prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where is the headquarter of the Radio Television of the country whose co-official language is the same as the one Politika is written in?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
List of territorial entities where English is an official language
The following is a list of countries and territories where English is an official language—that is, a language used in citizen interactions with government officials  As of 2020, there were 58 sovereign states and 28 non-sovereign entities where English was an official language  Many administrative divisions have declared English an official language at the local or regional level 
Most states where English is an official language are former territories of the British Empire  Exceptions include Rwanda and Burundi, which were formerly German and then Belgian colonies; Cameroon, where only part of national territory was under British mandate; and Liberia, the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which were American territories  English is the sole official language of the Commonwealth of Nations and of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)  English is one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, NAFTA, the African Union, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Caribbean Community, the Union of South American Nations, and many other international organisations  Although English is not de jure an official language at the national level in the United States, most states and territories within the United States have English as an official language, and only Puerto Rico uses a language other than English as a primary working language The United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, where the overwhelming majority of native English speakers reside, do not have English as an official language de jure, but English is considered their de facto official language because it dominates in these countries 

Sovereign states
Countries where English is a de jure official language
Countries where English is a predominant language conventionally spoken by both the government and main population, despite it having no de jure official status at national level
Countries where English is a de facto working language in government or education, but it is not recognized as de jure official, nor a primary language spoken by the main population
Non-sovereign entities
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de jure official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official, but not a primary language
Country subdivisions
In these country subdivisions, English has de jure official status, but English is not official in their respective countries at the national level 

See also
English-only movement
Anglo-America
Commonwealth of Nations
Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
British Overseas Territories
English-speaking world
List of countries by English-speaking population
List of languages by total number of speakers
British Empire

Footnotes
Passage 2:
Politika
Politika (Serbian Cyrillic: Политика, lit  'Politics') is a Serbian daily newspaper, published in Belgrade  Founded in 1904 by Vladislav F  Ribnikar, it is the oldest daily newspaper still in circulation in the Balkans 

Publishing and ownership
Politika is published by Politika novine i magazini (PNM), a joint venture between Politika a d  and East Media Group  The current director of PNM is Mira Glišić Simić PNM also publishes:

Sportski žurnal
Politikin Zabavnik
Svet kompjutera
Ilustrovana Politika
Bazar

Editorial history
Vladislav F  Ribnikar (1904–1915)
Miomir Milenović i Jovan Tanović (1915–1941)
Živorad Minović (1985–1991)
Aleksandar Prlja (1991–1994)
Boško Jakšić (1994)
Dragan Hadži Antić (1994–2000)
Vojin Partonić (2000–2001)
Milan Mišić (2001–2005)
Ljiljana Smajlović (2005–2008)
Radmilo Kljajić (2008)
Dragan Bujošević (2008–2013)
Ljiljana Smajlović (2013–2016)
Žarko Rakić (2016–2021)
Marko Albunović (since 2021)

History
Ever since its launch in January 1904, Politika was published daily, except for several periods:

Due to World War I, there were no issues from 14 November 1914 to 21 December 1914, and again from 23 September 1915 to 1 December 1919
Due to World War II, there were no issues from 6 April 1941 to 28 October 1944
In protest against government's intentions to turn Politika into a state-owned enterprise, a single issue was not published in the summer of 1992The launch issue had only four pages and a circulation of 2,450 copies, and its record high circulation was the 25 December 1973 issue (634,000 copies) 

Reporting during the Yugoslav Wars
In the run-up to and during the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav Wars, Politika was under the control of Slobodan Milošević and the League of Communists of Serbia and was used for political purposes  It was used to publish controversial things such as the "Vojko i Savle" article, as well as an information guide to show what was allegedly happening to the Serbs in other republics, together with the Radio Television of Serbia  It blamed the local Kosovo Albanians for sodomizing Đorđe Martinović, and published fabricated reader letters claiming that the Albanians were "raping hundreds of Serbian women"  Before and during the Croatian War of Independence, it published opinions on how "blood may shed again" in Croatia because of World War II, published claims on how the Vatican funded Croatia to break up Yugoslavia  At the end of the Battle of Vukovar, it ran the fabricated story of the Vukovar children massacre  The article was however retracted with a statement published the following day 
Passage 3:
List of territorial entities where German is an official language
The following is a list of the countries and territories where German is an official language (also known as the Germanosphere)  It includes countries that have German as (one of) their nationwide official language(s), as well as dependent territories with German as a co-official language 

German as an official language
German is the official language of six countries, all of which lie in central and western Europe  These countries (with the addition of South Tyrol of Italy) also form the Council for German Orthography and are referred to as the German Sprachraum (German language area)  Since 2004, Meetings of German-speaking countries have been held annually with six participants: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Switzerland:

Subdivisions of countries
While not official at the national level, German is a co-official language in subdivisions of the countries listed below  In each of these regions, German is an official language on the administrative level 

Other legal statuses
There are other political entities (countries as well as dependent entities) which acknowledge other legal statuses for the German language or one of its dialects  While these may cover minority rights, support of certain language facilities (schools, media, etc ), and the promotion of cultural protection/heritage, they do not encompass the establishment of German as an "official" language, i e , being required in public offices or administrative texts 
These countries include:

Brazil (German is a statewide cultural language in Espírito Santo and Rio Grande do Sul; Standard German official in 2 municipalities and non-standard German dialects official in 16 others)
Czech Republic (national minority language)
Denmark (minority language in Syddanmark, established with the Bonn-Copenhagen declarations, 1955)
Hungary (national minority language)
Namibia (national language; co-official language 1884–1990)
Poland (national minority language; also auxiliary language in 31 communes)
Romania (national minority language)
Russia (minority language in the Azovo German National District)
Slovakia (regional minority language)Although in France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as "regional languages" according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998, the French government has not yet ratified the treaty, and therefore those varieties have no official legal status Due to the German diaspora, other countries with sizable populations of (mostly bilingual) German L1 speakers include Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Canada, Chile, Paraguay, as well as the United States  However, in none of these countries does German or a German variety have any legal status 

International institutions
German is an official language of the following international institutions:

International sports associations:
European Handball Federation (EHF)
Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT)
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
Fédération Internationale de Luge de Course (FIL)
Fédération Internationale de Ski (FIS)
International Biathlon Union (IBU)
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)

Notes
See also
German language in the Basic Law
Passage 4:
Serbian language
Serbian (српски / srpski, pronounced [sr̩̂pskiː]) is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs  It is the official and national language of Serbia, one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina and co-official in Montenegro and Kosovo  It is a recognized minority language in Croatia, North Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic 
Standard Serbian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian (more specifically on the dialects of Šumadija-Vojvodina and Eastern Herzegovina), which is also the basis of standard Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin varieties and therefore the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Montenegrins was issued in 2017  The other dialect spoken by Serbs is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian 
Serbian is practically the only European standard language whose speakers are fully functionally digraphic, using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets  The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created it based on phonemic principles  The Latin alphabet used for Serbian (latinica) was designed by the Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in the 1830s based on the Czech system with a one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correlation between the Cyrillic and Latin orthographies, resulting in a parallel system 

Classification
Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language (Indo-European), of the South Slavic subgroup  Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian, Croatian, and Montenegrin  "An examination of all the major 'levels' of language shows that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system " It has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian, than with Slovene (Slovene is part of the Western South Slavic subgroup, but there are still significant differences in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation to the standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian, although it is closer to the Kajkavian and Chakavian dialects of Serbo-Croatian) 

Geographic distribution
Figures of speakers according to countries:

Serbia: 6,540,699 (official language)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1,086,027 (co-official language)
Germany: 568,240
Austria: 350,000
Montenegro: 265,890 (language in official use)
Switzerland: 186,000
United States: 172,874
Sweden: 120,000
Italy: 106,498
Kosovo: est  70 000–100 000 (co-official language)
Canada: 72,690
Australia: 55,114
Croatia: 52,879 (recognized minority language)
Slovenia: 38,964
North Macedonia: 24,773 (recognized minority language)
Romania: 22,518 (recognized minority language)

Status in Montenegro
Serbian was the official language of Montenegro until October 2007 when the new Constitution of Montenegro replaced the Constitution of 1992  Amid opposition from pro-Serbian parties, Montenegrin was made the sole official language of the country, and Serbian was given the status of a language in official use along with Bosnian, Albanian, and Croatian In the 2011 Montenegrin census, 42 88% declared Serbian to be their native language, while Montenegrin was declared by 36 97% of the population 

Differences between standard Serbian and standard Croatian and Bosnian
Writing system
Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic (ћирилица, ćirilica) and Latin script (latinica, латиница)  Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia, a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them  Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or the other  In general, the alphabets are used interchangeably; except in the legal sphere, where Cyrillic is required, there is no context where one alphabet or another predominates 
Although Serbian language authorities have recognized the official status of both scripts in contemporary Standard Serbian for more than half of a century now, due to historical reasons, the Cyrillic script was made the official script of Serbia's administration by the 2006 Constitution The Latin script continues to be used in official contexts, although the government has indicated its desire to phase out this practice due to national sentiment  The Ministry of Culture believes that Cyrillic is the "identity script" of the Serbian nation However, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means, leaving the choice of script as a matter of personal preference and to the free will in all aspects of life (publishing, media, trade and commerce, etc ), except in government paperwork production and in official written communication with state officials, which have to be in Cyrillic 

Usage
To most Serbians, the Latin script tends to imply a cosmopolitan or neutral attitude, while Cyrillic appeals to a more traditional or vintage sensibility In media, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia, predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink, predominantly use the Latin script  Newspapers can be found in both scripts 
In the public sphere, with logos, outdoor signage and retail packaging, the Latin script predominates, although both scripts are commonly seen  The Serbian government has encouraged increasing the use of Cyrillic in these contexts  Larger signs, especially those put up by the government, will often feature both alphabets; if the sign has English on it, then usually only Cyrillic is used for the Serbian text 
A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors the Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one Latin script has become more and more popular in Serbia, as it is easier to input on phones and computers 

Alphabetic order
The sort order of the ćirilica (ћирилица) alphabet:

Cyrillic order called Azbuka (азбука): А Б В Г Д Ђ Е Ж З И Ј К Л Љ М Н Њ О П Р С Т Ћ У Ф Х Ц Ч Џ ШThe sort order of the latinica (латиница) alphabet:

Latin order called Abeceda (абецеда): A B C Č Ć D Dž Đ E F G H I J K L Lj M N Nj O P R S Š T U V Z Ž

Grammar
Serbian is a highly inflected language, with grammatical morphology for nouns, pronouns and adjectives as well as verbs 

Nouns
Serbian nouns are classified into three declensional types, denoted largely by their nominative case endings as "-a" type, "-i" and "-e" type  Into each of these declensional types may fall nouns of any of three genders: masculine, feminine or neuter  Each noun may be inflected to represent the noun's grammatical case, of which Serbian has seven:

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative
Instrumental
LocativeNouns are further inflected to represent the noun's number, singular or plural 

Pronouns
Pronouns, when used, are inflected along the same case and number morphology as nouns  Serbian is a pro-drop language, meaning that pronouns may be omitted from a sentence when their meaning is easily inferred from the text  In cases where pronouns may be dropped, they may also be used to add emphasis  For example:

Adjectives
Adjectives in Serbian may be placed before or after the noun they modify, but must agree in number, gender and case with the modified noun 

Verbs
Serbian verbs are conjugated in four past forms—perfect, aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect—of which the last two have a very limited use (imperfect is still used in some dialects, but the majority of native Serbian speakers consider it archaic), one future tense (also known as the first future tense, as opposed to the second future tense or the future exact, which is considered a tense of the conditional mood by some contemporary linguists), and one present tense  These are the tenses of the indicative mood  Apart from the indicative mood, there is also the imperative mood  The conditional mood has two more tenses: the first conditional (commonly used in conditional clauses, both for possible and impossible conditional clauses) and the second conditional (without use in the spoken language—it should be used for impossible conditional clauses)  Serbian has active and passive voice 
As for the non-finite verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive, two adjectival participles (the active and the passive), and two adverbial participles (the present and the past) 

Vocabulary
Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to the Proto-Slavic language  There are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history  Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, English, Russian, German, Czech and French 

Serbian literature
Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje (Miroslav's Gospel) in 1186 and Dušanov zakonik (Dušan's Code) in 1349  Little secular medieval literature has been preserved, but what there is shows that it was in accord with its time; for example, the Serbian Alexandride, a book about Alexander the Great, and a translation of Tristan and Iseult into Serbian  Although not belonging to the literature proper, the corpus of Serbian literacy in the 14th and 15th centuries contains numerous legal, commercial and administrative texts with marked presence of Serbian vernacular juxtaposed on the matrix of Serbian Church Slavonic 
By the beginning of the 14th century the Serbo-Croatian language, which was so rigorously proscribed by earlier local laws, becomes the dominant language of the Republic of Ragusa  However, despite her wealthy citizens speaking the Serbo-Croatian dialect of Dubrovnik in their family circles, they sent their children to Florentine schools to become perfectly fluent in Italian  Since the beginning of the 13th century, the entire official correspondence of Dubrovnik with states in the hinterland was conducted in Serbian In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and for the next 400 years there was no opportunity for the creation of secular written literature  However, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being epic poetry  The epic poems were mainly written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s, a few centuries or even a millennium longer than by most other "epic folks"  Goethe and Jacob Grimm learned Serbian in order to read Serbian epic poetry in the original  By the end of the 18th century, the written literature had become estranged from the spoken language  In the second half of the 18th century, the new language appeared, called Slavonic-Serbian  This artificial idiom superseded the works of poets and historians like Gavrilo Stefanović Venclović, who wrote in essentially modern Serbian in the 1720s  These vernacular compositions have remained cloistered from the general public and received due attention only with the advent of modern literary historians and writers like Milorad Pavić  In the early 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić promoted the spoken language of the people as a literary norm 

Dialects
The dialects of Serbo-Croatian, regarded Serbian (traditionally spoken in Serbia), include:

Šumadija–Vojvodina (Ekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): central and northern Serbia
Eastern Herzegovinian (Ijekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): southwestern Serbia, western half of Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia
Kosovo–Resava (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): eastern central Serbia, central Kosovo
Smederevo–Vršac (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): east-central Serbia
Prizren–Timok (transitional Torlakian): southeastern Serbia, southern Kosovo
Zeta–Raška (Ijekavian, Old-Shtokavian): eastern half of Montenegro, southwestern Serbia

Dictionaries
Vuk Karadžić's Srpski rječnik, first published in 1818, is the earliest dictionary of modern literary Serbian  The Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (I–XXIII), published by the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts from 1880 to 1976, is the only general historical dictionary of Serbo-Croatian  Its first editor was Đuro Daničić, followed by Pero Budmani and the famous Vukovian Tomislav Maretić  The sources of this dictionary are, especially in the first volumes, mainly Štokavian  There are older, pre-standard dictionaries, such as the 1791 German–Serbian dictionary or 15th century Arabic-Persian-Greek-Serbian Conversation Textbook 

Standard dictionaries
Dictionary of Serbo-Croatian Literary and Vernacular Language (Rečnik srpskohrvatskog književnog i narodnog jezika) is the biggest dictionary of Serbian (and Serbo-Croatian as a whole) and still unfinished  Starting in 1959, 21 volumes were published as of 2020 and about 40 are expected by the time it is finished 
Dictionary of Serbo-Croatian Literary Language (Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika) in six volumes in 1967–1976, started as a common project of Matica srpska (published in Cyrillic) and Matica hrvatska (published in Latin)  Only the first three volumes were published by Matica hrvatska due to negative feedback from Croatian linguists 
Dictionary of the Serbian language (Rečnik srpskoga jezika; ISBN 978-86-7946-004-2) in one volume, published in 2007 by Matica srpska, which on more than 1500 pages in A4 format explains more than 85,000 entries 

Etymological dictionaries
The standard and the only completed etymological dictionary of Serbian is the "Skok", written by the Croatian linguist Petar Skok: Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika ("Etymological Dictionary of Croatian or Serbian")  I-IV  Zagreb 1971–1974 
There is also a new monumental Etimološki rečnik srpskog jezika (Etymological Dictionary of Serbian)  So far, two volumes have been published: I (with words on A-), and II (Ba-Bd) 
There are specialized etymological dictionaries for German, Italian, Croatian, Turkish, Greek, Hungarian, Russian, English and other loanwords (cf  chapter word origin) 

Dialectal dictionaries
Kosovsko-resavski dialect dictionaries:
Gliša Elezović, Rečnik kosovsko-metohiskog dijalekta I-II  1932/1935 
Prizren-Timok (Torlakian) dialect dictionaries:
Brana Mitrović, Rečnik leskovačkog govora  Leskovac 1984 
Nikola Živković, Rečnik pirotskog govora  Pirot, 1987 
Miodrag Marković, Rečnik crnorečkog govora I-II  1986/1993 
Jakša Dinić, Rečnik timočkog govora I-III 1988–1992 
Jakša Dinić, Timocki dijalekatski recnik, (Institut za srpski jezik, Monografije 4; ISBN 978-86-82873-17-4) Beograd 2008,
Momčilo Zlatanović, Rečnik govora južne Srbije  Vranje, 1998, 1–491 
East-Herzegovinian dialect dictionaries:
Milija Stanić, Uskočki rečnik I–II  Beograd 1990/1991 
Miloš Vujičić, Rečnik govora Prošćenja kod Mojkovca  Podgorica, 1995 
Srđan Musić, Romanizmi u severozapadnoj Boki Kotorskoj  1972 
Svetozar Gagović, Iz leksike Pive  Beograd 2004 
Zeta-Pešter dialect:
Rada Stijović, Iz leksike Vasojevića  1990 
Drago Ćupić – Željko Ćupić, Rečnik govora Zagarača  1997 
Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Crnoj Gori – jugoistočni dio Boke Kotorske  Cetinje – Titograd, 1981 
Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Budvi i Paštrovićima  Novi Sad 1997 
Others:
Rečnik srpskih govora Vojvodine  Novi Sad 
Mile Tomić, Rečnik radimskog govora – dijaspora, Rumunija  1989 

Sample text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Cyrillic script:
Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима  Она су обдарена разумом и свешћу и треба једни према другима да поступају у духу братства 
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Latin alphabet:
Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima  Ona su obdarena razumom i svešću i treba jedni prema drugima da postupaju u duhu bratstva 
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights  They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood 

See also
Passage 5:
Official Languages Act (Canada)
The Official Languages Act (French: Loi sur les langues officielles; colloquially the Act) is a Canadian law that came into force on September 9, 1969, which gives French and English equal status in the government of Canada  This makes them "official" languages, having preferred status in law over all other languages  Although the Official Languages Act is not the only piece of federal language law, it is the legislative keystone of Canada's official bilingualism  It was substantially amended in 1988  Both languages are equal in Canada's government and in all the services it controls, such as the courts 

