prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What city is the star of 'Three Strangers in Rome' from?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Cardinal (Catholic Church)
A cardinal (Latin: Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae cardinalis, lit  'cardinal of the Holy Roman Church') is a senior member of the clergy of the Catholic Church  Cardinals are created by the pope and typically hold the title for life  Collectively, they constitute the College of Cardinals 
The most solemn responsibility of the cardinals is to elect a new pope in a conclave, almost always from among themselves (with a few historical exceptions), when the Holy See is vacant  During the period between a pope's death or resignation and the election of his successor, the day-to-day governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals  The right to participate in a conclave is limited to cardinals who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs  In addition, cardinals collectively participate in papal consistories (which generally take place annually), in which matters of importance to the Church are considered and new cardinals may be created  Cardinals of working age are also appointed to roles overseeing dicasteries of the Roman Curia, the central administration of the Catholic Church 
Cardinals are drawn from a variety of backgrounds, being appointed as cardinals in addition to their existing roles within the Church  Most cardinals are bishops and archbishops leading dioceses and archdioceses around the world – often the most prominent diocese or archdiocese in their country  Others are titular bishops who are current or former officials within the Roman Curia (generally the heads of dicasteries and other bodies linked to the Curia)  A very small number are priests recognised by the pope for their service to the Church; as canon law requires them to be generally consecrated as bishops before they are made cardinals, but some are granted a papal dispensation  There are no strict criteria for elevation to the College of Cardinals  Since 1917, a potential cardinal must already be at least a priest, but laymen have been cardinals in the past  The selection is entirely up to the pope and tradition is his only guide 
As of 2 June 2023, there are 222 serving cardinals, of whom 121 are eligible to vote in a conclave to elect a new pope 

History
There is general disagreement about the origin of the term, but a chief consensus that "cardinalis" is etymologically from the Latin word cardo (meaning "pivot" or "hinge") was first used in late antiquity to designate a bishop or priest who was incorporated into a church for which he had not originally been ordained  In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean "principal", "eminent", or "superior"  The name was also given to the senior priest in each of the "title" churches (the parish churches) of Rome and to the bishops of the seven sees surrounding the city  By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a privileged class among the Roman clergy  They took part in the administration of the church of Rome and in the papal liturgy  By decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become Bishop of Rome  Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244 In cities other than Rome, the name cardinal began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour  The earliest example of this occurs in a letter sent by Pope Zacharias in 747 to Pippin III (the Short), ruler of the Franks, in which Zacharias applied the title to the priests of Paris to distinguish them from country clergy  This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a special class among the clergy known as cardinals  The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V 
In 1059 (five years after the East-West Schism), the right of electing the pope was reserved to the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven suburbicarian sees  In the 12th century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside Rome as cardinals began, with each of them assigned a church in Rome as his titular church or linked with one of the suburbicarian dioceses, while still being incardinated in a diocese other than that of Rome The term cardinal at one time applied to any priest permanently assigned or incardinated to a church, or specifically to the senior priest of an important church, based on the Latin cardo (hinge), meaning "pivotal" as in "principal" or "chief"  The term was applied in this sense as early as the 9th century to the priests of the tituli (parishes) of the diocese of Rome In the year 1563, the Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good cardinals: "nothing is more necessary to the Church of God than that the holy Roman pontiff apply that solicitude which by the duty of his office he owes the universal Church in a very special way by associating with himself as cardinals the most select persons only, and appoint to each church most eminently upright and competent shepherds; and this the more so, because our Lord Jesus Christ will require at his hands the blood of the sheep of Christ that perish through the evil government of shepherds who are negligent and forgetful of their office "The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the Kings of France, reasserted itself through the influence of cardinals of certain nationalities or politically significant movements  Traditions even developed entitling certain monarchs, including those of Austria, Spain, and France, to nominate one of their trusted clerical subjects to be created cardinal, a so-called "crown-cardinal" In early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs  In some cases, they took on powerful positions in government  In Henry VIII's England, his chief minister was for some time Cardinal Wolsey  Cardinal Richelieu's power was so great that he was for many years effectively the ruler of France  Richelieu's successor was also a cardinal, Jules Mazarin  Guillaume Dubois and André-Hercule de Fleury complete the list of the four great cardinals to have ruled France  In Portugal, due to a succession crisis, one cardinal, Henry of Portugal, was crowned king, the only example of a cardinal-king 
While the incumbents of some sees are regularly made cardinals, and some countries are entitled to at least one cardinal by concordate (usually earning either its primate or the metropolitan of the capital city the cardinal's hat), almost no see carries an actual right to the cardinalate, not even if its bishop is a Patriarch: the notable exception is the Patriarch of Lisbon who, by Pope Clement XII's 1737 bull Inter praecipuas apostolici ministerii, is accorded the right to be elevated to the rank of cardinal in the consistory following his appointment 

Papal elections
In 1059, Pope Nicholas II gave cardinals the right to elect the Bishop of Rome in the papal bull In nomine Domini  For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, but in 1179 the Third Lateran Council restored the right to the whole body of cardinals 

Numbers
In 1586, Pope Sixtus V limited the number of cardinals to 70: six cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons  Pope John XXIII exceeded that limit citing the need to staff Church offices  In November 1970 in Ingravescentem aetatem, Pope Paul VI established that electors would be under the age of eighty years  When it took effect on 1 January 1971, it deprived 25 cardinals of the right to participate in a conclave  In October 1975 in Romano Pontifici eligendo, he set the maximum number of electors at 120, while establishing no limit on the overall size of the college Popes can set aside church laws and they have regularly brought the number of cardinals under the age of 80 to more than 120, twice reaching as high as 135 with Pope John Paul II's consistories of February 2001 and October 2003  No more than 120 electors have ever participated in a conclave, but most canon lawyers believe that if their number exceeded 120 they would all participate Pope Paul VI also increased the number of cardinal bishops by assigning that rank, in 1965, to patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches when named cardinals  In 2018, Pope Francis expanded the cardinal bishops of Roman title, because this had not been done despite recent decades' expansion in the two lower orders of cardinals, besides having all six such cardinals being over the age limit for a conclave 

Titular churches
Each cardinal is assigned a titular church upon his creation, which is always a church in the city of Rome  Through the process of opting (optazione), a cardinal can raise through the ranks from cardinal deacon to priest, and from cardinal priest to that of cardinal bishop - in which case he obtains one of the suburbicarian sees located around the city of Rome  The only exception is for patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches  Nevertheless, cardinals possess no power of governance nor are they to intervene in any way in matters which pertain to the administration of goods, discipline, or the service of their titular churches  They are allowed to celebrate Mass and hear confessions and lead visits and pilgrimages to their titular churches, in coordination with the staff of the church  They often support their churches monetarily, and many cardinals do keep in contact with the pastoral staffs of their titular churches  The term cardinal is from the Latin word "cardo" meaning a hinge  Here it means a "door", an example of synecdoche, a figure of speech whereby the part refers to the whole  The "door" is the address of the titular church from which the cardinal derives his membership of the Roman clergy, who elect the pope 
The Dean of the College of Cardinals in addition to such a titular church also receives the titular bishopric of Ostia, the primary suburbicarian see  Cardinals governing a particular church retain that church 

Title and reference style
In 1630, Pope Urban VIII decreed their title to be Eminence (previously, it had been "illustrissimo" and "reverendissimo") and decreed that their secular rank would equate to Prince, making them secondary only to the pope and crowned monarchs In accordance with tradition, they sign by placing the title "Cardinal" (abbreviated Card ) after their personal name and before their surname as, for instance, "John Card(inal) Doe" or, in Latin, "Ioannes Card(inalis) Doe"  Some writers, such as James-Charles Noonan, hold that, in the case of cardinals, the form used for signatures should be used also when referring to them in English  However, official sources, such as the Catholic News Service, say that the correct form for referring to a cardinal in English is normally as "Cardinal [First name] [Surname]"  This is the rule given also in stylebooks not associated with the church  This style is also generally followed on the websites of the Holy See and episcopal conferences  Oriental patriarchs who are created cardinals customarily use "Sanctae Ecclesiae Cardinalis" as their full title, probably because they do not belong to the Roman clergy The [First name] Cardinal [Surname] order is used in the Latin proclamation of the election of a new pope by the cardinal protodeacon, if the new pope is a cardinal, as it has been since 1378 
The term Prince of the Church has historically been applied to cardinals of the Catholic church, and sometimes more broadly to senior members of the church hierarchy  It has been rejected by Pope Francis, who stated to a group of newly created cardinals "He (Jesus) does not call you to become 'princes' of the Church, to 'sit on his right or on his left ' He calls you to serve like Him and with Him " The term is still applied, both seriously and as a criticism of their perceived attitudes of some cardinals [1][2]

Orders and their chief offices
Cardinal bishops
Cardinal bishops (cardinals of the episcopal order; Latin: cardinales episcopi) are the senior order of cardinals  Though in modern times the vast majority of cardinals are also bishops or archbishops, few are "cardinal bishops"  For most of the second millennium there were six cardinal bishops, each presiding over one of the seven suburbicarian sees around Rome: Ostia, Albano, Porto and Santa Rufina, Palestrina, Sabina and Mentana, Frascati, and Velletri  Velletri was united with Ostia from 1150 until 1914, when Pope Pius X separated them again, but decreed that whichever cardinal bishop became Dean of the College of Cardinals would keep the suburbicarian see he already held, adding to it that of Ostia, with the result that there continued to be only six cardinal bishops  Since 1962, the cardinal bishops have only a titular relationship with the suburbicarian sees, each of which is governed by a separate ordinary Until 1961, membership in the order of cardinal bishops was achieved through precedence in the College of Cardinals  When a suburbicarian see fell vacant, the most senior cardinal by precedence could exercise his option to claim the see and be promoted to the order of cardinal bishops  Pope John XXIII abolished that privilege on 10 March 1961 and made the right to promote someone to the order of cardinal bishops the sole prerogative of the pope In 1965, Pope Paul VI decreed in his motu proprio Ad purpuratorum Patrum Collegium that patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches who were named cardinals (i e  "cardinal patriarchs") would also be cardinal bishops, ranking after the six Roman rite cardinal bishops of the suburbicarian sees  (Latin Church patriarchs who become cardinals are cardinal priests, not cardinal bishops: for example Angelo Scola was made Patriarch of Venice in 2002 and cardinal priest of Santi XII Apostoli in 2003 ) Those of cardinal patriarch rank continue to hold their patriarchal see and are not assigned any Roman title (suburbicarian see or title or deaconry) 
At the June 2018 consistory, Pope Francis increased the number of Latin Church cardinal bishops to match the expansion in cardinal priests and cardinal deacons in recent decades  He elevated four cardinals to this rank granting their titular churches and deaconries suburbicarian rank pro hac vice (temporarily) and making them equivalent to suburbicarian see titles  At the time of the announcement, all six cardinal bishops of suburbicarian see titles, as well as two of the three cardinal patriarchs, were non-electors because of having reached age 80  Pope Francis created another cardinal bishop in the same way on 1 May 2020, bringing the number of Latin Church cardinal bishops to eleven 
The Dean of the College of Cardinals, the highest ranking cardinal, was formerly the longest serving cardinal bishop, but since 1965 is elected by the Latin Church cardinal bishops from among their number, subject to papal approval  Likewise the Vice-Dean, formerly the second longest serving, is also elected  Seniority of the remaining Latin Church cardinal bishops is still by date of appointment to the rank  For a period ending in the mid-20th century, long-serving cardinal priests were entitled to fill vacancies that arose among the cardinal bishops, just as cardinal deacons of ten years' standing are still entitled to become cardinal priests 

Cardinal priests
Cardinal priests (Latin: cardinales presbyteri) are the most numerous of the three orders of cardinals in the Catholic Church, ranking above the cardinal deacons and below the cardinal bishops  Those who are named cardinal priests today are generally also bishops of important dioceses throughout the world, though some hold Curial positions 
In modern times, the name "cardinal priest" is interpreted as meaning a cardinal who is of the order of priests  Originally, however, this referred to certain key priests of important churches of the Diocese of Rome, who were recognized as the cardinal priests, the important priests chosen by the pope to advise him in his duties as Bishop of Rome (the Latin cardo means "hinge")  Certain clerics in many dioceses at the time, not just that of Rome, were said to be the key personnel—the term gradually became exclusive to Rome to indicate those entrusted with electing the Bishop of Rome, the pope 

While the cardinalate has long been expanded beyond the Roman pastoral clergy and Roman Curia, every cardinal priest has a titular church in Rome, though they may be bishops or archbishops elsewhere, just as cardinal bishops were given one of the suburbicarian dioceses around Rome  Pope Paul VI abolished all administrative rights cardinals had with regard to their titular churches, though the cardinal's name and coat of arms are still posted in the church, and they are expected to celebrate Mass and preach there if convenient when they are in Rome 
While the number of cardinals was small from the times of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance, and frequently smaller than the number of recognized churches entitled to a cardinal priest, in the 16th century the college expanded markedly  In 1587, Pope Sixtus V sought to arrest this growth by fixing the maximum size of the college at 70, including 50 cardinal priests, about twice the historical number  This limit was respected until 1958, and the list of titular churches modified only on rare occasions, generally when a building fell into disrepair  When Pope John XXIII abolished the limit, he began to add new churches to the list, which Popes Paul VI and John Paul II continued to do  Today there are close to 150 titular churches, out of over 300 churches in Rome 
The cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests is titled cardinal protopriest  He had certain ceremonial duties in the conclave that have effectively ceased because he would generally have already reached age 80, at which cardinals are barred from the conclave  The current cardinal protopriest is Michael Michai Kitbunchu of Thailand 

Cardinal deacons
The cardinal deacons (Latin: cardinales diaconi) are the lowest-ranking cardinals  Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are either officials of the Roman Curia or priests elevated after their 80th birthday  Bishops with diocesan responsibilities, however, are created cardinal priests 
Cardinal deacons derive originally from the seven deacons in the Papal Household who supervised the Church's works in the seven districts of Rome during the early Middle Ages, when church administration was effectively the government of Rome and provided all social services  They came to be called "cardinal deacons" by the late eighth century, and they were granted active rights in papal elections and made eligible for the election as pope by the decree of 769 Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are mainly officials of the Roman Curia holding various posts in the church administration  Their number and influence has varied through the years  While historically predominantly Italian the group has become much more internationally diverse in later years  While in 1939 about half were Italian by 1994 the number was reduced to one third  Their influence in the election of the pope has been considered important  They are better informed and connected than the dislocated cardinals but their level of unity has been varied  Under the 1587 decree of Pope Sixtus V, which fixed the maximum size of the College of Cardinals, there were 14 cardinal deacons  Later the number increased  As late as 1939 almost half of the cardinals were members of the curia  Pius XII reduced this percentage to 24 percent  John XXIII brought it back up to 37 percent but Paul VI brought it down to 27 percent where John Paul II maintained this ratio As of 2005, there were over 50 churches recognized as cardinalatial deaconries, though there were only 30 cardinals of the order of deacons  Cardinal deacons have long enjoyed the right to "opt for the order of cardinal priests" (optazione) after they have been cardinal deacons for 10 years  They may on such elevation take a vacant "title" (a church allotted to a cardinal priest as the church in Rome with which he is associated) or their diaconal church may be temporarily elevated to a cardinal priest's "title" for that occasion  When elevated to cardinal priests, they take their precedence according to the day they were first made cardinal deacons (thus ranking above cardinal priests who were elevated to the college after them, regardless of order) 
When not celebrating Mass but still serving a liturgical function, such as the semiannual Urbi et Orbi papal blessing, some Papal Masses and some events at Ecumenical Councils, cardinal deacons can be recognized by the dalmatics they would don with the simple white mitre (so called mitra simplex) 

Cardinal protodeacon
The cardinal protodeacon is the senior cardinal deacon in order of appointment to the College of Cardinals  If he is a cardinal elector and participates in a conclave, he announces a new pope's election and name from the central balcony of St  Peter's Basilica in Vatican City  The protodeacon also bestows the pallium on the new pope and crowns him with the papal tiara, although the crowning has not been celebrated since Pope John Paul I opted for a simpler papal inauguration ceremony in 1978  The current cardinal protodeacon is Renato Raffaele Martino 

