnebagos, and Potawatomi 
The British colonists were supported in the war by the Iroquois Six Nations and also by the Cherokees, until differences sparked the Anglo-Cherokee War in 1758  In 1758, the Province of Pennsylvania successfully negotiated the Treaty of Easton in which a number of tribes in the Ohio Country promised neutrality in exchange for land concessions and other considerations  Most of the other northern tribes sided with the French, their primary trading partner and supplier of arms  The Creeks and Cherokees were subject to diplomatic efforts by both the French and British to gain either their support or neutrality in the conflict 

At this time, Spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern America  It controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years' War  Florida's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St  Augustine There were no French regular army troops stationed in America at the onset of war  New France was defended by about 3,000 troupes de la marine, companies of colonial regulars (some of whom had significant woodland combat experience)  The colonial government recruited militia support when needed  The British had few troops  Most of the British colonies mustered local militia companies to deal with Indian threats, generally ill trained and available only for short periods, but they did not have any standing forces  Virginia, by contrast, had a large frontier with several companies of British regulars When hostilities began, the British colonial governments preferred operating independently of one another and of the government in London  This situation complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies  As the war progressed, the leaders of the British Army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on the colonial administrations 

Céloron's expedition
New France's Governor-General Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such as George Croghan   In June 1747, he ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron to lead a military expedition through the area  Its objectives were:

to reaffirm to New France's Indian allies that their trading arrangements with colonists were exclusive to those authorized by New France
to confirm Indian assistance in asserting and maintaining the French claim to the territories which French explorers had claimed
to discourage any alliances between Britain and local Indian tribes
to impress the Indians with a French show of force against British colonial settler incursion, unauthorized trading expeditions, and general trespass against French claimsCéloron's expedition force consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians, and they covered about 3,000 miles (4,800 km) between June and November 1749  They went up the St  Lawrence, continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario, crossed the portage at Niagara, and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie  At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona, New York, the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River, which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh  There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country  Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur-traders, he informed them of the French claims on the territory and told them to leave Céloron's expedition arrived at Logstown where the Indians in the area informed him that they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British colonists regardless of the French  He continued south until his expedition reached the confluence of the Ohio and the Miami rivers, which lay just south of the village of Pickawillany, the home of the Miami chief known as "Old Briton"  Céloron threatened Old Briton with severe consequences if he continued to trade with British colonists, but Old Briton ignored the warning  Céloron returned disappointedly to Montreal in November 1749 Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report  "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French," he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to the English  I don't know in what way they could be brought back " Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the situation in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken  Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present 

Negotiations
The War of the Austrian Succession ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe  The issues of conflicting territorial claims between British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision  Frontier areas were claimed by both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in the south  The disputes also extended into the Atlantic Ocean, where both powers wanted access to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland In 1749, the British government gave land to the Ohio Company of Virginia for the purpose of developing trade and settlements in the Ohio Country  The grant required that it settle 100 families in the territory and construct a fort for their protection  But the territory was also claimed by Pennsylvania, and both colonies began pushing for action to improve their respective claims  In 1750, Christopher Gist explored the Ohio territory, acting on behalf of both Virginia and the company, and he opened negotiations with the Indian tribes at Logstown  He completed the 1752 Treaty of Logstown in which the local Indians agreed to terms through their "Half-King" Tanacharison and an Iroquois representative  These terms included permission to build a strong house at the mouth of the Monongahela River on the modern site of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 

Escalation in Ohio Country
Governor-General of New France Marquis de la Jonquière died on March 17, 1752, and he was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil  His permanent replacement was to be the Marquis Duquesne, but he did not arrive in New France until 1752 to take over the post  The continuing British activity in the Ohio territories prompted Longueuil to dispatch another expedition to the area under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade, an officer in the Troupes de la Marine  Langlade was given 300 men, including French-Canadians and warriors of the Ottawa tribe  His objective was to punish the Miami people of Pickawillany for not following Céloron's orders to cease trading with the British  On June 21, the French war party attacked the trading center at Pickawillany, capturing three traders and killing 14 Miami Indians, including Old Briton  He was reportedly ritually cannibalized by some Indians in the expedition party 

Construction of French fortifications
In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue was given command of a 2,000-man force of Troupes de la Marine and Indians  His orders were to protect the King's land in the Ohio Valley from the British  Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years earlier  Céloron, however, had limited the record of French claims to the burial of lead plates, whereas Marin constructed and garrisoned forts  He first constructed Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie's south shore near Erie, Pennsylvania, and he had a road built to the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek  He then constructed a second fort at Fort Le Boeuf in Waterford, Pennsylvania, designed to guard the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek  As he moved south, he drove off or captured British traders, alarming both the British and the Iroquois  Tanaghrisson was a chief of the Mingo Indians, who were remnants of Iroquois and other tribes who had been driven west by colonial expansion  He intensely disliked the French whom he accused of killing and eating his father  He traveled to Fort Le Boeuf and threatened the French with military action, which Marin contemptuously dismissed The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond  Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey, meaning "he who does great things " He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia 
The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor George Clinton and officials from some of the other American colonies at Albany, New York  Mohawk Chief Hendrick was the speaker of their tribal council, and he insisted that the British abide by their obligations and block French expansion  Clinton did not respond to his satisfaction, and Hendrick said that the "Covenant Chain" was broken, a long-standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown 