Summary of main features
The Act  provides, among other things,

that Canadians have the right to receive services from federal departments and from Crown corporations in both official languages;
that Canadians will be able to be heard before federal courts in the official language of their choice;
that Parliament will adopt laws and to publish regulations in both official languages, and that both versions will be of equal legal weight;
that English and French will have equal status of languages of work within the federal public service within geographically defined parts of the country that are designated bilingual (most notably in the National Capital Region, Montreal and New Brunswick), as well as in certain overseas government offices and in parts of the country where there is sufficient demand for services in both official languages  In remaining geographical areas, the language of work for federal public servants is French (in Quebec) and English (elsewhere);The Federal government has set in place regulations establishing linguistic categories (anglophone, francophone, bilingual) for some job functions within the public service  Departments and agencies of the federal government are required to fill these positions with individuals who are capable of serving the public in English, in French, or in both languages   Unilingual public servants are given incentives to learn the other official language, and the government provides language training and offers a "bilingualism bonus" 
Part VI of the Act mandates that English-speaking Canadians and French-speaking Canadians not be discriminated against based on ethnic origin or first language learned when it comes to employment opportunities and advancement The law also created the Commissioner of Official Languages, an officer of Parliament charged with receiving complaints from the public, undertaking inquiries, and making recommendations regarding the status of the two official languages 
Section 32 of the Official Languages Act authorizes the Governor in Council (i e , the federal cabinet) to issue regulations defining the geographic regions in which services will be offered by the federal government in the relevant minority language (English in Quebec and French elsewhere)   This provides a legal definition for the otherwise vague requirement that services be provided in the minority official languages wherever there is "significant demand " The definition used in the regulations is complex, but basically an area of the country is served in both languages if at least 5,000 persons in that area, or 5% of the local population (whichever is smaller), belongs to that province's English or French linguistic minority population   The regulations were first promulgated in 1991 

Political context
The Official Languages Act was one of the cornerstones of the government of Pierre Trudeau  The law was an attempt to implement some of the policy objectives outlined by the federally commissioned Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, which had been established in 1963 and since that time had been issuing periodic reports on the inequitable manner in which Canada's English-speaking and French-speaking populations were treated by the federal administration  At that time, only 9% of jobs within the federal public service were occupied by Francophones, even though French-speakers formed a quarter of the Canadian population  The proportion of jobs designated bilingual grew to 14% in 1978, and to 25% in 2004 One of the most important features of the 1969 act was to ensure that federal government services would be provided in both official languages, wherever population size warranted it 
Its principles were later incorporated into the Constitution of Canada, in Section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 
A new Official Languages Act was enacted in 1988 in order to achieve two objectives 
First, it was necessary to update the 1969 law to take into account the new language-related obligations that the federal government had undertaken under Sections 16-23 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which had been enacted in 1982  For example,  Section 20 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the right of the Canadian public to communicate in English and French with any central government office or with regional offices where there is "a significant demand for communication with and services from that office " Significant demand is not defined in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms  One of the purposes of the Official Languages Act of 1988 was to remedy this omission Second, the new law included provisions for the promotion by the government of Canada of Quebec's English-speaking minority and of the French-speaking minorities in the rest of the country  The programs that fall under the "promotion" umbrella are often designed to encourage each provincial government to offer services to its official-language minority community, and contain a mechanism for transferring funds to the provincial governments in order to finance a part of these programs  Under Canada's federal constitution, many important services, such as education and health, fall under provincial jurisdiction and are therefore off-limits to any direct federal spending  The transfer of federal funds, conditional upon the fulfilment by each provincial government of detailed conditions laid out in a funding agreement, is a constitutionally permitted method of dodging this jurisdictional constraint 
This would suggest that the Official Languages Act and Quebec's Charter of the French Language (also known as "Bill 101") are fundamentally at cross-purposes with each other  However, that perspective is not universally accepted  For example, former Liberal leader Michael Ignatieff has stated that "Bill 101 and the Official Languages Act are not in opposition, they are complementary "

Reactions
Provincial legislatures
In 1969, the law was adopted with all-party support in the House of Commons of Canada  Despite this, there was not universal support for the law  The premiers of the three Prairie provinces requested, early in 1969, that the Official Languages Bill be referred to the Supreme Court of Canada to determine its constitutionality  They maintained, along with JT Thorson, the former president of the Exchequer Court of Canada, that the bill was outside the powers of the Parliament of Canada  The reference to the court was never made, but the legal question was resolved in 1974, when the Supreme Court ruled, in Jones v  Attorney General of New Brunswick, that the subject matter of the bill was within federal jurisdiction 
In subsequent decades the response from provincial governments to the example set by the federal government has been mixed:

New Brunswick, which is home to Canada's second-largest French-speaking minority population, adopted the federal government policy and adopted its own Official Languages Act on April 18, 1969  The bilingual status of New Brunswick was strengthened in 1993 by the addition of section 16 1 to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 
Ontario, which is the home to Canada's largest French-speaking minority, opted instead to enact a law (the French Language Services Act) which provides for services of the provincial government to be made available in certain geographically designated regions, but which does not give the French language either a symbolic or an authoritative status as an equal "official" language of Ontario  However, the English and French versions of statutes and regulations that are enacted or made in both languages are equally authoritative 
Manitoba, which is home to Canada's third-largest French-speaking minority, refused to overturn its ban on the use of French in both the provincial legislature and its courts (which had been in effect since 1890), until it was forced to do so in 1985 by a ruling by the Supreme Court of Canada (Reference re Manitoba Language Rights) that the province was under a constitutional obligation to enact laws in French as well as in English 
Quebec, which is home to an English-speaking minority of over half a million, had traditionally been the only province which was generous in its treatment of its minority-language population, and for this reason had been cited by the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism as the model to be emulated by other provinces  But in the 1970s, the provincial legislature adopted two laws, the Official Language Act (also known as "Bill 22") and the Charter of the French Language (also known as "Bill 101"), reducing the access of Quebecers to English-language services, preventing immigrants and Francophones from enrolling their children in English schools, requiring that French be made the language of the workplace, and restricting the use of English on commercial signs 

Public reactions
Public support for bilingual services had dramatically increased between the mid-1960s and the end of the 1970s  There was no direct polling on the popularity of the Official Languages Act itself at the time, but poll data on related questions gives an indication of a significant shift in the attitudes of English-speaking Canadians  A 1965 poll showed that 17% of Canadians living outside Quebec favored the use of public funds to finance French-language schools  This proportion had risen to 77% by 1977 (albeit in response to a slightly different question about support for provincial governments offering services in French "where possible") Within Quebec, changes to the treatment of French-speakers within the federal public service were met with approval mixed with skepticism that this actually helped the unilingual French-speaking majority of Quebecers, who continued to be excluded from all federal jobs designated "bilingual", since by definition a "bilingual" job requires the use of English 
However, the changes found some opposition in English Canada  Toronto Telegram columnist Braithwaither sums up the position of the opponents of the bill like this: "We are not afraid of any aspect of the language bill, we simply regard it as unnecessary, politically-motivated, costly to implement, divisive, and, as it affects the non-English, non-French third of the population, wholly discriminatory "As per the bill, some positions in the public sector were designated as bilingual  At the implementation of the bill, if a bilingual position was held by a unilingual anglophone, this person was allowed to keep their position on the condition that they attempted to learn French, and all subsequent holders of this position must be bilingual  Under these circumstances, there were fears that, because of the higher rate of bilingualism among Francophones, people whose first official language is French would become overrepresented in the public sector  However, this has not become the case  The ratio of French first official language speakers to English first official language speakers in the public sector is almost the same as in the general population At any rate, the adoption of official bilingualism at the federal level did almost nothing to slow the rise of the sovereignist movement  The nationalist Parti Québécois made its first significant electoral breakthrough less than a year after the Official Languages Act was adopted, winning 23% of the vote in Quebec's 1970 provincial election and replacing the Union Nationale as the main electoral vehicle for Quebec nationalism  Six years later, the Parti Québécois came to power in the 1976 provincial election 

Failure to implement all provisions of the Official Languages Act
From time to time, the Official Languages Commissioner draws attention to the fact that federal agencies subject to the law are failing to live up to their legal obligations regarding official languages  In a report published in 2004 on the 35th anniversary of the Official Languages Act, Commissioner Dyane Adam noted that only 86% of posts designated "bilingual" in the federal public service were occupied by persons who had effectively mastered the two official languages  This nevertheless was an increase over the comparable figure of 1978, when only 70% of the incumbents in posts that had been designated "bilingual" were capable of speaking both languages at accepted levels 

Opinion polls
According to a poll conducted in 2002, 98% of Quebecers consider official bilingualism to be "very important" or "somewhat important"  This proportion drops to 76% in the Atlantic provinces, 72% in Ontario, 67% in the Prairie provinces, and 63% in British Columbia  Another poll, conducted in 2000, shows that more than half of Canadians outside Quebec believe that too much effort has gone into promoting bilingualism  By contrast, only 26% of Quebecers shared this view  A poll conducted in 2012 found that 63% of Canadians were in favour of bilingualism for all of Canada, a 9% increase since that same poll was last conducted in 2003 In 2016, another poll was conducted, showing increasing support for official bilingualism in every province  Among telephone respondents, 88% of Canadians said they "strongly support" or "somewhat support" the aims of the Official Languages Act: 91% in the Atlantic, 94% in Quebec, 87% in Ontario, 83% in the Prairies, 90% in Alberta and 84% in British Columbia  84% of telephone respondents also said they personally "strongly support" or "somewhat support" official bilingualism   The results were more mixed in the online portion of the poll, where 78% of respondents said they "strongly support" or "somewhat support" the aims of the Official Languages Act, and 73% said they personally "strongly support" or "somewhat support" official bilingualism  In another poll conducted on this topic in the same year, 67% of respondents across Canada answered "yes" to the question "Are you personally in favour of bilingualism for all of Canada?" while 31% said "no" 

Reform proposals
2021 OLA modernisation bill
In June 2021 the Government of Canada introduced a parliamentary bill to modernize the Official Languages Act in a changing and more digital society 

Bill C-13
In 2022, the Government of Canada tabled Bill C-13 which amends the Official Languages Act and other related legislation  As of June 15, 2023, Bill C-13 passed third reading in the Senate and is awaiting royal assent 

Including more languages
The Official Languages Act applies to English and French, but does not include formal protections any other languages spoken in Canada, Indigenous or otherwise  In a Winnipeg allocution during his first term, Pierre Elliott Trudeau said that French was selected as an official language mostly because of the important demographic weight within Canada  As such, if and when Ukrainian would represent the mother tongue of, say, 10% of the population, Trudeau assured the crowd that steps would be taken to make Ukrainian an official language of Canada as well More recently, Romeo Saganash, the NDP Member of Parliament for Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou from 2011 to 2019, proposed that every single indigenous languages still spoken today become an official language of Canada  Saganash also advocates for the right to speak indigenous languages in the House of Commons and the Senate 

See also
Official bilingualism in Canada
Official Bilingualism in the Public Service of Canada
Official Language Act (Quebec)
Charter of the French Language
Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism
Languages of Canada
Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages (includes list of commissioners 1970–present)

Notes
External links
Déjà Vu: 40 Years of Language and Laughter in Political Cartoons (Commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the Official Languages Act)
Canadian Department of Justice - Official Languages Act text
Analysis of section 41 of the act

Related link
List of Acts of Parliament of Canada
Passage 6:
The White Suit
The White Suit (Serbian: Belo odelo / Бело одело) is a 1999 Serbian language film directed by Lazar Ristovski  It was a co-production between the United Kingdom and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia  It was Yugoslavia's official Best Foreign Language Film submission at the 72nd Academy Awards, but did not manage to receive a nomination 

Cast
Lazar Ristovski - Savo / Vuko Tiodorovic
Radmila Shchogolyeva - Karmen
Dragan Nikolić - Makro
Bata Živojinović - Gospodin
Danilo Stojković - Svestenik
Bogdan Diklić - Masinovodja
Radoš Bajić - Vlasnik
Passage 7:
Swedish Sign Language
Swedish Sign Language (SSL; Svenskt teckenspråk) is the sign language used in Sweden  It is recognized by the Swedish government as the country's official sign language, and hearing parents of deaf individuals are entitled to access state-sponsored classes that facilitate their learning of SSL  There are fewer than 10,000 speakers, making the language officially endangered 

History
Swedish sign language first came into use in 1800  It does not stem from any other languages  In fact, this self-created language went on to influence Finnish Sign Language and Portuguese Sign Language  1809 marks the year of the first deaf school, Manillaskolan, in Sweden  It was not until 1981 that Swedish Sign Language was recognized as a national language of Sweden 

Handshapes
Many of the handshapes used in fingerspelling in Swedish Sign Language are similar to those in American Sign Language, even though the two languages are not related  For example, D is the same as B in ASL, G is the same as S in ASL, H is the same as F in ASL, I is the same in ASL, K is the same in ASL, M and N are very similar in ASL, O is the same in ASL, S is the same as C in ASL, and U, V & W are the same in ASL (but with a different palm orientation) 

Education and communication
Per the Education Act of 1998, deaf children are expected to be able to write in Swedish and English, in addition to expressing their thoughts in Swedish Sign Language  Thus, six state-run schools (one of which specializes in learning disabilities) have been established regionally for deaf children who cannot attend traditional comprehensive schools  Comprehensive and secondary schools in Sweden offer classes in addition to a one-year program to students to learn Swedish Sign Language as a third national language, as well as in hopes of becoming an interpreter  Interpreters are found in hospitals, and they also teach the language to the parents and siblings of deaf children  Sweden provides 240 hours of courses over four years to parents so that they may learn to communicate with their children  Additionally, weekly courses in the language are also available to the siblings of deaf children and the children of deaf parents 

Expanding the culture of the deaf
Since the recognition of Swedish Sign Language as a national language of Sweden, the Swedish government has made available to deaf individuals television shows and news broadcasts in sign language  Subtitles in sign language are also increasing  On November 29, 2001, the first Bible was translated into Swedish Sign Language  Furthermore, the Health and Medical Service Act (1982) guaranteed interpreters for deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals in working life, leisure, and club activities 

See also
Signed Swedish
Passage 8:
Southern Europe
Southern Europe is the southern region of Europe  It is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is marked by the Mediterranean Sea  Definitions of Southern Europe include some or all of these countries and regions: Albania, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Turkey (East Thrace), Gibraltar, Greece, Italy, Kosovo, Malta,  Monaco, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Portugal,  San Marino, Serbia, Slovenia, Southern France, Spain, and Vatican City (the Holy See) Southern Europe is focused on the three peninsulas located in the extreme south of the European continent  These are the Iberian Peninsula, the Apennine Peninsula, and the Balkan Peninsula  These three peninsulas are separated from the rest of Europe by towering mountain ranges, respectively by the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Balkan Mountains  The location of these peninsulas in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as their mountainous reliefs, provide them with very different types of climates (mainly subtropical Mediterranean) from the rest of the continent  So, the Sirocco hot wind that originates in the heart of the Sahara blows over Italy, going up to the interior of the Alpine arc (Po Valley)  The Alps prevent the Sirocco from spreading to the rest of Europe  And, conversely, the Alps and the Pyrenees protect the Italian and Iberian peninsulas from the rains and icy winds from the south of France such as the Mistral and the Tramontane  When the Mistral and the Tramontane are blowing, this provokes an "upwelling" phenomenon on the French coast  They push the surface waters out to sea and bring deeper, cooler waters up to the seaside  Consequently, the temperature of the waters of the French coasts are therefore very cool even in summer, and not representative of the rest of the Mediterranean 
This same kind of phenomenon takes place between the two slopes of the Balkan Mountain Range  These mountains have, moreover, been a serious handicap to population displacement, focusing southern Europe mainly on the Mediterranean world  The climate and cultures are therefore very specific 
Different methods can be used to define Southern Europe, including its political, economic, historical, and cultural attributes  Southern Europe can also be defined by its natural features — its geography, climate, and flora  Politically, nine of the Southern European countries form the EU Med Group  Southern Europe also loosely corresponds to the European part of the Mediterranean Basin 

Geography
Geographically, Southern Europe is the southern portion of the European continent  This definition is relative, although largely based on history, culture, climate, and flora, which is shared across the region  Southern Europe can be subdivided into three subregions:

Iberian Peninsula and the surrounding islands
Balearic Islands (Spain)
Iberian Peninsula
Andorra
French Cerdagne (France)
Gibraltar (United Kingdom)
Portugal (mainland)
Spain (mainland)
Pyrénées-Orientales (France)Italian geographic regionAlpes-Maritimes (France)
Apennine Peninsula
Central Italy
San Marino
South Italy
Vatican City (Holy See)
Corsica (France)
Gorizia (Italy)
Insular ItalySardinia
Sicily
Istria (peninsula)
Ankaran (Slovenia)
Istria County (Croatia)
Izola (Slovenia)
Koper (Slovenia)
Muggia (Italy)
Piran (Slovenia)
San Dorligo della Valle (Italy)
Malta
Monaco
Northern Italy
Northeast Italy
Northwest Italy
Ticino (Switzerland)
Trieste (Italy)Southeast Europe
Balkan Peninsula
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia (southern mainland)
East Thrace (Turkey)
Greece (mainland)
Kosovo
Montenegro
North Macedonia
Romania (Northern Dobruja)
Serbia (Central Serbia)
Slovenia (south-western part)
Croatia (northern mainland & offshore islands)
Cyprus
Greece (islands)
Moldova
Romania (inland part)
Slovenia (north-eastern part)
Serbia (Vojvodina)The major islands in Southern Europe generally include the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Crete, Cyprus, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as the island country of Malta 

Gallery
Climate
Southern Europe's most emblematic climate is the Mediterranean climate, influenced by the large subtropical semi-permanent centre of high atmospheric pressure found, not in the Mediterranean itself, but in the Atlantic Ocean, the Azores High  The Mediterranean climate covers Portugal, Spain, Italy, the southern coast of France, coastal Croatia, coastal Slovenia, southern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and Greece, as well as the Mediterranean islands  Those areas of Mediterranean climate present similar vegetations and landscapes throughout, including dry hills, small plains, pine forests and olive trees 
Cooler climates can be found in certain parts of Southern European countries, for example within the mountain ranges of Spain and Italy  Additionally, the north coast of Spain experiences a wetter Atlantic climate  In the highest regions of the Alps, which border Southern Europe, even ice cap climate can be found Some parts of Southern Europe have humid subtropical climates with warm and wet summers, unlike typical Mediterranean climates  This climate is mainly found in Italy and Croatia around the Adriatic Sea in cities such as Venice and Trieste, but also further north, near the Alpine foothills, in cities such as Como and Lugano 

Flora
Southern Europe's flora is mainly characterized by Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub, but also temperate broadleaf and mixed forests  The Mediterranean and Submediterranean climate regions in Europe are found in much of Southern Europe, mainly Portugal, Spain, Italy, Malta, Albania, Greece, Cyprus and all the mediterranean islands, but also in southeast France, the Balkan Mediterranean coast and part of Macedonia In the Mediterranean coastal areas, olive groves, maquis shrubland, and steppes are very common  At higher elevations, or latitudes, they are replaced by chestnut and (often coppiced) mixed forests 

History
Early history
The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, dominating trade in the Mediterranean by the 8th century BC  Carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily and Sardinia (both regions in present day Italy), which created conflicts of interest with Etruria  Its colonies later reached the Western Mediterranean, such as Cádiz in Spain and most notably Carthage in North Africa, and even the Atlantic Ocean  The civilisation spread across the Mediterranean between 1500 BC and 300 BC The period known as classical antiquity began with the rise of the city-states of Ancient Greece  Greek influence reached its zenith under the expansive empire of Alexander the Great, spreading throughout Asia  The Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean Basin in a vast empire based on Roman law and Roman legions  It promoted trade, tolerance, and Greek culture  By 300 AD the Roman Empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire based in Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople  The attacks of the Goths led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, a date which traditionally marks the end of the classical period and the start of the Middle Ages  During the Middle Ages, the Eastern Roman Empire survived, though modern historians refer to this state as the Byzantine Empire  In Western Europe, Germanic peoples moved into positions of power in the remnants of the former Western Roman Empire and established kingdoms and empires of their own 
The period known as the Crusades, a series of religiously motivated military expeditions originally intended to bring the Levant back into Christian rule, began  Several Crusader states were founded in the eastern Mediterranean  These were all short-lived  The Crusaders would have a profound impact on many parts of Europe  Their sack of Constantinople in 1204 brought an abrupt end to the Byzantine Empire  Though it would later be re-established, it would never recover its former glory  The Crusaders would establish trade routes that would develop into the Silk Road and open the way for the merchant republics of Genoa and Venice to become major economic powers  The Reconquista, a related movement, worked to reconquer Iberia for Christendom  The late Middle Ages represented a period of upheaval in Europe  The epidemic known as the Black Death and an associated famine caused demographic catastrophe in Europe as the population plummeted  Dynastic struggles and wars of conquest kept many of the states of Europe at war for much of the period  In the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire, a Turkish state originating in Anatolia, encroached steadily on former Byzantine lands, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453 