Cardinal protodeacons since 1887
Giuseppe Pecci, S J  (20 December 1887 – 8 February 1890)
John Henry Newman, C O  (8 February 1890 – 11 August 1890)
Joseph Hergenröther (11 August 1890 – 3 October 1890)
Tommaso Maria Zigliara,, O P  (3 October 1890 – 1 June 1891)
Isidoro Verga (1 June 1891 – 22 June 1896)
Luigi Macchi (22 June 1896 – 29 March 1907)
Andreas Steinhuber, S J  (29 March 1907 – 15 October 1907)
Francesco Segna (15 October 1907 – 4 January 1911)
Francesco Salesio Della Volpe (4 January 1911 – 5 November 1916†); announced election of Pope Benedict XV (1914)
Gaetano Bisleti (5 November 1916 – 17 December 1928*); announced election of Pope Pius XI (1922)
Camillo Laurenti (17 December 1928 – 16 December 1935*)
Camillo Caccia-Dominioni (16 December 1935 – 12 November 1946†); announced election of Pope Pius XII (1939)
Nicola Canali (12 November 1946 – 3 August 1961†); announced election of Pope John XXIII (1958)
Alfredo Ottaviani (3 August 1961 – 26 June 1967*); announced election of Pope Paul VI (1963)
Arcadio Larraona Saralegui, CMF (26 June 1967 – 28 April 1969*)
William Theodore Heard (28 April 1969 – 18 May 1970*)
Antonio Bacci (18 May 1970 – 20 January 1971†)
Michael Browne, OP (20 January 1971 – 31 March 1971†)
Federico Callori di Vignale (31 March 1971 – 8 August 1971†)
Charles Journet (8 August 1971 – 5 March 1973*)
Pericle Felici (5 March 1973 – 30 June 1979*); announced elections of Pope John Paul I (1978) and Pope John Paul II (1978)
Sergio Pignedoli (30 June 1979 – 15 June 1980†)
Umberto Mozzoni (15 June 1980 – 2 February 1983*)
Opilio Rossi (2 February 1983 – 22 June 1987*)
Giuseppe Caprio (22 June 1987 – 26 November 1990*)
Aurelio Sabattani (26 November 1990 – 5 April 1993*)
Duraisamy Simon Lourdusamy (5 April 1993 – 29 January 1996*)
Eduardo Martínez Somalo (29 January 1996 – 9 January 1999*)
Pio Laghi (9 January 1999 – 26 February 2002*)
Luigi Poggi (26 February 2002 – 24 February 2005*)
Jorge Medina (24 February 2005 – 23 February 2007*); announced election of Pope Benedict XVI (2005)
Darío Castrillón Hoyos (23 February 2007 – 1 March 2008*)
Agostino Cacciavillan (1 March 2008 – 21 February 2011*)
Jean-Louis Tauran (21 February 2011 – 12 June 2014*); announced election of Pope Francis (2013)
Renato Raffaele Martino (12 June 2014 –)* Ceased to be protodeacon upon being raised to the order of cardinal-priest† Was protodeacon at time of death

Special types of cardinals
Camerlengo
The Cardinal Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, assisted by the Vice-Camerlengo and the other prelates of the office known as the Apostolic Camera, has functions that in essence are limited to a period of sede vacante of the papacy  He is to collate information about the financial situation of all administrations dependent on the Holy See and present the results to the College of Cardinals, as they gather for the papal conclave 

Cardinals who are not bishops
Until 1918, any cleric, even one only in minor orders, could be created a cardinal (see "lay cardinals", below), but enrolled only in the order of cardinal deacons  For example, in the 16th century, Reginald Pole was a cardinal for 18 years before he was ordained a priest  The 1917 Code of Canon Law mandated that all cardinals, even cardinal deacons, had to be priests, and, in 1962, Pope John XXIII set the norm that all cardinals be consecrated as bishops, even if they are only priests at the time of appointment  As a consequence of these two changes, canon 351 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law requires that a cardinal be at least in the order of priesthood at his appointment, and that those who are not already bishops must receive episcopal consecration  Several cardinals near to or over the age of 80 or when appointed have obtained dispensation from the rule of having to be a bishop  These were all appointed cardinal-deacons, but Roberto Tucci and Albert Vanhoye lived long enough to exercise the right of option and be promoted to the rank of cardinal-priest 
A cardinal who is not a bishop is entitled to wear and use the episcopal vestments and other pontificalia (episcopal regalia: mitre, crozier, zucchetto, pectoral cross, and ring)  He has both actual and honorary precedence over patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops who are not cardinals  However, he cannot perform the sacrament of ordination or other rites reserved solely to bishops  The prominent priests who since 1962 were not ordained bishops on their elevation to the cardinalate were over the age of 80 or near to it, and so no cardinal who was not a bishop has participated in recent papal conclaves 

"Lay cardinals"
At various times, there have been cardinals who had only received first tonsure and minor orders but not yet been ordained as deacons or priests  Though clerics, they were inaccurately called "lay cardinals"  Teodolfo Mertel was among the last of the lay cardinals  When he died in 1899 he was the last surviving cardinal who was not at least ordained a priest  With the revision of the Code of Canon Law promulgated in 1917 by Pope Benedict XV, only those who are already priests or bishops may be appointed cardinals  Since the time of Pope John XXIII a priest who is appointed a cardinal must be consecrated a bishop, unless he obtains a dispensation 

Cardinals in pectore or secret cardinals
In addition to the named cardinals, the pope may name secret cardinals or cardinals in pectore (Latin for in the breast)  During the Western Schism, many cardinals were created by the contending popes  Beginning with the reign of Pope Martin V, cardinals were created without publishing their names until later, a practice termed creati et reservati in pectore  A cardinal named in pectore is known only to the pope  In the modern era, popes have named cardinals in pectore to protect them or their congregations from political reprisals  If conditions change, the pope makes the appointment public  The cardinal in question then ranks in precedence with those made cardinals at the time of his in pectore appointment  If a pope dies before revealing the identity of an in pectore cardinal, the person's status as cardinal expires  The last pope known to have named a cardinal in pectore is Pope John Paul II, who named four, including one whose identity was never revealed 

Vesture and privileges
Pontifical vestments
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
When in choir dress, a Latin Church cardinal wears scarlet garments—the blood-like red symbolizes a cardinal's willingness to die for his faith  Excluding the rochet — which is always white—the scarlet garments include the cassock, mozzetta, and biretta (over the usual scarlet zucchetto)  The biretta of a cardinal is distinctive not merely for its scarlet color, but also for the fact that it does not have a pompon or tassel on the top as do the birettas of other prelates  Until the 1460s, it was customary for cardinals to wear a violet or blue cape unless granted the privilege of wearing red when acting on papal business  His normal-wear cassock is black but has scarlet piping and a scarlet fascia (sash)  Occasionally, a cardinal wears a scarlet ferraiolo which is a cape worn over the shoulders, tied at the neck in a bow by narrow strips of cloth in the front, without any 'trim' or piping on it  It is because of the scarlet color of cardinals' vesture that the bird of the same name has become known as such 
Eastern Catholic cardinals continue to wear the normal dress appropriate to their liturgical tradition, though some may line their cassocks with scarlet and wear scarlet fascias, or in some cases, wear Eastern-style cassocks entirely of scarlet In previous times, at the consistory at which the pope named a new cardinal, he would bestow upon him a distinctive wide-brimmed hat called a galero  This custom was discontinued in 1969 and the investiture now takes place with the scarlet biretta  In ecclesiastical heraldry, however, the scarlet galero is still displayed on the cardinal's coat of arms  Cardinals had the right to display the galero in their cathedral, and when a cardinal died, it would be suspended from the ceiling above his tomb  Some cardinals will still have a galero made, even though it is not officially part of their apparel To symbolize their bond with the papacy, the pope gives each newly appointed cardinal a gold ring, which is traditionally kissed by Catholics when greeting a cardinal (as with a bishop's episcopal ring)  Before the new uniformity imposed by John Paul II, each cardinal was given a ring, the central piece of which was a gem, usually a sapphire, with the pope's stemma engraved on the inside  There is now no gemstone, and the pope chooses the image on the outside: under Pope Benedict XVI it was a modern depiction of the crucifixion of Jesus, with Mary and John to each side  The ring includes the pope's coat of arms on the inside Cardinals have in canon law a "privilege of forum" (i e , exemption from being judged by ecclesiastical tribunals of ordinary rank): only the pope is competent to judge them in matters subject to ecclesiastical jurisdiction (cases that refer to matters that are spiritual or linked with the spiritual, or with regard to infringement of ecclesiastical laws and whatever contains an element of sin, where culpability must be determined and the appropriate
ecclesiastical penalty imposed)  The pope either decides the case himself or delegates the decision to a tribunal, usually one of the tribunals or congregations of the Roman Curia  Without such delegation, no ecclesiastical court, even the Roman Rota, is competent to judge a canon law case against a cardinal Additionally, canon law gives cardinals the faculty of hearing confessions validly and licitly everywhere, whereas other priests and bishops must be granted this faculty and might be restricted in its use by the local bishop 

See also
Cardinal-Infante (disambiguation)
Cardinal-nephew
Cardinal protector
Hierarchy of the Catholic Church
List of current cardinals
List of the creations of the cardinals

Notes
Passage 2:
Edward Alacampe
Edward Alacampe (1581 – 6 February 1646), an English Jesuit, became a member of the English College, Rome in 1605  Three years later he entered the Society of Jesus; in 1614, he was at the new college in Liège  Afterwards, he held the office of procurator at Rome, and died in the house of probation at Ghent 

See also
Passage 3:
Claudia Cardinale
Claude Joséphine Rose "Claudia" Cardinale (French: [klod ʒozefin ʁoz kaʁdinal]; born 15 April 1938) is an Italian actress 
Born and raised in La Goulette, a neighbourhood of Tunis, Cardinale won the "Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia" competition in 1957, the prize being a trip to Italy, which quickly led to film contracts, due above all to the involvement of Franco Cristaldi, who acted as her mentor for a number of years and later married her  After making her debut in a minor role with the Egyptian star Omar Sharif in Goha (1958), Cardinale became one of the best-known actresses in Italy with roles in films such as Rocco and His Brothers (1960), Girl with a Suitcase (1961), Cartouche (1962), The Leopard (1963),  and Fellini's 8½ (1963) From 1963, Cardinale appeared in The Pink Panther opposite David Niven  She went on to appear in the Hollywood films Blindfold (1965), Lost Command (1966), The Professionals (1966), Don't Make Waves (1967) with Tony Curtis, The Hell with Heroes (1968), and the Sergio Leone Western Once Upon a Time in the West (1968), a joint US-Italian production, in which she was praised for her role as a former prostitute opposite Jason Robards, Charles Bronson, and Henry Fonda 
Jaded with the Hollywood film industry and not wanting to become a cliché, Cardinale returned to Italian and French cinema, and garnered the David di Donatello for Best Actress award for her roles in Il giorno della civetta (1968) and as a prostitute alongside Alberto Sordi in A Girl in Australia (1971)  In 1974, Cardinale met director Pasquale Squitieri, who would become her partner, and she frequently featured in his films, including I guappi (1974), Corleone (1978) and Claretta (1984), the last of which won her the Nastro d'Argento Award for Best Actress  In 1982, she starred in Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo as the love interest of Klaus Kinski, who raises the funds to buy a steamship in Peru  In 2010, Cardinale received the Best Actress Award at the 47th Antalya "Golden Orange" International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica 
Outspoken on women's rights causes over the years, Cardinale has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defence of Women's Rights since March 2000  In February 2011, the Los Angeles Times Magazine named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history 

Early life
Claudia Cardinale was born Claude Joséphine Rose Cardinale in La Goulette, a neighbourhood of Tunis, Tunisia, on 15 April 1938  Her mother, Yolande Greco like her was born in Tunisia to Sicilian emigrants from Trapani  Her maternal grandparents had a small shipbuilding firm in Trapani, but later settled in La Goulette, where a large Italian community existed  Her father, Francesco Cardinale, was a railway worker, born in Gela, Sicily   Her native languages were French, Tunisian Arabic, and the Sicilian language of her parents  She did not learn to speak Italian until she had already begun to be cast for Italian films Cardinale was educated at the Saint-Joseph-de-l'Apparition school of Carthage, which she attended along with her younger sister Blanche  She then studied at the Paul Cambon School, where she graduated with the intention of becoming a teacher  As a teenager, she was described as "silent, weird, and wild", and like other girls of her generation, was fascinated by Brigitte Bardot, who came to prominence in the 1956 film And God Created Woman, directed by Roger Vadim 

Career
1950s
Cardinale's first film work was participating, along with classmates, in a short film by French director René Vautier, Anneaux d'or, successfully presented at the Berlin Film Festival  The film made her a minor local celebrity, and led to her being spotted by Jacques Baratier, who offered her a minor role in Goha  She accepted it reluctantly after Baratier explained he wanted a Tunisian actress rather than an Italian to star in the main role opposite the Egyptian actor Omar Sharif  The appearance nonetheless marked her feature-film debut  The turning point came in 1957 during the Italian Cinema Week in Tunis, when she won a competition for the "Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia", with a trip to the Venice Film Festival as first prize  After being spotted by several film producers at the event, she was invited to study at the Experimental Cinematography Centre in Rome under Tina Lattanzi  She attended briefly as, despite her extremely photogenic looks, she had trouble with her acting assignments (partly owing to her difficulties with the Italian language)  She left at the end of her first term and decided to return home, earning herself a cover story in the popular weekly Epoca triggered by her unexpected decision to turn her back on a career as a film star Back in Tunis, however, Cardinale discovered unexpectedly that she was pregnant, the result of what she later described as a "terrible" relationship with a Frenchman, some 10 years her senior, which began when she was only 17 and lasted for about a year  On this discovery, he wanted her to have an abortion, but she decided to keep the child  She solved her problems by signing a seven-year exclusive contract with Franco Cristaldi's production company Vides  Cristaldi largely managed her early career, and she was married to him from 1966 until 1975 Under the new contract, in 1958, Cardinale was given a minor role with Italian actors Vittorio Gassman, Totò, Marcello Mastroianni, and Renato Salvatori in Mario Monicelli's internationally successful criminal comedy Big Deal on Madonna Street (I soliti ignoti)  She portrayed Carmelita, a Sicilian girl virtually imprisoned in her home by her overpowering brother  The comedy was a huge success, making Cardinale instantly recognisable  Some newspapers were already referring to her as "la fidanzata d'Italia" (Italy's sweetheart)  Later that year, she had a leading role opposite Yvonne Monlaur in Claudio Gora's romantic comedy Three Strangers in Rome 
Although she worked well into her seventh month, Cardinale's pregnancy was kept a tight secret  Tormented by thoughts of suicide, she fell into a state of depression  When she thought she could no longer hide her condition, she asked Cristaldi to terminate her contract  Understanding her predicament, he sent her to London for the birth, far away from the press  He simply explained that she had gone to England to learn English for a film  Cristaldi told Cardinale not to reveal her condition as she would be betraying the public and it would put an end to her career  So as to maintain the secret, he drew up a detailed American-style contract covering every little detail of her life, depriving her of any possibility of acting on her own behalf  Cardinale explained: "I was no longer master of my own body or thoughts  Even talking with a friend about anything that could make me look different from my public image was risky, as if it had been publicized, I would have been in trouble  Everything was in the hands of Vides"  For seven years, Cardinale kept her secret, not only from the public but also from her own son, Patrick, who grew up in the family with her parents and sister more or less as a brother until the day Enzo Biagi, a journalist, discovered the truth  After Cardinale decided to tell him everything, he published her story in  Oggi and L'Europeo In 1959, she appeared opposite Salvatori in the mafia film Vento del sud, and played the wife of Maurizio Arena in Luigi Zampa's Il magistrato  Cardinale also starred opposite Pietro Germi in his crime film The Facts of Murder, an important assignment for her in mastering the craft of acting while learning to feel at ease in front of the camera  Cardinale considered it to have been her first real test as an actress  She then played the role of Maria in Ralph Thomas's British film Upstairs and Downstairs, which starred Michael Craig and Anne Heywood  In her early roles, she was usually dubbed, as producers considered her voice too hoarse 