Virginia's response
Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim  He ordered 21-year-old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory in October 1753  Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam as an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a company surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson  On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre succeeded Marin as commander of the French forces after Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him  Over dinner, Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country  Saint-Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it " He told Washington that France's claim to the region was superior to that of the British, since René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier Washington's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754  He stated in his report, "The French had swept south", detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers 

Course of war
Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent a company of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began construction of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754  Governor Duquesne sent additional French forces under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint-Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men south from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754  These forces arrived at the fort on April 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent's small company to withdraw  He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne 

Early engagements
Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead a larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent's retreat while he was en route  Mingo sachem Tanaghrisson had promised support to the British, so Washington continued toward Fort Duquesne and met with him  He then learned of a French scouting party in the area from a warrior sent by Tanaghrisson, so he added Tanaghrisson's dozen Mingo warriors to his own party  Washington's combined force of 52 ambushed 40 Canadiens (French colonists of New France) on the morning of May 28 in what became known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen  They killed many of the Canadiens, including their commanding officer Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, whose head was reportedly split open by Tanaghrisson with a tomahawk  Historian Fred Anderson suggests that Tanaghrisson was acting to gain the support of the British and to regain authority over his own people  They had been inclined to support the French, with whom they had long trading relationships  One of Tanaghrisson's men told Contrecoeur that Jumonville had been killed by British musket fire  Historians generally consider the Battle of Jumonville Glen as the opening battle of the French and Indian War in North America, and the start of hostilities in the Ohio valley 

Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity, which the Canadians attacked under the command of Jumonville's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3  Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms  One of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo warriors—just those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence News of the two battles reached England in August  After several months of negotiations, the government of the Duke of Newcastle decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French  They chose Major General Edward Braddock to lead the expedition  Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock's departure for North America  In response, King Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France under the command of Baron Dieskau in 1755  The British sent out their fleet in February 1755, intending to blockade French ports, but the French fleet had already sailed  Admiral Edward Hawke detached a fast squadron to North America in an attempt to intercept them 

In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships  The British harassed French shipping throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen  These actions contributed to the eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756 An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754   The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with the Indians, since the allegiance of the various tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding   The plan that the delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved by the Crown   Nevertheless, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the prototype for confederation during the War of Independence 

British campaigns, 1755
The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755  General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne, while Massachusetts governor William Shirley was given the task of fortifying Fort Oswego and attacking Fort Niagara  Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St  Frédéric at Crown Point, New York, and Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beauséjour to the east on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia 

Braddock led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on the Braddock expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, with George Washington as one of his aides  The expedition was a disaster  It was attacked by French regulars, Canadian Militiamen, and Indian warriors ambushing them from hiding places up in trees and behind logs, and Braddock called for a retreat  He was killed and approximately 1,000 British soldiers were killed or injured  The remaining 500 British troops retreated to Virginia, led by Washington  Washington and Thomas Gage played key roles in organizing the retreat—two future opponents in the American Revolutionary War 
The British government initiated a plan to increase their military capability in preparation for war following news of Braddock's defeat and the start of parliament's session in November 1755  Among the early legislative measures were the Recruiting Act 1756, the Commissions to Foreign Protestants Act 1756 for the Royal American Regiment, the Navigation Act 1756, and the Continuance of Acts 1756  England passed the Naval Prize Act 1756 following the proclamation of war on May 17 to allow the capture of ships and establish privateering The French acquired a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson  Shirley's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated by his inexperience in managing large expeditions  In conjunction, he was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara  As a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull, and Fort Williams, the last two located on the Oneida Carry between the Mohawk River and Wood Creek at Rome, New York  Supplies were cached at Fort Bull for use in the projected attack on Niagara 
Johnson's expedition was better organized than Shirley's, which was noticed by New France's governor the Marquis de Vaudreuil  Vaudreuil had been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley's expected attack  Vaudreuil saw Johnson as the larger threat and sent Dieskau to Fort St  Frédéric to meet that threat  Dieskau planned to attack the British encampment at Fort Edward at the upper end of navigation on the Hudson River, but Johnson had strongly fortified it, and Dieskau's Indian support was reluctant to attack  The two forces finally met in the bloody Battle of Lake George between Fort Edward and Fort William Henry  The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides withdrawing from the field  Johnson's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and the French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after the British captured it in 1759) 

Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755 in the sole British success that year, cutting off the French Fortress Louisbourg from land-based reinforcements  To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area  Monckton's forces, including companies of Rogers' Rangers, forcibly removed thousands of Acadians, chasing down many who resisted and sometimes committing atrocities  Cutting off supplies to Louisbourg led to its demise  The Acadian resistance was sometimes quite stiff, in concert with Indian allies including the Mi'kmaq, with ongoing frontier raids against Dartmouth and Lunenburg, among others  The only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757, other than the campaigns to expel the Acadians ranging around the Bay of Fundy, on the Petitcodiac and St  John rivers, and Île Saint-Jean 