Post-Middle Ages
Beginning roughly in the 12th century in Florence, and later spreading through Europe with the development of the printing press, a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology, with the Arabic texts and thought bringing about rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge  The Catholic reconquest of Portugal and Spain led to a series of oceanic explorations resulting in the Age of Discovery that established direct links with Africa, the Americas, and Asia  During this period, Iberian forces engaged in a worldwide struggle with Islamic societies; the battlefronts in this Ibero-Islamic World War stretched from the Mediterranean into the Indian Ocean, finally involving the islands of Southeast Asia  Eventually this ecumenical conflict ended when new players—England, Holland and France—replaced Spain and Portugal as the main agents of European imperialism in the mid-17th century 
European overseas expansion led to the rise of colonial empires, producing the Columbian Exchange  The combination of resource inflows from the New World and the Industrial Revolution of Great Britain, allowed a new economy based on manufacturing instead of subsistence agriculture  The period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars  Balkan nations began to regain independence from the Ottoman Empire  Italy unified into a nation state  The capture of Rome in 1870 ended the Papal temporal power 

20th and 21st century
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 was precipitated by the rise of nationalism in Southeastern Europe as the Great Powers took up sides  The Allies defeated the Central Powers in 1918  During the Paris Peace Conference the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, especially the Treaty of Versailles  The Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, and along with Mussolini's Italy sought to gain control of the continent by the Second World War 
Following the Allied victory in the Second World War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain  The countries in Eastern and Southeastern Europe were dominated by the Soviet Union and became communist states  The major non-communist Southern European countries joined a US-led military alliance (NATO) and formed the European Economic Community amongst themselves  The countries in the Soviet sphere of influence joined the military alliance known as the Warsaw Pact and the economic bloc called Comecon  Yugoslavia was neutral  The common attribute of the eastern countries is that all of them have experiences with socialism, but nevertheless, the beginning of the 1990s was just roughly the same  For some of them becoming independent was the major challenge, while others needed to face with poverty and deep dictatorship also Economically, parallel with the political changes, and the democratic transition, – as a rule of law states – the previous command economies were transformed via the legislation into market economies, and set up or renewed the major macroeconomic factors: budgetary rules, national audit, national currency, central bank  Generally, they shortly encountered the following problems: high inflation, high unemployment, low economic growth and high government debt  By 2000 these economies were stabilized, and sooner or later between 2004 and 2013 some of them joined the European Union, and Slovenia introduced the euro Italy became a major industrialized country again, due to its post-war economic miracle  The European Union (EU) involved the division of powers, with tax, health, and education handled by the nation states, while the EU had charge of market rules, competition, legal standards and environmentalism  The Soviet economic and political system collapsed, leading to the end of communism in the satellite countries in 1989, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself in 1991  European Union expanded to subsequently include many of the formerly communist European countries – Romania and Bulgaria (2007) and Croatia (2013) The Gotthard, a major and direct transport axis between Northern and Southern Europe, was completed in 2016 with the Gotthard Base Tunnel  The Gotthard inscribes itself in a long history of transit across the Alps, which saw them progressively changing from an obstacle to a corridor between the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea 

Demographics
Languages
Romance languages
The most widely spoken family of languages in Southern Europe are the Romance languages, the heirs of Latin, which have spread from the Italian peninsula, and are emblematic of Southwestern Europe  (See the Latin Arch ) By far the most common Romance languages in Southern Europe are Italian (spoken by over 50 million people in Italy, southern Switzerland, Malta, San Marino, and Vatican City) and Spanish, which is spoken by over 40 million people in Spain, Andorra and Gibraltar  Other common Romance languages include Portuguese (spoken in Portugal and Andorra), French (spoken in France, Monaco, and the Aosta Valley in Italy), Catalan (spoken in eastern Spain, Andorra, Southwestern France, and the Sardinian town of Alghero in Italy), Galician (spoken in northwestern Spain), Mirandese (spoken in northeast Portugal), and Occitan, which is spoken in the Val d'Aran in Catalonia, in the Occitan Valleys in Italy and in southern France 

Other languages
The Hellenic languages or Greek language are widely spoken in Greece and Cyprus  Additionally, other varieties of Greek are spoken in small communities in parts of other European countries English is used as a second language in parts of Southern Europe  As a primary language, however, English has only a small presence in Southern Europe, only in Gibraltar (alongside Spanish) and Malta (secondary to Maltese)  English is also widely spoken in Cyprus There are other language groupings in Southern Europe  Albanian is spoken in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Greece, Serbia, Croatia and Italy (particularly by the Arbëreshë people in Southern Italy), and Serbo-Croatian is spoken in Kosovo, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Italy (in Molise)  Slovenian is spoken in Slovenia, Italy (in Friuli-Venezia Giulia) and Croatia (in Istria) and Macedonian is spoken in North Macedonia  Maltese is a Semitic language that is the official language of Malta, descended from Siculo-Arabic, but written in the Latin script with heavy Latin and Italian influences  The Basque language is spoken in the Basque Country, a region in northern Spain and southwestern France  Turkish is a Turkic language that is spoken in Turkey, Cyprus, Kosovo, Greece, North Macedonia and Bosnia, and German is spoken in Italy, particularly in South Tyrol 

Religion
The predominant religion in Southern Europe is Christianity  Christianity spread throughout Southern Europe during the Roman Empire, and Christianity was adopted as the official religion of the Roman Empire in the year 380 AD  
Due to the historical break of the Church into the western half based in Rome and the eastern half based in Constantinople, different denominations of Christianity are prominent in different parts of Europe Christians in the western half of Southern Europe — e g , Portugal, Spain, Italy — are generally Roman Catholic  Christians in the eastern half of Southern Europe — e g , Greece, Serbia and North Macedonia — are generally Eastern Orthodox  Islam is widely practiced in Albania, Bosnia, Kosovo and Turkey and Northern Cyprus  Muslims are a significant minority in several countries of Southern Europe- e g , Greece, Italy, Spain  Judaism was practiced widely throughout the European continent within the Roman Empire from the 2nd century 

Other classifications
CIA World Factbook
In the CIA World Factbook, the description of each country includes information about "Location" under the heading "Geography", where the country is classified into a region  The following countries are included in their classification "Southern Europe":
Greece
Holy See (Vatican City)
Italy
Malta
San MarinoIn addition, Andorra, Gibraltar, Portugal and Spain are classified as "Southwestern Europe", while Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Turkey (the part west of the Bosporus) are described as located in "Southeastern Europe" 

EuroVoc
EuroVoc is a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, giving definitions of terms for official use  In the definition of "Southern Europe", the following countries are included:
Cyprus
Greece
Holy See
Italy
Malta
Portugal
San Marino
Spain
Turkey

UN geoscheme classification
The United Nations geoscheme is a system devised by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) which divides the countries of the world into regional and subregional groups, based on the M49 coding classification  The partition is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories In the UN geoscheme, the following countries are classified as Southern Europe:
Albania
Andorra
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Croatia
Greece
Holy See
Italy
Malta
Montenegro
North Macedonia
Portugal
San Marino
Serbia
Slovenia
Spainas well as the dependent territory:

Gibraltar

European Travel Commission classification
European Travel Commission divides the European region on the basis of Tourism Decision Metrics (TDM) model 
Countries which belong to the Southern/Mediterranean Europe in this classification are:Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, East Thrace (Turkey), Greece, Italy, Malta, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, and Spain 

See also
Central and Eastern Europe
Central Europe
Eastern Europe
EU Med Group
EuroVoc#Southern Europe
Mediterranean Basin
Northern Europe
Northwestern Europe
Southeast Europe
Western Europe

Notes
Passage 9:
Media in Pristina
The media in Pristina includes some of the most important newspapers, largest publishing houses and most prolific television studio  Pristina is the largest communications center of media in  Kosova  Almost all of the major media organizations in Kosova are based in Pristina The television industry developed in Pristina and is a significant employer in the city's economy  The four major broadcast networks, RTK, RTV21, KTV and Klan Kosova, are all headquartered in Pristina 
Radio Television of Kosova (RTK) is the only public broadcaster both in Pristina and in all of Kosova as well, who continues to be financed directly by the state  All of the daily newspapers in Pristina have a readership throughout Kosova An important event which affected the development of the media, is that in University of Pristina since 2005 is established the Journalism Faculty within the Faculty of Philology in which a large number of young people are registered Media in Pristina have followed all elections held in Kosova, especially a great impact was noted in Kosova local elections, 2013,where media dedicated most of their time in political debates, advertisements and political parties programs The freedom and pluralism of the media is guaranteed by the Constitution of Kosova  Censorship is forbidden, except in the cases of provocation of violence and discrimination  In according to organization Reporters without borders
in 2013 Kosova was ranked in the 85th place, after a year Kosova made progress and was ranked in the 80th place 

Newspapers
The first newspaper was "Rilindja" (Renaissance), which first came out on February 12, 1945 in Prizren, and was the first newspaper in Albanian inside Yugoslavia   It was initially printed in the State Printing Shop in Prizren during the issues 1 to 60  Since issue 61, it was printed in Pristina Regional Printing House of the People's Front of Yugoslavia In the beginning, it had only four pages, being published weekly until June 27, 1948  After that it began to be published twice a week, on Sundays and Thursdays  Then, from November 1958, it started out as a daily paper (except on Fridays)  By the year 1964, it appeared every day in a 20-page standard format, while on Saturdays and holidays in a 24-32 page format  On September 5, 1990, the Serbian government banned its publication  But with the entry of NATO forces, on June 12, 1999, it appeared again, but this time with additional pages and some of them in color It was undoubtedly one of the major sold newspapers in the Albanian sphere  Its maximum circulation was during New Year holidays, up to 234,000 copies  In 2002, the  newspaper premises were blocked by UNMIK administration, and was listed as property of Kosova Agency of Privatisation, shutting it down abruptly 
Nowadays  the two most popular newspapers are Koha Ditore and Kosova Sot  And in the absence of an official and impartial survey, both of them claim to be the most-read newspaper in Kosova  The newspapers use three systems of distribution, the most used system is Rilindja's system, but some newspapers, as Koha Ditore and Bota Sot, in their attempt to hide the correct information about readership, have developed their own systems of distribution 
Express
Bota Sot
Koha Ditore
Kosova Sot
Lajm
Epoka e re

Magazines
The first writings magazines in Kosova began in the early 40th and one of the first publications was Literary magazine of Albanians "Jeta e re"(The new life) was given in the newspaper "Rilindja"(Renaissance) on July 17, 1949 as one of the most influential magazines in the country  At that time there were many other magazines quite important, which with their work were known throughout the country 
Some of magazines were: The newspaper "Zani i rinisë" (The Journal of Pioneers)  which in 1946 was converted into Literary magazine for children "Pioneri" (Pioneers)   In 1946 magazine for cultural and social issue "Përparimi" (The Progress) which from 1955 comes as magazine for culture, Literary magazine "Jeta e re"(The New life), then health education magazine "Shëndeti" (The Health)  and some others as "Ndërtuesi" (The Builder), magazine for employees "Agimi" (The Sunrise), "Zora"-Women's Antifascist Front, "Bujku i ri"(The Young Farmer), whereas today most popular magazines are listed in this table:

Radio
Radio Pristina started transmission immediately after the World War II in Prizren 1945 (later to be transferred to Pristina) and it was founded by Parliament of Kosovo province  Radio transmitted in Albanian, Serbian and Turkish language  October 1999 OSCE transfers the resurrected public radio station Radio Pristina to RTK  It is re-launched as Radio Kosovo 
Radio Kosova is the first radio that transmitted news in English language, news edition called 'Live at Five' is still transmitted at 17:00 

Radio stations
Television
Television in Pristina has its beginnings on 26 November 1975, Radio Television of Pristina or RTP (Albanian: Radio Televizioni i Prishtinës, Serbian: Радио-телевизија Приштина, Radio-televizija Priština) was the first Albanian television channel in Kosova, and it was part of JRT and had its building in Kosova's capital Pristina (then a Yugoslav Autonomous Province)  Both radio and television transmitted in Albanian, Serbian and Turkish language  Television discontinued transmission on 10 June 1999 and was relocated to Central Serbia, later it was dissolved  After the Kosova war, material and buildings of Radio Television Pristina are under the administration of Radio Television of Kosova, and have been established two other television RTV21 and KTV  

List of TV stations
Cable and Internet
Internet coverage is widespread but it experiences frequent outages  As of December 2013, the number of internet subscribers was 156,408 or 52 65% household penetration rate   In an effort to harmonize existing audiovisual media legislation with EU directives, Kosova's Independent Media Commission (IMC) issued regulations on licensing fees, cable operators, and protection of minors  Expansion of cable operators increased media diversity by bringing local and national TV stations, as well as special cable stations, to the public The following are some of the main internet providers:

Online media
Context 2: Passage 1:
Félix Enríquez Alcalá
Félix Enríquez Alcalá (sometimes credited as Felix Alcala) (born March 7, 1951, in Bakersfield, California) is an Argentinean-American film and television director 

Career
Alcalá's first major breakthrough came in 1991 when he was hired by Lynn Marie Latham and Bernard Lechowick to direct an episode of ABC's short lived drama series Homefront  Since then he has guest directed on a vast number of series including CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, ER, Dollhouse and House  In 1997, Alcalá made his theatrical film directing debut with the film Fire Down Below starring Steven Seagal 
In 2007, Alcalá was nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for directing the Battlestar Galactica episode Exodus, Part II

Selected directing credits
Passage 2:
Larry Alcala
Lauro "Larry" Zarate Alcala (August 18, 1926 – June 24, 2002) was a well-known editorial cartoonist and illustrator in the Philippines  In 2018, he was posthumously conferred the National Artist for Visual Arts title and the Grand Collar of the Order of National Artists (Order ng Pambansang Alagad ng Sining) 

Biography
He was born on August 18, 1926, to Ernesto Alcala and Elpidia Zarate in Daraga, Albay  Through a scholarship from Manila Times granted by the publisher Ramón Roces, he obtained a degree of Bachelor of Fine Arts in Painting at the University of the Philippines (UP) in 1950  He became a professor at the same university from 1951 to 1981  He also received the Australian Cultural Award accompanied by a travel study grant in 1975 He started his cartooning career in 1946 while still attending school  After World War II, he created his very first comic strip, Islaw Palitaw, which was printed on the pages of the Filipino weekly magazine Liwayway  In 1947, he created the comic strip Kalabog en Bosyo, using Taglish as the medium of communication of his characters 
He pioneered animated cartoons for television commercials of products such as Darigold Milk in 1957 and Caltex in 1965  His campaign for the advancement of illustration and commercial art in the Philippines resulted to the establishment of the Visual Communication Department at the UP College of Fine Arts In 1997, the Philippine Board on Books for Young People (PBBY) granted him the title Dean of Filipino Cartoonists, an achievement award for his lifetime dedication to the art of capturing humor in the character and everyday life in the Philippines  In 1991, he promoted the formation of a group of young children's book illustrators called Ang Ilustrador ng Kabataan (Ang INK) All in all, he made over 500 cartoon characters, twenty comic strips, six movies, two murals, and 15,000 published pages in his 56 years of professional cartooning career  He believed in the far-reaching role of cartoons in education and value formation 

Death
Alcala died at the age of 75 on June 24, 2002, due to heart failure on Monday night at the Riverside Medical Centre, Bacolod City, central Philippines  His remains will lie in state at the Rolling Hills Memorial Chapel in the Visayas 

His Cartoons
His most popular cartoon series was Slice of Life, which is a reflection of the many unique aspects of everyday life in the Philippines  He captured the interest of his weekend patrons by giving them the task of looking for his image cleverly concealed within the weekend cartoon  He did the same with his other comic strip Kalabog en Bosyo  His cartoons had been tapped in advertising campaigns, such as corporate calendars, print ads, promotional T-shirts and in San Miguel Beer cans In 1988, his Slice of Life received the Best in Humor award and was also cited for helping to keep alive the Filipino's ability to laugh at himself, through the lively marriage of art and humor, and through commentaries that are at once critical and compassionate, evoking laughter and reflection Slice of Life appeared on the pages of the Weekend Magazine 

Mang Ambo
Mang Ambo is the personification of the Filipino according to Larry Alcala  Mang Ambo, the character, is an incorrigible cock-eyed innocent, possessing a small town charm amidst urban sophistication  Through Mang Ambo and the other characters of a fictional place called Barrio Bulabog, Alcala exposed the follies and foibles of Philippine society in general and of cosmopolitan life in particular  In this cartoon strip's characters, he also affirmed the Filipino's peculiar coping mechanism of laughing at himself in the face of adversity but still absorbing life's vicissitudes with resilience  Mang Ambo made its debut in 1960 as a full-page feature in the Weekly Graphic  The cartoon series later became the first Alcala comic strip to be compiled in book form 

Kalabog en Bosyo
Alcala's most enduring comic strip was Kalabog en Bosyo that first appeared on the pages of Pilipino Komiks in 1947  It eventually became the longest running cartoon series created by a Filipino Decades before Slice of Life, Alcala was already doing cameo roles in his Kalabog en Bosyo comic strips, but instead of portraying himself with a moustach, spectacles and side burns, he rendered himself in a crew-cut, younger and about 100-pounds thinner profile An onomatopoeic Tagalog word, the name of the character, Kalabog, refers to the thud sound produced after the impact of a falling object finally reaching solid ground  In Kalabog en Bosyo, Alcala pioneered in the blending of Tagalog and English or Taglish as the medium of communication among his characters  The comic misadventures of the two bungling detectives namely Kalabog and Bosyo had been transposed into films by Sampaguita Pictures in 1957, starring the Filipino actors-comedians, Dolphy and Panchito Alba 

Summary of published works
The following is a summary of Alcala's published works:
International Cartoons, Athens, Greece (1980)
Salon of Cartoons, Montreal, Canada (1980)
Laugh and Live, Life Today (1981–2002)
Slice of Life, Weekend (1980–1986), Sunday Tribune (1986–1987), Sunday Times (1987–1995), Philstar (1995–2002)
Bing Bam Bung, Pilipino Funny Komiks (1978–1989)
Asiong Aksaya, Daily Express, Tagalog Klasiks (1976–1984)
Mod-Caps, Mod Magazine (1974–2002)
Snickerteens, TSS Magazine (1973–1984)
Smolbateribols, Darna Komiks (1972–1984)
Siopawman, Daily Express (1972–1983, 2002)
Kalambogesyons, Pinoy Komiks (1966–1972)
Congressman Kalog, Aliwan Komiks (1966–1972)
Barrio Pogspak, Holiday Komiks (1966–1972)
Project 13, Pioneer Komiks (1966–1972)
Loverboy, Redondo Komiks (1964–1969)
Cartoon Feature, Asia Magazine (1963)
Mang Ambo, Weekly Graphic (1963–1965), Weekly Nation (1965–1972) Manila Standard (1993–1998)
This Business of Living, Weekly Graphic (1951–1965), Weekly Nation (1965–1972)
Best Cartoons from Abroad, New York, US (1955–1956)
Tipin, Hiwaga Komiks (1951–1965)
Kalabog en Bosyo, Pilipino Komiks (1949–1983), Manila Times (1984–1995)
Islaw Palitaw (1946–1948)
A Cover for Asiaweek Magazine, February 10, 1984
Mga Salawikain ni Lolo Brigido, Pambata Magazine
A Cartoon Mural for the Philippine Village Hotel
A Mural for the Philippine Commission on Audit
Contributions for Duty Free
Contributions for Jollibee restaurant
Caricatures and Cartoons, Private collections
Cover designs, brochures and catalogs, University of the Philippines
San Miguel Corporation Calendar, 1983
SPIC Cartoonists Exhibit on Wheels, 1967 Society of Philippine Illustrators and Cartoonists (SPIC)
Asiong Aksaya TV show, Energy Conservation Movement of the Philippines, 1977