1960s
In 1960, Cardinale starred opposite Marcello Mastroianni in Mauro Bolognini's Golden Leopard-winning drama film Il bell'Antonio  The film marked the start of a fruitful partnership  Cardinale stated that her films with Bolognini were among the most joyful of her career, considering him to be "a great director, a man of rare professional capability, great taste and culture  Beyond that, for me personally, a sensitive and sincere friend "
In Bolognini's films, thanks to her aesthetic femininity,  Cardinale took roles of manipulative women who lead men to perdition  During the filming of Il bell'Antonio, her co-star Marcello Mastroianni fell in love with her, but she rejected him, as she did not take his love seriously, considering him to be one of those actors who cannot help but fall in love with their co-stars  Mastroianni insisted that his feelings were genuine, even after many years  The genuine empathy between the two actors proved to be ideal for reproducing the tension between the characters in the film  Cardinale next portrayed Pauline Bonaparte in Abel Gance's French film Napoleone ad Austerlitz, and after appearing opposite Gassman and Salvatori in the sequel to Big Deal on Madonna Street, Audace colpo dei soliti ignoti, she portrayed Ginetta, the fiancée of Spiros Focás, alongside Salvatori and Alain Delon in Luchino Visconti's critically acclaimed Rocco and His Brothers  However, her leading performance in Francesco Maselli's Silver Spoon Set gained her most attention during this period  Francesco Freda felt the film paved her way "to great success", noting the "sweetness of her smile" which struck a chord with the public 
In 1961, Cardinale portrayed a sultry nightclub singer and young mother in Valerio Zurlini's Girl with a Suitcase  As a result of her own experience of early motherhood, Cardinale naturally conveyed the concerns of a teenaged mother, identifying fully with the character of Aida  Such was her psychological involvement that she needed several months to overcome her apprehensions and prepare for the part  Zurlini chose her for such a difficult role against everyone's advice, as she was not yet considered a "real" actress, nor was she (yet) one of the most celebrated Italian beauties  However, he was very close and supportive of Cardinale during the production, and a true friendship developed between the two, based on a deep mutual understanding  Cardinale remarked: "Zurlini was one of those who really love women: he had an almost feminine sensitivity  He could understand me at a glance  He taught me everything, without ever making demands on me      He was really very fond of me " Cardinale was warmly praised by the critics for her performance in Girl with a Suitcase, Dennis Schwartz considering her to have been at her "charming best"  Later in 1961, Cardinale starred as a prostitute opposite Jean-Paul Belmondo in Bolognini's La Viaccia  Both Girl with a Suitcase and La Viaccia were presented at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival  At the time, Cardinale was not considered comparable to the two divas of Italian cinema, Sophia Loren and Gina Lollobrigida, but several newspapers and magazines including Paris Match began to consider her to be a credible young rival to Brigitte Bardot  Cardinale's 1961 appearances also included Henri Verneuil's French comedy Les Lions sont lâchés, and Auguste in which she had a cameo role 
The following year, Cardinale starred opposite Jean-Paul Belmondo as Vénus in the 18th-century set adventure Cartouche, which made her a major star in France  She also played Angiolina, the romantic interest of Anthony Franciosa in Bolognini's Senilità, a character which film writer Jacek Klinowski describes as "a spirited and strikingly beautiful twenty-year-old"  In 1962, Cardinale was interviewed by the writer Alberto Moravia, who focused exclusively on her sexuality and body image in films, treating her as an object  Cardinale remarked to him: "I used my body as a mask, as a representation of myself"  The interview was published in Esquire under the title "The Next Goddess of Love"  Cardinale was amused to discover that the interview had inspired the writer to publish La dea dell'amore ("Goddess of Love") the following year, in which one of the characters, with her fine physical appearance and natural curves, closely resembled Cardinale  Just a few years later, she played a similar character in a film based on another novel by Moravia, Time of Indifference The finest and most prolific year of her career was 1963, when she appeared in a number of leading productions  She starred alongside Burt Lancaster in Visconti's The Leopard (1963) (Il Gattopardo), portraying a village girl who married a progressive young aristocrat (Alain Delon), and played a film actress cast by a director (Marcello Mastroianni) in Federico Fellini's 8½  Both films were critically acclaimed and are often cited by critics and scholars as among the greatest films ever made  She participated in the two films during exactly the same period, frequently moving from one to the other and experiencing the strictly planned approach of Visconti which contrasted strongly with Fellini's much more relaxed style and his almost total reliance on improvisation  Cardinale remembered Visconti's set as having an almost religious atmosphere, everything focused on the film, far removed the outside world  Visconti needed silence for his work while Fellini preferred noise and confusion Prior to this period, Cardinale's own voice had not been used in her Italian films, as it was considered too hoarse, and owing to her French accent, insufficiently Italian  Not until 8½ was she allowed to use her own voice  Cardinale explained: "When I arrived for my first movie, I couldn't speak a word  I thought I was on the moon  I couldn't understand what they were talking about  And I was speaking in French; in fact I was dubbed  And Federico Fellini was the first one who used my voice  I think I had a very strange voice " With her portrayal of Angelica in The Leopard and her brief appearance as herself in 8½, Cardinale achieved the definitive status of a top-ranking star The same year, Cardinale starred as Mara in La ragazza di Bube or Bebo's Girl, in which she also used her own voice  For her performance in the film, she received her first Nastro d'Argento for Best Actress in 1965  Cardinale acted in her first American film (although it was produced in Italy) when she played Princess Dala, a wealthy aristocratic woman who is the love and jewellery interest of David Niven in the Cortina d'Ampezzo-set The Pink Panther  Cardinale's voice in the film was dubbed by Gale Garnett, who went uncredited  Niven raved about working with the actress, telling her, "After spaghetti, you're Italy's happiest invention "
In 1964, Cardinale starred alongside Rod Steiger and Shelley Winters in Francesco Maselli's Italian-made Time of Indifference  Thereafter, she spent three years in the United States, where she starred in several Hollywood films  She told of how she benefited from the arrangement, explaining it was an American initiative at a time when they invited all the successful European actresses to perform in their pictures, hoping to create a monopoly  Many suffered from the experience, but she was able to hold her own: "I took care of my own interests, blankly refusing to sign an exclusive contract with Universal Studios  I only signed for individual films  In the end, everything worked out fine for me She first starred in the Henry Hathaway's Hollywood picture Circus World (1964) opposite John Wayne and Rita Hayworth, playing the daughter of Hayworth, who performs with her as a mother-daughter circus act  By the end of the decade, she had returned to making films primarily in Italy, accepting a pay cut, turning her back on Hollywood stardom  Cardinale has further said, "I don't like the star system  I'm a normal person  I like to live in Europe  I mean, I've been going to Hollywood many, many times, but I didn't want to sign a contract " Film writer David Simpson notes that as a result, "Cardinale never achieved the same level of fame as Loren and Gina Lollobrigida", although she appeared in a higher number of decent films In 1964, she also played the lead role in The Magnificent Cuckold, based on the Belgian play Le Cocu magnifique  She was at the height of her sensuality at the time, but later the film only brought back unpleasant memories for her as she experienced little empathy with the director Antonio Pietrangeli, while the male star Ugo Tognazzi tried to seduce her  In 1965, Cardinale appeared in Visconti's Vaghe stelle dell'Orsa, known as Sandra (Of a Thousand Delights) in the US and Of These Thousand Pleasures in the UK, playing a Holocaust survivor who may have had an incestuous relationship with her brother  Later that year, she starred opposite Rock Hudson in Universal Pictures's Blindfold, the last film to be directed by Philip Dunne  Filming began on 22 February 1965 on location in Ocala, Florida  Diane Bond doubled for Cardinale in the film  Cardinale became good friends with Hudson, who proved to be very protective of her, knowing her discomfort outside of Italy  While in Hollywood, Cardinale also became friends with Barbra Streisand, Elliott Gould, and Steve McQueen, but she never managed to feel at home there By 1966, Cardinale was being cited as the most popular film star in Italy, even more than Mastroianni and Loren  Life stated that "the Cardinale appeal is a blend of solid simplicity and radiant sensuality  It moves men all over the world to imagine her both as an exciting mistress and wife " However, following her success in Hollywood, she began to express concerns about the direction of her career  In a July 1966 interview with Life, she confessed her fear of being overglamourized and exploited, like Sophia Loren, and although she had several further US films lined up, stated: "If I have to give up the money, I give it up  I do not want to become a cliché "
In 1966, a photograph of Cardinale was featured in the original gatefold artwork to Bob Dylan's album Blonde on Blonde (1966), but it was used without her permission and removed from later pressings  That year, she starred in Mark Robson's war picture Lost Command for Columbia Pictures opposite Anthony Quinn, Alain Delon, and George Segal  Quinn expressed his love of working with Cardinale, stating that although he adored Cardinale and Loren equally, "I relate easier to Claudia, Sophia creates an impression of something larger than life, something unobtainable  But Claudia – she's not easy, still she's within reach"  She also played a Mexican marquessa in Richard Brooks' Western The Professionals, uniting her on screen once again with Burt Lancaster in what she  considered to be her best American film  The following year, she appeared in Una rosa per tutti (A Rose for Everyone) and in Alexander Mackendrick's sex farce Don't Make Waves opposite Tony Curtis  Although occasional funny moments were noted, Don't Make Waves was generally panned by the critics and the lack of chemistry with co-star Curtis was highlighted  Leonard Maltin, though, described the film as "a gem" At the beginning of 1967, Cristaldi joined her in the United States  While the two were staying in Atlanta, he surprised her by taking her to their wedding ceremony which he had arranged without her knowledge  She went ahead with the ceremony but was concerned about sacrificing the rights she had to her child Patrick  She also realised she was increasingly unable to make decisions about her own life  The marriage was never made official in Italy In 1968, Cardinale featured opposite Franco Nero in The Day of the Owl, in a David di Donatello for Best Actress-winning performance  She reunited with Rock Hudson in the Italian-made criminal comedy A Fine Pair under director Francesco Maselli  She also appeared alongside Rod Taylor in The Hell with Heroes and starred in one of her best-known roles as former prostitute Jill McBain in Sergio Leone's epic Western Once Upon a Time in the West  Such was the power of her performance as the whore that Leone's biographer Robert C  Cumbow described her as "permanently engraved in cinematic history" and noted how suited to the role she was: "Her sex-goddess appearance combines with her more mystical iconographic associations to ease the progress of Jill from tart to town builder, from harlot to earth mother, from sinner to symbol of America—the apotheosis of the harlot with a heart of gold " In 1969, Cardinale starred opposite Nino Manfredi in Luigi Magni's Nell'anno del Signore, based on the actual story of the capital execution of two carbonari in papal Rome  This was followed by a role as a telephone operator in Certo certissimo     anzi probabile, and as a nurse opposite Sean Connery and Peter Finch in Mikhail Kalatozov's The Red Tent, based on the story of the mission to rescue Umberto Nobile and the other survivors of the crash of the Airship Italia 

1970s
In 1970, Cardinale starred opposite Peter McEnery and Eli Wallach in Jerzy Skolimowski's comedy film The Adventures of Gerard, based on The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard by Arthur Conan Doyle  In 1971, she formed a duo with Brigitte Bardot in the French Western-comedy The Legend of Frenchie King, and appeared as a prostitute opposite Alberto Sordi in Luigi Zampa's comedy A Girl in Australia  The film, shot on location in February and March 1971, earned Cardinale a Best Actress award at the David di Donatello Awards the following year  In 1972, Cardinale appeared in Marco Ferreri's L'udienza, which was screened at the 22nd Berlin International Film Festival  She also featured in La Scoumoune with Jean-Paul Belmondo and Michel Constantin  After a role as a Russian aristocrat opposite Oliver Reed in One Russian Summer (1973), set in prerevolutionary Russia, Cardinale starred opposite Franco Nero in I guappi (1974), a historical drama film with "poliziotteschi" and "noir" elements  Cardinale and the director Pasquale Squitieri met for the first time on set, and he soon became her husband 
In 1975, Cardinale played the daughter of a political exile (Adolfo Celi) in Mauro Bolognini's Libera, My Love, a character who becomes "increasingly incensed by the fascist government of Italy and makes a number of bold and very personal gestures against it"  Later that year she appeared in the comedies The Immortal Bachelor with Vittorio Gassman and Blonde in Black Leather with Monica Vitti  Vitti's biographer noted how Cardinale and Vitti stood out as the female duo in a predominantly masculine cast In 1976, Cardinale appeared in the sex comedy Il comune senso del pudore, which was directed and written by Alberto Sordi, who also co-starred  The following year, she had a biblical role as the adulteress in the Jesus of Nazareth miniseries, which featured Robert Powell as Jesus, Anne Bancroft as Mary Magdalene, and Ernest Borgnine as Cornelius the Centurion  Cardinale starred in her husband's Il prefetto di ferro, which tells the story of Cesare Mori (Giuliano Gemma), an Italian prefect that before and during the Fascist period was best known as "the Iron Prefect"  The film shared the 1978 David di Donatello for Best Film award  with In nome del Papa Re  In 1978, Cardinale appeared in Damiano Damiani's political thriller, Goodbye & Amen – L'uomo della CIA, and again featured alongside Gemma in her husband's gangster picture, Corleone, set in 1950s Sicily 
After a role in another Squitieri film in 1978, L'arma, Cardinale portrayed Eleana, a Greek "gutsy brothel madame" and the girlfriend of Telly Savalas in George P  Cosmatos's adventure war film, Escape to Athena (1979)  The film, shot on location in Rhodes, was poorly received; it holds a 32% "rotten" rating on Rotten Tomatoes as of July 2015 

1980s
After a role in Si salvi chi vuole (1980), and a smaller part in Peter Zinner's The Salamander opposite Franco Nero, Anthony Quinn, and Christopher Lee, Cardinale played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in Liliana Cavani's war picture The Skin, a film which also reunited her with Burt Lancaster  The Skin was entered into the 1981 Cannes Film Festival  In 1982, Cardinale appeared in Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo, playing a successful brothel owner who funds Klaus Kinski's purchase of an old steamship in South America  The film, inspired by the story of Peruvian rubber baron Carlos Fermín Fitzcarrald, was shot on location in Brazil and Peru  The film was critically acclaimed, with Vincent Canby of The New York Times calling it "a fine, quirky, fascinating movie" and a "stunning spectacle", comparing the dynamic between Kinski and Cardinale to Katharine Hepburn and Humphrey Bogart in John Huston's The African Queen  He pointed out that although Cardinale's screen time in the film was not substantial, she set its comic tone; he praised the way she managed to turn Kinski, renowned for his volatile temperament and portrayals of megalomaniacs and criminals, into a "genuinely charming screen presence", adding a new dimension to his acting career  Later that year, Cardinale played opposite Pierre Mondy in the sex farce Le Cadeau, a role which biographers Lancia and Minelli say was played with a "mature charm and expressiveness" In 1983, Cardinale had a role in the Waris Hussein miniseries Princess Daisy, and featured alongside  Lino Ventura and Bernard Giraudeau in the French-Canadian film Le Ruffian  In 1984, she played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in a Marco Bellocchio production of Henry IV, based on the Luigi Pirandello play of the same name  It was entered into the 1984 Cannes Film Festival  Squitieri's Claretta (1984), featuring Cardinale and Gemma, was entered into the competition at the 41st Venice International Film Festival  Cardinale's performance as Claretta Petacci garnered her the Nastro d'Argento for Best Actress  In 1985, Cardinale starred opposite Ben Gazzara and Lina Sastri in Alberto Bevilacqua's La donna delle meraviglie   It entered the competition at the 1985 Venice International Film Festival In 1986, Cardinale was involved in the making of two films for television  In Comencini's La storia (from Elsa Morante's novel), Cardinale portrayed a widow raising a son during World War II  In her husband's Naso di Cane, a miniseries, Enrico Lancia and Roberto Poppi praised her for her "light comic touch"  In 1987, Cardinale starred opposite Peter Coyote, Greta Scacchi, and Jamie Lee Curtis in Diane Kurys's film A Man in Love (Un homme amoureux), Kurys's first English-language feature  It was entered into the 1987 Cannes Film Festival  Cardinale's performance as Scacchi's cancer-stricken mother was praised by critics, with Desson Howe of The Washington Post highlighting the "warm and radiant" elements that she brought to the role, and Hal Hinson, also of The Post, comparing Scacchi to having "the same kind of sensuality that Cardinale brought to her earlier roles"  After a role in the comedy, Blu elettrico (1988), Cardinale portrayed Yolande de Polastron, a favourite of Marie Antoinette's, in the two-part film La Révolution française in 1989  Made to celebrate the bicentennial anniversary of the French Revolution, the 360-minute Robert Enrico and Richard T  Heffron film was an international production, boasting a cast which included Klaus Maria Brandauer, Jane Seymour and Peter Ustinov 

1990s
In 1990, Cardinale starred opposite Bruno Cremer in Squitieri's Atto di dolore, and appeared in the Morocco-set Soviet-Italian production, La battaglia dei tre tamburi di fuoco 
In 1991, Cardinale featured alongside Richard Berry and Omar Sharif in Henri Verneuil's Mayrig (meaning "mother"), a film about the struggles of an Armenian family that emigrates to Marseilles from Turkey after the Armenian genocide of 1915  Such was the success of the film that Verneuil made a sequel the following year, 588, rue Paradis, also featuring the cast  Cardinale was praised by critics for her role as the mother; the Armenian General Benevolent Union of America noted the "flawless performance of these intrepid actors, especially of Claudia Cardinale"  In 1993, Cardinale won the Leone d'oro alla carriera award at the Venice Film Festival, in which she was honoured along with Roman Polanski, Robert De Niro, and Steven Spielberg  Cardinale agreed to reunite with Blake Edwards, Herbert Lom, and Burt Kwouk to celebrate the 30th anniversary of The Pink Panther by making Son of the Pink Panther  It was Edward's last film, but was a critical and commercial failure, with critics despairing at the "painfully unfunny script" and the performance of Roberto Benigni as Clouseau, which earned him the Razzie Award for Worst New Star  As of July 2015, it has a rating of just 6% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 reviews 
In 1994, Cardinale had a role in Charlotte Dubreuil's Elles ne pensent qu'à ça   , and the following year appeared in the French TV serial 10-07: L'affaire Zeus In 1997, Cardinale featured in the British-Italian television drama miniseries Nostromo, directed by Alastair Reid and produced by Fernando Ghia of Pixit Productions, a co-production with Radiotelevisione Italiana, Televisión Española, and WGBH Boston  It is described as "an adaptation of Joseph Conrad's epic story Nostromo of political upheaval, greed, and romance in turn-of-the-20th-century South America " Cardinale and the cast were nominated for an ALMA Award for Outstanding Latino/a Cast in a Made-for-Television Movie or Mini-Series  Later in 1997, Cardinale appeared in the films Sous les pieds des femmes and her husband's Stupor Mundi, in which she portrayed Constance of Aragon  In 1998, Cardinale portrayed the mother of Lola Naymark in the French picture Riches, belles, etc , a wealthy baroness who leaves her hotel to her daughter to care for during her absence  The following year, Cardinale played the peasant mother of two children who are members of Carmine Crocco's (Enrico Lo Verso's) army during the Garibaldi era, in Cristaldi's historical film Li chiamarono    briganti!  Poorly received, the film was boycotted, and the producers have since refused to assign the broadcasting rights 