French victories, 1756–1757
Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755  He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec  His plan, however, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York's Governor Sir Charles Hardy, and consequently gained little support 

Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun, with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command  Neither of these men had as much campaign experience as the trio of officers whom France sent to North America  French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession  On May 18, 1756, Britain formally declared war on France, which expanded the war into Europe and came to be known as the Seven Years' War 
Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in addition to his role as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived  Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry  In the Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder  They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies  French forces in the Ohio valley also continued to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements  This led to ongoing alarms along the western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning east to get away from the action 

The new British command was not in place until July  Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold action against his inertia  He built on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George  With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful attack on Oswego in August  In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners' personal effects  The Europeans did not consider them prizes and prevented the Indians from stripping the prisoners of their valuables, which angered the Indians 
Loudoun was a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, and he planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France's capital of Quebec  He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm and began organizing for the expedition to Quebec  He was then ordered to attack Louisbourg first by William Pitt, the Secretary of State responsible for the colonies  The expedition was beset by delays of all kinds but was finally ready to sail from Halifax, Nova Scotia, in early August  In the meantime, French ships had escaped the British blockade of the French coast, and a fleet awaited Loudoun at Louisbourg which outnumbered the British fleet  Faced with this strength, Loudoun returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry 

French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757  In January, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga  In February, they launched a raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the main fortification  In early August, Montcalm and 7,000 troops besieged the fort, which capitulated with an agreement to withdraw under parole  When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm's Indian allies attacked the British column because they were angry about the lost opportunity for loot, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves  The aftermath of the siege may have contributed to the transmission of smallpox into remote Indian populations, as some Indians were reported to have traveled from beyond the Mississippi to participate in the campaign and returned afterward  Modern writer William Nester believes that the Indians might have been exposed to European carriers, although no proof exists 

British conquest, 1758–1760
Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping  The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory  His schemes to supply the colony inflated prices and were believed by Montcalm to line his pockets and those of his associates



ground_truth: Clifton College

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The BBC Footballer of the Year is a member of which team?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  A massive outbreak of smallpox among western Indian tribes led many of them to stay away from trading in 1758  The disease probably spread through the crowded conditions at William Henry after the battle; yet the Indians blamed the French for bringing "bad medicine" as well as denying them prizes at Fort William Henry 
Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defense of the St  Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg, while Vaudreuil argued unsuccessfully for a continuation of the raiding tactics that had worked quite effectively in previous years  The British failures in North America combined with other failures in the European theater and led to Newcastle's fall from power along with the Duke of Cumberland, his principal military advisor 

Newcastle and Pitt joined in an uneasy coalition in which Pitt dominated the military planning  He embarked on a plan for the 1758 campaign that was largely developed by Loudoun  He had been replaced by Abercrombie as commander in chief after the failures of 1757  Pitt's plan called for three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France  Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces 

1758
The Forbes Expedition was a British campaign in September–October 1758, with 6,000 troops led by General John Forbes sent to drive out the French from the contested Ohio Country  The French withdrew from Fort Duquesne and left the British in control of the Ohio River Valley  The great French fortress at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia was captured after a siege 

The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen defeated Abercrombie's force of 18,000 regulars, militia, and Indian allies outside the fort which the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga  Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac, including caches of supplies destined for New France's western forts and furs destined for Europe  Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg 
The French had generally poor results in 1758 in most theaters of the war  The new foreign minister was the duc de Choiseul, and he decided to focus on an invasion of Britain to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland  The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France and sent funds to Britain's mainland ally of Prussia, while the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay  In one piece of good fortune, some French supply ships did manage to depart France and elude the British blockade of the French coast 

1759–1760
The British proceeded to wage a campaign in the northwest frontier of Canada in an effort to cut off the French frontier forts to the west and south  They captured Ticonderoga and Fort Niagara, and they defeated the French at the Thousand Islands in the summer of 1759  In September 1759, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which claimed the lives of both commanders  After the battle, the French capitulated the city to the British 
In April 1760, François Gaston de Lévis led French forces to launch an attack to retake Quebec  Although he won the Battle of Sainte-Foy, Lévis' subsequent siege of Quebec ended in defeat when British ships arrived to relieve the garrison  After Lévis had retreated he was given another blow when a British naval victory at Restigouche brought the loss of French ships meant to resupply his army  In July Jeffrey Amherst then led British forces numbering around 18,000 men in a three pronged attack on Montreal  After eliminating French positions along the way all three forces met up and surrounded Montreal in September  Many Canadians deserted or surrendered their arms to British forces while the Native allies of the French sought peace and neutrality  De Lévis and the Marquis de Vaudreuil reluctantly signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal on September 8 which effectively completed the British conquest of New France 

Sporadic engagements, 1760–1763
Most of the fighting ended in America in 1760, although it continued in Europe between France and Britain  The notable exception was the French seizure of St  John's, Newfoundland  General Amherst heard of this surprise action and immediately dispatched troops under his nephew William Amherst, who regained control of Newfoundland after the Battle of Signal Hill in September 1762  Many of the British troops who were stationed in America were reassigned to participate in further British actions in the West Indies, including the capture of Spanish Havana when Spain belatedly entered the conflict on the side of France, and a British expedition against French Martinique in 1762 led by Major General Robert Monckton 

