prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who led the muslim forces to retake the proposed embassy destination?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Siege of Germanicia
The siege of Germanicia or Marash was led by Muslim forces of the Rashidun Caliphate during their campaigns in Anatolia in 638  The city surrendered without much bloodshed  This expedition is important because it marks the end of the military career of the legendary Arab Muslim general Khalid ibn Walid, who was dismissed from the army a few months after his return from the expedition 

Background
The Muslims won a decisive victory at the Battle of Yarmouk fought in August 636, thus the attempt made by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius to roll back Roman Syria failed  Further, unable to send more imperial troops to Syria, Heraclius made yet another attempt to re-conquer Syria by the aid of his Christian Arab allies of Jazira  The army of the Christian Arabs laid siege to Emesa in mid-summer of 638  The Muslims avoided a battle in the open and instead opted for a defensive strategy which led to the Battle at Emesa  All the regiments from outposts in northern Syria were called to Emesa  The Christian Arab Army was forced to withdraw their siege when, by the orders of Caliph Umar, the Muslim army from Iraq attacked Jazira  At this point, the rear elements of the besieging army were attacked by a Mobile guard led by Khalid ibn Walid, which in effect left the Byzantine forces devastated  Caliph Umar then launched a full-scale invasion of Jazira which was completed without much resistance in just a few months  As soon as the western part of Jazira was occupied, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah wrote to Umar and asked for Ayadh bin Ghanam, who was operating in western Jazira, to be put under his command so that he could use him in raids across the northern border  Umar agreed to this request, and Ayadh moved to Emesa with a part of the Muslim forces sent from Iraq to Jazira 

The siege
In the Autumn of 638, Abu Ubaidah launched several columns, including two commanded by Khalid ibn Walid and Ayadh, to raid Byzantine territory in Anatolia as far west as Tarsus  Khalid's objective was Germanicia (Arabic: Marash), the city which lies on a plain at the foot of the Taurus Mountains  The region is best known for its production of salep, a flour made from dried orchid tubers  In late 638, the Muslim army laid the siege to the city which contained a Byzantine garrison  Expecting no help from their Emperor, the Byzantine garrison surrendered the city on the usual terms of Jizya offered by the Rashidun army, which included terms stating that the garrison and the populace be spared  As for material wealth, the Muslims could take all they wished 

Aftermath
It is narrated that Khalid returned to Qinnasrin laden with spoils of war that had seldom been seen before  Many Muslim historians commented that Just the spoils of Marash were sufficient to make the soldiers of this expedition rich for life  Khalid ibn Walid, who was at the peak of his military career was unfortunately dismissed by Caliph Umar because of his immense popularity which was a result of his very successful military career  It was a general view that Umar had dismissed Khalid because he was angry with Khalid, though it was clarified later by Caliph Umar that:

I have not dismissed Khalid because of my anger or because of any dishonesty on his part, but because people glorified him and were misled  I feared that people would rely on him, rather than God, for victory  I want them to know that it is God who does all things; and there should be no mischief in the land 
Khalid was urged by many of his companions to retaliate against Umar for this  Khalid did not, although he was powerful enough to launch a coup d'état against Umar and in effect seize the power of the Rashidun Empire  He instead chose to stay away from politics and died four years later in 642 in Emesa  Caliph Umar was said to have felt embarrassed for his conduct against Khalid and was reported to have said at his death that 'he would have appointed Khalid as his successor if he was still alive '
Passage 2:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 862
United Nations Security Council resolution 862, adopted unanimously on 31 August 1993, after recalling resolutions 841 (1993), 861 (1993) and an agreement between the President of Haiti and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Haiti, the Council reaffirmed the international community's commitment to a solution in Haiti and discussed the establishment of a new police force in Haiti under a proposed United Nations Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) The immediate dispatch of an advance team of no more than 30 personnel to assess requirements and prepare for the possible dispatch of both the civilian police and military assistance components of UNMIH  The mandate of the advance team would last for one month with the prospect of incorporating it into the UNMIH peacekeeping mission when established 
The Council awaited a further report by the Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali concerning the proposed establishment of UNMIH and its financial costs, time-frame, projected conclusion and co-ordination with the work of the Organization of American States, further requesting him to enter into a Status of Forces Agreement with the Government of Haiti to facilitate an early dispatch of UNMIH when the Council decided  The mission was formally established in Resolution 867 

See also
History of Haiti
List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 801 to 900 (1993–1994)
Passage 3:
United Nations General Assembly resolution ES-10/L 22
United Nations General Assembly resolution ES‑10/19 is an emergency session resolution declaring the status of Jerusalem as Israel's capital as "null and void"  It was adopted by the 37th Plenary meeting of the tenth emergency special session of the United Nations General Assembly during the tenure of the seventy-second session of the United Nations General Assembly on 21 December 2017  The resolution was drafted by Yemen and Turkey  Though strongly contested by the United States, it passed by 128 votes to 9 against with 21 absentees and 35 abstentions 

Background
On 6 December 2017, US President Donald Trump said that he would recognise Jerusalem as Israel's capital and begin the process of moving the embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem  This was a departure from previous Security Council resolutions and prevailing international norms (where no state either recognises Jerusalem as a national capital nor has an embassy there) 
After a United Nations Security Council resolution was vetoed by the U S  three days earlier, Palestinian UN Ambassador Riyad Mansour said that the General Assembly would vote on a draft resolution calling for Trump's declaration to be withdrawn  He sought to invoke Resolution 377, known as the "Uniting for Peace" resolution, to circumvent a veto  The resolution states that the General Assembly can call an Emergency Special Session to consider a matter "with a view to making appropriate recommendations to members for collective measures" if the Security Council fails to act 

Campaign
On 20 December, US President Donald Trump threatened to cut US aid to countries voting against the US's side  The day before the vote, he said: "Let them vote against us   We don't care   this isn't like it used to be where they could vote against you and then you pay them hundreds of millions of dollars  We're not going to be taken advantage of any longer " Ambassador Nikki Haley warned her country would remember and "take names" of every country that voted in favour of the resolution  The governments of Turkey and Iran denounced the threats made by the US as "anti-democratic" and "blackmail"  Haley had sent a letter to dozens of member states that warned Trump had asked her to "report back on those countries who voted against us " Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said "I call on the whole world: Don't you dare sell your democratic struggle and your will for petty dollars" and warned Trump that "he cannot buy Turkey's democratic will with his dollars " He added: "I hope and expect the US won't get the result it expects from there (UN) and the world will give a very good lesson to the United States" Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu stated that Israel rejects this vote before it passes and called the UN a "house of lies" Hanan Ashrawi, a member of the PLO’s Executive Committee, condemned Trump's warning to countries receiving aid from the US: "Trump should know that there are things that are not for sale or subject to blackmail, particularly issues of principle, legality and morality "Canada's Foreign Affairs Minister Chrystia Freeland's spokesman, a country which was seeking re-negotiations of the NAFTA,  confirmed its intention to abstain from the vote and that the resolution should not have come to the General Assembly 

Content
The text of the resolution includes the following key statements:
The General Assembly,

Bearing in mind the specific status of the Holy City of Jerusalem and, in particular, the need for the protection and preservation of the unique spiritual, religious and cultural dimensions of the City, as foreseen in the relevant United Nations resolutions,
Stressing that Jerusalem is a final status issue to be resolved through negotiations in line with relevant United Nations resolutions,
Expressing in this regard its deep regret at recent decisions concerning the status of Jerusalem,
Affirms that any decisions and actions which purport to have altered, the character, status or demographic composition of the Holy City of Jerusalem have no legal effect, are null and void and must be rescinded in compliance with relevant resolutions of the Security Council, and in this regard, calls upon all States to refrain from the establishment of diplomatic missions in the Holy City of Jerusalem, pursuant to resolution 478 (1980) of the Security Council;
Demands that all States comply with Security Council resolutions regarding the Holy City of Jerusalem, and not to recognize any actions or measures contrary to those resolutions;
Reiterates its call for the reversal of the negative trends on the ground that are imperiling the two-State solution and for the intensification and acceleration of international and regional efforts and support aimed at achieving, without delay, a comprehensive, just and lasting peace in the Middle East on the basis of the relevant United Nations resolutions, the Madrid terms of reference, including the principle of land for peace, the Arab Peace Initiative and the Quartet Roadmap and an end to the Israeli occupation that began in 1967 

Motion
The motion was proposed by Yemen and Turkey 

Debate
In introducing the resolution as chair of the Arab Group, Yemen's Ambassador said the US decision was a "blatant violation of the rights of the Palestinian people, as well as those of all Christians and Muslims " He emphasized that it constituted a "dangerous breach of the Charter of the United Nations and a serious threat to international peace and security, while also undermining the chances for a two‑State solution and fuelling the fires of violence and extremism "Turkey, who was the co-sponsor of the draft resolution, also spoke as current chair of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)  Foreign Minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu said that Trump's decision was an outrageous assault to all universal values  "The Palestinians have the right to their own state based on 1967 borders with East Jerusalem as its capital  This is the main parameter and only hope for a just and lasting peace in the region  However, the recent decision of a UN Member State to recognise Jerusalem, or Al-Quds, as the capital of Israel, violates international law, including all relevant UN resolutions "The General Assembly heard from Palestinian Foreign Minister Riyad al-Maliki, who said that the meeting was "not because of any animosity to the United States of America" but instead the sessions was "called to make the voice of the vast majority of the international community — and that of people around the world — heard on the question of Jerusalem/Al‑Quds Al‑Sharif " He called the US decision to recognise Jerusalem as Israel's capital and to move its embassy there "an aggressive and dangerous move" which could inflame tensions and lead to a religious war that "has no boundaries " He added that though the decision would have no impact on the city's status, it would nevertheless compromise the role of the United States in the Middle East peace process  He urged member states to reject "blackmail and intimidation "US Ambassador Nikki Haley then said that her country was "singled out for attack" because of its recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel  She added that: "The United States will remember this day in which it was singled out for attack in the General Assembly for the very act of exercising our right as a sovereign nation,” Haley said  "We will remember it when we are called upon to once again make the world’s largest contribution to the United Nations, and so many countries come calling on us, as they so often do, to pay even more and to use our influence for their benefit " She added that: "America will put our embassy in Jerusalem  That is what the American people want us to do, and it is the right thing to do  No vote in the United Nations will make any difference on that   this vote will make a difference in how Americans view the UN "Israel's Ambassador Danny Danon then told the assembly that the vowed that "no General Assembly resolution will ever drive us from Jerusalem "Venezuela's ambassador, speaking for the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), expressed "grave concern about Israel’s ongoing violations in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including attempts to alter the character, status and demographic composition of the City of Jerusalem  [It was] also concerned about the decision to relocate the United States embassy [and] warned that such provocative actions would further heighten tensions, with potentially far‑reaching repercussions given the extremely volatile backdrop Other speakers included Pakistan, Indonesia, Maldives, Syria, Bangladesh, Cuba, Iran, and China Malaysia's Ambassador Datuk Seri Mohammed Shahrul Ikram Yaakob said that, as a member of the OIC and NAM,  "Malaysia joins the international community in expressing our deep concern and rejects the decision by the United States to recognise Jerusalem as the capital of Israel  It is also an infringement of the Palestinian people’s rights and their right to self determination " He called for a peaceful two-state solution and that Malaysia is concerned the situation will only feed into the agenda of extremists "Other speakers included, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and South Africa  The Permanent Observer for the Holy See, Tomasz Grysa, emphasised that Jerusalem was most sacred to the Abrahamic faiths and a symbol for millions of believers around the world who considered it their "spiritual capital " Its significance went "beyond the question of borders, a reality that should be considered a priority in every negotiation for a political solution "  The Holy See, he said, called for a "peaceful resolution that would ensure respect for the sacred nature of Jerusalem and its universal value   reiterating that only international guarantee could preserve its unique character and status and provide assurance of dialogue and reconciliation for peace in the region "After the motion was passed, more speeches continued with Estonia, who also spoke on behalf of other states  Australia's Ambassador then explained her country's government did "not support unilateral action that undermined the peace process [and] it did not believe today’s text would help to bring the parties back to the negotiating table "Other speakers included, Paraguay, whose Ambassador said that the country would abstain because "the question of Jerusalem was a matter for the Security Council, as the primary body responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security " This was followed by El Salvador, Argentina and Romania Canada's Ambassador Marc-Andre Blanchard called the proposal "one-sided" and said: "We are disappointed that this resolution is one sided and does not advance prospects for peace to which we aspire, which is why we have abstained on today’s vote " He, however, added that Canada wanted to emphasise Jerusalem's special significance to the Abrahamic religions of  Jews, Muslims and Christians  "Denying the connection between Jerusalem and the Jewish, Muslim and Christian faiths undermines the integrity of the site for all  We also reiterate the need to maintain the status quo at Jerusalem’s Holy sites Nicaragua explained its support of the resolution, as it "rebuffed recent unilateral attempts to modify the character and status of Jerusalem  Such unilateral actions were in blatant violation of resolution 2234 (2016) and others   unilateral actions jeopardised peace and stability in the Middle East and drew the international community further away from a solution "Mexico's ambassador then explained the abstention and emphasised that convening an emergency session was a disproportionate response  "The United States must become part of the solution, not a stumbling block that would hamper progress   the international community was further than ever from agreement "The Czech Republic then said that while it supported the European Union position, it had abstained because it "did not believe the draft resolution would contribute to the peace process "Armenia said that is position "remained unchanged  The situation should be resolved through negotiations paving the way for lasting peace and security "Hungary echoed Armenia's stance and said it would not comment on the foreign relations of the United States Latvia then spoke, before Estonia re-took the floor to say it had also spoken on behalf of Albania, Lithuania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 

Result
Reactions
States – UN Ambassador Nikki Haley announced that the U S  will move its embassy to Jerusalem and "no vote in the UN will make any difference on that" and that the US was "by far the single largest contributor to the UN " She also warned that the US might also cut funding to the UN itself  During the 2018 State of the Union Address, Trump said that the countries which voted against the resolution opposed the United States' "sovereign right to make this recognition" and said he would ask Congress to pass legislation which would ensure foreign aid would "only go to America's friends, not enemies of America "
 – Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu rejected the result shortly after it was announced in call it "preposterous," while he also thanked the states that supported "the truth" by not participating in "the theater of the absurd " He added that: "Jerusalem is our capital  Always was, always will be   But I do appreciate the fact that a growing number of countries refused to participate in this theatre of the absurd  So I appreciate that, and especially I want to again express our thanks to [US] President (Donald) Trump and Ambassador [Nikki] Haley, for their stalwart defense of Israel and their stalwart defense of the truth "  Defense Minister Avigdor Liberman, reminded Israelis of the longstanding Israeli disdain for such votes  "Let us just remember that this is the same UN about which our first ambassador to the organization, Abba Eban, once said: 'If Algeria introduced a resolution declaring that the earth was flat and that Israel had flattened it, it would pass by a vote of 164 to 13 with 26 abstentions'  There is nothing new in what just happened at the UN " He also praised the US as "the moral beacon shining out of the darkness " Minister of Strategic Affairs and Public Security Gilad Erdan said: "The historic connection between Israel and Jerusalem is stronger than any vote by the 'United Nations' — nations who are united only by their fear and their refusal to recognize the simple truth that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and the Jewish people "
However, opposition Joint List Chairman and MK Ayman Odeh called the vote a wake-up call for Israel: "In the international arena, there still exists a large and definitive majority that believes that the Palestinian people, like all other nations, deserve a place in this world and the right to self-determination  This evening's vote by the majority of the world's nations against Trump's announcement, in spite of the pressure and threats, flies in the face of Trump's and Netanyahu's diplomatic policy and is a clear statement by the international community in support of peace and the right of the Palestinians to an independent state, whose capital is East Jerusalem "
 – A spokesman for Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas called the vote "a victory for Palestine;" Abbas himself thanked the member states who voted in support of the resolution "in spite of the pressures they faced " UN Ambassador Riyad Mansour called the vote "a massive setback" for the US 
 – Minister of Foreign Affairs Mohammad Javad Zarif called the result a "resounding global no" to the Trump administration's "thuggish intimidation "
 – Foreign Minister Khalid bin Ahmed Al Khalifa said that it was "unhelpful to pick up a fight with Trump over a side issue and urged countries to concentrate on the threat posed by "theo-fascist" Iran instead "
Israel's Foreign Affairs Ministry reacted in writing on Twitter that Khalifa had denounced an Arab boycott of Israel and confirmed Bahraini citizens were free to visit Israel 
Iran responded to this by saying that "Palestine's freedom from the clutches of Israeli occupation remains the Islamic world's highest priority" and that "despite all complex plots, manufactured crises and fictitious threats propagated by the US-Zionism axis, Palestine still is and will remain the Islamic world's number one priority until it is liberated, and no one    can distract Muslims from this serious issue "
 – Jimmy Morales, the president of Guatemala, one of the nine countries which voted against the resolution, announced on 24 December 2017 that he would follow Trump in move his country's embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem MediaHaaretz's Noa Landau, wrote, in citing unnamed diplomatic sourced, that Israel was particularly disappointed with countries like India that have enhanced bilateral relations with it recently  "The main disappointment in Israel was with the countries that have enhanced bilateral relations in recent years, especially those that share a particularly conservative worldview with the Netanyahu government  For example, India – whose Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, visited Israel in July, a tour that was memorable mainly for the pastoral photographs of him and Netanyahu embracing and wading in the waves – voted for the resolution against Israel and the United States "
OthersAt a "Solidarity to Save Jerusalem" rally organised by the Barisan Nasional government in Malaysia, one of the attendees Association of NextGen Christians of Malaysia President Joshua Hong said at the Putra Mosque: "We are here because we feel that the decision made by President Trump on announcing Jerusalem as the capital of Israel is merely a political decision  He added that the decision also hurts Christian and Arabic churches in Palestine and not just the Muslims  "To us as Christians, Jerusalem is a city of peace and after that announcement, we feel there is no more peace  I think it is not right and unjust  We believe we should continue pursuing the sustainable peace solution for Palestine and Israel, rather than just a single nation declaring it just like that " He claimed that about 50 members of the group turned up in a show of support for the Palestinian people 