2000s
In 2000, Cardinale embarked on her stage career, starring in Maurizio Scaparro's stage production of La Venexiana, adapted by René de Ceccatty, at the Théâtre du Rond-Point in Paris 
She also appeared in her husband's television film, Élisabeth - Ils sont tous nos enfants  Two years later, Cardinale went on a theatrical tour of Italy, performing in Luigi Pirandello's Come tu mi vuoi, which Squitieri directed  She appeared as what Roger Ebert described as a "faded countess" opposite Jeremy Irons in Claude Lelouch's thriller film And Now    Ladies and Gentlemen, portraying a character who spends her time in Fez, Morocco, with handsome gigolos  The film was screened out of competition at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival  And Now    Ladies and Gentlemen received mixed reviews; A  O  Scott of The New York Times dismissed it as "sublimely silly", but praised the "impeccable CinemaScope compositions" and the "lush, suave score" by Michel Legrand In 2005, Cardinale appeared in a Philippe Adrien stage production of Tennessee Williams's Sweet Bird of Youth, and in the 2006/2007 season also featured in another Williams play, The Glass Menagerie, directed by Andrea Liberovici, in which she played the character of Amanda  In 2007, Cardinale appeared in the Aline Issermann comedy film Cherche fiancé tous frais payés, opposite Alexandra Lamy and Bruno Salomone, in a role which Patrick Besson described as "atrocious"  After a role in the TV movie Hold-up à l'italienne (2008), the following year Cardinale starred in the critically acclaimed The String, playing a Tunisian mother who has a tempestuous relationship with her French-educated gay son  Michael D  Klemm of cinemaqueer com reflected on how the film broke many of the taboos with interracial sexuality and homosexuality  He praised Cardinale's "terrific" acting and portrayal of the "overbearing" mother, likening one scene, where she "brings home a nice girl for Malik (Antonin Stahly) to meet", to Harold and Maude (1971) 

2010s
In 2010, Cardinale received the Golden Orange Best Actress Award at the 47th Antalya "Golden Orange" International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica  The Turkish-Italian co-production was shot in locations in Istanbul and Rimini In 2012, Cardinale featured opposite Jeanne Moreau and Michael Lonsdale in the final feature film to be directed by Portuguese director Manoel de Oliveira, Gebo and the Shadow  Critically acclaimed, it has a rare 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, and was shown at the 69th Venice International Film Festival  The Hollywood Reporter described it as the "ensemble of superb older performers who comprise the remainder of the dramatis personae"  Another excellent film in which Cardinale acted, released in 2012, was The Artist and the Model  In it, she starred along with Jean Rochefort  In 2013, Cardinale starred alongside supporting actresses Patricia Black and Chloé Cunha in Nadia Szold's Joy de V , and had a role in Ernst Gossner's war drama The Silent Mountain, a love story set in the Dolomite Mountains at the outbreak of World War I between Italy and Austria-Hungary in 1915  Gossner described her as "a terrific spirit on the set", and noted that Cardinale told the production team "legendary stories" about Marcello Mastroianni  In 2014, Cardinale portrayed a "sympathetic Italian chaperone" viscountess in the British period drama film Effie Gray, which was written by Emma Thompson (whom Cardinale shares birthday with) and featured Dakota Fanning in the lead role  While promoting Effie Gray, in an interview Cardinale said: "I still continue to work, it's 142 movies now  Usually when you are old you don't work any more, but I still work, which is good     I've been very lucky because I've had many fantastic directors with me, Fellini, Visconti, Blake Edwards, lots and lots   " On 11 October 2018 she received the Tabernas de Cine award in the Almería Western Film Festival 

2020s
In 2020, Cardinale headlined the Swiss miniseries Bulle  Later that year, she had a role in the Netflix film Rogue City  In its debut weekend, it was the second most-streamed film on the site 

Personal life
Claudia Cardinale met the Italian film producer Franco Cristaldi in 1958  According to Cardinale, the couple had a marriage party but did not marry, and they became increasingly detached  Cristaldi later married Zeudi Araya and had no further relationship with Cardinale Cardinale lived with Pasquale Squitieri, an Italian film director, for 42 years, from 1975 until Squitieri died on 18 February 2017, aged 78 Cardinale has two children: Patrick, who was born when she was 19 and later adopted by Cristaldi, and Claudia, whom she had with Squitieri 
Cardinale is fluent in Arabic, French, Italian, English, and Spanish  Her niece Francesca is also an actress Cardinale is a political liberal who has supported feminist causes over the years  Although she lives in Paris, Cardinale is fiercely outspoken about being identified as an Italian  She has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defence of Women's Rights since March 2000, and was a goodwill ambassador for the UNESCO World Water Day for 2006 Cardinale published an autobiography with Anne Mori, Io Claudia, Tu Claudia, in 1995  She has been a regular attendee of the Academy Awards  Her awards have included an honorary Golden Lion at the 1993 Venice Film Festival, and an Honorary Golden Bear at the 2002 Berlin Film Festival  The Los Angeles Times Magazine, in a February 2011 online feature, named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history  Cardinale said of her acting, "I never felt scandal and confession were necessary to be an actress  I've never revealed myself or even my body in films  Mystery is very important " In a 2014 interview, she revealed her secret of success: "If you want to practise this craft, you have to have inner strength  Otherwise, you'll lose your idea of who you are  Every film I make entails becoming a different woman  And in front of a camera, no less! But when I'm finished, I'm me again "

See also
Passage 4:
Three Strangers in Rome
Tre straniere a Roma, also known as Three Strangers in Rome, is a 1958 Italian romantic comedy film directed by Claudio Gora starring Claudia Cardinale  The film was one of the first movies with Cardinale in a leading role 

Cast
Yvonne Monlaur: Nanda
Claudia Cardinale: Marisa
Françoise Danell: Elsa
Luciano Marin: Sandro Nencioni
Roy Ciccolini: Sergio
Leonardo Botta: Franco
Tamara Lees: Sandro's girlfriend
Renato Chiantoni: Pasquale
Nando Bruno: Vincenzo's father
Guglielmo Inglese: Michele
Alberto Talegalli: Uncle Gaetano
Gina Mascetti: Owner of the Pensione Aurora
Dolores Palumbo: Sergio's mother
Andrea Scotti: Osvaldo
Marino Barreto Junior: Himself
Marco Tulli

External links
Tre straniere a Roma at IMDb
Passage 5:
Frank Kubatzki
Frank Kubatzki (May 12, 1877 – ?) was an American blacksmith from Milwaukee who served three terms as a Democratic member of the Wisconsin State Assembly representing the 8th Milwaukee County District (8th Ward of the City of Milwaukee) 

Background
Kubatzki was born in the part of Poland within the German Empire on May 12, 1877, and came to America with his parents at the age of two, the family locating in Milwaukee  He was educated in a parochial school and night school, and became a blacksmith by trade  He served in the Army's First Wisconsin Volunteers from the outbreak of the Spanish–American War until he was mustered out in October 1898  Returning home, he returned to his trade until he lost the use of two limbs due to a disease contracted while in the service, and had to dispose of his business  He would eventually be awarded a monthly pension of $72 in 1926, apparently as a result of lobbying by Congressman John C  Schafer 

Legislative service
He was elected to the assembly in 1914 and was re-elected in 1916 and 1918, receiving 1,147 votes at the 1918 general election to 756 for Socialist Frank Cieszynski  He was defeated for re-election in 1920 by Socialist Walter Polakowski  In 1922 he attempted to re-gain his old seat, but came in third, losing to Polakowski's younger brother John Polakowski, who received 2,191 votes to 1,471 for Republican Louis Polewczwnski and 856 for Kubatzki 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Ekulu River
The River Ekulu is a 25-kilometre (16 mi) long river and the largest body of water in the city of Enugu in Enugu State, southeastern Nigeria, and it originates in the same city as well 
Passage 2:
Plankton
Plankton are the diverse collection of organisms found in water (or air) that are unable to propel themselves against a current (or wind)  The individual organisms constituting plankton are called plankters  In the ocean, they provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms, such as bivalves, fish, and baleen whales 
Marine plankton include bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries  Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found in lakes and rivers  Mostly plankton just drift where currents take them, though some, like jellyfish, swim slowly but not fast enough to generally gain control from the influence of currents 
Although plankton are usually thought of as inhabiting water, there are also airborne versions that live part of their lives drifting in the atmosphere  These aeroplankton include plant spores, pollen and wind-scattered seeds  They may also include microorganisms swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms and oceanic plankton swept into the air by sea spray 
Though many planktonic species are microscopic in size, plankton includes organisms over a wide range of sizes, including large organisms such as jellyfish  This is because plankton are defined by their ecological niche and level of motility rather than by any phylogenetic or taxonomic classification  The "plankton" category differentiates these organisms from those that float on the water's surface, called neuston, those that can swim against a current, called nekton, and those that live on the deep sea floor, called benthos 

Terminology
The name plankton was coined by German marine biologist Victor Hensen in 1887 from shortening the word halyplankton from Greek ᾰ̔́λς háls "sea" and πλανάω planáō to  "drift" or "wander" : 1  While some forms are capable of independent movement and can swim hundreds of meters vertically in a single day (a behavior called diel vertical migration), their horizontal position is primarily determined by the surrounding water movement, and plankton typically flow with ocean currents  This is in contrast to nekton organisms, such as fish, squid and marine mammals, which can swim against the ambient flow and control their position in the environment 
Within the plankton, holoplankton spend their entire life cycle as plankton (e g  most algae, copepods, salps, and some jellyfish)  By contrast, meroplankton are only planktic for part of their lives (usually the larval stage), and then graduate to either a nektic (swimming) or benthic (sea floor) existence  Examples of meroplankton include the larvae of sea urchins, starfish, crustaceans, marine worms, and most fish The amount and distribution of plankton depends on available nutrients, the state of water and a large amount of other plankton The study of plankton is termed planktology and a planktonic individual is referred to as a plankter  The adjective planktonic is widely used in both the scientific and popular literature, and is a generally accepted term  However, from the standpoint of prescriptive grammar, the less-commonly used planktic is more strictly the correct adjective  When deriving English words from their Greek or Latin roots, the gender-specific ending (in this case, "-on" which indicates the word is neuter) is normally dropped, using only the root of the word in the derivation 

Trophic groups
Plankton are primarily divided into broad functional (or trophic level) groups:   

Phytoplankton (from Greek phyton, or plant), are autotrophic prokaryotic or eukaryotic algae that live near the water surface where there is sufficient light to support photosynthesis  Among the more important groups are the diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and coccolithophores 
Zooplankton (from Greek zoon, or animal), are small protozoans or metazoans (e g  crustaceans and other animals) that feed on other plankton  Some of the eggs and larvae of larger nektonic animals, such as fish, crustaceans, and annelids, are included here 
Mycoplankton include fungi and fungus-like organisms, which, like bacterioplankton, are also significant in remineralisation and nutrient cycling 
Bacterioplankton include bacteria and archaea, which play an important role in remineralising organic material down the water column (note that prokaryotic phytoplankton are also bacterioplankton) 
Virioplankton are viruses  Viruses are more abundant in the plankton than bacteria and archaea, though much smaller 

Mixoplankton
Mixotrophs  Plankton have traditionally been categorized as producer, consumer and recycler groups, but some plankton are able to benefit from more than just one trophic level  In this mixed trophic strategy—known as mixotrophy—organisms act as both producers and consumers, either at the same time or switching between modes of nutrition in response to ambient conditions  This makes it possible to use photosynthesis for growth when nutrients and light are abundant, but switching to eat phytoplankton, zooplankton or each other when growing conditions are poor  Mixotrophs are divided into two groups; constitutive mixotrophs, CMs, which are able to perform photosynthesis on their own, and non-constitutive mixotrophs, NCMs, which use phagocytosis to engulf phototrophic prey that are either kept alive inside the host cell which benefit from its photosynthesis, or they digest their prey except for the plastids which continues to perform photosynthesis (kleptoplasty) Recognition of the importance of mixotrophy as an ecological strategy is increasing, as well as the wider role this may play in marine biogeochemistry  Studies have shown that mixotrophs are much more important for the marine ecology than previously assumed, and comprise more than half of all microscopic plankton  Their presence act as a buffer that prevents the collapse of ecosystems during times with little to no light 

Size groups
Plankton are also often described in terms of size  Usually the following divisions are used: 
However, some of these terms may be used with very different boundaries, especially on the larger end  The existence and importance of nano- and even smaller plankton was only discovered during the 1980s, but they are thought to make up the largest proportion of all plankton in number and diversity 
The microplankton and smaller groups are microorganisms and operate at low Reynolds numbers, where the viscosity of water is more important than its mass or inertia 

Habitat groups
Marine plankton
Marine plankton includes marine bacteria and archaea, algae, protozoa and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries 

Freshwater plankton
Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found inland in the freshwaters of lakes and rivers 

Aeroplankton
Aeroplankton are tiny lifeforms that float and drift in the air, carried by the current of the wind; they are the atmospheric analogue to oceanic plankton  Most of the living things that make up aeroplankton are very small to microscopic in size, and many can be difficult to identify because of their tiny size  Scientists can collect them for study in traps and sweep nets from aircraft, kites or balloons  Aeroplankton is made up of numerous microbes, including viruses, about 1000 different species of bacteria, around 40,000 varieties of fungi, and hundreds of species of protists, algae, mosses and liverworts that live some part of their life cycle as aeroplankton, often as spores, pollen, and wind-scattered seeds  Additionally, peripatetic microorganisms are swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms, and an even larger amount of airborne marine microorganisms are propelled high into the atmosphere in sea spray  Aeroplankton deposits hundreds of millions of airborne viruses and tens of millions of bacteria every day on every square meter around the planet 
The sea surface microlayer, compared to the sub-surface waters, contains elevated concentration of bacteria and viruses  These materials can be transferred from the sea-surface to the atmosphere in the form of wind-generated aqueous aerosols due to their high vapour tension and a process known as volatilisation  When airborne, these microbes can be transported long distances to coastal regions  If they hit land they can have an effect on animal, vegetation and human health  Marine aerosols that contain viruses can travel hundreds of kilometers from their source and remain in liquid form as long as the humidity is high enough (over 70%)  These aerosols are able to remain suspended in the atmosphere for about 31 days  Evidence suggests that bacteria can remain viable after being transported inland through aerosols  Some reached as far as 200 meters at 30 meters above sea level  The process which transfers this material to the atmosphere causes further enrichment in both bacteria and viruses in comparison to either the SML or sub-surface waters (up to three orders of magnitude in some locations) 

Geoplankton
Many animals live in terrestrial environments by thriving in transient often microscopic bodies of water and moisture, these include rotifers and gastrotrichs which lay resilient eggs capable of surviving years in dry environments, and some of which can go dormant themselves  Nematodes are usually microscopic with this lifestyle  Water bears, despite only having lifespans of a few months, famously can enter suspended animation during dry or hostile conditions and survive for decades  This allows them to be ubiquitous in terrestrial environments despite needing water to grow and reproduce  Many microscopic crustacean groups like copepods and amphipods (of which sandhoppers are members) and seed shrimp are known to go dormant when dry and live in transient bodies of water too

Other groups
Gelatinous zooplankton
Gelatinous zooplankton are fragile animals that live in the water column in the ocean  Their delicate bodies have no hard parts and are easily damaged or destroyed  Gelatinous zooplankton are often transparent  All jellyfish are gelatinous zooplankton, but not all gelatinous zooplankton are jellyfish  The most commonly encountered organisms include ctenophores, medusae, salps, and Chaetognatha in coastal waters  However, almost all marine phyla, including Annelida, Mollusca and Arthropoda, contain gelatinous species, but many of those odd species live in the open ocean and the deep sea and are less available to the casual ocean observer 