Contributions to Philippine education
The following are Alcala's contributions to education in the Philippines:
Introduced the first college degree course on Commercial Design in the Philippines, 1953
Introduced the first 8 mm film production of animated cartoons in Visual Communications course, 1972
Chairman Department of Visual Communications, University of the Philippines, 1978–1981
Professor, College of Fine Arts, University of the Philippines, 1976–1979
Associate Professor, College of Fine Arts, University of the Philippines, 1971–1976
Assistant Professor, College of Fine Arts, University of the Philippines, 1962–1970
Instructor, College of Fine Arts, University of the Philippines, 1951–1962

Cartoon exhibitions
The following are exhibitions of Alcala's cartoons:
1999 Larry Alcala & Friends: Cartoons and Caricatures Show, The Westin Philippine Plaza (now Sofitel Philippine Plaza), CCP Complex, Roxas Boulevard,
1998 Larry Alcala, Life and Times of a Cartoonist, Museo Pambata Foundation, Inc 
1998 Cartoon Festival, Seoul, Korea
1995 Asian Cartoonist Exhibition and Symposium, Japan
1995 Slices of Larry's Art, SM Megamall Art Center & Liongoren Art Gallery
1993 Cartoons, Solo exhibit, San Jose & San Francisco, California, U S A 
1991 Cartoons, Group exhibit, Japan
1990 ASEAN Cartoonist Exhibit, Tokyo, Japan
1989 Cartoon Exhibit, China
1988 Slices of Life Part 2, Art Association of Bacolod Gallery
1987 Slices of Life Here and Abroad, Hyatt Regency Manila
1987 Cartoons, Group exhibit, Hiroshima, Japan
1986 Cartoons, Solo exhibit, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia
1985 Cartoons, Group exhibit, Chicago, San Francisco & Los Angeles, U S A 
1984 1st Asian Cartoonist Conference, Hiroshima, Japan
1984 Larry Alcala's First One-Man Exhibition, Heritage Art Center
1982 SKP Exhibit in Australia

Professional and journalistic achievements
The following is an enumeration of Alcala's professional and journalistic accomplishments:
Art Director, Weekly Nation, 1965–1972
Editorial Cartoonist and Illustrator, Weekly Graphic, 1961–1964
TV Art Consultant, Citizens Award for Television (CCMM) 1971–1972
TV Animated Cartoon Commercial for Darigold Milk, 1969
Art Consultant, U P  Public Affairs TV, Channel 13, 1963–1964
Design artist, Mobil Philippines, 1961–1962
Supervising Animator, Universal Animated Productions, 1959–1960
Movie Consultant, Kalabog and Bosyo, 1986
Movie Consultant, Asiong Aksaya, GP Productions, 1977
Movie Consultant, Kalabog and Bosyo, Sampaguita Pictures, 1957
Movie Consultant, Tipin, Sampaguita Pictures, 1956
Scriptwriter, Dos por Dos, Channel 2, 1974
Advertising Artist, Pan Pacific Advertising, 1948–1949

Clubs and organizations
Alcala had been affiliated with the following clubs and organizations:
Adviser, Samahang Kartunista ng Pilipinas (SKP), 1989–2002
President, Samahang Kartunista ng Pilipinas (SKP), 1979– 1989
President, Art Directors Club of the Philippines, 1963–1964
Vice President, Society of Philippine Illustrators and Cartoonists (SPIC) 1962–1963

Awards, citations and recognitions
He received recognition from the following entities:
U P  College of Fine Arts
The Board of Directors of the U P  Alumni Association,
The Office of the Mayor of the City of Manila, Philippines
The Philippine Board on Books for Young People (PBBY)
The Archdiocese of Manila Catholic Press Awards
The Citizens' Council for Mass Media 1970 CAM Awards
The Komiks Operation Brotherhood, Inc  (Komopeb) (Life Achievement Award)
Samahan ng mga Manunulat, Artist, at Patnugot at mga Manggagawa sa Komiks
SPIC-NPC Annual Art Awards
The Society of Philippine Illustrators and Cartoonists
The Society of Philippine Illustrators and Cartoonists (3rd SPIC Annual Art Awards)
The Galleria Bernice L
The U P  College of Fine Arts Alumni Foundation, Inc 
The University of the Philippines Alumni Association
The Philippine Council of Industrial Editors
The United Artists and Core Corporation, the Philippine Tuberculosis Society, Inc 
Operation Smile
The Bureau of Land Transportation
The Safety Organization of the Philippines, Inc 
The Veterans Memorial Medical Center Diabetes Association
The University of St  La Salle, Bacolod City
The Positive Artists Group (Pamana award)
The U P  College of Fine Arts
The University of the Philippines (Service Award, 25 years of service)
Caltex and D O S T
Philips -Boy Scouts of the Philippines, Parol Festïval 1986
The National Manpower and Youth Council Office of Vocational Preparation
The Department of Laboratories Veterans Memorial Medical Center
NAFC, DECS, DENR, DA
The Gawad CCP Para sa Telebisyon sa Taong 1988
St  Patrick Commercial Appreciation Award
The National Environmental Protection Council Awards
The City of Bacolod
Caltex-DECS-DOST Science Art Contest
Passage 3:
Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy
Al-Ameen Educational Society was started in the year 1966 to meet the needs of education in the city of Bangalore and of the minority Muslim community  Mumtaz Ahmed Khan is the founder of al-Ameen Educational Society  Number of social workers supported him to start and establish around 20 branches of Al-Ameen Educational Society and 200 institutions throughout India 

History
Mumtaz Ahmed Khan is the founder of Al-Ameen Educational Society  At the age of 31, in 1966 Khan founded the Al-Ameen Movement  He had decided to name it The Bangalore Educational Society  He was advised against this by his friend Khader Hussein who suggested Al-Ameen Educational Society as a reference to the title given to Prophet Muhammad which meant The Trustworthy  Hussein later became the principle of Saboo Siddiq Polytechnic, Bombay 
Abbasiya Begum, a female member of the Karnataka Legislative Council was elected the first chairperson of this society A number of social workers supported him for starting and establishing around 20 branches of Al-Ameen Educational Society and 200 institutions throughout India 

Structure
Activities
Planning Commission of India member Syeda Saiyidain Hameed was awarded Al-Ameen All India Community Leadership Award - 2006 by the Secretary, Chairman and Vice Chairman on 23 January 2007 

Institutions
Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy
Al-Ameen College of Law
Al-Ameen Arts, Science and Commerce Degree College
Al-Ameen College of Education
Al-Ameen Institute of Management Studies
Al-Ameen Institute of Information Sciences
Al-Ameen Pre University College
Al-Ameen Primary & High School
Passage 4:
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (Philippines)
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) in the Philippines is one of three components of the National Service Training Program, the civic education and defense preparedness program for Filipino college students  ROTC aims to provide military education and training for students to mobilize them for national defense preparedness  Its specific objectives include preparation of college students for service in the Armed Forces of the Philippines in the event of an emergency and their training to become reservists and potential commissioned officers of the AFP 
Graduates of the ROTC advance program serve in all branches of the Armed Forces of the Philippines  In 2008, ROTC graduates of the officer candidate schools of the various services constituted roughly 75% of the AFP officer corps  The ROTC grants qualified student-cadets scholarship benefits through a merit-based incentive program in return for an obligation of military service in the reserve force, or active duty in the AFP if given the opportunity, after graduation 
ROTC student-cadets attend college like other students, but also receive basic military training and officer training from the branch of service that handles their school's ROTC unit  The students participate in regular ROTC instruction during the school year (one school year for Basic ROTC student-cadets and three school years for Advance ROTC cadet-officers), and extended training activities during the summer, such as the ROTC Summer Camp Training (RSCT) and the Advance ROTC Academic Phase Training (ARAPT) 
ROTC units in colleges and universities are organized through the Department of Military Science and Tactics (DMST) which is under joint supervision by the school administration and the Department of National Defense  These ROTC units are in turn managed by active duty officers of the AFP and the reservist organization representatives of the major services, the Philippine Army Reserve Command of the Philippine Army, the Philippine Navy Reserve Command of the Philippine Navy and the Philippine Air Force Reserve Command of the Philippine Air Force 

Nomenclature
Commonwealth Act No  1, the National Defense Act of 1935, referred to the ROTC as the "Reserve Officers Training Corps", whereas Republic Act No  7077, the Citizen Armed Forces of the Philippines Reservist Act of 1991, referred to the ROTC as the "Reserve Officers' Training Corps", ascribing the possessive form to the word "officers"  
Republic Act No  9163, the National Service Training Program Act of 2001 likewise uses the same possessive form as RA 7077 

History
ROTC in the Philippines began in 1912 when the Philippine Constabulary commenced with military instruction at the University of the Philippines  The university's Board of Regents then made representations to the United States Department of War through the Governor-General and received the services of a United States Army officer who took on the duties of a professor of Military Science  Through this arrangement, the first official ROTC unit in the Philippines was established in the University of the Philippines on July 3, 1922 In 1921, National University became the first private college in the Philippines to have an ROTC unit   Later in the same year, Ateneo de Manila University, Liceo de Manila, and Colegio de San Juan de Letran soon followed suit and organized their own respective ROTC units  In 1936, the Office of the Superintendent for ROTC Units under the Philippine Army was activated to supervise all ROTC units in the country 

National Defense Act of 1935
President Manuel L  Quezon issued Executive Order No  207 in 1939 in order to implement the National Defense Act of 1935, otherwise known as Commonwealth Act No  1, the embodiment of the national defense plan formulated by General Douglas MacArthur for the Philippine Commonwealth  This executive order made ROTC obligatory at all colleges and universities with a total enrollment of 100 students and greater  This measure was made in order to help fill out the reserve force requirement of 400,000 men by 1946 and especially for junior reserve officers 

World War II
At the onset of World War II in 1941, thirty-three colleges and universities in the Philippines had organized ROTC units, the cadets and officers of which would see action for the first time  Elements from different ROTC units in Metro Manila took part in the Battle of Bataan  ROTC cadets of Silliman University in the Visayas made up 45% of the strength of the 75th Infantry Regiment of the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE)  Various ROTC units joined volunteers from the Philippine Military Academy to form the Hunters ROTC guerrilla group, which took part in the resistance movement during the Japanese occupation after the last American and Filipino forces had surrendered 

Post-World War II
On September 13, 1946, the Philippine Army Headquarters reactivated the pre-war ROTC units  The Philippine Army became the Armed Forces of the Philippines on December 23, 1950, at which time the Philippines was divided into four military areas and ROTC units operating within these areas fell under the supervision of their respective Area Commanders  On February 8, 1967, President Ferdinand Marcos rescinded Executive Order No  207 of 1939, promulgating Executive Order No  59 in its place  This executive order made ROTC mandatory at all colleges, universities, and other institutions with an enrollment of 250 male students and greater  President Marcos also issued Presidential Decree No  1706, otherwise known as the "National Service Law", on August 8, 1980  It made national service obligatory for all Filipino citizens and specified three categories of national service: civic welfare service, law enforcement service, and military service 

Republic Act 7077
Republic Act 7077, otherwise known as the "Citizen Armed Forces of the Philippines Reservist Act", was enacted by the 8th Congress of the Philippines on June 27, 1991  The Reservist Act provided for the organization, training, and utilization of reservists, referred to in the Act as "Citizen Soldiers"  The primary pool of manpower for the reservist organization is graduates of the ROTC basic and advanced courses 

Controversy
A period of discontent over ROTC's conduct and the corruption that often plagued its individual units had long been fermenting prior to 2000  Filipino student websites often contain short essays regarding the alleged pointlessness of the program  Student groups would occasionally include ROTC in their roster of grievances, whereas lawmakers would introduce resolutions intended to abolish ROTC Into this national mood of resentment fell a tragedy that would have a significant impact on the Philippine ROTC program  Mark Welson Chua, a student of the University of Santo Tomas and a member of the UST ROTC unit, was found dead, his body floating in the Pasig River on March 18, 2001  Prior to his death, he and another student had reported an account of alleged corruption within the UST ROTC unit to the school's student publication  The National Bureau of Investigation would later conclude that members of the UST ROTC unit were responsible for Chua's death  One of the suspects would be sentenced to death three years later The incident set off an explosion of anti-ROTC sentiment as student associations, school administrators and other cause-oriented groups focused on protests and parliamentary approaches to the matter  The Congress of the Philippines took up the legal challenge; generating no less than seventeen bills and resolutions in both houses of Congress, in response to the clamor  Many of the bills mentioned Mark Chua in the text, acknowledging his death as the catalyst for reform 

Republic Act 9163
Republic Act 9163, otherwise known as the "National Service Training Program (NSTP) Act of 2001", was Congress' answer to the clamor for change in the ROTC program  It was promulgated by the 12th Congress of the Philippines on January 23, 2002  Under the NSTP Program, both male and female college students of any baccalaureate degree course or technical vocational course in public or private educational institutions are obliged to undergo one of three program components, one of which is ROTC, for an academic period of two semesters  However, ROTC as a pre-requisite for graduation was rescinded 

Impact on Philippine society
The ROTC program of the Philippines was for many decades a compelling aspect affecting the lives of male youths whom many despises it and even question it as to its relevance in pursuing a college education  It was also a significant contributor to the corruption and abuses within the ranks of the subject as expose by Mark Welson Chua before being murdered by his fellow ROTC Officers  But unbeknownst to the public, the ROTC program has undergone numerous unacknowledged name changes, like in the 1960s through the mid-1970s it was called "Philippine Military Training" or PMT, and then from the late 1970s up to the early 1990s it was called "Citizen Military Training" or CMT, also advance training did not begin until the mid-1970s when cadets who desired to be cadet officers underwent what was called "Cadet Officers Candidate Course" or COCC 

Armed Forces of the Philippines
As of 2008, ROTC graduates of the various services constituted roughly 75% of the AFP officer corps; the rest come from the ranks of the Philippine Military Academy  Among the more prominent graduates of the Philippine ROTC program are Gen  Alfredo M  Santos, Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines from 1962 to 1965 and the first four-star general of the AFP, Gen  Rigoberto J  Atienza, 9th Chief of Staff of the AFP and for whom Camp Atienza in Quezon City is named, and Gen  Romeo C  Espino, the longest-serving AFP Chief of Staff who served from January 15, 1972, to August 16, 1981  Gen  Santos was a civil engineering graduate of Mapua Institute of Technology and was the Corp Commander of the Mapua Institute of Technology Reserve Officers' Training Corps; Gen  Atienza, a civil engineering graduate of the University of the Philippines, and Gen  Espino an agriculture graduate of University of the Philippines Los Baños  Another notable ROTC graduate was Gen  Fabian C  Ver, AFP Chief of Staff under Ferdinand Marcos and director general of the National Intelligence and Security Authority 

Post-2001 ROTC
At present, ROTC is no longer a mandatory program for college students, but an optional program component of the NSTP  The ROTC program accepts both male and female cadets  According to the latest available data, there has been a significant reduction in the number of students enrolling in ROTC  From more than 800,000 enrolled cadets during the 1999-2000 school year, ROTC enrollment has dropped to 150,000 as of 2011  During the first quarter of 2011, 500 colleges and universities were participating in the ROTC program  This is a sharp decline from the 2,000 schools offering ROTC before the National Service Training Program was enforced According to the Commission on Higher Education, the ROTC component of NSTP has produced 1,435,000 graduates over a ten-year period from 2002 to 2012  In comparison, the CWTS and LTS components of NSTP has produced 8,614,000 and 538,700 graduates respectively 

Proposals for and against mandatory implementation
In 2006, Alfredo Lim sponsored Senate Bill 2224 and Representative Eduardo Gullas sponsored House Bill 5460, seeking to make ROTC again mandatory  In June 2013, Department of National Defense Secretary Voltaire Gazmin aired a proposal to make ROTC once again mandatory for college students, a move ardently being protested by progressive youth groups such as Anakbayan  There have also been reports of schools offering merchant marine courses that want to retain the ROTC program as mandatory, arguing that maritime companies prefer mariners with ROTC training Members of the House of Representatives of the 16th Congress of the Philippines have filed at least six house bills related to the ROTC program  Congressmen Francis Abaya, Rodolfo Biazon, Erico Aumentado, Sherwin Gatchalian and Manny Pacquiao have proposed reinstating the mandatory nature of ROTC training, while Kabataan Party-list representative Terry Ridon has proposed the outright abolishment of the program 
In February 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte approved the proposal to revive the mandatory nature of ROTC training for senior high school students in both public and private schools  Duterte certified the proposal as urgent and forwarded it to the Congress of the Philippines - House of Representatives (Lower House) and Senate (Upper House)  On May 21, 2019, the Lower House passed their version of the proposed law  Some camps have criticized Duterte's inclination on this issue for admitting in a speech in 2016 that he himself did not finish his supposed ROTC service during his university days,  and two years later, expounded that he even falsified medical documents to be able to do so After the 2022 presidential elections, Vice President-elect Sara Duterte stated that she wants mandatory ROTC training under priority legislation  In July, Senators Francis Tolentino and Robin Padilla announced support for a bill by Senator Ronald Dela Rosa that would introduce mandatory ROTC for students in grades 11 and 12, with a voluntary advanced ROTC program available for the first two years of higher education  President Bongbong Marcos stated in his first State of the Nation address, also in July, that reinstituting the ROTC as a mandatory component of senior high school programs in all public and private tertiary-level educational institutions is one of his priority bills  
Groups such as the Student Christian Movement of the Philippines denounced Marcos, Jr  for prioritizing the reinstitution of mandatory Reserve Officers' Training Corps as was said in his 2022 State of the Nation Address, saying that it will teach students blind obedience and make them vulnerable to abuses 

Notable Philippine ROTC units
The University of the Philippines Diliman ROTC Unit
University of Santo Tomas Golden Corps of Cadets
Mapúa Institute of Technology ROTC Unit
FEATI University ROTC Unit
Ateneo de Manila University ROTC Unit 131st Department of Air Science and Tactics

See also
Conscription in the Philippines
Student Regiment (Indonesia)
Reserve Officer Training Unit (Malaysia)
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (South Korea)
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (Taiwan)
University Regiments (Australia)
Officers' Training Corps (United Kingdom)
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (United States)
Passage 5:
Helmut Schmidt University
The Helmut Schmidt University (German: Helmut-Schmidt-Universität), located in Hamburg, Germany, is a German military educational establishment that was founded in 1973 at the initiative of the then-Federal Minister of Defence, Helmut Schmidt  Originally known as the "University of the Bundeswehr Hamburg" (Universität der Bundeswehr), its complete official name today is "Helmut-Schmidt-Universität/Universität der Bundeswehr Hamburg"  Teaching first started in Autumn of 1973  It is one of two universities that were established by the Bundeswehr to train and educate its future and existing officers 
In general, it is accessible only to officers and officer candidates of the Bundeswehr, hence its original name  However, since it started teaching, there have been cooperation agreements with allied countries, on the basis of which a handful of selected officers from these states have been able to study in Hamburg 
Since 2002 there has been a small number of civilian students at the university  A prerequisite for studying as a civilian at the Helmut Schmidt University is a business scholarship  These scholarships are usually awarded by foundations with close relationships to industry – thus, these students are at least indirectly being supported by their future employer, usually large companies  As of 2022 tuition costs are currently 2941 euros (humanities), 4403 euros (economics) or 3423 euros (engineering) per academic term Academic degrees and titles obtained at HSU are equivalent to those awarded by state universities and are equally valid, since the courses comply with the requirements of Hamburg's higher education legislation  The university is authorised to confer habilitations and doctoral degrees 