See also
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 43/177
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 67/19
List of United Nations resolutions concerning Israel
List of United Nations resolutions concerning Palestine
United Nations General Assembly resolution
Passage 4:
Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501)
The First Rebellion of the Alpujarras (Arabic: ثورة البشرات الأولى; 1499–1501) were a series of uprisings by the Muslim population of the Kingdom of Granada, Crown of Castile (formerly, the Emirate of Granada) against their Catholic rulers  They began in 1499 in the city of Granada in response to mass forced conversions of the Muslim population to the Catholic faith, which were perceived as violations of the 1491 Treaty of Granada  The uprising in the city quickly died down, but it was followed by more serious revolts in the nearby mountainous area of the Alpujarras  The Catholic forces, on some occasions led personally by King Ferdinand, succeeded in suppressing the revolts and inflicted severe punishment on the Muslim population 
The Catholic rulers used these revolts as a justification to repudiate the Treaty of Granada and abrogate the rights of the Muslims guaranteed by the treaty  All Muslims of Granada were subsequently required to convert to Catholicism or be expelled, and in 1502 these forced conversions applied to all of Castile  However, they did not apply in the kingdoms of Valencia or Aragon 

Background
Muslims had been present in the Iberian peninsula since the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century  By the end of the 15th century, the Emirate of Granada was the last Muslim-ruled area in the peninsula  In January 1492, after a decade-long campaign, Muhammad XII of Granada (also known as "Boabdil") surrendered the Emirate to the Catholic forces led by the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile  The Treaty of Granada, signed on November 1491, guaranteed a set of rights to the Muslims of Granada, including religious tolerance and fair treatment, in return for the capitulation At this point, the Muslim population in the former Emirate of Granada was estimated to be between 250,000 and 300,000, making up the majority in the former emirate, and constituting roughly half of the entire Muslim population in Spain Initially, the Catholic rulers upheld the treaty  Despite pressure from the Spanish clergy, Ferdinand and the Archbishop of Granada Hernando de Talavera chose a laissez-faire policy towards the Muslims in the hope that interaction with Catholics would make them "understand the error" of their faith and abandon it  When Ferdinand and Isabella visited the city in the summer of 1499, they were greeted by enthusiastic crowds, including Muslims In the summer of 1499, Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, the archbishop of Toledo, arrived in Granada and began working alongside Talavera  Cisneros disliked Talavera's approach and began sending uncooperative Muslims, especially the noblemen, to prison, where they were treated harshly until they agreed to convert  Emboldened by the increase in conversions, Cisneros intensified the efforts and in December 1499 he told Pope Alexander VI that three thousand Muslims converted in a single day  Cisneros' own church council warned that these methods might be a breach of the Treaty, and sixteenth-century hagiographer Álvar Gómez de Castro described the approach as "methods that were not correct" 

Uprising in the Albayzín
The increasing forced conversions of Muslims triggered resistance, initially among the urban population of the Albayzín (also spelled Albaicín), the Muslim quarter of Granada   The situation was exacerbated by the treatment of elches, former Christians who converted to Islam  Specific clauses in the Treaty of Granada forbade the conversion of the elches back to Christianity against their will, but the treaty allowed for questionings of such converts by Christian clerics, in the presence of Muslim religious authorities  Cisneros used this 'loophole' to summon elches and imprison those who refused to return to Christianity  These efforts were often focused on wives of Muslim men – an emphasis that angered the Muslim population who considered this a violation of their families 

On 18 December 1499, as part of this effort, constable Velasco de Barrionuevo and an assistant were taking a female elche from the Albayzín for such questioning  When they passed through a square, she shouted that she was being forced to become Christian  The officials were then surrounded by a hostile crowd, the constable was killed and the assistant managed to escape after being sheltered by a local Muslim woman This incident escalated into an open revolt  The residents of the Albayzín barricaded the streets and armed themselves  An angry crowd marched to Cisneros' house, apparently for an assault  This crowd later dispersed, but over the following days the revolt become more organized  The population of the Albayzín elected their own officials and leaders  In the standoff that ensued, the archbishop Hernando de Talavera and the Captain-General Marquis de Tendilla attempted to defuse the situation through negotiations and gestures of good-will  After ten days, the uprising ended as the Muslims handed in their weapons and handed over the constable's killers, who were promptly executed Subsequently, Cisneros was summoned to the court in Seville to account for his actions, facing a furious Ferdinand  Cisneros however argued that it was the Muslims, not him, who breached the Treaty by engaging in armed rebellion  He convinced Ferdinand and Isabella to declare a collective pardon to the rebels, on condition that they convert to Christianity  Cisneros returned to Granada, which now nominally became a fully Christian city 

Uprising in the Alpujarra
Although the uprising in the Albayzín appeared to be put down and Granada was nominally transformed to a Christian city, the rebellion spread to the countryside  The leaders of the Albayzín uprising fled to the Alpujarra mountains  The inhabitants of the mountains, almost exclusively Muslims, had only accepted Christian rule reluctantly  They quickly rose up in revolts against what they regarded as the violation of the terms of the Treaty of Granada, and because they feared they would suffer the same forced conversions as the residents of the Albayzín  By February 1500, 80,000 Christian troops were mobilized to put down the rebellion  By March, King Ferdinand arrived to personally direct the operations The rebels were often tactically well led and made use of the mountainous terrain to conduct guerrilla warfare  However, they lacked a central leadership and coherent strategy  This was partly caused by the previous Castilian policy of encouraging and facilitating the Granadan upper class to leave the country or convert and be absorbed into the Christian upper class  The rebels' lack of strategic command allowed the Christian forces to proceed by defeating the rebels in one area separately, then moving on to the next The rebelling towns and villages in the Alpujarra were gradually defeated  Ferdinand personally led the assault on Lanjarón  Rebels who surrendered were generally required to be baptized in order to keep their lives  Towns and villages which had to be taken by assault were treated harshly  One of the most violent episodes occurred in Laujar de Andarax, where the Catholic forces under Louis de Beaumont took 3,000 Muslims prisoner and then slaughtered them  Between two and six hundred women and children who took refuge in a local mosque were blown up with gunpowder  During the capture of Velefique, all the men were killed and the women enslaved  At Nijar and Güéjar Sierra, the whole population was enslaved except children who were kidnapped in order to be brought up as Christians On 14 January 1501, Ferdinand ordered his army to stand down because the uprising seemed to be suppressed  However, further unrest occurred in Sierra Bermeja  An army under Alonso de Aguilar, one of the most distinguished captains of Spain, marched to put down this rebellion  On 16 March, the army's undisciplined troops, eager for pillage, charged the rebels  However, this was met by a fierce counterattack  The result was a catastrophe for the Catholic army; Aguilar himself was killed in battle and the army was nearly annihilated However, the Muslims soon sued for peace, and Ferdinand, aware of the weakness of the army and the difficulty of mountain warfare, declared that the rebels must choose between exile or baptism  Only those who could pay ten gold doblas were given passage, and the majority who could not pay had to stay and be baptized  The insurgents surrendered in waves, beginning from the middle of April, since some waited to see whether the first insurgents who surrendered were safe  The emigrants were escorted under guards to the port of Estepona and given passage to North Africa  The remaining were allowed to return home after converting, surrendering their arms, and forfeiting their property 

Aftermath
By the end of 1501, the rebellion was put down  The Muslims were no longer given their rights provided by the Treaty of Granada, and were given the choice of: (1) remain and accept baptism, (2) reject baptism and be enslaved or killed, or  (3) be exiled  Given the expensive fee exacted for passage out of Spain, conversion was the only realistic option for them  Therefore, only a decade after the fall of the Emirate of Granada, the entire Muslim population of Granada had nominally become Christian A proclamation in 1502 extended these forced conversions to the rest of the lands of Castile, even though those outside Granada had nothing to do with the rebellion  The newly converted Muslims were known as nuevos cristianos ("new Christians") or moriscos  (lit  "Moorish")  Although they converted to Christianity, they maintained their existing customs, including their language, distinct names, food, dress and even some ceremonies  Many secretly practiced Islam, even as they publicly professed and practiced Christianity  In return, the Catholic rulers adopted increasingly intolerant and harsh policies in order to eradicate these characteristics  This culminated in Philip II's Pragmatica of 1 January 1567 which ordered the Moriscos to abandon their customs, clothing and language  The pragmatica triggered the Morisco revolts in 1568–1571 

See also
Expulsion of the Moriscos
Morisco rebellions in Granada
Mudéjar
Reconquista
Passage 5:
Dutch Republic
The United Provinces of the Netherlands, officially the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Dutch: Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden), and commonly referred to in historiography as the Dutch Republic, was a confederation that existed from 1579 until the Batavian Revolution in 1795  It was a predecessor state of the present-day Netherlands  The republic was established after seven Dutch provinces in the Spanish Netherlands revolted against Spanish rule, forming a mutual alliance against Spain in 1579 (the Union of Utrecht) and declaring their independence in 1581 (the Act of Abjuration)  It comprised Groningen, Frisia, Overijssel, Guelders, Utrecht, Holland and Zeeland 
Although the state was small and contained only around 1 5 million inhabitants, it controlled a worldwide network of seafaring trade routes  Through its trading companies, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (GWC), it established a Dutch colonial empire  The income from this trade allowed the Dutch Republic to compete militarily against much larger countries  It amassed a huge fleet of 2,000 ships, initially larger than the fleets of England and France combined  Major conflicts were fought in the Eighty Years' War against Spain (from the foundation of the Dutch Republic until 1648), the Dutch–Portuguese War (1602–1663), four Anglo-Dutch Wars (the first against the Commonwealth of England, two against the Kingdom of England, and a fourth against the Kingdom of Great Britain: 1652–1654, 1665–1667, 1672–1674 and 1780–1784), the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1713), the War of Austrian Succession (1744–1748) and the War of the First Coalition (1792–1795) against the Kingdom of France 
The republic was more tolerant of different religions and ideas than its contemporary states were, allowing freedom of thought to its residents  Artists flourished under this regime, including painters such as Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer and many others  So did scientists, such as Hugo Grotius, Christiaan Huygens and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek  The Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world during much of the 17th century, a period which became known in Dutch history as the Dutch Golden Age 
The republic was a confederation of provinces each with a high degree of independence from the federal assembly, known as the States General  In the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the republic gained approximately 20% more territory, located outside the member provinces, which was ruled directly by the States General as Generality Lands  Each province was led by an official known as the stadtholder (Dutch for 'steward'); this office was nominally open to anyone, but most provinces appointed a member of the House of Orange  The position gradually became hereditary, with the Prince of Orange simultaneously holding most or all of the stadtholderships, making him effectively the head of state  This created tension between political factions: the Orangists favoured a powerful stadtholder, while the Republicans favoured a strong States General  The Republicans forced two Stadtholderless Periods, 1650–1672 and 1702–1747, with the latter causing national instability and the end of Great Power status 
Economic decline led to a period of political instability known as the Patriottentijd (1780–1787)  This unrest was temporarily suppressed by a Prussian invasion in support of the stadtholder  The French Revolution and subsequent War of the First Coalition caused these tensions to reignite  Following military defeat by France, the stadtholder was expelled in the Batavian Revolution of 1795  This ended the Dutch Republic; it was succeeded by the Batavian Republic 

History
Until the 16th century, the Low Countries—corresponding roughly to the present-day Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg—consisted of a number of duchies, counties, and prince-bishoprics, almost all of which were under the supremacy of the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the County of Flanders, most of which was under the Kingdom of France 
Most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg  In 1549, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which further unified the Seventeen Provinces under his rule  Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain  In 1568, the Netherlands, led by William I of Orange, together with Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, and Lamoral, Count of Egmont revolted against Philip II because of high taxes, persecution of Protestants by the government, and Philip's efforts to modernize and centralize the devolved-medieval government structures of the provinces  This was the start of the Eighty Years' War  During the initial phase of the war, the revolt was largely unsuccessful  Spain regained control over most of the rebelling provinces  This period is known as the "Spanish Fury" due to the high number of massacres, instances of mass looting, and total destruction of multiple cities and in particular Antwerp between 1572 and 1579 
In 1579, a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Army of Flanders  This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II  Dutch colonialism began at this point, as the Netherlands was able to swipe a number of Portuguese and Spanish colonies, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region  After the assassination of William of Orange on 10 July 1584, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined offers of sovereignty  However, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England (Treaty of Nonsuch, 1585), and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general  This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy  The Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by Spain until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 
During the Anglo-French War (1778–1783), the internal territory was divided into two groups: the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American, and the Orangists, who were pro-British  The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of republican revolutions in 1783–1787  During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities  Initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787  The republican forces fled to France, but then successfully re-invaded alongside the army of the French Republic (1793–1795), ousting stadtholder William V, abolishing the Dutch Republic, and replacing it with the Batavian Republic (1795–1806)  After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) 
The Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813  In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names "United Provinces of the Netherlands" and "United Netherlands" were used  In 1815, it was rejoined with the Austrian Netherlands and Liège (the "Southern provinces") to become the Kingdom of the Netherlands, informally known as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, to create a strong buffer state north of France  On 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands  Between 1815 and 1890, the King of the Netherlands was also in a personal union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg  After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became unequivocally known as the "Kingdom of the Netherlands", as it remains today 

Economy
During the Dutch Golden Age in the late-16th and 17th centuries, the Dutch Republic dominated world trade, conquering a vast colonial empire and operating the largest fleet of merchantmen of any nation  The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world  In 1650 the urban population of the Dutch Republic as a percentage of total population was 31 7 percent, while that of the Spanish Netherlands was 20 8 percent, of Portugal 16 6 percent, and of Italy 14 percent  In 1675 the urban population density of Holland alone was 61 percent, compared to the rest of the Dutch Republic, where 27 percent lived in urban areas The free trade spirit of the time was augmented by the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries  The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands  The Dutch East-India Company exchange went public in six different cities  Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a single city, so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles  While the banking system evolved in the Low Countries, it was quickly incorporated by the well-connected English, stimulating English economic output The Dutch Republic was a master of banking, often compared to 14th century Florence  When Southern Europe was experiencing poor harvests, surplus grain from Poland was sold by the Dutch for large profits 

Politics
The republic was a confederation of seven provinces, which had their own governments and were very independent, and a number of so-called Generality Lands  The latter were governed directly by the States General, the federal government  The States General were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives of each of the seven provinces  The provinces of the republic were, in official feudal order:

Duchy of Guelders
County of Holland
County of Zeeland
Lordship of Utrecht
Lordship of Overijssel
Lordship of Frisia
Lordship of GroningenThere was an eighth province, the County of Drenthe, but this area was so poor that it was exempt from paying federal taxes, and as a consequence, it was denied representation in the States General 
Each province was governed by the Provincial States, their main executive official (though not the official head of state) being a raadpensionaris or landsadvocaat  In times of war, the stadtholder, who commanded the army, would have more power than the raadpensionaris  In theory, the stadtholders were freely appointed by and subordinate to the states of each province  However, in practice the princes of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau, beginning with William the Silent, were always chosen as stadtholders of most of the provinces 
Zeeland and usually Utrecht had the same stadtholder as Holland  There was a constant power struggle between the Orangists, who supported the stadtholders and specifically the princes of Orange, and the Republicans, who supported the States General and hoped to replace the semi-hereditary nature of the stadtholdership with a true republican structure 
After the Peace of Westphalia, several border territories were assigned to the United Provinces  They were federally governed Generality Lands  These were Staats-Brabant, Staats-Vlaanderen, Staats-Overmaas, and (after the Treaty of Utrecht) Staats-Opper-Gelre  The States General of the United Provinces were in control of the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, but some shipping expeditions were initiated by some of the provinces, mostly Holland and Zeeland 
The framers of the United States Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces, as Federalist No  20, by James Madison, shows  Such influence appears, however, to have been of a negative nature, as Madison describes the Dutch confederacy as exhibiting "Imbecility in the government; discord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a precarious existence in peace, and peculiar calamities from war " Apart from this, the American Declaration of Independence is similar to the Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United Provinces, but concrete evidence that the latter directly influenced the former is absent 

Religion
In the Union of Utrecht of 20 January 1579, Holland and Zeeland were granted the right to accept only one religion (in practice, Calvinism)  Every other province had the freedom to regulate the religious question as it wished, although the Union stated every person should be free in the choice of personal religion and that no person should be prosecuted based on religious choice  William of Orange had been a strong supporter of public and personal freedom of religion and hoped to unite Protestants and Catholics in the new union, and, for him, the Union was a defeat  In practice, Catholic services in all provinces were quickly forbidden, and the Dutch Reformed Church became the "public" or "privileged" church in the republic During the republic, any person who wished to hold public office had to conform to the Reformed Church and take an oath to this effect  The extent to which different religions or denominations were persecuted depended much on the time period and regional or city leaders  In the beginning, this was especially focused on Roman Catholics, being the religion of the enemy  In 17th-century Leiden, for instance, people opening their homes to services could be fined 200 guilders (a year's wage for a skilled tradesman) and banned from the city  Throughout this, however, personal freedom of religion existed and was one factor—along with economic reasons—in causing large immigration of religious refugees from other parts of Europe In the first years of the republic, controversy arose within the Reformed Church, mainly around the subject of predestination  This has become known as the struggle between Arminianism and Gomarism, or between Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants  In 1618, the Synod of Dort tackled this issue, which led to the banning of the Remonstrant faith 
Beginning in the 18th century, the situation changed from more or less active persecution of religious services to a state of restricted toleration of other religions, as long as their services took place secretly in private churches 

Decline
Long-term rivalry between the two main factions in Dutch society, the Staatsgezinden (Republicans, Dutch States Party) and the Prinsgezinden (Royalists or Orangists), sapped the strength and unity of the country  Johan de Witt and the Republicans did reign supreme for a time at the middle of the 17th century (the First Stadtholderless Period) until his overthrow and murder in 1672  Subsequently, William III of Orange became stadtholder  After a 22-year stadtholderless era, the Orangists regained power, and his first problem was to survive the Franco-Dutch War (with the derivative Third Anglo-Dutch war), when France, England, Münster, and Cologne united against this country 
Wars to contain the expansionist policies of France in various coalitions after the Glorious Revolution, mostly including England and Scotland—after 1707, Great Britain—burdened the republic with huge debts, although little of the fighting after 1673 took place on its own territory  The necessity to maintain a vast army against France meant that less money could be spent on the navy, weakening the republic's economy  After William III's death in 1702 the Second Stadtholderless Period was inaugurated  Despite having contributed much in the War of the Spanish Succession, the Dutch Republic gained little from the peace talks in Utrecht (1713)  However, the Dutch had over a period of forty years successfully defended their positions in the Southern Netherlands and their troops were central in the alliances which had halted French territorial expansion in Europe until 1792  The end of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748, and Austria becoming allies with France against Prussia, marked the end of the republic as a major military power Fierce competition for trade and colonies, especially from France and England, furthered the economic downturn of the country  The three Anglo-Dutch Wars and the rise of mercantilism had a negative effect on Dutch shipping and commerce 