Peace
Governor Vaudreuil in Montreal negotiated a capitulation with General Amherst in September 1760  Amherst granted his requests that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, to own property, and to remain undisturbed in their homes  The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers, and French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war General Amherst also oversaw the transfer of French fortifications to British control on the western frontier  The policies which he introduced in those lands disturbed large numbers of Indians and contributed to the outbreak of Pontiac's War in 1763  
A series of Indian attacks on frontier forts and settlements required the continued deployment of British forces, and the conflict was not fully concluded until 1766 Beginning from the 1750's and lasting until the 1760's, a smallpox outbreak devastated several Indian communities throughout the American Midwest  The outbreak was brought on in part by victorious Indian warriors who had fought on the side of the French bringing home prizes of war which had been infected with the disease; the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi peoples were most affected by the outbreak  An oral account from Odawa tribal leader and historian Andrew Blackbird claimed that the outbreak had "entirely depopulated and laid waste" to Waganagisi, a large Odawa settlement The war in North America, along with the global Seven Years' War, officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement  The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British  France chose to cede the former but was able to negotiate the retention of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, two small islands in the Gulf of St  Lawrence, along with fishing rights in the area  They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent  French philosopher Voltaire referred to Canada disparagingly as nothing more than a few acres of snow  The British, however, were happy to take New France, as defence of their North American colonies would no longer be an issue (though the absence of that threat caused many colonists to conclude they no longer needed British protection)  Britain also had ample places from which to obtain sugar  Spain traded Florida to Britain in order to regain Cuba, but they also gained Louisiana from France, including New Orleans, in compensation for their losses  Great Britain and Spain also agreed that navigation on the Mississippi River was to be open to vessels of all nations 

Consequences
The war changed economic, political, governmental, and social relations among the three European powers, their colonies, and the people who inhabited those territories  France and Britain both suffered financially because of the war, with significant long-term consequences 
Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French-speaking Roman Catholic residents  The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 made land available to immigrants from Europe and migrants from the colonies to the south  The British resettled many Acadians throughout its American provinces, but many went to France and some went to New Orleans, which they expected to remain French  Some were sent to colonize places as diverse as French Guiana and the Falkland Islands, but these efforts were unsuccessful  The Louisiana population contributed to founding the Cajun population  (The French word "Acadien" changed to "Cadien" then to "Cajun" )King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and it continues to govern relations to some extent between the government of Canada and the First Nations  Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population, a demarcation that was only a temporary impediment to a rising tide of westward-bound settlers  The proclamation also contained provisions that prevented civic participation by the Roman Catholic Canadians 

The Quebec Act of 1774 addressed issues brought forth by Roman Catholic French Canadians from the 1763 proclamation, and it transferred the Indian Reserve into the Province of Quebec  The Act maintained French Civil law, including the seigneurial system, a medieval code removed from France within a generation by the French Revolution  The Quebec Act was a major concern for the largely Protestant Thirteen Colonies over the advance of "popery"  It is typically associated with other Intolerable Acts, legislation that eventually led to the American Revolutionary War  The Quebec Act served as the constitutional document for the Province of Quebec until it was superseded by the Constitutional Act 1791 
The Seven Years' War nearly doubled Great Britain's national debt  The Crown sought sources of revenue to pay it off and attempted to impose new taxes on its colonies  These attempts were met with increasingly stiff resistance, until troops were called in to enforce the Crown's authority, and they ultimately led to the start of the American Revolutionary War  France attached comparatively little value to its American possessions, apart from the highly profitable sugar-producing Antilles islands which it retained  Minister Choiseul considered that he had made a good deal at the Treaty of Paris, and Voltaire wrote that Louis XV had lost a few acres of snow  However, the military defeat and the financial burden of the war weakened the French monarchy and contributed to the advent of the French Revolution in 1789 The elimination of French power in America meant the disappearance of a strong ally for some Indian tribes  The Ohio Country was now more available to colonial settlement due to the construction of military roads by Braddock and Forbes  The Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory was not completed until 1769, and it had modest repercussions  The British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of Indian tribes who did not want to do business with them  This migration also caused a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies who were competing for land  The change of control in Florida also prompted most of its Spanish Catholic population to leave  Most went to Cuba, although some Christianized Yamasee were resettled to the coast of Mexico France returned to America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco-American alliance against Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War, in what historian Alfred A  Cave describes as French "revenge for Montcalm's death" 

See also
American Indian Wars
Colonial American military history
French and Indian Wars
Military history of Canada
Military history of Nova Scotia
Military history of the Acadians
Military history of the Mi'kmaq
Troupes coloniales#List of regiments in New France 1755–59

