prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What award did the author of The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden receive?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Happy, Happy
Happy, Happy (Norwegian: Sykt lykkelig, lit  'Insanely Happy') is a 2010 Norwegian comedy film directed by Anne Sewitsky  The film was selected as the Norwegian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 84th Academy Awards, but it did not make the final shortlist 

Plot
Kaja (Agnes Kittelsen) is a school teacher living in the countryside with her husband, Eirick, and son  Despite the fact that her husband is cold to her, she maintains a cheerful happy-go-lucky disposition and tries her best to please him 
A couple from Denmark, Elisabeth and Sigve, come to live in the neighbouring house with their adopted son Noa  Kaja is in awe of Elisabeth and is impressed by the couple's relationship and their strong bond  The four play a game during which the couples must answer questions to reveal how well they know each other; Kaja becomes upset when she and Eirick fail to get a single question right  Kaja begins crying saying that they never have sex, which Eirick blames on her yeast infection  Alone with Sigve, Kaja apologizes for her outburst explaining that she wishes that she and Eirick were more like Elisabeth and Sigve  Sigve reveals that things are not as perfect as they seem as the two have moved to the country to rebuild their marriage after Elisabeth had an affair  In response Kaja kisses Sigve and then performs oral sex on him 
Kaja and Sigve embark on an affair which leaves Kaja sexually fulfilled  She joins Elisabeth and Sigve's choir and tries to initiate sex with her husband only to be shut down 
One day, while leaving Kaja's home, Sigve is joined on his jog by Eirick  The two men talk about their past lives as bachelors and when Sigve remarks that they deserve better Eirick misinterprets his meaning and kisses him, only to be rebuffed 
Eventually Elisabeth spies Kaja flirting with and touching Sigve  She confronts him about his affair and he tells her that he enjoys feeling needed  Elisabeth then tells Eirick what has happened, causing him to attack Sigve  As a result Sigve moves into Kaja's home  Elisabeth briefly invites Eirick to stay with her but after an uncomfortable and awkward attempt at sex she kicks him out again 
Kaja and Sigve host a Christmas dinner for the children inviting Elisabeth  After Elisabeth gets drunk she confesses to Sigve that she misses him and asks him to come home  He kisses her and the two are caught by Kaja  She realizes that Sigve will always love Elisabeth and that all she ever really wanted was to be loved by Eirick, who she now realizes is gay  Sigve leaves to go home with Elisabeth and Eirick comes back and asks to move back in, swearing he will never leave Kaja and will be a better husband  Kaja tells him she is leaving him 
Elisabeth and Sigve pack up their things and say goodbye to Kaja and Eirick  Eirick meanwhile moves into their home so that he can be close to Kaja and their son while the two of them start separate lives 

Cast
Agnes Kittelsen as Kaja
Henrik Rafaelsen as Sigve
Joachim Rafaelsen as Eirik
Maibritt Saerens as Elisabeth
Oskar Hernæs Brandsø as Theodor
Ram Shihab Ebedy as Noa
Heine Totland as Dirigenten

See also
List of submissions to the 84th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Norwegian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Passage 2:
PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award for the Art of the Essay
The PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award for the Art of the Essay is awarded by the PEN America (formerly PEN American Center) to an author for a book of original collected essays  The award was founded by PEN Member and author Barbaralee Diamonstein and Carl Spielvogel, former New York Times columnist, "to preserve the dignity and esteem that the essay form imparts to literature " The winner receives a cash award of $10,000 The award was on hiatus from 2005 to 2010 The award is one of many PEN awards sponsored by International PEN affiliates in over 145 PEN centres around the world  The PEN American Center awards have been characterized as being among the "major" American literary prizes 

Award winners
Passage 3:
Aaron Robinson (composer)
Aaron Robinson is an American composer, conductor, and musicologist  He is the author of Does God Sing? – A Musical Journey  He created the musical work Black Nativity – In Concert: A Gospel Celebration  He also served as conductor and musical director in the PBS documentary On This Island  In 2013, he was nominated for an Emmy Award for composing Maine Public Broadcasting Network's Maine Arts series theme music 

Personal background
Robinson attended Medomak Valley High School in Waldoboro, Maine  At 16 years of age—a self-taught musician who never took piano lessons—he became the organist at both the Broad Cove Community Church in Cushing and the Friendship United Methodist Church  By his late teens, he was creating, performing and producing concerts and theatrical productions, including the musical Moody Blue for which he wrote both the music and lyrics  According to a 2013 interview, Robinson studied composition and piano performance at the Boston Conservatory of Music with composer John Adams and Lawrence Thomas Bell, as well as film scoring with John Williams at the Berklee School of Music; but chose not to graduate with a degree  Instead, Robinson "went out and lived the life of music," as he said in a 2017 interview  In 2001, he became organist and choirmaster for "Music at Immanuel" at the Immanuel Baptist Church in Portland, Maine In 2009, he retired from public performing due to illness  During which time Robinson wrote the memoir, Does God Sing – A Musical Journey  It reached No  5 on the Barnes & Nobles best-sellers non-fiction paperback list for March 2013 Robinson lives on the coast of Maine with his wife and son 

Career
Robinson has conducted works for the concert and theatrical stage, including Leonard Bernstein's Candide – The Concert Version  In 1997, Robinson conducted Treemonisha: The Concert Version by ragtime composer Scott Joplin at the Rockport Opera House in Rockport, Maine, with a new libretto by Judith Kurtz Bogdanove In 2001, he orchestrated, arranged, and conducted the musical Islands, which was produced on Broadway at the New Victory Theater by John Wulp, with music and lyrics by Cidny Bullens Robinson conducted the world premiere performance of his Black Nativity – In Concert: A Gospel Celebration in 2001 at the Immanuel Baptist Church  The concert version recreated the original performance of Langston Hughes's Gospel Song-Play Black Nativity that opened in 1961 at the 41st Street Theatre in New York City  In 2004, the documentary film Black Nativity – In Concert: A Gospel Celebration was made about the world premiere performance, production, and creation under the direction of Robinson with the original cast  In December 2013, Robinson collaborated with Dr  Anthony Antolini and the Bowdoin College Chorus and Down East Singers to mount a revised version of his 2004 creation Robinson composed An American Requiem, which had its New England Premiere under the direction of Dr  Robert Russell and the USM Chorale  He also wrote Driving Old Memories (The Rockland Maine Song) with his father Ervin Robinson  On June 2, 2021, the Mayor of Rockland, Maine presented a key to the city and proclaimed June 2021 "Driving Old Memories" month In 2012 he wrote the music for the independent documentary In the Shadows of Grey Gardens In an article entitled "Robinson and Ragtime", David Welker called him "one of today’s leading proponents of early jazz and ragtime music"  He is perhaps best known for his composition "The New England Ragtime Suite" for piano In 2014, the opening of Maine Public Broadcasting's "Maine Arts!" Series received an Emmy Award at the 36th annual New England Emmy Awards for which Robinson contributed the series’ theme music and was nominated for a separate Emmy Award  Robinson composed the Maine-based musical, The Legend of Jim Cullen – A Dramatic Musical, which received its world premiere at the Heartwood Regional Theater Company in the summer of 2014 In May 2017, Robinson premiered two choral works in Studzinski Hall at Bowdoin College: "Requiem For a New World" and "This Will Be Our Reply To Violence" with words by Leonard Bernstein  With a famous line taken from an address Bernstein gave a few days after the assassination of President John F  Kennedy, according to a 2017 interview, it was the first time the Bernstein Estate had ever granted a composer the rights to set the words to music  It was performed later that year by the Vox Nova Chamber Choir  Robinson received acclaim for his compositions from Maine's Senators Angus King and Susan Collins, who remarked: "With the scourge of violence unabated in our times, we all must increase our devotion to the highest ideals of humanity  Through your remarkable career as a composer, performer, and author, you are helping to elevate our nation as you bring distinction to our great state of Maine ”Robinson collaborated with children's book author and illustrator Ashley Bryan in 2018 on an African-American Requiem titled "A Tender Bridge"  The work celebrates Bryan's life and career based on his writings; and uses "jazz, ragtime, Negro spirituals, Southern hymns and other musical idioms, along with a full choir, gospel choir, children’s choir, orchestra jazz ensemble and multiple narrators "

Published works
Robinson, Aaron (2013)  Does God Sing?: A Musical Journey, Tate Publishing  182 pages  ISBN 978-1621474630
Langston, Hughes (1961) Aaron Robinson (2004)  Black Nativity, Dramatic Publishing  34 pages  ISBN 0871291924

Filmography
Television
Film
Discography
Awards and nominations
Passage 4:
Brandon Bays
Brandon Bays (born August 21, 1953) is an American author and motivational speaker  She has authored New Thought self-help books, and is best known for her 1999 book, The Journey, which became a bestseller in England and Australia She was born in New York City to an American father and a Romanian mother, who grew up in Vienna, Austria 

The Journey
The Journey is the title of Brandon's first book, The Journey (1999 and 2012)  The Journey book has been translated into 23 languages The book describes her experience of healing from a basketball-sized tumour, without drugs or surgery, in 6 weeks  
Ultimately, she attributes her healing to 4 key elements:

Gaining access to the 'cellular memory' where the trauma associated with the tumour was stored
Forgiveness of the circumstances surrounding the trauma 
Accessing 'Source' / her own soul / infinite intelligence / Purusha 
Feeling the emotions associated with the trauma, as a gateway into the direct experience of Source Based on these experiences, she pioneered a healing methodology that combines all four elements of healing  The Journey method is designed to help individuals access and resolve the root cause of longstanding difficulties – emotional or physical 

The Journey Method
The Journey is also the name of the healing method Brandon developed  This method is currently taught in 44 countries via live online workshops 

Education and career
As she writes in The Journey book:
Brandon Bays studied at University
Her informal studies included naturopathy, iridology, philosophy, storytelling, among other things  
Together with a group of colleagues, she volunteered at a free-of-charge clinic in New York City which provided alternative treatments to people with terminal illness and no other options from the medical profession  
She worked for Tony Robbins for 10 years, presenting the Living Health program as a Master Trainer 

Spiritual life
Brandon was deeply influenced by a spiritual teacher she fondly calls 'Papaji' ( H  W  L  Poonjaji ) whom she met in Lucknow, India in the early 90s  Papaji was a teacher of self inquiry in the tradition of the sage, Ramana Maharshi 

Personal life
Brandon's first husband, Dr  Bob (Robert) Bays was also a former Head Trainer for Tony Robbins  
In the 1990s, Brandon and Bob lived on the beach in Malibu and lost everything when flames from the Californian brushfires leapt over the 6 lane highway and burned their house down  
Brandon lives in Greece with her second husband, Kevin Billet, who is co-director of The Journey and the primary author of Light in The Heart of Darkness: The Surprising Truth About Depression & How To Free Yourself Completely from its Grips, which Brandon Bays co-authored 

Bibliography
The Journey: A Road Map to the soul  Simon and Schuster  2001  ISBN 978-0743443920  Retrieved July 9, 2012 
The Journey for Kids: Liberating your child's shining potential  Harpercollins UK  2003  ISBN 978-0007155262  Retrieved July 9, 2012 
Freedom Is: Liberating Your Boundless Potential  New World Library  2007  ISBN 978-1577316008  Retrieved July 9, 2012 
Consciousness: The New Currency  Journey Productions, Limited  2009  ISBN 978-0956337900  Retrieved July 9, 2012 
The Journey: A Practical Guide to Healing Your Life and Setting Yourself Free  Atria Books  2012  ISBN 978-1451665611 
Living The Journey: Using The Journey Method to Heal Your Life and Set Yourself Free  Atria Books  2012  ISBN 978-1451665628 
Passage 5:
Happy Feet
Happy Feet is a 2006 computer-animated jukebox musical comedy film directed, produced, and co-written by George Miller  It stars the voices of Elijah Wood, Robin Williams, Brittany Murphy, Hugh Jackman, Nicole Kidman, Hugo Weaving, and E G  Daily  An international co-production between the United States and Australia, the film was produced at Sydney-based visual effects and animation studio Animal Logic for Warner Bros  Pictures, Village Roadshow Pictures, and Kingdom Feature Productions, and was released in North American theaters on November 17, 2006, and in Australian theaters on December 26, 2006  It is the first animated film produced by Kennedy Miller and Animal Logic  Set in the cold land of Antarctica, the film follows Mumble, an emperor penguin who, despite his lacking the ability to sing the heartsong to attract a soul mate, is able to tap dance brilliantly  After being continuously ridiculed and rejected by peers and his own father, Mumble departs on a journey to learn what is causing the local fish population to decline--and to find himself along the way 
Though primarily an animated film, the film does incorporate motion capture of live action humans in certain scenes  The film was simultaneously released in both conventional theatres and in IMAX 2D format  The studio had hinted that a future IMAX 3D release was a possibility  However, Warner Bros , the film's production company, was on too tight a budget to release Happy Feet in IMAX digital 3D Happy Feet received generally positive reviews from critics with praise for its visuals, storyline and songs, and grossed $384 million against its $100 million production budget  It earned the recipient of the inaugural BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film, and the fourth non-Disney or Pixar film to win the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature  It was nominated for the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature and the Saturn Award for Best Animated Film, both losing to Cars  A sequel, Happy Feet Two, was released on November 18, 2011, but it was unable to replicate the critical and commercial success of the original film 

Plot
Every emperor penguin attracts a mate by singing a unique "heartsong"  If the male penguin's heartsong matches the female's song, the two penguins mate  Norma Jean, a female penguin, falls for Memphis, a male penguin and they become mates  They lay an egg, which Memphis cares for while Norma Jean leaves with the other females to fish  While the males struggle through the harsh winter, Memphis briefly drops the egg  The resulting chick, Mumble, is unable to sing but can tap dance  Nevertheless, he is enamored with Gloria, a female penguin who is regarded as the most talented of her age  One day, Mumble encounters a group of hostile skua, with a leader who is tagged with a yellow band, which he says is from an alien abduction  Mumble narrowly escapes the hungry birds by falling into a crevice 
Now a young adult, Mumble is frequently ridiculed by the elders and their leader Noah  After escaping from a leopard seal attack, Mumble befriends five Adelie penguins named Ramón, Nestor, Lombardo, Rinaldo and Raul, known collectively as "the Amigos", who embrace Mumble's dance moves and assimilate him into their group  After seeing a hidden human excavator in an avalanche, they opt to ask Lovelace, a rockhopper penguin, about its origin  Lovelace has the plastic rings of a six pack entangled around his neck, saying that they have been bestowed upon him by mystic beings 
For the emperor penguins, it is mating season and Gloria is the center of attention  The Amigos unsuccessfully attempt to help Mumble win her affection by having Ramón sing a Spanish version of "My Way" behind Mumble, with the latter lip syncing  After Mumble desperately begins tap dancing in synch with her song, she falls for him and the youthful penguins join in for singing and dancing to "Boogie Wonderland"  The elders are appalled by Mumble's conduct, which they see as the reason for their lean fishing season  Memphis begs Mumble to stop dancing, for his own sake, but when Mumble refuses, he is exiled 
Mumble and the Amigos return to Lovelace, only to find him being choked by the plastic rings  Lovelace confesses they were snagged on him while swimming off the forbidden shores, beyond the land of the elephant seals  Not long into their journey, Gloria encounters them, wishing to become Mumble's mate  Fearing for her safety, he ridicules Gloria, driving her away 
At the forbidden shore, Mumble, Lovelace and the Amigos are attacked by the two orcas, during which Lovelace gets free from the plastic rings  After escaping, they find a fishing boat  Mumble exhaustingly pursues it alone, eventually washing up on the shore of Florida, where he is rescued and kept at Sea World with Magellanic penguins  After a long and secluded confinement in addition to fruitlessly trying to communicate with the humans, he nearly succumbs to madness  When a girl attempts to interact with Mumble by tapping the glass, he starts dancing, which attracts a large crowd  He is released back into the wild, with a tracking device attached to his back  He returns to his colony and challenges the will of the elders  Memphis reconciles with him, just as a research team arrives, verifying Mumble's statements of "aliens" existing  The entire colony engages in dance in front of the research team, whose expedition footage prompts a worldwide debate, which eventually leads to the banning of all Antarctic overfishing, satisfying both the emperor penguins and the Amigos 

Cast
Production
George Miller cites as an initial inspiration for the film an encounter with a grizzled old cameraman, whose father was Frank Hurley of the Shackleton expeditions, during the shooting of Mad Max 2: "We were sitting in this bar, having a milkshake, and he looked across at me and said, ‘Antarctica ’ He'd shot a documentary there  He said, ‘You’ve got to make a film in Antarctica  It’s just like out here, in the wasteland  It’s spectacular ’ And that always stuck in my head "Happy Feet was also partially inspired by earlier documentaries such as the BBC's Life in the Freezer  In 2001, during an otherwise non-sequitur meeting, Doug Mitchell impulsively presented Warner Bros , studio president Alan Horn with an early rough draft of the film's screenplay, and asked them to read it while he and Miller flew back to Australia  By the time they'd landed, Warner had decided to provide funding on the film  Production was slated to begin sometime after the completion of the fourth Mad Max film, Fury Road, but geo-political complications pushed Happy Feet to the forefront in early 2003 
The animation is invested heavily in motion capture technology, with the dance scenes acted out by human dancers  The tap-dancing for Mumble in particular was provided by Savion Glover who was also co-choreographer for the dance sequences  The dancers went through "Penguin School" to learn how to move like a penguin, and also wore head apparatus to mimic a penguin's beak Happy Feet needed an enormous group of computers, and Animal Logic worked with IBM to build a server farm with sufficient processing potential  The film took four years to make  Ben Gunsberger, Lighting Supervisor and VFX Department Supervisor, says this was partly because they needed to build new infrastructure and tools  The server farm used IBM BladeCenter framework and BladeCenter HS20 blade servers, which are extremely dense separate computer units each with two Intel Xeon processors  Rendering took up 17 million CPU hours over a nine-month period According to Miller, the environmental message was not a major part of the original script, but "In Australia, we're very, very aware of the ozone hole," he said, "and Antarctica is literally the canary in the coal mine for this stuff  So it sort of had to go in that direction " This influence led to a film with a more environmental tone  Miller said, "You can't tell a story about Antarctica and the penguins without giving that dimension "The film was dedicated to the memory of Nick Enright, Michael Jonson, Robby McNeilly Green, and Steve Irwin 

Music
Happy Feet is a jukebox musical, taking previously recorded songs and working them into the film's soundtrack to fit with the mood of the scene or character  Two soundtrack albums were released for the film; one containing songs from and inspired by the film, and another featuring John Powell's instrumental score  They were released on 31 October 2006 and 19 December 2006, respectively 
Prince's "Song of the Heart" won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song  The film won Golden Trailer Award for Best Music  The song was written by Prince specifically for Happy Feet shortly after he was given a private screening of the film in order to gain his approval for the use of his song "Kiss" in a musical number  Prince enjoyed the film, gave his approval for the use of "Kiss" and offered to write an original song for the production, which he completed a week later 

Soundtrack
Happy Feet: Music from the Motion Picture is the lyrical soundtrack album from the 2006 animated film Happy Feet  As of March 2007, the OST has sold over 272,627 copies in the US 

Certifications
Reception
Box office
The film opened at number 1 in the United States on its first weekend of release (17–19 November), grossing $41 6 million and beating Casino Royale for the top spot  It remained number 1 for the Thanksgiving weekend, making $51 6 million over the five-day period  In total, the film was the top grosser for three weeks, a 2006 box office feat matched only by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest  As of 8 June 2008,  Happy Feet had grossed $198 0 million in the U S  and $186 3 million overseas, making about $384 3 million worldwide  Happy Feet was the third highest grossing animated film of 2006 in the U S , behind Cars and Ice Age: The Meltdown  The film was released in about 35 international territories at the close of 2006 The production budget was $100 million 

Critical reception
Happy Feet received generally positive reviews from critics  On review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 76% "Certified Fresh" score based on 169 reviews, with an average rating of 6 9/10  The site's consensus reads, "Visually dazzling, with a thoughtful storyline and catchy musical numbers, Happy Feet marks a successful animated debut from the makers of Babe " Metacritic reports a 77 out of 100 rating, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale 

Analysis
The film garnered analysis and dissection from various critics  Film critic Yar Habnegnal wrote an essay in Forum on Contemporary Art and Society that examines the themes of encroachment presented throughout the film, as well as various other subtexts and themes, such as religious hierarchy and interracial tensions   Vadim Rizov of IFC sees Mumble as just the latest in a long line of cinematic religious mavericks  Some Christians have also considered the film to be anti-Christian (or antireligious in general) due to the imagery and behaviours of various characters On a technical or formal level, the film has also been lauded in some corners for its innovative introduction of Miller's roving style of subjective cinematography into contemporary animation 

Home media
Happy Feet was released on home media on March 27, 2007, in the United States in three formats: DVD (in separate widescreen and pan-and-scan editions), Blu-ray Disc, and an HD DVD/DVD combo pack  Overall, Happy Feet was the third best-selling film of 2007 with 12 2 million units sold and earning a revenue of $196 9 million Among the DVD's special features is a scene that was cut from the film where Mumble meets a blue whale and an albatross while pursuing the fishing boat  The albatross was Steve Irwin's first voice role in the film before he voiced the elephant seal in the final cut  The scene was finished and included on the DVD in Irwin's memory  This scene is done in Irwin's classic documentary style, with the albatross telling the viewer all about the other characters in the scene, and the impact people are having on their environment  Another special feature included with the DVD is the 1936 Merrie Melodies short I Love to Singa 

Accolades
The film appeared on numerous critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2006 

Video games
A video game based on the film was developed by A2M and published by Midway Games  It has the same main cast as the film  It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, and Wii Artificial Life, Inc  has also developed a mobile game for the Japan market 

Sequel
Happy Feet Two was produced at Dr  D Studios and released on November 18, 2011  Wood and Williams reprised their roles for the sequel  Murphy was set to reprise her role and begin recording sometime in 2010, but was replaced by P!nk after Murphy died from pneumonia on December 20, 2009  Matt Damon and Brad Pitt signed on as Bill the Krill and Will the Krill respectively  The film was neither critically nor financially as successful as its predecessor and its performance at the box office resulted in Dr  D Studios closing down 

4-D attraction
Happy Feet 4-D Experience is a 12-minute 4D film shown at various 4D theaters over the world  It retells the condensed story of Happy Feet with the help of 3D projection and sensory effects, including moving seats, wind, mist and scents  Produced by SimEx-Iwerks, the 4D experience premiered in March 2010 at the Drayton Manor Theme Park  Other locations included Sea World (2010–2011), Shedd Aquarium (2010–2012), Moody Gardens (2010–2011), Nickelodeon Suites Resort, and Adventure Aquarium 

See also
March of the Penguins — A 2005 nature documentary film about the real life emperor penguins  It won the 2005 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature 
Passage 6:
Trenton Lee Stewart
Trenton Lee Stewart (born May 27, 1970) is an American author best known for the Mysterious Benedict Society series  Stewart is a graduate of Hendrix College and the Iowa Writers' Workshop  He lives in Little Rock, Arkansas 

Life and career
Trenton Lee Stewart was born on May 27, 1970, to Jerry and Sandi Stewart, and he grew up in Hot Springs, Arkansas  In 1992, Stewart received a bachelor's degree in English from Hendrix College  Afterwards he attended the University of Iowa's Writers' Workshop, receiving his Master of Fine Arts in creative writing in 1995  Stewart taught at the Iowa Summer Writing Festival and, after moving to Cincinnati, at the Miami University of Ohio in 2005  After that he returned to Arkansas in 2006 Stewart's first novels were published during this time: Flood Summer in 2005 and The Mysterious Benedict Society in 2007, the latter remaining on The New York Times Best Seller list for over a year 
Two more books were completed in the series: The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Perilous Journey in 2008, and The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Prisoner's Dilemma in 2009, both of which appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list  In 2012, a bestselling prequel to the series, The Extraordinary Education of Nicholas Benedict, was published, and 2016 saw the release of Stewart's The Secret Keepers, a stand-alone novel for young readers that was also a bestseller 
Stewart was a Murphy Visiting Writer-in-Residence and taught a Writing Fiction course at Hendrix College in the spring of 2019  Stewart's latest novel, The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Riddle of Ages, was published September 24, 2019 

Bibliography
Flood Summer: A Novel (2005)
The Mysterious Benedict Society (2007)
The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Perilous Journey (2008)
The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Prisoner's Dilemma (2009)
The Mysterious Benedict Society: Mr  Benedict's Book of Perplexing Puzzles, Elusive Enigmas, and Curious Conundrums (2011)
The Extraordinary Education of Nicholas Benedict (2012)
The Secret Keepers (2016)
The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Riddle of Ages (2019)
Secret Keepers Zeit der Späher (2019)
Passage 7:
The Skin of Our Teeth
The Skin of Our Teeth is a play by Thornton Wilder that won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama  It opened on October 15, 1942, at the Shubert Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, before moving to the Plymouth Theatre on Broadway on November 18, 1942  It was produced by Michael Myerberg and directed by Elia Kazan with costumes by Mary Percy Schenck  The play is a three-part allegory about the life of mankind, centering on the Antrobus family of the fictional town of Excelsior, New Jersey  The epic comedy-drama is noted as among the most heterodox of classic American comedies — it broke nearly every established theatrical convention 
The phrase used as the title comes from the King James Bible, Job 19:20: "My bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the skin of my teeth "

Overview
The main characters of the play are George and Maggie Antrobus (from Greek: άνθρωπος (anthropos), "human" or "person"), their two children, Henry and Gladys, and Sabina, who appears as the family's maid in the first and third acts, and as a beauty queen temptress in the second act   The play's action takes place in a modern setting, but is full of anachronisms reaching back to prehistoric times   The characters' roles as archetypes are emphasized by their identification with Biblical and classical personalities:
The name Lilly Sabina is a reference to the myth of Lilith and to the historical rape of the Sabine women, identifications made relatively explicit in the play's text  Henry Antrobus's name was changed from "Cain", following his murder of his brother Abel, mirroring the biblical story in which Adam's son murders his brother after God favors Abel over Cain by gifts  This implies that George Antrobus is Adam, and Maggie Antrobus Eve, supported when George composes a song for his wife Maggie in honor of their anniversary: "Happy w'dding ann'vers'ry dear Eva "
The murder of Abel is an underlying theme in the play  Mr  Antrobus pays far more attention to his "perfect" third child Gladys than he does Henry  As this treatment of Henry continues, Henry's anger progresses throughout the play, reaching its climax in the third act 
While the Antrobus family remains constant throughout the play, the three acts do not form a continuous narrative   The first act takes place during an impending ice age; in the second act the family circumstances have changed as George becomes president of the Fraternal Order of Mammals (apparent references to Sodom and Gomorrah but also to the Roaring Twenties), while the end of the world approaches a second time; the third act opens with Maggie and Gladys emerging from a bunker at the end of a seven-year-long war 
An additional layer of stylistic complexity is added by the occasional interruption of the recite narrative scene by actors directly addressing the audience: In the first scene, the actress playing Sabina reveals her misgivings to the audience about the play; in the second act she refuses to recite her lines and instead talks to the spectators, causing a woman in the audience to run from the theater sobbing; and in the third act, the actor playing Mr  Antrobus interrupts to announce that several actors have taken ill, asking the audience to indulge them while the  "stage manager" of the play conducts a rehearsal with the replacements 

Plot
Act I
Act one is an amalgam of early 20th century New Jersey and the dawn of the Ice Age  The father is inventing things such as the lever, the wheel, the alphabet, and multiplication tables  The family and the entire northeastern U S  face extinction by a wall of ice moving southward from Canada  The story is introduced by a narrator and further expanded by the family maid, Sabina   There are unsettling parallels between the members of the Antrobus family and various characters from the Bible  In addition, time is compressed and scrambled to such an extent that the refugees who arrive at the Antrobus house seeking food and fire include the Old Testament prophet Moses, the ancient Greek poet Homer, and women who are identified as Muses 

Act II
Act II takes place on the Boardwalk at Atlantic City, New Jersey, where the Antrobuses are present for George's swearing-in as president of the Ancient and Honorable Order of Mammals, Subdivision Humans  Sabina is present, also, in the guise of a scheming beauty queen, who tries to steal George's affection from his wife and family  The conventioneers are rowdy and party furiously, but there is an undercurrent of foreboding as a fortune teller warns of an impending storm  The weather soon transforms from summery sunshine to hurricane to deluge  Gladys and George each attempt their individual rebellions, and are brought back into line by the family  The act ends with the family members reconciled and, paralleling the Biblical story of Noah's Ark, directing pairs of animals to safety on a large boat where they survive the storm and the end of the world 