See also
List of countries that gained independence from Spain
Dutch Empire
Dutch East India Company
Passage 6:
Project Daedalus
Project Daedalus (named after Daedalus, the Greek mythological designer who crafted wings for human flight) was a study conducted between 1973 and 1978 by the British Interplanetary Society to design a plausible uncrewed interstellar probe  Intended mainly as a scientific probe, the design criteria specified that the spacecraft had to use existing or near-future technology and had to be able to reach its destination within a human lifetime  Alan Bond led a team of scientists and engineers who proposed using a fusion rocket to reach Barnard's Star 5 9 light years away   The trip was estimated to take 50 years, but the design was required to be flexible enough that it could be sent to any other target star 
All the papers produced by the study are available in a BIS book, Project Daedalus: Demonstrating the Engineering Feasibility of Interstellar Travel,

Concept
Daedalus would be constructed in Earth orbit and have an initial mass of 54,000 tonnes including 50,000 tonnes of fuel and 500 tonnes of scientific payload  Daedalus was to be a two-stage spacecraft  The first stage would operate for two years, taking the spacecraft to 7 1% of light speed (0 071 c), and then after it was jettisoned, the second stage would fire for 1 8 years, taking the spacecraft up to about 12% of light speed (0 12 c), before being shut down for a 46-year cruise period  Due to the extreme temperature range of operation required, from near absolute zero to 1600 K, the engine bells and support structure would be made of molybdenum alloyed with titanium, zirconium, and carbon, which retains strength even at cryogenic temperatures  A major stimulus for the project was Friedwardt Winterberg's inertial confinement fusion drive concept, for which he received the Hermann Oberth gold medal award This velocity is well beyond the capabilities of chemical rockets or even the type of nuclear pulse propulsion studied during Project Orion  According to Dr  Tony Martin, controlled-fusion engine and the nuclear–electric systems have very low thrust, equipment to convert nuclear energy into electrical has a large mass, which results in small acceleration, which would take a century to achieve the desired speed; thermodynamic nuclear engines of the NERVA type require a great quantity of fuel, photon rockets have to generate power at a rate of 3×109 W per kg of vehicle mass and require mirrors with absorptivity of less than 1 part in 106, interstellar ramjet's problems are tenuous interstellar medium with a density of about 1 atom/cm3, a large diameter funnel, and high power required for its electric field  Thus the only suitable propulsion method for the project was thermonuclear pulse propulsion Daedalus would be propelled by a fusion rocket using pellets of a deuterium/helium-3 mix that would be ignited in the reaction chamber by inertial confinement using electron beams  The electron beam system would be powered by a set of induction coils trapping energy from the plasma exhaust stream  250 pellets would be detonated per second, and the resulting plasma would be directed by a magnetic nozzle  The computed burn-up fraction for the fusion fuels was 0 175 and 0 133 producing exhaust velocities of 10,600 km/s and 9,210 km/s respectively  Due to scarcity of helium-3 on Earth, it was to be mined from the atmosphere of Jupiter by large hot-air balloon supported robotic factories over a 20-year period, or from a less distant source, such as the Moon The second stage would have two 5-metre optical telescopes and two 20-metre radio telescopes  About 25 years after launch these telescopes would begin examining the area around Barnard's Star to learn more about any accompanying planets  This information would be sent back to Earth, using the 40-metre diameter second stage engine bell as a communications dish, and targets of interest would be selected  Since the spacecraft would not decelerate, upon reaching Barnard's Star, Daedalus would carry 18 autonomous sub-probes that would be launched between 7 2 and 1 8 years before the main craft entered the target system  These sub-probes would be propelled by nuclear-powered ion drives and would carry cameras, spectrometers, and other sensory equipment  The sub-probes would fly past their targets, still travelling at 12% of the speed of light, and transmit their findings back to the Daedalus' second stage, mothership, for relay back to Earth 
The ship's payload bay containing its sub-probes, telescopes, and other equipment would be protected from the interstellar medium during transit by a beryllium disc, up to 7 mm thick, weighing up to 50 tonnes   This erosion shield would be made from beryllium due to its lightness and high latent heat of vaporisation  Larger obstacles that might be encountered while passing through the target system would be dispersed by an artificially generated cloud of particles, ejected by support vehicles called dust bugs about 200 km ahead of the vehicle  The spacecraft would carry a number of robot wardens capable of autonomously repairing damage or malfunctions 

Specifications
Overall length: 190 metres
Payload mass: 450 tonnes

Variants
A quantitative engineering analysis of a self-replicating variation on Project Daedalus was published in 1980 by Robert Freitas  The non-replicating design was modified to include all subsystems necessary for self-replication  Use the probe to deliver a seed factory, with a mass of about 443 metric tons, to a distant site  Have the seed factory replicate many copies of itself on-site, to increase its total manufacturing capacity, then use the resulting automated industrial complex to construct probes, with a seed factory on board, over a 1,000-year period  Each REPRO would weigh over 10 million tons due to the extra fuel needed to decelerate from 12% of lightspeed 
Another possibility is to equip the Daedalus with a magnetic sail similar to the magnetic scoop on a Bussard ramjet to use the destination star heliosphere as a brake, making carrying deceleration fuel unnecessary, allowing a much more in-depth study of the star system chosen 

See also
Breakthrough Starshot
Project Icarus
Project Longshot
Enzmann starship

Further reading
K  F  Long (2012)  "Project Daedalus"  Deep Space Propulsion: A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight  Springer  pp  190–197  ISBN 9781461406075 
Passage 7:
Kushla
Kushla (Кушла) is a village in southern Bulgaria, Zlatograd municipality, Smolyan Province, located near the border with Greece  In the Ottoman times the town was called Ugurli in Turkish and Kotyli in Greek  In 1918 the village was part of the Satres (bulg  Sinikovo) community  Following Greek and Bulgarian independence, the former town and its 350 families was divided between the countries in the Neuilly treaty in 1922 until 1941 when the Axis powers opened the borders briefly up to 1944 when Greece retook Kotyli and the local Bulgarian Muslims were since schooled in Greek language  The other part of the village lies in the Xanthi regional unit of Greece as Kotyli (Kozludzha)  The villages have a Pomak (Bulgarian Muslim) majority 
Passage 8:
Siege of Jerusalem (636–637)
The siege of Jerusalem (636–637) was part of the Muslim conquest of the Levant and the result of the military efforts of the Rashidun Caliphate against the Byzantine Empire in the year 636–637/38  It began when the Rashidun army, under the command of Abu Ubayda, besieged Jerusalem beginning in November 636  After six months, the Patriarch Sophronius agreed to surrender, on condition that he submit only to the Caliph  According to Islamic tradition, in 637 or 638, Caliph Umar (r  634–644) traveled to Jerusalem in person to receive the submission of the city  The Patriarch thus surrendered to him 
The Muslim conquest of the city solidified Arab control over Palestine, which would not again be threatened until the First Crusade in 1099 

Background
Jerusalem was an important city of the Byzantine province of Palaestina Prima  Just 23 years prior to the Muslim conquest, in 614, it fell to an invading Sassanid army under Shahrbaraz during the last of the Byzantine–Sasanian Wars  The Persians looted the city, and are said to have massacred its 90,000 Christian inhabitants  As part of the looting, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed and the True Cross captured and taken to Ctesiphon as a battle-captured holy relic  The Cross was later returned to Jerusalem by Emperor Heraclius after his final victory against the Persians in 628  The Jews, who were persecuted in their Christian-controlled homeland, initially aided the Persian conquerors After the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632, Muslim leadership passed to Caliph Abu Bakr (r  632–634) following a series of campaigns known as the Ridda Wars  Once Abu Bakr's sovereignty over Arabia had been secured, he initiated a war of conquest in the east by invading Iraq, then a province of the Sassanid Persian Empire; while on the western front, his armies invaded the Byzantine Empire In 634, Abu Bakr died and was succeeded by Umar (r  634–644), who continued his own war of conquest  In May 636, Emperor Heraclius (r  610–641) launched a major expedition to regain the lost territory, but his army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Yarmouk in August 636  Thereafter, Abu Ubayda, the Rashidun commander-in-chief of the Rashidun army in Syria, held a council of war in early October 636 to discuss future plans  Opinions of objectives varied between the coastal city of Caesarea and Jerusalem  Abu Ubayda could see the importance of both these cities, which had resisted all Muslim attempts at capture  Unable to decide on the matter, he wrote to Caliph Umar for instructions  In his reply, the caliph ordered them to capture the latter  Accordingly, Abu Ubayda marched towards Jerusalem from Jabiyah, with Khalid ibn al-Walid and his mobile guard leading the advance  The Muslims arrived at Jerusalem around early November, and the Byzantine garrison withdrew into the fortified city 

Siege
Jerusalem had been well-fortified after Heraclius recaptured it from the Persians  After the Byzantine defeat at Yarmouk, Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, repaired its defenses  The Muslims had so far not attempted any siege of the city  However, since 634, Saracen forces had the potential to threaten all routes to the city  Although it was not encircled, it had been in a state of siege since the Muslims captured the towns of Pella and Bosra east of the Jordan River  After the Battle of Yarmouk, the city was severed from the rest of Syria, and was presumably being prepared for a siege that seemed inevitable  When the Muslim army reached Jericho, Sophronius collected all the holy relics including the True Cross, and secretly sent them to the coast, to be taken to Constantinople  The Muslim troops besieged the city some time in November 636  Instead of relentless assaults on the city, they decided to press on with the siege until the Byzantines ran short of supplies and a bloodless surrender could be negotiated Although details of the siege were not recorded, it appeared to be bloodless  The Byzantine garrison could not expect any help from the humbled Heraclius  After a siege of four months, Sophronius offered to surrender the city and pay a jizya (tribute), on condition that the caliph came to Jerusalem to sign the pact and accept the surrender  It is said that when Sophronius's terms became known to the Muslims, Shurahbil ibn Hasana, one of the Muslim commanders, suggested that instead of waiting for the caliph to come all the way from Madinah, Khalid ibn Walid should be sent forward as the caliph, as he was very similar in appearance to Umar  The subterfuge did not work  Possibly, Khalid was too famous in Syria, or there may have been Christian Arabs in the city who had visited Madinah and had seen both Umar and Khalid, remembering the differences  Consequently, the Patriarch of Jerusalem refused to negotiate  When Khalid reported the failure of this mission, Abu Ubaidah wrote to caliph Umar about the situation, and invited him to come to Jerusalem to accept the surrender of the city 

Surrender
The date of the surrender of Jerusalem is debatable  Primary sources, such as chronicles from centuries closer or further removed from the time of the events, offer the year 638, for instance Theophilus of Edessa (695–785); or 636, 636/37, and 637  Academic secondary sources tend to prefer 638  Encyclopaedia Britannica mentions both options in different articles In early April 637, Umar arrived in Palestine and went first to Jabiya, where he was received by Abu Ubaidah, Khalid, and Yazid, who had travelled with an escort to receive him  Amr was left as commander of the besieging Muslim army Upon Umar's arrival in Jerusalem, a pact known as the Umariyya Covenant was composed  It surrendered the city and gave guarantees of civil and religious liberty to Christians in exchange for jizya  It was signed by caliph Umar on behalf of the Muslims, and witnessed by Khalid, Amr, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, and Mu'awiya  Depending on the sources, in either 637 or in 638, Jerusalem was officially surrendered to the caliph  For the Jewish community this marked the end of nearly 500 years of Roman rule and oppression  Umar permitted the Jews to once again reside within the city of Jerusalem itself It has been recorded in the annals of Muslim chronicles, that at the time of the Zuhr prayers, Sophronius invited Umar to pray in the rebuilt Church of the Holy Sepulchre  Umar declined, fearing that accepting the invitation might endanger the church's status as a place of Christian worship, and that Muslims might break the treaty and turn the church into a mosque  After staying for ten days in Jerusalem, the caliph returned to Medina 

Aftermath
Following the Caliph's instructions, Yazid proceeded to Caesarea, and once again laid siege to the port city  Amr and Shurahbil marched to complete the occupation of Palestine, a task that was completed by the end of the year  Caesarea, however, could not be taken until 640, when at last, the garrison surrendered to Mu'awiya I, then a governor of Syria  With an army of 17,000 men, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid set off from Jerusalem to conquer all of northern Syria  This ended with the conquest of Antioch in late 637  In 639, the Muslims invaded and conquered Egypt 
During his stay in Jerusalem, Umar was led by Sophronius to various holy sites, including the Temple Mount  Seeing the poor state of where the Temple once stood, Umar ordered the area cleared of refuse and debris before having a wooden mosque built on the site  The earliest account of such a structure is given by the Gallic bishop Arculf, who visited Jerusalem between 679 and 682, and describes a very primitive house of prayer able to accommodate up to 3,000 worshippers, constructed of wooden beams and boards over preexisting ruins More than half a century after the capture of Jerusalem, in 691, the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of the Dome of the Rock over a large outcropping of bedrock on the Temple Mount  The 10th-century historian al-Maqdisi wrote that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur with the city's Christian churches  Whatever the intention, the impressive splendor and scale of the shrine is seen as having helped significantly in solidifying the attachment of Jerusalem to the early Muslim faith Over the next 400 years, the city's prominence diminished as Saracen powers in the region jockeyed for control  Jerusalem remained under Muslim rule until it was captured by Crusaders in 1099 during the First Crusade 

Hadith
It is believed in Sunni Islam that Muhammad foretold the conquest of Jerusalem in numerous authentic hadiths in various Islamic sources, including a narration mentioned in Sahih al-Bukhari in Kitab Al Jizyah Wa'l Mawaada'ah (The Book of Jizya and Storage):
Narrated `Auf bin Mali:
I went to the Prophet during the Expedition to Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent  He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the End Times: my death, the conquest of Jerusalem, a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep   "The siege of Jerusalem was carried by Abu Ubaidah under Umar in the earliest period of Islam along with Plague of Emmaus  The epidemic is famous in Muslim sources because of the death of many prominent companions of Muhammad 

Notes
Passage 9:
Mawdud
Mawdud ibn Altuntash (Arabic: شرف الدولة المودود) (also spelled Maudud or Sharaf al-Dawla Mawdûd) (died October 2, 1113) was a Turkic military leader who was atabeg of Mosul from 1109 to 1113  He organized several expeditions to reconquer lands from the Crusaders and defeated them at  Battle of Al-Sannabra

Biography
Mawdud was an officer of Muhammad I Tapar who sent him to reconquer Mosul from the rebel atabeg Jawali Saqawa  After his conquest of the city, Mehmed entrusted him with several military attempts to push back the Crusaders from the nearby Principality of Antioch and County of Edessa  The first attempt was launched in 1110; having joined forces with Ilghazi, the emir of Mardin, and of Sökmen el-Kutbî, emir of Ahlat, they began by besieging Edessa from April of that year, but Baldwin I of Jerusalem intervened, and forced Mawdud to retreat 
The following year Mawdud marched against Edessa, but as the city walls had been quickly strengthened, he preferred to lay siege to the town of Turbessel, held by Joscelin I of Courtenay  When Ridwan of Aleppo sent news that the Christians under Tancred were on the verge of capturing Aleppo, he moved on to that city  On his arrival, however, he discovered that the capture of the city was not imminent at all, and that Ridwan even refused to open the city's gates for him  He also received the news that a relief army which had been sent by Baldwin I was now marching northwards, so he raised the siege of Turbessel and the subsequent Battle of Shaizar in 1111 proved to be indecisive and a tactical draw 
The 1112 campaign began again with the siege of Turbessel, but was halted when a party of the Mosul army was decimated by Joscelin on June 15  An attempt to capture Edessa with the assistance of its Armenian population was discovered by then count Baldwin II of Jerusalem, resulting in the slaughter of the Armenian participants 
In 1113 Toghtekin of Damascus, tired of the ravages by the Christian forces against his territories, appealed to Mawdud to join him to invade the Kingdom of Jerusalem  The two pillaged Galilee and besieged Tiberias, though without being able to capture it  On June 28, however, the Muslims defeated King Baldwin I of Jerusalem's army at the Battle of Al-Sannabra  Reinforcements saved the Christian forces from total annihilation and prevented the Muslim commanders from exploiting the victory, and ultimately forced them to retreat to Damascus due to a lack of supplies 
It was while in Damascus as a guest of Toghtekin that Mawdud was murdered by the Assassins, possibly with the knowledge of his host (who himself accused Ridwan of the deed)  As Mawdud and Toghtekin returned from prayer an assailant stabbed Mawdud four times, fatally wounding him  The killer was beheaded by nearby guards and his body burned  Mawdud was taken into a nearby house and offered food but, according to Ibn al-Athir, refused to eat as he was in the middle of a fast and died later that day  He was succeeded as atabeg by Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi, his representative at Baghdad 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Mexican passport
Mexican passport (Spanish: pasaporte mexicano) is the passport issued to Mexican citizens for the purpose of travelling abroad  The Mexican passport is also an official ID and proof of Mexican citizenship  According to the 2021 Henley Visa Restrictions Index, holders of a Mexican passport can visit 164 (of 192 as the maximum) countries without a visa, placing Mexico in the 22nd rank in terms of global travel freedom 
Mexico transitioned to a biometric passport in 2021 called the electronic passport (pasaporte electrónico) 

Types of passports
Ordinary Passport – Issued for ordinary travel, such as holidays and business trips 
Diplomatic Passport – Issued to Mexican diplomats, top ranking government officials, diplomatic couriers, and family of the previous on the list, another type of identification Cédula diplomática mexicana is issued for travel when not in official duties, it may be accompanied by an ordinary passport 
Official Passport – Issued to individuals representing the Mexican government on official business

Physical appearance
Mexican passports are dark green, with the Mexican Coat of Arms in the center of the front cover and the official name of the country "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" (United Mexican States) around the coat of arms  The word "Pasaporte" is inscribed below the coat of arms, the international biometric symbol below this, and "Mexico" (as the country is commonly known) above  The Mexican passport contains many different security features, some of them visible only under a black light 

Identity information page
Each passport has a biographical information page and a signature page  Illustration: biographical information page and signature page – right  Mexico is currently on the 'G' and 'N' series passport 