Ichthyoplankton
Ichthyoplankton are the eggs and larvae of fish  They are mostly found in the sunlit zone of the water column, less than 200 metres deep, which is sometimes called the epipelagic or photic zone  Ichthyoplankton are planktonic, meaning they cannot swim effectively under their own power, but must drift with the ocean currents  Fish eggs cannot swim at all, and are unambiguously planktonic  Early stage larvae swim poorly, but later stage larvae swim better and cease to be planktonic as they grow into juveniles  Fish larvae are part of the zooplankton that eat smaller plankton, while fish eggs carry their own food supply  Both eggs and larvae are themselves eaten by larger animals  Fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into the open water column  Fish eggs typically have a diameter of about 1 millimetre (0 039 in)  The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae  They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens  The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis) to become juveniles  During this transition larvae must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae  In time fish larvae become able to swim against currents, at which point they cease to be plankton and become juvenile fish 

Holoplankton
Holoplankton are organisms that are planktic for their entire life cycle  Holoplankton can be contrasted with meroplankton, which are planktic organisms that spend part of their life cycle in the benthic zone  Examples of holoplankton include some diatoms, radiolarians, some dinoflagellates, foraminifera, amphipods, krill, copepods, and salps, as well as some gastropod mollusk species  Holoplankton dwell in the pelagic zone as opposed to the benthic zone  Holoplankton include both phytoplankton and zooplankton and vary in size  The most common plankton are protists 

Meroplankton
Meroplankton are a wide variety of aquatic organisms which have both planktonic and benthic stages in their life cycles  Much of the meroplankton consists of larval stages of larger organism  Meroplankton can be contrasted with holoplankton, which are planktonic organisms that stay in the pelagic zone as plankton throughout their entire life cycle  After a period of time in the plankton, many meroplankton graduate to the nekton or adopt a benthic (often sessile) lifestyle on the seafloor  The larval stages of benthic invertebrates make up a significant proportion of planktonic communities  The planktonic larval stage is particularly crucial to many benthic invertebrate in order to disperse their young  Depending on the particular species and the environmental conditions, larval or juvenile-stage meroplankton may remain in the pelagic zone for durations ranging from hour to months 

Pseudoplankton
Pseudoplankton are organisms that attach themselves to planktonic organisms or other floating objects, such as drifting wood, buoyant shells of organisms such as Spirula, or man-made flotsam  Examples include goose barnacles and the bryozoan Jellyella  By themselves these animals cannot float, which contrasts them with true planktonic organisms, such as Velella and the Portuguese Man o' War, which are buoyant  Pseudoplankton are often found in the guts of filtering zooplankters 

Tychoplankton
Tychoplankton are organisms, such as free-living or attached benthic organisms and other non-planktonic organisms, that are carried into the plankton through a disturbance of their benthic habitat, or by winds and currents  This can occur by direct turbulence or by disruption of the substrate and subsequent entrainment in the water column  Tychoplankton are, therefore, a primary subdivision for sorting planktonic organisms by duration of lifecycle spent in the plankton, as neither their entire lives nor particular reproductive portions are confined to planktonic existence  Tychoplankton are sometimes called accidental plankton 

Mineralized plankton
Some planktons are protected with mineralized shells or tests 

Distribution
Apart from aeroplankton, plankton inhabits oceans, seas, lakes and ponds  Local abundance varies horizontally, vertically and seasonally  The primary cause of this variability is the availability of light  All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy (but see chemosynthesis), confining primary production to surface waters, and to geographical regions and seasons having abundant light 
A secondary variable is nutrient availability  Although large areas of the tropical and sub-tropical oceans have abundant light, they experience relatively low primary production because they offer limited nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate and silicate  This results from large-scale ocean circulation and water column stratification  In such regions, primary production usually occurs at greater depth, although at a reduced level (because of reduced light) 
Despite significant macronutrient concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called HNLC regions)  The micronutrient iron is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of phytoplankton algal blooms  Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface  Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive, arid land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e g , the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where trade winds bring dust from the Sahara Desert in north Africa) 
While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column  At depths where no primary production occurs, zooplankton and bacterioplankton instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above  This flux of sinking material, so-called marine snow, can be especially high following the termination of spring blooms 
The local distribution of plankton can be affected by wind-driven Langmuir circulation and the biological effects of this physical process 

Ecological significance
Food chain
Aside from representing the bottom few levels of a food chain that supports commercially important fisheries, plankton ecosystems play a role in the biogeochemical cycles of many important chemical elements, including the ocean's carbon cycle  Fish larvae mainly eat zooplankton, which in turn eat phytoplankton

Carbon cycle
Primarily by grazing on phytoplankton, zooplankton provide carbon to the planktic foodweb, either respiring it to provide metabolic energy, or upon death as biomass or detritus  Organic material tends to be denser than seawater, so it sinks into open ocean ecosystems away from the coastlines, transporting carbon along with it  This process, called the biological pump, is one reason that oceans constitute the largest carbon sink on Earth  However, it has been shown to be influenced by increments of temperature  In 2019, a study indicated that at ongoing rates of seawater acidification, Antarctic phytoplanktons could become smaller and less effective at storing carbon before the end of the century It might be possible to increase the ocean's uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) generated through human activities by increasing plankton production through iron fertilization – introducing amounts of iron into the ocean  However, this technique may not be practical at a large scale  Ocean oxygen depletion and resultant methane production (caused by the excess production remineralising at depth) is one potential drawback 

Oxygen production
Phytoplankton absorb energy from the Sun and nutrients from the water to produce their own nourishment or energy  In the process of photosynthesis, phytoplankton release molecular oxygen (O2) into the water as a waste byproduct  It is estimated that about 50% of the world's oxygen is produced via phytoplankton photosynthesis  The rest is produced via photosynthesis on land by plants  Furthermore, phytoplankton photosynthesis has controlled the atmospheric CO2/O2 balance since the early Precambrian Eon 

Absorption efficiency
The absorption efficiency (AE) of plankton is the proportion of food absorbed by the plankton that determines how available the consumed organic materials are in meeting the required physiological demands  Depending on the feeding rate and prey composition, variations in absorption efficiency may lead to variations in fecal pellet production, and thus regulates how much organic material is recycled back to the marine environment  Low feeding rates typically lead to high absorption efficiency and small, dense pellets, while high feeding rates typically lead to low absorption efficiency and larger pellets with more organic content  Another contributing factor to dissolved organic matter (DOM) release is respiration rate  Physical factors such as oxygen availability, pH, and light conditions may affect overall oxygen consumption and how much carbon is loss from zooplankton in the form of respired CO2  The relative sizes of zooplankton and prey also mediate how much carbon is released via sloppy feeding  Smaller prey are ingested whole, whereas larger prey may be fed on more “sloppily”, that is more biomatter is released through inefficient consumption  There is also evidence that diet composition can impact nutrient release, with carnivorous diets releasing more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium than omnivorous diets 

Biomass variability
The growth of phytoplankton populations is dependent on light levels and nutrient availability  The chief factor limiting growth varies from region to region in the world's oceans  On a broad scale, growth of phytoplankton in the oligotrophic tropical and subtropical gyres is generally limited by nutrient supply, while light often limits phytoplankton growth in subarctic gyres  Environmental variability at multiple scales influences the nutrient and light available for phytoplankton, and as these organisms form the base of the marine food web, this variability in phytoplankton growth influences higher trophic levels  For example, at interannual scales phytoplankton levels temporarily plummet during El Niño periods, influencing populations of zooplankton, fishes, sea birds, and marine mammals 
The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research  Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important impacts on future phytoplankton productivity  Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of zooplankton grazing may be significant 

Plankton diversity
Some of the diversity found in plankton

Planktonic Relationships
Fish & plankton
Zooplankton are the initial prey item for almost all fish larvae as they switch from their yolk sacs to external feeding  Fish rely on the density and distribution of zooplankton to match that of new larvae, which can otherwise starve  Natural factors (e g , current variations, temperature changes) and man-made factors (e g  river dams, ocean acidification, rising temperatures) can strongly affect zooplankton, which can in turn strongly affect larval survival, and therefore breeding success 
It's been shown that plankton can be patchy in marine environments where there aren't significant fish populations and additionally, where fish are abundant, zooplankton dynamics are influenced by the fish predation rate in their environment  Depending on the predation rate, they could express regular or chaotic behavior A negative effect that fish larvae can have on planktonic algal blooms is that the larvae will prolong the blooming event by diminishing available zooplankton numbers; this in turn permits excessive phytoplankton growth allowing the bloom to flourish  The importance of both phytoplankton and zooplankton is also well-recognized in extensive and semi-intensive pond fish farming  Plankton population-based pond management strategies for fish rearing have been practiced by traditional fish farmers for decades, illustrating the importance of plankton even in man-made environments 
Whales & plankton
Of all animal fecal matter, it is whale feces that is the 'trophy' in terms of increasing nutrient availability  Phytoplankton are the powerhouse of open ocean primary production and they can acquire many nutrients from whale feces  In the marine food web, phytoplankton are at the base of the food web and are consumed by zooplankton & krill, which are preyed upon by larger and larger marine organisms, including whales, so it can be said that whale poop fuels the entire food web 

Humans & plankton
Plankton have many direct and indirect effects on humans 
Around 70% of the oxygen in the atmosphere is produced in the oceans from phytoplankton performing photosynthesis, meaning that the majority of the oxygen available for us and other organisms that respire aerobically is produced by plankton Plankton also make up the base of the marine food web, providing food for all the trophic levels above  Recent studies have analyzed the marine food web to see if the system runs on a top-down or bottom-up approach  Essentially, this research is focused on understanding whether changes in the food web are driven by nutrients at the bottom of the food web or predators at the top  The general conclusion is that the bottom-up approach seemed to be more predictive of food web behavior  This indicates that plankton have more sway in determining the success of the primary consumer species that prey on them than do the secondary consumers that prey on the primary consumers 
In some cases, plankton act as an intermediate host for deadly parasites in humans  One such case is that of cholera, an infection caused by several strains of Vibrio cholerae  These species have been shown to have a symbiotic relationship with chitinous zooplankton species like copepods  These bacteria benefit not only from the food provided by the chiton from the zooplankton, but also from the protection from acidic environments  Once the copepods have been ingested by a human host, the chitinous exterior protects the bacteria from the stomach acids in the stomach and proceed to the intestines  Once there, the bacteria bind with the surface of the small intestine and the host will start developing symptoms, including extreme diarrhea, within five days 

See also
Aeroplankton
Gelatinous zooplankton
Ichthyoplankton
Nekton
Paradox of the plankton
Seston
Veliger
Passage 3:
Athlete (band)
Athlete were an English indie rock band formed in Deptford, London, comprising Joel Pott (lead vocals and guitar), Carey Willetts (bass and backing vocals), Stephen Roberts (drums and backing vocals), Tim Wanstall (keyboards) 
The band had a brief period of high-profile domestic success in which their debut album Vehicles & Animals (2003) was a platinum seller in 2005 and Mercury Music Prize nomination  It was followed up by Tourist (2005) which reached No  1 and sold over 500,000 copies allowing this album to also go platinum  Athlete's subsequent two albums, Beyond the Neighbourhood (2007) and Black Swan (2009), saw the band exploring different styles, influenced by the works of artists such as Nick Cave & the Bad Seeds 
The band has been on hiatus since anniversary tours in 2012 and 2013  Joel Pott has been working since then as songwriter and producer for other artists  Carey Willets released a solo album in 2012, called Stickers and has another project called "Boxes"  Stephen Roberts and Tim Wanstall have been working on production with other bands  In 2011, Stephen Roberts stated that they set aside plans for a fifth record, have no plans to make a new album, and are exploring different careers  Since then, they have been relatively quiet 

History
Debut releases and development (2000–2002)
Friends since the age of fourteen, Athlete took their wide ranging influences such as Grandaddy and The Flaming Lips and started jamming and practising in the basement of The Bear, a pub which was converted into a church and sandwich bar, on Deptford High Street in 1999  They began recording there, before sending demos out 
Signing with Regal Recordings, the band released their first single "Westside" in February 2002, which was a hit, garnering airplay on BBC Radio 1 and paving the way for another single, "You Got the Style" which cracked the Top 40 in June  Parlophone took notice and promptly signed the musicians, who entered the studio with producer Victor Van Vugt (Nick Cave & the Bad Seeds, Beth Orton) in late 2002 to record their first studio LP 

Commercial success, but mixed critical reception (2003–2006)
The band came to prominence in 2003 with their debut album, Vehicles and Animals, producing popular singles such as "You Got the Style" and "El Salvador"  The album earned a Mercury Music Prize nomination and went on to sell over 250,000 copies  They played their first live session on UK radio on the Dermot O'Leary Show on BBC Radio 2  Following the release of the album in April 2003, the summer of that year was a particularly fruitful time  Shortly after Glastonbury and T in The Park festivals, the band were nominated for the Mercury Award  After nomination, the album went from silver (60,000 sales) to gold (100,000) in the space of two weeks  "I think there's an underdog waiting to be discovered by the Mercury every year," said Steve  "And that year it was us " "By the time we played V at the end of the summer it seemed like everybody there knew the record,' said Joel Pott, 'There was 20,000 people, all singing along '
Their second album, Tourist, reached Number One in the UK Album Charts in its first week, following the huge success of single "Wires"  The song was written about Pott's newborn baby who was rushed to intensive care after a premature birth, and in 2006 it won them the Ivor Novello Award for "Best Contemporary Song"  In the UK charts, the band has frequently been frustrated by singles just missing out on top 40 placings, due to inconsistent support by music television channels and radio stations   For instance, certain songs, such as "Wires" and "Half Light", were played up to 10 times a day on larger UK radio stations, yet other singles such as "Westside" and "Tourist" received little radio play 
Tourist had a mixed critical reception, with some suggesting that Athlete had failed to sustain the unique style of their previous album, while others saw the new album as a logical progression from their old sound  Allmusic wrote that "Its art direction is a winning tribute to the striking cover art of Britpop past, but musically, Tourist settles for complacent " The supporting tour took place between 2005 and mid-2006 

Development with subsequent releases (2007–2009)
On 10 June 2007, it was announced that the title of their third album would be Beyond the Neighbourhood  The album was recorded by the band themselves in their own studio, and mixed by Ben Allen and Michael Brauer, who had worked on Tourist  Released on 3 September 2007, Beyond the Neighbourhood was a self-produced collection of low-key songs, viewed as a disappointment by some, and an interesting sidestep by others  Jonny Pilcher contributed additional guitar on 7 tracks  Pilcher then played live with the band on the subsequent tour  It entered at No  5 on the UK album chart  Singles included Beach Boys-influenced "Hurricane", charting disappointingly at number 31, also "Tokyo" which missed the Top 100 (number 198) and "The Outsiders EP", which did not chart at all 
They embarked on tours of the UK in late 2007 and early 2008 in support of the album  They also played during the 2008 TT motorcycle racing festival on the Isle of Man Black Swan is the fourth studio album produced by the band  Athlete recorded this album while temporarily unsigned  American producer Tom Rothrock collaborated with the group long distance after hearing only a few acoustic demos  In April they announced a 29 date tour of the UK to promote their new album  The tour took place throughout June and July  On 2 June 2009 it was announced that the band had parted ways with Parlophone Records and signed up with Fiction Records, who released "Black Swan" on 24 August 2009  The first single from the album "Superhuman Touch" was released on 17 August 2009, entering the UK charts at No  74, climbing to No  71 a week later  On 12 June 2009, Athlete released the song "Summer Sun" as a free download for email-subscribers  The song is not included in the track listing confirmed by band member Carey Willetts, and is likely to be considered as a b-side from the upcoming album  The first single to be released in America is "The Getaway"  On 9 November 2009, Athlete released "Black Swan Song" as a single 

Compilation releases, touring and split (2010–2013)
Singles 1–10 was the first compilation album released by the band  Many of the bands big hits, including "El Salvador" and "Wires" appear on this album  The selection of tracks spans the past 10 years  There is one previously unreleased song on the album entitled "Back Track " After the release Athlete completed a tour of Britain, Europe and North America from March till December 2010, performing the hits from the non-bonus edition  The band toured in July across Britain, and in August headlined Union Chapel, and also took the stage at Bingley Music Live and Brownstock Festival in 3 and 4 September 2011 In 2011 the band toured some of their biggest songs, but in a "stripped back" fashion  The idea was that the band took some of their songs and reworked them completely to be played in an acoustic style  The tour came around after the band played a small gig at London's Canary Wharf  After the gig was highly successful, they announced the tour which included 18 dates across the U K with two dates at London's Union Chapel  The second of which was recorded for a live album "Live at Union Chapel" released early in 2012  The album has 12 songs including the singles "Wires" and "Half Light" and includes the band talking to the audience between songs  This was Athlete's fourth live EP after two iTunes Festival EPs and the "Tokyo EP" recorded at Camden Koko 
In a September 2011 interview, keyboardist Tim Wanstall said "it's been every two years (releasing an album) on the odd numbers since 2003 so this is the first year to break that cycle  Actually we're all exploring individual paths at the moment so the if/how/when of another album is a pretty open book " In 2012 the band performed at several festivals including Hop Farm Festival, Shindig Festival and Lakefest  In May 2013, the band embarked on Vehicles & Animals 10th Anniversary Tour, with dates at Bristol Academy, Cambridge Junction and Shepherd's Bush Empire Since this tour, the band became dormant and later split  Pott turned to songwriting and production duties for other artists, forging working relationship with George Ezra, co-writing and producing his first two studio albums: Wanted on Voyage (2014) and Staying at Tamara's (2018), as well as co-writing Shura's debut effort Nothing's Real (2016)  He referred to his time in the band in the past tense in a 2015 interview with M Magazine  Stephen Roberts and Tim Wanstall have been working on production with other bands  Carey Willets released his first solo album in 2012, called Stickers, while also working on production and on a project called "Boxes" 