Act III
The final act takes place in the ruins of the Antrobuses' former home   A devastating war has occurred; Maggie and Gladys have survived by hiding in a cellar   When they come out of the cellar we see that Gladys has a baby   Sabina joins them, "dressed as a Napoleonic camp-follower"   George has been away at the front lines leading an army  Henry also fought, on the opposite side, and returns as a general   The family members discuss the ability of the human race to rebuild and continue after continually destroying itself   The question is raised: "Is there any accomplishment or attribute of the human race of enough value that its civilization should be rebuilt?"
The stage manager interrupts the play-within-the-play to explain that several members of their company can't perform their parts, possibly due to food poisoning (as the actress playing Sabina saw blue mold on the lemon meringue pie at dinner)  The stage manager drafts a janitor, a dresser, and other non-actors to fill their parts, which involve quoting philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle to mark the passing of time within the play 
The alternate history action ends where it began, with Sabina dusting the living room and worrying about George's arrival from the office  Her final act is to address the audience and turn over the responsibility of continuing the action, or life, to them 

Themes
Sabina's stock-maid monologue begins and ends the play in the same way; this "stage-play" goes on and on 
In her role as resident pessimist, lacking vision, Sabina says, "That's all we do—always beginning again! Over and over again  Always beginning again " After each disaster, they just rebuild the world again  She also says: "Don't forget that a few years ago we came through the depression by the skin of our teeth! One more tight squeeze like that and where will we be?" And later she says,   "My nerves can't stand it  But if you have any ideas about improving this crazy old world, I'm really with you  I really am "
The Ice Age, the Great Flood, the War imply we are always plagued by the potential for disaster, both natural and man-made 
Art and literature are ways of advancing our humanity: enhancing empathy, tolerance, vision  Improvements in technology, though, don't necessarily advance human nature at all 

Influences and criticism
Similarities between the play and James Joyce's novel Finnegans Wake (1939) were noted in the Saturday Review during the play's run on Broadway  Norman Cousins, editor of the Review, printed a short article by Joseph Campbell and Henry Morton Robinson titled "The Skin of Whose Teeth? The Strange Case of Mr  Wilder's New Play and Finnegans Wake" in the issue for December 19, 1942, with a second part in the February 13, 1943, issue 
In Campbell's book Pathways to Bliss, Campbell recalls his reaction to the similarities he noted between Wilder's play and Joyce's novel:[W]hen I went to see Thornton Wilder's The Skin of Our Teeth, which was the big Broadway hit at the time   all I heard was Finnegans Wake  [   ] I phoned Robinson, and I said, "Good God, here's Wilder making tons of money and a lot of fame on this thing, and it's simply Finnegans Wake " Joyce had just died, and his family was destitute  So I said, "I think we should write a letter to the New York Times "
Campbell claimed to have compared Finnegans Wake and the book form of The Skin of Our Teeth and found "nearly two hundred and fifty analogues—characters, themes, and finally a four-line, word-for-word quote "

Notable productions
The original production starred Tallulah Bankhead, Fredric March, Florence Eldridge, and Montgomery Clift  Bankhead won a Variety Award for Best Actress and the New York Drama Critics Award for Best Actress of the Year for her role as Sabina  When she left the production in March 1943, she was replaced by Miriam Hopkins  Hopkins was in turn replaced by Gladys George  For two performances, while George was ill, Lizabeth Scott, who had been Bankhead's understudy, was called in to play the role  Scott then played the role for the production's run in Boston  Originally billed in New York as "Elizabeth Scott", she dropped the "E" before taking the part in Boston, and it became her breakthrough role 
Following a pre-London tryout tour of the UK, the play had its London premiere at the Phoenix Theatre on 16 May 1945, where it ran for 77 performances, closing 21 July 1945   It re-opened in London at the Piccadilly Theatre on 11 September 1946, running there for a further 109 performances, until 14 December   Directed by Laurence Olivier, Sabina was played by Vivien Leigh, with Cecil Parker as George Antrobus (George Devine at the Piccadilly)  The Oliviers also included the production on their Old Vic tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1948, and Leigh revived the role in a 1959 television production filmed live by Granada Television The play was revived on Broadway in 1955, premiering at the ANTA Theatre  It was staged by the Edinburgh Gateway Company in 1961 In 1983, American Playhouse, on PBS, aired a production that was produced at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego   It starred Blair Brown, Harold Gould, Sada Thompson, Rue McClanahan, Jeffrey Combs and was directed by Jack O'Brien 
New York City's Public Theater presented a production as part of its 1998 summer Shakespeare in the Park festival at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park   That production starred Kristen Johnston, John Goodman and Frances Conroy   It was directed by Irene Lewis In 2017, Theatre for a New Audience performed The Skin of Our Teeth directed by Arin Arbus  It won the 2017 Obie Award for Directing and Performance by Kecia Lewis A Broadway revival of the play directed by Lileana Blain-Cruz  premiered at the Vivian Beaumont Theater in previews on April 1, 2022, and officially on April 25  It was subsequently nominated for six Tony Awards including Best Direction, Best Lead Actress, Best Costume Design, Best Lighting Design, Best Sound Design, and Best Set Design 

Cast list
Awards and nominations
2022 Broadway Revival
Passage 8:
Battle of Trenton
The Battle of Trenton was a small but pivotal American Revolutionary War battle on the morning of December 26, 1776, in Trenton, New Jersey  After General George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River north of Trenton the previous night, Washington led the main body of the Continental Army against Hessian auxiliaries garrisoned at Trenton  After a brief battle, almost two-thirds of the Hessian force were captured, with negligible losses to the Americans  The battle significantly boosted the Continental Army's waning morale, and inspired re-enlistments 
The Continental Army had previously suffered several defeats in New York and had been forced to retreat through New Jersey to Pennsylvania  Morale in the army was low; to end the year on a positive note, George Washington—Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army—devised a plan to cross the Delaware River on the night of December 25–26 and surround the Hessians' garrison 
Because the river was icy and the weather severe, the crossing proved dangerous  Two detachments were unable to cross the river, leaving Washington with only 2,400 men under his command in the assault, 3,000 fewer than planned  The army marched 9 mi (14 5 km) south to Trenton  The Hessians had lowered their guard, thinking they were safe from the Americans' army, and had no long-distance outposts or patrols  Washington's forces caught them off guard, and after a short but fierce resistance, most of the Hessians surrendered and were captured, with just over a third escaping across Assunpink Creek 
Despite the battle's small numbers, the victory inspired patriots and sympathizers of the newly formed United States  With the success of the ongoing revolution in doubt a week earlier, the army had seemed on the verge of collapse  The dramatic victory inspired soldiers to serve longer and attracted new recruits to the ranks 

Background
In early December 1776, American morale was very low  The Americans had been ousted from New York by the British and their Hessian auxiliaries, and the Continental Army was forced to retreat across New Jersey  Ninety percent of the Continental Army soldiers who had served at Long Island were gone  Men had deserted, feeling that the cause for independence was lost  Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, expressed some doubts, writing to his cousin in Virginia, "I think the game is pretty near up "At the time a small town in New Jersey, Trenton was occupied by four regiments of Hessian soldiers (numbering about 1,400 men) commanded by Colonel Johann Rall  Washington's force comprised 2,400 men, with infantry divisions commanded by Major Generals Nathanael Greene and John Sullivan, and artillery under the direction of Brigadier General Henry Knox 

Prelude
Intelligence
George Washington had stationed a spy named John Honeyman, posing as a Tory, in Trenton  Honeyman had served with Major General James Wolfe in Quebec at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham on September 13, 1759, and had no trouble establishing his credentials as a Tory  Honeyman was a butcher and bartender, who traded with the British and Hessians  This enabled him to gather intelligence and to convince the Hessians that the Continental Army was in such a low state of morale that they would not attack Trenton  Shortly before Christmas, he arranged to be captured by the Continental Army, who had orders to bring him to Washington unharmed  After being questioned by Washington, he was imprisoned in a hut to be tried as a Tory in the morning, but a small fire broke out nearby, enabling him to "escape"  On the evening before the battle, Hessian commander Rall was celebrating Christmas with his troops at the farm of Abraham Hunt, a wealthy merchant and farmer of Trenton  Hunt played the role of a friendly Loyalist host, giving Rall a false sense of serenity while Washington and his troops were preparing for a surprise attack 

U S  plan
The U S  plan relied on launching coordinated attacks from three directions  General John Cadwalader would launch a diversionary attack against the British garrison at Bordentown, New Jersey, to block off reinforcements from the south  General James Ewing would take 700 militia across the river at Trenton Ferry, seize the bridge over the Assunpink Creek and prevent enemy troops from escaping  The main assault force of 2,400 men would cross the river 9 mi (14 km) north of Trenton and split into two groups, one under Greene and one under Sullivan, to launch a pre-dawn attack  Sullivan would attack the town from the south, and Greene from the north  Depending on the success of the operation, the Americans would possibly follow up with separate attacks on Princeton and New Brunswick During the week before the battle, U S  advance parties began to ambush enemy cavalry patrols, capturing dispatch riders and attacking Hessian pickets  The Hessian commander, to emphasize the danger his men were facing, sent 100 infantry and an artillery detachment to deliver a letter to the British commander at Princeton  Washington ordered Ewing and his Pennsylvania militia to try to gain information on Hessian movements and technology  Ewing instead made three successful raids across the river  On December 17 and 18, 1776, they attacked an outpost of jägers and on the 21st, they set fire to several houses  Washington put constant watches on all possible crossings near the Continental Army encampment on the Delaware, as he believed William Howe would launch an attack from the north on Philadelphia if the river froze over On December 20, 1776, some 2,000 troops led by General Sullivan arrived in Washington's camp  They had been under the command of Charles Lee and had been moving slowly through northern New Jersey when Lee was captured  That same day, an additional 800 troops arrived from Fort Ticonderoga under the command of Horatio Gates 

Hessian moves
On December 14, 1776, the Hessians arrived in Trenton to establish their winter quarters  At the time, Trenton was a small town with about 100 houses and two main streets, King (now Warren) Street and Queen (now Broad) Street  Carl von Donop, Rall's superior, had marched south to Mount Holly on December 22 to deal with the resistance in New Jersey, and had clashed with some New Jersey militia there on December 23 Donop, who despised Rall, was reluctant to give command of Trenton to him  Rall was known to be loud and unacquainted with the English language, but he was also a 36-year veteran with a great deal of battle experience  His request for reinforcements had been turned down by British commander General James Grant, who disdained the American rebels and thought them poor soldiers  Despite Rall's experience, the Hessians at Trenton did not admire their commander Trenton lacked city walls or fortifications, which was typical of U S  settlements  Some Hessian officers advised Rall to fortify the town, and two of his engineers advised that a redoubt be constructed at the upper end of town and fortifications be built along the river  The engineers went so far as to draw up plans, but Rall disagreed with them  When Rall was again urged to fortify the town, he replied, "Let them come     We will go at them with the bayonet "As Christmas approached, Loyalists came to Trenton to report the Americans were planning action  U S  deserters told the Hessians that rations were being prepared for an advance across the river  Rall publicly dismissed such talk as nonsense, but privately in letters to his superiors, he said he was worried about an imminent attack  He wrote to Donop that he was "liable to be attacked at any moment"  Rall said that Trenton was "indefensible" and asked that British troops establish a garrison in Maidenhead (now Lawrenceville)  Close to Trenton, this would help defend the roads from Americans  His request was denied  As the Americans disrupted Hessian supply lines, the officers started to share Rall's fears  One wrote, "We have not slept one night in peace since we came to this place " On December 22, 1776, a spy reported to Grant that Washington had called a council of war; Grant told Rall to "be on your guard" The main Hessian force of 1,500 men was divided into three regiments: Knyphausen, Lossberg and Rall  That night, they did not send out any patrols because of the severe weather 

Crossing and march
Before Washington and his troops left, Benjamin Rush came to cheer up the general  While he was there, he saw a note Washington had written, saying, "Victory or Death"  Those words would be the password for the surprise attack  Each soldier carried 60 rounds of ammunition, and three days of rations  When the army arrived at the shores of the Delaware, they were already behind schedule, and clouds began to form above them  It began to rain  As the air's temperature dropped, the rain changed to sleet, and then to snow  The Americans began to cross the river, with John Glover in command  The men went across in Durham boats, while the horses and artillery went across on large ferries  The 14th Continental Regiment of Glover manned the boats  During the crossing, several men fell overboard, including Colonel John Haslet  Haslet was quickly pulled out of the water  No one died during the crossing, and all the artillery pieces made it over in good condition Two small detachments of infantry of about 40 men each were ordered ahead of main columns  They set roadblocks ahead of the main army and were to take prisoner whoever came into or left the town  One of the groups was sent north of Trenton, and the other was sent to block River Road, which ran along the Delaware River to Trenton 

The terrible weather conditions delayed the landings in New Jersey until 3:00 am; the plan was that they were supposed to be completed by 12:00 am  Washington realized it would be impossible to launch a pre-dawn attack  Another setback occurred for the Americans, as generals Cadwalader and Ewing were unable to join the attack because of the weather conditions At 4:00 am, the soldiers began to march towards Trenton  Along the way, several civilians joined as volunteers and led as guides (such as John Mott) because of their knowledge of the terrain  After marching 1 5 mi (2 4 km) through winding roads into the wind, they reached Bear Tavern, where they turned south onto Bear Tavern Road   The ground was slippery, but it was level, making it easier for the horses and artillery  They began to make better time  They soon reached Jacobs Creek, where, with difficulty, the Americans made it across  The two groups stayed together until they reached Birmingham (now West Trenton), where they split apart, with Greene’s force heading east to approach Trenton by the Scotch and Pennington roads and Sullivan’s heading southwest to approach via River Road  Soon after, they reached the house of Benjamin Moore, where the family offered food and drink to Washington  At this point, the first signs of daylight began to appear  Many of the troops did not have boots, so they were forced to wear rags around their feet  Some of the men's feet bled, turning the snow to a dark red  Two men died on the march As they marched, Washington rode up and down the line, encouraging the men to continue  General Sullivan sent a courier to tell Washington that the weather was wetting his men's gunpowder  Washington replied, "Tell General Sullivan to use the bayonet  I am resolved to take Trenton "About 2 mi (3 km) outside the town, the main columns reunited with the advance parties  They were startled by the sudden appearance of 50 armed men, but they were American  Led by Adam Stephen, they had not known about the plan to attack Trenton and had attacked a Hessian outpost  Washington feared the Hessians would have been put on guard, and shouted at Stephen, "You sir! You Sir, may have ruined all my plans by having them put on their guard " Despite this, Washington ordered the advance continue to Trenton  In the event, Rall thought the first raid was the attack which Grant had warned him about, and that there would be no further action that day 

Battle
U S  attack
At 8 am on the morning of December 26, the outpost was set up by the Hessians at a cooper shop on Pennington Road about one mile northwest of Trenton  Washington led the assault, riding in front of his soldiers  As the Hessian commander of the outpost, Lieutenant Andreas Wiederholdt, left the shop, an American fired at him but missed  Wiederholdt immediately shouted, "Der Feind!" (The Enemy!) and other Hessians came out  The Americans fired three volleys, and the Hessians returned one of their own  Washington ordered Edward Hand's Pennsylvania Riflemen and a battalion of German-speaking infantry to block the road that led to Princeton  They attacked the Hessian outpost there  Wiederholdt soon realized that this was more than a raiding party; seeing other Hessians retreating from the outpost, he led his men to do the same  Both Hessian detachments made organized retreats, firing as they fell back  On the high ground at the north end of Trenton, they were joined by a duty company from the Lossberg Regiment  They engaged the Americans, retreating slowly, keeping up continuous fire and using houses for cover  Once in Trenton, they gained covering fire from other Hessian guard companies on the outskirts of the town  Another guard company nearer to the Delaware River rushed east to their aid, leaving open the River Road into Trenton  Washington ordered the escape route to Princeton be cut off, sending infantry in battle formation to block it, while artillery formed at the head of King and Queen streets Leading the southern U S  column, General Sullivan entered Trenton by the abandoned River Road and blocked the only crossing over the Assunpink Creek to cut off the Hessian escape  Sullivan briefly held up his advance to make sure Greene's division had time to drive the Hessians from their outposts in the north  Soon after, they continued their advance, attacking the Hermitage, home of Philemon Dickinson, where 50 jägers under the command of Lieutenant von Grothausen were stationed  Lieutenant von Grothausen brought 12 of his jägers into action against the advanced guard but had only advanced a few hundred yards when he saw a column of Americans advancing to the Hermitage  Pulling back to the Hessian barracks, he was joined by the rest of the jägers  After the exchange of one volley, they turned and ran, some trying to swim across the creek, while others escaped over the bridge, which had not yet been cut off  The 20 British dragoons also fled  As Greene and Sullivan's columns pushed into the town, Washington moved to high ground north of King and Queens streets to see the action and direct his troops  By this time, U S  artillery from the other side of the Delaware River had come into action, devastating the Hessian positions With the sounding of the alarm, the three Hessian regiments began to prepare for battle  The Rall regiment formed on lower King Street along with the Lossberg regiment, while the Knyphausen regiment formed at the lower end of Queen Street  Lieutenant Piel, Rall's brigade adjutant, woke his commander, who found that the rebels had taken the "V" of the main streets of the town  This is where the engineers had recommended building a redoubt  Rall ordered his regiment to form up at the lower end of King Street, the Lossberg regiment to prepare for an advance up Queen Street, and the Knyphausen regiment to stand by as a reserve for Rall's advance up King Street The U S  cannon stationed at the head of the two main streets soon came into action  In reply, Rall directed his regiment, supported by a few companies of the Lossberg regiment, to clear the guns  The Hessians formed ranks and began to advance up the street, but their formations were quickly broken by the U S  guns and fire from Mercer's men who had taken houses on the left side of the street  Breaking ranks, the Hessians fled  Rall ordered two three-pound cannons into action  After getting off six rounds each, within just a few minutes, half of the Hessians manning their guns were killed by the U S  cannon  After the men fled to cover behind houses and fences, their cannons were taken by the Americans  Following capture of the cannons, men under the command of George Weedon advanced down King Street On Queen Street, all Hessian attempts to advance up the street were repulsed by guns under the command of Thomas Forrest  After firing four rounds each, two more Hessian guns were silenced  One of Forrest's howitzers was put out of action with a broken axle  The Knyphausen regiment became separated from the Lossberg and the Rall regiments  The Lossberg and the Rall regiments fell back to a field outside of town, taking heavy losses from grapeshot and musket fire  In the southern part of the town, Americans under command of Sullivan began to overwhelm the Hessians  John Stark led a bayonet charge at the Knyphausen regiment, whose resistance broke because their weapons would not fire  Sullivan led a column of men to block off escape of troops across the creek 

Hessian resistance collapses
The Hessians in the field attempted to reorganize and make one last attempt to retake the town so they could make a breakout  Rall decided to attack the U S  flank on the heights north of the town  Rall yelled "Forward! Advance! Advance!", and the Hessians began to move, with the brigade's band playing fifes, bugles and drums to help the Hessians' spirit Washington, still on high ground, saw the Hessians approaching the U S  flank  He moved his troops to assume battle formation against the enemy  The two Hessian regiments began marching toward King Street but were caught in U S  fire that came at them from three directions  Some Americans had taken up defensive positions inside houses, reducing their exposure  Some civilians joined the fight against the Hessians  Despite this, they continued to push, recapturing their cannons  At the head of King Street, Knox saw the Hessians had retaken the cannons and ordered his troops to take them  Six men ran and, after a brief struggle, seized the cannons, turning them on the Hessians  With most of the Hessians unable to fire their guns, the attack stalled  The Hessians' formations broke, and they began to scatter  Rall was mortally wounded  Washington led his troops down from high ground while yelling, "March on, my brave fellows, after me!" Most of the Hessians retreated into an orchard, with the Americans in close pursuit  Quickly surrounded, the Hessians were offered terms of surrender, to which they agreed 
Although ordered to join Rall, the remains of the Knyphausen regiment mistakenly marched in the opposite direction  They tried to escape across the bridge but found it had been taken  The Americans quickly swept in, defeating a Hessian attempt to break through their lines  Surrounded by Sullivan's men, the regiment surrendered, just minutes after the rest of the brigade 

Casualties and capture
The Hessian forces lost 22 killed in action, including their commander Colonel Johann Rall, 83 wounded, and 896 captured–including the wounded  The Americans suffered only two deaths during the march and five wounded from battle, including a near-fatal shoulder wound to future president James Monroe  Other losses incurred by the patriots from exhaustion, exposure, and illness in the following days may have raised their fatalities above those of the Hessians The captured Hessians were sent to Philadelphia and later Lancaster  In 1777 they were moved to Virginia  Rall was mortally wounded and died later that night at his headquarters  All four Hessian colonels in Trenton were killed in the battle  The Lossberg regiment was effectively removed from the British forces  Parts of the Knyphausen regiment escaped to the south, but Sullivan captured some 200 additional men, along with the regiment's cannon and supplies  They also captured approximately 1,000 arms and much-needed ammunition  The Americans also captured their entire store of provisions—tons of flour, dried and salted meats, ale and other liquors, as well as shoes, boots, clothing and bedding—things that were as much needed by the ragtag Continental forces, such as weapons and horses 
Among those captured by the Patriots was Christian Strenge, later to become a schoolmaster and fraktur artist in Pennsylvania 

Hessian drinking
An officer in Washington's staff wrote before the battle, "They make a great deal of Christmas in Germany, and no doubt the Hessians will drink a great deal of beer and have a dance to-night  They will be sleepy tomorrow morning " Popular history commonly portrays the Hessians as drunk from Christmas celebrations  However, historian David Hackett Fischer quotes Patriot John Greenwood, who fought in the battle and supervised Hessians afterward, who wrote, "I am certain not a drop of liquor was drunk during the whole night, nor, as I could see, even a piece of bread eaten " Military historian Edward G  Lengel wrote, "The Germans were dazed and tired but there is no truth to the legend claiming that they were helplessly drunk "

Aftermath
After the Hessians' surrender, Washington is reported to have shaken the hand of a young officer and said, "This is a glorious day for our country " On December 28, General Washington interviewed Lieutenant (later Colonel) Andreas Wiederhold, who detailed the failures of Rall's preparation  Washington soon learned, however, that Cadwalader and Ewing had been unable to complete their crossing, leaving his worn-out army of 2,400 men isolated  Without their 2,600 men, Washington realized he did not have the forces to attack Princeton and New Brunswick By noon, Washington's force had moved across the Delaware back into Pennsylvania, taking their prisoners and captured supplies with them  Washington would follow up his success a week later in the Battle of the Assunpink Creek and the Battle of Princeton solidifying Patriot gains 

Legacy
This small but decisive battle, as with the later Battle of Cowpens, had an effect disproportionate to its size  The Patriot victory gave the Continental Congress new confidence, as it proved colonial forces could defeat them in the future  It also increased re-enlistments in the Continental Army forces  By defeating a European army, the colonials reduced the fear that the Hessians had caused earlier that year after the fighting in New York  Howe was stunned that the Patriots so easily surprised and overwhelmed the Hessian garrison  Colonial support for the rebellion was further buoyed significantly at this time by writings of Thomas Paine and additional successful actions by the New Jersey Militia Two notable U S  officers were wounded while leading the charge down King Street: William Washington, cousin of General Washington, and Lieutenant James Monroe, the future President of the United States  Monroe was carried from the field bleeding badly after he was struck in the left shoulder by a musket ball, which severed an artery  Doctor John Riker clamped the artery, preventing him from bleeding to death The Trenton Battle Monument, erected at "Five Points" in Trenton, stands as a tribute to this U S  victory  The crossing of the Delaware River and battle are reenacted by local enthusiasts every year (unless the weather is too severe on the river) Eight current Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn, 103rd Eng Bn, A/1-104th Cav, 111th Inf, 125th QM Co, 175th Inf, 181st Inf and 198th Sig Bn) and one currently-active Regular Army Artillery battalion (1–5th FA) are derived from U S  units that participated in the Battle of Trenton  There are thirty current units of the U S  Army with colonial roots 

Painting
In 1851, German-American artist Emanuel Leutze painted the second of three paintings depicting Washington crossing the Delaware  It is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and is "one of the most famous American paintings " At the time of its first exhibition it caused a sensation, in Europe and the United States  Leutze hoped it would stir revolutionary sentiments in Germany  After six months in Germany it was shipped to New York City where the New-York Mirror newspaper lauded it with the words, "the grandest, most majestic, and most effective painting ever exhibited in America " The painting is the center-piece of the collections in the American Wing  It is still one of the most recognizable paintings at the Metropolitan  It is central to the canon of American historical art images, its monumental popularity undimmed in the years since it was first exhibited 

See also
American Revolutionary War British New York counter-offensive  The 'Battle of Trenton' placed in overall sequence and strategic context 
Battle of Bennington
Battle of Iron Works Hill
Battle of Princeton – fought the day after the Battle of the Assunpink Creek
Battle of the Assunpink Creek – also known as the Second Battle of Trenton, fought one week later
Battles of Saratoga
Battle of Yorktown* List of American Revolutionary War battles
New Jersey in the American Revolution

Footnotes
Bibliography
Brooks, Victor (1999)  How America Fought Its Wars  New York: Da Capo Press  ISBN 1-58097-002-8 
Burt, Daniel S  (2001)  The Biography Book  New York: Oryx Press  ISBN 1-57356-256-4 
Ferling, John (2007)  Almost a Miracle  Oxford University Press  ISBN 978-0-19-518121-0 
Fischer, David Hackett (2006)  Washington's Crossing  Oxford University Press  ISBN 0-19-517034-2 
Ketchum, Richard (1999)  The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton (1st Owl books ed )  Holt Paperbacks  ISBN 0-8050-6098-7 
Lengel, Edward (2005)  General George Washington, a Military Life  New York: Random House Paperbacks  ISBN 0-8129-6950-2 
McCullough, David (2006)  1776  New York: Simon and Schuster Paperback  ISBN 0-7432-2672-0  1776 David 
Mitchell, Craig (2003)  George Washington's New Jersey  Middle Atlantic Press  ISBN 0-9705804-1-X 
Rosenfeld, Lucy (2007)  History Walks in New Jersey  Rutgers  ISBN 978-0-8135-3969-0 
Savas, Theodore (2006)  Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution  Savas Beatie  ISBN 1-932714-12-X 
Sawicki, James A  (1981)  Infantry Regiments of the US Army  Dumfries, VA: Wyvern Publications  ISBN 978-0-9602404-3-2 
Scheer, George (1987)  Rebels and Redcoats  Da Capo Press  ISBN 0-306-80307-0 
Schuyler, Hamilton (1929)  A history of Trenton, 1679-1929  Princeton : Princeton University Press: The Trenton Historical Society 
Stanhope, Phillip Henry (1854)  History of England: From the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles  GB, Murray 
Stryker, William S  (1898)  The Battles of Trenton and Princeton  Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company  OCLC 49835662 
Tucker, Philip Thomas (2014), George Washington's Surprise Attack: A New Look at the Battle That Decided the Fate of America, Skyhorse Publishing, ISBN 978-1628736526
Wiederholdt, Andreas (2015) [1862]   M D  Learned; C  Grosse (eds )  Tagebuch des Capt  Wiederholdt vom 7 Oktober bis 7 December 1780  The University of Michigan Library: The MacMillan Co, New York 
Wood, W J  Henry (2003)  Battles of the Revolutionary War  Da Capo Press  ISBN 0-306-81329-7 

Further reading
Maloy, Mark  Victory or Death: The Battles of Trenton and Princeton, December 25, 1776 – January 3, 1777  Emerging Revolutionary War Series  El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2018  ISBN 978-1-61121-381-2 

External links

"The Two Battles of Trenton"  The Trenton Historical Society 
"The Winter Patriots: The Trenton-Princeton Campaign of 1776–1777"  George Washington's Mount Vernon 
Passage 9:
Hellfire: A Journey from Hiroshima
Hellfire: A Journey from Hiroshima is a 1986 American documentary film directed by John Junkerman  It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature 
Passage 10:
The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden
The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden is a one act play by American novelist and playwright Thornton Wilder written in 1931   It was first published in The Long Christmas Dinner and Other Plays in One Act (New York: Coward-McCann, 1931) 