Footnotes
Bibliography
External links

The French and Indian War Website
Map of French and Indian War  French and British forts and settlements, Indian tribes 
French and Indian War Profile and Videos – Chickasaw TV
The War That Made America from PBS
FORGOTTEN WAR: Struggle for North America from PBS
Seven Years' War timeline
Montcalm and Wolfe, by Francis Parkman online ebook
Animated Map of the French and Indian War developed by HistoryAnimated com
Passage 4:
Australia at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Australia competed at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, from 6 to 15 April 1896 
One athlete from Victoria, a British colony which later formed part of Australia, competed at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece   Edwin Flack was born in England and was resident in London in 1896, but spent most of his life in Australia and so is considered an Australian athlete by the International Olympic Committee The Union Flag was used as the flag for the Australian colonies as well as Great Britain and Ireland at the 1896 Summer Olympics 
At the end of these Olympics, Australia was ranked in eighth position on the medal table with a total of 2 medals (2 gold) 
Flack was the only competitor from an Australian colony   He entered five events, winning medals in three  The bronze medal in tennis, however, was part of a mixed team and therefore is not counted for Australia 

Medalists
Medals awarded to participants of mixed-NOC teams are represented in italics  These medals are not counted towards the individual NOC medal tally 

Multiple medalists
The following competitors won multiple medals at the 1896 Olympic Games 

Competitors
Athletics
Both of Flack's gold medals came in the athletics competitions as he won both of his track races 
Track & road events

Tennis
In the singles tournament, Flack lost the only match he competed in  His loss in the semifinals of the doubles competition, while carrying no prize at the time, earned him a retroactive bronze medal from the International Olympic Committee   This medal is counted for mixed team rather than Australia, however 

Notes
Passage 5:
Ross Bay Cemetery
Ross Bay Cemetery is located at 1516 Fairfield Road in Victoria, British Columbia, on Vancouver Island, Canada   Many historical figures from the early days of the province and colony of British Columbia are buried at Ross Bay 

History
The cemetery was opened in late 1872, with the first burial being Mary Letitia (Pemberton) Pearse, wife of Benjamin Pearse  The 27 5 acre (111,000 m²) cemetery is part of a public park and its south side faces Ross Bay on the Pacific Ocean  It is named after its owner, Isabella Mainville Ross, the first registered independent woman landowner in British Columbia   Isabella was also Indigenous, an Anishinaabe and French Métis woman, which makes her accomplishment even more remarkable  Her Métis son, Alexander Ross, was buried in the cemetery in 1876  His grave marker is the only known original marker left in possession of the Old Cemeteries Society  The old wooden marker is still used as a model for heritage markers   Isabella Ross was buried across the path from Alexander in 1885  In 1994, the Old Cemeteries Society marked Isabella's grave with a heritage marker, styled after the one she chose for Alexander 
In 1911, a sea wall had to be constructed because of the severe erosion that occurred as a result of the relentless pounding of the ocean's waves  During the 1930s, the City began planting a large number of trees and today the cemetery is quite different from the original that was mainly barren ground 
The Victorian-style Ross Bay Cemetery, contains numerous elaborate mausoleums and tall pillars from the early elite  Because the city of Victoria is the capital of the province of British Columbia, until the second quarter of the 20th century when improved ferry service and air travel made mobility to and from the island much easier, most senior politicians made Victoria their permanent home  As such, Ross Bay Cemetery is the burial site for many of the province's premiers 
Although the Ross Bay Cemetery had long been considered full, the City of Victoria discovered approximately 270 unused plots in the cemetery in the late 1990s  Through a lottery process the City of Victoria sold seven of these plots in April 2004,
 and an additional 65 plots in February 2007 
The money raised through the plot sales was used to fund refurbishment work at the Ross Bay Cemetery 

Notable interments
Some of the notable personalities among the more than 27,000 interred here are:

Billy Barker (1819–1894), frontiersman, prospector
Sir Frank Stillman Barnard (1856–1936), statesman
Robert Beaven (1836–1920), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Sir Matthew Begbie (1819–1894), First Chief Justice of British Columbia
Harlan Carey Brewster (1870–1918), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Emily Carr (1871–1945), painter
Nellie Cashman (1845–1925), nurse and gold prospector
Sir Henry Pering Pellew Crease (1823–1905) First BC Barrister and early Supreme Court Justice
Sarah Lindley Crease (1826–1922), artist
Alexander Edmund Batson Davie (1847–1889), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Theodore Davie (1852–1898), jurist, statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Edgar Dewdney Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia, 1892–1897 
Amor De Cosmos (1825–1897), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Sir James Douglas (1803–1877), Hudson's Bay Co  executive, 1st Governor of British Columbia, and 2nd Governor of Vancouver Island
James Dunsmuir (1851–1920), businessman, statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Andrew Charles Elliott (1828–1889), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Roderick Finlayson (1818–1892), considered the "Father of Victoria "
John Hamilton Gray (1814–1889), pre-Confederation Premier of New Brunswick, a Father of Confederation, and a BC Supreme Court Justice 
Byron Ingemar Johnson (1890–1964), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Hannah Maynard (1834–1918), photographer
Sir Richard McBride (1870–1917), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
John McLean (c  1799–1890), trapper, explorer, writer, sometimes credited with saving western Canada from the United States during the Alabama Claims dispute
James E  McMillan (d  1907), mayor of Victoria in 1872
William Henry McNeill (1803–1875), Master of the SS Beaver from which, in 1843, while at McNeill Bay, Governor Douglas located Fort Victoria   Port McNeill is named for him 
Joseph Despard Pemberton (1821–1893), Surveyor-General of Vancouver Island
Sophie Pemberton (1869–1959), painter
Edward Gawler Prior (1853–1920), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
John Robson (1824–1892), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Isabella Mainville Ross (1807–1885), Anishinaabe-Métis woman and first registered independent female landowner in British Columbia
George Anthony Walkem (1834–1908) statesman, Premier of British Columbia