Photo of passport holder (digital)
Type (P)
Country code (MEX)
Passport no 
Surnames (Includes Father/Mother's maiden name)
Given names
Nationality
Observations
Date of birth
Personal ID number (CURP)
Sex
Place of birth
Date of issue
Authority
Date of expiration
Hologram picture in the center-right and national symbols scattered throughout the biographic page 
The passports of minors (18 and under) also contain the image, full name, nationality, CURP and signature of those that have custody of the minor The biographical information page ends with the Machine Readable Zone  The passport includes 32 pages for visas and passport stamps, each featuring the coat of arms of one of the 31 Mexican states and Mexico City 

Requirements
Requirements for first time applicants that are over the age of eighteen 

1  Personally attend to any Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores (SRE) delegation or SRE affiliated office, with an appointment 
2  Fill with black ink, and by hand and in print the application for an ordinary passport book (Form OP-5)  The application can be obtained for free at any of the branches of the SRE or the Office of State or Municipal Liaison SRE 
3  Proof of Mexican nationality by presenting an original and a photocopy of any of the following documents:
a) Certified copy of birth certificate issued by the Mexican civil registry office  Birth registration should not be time-barred (must have occurred within the first three years of life), if exceeded temporality, see section "Additional Documentation for birth certificates with untimely registration" this is referred to as "registro extemporáneo" under Mexican law;
b) Certified copy of birth certificate issued by a consular office abroad * 
c) Certificate * Copy of Mexican nationality;
d) Declaration of Mexican nationality by birth *;
e) Naturalization Certificate*, and
f) Certificate of Citizenship Identity issued by the Secretary of the Interior4  Prove identity with an original and a photocopy of any of the following official documents with photograph and signature of the holder, the data should agree closely with those of the document that is proving nationality:

a) Cédula de Identidad Ciudadana issued by the Secretaría de Gobernación;
b) Matrícula Consular (Certificate of Consular Registration, Consular ID Card);
c) Naturalization Certificate;
d) Certificate of Mexican nationality;
e) Declaration of Mexican nationality by birth;
f) Voting Card issued by the National Electoral Institute;
g) Cartilla de Identidad del Servicio Militar Nacional Liberada;
h) Professional Certificate;
i) Professional Degree;
j) Letter of internship;
k) A valid identification issued by the Instituto Nacional de las Personas Adultas Mayores;
l) Credential of medical services from a public health institution or social security badges with a photo that has been sealed with official seal of the institution  If credentials are in digital format, they can be accepted even if the seal does not overlap the photograph;
m) For retired or pensioned credentials issued by an institution of social security, badges have to be sealed with the official seal, along with the signature and title of the person who issued it  If credentials in digital format, they can be accepted even if the seal does not overlap the photograph and
n) National Credential for Persons with Disabilities issued by the Sistema Integral para la Familia (DIF) 
o) Embassies and consulates abroad may also accept identity documents issued in the country or region in which it is located such as but not limited to, drivers licenses, passports, residence permits or visas 

Fees
In Mexico, fees are paid either online or at an affiliated Mexican bank that receives payments for passports  Citizens that live abroad pay at the consulate or embassy in which they are applying  There is a 50% discount for people that are over the age of sixty, people with disabilities, and agricultural workers  In order to be able to receive a discount, the person must show proof at the time of payment  All fees below are current as of 2022 
Mexican 1-year expiration passport: 815 MXN (Mexican Peso)Issued to children under three years of age and in cases of a justified emergency to adults who cannot fulfill all of the requirements for an ordinary passport issuance, as well as to individuals living outside Mexico that need consular protection Mexican 3-year expiration passport: 1,585 MXNIssued to all individuals over the age of three Mexican 6-year expiration passport: 2,155 MXNIssued to all individuals over the age of three Mexican 10-year expiration passport: 3,780 MXNIssued only to adults over the age of eighteen in Mexico and some embassies and consulates abroad 

Languages
The textual portions of the Mexican passports are printed in Spanish, English and French  In the updated passport design or the "Pasaporte Electronico" French is absent with the SRE deciding to no longer print any text in the passports in that language 

Passport message
The passports contain a note from the issuing state that is addressed to the authorities of all other states, identifying the bearer as a citizen of that state and requesting that he or she be allowed to pass and be treated according to international norms  The note inside the Mexican passports state:
In Spanish,

"La Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos solicita a las autoridades competentes que permitan al titular de este pasaporte de nacionalidad mexicana su libre paso sin retraso u obstáculo alguno y, dado el caso, le otorguen toda la asistencia y protección posibles "in English,

"The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the United Mexican States hereby requests all competent authorities to permit the holder of this passport, a Mexican national, free transit without delay or hindrance and in case of need to give him all lawful aid and protection "and in French 

"Le Ministère des Affaires Étrangères des États-Unis du Mexique prie les autorités compétentes de bien vouloir laisser passer librement et sans entrave le titulaire du présent passeport, de nationalité mexicaine, et du lui prêter toute aide et assistance possibles "

Visa requirements
As of 11 January 2022, Mexican citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 159 countries and territories, ranking the Mexican passport 24th in the world 

Gallery of historic images
See also
List of diplomatic missions of Mexico
List of diplomatic missions in Mexico
Mexican nationality law
Secretariat of Foreign Affairs
Visa requirements for Mexican citizens
Visa policy of Mexico

Notes
(1) holders of diplomatic identity cards enjoy the same rights and privileges as holders of diplomatic passports  
(2) diplomatic identity cards are usually accompanied by an ordinary passport
Passage 2:
Black Death
The Black Death (also known as the Pestilence, the Great Mortality or the Plague) was a bubonic plague pandemic occurring in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353  It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing the deaths of 75–200 million people, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351  Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis spread by fleas, but during the Black Death it probably also took a secondary form, spread by person-to-person contact via aerosols, causing pneumonic plague The Black Death was the beginning of the second plague pandemic  The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history 
The origin of the Black Death is disputed  Genetic analysis points to the evolution of Yersinia pestis in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China 2,600 years ago  The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remains unclear with some pointing towards Central Asia, China, the Middle East and Europe  The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347  From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean Basin and reaching North Africa, Western Asia and the rest of Europe via Constantinople, Sicily and the Italian Peninsula  There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread person-to-person as pneumonic plague, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary vector was rat fleas causing bubonic plague  In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may not have been due to Mongol conquests in the 14th century, as previously speculated The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317) and is estimated to have killed 30 percent to 60 percent of the European population, as well as about one-third of the population of the Middle East  The plague might have reduced the world population from c  475 million to 350–375 million in the 14th century  There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, with other contributing factors (the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages), the European population did not regain its level in 1300 until 1500  Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century 

Names
European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in Latin as pestis or pestilentia, 'pestilence'; epidemia, 'epidemic'; mortalitas, 'mortality'  In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death"  Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first murrain) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as "black" in the time of occurrence in any European language, though the expression "black death" had occasionally been applied to fatal disease beforehand  "Black death" was not used to describe the plague pandemic in English until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated Danish: den sorte død, lit  'the black death'  This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was transferred to other languages as a calque: Icelandic: svarti dauði, German: der schwarze Tod, and French: la mort noire  Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the Latin: magna mortalitas, lit  'Great Death' The phrase 'black death' – describing Death as black – is very old  Homer used it in the Odyssey to describe the monstrous Scylla, with her mouths "full of black Death" (Ancient Greek: πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο, romanized: pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio)  Seneca the Younger may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', (Latin: mors atra) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark prognosis of disease  The 12th–13th century French physician Gilles de Corbeil had already used atra mors to refer to a "pestilential fever" (febris pestilentialis) in his work On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium)  The phrase mors nigra, 'black death', was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to an astrological conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn  His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease The historian Cardinal Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague"  In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J  I  Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant) 

Previous plague epidemics
Research from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age  Research in 2018 found evidence of Yersinia pestis in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "Neolithic decline" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly  This Y  pestis may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near Samara The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a fragment of Rufus of Ephesus preserved by Oribasius; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the Roman Empire before the reign of Trajan, six centuries before arriving at Pelusium in the reign of Justinian I  In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the Plague of Justinian (541–542 CE, with recurrences until 750) was Y  pestis  This is known as the first plague pandemic  In 610, the Chinese physician Chao Yuanfang described a "malignant bubo" "coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue " The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in Lingnan (Guangzhou)  Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600 

14th-century plague
Causes
Early theory
The most authoritative contemporary account is found in a report from the medical faculty in Paris to Philip VI of France  It blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air" (miasma theory)  Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a "martyrdom and mercy" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise  For non-believers, it was a punishment  Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God  Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans  These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks 

Predominant modern theory
Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease  The plague disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas, including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, North India, Uganda and the western United States Y  pestis was discovered by Alexandre Yersin, a pupil of Louis Pasteur, during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacillus was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission  The mechanism by which Y  pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y  pestis several days after feeding on an infected host  This blockage starves the fleas and drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour and attempts to clear the blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host  The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lacks resistance  When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic 

DNA evidence
Definitive confirmation of the role of Y  pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in PLOS Pathogens by Haensch et al  They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y  pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences  The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y  pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages"  In 2011, these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England  Schuenemann et al  concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y  pestis that may no longer exist" Later in 2011, Bos et al  reported in Nature the first draft genome of Y  pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y  pestis Since this time, further genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the Y  pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor of later plague epidemics including the third plague pandemic and as the descendant of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian  In addition, plague genomes from significantly earlier in prehistory have been recovered DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th century London have shown plague is a strain of Y  pestis almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013  Further DNA evidence also proves the role of Y  Pestis and traces the source to the Tian Shan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan 

Alternative explanations
It is recognised that an epidemiological account of plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period  Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the Domesday Book of 1086 and the poll tax of the year 1377  Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy 
Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission  A research in 2018 challenged the popular hypothesis that "infected rats died, their flea parasites could have jumped from the recently dead rat hosts to humans"  It suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people"  The second model claims to better fit the trends of death toll because the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, which contradict historical death data Lars Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities  Similarly, Monica Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y  pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person  This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and fleas during the second plague pandemic 

Summary
Although academic debate continues, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance  Many scholars arguing for Y  pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections  In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicaemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms  In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis  Currently, while osteoarcheologists have conclusively verified the presence of Y  pestis bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and dental pulp, no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations 

Transmission
Lack of hygiene
The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century with the development of the germ theory of disease; until then streets were commonly filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding, facilitating the spread of transmissible disease By the early fourteenth century so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste  In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for "shit"  There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris  Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were as careless as William E  Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without  A complaint lodged against Cosner charges that "men could not pass [by his house] for the stink [of]       horse dung and horse piss "One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden "stinking and putrid", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, "making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near " In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, "Look out below!" three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street Early Christians, who thought self-abnegation a cardinal virtue, considered bathing, if not a vice, then a temptation  "Who knows what impure thoughts might arise in a tub of warm water? With this danger in mind, St  Benedict declared, "To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted " St  Agnes took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing 

Territorial origins
According to a team of medical geneticists led by Mark Achtman that analysed the genetic variation of the bacterium Yersinia pestis "evolved in or near China" over 2,600 years ago  Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko places the origins more specifically in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China  However more recent research notes that the previous sampling had a very heavy East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of Y  pestis in the Caucasus region that were previously thought to be restricted to China  There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China  As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day  According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years  The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic; this is supported by recent direct findings of Y  pestis DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to "pestilence" as the cause of death  Epidemics killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before the Black Death reached Constantinople in 1347 
The evidence does not suggest, at least at present, that these mortality crises were caused by plague  Although some scholars, including McNeill and Cao, see the 1333 outbreak as a prelude to the outbreaks in Europe from the late 1340s to the early 1350s, scholars of the Yuan and Ming periods remain skeptical about such an interpretation  Nonetheless, the remarkably high mortality rates during the Datong mortality should discourage us from rejecting the possibility of localized/regional outbreaks of plague in different parts of China, albeit differing in scale from, and unrelated to, the pandemic mortality of the Black Death  What we lack is any indication of a plague pandemic that engulfed vast territories of the Yuan Empire and later moved into western Eurasia through Central Asia 
According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact  According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the Silk Road, and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak  There are no records of the symptoms of the Black Death from Mongol sources or writings from travelers east of the Black Sea prior to the Crimean outbreak in 1346  Finally, the Silk Road had already been heavily disrupted before the spread of the Black Death  Western and Middle Eastern traders found it difficult to trade on the Silk Road by 1325 and impossible by 1340, making spread of the plague less likely Others still favor an origin in China or even Kurdistan, and not Central Asia  According to the theory of Chinese origin, the disease may have traveled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders, or it could have arrived via ship, but this theory is still contested  It is speculated that rats aboard Zheng He's ships in the 15th century may have carried the plague to Southeast Asia, India and Africa 
Research on the Delhi Sultanate and the Yuan Dynasty shows no evidence of any serious epidemic in fourteenth-century India and no specific evidence of plague in fourteenth-century China, suggesting that the Black Death may not have reached these regions  Ole Benedictow argues that since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from Kaffa, the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea 
Demographic historians estimate that China's population fell by at least 15 percent, and perhaps as much as a third, between 1340 and 1370  This population loss coincided with the Black Death that ravaged Europe and much of the Islamic world in 1347–52  However, there is a conspicuous lack of evidence for pandemic disease on the scale of the Black Death in China at this time  War and famine – and the diseases that typically accompanied them – probably were the main causes of mortality in the final decades of Mongol rule 
Monica H  Green suggests that the reason why other parts of Eurasia outside the west do not contain the same evidence of the Black Plague is because there were actually four strains of Yersinia pestis that became predominant in different parts of the world  Mongol records of illness such as food poisoning may have been referring to the Black Plague  Another theory is that the Black Death originated near Europe and cycled through the Mediterranean, Northern Europe and Russia before making its way to China  Other historians such as John Norris and Ole Benedictaw believe the Black Death likely originated in Europe or the Middle East and never reached China 

European outbreak
Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders from their port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347  During a protracted siege of the city, in 1345–1346 the Mongol Golden Horde army of Jani Beg, whose mainly Tatar troops were suffering from the disease, catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants, though it is more likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants  As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the Black Sea to Constantinople, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347 The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the Byzantine emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on Thucydides's account of the 5th century BCE Plague of Athens, but noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities  Nicephorus Gregoras also described in writing to Demetrios Kydones the rising death toll, the futility of medicine, and the panic of the citizens  The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400 Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in Sicily in October 1347; the disease spread rapidly all over the island  Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy  Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseilles From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain (the epidemic began to wreak havoc first on the Crown of Aragon in the spring of 1348), Portugal and England by June 1348, then spread east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350  It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland  Finally, it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351  Plague was somewhat more uncommon in parts of Europe with less developed trade with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavourable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations and forced their fleas onto alternative hosts, inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean, as well as during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic region  Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, malnutrition, even if distantly, also contributed to such an immense loss in European population, since it weakened immune systems 

Western Asian and North African outbreak
The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures  As infected rodents infected new rodents, the disease spread across the region, entering also from southern Russia 
By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople; according to a contemporary witness, from a single merchant ship carrying slaves  By late summer 1348 it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural centre of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died  The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex  The historian al-Maqrizi described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of funeral rites, and plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza by April; by July it had reached Damascus, and in October plague had broken out in Aleppo  That year, in the territory of modern Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine, the cities of Ascalon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon and Homs were all infected  In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch  The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey  Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa  The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 Tunis was infected by ship from Sicily  Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of Almería in al-Andalus Mecca became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the Hajj  In 1351 or 1352, the Rasulid sultan of the Yemen, al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home  During 1348, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease 

Signs and symptoms
Bubonic plague
Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise  Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 percent die within eight days Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise  The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened  Boccaccio's description:

In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg     From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous  As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves 
This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood  Most people died two to seven days after initial infection  Freckle-like spots and rashes, which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of plague 

Pneumonic plague
Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems  Symptoms include fever, cough and blood-tinged sputum  As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red  Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 percent 

Septicaemic plague
Septicaemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%  Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation)  In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicaemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes 

Consequences
Deaths
There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality  In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality  It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia  A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe between 1250 and 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death  The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia and Ireland The mortality rate of the Black Death in the 14th century was far greater than the worst 20th-century outbreaks of Y  pestis plague, which occurred in India and killed as much as 3% of the population of certain cities  The overwhelming number of deceased bodies produced by the Black Death caused the necessity of mass burial sites in Europe, sometimes including up to several hundred or several thousand skeletons  The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical and anthropological implications of the Black Death According to medieval historian Philip Daileader, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague  Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests it could have been as much as 60% of the European population  In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished  In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die  Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died  In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351  At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well, with a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353  Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348  Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450  The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to contagion  Plague did not appear in Douai in Flanders until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of Hainaut, Finland, northern Germany and areas of Poland  Monks, nuns and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people with the Black Death 

The physician to the Avignon Papacy, Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (Latin: Magister Raimundus, lit  'Master Raymond'), observed the decreasing mortality rate of successive outbreaks of plague in 1347–48, 1362, 1371 and 1382 in his 1382 treatise On Epidemics (De epidemica)  In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived  By the 1380s in Europe, it predominantly affected children  Chalmel de Vinario recognised that bloodletting was ineffective (though he continued to prescribe bleeding for members of the Roman Curia, whom he disliked), and said that all true cases of plague were caused by astrological factors and were incurable; he himself was never able to effect a cure The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population  The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population  In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months
Context 3: Passage 1:
Grand Falls Plaza, Missouri
Grand Falls Plaza is a village in Newton County, Missouri, United States  The population was 114 at the 2010 census, at which time it was a town  It is part of the Joplin, Missouri Metropolitan Statistical Area 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0 10 square miles (0 26 km2), all land 

Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 114 people, 46 households, and 36 families living in the village  The population density was 1,140 0 inhabitants per square mile (440 2/km2)  There were 47 housing units at an average density of 470 0 per square mile (181 5/km2)  The racial makeup of the village was 94 7% White, 3 5% Native American, and 1 8% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 9% of the population 
There were 46 households, of which 21 7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63 0% were married couples living together, 10 9% had a female householder with no husband present, 4 3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 21 7% were non-families  21 7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 48 and the average family size was 2 78 
The median age in the village was 52 years  20 2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 11 4% were from 25 to 44; 32 4% were from 45 to 64; and 27 2% were 65 years of age or older  The gender makeup of the village was 41 2% male and 58 8% female 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 104 people, 40 households, and 32 families living in the town  The population density was 1,105 9 inhabitants per square mile (427 0/km2)  There were 43 housing units at an average density of 457 2 per square mile (176 5/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 99 04% White and 0 96% Native American 
There were 40 households, out of which 30 0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 75 0% were married couples living together, 5 0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20 0% were non-families  17 5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 60 and the average family size was 2 94 
In the town the population was spread out, with 23 1% under the age of 18, 2 9% from 18 to 24, 25 0% from 25 to 44, 38 5% from 45 to 64, and 10 6% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 44 years  For every 100 females, there were 103 9 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100 0 males 
The median income for a household in the town was $48,250, and the median income for a family was $49,250  Males had a median income of $35,833 versus $58,750 for females  The per capita income for the town was $15,341  There were 3 4% of families and 8 8% of the population living below the poverty line, including 5 7% of under eighteens and 20 0% of those over 64 
Passage 2:
Mulholland Falls (soundtrack)
Mulholland Falls: Original MGM Motion Picture Soundtrack is an album by American pianist Dave Grusin released in 1996 by the Edel America label  This album is the soundtrack to the motion picture Mulholland Falls, directed by Lee Tamahori 