Productions
The first production of The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden was by the Yale Dramatic Association and the Vassar College Philalethis  at the Yale University theater in New Haven, Connecticut, on November 25, 1931   It opened on Broadway at the Cort Theatre on March 16, 1948, in a production starring Peggy Allenby as Ma Kirby and Don MacLaughlin as Elmer   A production by Theodore Mann at the Circle in the Square Theatre which opened on April 21, 1993, won both a Tony Award and a Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Play 

Plot summary
Almost the entire play takes place during an automobile journey from Newark to Camden, New Jersey by a family on their way to visit a married daughter, who has recently lost a baby in childbirth   Very little happens, but the father, mother, and children reminisce, joke, and sightsee and somehow, in classic Thornton Wilder fashion, capture something of the universal joy and sadness of life as they motor along 

Themes
Comparing this play with his later masterpiece, Our Town, Wilder said in 1974, "In my plays I attempted to raise ordinary daily conversation between ordinary people to the level of the universal human experience " In his "Notes to the Producer" written in 1931, Wilder stated that:

It should constantly be borne in mind that the purpose of this play is the portrayal of the character of Ma Kirby     the director should constantly keep in mind that Ma Kirby's humor, strength and humanity constitute the unifying element throughout 
Eric Specie in an overview of the play says:

A family car trip occurs on a bare stage  Yet the ordinary is only the setting for an investigation of extraordinary existential issues  In this family drama, nothing much happens—and yet everything important happens 
In this play, Ma Kirby is the leading and strong character  She is a loving mother, an active woman, strict about dress and manners, thoughts and beliefs in God  She is satisfied and joyful with her family members  For her, the place where her family lives is the best place on earth  As a responsible or good mother, she wants her children to be honest by doing good and think good  She is a philosophical, determined, and kind-hearted person 
Passage 11:
Old Barracks Museum
The Old Barracks Museum, also known just as the Old Barracks, is a historic building located at 101 Barracks Street in Trenton, Mercer County, New Jersey  Built in 1758 to house soldiers of the British Army, it is the only remaining colonial barracks in the state and is one of the only tangible surviving elements of the 1776 Battle of Trenton  The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 25, 1971 and listed as a National Historic Landmark on November 28, 1972, for its significance in military history   It is now a state-run historic site and museum 

History
The Old Barracks were built in 1758 to house British soldiers during the French and Indian War, after colonists complained about the forced quartering of soldiers engaged in the conflict   It was built as a U-shaped stone structure, capable of housing about 300 soldiers at a time   It was reoccupied as a winter quarters by Hessian troops in the fall of 1776, during the American Revolutionary War   George Washington crossed the Delaware River to catch the Hessian garrison by surprise during the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26, 1776   Most of this battlefield is now occupied by downtown Trenton   For the remainder of that conflict it was occupied by whichever force controlled Trenton, including at various times British and American Continental Army troops  In the later stages of the war it was used as a military hospital by the Continental Army Following the Revolution, the building was sold off, and it was converted into a series of private residences   One arm of the barracks was demolished in 1813 to make way for Front Street   From 1855 to 1899 it was used as a home for elderly women   In 1902, members of the Daughters of the Revolution, under the leadership of Beulah A  Oliphant, bought part of the building to preserve it   The state bought the other part and formed a museum in 1914 which continues to be open and supported by the State of New Jersey The museum is open to visitors year round, Monday–Saturday, and is known for the annual Battle of Trenton Reenactments 

Gallery
See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Mercer County, New Jersey
East Jersey Olde Towne Village, site of replica of New Brunswick Barracks
Context 2: Passage 1:
Daylight saving time
Daylight saving time (DST), also referred to as daylight savings time, daylight time (United States, Canada, and Australia), or summer time (United Kingdom, European Union, and others), is the practice of advancing clocks (typically by one hour) during warmer months so that darkness falls at a later clock time  The typical implementation of DST is to set clocks forward by one hour in either the late winter or spring ("spring forward"), and to set clocks back by one hour in the fall ("fall back") to return to standard time  As a result, there is one 23-hour day in early spring and one 25-hour day in the middle of autumn 
The idea of aligning waking hours to daylight hours to conserve candles was first proposed in 1784 by U S  polymath Benjamin Franklin  In a satirical letter to the editor of The Journal of Paris, Franklin suggested that waking up earlier in the summer would economize on candle usage; and calculated considerable savings  In 1895, New Zealand entomologist and astronomer George Hudson proposed the idea of changing clocks by two hours every spring to the Wellington Philosophical Society  In 1907, British resident William Willett presented the idea as a way to save energy  After some serious consideration, it was not implemented In 1908, Port Arthur in Ontario, Canada (today merged into Thunder Bay), started using DST  Starting on 30 April 1916, the German Empire and Austria-Hungary each organized the first nationwide implementation in their jurisdictions  Many countries have used DST at various times since then, particularly since the 1970s energy crisis  DST is generally not observed near the Equator, where sunrise and sunset times do not vary enough to justify it  Some countries observe it only in some regions: for example, parts of Australia observe it, while other parts do not  Conversely, it is not observed at some places at high latitudes, because there are wide variations in sunrise and sunset times and a one-hour shift would relatively not make much difference  The United States observes it, except for the states of Hawaii and Arizona (within the latter, however, the Navajo Nation does observe it, conforming to federal practice)  A minority of the world's population uses DST; Asia, Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean generally do not 

Rationale
Industrialized societies usually follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year  The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, and the coordination of mass transit, for example, usually remain constant year-round  In contrast, an agrarian society's daily routines for work and personal conduct are more likely governed by the length of daylight hours and by solar time, which change seasonally because of the Earth's axial tilt  North and south of the tropics, daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater the farther one moves away from the equator 
After synchronously resetting all clocks in a region to one hour ahead of standard time in spring in anticipation of longer daylight hours, individuals following a clock-based schedule will be awakened an hour earlier in the solar day than they would have otherwise  They will begin and complete daily work routines an hour earlier: in most cases they will have an extra hour of daylight available to them after their workday activities Proponents of daylight saving time argue that most people prefer a greater increase in daylight hours after the typical "nine to five" workday  Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, but the actual effect on overall energy use is heavily disputed The shift in apparent time is also motivated by practicality  In American temperate latitudes, for example, the sun rises around 04:30 at the summer solstice and sets around 19:30  Since most people are asleep at 04:30, it is seen as more practical to treat 04:30 as if it is 05:30, thereby allowing people to wake closer to the sunrise and be active in the evening light 
Because sunrise and sunset times become significantly out of phase with standard working hours at higher latitudes (such as Iceland, Scandinavia, and Alaska), the manipulation of time would have little effect on daily life, and thus is not practiced DST is similarly of little use for locations near the Equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year 

Variation within a time zone
The effect of Daylight Savings Time also varies according to how far east or west the location is within its time zone, with locations farther east inside the time zone benefiting more from DST than locations farther west in the same time zone  In spite of a width spanning thousands of miles, all of China is located within a single time zone per government mandate, minimizing any potential benefit of Daylight Savings Time there 

History
Ancient civilizations adjusted daily schedules to the sun more flexibly than DST does, often dividing daylight into 12 hours regardless of daytime, so that each daylight hour became progressively longer during spring and shorter during autumn  For example, the Romans kept time with water clocks that had different scales for different months of the year; at Rome's latitude, the third hour from sunrise (hora tertia) started at 09:02 solar time and lasted 44 minutes at the winter solstice, but at the summer solstice it started at 06:58 and lasted 75 minutes  From the 14th century onward, equal-length civil hours supplanted unequal ones, so civil time no longer varied by season  Unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as monasteries of Mount Athos and in Jewish ceremonies Benjamin Franklin published the proverb "early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise," and published a letter in the Journal de Paris during his time as an American envoy to France (1776–1785) suggesting that Parisians economize on candles by rising earlier to use morning sunlight  This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells and firing cannons at sunrise  Despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST; 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules  However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks required a standardization of time unknown in Franklin's day In 1810, the Spanish National Assembly Cortes of Cádiz issued a regulation that moved certain meeting times forward by one hour from 1 May to 30 September in recognition of seasonal changes, but it did not change the clocks  It also acknowledged that private businesses were in the practice of changing their opening hours to suit daylight conditions, but they did so of their own volition 
 
New Zealand entomologist George Hudson first proposed modern DST  His shift-work job gave him leisure time to collect insects and led him to value after-hours daylight  In 1895, he presented a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society proposing a two-hour daylight-saving shift, and considerable interest was expressed in Christchurch; he followed up with an 1898 paper  Many publications credit the DST proposal to prominent English builder and outdoorsman William Willett, who independently conceived DST in 1905 during a pre-breakfast ride when he observed how many Londoners slept through a large part of a summer day  Willett also was an avid golfer who disliked cutting short his round at dusk  His solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, and he published the proposal two years later  Liberal Party member of parliament Robert Pearce took up the proposal, introducing the first Daylight Saving Bill to the British House of Commons on 12 February 1908  A select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearce's bill did not become law and several other bills failed in the following years  Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915 

Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada, was the first city in the world to enact DST, on 1 July 1908  This was followed by Orillia, Ontario, introduced by William Sword Frost while mayor from 1911 to 1912  The first states to adopt DST (German: Sommerzeit) nationally were those of the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary commencing 30 April 1916, as a way to conserve coal during wartime  Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed  Russia and a few other countries waited until the next year, and the United States adopted daylight saving in 1918  Most jurisdictions abandoned DST in the years after the war ended in 1918, with exceptions including Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Ireland, and the United States  It became common during World War II (some countries adopted double summer time), and was standardized in the U S  by federal law in 1966, and widely adopted in Europe from the 1970s as a result of the 1970s energy crisis  Since then, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals It is a common myth in the United States that DST was first implemented for the benefit of farmers  In reality, farmers have been one of the strongest lobbying groups against DST since it was first implemented  The factors that influence farming schedules, such as morning dew and dairy cattle's readiness to be milked, are ultimately dictated by the sun, so the time change introduces unnecessary challenges DST was first implemented in the US with the Standard Time Act of 1918, a wartime measure for seven months during World War I in the interest of adding more daylight hours to conserve energy resources  Year-round DST, or "War Time", was implemented again during World War II  After the war, local jurisdictions were free to choose if and when to observe DST until the Uniform Time Act which standardized DST in 1966   Permanent daylight saving time was enacted for the winter of 1974, but there were complaints of children going to school in the dark and working people commuting and starting their work day in pitch darkness during the winter months, and it was repealed a year later 

Procedure
The relevant authorities usually schedule clock changes to occur at (or soon after) midnight, and on a weekend, in order to lessen disruption to weekday schedules  A one-hour change is usual, but twenty-minute and two-hour changes have been used in the past  In all countries that observe daylight saving time seasonally (i e  during summer and not winter), the clock is advanced from standard time to daylight saving time in the spring, and they are turned back from daylight saving time to standard time in the autumn  
For a midnight change in spring, a digital display of local time would appear to jump from 23:59:59 9 to 01:00:00 0  For the same clock in autumn, the local time would appear to repeat the hour preceding midnight, i e  it would jump from 23:59:59 9 to 23:00:00 0 
In most countries that observe seasonal daylight saving time, the time reverts in winter to "standard time"  An exception exists in Ireland, where its winter clock has the same offset (UTC±00:00) and legal name as that in Britain (Greenwich Mean Time)—but while its summer clock also has the same offset as Britain's (UTC+01:00), its legal name is Irish Standard Time as opposed to British Summer Time Since 2019 Morocco observes daylight saving time every month but Ramadan  During the holy month (the date of which is determined by the lunar calendar and thus moves annually with regard to the Gregorian calendar), the country's civil clocks observe Western European Time (UTC+00:00, which geographically overlaps most of the nation)  At the close of that month, its clocks are turned forward to Western European Summer Time (UTC+01:00) The time at which to change clocks differs across jurisdictions  Members of the European Union conduct a coordinated change, changing all zones at the same instant, at 01:00 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which means that it changes at 02:00 Central European Time (CET), equivalent to 03:00 Eastern European Time (EET)  As a result, the time differences across European time zones remain constant  North America coordination of the clock change differs, in that each jurisdiction change at 02:00 local time, which temporarily creates an imbalance with the next time zone (until it adjusts its time, one hour later, at 2 AM there)  For example, Mountain Time is for one hour in the spring two hours ahead of Pacific Time instead of the usual one hour ahead, and instead of one hour in the autumn, briefly zero hours ahead of Pacific Time 
The dates on which clocks change vary with location and year; consequently, the time differences between regions also vary throughout the year  For example, Central European Time is usually six hours ahead of North American Eastern Time, except for a few weeks in March and October/November, while the United Kingdom and mainland Chile could be five hours apart during the northern summer, three hours during the southern summer, and four hours for a few weeks per year  Since 1996, European Summer Time has been observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October; previously the rules were not uniform across the European Union  Starting in 2007, most of the United States and Canada observed DST from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November, almost two-thirds of the year  Moreover, the beginning and ending dates are roughly reversed between the northern and southern hemispheres because spring and autumn are displaced six months  For example, mainland Chile observes DST from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March, with transitions at 24:00 local time  In some countries time is governed by regional jurisdictions within the country such that some jurisdictions change and others do not; this is currently the case in Australia, Canada, and the United States From year to year, the dates on which to change clock may also move for political or social reasons  The Uniform Time Act of 1966 formalized the United States' period of daylight saving time observation as lasting six months (it was previously declared locally); this period was extended to seven months in 1986, and then to eight months in 2005  The 2005 extension was motivated in part by lobbyists from the candy industry, seeking to increase profits by including Halloween (31 October) within the daylight saving time period  In recent history, Australian state jurisdictions not only changed at different local times but sometimes on different dates  For example, in 2008 most states there that observed daylight saving time changed clocks forward on 5 October, but Western Australia changed on 26 October 

Politics, religion and sport
The concept of daylight saving has caused controversy since its early proposals  Winston Churchill argued that it enlarges "the opportunities for the pursuit of health and happiness among the millions of people who live in this country" and pundits have dubbed it "Daylight Slaving Time"  Retailing, sports, and tourism interests have historically favored daylight saving, while agricultural and evening-entertainment interests (and some religious groups) have opposed it; energy crises and war prompted its initial adoption The fate of Willett's 1907 proposal illustrates several political issues  It attracted many supporters, including Arthur Balfour, Churchill, David Lloyd George, Ramsay MacDonald, King Edward VII (who used half-hour DST or "Sandringham time" at Sandringham), the managing director of Harrods, and the manager of the National Bank Ltd  However, the opposition proved stronger, including Prime Minister H  H  Asquith, William Christie (the Astronomer Royal), George Darwin, Napier Shaw (director of the Meteorological Office), many agricultural organizations, and theatre-owners  After many hearings, a parliamentary committee vote narrowly rejected the proposal in 1909  Willett's allies introduced similar bills every year from 1911 through 1914, to no avail  People in the US demonstrated even more skepticism; Andrew Peters introduced a DST bill to the House of Representatives in May 1909, but it soon died in committee 

Germany together with its allies led the way in introducing DST (German: Sommerzeit) during World War I on 30 April 1916, aiming to alleviate hardships due to wartime coal shortages and air-raid blackouts  The political equation changed in other countries; the United Kingdom used DST first on 21 May 1916  US retailing and manufacturing interests—led by Pittsburgh industrialist Robert Garland—soon began lobbying for DST, but railroads opposed the idea  The USA's 1917 entry into the war overcame objections, and DST started in 1918 The end of World War I brought change in DST use  Farmers continued to dislike DST, and many countries repealed it—like Germany itself, which dropped DST from 1919 to 1939 and from 1950 to 1979  Britain proved an exception; it retained DST nationwide but adjusted transition dates over the years for several reasons, including special rules during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid clock shifts on Easter mornings  As of 2009 summer time began annually on the last Sunday in March under a European Community directive, which may be Easter Sunday (as in 2016)  In the U S , Congress repealed DST after 1919  President Woodrow Wilson—an avid golfer like Willett—vetoed the repeal twice, but his second veto was overridden  Only a few U S  cities retained DST locally, including New York (so that its financial exchanges could maintain an hour of arbitrage trading with London), and Chicago and Cleveland (to keep pace with New York)  Wilson's successor as president, Warren G  Harding, opposed DST as a "deception", reasoning that people should instead get up and go to work earlier in the summer  He ordered District of Columbia federal employees to start work at 8 am rather than 9 am during the summer of 1922  Some businesses followed suit, though many others did not; the experiment was not repeated Since Germany's adoption of DST in 1916, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals of DST, with similar politics involved  The history of time in the United States features DST during both world wars, but no standardization of peacetime DST until 1966  St  Paul and Minneapolis, Minnesota, kept different times for two weeks in May 1965: the capital city decided to switch to daylight saving time, while Minneapolis opted to follow the later date set by state law  In the mid-1980s, Clorox and 7-Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension to U S  DST  Both senators from Idaho, Larry Craig and Mike Crapo, voted for it based on the premise that fast-food restaurants sell more French fries (made from Idaho potatoes) during DST A referendum on the introduction of daylight saving took place in Queensland, Australia, in 1992, after a three-year trial of daylight saving  It was defeated with a 54 5% "no" vote, with regional and rural areas strongly opposed, and those in the metropolitan southeast in favor In 2003, the United Kingdom's Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents supported a proposal to observe year-round daylight saving time, but it has been opposed by some industries, by some postal workers and farmers, and particularly by those living in the northern regions of the UK In 2005 the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to U S  DST In December 2008 the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland (DS4SEQ) political party was officially registered in Queensland, advocating the implementation of a dual-time-zone arrangement for daylight saving in South East Queensland, while the rest of the state maintained standard time  DS4SEQ contested the March 2009 Queensland state election with 32 candidates and received one percent of the statewide primary vote, equating to around 2 5% across the 32 electorates contested  After a three-year trial, more than 55% of Western Australians voted against DST in 2009, with rural areas strongly opposed  Queensland Independent member Peter Wellington introduced the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland Referendum Bill 2010 into the Queensland parliament on 14 April 2010, after being approached by the DS4SEQ political party, calling for a referendum at the next state election on the introduction of daylight saving into South East Queensland under a dual-time-zone arrangement  The Queensland parliament rejected Wellington's bill on 15 June 2011 Russia declared in 2011 that it would stay in DST all year long (UTC+4:00); Belarus followed with a similar declaration  (The Soviet Union had operated under permanent "summer time" from 1930 to at least 1982 ) Russia's plan generated widespread complaints due to the dark of winter-time mornings, and thus was abandoned in 2014  The country changed its clocks to standard time (UTC+3:00) on 26 October 2014, intending to stay there permanently In the United States, Arizona (with the exception of the Navajo Nation), Hawaii, and the five populated territories (American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the US Virgin Islands) do not participate in daylight saving time  Indiana only began participating in daylight saving time as recently as 2006  Since 2018, Florida Republican Senator Marco Rubio has repeatedly filed bills to extend daylight saving time permanently into winter, without success Mexico observed summertime daylight saving time starting in 1996  In late 2022, the nation's clocks "fell back" for the last time, in restoration of permanent standard time 

Religion
Some religious groups and individuals have opposed DST on religious grounds  For religious Muslims and Jews it makes religious practices such as prayer and fasting more difficult or inconvenient 
Some Muslim countries, such as Morocco, have temporarily abandoned DST during Ramadan In Israel, DST has been a point of contention between the religious and secular, resulting in fluctuations over the years, and a shorter DST period than in the EU and US  Religious Jews prefer a shorter DST due to DST delaying the time for morning prayers, thus conflicting with standard working and business hours  Additionally, DST is ended before Yom Kippur (a 25-hour fast day starting and ending at sunset, much of which is spent praying in synagogue until the fast ends at sunset) since DST would result in the day ending later, which many feel makes it more difficult In the US, Orthodox Jewish groups have opposed extensions to DST, as well as a 2022 bipartisan bill that would make DST permanent, saying it will "interfere with the ability of members of our community to engage in congregational prayers and get to their places of work on time "

Effects
Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy, promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening (in summer), and is therefore good for physical and psychological health, reduces traffic accidents, reduces crime or is good for business  Opponents argue the actual energy savings are inconclusive A 2017 meta-analysis of 44 studies found that DST leads to electricity savings of 0 3% during the days when DST applies  Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption, but a 2008 United States Department of Energy report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST  An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, once a primary use of electricity  Although energy conservation remains an important goal, energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then  Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, so the results of a study conducted in one place may not be relevant to another country or climate Later sunset times from DST are thought to affect behavior; for example, increasing participation in after-school sports programs or outdoor afternoon sports such as golf, and attendance at professional sporting events  Advocates of daylight saving time argue that having more hours of daylight between the end of a typical workday and evening induces people to consume other goods and services Many farmers oppose DST, particularly dairy farmers as the milking patterns of their cows do not change with the time  and others whose hours are set by the sun  There is concern for schoolchildren who are out in the darkness during the morning due to late sunrises  DST also hurts prime-time television broadcast ratings, drive-ins and other theaters It has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight-saving effect implied an estimated one-day loss of $31 billion on U S  stock exchanges, Others have asserted that the observed results depend on methodology and disputed the findings, though the original authors have refuted points raised by disputers 

Health
There are measurable adverse effects of time-shifts on human health  It has been shown to disrupt human circadian rhythms, negatively affecting human health in the process, and that the yearly DST time-shifts can increase health risks such as heart attack, and traffic accidents A 2017 study in the American Economic Journal: Applied Economics estimated that "the transition into DST caused over 30 deaths at a social cost of $275 million annually", primarily by increasing sleep deprivation A correlation between clock shifts and increase in traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden  Four reports have found that this effect is smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities  In 2018, the European Parliament, reviewing a possible abolition of DST, approved a more in-depth evaluation examining the disruption of the human body's circadian rhythms which provided evidence suggesting the existence of an association between DST time-shifts and a modest increase of occurrence of acute myocardial infarction, especially in the first week after the spring shift  However a Netherlands study found, against the majority of investigations, contrary or minimal effect  Year-round standard time (not year-round DST) is proposed by some to be the preferred option for public health and safety  Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent, and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency  Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks 

Social relations
DST likely reduces some kinds of crime, such as robbery and sexual assault, as fewer potential victims are outdoors after dusk  Artificial outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime In 2022, a publication of three replicating studies of individuals, between individuals, and transecting societies, demonstrated that sleep loss affects the human motivation to help others, which in its fMRI findings is "associated with deactivation of key nodes within the social cognition brain network that facilitates prosociality " Furthermore, they detected, through analysis of over 3 million real-world charitable donations, that loss of sleep inflicted by the transition to Daylight Saving Time reduces altruistic giving compared to controls (being states not implementing DST)  They conclude that implications for cooperative, civil society are "non-trivial" Another study, which also examined sleep manipulation due to the shift to daylight saving time in the spring, analyzed archival data from judicial punishment imposed by U S  federal courts which showed sleep-deprived judges exact more severe penalties 

Inconvenience
DST's clock shifts have the disadvantage of complexity  People must remember to change their clocks; this can be time-consuming, particularly for mechanical clocks that cannot be moved backward safely  People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules, as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way  The length of the calendar day becomes variable; it is no longer always 24 hours  Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, billing systems, and records management is common, and can be expensive  During an autumn transition from 02:00 to 01:00, a clock reads times from 01:00:00 through 01:59:59 twice, possibly leading to confusion 

Remediation
Some clock-shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously or at least more gradually—for example, Willett at first suggested weekly 20-minute transitions—but this would add complexity and has never been implemented  DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time  For example, when reading a sundial, one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies  Also, sun-exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect Andrew D  Huberman, a professor of neurobiology at Stanford University, suggests viewing sunlight before the sun is overhead & exercise, ideally outside, before 2 pm the day following the clock adjustment  This applies regardless of if the sky were to be covered by clouds 

Terminology
As explained by Richard Meade in the English Journal of the (American) National Council of Teachers of English, the form daylight savings time (with an "s") was already in 1978 much more common than the older form daylight saving time in American English ("the change has been virtually accomplished")  Nevertheless, even dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster's, American Heritage, and Oxford, which describe actual usage instead of prescribing outdated usage (and therefore also list the newer form), still list the older form first  This is because the older form is still very common in print and preferred by many editors  ("Although daylight saving time is considered correct, daylight savings time (with an "s") is commonly used ") The first two words are sometimes hyphenated (daylight-saving(s) time)  Merriam-Webster's also lists the forms daylight saving (without "time"), daylight savings (without "time"), and daylight time  The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style explains the development and current situation as follows: "Although the singular form daylight saving time is the original one, dating from the early 20th century—and is preferred by some usage critics—the plural form is now extremely common in AmE  [   ] The rise of daylight savings time appears to have resulted from the avoidance of a miscue: when saving is used, readers might puzzle momentarily over whether saving is a gerund (the saving of daylight) or a participle (the time for saving)  [   ] Using savings as the adjective—as in savings account or savings bond—makes perfect sense  More than that, it ought to be accepted as the better form "In Britain, Willett's 1907 proposal used the term daylight saving, but by 1911 the term summer time replaced daylight saving time in draft legislation  The same or similar expressions are used in many other languages: Sommerzeit in German, zomertijd in Dutch, kesäaika in Finnish, horario de verano or hora de verano in Spanish, and heure d'été in French The name of local time typically changes when DST is observed  American English replaces standard with daylight: for example, Pacific Standard Time (PST) becomes Pacific Daylight Time (PDT)  In the United Kingdom, the standard term for UK time when advanced by one hour is British Summer Time (BST), and British English typically inserts summer into other time zone names, e g  Central European Time (CET) becomes Central European Summer Time (CEST) 

The North American English mnemonic "spring forward, fall back" (also "spring ahead    ", "spring up    ", and "    fall behind") helps people remember in which direction to shift the clocks 

Computing
Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations  For example, the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required that many computer systems be upgraded, with the greatest onus on e-mail and calendar programs  The upgrades required a significant effort by corporate information technologists Some applications standardize on UTC to avoid problems with clock shifts and time zone differences  Likewise, most modern operating systems internally handle and store all times as UTC and only convert to local time for display However, even if UTC is used internally, the systems still require external leap second updates and time zone information to correctly calculate local time as needed  Many systems in use today base their date/time calculations from data derived from the tz database also known as zoneinfo 

IANA time zone database
The tz database maps a name to the named location's historical and predicted clock shifts  This database is used by many computer software systems, including most Unix-like operating systems, Java, and the Oracle RDBMS; HP's "tztab" database is similar but incompatible  When temporal authorities change DST rules, zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance  In Unix-like systems the TZ environment variable specifies the location name, as in TZ=':America/New_York'  In many of those systems there is also a system-wide setting that is applied if the TZ environment variable is not set: this setting is controlled by the contents of the /etc/localtime file, which is usually a symbolic link or hard link to one of the zoneinfo files  Internal time is stored in time-zone-independent Unix time; the TZ is used by each of potentially many simultaneous users and processes to independently localize time display 
Older or stripped-down systems may support only the TZ values required by POSIX, which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value  For example, TZ='EST5EDT,M3 2 0/02:00,M11 1 0/02:00' specifies time for the eastern United States starting in 2007  Such a TZ value must be changed whenever DST rules change, and the new value applies to all years, mishandling some older timestamps 