War graves
The cemetery contains the war graves of 135 Commonwealth service personnel, 133 from World War I and 2 from World War II 

Cultural references
Ross Bay Cemetery was the alleged site of satanic rituals according to the now-discredited book Michelle Remembers 
The cemetery was also the frequent stomping ground of the legendary Ross Bay Cult bestial black metal scene, of which Blasphemy are a part 
Passage 6:
Richard Blanshard
Richard Blanshard MA (19 October 1817 – 5 June 1894) was an English barrister and first governor of the Colony of Vancouver Island from its foundation in 1849 to his resignation in 1851 

Biography
Blanshard was born in London to a wealthy mercantile family, and after reading law at Cambridge University, served in the army in British India   At the age of 32, a personal connection helped secure Blanshard the post of colonial governor of Vancouver Island   Although the commission was dated in July, 1849, Blanshard did not arrive in the colony's capital of Fort Victoria until March of the following year 
Blanshard's short tenure proved unhappy from the start, largely because of the enormous power and influence wielded by the Hudson's Bay Company and its autocratic Chief Factor, James Douglas   Indeed, prior to Blanshard's appointment, there had been serious consideration given by the colonial office to appointing Douglas governor, but concerns over conflict of interest prevented it 
Blanshard arrived to a colony in which the land had been given as a ten-year lease to the Hudson's Bay Company, with Douglas given a mandate to attract settlement   Almost the entire non-First Nations population were Company employees, answerable to Douglas, and Blanshard was prevented from setting up a colonial assembly by the fact that so few of them met the qualifications of electors, i e , land ownership   Inevitable jurisdictional conflicts arose between Douglas and Blanshard, and the colonial office, too, took Blanshard to task for indiscriminate retributions taken against the First Nations population near present-day Port Hardy   The absence of any real power, combined with health concerns and the enormous cost of living drove Blanshard to resign; he abandoned the colony in September, 1851 after just one and a half years there 
Blanshard evidently did not pursue further colonial service   He married and inherited his family's estates in Essex and Hampshire   He died in London at the age of 76 

Places named for Blanshard
Mount Blanshard, part of a group of sugarloaf-type peaks commonly known as the Golden Ears, is located in Golden Ears Provincial Park in the Garibaldi Ranges of the Coast Mountains, immediately north of Maple Ridge, British Columbia 
The Blanshard River is a tributary of the Tatshenshini River, near the British Columbia–Yukon border 
Blanshard Island is located among the Gulf Islands northeast of the City of Victoria 
Blanshard Street is a major thoroughfare in downtown Victoria, running northwards from the north end of Beacon Hill Park to join with Highway 17 just past the Victoria–Saanich boundary 
A large provincial government structure, The Richard Blanshard Building stands on the corner of Blanshard and Pandora Streets in Victoria 

External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

Further reading
Governor Blanshard's Plight, R  Gosnell and E O S  Scholefield, A History of British Columbia, Historical Society of British Columbia (Vancouver 1913), pp  107–114
Passage 7:
Treaty of Paris (1763)
The Treaty of Paris, also known as the Treaty of 1763, was signed on 10 February 1763 by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement, after Great Britain and Prussia's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years' War 
The signing of the treaty formally ended the conflict between France and Great Britain over control of North America (the Seven Years' War, known as the French and Indian War in the United States), and marked the beginning of an era of British dominance outside Europe  Great Britain and France each returned much of the territory that they had captured during the war, but Great Britain gained much of France's possessions in North America  Additionally, Great Britain agreed to protect Roman Catholicism in the New World  The treaty did not involve Prussia and Austria as they signed a separate agreement, the Treaty of Hubertusburg, five days later 

Exchange of territories
During the war, Great Britain had conquered the French colonies of Canada, Guadeloupe, Saint Lucia, Martinique, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Tobago, the French "factoreries" (trading posts) in India, the slave-trading station at Gorée, the Sénégal River and its settlements, and the Spanish colonies of Manila (in the Philippines) and Havana (in Cuba)  France had captured Minorca and British trading posts in Sumatra, while Spain had captured the border fortress of Almeida in Portugal, and Colonia del Sacramento in South America 