History
Chronology of establishment
On 11 June 1970, the Federal Minister of Defense at the time, Helmut Schmidt, for whom the university was later named and who later would become chancellor of Germany, published a decree that a university be established for the purpose of schooling certain members of the German Federal Armed Forces 
On 17 May 1971 the decree, passed a year earlier by Schmidt, was appraised The German Federal Armed Forces agreed 29 June 1972 to collaborate with Schmidt's ideas for the university  The agreement was finalised 3 October 1972 and legally concluded 
The first classes of students began schooling on 1 October 1973 and the first graduate left the university on 30 September 1976 

Presidents
Since the beginning of the university in 1973, there have been eight presidents of the institution, including the current president, Wilfried Seidel, who has been in office since 2010 

Renaming
It was in the December 2003 that the University of the German Federal Armed Forces Hamburg was rechristened "Helmut Schmidt University / University of the German Federal Armed Forces Hamburg" to honour the man who passed the decree for the university's establishment  The idea of a university is his brainchild  Schmidt was present at the ceremony and was awarded an honorary degree 

Organisation and courses
At the Helmut Schmidt University there is a specific organizational structure, in addition to the division between the areas of teaching and administration that is common to all universities, there is a military side, to accommodate the HSU's dual function as an educational establishment and a military authority for the students 

Academic division
The academic division takes care of teaching and research, to which end it maintains 4 faculties  The number of departments was designed so as to allow for intensive study through teaching in small groups, and for the pursuing of research at the same time 

Faculty of Electrical Engineering: 13 professorships
Electrical Engineering
Parts of Industrial Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering: 7 departments, 19 professorships
Mechanical Engineering
Computational Science and Engineering
Parts of Industrial Engineering
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences: 9 departments, 28 professorships
Educational Sciences
History
Psychology
Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences: 19 departments, 40 professorships
Business Administration
Economics
Political Science
Parts of Industrial Engineering
Notes:The course Industrial Engineering is not assigned to any one faculty, due to its mixed nature, but the Faculty of Electrical Engineering has taken the leading role in teaching it  The exam board consists of members of the 3 participating faculties in equal number 
The "ISA-Modul", with ISA standing for "Interdisziplinäre Studienanteile" (Interdisciplinary parts of study) is not assigned to a particular faculty  Its classes take place in all faculties  All ISA courses are coordinated by a research associate, who liaises with the teaching staff of the 4 faculties 

Student Body Regiment
The student body of the university is organised in the Student Body Regiment (German: "Studierendenbereich", short: StudBer, lit : "student area")  The regiment is commanded by an officer of the rank of colonel or captain at Sea (NATO Rank Code OF-5)  Apart from headquarters staff, they oversee 3 battalions (German: "Studierendenfachbereiche", short: StudFBer, lit : "student subject area")  These are commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel or Commander (NATO Rank Code OF-4)  To ensure parity between the branches, A battalion is usually commanded by a member of the navy (German: Marine), B battalion by a member of the air force (German: Luftwaffe) and C battalion by a member of the army (German: Heer)  They usually also hold the title of Senior Branch Officer (i e  Senior Naval/Air Force/Army Officer on Campus) 

A Battalion: Engineering
B Battalion: Educational Sciences, History, Psychology
C Battalion: Political and Economic SciencesEach battalion consists of several companies (German: "Studierendenfachbereichsgruppen", short: StudFBerGrp, lit : "student subject area groups"), commandend by an army or air force captain or a naval lieutenant (NATO Rank Code OF-2)  In the course of the reforms of army training and the correspondingly higher student numbers in 2007 and 2008, further company commanders were added for the period 2007–2011 and again in 2019  A battalion currently has 5 companies, B battalion has 8 companies and C battalion has 9  Each company has between 100 and 150 student officers and cadets  Apart from the administrative management of the soldiers, the Student Body Regiment undertakes the military training and advanced education of their personnel, in order to hone individual common core skills 

Studying
The academic year at the HSU usually begins on 1 October  The officers and officer candidates are generally posted to the university a week before that date  An orientation week takes place first, during which the students may settle into their accommodation and receive an introduction to studying at the HSU from the more advanced students 
In contrast to the semester format usually practised in Germany, a year at the HSU is divided into 3 terms (trimesters) which means that it consists not of a winter and summer semester, but of autumn, winter and spring terms, 3 blocks of 3 months each  There are no classes in the summer quarter (1 July – 30 September)  This period may be used for performing required periods of practical training and internships, and for holidays 
Exams are taken at the end of every term, and test the material that was studied in that term  In a few cases, exams at the end of a term may concern the material of more than one term  For the purpose of revision, one or two weeks in mid-December, late March and late June may be devoid of classes 
Due to the short length of revision time and the fact that all the exams are "en bloc", resits are greatly feared by the students, particularly the engineering students  Resit exams occur during the exam block of the next term, and in this way a "bow wave" of an ever-increasing number of exams to take can accumulate, which may be very difficult to remain on top of 
The standard period of study for the master's degree (the standard degree) is 4 years  A Bachelor's degree can be obtained in 3 years  The maximum period of study is 4 years, which means that one's Master's thesis must be submitted on 30 September of the 4th year of study at the latest  The study period may only be extended over 4 years with the permission of the Personnel Office of the Bundeswehr, and even then, one requires a certificate from the university stating that the student is likely to successfully complete his or her studies in the near future 
After completion of one's studies, that is after one has submitted one's final dissertation, the officer will return to a post in the army or the fleet relatively quickly, according to availability of vacant posts, the officer's leave entitlement and course plans 
The award of the study diplomas always occurs in mid-October in a formal ceremony  As part of the graduation ceremony, the Böttcher-Preis, founded by the Hamburg businessman Johann Max Böttcher, is awarded to the highest-performing students of each year 
Some alumni officers will return to their alma mater as researchers or doctoral students 

Facilities
The maintains some central facilities  These include the computer centre, the language centre, the media centre, and the Centre for Technology-Assisted Education (Zentrum für technologiegestützte Bildung: ZTB)  A further facility is the library of the HSU  According to the library ranking list "Bibliotheksindex" (BIX), it has been amongst the best libraries in Germany for years  The library primarily exists to support the teaching and research of the HSU, but is also accessible to the general public
Context 3: Passage 1:
Secretary of State for India
His (or Her) Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for India, known for short as the India Secretary or the Indian Secretary, was the British Cabinet minister and the political head of the India Office responsible for the governance of the India, Aden, and Burma  The post was created in 1858 when the East India Company's rule in Bengal ended and India, except for the Princely States, was brought under the direct administration of the government in Whitehall in London, beginning the official colonial period under the British Empire 
In 1937, the India Office was reorganised which separated Burma and Aden under a new Burma Office, but the same Secretary of State headed both departments and a new title was established as His Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for India and Burma  The India Office and its Secretary of State were abolished in August 1947, when the United Kingdom granted independence in the Indian Independence Act, which created two new independent dominions, India and Pakistan  Burma soon achieved independence separately in early 1948 

Secretaries of State for India, 1858–1937
Before the establishment of the British Empire on 2 August 1858, Lord Stanley had served as President of the Board of Control 

Secretaries of State for India and Burma, 1937–1947
Secretaries of State for Burma, 1947–1948
See also
India Office
British Raj
British rule in Burma
Governor-General of India
Imperial Civil Service
Government of India Act

Notes


== External links ==
Passage 2:
Benjamin Pine
Sir Benjamin Chilley Campbell Pine (1809–1891) was at various times administrator of Natal, the Gold Coast, Antigua, the Leeward Islands and Western Australia 

Life
Born in 1809 in London, Benjamin Pine was educated in Brighton and at Trinity College, Cambridge  He became a career officer in the British Colonial Service   From 1850 to 1855, he was Lieutenant-Governor of Natal Colony, and from March 1857 until 17 April 1858 was Governor of the Gold Coast 
On 30 July 1868, Pine was appointed by letters patent to the position of Governor of Western Australia   Shortly afterwards, however, a vacancy occurred for the position of Governor of the Leeward Islands, and it was decided that he should fill that position instead   He never arrived in Western Australia, and six months passed before the colony received news that he would not be coming 
Pine served as Governor of the Leeward Islands from  1869 until 1871   His title then became Governor of Antigua until 1873, but the Leeward Islands continued under his governorship   He died in 1891 
The city of Pinetown, in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is named after him 
There is also a Primary school called Benjamin Pine Primary School named after him in Pinetown as well as the Pinetown High Schools (Boys and Girls) Honouring his name by the Pine Cones on the Badges 
He is buried on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery  His grave (no 29309) has no headstone or marker 

Status as Governor of Western Australia
In Burt (1996), Sir Francis Burt, who was a lawyer, a judge and himself a former Governor of Western Australia, analysed the question whether Pine should be considered to have served as Governor of Western Australia   He concluded that the appointment by letters patent, together with the publication of that appointment in the newspapers of the colony, legally implied that Pine was Governor of Western Australia, even though he never arrived at the colony and was never sworn in 
The person who actually administered the colony during the period of Pine's formal tenure (2 November 1868–29 September 1869) was Lieut Col John Bruce 
Passage 3:
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes  At the start of the war, the French colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 settlers, compared with 2 million in the British colonies  The outnumbered French particularly depended on their native allies Two years into the French and Indian War, in 1756, Great Britain declared war on France, beginning the worldwide Seven Years' War  Many view the French and Indian War as being merely the American theater of this conflict; however, in the United States the French and Indian War is viewed as a singular conflict which was not associated with any European war  French Canadians call it the guerre de la Conquête ('War of the Conquest') The British colonists were supported at various times by the Iroquois, Catawba, and Cherokee tribes, and the French colonists were supported by Wabanaki Confederacy member tribes Abenaki and Mi'kmaq, and the Algonquin, Lenape, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Shawnee, and Wyandot (Huron) tribes  Fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from the Province of Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north  It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny River and Monongahela River called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne at the location that later became Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania  The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22-year-old George Washington ambushed a French patrol In 1755, six colonial governors met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French   None succeeded, and the main effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755, and died a few days later  British operations failed in the frontier areas of the Province of Pennsylvania and the Province of New York during 1755–57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadian scouts, French regular forces, and Native warrior allies  In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755–64) soon afterwards  Orders for the deportation were given by Commander-in-Chief William Shirley without direction from Great Britain  The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to the king  Natives likewise were driven off the land to make way for settlers from New England The British Pitt government fell due to disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry; this last was followed by the Natives torturing and massacring their colonial victims  William Pitt came to power and significantly increased British military resources in the colonies at a time when France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the limited forces that they had in New France, preferring to concentrate their forces against Prussia and its allies who were now engaged in the Seven Years' War in Europe  The conflict in Ohio ended in 1758 with the British–American victory in the Ohio Country  Between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture French Canada  They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec (1759)  The following year the British were victorious in the Montreal Campaign in which the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1763) 
France also ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain, as well as French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain's loss to Britain of Spanish Florida  (Spain had ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for the return of Havana, Cuba ) France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Great Britain's position as the dominant colonial power in northern America 

Nomenclature
In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William's War or Queen Anne's War  There had already been a King George's War in the 1740s during the reign of King George II, so British colonists named this conflict after their opponents, and it became known as the French and Indian War  This continues as the standard name for the war in the United States, although Indians fought on both sides of the conflict  It also led into the Seven Years' War overseas, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain that did not involve the American colonies; some historians make a connection between the French and Indian War and the Seven Years' War overseas, but most residents of the United States consider them as two separate conflicts—only one of which involved the American colonies, and American historians generally use the traditional name  Less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for the Empire 

In Europe, the French and Indian War is conflated into the Seven Years' War and not given a separate name  "Seven Years" refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756—two years after the French and Indian War had started—to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763  The French and Indian War in America, by contrast, was largely concluded in six years from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to the capture of Montreal in 1760 Canadians conflate both the European and American conflicts into the Seven Years' War (Guerre de Sept Ans)  French Canadians also use the term "War of Conquest" (Guerre de la Conquête), since it is the war in which New France was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire  In Quebec, this term was promoted by popular historians Jacques Lacoursière and Denis Vaugeois, who borrowed from the ideas of Maurice Séguin in considering this war as a dramatic tipping point of French Canadian identity and nationhood 

Background
At this time, North America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Great Britain or France  Large areas had no colonial settlements  The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily concentrated along the St  Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present-day New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia), including Île Royale (Cape Breton Island)  Fewer lived in New Orleans; Biloxi, Mississippi; Mobile, Alabama; and small settlements in the Illinois Country, hugging the east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries  French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St  Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women  Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high-ranking unions 
British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1 with a population of about 1 5 million ranged along the Atlantic coast of the continent from Nova Scotia and the Colony of Newfoundland in the north to the Province of Georgia in the south  Many of the older colonies' land claims extended arbitrarily far to the west, as the extent of the continent was unknown at the time when their provincial charters were granted  Their population centers were along the coast, but the settlements were growing into the interior  The British captured Nova Scotia from France in 1713, which still had a significant French-speaking population  Britain also claimed Rupert's Land where the Hudson's Bay Company traded for furs with local Indian tribes 

Between the French and British colonists, large areas were dominated by Indian tribes  To the north, the Mi'kmaq and the Abenakis were engaged in Father Le Loutre's War and still held sway in parts of Nova Scotia, Acadia, and the eastern portions of the province of Canada, as well as much of Maine  The Iroquois Confederation dominated much of upstate New York and the Ohio Country, although Ohio also included Algonquian-speaking populations of Delaware and Shawnee, as well as Iroquoian-speaking Mingos  These tribes were formally under Iroquois rule and were limited by them in their authority to make agreements  The Iroquois Confederation initially held a stance of neutrality to ensure continued trade with both French and British  Though maintaining this stance proved difficult as the Iroquois Confederation tribes sided and supported French or British causes depending on which side provided the most beneficial trade The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan-speaking Catawbas, Muskogee-speaking Creeks and Choctaw, and the Iroquoian-speaking Cherokee tribes  When war broke out, the French colonists used their trading connections to recruit fighters from tribes in western portions of the Great Lakes region, which was not directly subject to the conflict between the French and British; these included the Hurons, Mississaugas, Ojibwas, Winnebagos, and Potawatomi 
The British colonists were supported in the war by the Iroquois Six Nations and also by the Cherokees, until differences sparked the Anglo-Cherokee War in 1758  In 1758, the Province of Pennsylvania successfully negotiated the Treaty of Easton in which a number of tribes in the Ohio Country promised neutrality in exchange for land concessions and other considerations  Most of the other northern tribes sided with the French, their primary trading partner and supplier of arms  The Creeks and Cherokees were subject to diplomatic efforts by both the French and British to gain either their support or neutrality in the conflict 

At this time, Spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern America  It controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years' War  Florida's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St  Augustine There were no French regular army troops stationed in America at the onset of war  New France was defended by about 3,000 troupes de la marine, companies of colonial regulars (some of whom had significant woodland combat experience)  The colonial government recruited militia support when needed  The British had few troops  Most of the British colonies mustered local militia companies to deal with Indian threats, generally ill trained and available only for short periods, but they did not have any standing forces  Virginia, by contrast, had a large frontier with several companies of British regulars When hostilities began, the British colonial governments preferred operating independently of one another and of the government in London  This situation complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies  As the war progressed, the leaders of the British Army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on the colonial administrations 

Céloron's expedition
New France's Governor-General Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such as George Croghan   In June 1747, he ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron to lead a military expedition through the area  Its objectives were:

to reaffirm to New France's Indian allies that their trading arrangements with colonists were exclusive to those authorized by New France
to confirm Indian assistance in asserting and maintaining the French claim to the territories which French explorers had claimed
to discourage any alliances between Britain and local Indian tribes
to impress the Indians with a French show of force against British colonial settler incursion, unauthorized trading expeditions, and general trespass against French claimsCéloron's expedition force consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians, and they covered about 3,000 miles (4,800 km) between June and November 1749  They went up the St  Lawrence, continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario, crossed the portage at Niagara, and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie  At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona, New York, the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River, which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh  There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country  Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur-traders, he informed them of the French claims on the territory and told them to leave Céloron's expedition arrived at Logstown where the Indians in the area informed him that they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British colonists regardless of the French  He continued south until his expedition reached the confluence of the Ohio and the Miami rivers, which lay just south of the village of Pickawillany, the home of the Miami chief known as "Old Briton"  Céloron threatened Old Briton with severe consequences if he continued to trade with British colonists, but Old Briton ignored the warning  Céloron returned disappointedly to Montreal in November 1749 Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report  "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French," he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to the English  I don't know in what way they could be brought back " Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the situation in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken  Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present 

Negotiations
The War of the Austrian Succession ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe  The issues of conflicting territorial claims between British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision  Frontier areas were claimed by both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in the south  The disputes also extended into the Atlantic Ocean, where both powers wanted access to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland In 1749, the British government gave land to the Ohio Company of Virginia for the purpose of developing trade and settlements in the Ohio Country  The grant required that it settle 100 families in the territory and construct a fort for their protection  But the territory was also claimed by Pennsylvania, and both colonies began pushing for action to improve their respective claims  In 1750, Christopher Gist explored the Ohio territory, acting on behalf of both Virginia and the company, and he opened negotiations with the Indian tribes at Logstown  He completed the 1752 Treaty of Logstown in which the local Indians agreed to terms through their "Half-King" Tanacharison and an Iroquois representative  These terms included permission to build a strong house at the mouth of the Monongahela River on the modern site of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 

Escalation in Ohio Country
Governor-General of New France Marquis de la Jonquière died on March 17, 1752, and he was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil  His permanent replacement was to be the Marquis Duquesne, but he did not arrive in New France until 1752 to take over the post  The continuing British activity in the Ohio territories prompted Longueuil to dispatch another expedition to the area under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade, an officer in the Troupes de la Marine  Langlade was given 300 men, including French-Canadians and warriors of the Ottawa tribe  His objective was to punish the Miami people of Pickawillany for not following Céloron's orders to cease trading with the British  On June 21, the French war party attacked the trading center at Pickawillany, capturing three traders and killing 14 Miami Indians, including Old Briton  He was reportedly ritually cannibalized by some Indians in the expedition party 

Construction of French fortifications
In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue was given command of a 2,000-man force of Troupes de la Marine and Indians  His orders were to protect the King's land in the Ohio Valley from the British  Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years earlier  Céloron, however, had limited the record of French claims to the burial of lead plates, whereas Marin constructed and garrisoned forts  He first constructed Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie's south shore near Erie, Pennsylvania, and he had a road built to the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek  He then constructed a second fort at Fort Le Boeuf in Waterford, Pennsylvania, designed to guard the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek  As he moved south, he drove off or captured British traders, alarming both the British and the Iroquois  Tanaghrisson was a chief of the Mingo Indians, who were remnants of Iroquois and other tribes who had been driven west by colonial expansion  He intensely disliked the French whom he accused of killing and eating his father  He traveled to Fort Le Boeuf and threatened the French with military action, which Marin contemptuously dismissed The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond  Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey, meaning "he who does great things " He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia 
The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor George Clinton and officials from some of the other American colonies at Albany, New York  Mohawk Chief Hendrick was the speaker of their tribal council, and he insisted that the British abide by their obligations and block French expansion  Clinton did not respond to his satisfaction, and Hendrick said that the "Covenant Chain" was broken, a long-standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown 