Discography
Studio albumsVehicles & Animals (2003)
Tourist (2005)
Beyond the Neighbourhood (2007)
Black Swan (2009)

Members
Joel Pott – lead vocals and guitar
Carey Willetts – bass and backing vocals
Stephen Roberts – drums and backing vocals
Tim Wanstall – keyboards and backing vocals
Passage 4:
Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations
The Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations (BAAA) is the governing body for the sport of athletics in the Bahamas   Current president is Rosamunde Carey   She was elected on 28 November 2015 for the period 2015-2018  She becomes the first woman elected to the position

History
Prior to 1952, there was already a Bahamas Athletic Association   BAAA was founded on 6 May 1952 as Bahamas Amateur Athletic Association and was affiliated to the IAAF the same year   First president was Alfred Frances Adderley   Early in the new millennium the federation’s name was changed to The Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations   A detailed report on the history of BAAA was given on Facebook 

Affiliations
BAAA is the national member federation for the Bahamas in the following international organisations:

World Athletics
North American, Central American and Caribbean Athletic Association (NACAC)
Association of Panamerican Athletics (APA)
Central American and Caribbean Athletic Confederation (CACAC)Moreover, it is part of the following national organisations:

Bahamas Olympic Committee (BOC)

National records
BAAA maintains the Bahamian records in athletics 
Passage 5:
Dead Horse Bay
Dead Horse Bay is a small body of water off Barren Island, between the Gerritsen Inlet and Rockaway Inlet in the New York City borough of Brooklyn 

History
From the nineteenth century to the twentieth century, the area has been used in a variety of ways, including manufacturing fertilizer from the remains of dead animals, producing fish oil from the menhaden caught in the bay, and more recently a landfill for the disposal of New York City’s garbage  Periodic clogging by carcasses from the adjacent glue factory with 200 foot chimney gave the bay its name  A millstone used to grind horse bones can still be found along the Millstone trail In 1926, much of the salt marsh surrounding Dead Horse Bay and the rest of Barren Island were pumped with sand from Jamaica Bay  This raised the land to 16 feet above the high tide mark and connected the islands to each other, and the mainland of Brooklyn, in order to create Floyd Bennett Field as New York City's first municipal airport  The entire area, including the historic airfield, is now managed by the National Park Service as part of the Jamaica Bay Unit of the Gateway National Recreation Area 

In the 1950s, urban planner Robert Moses attempted to expand the now-peninsula to the west using garbage covered by topsoil, but the layer of soil eroded, and garbage can be seen on the coast during low tide  This coast contains many exposed broken glass bottles and other non-biodegradable material In August 2020, the National Park Service announced that Dead Horse Bay would be closed indefinitely because of the presence of radiological contamination  The NPS said at the time that the cleanup could last several years  The contamination was identified as having come from two deck markers, a type of Radium-226 or Strontium-90 based radioluminescent device used by the US military, though the risk of radiological exposure was considered low 

Current use
School groups are taken to Dead Horse Bay on a regular basis to walk the Millstone trail, seine for a variety of fishes, and learn about the natural and cultural history of the area  Its shores are also a popular sport fishing spot, and home to a marina operating in Deep Creek as a National Park Service concession  Today one can find a large array of glass bottles and pieces of broken glass on the beach, along with old shoes and construction materials, many from the landfill which is now leaking  It is a popular place for artists and crafters to collect strange decorative materials 
Passage 6:
Silver Lake (Madison, New Hampshire)
Silver Lake is a 969-acre (3 92 km2) water body located in Carroll County in eastern New Hampshire, United States, in the town of Madison  The village of Silver Lake within Madison lies at the north end of the lake  Water from Silver Lake flows via the West Branch, through the Ossipee Pine Barrens to Ossipee Lake and ultimately to the Saco River in Maine 
Much of the lake's perimeter is forested, but there are numerous swimming spots  Popular beaches include "the foot" of the lake, "Nichols Beach", and "the head of the lake " It was the summer home of E  E  Cummings whose father had built two houses on the lake's eastern shore and later purchased the nearby Joy Farm where Cummings' spent most of his summers as well as his final days 
The lake is classified as a cold- and warmwater fishery, with observed species including rainbow trout, lake trout, lake whitefish, smallmouth bass, chain pickerel, and horned pout 

See also
List of lakes in New Hampshire
Passage 7:
Contoocook Lake
Contoocook Lake ( (listen)) is a 344-acre (1 4 km2) water body located in Cheshire County in southwestern New Hampshire, United States, in the towns of Jaffrey and Rindge  The lake, along with Pool Pond, forms the headwaters of the Contoocook River, which flows north to the Merrimack River in Penacook, New Hampshire 
The lake is classified as a warmwater fishery, with observed species including largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white perch, yellow perch, black crappie, bluegill, pumpkinseed, chain pickerel, and brown bullhead 

See also
List of lakes in New Hampshire
Passage 8:
Secchi disk
The Secchi disk (or Secchi disc), as created in 1865 by Angelo Secchi, is a plain white, circular disk 30 cm (12 in) in diameter used to measure water transparency or turbidity in bodies of water  The disc is mounted on a pole or line and lowered slowly down in the water  The depth at which the disk is no longer visible is taken as a measure of the transparency of the water  This measure is known as the Secchi depth and is related to water turbidity  Since its invention, the disk has also been used in a modified, smaller 20 cm (8 in) diameter, black-and-white design to measure freshwater transparency 
Similar disks, with a black-and-yellow pattern, are used as fiducial markers on vehicles in crash tests, crash-test dummies, and other kinetic experiments 

History
The original Secchi disk was a plain white disk and was used in the Mediterranean Sea  Today, a plain white, 30 cm (12 in) diameter Secchi disk remains the standard design used in marine studies  In 1899 George C  Whipple modified the original all-white Secchi disk to "   a disc about 8 inches in diameter, divided into quadrants painted alternately black and white like the target of a level-rod   "  This modified black-and-white Secchi disk is the standard disk now used in limnology (freshwater) investigations 

Secchi depth
The Secchi depth is reached when the reflectance equals the intensity of light backscattered from the water  1 7 divided into this depth in metres yields an  attenuation coefficient (also called an extinction coefficient), for the available light averaged over the Secchi disk depth  While used as a variable, the extinction coefficient is also used as a variable for turbidity  The light attenuation coefficient, k, can then be used in a form of the Beer–Lambert law,

  
    
      
        
          
            
              I
              
                z
              
            
            
              I
              
                0
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          e
          
            −
            k
            z
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {I_{z} \over I_{0}}=e^{-kz}}
  to estimate Iz, the intensity of light at depth z from I0, the intensity of light at the ocean surface The Secchi disk readings do not provide an exact measure of transparency, as there can be errors because of the sun's glare on the water, or one person may see the disk at one depth, but another person with better eyesight may see it at a greater depth  However, it is an inexpensive and straightforward method of measuring water clarity  Because of the potential for variation between users, methods should be standardized as much as possible 
A Secchi disk measurement should always be taken off the shady side of a boat or dock between 9:00 and 15:00  The period for best results is between 10:00 and 14:00  The same observer should take Secchi depth measurements, in the same manner, every time  One can approach the measurement by lowering the disk beyond a point of disappearance, then raising it and lowering it slightly to set the Secchi depth  Another method is to record the depth at which the disk disappears, lower it another few feet, then record the depth at which the disk reappears as it is slowly brought up  The Secchi depth is taken as the average of the two values Secchi disk measurements do not indicate how attenuation changes with depth or particular wavelengths of light  Submarine photometers can operate at depths of 150 m (492 ft) and can record visible, ultraviolet, and infrared parts of the spectrum  Turbidimeters and Transmissometers have their own light sources and can measure transparency with scientific accuracy 

Applications
Secchi disk measurements have been an integral component of Minnesota's and Wisconsin's lake water quality assessment programs for some time; lake residents make periodic measurements and submit their readings to state and local agencies  The aggregated longitudinal data are used to reveal general trends in water quality  Similarly, the Indiana Clean Lakes Program trains and relies on volunteers to monitor turbidity in over 80 Indiana lakes using Secchi disks, and uses data submitted by volunteers to monitor lake quality in the state In 2013, a team of marine scientists established the global citizen science Secchi Disk program for seafarers to study marine phytoplankton  This ongoing citizen science Secchi Disk study combines the traditional plain white, 30  cm diameter marine Secchi Disk with mobile technology to upload Secchi depth data collected from the sea to a central database  The study's first scientific results were published in 2017  The Secchi Disk study was begun in response to a controversial scientific report that suggested the phytoplankton that influences water transparency had declined by 40% in the oceans between the years 1950 and 2008 

See also
Forel-Ule scale
Siemens star
Trophic state index
Water quality
Passage 9:
Powwow Pond
Powwow Pond is a 348-acre (1 41 km2) water body in Rockingham County in southeastern New Hampshire, United States  It is classified as an artificial impoundment  The outlet of the pond is located in the town of East Kingston, but most of the lake lies in the town of Kingston  The Powwow River, the outlet of the pond, flows to the Merrimack River in Amesbury, Massachusetts  
The lake is classified as a warmwater fishery, with observed species including smallmouth and largemouth bass, chain pickerel, horned pout, and black crappie 

See also
List of lakes in New Hampshire
Passage 10:
Sea of Sardinia
The Sea of Sardinia is a body of water in the Mediterranean Sea between the Spanish archipelago of Balearic Islands and the Italian island of Sardinia 
The deepest point is at some 3,000 m, some 150 km north-west to the island of Menorca 

Recognition
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin  It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia 

See also
Balearic Sea


== Notes ==
Passage 11:
Deptford
Deptford is an area on the south bank of the River Thames in southeast London, within the London Borough of Lewisham  It is named after a ford of the River Ravensbourne  From the mid 16th century to the late 19th it was home to Deptford Dockyard, the first of the Royal Dockyards  This was a major shipbuilding dock and attracted Peter the Great to come and study shipbuilding  Deptford and the docks are associated with the knighting of Sir Francis Drake by Queen Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind, the legend of Sir Walter Raleigh laying down his cape for Elizabeth, Captain James Cook's third voyage aboard HMS Resolution, and the mysterious apparent murder of Christopher Marlowe in a house along Deptford Strand Though Deptford began as two small communities, one at the ford, and the other a fishing village on the Thames, Deptford's history and population has been mainly associated with the docks established by Henry VIII  The two communities grew together and flourished during the period when the docks were the main administrative centre of the Royal Navy, and some grand houses like Sayes Court, home to diarist John Evelyn, and Stone House on Lewisham Way, were erected  The area declined as first the Royal Navy moved out, and then the commercial docks themselves declined until the last dock, Convoys Wharf, closed in 2000 
A Metropolitan Borough of Deptford existed from 1900 until 1965, when the area became part of the newly created London Borough of Lewisham 

History
Deptford took its name from a ford across the Ravensbourne (near what is now Deptford Bridge DLR station) along the route of the Celtic trackway which was later paved by the Romans and developed into the medieval Watling Street  The modern name is a corruption of "deep ford" Deptford was part of the pilgrimage route from London to Canterbury used by the pilgrims in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and is mentioned in the prologue to "The Reeve's Tale"  The ford developed into first a wooden then a stone bridge, and in 1497 saw the Battle of Deptford Bridge, in which rebels from Cornwall, led by Michael An Gof, marched on London protesting against punitive taxes, but were soundly beaten by the King's forces 

A second settlement, Deptford Strand, developed as a modest fishing village on the Thames until Henry VIII used that site for a royal dock repairing, building and supplying ships, after which it grew in size and importance, shipbuilding remaining in operation until March 1869 

Trinity House, the organisation concerned with the safety of navigation around the British Isles, was formed in Deptford in 1514, with its first Master being Thomas Spert, captain of the Mary Rose  It moved to Stepney in 1618  The name "Trinity House" derives from the church of Holy Trinity and St Clement, which adjoined the dockyard Originally separated by market gardens and fields, the two areas merged over the years, with the docks becoming an important part of the Elizabethan exploration  Queen Elizabeth I visited the royal dockyard on 4 April 1581 to knight the adventurer Francis Drake  As well as for exploration, Deptford was important for trade – the Honourable East India Company had a yard in Deptford from 1607 until late in the 17th century, later (1825) taken over by the General Steam Navigation Company  It was also connected with the slave trade, John Hawkins using it as a base for his operations, and Olaudah Equiano, the slave who became an important part of the abolition of the slave trade, was sold from one ship's captain to another in Deptford around 1760 Diarist John Evelyn lived in Deptford at Sayes Court, the manor house of Deptford, from 1652 after he had married the daughter of the owner of the house, Sir Richard Browne  After the Restoration, Evelyn obtained a 99-year lease of the house and grounds, and laid out meticulously planned gardens in the French style, of hedges and parterres  In its grounds was a cottage at one time rented by master woodcarver Grinling Gibbons  After Evelyn had moved to Surrey in 1694, Peter the Great, the Russian tsar, studied shipbuilding for three months in 1698 while staying at Sayes Court  Evelyn was angered at the antics of the tsar, who got drunk with his friends who, using a wheelbarrow with Peter in it, rammed their way through a "fine holly hedge"  Sayes Court was demolished in 1728-9 and a workhouse built on its site  Part of the estates around Sayes Court were purchased in 1742 for the building of the Navy Victualling Yard, which was renamed the Royal Victoria Victualling Yard in 1858 after a visit by Queen Victoria  This massive facility included warehouses, a bakery, a cattleyard/abattoir and sugar stores, and closed in 1961  All that remains is the name of Sayes Court Park, accessed from Sayes Court Street off Evelyn Street, not far from Deptford High Street  The Pepys Estate, opened on 13 July 1966, is on the former grounds of the Victualling Yard 

The Docks had been gradually declining from the 18th century; the larger ships being built found the Thames difficult to navigate, and Deptford was under competition from the new docks at Plymouth, Portsmouth and Chatham  When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815 the need for a Docks to build and repair warships declined; the Docks shifted from shipbuilding to concentrate on victualling at the Royal Victoria Victualling Yard, and the Royal Dock closed in 1869  From 1871 until 1913 the shipyard site was the City of London Corporation's Foreign Cattle Market, to which live animals were brought by cattle boat from four continents and from whence came about half of London's meat supply 

The yard was taken over by the War Office in 1914, and was an Army Supply Reserve Depot in the First and Second World Wars  The site lay unused until being purchased by Convoys (newsprint importers) in 1984, and eventually came into the ownership of News International  In the mid-1990s, although significant investment was made on the site, it became uneconomic to continue using it as a freight wharf  In 2008 Hutchison Whampoa bought the 16ha site from News International with plans for a £700m 3,500-home development scheme  The Grade II listed Olympia Warehouse will be refurbished as part of the redevelopment of the site Deptford experienced economic decline in the 20th century with the closing of the docks, and the damage caused by the bombing during the Blitz in the Second World War – a V-2 rocket destroyed a Woolworths store in New Cross Gate, killing 160 people  High unemployment caused some of the population to move away as the riverside industries closed down in the late 1960s and early 1970s  The local council have developed plans with private companies to regenerate the riverside area, and the town centre 

Governance
The Manor of Deptford or West Greenwich was bestowed by William the Conqueror upon Gilbert de Magminot or Maminot, bishop of Lisieux, one of the eight barons associated with John de Fiennes for the defence of Dover Castle  Maminot held the head of his barony at Deptford and according to John Lyon writing in 1814, he built himself a castle, or castellated mansion at Deptford  The location of the building is not known, but ancient foundations found on the brow of Broomfield,  near the Mast Dock and adjacent to Sayes Court may be the remains of the building 

Deptford was mostly located in the Blackheath Hundred of the county of Kent, with the Hatcham part in the Brixton Hundred of Surrey In 1730 was divided into the two parishes of St Nicholas and St Paul  It was also referred to as West Greenwich, with the modern town of Greenwich being referred to as East Greenwich until this use declined in the 19th century  The whole of Deptford came within the Metropolitan Police District in 1830 and was included in the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1855 
It was transferred to the County of London in 1889  Originally under the governance of the ancient parishes of St Paul and St Nicholas, in 1900, a Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was formed out of the southern parish of St Paul, with St Nicholas and the area around the Royal Dockyard coming under the governance of the Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich Under the London Government Act 1963, the Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was absorbed in 1965 into the newly created London Borough of Lewisham, with the Deptford St Nicholas area becoming part of the Royal Borough of Greenwich, with both these new boroughs now forming part of the new Greater London body  In 1994 the bulk of the northern part, including the former Royal Dockyard area, was transferred to Lewisham, an adjustment of about 40 hectares (99 acres), leaving only the north eastern area, around St Nicholas's church, in Greenwich 
Deptford is split between two electoral wards - Evelyn in the north and part of New Cross to the south  Following public consultation, the Local Government Boundary Commission for England recommended in June 2020 that the Deptford wards (Evelyn and New Cross) should be unified and renamed Deptford 