The treaty restored most of the territories to their original owners, but Britain was allowed to keep considerable gains  France and Spain restored all their conquests to Britain and Portugal  Britain restored Manila and Havana to Spain, and Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Gorée, and the Indian factories to France  In return, France recognized the sovereignty of Britain over Canada, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Tobago France also ceded the eastern half of French Louisiana to Britain; that is, the area from the Mississippi River to the Appalachian Mountains  France had already secretly given Louisiana to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762), but Spain did not take possession until 1769  Spain ceded East Florida to Britain  In addition, France regained its factories in India but recognized British clients as the rulers of key Indian native states and pledged not to send troops to Bengal  Britain agreed to demolish its fortifications in British Honduras (now Belize) but retained a logwood-cutting colony there  Britain confirmed the right of its new subjects to practise Catholicism France lost all of its territory in mainland North America except for the territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River  France retained fishing rights off Newfoundland and the two small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, where its fishermen could dry their catch  In turn, France gained the return of its sugar colony, Guadeloupe, which it considered more valuable than Canada  Voltaire had notoriously dismissed Acadia as quelques arpents de neige (a few acres of snow) 

Louisiana question
The Treaty of Paris is notable because it furthered the transfer of Louisiana from France to Spain  However, the agreement to transfer had occurred with the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762), but it was not publicly announced until 1764  The Treaty of Paris gave Britain the east side of the Mississippi (including Baton Rouge, Louisiana, which was to be part of the British territory of West Florida)  On the east side, New Orleans remained in French hands (albeit temporarily)  The Mississippi River corridor in what is now Louisiana was later reunited following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819 
The 1763 treaty states in Article VII:
VII  In order to reestablish peace on solid and durable foundations, and to remove for ever all subject of dispute with regard to the limits of the British and French territories on the continent of America; it is agreed, that, for the future, the confines between the dominions of his Britannick Majesty and those of his Most Christian Majesty, in that part of the world, shall be fixed irrevocably by a line drawn along the middle of the River Mississippi, from its source to the river Iberville, and from thence, by a line drawn along the middle of this river, and the lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the sea; and for this purpose, the Most Christian King cedes in full right, and guaranties to his Britannick Majesty the river and port of the Mobile, and every thing which he possesses, or ought to possess, on the left side of the river Mississippi, except the town of New Orleans and the island in which it is situated, which shall remain to France, provided that the navigation of the river Mississippi shall be equally free, as well to the subjects of Great Britain as to those of France, in its whole breadth and length, from its source to the sea, and expressly that part which is between the said island of New Orleans and the right bank of that river, as well as the passage both in and out of its mouth: It is farther stipulated, that the vessels belonging to the subjects of either nation shall not be stopped, visited, or subjected to the payment of any duty whatsoever  The stipulations inserted in the IVth article, in favour of the inhabitants of Canada shall also take place with regard to the inhabitants of the countries ceded by this article 

Canada question
British perspective
The war was fought all over the world, but the British began the war over French possessions in North America  After a long debate of the relative merits of Guadeloupe, which produced £6 million a year in sugar, and Canada, which was expensive to keep, Great Britain decided to keep Canada for strategic reasons and to return Guadeloupe to France  The war had weakened France, but it was still a European power  British Prime Minister Lord Bute wanted a peace that would not push France towards a second war Although the Protestant British worried about having so many Roman Catholic subjects, Great Britain did not want to antagonize France by expulsion or forced conversion or for French settlers to leave Canada to strengthen other French settlements in North America 

French perspective
Unlike Lord Bute, the French Foreign Minister, the Duke of Choiseul, expected a return to war  However, France needed peace to rebuild  France preferred to keep its Caribbean possessions with their profitable sugar trade, rather than the vast Canadian lands, which had been a financial burden on France  French diplomats believed that without France to keep the Americans in check, the colonists might attempt to revolt  In Canada, France wanted open emigration for those, such as the nobility, who would not swear allegiance to the British Crown  Finally, France required protection for Roman Catholics in North America Article IV stated:
IV  His Most Christian Majesty renounces all pretensions which he has heretofore formed or might have formed to Nova Scotia or Acadia in all its parts, and guaranties the whole of it, and with all its dependencies, to the King of Great Britain: Moreover, his Most Christian Majesty cedes and guaranties to his said Britannick Majesty, in full right, Canada, with all its dependencies, as well as the island of Cape Breton, and all the other islands and coasts in the gulph and river of St  Lawrence, and in general, every thing that depends on the said countries, lands, islands, and coasts, with the sovereignty, property, possession, and all rights acquired by treaty, or otherwise, which the Most Christian King and the Crown of France have had till now over the said countries, lands, islands, places, coasts, and their inhabitants, so that the Most Christian King cedes and makes over the whole to the said King, and to the Crown of Great Britain, and that in the most ample manner and form, without restriction, and without any liberty to depart from the said cession and guaranty under any pretence, or to disturb Great Britain in the possessions above mentioned  His Britannick Majesty, on his side, agrees to grant the liberty of the Catholick religion to the inhabitants of Canada: he will, in consequence, give the most precise and most effectual orders, that his new Roman Catholic subjects may profess the worship of their religion according to the rites of the Romish church, as far as the laws of Great Britain permit  His Britannick Majesty farther agrees, that the French inhabitants, or others who had been subjects of the Most Christian King in Canada, may retire with all safety and freedom wherever they shall think proper, and may sell their estates, provided it be to the subjects of his Britannick Majesty, and bring away their effects as well as their persons, without being restrained in their emigration, under any pretence whatsoever, except that of debts or of criminal prosecutions: The term limited for this emigration shall be fixed to the space of eighteen months, to be computed from the day of the exchange of the ratification of the present treaty 