Virginia's response
Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim  He ordered 21-year-old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory in October 1753  Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam as an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a company surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson  On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre succeeded Marin as commander of the French forces after Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him  Over dinner, Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country  Saint-Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it " He told Washington that France's claim to the region was superior to that of the British, since René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier Washington's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754  He stated in his report, "The French had swept south", detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers 

Course of war
Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent a company of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began construction of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754  Governor Duquesne sent additional French forces under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint-Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men south from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754  These forces arrived at the fort on April 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent's small company to withdraw  He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne 

Early engagements
Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead a larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent's retreat while he was en route  Mingo sachem Tanaghrisson had promised support to the British, so Washington continued toward Fort Duquesne and met with him  He then learned of a French scouting party in the area from a warrior sent by Tanaghrisson, so he added Tanaghrisson's dozen Mingo warriors to his own party  Washington's combined force of 52 ambushed 40 Canadiens (French colonists of New France) on the morning of May 28 in what became known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen  They killed many of the Canadiens, including their commanding officer Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, whose head was reportedly split open by Tanaghrisson with a tomahawk  Historian Fred Anderson suggests that Tanaghrisson was acting to gain the support of the British and to regain authority over his own people  They had been inclined to support the French, with whom they had long trading relationships  One of Tanaghrisson's men told Contrecoeur that Jumonville had been killed by British musket fire



ground_truth: Pristina

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did military instruction start at the place where Larry Alcala was educated?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: 

Research focus
In Mechanical Engineering, one of the areas of research is in automotive engineering  7 professorships work on projects in this area, including:
Acoustics,
Propulsion,
Computer-aided engineering,
Chassis,
Production engineering, and
Simulators 
For example, a hybrid drive unit is being researched for industrial trucks in cooperation with industry 
In Electrical Engineering, one of the areas of research is telecommunications, which includes: 
Audio coding,
Wireless transmission systems, and
Video recognition systems 
In educational sciences, the focus is on the areas of professional and organizational education, adult education and history  The establishment of a uniform German Qualifications Framework in the context of the European Qualifications Framework may be traced back in no small part to the work of the professor for professional and organizational education in the working group of the Federal Ministry for Education and Research, through expert advice and support 
In economic and management sciences, the emphasis is on logistics, business administration and economics, and political science  Gender topics have also been researched for years 

Student life
Campus and accommodation
The HSU is designed as a campus university, and its campus in the Wandsbek district consists of 3 parts  Studying activities take place on the premises of the former Douaumont barracks on the Holstenhofweg in Hamburg-Jenfeld  The university administration is located here, as well as all departments and faculties, lecture theatres and laboratories and central facilities; it also contains sports facilities, the canteen and the management of the Student Division  Students of Engineering are accommodated here in 10 quite modern-looking residential buildings  South of the BAB 24, on the premised of the former Hanseatic barracks in the Stoltenstraße in Horn, is the accommodation for students of humanities and social sciences, and economics, and the medical facility  A third residence, rapidly constructed, is located since 2007 on the Jenfelder Allee and will be used until 2010  In addition, from 2007 to 2010, flats will be rented on the private market, in order to absorb the overload of students, which is due to the unusually well-attended years of 2007 and 2008  In the private flats, 2 to 3 students will be accommodated together  In principle, every student receives a single room with area of 14 to 20 m2 (151 to 215 sq ft), mostly with en-suite bathroom and toilet  During the time of higher than usual student numbers however, there will inevitably be some instances where 2 students share a larger room  Residents may cook in the shared kitchens, where the social life between studies and the Hamburg night life will take place  Due to structural changes in military training, several external residences had to be acquired including the former Lettow-Vorbeck Barracks, which is now used by the Federal Police (Bundespolizei)  Another facility frequented by students and staff is the casino, the officer's club of the HSU (not a gambling establishment), located opposite the campus 

Financing
Whilst studying, the soldiers are paid according to their rank and length of service, sometimes including a residence allowance and a family allowance  They pay a fixed fee for their accommodation, which is waived if the student takes up a private residence 

Leisure activities and nightlife
Due to the quite strict study plan, compared with public universities, it is often not easy for students to pursue leisure activities  In the course of the years, however, many different clubs and societies have been formed, to enable leisure activities without clashing with study obligations 
One large event in the academic year is the "TAF ("Trimesteranfangsfeier" or "Start of term ceremony")  This takes place annually to greet the new students  It is organized by the members of the "Studentischer Konvent" and enjoys widespread popularity  The Studentischer Konvent is the students' representation at the HSU  The offers first-term students a possibility to get to know each other, and more advanced students the possibility to swap tales from their holidays 
Further events are organized in the faculties  These include:

"WI-Party" (last weekend of October, organized by the senior year of engineering students, with about 900 guests the largest closed event at the HSU)
"Päd-Party" (mid- to late June, an open-air party in the Douaumont area, the home of the engineering students, organized by Education Sciences students)

Conditions of enrollment
There are several conditions of enrollment which are strictly observed at the university 
In general, studying at the HSU entails a mandatory service of 12 years as an officer in the Bundeswehr  Since 2008, that time has been increased to 13 years, in response to changes in the education caused by the introduction of the Bachelor/Master system  To join the officer corps, a 3-day selection process must be successfully completed at the officer candidates selection centre in Köln-Porz at the Mudra barracks  Depending on which service branch and which specialty one chooses, one will complete the requisite military training with that unit, before being posted to the university and completing the academic education there, which is a part of the training for becoming an officer 
The educational requirement for attending the HSU is a general higher education entrance qualification that is recognized by the law on higher education of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg 

Military aspects of student life
Prior to their studies, soldiers must train at one of the three respective Officer Training school: for the Army in Dresden /('OSH'), for the Air Force in Fürstenfeldbruck ('OSLw') and for the Navy in Flensburg ('MSM') 
During their stay at the HSU, military personnel are required to complete certain standard procedures every year  These include:

6/12 km marches on foot with 15 kg backpack
German Sports Badge
Basic Fitness Tests
NBC Training
First Aid Training
Small Arms TrainingOn occasion:

political education
Training courses (such as MOUT etc )
Military ceremonies (such as changing of Commandants etc )

See also
Education in Hamburg
List of universities in Germany
University of the German Federal Armed Forces
Bundeswehr University Munich
Passage 6:
North Dakota School for the Deaf
The North Dakota School for the Deaf (NDSD) is a state-funded residential school located in Devils Lake, North Dakota that provides services to meet the educational needs of children who are deaf and hard of hearing  NDSD is under the direction, control, and management of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction  The current superintendent of the school is Dr  Connie Hovendick 

History
Before the Dakota Territory was divided, deaf children living in the part of the territory now known as North Dakota had to do without an education or attend the school in Sioux Falls, South Dakota  Because of poor roads, great distances, meager railroads, and general financial inability, few of the North Dakota children could attend the South Dakota School for the Deaf  In the fall of 1889 Anson R  Spear, a deaf man from Minneapolis, Minnesota, came to North Dakota to establish a school for the deaf  Mr  Spear's political backers, Senator Swanston and Representative McCormick, introduced a bill in the Legislature for the immediate establishment for the proposed school in Devils Lake  The bill passed March 15, 1890, over the veto of Governor John Miller The citizens of Devils Lake furnished free for two years a wooden building located at the corner of Third Avenue and Fifth Street  Mr  Spear was appointed superintendent on August 1, 1890, and the first term began September 10, 1890  The first student to be enrolled was 10-year-old Mabel Alice Newton  By the end of the first school year, 23 children were enrolled  The combined method of communication - use of signs, hand alphabet, and oral method - was used to teach the students  In January 1891, money was appropriated by the State Legislature for a permanent building 
The Great Northern Railway donated an 18-acre (73,000 m2) tract of land one mile (1 6 km) north of the heart of Devils Lake for the permanent site of NDSD, and construction of the first building "Old Main" began on May 30, 1892  "Old Main" was designed by Olof Hanson, a rising Deaf architect from Faribault, Minnesota 
The school previously had an in-house high school  In the late 1930s it had 140 students, its peak enrollment  The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), first passed in the 1970s, started a trend of deaf students enrolling at local public schools as well as in specialized programs in the larger towns around the state  The average enrollment in the 1980s was 97 students  By the 1990s the average enrollment was down to 48  The last graduating class was in 2004, and in 2012 it ended direct high school operations  In 2019 the school had 18 students 

Campus
It includes dormitory facilities  The Blackhurst Dormitory and the cafeteria serve the students 

Operations
NDSD directly teaches grades K-8 while it sends students in grades 9-12 to Devils Lake High School, operated by Devils Lake Public Schools 

Athletics
In the past, NDSD fielded teams in baseball, football, basketball, track and field, etc  Back then, the school had a large enough student population to have enough athletes to compete with various small towns in the area  Due to the reduction in the number of students through mainstream school placement, the school entered into co-op athletic agreements with a couple towns - one was with Crary, although the school now has a co-op agreement with the Devils Lake public schools  In the past, the nickname for the school's teams has always been the Bulldogs; the school's team colors have also always been green and white 

Boys' Sports
Football (with Devils Lake High School)
Basketball (began in 1914)
Track
Girls' Sports
Basketball
Track

Newsletter
The Banner, the official newsletter of NDSD, was first published in 1891  Clara Halvorson, the first teacher employed at the school, is credited with naming the Banner  The purpose of the newsletter was to keep parents informed on what happened at the school, publish pupils’ school work, and to provide publishing experience to students  The Banner is still published today 

Superintendents
Past Superintendents of the North Dakota School for the Deaf include:
Anson R  Spear
Dwight F  Bangs
J  W  Blattner
Frank Read
W  C  McClure
Burton W  Driggs
Arthur P  Buchanan
Carl F  Smith
Allen J  Hayek
Gary L  Holman
Alan J  Mealka
Jaime D  Galloway
Rocklyn Cofer
Roger Riefer
Carmen Grove Suminski
Dennis J  Fogelson
Connie Hovendick

Notable alumni / past students
John L  Clarke - wood carver
Phyllis Frelich - actress
Michael J  Olson - archivist & actor
Passage 7:
Tiberius Coruncanius
Tiberius Coruncanius (died 241 BC) was a consul of the Roman Republic in 280 BC  As a military commander in that year and the following, he was known for the battles against Pyrrhus of Epirus that led to the expression "Pyrrhic victory"  He was the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, and possibly the first teacher of Roman law to offer public instruction 

Biography
Coruncanius, of plebeian descent, is believed to have hailed from Tusculum He was first elected consul in 280 BC with Publius Valerius Laevinus, and led an expedition into Etruria against the Etruscan cities   When Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Italia, and defeated the Roman legions of Laevinus at the Battle of Heraclea, Tiberius' legions were recalled to Rome to bolster the defense of Roman territory 
In 254 BC or 253 BC, he was the first plebeian elected Pontifex Maximus, or chief priest of the Roman Republic, which position had been previously monopolized by patricians  He died in 241 BC and was succeeded by Lucius Caecilius Metellus, another plebeian 

Impact
He was the first who publicly professed law (publice professus est), known to be both eloquent and full of knowledge  Like Socrates, he left no writings 
His public legal instruction had the effect of creating a class of legally skilled non-priests (jurisprudentes), a sort of consultancy  After Coruncanius' death, instruction gradually became more formal, with the introduction of books on law beyond the then scant official Roman legal texts It is possible that as the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, Coruncanius allowed members of the public and students of the law of Ancient Rome to attend his consultations tasked with giving legal advice to citizens  These consultations were probably held outside the College of Pontiffs, and thus accessible to all those interested  As such, he became the first teacher of Roman law (how students of law learned their material earlier is unknown) 
Passage 8:
Grace Fernald
Grace Maxwell Fernald (November 29, 1879 – January 16, 1950) was an educational psychologist and influential figure in early twentieth century literacy education  Fernald established "the first clinic for remedial instruction in 1921 at the University of California, Los Angeles"  Tracing tactile learning tendencies back to Quintilian, Séguin, and Montessori, Fernald's kinesthetic spelling and reading method prompted struggling students to trace words  Years of research culminated in 1943 with her classic work, Remedial Techniques in Basic School Subjects  The popular kinesthetic method anchors modern instruction in the areas of special education and remedial reading  Kinesthetic learning is also included as one of Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences  Fernald's notion of incorporating the physical with the auditory, verbal, and visual elements of reading instruction, now known as "VAKT", multimodal learning, or multisensory imagery, continues to guide educators today 

Early years and education
Grace Maxwell Fernald was born on November 29, 1879 in Clyde, Ohio  Following a youth spent in New York and New Jersey, Fernald graduated from high school and then attended college at Mount Holyoke and Bryn Mawr  In 1907 she received her doctorate in psychology from the University of Chicago  By 1911 Fernald had accepted a position at UCLA  She eventually became head of the Psychology Department and Laboratory at the State Normal School  It was at the UCLA clinic where her research into the reading and writing processes gained fame 

Early research of the Fernald method
The 1921 Journal of Educational Research contains Fernald's foundational study of four boys who learn to spell and read by her kinesthetic method  This method influenced other researchers working at the same time in the field of reading difficulties  Notable examples include Samuel Orton and Anna Gillingham  The article in the Journal of Educational Research, "The Effect of Kinaesthetic Factors in the Development of Word Recognition in the Case of Non-Readers", outlines five phases of the kinesthetic method  With an emphasis on student choice, focal words are generated by the students during the first stage  Each word is introduced by the teacher who writes it on the chalkboard  The student repeats the word while tracing it on the board  When the student is confident that he knows the word, he attempts to write it while saying each syllable  Successful word study is followed by phase two where sentences are created in a similar fashion  The third step incorporates a student-selected book where words from specific paragraphs are isolated for reading  In the fourth phase, the student is asked to read whole phrases from the paragraphs  Finally, the student is encouraged to do silent reading on his own for the fifth phase  After some time all four boys successfully learned to read well enough to perform at grade level  Follow-ups with the participants reflected the maintenance of reading levels and for some avid readers, additional leaps in reading proficiency  Though not asserting widespread generalizability, Fernald and Keller enumerate several findings  One conclusion of interest today describes each student learning by analogy, demonstrating the "ability to pronounce new words if they resemble words he has already learned " This is a compensatory strategy currently used 
Warren's 1977 dissertation study with children exhibiting mild forms of reading problems demonstrated 147% and 77% superior word recognition and comprehension respectively by Fernald tracing compared to Orton-Gillingham phonics, although O-G was 10% more effective in word decoding 

Career summary
On the eve of Fernald's retirement from the UCLA clinic, Time magazine (July 12, 1948) highlights the story of one boy's reading adventure in Fernald's clinic  The title of the article, "Reading by Touch" aptly reflects the Fernald method  Stepping down after 27 years, Fernald sums up the theory behind her "kinesthetic method" with the explanation that "reading difficulties occur most frequently in people who lack the ability to summon up a mental picture of the way a word looks"  Her only requirements for entrance into the clinic program were for students to have average intelligence and for parents to continue with the clinic as long as necessary  According to Time, remediation required from "two months to two years" for the students to reach their grade level reading equivalent  Though the article includes some criticism of the Fernald method, in the end it is a positive portrayal of a committed educator   A clinic at UCLA bears her name to this day   Critics typically do not follow the tracing directions with fidelity, such making small changes such as orally spelling the individual letters in the word rather than saying/blending the sounds of the word   Strict adherence to the steps is required for the process to be "Fernald," and any changes interfere with the development of automatic mastery  The Fernald tracing approach to spelling, traditionally speaking, is not oral spelling at all; it is creating the mental visualization of the word for the purpose of correct written spelling and proofing  Oral spelling for students experiencing problems creates interference with acquiring correct visualization 

A child's view of Fernald's method
A more powerful account of the influence of the kinesthetic method practiced in Fernald's clinic is presented by the International Reading Association’s Special Interest Group in the history of reading  In the spring 1998 edition of the History of Reading News a former student of Fernald's kinesthetic method recalls his experiences in the clinic setting  He describes a typical session with one of the student teachers where there was even finger painting  The student, now an esteemed doctor, researcher, and chair of psychiatry at a major New York hospital, wonders about the "life changes for some of the other boys as a result of her help and ministrations " He admits that he "still uses aspects of the Fernald method to this day "

A parent's view of Fernald's method
An additional article written by the mother of the same former student was also included in the 1998 edition of the History of Reading News  Though not as detailed, the passage reminds educators that their work impacts not only the student, but the entire family  The parents contacted Grace Fernald in an effort to support their intelligent second-grade son who was struggling in school  The mother even recounts a visit to Fernald's home  Grace Fernald, the caring teacher, comes alive through these two touching accounts of one boy's success story 

Influence on education
Upon Fernald's passing in 1950, her peers praised the tremendous impact of her UCLA clinic endeavors  "Grace Fernald developed and directed the clinical school  The children and adults helped by study and treatment in this clinic and the teachers and psychologists observing and learning in the clinic school run into the thousands "The Fernald Center for Early Care and Education at UCLA is named in her honor 
Fernald's Remedial Techniques in Basic School Subjects was favourably reviewed by J Bald in The Times Educational Supplement, 9 7 1982  The book contains valuable techniques for teaching grammar, arithmetic and foreign languages  It remains one of the most important collections of case study research in its field (the case studies were omitted from the reprinted edition) 
Passage 9:
Alexander Military Law Academy
Alexander Military Law Academy (Russian: Александровская военно-юридическая академия) (1867–1917) was an educational institution in Russian Empire that provided military law education for officers of Russian Army and Fleet   It was established in 1867 and named after his founder, Emperor Alexander II of Russia in 1908  The Academy was situated in St  Petersburg by 96 Moika Embankment, along with many other institutions of military education 
Since 1878 it was reformed into a 3-year higher educational institution, with admittance to any of the three classes, depending on prior education of the admitted  Since 1880 officers from Serbian and Bulgarian Armies were admitted  About 1,000 officers graduated from the academy, as well as a small number or civil officials (which were admitted until 1882) 

Academy History
In 1866, by Auditor School, the two-year officers’ courses were established  In 1867, the courses were transformed into a Military Law Academy 
Since 1908, it received the name of Alexander in honour of Alexander the IIIrd  Officers of all types of military service in the rank up to the captain, who served in the ranks for at least 4 years, were admitted to the academy  Graduates received the right to occupy positions in the military judicial department  Since 1880, Serbian and Bulgarian officers also have studied at the academy  Totally, about 1,000 military lawyers graduated from Academy  It was closed in December 1917 after the unsuccessful Junker mutiny  It was located in Saint Petersburg on the Moika embankment, 96 

External links
Alexander Academy (in Russian)
Passage 10:
Brothers of Christian Instruction
The Brothers of Christian Instruction (Latin: Institutum Fratrum Instructionis Christianae de Ploërmel, F I C P ), commonly known as the La Mennais Brothers, is a Catholic educational organization founded in 1819 by Gabriel Deshayes and Jean-Marie de la Mennais for the instruction of youth  Their aim remains that of their Founder: "to educate the young and to make Jesus Christ better known and better loved" The brothers are bound by the simple vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience 