Geography
Deptford borders the areas of Brockley and Lewisham to the south, New Cross to the west and Rotherhithe to the north west; the Ravensbourne river divides it from Greenwich to the east, and the Thames separates the area from the Isle of Dogs to the north east; it is contained within the London SE8 post code area  The area referred to as North Deptford is the only part of the London Borough of Lewisham to front the Thames and is sandwiched between Rotherhithe and Greenwich  Much of this riverside estate is populated by the former Naval Dockyards, now known as Convoys Wharf, the Pepys Estate and some southern fringes of the old Surrey Commercial Docks 
The name Deptford – anciently written Depeford meaning "deep ford" — is derived from the place where the road from London to Dover, the ancient Watling Street (now the A2), crosses the River Ravensbourne at the site of what became Deptford Bridge at Deptford Broadway  The Ravensbourne crosses under the A2 at roughly the same spot as the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) crosses over; and at the point where it becomes tidal, just after Lewisham College, it is known as Deptford Creek, and flows into the River Thames at Greenwich Reach 

Demography
Deptford's population has been mainly associated with the docks since the establishment of the Royal Docks by Henry VIII, though there has also been some market gardening and potteries  When the docks were thriving as the main administrative centre of the British Navy, so the area prospered, and fine houses were built for the administrative staff and the skilled shipbuilders, and a few grand houses like Sayes Court and Stone House on Lewisham Way were erected There was a start of a demographic shift downwards when the Royal Navy pulled out of Deptford, and the docks moved into storage and freight  The downward shift continued into the 20th century as the local population's dependency on the docks continued: as the docks themselves declined, so did the economic fortune of the inhabitants until the last dock, Convoys Wharf, closed in 2000 In common with neighbouring areas of South East London, immigrants from the Caribbean settled in Deptford in the 1950s and 1960s Deptford's northern section nearest the old docks contains areas of council housing, with some concentrations of people experiencing the forms of deprivation typically associated with the poverty of Inner London  Northern Deptford near the Thames, along with neighbouring New Cross, has been touted as "the new Shoreditch" by some journalists and estate agents paying attention to a trendy arts and music scene that is popular with students and artists  To the south where Deptford rolls into the suburban spread of Brockley, the previously multi-occupancy Victorian houses are being gentrified by young city workers and urban professionals  Deptford has a growing Vietnamese community reflected in the number of restaurants in the area 
Deptford contains a number of student populations, including those of Goldsmiths College, the University of Greenwich, Bellerbys College and Laban Dance Centre  Goldsmiths College's hall of residence, Rachel McMillan, in Creek Road was sold in 2001 for £79 million, and was subsequently demolished and replaced with the McMillan Student Village which opened in 2003 and provides accommodation for approximately 970 students of the University of Greenwich, Trinity Laban and Bellerbys colleges 

Economy
Deptford's economic history has been strongly connected to the Dockyard - when the Dockyard was thriving, so Deptford thrived; with the docks now all closed, Deptford has declined economically  However, areas of Deptford are being gradually re-developed and gentrified - and the local council has plans to regenerate the riverside and the town centre  A large former industrial site by the Thames called Convoys Wharf is scheduled for redeveloping into mixed use buildings  This will involve the construction of around 3,500 new homes and an extension of the town centre northwards towards the river The site of a former foundry (established in 1881 by J  Stone & Co in Arklow Road) which closed in 1969 is being redeveloped for commercial and residential use Much of the area along Creek Road, close to Greenwich, has also been redeveloped, with the demolition of the old Deptford Power Station and Rose Bruford College buildings  Aragon Tower on the Pepys Estate was sold by Lewisham Borough to fund regeneration plans for the estate; the award-winning refurbishment into privately owned accommodation was featured in the BBC One documentary, "The Tower" Deptford Market, a street market in Deptford High Street sells a range of goods, and is considered one of London's liveliest street markets  In February 2005, the High Street was described as "the capital's most diverse and vibrant high street" by Yellow Pages business directory, using a unique mathematical formula 

Culture
The Albany Theatre, a community arts centre with a tradition of "radical community arts and music" including holding 15 "Rock Against Racism" concerts, has its roots in a charity established in 1894 to improve the social life of Deptford's deprived community  The original building, the Albany Institute, was opened in 1899 on Creek Road, changing its name in the 1960s to the Albany Empire  It was burnt down in 1978, but rebuilt on Douglas Way, with Prince Charles laying the foundation stone, and Diana, Princess of Wales opening it in 1982 Deptford Cinema is a volunteer run, not-for-profit, community cinema, art gallery, and occasional music venue, open since late 2014 and located at 39 Deptford Broadway  At the time of opening it was the borough of Lewisham's only functioning cinema Creekside, a regeneration area beside Deptford Creek, is used for educational and artistic purposes, such as the Laban Dance Centre, which was designed by Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron, and opened in February 2003; and the Art in Perpetuity Trust (APT) gallery and studio space  A record label, Deptford Fun City Records was set up by Miles Copeland III, brother of Stewart Copeland, in the late 1970s as an outlet for Deptford bands such as Alternative TV and Squeeze The area has several pubs, including the Dog & Bell which has a reputation for serving a range of cask ales; and The Bird's Nest which has live music, film and art performances from local bands and artists  The town hall of the former Metropolitan Borough of Deptford, built in 1905 with decorative sculpture by Henry Poole, lies just outside Deptford, on the New Cross Road in New Cross  It was purchased by Goldsmiths College in 2000 There are several green spaces in the area, the largest being Brookmill Park, Deptford Park, Ferranti Park, Pepys Park and Sayes Court Park  In 1884 William John Evelyn, a descendant of John Evelyn, sold ground then being used as market gardens in Deptford, to the London County Council for less than its market value, as well as paying toward the cost of its purchase  It was officially opened to the public as Deptford Park on 7 June 1897  In 1886, he dedicated an acre and a half of the Sayes Court recreation ground in perpetuity to the public and a permanent provision was made for the Evelyn estate to cover the expense of maintenance and caretaking, this was opened on 20 July 1886 

Transport
Deptford is served by National Rail and Docklands Light Railway services  The National Rail service is operated by Southeastern and Thameslink on the suburban Greenwich Line at Deptford railway station, the oldest passenger only railway station in London  Deptford station was redeveloped during 2011 and 2012  The works included the demolition of the original 1836 station building and its replacement by a new station to the west in the former station yard  Deptford's DLR station is at Deptford Bridge on the DLR's Lewisham branch There are two main road routes through Deptford: the A200 which runs along Evelyn Street and Creek Road, and the A2 which runs along New Cross Road, and is the modern version of the Celtic trackway which was later paved by the Romans and developed into the medieval Watling Street  The A20 marks the southern boundary of the area, along Lewisham Way and Loampit Vale Since June 2016, Deptford has been on the cycling route of the London Quietway route Q1 that starts in Greenwich and ends near Waterloo Bridge in central London  A second Quietway route, Q14, between Waterloo and Thamesmead, passes through Deptford's riverfront 

Education
There are five primary schools in the area  There are no local secondary schools directly in Deptford, however there are two secondary schools near the border between New Cross and Deptford: Deptford Green, regarded by Ofsted as "needing improvement", and Addey and Stanhope, regarded by Ofsted as "good"  A branch of the further education college, Lewisham College incorporating Southwark College (known as LeSoCo), is located on Deptford Church Street; the college was regarded as "inadequate" in the 2014 Ofsted inspection 

Landmarks
Deptford railway station is one of the oldest suburban stations in the world, being built (c 1836-38) as part of the first suburban service (the London and Greenwich Railway), between London Bridge and Greenwich  Close to Deptford Creek is a Deptford pumping station, a Victorian pumping station built in 1864, part of the massive London sewerage system designed by civil engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette The former Deptford Power Station, in use from 1891 to 1983, originated as a pioneering plant designed by Sebastian de Ferranti, which when built was the largest station in the world In 2008, Lewisham Council granted permission for the last remnants of the Deptford Ragged School known as The Princess Louise Institute to be demolished and replaced by flats Albury Street (previously Union Street) contains a fine row of early urban houses largely dating from 1705 to 1717 which were once popular with naval captains and shipwrights Tanners Hill in the St John's or New Deptford area to the south of New Cross Road, is part of an Area of Archaeological Priority due to the longevity of settlement and early industry, and contains a set of commercial buildings from numbers 21 to 31 which are survivors from a row of 31 which were built in the 1750s on the site of cottages dating from the 17th century These timber-frame buildings have a Grade II listing from English Heritage and are home to established businesses such as bicycle maker Witcomb Cycles  Of Deptford's two important houses, Sayes Court no longer exists, but the Stone House in St Johns, built around 1772 by the architect George Gibson the Younger, and described by Pevsner as "the one individual house of interest in this area", still stands by Lewisham Way Deptford's Albany Theatre has a history stretching back over 100 years and is a prominent feature of the South-East London arts scene 

Churches
St Nicholas' Church, the original parish church, dates back to the 14th century but the current building is 17th century  The entrance to the churchyard features a set of skull-and-bones on top of the posts  A plaque on the north wall commemorates playwright Christopher Marlowe, who was stabbed to death by Ingram Frizer in a nearby house, and buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard on 1 June 1593  Frizer was pardoned for the killing on the grounds that he acted in self-defence There is also St  Luke's, another historic circular church, dating from 1870  It is the daughter church of the parish of St Nicholas' 
In the 18th century St  Paul's, Deptford (1712–1730) was built, acclaimed by the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England as one of the finest Baroque churches in the country  John Betjeman is attributed as referring to the church as "a pearl at the heart of Deptford"  It was designed by the architect Thomas Archer, who was a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren, as part of the Commission for Building Fifty New Churches with the intention of instilling pride in Britain, and encouraging people to stay in London rather than emigrate to the New World Adjacent to the church yard is Albury Street, which contains some fine 18th-century houses which were popular with sea captains and shipbuilders 

Deptford Dockyard
Deptford Dockyard was established in 1513 by Henry VIII as the first Royal Dockyard, building vessels for the Royal Navy, and was at one time known as the King's Yard  It was shut down from 1830 to 1844 before being closed as a dockyard in 1869, and is currently known as Convoys Wharf  From 1871 until the First World War it was the City of London Corporation's Foreign Cattle Market  In 1912, The Times reported that over 4 million head of live cattle, and sheep, had been landed From 1932 until 2008 the site was owned by News International, which used it to import newsprint and other paper products from Finland until early 2000  It is now owned by Hutchison Whampoa Limited and is subject to a planning application to convert it into residential units, though it has safeguarded wharf status Other notable shipyards in Deptford were, Charles Lungley's Dockyard and the General Steam Navigation Company's yards at Deptford Green and Dudman's Dock, also sometimes referred to as Deadmans Dock at Deptford Wharf 

Murder of Christopher Marlowe
The Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe was killed during an alleged drunken brawl in Eleanor Bull's house in Deptford Strand in May 1593  Various versions of Marlowe's death were current at the time  Francis Meres says Marlowe was "stabbed to death by a bawdy serving-man, a rival of his in his lewd love" as punishment for his "epicurism and atheism"  In 1917, in the Dictionary of National Biography, Sir Sidney Lee wrote that Marlowe was killed in a drunken fight  Some modern theories posit that he was assassinated  It is commonly assumed that the fight took place in a Deptford tavern The scholar Leslie Hotson discovered in 1925 the coroner's report on Marlowe's death in the Public Record Office which gave fuller details  Marlowe had spent all day in a house owned by the widow Eleanor Bull, along with three men, Ingram Frizer, Nicholas Skeres and Robert Poley  Witnesses testified that Frizer and Marlowe had earlier argued over the bill, exchanging "divers malicious words " Later, while Frizer was sitting at a table between the other two and Marlowe was lying behind him on a couch, Marlowe snatched Frizer's dagger and began attacking him  In the ensuing struggle, according to the coroner's report, Marlowe was accidentally stabbed above the right eye, killing him instantly  The jury concluded that Frizer acted in self-defence, and within a month he was pardoned  Marlowe was buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard of St Nicholas, Deptford, on 1 June 1593 

Notable people
Among people associated with Deptford are Christopher Marlowe, who was killed at Deptford Strand; diarist John Evelyn (1620–1706), who lived at Sayes Court, and had Peter the Great (1672–1725) as a guest for about three months in 1698; Sir Francis Drake, who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind in Deptford Docks; and Emperor Norton (Joshua Abraham Norton), the San Francisco eccentric and self-proclaimed "Emperor of the United States", who was born in Deptford in 1818 Other people who have lived in Deptford range from the first governor of the East India Company and ambassador to the court of Russia, Thomas Smythe, whose magnificent house was destroyed by fire in 1618; to early members of the Chartist movement, John Gast and George Julian Harney; and the Cleveleys, John Cleveley the Elder and his sons John and Robert, a family of marine artists who also worked as tradesmen in the Dockyard  Another artist born in Deptford is Henry Courtney Selous, who is known for The Opening of The Great Exhibition, painted in 1851 Members of rock groups Squeeze and Dire Straits lived on the Crossfield Estate in Deptford in the late 1970s, along with Mark Perry, founder of the punk fanzine Sniffin Glue and punk rock band Alternative TV  The DJ and music journalist Danny Baker lived near the Crossfield Estate, where he was born and brought up Children's author Robin Jarvis wrote two trilogies of books: The Deptford Mice (and a couple of spin off books called The Deptford Mouselets series) and The Deptford Histories, set in and around Deptford and featuring many of its landmarks 
Passage 12:
Wapizagonke Lake
The Wapizagonke Lake is one of the bodies of water located the sector "Lac-Wapizagonke", in the city of Shawinigan, in the La Mauricie National Park, in the region of Mauricie, in Quebec, in Canada 

Geography
With a length of 9 2 kilometers, the Wapizagonke lake is located near the west boundary of La Mauricie National Park in northern Shawinigan  Surrounded by mountains, this lake is a narrow shape and length is in the north-south axis  It drains through its southern end into the Shawinigan River, which flows eastward and then south to empty into the Saint-Maurice River 
Major lakes feeding the Wapizagonke Lake watershed are: Reid, Houle, Jodon, Anticagamac and Avalon 

Toponymy
The lake appears on the cards in 1852 under the name "Lake Pisagunk"  Forestry workers identified him rather as the "lake Mistagance"  Wapizagonke appear on the map in 1925 and is a variation of Ouapitagone in Montagnais, which meant according to Father Joseph-Étienne Guinard (1864-1965): "kind of very rare duck species"  In Abenaki, the lake is named Wawibizagak and means "surrounded by the bush"  Certain visitors named the lake under two names: "Island Lake" and "Lake Croche" 

See also
Shawinigan River
Shawinigan
Passage 13:
Walker Pond
Walker Pond is a body of water in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, situated off Route 49 on the way to Wells State Park 

History
The pond took its name from settler Rachael "Walker" Smith, a local resident who raised twelve Italian children there   (The house, since demolished, was called the Perez Walker House in memory of Nathaniel Walker's grandson, a prominent townsman ) In 1894, the town of Sturbridge voted to rename the pond Tantousque Lake, from an Indian word meaning "located between two breast-shaped hills "  The traditional Indian name did not, however, stick 

Fishing
According to a 1980 survey, the pond contains largemouth bass, chain pickerel, yellow perch, white perch, bluegill, pumpkinseed, brown bullhead, white suckers, and golden and bridled shiners  It is a popular place for ice fishing 
Passage 14:
John Meyers (swimmer)
John Meyers (June 28, 1880 – February 1975) was an American freestyle swimmer and water polo player who competed in the 1904 Summer Olympics in St  Louis, Missouri   In the 1904 Olympics he won a bronze medal as a member of the Missouri Athletic Club water polo team  He also competed in one-mile freestyle, but did not finish the competition 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Walker Pond
Walker Pond is a body of water in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, situated off Route 49 on the way to Wells State Park 

History
The pond took its name from settler Rachael "Walker" Smith, a local resident who raised twelve Italian children there   (The house, since demolished, was called the Perez Walker House in memory of Nathaniel Walker's grandson, a prominent townsman ) In 1894, the town of Sturbridge voted to rename the pond Tantousque Lake, from an Indian word meaning "located between two breast-shaped hills "  The traditional Indian name did not, however, stick 