Track listing
All tracks composed by Dave Grusin except where noted

"Mulholland Falls" – 4:34
"Just a Girl   " – 2:48
"Hurting for Allison" – 3:33
"Flashback & Revelation" – 3:04
"Kate's Theme/The End of Jimmy" – 3:06
"Nuclear Madness/Hats in the Desert" – 4:15
"Home Movies" – 1:43
"It's Over/Flashback" – 3:01
"Separation" – 1:33
"To the Base/Fallout for Timms" – 3:25
"Finale: Hats Off" – 2:56
"No Common Ground/End Credits" – 6:50
"Harbor Lights" (Wilhelm Grosz, Jimmy Kennedy) – 3:22

Other music in the film
"That Certain Party" (Walter Donaldson, Gus Kahn) – Dean Martin
"Who Me?" (Frank Foster) – Count Basie
"So Tired" – Kay Starr

Personnel
Dave Grusin - Acoustic Piano, Synthesizer, Conductor

External links
Mulholland Falls' Soundtrack at Allmusic
Dave Grusin-Mulholland Falls at Discogs
Passage 3:
Granville (village), New York
Granville is a village in Washington County, New York, United States  It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area  The village population was 2,543 at the 2010 census The Village of Granville is in the eastern part of the Town of Granville at Routes NY-149 and NY-22 
The Granville Airport is located north of the village 

History
Many early settlers arrived from the New England area, and jurisdiction was claimed by both Vermont and New York 
The first known settler was a merchant named Bishop, who opened the first store in 1780   Slate deposits were located around 1850 in the town, and the slate business spread to Granville village by 1871 
The United States Post Office was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1 6 square miles (4 1 km2), all land 
The village is at the border of Vermont 
There are two rivers that meet in Granville: The Indian and the Mettowee (also known as Pawlet)   NY Route 22 runs along the west side of the village and joins NY Route 149 south of the village   NY-149 passes through the village as Main Street and becomes Vermont Route 149 at the eastern side of the village   County Road 24 from the northwest 

The Welsh Connection
Granville's Welsh connection began in the 1860s when Welsh miners from Blaenau Ffestiniog and Bethesda found their way into the area; many leaving their wives and families behind to send for them later  From then on, steady streams of Welsh immigrants settled the area and Granville gradually grew into a prominent Welsh American community  The ethnic enclave reached its peak in 1910 when of the town's 3,920 residents, 949 were Welsh born and another 847 were American born to Welsh parents, combined accounting for 45 8% of the town's population  Welsh placenames and chapels still exist e g  "Brynhyfryd" and Peniel Chapel  The Welsh folk song "Molianwn" originated there and refers to the closing down of the quarries over the cold winter period 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,644 people, 1,024 households, and 630 families residing in the village  The population density was 1,668 5 inhabitants per square mile (644 2/km2)  There were 1,130 housing units at an average density of 713 1 per square mile (275 3/km2)  The racial makeup of the village was 98 07% White, 0 23% Black or African American, 0 23% Native American, 0 26% Asian, 0 04% Pacific Islander, 0 42% from other races, and 0 76% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 79% of the population 
There were 1,024 households, out of which 32 0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43 1% were married couples living together, 14 1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38 4% were non-families  33 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 41 and the average family size was 3 04 
In the village, the population was spread out, with 25 7% under the age of 18, 8 2% from 18 to 24, 25 0% from 25 to 44, 19 4% from 45 to 64, and 21 7% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 37 years  For every 100 females, there were 86 9 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79 3 males 
The median income for a household in the village was $29,709, and the median income for a family was $38,444  Males had a median income of $28,221 versus $20,488 for females  The per capita income for the village was $15,424  About 11 6% of families and 17 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18 6% of those under age 18 and 10 9% of those age 65 or over 

Notable people
Mary Ann Day Brown (1816–1884), wife of John Brown the abolitionist
Alanson Holly, Wisconsin state legislator and newspaper editor
John M  Parker (New York politician), former US Congressman
Allen R  Sturtevant, Associate Justice of the Vermont Supreme Court
Passage 4:
The Funny Side
The Funny Side is an American sketch comedy program that aired on NBC as part of its 1971 fall lineup 

Synopsis
The Funny Side was hosted by Gene Kelly and starred five pairs of actors and actresses who were presented as married couples  Each week was an examination of the "funny side" of a potential issue in real-life marriages, such as health, money, sex, and the like   Each couple was a stereotype   Kelly also appeared as an actor in the sketches, and there was also a musical aspect with production numbers 

Cast
John Amos and Teresa Graves as the Black couple
Warren Berlinger and Pat Finley as the blue collar couple
Dick Clair and Jenna McMahon as the wealthy couple
Michael Lembeck and Cindy Williams as the teenage couple
Burt Mustin and Queenie Smith as the elderly couple

Cancellation
The Funny Side received poor Nielsen ratings and was cancelled after less than four months on the air 
Passage 5:
Jolly, Texas
Jolly is a city in Clay County, Texas, United States  It is part of the Wichita Falls, Texas Metropolitan Statistical Area  The population was 172 at the 2010 census 

Geography
Jolly is located at 33°52′27″N 98°20′55″W (33 874304, –98 348556) According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1 0 square mile (2 6 km2), all  land 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 188 people, 70 households, and 59 families residing in the city  The population density was 190 7 inhabitants per square mile (73 6/km2)  There were 73 housing units at an average density of 74 1 per square mile (28 6/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 99 47% White, and 0 53% from two or more races 
There were 70 households, out of which 28 6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 75 7% were married couples living together, 8 6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 14 3% were non-families  12 9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 69 and the average family size was 2 90 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 18 1% under the age of 18, 8 5% from 18 to 24, 27 7% from 25 to 44, 34 6% from 45 to 64, and 11 2% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 43 years  For every 100 females, there were 100 0 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 111 0 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $44,375, and the median income for a family was $49,375  Males had a median income of $29,375 versus $16,354 for females  The per capita income for the city was $20,467  None of the families and 1 7% of the population were living below the poverty line 

Education
The City of Jolly is served by the Henrietta Independent School District 

Notable person
Walter Jenkins, administrative assistant to Lyndon B  Johnson
Passage 6:
Hazelton, Idaho
Hazelton is a city in Jerome County, Idaho, United States  The population was 753 at the 2010 census  It is part of the Twin Falls, Idaho Micropolitan Statistical Area 

Geography
Hazelton is located at 42°35′41″N 114°8′12″W (42 594681, -114 136531) According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0 38 square miles (0 98 km2), of which, 0 37 square miles (0 96 km2) is land and 0 01 square miles (0 03 km2) is water 

Education
Valley School is the only school in Hazelton, Idaho that consists of K-12 classrooms; Valley Elementary School, Valley Middle School, and Valley High School  The 1A school features a Viking as their mascot 

Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 753 people, 254 households, and 187 families residing in the city  The population density was 2,035 1 inhabitants per square mile (785 8/km2)  There were 272 housing units at an average density of 735 1 per square mile (283 8/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 45 9% White, 0 1% Native American, 0 3% Asian, 2 0% from other races, and 2 7% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 52 0% of the population 
There were 254 households, of which 44 9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59 8% were married couples living together, 10 6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3 1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 26 4% were non-families  22 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 96 and the average family size was 3 56 
The median age in the city was 31 2 years  33 6% of residents were under the age of 18; 8 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24 7% were from 25 to 44; 20



ground_truth: Abu Ubaidah

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How many times did plague occur in the place where Bajazet's composer was born?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Italian chronicler Agnolo di Tura recorded his experience from Siena, where plague arrived in May 1348:

Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight  And so they died  And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship  Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices     great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead  And they died by the hundreds both day and night     And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug     And I, Agnolo di Tura     buried my five children with my own hands  And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city  There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death  And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world 

Economic
It has been suggested that the plague, like some others in history, disproportionately affected the poorest people, who were already in generally worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens   Nevertheless, with such a large overall population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a labour shortage  On the other hand, in the quarter century after the Black Death in England, it is clear many labourers, artisans and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, did suffer a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation  Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants 

Environmental
A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation  This may have led to the Little Ice Age 

Persecutions
Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death  Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", lepers and Romani, blaming them for the crisis  Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe 
Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks  Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness There were many attacks against Jewish communities  In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered  In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated  By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed  During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great 

Social
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy and led to the Renaissance  Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife  It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century  The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy  The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an influx of Greek scholars following the fall of the Byzantine Empire  As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom  To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the workings of Europe were run by the Catholic Church and the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of fiefs and city-states  The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled Cairo's population, partly owing to the numerous plague epidemics, was in the early 18th century half of what it was in 1347  The populations of some Italian cities, notably Florence, did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century  The demographic decline due to the pandemic had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30–40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400  Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall  The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably destabilised feudalism The word "quarantine" has its roots in this period, though the concept of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older  In the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas  The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty" 

Recurrences
Second plague pandemic
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries  According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671  (Note that some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data ) The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–63; 1374; 1400; 1438–39; 1456–57; 1464–66; 1481–85; 1500–03; 1518–31; 1544–48; 1563–66; 1573–88; 1596–99; 1602–11; 1623–40; 1644–54; and 1664–67  Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century)  The historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s  However, other sources suggest that the Second pandemic did indeed reach Sub-Saharan Africa According to historian Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31 " In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1 7 million people in Italy  More than 1 25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world  Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850  Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions  Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa  Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42  Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s  Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century  Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800  Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died 

Third plague pandemic
The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone  The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney  This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908 

Modern-day
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine  It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat  One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995  A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014  In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions 

See also
Black Death in England
Black Death in medieval culture
Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Flagellant
Globalization and disease
List of epidemics
Second plague pandemic
Timeline of plague
Passage 3:
Giovanni Cifolelli
Giovanni Cifolelli was an Italian mandolin virtuoso and dramatic composer whose date and place of birth are unknown  In 1764 he made his appearance in Paris as a mandolin virtuoso and was highly esteemed, both as a performer and teacher  He published his Method for the mandolin while residing in Paris, which met with great success throughout France, being the most popular of its period 
His chief works were the operas L'Italienne and Pierre et Lucette, the former being an opera bouffe in one act (with the storyline or libretto by Nicolas-Étienne Framery)  These works were commissioned by the Comedie Italienne, Paris, and were produced at this theatre successfully, in 1770 and 1774  Several of the songs and duets in Pierre and Lucette were exceedingly popular in France, and they were republished in Paris in 1775 and 1780 

Works
L'Italienne  : comédie en 1 acte, mêlée d'ariettes (Paris, 1770)
Pierre et Lucette, comédie en deux actes et en prose mêlée d'ariettes (Paris, 1774)
Airs détachés de Perin et Lucette, comédie en deux actes, mêlées d'ariettes par M  Davesne (Paris, 1775)
Ariette nouvelle avec accompagnement de deux violons et basse
Non, laisse moi, laisse moi, Lucas  Duo (1775)
Passage 4:
Orlando furioso (Vivaldi, 1714)
Orlando furioso RV 819 (Italian pronunciation: [orˈlando fuˈrjoːzo, -so], Teatro San Angelo, Venice 1714) is a three-act opera surviving in manuscript in Antonio Vivaldi's personal library, only partly related to his better known Orlando furioso (RV 728) of 1727  It is a recomposition of an Orlando furioso written by Giovanni Alberto Ristori which had been very successfully staged by Vivaldi and his father's impresa in 1713, and whose music survives in a few fragments retained in the score of RV 819  Therefore, Vivaldi's first cataloguer Peter Ryom did not assign the opera a RV number, but catalogued it as RV Anh  84  The libretto was by Grazio Braccioli 

Authorship
Federico Maria Sardelli, according to the studies of Reinhard Strohm, argues that Orlando RV 819 was entirely recomposed by Vivaldi, starting from the original Ristori's opera that Vivaldi himself had already changed during the numerous representations of the season 1713  He assigned to it the catalogue number RV 819  One suggestion is that Vivaldi avoided putting his own name on the opera having himself only recently taken direction of the Teatro San Angelo  Against this others consider that the bulk of the opera is a copy of Ristori's lost work 

Opera
Unlike the Orlando furioso (RV 728) of 1727, in which the role of Orlando is sung by a contralto, the 1714 opera assigns the title role to a bass  The third act is missing and the rest of the score (evidently used in performances by the composer) is incomplete  Two arias are lost, seven arias are incomplete (only the bass part is extant) and three arias are identical with extant arias in RV 727 and RV 729 

Recording
The French label Naïve, which had already recorded the more famous Orlando furioso and Orlando finto pazzo for its Vivaldi Edition, released a recording of the July 20, 2012 première at the Festival de Beaune, with Sardelli conducting Modo Antiquo and singers including Riccardo Novaro as Orlando, Gaëlle Arquez as Angelica, Romina Basso as Alcina and Teodora Gheorghiu as Bradamante  Given the heavily defective nature of the surviving manuscript, Sardelli had to reconstruct or compose ex novo the seven incomplete arias, in a Vivaldian style 

See also
List of operas by Antonio Vivaldi
Passage 5:
Bajazet (opera)
Bajazet (Italian pronunciation: [baʒaˈzɛ]; also called Il Tamerlano) (RV 703) is an Italian opera in 3 acts composed by Antonio Vivaldi in 1735  Its libretto was written by Agostino Piovene  It was premiered in Verona, during the Carnival season of that year  It includes a three-movement sinfonia as an introduction  The story is about the fate of Bajazet (known as Bayezid I) after being captured by Tamerlane (Timur Lenk)  The famous aria "Sposa son disprezzata" is from this opera 

Roles
Synopsis
Act I  In garden of occupied capital of Bursa, where Tamerlane resides following the defeat of the Turks 

Scene 1 (Bajazet & Andronicus): Awaiting death, Bajazet tells Andronicus that if he weds Asteria he must hate Tamerlane 
Scene 2 (Andronicus & Idaspe)  Andronicus tells Idaspe to watch Bajazet for Asteria’s sake  Idaspe warns him that Greece has already turned the Empire over to Tamerlane and that Asteria’s beauty will fade, but Andronicus could be crowned Byzantine emperor 
Scene 3 (Tamerlane & Andronicus): Tamerlane grants to Andronicus the Byzantine Empire and discloses that he is in love with Asteria  He asks Andronicus to ask her hand from Bajazet and tells him that he should marry Irene (who is betrothed to Tamerlane) 
Scene 4 (Andronicus alone): Andronicus considers: He is not ungrateful to Tamerlane but wishes to have Asteria  Royal apartments for Bajazet and Asteria, guarded 
Scene 5 (Asteria): Asteria considers her dilemma—she loves Andronicus but believes he is interested only in imperial ambition 
Scene 6 (Tamerlane & Asteria); Tamerlane tells Asteria of his love and threatens her with her father’s life  He tells her that Andronicus will wed Irene and sings love aria before leaving 
Scene 7 (Andronicus, Bajazet & Asteria): Asteria reproaches Andronicus in front of her father  Andronicus begins to explain himself but Bajazet tells him that he speaks for his daughter in saying that she will refuse to marry Tamerlane and Bajazet will forfeit his head 
Scene 8 (Asteria & Andronicus): Asteria remains angry with Andronicus and tells him to carry out her father’s orders but not to speak for her  After he leaves, she wonders how she can continue to love one who is untrue to her 
Scene 9 (Irene, Andronicus & Idaspe): Irene wants to know why her proposed husband is not there to greet her  Idaspe explains that he loves another  Andronicus proposes that she go to him as Irene’s messenger  [Tamerlane does not know what she looks like ] She agrees to fight for her rights 
Scene 10 (Andronicus alone): Andronicus admits to himself that Irene is pretty and her kingdom adds to her beauty, but he is sad for Asteria  He sings aria in which he recognizes that if one does not die of grief in these circumstances it is because “either the power of death is weak; or grief is powerless ”
Act 2  Open countryside with Tamerlane’s pavilions which open to show Tamerlane and Andronicus seated  

Scene 1 (Tamerlane, Andronicus, Idaspe): Tamerlane tells Andronicus that he learned of Asteria’s consent through her maid and that today both Tamerlane’s marriage to Asteria and Andronicus’s to Irene will take place 
Scene 2 (Andronicus & Idaspe): Andronicus tells Idaspe that he plans to reprove Asteria, relinquish Irene and her realm to Tamerlane, make full restitution, and offer Asteria his life and fortune  Idapse goes to inform Bajazet of Asteria’s decision 
Scene 3 (Andronicus & Asteria): Asreria berates Andronicus for not opposing Tamerlane’s offer to her  Andronicus says that he will lay down his life if that is what she wishes  She tells him it is too late, Tamerlane calls 
Scene 4 (Andronicus alone): Andronicus despairs that he has lost Asteria and will lose his life  He decides to see Bajazet  Pavilion opens to reveal Tamerlane and Asteria on cushions 
Scene 5  (Tamerlane, Asteria, Idaspe & later Irene): Idaspe announces a messenger from Irene, and Irene enters pretending to be that messenger  Tamerlane has Asteria tell her of her decision to accept Tamerlane  Irene protests and Tamerlane admits his guilt (of faithlessness) but instructs her to tell Irene that she will obtain a new husband and a kingdom that day 
Scene 6 (Asteria, Irene, & Idaspe): Asteria informs Irene’s “messenger” that she intends to displease Tamerlane and Irene might have him back 
Scene 7 (Irene & Idaspe): Irene marvels at the resolve of Asteria and says that she loves Tamerlane, despite his unfaithfulness 
Scene 8 (Andronicus & Bajazet): Andronicus informs Bajazet that he saw Asteria accept the throne  Bajazet accuses Andronicus of not fighting hard enough for her  They go to see her, while Bajazet sings of his desperation  Military camp with Tamerlane and Asteria sitting in view of the army 
Scene 9 (Tamerlane, Asteria, later Andronicus, Bajazet & Irene): Asteria complies with Tamerlane’s request that she retire to the royal quarters (with aside that she has a plan)  Bajazet arrives seeking his daughter and tells Tamerlane that the blood of an Ottoman sultan will not mingle with a peasant’s  Irene (still as messenger) arrives to challenge Asteria  Tamerlane says that if she can make Asteria renounce the throne, will be Irene’s  Bajazet gives lengthy denunciation of Asteria  Then Asteria renounces the throne and reveals she was going to stab Tamerlane in bed  Tamerlane calls on guards to take Asteria and Bajazet upon whom he will exact vengeance  Tamerlane, Bajazet, Asteria and Irene sing quartet about faithlessness, cruelty mercy and death 
Act 3  Garden on the banks of the River Euphrates  