History
On June 16, 1819, Gabriel Deshayes, pastor at Auray and vicar general of Vannes, and Jean-Marie de Lamennais, vicar of Saint-Brieuc, two Catholic priests in France, established the Daughters of Providence and the Brothers of Christian Instruction 
The first brothers took their novitiates with the Christian Brothers, whose rule was to a large extent adopted  The organization dedicated itself to promoting education among the working class in France and, eventually, across the world  The motherhouse was established at Ploërmel in November 1824  In 1876, the Brothers of Gascony, founded by Bishop de la Croix d’Azolette, then Archbishop of Auch, and in 1880, the Brothers of Sainte-Marie de Tinchebray, founded by Father Charles-Augustin Duguey, subsumed themselves within the Brothers of Ploërmel The Brothers received canonical approval by Pope Leo XIII on March 13, 1891 From the motherhouse at Ploërmel, the brothers founded sites in England, Africa, Asia, North America, and Oceania  In 1886 the first brothers arrived in Montreal and were shortly afterwards introduced into the United States  To escape the effects of a 1901 French law curtailing certain kinds of religious schooling, the motherhouse was transferred to Taunton, England  In 1903, following through on the strict secularism of the 1901 law, the French government dissolved the brotherhood's French presence and confiscated its properties  At the same time, they established a presence in Bulgaria, Turkey, and Egypt The Brothers of Christian Instruction grew, extending their mission to the Philippines and Spain, and expanding it in the United Kingdom  In 2015, 1,300 members of the Brothers of Christian Instruction were spread across 25 countries 

Institutions
Collège Jean de la Mennais
St  Francis Xavier's College (Liverpool)
St  John Fisher Ibanda Secondary School
St Mary's Independent School, Southampton
St  Mary's International School
Walsh University
Institution Saint-Louis de Gonzague in Delmas, Haiti
St  Charles Lwanga Secondary School, Kasasa in Masaka, Uganda
St  Henry's College Kitovu in Masaka, Uganda
St  Mary's College, Kisubi in Wakiso, Uganda
St  Mary's Duluti Secondary School, Arusha
Seiko Gakuin Junior and Senior High School

See also
Pell Wall Hall
Cheswardine
Consecrated life
Passage 11:
United States Society for Education through Art
The United States Society for Education through Art (USSEA) is an American national association whose members work in curriculum development, teaching and research related to art education and cultural differences, and who share interests in art educational content and strategies which promote tolerance and appreciation of the arts of non-mainstream cultural peoples  The mission of the society is to promote greater understanding and respect for learners from all ethnic, minority, and socio-cultural backgrounds through research, art curricula, instruction, and practices that are inclusive and culturally sensitive The society provides a platform for networking and a resource base for art educators nationally and internationally, who seek to work collaboratively on projects of interest to multicultural or cross-cultural communities and students, publishes instructional resources for classroom teachers, encourages and sponsors cross-cultural research, and facilitates international and intra-national professional relationships through online sites, symposia, conferences, and publications Each year, USSEA honors one national and one international art educator, each of whom has demonstrated exemplary teaching, service, or research in the area of multicultural or cross-cultural art education with the Ziegfeld Art Education award  The Journal of Cultural Research in Art Education is a publication of USSEA that is made available to all members of the art educational profession  Through the website, members may access suggestions and recommendations for appropriate multi-culturally oriented K-12 art lessons, and receive up-to-date news and information about USSEA initiatives, programs and opportunities  Additionally, exhibitions of children's art from countries around the world are presented at national conferences of art educators and through an online gallery of children's art, which is organized by topical themes and maintained on the USSEA website 

History
USSEA was founded in 1977 as an affiliate of the International Society for Education Through Art (InSEA) and the National Art Education Association (NAEA)  The goals of USSEA reflect, on a national level, the goals of its international parent organization InSEA, which in turn, was inspired by the spirit of postwar hope and optimism of its parent affiliate UNESCO  In a paper describing the early history of InSEA, the motivational energy and overarching goals of UNESCO and InSEA are explained 
"The world had just come through a terrible and protracted war, one initiated by false philosophies working on ignorance through massive control of free speech  The impulse in 1945, to try to ensure that it did not happen again, and that people should understand each other better through education and all forms of cultural and scientific exchanges, the passionate emphasis on truth, justice, peace and the importance of the individual – these impulses were irresistible "These sentiments, which gave root to InSEA in 1954, are also guiding principles of USSEA  Art educator Kenneth Marantz was instrumental in establishing the United States organization and served as its first president  Other founding members who served as officers included Maryl Fletcher De Jong, Larry Kantner, Eugenia Oole, Helen Patton, and Tom Sletterhaugh 

Sponsored Activities
As a means of disseminating shared ideas about the importance of teaching art to increasingly diverse populations and to develop research agenda for determining effective practices of multicultural art education, USSEA began sponsored conferences and symposia  Fourteen such events were held between 1977 and 2010  The topics addressed included "Limits and Extents of International Research in Art Education" (1977), "Art Education: The Pacific Basin" (1982), "International Aspects of Teaching Aesthetics and Critical Skills" (1987), "Indigenous People, Art, and Place: Interactions of Culture and Environment in Contemporary Life" (1994) and "Crossing Cultural, Artistic, and Cyber Borders" (2000), and "Youth and Community Development: How the Arts Serve Economically Impoverished Communities" (2010)  The 1991 USSEA Symposium, "Beyond the Traditional in Art: Facing a Pluralistic Society," resulted in the publication of working papers and research agenda that helped focus cultural art educational research and practices during the late 20th and early 21st century Since 1986, USSEA has presented two annual awards in the name of Edwin Ziegfeld, founding president of InSEA (1954–1960) and NAEA (1947–1951), to honor an American art educator and a foreign art educator who have made distinguished leadership contributions to international art education  These awards are presented to the recipients during a USSEA Awards banquet held during the annual NAEA conference The first issue of the USSEA publication The Journal of Multicultural and Cross-cultural Research in Art Education was issued in 1983 with Larry Kantner as senior editor  In 2001, the title of the journal was changed to the Journal of Cultural Research in Art Education (JCRAE)  Articles published in JCRAE focus on social/cultural research relevant for art education, including cultural foundations of art education, cross-cultural and multicultural research in art education, and cultural aspects of art in education  These areas may be interpreted in a broad sense to include arts administration, art therapy, community arts organizations, and other disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches relevant to art education  Articles considered for publication may feature theoretical research and research in which qualitative and/or quantitative methods as well as other formats and strategies are employed  In addition to the publication of a journal, USSEA sponsors monographs and sponsors or endorses books that address issues of interest and concern to art educators 
Context 3:  Historians generally consider the Battle of Jumonville Glen as the opening battle of the French and Indian War in North America, and the start of hostilities in the Ohio valley 

Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity, which the Canadians attacked under the command of Jumonville's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3  Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms  One of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo warriors—just those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence News of the two battles reached England in August  After several months of negotiations, the government of the Duke of Newcastle decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French  They chose Major General Edward Braddock to lead the expedition  Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock's departure for North America  In response, King Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France under the command of Baron Dieskau in 1755  The British sent out their fleet in February 1755, intending to blockade French ports, but the French fleet had already sailed  Admiral Edward Hawke detached a fast squadron to North America in an attempt to intercept them 

In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships  The British harassed French shipping throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen  These actions contributed to the eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756 An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754   The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with the Indians, since the allegiance of the various tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding   The plan that the delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved by the Crown   Nevertheless, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the prototype for confederation during the War of Independence 

British campaigns, 1755
The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755  General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne, while Massachusetts governor William Shirley was given the task of fortifying Fort Oswego and attacking Fort Niagara  Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St  Frédéric at Crown Point, New York, and Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beauséjour to the east on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia 

Braddock led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on the Braddock expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, with George Washington as one of his aides  The expedition was a disaster  It was attacked by French regulars, Canadian Militiamen, and Indian warriors ambushing them from hiding places up in trees and behind logs, and Braddock called for a retreat  He was killed and approximately 1,000 British soldiers were killed or injured  The remaining 500 British troops retreated to Virginia, led by Washington  Washington and Thomas Gage played key roles in organizing the retreat—two future opponents in the American Revolutionary War 
The British government initiated a plan to increase their military capability in preparation for war following news of Braddock's defeat and the start of parliament's session in November 1755  Among the early legislative measures were the Recruiting Act 1756, the Commissions to Foreign Protestants Act 1756 for the Royal American Regiment, the Navigation Act 1756, and the Continuance of Acts 1756  England passed the Naval Prize Act 1756 following the proclamation of war on May 17 to allow the capture of ships and establish privateering The French acquired a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson  Shirley's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated by his inexperience in managing large expeditions  In conjunction, he was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara  As a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull, and Fort Williams, the last two located on the Oneida Carry between the Mohawk River and Wood Creek at Rome, New York  Supplies were cached at Fort Bull for use in the projected attack on Niagara 
Johnson's expedition was better organized than Shirley's, which was noticed by New France's governor the Marquis de Vaudreuil  Vaudreuil had been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley's expected attack  Vaudreuil saw Johnson as the larger threat and sent Dieskau to Fort St  Frédéric to meet that threat  Dieskau planned to attack the British encampment at Fort Edward at the upper end of navigation on the Hudson River, but Johnson had strongly fortified it, and Dieskau's Indian support was reluctant to attack  The two forces finally met in the bloody Battle of Lake George between Fort Edward and Fort William Henry  The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides withdrawing from the field  Johnson's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and the French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after the British captured it in 1759) 

Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755 in the sole British success that year, cutting off the French Fortress Louisbourg from land-based reinforcements  To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area  Monckton's forces, including companies of Rogers' Rangers, forcibly removed thousands of Acadians, chasing down many who resisted and sometimes committing atrocities  Cutting off supplies to Louisbourg led to its demise  The Acadian resistance was sometimes quite stiff, in concert with Indian allies including the Mi'kmaq, with ongoing frontier raids against Dartmouth and Lunenburg, among others  The only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757, other than the campaigns to expel the Acadians ranging around the Bay of Fundy, on the Petitcodiac and St  John rivers, and Île Saint-Jean 

French victories, 1756–1757
Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755  He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec  His plan, however, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York's Governor Sir Charles Hardy, and consequently gained little support 

Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun, with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command  Neither of these men had as much campaign experience as the trio of officers whom France sent to North America  French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession  On May 18, 1756, Britain formally declared war on France, which expanded the war into Europe and came to be known as the Seven Years' War 
Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in addition to his role as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived  Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry  In the Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder  They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies  French forces in the Ohio valley also continued to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements  This led to ongoing alarms along the western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning east to get away from the action 

The new British command was not in place until July  Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold action against his inertia  He built on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George  With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful attack on Oswego in August  In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners' personal effects  The Europeans did not consider them prizes and prevented the Indians from stripping the prisoners of their valuables, which angered the Indians 
Loudoun was a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, and he planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France's capital of Quebec  He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm and began organizing for the expedition to Quebec  He was then ordered to attack Louisbourg first by William Pitt, the Secretary of State responsible for the colonies  The expedition was beset by delays of all kinds but was finally ready to sail from Halifax, Nova Scotia, in early August  In the meantime, French ships had escaped the British blockade of the French coast, and a fleet awaited Loudoun at Louisbourg which outnumbered the British fleet  Faced with this strength, Loudoun returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry 

French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757  In January, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga  In February, they launched a raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the main fortification  In early August, Montcalm and 7,000 troops besieged the fort, which capitulated with an agreement to withdraw under parole  When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm's Indian allies attacked the British column because they were angry about the lost opportunity for loot, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves  The aftermath of the siege may have contributed to the transmission of smallpox into remote Indian populations, as some Indians were reported to have traveled from beyond the Mississippi to participate in the campaign and returned afterward  Modern writer William Nester believes that the Indians might have been exposed to European carriers, although no proof exists 

British conquest, 1758–1760
Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping  The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory  His schemes to supply the colony inflated prices and were believed by Montcalm to line his pockets and those of his associates  A massive outbreak of smallpox among western Indian tribes led many of them to stay away from trading in 1758  The disease probably spread through the crowded conditions at William Henry after the battle; yet the Indians blamed the French for bringing "bad medicine" as well as denying them prizes at Fort William Henry 
Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defense of the St  Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg, while Vaudreuil argued unsuccessfully for a continuation of the raiding tactics that had worked quite effectively in previous years  The British failures in North America combined with other failures in the European theater and led to Newcastle's fall from power along with the Duke of Cumberland, his principal military advisor 

Newcastle and Pitt joined in an uneasy coalition in which Pitt dominated the military planning  He embarked on a plan for the 1758 campaign that was largely developed by Loudoun  He had been replaced by Abercrombie as commander in chief after the failures of 1757  Pitt's plan called for three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France  Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces 

1758
The Forbes Expedition was a British campaign in September–October 1758, with 6,000 troops led by General John Forbes sent to drive out the French from the contested Ohio Country  The French withdrew from Fort Duquesne and left the British in control of the Ohio River Valley  The great French fortress at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia was captured after a siege 

The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen defeated Abercrombie's force of 18,000 regulars, militia, and Indian allies outside the fort which the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga  Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac, including caches of supplies destined for New France's western forts and furs destined for Europe  Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg 
The French had generally poor results in 1758 in most theaters of the war  The new foreign minister was the duc de Choiseul, and he decided to focus on an invasion of Britain to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland  The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France and sent funds to Britain's mainland ally of Prussia, while the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay  In one piece of good fortune, some French supply ships did manage to depart France and elude the British blockade of the French coast 

1759–1760
The British proceeded to wage a campaign in the northwest frontier of Canada in an effort to cut off the French frontier forts to the west and south  They captured Ticonderoga and Fort Niagara, and they defeated the French at the Thousand Islands in the summer of 1759  In September 1759, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which claimed the lives of both commanders  After the battle, the French capitulated the city to the British 
In April 1760, François Gaston de Lévis led French forces to launch an attack to retake Quebec  Although he won the Battle of Sainte-Foy, Lévis' subsequent siege of Quebec ended in defeat when British ships arrived to relieve the garrison  After Lévis had retreated he was given another blow when a British naval victory at Restigouche brought the loss of French ships meant to resupply his army  In July Jeffrey Amherst then led British forces numbering around 18,000 men in a three pronged attack on Montreal  After eliminating French positions along the way all three forces met up and surrounded Montreal in September  Many Canadians deserted or surrendered their arms to British forces while the Native allies of the French sought peace and neutrality  De Lévis and the Marquis de Vaudreuil reluctantly signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal on September 8 which effectively completed the British conquest of New France 

Sporadic engagements, 1760–1763
Most of the fighting ended in America in 1760, although it continued in Europe between France and Britain  The notable exception was the French seizure of St  John's, Newfoundland  General Amherst heard of this surprise action and immediately dispatched troops under his nephew William Amherst, who regained control of Newfoundland after the Battle of Signal Hill in September 1762  Many of the British troops who were stationed in America were reassigned to participate in further British actions in the West Indies, including the capture of Spanish Havana when Spain belatedly entered the conflict on the side of France, and a British expedition against French Martinique in 1762 led by Major General Robert Monckton 

Peace
Governor Vaudreuil in Montreal negotiated a capitulation with General Amherst in September 1760  Amherst granted his requests that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, to own property, and to remain undisturbed in their homes  The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers, and French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war General Amherst also oversaw the transfer of French fortifications to British control on the western frontier  The policies which he introduced in those lands disturbed large numbers of Indians and contributed to the outbreak of Pontiac's War in 1763  
A series of Indian attacks on frontier forts and settlements required the continued deployment of British forces, and the conflict was not fully concluded until 1766 Beginning from the 1750's and lasting until the 1760's, a smallpox outbreak devastated several Indian communities throughout the American Midwest  The outbreak was brought on in part by victorious Indian warriors who had fought on the side of the French bringing home prizes of war which had been infected with the disease; the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi peoples were most affected by the outbreak  An oral account from Odawa tribal leader and historian Andrew Blackbird claimed that the outbreak had "entirely depopulated and laid waste" to Waganagisi, a large Odawa settlement The war in North America, along with the global Seven Years' War, officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement  The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British  France chose to cede the former but was able to negotiate the retention of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, two small islands in the Gulf of St  Lawrence, along with fishing rights in the area  They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent  French philosopher Voltaire referred to Canada disparagingly as nothing more than a few acres of snow  The British, however, were happy to take New France, as defence of their North American colonies would no longer be an issue (though the absence of that threat caused many colonists to conclude they no longer needed British protection)  Britain also had ample places from which to obtain sugar  Spain traded Florida to Britain in order to regain Cuba, but they also gained Louisiana from France, including New Orleans, in compensation for their losses  Great Britain and Spain also agreed that navigation on the Mississippi River was to be open to vessels of all nations 

Consequences
The war changed economic, political, governmental, and social relations among the three European powers, their colonies, and the people who inhabited those territories  France and Britain both suffered financially because of the war, with significant long-term consequences 
Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French-speaking Roman Catholic residents  The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 made land available to immigrants from Europe and migrants from the colonies to the south  The British resettled many Acadians throughout its American provinces, but many went to France and some went to New Orleans, which they expected to remain French  Some were sent to colonize places as diverse as French Guiana and the Falkland Islands, but these efforts were unsuccessful  The Louisiana population contributed to founding the Cajun population  (The French word "Acadien" changed to "Cadien" then to "Cajun" )King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and it continues to govern relations to some extent between the government of Canada and the First Nations  Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population, a demarcation that was only a temporary impediment to a rising tide of westward-bound settlers  The proclamation also contained provisions that prevented civic participation by the Roman Catholic Canadians 

The Quebec Act of 1774 addressed issues brought forth by Roman Catholic French Canadians from the 1763 proclamation, and it transferred the Indian Reserve into the Province of Quebec  The Act maintained French Civil law, including the seigneurial system, a medieval code removed from France within a generation by the French Revolution  The Quebec Act was a major concern for the largely Protestant Thirteen Colonies over the advance of "popery"  It is typically associated with other Intolerable Acts, legislation that eventually led to the American Revolutionary War  The Quebec Act served as the constitutional document for the Province of Quebec until it was superseded by the Constitutional Act 1791 
The Seven Years' War nearly doubled Great Britain's national debt  The Crown sought sources of revenue to pay it off and attempted to impose new taxes on its colonies  These attempts were met with increasingly stiff resistance, until troops were called in to enforce the Crown's authority, and they ultimately led to the start of the American Revolutionary War  France attached comparatively little value to its American possessions, apart from the highly profitable sugar-producing Antilles islands which it retained  Minister Choiseul considered that he had made a good deal at the Treaty of Paris, and Voltaire wrote that Louis XV had lost a few acres of snow  However, the military defeat and the financial burden of the war weakened the French monarchy and contributed to the advent of the French Revolution in 1789 The elimination of French power in America meant the disappearance of a strong ally for some Indian tribes  The Ohio Country was now more available to colonial settlement due to the construction of military roads by Braddock and Forbes  The Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory was not completed until 1769, and it had modest repercussions  The British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of Indian tribes who did not want to do business with them  This migration also caused a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies who were competing for land  The change of control in Florida also prompted most of its Spanish Catholic population to leave  Most went to Cuba, although some Christianized Yamasee were resettled to the coast of Mexico France returned to America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco-American alliance against Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War, in what historian Alfred A  Cave describes as French "revenge for Montcalm's death"



ground_truth: 1912

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How many people were in British Colonies where does the london broil cut come from ?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 

See also
American Indian Wars
Colonial American military history
French and Indian Wars
Military history of Canada
Military history of Nova Scotia
Military history of the Acadians
Military history of the Mi'kmaq
Troupes coloniales#List of regiments in New France 1755–59

Footnotes
Bibliography
External links

The French and Indian War Website
Map of French and Indian War  French and British forts and settlements, Indian tribes 
French and Indian War Profile and Videos – Chickasaw TV
The War That Made America from PBS
FORGOTTEN WAR: Struggle for North America from PBS
Seven Years' War timeline
Montcalm and Wolfe, by Francis Parkman online ebook
Animated Map of the French and Indian War developed by HistoryAnimated com
Passage 4:
Australia at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Australia competed at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, from 6 to 15 April 1896 
One athlete from Victoria, a British colony which later formed part of Australia, competed at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece   Edwin Flack was born in England and was resident in London in 1896, but spent most of his life in Australia and so is considered an Australian athlete by the International Olympic Committee The Union Flag was used as the flag for the Australian colonies as well as Great Britain and Ireland at the 1896 Summer Olympics 
At the end of these Olympics, Australia was ranked in eighth position on the medal table with a total of 2 medals (2 gold) 
Flack was the only competitor from an Australian colony   He entered five events, winning medals in three  The bronze medal in tennis, however, was part of a mixed team and therefore is not counted for Australia 