Permanent daylight saving time
A move to permanent daylight saving time (staying on summer hours all year with no time shifts) is sometimes advocated and is currently implemented in some jurisdictions such as Argentina, Belarus, Iceland, Kyrgyzstan, Morocco, Namibia, Saskatchewan, Singapore, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Yukon  Although Saskatchewan follows Central Standard Time, its capital city Regina experiences solar noon close to 13:00, in effect putting the city on permanent daylight time  Similarly, Yukon is classified as being in the Mountain Time Zone, though in effect it observes permanent Pacific Daylight Time to align with the Pacific time zone in summer, but local solar noon in the capital Whitehorse occurs nearer to 14:00, in effect putting Whitehorse on "double daylight time" 
The United Kingdom and Ireland put clocks forward by an extra hour during World War II and experimented with year-round summer time between 1968 and 1971  Russia switched to permanent DST from 2011 to 2014, but the move proved unpopular because of the extremely late winter sunrises; in 2014, Russia switched permanently back to standard time  However, the change to permanent DST has proven popular in Turkey, with the Minister of Energy and Natural Resources saying the practice saves "millions in energy costs and reduces depression and anxiety levels associated with short exposure to daylight" In September 2018, the European Commission proposed to end seasonal clock changes as of 2019  Member states would have the option of observing either daylight saving time all year round or standard time all year round  In March 2019, the European Parliament approved the commission's proposal, while deferring implementation from 2019 until 2021  In response to this proposition, the European Sleep Research Society stated "installing permanent Central European Time (CET, standard time or 'wintertime') is the best option for public health " As of October 2020, the decision has not been confirmed by the Council of the European Union  The council has asked the commission to produce a detailed assessment of its effects, but the Commission considers that the onus is on the Member States to find a common position in Council  As a result, progress on the issue is effectively blocked In the United States, several states have enacted legislation to implement permanent DST, but the bills would require Congress to change federal law in order to take effect  The Uniform Time Act of 1966 permits states to opt out of DST and observe permanent standard time, it does not permit permanent DST  Florida senator Marco Rubio in particular has promoted changing the federal law to implement permanent DST, with the support of the Florida Chamber of Commerce seeking to boost evening revenue  In 2022, Rubio's "Sunshine Protection Act" passed the United States Senate without committee review by way of voice consent, with many senators afterward stating they were unaware of the vote or its topic  The bill was stopped in the U S  House, where questions were raised as to whether permanent DST or standard time would be more beneficial Advocates cite the same advantages as normal DST without the problems associated with the twice yearly time shifts  Additional benefits have also been cited, including safer roadways, boosting the tourism industry, and energy savings  Detractors cite the relatively late sunrises, particularly in winter, that year-round DST entails Some experts in circadian rhythms and sleep health recommend year-round standard time as the preferred option for public health and safety  Several chronobiology societies have published position papers against adopting DST permanently  A paper by the Society for Research on Biological Rhythms states: "based on comparisons of large populations living in DST or ST or on western versus eastern edges of time zones, the advantages of permanent ST outweigh switching to DST annually or permanently " The World Federation of Societies for Chronobiology stated that "the scientific literature strongly argues against the switching between DST and Standard Time and even more so against adopting DST permanently " The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) holds the position that "seasonal time changes should be abolished in favor of a fixed, national, year-round standard time," and that "standard time is a better option than daylight saving time for our health, mood and well-being " The AASM's position is endorsed by 20 other nonprofits, including the American College of Chest Physicians, National Safety Council, and National PTA Current public opinion polls show mixed results  Surveys reported between 2021 and 2022 by the National Sleep Foundation, YouGov, CBS, and Monmouth University indicate more Americans would prefer permanent DST  A 2019 survey by National Opinion Research Center and a 2021 survey by the Associated Press indicate more Americans would prefer permanent Standard Time  The National Sleep Foundation, YouGov, and Monmouth University polls leaned significantly in favor of seeing Daylight Saving Time made permanent  The Monmouth University poll reported 44% preferring year-round DST and 13% preferring year-round standard time  In 1973 and 1974, NORC found 79% of Americans to be in favor of permanent DST before its implementation during the Oil Crisis, and only 42% to support permanent DST the following February 

See also
Daylight saving time by country
Daylight saving time in Africa
Daylight saving time in Asia
Summer time in Europe
Daylight saving time in the Americas
Daylight saving time in Oceania
Analysis of daylight saving time
Winter time (clock lag)

Notes
Passage 2:
International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples
The International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples is observed on 9 August each year to raise awareness and protect the rights of the world's indigenous population  This event also recognizes the achievements and contributions that indigenous people make to improve world issues such as environmental protection  It was first pronounced by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1994, marking the day of the first meeting of the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in 1982 

History
In December 1992 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a resolution to make 1993  the International Year of the World's Indigenous Peoples The International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples was first pronounced by the UN General Assembly in December 1994, to be celebrated every year during the first International Decade of the World's Indigenous Peoples (1995–2004)  In 2004, the Assembly proclaimed a Second International Decade, from 2005–2015, with the theme of "A Decade for Action and Dignity"  People from different nations are encouraged to participate in observing the day to spread the UN's message on indigenous peoples  Activities may include educational forums and classroom activities to gain an appreciation and a better understanding of indigenous peoples By resolution 49/214 of 23 December 1994, the United Nations General Assembly decided that the International Day of the World's Indigenous People shall be observed on 9 August every year during the International Decade of the World's Indigenous People  The date marks the day of the first meeting, in 1982, of the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights 

International Year of Indigenous Languages 2019
In the year 2016, it was reported that about 2,680 indigenous languages were in danger and on the verge of becoming extinct  Hence, UN designated 2019 to be the International Year of Indigenous Languages to persuade, convince and create awareness to people about indigenous languages 

Symbols
Artwork by Rebang Dewan, a Chakma boy from Bangladesh, was chosen as the visual identifier of the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues  It has also been seen on material to promote the International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples  It features two ears of green leaves facing each other and a globe resembling planet earth  Within the globe is a picture of a handshake (two different hands) in the middle and above the handshake is a landscape background  The handshake and the landscape background are encapsulated by blue at the top and bottom within the globe 

Celebration in Canada
International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples is celebrated as an all nations community celebration with artists, speakers, poets, performers, and a wide range of vendors and community service booths in Kingston, Ontario, by Ollin 

Celebration in Taiwan
In 2016, the administration under President Tsai Ing-wen approved a proposal that designated 1 August as Indigenous Peoples' Day in Taiwan  In celebration of the special day, President Tsai issued an official apology to the country's aboriginal people and outlined steps to further promote legislation and involve organizations related to aboriginal causes, like the Presidential Office's Indigenous Historical Justice and Transitional Justice Committee  The government hopes the day will remind the public of the diverse ethnic groups in Taiwan by bringing greater respect for indigenous peoples' cultures and history and promoting their rights 

See also
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous Peoples' Day
National Indigenous Peoples Day
Passage 3:
The Loneliest Planet
The Loneliest Planet is a 2011 German-American film written and directed by Julia Loktev, starring Gael García Bernal, Hani Furstenberg, and Georgian actor Bidzina Gujabidze  The plot centers around a young couple who travel with a local guide through a twisted backpacking trip across the Georgian wilderness 
The film had its international premiere at the 2011 Locarno International Film Festival followed by its North American premiere at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival  It then went on to be featured during the New York Film Festival, the BFI London Film Festival, and the 2011 AFI Fest in Los Angeles, where it won the Grand Jury Prize  On March 24, 2012, The Loneliest Planet was awarded the top prize of "Lady Harimaguada de Oro" (The Golden Lady) at the Las Palmas de Gran Canaria International Film Festival, where actress Hani Furstenberg also won for Best Actress  On April 14, 2012, the film also won the Golden Tulip International Competition award at the 31st International Istanbul Film Festival On October 11, 2011, it was announced that Sundance Selects, a division of IFC Films, had acquired North American distribution rights  The film's theatrical release in the United States was on October 26, 2012 
The film is adapted from McSweeney's writer Tom Bissell's short story "Expensive Trips Nowhere," published in his collection God Lives in St  Petersburg 

Plot
Alex (Gael García Bernal) and Nica (Hani Furstenberg) are in love and engaged to be married  They are seasoned travelers on a trip in the country of Georgia, formerly a republic of the Soviet Union  They hire a local guide (Bidzina Gujabidze) to take them backpacking through the breathtaking scenery of the Caucasus Mountains 
While on their journey, they meet an older man with two boys on their route; he is suspicious of the two foreigners  After a short conversation with their guide, the older man suddenly aims a hunting rifle aggressively at Alex and Nica at point-blank range   For a moment, Alex's reaction is to shield himself behind Nica  He immediately regains his composure and pushes himself in front of Nica to face the stranger's gun, while their guide in turn persuades the stranger to lower his gun and go on his way  A seemingly traumatized Nica walks away on her own 
A few scenes show the couple not speaking or walking together while on their journey to the mountains, although Alex repeatedly attempts to reconnect with Nica  At one point, they cross a stream where Nica accidentally falls only to be saved by the local guide  Alex tries to offer a shivering Nica some help, but she rebuffs him  At night, the local guide tells Nica the story of his failed marriage, and they kiss  Soon after, Nica returns to Alex and the couple have sex  At dawn, the trio start packing up their camps, and it remains ambiguous as to whether or not the couple have finally reconciled 

Cast
Gael García Bernal as Alex
Hani Furstenberg as Nica
Bidzina Gujabidze as local guide
Amiran Gudrshauri as kebab seller

Reception
The film was well-received by critics  The film holds a "certified fresh" approval rating of 70% on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 62 reviews with an average of 6 9/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "The source material that inspired The Loneliest Planet may be brief, but this adaptation of a Tom Bissell short story compensates with studious, finely detailed filmmaking, haunting visuals, and thought-provoking subtext " On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews" A O  Scott of The New York Times called The Loneliest Planet, "gripping and haunting, but also coy and elusive "Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 2 out of 4 and wrote: "All of this grows tiresome  We're given no particular reason at the outset of The Loneliest Planet to care about these people, our interest doesn't grow along the way, the landscape grows repetitive    "
Passage 4:
Le Défenseur du Temps
Le Défenseur du Temps (The Defender of Time) is a large mechanical work of art in the form of a clock created by the French artist Jacques Monestier 

Description
Le Défenseur du Temps is a clock made of automata  Close to the dial, a man perched on a rock with a sword and shield fights against a bird, a dragon, and a crab which respectively represent air, earth, and water  As originally designed, every hour from 9 am to 10 pm, he fights one of the three animals chosen randomly by a program  At noon, 6 pm, and 10pm, all three animals attack at the same time 
The time is announced by three strokes  While the man fights, he is accompanied by sounds of breaking waves, rumbling earth or the sound of wind, depending on the animal chosen 
Le Défenseur du temps is 4 meters high and weighs about 1 ton  The characters, animals and the clock face are hammered brass and gold leaf  The rock on which they sit is composed of oxidized brass  In its original configuration, a master electronic quartz circuit board controlled the random attacks chance, and used six cam timers and five tape recorders 

Location
Le Défenseur du temps is located at 8 rue Bernard de Clairvaux, in the Quartier de l'Horloge in Paris' 3rd arrondissement  The area around the clock owes its name to this work 

History
Le Défenseur du temps was commissioned in 1975 by COGEDIM  The scales of the dragon were made by Louis Desouches, and the construction of the steel structure was by Alain Moirod 
The clock was partially installed in September 1979  It was formally dedicated on 8 October 1979 by the Mayor of Paris, Jacques Chirac The clock underwent restoration in 1995  The master clock's quartz crystal was replaced by a radio clock, and the tape recorders were replaced by a compact disc player  Without funding for maintenance, the clock has been stopped since July 1, 2003 In February 2022, the clock was taken down and the restoration of the clock has begun to take place  The Defenseur Du Temps should be fixed and reinstalled by March 2023 

External links
Conception et réalisation du "Défenseur du Temps"
Le Defenseur du Temps clock
Passage 5:
The Motorcycle Diaries (film)
The Motorcycle Diaries (Spanish: Diarios de motocicleta) is a 2004 biopic about the journey and written memoir of the 23-year-old Ernesto Guevara, who would several years later become internationally known as the Marxist guerrilla leader and revolutionary leader Che Guevara  The film recounts the 1952 expedition, initially by motorcycle, across South America by Guevara and his friend Alberto Granado  As well as being a road movie, the film is a coming-of-age film; as the adventure, initially centered on youthful hedonism, unfolds, Guevara discovers himself transformed by his observations on the life of the impoverished indigenous peasantry  Through the characters they encounter on their continental trek, Guevara and Granado witness first hand the injustices that the destitute face and are exposed to people and social classes they would have never encountered otherwise  To their surprise, the road presents to them both a genuine and captivating picture of Latin American identity  As a result, the trip also plants the initial seed of radicalization within Guevara, who would later challenge the continent's endemic economic inequalities and political repression 
The screenplay is based primarily on Guevara's trip diary of the same name, with additional context supplied by Traveling with Che Guevara: The Making of a Revolutionary by Alberto Granado  Guevara is played by Gael García Bernal (who previously played Che in the 2002 miniseries Fidel), and Granado by the Argentine actor Rodrigo de la Serna, who incidentally is a second cousin to the real-life Guevara on his maternal side  Directed by Brazilian director Walter Salles and written by Puerto Rican playwright José Rivera, the film was an international co-production among production companies from Argentina, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Chile, Peru and France  The film's executive producers were Robert Redford, Paul Webster, and Rebecca Yeldham; the producers were Edgard Tenenbaum, Michael Nozik, and Karen Tenkhoff; and the co-producers were Daniel Burman and Diego Dubcovsky 

Plot
The Che of The Motorcycle Diaries is more akin to Jack Kerouac or Neal Cassady than Marx or Lenin "
In 1952, a semester before Ernesto "Fuser" Guevara is due to complete his medical degree, he and his older friend Alberto Granado, a biochemist, leave Buenos Aires to travel across South America  While there is a goal at the end of their journey - they intend to work in a leper colony in Peru - the main purpose is initially fun and adventure  They desire to see as much of Latin America as they can, more than 14,000 kilometres (8,700 mi) in just four and a half months, while Granado's purpose is also to bed as many women as will fall for his pickup lines  Their initial method of transport is Granado's dilapidated Norton 500 motorcycle christened La Poderosa ("The Mighty One") 
Their planned route is ambitious, bringing them north across the Andes, along the coast of Chile, through the Atacama Desert and into the Peruvian Amazon in order to reach Venezuela just in time for Granado's 30th birthday on 2 April  However, due to La Poderosa's breakdown, they are forced to travel at a much slower pace, often walking, and do not make it to Caracas until July 
During their expedition, Guevara and Granado encounter the poverty of the indigenous peasants, and the movie assumes a greater seriousness once the men gain a better sense of the disparity between the "haves" (to which they belong) and the obviously exploited "have-nots" (who make up the majority of those they encounter) by travelling on foot  In Chile, for instance, they encounter a penniless and persecuted couple forced onto the road because of their communist beliefs  In a fire-lit scene, Guevara and Granado ashamedly admit to the couple that they are not out looking for work as well  The duo then accompanies the couple to the Chuquicamata copper mine, where Guevara becomes angry at the treatment of the workers 
However, it is a visit to the ancient Incan ruins of Machu Picchu in Peru that solidifies something in Guevara  His musings are then somberly refocused to how an indigenous civilization capable of building such beauty could be destroyed by the creators of the eventually polluted urban decay of nearby Lima Later, in Peru, they volunteer for three weeks at the San Pablo leper colony  There, Guevara observes both literally and metaphorically the division of society, as the staff live on the north side of a river, separated from the deprived lepers living across the river to the south  To demonstrate his solidarity, and his medical belief that leprosy is not contagious, Guevara refuses to wear rubber gloves during his visit as the head nun requires, choosing instead to shake bare hands and interact normally with the surprised leper patients 
At the end of the film, after his sojourn at the leper colony, Guevara confirms his nascent egalitarian, revolutionary impulses, while making a birthday toast, which is also his first political speech  In it, he invokes a pan-Latin American identity that transcends the arbitrary boundaries of both nation and race  These encounters with social injustice transform the way Guevara sees the world and his purposes in it, and by implication motivates his later political activities as a Marxist revolutionary 
Guevara makes his symbolic "final journey" at night when, despite the danger and his asthma, he swims across the river that separates the two societies of the leper colony, to spend the night in a leper shack, instead of in the doctors' cabins  Later, as they bid each other farewell at an airport, Granado reveals that his birthday was not 2 April, but rather 8 August, and that the aforementioned goal was simply a motivator: Guevara replies that he knew all along  The film closes with an appearance by the real 82-year-old Alberto Granado, along with pictures from the actual journey and a brief mention of Che Guevara's eventual 1967 CIA-assisted execution in the Bolivian jungle 

Cast
Development
The film shows what we were, which was two young men - boys, really - who went looking for adventure and found the truth and tragedy of our homeland 
Gael García Bernal agreed to reprise his role as young Che Guevara having previously portrayed him in the television film Fidel (2002 film)  To prepare for the role, he went through six months of intense preparation  This groundwork included reading "every biography" about Guevara, traveling to Cuba to speak with Guevara's family, and consulting with Guevara's then still living travel partner Alberto Granado  Despite being in his eighties, Granado was also taken on as an adviser by Salles, and enthusiastically followed the film crew as they retraced his former journey 

Moreover, García Bernal (who is Mexican) adopted an Argentine accent and spent 14 weeks reading the works of José Martí, 
Karl Marx and Pablo Neruda (Guevara's favorite poet)  García Bernal told reporters "I feel a lot of responsibility  I want to do it well because of what Che represents to the world  He is a Romantic  He had a political consciousness that changed Latin America " According to García Bernal, the role crystallized his "own sense of duty" because Guevara "decided to live on the side of the mistreated, to live on the side of the people who have no justice - and no voice " In surmising the similarities between his transformation and Guevara's, García Bernal posits that "my generation is awakening, and we're discovering a world full of incredible injustice "Granado later stated that he appreciated the film's effort "to dig beneath the "mythical Che", whose defiant image appears on T-shirts and posters around the world, "to reveal the flawed, flesh-and-blood Ernesto beneath "

Film locales
We were re-enacting a journey that was done 50 years ago, and what's surprising is that the social problems of Latin America are the same  Which is heartbreaking in a way, but it also makes you feel how important it is to tell the story "
In a journey that lasts eight months, the partners travel over 14,000 kilometers (8,700 miles), from Argentina through Chile, Peru, and Colombia to Venezuela  Key locations along the journey described in the film include: in Argentina: Buenos Aires, Miramar, Villa Gesell, San Martín de los Andes, Lago Frías, Patagonia and Nahuel Huapi Lake; in Chile: Temuco, Los Angeles, Valparaiso, the Atacama desert, and Chuquicamata; in Peru: Cuzco, Machu Picchu, Lima, The San Pablo Leper Colony; as well as Leticia, Colombia and Caracas, Venezuela 
Reviewer Nick Cowen of The Daily Telegraph described the scenery as "visually stunning" while remarking that "the cinematography of fog-cloaked mountains, lush, green forests and sunburnt deserts is breathtakingly beautiful enough to serve as a travel advert for the entire continent "

Tourist trails
The Observer reported that shortly after the film's release, tour operators in the region received a surge of inquiries, with some of them even offering Che Guevara-themed trips, where travellers could "follow in the footsteps of the revolutionary icon "The crew filmed in the same San Pablo Leper Colony that Guevara himself had visited  According to Bernal, 85% of the people suffering leprosy in the film were actual lepers, with some of them having lived there when Che and Granado worked at the colony  In fact, when Granado returned with the film crew to the leprosarium of San Pablo, he found some of the people he had treated half a century earlier, remarking that "It was wonderful and amazing that they could still remember me " Granado was also pleased that buildings constructed for the scenes shot at the leprosarium were afterwards used by the patients themselves The scene which features Guevara's character swimming across to the other side of the river was filmed during three nights in which Bernal swam across the actual Amazon River 

Soundtrack
The score for The Motorcycle Diaries was composed by Gustavo Santaolalla  The film's soundtrack was released on the Deutsche Grammophon label in 2004 

Distribution
The film was first presented at the Sundance Film Festival on 15 January 2004  Granado had an invitation to the Sundance premiere, but he was refused an entry Visa by the United States  Later it was featured at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival on 19 May, and Granado was able to attend The film later screened at many other film festivals, including: the Auckland International Film Festival, New Zealand; the Copenhagen International Film Festival, Denmark; the Espoo Film Festival, Finland; the Telluride Film Festival, United States; the Toronto International Film Festival, Canada; the Vancouver International Film Festival, Canada; the Celebrating Literature in Cinema Film Festival Frankfurt, Germany; and the Morelia Film Festival, Mexico 
Release datesUnited States: 15 January 2004 (premiere at Sundance Film Festival)
France: 7 July 2004
Argentina: 29 July 2004
United Kingdom: 27 August 2004
United States: 24 September 2004
Chile:  21 October 2004
Germany: 28 October 2004

Critical reception
The Motorcycle Diaries may not provide any satisfactory answers as to how a 23-year-old medical student went on to become arguably the most famous revolutionary of the latter half of the 20th Century, but it has an undeniable charm in that it imbues the memories of youth with a sense of altruism and purity – which are complemented by the scenery  It's an incomplete portrait to be sure, but it's a gorgeous depiction of two best friends riding unknowingly into the history books "
The Motorcycle Diaries was released to very positive reviews by critics, and received a standing ovation at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival  The New York Times film critic, A O  Scott, wrote that "in Mr  Salles's hands what might have been a schematic story of political awakening becomes a lyrical exploration of the sensations and perceptions from which a political understanding of the world emerges " Gregory Weinkauf of the Dallas Observer espoused that the film "delivers as both biography and road movie, and proves itself a deceptively humble epic, an illuminating part of the Che legacy " Claudia Puig of USA Today postulated that "the movie achieves an impressive blend of emotional resonance and light entertainment" while describing it as "more coming-of-age story than biopic" and "a transformative adventure well worth watching " Keri Petersen of The Gainesville Sun referred to the film as "a gorgeous, poetic adventure "Paula Nechak of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer praised director Salles by remarking that he "presents the evolutionary course of a young man who coincidentally became the dorm-room poster boy for an idealistic generation, and captures the lovely, heart-and-eye-opening ode to youthful possibility with affection and compassion " Washington Post critic Desson Thomson lent praise for the film's starring actor by observing that "what Bernal and this well-wrought movie conveys so well is the charisma that would soon become a part of human history, and yes, T-shirts "Among the film's few detractors was Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times, who described the film's positive reviews as "a matter of political correctness, I think; it is uncool to be against Che Guevara " Ebert also criticized the film's characterization: "seen simply as a film, The Motorcycle Diaries is attenuated and tedious  We understand that Ernesto and Alberto are friends, but that's about all we find out about them; they develop none of the complexities of other on-the-road couples    Nothing is startling or poetic " Jessica Winter of The Village Voice also criticized the film's simplistic representation of the peasantry, describing "the young men's encounters with conscience-pricking, generically noble locals" who are occasionally assembled "to face the camera in a still life of heroic, art-directed suffering"  The film also received criticism for its positive representation of Guevara as a youthful idealist  Anthony Daniels, an outspoken critic of Guevara's, argued that the film helps to continue his wrongful glorification, noting "The film is thus the cinematic equivalent of the Che Guevara T-shirt; it is morally monstrous and emotionally trivial " Frans Weiser agreed, saying that the film's narrative is dominated by reductive images of Guevara as an idealistic, loveable rogue Online review aggregator Metacritic gives the film a score of 75 out of 100 based on 37 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  Meanwhile, Rotten Tomatoes records an 83% approval rating based on 157 reviews, with an average rating of 7 5/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "The Motorcycle Diaries is heartfelt and profound in its rendering of the formative experiences that turn Ernesto "Che" Guevara into a famous revolutionary " Furthermore, British historian Alex von Tunzelmann, who reviews films at The Guardian for historical accuracy, graded the film an A− in "History", while giving the film a B in "Entertainment"  After comparing scenes from the film to the actual diaries, Tunzelmann posited that "The Motorcycle Diaries gets a lot right, it's an entertaining and accurate portrayal of the formative youth of a revolutionary icon "

Awards won
Cannes Film Festival: François Chalais Award, Walter Salles; Prize of the Ecumenical Jury, Walter Salles; Technical Grand Prize, Eric Gautier; 2004 
Donostia-San Sebastián International Film Festival: Audience Award Walter Salles; 2004 
Academy Awards: Oscar; Best Achievement in Music Written for Motion Pictures, Original Song; Jorge Drexler; for the song "Al otro lado del río"; 2005 
Argentine Film Critics Association Awards: Best Actor, Rodrigo de la Serna; Best Music, Gustavo Santaolalla; Best Adapted Screenplay, Jose Rivera; 2005 
British Academy of Film and Television Arts: Best Film Not in the English Language, Michael Nozik, Edgard Tenenbaum, Karen Tenkhoff, Walter Salles; Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music, Gustavo Santaolalla; 2005 
Goya Awards: Goya; Best Adapted Screenplay, José Rivera; 2005 
Independent Spirit Awards: Independent Spirit Award; Best Cinematography, Eric Gautier; Best Debut Performance, Rodrigo de la Serna; 2005 

Related films
Passage 6:
Noon
Noon (or midday) is 12 o'clock in the daytime  It is written as 12 noon, 12:00 m  (for meridiem, literally 12:00 midday), 12 p m  (for post meridiem, literally "after midday"), 12 pm, or 12:00 (using a 24-hour clock) or 1200 (military time) 
Solar noon is the time when the Sun appears to contact the local celestial meridian  This is when the Sun reaches its apparent highest point in the sky, at 12 noon apparent solar time and can be observed using a sundial  The local or clock time of solar noon depends on the longitude and date, with Daylight Saving Time tending to place solar noon closer to 1:00pm 

Etymology
The word noon is derived from Latin nona hora, the ninth canonical hour of the day, in reference to the Western Christian liturgical term none, one of the seven fixed prayer times in traditional Christian denominations  The Roman and Western European medieval monastic day began at 6:00 a m  (06:00) at the equinox by modern timekeeping, so the ninth hour started at what is now 3:00 p m  (15:00) at the equinox  In English, the meaning of the word shifted to midday and the time gradually moved back to 12:00 local time – that is, not taking into account the modern invention of time zones  The change began in the 12th century and was fixed by the 14th century 

Solar noon
Solar noon, also known as the local apparent solar noon and Sun transit time (informally high noon), is the moment when the Sun contacts the observer's meridian (culmination or meridian transit), reaching its highest position above the horizon on that day and casting the shortest shadow  This is also the origin of the terms ante meridiem (a m ) and post meridiem (p m ), as noted below  The Sun is directly overhead at solar noon at the Equator on the equinoxes, at the Tropic of Cancer (latitude 23°26′10 4″ N) on the June solstice and at the Tropic of Capricorn (23°26′10 4″ S) on the December solstice  In the Northern Hemisphere, north of the Tropic of Cancer, the Sun is due south of the observer at solar noon; in the Southern Hemisphere, south of the Tropic of Capricorn, it is due north 
The elapsed time from the local solar noon of one day to the next is exactly 24 hours on only four instances in any given year  This occurs when the effects of Earth's obliquity of ecliptic and its orbital speed around the Sun offset each other  These four days for the current epoch are centered on 11 February, 13 May, 26 July, and 3 November  It occurs at only one particular line of longitude in each instance  This line varies year to year, since Earth's true year is not an integer number of days  This event time and location also varies due to Earth's orbit being gravitationally perturbed by the planets  These four 24-hour days occur in both hemispheres simultaneously  The precise UTC times for these four days also mark when the opposite line of longitude, 180° away, experiences precisely 24 hours from local midnight to local midnight the next day  Thus, four varying great circles of longitude define from year to year when a 24-hour day (noon to noon or midnight to midnight) occurs 
The two longest time spans from noon to noon occur twice each year, around 20 June (24 hours plus 13 seconds) and 21 December (24 hours plus 30 seconds) 
The shortest time spans occur twice each year, around 25 March (24 hours minus 18 seconds) and 13 September (24 hours minus 22 seconds) 
For the same reasons, solar noon and "clock noon" are usually not the same  The equation of time shows that the reading of a clock at solar noon will be higher or lower than 12:00 by as much as 16 minutes  Additionally, due to the political nature of time zones, as well as the application of daylight saving time, it can be off by more than an hour 

Nomenclature
In the US, noon is commonly indicated by 12 p m , and midnight by 12 a m  While some argue that such usage is "improper" based on the Latin meaning (a m  stands for ante meridiem and p m  for post meridiem, meaning "before midday" and "after midday" respectively), digital clocks are unable to display anything else, and an arbitrary decision must be made  An earlier standard of indicating noon as "12M" or "12m" (for "meridies"), which was specified in the U S  GPO Government Style Manual, has fallen into relative obscurity; the current edition of the GPO makes no mention of it  However, due to the lack of an international standard, the use of "12 a m " and "12 p m " can be confusing  Common alternative methods of representing these times are:

to use a 24-hour clock (00:00 and 12:00, 24:00; but never 24:01)
to use "12 noon" or "12 midnight" (though "12 midnight" may still present ambiguity regarding the specific date)
to specify midnight as between two successive days or dates (as in "midnight Saturday/Sunday" or "midnight December 14/15")
to avoid those specific times and to use "11:59 p m " or "12:01 a m " instead  (This is common in the travel industry to avoid confusion to passengers' schedules, especially train and plane schedules )