Scene 1 (Asteria & Bajazet): Bajazet shares with his daughter poison to be used when Tamerlane begins his vengeance on them 
Scene 2 (Tamerlane, Andronicus & Asteria (aside at first)): Tamerlane tells Andronicus that he will forgive Asteria if she relents  Andronicus begins to plead but Asteria enters and misunderstands his intention  Andronicus is forced to declare his love in front of Tamerlane, who in fury orders Bajazet beheaded and ASteria wedded to the meanest slave 
Scene 3 (Bajazet and the foregoing): Bajazet enters and orders his daughter to arise; she is not to bow to Tamerlane   Tamerlane becomes enraged and orders both Asteria and Bajazet to the dining hall and invites Andronicus should he wish to watch  Tamerlane sings an aria of his “hate, fury and poison for Asteria 
Scene 4 (Andronicus alone): Andronicus decides to give up his throne for Asteria, realizing that he cannot escape from “love and pity, anger and cruelty ” Dining hall with entire guard 
Scene 5 (Tamerlane, Bajzset, Andronicus, later Irene): Tamerlane informs Bajazet that he has been brought from his cell to watch  He then summons Asteria 
Scene 6 (Asteria and the foregoing): Tamerlane orders Asteria to serve him a drink  She secretly fills it with the poison Bajazet gave her  and offers it to Tamerlane 
Scene 7 (Irene with the foregoing): Irene warns Tamerlane not to take the drink, telling him that him that Asteria has poisoned it  Asteria takes the cup to drink it but Andronicus snatches it from her hand  Asteria rushes out  Tamerlane orders the guard to take her to be turned over to the mob  Bajazet promises he will come with a thousand furies to tear out Tamerlane’s heart 
Scene 8 (Bajazet leaves, the rest remain): Irene asks Tamerlane what will become of her  Tamerlane says that she will be his bride  Irene agrees to forgive his past insults to her 
Scene 9 (Idaspe and the foregoing): Idaspe advises Tamerlane that Bajazet has taken poison and is on the verge of death  Tamerlane offers Andronicus his friendship, but not Asteria 
Scene 10 (Asteria and the foregoing): Asteria arrives and announces that “he is indeed dead, you tyrant ” Her Ottoman hatred for Tamerlane has not died, however  She begs for the means to kill herself so she can join her father and sings “Stab me, beat me, kill me, fell me ”
Final Scene (Asteria leaves, but others remain): Irene and Andronicus ask Tamerlanne to have mercy on Asteria  Tamerlane says that the death of Bajazet has softened his heart  All sing of the coming peace and hope for the loss of hate among “a thousand amorous flames ”

Sinfonia
Allegro
Andante Molto
Allegro

Music
Origin of arias
Bajazet is a pasticcio  It was a common practice during Vivaldi's time for composers to borrow and adapt arias from other composers with their own works for an opera  Vivaldi himself composed the arias for the good characters (Bajazet, Asteria and Idaspe) and mostly used existing arias from other composers for the villains (Tamerlano, Irene, Andronico) in this opera  Some of the arias are reused from previous Vivaldi operas  The table below lists the origin of some of the arias used in Bajazet 

Recordings
The first complete recording of this opera was released by Virgin Classics on 10 May 2005  Fabio Biondi conducts Europa Galante in Brussels for this recording  The singers are:

bass-baritone Ildebrando D'Arcangelo as Bajazet
countertenor David Daniels as Tamerlano
mezzo-soprano Vivica Genaux as Irene
contralto Marijana Mijanovic as Asteria
soprano Patrizia Ciofi as Idaspe
mezzo-soprano Elīna Garanča as AndronicoThis recording received the award for Best Opera by Midem Classical Awards 2006 and shortlisted for the 48th Annual Grammy Awards 2006 
Before this release, excerpts from this opera had been performed by other singers such as Cecilia Bartoli 
Pinchgut Opera's 2015 production of the opera was recorded live and broadcast on ABC Classic FM A recoding of the complete opera was released in 2020 on naive classics, featuring Bruno Taddia as Bajazet and Filippo Mineccia as Tamerlano  The orchestra is Accademia Bizantina   All conducted by Ottavio Dantone 
Passage 6:
Denmark Place fire
The Denmark Place fire occurred on 16 August 1980 at 18 Denmark Place in Central London  The fire, caused by arson, killed 37 people of eight nationalities, most of whom were Spanish or Latin American, who were patrons of two unlicensed bars in the building  At the time, The Sunday Times suggested that it could be "the worst mass murder in British history" 

Background
There were two unlicensed bars on the top two floors of 18 Denmark Place: The Spanish Rooms, a late night bar frequented by locals, including Irish and Jamaican immigrants; and Rodo's, also known as El Dandy, a salsa club popular with South American immigrants  Access to both of these bars was obtained by shouting up from the street below in order to obtain a key  The only way into both of these clubs was through a locked front door and up some stairs leading to a landing  
Access to the club on the lower floor was via this landing and access to the club on the upper floor was via a fire escape enclosed with plywood  Both bars, being unlicensed, were obscured from the outside world by boarded up windows and the door on Denmark Street that led to the fire escape was bolted shut  The Metropolitan Police were aware of the clubs and were planning to shut them both down on Monday 18 August  A farewell party was being thrown over the weekend 

The fire
On the night of 16 August 1980, John Thompson, a Scottish-born petty criminal aged 42, entered The Spanish Rooms and drank there  He believed that the barman had overcharged him for the drink  After fighting with the barman he was ejected from the building and the door was locked behind him  Thompson found a 2-gallon container outside the club, hailed a taxi and then travelled to a 24-hour petrol station in Camden where he filled the container with petrol  He then returned to 18 Denmark Place, poured the petrol through the letterbox of the front door and put a lit piece of paper through Fire quickly took hold in the premises owing to the largely timber construction of the building  Both bars were badly damaged  There were estimated to be 150 people within the building at the time  People could not escape easily due to the boarded up windows, the locked fire escape and general lack of fire safety precautions owing to the bars' unlicensed status The fire burned quickly through the wooden staircase, destroying the main entrance and exit to the bars  Some patrons tried to escape via the back door but found that this was locked  Others smashed windows and jumped out onto the street below  On Denmark Street there was a music shop that backed onto the clubs and some patrons were found here trapped behind the security shutters  One firefighter managed to rescue six people from this area 
When firefighters were called to the fire at around 03:30 they could see smoke seeping from the shuttered windows  When an attempt was made to force the locked front door open they were showered with sparks and embers and were forced to retreat  Once firefighters were able to access the front door it took four minutes to break it down – behind it they found that the staircase was completely on fire 
The speed of the fire was so rapid that many of the bar patrons died where they were sitting or standing  An officer from the London Fire Brigade described the scene:

People seem to have died on the spot without even having time to move an inch  Some were slumped at tables  Seven were at the bar and appear to have fallen as they stood, with drinks still in their hands 

Aftermath
In May 1981, Thompson was convicted on a specimen charge of murdering one of the victims, Archibald Campbell (aged 63) and sentenced to life imprisonment  He died of lung cancer on 16 August 2008, the 28th anniversary of the fire There was comparatively little publicity about the fire, and no formal enquiry into it  The families of some of those who died were not aware of the circumstances  In 2022, after redevelopment of the site, a plaque was placed on a wall in memory 

See also
Blue Bird Café fire, 1972 fire in Montreal started in retaliations by patrons refused entry who then lit petrol in front of main entrance and only exit; also killed 37 
Happy Land fire, 1990 fire in New York City at illegally operated nightclub started the same way by aggrieved ejected patron; resulting 87 fatalities is the worst mass murder in city history caused by a single person 
Clerkenwell cinema fire, 1994 fire in London at an illegally operated adult cinema, intentionally started by an aggrieved patron 
Ghost Ship warehouse fire, 2016 fire at illegally operated nightclub in California that killed 37
Passage 7:
2010 Elazığ earthquake
The 2010 Elazığ earthquake was a 6 1 Mw earthquake that occurred on 8 March 2010 at 02:32 UTC (04:32 local time)  The epicentre was Başyurt in Elazığ Province, in eastern Turkey  Initial reports in global media said as many as 57 people had died  By 10 March, reports in the Turkish media placed the death toll at 41 and later, the death toll rose to 42  Another 74 were injured, many after falling and jumping from buildings  A stampede through the streets led to further injuries The earthquake came one week to the day after the Turkish Chamber of Civil Engineers sent a report to parliament detailing inadequate building projects and the possibility that Istanbul would be destroyed by an earthquake, which could kill tens of thousands of people, at some point in the next three decades 

Earthquake
The quake occurred on the East Anatolian Fault, a major transform fault which represents  the boundary between the Anatolian Plate and the Arabian Plate 

Damage
According to officials, most of the deaths occurred in three villages: Okçular, Yukarı Kanatlı and Kayalı  At least five villages, though, suffered loss of life  Villagers fled buildings, spending the night outside and lighting fires in the streets for warmth Thirty houses collapsed in Okçular, and the death toll is at least 17  Reports from the scene indicate "the village is totally flattened" and "everything has been knocked down – there is not a stone in place" At least 25 people died in Yukarı Demirci, and emergency services went to Kovancılar Many people used vehicles and taxis to drive to the hospital  Most were asleep at the time the quake struck, with four sleeping sisters perishing in one house  Farm animals were also killed, and minarets fell down 

Aftershocks
Several aftershocks were felt, the strongest measuring 5 5 (at 09:47 local time), 5 1 (at 12:14) and 5 3 (at 13:12)  A total of over 20 aftershocks were counted within a short time following the quake  Villagers were told to stay away from buildings for several days due to the potential of further aftershocks Onur Tan et al  (2011) analyzed 2130 aftershocks (ML≥0 3) and reported in Geophysical Research Letters 

Response
Turkey: Four government ministers, including Deputy Prime Minister Cemil Çiçek, visited the scene as soon as news of the earthquake was reported  The Red Crescent and Turkey's disaster management centre donated blankets and tents  Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan later arrived  Pakistan: Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani sent a condolence message to his Turkish counterpart Recep Tayyip Erdoğan over the loss of lives and property and said that "We have learnt with utter sense of shock and profound sadness the news of the massive earthquake that has hit your beautiful country, today  Our hearts go out to our Turkish brethren over the loss of precious lives and destruction of property  I wish to convey, on behalf of the people and Government of Pakistan and on my own behalf our deepest condolences and commiserations to the people and Government of Turkey in bearing this enormous natural calamity " Israel: Defense Minister Ehud Barak ordered an aid proposal to be put together but later said that Turkey informed Israel that it did not require assistance at this time 

See also
2020 Elazığ earthquake
List of earthquakes in 2010
List of earthquakes in Turkey
Context 3: 8% were from 45 to 64; and 12% were 65 years of age or older  The gender makeup of the city was 50 3% male and 49 7% female 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 687 people, 238 households, and 172 families residing in the city   The population density was 2,099 9 inhabitants per square mile (810 8/km2)   There were 270 housing units at an average density of 825 3 per square mile (318 7/km2)   The racial makeup of the city was 83 55% White, 0 87% African American, 1 31% Native American, 13 39% from other races, and 0 87% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 26 64% of the population 
There were 238 households, out of which 41 2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58 8% were married couples living together, 9 2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27 7% were non-families  23 9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older   The average household size was 2 89 and the average family size was 3 53 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 34 2% under the age of 18, 8 3% from 18 to 24, 25 6% from 25 to 44, 17 2% from 45 to 64, and 14 7% who were 65 years of age or older   The median age was 32 years  For every 100 females, there were 99 1 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100 0 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $22,596, and the median income for a family was $30,000  Males had a median income of $30,132 versus $18,125 for females  The per capita income for the city was $10,215   About 24 1% of families and 29 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37 7% of those under age 18 and 10 6% of those age 65 or over 

History
Annie Pike Greenwood wrote 1934 autobiography We Sagebrush Folks, an autobiography published in 1934 about farm life near Hazelton 
Passage 7:
George Burns Comedy Week
George Burns Comedy Week is a comedy anthology television series broadcast in the United States by CBS as part of its 1985 fall lineup, hosted by George Burns 

Overview
As he was age 89 when the show premiered, George Burns was billed as the oldest person ever to "star" in a television series   Burns had been around television in one way or another since shortly after its inception; like many old-time radio stars he had brought his routine over more-or-less intact from the older medium   However, his actual role in this series was rather slight; aside from lending his name, introducing the night's program, and providing an occasional voice-over narration, Burns was not involved in any of the episodes as an actor and those who tuned in expecting to see him as such were disappointed 
Several well-known comedians appeared in episodes of this show, including Joe Piscopo, Robert Klein, Don Rickles, Martin Mull, Don Knotts, and Howard Hesseman   The show is probably best known for two particular segments, one being "Christmas Carol II: The Sequel" in which an adult Tiny Tim has come to exhibit many of the characteristics once defining his father's old boss, Ebenezer Scrooge, and another starring Valerie Perrine and Harvey Korman in what proved to be the pilot for their short lived sitcom, Leo & Liz in Beverly Hills 

Episodes
Reception
George Burns Comedy Week did poorly in the Nielsen ratings and was last broadcast on Christmas night 1985   It marked Burns' last ongoing role in a television series, although he continued to appear as a guest on programs for the next nine years, until suffering a serious fall at age 98 which ended his active performing career (Burns died at age 100) 
Passage 8:
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island is a 2012 American science fantasy action-adventure film directed by Brad Peyton and produced by Beau Flynn, Tripp Vinson and Charlotte Huggins  A sequel to Journey to the Center of the Earth (2008), the film is based on Jules Verne's The Mysterious Island (1875)  It stars Dwayne Johnson, Michael Caine, Josh Hutcherson, Vanessa Hudgens, Luis Guzmán, and Kristin Davis  The storyline was written by Richard Outten, Brian Gunn and Mark Gunn, and the screenplay by Brian and Mark Gunn 
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island was released in cinemas on February 10, 2012, by Warner Bros  Pictures, New Line Cinema and Walden Media to mixed reviews, but was a box office success with a worldwide gross of $335 million, surpassing its predecessor  It was released on DVD/Blu-ray on June 5, 2012 

Plot
Four years after his adventure in the center of the earth, 17-year-old Sean Anderson is arrested by the police for breaking into a satellite control center in hopes of enhancing a coded signal that could have been sent by his long-missing grandfather, Alexander Anderson  
Wanting to bond with Sean, his new stepfather Hank Parsons helps decipher the code, which leads to three books: Treasure Island, Gulliver's Travels, and Jules Verne's Mysterious Island  Using the books' individual maps, Hank uses a backlight to make them a single island, complete with the coordinates to its location  Hoping to prove to Sean that there is no mysterious island there, Hank agrees to take him to where the coordinates point to 
In Palau, Hank reluctantly hires helicopter tourism guide Gabato and his daughter Kailani (on whom Sean develops an immediate crush) to fly to the coordinates, as they are the only ones willing to take them  The helicopter gets caught in a cyclone and they crash into the Pacific, waking up on the island 
Moving in land, they are shocked to discover miniature elephants (which belong to a prehistoric species, the Dwarf sicilian elephant) and giant butterflies, meaning the animal sizes are opposite  After coming across an egg clutch, Gabato accidentally wakes up a giant frilled lizard, which chases them throughout the jungle  
They nearly get eaten, but are saved by Alexander  He takes them to a hut he built from the wreckage of the ship that brought him to the island  He has a working radio, but due to the positioning of the satellite, it will be two weeks before they can call out 
The next morning, Alexander leads the group to the lost city of Atlantis, which rises every 70 years and sinks again after a couple of days  Although Alexander assures them the island won't sink for many years, Hank discovers sea water coming from underground, meaning they only have days before the island sinks  Their only means of salvation seems to be the legendary Nautilus, Captain Nemo's submarine  Kailani enters Nemo's crypt and finds his journal, which shows that Nautilus is in a cave at Poseidon's Cliffs 
To go there, they mount giant bees and fly over a high ridge  When giant bee-eater birds try to devour them, Sean saves Kailani's life, but dislocates his ankle  Hank and Alexander reset Sean's ankle, then the group has a bonding moment when Hank sings his rendition of "What a Wonderful World" to ease Sean's pain 
The next morning, the water rises greatly and Hank deduces that the island will sink in a matter of hours  Gabato is missing, having gone toward the island's volcano in search of gold  While Alexander and Kailani go after him, Sean and Hank head for Poseidon's Cliffs 
To reach Nautilus' underwater cave, Sean and Hank create makeshift oxygen tanks and dive down fifty feet, but are nearly killed by a giant electric moray eel  The 140-year-old batteries have run down, so they engineer a way to start the submarine with the eel's electricity 
Kailani and Alexander find Gabato and convince him to escape with them instead of trying to take some volcano gold  As they near Poseidon's Cliffs, the volcano erupts  Sean and Hank arrive in Nautilus just in time to rescue the others from the water  Gabato pilots the submarine out of harm's way while Hank and Sean fire torpedoes into the path of falling debris  As they clear the dangers, Kailani kisses Sean for his bravery 
Six months later, Kailani and Gabato are well off, as he runs the most popular tourist attraction on Palau – tours aboard the Nautilus  Kailani visits Sean on his birthday  While the family celebrates, Alexander arrives with a book for Sean's birthday present – Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon, Alexander's suggestion for the next new adventure with the family 
The film ends with the camera panning to the moon 