Medalists
Medals awarded to participants of mixed-NOC teams are represented in italics  These medals are not counted towards the individual NOC medal tally 

Multiple medalists
The following competitors won multiple medals at the 1896 Olympic Games 

Competitors
Athletics
Both of Flack's gold medals came in the athletics competitions as he won both of his track races 
Track & road events

Tennis
In the singles tournament, Flack lost the only match he competed in  His loss in the semifinals of the doubles competition, while carrying no prize at the time, earned him a retroactive bronze medal from the International Olympic Committee   This medal is counted for mixed team rather than Australia, however 

Notes
Passage 5:
Ross Bay Cemetery
Ross Bay Cemetery is located at 1516 Fairfield Road in Victoria, British Columbia, on Vancouver Island, Canada   Many historical figures from the early days of the province and colony of British Columbia are buried at Ross Bay 

History
The cemetery was opened in late 1872, with the first burial being Mary Letitia (Pemberton) Pearse, wife of Benjamin Pearse  The 27 5 acre (111,000 m²) cemetery is part of a public park and its south side faces Ross Bay on the Pacific Ocean  It is named after its owner, Isabella Mainville Ross, the first registered independent woman landowner in British Columbia   Isabella was also Indigenous, an Anishinaabe and French Métis woman, which makes her accomplishment even more remarkable  Her Métis son, Alexander Ross, was buried in the cemetery in 1876  His grave marker is the only known original marker left in possession of the Old Cemeteries Society  The old wooden marker is still used as a model for heritage markers   Isabella Ross was buried across the path from Alexander in 1885  In 1994, the Old Cemeteries Society marked Isabella's grave with a heritage marker, styled after the one she chose for Alexander 
In 1911, a sea wall had to be constructed because of the severe erosion that occurred as a result of the relentless pounding of the ocean's waves  During the 1930s, the City began planting a large number of trees and today the cemetery is quite different from the original that was mainly barren ground 
The Victorian-style Ross Bay Cemetery, contains numerous elaborate mausoleums and tall pillars from the early elite  Because the city of Victoria is the capital of the province of British Columbia, until the second quarter of the 20th century when improved ferry service and air travel made mobility to and from the island much easier, most senior politicians made Victoria their permanent home  As such, Ross Bay Cemetery is the burial site for many of the province's premiers 
Although the Ross Bay Cemetery had long been considered full, the City of Victoria discovered approximately 270 unused plots in the cemetery in the late 1990s  Through a lottery process the City of Victoria sold seven of these plots in April 2004,
 and an additional 65 plots in February 2007 
The money raised through the plot sales was used to fund refurbishment work at the Ross Bay Cemetery 

Notable interments
Some of the notable personalities among the more than 27,000 interred here are:

Billy Barker (1819–1894), frontiersman, prospector
Sir Frank Stillman Barnard (1856–1936), statesman
Robert Beaven (1836–1920), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Sir Matthew Begbie (1819–1894), First Chief Justice of British Columbia
Harlan Carey Brewster (1870–1918), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Emily Carr (1871–1945), painter
Nellie Cashman (1845–1925), nurse and gold prospector
Sir Henry Pering Pellew Crease (1823–1905) First BC Barrister and early Supreme Court Justice
Sarah Lindley Crease (1826–1922), artist
Alexander Edmund Batson Davie (1847–1889), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Theodore Davie (1852–1898), jurist, statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Edgar Dewdney Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia, 1892–1897 
Amor De Cosmos (1825–1897), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Sir James Douglas (1803–1877), Hudson's Bay Co  executive, 1st Governor of British Columbia, and 2nd Governor of Vancouver Island
James Dunsmuir (1851–1920), businessman, statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Andrew Charles Elliott (1828–1889), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Roderick Finlayson (1818–1892), considered the "Father of Victoria "
John Hamilton Gray (1814–1889), pre-Confederation Premier of New Brunswick, a Father of Confederation, and a BC Supreme Court Justice 
Byron Ingemar Johnson (1890–1964), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Hannah Maynard (1834–1918), photographer
Sir Richard McBride (1870–1917), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
John McLean (c  1799–1890), trapper, explorer, writer, sometimes credited with saving western Canada from the United States during the Alabama Claims dispute
James E  McMillan (d  1907), mayor of Victoria in 1872
William Henry McNeill (1803–1875), Master of the SS Beaver from which, in 1843, while at McNeill Bay, Governor Douglas located Fort Victoria   Port McNeill is named for him 
Joseph Despard Pemberton (1821–1893), Surveyor-General of Vancouver Island
Sophie Pemberton (1869–1959), painter
Edward Gawler Prior (1853–1920), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
John Robson (1824–1892), statesman, Premier of British Columbia
Isabella Mainville Ross (1807–1885), Anishinaabe-Métis woman and first registered independent female landowner in British Columbia
George Anthony Walkem (1834–1908) statesman, Premier of British Columbia

War graves
The cemetery contains the war graves of 135 Commonwealth service personnel, 133 from World War I and 2 from World War II 

Cultural references
Ross Bay Cemetery was the alleged site of satanic rituals according to the now-discredited book Michelle Remembers 
The cemetery was also the frequent stomping ground of the legendary Ross Bay Cult bestial black metal scene, of which Blasphemy are a part 
Passage 6:
Richard Blanshard
Richard Blanshard MA (19 October 1817 – 5 June 1894) was an English barrister and first governor of the Colony of Vancouver Island from its foundation in 1849 to his resignation in 1851 

Biography
Blanshard was born in London to a wealthy mercantile family, and after reading law at Cambridge University, served in the army in British India   At the age of 32, a personal connection helped secure Blanshard the post of colonial governor of Vancouver Island   Although the commission was dated in July, 1849, Blanshard did not arrive in the colony's capital of Fort Victoria until March of the following year 
Blanshard's short tenure proved unhappy from the start, largely because of the enormous power and influence wielded by the Hudson's Bay Company and its autocratic Chief Factor, James Douglas   Indeed, prior to Blanshard's appointment, there had been serious consideration given by the colonial office to appointing Douglas governor, but concerns over conflict of interest prevented it 
Blanshard arrived to a colony in which the land had been given as a ten-year lease to the Hudson's Bay Company, with Douglas given a mandate to attract settlement   Almost the entire non-First Nations population were Company employees, answerable to Douglas, and Blanshard was prevented from setting up a colonial assembly by the fact that so few of them met the qualifications of electors, i e , land ownership   Inevitable jurisdictional conflicts arose between Douglas and Blanshard, and the colonial office, too, took Blanshard to task for indiscriminate retributions taken against the First Nations population near present-day Port Hardy   The absence of any real power, combined with health concerns and the enormous cost of living drove Blanshard to resign; he abandoned the colony in September, 1851 after just one and a half years there 
Blanshard evidently did not pursue further colonial service   He married and inherited his family's estates in Essex and Hampshire   He died in London at the age of 76 

Places named for Blanshard
Mount Blanshard, part of a group of sugarloaf-type peaks commonly known as the Golden Ears, is located in Golden Ears Provincial Park in the Garibaldi Ranges of the Coast Mountains, immediately north of Maple Ridge, British Columbia 
The Blanshard River is a tributary of the Tatshenshini River, near the British Columbia–Yukon border 
Blanshard Island is located among the Gulf Islands northeast of the City of Victoria 
Blanshard Street is a major thoroughfare in downtown Victoria, running northwards from the north end of Beacon Hill Park to join with Highway 17 just past the Victoria–Saanich boundary 
A large provincial government structure, The Richard Blanshard Building stands on the corner of Blanshard and Pandora Streets in Victoria 

External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

Further reading
Governor Blanshard's Plight, R  Gosnell and E O S  Scholefield, A History of British Columbia, Historical Society of British Columbia (Vancouver 1913), pp  107–114
Passage 7:
Treaty of Paris (1763)
The Treaty of Paris, also known as the Treaty of 1763, was signed on 10 February 1763 by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement, after Great Britain and Prussia's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years' War 
The signing of the treaty formally ended the conflict between France and Great Britain over control of North America (the Seven Years' War, known as the French and Indian War in the United States), and marked the beginning of an era of British dominance outside Europe  Great Britain and France each returned much of the territory that they had captured during the war, but Great Britain gained much of France's possessions in North America  Additionally, Great Britain agreed to protect Roman Catholicism in the New World  The treaty did not involve Prussia and Austria as they signed a separate agreement, the Treaty of Hubertusburg, five days later 

Exchange of territories
During the war, Great Britain had conquered the French colonies of Canada, Guadeloupe, Saint Lucia, Martinique, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Tobago, the French "factoreries" (trading posts) in India, the slave-trading station at Gorée, the Sénégal River and its settlements, and the Spanish colonies of Manila (in the Philippines) and Havana (in Cuba)  France had captured Minorca and British trading posts in Sumatra, while Spain had captured the border fortress of Almeida in Portugal, and Colonia del Sacramento in South America 

The treaty restored most of the territories to their original owners, but Britain was allowed to keep considerable gains  France and Spain restored all their conquests to Britain and Portugal  Britain restored Manila and Havana to Spain, and Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Gorée, and the Indian factories to France  In return, France recognized the sovereignty of Britain over Canada, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Tobago France also ceded the eastern half of French Louisiana to Britain; that is, the area from the Mississippi River to the Appalachian Mountains  France had already secretly given Louisiana to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762), but Spain did not take possession until 1769  Spain ceded East Florida to Britain  In addition, France regained its factories in India but recognized British clients as the rulers of key Indian native states and pledged not to send troops to Bengal  Britain agreed to demolish its fortifications in British Honduras (now Belize) but retained a logwood-cutting colony there  Britain confirmed the right of its new subjects to practise Catholicism France lost all of its territory in mainland North America except for the territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River  France retained fishing rights off Newfoundland and the two small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, where its fishermen could dry their catch  In turn, France gained the return of its sugar colony, Guadeloupe, which it considered more valuable than Canada  Voltaire had notoriously dismissed Acadia as quelques arpents de neige (a few acres of snow) 

Louisiana question
The Treaty of Paris is notable because it furthered the transfer of Louisiana from France to Spain  However, the agreement to transfer had occurred with the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762), but it was not publicly announced until 1764  The Treaty of Paris gave Britain the east side of the Mississippi (including Baton Rouge, Louisiana, which was to be part of the British territory of West Florida)  On the east side, New Orleans remained in French hands (albeit temporarily)  The Mississippi River corridor in what is now Louisiana was later reunited following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819 
The 1763 treaty states in Article VII:
VII  In order to reestablish peace on solid and durable foundations, and to remove for ever all subject of dispute with regard to the limits of the British and French territories on the continent of America; it is agreed, that, for the future, the confines between the dominions of his Britannick Majesty and those of his Most Christian Majesty, in that part of the world, shall be fixed irrevocably by a line drawn along the middle of the River Mississippi, from its source to the river Iberville, and from thence, by a line drawn along the middle of this river, and the lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the sea; and for this purpose, the Most Christian King cedes in full right, and guaranties to his Britannick Majesty the river and port of the Mobile, and every thing which he possesses, or ought to possess, on the left side of the river Mississippi, except the town of New Orleans and the island in which it is situated, which shall remain to France, provided that the navigation of the river Mississippi shall be equally free, as well to the subjects of Great Britain as to those of France, in its whole breadth and length, from its source to the sea, and expressly that part which is between the said island of New Orleans and the right bank of that river, as well as the passage both in and out of its mouth: It is farther stipulated, that the vessels belonging to the subjects of either nation shall not be stopped, visited, or subjected to the payment of any duty whatsoever  The stipulations inserted in the IVth article, in favour of the inhabitants of Canada shall also take place with regard to the inhabitants of the countries ceded by this article 

Canada question
British perspective
The war was fought all over the world, but the British began the war over French possessions in North America  After a long debate of the relative merits of Guadeloupe, which produced £6 million a year in sugar, and Canada, which was expensive to keep, Great Britain decided to keep Canada for strategic reasons and to return Guadeloupe to France  The war had weakened France, but it was still a European power  British Prime Minister Lord Bute wanted a peace that would not push France towards a second war Although the Protestant British worried about having so many Roman Catholic subjects, Great Britain did not want to antagonize France by expulsion or forced conversion or for French settlers to leave Canada to strengthen other French settlements in North America 

French perspective
Unlike Lord Bute, the French Foreign Minister, the Duke of Choiseul, expected a return to war  However, France needed peace to rebuild  France preferred to keep its Caribbean possessions with their profitable sugar trade, rather than the vast Canadian lands, which had been a financial burden on France  French diplomats believed that without France to keep the Americans in check, the colonists might attempt to revolt  In Canada, France wanted open emigration for those, such as the nobility, who would not swear allegiance to the British Crown  Finally, France required protection for Roman Catholics in North America Article IV stated:
IV  His Most Christian Majesty renounces all pretensions which he has heretofore formed or might have formed to Nova Scotia or Acadia in all its parts, and guaranties the whole of it, and with all its dependencies, to the King of Great Britain: Moreover, his Most Christian Majesty cedes and guaranties to his said Britannick Majesty, in full right, Canada, with all its dependencies, as well as the island of Cape Breton, and all the other islands and coasts in the gulph and river of St  Lawrence, and in general, every thing that depends on the said countries, lands, islands, and coasts, with the sovereignty, property, possession, and all rights acquired by treaty, or otherwise, which the Most Christian King and the Crown of France have had till now over the said countries, lands, islands, places, coasts, and their inhabitants, so that the Most Christian King cedes and makes over the whole to the said King, and to the Crown of Great Britain, and that in the most ample manner and form, without restriction, and without any liberty to depart from the said cession and guaranty under any pretence, or to disturb Great Britain in the possessions above mentioned  His Britannick Majesty, on his side, agrees to grant the liberty of the Catholick religion to the inhabitants of Canada: he will, in consequence, give the most precise and most effectual orders, that his new Roman Catholic subjects may profess the worship of their religion according to the rites of the Romish church, as far as the laws of Great Britain permit  His Britannick Majesty farther agrees, that the French inhabitants, or others who had been subjects of the Most Christian King in Canada, may retire with all safety and freedom wherever they shall think proper, and may sell their estates, provided it be to the subjects of his Britannick Majesty, and bring away their effects as well as their persons, without being restrained in their emigration, under any pretence whatsoever, except that of debts or of criminal prosecutions: The term limited for this emigration shall be fixed to the space of eighteen months, to be computed from the day of the exchange of the ratification of the present treaty 

Dunkirk question
During the negotiations that led to the treaty, a major issue of dispute between Britain and France had been over the status of the fortifications of the French coastal settlement of Dunkirk  The British had long feared that it would be used as a staging post to launch a French invasion of Britain  Under the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, the British forced France to concede extreme limits on those fortifications  The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had allowed more generous terms, and France constructed more significant defences for the town 
The 1763 treaty had Britain force France to accept the 1713 conditions and demolish the fortifications constructed since then  That would be a continuing source of resentment to France, which would eventually have that provision overturned in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which brought an end to the American Revolutionary War 

Reactions
When Lord Bute became the British prime minister in 1762, he pushed for a resolution to the war with France and Spain since he feared that Great Britain could not govern all of its newly acquired territories  In what Winston Churchill would later term a policy of "appeasement", Bute returned some colonies to Spain and France in the negotiations Despite a desire for peace, many in the British Parliament opposed the return of any gains made during the war  Notable among the opposition was former Prime Minister William Pitt, the Elder, who warned that the terms of the treaty would lead to further conflicts once France and Spain had time to rebuild and later said, "The peace was insecure because it restored the enemy to her former greatness  The peace was inadequate, because the places gained were no equivalent for the places surrendered " The treaty passed by 319 votes to 65 The Treaty of Paris took no consideration of Great Britain's battered continental ally, Frederick II of Prussia, who negotiated peace terms separately in the Treaty of Hubertusburg  For decades after the signing of the Treaty of Paris, Frederick II decried it as a British betrayal Many Protestant American colonists were disappointed by the protection of Roman Catholicism in the Treaty of Paris  Criticism of the British colonial government as insufficiently anti-Catholic and fear of the protections for Catholicism expanding beyond Quebec was one of many reasons for the breakdown of American–British relations that led to the American Revolution 

Effects on French Canada
The article permitted unrestrained emigration for 18 months from Canada  However, passage on British ships was expensive  A total of 1,600 people left New France by that clause, but only 270 of them were French Canadians  Some claim that there was a deliberate British policy to limit emigration to avoid strengthening other French colonies Article IV of the treaty allowed Roman Catholicism to be practiced in Canada  George III agreed to allow Catholicism within the laws of Great Britain, which included various Test Acts to prevent governmental, judicial and bureaucratic appointments from going to Roman Catholics  They were believed to be agents of the Jacobite pretenders to the throne, who normally resided in France and were supported by its government  The Test Acts were somewhat relaxed in Quebec, but top positions such as governorships were still held by Anglicans Article IV has also been cited as the basis for Quebec's unique legal code that differs from the rest of Canada  There was a general constitutional principle in the United Kingdom allowing colonies taken through conquest to continue their laws  That was limited by royal prerogative, which allowed the monarch to change the accepted laws in a conquered colony later  However, the treaty eliminated that power because of a different constitutional principle, which considered the terms of a treaty to be paramount  In practice, Roman Catholics were allowed to become jurors in inferior courts in Quebec and to argue based on principles of French law  However, the judge was British, and his opinion on French law could be limited or hostile  If the case was appealed to a superior court, neither French law nor Roman Catholic jurors were allowed Many French residents of what are now the Maritime Provinces of Canada were deported during the Great Expulsion of the Acadians (1755–1763)  After signing the peace treaty guaranteed some rights to Roman Catholics, some Acadians returned to Canada  However, they were no longer welcome in the British colony of Nova Scotia  They were forced into New Brunswick, which became a bilingual province as a result of that relocation Britain now owned much land that France had owned, and the French people of Quebec felt greatly betrayed by the French concession  The commander-in-chief of the British, Jeffrey Amherst noted, "Many of the Canadians consider their Colony to be of utmost consequence to France & cannot be convinced     that their Country has been conceded to Great Britain "

See also
France in the Seven Years' War
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
Royal Proclamation of 1763
List of treaties
Passage 8:
London broil
London broil, is a beef dish made by broiling marinated beef, then cutting it across the grain into thin strips  Despite its name, the dish and the terminology are American, not British 

Cut
"London broil" originally referred to broiled flank steak, although modern butchers may label top round, coulotte, or other cuts as "London broil", and the term has come to refer more to a method of preparation and cookery than to a specific cut of meat 

Preparation
The preparation of London broil typically involves marinating the meat for several hours followed by high heat searing in an oven broiler or outdoor grill   It is then served in thin slices, cut across the grain[Preparation Method ] 

In Canada
In parts of central Canada, a ground meat patty wrapped in flank or round steak is known as a London broil   Some butchers will wrap the flank steak around a concoction of seasoned and ground or tenderized flank steak  Others sell a pork sausage patty wrapped in flank or top round steak labeled as London broil  Another variant, popular in Southern Ontario, is a London broil "loaf", wherein the tenderized flank steak exterior is wrapped around minced and spiced veal as the filler  In some regions, bacon will be added between the flank steak and the veal grind 

See also
List of beef dishes
List of steak dishes



ground_truth: 2 million