See also
Afternoon
Analemma
Dipleidoscope
Hour angle
Solar azimuth angle

Notes
Context 3: Passage 1:
James Chadwick
Sir James Chadwick,  (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was a British physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932  In 1941, he wrote the final draft of the MAUD Report, which inspired the U S  government to begin serious atom bomb research efforts  He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II  He was knighted in Britain in 1945 for his achievements in physics 
Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford (known as the "father of nuclear physics")  At Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913  The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851  He elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, and not discrete lines as had been thought  Still in Germany when World War I broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp 
After the war, Chadwick followed Rutherford to the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, where Chadwick earned his Doctor of Philosophy degree under Rutherford's supervision from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, in June 1921  He was Rutherford's assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory for over a decade at a time when it was one of the world's foremost centres for the study of physics, attracting students like John Cockcroft, Norman Feather, and Mark Oliphant  Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass  He anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer  Chadwick left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1935 to become a professor of physics at the University of Liverpool, where he overhauled an antiquated laboratory and, by installing a cyclotron, made it an important centre for the study of nuclear physics 
During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build an atom bomb, while his Manchester lab and environs were harassed by Luftwaffe bombing  When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he became part of the British Mission, and worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory and in Washington, D C  He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R  Groves, Jr  For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test  After this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, he became the Master of Gonville and Caius College in 1948  He retired in 1959 

Education and early life
James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph Chadwick, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant  He was named James after his paternal grandfather  In 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents  He went to Bollington Cross Primary School, and was offered a scholarship to Manchester Grammar School, which his family had to turn down as they could not afford the small fees that still had to be paid  Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester, rejoining his parents there  He now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert; a sister had died in infancy  At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908  He meant to study mathematics, but enrolled in physics by mistake  Like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles (6 4 km) to the university and back each day  At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics  The physics department was headed by Ernest Rutherford, who assigned research projects to final-year students, and he instructed Chadwick to devise a means of comparing the amount of radioactive energy of two different sources  The idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 gram (0 035 oz) of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie  Rutherford's suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, and eventually devised the required method  The results became Chadwick's first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912  He graduated with first class honours in 1911 Having devised a means of measuring gamma radiation, Chadwick proceeded to measure the absorption of gamma rays by various gases and liquids  This time the resulting paper was published under his name alone  He was awarded his Master of Science (MSc) degree in 1912, and was appointed a Beyer Fellow  The following year he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, which allowed him to study and research at a university in continental Europe  He elected to go to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin in 1913, to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, which provided more accuracy than the earlier photographic techniques, he was able to demonstrate that beta radiation did not produce discrete lines, as has been previously thought, but rather a continuous spectrum with peaks in certain regions  On a visit to Geiger's laboratory, Albert Einstein told Chadwick that: "I can explain either of these things, but I can't explain them both at the same time " The continuous spectrum would remain an unexplained phenomenon for many years Chadwick was still in Germany at the start of the First World War, and was interned in the Ruhleben internment camp near Berlin, where he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables and conduct scientific experiments using improvised materials such as radioactive toothpaste  With the help of Charles Drummond Ellis, he worked on the ionisation of phosphorus, and the photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine  He was released after the Armistice with Germany came into effect in November 1918, and returned to his parents' home in Manchester, where he wrote up his findings over the previous four years for the 1851 Exhibition commissioners Rutherford gave Chadwick a part-time teaching position at Manchester, allowing him to continue research  He looked at the nuclear charge of platinum, silver, and copper, and experimentally found that this was the same as the atomic number within an error of less than 1 5 per cent  In April 1919, Rutherford became director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and Chadwick joined him there a few months later  Chadwick was awarded a Clerk-Maxwell studentship in 1920, and enrolled as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) student at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge  The first half of his thesis was his work with atomic numbers  In the second, he looked at the forces inside the nucleus  His degree was awarded in June 1921  In November, he became a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College 

Researcher
Cambridge
Chadwick's Clerk-Maxwell studentship expired in 1923, and he was succeeded by the Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitza  The Chairman of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Sir William McCormick arranged for Chadwick to become Rutherford's assistant director of research  In this role, Chadwick helped Rutherford select PhD students  Over the next few years these would include John Cockcroft, Norman Feather and Mark Oliphant, who would become firm friends with Chadwick  As many students had no idea what they wanted to research, Rutherford and Chadwick would suggest topics  Chadwick edited all the papers produced by the laboratory 

In 1925, Chadwick met Aileen Stewart-Brown, the daughter of a Liverpool stockbroker  The two were married in August 1925, with Kapitza as Best Man  The couple had twin daughters, Joanna and Judith, who were born in February 1927 In his research, Chadwick continued to probe the nucleus  In 1925, the concept of spin had allowed physicists to explain the Zeeman effect, but it also created unexplained anomalies  At the time it was believed that the nucleus consisted of protons and electrons, so nitrogen's nucleus, for example, with a mass number of 14, was assumed to contain 14 protons and 7 electrons  This gave it the right mass and charge, but the wrong spin At a conference at Cambridge on beta particles and gamma rays in 1928, Chadwick met Geiger again  Geiger had brought with him a new model of his Geiger counter, which had been improved by his post-doctoral student Walther Müller  Chadwick had not used one since the war, and the new Geiger–Müller counter was potentially a major improvement over the scintillation techniques then in use at Cambridge, which relied on the human eye for observation  The major drawback with it was that it detected alpha, beta and gamma radiation, and radium, which the Cavendish laboratory normally used in its experiments, emitted all three, and was therefore unsuitable for what Chadwick had in mind  However, polonium is an alpha emitter, and Lise Meitner sent Chadwick about 2 millicuries (about 0 5 μg) from Germany In Germany, Walther Bothe and his student Herbert Becker had used polonium to bombard beryllium with alpha particles, producing an unusual form of radiation  Chadwick had his Australian 1851 Exhibition scholar, Hugh Webster, duplicate their results  To Chadwick, this was evidence of something that he and Rutherford had been hypothesising for years: the neutron, a theoretical nuclear particle with no electric charge  Then in January 1932, Feather drew Chadwick's attention to another surprising result  Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie had succeeded in knocking protons from paraffin wax using polonium and beryllium as a source for what they thought was gamma radiation  Rutherford and Chadwick disagreed; protons were too heavy for that  But neutrons would need only a small amount of energy to achieve the same effect  In Rome, Ettore Majorana came to the same conclusion: the Joliot-Curies had discovered the neutron but did not know it 

Chadwick dropped all his other responsibilities to concentrate on proving the existence of the neutron, assisted by Feather and frequently working late at night  He devised a simple apparatus that consisted of a cylinder containing a polonium source and beryllium target  The resulting radiation could then be directed at a material such as paraffin wax; the displaced particles, which were protons, would go into a small ionisation chamber where they could be detected with an oscilloscope 
In February 1932, after only about two weeks of experimentation with neutrons, Chadwick sent a letter to Nature titled "Possible Existence of a Neutron"  He communicated his findings in detail in an article sent to Proceedings of the Royal Society A titled "The Existence of a Neutron" in May  His discovery of the neutron was a milestone in understanding the nucleus  Reading Chadwick's paper, Robert Bacher and Edward Condon realised that anomalies in the then-current theory, like the spin of nitrogen, would be resolved if the neutron has a spin of 1/2 and that a nitrogen nucleus consisted of seven protons and seven neutrons The theoretical physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg considered whether the neutron could be a fundamental nuclear particle like the proton and electron, rather than a proton–electron pair   Heisenberg showed that the neutron was best described as a new nuclear particle, but its exact nature remained unclear   In his 1933 Bakerian Lecture, Chadwick estimated that a neutron had a mass of about 1 0067 u  Since a proton and an electron had a combined mass of 1 0078 u, this implied the neutron as a proton–electron composite had a binding energy of about 2 MeV, which sounded reasonable, although it was hard to understand how a particle with so little binding energy could be stable   Estimating such a small mass difference required challenging precise measurements, however, and several conflicting results were obtained in 1933–4   By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a large value for the mass of a neutron, but Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California produced a small one   Then Maurice Goldhaber, a refugee from Nazi Germany and a graduate student at the Cavendish Laboratory, suggested to Chadwick that deuterons could be photodisintegrated by the 2 6 MeV gamma rays of 208Tl (then known as thorium C"):

An accurate value for the mass of the neutron could be determined from this process  Chadwick and Goldhaber tried this and found that it worked   They measured the kinetic energy of the proton produced as 1 05 MeV, leaving the mass of the neutron as the unknown in the equation   Chadwick and Goldhaber calculated that it was either 1 0084 or 1 0090 atomic units, depending on the values used for the masses of the proton and deuteron   (The modern accepted value for the mass of the neutron is 1 00866 u ) The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron pair For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick was awarded the Hughes Medal by the Royal Society in 1932, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935, the Copley Medal in 1950 and the Franklin Medal in 1951  His discovery of the neutron made it possible to produce elements heavier than uranium in the laboratory by the capture of slow neutrons followed by beta decay  Unlike the positively charged alpha particles, which are repelled by the electrical forces present in the nuclei of other atoms, neutrons do not need to overcome any Coulomb barrier, and can therefore penetrate and enter the nuclei of even the heaviest elements such as uranium  This inspired Enrico Fermi to investigate the nuclear reactions brought about by collisions of nuclei with slow neutrons, work for which Fermi would receive the Nobel Prize in 1938 Wolfgang Pauli proposed another kind of particle on 4 December 1930 in order to explain the continuous spectrum of beta radiation that Chadwick had reported in 1914  Since not all of the energy of beta radiation could be accounted for, the law of conservation of energy appeared to be violated, but Pauli argued that this could be redressed if another, undiscovered, particle was involved  Pauli also called this particle a neutron, but it was clearly not the same particle as Chadwick's neutron  Fermi renamed it the neutrino, Italian for "little neutron"  In 1934, Fermi proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino   The neutrino could account for the missing energy, but a particle with little mass and no electric charge was difficult to observe  Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth, so the chances of detecting them were slim  Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan would confirm the neutrino on 14 June 1956 by placing a detector within a large antineutrino flux from a nearby nuclear reactor 

Liverpool
With the onset of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom, the government became more parsimonious with funding for science  At the same time, Lawrence's recent invention, the cyclotron, promised to revolutionise experimental nuclear physics, and Chadwick felt that the Cavendish laboratory would fall behind unless it also acquired one  He therefore chafed under Rutherford, who clung to the belief that good nuclear physics could still be done without large, expensive equipment, and turned down the request for a cyclotron 

Chadwick was himself a critic of Big Science in general, and Lawrence in particular, whose approach he considered careless and focused on technology at the expense of science  When Lawrence postulated the existence of a new and hitherto unknown particle that he claimed was a possible source of limitless energy at the Solvay Conference in 1933, Chadwick responded that the results were more likely attributable to contamination of the equipment  While Lawrence rechecked his results at Berkeley only to find that Chadwick was correct, Rutherford and Oliphant conducted an investigation at the Cavendish that found that deuterium fuses to form helium-3, thereby causing the effect that Lawrence had observed  This was another major discovery, but the Oliphant-Rutherford particle accelerator was an expensive state-of-the-art piece of equipment In March 1935, Chadwick received an offer of the Lyon Jones Chair of physics at the University of Liverpool, in his wife's home town, to succeed Lionel Wilberforce  The laboratory was so antiquated that it still ran on direct current electricity, but Chadwick seized the opportunity, assuming the chair on 1 October 1935  The university's prestige was soon bolstered by Chadwick's Nobel Prize, which was announced in November 1935  His medal was sold at auction in 2014 for $329,000 Chadwick set about acquiring a cyclotron for Liverpool  He started by spending £700 to refurbish the antiquated laboratories at Liverpool, so some components could be made in-house  He was able to persuade the university to provide £2,000 and obtained a grant for another £2,000 from the Royal Society  To build his cyclotron, Chadwick brought in two young experts, Bernard Kinsey and Harold Walke, who had worked with Lawrence at the University of California  A local cable manufacturer donated the copper conductor for the coils  The cyclotron's 50-ton magnet was manufactured in Trafford Park by Metropolitan-Vickers, which also made the vacuum chamber  The cyclotron was completely installed and running in July 1939  The total cost of £5,184 was more than Chadwick had received from the University and the Royal Society, so Chadwick paid the rest from his 159,917 kr (£8,243) Nobel Prize money At Liverpool the Medicine and Science faculties worked together closely  Chadwick was automatically a committee member of both faculties, and in 1938 he was appointed to a commission headed by Lord Derby to investigate the arrangements for cancer treatment in Liverpool  Chadwick anticipated that neutrons and radioactive isotopes produced with the 37-inch cyclotron could be used to study biochemical processes, and might become a weapon in the fight against cancer 

Second World War
Tube Alloys and the MAUD Report
In Germany, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons, and noted that barium, a lighter element, was among the products produced  Hitherto, only the same or heavier elements had been produced by the process  In January 1939, Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch astounded the physics community with a paper that explained this result  They theorised that uranium atoms bombarded with neutrons can break into two roughly equal fragments, a process they called fission  They calculated that this would result in the release of about 200 MeV, implying an energy release orders of magnitude greater than chemical reactions, and Frisch confirmed their theory experimentally  It was soon noted by Hahn that if neutrons were released during fission, then a chain reaction was possible  French scientists, Pierre Joliot, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, soon verified that more than one neutron was indeed emitted per fission  In a paper co-authored with the American physicist John Wheeler, Bohr theorised that fission was more likely to occur in the uranium-235 isotope, which made up only 0 7 percent of natural uranium 

Chadwick did not believe that there was any likelihood of another war with Germany in 1939, and took his family for a holiday on a remote lake in northern Sweden  The news of the outbreak of the Second World War therefore came as a shock  Determined not to spend another war in an internment camp, Chadwick made his way to Stockholm as fast as he could, but when he arrived there with his family, he found that all air traffic between Stockholm and London had been suspended  They made their way back to England on a tramp steamer  When he reached Liverpool, Chadwick found Joseph Rotblat, a Polish post-doctoral fellow who had come to work with the cyclotron, was now destitute, as he was cut off from funds from Poland  Chadwick promptly hired Rotblat as a lecturer, despite his poor grasp of English In October 1939, Chadwick received a letter from Sir Edward Appleton, the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, asking for his opinion on the feasibility of an atom bomb  Chadwick responded cautiously  He did not dismiss the possibility, but carefully went over the many theoretical and practical difficulties involved  Chadwick decided to investigate the properties of uranium oxide further with Rotblat  In March 1940, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham re-examined the theoretical issues involved in a paper that became known as the Frisch–Peierls memorandum  Instead of looking at unenriched uranium oxide, they considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium-235, and found that not only could a chain reaction occur, but that it might require as little as 1 kilogram (2 2 lb) of uranium-235, and unleash the energy of tons of dynamite 

A special subcommittee of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW), known as the MAUD Committee, was created to investigate the matter further  It was chaired by Sir George Thomson and its original membership included Chadwick, along with Mark Oliphant, John Cockcroft and Philip Moon  While other teams investigated uranium enrichment techniques, Chadwick's team at Liverpool concentrated on determining the nuclear cross section of uranium-235  By April 1941, it had been experimentally confirmed that the critical mass of uranium-235 might be 8 kilograms (18 lb) or less  His research into such matters was complicated by all-but-incessant Luftwaffe bombings of the environs of his Liverpool lab; the windows were blown out so often that they were replaced by cardboard In July 1941, Chadwick was chosen to write the final draft of the MAUD Report, which, when presented by Vannevar Bush to President Franklin D  Roosevelt in October 1941, inspired the U S  government to pour millions of dollars into the pursuit of an atom bomb  When George B  Pegram and Harold Urey visited Britain to see how the project, now known as Tube Alloys, was going, Chadwick was able to tell them: "I wish I could tell you that the bomb is not going to work, but I am 90 per cent sure that it will "In a recent book about the Bomb project, Graham Farmelo wrote that "Chadwick did more than any other scientist to give Churchill the Bomb      Chadwick was tested almost to the breaking point " So worried that he could not sleep, Chadwick resorted to sleeping pills, which he continued to take for most of his remaining years  Chadwick later said that he realised that "a nuclear bomb was not only possible—it was inevitable  Sooner or later these ideas could not be peculiar to us  Everybody would think about them before long, and some country would put them into action"  Sir Hermann Bondi suggested that it was fortunate that Chadwick, not Rutherford, was the doyen of UK physics at the time, as the latter's prestige might otherwise have overpowered Chadwick's interest in "looking forward" to the Bomb's prospects 

Manhattan Project
Owing to the danger from aerial bombardment, the Chadwicks sent their twins to Canada as part of a government evacuation scheme  Chadwick was reluctant to move Tube Alloys there, believing that the United Kingdom was a better location for the isotope separation plant  The enormous scope of the effort became more apparent in 1942: even a pilot separation plant would cost over £1 million and strain Britain's resources, to say nothing of a full-scale plant, which was estimated to cost somewhere in the vicinity of £25 million  It would have to be built in America  At the same time that the British became convinced that a joint project was necessary, the progress of the American Manhattan Project was such that British cooperation seemed less essential, although the Americans were still eager to utilise Chadwick's talents The matter of cooperation had to be taken up at the highest level  In September 1943, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and President Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which reinstated cooperation between Britain, the United States and Canada  Chadwick, Oliphant, Peierls and Simon were summoned to the United States by the director of Tube Alloys, Sir Wallace Akers, to work with the Manhattan Project  The Quebec Agreement established a new Combined Policy Committee to direct the joint project  The Americans disliked Akers, so Chadwick was appointed technical advisor to the Combined Policy Committee, and the head of the British Mission Leaving Rotblat in charge in Liverpool, Chadwick began a tour of the Manhattan Project facilities in November 1943, except for the Hanford Site where plutonium was produced, which he was not allowed to see  He became the only man apart from Groves and his second in command to have access to all the American research and production facilities for the uranium bomb  Observing the work on the K-25 gaseous diffusion facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Chadwick realised how wrong he had been about building the plant in wartime Britain  The enormous structure could never have been concealed from the Luftwaffe  In early 1944, he moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico, with his wife and their twins, who now spoke with Canadian accents  For security reasons, he was given the cover name of James Chaffee 

Chadwick accepted that the Americans did not need British help, but that it could still be useful in bringing the project to an early and successful conclusion  Working closely with the director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R  Groves, Jr , he attempted to do everything he could to support the effort  He also endeavoured to place British scientists in as many parts of the project as possible in order to facilitate a post-war British nuclear weapons project to which Chadwick was committed  Requests from Groves via Chadwick for particular scientists tended to be met with an immediate rejection by the company, ministry or university currently employing them, only to be overcome by the overriding priority accorded to Tube Alloys  As a result, the British team was critical to the Project's success Although he had more knowledge of the project than anyone else from Britain, Chadwick had no access to the Hanford site  Lord Portal was offered a tour of Hanford in 1946  "This was the only plant to which Chadwick had been denied access in wartime, and now he asked Groves if he could accompany Portal  Groves replied that he could, but if he did then 'Portal will not see very much' " For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  He considered this to be a recognition of the work of the whole Tube Alloys project By early 1945, Chadwick was spending most of his time in Washington, D C , and his family relocated from Los Alamos to a house on Washington's Dupont Circle in April 1945  He was present at the meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 4 July when Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson gave Britain's agreement to use the atom bomb against Japan, and at the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July, when the first atom bomb was detonated  Inside its pit was a polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator, a development of the technique that Chadwick had used to discover the neutron over a decade before  William L  Laurence, The New York Times reporter attached to the Manhattan Project, wrote that "never before in history had any man lived to see his own discovery materialize itself with such telling effect on the destiny of man "

Later life
Shortly after the war ended, Chadwick was appointed to the Advisory Committee on Atomic Energy (ACAE)  He was also appointed as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  He clashed with fellow ACAE member Patrick Blackett, who disagreed with Chadwick's conviction that Britain needed to acquire its own nuclear weapons; but it was Chadwick's position that was ultimately adopted  He returned to Britain in 1946, to find a country still beset by wartime rationing and shortages At this time, Sir James Mountford, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Liverpool, wrote in his diary "he had never seen a man 'so physically, mentally and spiritually tired" as Chadwick, for he "had plumbed such depths of moral decision as more fortunate men are never called upon even to peer into     [and suffered]     almost insupportable agonies of responsibility arising from his scientific work' "In 1948, Chadwick accepted an offer to become the Master of Gonville and Caius College  The job was prestigious but ill-defined; the Master was the titular head of the College, but authority actually resided in a council of 13 fellows, of whom one was the Master  As Master, Chadwick strove to improve the academic reputation of the college  He increased the number of research fellowships from 31 to 49, and sought to bring talent into the college  This involved controversial decisions, such as hiring in 1951 the Chinese biochemist Tien-chin Tsao and the Hungarian-born economist Peter Bauer  In what became known as the Peasants' Revolt, fellows led by Patrick Hadley voted an old friend of Chadwick's off the council and replaced him with Bauer  More friends of Chadwick's were removed over the following years, and he retired in November 1958  It was during his mastership that Francis Crick, a PhD student at Gonville and Caius College, and James Watson discovered the structure of DNA Over the years, Chadwick received many honours, including the Medal for Merit from the United States, and the Pour le Mérite from Germany  He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1927  He became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1946 and an International member of the American Philosophical Society in 1948  He was made a Companion of Honour in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1970 for "services to science", and went to Buckingham Palace for the investiture ceremony  He became more frail, and seldom left his flat, although he travelled to Liverpool for celebrations of his eightieth birthday   A lifelong atheist, he saw no reason to adopt religious faith in later life  He died in his sleep on 24 July 1974 His papers are held at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge, and are accessible to the public  The Chadwick Laboratory at the University of Liverpool is named after him, as is its Sir James Chadwick Chair of Experimental Physics, which was named after him in 1991 as part of celebrations of the centenary of his birth  A crater on the moon is also named after him  The James Chadwick Building, which houses part of the School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, University of Manchester is named in his honour  He was described by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority official historian Lorna Arnold as "a physicist, a scientist-diplomat, and a good, wise, and humane man "

Notes
Passage 2:
Neutron temperature
The neutron detection temperature, also called the neutron energy, indicates a free neutron's kinetic energy, usually given in electron volts  The term temperature is used, since hot, thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium with a certain temperature  The neutron energy distribution is then adapted to the Maxwell distribution known for thermal motion  Qualitatively, the higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the free neutrons  The momentum and wavelength of the neutron are related through the de Broglie relation  The large wavelength of slow neutrons allows for the large cross section 

Neutron energy distribution ranges
But different ranges with different names are observed in other sources The following is a detailed classification:

Thermal
A thermal neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy of about 0 025 eV (about 4 0×10−21 J or 2 4 MJ/kg, hence a speed of 2 19 km/s), which is the energy corresponding to the most probable speed at a temperature of 290 K (17 °C or 62 °F), the mode of the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for this temperature, Epeak = 1/2 k T 
After a number of collisions with nuclei (scattering) in a medium (neutron moderator) at this temperature, those neutrons which are not absorbed reach about this energy level 
Thermal neutrons have a different and sometimes much larger effective neutron absorption cross-section for a given nuclide than fast neutrons, and can therefore often be absorbed more easily by an atomic nucleus, creating a heavier, often unstable isotope of the chemical element as a result  This event is called neutron activation 

EpithermalNeutrons of energy greater than thermal
Greater than 0 025 eV

CadmiumNeutrons which are strongly absorbed by cadmium
Less than 0 5 eV 

EpicadmiumNeutrons which are not strongly absorbed by cadmium
Greater than 0 5 eV 

Cold (slow) neutronsNeutrons of lower (much lower) energy than thermal neutrons 
Less than 5 meV 
Cold (slow) neutrons are subclassified into cold (CN), very cold (VCN), and ultra-cold (UCN) neutrons, each having particular characteristics in terms of their optical interactions with matter  As the wavelength is made (chosen to be) longer,  lower values of the momentum exchange become accessible  Therefore, it is possible to study larger scales and slower dynamics  Gravity also plays a very significant role in the case of UCN  Nevertheless, UCN reflect at all angles of incidence  This is because their momentum is comparable to the optical potential of materials  This effect is used to store them in bottles and study their fundamental properties e g  lifetime, neutron electrical-dipole moment etc    The main limitations of the use of slow neutrons is the low flux and the lack of efficient optical devices (in the case of CN and VCN)  Efficient neutron optical components are being developed and optimized to remedy this lack 

ResonanceRefers to neutrons which are strongly susceptible to non-fission capture by U-238 
1 eV to 300 eV

IntermediateNeutrons that are between slow and fast
Few hundred eV to 0 5 MeV 

Fast
A fast neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy level close to 1 MeV (100 TJ/kg), hence a speed of 14,000 km/s or higher  They are named fast neutrons to distinguish them from lower-energy thermal neutrons, and high-energy neutrons produced in cosmic showers or accelerators Fast neutrons are produced by nuclear processes:

Nuclear fission produces neutrons with a mean energy of 2 MeV (200 TJ/kg, i e  20,000 km/s), which qualifies as "fast"  However the range of neutrons from fission follows a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution from 0 to about 14 MeV in the center of momentum frame of the disintegration, and the mode of the energy is only 0 75 MeV, meaning that fewer than half of fission neutrons qualify as "fast" even by the 1 MeV criterion 
Spontaneous fission is a mode of radioactive decay for some heavy nuclides  Examples include plutonium-240 and californium-252 
Nuclear fusion: deuterium–tritium fusion produces neutrons of 14 1 MeV (1400 TJ/kg, i e  52,000 km/s, 17 3% of the speed of light) that can easily fission uranium-238 and other non-fissile actinides 
Neutron emission occurs in situations in which a nucleus contains enough excess neutrons that the separation energy of one or more neutrons becomes negative (i e  excess neutrons "drip" out of the nucleus)  Unstable nuclei of this sort will often decay in less than one second Fast neutrons are usually undesirable in a steady-state nuclear reactor because most fissile fuel has a higher reaction rate with thermal neutrons  Fast neutrons can be rapidly changed into thermal neutrons via a process called moderation  This is done through numerous collisions with (in general) slower-moving and thus lower-temperature particles like atomic nuclei and other neutrons  These collisions will generally speed up the other particle and slow down the neutron and scatter it  Ideally, a room temperature neutron moderator is used for this process  In reactors, heavy water, light water, or graphite are typically used to moderate neutrons 

UltrafastRelativistic
Greater than 20 MeV

Other classifications
Pile

Neutrons of all energies present in nuclear reactors
0 001 eV to 15 MeV Ultracold

Neutrons with sufficiently low energy to be reflected and trapped
Upper bound of 335 neV

Fast-neutron reactor and thermal-neutron reactor compared
Most fission reactors are thermal-neutron reactors that use a neutron moderator to slow down ("thermalize") the neutrons produced by nuclear fission  Moderation substantially increases the fission cross section for fissile nuclei such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239  In addition, uranium-238 has a much lower capture cross section for thermal neutrons, allowing more neutrons to cause fission of fissile nuclei and propagate the chain reaction, rather than being captured by 238U  The combination of these effects allows light water reactors to use low-enriched uranium  Heavy water reactors and graphite-moderated reactors can even use natural uranium as these moderators have much lower neutron capture cross sections than light water An increase in fuel temperature also raises uranium-238's thermal neutron absorption by Doppler broadening, providing negative feedback to help control the reactor  When the coolant is a liquid that also contributes to moderation and absorption (light water or heavy water), boiling of the coolant will reduce the moderator density, which can provide positive or negative feedback (a positive or negative void coefficient), depending on whether the reactor is under- or over-moderated 
Intermediate-energy neutrons have poorer fission/capture ratios than either fast or thermal neutrons for most fuels  An exception is the uranium-233 of the thorium cycle, which has a good fission/capture ratio at all neutron energies 
Fast-neutron reactors use unmoderated fast neutrons to sustain the reaction, and require the fuel to contain a higher concentration of fissile material relative to fertile material (uranium-238)  However, fast neutrons have a better fission/capture ratio for many nuclides, and each fast fission releases a larger number of neutrons, so a fast breeder reactor can potentially "breed" more fissile fuel than it consumes 
Fast reactor control cannot depend solely on Doppler broadening or on negative void coefficient from a moderator  However, thermal expansion of the fuel itself can provide quick negative feedback  Perennially expected to be the wave of the future, fast reactor development has been nearly dormant with only a handful of reactors built in the decades since the Chernobyl accident due to low prices in the uranium market, although there is now a revival with several Asian countries planning to complete larger prototype fast reactors in the next few years 