Dunkirk question
During the negotiations that led to the treaty, a major issue of dispute between Britain and France had been over the status of the fortifications of the French coastal settlement of Dunkirk  The British had long feared that it would be used as a staging post to launch a French invasion of Britain  Under the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, the British forced France to concede extreme limits on those fortifications  The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had allowed more generous terms, and France constructed more significant defences for the town 
The 1763 treaty had Britain force France to accept the 1713 conditions and demolish the fortifications constructed since then  That would be a continuing source of resentment to France, which would eventually have that provision overturned in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which brought an end to the American Revolutionary War 

Reactions
When Lord Bute became the British prime minister in 1762, he pushed for a resolution to the war with France and Spain since he feared that Great Britain could not govern all of its newly acquired territories  In what Winston Churchill would later term a policy of "appeasement", Bute returned some colonies to Spain and France in the negotiations Despite a desire for peace, many in the British Parliament opposed the return of any gains made during the war  Notable among the opposition was former Prime Minister William Pitt, the Elder, who warned that the terms of the treaty would lead to further conflicts once France and Spain had time to rebuild and later said, "The peace was insecure because it restored the enemy to her former greatness  The peace was inadequate, because the places gained were no equivalent for the places surrendered " The treaty passed by 319 votes to 65 The Treaty of Paris took no consideration of Great Britain's battered continental ally, Frederick II of Prussia, who negotiated peace terms separately in the Treaty of Hubertusburg  For decades after the signing of the Treaty of Paris, Frederick II decried it as a British betrayal Many Protestant American colonists were disappointed by the protection of Roman Catholicism in the Treaty of Paris  Criticism of the British colonial government as insufficiently anti-Catholic and fear of the protections for Catholicism expanding beyond Quebec was one of many reasons for the breakdown of American–British relations that led to the American Revolution 

Effects on French Canada
The article permitted unrestrained emigration for 18 months from Canada  However, passage on British ships was expensive  A total of 1,600 people left New France by that clause, but only 270 of them were French Canadians  Some claim that there was a deliberate British policy to limit emigration to avoid strengthening other French colonies Article IV of the treaty allowed Roman Catholicism to be practiced in Canada  George III agreed to allow Catholicism within the laws of Great Britain, which included various Test Acts to prevent governmental, judicial and bureaucratic appointments from going to Roman Catholics  They were believed to be agents of the Jacobite pretenders to the throne, who normally resided in France and were supported by its government  The Test Acts were somewhat relaxed in Quebec, but top positions such as governorships were still held by Anglicans Article IV has also been cited as the basis for Quebec's unique legal code that differs from the rest of Canada  There was a general constitutional principle in the United Kingdom allowing colonies taken through conquest to continue their laws  That was limited by royal prerogative, which allowed the monarch to change the accepted laws in a conquered colony later  However, the treaty eliminated that power because of a different constitutional principle, which considered the terms of a treaty to be paramount  In practice, Roman Catholics were allowed to become jurors in inferior courts in Quebec and to argue based on principles of French law  However, the judge was British, and his opinion on French law could be limited or hostile  If the case was appealed to a superior court, neither French law nor Roman Catholic jurors were allowed Many French residents of what are now the Maritime Provinces of Canada were deported during the Great Expulsion of the Acadians (1755–1763)  After signing the peace treaty guaranteed some rights to Roman Catholics, some Acadians returned to Canada  However, they were no longer welcome in the British colony of Nova Scotia  They were forced into New Brunswick, which became a bilingual province as a result of that relocation Britain now owned much land that France had owned, and the French people of Quebec felt greatly betrayed by the French concession  The commander-in-chief of the British, Jeffrey Amherst noted, "Many of the Canadians consider their Colony to be of utmost consequence to France & cannot be convinced     that their Country has been conceded to Great Britain "

See also
France in the Seven Years' War
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
Royal Proclamation of 1763
List of treaties
Passage 8:
London broil
London broil, is a beef dish made by broiling marinated beef, then cutting it across the grain into thin strips  Despite its name, the dish and the terminology are American, not British 

Cut
"London broil" originally referred to broiled flank steak, although modern butchers may label top round, coulotte, or other cuts as "London broil", and the term has come to refer more to a method of preparation and cookery than to a specific cut of meat 

Preparation
The preparation of London broil typically involves marinating the meat for several hours followed by high heat searing in an oven broiler or outdoor grill   It is then served in thin slices, cut across the grain[Preparation Method ] 

In Canada
In parts of central Canada, a ground meat patty wrapped in flank or round steak is known as a London broil   Some butchers will wrap the flank steak around a concoction of seasoned and ground or tenderized flank steak  Others sell a pork sausage patty wrapped in flank or top round steak labeled as London broil  Another variant, popular in Southern Ontario, is a London broil "loaf", wherein the tenderized flank steak exterior is wrapped around minced and spiced veal as the filler  In some regions, bacon will be added between the flank steak and the veal grind 

See also
List of beef dishes
List of steak dishes



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