Cast
Dwayne Johnson as Hank, Sean's stepfather and a former Navy code breaker 
Josh Hutcherson as Sean, Hank's stepson who wants to find his missing grandfather on the Mysterious Island 
Michael Caine as Alexander, Sean's grandfather who is the father of Max and Trevor Anderson from the previous film 
Luis Guzmán as Gabato, Kailani's father, who is part of the father-daughter tour guide team 
Vanessa Hudgens as Kailani, part of the father-daughter tour guide company and Sean's love interest 
Kristin Davis as Liz, Sean's mother and Hank's wife  Portrayed by Jane Wheeler in the previous film 
Anna Colwell as Jessica
Stephen Caudill as Cop, a police officer who is a friend of Hank's 
Branscombe Richmond as Tour Guide
Walter Bankson as Hockey Player

Production
After the commercial success of the first film, New Line Cinema and Walden Media purchased Richard Outten's spec script, Mysterious Travels, in March 2009 to serve as the basis for the film  In the story, the characters embark on a journey to a mysterious uncharted island thought to have inspired the writing of three literary classics: Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island, Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, and Jules Verne's Mysterious Island  Brian Gunn and Mark Gunn were chosen to revise Outten's script  Warner Bros  and New Line Cinema announced that Journey 2: The Mysterious Island would be released on February 10, 2012 

Casting
Josh Hutcherson was the only actor to reprise his role  Due to scheduling issues, Brendan Fraser and Anita Briem did not return  Kristin Davis replaced Jane Wheeler as Sean's mother Liz  Dwayne Johnson played Sean's stepfather, who is forced to accompany Sean on the trip to find his missing grandfather Alexander (played by Michael Caine) on a mythical and monstrous island  Vanessa Hudgens was cast as Hutcherson's love interest, Kailani 

Short film
The theatrical release of the film was preceded by a Looney Tunes short film titled Daffy's Rhapsody, featuring Daffy Duck and Elmer Fudd in the first CG or 3-D depiction of these specific Looney Tunes characters  The short film's director, Matthew O'Callaghan, noted that "Daffy Rhapsody was originally recorded in the early 1950s as part of a kids' album"  Unlike the earlier CG Looney Tunes shorts that appeared before Happy Feet Two and Yogi Bear, this short did not appear on the home video release of the film it accompanied 

Release
Theatrical release
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island was released in cinemas on February 10, 2012, by Warner Bros  Pictures, Walden Media and New Line Cinema  The film was accompanied by a 3D Looney Tunes short titled Daffy's Rhapsody  The short was originally going to play before Happy Feet Two, but was replaced with I Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tat to go along with the bird theme 

Home media
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island was released on DVD/Blu-ray on June 5, 2012 

Reception
Box office
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island grossed $103 9 million in North America and $231 4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $335 3 million, against a production budget of $79 million surpassing its predecessor  In North America, the film earned a $6 54 million on its debut Friday, ranking fourth at the box office  Over the weekend, it earned $27 3 million, coming in third place, much higher than the original's $21 0 million debut  Outside North America, Journey 2 began its run three weeks before its North American release  It topped the box office outside North America for two consecutive weekends and three in total  It surpassed the original's total outside North America  Its highest-grossing region after North America was China ($58 4 million), followed by Russia and the CIS ($17 6 million) and Mexico ($12 7 million) 

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 44% based on 131 reviews with an average rating of 4 92/10  The site's critical consensus reads: "Aggressively unambitious, Journey 2 might thrill teen viewers, but most others will find it too intense for young audiences and too cartoonishly dull for adults"  On Metacritic, the film has a score of 41 out of 100 based on reviews from 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B grade, stating that "the movie flies by pleasantly, and is then instantly forgettable  Perhaps Jules Verne can explain the science of that"  Randy Cordova from the Arizona Republic said: "Johnson can't save the movie, directed by Brad Peyton, from being a sloppy skip from one seemingly unrelated idea to the next"  Roger Ebert, who gave the first film two stars, gave the sequel two-and-a-half stars, stating: "It isn't a "good" movie in the usual sense (or most senses), but it is jolly and goodnatured, and Michael Caine and Dwayne Johnson are among the most likable of actors" 

Accolades
Soundtrack
Letterbomb - Performed by Green Day
Sleep Forever - Performed by Crocodiles
Aloha Oe - Performed by Dwayne Johnson
Hello Again - Performed by Meta & The Cornerstones
Three Little Birds - Performed by Bob Marley & The Wailers
What a Wonderful World - Performed by Dwayne Johnson

Future
In August 2014, Carey Hayes and Chad Hayes were announced to write the script for a third film  Brad Peyton and Dwayne Johnson were expected to direct and star in the sequel, respectively  It was later stated that there would be two sequels  By January 2018 however, Johnson stated despite the financial success of The Mysterious Island, and although a third film titled Journey from the Earth to the Moon was intended, its development had been cancelled due to a lack of immediate interest and troubles in adequately adapting the novel  Despite this, reports from Hollywood production insiders arose in August 2020, stating that a sequel was once again in development  In December 2021, Hiram Garcia confirmed that Warner Bros  Pictures wants a sequel film, though Seven Bucks Productions decided to delay development in favor of pursuing other projects 

See also
Journey to the Center of the Earth (2008 film)
Passage 9:
Barker, Niagara County, New York
Barker is a village in Niagara County, New York  The population was 533 at the time of the 2010 census  The mail ZIP code is 14012  It is part of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area 
Barker is within the Town of Somerset and was incorporated in 1908  The main crossroad in the town is the intersection of West Somerset Road and Quaker Road (NY 148) 

Geography
Barker is located at 43°19′39″N 78°33′13″W (43 327466, -78 553592) According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0 4 square miles (1 0 km2), all land 
Barker is situated at the junction of West Somerset Road/Coleman Road and Quaker Road (Route 148) 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 577 people, 211 households, and 150 families residing in the village  The population density was 1,372 3 inhabitants per square mile (529 8/km2)  There were 234 housing units at an average density of 556 5 per square mile (214 9/km2)  The racial makeup of the village was 98 09% White, 0 69% African American, 0 52% Native American, 0 17% from other races, and 0 52% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 56% of the population 
There were 211 households, out of which 38 4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54 0% were married couples living together, 10 4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28 9% were non-families  24 6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 73 and the average family size was 3 19 
In the village, the population was spread out, with 30 3% under the age of 18, 8 1% from 18 to 24, 26 3% from 25 to 44, 21 8% from 45 to 64, and 13 3% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 36 years  For every 100 females, there were 99 0 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93 3 males 
The median income for a household in the village was $37,411, and the median income for a family was $49,464  Males had a median income of $41,875 versus $21,375 for females  The per capita income for the village was $16,042  About 8 1% of families and 9 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11 0% of those under age 18 and 7 6% of those age 65 or over 
Passage 10:
R359 (South Africa)
The R359 is a regional route in the Northern Cape province of South Africa that runs along the south bank of the Orange River from Augrabies Falls through Augrabies and Kakamas to Upington 

Route
The western end of the route is at the entrance to the Augrabies Falls National Park  It passes through the towns of Augrabies and Marchand to meet the N14 national route 9 kilometres (5 6 mi) west of Kakamas  The R359 overlaps the N14 route as far as Kakamas, where the N14 crosses the Orange River to run along the north bank, while the R359 continues on the south bank  It crosses the R27 provincial route opposite Keimoes before reaching its eastern end at the N10 national route across the river from Upington 
Passage 11:
American Chronicles
American Chronicles is a documentary television program that was broadcast by Fox Broadcasting Company as part of its 1990 fall lineup 
American Chronicles was produced by Mark Frost through Lynch/Frost Productions, the company that he founded with David Lynch  Featured many of the same quirky camera angles, unusual music, and a focus on violence and sexuality that were hallmarks of their ABC series Twin Peaks   The half-hour weekly program was narrated by Richard Dreyfuss 
This program had a relatively brief run, being cancelled just over three months after its premiere, after ranking last out of 98 shows with an average household rating of 3 07 

Episodes
101: Farewell to the Flesh (pilot episode; writer/director: Mark Frost; airdate: 9/8/1990)
102: The Eye of the Beholder (airdate: 9/15/1990)
103: Manhattan After Dark (writer/producer: Robin L  Sestero; airdate: 9/22/1990)
104: Auto-Obsession (airdate: 9/29/1990)
105: Biker Nation (writer/producer: Ruben Norte; airdate: 10/6/1990)
106: Semper Fidelis (writer/producer: Robin L  Sestero; airdate: 10/13/1990)
107: This Gun's for Hire / Defender of the Faith (writer/producer: Chappy Hardy; airdate: 10/27/1990)
108: After a Fashion / An American Camelot (airdate: 11/3/1990)
109: Here Today, Gone Tomorrow / Truck Stop (writer/producer: Robin L  Sestero; airdate: 10/6/1990)
110: Once Upon a Time (about Hugh Hefner) (writers: Gary H  Grossman, Michael Gross, Robert Heath; directed by Robert Heath; airdate: 11/17/1990)
111: The Class of '65 (airdate: 12/8/1990)
112: Diamonds Are Forever (Last Day at Comiskey Park) / The Future That Never Was (writer/producer: David H  Jones; airdate: 12/15/1990)
113: Champions (unaired in U S ; first aired in UK 6/21/92)

International broadcasts
American Chronicles was aired in the United Kingdom by Channel 4 (1992), in Australia by SBS (1993), in New Zealand by TV3 (1992), in France by Planète (1992) and in Spain by TVE (1992) 
Passage 12:
Teech
Teech is an American sitcom television series that briefly aired on CBS from September 18 to October 16, 1991 as part of its 1991 Fall lineup  The series was co-produced by Nikndaph Productions in association with Columbia Pictures Television for CBS 

Synopsis
Teech stars Phill Lewis as "Teech" Gibson, an African American music instructor (and the "coolest teacher") at Winthrop Academy, a prestigious, predominantly-white prep school   He has style and drives a Corvair  Teech loves music and has tremendous appeal even to troubled, disruptive students   Teech also had appeal to Cassie Lee (Maggie Han), the sexy assistant headmaster who had hired him   Headmaster Alfred Litton (Steven Gilborn) wanted to dismiss Teech's troubled students from the school   He apparently would like to have done the same to Teech except he realized that so doing would likely open him to charges of racism and discrimination 
Scheduled opposite NBC's Top 20 hit Unsolved Mysteries, Teech drew low ratings and was pulled from the lineup after only four episodes had aired 

Cast
Phill Lewis as David "Teech" Gibson
Curnal Achilles Aulisio as George Dubcek, Jr 
Steven Gilborn as Alfred W  Litton
Maggie Han as Cassie Lee
Josh Hoffman as Kenny Freedman
Kevin Lawrence Johnson as Boyd Askew
Jason Kristofer as Alby Nichols
Jack Noseworthy as Adrian Peterman

Production notes
The series was created by David Frankel and Norman Steinberg  Teech's theme song "Teach Me" was performed by B B  King 

Episodes
Passage 13:
Too Young to Fall in Love
"Too Young to Fall in Love" is a 1984 single by American heavy metal band Mötley Crüe  It was originally released on their 1983 album Shout at the Devil 

Background
Written by bass guitarist Nikki Sixx, "Too Young to Fall in Love" was released as a single in 1984 and reached #90 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #26 on the Mainstream Rock tracks The tune later appeared in the 2002 video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City on the fictional in-game radio station "V-Rock" 
Even though the song was a hit, it has been left off some of Mötley Crüe's compilation albums such as Decade of Decadence and Greatest Hits, though it would be included on the reissue of the latter 

Music video
An accompanying music video was released with the single 
The video concerns the members of the band coming together to rescue a young Asian woman from the clutches of the local Crime Boss 
Interspersed with footage of the band performing the song, the video also contains a fight scene where the band members fight Guards of the Crime Boss 
It is then revealed that the young woman has willingly submitted to being a consort to the Crime Boss prompting the band members to leave while shaking their heads in disbelief and disgust 
As they leave, Tommy Lee tries to sample some of the Asian cuisine in the Crime Boss's kitchen  The Chief Guard attempts to kill Tommy, but is knocked out using a heavy sack of grain 
Tommy then picks up a bit of the food and begins to eat it 
He then grimaces and spits the food out, walking from the kitchen in disgust 

Track listing
"Too Young to Fall in Love"
"Take Me to the Top"

Personnel
Vince Neil - vocals
Mick Mars - guitar
Nikki Sixx - bass
Tommy Lee - drums

Charts
Passage 14:
Crescent Falls
Crescent Falls is a series of two waterfalls located on the Bighorn River in the Bighorn River Canyon in west-central Alberta, Canada



ground_truth: 22

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where is the origin of the river Augrabies Falls is part of?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  They were originally called the Bighorn Falls, after the river they are located on  The current name is a reference to the crescent cliff over which they drop The falls are located a few kilometres upstream of the river's confluence with the North Saskatchewan River  A 4 5-kilometre-long (2 8 mi) gravel road leads north from David Thompson Highway (between Abraham Lake and Nordegg) to the falls  The Crescent Falls Provincial Recreation Area is immediately up-river from the falls The waterfall is two-tiered and has a height of 27 metres (89 ft)  Visitors are allowed at the waterfalls year-round  The rock ledges around the top of the falls are slippery and fatal drops have occurred  Additionally, people have died by being swept under the waterfall after swimming at the bottom of the falls Arthur Philemon Coleman, a professor of geology at the University of Toronto, made the first mention of the falls in 1892 and described them as having a "far better scenery than we had been used to in the foot-hills" A sitting bench next to the falls is dedicated to James Hammond and placed there by his family after his death  Hammond was an avid outdoorsman and was especially fond of this location 

Campground
Located to the north-west of Crescent Falls, is an un-serviced campground run by Westward Bound Campgrounds  It currently has 31 available sites to camp on, and is open from May 1 to October 14  The site has access to water; however, due to potential contamination from pathogens in ground water, the owners recommend that visitors bring their own drinking water The time it takes to travel to Crescent Falls and back is about 1 hour and 15 minutes  Access to the area below the first waterfall of Crescent Falls has been restricted, mostly due to unsafe travel conditions and thin ice 
Passage 15:
Cold Brook Dam
Cold Brook Dam is an earthen dam located near Hot Springs, South Dakota in Fall River County in the southwestern part of the state, in the southern Black Hills 
The earthen dam was constructed in 1953 by the United States Army Corps of Engineers with a height of 127 feet and a length at its crest of 925 feet   It impounds Cold Brook Creek, a tributary of the Cheyenne River for flood control purposes during flash flood events for nearby Hot Springs   The dam is owned and operated by the Corps of Engineers, Omaha District 
The reservoir it creates, Cold Brook Lake, has a water surface of 36 acres and has a maximum capacity of 7200 acre-feet   year-round recreation is possible and includes canoeing, fishing, swimming, wildlife viewing, camping, and (in the winter) ice fishing, skating, and cross-country skiing  Cold Brook Lake Recreation Area includes a boat ramp, picnic area, swim beach and campground is managed by the Corps of Engineers 
Cottonwood Springs Dam, another Corps of Engineers dam is located about 5 miles to the southwest 

External links
Cold Brook Lake at Recreation gov
U S  Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Brook Dam
Passage 16:
Orange River
The Orange River (from Afrikaans/Dutch: Oranjerivier) is a river in Southern Africa  It is the longest river in South Africa  With a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi), the Orange River Basin extends from Lesotho into South Africa and Namibia to the north  It rises in the Drakensberg mountains in Lesotho, flowing westwards through South Africa to the Atlantic Ocean  The river forms part of the international borders between South Africa and Lesotho and between South Africa and Namibia, as well as several provincial borders within South Africa  Except for Upington, it does not pass through any major cities  The Orange River plays an important role in the South African economy by providing water for irrigation and hydroelectric power  The river was named the Orange River in honour of the Dutch ruling family, the House of Orange, by the Dutch explorer Robert Jacob Gordon  Other names include simply the word for river, in Khoekhoegowab orthography written as !Garib, which is rendered in Afrikaans as Gariep River with the intrusion of a velar fricative in place of the alveolar click, Groote River (derived from Kai !Garib) or Senqu River (used in Lesotho), derived from ǂNū "Black"  It is known in isiZulu as isAngqu 

Course
The Orange rises in the Drakensberg mountains along the border between South Africa and Lesotho, about 193 km (120 mi) west of the Indian Ocean and at an altitude of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft)  The extremity of the Orange River inside Lesotho is known as the Senqu  Parts of the Senqu River freeze in winter because of the high altitude  This creates droughts downstream, which mainly affect goat and cattle production 

The Orange River then runs westward through South Africa, forming the south-western boundary of the Free State province  In this section, the river flows first into the Gariep Dam and later into the Vanderkloof Dam  From the border of Lesotho to below the Vanderkloof Dam, the river bed is deeply incised  Further downstream, the land is flatter, and the river is used extensively for irrigation 
At the western point of the Free State, southwest of Kimberley, the Orange meets with its main tributary, the Vaal River, which forms much of the northern border of the province  From here, the river flows further westward through the arid wilderness of the southern Kalahari region and Namaqualand in the Northern Cape province to meet with Namibia at 20°E longitude  From here, it flows westward for 550 km (340 mi), forming the international border between the province and Namibia's ǁKaras Region  On the border, the river passes the town of Vioolsdrif, the main border post between South Africa and Namibia 

In the last 800 km (500 mi) of its course, the Orange receives many intermittent streams, and several large wadis lead into it  In this section, the Namib Desert terminates on the north bank of the river, so under normal circumstances, the volume of water added by these tributaries is negligible  Here, the bed of the river is once again deeply incised  The Augrabies Falls are located on this section of the Orange, where the river descends 122 m (400 ft) in a course of 26 km (16 mi) 
The Orange empties into the Atlantic Ocean between the small towns of Oranjemund (meaning "Orange mouth") in Namibia and Alexander Bay in South Africa, about equidistant between Walvis Bay and Cape Town  Some 33 km (21 mi) from its mouth, it is obstructed by rapids and sand bars and is generally not navigable for long stretches 
The river has a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi) 

Catchment and rainfall
In the dry season, the volume of the water in the river is considerably reduced because of the rapid run-off and evaporation  At the source of the Orange, the rainfall is about 2,000 mm (79 in) per annum, but precipitation decreases as the river flows westward; at its mouth, the rainfall is less than 50 mm (2 0 in) per year  The factors that support evaporation, though, tend to increase in a westerly direction  In the wet season (summer), the Orange river becomes a brown colored torrent  The huge mass of sediment carried constitutes a long-term threat to engineering projects on the river The total catchment of the Orange River (including the Vaal) extends over 973,000 km2 (376,000 sq mi), i e  equivalent to about 77% of the land area of South Africa (1,221,037 km2 (471,445 sq mi))  Around 366,000 km2 (141,000 sq mi) (38%), however, are situated outside the country in Lesotho, Botswana, and Namibia 