See also
Passage 3:
Discovery of the neutron
The discovery of the neutron and its properties was central to the extraordinary developments in atomic physics in the first half of the 20th century  Early in the century, Ernest Rutherford developed a crude model of the atom,: 188  based on the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden  In this model, atoms had their mass and positive electric charge concentrated in a very small nucleus  By 1920, isotopes of chemical elements had been discovered, the atomic masses had been determined to be (approximately) integer multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom, and the atomic number had been identified as the charge on the nucleus : §1 1 2  Throughout the 1920s, the nucleus was viewed as composed of combinations of protons and electrons, the two elementary particles known at the time, but that model presented several experimental and theoretical contradictions : 298 The essential nature of the atomic nucleus was established with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 and the determination that it was a new elementary particle, distinct from the proton : 55 The uncharged neutron was immediately exploited as a new means to probe nuclear structure, leading to such discoveries as the creation of new radioactive elements by neutron irradiation (1934) and the fission of uranium atoms by neutrons (1938)  The discovery of fission led to the creation of both nuclear power and nuclear weapons by the end of World War II  Both the proton and the neutron were presumed to be elementary particles until the 1960s, when they were determined to be composite particles built from quarks 

Discovery of radioactivity
At the start of the 20th century, the vigorous debate as to the existence of atoms had not yet been resolved  Philosophers such as Ernst Mach and Wilhelm Ostwald denied that atoms were real, viewing them as a convenient mathematical construct, while scientists such as Arnold Sommerfeld and Ludwig Boltzmann saw that physical theories required the existence of atoms : 13–14 Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel, while working with phosphorescent materials   In 1898, Ernest Rutherford at Cavendish Laboratory distinguished two types of radioactivity, alpha rays and beta rays, which differed in their ability to penetrate, or travel into, ordinary objects or gases  Two years later, Paul Villard discovered gamma rays, which possessed even more penetrating power : 8–9  These radiations were soon identified with known particles:  beta rays were shown to be electrons by Walter Kaufmann in 1902; alpha rays were shown to be helium ions by Rutherford and Thomas Royds in 1907; and gamma rays were shown to be electromagnetic radiation, that is, a form of light, by Rutherford and Edward Andrade in 1914 : 61–62, 87  These radiations had also been identified as emanating from atoms, hence they provided clues to processes occurring within atoms   Conversely, the radiations were also recognized as tools that could be exploited in scattering experiments to probe the interior of atoms : 112–115

The gold foil experiment and the discovery of the atomic nucleus
At the University of Manchester between 1908 and 1913, Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden in a series of experiments to determine what happens when alpha particles scatter from metal foil  Now called the Rutherford gold foil experiment, or the Geiger–Marsden experiment, these measurements made the extraordinary discovery that although most alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil experienced little deflection, a few scattered to a high angle  The scattering indicated that some of the alpha particles ricocheted back from a small, but dense, component inside the atoms  Based on these measurements, by 1911 it was apparent to Rutherford that the atom consisted of a small, massive nucleus with positive charge surrounded by a much larger cloud of negatively charged electrons  The concentrated atomic mass was required to provide the observed deflection of the alpha particles, and Rutherford developed a mathematical model that accounted for the scattering The Rutherford model was very influential, motivating the Bohr model for electrons orbiting the nucleus in 1913 and eventually leading to quantum mechanics by the mid-1920s 

Discovery of isotopes
Concurrent with the work of Rutherford, Geiger, and Marsden, the radiochemist Frederick Soddy at the University of Glasgow was studying chemistry related problems on radioactive materials  Soddy had worked with Rutherford on radioactivity at McGill University  By 1910, about 40 different radioactive elements, referred to as radioelements, had been identified between uranium and lead, although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements  Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently found in 1913 that an element undergoing alpha decay will produce an element two places to the left in the periodic system and an element undergoing beta decay will produce an element one place to the right in the periodic system   Also, those radioelements that reside in the same places in the periodic system are chemically identical   Soddy called these chemically identical elements  isotopes : 3–5  For his study of radioactivity and the discovery of isotopes, Soddy was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 

Building from work by J  J  Thomson on the deflection of positively charged atoms by electric and magnetic fields, Francis Aston built the first mass spectrograph at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919  His aim, which he easily achieved, was to separate the two isotopes of neon, 20Ne and 22Ne  Aston discovered that the masses of all the particles are whole numbers (the whole number rule): that is, the masses of all the isotopes are whole number multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom  In these measurements, Aston arbitrarily computed his masses relative to oxygen-16, which he took to have a mass of exactly 16  (Today the atomic mass unit (amu) is relative to carbon-12 ) Ironically, the one exception to this rule was hydrogen itself, which had a mass value of 1 008  The excess mass was small, but well outside the limits of experimental uncertainty  Aston and others quickly realized that the discrepancy is due to the binding energy of atoms, that is, the mass of a number of hydrogen atoms bound into a single atom must be less than the sum of the masses of the separate hydrogen atoms   Aston's work on isotopes won him the 1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole number rule  Noting Aston's recent discovery of nuclear binding energy, in 1920 Arthur Eddington suggested that stars may obtain their energy by fusing hydrogen (protons) into helium and that the heavier elements may form in stars 

Atomic number and Moseley's law
Rutherford and others had noted the disparity between the mass of an atom, computed in atomic mass units, and the approximate charge required on the nucleus for the Rutherford model to work  The required charge of the atomic nucleus was usually about half its atomic mass : 82 Antonius van den Broek boldly hypothesized that the required charge, denoted by Z, was not half of the atomic weight for elements, but instead was exactly equal to the element's ordinal position in the periodic table : 228  At that time, the positions of the elements in the periodic table were not known to have any physical significance   If the elements were ordered based on increasing atomic mass, however, periodicity in chemical properties was exhibited   Exceptions to this periodicity were apparent, however, such as cobalt and nickel : 180 At the University of Manchester in 1913 Henry Moseley discussed the new Bohr model of the atom with the visiting Bohr  The model accounted for the electromagnetic emission spectrum from the hydrogen atom, and Moseley and Bohr wondered if the electromagnetic emission spectra of heavier elements such as cobalt and nickel would follow their ordering by weight, or by their position in the periodic table : 346  In 1913–1914 Moseley tested the question experimentally by using X-ray diffraction techniques  He found that the most intense short-wavelength line in the X-ray spectrum of a particular element, known as the K-alpha line, was related to the element's position in the periodic table, that is, its atomic number, Z  Indeed, Moseley introduced this nomenclature : §1 1 2  Moseley found that the frequencies of the radiation were related in a simple way to the atomic number of the elements for a large number of elements : 5 : 181 Within a year it was noted that the equation for the relation, now called Moseley's law, could be explained in terms of the 1913 Bohr model, with reasonable extra assumptions about atomic structure in other elements : 87  Moseley's result, by Bohr's later account, not only established atomic number as a measurable experimental quantity, but gave it a physical meaning as the positive charge on the atomic nucleus  The elements could be ordered in the periodic system in order of atomic number, rather than atomic weight : 127  The result tied together the organization of the periodic table, the Bohr model for the atom,: 56  and Rutherford's model for alpha scattering from nuclei  It was cited by Rutherford, Bohr, and others as a critical advance in understanding the nature of the atomic nucleus Further research in atomic physics was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I  Moseley was killed in 1915 at the Battle of Gallipoli,: 182  while Rutherford's student James Chadwick was interned in Germany for the duration of the war, 1914–1918  In Berlin, Lise Meitner's and Otto Hahn's research work on determining the radioactive decay chains of radium and uranium by precise chemical separation was interrupted : §4  Meitner spent much of the war working as a radiologist and medical X-ray technician near the Austrian front, while Hahn, a chemist, worked on research in poison gas warfare : 61–62, 68

Rutherford atom
In 1920 Rutherford gave a Bakerian lecture at the Royal Society entitled the "Nuclear Constitution of Atoms", a summary of recent experiments on atomic nuclei and conclusions as to the structure of atomic nuclei : 23 : 5  By 1920, the existence of electrons within the atomic nucleus was widely assumed   It was assumed the nucleus consisted of hydrogen nuclei in number equal to the atomic mass   But since each hydrogen nucleus had charge +1, the nucleus required a smaller number of "internal electrons" each of charge −1 to give the nucleus its correct total charge  The mass of protons is about 1800 times greater than that of electrons, so the mass of the electrons is incidental in this computation : 230–231   Such a model was consistent with the scattering of alpha particles from heavy nuclei, as well as the charge and mass of the many isotopes that had been identified   There were other motivations for the proton–electron model   As noted by Rutherford at the time, "We have strong reason for believing that the nuclei of atoms contain electrons as well as positively charged bodies   ",: 376–377  namely, it was known that beta radiation was electrons emitted from the nucleus : 21 : 5–6 In that lecture, Rutherford conjectured the existence of new particles   The alpha particle was known to be very stable, and it was assumed to retain its identity within the nucleus   The alpha particle was presumed to consist of four protons and two closely bound electrons to give it +2 charge and mass 4   In a 1919 paper, Rutherford had reported the apparent discovery of a new doubly charged particle of mass 3, denoted the X++, interpreted to consist of three protons and a closely bound electron   This result suggested to Rutherford the likely existence of two new particles: one of two protons with a closely bound electron, and another of one proton and a closely bound electron  The X++ particle was later determined to have mass 4 and to be just a low-energy alpha particle : 25  Nevertheless, Rutherford had conjectured the existence of the deuteron, a +1 charge particle of mass 2, and the neutron, a neutral particle of mass 1 : 396   The former is the nucleus of deuterium, discovered in 1931 by Harold Urey  The mass of the hypothetical neutral particle would be little different from that of the proton  Rutherford determined that such a zero-charge particle would be difficult to detect by available techniques : 396 About the time of Rutherford's lecture, other publications appeared with similar suggestions of a proton–electron composite in the nucleus, and in 1921 William Harkins, an American chemist, named the uncharged particle the neutron : 6  About that same time the word proton was adopted for the hydrogen nucleus   Neutron was apparently constructed from the Latin root for neutral and the Greek ending -on (by imitation of electron and proton)  References to the word neutron in connection with the atom can be found in the literature as early as 1899, however : 398 Rutherford and Chadwick immediately began an experimental program at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to search for the neutron : 27 : 398   The experiments continued throughout the 1920s without success Rutherford's conjecture and the hypothetical "neutron" were not widely accepted   In his 1931 monograph on the Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and Radioactivity, George Gamow, then at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen, did not mention the neutron   At the time of their 1932 measurements in Paris that would lead to the discovery of the neutron, Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot were unaware of the conjecture 

Problems of the nuclear electrons hypothesis
Throughout the 1920s, physicists assumed that the atomic nucleus was composed of protons and "nuclear electrons" : 29–32  Under this hypothesis, the nitrogen-14 (14N) nucleus would be composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons, so that it would have a net charge of +7 elementary charge units and a mass of 14 atomic mass units  This nucleus would also be orbited by another 7 electrons, termed "external electrons" by Rutherford,: 375  to complete the 14N atom  However problems with the hypothesis soon became apparent 
Ralph Kronig pointed out in 1926 that the observed hyperfine structure of atomic spectra was inconsistent with the proton–electron hypothesis  This structure is caused by the influence of the nucleus on the dynamics of orbiting electrons  The magnetic moments of supposed "nuclear electrons" should produce hyperfine spectral line splittings similar to the Zeeman effect, but no such effects were observed : 199   It seemed that the magnetic moment of the electron vanished when it was within the nucleus : 299 While on a visit to Utrecht University in 1928, Kronig learned of a surprising aspect of the rotational spectrum of N2+  The precision measurement made by Leonard Ornstein, the director of Utrecht's Physical Laboratory, showed that the spin of nitrogen nucleus must be equal to one  However, if the nitrogen-14 (14N) nucleus was composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons, an odd number of spin-1/2 particles, then the resultant nuclear spin should be half-integer  Kronig therefore suggested that perhaps "protons and  electrons do not retain their identity to the extent they do outside the nucleus" : 299–301 : 117 Observations of the rotational energy levels of diatomic molecules using Raman spectroscopy by Franco Rasetti in 1929 were inconsistent with the statistics expected from the proton–electron hypothesis  Rasetti obtained band spectra for H2 and N2 molecules   While the lines for both diatomic molecules showed alternation in intensity between light and dark, the pattern of alternation for H2 is opposite to that of the N2  After carefully analyzing these experimental results, German physicists Walter Heitler and Gerhard Herzberg showed that the hydrogen nuclei obey Fermi statistics and the nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics  However, a then unpublished result of Eugene Wigner showed that a composite system with an odd number of spin-1/2 particles must obey Fermi statistics; a system with an even number of spin-1/2 particle obeys Bose statistics  If the nitrogen nucleus had 21 particles, it should obey Fermi statistics, contrary to fact  Thus, Heitler and Herzberg concluded: "the electron in the nucleus     loses its ability to determine the statistics of the nucleus ": 117–118 The Klein paradox, discovered by Oskar Klein in 1928, presented further quantum mechanical objections to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus   Derived from the Dirac equation, this clear and precise paradox suggested that an  electron approaching a high potential barrier has a high probability of passing through the barrier by a pair creation process   Apparently, an electron could not be confined within a nucleus by any potential well  The meaning of this paradox was intensely debated at the time : 199–200 By about 1930 it was generally recognized that it was difficult to reconcile the proton–electron model for nuclei with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics : 199 : 299  This relation, Δx⋅Δp ≥ 1⁄2ħ, implies that an electron confined to a region the size of an atomic nucleus typically has a kinetic energy of about 40 MeV,: 299  which is larger than the observed energy of beta particles emitted from the nucleus  Such energy is also much larger than the binding energy of nucleons,: 89  which Aston and others had shown to be less than 9 MeV per nucleon : 511 In 1927, Charles Ellis and W  Wooster at the Cavendish Laboratory measured the energies of β-decay electrons   They found that the distribution of energies from any particular radioactive nuclei was broad and continuous, a result that contrasted notably with the distinct energy values observed in alpha and gamma decay  Further, the continuous energy distribution seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved by this "nuclear electrons" process   Indeed, in 1929 Bohr proposed to modify the law of energy conservation to account for the continuous energy distribution  The proposal earned the support of Werner Heisenberg  Such considerations were apparently reasonable, inasmuch as the laws of quantum mechanics had so recently overturned the laws of classical mechanics 
While all these considerations did not "prove" an electron could not exist in the nucleus, they were confusing and challenging for physicists to interpret   Many theories were invented to explain how the above arguments could be wrong : 4–5  In his 1931 monograph, Gamow summarized all these contradictions, marking the statements regarding electrons in the nucleus with warning symbols : 23

Discovery of the neutron
In 1930, Walther Bothe and his collaborator Herbert Becker in Giessen, Germany found that if the energetic alpha particles emitted from polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically beryllium (94Be), boron (115B), or lithium (73Li), an unusually penetrating radiation was produced  Beryllium produced the most intense radiation   Polonium is highly radioactive, producing energetic alpha radiation, and it was commonly used for scattering experiments at the time : 99–110  Alpha radiation can be influenced by an electric field, because it is composed of charged particles   The observed penetrating radiation was not influenced by an electric field, however, so it was thought to be gamma radiation  The radiation was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were difficult to interpret 

Two years later Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot in Paris showed that if this unknown radiation fell on paraffin wax, or any other hydrogen-containing compound, it ejected protons of very high energy (5 MeV)  This observation was not in itself inconsistent with the assumed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but that interpretation (Compton scattering) had a logical problem   From energy and momentum considerations, a gamma ray would have to have impossibly high energy (50 MeV) to scatter a massive proton : §1 3 1  In Rome, the young physicist Ettore Majorana declared that the manner in which the new radiation interacted with
protons required a new neutral particle On hearing of the Paris results, neither Rutherford nor James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory believed the gamma ray hypothesis  Assisted by Norman Feather, Chadwick quickly performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable  The previous year, Chadwick, J E R  Constable, and E C  Pollard had already conducted experiments on disintegrating light elements using alpha radiation from polonium  They had also developed more accurate and efficient methods for detecting, counting, and recording the ejected protons  Chadwick repeated the creation of the radiation using beryllium to absorb the alpha particles: 9Be + 4He (α) →  12C + 1n  Following the Paris experiment, he aimed the radiation at paraffin wax, a hydrocarbon high in hydrogen content, hence offering a target dense with protons  As in the Paris experiment, the radiation energetically scattered some of the protons  Chadwick measured the range of these protons, and also measured how the new radiation impacted the atoms of various gases  He found that the new radiation consisted of not gamma rays, but uncharged particles with about the same mass as the proton  These particles were neutrons  Chadwick won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for this discovery The year 1932 was later referred to as the "annus mirabilis" for nuclear physics in the Cavendish Laboratory, with discoveries of the neutron, artificial nuclear disintegration by the Cockcroft–Walton particle accelerator, and the positron 

Proton–neutron model of the nucleus
Given the problems of the proton–electron model, it was quickly accepted that the atomic nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, although the precise nature of the neutron was initially unclear  Within months after the discovery of the neutron, Werner Heisenberg and Dmitri Ivanenko had proposed proton–neutron models for the nucleus  Heisenberg's landmark papers approached the description of protons and neutrons in the nucleus through quantum mechanics  While Heisenberg's theory for protons and neutrons in the nucleus was a "major step toward understanding the nucleus as a quantum mechanical system," he still assumed the presence of nuclear electrons  In particular, Heisenberg assumed the neutron was a proton–electron composite, for which there is no quantum mechanical explanation  Heisenberg had no explanation for how lightweight electrons could be bound within the nucleus  Heisenberg introduced the first theory of nuclear exchange forces that bind the nucleons  He considered protons and neutrons to be different quantum states of the same particle, i e , nucleons distinguished by the value of their nuclear isospin quantum numbers 
The proton–neutron model explained the puzzle of dinitrogen  When 14N was proposed to consist of 3 pairs each of protons and neutrons, with an additional unpaired neutron and proton each contributing a spin of 1⁄2 ħ in the same direction for a total spin of 1 ħ, the model became viable  Soon, neutrons were used to naturally explain spin differences in many different nuclides in the same way 
If the proton–neutron model for the nucleus resolved many issues, it highlighted the problem of explaining the origins of beta radiation  No existing theory could account for how electrons, or positrons, could emanate from the nucleus  In 1934, Enrico Fermi published his classic paper describing the process of beta decay, in which the neutron decays to a proton by creating an electron and a (as yet undiscovered) neutrino  The paper employed the analogy that photons, or electromagnetic radiation, were similarly created and destroyed in atomic processes  Ivanenko had suggested a similar analogy in 1932  Fermi's theory requires the neutron to be a spin-1⁄2 particle  The theory preserved the principle of conservation of energy, which had been thrown into question by the continuous energy distribution of beta particles  The basic theory for beta decay proposed by Fermi was the first to show how particles could be created and destroyed  It established a general, basic theory for the interaction of particles by weak or strong forces  While this influential paper has stood the test of time, the ideas within it were so new that when it was first submitted to the journal Nature in 1933 it was rejected as being too speculative 

The nature of the neutron
The question of whether the neutron was a composite particle of a proton and an electron persisted for a few years after its discovery  In 1932 Harrie Massey explored a model for a composite neutron to account for its great penetrating power through matter and its electrical neutrality, for example  The issue was a legacy of the prevailing view from the 1920s that the only elementary particles were the proton and electron 
The nature of the neutron was a primary topic of discussion at the 7th Solvay Conference held in October 1933, attended by Heisenberg, Niels Bohr, Lise Meitner, Ernest Lawrence, Fermi, Chadwick, and others  As posed by Chadwick in his Bakerian Lecture in 1933, the primary question was the mass of the neutron relative to the proton  If the neutron's mass was less than the combined masses of a proton and an electron (1 0078 u), then the neutron could be a proton-electron composite because of the mass defect from the nuclear binding energy  If greater than the combined masses, then the neutron was elementary like the proton  The question was challenging to answer because the electron's mass is only 0 05% of the proton's, hence exceptionally precise measurements were required 
The difficulty of making the measurement is illustrated by the wide-ranging values for the mass of the neutron obtained from 1932 to 1934  The accepted value today is 1 00866 u  In Chadwick's 1932 paper reporting on the discovery, he estimated the mass of the neutron to be between 1 005 u and 1 008 u  By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a high value of 1 012 u, while Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California measured the small value 1 0006 u using their new cyclotron In 1935 Chadwick and his doctoral student Maurice Goldhaber resolved the issue by reporting the first accurate measurement of the mass of the neutron  They used the 2 6 MeV gamma rays of Thallium-208 (208Tl) (then known as thorium C") to photodisintegrate the deuteron 
In this reaction, the resulting proton and neutron have about equal kinetic energy, since their masses are about equal   The kinetic energy of the resulting proton could be measured (0 24 MeV), and therefore the deuteron's binding energy could be determined (2 6 MeV − 2(0 24 MeV) = 2 1 MeV, or 0 0023 u)  The neutron's mass could then be determined by the simple mass balance

where md,p,n refer to the deuteron, proton, or neutron mass, and "b e " is the binding energy  The masses of the deuteron and proton were known; Chadwick and Goldhaber used values 2 0142 u and 1 0081 u, respectively   They found that the neutron's mass was slightly greater than the mass of the proton 1 0084 u or 1 0090 u, depending on the precise value used for the deuteron mass  The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron composite, and the neutron was therefore identified as an elementary particle   Chadwick and Goldhaber predicted that a free neutron would be able to decay into a proton, electron, and neutrino (beta decay) 

Neutron physics in the 1930s
Soon after the discovery of the neutron, indirect evidence suggested the neutron had an unexpected non-zero value for its magnetic moment  Attempts to measure the neutron's magnetic moment originated with the discovery by Otto Stern in 1933 in Hamburg that the proton had an anomalously large magnetic moment  By 1934 groups led by Stern, now in Pittsburgh, and I  I  Rabi in New York had independently deduced that the magnetic moment of the neutron was negative and unexpectedly large by measuring the magnetic moments of the proton and deuteron  Values for the magnetic moment of the neutron were also determined by Robert Bacher (1933) at Ann Arbor and I Y  Tamm and S A  Altshuler (1934) in the Soviet Union from studies of the hyperfine structure of atomic spectra  By the late 1930s accurate values for the magnetic moment of the neutron had been deduced by the Rabi group using measurements employing newly developed nuclear magnetic resonance techniques  The large value for the proton's magnetic moment and the inferred negative value for the neutron's magnetic moment were unexpected and raised many questions 

The discovery of the neutron immediately gave scientists a new tool for probing the properties of atomic nuclei  Alpha particles had been used over the previous decades in scattering experiments, but such particles, which are helium nuclei, have +2 charge  This charge makes it difficult for alpha particles to overcome the Coulomb repulsive force and interact directly with the nuclei of atoms  Since neutrons have no electric charge, they do not have to overcome this force to interact with nuclei  Almost coincident with their discovery, neutrons were used by Norman Feather, Chadwick's colleague and protege, in scattering experiments with nitrogen  Feather was able to show that neutrons interacting with nitrogen nuclei scattered to protons or induced nitrogen to disintegrate to form boron with the emission of an alpha particle  Feather was therefore the first to show that neutrons produce nuclear disintegrations 
In Rome, Enrico Fermi and his team bombarded heavier elements with neutrons and found the products to be radioactive  By 1934 they had used neutrons to induce radioactivity in 22 different elements, many of these elements of high atomic number  Noticing that other experiments with neutrons at his laboratory seemed to work better on a wooden table than a marble table, Fermi suspected that the protons of the wood were slowing the neutrons and so increasing the chance for the neutron to interact with nuclei  Fermi therefore passed neutrons through paraffin wax to slow them and found that the radioactivity of some bombarded elements increased by a factor of tens to hundreds  The cross section for interaction with nuclei is much larger for slow neutrons than for fast neutrons  In 1938 Fermi received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons" 

In Berlin, the collaboration of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, together with their assistant Fritz Strassmann, furthered the research begun by Fermi and his team when they bombarded uranium with neutrons  Between 1934 and 1938, Hahn, Meitner, and Strassmann found a great number of radioactive transmutation products from these experiments, all of which they regarded as transuranic  Transuranic nuclides are those that have an atomic number greater than uranium (92), formed by neutron absorption; such nuclides are not naturally occurring  In July 1938, Meitner was forced to escape antisemitic persecution in Nazi Germany after the Anschluss, and she was able to secure a new position in Sweden  The decisive experiment on 16–17 December 1938 (using a chemical process called "radium–barium–mesothorium fractionation") produced puzzling results: what they had understood to be three isotopes of radium were instead consistently behaving as barium  Radium (atomic number 88) and barium (atomic number 56) are in the same chemical group   By January 1939 Hahn had concluded that what they had thought were transuranic nuclides were instead much lighter nuclides, such as barium, lanthanum, cerium and light platinoids  Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch immediately and correctly interpreted these observations as resulting from nuclear fission, a term coined by Frisch Hahn and his collaborators had detected the splitting of uranium nuclei, made unstable by neutron absorption, into lighter elements  Meitner and Frisch also showed that the fission of each uranium atom would release about 200 MeV of energy  The discovery of fission electrified the global community of atomic physicists and the public   In their second publication on nuclear fission, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process  Frédéric Joliot and his team proved this phenomenon to be a chain reaction in March 1939  In 1945 Hahn received the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei "

After 1939
The discovery of nuclear fission at the end of 1938 marked a shift in the centers of nuclear research from Europe to the United States  Large numbers of scientists were migrating to the United States to escape the troubles and antisemitism in Europe and the looming war: 407–410  (See Jewish scientists and the Manhattan Project)  The new centers of nuclear research were the universities in the United States, particularly Columbia University in New York and the University of Chicago where Enrico Fermi had relocated, and a secret research facility at Los Alamos, New Mexico, established in 1942, the new home of the Manhattan project  This wartime project was focussed on the construction of nuclear weapons, exploiting the enormous energy released by the fission of uranium or plutonium through neutron-based chain reactions 
The discoveries of the neutron and positron in 1932 were the start of the discoveries of many new particles   Muons were discovered in 1936   Pions and kaons were discovered in 1947, while lambda particles were discovered in 1950   Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a large number of particles called hadrons were discovered   A classification scheme for organizing all these particles, proposed independently by Murray Gell-Mann and
George Zweig in 1964, became known as the quark model  By this model, particles such as the proton and neutron were not elementary, but composed of various configurations of a small number of other truly elementary particles called partons or quarks  The quark model received experimental verification beginning in the late 1960s and finally provided an explanation for the neutron's anomalous magnetic moment 

Videos
Ernest Rutherford summarizes the state of nuclear physics in 1935  (7 min , Nobelprize org)
Hans Bethe discusses Chadwick and Goldhaber's work on deuteron disintegration  (2 min , Web of Stories)

Explanatory notes



ground_truth: Pulitzer Prize for Drama

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: At what local time does the country where Fuser and Alberto meet the indigenous couple traveling to look for work change their clocks for DST?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Justice League (film)
Justice League is a 2017 American superhero film based on the DC Comics superhero team of the same name  Produced by Warner Bros  Pictures, DC Films, RatPac-Dune Entertainment, Atlas Entertainment, and Cruel and Unusual Films and distributed by Warner Bros  Pictures, it is the fifth installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU)  Directed by Zack Snyder and written by Chris Terrio and Joss Whedon, the film features an ensemble cast including Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Gal Gadot, Ezra Miller, Jason Momoa, Ray Fisher, Jeremy Irons, Diane Lane, Connie Nielsen, and J  K  Simmons  In the film, following the events of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) Batman and Wonder Woman recruit The Flash, Aquaman, and Cyborg after the death of Superman to save the world from the catastrophic threat of Steppenwolf and his army of Parademons 
Warner Bros  began to develop a live-action Justice League film in 2007 with George Miller set to direct, but the project was canceled due to production delays and budgetary concerns  Principal photography took place from April to October 2016  After Snyder stepped down from the film following the death of his daughter, Whedon was hired to oversee the remainder of post-production, including writing and directing additional scenes, as well as reshooting a large portion of the film, which changed many aspects of it; Snyder ultimately retained sole credit as director  With an estimated production budget of $300 million, Justice League is one of the most expensive films ever made 
Justice League premiered in Los Angeles on November 13, 2017, and was released in the United States four days later  The film grossed $657 9 million worldwide against an assumed break-even point of $750 million, becoming a box office bomb and losing Warner Bros  an estimated $60 million  It received mixed reviews from critics, with criticism aimed towards the plot, pacing, generic villain, cinematography, and computer-generated imagery, while its humor and light tone were met with polarized responses, although the action sequences and performances (particularly Gadot and Miller) were praised  Whedon's major involvement during post-production also received harsh criticism especially from the cast, particularly Gadot and Fisher  A director's cut, titled Zack Snyder's Justice League, was released on HBO Max in March 2021, after fans had begun to advocate for Snyder's original version of the film since the film's theatrical release 

Plot
Thousands of years ago, Steppenwolf and his legions of Parademons attempted to take over the Earth using the combined energies of the three Mother Boxes  The attempt was foiled by a unified alliance including the Olympian Gods, Amazons, Atlanteans, humanity, and extraterrestrial beings  After Steppenwolf's army was repelled, the Mother Boxes were separated and hidden in different locations  In the present, humanity is still in mourning two years after the death of Superman, which triggered the Mother Boxes' reactivation and Steppenwolf's return to Earth  Steppenwolf aims to gather the boxes to form "The Unity", which will destroy Earth's ecology and terraform it in the image of Steppenwolf's homeworld 
Steppenwolf retrieves one Mother Box from Themyscira, prompting Queen Hippolyta to warn her daughter Diana  Diana joins Bruce Wayne in an attempt to unite other metahumans to their cause: Wayne goes after Arthur Curry and Barry Allen, while Diana locates Victor Stone  Wayne fails to persuade Curry but finds Allen enthusiastic  Although Diana fails to persuade Stone, he agrees to help them locate the threat  Stone joins after his father Silas and several other S T A R  Labs employees are kidnapped by Steppenwolf, who is seeking the Mother Box protected by humanity 
Steppenwolf attacks an Atlantean outpost to retrieve the next Mother Box, forcing Curry into action  Stone retrieves the last Mother Box for the group, revealing that his father used the Mother Box to rebuild Stone's body after an accident almost cost him his life  Wayne decides to use the Mother Box to resurrect Superman, not only to help them fight off Steppenwolf's invasion but also to restore hope to humanity 
Clark Kent's body is exhumed and placed in the amniotic fluid of the genesis chamber in the Kryptonian scout ship, along with the Mother Box, successfully resurrecting Superman  However, Superman's memories have not returned, and he attacks the group  Batman enacts his contingency plan: Lois Lane  Superman calms down and leaves with her to his family home in Smallville, where his memories come back  In the turmoil, the last Mother Box is left unguarded, allowing Steppenwolf to retrieve it  Without Superman to aid them, the five heroes travel to a village in Russia where Steppenwolf aims to unite the Mother Boxes once again to remake Earth  They fight their way through the Parademons to reach Steppenwolf but are unable to distract him enough for Stone to separate the Mother Boxes  Superman arrives and assists Allen in evacuating the city, as well as assisting Stone in separating the Mother Boxes  The team defeats Steppenwolf, who, overcome with fear, is attacked by his own Parademons 
After the battle, Bruce and Diana agree to set up a base of operations for the team, with room for more members  As the team establishes, Diana steps back into the public spotlight as a heroine; Barry acquires a job in Central City's police department, impressing his father; Victor continues to enhance his abilities with his father in S T A R  Labs; Arthur continues protecting people on the seas; Superman resumes his life as reporter Clark Kent and as protector of Earth 
In a post-credits scene, Lex Luthor has escaped from Arkham Asylum and recruits Slade Wilson to form a league of their own 

Cast
Ben Affleck as Bruce Wayne / Batman: A wealthy socialite, and the owner of Wayne Enterprises  He dedicates himself to protecting Gotham City from its criminal underworld as a highly trained, masked vigilante equipped with various tools and weapons  Affleck noted on how the film gave him an opportunity to reinvent Batman and portray a more classic take on the character  He described that in the film, audiences will see Batman as more heroic, and more of a leader  "Batman is by nature, [while] not necessarily anti-social, pretty private, pretty a loner," Affleck says  "And then in this movie he's thrust into the role of having to not only work with people, but bring them together and convince them to come in and try to     somehow with Wonder Woman hold all that community effort together  That was a really interesting thing to play for me, and it also does take us to a more traditional role for Batman in the Justice League comics, and his role with the Justice League versus the sort of less typical version we saw in Batman v Superman, where he was blinded by rage and wanted to take on Superman "
Henry Cavill as Clark Kent / Superman: A member of, and inspiration for, the Justice League  He is a Kryptonian survivor and a journalist for the Daily Planet based in Metropolis  In Justice League, Superman was portrayed as more optimistic and hopeful  The character was intentionally excluded from all Justice League marketing materials to emphasize his death as depicted on Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice 
Amy Adams as Lois Lane: An undaunted and compassionate award-winning journalist for the Daily Planet and the love interest for Kent 
Gal Gadot as Diana Prince / Wonder Woman: An antiquities dealer, acquaintance of Wayne, and an immortal Amazonian warrior who is the crown princess of Themyscira and daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus  She is endowed with metahuman attributes and abilities inherited from her parents 
Ezra Miller as Barry Allen / The Flash: A Central City University student who can move at superhuman speeds with his ability to tap into the Speed Force 
Jason Momoa as Arthur Curry / Aquaman:Half-human and half Atlantean metahuman with superhuman strength and aquatic abilities  Momoa was cast as Aquaman in June 2014, and made a cameo appearance in Batman v  Superman: Dawn of Justice 
Ray Fisher as Victor Stone / Cyborg: A former college athlete who, after being cybernetically reconstructed after a nearly fatal car accident, is turned into a techno-organic being enhanced by reactive, adaptive biomimetic alien technology  His enhancements include the abilities of flight, variable weaponry and technopathy  Fisher portrays the character through the use of motion capture for the cybernetic portion of his body  Fisher was cast as Cyborg in April 2014, and made a cameo in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice 
Jeremy Irons as Alfred Pennyworth: Wayne's butler, chief of security, and trusted confidant 
Diane Lane as Martha Kent: Kent's adoptive mother 
Connie Nielsen as Queen Hippolyta: Diana's mother and the Amazonian Queen of Themyscira 
J  K  Simmons as Commissioner James Gordon: The Gotham City Police Department Commissioner, and close ally of Batman 
Ciarán Hinds as Steppenwolf:An alien military officer from Apokolips who leads an army of Parademons and is searching for the three Mother Boxes held on Earth  The character is described as "old, tired" and trying to find a way to escape his role of servitude under Darkseid  Hinds portrayed the villain through use of motion capture and received some advice in the process from Liam Neeson, who had recently done similar work in A Monster Calls  After the release of the film, Hinds was reportedly unhappy with the final cut of the film, which trimmed down the backstory and characterization of Steppenwolf 
Amber Heard as Mera: A princess of Xebel who approaches Curry to discuss the nature of the Mother Boxes 
Joe Morton as Silas Stones: Victor Stone's father and head of S T A R  Labs During a scene a half-hour into the film, depicting Steppenwolf's first invasion thousands of years earlier, Olympian Old Gods Zeus, Ares, and Artemis are portrayed by fitness model Sergi Constance, stuntman Nick McKinless, and MMA fighter Aurore Lauzeral, respectively  All three were required to reach a specific degree of physicality, with Snyder instructing McKinless to sport "veins like worms and paper thin skin"  In the finished film, McKinless' face was replaced with that of David Thewlis using special effects; Thewlis received the credit as Ares  The scene also shows a Green Lantern, named Yalan Gur, created through motion-capture CGI and embodied by an uncredited actor  Two ancient leaders of Earth appear during the scene, including King Atlan of Atlantis and King Arthur Pendragon of ancient England; portrayed by Julian Lewis Jones and Francis Magee, respectively  Billy Crudup appears, uncredited, as Henry Allen, Barry Allen's father  Joe Manganiello and Jesse Eisenberg appear uncredited in a post-credits scene as Slade Wilson / Deathstroke and Lex Luthor, respectively  Michael McElhatton appears as the leader of a group of terrorists who clash with Wonder Woman early in the film, while Holt McCallany makes an uncredited appearance as a burglar  Marc McClure, who portrayed Jimmy Olsen in the Christopher Reeve Superman film series, has a brief cameo as a police officer Willem Dafoe and Kiersey Clemons filmed scenes as Nuidis Vulko and Iris West, although their roles were cut from the final film  Both actors are signed for multiple films and are set to appear in the future installments of the franchise  A scene depicting Green Lanterns Kilowog and Tomar-Re visiting Batman was filmed as an additional post-credits scene, further teasing the upcoming Green Lantern Corps, but the scene was later scrapped  Other scenes that were filmed, but cut from the theatrical film, include: Ryan Zheng as Ryan Choi, setting up the character's future as The Atom; a fight between Ares and Darkseid, with the villain portrayed by Ray Porter; Harry Lennix reprising his role from Man of Steel and Batman v Superman as Calvin Swanwick, in a scene where it would have been revealed that his character is actually J'onn J'onzz / Martian Manhunter; and scenes featuring Darkseid's servant DeSaad, with the character voiced by Peter Guinness  These characters were included in Zack Snyder's Justice League 

Production
Background
In February 2007, it was announced that Warner Bros  Pictures had hired husband-and-wife duo Michele and Kieran Mulroney to write a script for a Justice League film  The news came around the same time that Joss Whedon's long-developed Wonder Woman film was canceled, as well as The Flash, written and directed by David S  Goyer  Reportedly titled Justice League: Mortal, the script by Michele and Kieran Mulroney was submitted to Warner Bros  in June 2007, receiving positive feedback, which prompted the studio to immediately fast track production in the hope of beginning filming before the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike  Warner Bros  was less willing to proceed with development of a sequel to Superman Returns, having been disappointed with its box office  Brandon Routh was not approached to reprise the role of Superman in Justice League: Mortal, nor was Christian Bale from Batman Begins  Warner Bros  intended for Justice League: Mortal to be the start of a new film franchise, and to branch out into separate sequels and spin-offs  Shortly after filming The Dark Knight, Bale stated in an interview that "It'd be better if it doesn't tread on the toes of what our Batman series is doing," and felt it would make more sense for Warner Bros  to release the film after The Dark Knight Rises  Jason Reitman was the original choice to direct Justice League, but he turned it down, as he considers himself an independent filmmaker and prefers to stay out of big budget superhero films  George Miller signed to direct in September 2007, with Barrie Osbourne producing on a projected $220 million budget The following month, roughly 40 actors and actresses auditioned for the ensemble superhero roles, among them Joseph Cross, Michael Angarano, Max Thieriot, Minka Kelly, Adrianne Palicki, and Scott Porter  Miller had intended to cast younger actors, as he wanted them to "grow" into their roles over the course of several films  D  J  Cotrona was cast as Superman, along with Armie Hammer as Batman  Jessica Biel reportedly declined to play Wonder Woman role after negotiations  The character was also linked to actresses Teresa Palmer and Shannyn Sossamon, along with Mary Elizabeth Winstead, who confirmed that she had auditioned  Ultimately, Megan Gale was cast as Wonder Woman, while Palmer was cast as Talia al Ghul, whom Miller had in mind to act with a Russian accent  The script for Justice League: Mortal would have featured John Stewart as Green Lantern, a role originally offered to Columbus Short  Hip hop recording artist and rapper Common was cast, with Adam Brody as Barry Allen / Flash, and Jay Baruchel as the lead villain, Maxwell Lord  Longtime Miller collaborator Hugh Keays-Byrne had been cast in an unnamed role, rumored to be Martian Manhunter  Santiago Cabrera was eventually revealed to be Aquaman after the film was cancelled  Marit Allen was hired as the original costume designer before her untimely death in November 2007, and the responsibilities were assumed by Weta Workshop However, the writers strike began that same month and placed the film on hold  Warner Bros  had to let the options lapse for the cast, but development was fast tracked once more in February 2008 when the strike ended  Warner Bros  and Miller wanted to start filming immediately, but production was pushed back three months  Originally, the majority of Justice League: Mortal was to be shot at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney, with other locations scouted nearby at local colleges, and Sydney Heads doubling for Happy Harbor  The Australian Film Commission had a say with casting choices, giving way for George Miller to cast Gale, Palmer and Keays-Bryne, all Australian natives  The production crew was composed entirely of Australians, but the Australian government denied Warner Bros  a 40 percent tax rebate as they felt they had not hired enough Australian actors  Miller was frustrated, stating that "A once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for the Australian film industry is being frittered away because of very lazy thinking  They're throwing away hundreds of millions of dollars of investment that the rest of the world is competing for and, much more significantly, highly skilled creative jobs " Production offices were then moved to Vancouver Film Studios in Canada  Filming was pushed back to July 2008, while Warner Bros was still confident they could produce the film for a summer 2009 release 
With production delays continuing, and the success of The Dark Knight in July 2008, Warner Bros  decided to focus on the development of individual films featuring the main heroes, allowing director Christopher Nolan to separately complete his Batman trilogy with The Dark Knight Rises in 2012  Warner Bros  relaunched development for a solo Green Lantern film, released in 2011 as a critical and financial disappointment  Meanwhile, film adaptations for The Flash and Wonder Woman continued to languish in development, while filming for a Superman reboot commenced in 2011 with Man of Steel, produced by Nolan and written by Batman screenwriter David S  Goyer  In October 2012, following its legal victory over Joe Shuster's estate for the rights to Superman, Warner Bros  announced that it planned to move ahead with the Justice League film  Shortly after filming on Man of Steel was complete, Warner Bros hired Will Beall to write the script for a new Justice League film  Warner Bros  president Jeff Robinov explained that Man of Steel would be "setting the tone for what the movies are going to be like going forward  In that, it's definitely a first step " The film included references to the existence of other superheroes in the DC Universe, and set the tone for a shared fictional universe of DC Comics characters on film  Goyer stated that should Green Lantern appear in a future installment, it would be a rebooted version of the character, unconnected to the 2011 film With the release of Man of Steel in June 2013, Goyer was hired to write a sequel, as well as a new Justice League, with the Beall draft being scrapped  The sequel was later revealed to be Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, a team-up film featuring Henry Cavill as Superman, Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, Ezra Miller as The Flash, Jason Momoa as Aquaman, and Ray Fisher as Victor Stone / Cyborg, the latter three in minor roles that became more significant in the Justice League film  The universe is separate from Nolan and Goyer's work on The Dark Knight trilogy, although Nolan was still involved as an executive producer for Batman v Superman  In April 2014, it was announced that Zack Snyder would also direct Goyer's Justice League script  Warner Bros  was reportedly courting Chris Terrio to rewrite Justice League the following July, after having been impressed with his rewrite of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice  On October 15, 2014, Warner Bros  announced the film would be released in two parts, with Part One on November 17, 2017, and Part Two is announced but release date not confirmed  Snyder was set to direct both films  In early July 2015, EW revealed that the script for Justice League Part One had been completed by Terrio  Zack Snyder stated that the film would be inspired by the New Gods comic series by Jack Kirby  Although Justice League was initially announced as a two-part film, with the second part set for release two years after the first, Snyder stated in June 2016 that they would be two distinct, separate films and not one film split into two parts, both being stand-alone stories 

Filming
Principal photography began on April 11, 2016, with shooting taking place at Warner Bros  Studios, Leavesden, as well as various locations around London and Scotland  Additional filming took place in Chicago, Illinois; Los Angeles; and Djúpavík, in the Westfjords of Iceland  Snyder's longtime cinematographer Larry Fong was replaced by Fabian Wagner due to scheduling conflicts  Ben Affleck served as executive producer  In May 2016, it was revealed that Geoff Johns and Jon Berg would produce the Justice League films, and would also be in charge of the DC Extended Universe, after the largely negative critical reception of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice  The same month, Irons stated that the Justice League storyline would be more linear and simple, compared to the theatrical version of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice  Johns confirmed on June 3, 2016, that the title of the film is Justice League, and later stated that the film would be "hopeful and optimistic" in comparison to previous DC Extended Universe (DCEU) films Justice League had a troubled production  During filming, it was reported that the rewrites by Geoff Johns caused issues with Chris Terrio and Warner Bros  executives  Warner Bros  was unsatisfied with how the film was shaping up under Snyder due to the negative feedback that the theatrical version of Batman v Superman received  It was reported that Warner Bros  held a footage summit for writers that include Joss Whedon, Wonder Woman screenwriter Allan Heinberg, Seth Grahame-Smith, and Andrea Berloff  This caused numerous rewrites as Justice League was filming  Whedon was eventually hired by Warner Bros  He then took over as director of the film after Snyder stepped down during the post-production  Filming wrapped in October 2016 

Post-production
In May 2017, Snyder stepped down from directorial duties during post-production of the film to properly deal with the death of his daughter, Autumn Snyder  Joss Whedon took over to handle post-production duties in Snyder's place  In July 2017, it was announced the film was undergoing two months of reshoots in London and Los Angeles, with Warner Bros  putting about $25 million into them, more than the typical $6–10 million additional filming costs, which brought the budget of the film up to $300 million  The reshoots coincided with Cavill's schedule for Mission: Impossible – Fallout, for which he had grown a mustache which he was contracted to keep while filming  While Fallout director Christopher McQuarrie initially gave the producers of Justice League permission to have Cavill shave the mustache in exchange for the $3 million it would cost to shut down production on Fallout and then digitally fill the mustache in, executives from Paramount Pictures rejected the idea  Justice League's VFX team was then forced to use special effects to digitally remove the mustache in post-production Whedon received a screenwriting credit on the film alongside Chris Terrio, while Snyder received sole director's credit  Producer Charles Roven said in an interview that the film was shot originally by eighty to eighty-five percent  Conversely, Snyder estimates that only a fourth of his material was used in the theatrical version based on what he has been told of the theatrical cut, as he has not watched it  Cinematographer Fabian Wagner estimates that only 10% of the original footage shot by him and Snyder was used in the final cut  Whedon's rewrites were around 80 pages, further confirming that the theatrical cut was mostly his work Warner Bros  CEO Kevin Tsujihara mandated the film to be under two hours  In consequence, the final cut runs for that exact time  The company also did not opt to delay the film's release despite the fact that there had been numerous problems in post-production, so that the executives would receive their cash bonuses before the company's merger with AT&T  In February 2018, it was reported that Snyder was fired from directorial duties from Justice League, after his cut was deemed "unwatchable" according to Collider's Matt Goldberg  "I'd heard similar things from separate sources over the last year as well, I also heard that Snyder's rough-cut of the movie was 'unwatchable' (a word that jumped out at me because it's rare you hear two separate sources use exactly the same adjective)  Of course, even if that's true, there's obviously more to the story since rough cuts can be fixed up with reshoots, rewrites, etc ", Goldberg wrote  According to DC Comics publisher, comic book artist Jim Lee, Snyder was not fired  Speaking at the Calgary Comic and Entertainment Expo, Lee stated "that [Snyder] was not fired at all and that he stepped down from the production due to a family matter", as far as he knew  In July 2020, Ray Fisher claimed that Whedon's on-set treatment of the film's cast and crew was "gross, abusive, unprofessional, and completely unacceptable " Justice League and Batman v Superman writer Chris Terrio called the theatrical cut an act of vandalism, and attempted unsuccessfully to get his name removed from the film 

Music
In March 2016, Hans Zimmer, who co-composed the score for Man of Steel and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, stated that he had officially retired from the "superhero business", though he would later score X-Men: Dark Phoenix and Wonder Woman 1984  Junkie XL, who wrote and composed the soundtrack of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice with Zimmer, was originally scoring the film, but was replaced by Danny Elfman the following year in June  Elfman had previously composed the films Batman and Batman Returns, and the theme music for Batman: The Animated Series  Elfman used the Batman theme music from the 1989 film Batman  The John Williams' Superman theme was used during "a dark, twisted moment" in the film where a resurrected Superman fights the Justice League and later during the climax where Superman arrives to defeat Steppenwolf  The film features a cover of Leonard Cohen's "Everybody Knows" performed by Sigrid, "Icky Thump" performed by the White Stripes, and a cover of the Beatles' "Come Together" performed by Gary Clark Jr  and Junkie XL  WaterTower Music released the soundtrack album digitally on November 10 the same year, with a release of the physical format on December 8 

Marketing
Superman was intentionally left out on all early Justice League marketing materials, including trailers, clips, and posters, which actor Cavill commented as "ridiculous"  Despite his character being hidden from promotional materials, Cavill still joined the rest of the cast on the film's press tour  Clark Kent was revealed in a final trailer before the release of the film, but edited in a way that writers felt Lois Lane was dreaming about Clark  Sponsorship and marketing partners of the film included AT&T, Gillette, Mercedes-Benz, and TCL 

Release
Theatrical
Justice League had its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on November 13, 2017, and was released in the United States on November 17, 2017 to coincide with the 16th anniversary of the Justice League animated series 

Home media
The film was released on digital download on February 13, 2018, and was released on Blu-ray Disc, Blu-ray 3D, 4K Ultra-HD Blu-ray, and DVD on March 13, 2018, in various international markets  The Blu-ray features two deleted scenes titled Return of Superman  It is also notable for having no director commentary from either Zack Snyder or Joss Whedon  As of August 20, 2021, it has made $30 4 million in DVD sales and $41 5 million in Blu-ray sales, totaling an estimated $71 9 million in domestic video sales according to The Numbers 

Reception
Box office
Justice League grossed $229 million in the United States and Canada and $428 9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $657 9 million  It had a worldwide opening of $278 8 million  Up against an estimated break-even point of as much as $750 million, Deadline Hollywood reported that the film lost the studio around $60 million  Due to the film losing the studio money, the movie was deemed a "box office bomb" or "flop" In the United States and Canada, industry tracking initially forecast the film debuting to $110–120 million from 4,051 theaters (including 400 IMAX screens)  It made $13 million from Thursday night previews, up from the $11 million made by Wonder Woman the previous June  However, after making $38 5 million on its first day (including Thursday previews), weekend projections were lowered to $95 million  It ended up debuting to $93 8 million, down 45% from Batman v Superman's opening of $166 million, and being the first film of the DCEU to open under $100 million  Deadline attributed the low figure to lukewarm audience reaction to the film and most of its predecessors, as well as poor critical reception, and film review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes not posting their aggregated score until the day before release, causing speculation and doubt from filmgoers  In its second weekend, the film dropped 56% to $41 1 million, finishing second at the box office, behind newcomer Coco  It was the second-best second weekend hold of the DCEU, behind Wonder Woman's 43%, but the lowest overall gross  In its third week it again finished second behind Coco, grossing $16 7 million  It made $9 7 million in its fourth week and $4 3 million in its fifth, finishing a respective second and fifth at the box office  In 2018, Forbes compared the drastic incohesive shift from Snyder's darker films Man of Steel and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice to the lighter Justice League (co-written by Whedon), to the similarly drastic and incohesive change in tone experienced from the older 1989 and 1992 Tim Burton's Batman films to the direct light-hearted sequels directed by Schumacher, although noting the former shift in tone was better received than the one in Justice League, affecting box office, due to going against the expectations of Snyder fans in its attempt to reach a higher demographic, while alienating its own established core audience In other territories, the film was projected to debut to $215–235 million for a worldwide opening of $325–355 million  It made $8 5 million on its first day from nine countries, including South Korea, France, and Brazil  It ended up having a $185 million international debut from 65 countries, including $57 1 million from China, $9 8 million from the United Kingdom, $9 6 million from Mexico, and $8 8 million from South Korea  The film broke a record in the Philippines with a debut of $1 12M (PHP 57 3M), making it the biggest industry opening day for a film in 2017 and eventually becoming the 7th-most successful film of all time  In Brazil, the film opened to $14 2 million, the biggest opening in the country's history  Outside North America, the film's largest markets were China ($106 million), Brazil ($41 million), Mexico ($24 8 million), and United Kingdom ($24 million) 

Critical response
Justice League received mixed reviews  It was praised for the action sequences and performances (particularly Gadot and Miller), but was criticized for its plot, pacing, generic villain, cinematography, and CGI  On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 39% of 409 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 5 3/10  The website's consensus reads: "Justice League leaps over a number of DC movies, but its single bound isn't enough to shed the murky aesthetic, thin characters, and chaotic action that continue to dog the franchise " Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 45 out of 100, based on 52 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, and those by PostTrak gave the film an 85% overall positive score (average 4 out of 5 stars) and a 69% "definite recommend "Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3 5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast, especially Gadot, and saying "It's a putting-the-band-together origins movie, executed with great fun and energy " Owen Gleiberman of Variety gave the film a positive review, which conceived the film and described it was not "messy or bombastic," and light, clean, and simple  Bilge Ebiri of the Village Voice similarly gave it a positive review, and said the action scenes of the film went "start and stop and then start again, [and] then go in different directions " Ebiri also describes the film had a "few moments into the Big Climactic Face-Off," but the "rhythms actually lend the film a pleasant unpredictability " Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 2 5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast but criticizing the action sequences and writing, saying: "The scenes of the League members together, bickering and bonding, spike the film with humor and genuine feeling, creating a rooting interest in the audience  Without it, the film would crumble " Conversely, Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter, while praising Gadot and Miller, called the film visually ugly and boring, saying, "Fatigue, repetition and a laborious approach to exposition are the keynotes of this affair, which is also notable for how Ben Affleck, donning the bat suit for the second time, looks like he'd rather be almost anywhere else but here "Writing for The Washington Post, Alyssa Rosenberg also returned with a negative review, and described the film was a "symbol of just how entrenched superhero movies have become in the Hollywood ecosystem, it's also a potent illustration that success hasn't necessarily artistically elevated the genre " Rosenberg felt the film was nearly identical to lots of superhero films that "have come before," and featured some of "the ugliest, most pointless special effects " James Berardinelli gave it 2 out of 4 stars, said that the film and DC Films "came late to the party," as Marvel Studios planned their Cinematic Universe, which they were "sometimes criticized for overthinking and overplanning," and compared to The Avengers, which has its "formula worked", and The Avengers was "a popcorn bliss [and] a superhero nirvana " Writing for the Film Ireland Magazine, Ellen Murray found the characters interesting, but their setting unworthy, said that "there is something undeniably thrilling in seeing these iconic characters work together on the big screen



ground_truth: 24:00

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the person who provided evidence to suggest the existence of the neutron a participant of?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: "Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins particularly disliked Justice League because the film itself seemed to contradict her film, as both she and Zack Snyder worked together to keep continuity between their films, in details like not changing Wonder Woman's costume, but Joss Whedon reshot the film to the point the characters were not being portrayed as previously shown in past films 

Accolades
Director's cut
The divisive reaction towards the theatrical cut of the film, with Zack Snyder leaving directorial duties and the final cut of the film in the hands of Joss Whedon, has led to an argument comparing the situation to the one experienced by the film Superman II  Both Justice League and Superman II feature a director who was replaced, for different reasons, before completion of a film, which led to a second director coming in and making substantial changes to the tone of each film  Although the reasoning behind each director's departure differs, Richard Donner was able to complete his Superman II cut in 2006  In the belief that Snyder had shot enough material for a finished film, a campaign for a "Snyder Cut" was started to allow Snyder to receive a similar treatment to Donner  Arguments were made that Snyder's vision would be more cohesive to the previous films than the actual theatrical cut, which Snyder has refused to see  Warner Bros  initially remained silent regarding any intention of making a "Snyder Cut" In March 2019, Snyder confirmed his original cut existed, and stated that it was up to Warner Bros  to release it  In November, an insider claimed that Warner Bros  was unlikely to release Snyder's version of Justice League in theaters, calling it a "pipe dream"  In December, Snyder posted a photo in his Vero account, which showed boxes with tapes labeled "Z S  J L Director's cut", and with the caption "Is it real? Does it exist? Of course it does"  Snyder officially confirmed in May 2020 that his cut of Justice League will be released for HBO Max service in 2021  The cut cost $70+ million to complete the special effects, musical score, and editing  Some of the film's original cast, including Affleck, Fisher, and Miller (remotely), returned to help complete the project, which also included limited additional filming  Jared Leto, Amy Adams, and J  K  Simmons appeared in the cut as the Joker, Lois Lane, and James Gordon respectively  As a result of the new cut, the original theatrical cut is referred to by fans as the "Whedon Cut" or "Josstice League", referring to the film's replacement director Joss Whedon  Despite being far better received than the theatrical version, Snyder stated that his cut would not be made canon to the DCEU, with Warner Bros  still considering the 2017 cut to be the official version 