Tributaries
Vaal River - 1,458 km (906 mi)
Caledon River - 642 km (399 mi)
Khubelu River - 144 km (89 mi)

Dams
Armenia Dam
Egmont Dam
Gariep Dam
Newberry Dam
Vanderkloof Dam
Welbedacht Dam

History
Etymology
Some of the earliest precolonial inhabitants called the river ǂNūǃarib, referring to its black colour, or sometimes just Kai !Arib ("Great River"), from which is derived the Afrikaans version Gariep, and translation "Groote Rivier"  The early Dutch name for the river was just that translation, Groote Rivier, meaning "Great River"  The river was named the Orange River by Colonel Robert Gordon, commander of the United East India Company (VOC) garrison at Cape Town, on a trip to the interior in 1779  Gordon named the river in honor of William V of Orange  A popular but incorrect belief is that the river was named after the supposedly orange color of its water, as opposed to the color of its tributary, the Vaal River, which name is derived from the name ǀHaiǃarib "pale river" (vaal being Afrikaans for pale or grey)  Since the end of apartheid, the name "Gariep" has had greater favour in official correspondence in South Africa, although the name "Orange" has greater international recognition  In Lesotho, where the river rises, it is known as the Senqu River, derived from the original Khoemana name 

The Eastern Cape Geographical Names Committee has advertised its intention to consider a name change from the colonial name, for that portion of the river that forms the border between the Eastern Cape and the Free State, with suggestions being IGqili or Senqu  The advertisement placed in the Aliwal Weekblad newspaper states that the "present name is perceived to have a strong association with the history of colonial subjugation and has therefore no place under the current democratic dispensation "

The Grootslang
In South African folklore, the Orange River is often associated with the Grootslang, a mythical being resembling a giant serpent, which is often connected to the river's alluvial diamonds  The Grootslang is described as living in a gem-filled cave connected to the Orange River by a natural pipe through which the diamonds gradually enter the river  Other sites said to be lairs of the creature include the pool beneath the King George Cataract at Aughrabies Falls, which is also said to be a source of diamonds, and a large rock in the middle of the river itself  In this version of the legend, the Grootslang is also said to prey on cattle from the river's banks 

Economy
As the collection point for the majority of South Africa's water, the Orange River plays a major role in supporting agriculture, industry, and mining  To assist in this, two large water schemes have been created, the Orange River Project and the Lesotho Highlands Water Project  Historically, the river played an important role in the South African diamond rush, with the first diamonds in the country being discovered in alluvial deposits on the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate along the final stretch of the Orange River and around its mouth 
Because of the lack of dangerous animals and high water levels during summer, the river is used for recreational canoeing and rafting  Orange River rafting has become very popular with many companies using their camps along the river from which to operate  The most popular trips are four-day and six-day river trips that take place either along the gorge below the Augrabies Falls or along the Richtersveld area 

Orange River Project
The Orange River Project (ORP) was one of the largest and most imaginative projects of its kind in South Africa  It was constructed by Hendrik Verwoerd's government at the height of the apartheid era  The ORP was built to exploit the waters of the Orange River—which, without the Vaal River, represents some 14 1% of the total runoff in South Africa—and in the process, to satisfy an increasing demand for water  The main objectives of the project were:

to stabilise river flow,
the generation and transmission of hydroelectric power,
to provide a reliable water supply for users in the Orange River basin, and
to give a new lease on life to water-deficient areas in the Eastern Cape, such as the Great Fish and Sundays River valleys The Gariep Dam near Colesberg is the main storage structure within the Orange River  From here, the water is supplied in two directions, westward along the Orange River (via hydroelectric power generators) to the Vanderkloof Dam and southward through the Orange-Fish Tunnel to the Eastern Cape 

Hydroelectricity
Eskom operates hydroelectric power stations at both the Gariep Dam and the Vanderkloof Dam  The hydroelectric power station at the Vanderkloof Dam was the first power-generation station in South Africa situated entirely underground  The towns Oviston and Oranjekrag were established to facilitate the construction and operation of the new infrastructure 

Irrigation
Irrigation in the vast area downstream of the Vanderkloof Dam, which has turned thousands of hectares of arid veld into highly productive agricultural land, was made possible by the construction of the Gariep and Vanderkloof Dams  Old established irrigation schemes such as those at Buchuberg, Upington, Kakamas, and Vioolsdrif have also benefitted because regulation of the flow is now possible  On the Namibian side of the river, Aussenkehr produces grapes with the help of water from the Orange 
In recent years, the wine-producing areas along the Orange River have grown in importance  Irrigation in the Eastern Cape has also received a tremendous boost, not only from the additional water being made available, but also owing to improvement in water quality  Without this improvement, the citrus farmers along the Lower Sundays River would almost certainly have continued to suffer losses of productivity 

Lesotho Highlands Water Project
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was conceived to supplement the water supply in the Vaal River System  Water is delivered to South Africa by means of the delivery tunnel which passes under the Lesotho South Africa border at the Caledon River, and then under the Little Caledon River south of Clarens in the Free State, and discharges into the Ash River about 30 kilometres (19 mi) further to the north  The scheme became viable when water demands in Gauteng reached levels that could no longer be supported economically by alternative schemes such as the Tugela River-Vaal River pumped storage scheme, which used the Sterkfontein Dam, located near Harrismith in the Free State 

Alluvial diamonds
In 1867, the first diamond discovered in South Africa, the Eureka Diamond, was found near Hopetown on the Orange River  Two years later, a much larger diamond known as the Star of South Africa was found in the same area, causing a diamond rush  This was soon eclipsed by the diamond rush to mine diamonds directly from kimberlite at Kimberley in 1871, although alluvial diamonds continued to be found in the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate on the last stretch of the river, as well as the beaches around its mouth  Diamond mines also operate on the middle stretch of the river 

Rafting and canoeing
During the temperate months of March and April, given good rains and the sluices of the dams being open, a canoeist (or rafter) can easily travel 30 kilometres (19 mi) per day  The lower reaches of the river are most popular, because of the spectacular topography  Commercial tours are available, and these expeditions depart from the border town of Vioolsdrif 

Wildlife
The Orange River has no large animals  It lies outside the range of the Nile crocodile, and although hippopotami were once abundant, they were hunted to extermination in the 19th century  The Orange River has a relative paucity of species diversity  A 2011 survey of 13,762 fish found only 16 species of fish present   Three of these, the common carp, the Mozambique tilapia, and the western mosquitofish are not indigenous   Another exotic species, rainbow trout, is found in the river headwaters in Lesotho 
Seven species are endemic to the Vaal-Orange River system:
Rock-catfish (Austroglanis sclateri)
Maluti redfin or Maloti minnow (Pseudobarbus quathlambae)
Namaquab barb (Barbus hospes)
River sardine (Mesobola brevianalis)
Smallmouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus aeneus)
Largemouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus kimberlyensis)
Orange River Mudfish (Labeo capensis)

See also
List of rivers in South Africa
List of international border rivers
List of crossings of the Orange River
Passage 17:
Hudson City School District (Ohio)
The Hudson City School District is a school district in Ohio, covering most of Hudson and Boston Heights, and parts of Boston Township and Cuyahoga Falls  The high-school is ranked #460 in the nation, by U S  News & World Report, as of 2021 

Board of education
Current members
David Zurro (President)
Steve DiMauro (Vice President)
James Field
Alisa Wright
Tom Tobin

Administration
Steve Farnsworth (Interim Superintendent)
Doreen Osmun (Assistant Superintendent)
Phillip Butto (Treasurer)
Tom Barone (Business Manager)
Kelly Kempf (Pupil Services)
Lisa Hunt (Human Resources)
Jennifer Reece (Communications Manager)

Changes in Hudson City School District
1919: Hudson Township Rural School District is formed, consisting of the former Hudson Village School District and the township school districts 
1998: Hudson Local School District became Hudson City School District 
2010: Hudson Elementary is demolished 
2018–2022: The Administration and Board of Education begin making changes to multiple schools and facilitates around the Hudson City School District 

Schools
Hudson High School, 2500 Hudson-Aurora Road
Principal: Mike Miller
Hudson Middle School, 83 North Oviatt Street
Principal: Kimberly Cockley
East Woods Intermediate School, 120 North Hayden Parkway
Principal: Natalie Wininger
Ellsworth Hill Elementary, 7750 Stow Rd
Principal: Jen Filomeana
McDowell Early Learning School, 280 North Hayden Parkway
Principal: Beth Trivelli

Previous locations
Hudson Elementary, 34 North Oviatt Street (torn down in 2010)
Last Principal: Mark Leventhal
Evamere Elementary, 76 North Hayden Parkway (closed in 2021)
Last Principal: Beth Trivelli

Other facilities
Al Statts Transportation Facility and Koberna Salt Storage Facility opened in June 2019  Is a bus garage and salt storage facility 
Lavelli Stadium, built in 1972, named in 1975, when 1941 Hudson High School graduate Dante Lavelli was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame 
Memorial Stadium, has been built on Hudson High School (Ohio) property beside the W-wing faculty parking lot 
Ada Cooper Miller Natatorium, attached to East Woods Elementary   Ada Cooper Miller served on the Hudson Board of Education for 40 years, and presided for 25 of those years 

Previous locations
Petermann Limited, 91 Owen Brown Street (closed)
Passage 18:
George W  Childs Recreation Site
The George W  Childs Recreation Site is a former Pennsylvania state park that is the site of a number of cascade waterfalls along Dingmans Creek; it has been part of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area since 1983  It is located in Dingmans Ferry in Delaware Township, Pike County, Pennsylvania and is named for the late newspaper publisher George William Childs, whose widow deeded the land to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1912    The site contains three main waterfalls: Factory Falls, Fulmer Falls and Deer Leap Falls and is a few miles upstream from Dingmans Falls and Silverthread Falls 
The pools below the waterfalls were once a popular spot for swimming during its ownership by the Pennsylvania Bureau of State Parks   However, that activity had been banned upon transfer of ownership to the National Park Service 

The mill
The site is also host to the ruins of Joseph Brooks' 19th century woolen mill  In the 1820s Joseph Brooks, a Welshman who had immigrated to Philadelphia, built a woolen mill of stone, 3½ stories high   He employed about 80 workers 
His sheep, though, were devoured by wolves or died from eating poisonous Sheep Laurel  Supplies, operatives, and materials such as expensive raw wool, had to be brought in from Philadelphia, and the finished products shipped down to this city by wagons, a trip which took 10 days   Brooks died in 1832 and the mill was abandoned; the ruins are still visible 

Closures
From October 2010 to May 2013 the National Park Service (NPS) began a $2 5 million rehabilitation project  for much-needed repairs to trails, bridges, parking areas, and historic structures, and implemented measures to help maintain and preserve the forest and streamside vegetation  The project was in the planning stage for several years; public meetings were held in June 2006   and an Environmental Assessment was released for public review in May 2008   After nearly 3 years of closure to the public, reopening in May 2013, the park had accessible trails and picnic sites that met Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) standards  In March of 2018 two nor'easters, Winter Storm Riley (March 2) and Winter Storm Quinn (March 7), struck the United States eastern seaboard resulting in damage that caused the park to close indefinitely  In October 2022 the NPS announced that a nearly $3 million contract had been awarded to Puyenpa services, LLC from Gaithersburg, MD 20877, a company experienced in trail construction and familiar with sensitive natural and cultural resources for a final phase of restoration and construction work    During construction, other work during this phase of repairs included surveying and project layout, vegetation clearing and stump/root removal for trail work, and procurement of supplies and materials  No work would take place during the winter months and construction was planned to resume in the spring of 2023   On May 30, 2023 the NPS announced the final stage of restoration was set to start with work to continue through the fall and into early winter   Tentatively the park is expected to open to the public again in the Spring of 2024 
Passage 19:
Horicon, New York
Horicon is a town in Warren County, New York, United States  It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area  Horicon's population was 1,389 at the 2010 census Horicon is on the county's northern border and is located inside the Adirondack Park 

History
Horicon was first settled around 1800 
The town was formed in 1838 from parts of the towns of Hague and Bolton 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 71 8 square miles (186 km2), of which 66 1 square miles (171 km2)  is land and 5 7 square miles (15 km2)  (7 98%) is water 
The northern town line is the border of Essex County, New York 
New York State Route 8 crosses the town, forming a major east-west highway 
The town is also the site of the Curtis S  Read Scout Reservation, a Boy Scout camp owned by the Westchester-Putnam Council of Hawthorne 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,479 people, 642 households, and 446 families residing in the town   The population density was 22 4 people per square mile (8 6/km2)   There were 1,767 housing units at an average density of 26 7 per square mile (10 3/km2)   The racial makeup of the town was 98 58% White, 0 20% African American, 0 20% Native American, 0 20% Asian, 0 20% from other races, and 0 61% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 47% of the population 
There were 642 households, out of which 23 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59 3% were married couples living together, 5 9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30 4% were non-families  26 5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older   The average household size was 2 30 and the average family size was 2 74 
In the town, the population was spread out, with 20 6% under the age of 18, 5 2% from 18 to 24, 23 2% from 25 to 44, 32 0% from 45 to 64, and 19 0% who were 65 years of age or older   The median age was 46 years  For every 100 females, there were 100 1 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98 3 males 
As of 2015, the estimated median income per household was $65,804, and the median income for a family was $71,518  The per capita income for the town was $35,597  5 3% of families and 9 5% of the population were estimated as below the poverty line, including 26% of those under age 18 and 3 1% of those age 65 or over 

School district
The towns of Horicon and Chester together established North Warren Central School District, which serves residents of both towns 

Communities and locations in Horicon
Adirondack – a hamlet in the northwestern part of the town, by Schroon Lake  This hamlet has ZIP code 12808 
Brant Lake – a lake in the central part of the town
Brant Lake – a hamlet at the western end of the lake, located on Route 8
Island Pond – a lake located east of the hamlet of Brant Lake
Long Pond – a lake located east of the hamlet of Brant Lake
Pottersville – a hamlet near the western town line by Schroon Lake  The majority of this hamlet is located  in the Town of Chester  This hamlet has ZIP code 12860
Schroon Lake – a lake partly in the northwestern part of the town  This hamlet has ZIP code 12870 
South Horicon – a hamlet in the southwestern part of the town
Starbuckville – a hamlet west of Brant Lake hamlet
Passage 20:
Delta Force: Angel Falls
Delta Force is a tactical first-person shooter developed and published by NovaLogic  It was released for Microsoft Windows in 1998, and re-released on Steam in 2009  Delta Force was designed to be a military simulation loosely based on the United States' Delta Force special operations army unit 
The game was a critical and commercial success and it, along with a number of other high profile FPS games at the time, helped to popularize and define the tactical shooter genre 

Gameplay
The player assumes the role of a Delta Force operator who takes part in military operations in various theatres, and may customize their in-game avatar during the game's menu screen, selecting from various faces, as well as selecting a male or female operator  Objectives typically involve the elimination of a hostile presence in a region, assassinating a high-profile target, destroying military equipment or escorting POWs or civilians to an extraction point  Depending on the mission the player also needs to make it to an extraction point himself after fulfilling all other objectives  All five campaigns are available from the start and additional missions are unlocked as previous ones are completed  Sometimes multiple missions are unlocked at once and it is up to the player which order to play them in  The game features 40 missions in total, specifically taking place in Peru, Indonesia, Uzbekistan, and Novaya Zemlya 
The AI in the game varies depending on the difficulty you choose, as well as varying in spawn location from play-through to play-through  The lower the difficulty, the worse their aim is and the less they react and move around relative to the player  The higher the difficulty, the better their aim is, the faster they lock on to the player's location, and they use more advanced tactics, such as moving in small groups and providing cover fire while the others advance 

Equipment
Before each mission the player is able to choose his equipment  Default loadouts differ from mission to mission but the player can exchange it without any restrictions  The inventory is based on three slots: one for the main weapon, one for extra equipment and one for a sidearm  Unlike many other shooters of the era, bullets are actual objects in the game with simulated ballistics which account for drop and time to reach targets, requiring the player to lead targets that are far enough away 
On all of the maps, there are also scattered pickups that the player can use to their advantage  The player can decide whether to turn these on or off in the settings menu  Ammo pickups refill ammo, while medical pickups restore player health (despite player health not being visible through the HUD) 

Multiplayer
Delta Force also features LAN and online multiplayer for up to 32 players  All missions from the singleplayer campaign can be played cooperatively with additional players replacing the AI-controlled Delta Force operatives  Additionally deathmatch, king of the hill and capture the flag are available, along with team variations 

Development
Delta Force uses NovaLogic's own proprietary Voxel Space engine, known from their earlier games such as the Comanche series, which uses voxels to visualise terrain while polygons are used for rendering characters, vehicles, buildings and other details  This method allowed for draw distances and terrain detail unseen in first person shooters at the time and supported the game's attempt to simulate realistic outdoor combat at distances of up to several hundred meters  A limitation of the engine was that it did not support any form of 3D acceleration 

Reception
The game received "favorable" reviews according to video game review aggregator GameRankings  GameSpot's Michael Ryan called it "a very impressive game overall", particularly praising the game's mission and sound design, albeit pointing out its outdated visuals  He also drew comparisons to Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six, released earlier the same year, but noted Delta Force's limited preparation options compared to the latter  He also praised the multiplayer mode but noted that technical problems made it hard to play  PC Gamer's Todd Vaughn also drew comparisons to Rainbow Six but noted Delta Force's focus on long-distance fights and lower level of realism  He concluded: "Overall, Delta Force is a surprising and welcome addition to the genre that uses just the right mix [of] action and tactics to set itself apart from the crowd " Next Generation wrote, "Though Delta Force's standalone play is often uninspired, the multiplayer is one of the most satisfying gaming experiences available today "

Sequels
The game was successful enough to receive a direct sequel, Delta Force 2, the following year and spawn a long-running series  The last game in the series was Delta Force: Xtreme 2, released in 2009  Another game titled Delta Force: Angel Falls was announced but never released due to NovaLogic's closure in 2016 
Inspired by the popularity of Ridley Scott's war film Black Hawk Down, chronicling the Battle of Mogadishu, NovaLogic developed a Delta Force game with the same theme titled Delta Force: Black Hawk Down, which was released in 2003  Due to the rise in popularity of military-themed multiplayer shooters with vehicular combat, most notably DICE's Battlefield series, NovaLogic also developed a multiplayer focused spin-off of the Delta Force series titled Joint Operations: Typhoon Rising, released in 2004 



ground_truth: Thaba Putsoa