Future
A sequel was originally scheduled to be released in June 2019 but was subsequently delayed to accommodate the release for The Batman  By March 2017, producer Charles Roven said that Zack Snyder would direct the film and in October J  K  Simmons stated that the studio was working on the script of the sequel, alongside The Batman  Shortly after the release of Justice League, Henry Cavill said that he was under contract with Warner Bros  to play Superman for one more film  In December, it was revealed that there were "no immediate plans" for Zack Snyder to direct any future DC films, being relegated to an executive producer position instead  This came after a reshuffling of film production staff at Warner Bros  due to the film's mixed critical reception and disappointing financial performance  By 2019, Warner Bros  had prioritized solo films over the project 
In 2019, after previously declining an offer to direct the first film, Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins noted she was open to directing a Justice League sequel Though Snyder's cut of Justice League has been described by DC Films executives as "a storytelling cul-de-sac" with no sequels planned, Snyder stated that he would be willing to return to direct the sequels if the studio offered him the chance  In January 2021, Ray Fisher (who had a fallout with Joss Whedon, Geoff Johns, Jon Berg and former DC Films president Walter Hamada) stated that he would only be willing to reprise his role as Cyborg in a future DCEU film if Justice League Part Two were to be made by Snyder  However, shortly after the 'Snyder Cut' was released Warner Bros CEO Ann Sarnoff said in March that there were no current plans in place for Snyder to return as a director/writer for future DCEU films suggesting a direct sequel to his version of Justice League remained unlikely  Later in August, DC Films producer Charles Roven stated that a Justice League sequel was still possible, though it would be several years away  A sequel was once again under consideration while De Luca and Abdy were in charge of DC Films (later renamed DC Studios), before James Gunn and Peter Safran took over in 2022 

Notes
Passage 2:
Sadie Plant
Sadie Plant (born Sarah Jane Plant; 16 March 1964 in Birmingham, England) is a British philosopher, cultural theorist, and author 

Education
She earned her PhD in Philosophy from the University of Manchester in 1989 and subsequently taught at the University of Birmingham's Department of Cultural Studies (formerly the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies) before going on to found the Cybernetic Culture Research Unit with colleague Nick Land at the University of Warwick, where she was a faculty member  Her original research was related to the Situationist International before turning to the social and political potential of cyber-technology  Her writing in the 1990s would prove influential in the development of cyberfeminism 

Career
Sadie Plant left the University of Warwick in 1997 to write full-time  She published a cultural history of drug use and control, and a report on the social effects of mobile phones, as well as articles in publications as varied as the Financial Times, Wired, Blueprint, and Dazed and Confused  She published the book Zeros + Ones in 1997, in which she reveals how women's role in programming has been overlooked  She was interviewed as one of the 'People to Watch' in the Winter 2000–2001 issue of Time 

Publications
The Most Radical Gesture: The Situationist International in a Postmodern Age (1992, Routledge) ISBN 0-415-06222-5
Zeroes + Ones : Digital Women and the New Technoculture (1997, Doubleday) ISBN 0-385-48260-4
Writing on Drugs (1999, Faber and Faber) ISBN 0-571-19616-0
Passage 3:
Glenn Chapman
Glenn Justice Chapman (January 21, 1906 – November 5, 1988) was an American Major League Baseball player  Nicknamed "Pete", he played in 67 games for the  Brooklyn Dodgers during the 1934 season 

External links
Career statistics and player information from Baseball Reference, or Baseball Reference (Minors)
Passage 4:
Dazed and Confused (film)
Dazed and Confused is a 1993 American coming-of-age comedy film written and directed by Richard Linklater  The film features a large ensemble cast of actors who would later become stars, including Jason London, Ben Affleck, Milla Jovovich, Cole Hauser, Parker Posey, Adam Goldberg, Matthew McConaughey, Nicky Katt, Joey Lauren Adams, and Rory Cochrane  The plot follows the exploits of several teenagers during the last day of school in 1976 Austin, Texas  
Released on September 24, 1993 Dazed and Confused was a commercial disappointment at the box office, grossing less than $8 million in the United States  The film later found success on the home video market and has since become a cult classic  It ranked third on Entertainment Weekly magazine's list of the 50 Best High School Movies  The magazine also ranked it 10th on its "Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years" list 

Plot
It is May 28, 1976, the last day of school at Lee High School in Austin, Texas  The next year's group of seniors are preparing for the annual hazing of incoming freshmen  Randall "Pink" Floyd, the school's star football player, is asked to sign a pledge promising not to take drugs during the summer or do anything that would "jeopardize the goal of a championship season"  When classes end, the incoming freshman boys are hunted down by the seniors and paddled  The incoming freshman girls are also hazed; they are rounded up in the school parking lot by senior girls, covered in mustard, ketchup, flour and raw eggs and forced to propose to senior boys 
As day fades to night, freshman Mitch Kramer escapes the initial hazing with his best friend Carl Burnett, but is later cornered after a baseball game and violently paddled  Fred O'Bannion, a senior participating in the hazing tradition for a second year after failing to graduate, delights in punishing Mitch  Pink gives the injured Mitch a ride home and offers to take him cruising with friends that night  Plans for the evening are ruined when Kevin Pickford's parents discover his intention to host a keg party  Elsewhere, the intellectual trio of Cynthia Dunn, Tony Olson, and Mike Newhouse decide to participate in the evening's festivities  Pink and his friend David Wooderson, a man in his early 20s who still socializes with high school students, pick up Mitch and head for the Emporium, a pool hall frequented by teenagers 
As the night progresses, students loiter around the Emporium, listen to rock music, cruise the neighborhood and frequent a local drive-through restaurant  Mitch is introduced to sophomore Julie Simms, with whom he shares a mutual attraction  While cruising again with Pink, Pickford and Don Dawson, Mitch drinks beer and smokes marijuana for the first time  After a game of mailbox baseball, a neighborhood resident brandishing a gun threatens to call the police  They barely escape after the resident fires at their car  After returning to the Emporium, Mitch runs into his middle school friends  They hatch a plan to exact revenge on O'Bannion  It culminates with them dumping paint on O'Bannion, who leaves in a fit of rage 
After the Emporium closes, an impromptu keg party is planned in a field under a moonlight tower  Cynthia, Tony, and Mike arrive at their first keg party, where Mike is threatened by tough guy Clint Bruno  Tony runs into freshman Sabrina Davis, whom he met earlier during the hazing and they begin hanging out together  Cynthia likes Wooderson and exchanges phone numbers with him  Mike, suffering from the humiliation of his confrontation with Clint, decides to make a stand by punching him; in return, he gets tackled by Clint and receives a beating from him  The fight is broken up by Pink and Wooderson  Football player Benny O'Donnell confronts Pink about his refusal to sign the pledge  Pink, the only player not to have signed, believes it violates his individuality and beliefs  Mitch leaves the keg party with Julie  They drive to a nearby hill overlooking town to make out  Tony gives Sabrina a ride home and they kiss goodnight 
As night turns to dawn, Pink, Wooderson, Don, Ron Slater and several other friends decide to smoke marijuana on the 50-yard line of the football field  The police arrive so they ditch the drugs  Recognizing Pink and Dawson, the police call Coach Conrad, his football coach  Conrad lectures Pink about hanging out with "losers" and insists that he sign the pledge  Pink says that he might play football, but he is not going to sign it  Pink leaves with his friends to Houston to obtain tickets to an Aerosmith concert  Mitch arrives home after sunrise to find his mother has waited up for him  She decides against punishment, but warns him about coming home late again  Mitch goes to his bedroom, puts on headphones, and listens to "Slow Ride" by Foghat, as Pink, Wooderson, Slater, and Simone Kerr travel down a highway to purchase their tickets 

Cast
Production
Development
When asked in an interview what he wanted to do after Slacker, director Richard Linklater said "I want to make this teenage rock'n'roll spree  I knew I wanted the story to take place on one day in the spring of 1976, but at one point it was much more experimental  The whole movie took place in a car with the characters driving around listening to ZZ Top " Lee Daniel, the director of photography, described the concept: "It would have been two shots—one of a guy putting in an eight-track of ZZ Top's Fandango! and one of two guys driving around talking  The film would be the length of the actual album, and you'd hear each track in the background as a source " Eventually, Linklater decided to write a script "to represent different points of view", the first draft of which took a month to complete  Universal Studios fast tracked production of Linklater's script, jumping ahead of 30 other films which were in development at that time 

Casting
Casting searches were done in Austin, New York, and Los Angeles  Vince Vaughn was almost cast as the bully O'Bannion before Ben Affleck was chosen  As Linklater put it, "Ben was smart and full of life  You don't cast the unappealing person, you cast the appealing person " Other young actors considered for roles include Elizabeth Berkley, Mira Sorvino, Ashley Judd, Brendan Fraser, Jon Favreau, Ron Livingston and Claire Danes  Casting director Don Phillips said, "We wanted Claire Danes for the girl, but she was too young  She couldn't leave school " Renee Zellweger has a nonspeaking role in the film, but was originally considered for the part of Darla, which went to Parker Posey instead  Linklater said, "Parker was just crazier " Wiley Wiggins was the "big find" in Austin, according to Linklater, who described him as "a 15-year-old with all the bad habits of a grad student: smoking cigarettes, hanging out at coffee shops, my kind of guy "Some roles which were intended to be larger were reduced  The Kevin Pickford character, played by Shawn Andrews, was meant to be a larger role, but due to his behavior with other cast members, Pickford's screen time was cut in favor of Matthew McConaughey's character, Wooderson  Linklater recalled "There was another actor, [Shawn Andrews], who was kind of the opposite [of McConaughey]  He wasn't really getting along with everybody  I could tell the actors weren't responding to him " Linklater had to break up a fight between Andrews and London at one point  On screen, the two characters barely speak to each other during the film  Milla Jovovich, who played Michelle, Pickford's girlfriend, had her role reduced because, in Linklater's words, "it didn't really gel "McConaughey was not originally cast in the film, as the role of Wooderson was originally small and meant to be cast locally for budget purposes  He was a film student at the University of Texas in Austin and went out drinking with his girlfriend one night  They ended up at the Hyatt hotel bar since his friend was a bartender there and could get them a discount  He approached casting director Phillips in the bar  Phillips recalls, "The bartender says to him, 'See that guy down there? That's Don Phillips  He cast Sean Penn in Fast Times ' And Matthew goes, 'I'm gonna go down and talk to this guy '" Phillips also recalls that Linklater didn't like McConaughey at first because he was "too handsome " Much of the Wooderson role was improvised or written on the spot, giving McConaughey more screen time 

Reception
Dazed and Confused was released on September 24, 1993, in 183 theaters, grossing $918,127 on its opening weekend  It went on to make $7 9 million in North America The film received positive reviews from critics  On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 92% approval rating based on 62 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 7 90/10  The website's critical consensus reads: "Featuring an excellent ensemble cast, a precise feel for the 1970s, and a killer soundtrack, Dazed and Confused is a funny, affectionate, and clear-eyed look at high school life " Metacritic provides a score of 78 out of 100 from 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews Film critic Roger Ebert awarded the film three stars out of four, praising the film as "art crossed with anthropology" with a "painful underside"  Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote, "Dazed and Confused has an enjoyably playful spirit, one that amply compensates for its lack of structure"  Desson Howe of The Washington Post, wrote, "Dazed succeeds on its own terms and reflects American culture so well, it becomes part of it"  In her review for The Austin Chronicle, Marjorie Baumgarten gave particular praise to Matthew McConaughey's performance: "He is a character we're all too familiar with in the movies but McConaughey nails this guy without a hint of condescension or whimsy, claiming this character for all time as his own" Rolling Stone's Peter Travers gave the film four stars out of four, and praised Linklater as a "sly and formidable talent, bringing an anthropologist's eye to this spectacularly funny celebration of the rites of stupidity  His shitfaced American Graffiti is the ultimate party movie – loud, crude, socially irresponsible and totally irresistible"  In his review for Time, Richard Corliss wrote, "Linklater is surely no ham-fisted moralist, and his film has lots of attitude to shake a finger at  But it also has enough buoyant '70s music to shake anybody's tail feather, and a kind of easy jubilance of narrative and character"  Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an "A" rating, and wrote, "Yet if Linklater captures the comic goofiness of the time, he also evokes its liberating spirit  The film finds its meaning in the subtle clash between the older, sadistic macho-jock ethos and the follow-your-impulse hedonism that was the lingering legacy of the '60s" 

Legacy
Quentin Tarantino included it on his list of the 10 greatest films of all time in the 2002 Sight and Sound poll  In 2003, Entertainment Weekly ranked the film #17 on its list of "The Top 50 Cult Films", third on its list of the 50 Best High School Movies, 10th on its "Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years" list, and ranked it #6 on its "The Cult 25: The Essential Left-Field Movie Hits Since '83" list In October 2004, three of Linklater's former classmates from Huntsville High School, whose surnames are Wooderson, Slater, and Floyd, filed a defamation lawsuit against Linklater, claiming to be the basis for the similarly named characters on the film  The lawsuit was filed in New Mexico rather than Texas because New Mexico has a longer statute of limitations  The suit was subsequently dismissed In 2012, McConaughey reprised his role as Wooderson in the Butch Walker and The Black Widows music video "Synthesizers"  To celebrate the film's 20th anniversary in 2013, the film received the Star of Texas award from the Texas Film Hall of Fame  Linklater accepted the award after being introduced by Tarantino, who reiterated his appreciation of the film as his favorite of the 1990s  The event featured a reunion of several cast members including Joey Lauren Adams, Wiley Wiggins, Christin Hinojosa, Nicky Katt, Mona Lee, Catherine Avril Morris, Anthony Rapp, Marissa Ribisi, Michelle Burke Thomas, and Mark Vandermeulen  At the event, Linklater described his intent to create an inverse John Hughes film: "The drama is so low-key in [Dazed & Confused]  I don't remember teenage being that dramatic  I remember just trying to go with the flow, socialize, fit in and be cool  The stakes were really low  To get Aerosmith tickets or not? That's a big thing  It was really rare when the star-crossed lovers from the opposite side of the tracks and the girl gets pregnant and there's a car crash and somebody dies  That didn't really happen much  But riding around and trying to look for something to do with the music cranked up, now that happened a lot!"After Boyhood was released Linklater announced that his next film, Everybody Wants Some!!, would be a "spiritual sequel" to Dazed and Confused  The newer film takes place at a Texas college in 1980 The line "alright, alright, alright" became a catchphrase for Matthew McConaughey Rotten Tomatoes' editorial team credits the film for "putting Austin, Texas on the map "

Home video
MCA/Universal released Dazed and Confused on laserdisc in January 1994, followed by a VHS release two months later The film was released on HD DVD in 2006  The Criterion Collection released a two-disc boxed-set edition of the film on June 6, 2006, in the U S  and Canada  Features included an audio commentary by Richard Linklater, deleted scenes, the original trailer, the 50 minute "Making Dazed" documentary that aired on the American Movie Classics channel on September 18, 2005, on-set interviews, behind-the-scenes footage, cast auditions and footage from the ten-year anniversary celebration  Also included is a 72-page book featuring new essays by Kent Jones, Jim DeRogatis, and Chuck Klosterman as well as memories from the cast and crew, character profiles and a mini reproduction of the original film poster designed by Frank Kozik  Entertainment Weekly gave it an "A" rating and stated that it "grants this enduring cult classic the DVD treatment it deserves" Universal Studios released Dazed and Confused on Blu-ray in August 2011, in a 1080p/AVC MPEG-4 transfer, with a DTS-HD Master Audio 5 1 soundtrack The Blunt Truth is a four-minute and twenty second long 1970s anti-cannabis hoax educational film  It appeared as a bonus feature on 2004's Dazed and Confused: Flashback Party Edition On February 21, 2023, The Criterion Collection re-released the film on 4K UHD Blu-ray  In their review, Svet Atanasov at Blu-ray com states that "The 2022 restoration on the 4K Blu-ray disc was undertaken by the Criterion Collection from the 35mm original camera negative, scanned on a Lasergraphics Director film scanner  Based on the 2011 color transfer, this restoration was newly remastered in Dolby Vision HDR and approved by director Richard Linklater  The 2011 SDR restoration on the Blu-ray -- supervised by Linklater and director of photography Lee Daniel -- was undertaken by the Criterion Collection -- from a 35mm interpositive, scanned on a Spirit 4K DataCine  The original 5 1 surround soundtrack was remastered from the 35mm magnetic audio tracks" 

Soundtrack
The soundtrack for the film was released on September 28, 1993, by The Medicine Label, and they consist of hit songs (mostly rock) from the 1970s, the film's setting  The songs "Hurricane" by Bob Dylan, "Hey Baby" by Ted Nugent, and "Sweet Emotion" by Aerosmith were also included in the film, but not on the commercial soundtracks  "The Alien Song (For Those Who Listen)" by Milla Jovovich was briefly performed by Jovovich's character Michelle Burroughs, but was not included in the soundtrack either  Geffen Records attempted to get up-and-coming band Jackyl to do a cover of Grand Funk's "We're an American Band" to play over the end credits and be released as a single, but Linklater refused 

Certifications
Book
In September 1993, St  Martin's Press published a 127-page, softcover book (ISBN 0-312-09466-3) inspired by Richard Linklater's screenplay  It was compiled by Linklater, Denise Montgomery, and others, and designed by Erik Josowitz  It was presented as a kind of yearbook, with character profiles, essays by characters, a timeline focusing on the years 1973 to 1977, and various 1970s pop culture charts and quizzes  It also featured dozens of black-and-white photos from the film 
Passage 5:
Gal Gadot
Gal Gadot-Varsano (Hebrew: גל גדות Hebrew pronunciation: [ˈɡal ɡaˈdot]; born 30 April 1985) is an Israeli actress and model  She was crowned Miss Israel 2004 and represented her country at the Miss Universe 2004 pageant  She then served in the Israel Defense Forces for two years as a combat fitness instructor, whereafter she began studying at IDC Herzliya while building her modeling and acting careers Her first international film performance was as Gisele Yashar in Fast & Furious (2009), a part she reprised in the sequels Fast Five (2011), Fast & Furious 6 (2013), and Fast X (2023)  Gadot went on to achieve global stardom for her portrayal of Wonder Woman in the DC Extended Universe, including Wonder Woman (2017) and Wonder Woman 1984 (2020)  She has since starred in the Netflix action-comedy film Red Notice (2021) and the mystery film Death on the Nile (2022) 
Gadot was included on the list of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time in 2018, and has placed twice in annual rankings of the world's highest-paid actresses 

Early life
Gadot was born on 30 April 1985 in Petah Tikva, where she first lived; she was later raised in the city of Rosh HaAyin  In Hebrew, her given name means "wave" and her surname means "riverbanks"  
Prior to her birth, her parents had Hebraized their surname from "Greenstein" to "Gadot"  Her father is Michael Gadot, an engineer, and her mother is Irit (née Weiss), a physical education teacher  Gadot has a younger sister named Dana  Gadot's father is a sixth-generation Sabra  Her maternal grandparents were born in 20th-century Europe; her grandfather survived the Holocaust following his imprisonment at the Auschwitz concentration camp during Nazi Germany's occupation of Czechoslovakia, while her grandmother managed to escape the continent before the outbreak of World War II Gadot has stated that she was brought up in a "very Jewish, Israeli family environment"  Growing up in Israel, she learned and danced jazz and hip-hop for 12 years, and her first jobs were working at a local Burger King as well as babysitting  She graduated from Begin High School in Rosh HaAyin, majoring in biology  As Jewish high schools in Israel often take their sophomores on trips to Holocaust memorial sites, Gadot went to Poland to gain a first-hand understanding of two Nazi concentration camps: Auschwitz and Majdanek  About the experience, she reminisced: "I stood there on top of a mountain of ashes  I, an entitled child, felt the suffering the Muselmann experienced back then  When it was time to give my speech at the memorial ceremony, my eyes filled up with tears, and I could not control the shivering  I returned home more mature and cried with my grandfather about that, coming a full circle from his childhood to mine "At 20, Gadot enlisted in the Israel Defense Forces as a combat fitness instructor as part of her mandatory two years of military service  She has said that her military background helped her to win the role of Gisele Yashar in the 2009 film Fast & Furious, stating: "I think the main reason was that the director Justin Lin really liked that I was in the military, and he wanted to use my knowledge of weapons " After her military service, Gadot studied law at IDC Herzliya college in Israel (now Reichman University) 

Career
Modeling and beauty pageant career
Gadot entered the Miss Israel national beauty pageant at 18, under the impression that it would be a "fun" experience, and stated in a Glamour interview: "I never thought I would win " She subsequently won and went on to compete for Israel in the Miss Universe 2004 pageant that took place that year in Ecuador She has led international campaigns as a model for Miss Sixty, Huawei smartphones, Captain Morgan rum, Gucci fragrances, Vine Vera skincare and Jaguar Cars  In 2015, she became the face of Gucci's Bamboo perfume brand  She has been featured as the covergirl on Cosmopolitan, Glamour, Bride Magazine, Entertainment Weekly, UMM, Cleo, Fashion, Lucire, FHM  Gadot was the main model for fashion brand Castro from 2008 to 2016  In 2013, her combined annual modeling and acting salary was estimated at NIS 2 4 million In 2007, a then 21-year-old Gadot was in the Maxim photo shoot "Women of the Israel Defense Forces" and was then featured on the cover of the New York Post In 2017, Gadot was placed at number one on FHM's "100 Sexiest Women in the World" list In 2018, Gadot became a brand ambassador for Revlon and Reebok  She appeared in advertisements for Revlon's "Live Boldly" campaign and Reebok's "Be More Human" campaign 

Acting
After Gadot had completed her first year of college, a casting director contacted her agent to have Gadot audition for the part of Camille Montes in the James Bond film Quantum of Solace  Although she lost the part to Olga Kurylenko, a few months later, Gadot starred in the 2008 Israeli drama Bubot  Three months later, the casting director from her Quantum of Solace audition chose Gadot over six other actresses for the role of Gisele Yashar in the action film Fast & Furious, the fourth film in the Fast & Furious franchise  Gadot performed some of her own stunt work in those films In 2010, she had small roles in the action comedy Date Night and the action-adventure comedy Knight and Day  2011 brought her back to the Fast & Furious franchise, reprising her role as Gisele in Fast Five; she played the character again in 2013's Fast & Furious 6 

Gadot portrayed Wonder Woman in the superhero film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016)  Gadot received swordsmanship, Kung Fu, kickboxing, capoeira and Brazilian jiu-jitsu training in preparation for the role  She was almost cast as Faora-Ul in Man of Steel, but she rejected the part for her pregnancy  Antje Traue was cast instead  Gadot's performance as the superhero, which was the character's first appearance in film, was singled out as one of the best parts of the film Gadot, fellow Wonder Woman actress Lynda Carter, DC Entertainment President Diane Nelson, Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins and U N  Under-Secretary-General Cristina Gallach appeared at the United Nations on 21 October 2016, the 75th anniversary of the first appearance of Wonder Woman, to mark the character's designation by the United Nations as its "Honorary Ambassador for the Empowerment of Women and Girls"  The gesture was intended to raise awareness of UN Sustainable Development Goal No  5, which seeks to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls by 2030  The decision was met with protests from UN staff members who stated in their petition to UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon that the character is "not culturally encompassing or sensitive" and served to objectify women  As a result, the character was stripped of the designation, and the project ended on 16 December Also in 2016, she had a small role in John Hillcoat's crime-thriller Triple 9, where she starred along with Kate Winslet and Aaron Paul  Later that year, she co-starred in the action crime thriller film Criminal, as the wife of Ryan Reynolds' character, alongside Kevin Costner, Gary Oldman, and Tommy Lee Jones  Her final film of 2016 was the action comedy Keeping Up with the Joneses, in which she played a secret agent, alongside Zach Galifianakis, Jon Hamm, and Isla Fisher In 2017, Gadot starred in a solo film for her character, Wonder Woman  She reprised the role in the ensemble film Justice League, which was released in November 2017, and was her third DC Extended Universe installment  That same year, Gadot was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences In 2018, Time magazine named Gadot one of the 100 most influential people in the world, and Forbes ranked her as the tenth highest-paid actress in the world, with annual earnings of $10 million  In the same year, Gadot voiced Shank in the Walt Disney Animation Studios film Ralph Breaks the Internet Gadot appeared in the music video for Maroon 5's song "Girls Like You" featuring Cardi B In 2020, Forbes ranked Gadot as the third highest-paid actress in the world, with annual earnings of $31 5 million  On 11 October 2020, Gadot was confirmed to be reuniting with Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins on Cleopatra, an epic film centered on Cleopatra, which was originally going to be distributed by Paramount Pictures  Later, Jenkins moved to produce the project with Kari Skogland set to direct  In December, Gadot was cast in the spy thriller Heart of Stone In 2021, Gadot starred alongside Dwayne Johnson and Ryan Reynolds in the Netflix action comedy film Red Notice, written and directed by Rawson Marshall Thurber  The following year, she co-starred with Kenneth Branagh, Armie Hammer, Ali Fazal, Tom Bateman, and Annette Bening in the 2022 mystery film Death on the Nile, which was also directed by Branagh  In 2023, Gadot made an uncredited cameo appearance as Wonder Woman in Shazam! Fury of the Gods and returned to the Fast & Furious franchise with a cameo appearance in Fast X Gadot will star as the Evil Queen in a live-action adaptation of Disney's 1937 animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, and also produce and star in a remake of Alfred Hitchcock's 1955 film To Catch a Thief 

Producer
In October 2019, Gadot formed a film and television production company, Pilot Wave, with her husband Jaron "Yaron" Varsano, and said she will star in and co-produce an Apple TV+ limited series about actress and inventor Hedy Lamarr, as well as the Warner Bros  historical thriller film Irena Sendler, following the life of WWII humanitarian Irena Sendler In 2020, Gadot co-produced, as well as starred, in the film Wonder Woman 1984 

Other work
In 2008, Gadot participated in Tfos Ta'Festigal – Harpatka BaMetzulot (Festigal 2008), the highest-grossing annual Israeli musical show for kids during the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah, where Gadot took part as one of the local Israeli celebrities; and she acted, sang and danced – dressed as a mermaid Gadot was named as celebrity endorser for Smartwater in 2020, replacing Jennifer Aniston, who had served in that role since 2008 

"Imagine" video
In March 2020, Gadot and a number of other celebrities, including her Wonder Woman 1984 co-star Kristen Wiig, performed an online version of the song "Imagine" by John Lennon, intended to raise morale during the COVID-19 pandemic  The video received backlash with critics dismissing it as an ineffective response to the pandemic; Jon Caramanica of The New York Times called it "an empty and profoundly awkward gesture"  Gadot later acknowledged the video did not garner the positive reaction that had been intended, but was unapologetic in explaining the thinking behind it  In a 2022 interview with InStyle magazine, Gadot admitted that the video was done in "poor taste", but still maintained that it had "pure intentions" 

Personal life
Gadot married Israeli real estate developer Jaron "Yaron" Varsano in 2008  They have three daughters, born in 2011, 2017, and 2021  The two formed their own film-television production company, Pilot Wave, in 2019  Gadot and Varsano owned a boutique hotel in Tel Aviv, Israel, which she helped run, that eventually was sold to Roman Abramovich in 2015 for $26 million Gadot is an avid martial arts enthusiast  She possesses a black belt in both karate and Krav Maga  She has served as a trainer and combat instructor for the Israel Defense Forces (IDF)  Her extensive background knowledge in martial arts played a key part in helping her land the role of Wonder Woman During the 2014 Gaza War, Gadot posted on Facebook a picture of herself and her daughter praying in front of Shabbat candles in support of the IDF, accompanied by a comment that quickly accumulated over 200,000 likes as well as more than 15,000 comments of both support and criticism:
I am sending my love and prayers to my fellow Israeli citizens  Especially to all the boys and girls who are risking their lives protecting my country against the horrific acts conducted by Hamas, who are hiding like cowards behind women and children     We shall overcome!!! #weareright #freegazafromhamas #stopterror #coexistance #loveidf
During the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, Gadot called for peace between the two territories in a statement that drew backlash for expressing support for Israel and referring to the Palestinians as her "neighbours" 

Recognition
On June 26, 2023, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce announced that Gadot would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, class 2024, making her the first person of Israeli descent to receive the honor 
In 2023, Gadot was awarded the LifeSaver Award by ELEM/Youth in Distress in Israel 

Filmography
Film
Television
Music videos
Commercials
Beauty pageants
Awards and nominations
See also
Israeli fashion
Women in Israel
Women in the Israel Defense Forces
List of Israelis

Notes



ground_truth: Manhattan Project