Fishing
According to a 1980 survey, the pond contains largemouth bass, chain pickerel, yellow perch, white perch, bluegill, pumpkinseed, brown bullhead, white suckers, and golden and bridled shiners  It is a popular place for ice fishing 
Passage 2:
Potamogeton amplifolius
Potamogeton amplifolius, commonly known as largeleaf pondweed or broad-leaved pondweed, is an aquatic plant of North America  It grows in water bodies such as lakes, ponds, and rivers, often in deep water 
This perennial plant grows from rhizomes and produces a very slender, cylindrical, sometimes spotted stem up to a meter or so long  The leaves take two forms  Submersed leaves are up to 20 centimeters long by 7 wide and may be folded along their midribs  The submersed leaves have more veins than do those of other pondweed species, up to 49  Floating leaves are up to 10 centimeters long by 5 wide, leathery in texture, and borne on long petioles  The inflorescence is a spike of many flowers rising above the water surface on a thick peduncle 
Passage 3:
George Mills (footballer)
George Robert Mills (born 29 December 1908 in Deptford, died 15 July 1970) was an English footballer, principally for Chelsea 
He signed for Chelsea as an amateur in 1929 from Bromley and stayed at the club for the rest of his career  He was a prolific goal scorer in his time there, notching 125 goals in 239 games  Despite often being overlooked by more glamorous, but less reliable, forwards such as Hughie Gallacher and Joe Bambrick, he remained loyal to the club 
In his debut season, Mills scored 14 goals in 20 games for Chelsea, helping them achieve promotion to the First Division  His best season was in 1936-37, when he scored 22 goals in 32 appearances, which earned him an England call-up  He won three international caps for England and scored three goals, all of which came in a 5–1 win against Northern Ireland on 23 October 1937 Mills was the first Chelsea player to score over 100 league goals, a feat only five others have since matched, and is the club's 8th highest goal scorer of all time  He is also the last Chelsea player to have scored a hat-trick against Liverpool, which came in a 6–1 win in August 1937  Upon retiring he became a coach at Chelsea He later worked in the City of London for a printing company  He died while on holiday in Torquay in 1970 
Passage 4:
Donja Badanja
Donja Badanja (Serbian Cyrillic: Доња Бадања, meaning 'a wooden pipe made of a hollowed trunk', often used to direct water on the wheel of a water-mill) is a village in western Serbia  It is located in the municipality of Loznica, in the Mačva District  Donja Badanja's current population is 510 (2002 census)  According to 1991 census population was 670 

Geography and features
Donja Badanja is a village located at the base of the mountain Cer and the low mountain Iverak, in the Jadar region  The Cernica River runs through Donja Badanja  The altitude of Donja Badanja is 180 -m-  Donja Badanja is connected by motorway to Šabac and Loznica, and further by highway to Belgrade  Donja Badanja has a moderate continental climate, with four seasons  Autumn is longer than spring, with long sunny and warm periods  Winter is not so severe, with an average of 22 days of sub-zero temperature  January is the coldest month, with an average temperature of -1 9 °C  Spring is usually short and rainy, while summer arrives abruptly  There is a spa in area of Donja Badanja called Banja Badanja with two springs of mineral water (one is sulphurous and the other contains iron)  The sulphur water is more mineralized than the iron water  There is a hostel named Cernica in Banja Badanja and other larger hotel is built at the present 

History
According to legend, the village's name comes from Badanj, a wooden pipe which has been used to direct water onto a water-mill wheel  There were many water-mills in Donja Badanja in the past; just a few remain today 


== Demographics ==
Passage 5:
Deptford
Deptford is an area on the south bank of the River Thames in southeast London, within the London Borough of Lewisham  It is named after a ford of the River Ravensbourne  From the mid 16th century to the late 19th it was home to Deptford Dockyard, the first of the Royal Dockyards  This was a major shipbuilding dock and attracted Peter the Great to come and study shipbuilding  Deptford and the docks are associated with the knighting of Sir Francis Drake by Queen Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind, the legend of Sir Walter Raleigh laying down his cape for Elizabeth, Captain James Cook's third voyage aboard HMS Resolution, and the mysterious apparent murder of Christopher Marlowe in a house along Deptford Strand Though Deptford began as two small communities, one at the ford, and the other a fishing village on the Thames, Deptford's history and population has been mainly associated with the docks established by Henry VIII  The two communities grew together and flourished during the period when the docks were the main administrative centre of the Royal Navy, and some grand houses like Sayes Court, home to diarist John Evelyn, and Stone House on Lewisham Way, were erected  The area declined as first the Royal Navy moved out, and then the commercial docks themselves declined until the last dock, Convoys Wharf, closed in 2000 
A Metropolitan Borough of Deptford existed from 1900 until 1965, when the area became part of the newly created London Borough of Lewisham 

History
Deptford took its name from a ford across the Ravensbourne (near what is now Deptford Bridge DLR station) along the route of the Celtic trackway which was later paved by the Romans and developed into the medieval Watling Street  The modern name is a corruption of "deep ford" Deptford was part of the pilgrimage route from London to Canterbury used by the pilgrims in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and is mentioned in the prologue to "The Reeve's Tale"  The ford developed into first a wooden then a stone bridge, and in 1497 saw the Battle of Deptford Bridge, in which rebels from Cornwall, led by Michael An Gof, marched on London protesting against punitive taxes, but were soundly beaten by the King's forces 

A second settlement, Deptford Strand, developed as a modest fishing village on the Thames until Henry VIII used that site for a royal dock repairing, building and supplying ships, after which it grew in size and importance, shipbuilding remaining in operation until March 1869 

Trinity House, the organisation concerned with the safety of navigation around the British Isles, was formed in Deptford in 1514, with its first Master being Thomas Spert, captain of the Mary Rose  It moved to Stepney in 1618  The name "Trinity House" derives from the church of Holy Trinity and St Clement, which adjoined the dockyard Originally separated by market gardens and fields, the two areas merged over the years, with the docks becoming an important part of the Elizabethan exploration  Queen Elizabeth I visited the royal dockyard on 4 April 1581 to knight the adventurer Francis Drake  As well as for exploration, Deptford was important for trade – the Honourable East India Company had a yard in Deptford from 1607 until late in the 17th century, later (1825) taken over by the General Steam Navigation Company  It was also connected with the slave trade, John Hawkins using it as a base for his operations, and Olaudah Equiano, the slave who became an important part of the abolition of the slave trade, was sold from one ship's captain to another in Deptford around 1760 Diarist John Evelyn lived in Deptford at Sayes Court, the manor house of Deptford, from 1652 after he had married the daughter of the owner of the house, Sir Richard Browne  After the Restoration, Evelyn obtained a 99-year lease of the house and grounds, and laid out meticulously planned gardens in the French style, of hedges and parterres  In its grounds was a cottage at one time rented by master woodcarver Grinling Gibbons  After Evelyn had moved to Surrey in 1694, Peter the Great, the Russian tsar, studied shipbuilding for three months in 1698 while staying at Sayes Court  Evelyn was angered at the antics of the tsar, who got drunk with his friends who, using a wheelbarrow with Peter in it, rammed their way through a "fine holly hedge"  Sayes Court was demolished in 1728-9 and a workhouse built on its site  Part of the estates around Sayes Court were purchased in 1742 for the building of the Navy Victualling Yard, which was renamed the Royal Victoria Victualling Yard in 1858 after a visit by Queen Victoria  This massive facility included warehouses, a bakery, a cattleyard/abattoir and sugar stores, and closed in 1961  All that remains is the name of Sayes Court Park, accessed from Sayes Court Street off Evelyn Street, not far from Deptford High Street  The Pepys Estate, opened on 13 July 1966, is on the former grounds of the Victualling Yard 

The Docks had been gradually declining from the 18th century; the larger ships being built found the Thames difficult to navigate, and Deptford was under competition from the new docks at Plymouth, Portsmouth and Chatham  When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815 the need for a Docks to build and repair warships declined; the Docks shifted from shipbuilding to concentrate on victualling at the Royal Victoria Victualling Yard, and the Royal Dock closed in 1869  From 1871 until 1913 the shipyard site was the City of London Corporation's Foreign Cattle Market, to which live animals were brought by cattle boat from four continents and from whence came about half of London's meat supply 

The yard was taken over by the War Office in 1914, and was an Army Supply Reserve Depot in the First and Second World Wars  The site lay unused until being purchased by Convoys (newsprint importers) in 1984, and eventually came into the ownership of News International  In the mid-1990s, although significant investment was made on the site, it became uneconomic to continue using it as a freight wharf  In 2008 Hutchison Whampoa bought the 16ha site from News International with plans for a £700m 3,500-home development scheme  The Grade II listed Olympia Warehouse will be refurbished as part of the redevelopment of the site Deptford experienced economic decline in the 20th century with the closing of the docks, and the damage caused by the bombing during the Blitz in the Second World War – a V-2 rocket destroyed a Woolworths store in New Cross Gate, killing 160 people  High unemployment caused some of the population to move away as the riverside industries closed down in the late 1960s and early 1970s  The local council have developed plans with private companies to regenerate the riverside area, and the town centre 

Governance
The Manor of Deptford or West Greenwich was bestowed by William the Conqueror upon Gilbert de Magminot or Maminot, bishop of Lisieux, one of the eight barons associated with John de Fiennes for the defence of Dover Castle  Maminot held the head of his barony at Deptford and according to John Lyon writing in 1814, he built himself a castle, or castellated mansion at Deptford  The location of the building is not known, but ancient foundations found on the brow of Broomfield,  near the Mast Dock and adjacent to Sayes Court may be the remains of the building 

Deptford was mostly located in the Blackheath Hundred of the county of Kent, with the Hatcham part in the Brixton Hundred of Surrey In 1730 was divided into the two parishes of St Nicholas and St Paul  It was also referred to as West Greenwich, with the modern town of Greenwich being referred to as East Greenwich until this use declined in the 19th century  The whole of Deptford came within the Metropolitan Police District in 1830 and was included in the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1855 
It was transferred to the County of London in 1889  Originally under the governance of the ancient parishes of St Paul and St Nicholas, in 1900, a Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was formed out of the southern parish of St Paul, with St Nicholas and the area around the Royal Dockyard coming under the governance of the Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich Under the London Government Act 1963, the Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was absorbed in 1965 into the newly created London Borough of Lewisham, with the Deptford St Nicholas area becoming part of the Royal Borough of Greenwich, with both these new boroughs now forming part of the new Greater London body  In 1994 the bulk of the northern part, including the former Royal Dockyard area, was transferred to Lewisham, an adjustment of about 40 hectares (99 acres), leaving only the north eastern area, around St Nicholas's church, in Greenwich 
Deptford is split between two electoral wards - Evelyn in the north and part of New Cross to the south  Following public consultation, the Local Government Boundary Commission for England recommended in June 2020 that the Deptford wards (Evelyn and New Cross) should be unified and renamed Deptford 

Geography
Deptford borders the areas of Brockley and Lewisham to the south, New Cross to the west and Rotherhithe to the north west; the Ravensbourne river divides it from Greenwich to the east, and the Thames separates the area from the Isle of Dogs to the north east; it is contained within the London SE8 post code area  The area referred to as North Deptford is the only part of the London Borough of Lewisham to front the Thames and is sandwiched between Rotherhithe and Greenwich  Much of this riverside estate is populated by the former Naval Dockyards, now known as Convoys Wharf, the Pepys Estate and some southern fringes of the old Surrey Commercial Docks 
The name Deptford – anciently written Depeford meaning "deep ford" — is derived from the place where the road from London to Dover, the ancient Watling Street (now the A2), crosses the River Ravensbourne at the site of what became Deptford Bridge at Deptford Broadway  The Ravensbourne crosses under the A2 at roughly the same spot as the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) crosses over; and at the point where it becomes tidal, just after Lewisham College, it is known as Deptford Creek, and flows into the River Thames at Greenwich Reach 

Demography
Deptford's population has been mainly associated with the docks since the establishment of the Royal Docks by Henry VIII, though there has also been some market gardening and potteries  When the docks were thriving as the main administrative centre of the British Navy, so the area prospered, and fine houses were built for the administrative staff and the skilled shipbuilders, and a few grand houses like Sayes Court and Stone House on Lewisham Way were erected There was a start of a demographic shift downwards when the Royal Navy pulled out of Deptford, and the docks moved into storage and freight  The downward shift continued into the 20th century as the local population's dependency on the docks continued: as the docks themselves declined, so did the economic fortune of the inhabitants until the last dock, Convoys Wharf, closed in 2000 In common with neighbouring areas of South East London, immigrants from the Caribbean settled in Deptford in the 1950s and 1960s Deptford's northern section nearest the old docks contains areas of council housing, with some concentrations of people experiencing the forms of deprivation typically associated with the poverty of Inner London  Northern Deptford near the Thames, along with neighbouring New Cross, has been touted as "the new Shoreditch" by some journalists and estate agents paying attention to a trendy arts and music scene that is popular with students and artists  To the south where Deptford rolls into the suburban spread of Brockley, the previously multi-occupancy Victorian houses are being gentrified by young city workers and urban professionals  Deptford has a growing Vietnamese community reflected in the number of restaurants in the area 
Deptford contains a number of student populations, including those of Goldsmiths College, the University of Greenwich, Bellerbys College and Laban Dance Centre  Goldsmiths College's hall of residence, Rachel McMillan, in Creek Road was sold in 2001 for £79 million, and was subsequently demolished and replaced with the McMillan Student Village which opened in 2003 and provides accommodation for approximately 970 students of the University of Greenwich, Trinity Laban and Bellerbys colleges 

Economy
Deptford's economic history has been strongly connected to the Dockyard - when the Dockyard was thriving, so Deptford thrived; with the docks now all closed, Deptford has declined economically  However, areas of Deptford are being gradually re-developed and gentrified - and the local council has plans to regenerate the riverside and the town centre  A large former industrial site by the Thames called Convoys Wharf is scheduled for redeveloping into mixed use buildings  This will involve the construction of around 3,500 new homes and an extension of the town centre northwards towards the river The site of a former foundry (established in 1881 by J  Stone & Co in Arklow Road) which closed in 1969 is being redeveloped for commercial and residential use Much of the area along Creek Road, close to Greenwich, has also been redeveloped, with the demolition of the old Deptford Power Station and Rose Bruford College buildings  Aragon Tower on the Pepys Estate was sold by Lewisham Borough to fund regeneration plans for the estate; the award-winning refurbishment into privately owned accommodation was featured in the BBC One documentary, "The Tower" Deptford Market, a street market in Deptford High Street sells a range of goods, and is considered one of London's liveliest street markets  In February 2005, the High Street was described as "the capital's most diverse and vibrant high street" by Yellow Pages business directory, using a unique mathematical formula 

Culture
The Albany Theatre, a community arts centre with a tradition of "radical community arts and music" including holding 15 "Rock Against Racism" concerts, has its roots in a charity established in 1894 to improve the social life of Deptford's deprived community  The original building, the Albany Institute, was opened in 1899 on Creek Road, changing its name in the 1960s to the Albany Empire  It was burnt down in 1978, but rebuilt on Douglas Way, with Prince Charles laying the foundation stone, and Diana, Princess of Wales opening it in 1982 Deptford Cinema is a volunteer run, not-for-profit, community cinema, art gallery, and occasional music venue, open since late 2014 and located at 39 Deptford Broadway  At the time of opening it was the borough of Lewisham's only functioning cinema Creekside, a regeneration area beside Deptford Creek, is used for educational and artistic purposes, such as the Laban Dance Centre, which was designed by Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron, and opened in February 2003; and the Art in Perpetuity Trust (APT) gallery and studio space  A record label, Deptford Fun City Records was set up by Miles Copeland III, brother of Stewart Copeland, in the late 1970s as an outlet for Deptford bands such as Alternative TV and Squeeze The area has several pubs, including the Dog & Bell which has a reputation for serving a range of cask ales; and The Bird's Nest which has live music, film and art performances from local bands and artists  The town hall of the former Metropolitan Borough of Deptford, built in 1905 with decorative sculpture by Henry Poole, lies just outside Deptford, on the New Cross Road in New Cross  It was purchased by Goldsmiths College in 2000 There are several green spaces in the area, the largest being Brookmill Park, Deptford Park, Ferranti Park, Pepys Park and Sayes Court Park  In 1884 William John Evelyn, a descendant of John Evelyn, sold ground then being used as market gardens in Deptford, to the London County Council for less than its market value, as well as paying toward the cost of its purchase  It was officially opened to the public as Deptford Park on 7 June 1897  In 1886, he dedicated an acre and a half of the Sayes Court recreation ground in perpetuity to the public and a permanent provision was made for the Evelyn estate to cover the expense of maintenance and caretaking, this was opened on 20 July 1886 

Transport
Deptford is served by National Rail and Docklands Light Railway services  The National Rail service is operated by Southeastern and Thameslink on the suburban Greenwich Line at Deptford railway station, the oldest passenger only railway station in London  Deptford station was redeveloped during 2011 and 2012  The works included the demolition of the original 1836 station building and its replacement by a new station to the west in the former station yard  Deptford's DLR station is at Deptford Bridge on the DLR's Lewisham branch There are two main road routes through Deptford: the A200 which runs along Evelyn Street and Creek Road, and the A2 which runs along New Cross Road, and is the modern version of the Celtic trackway which was later paved by the Romans and developed into the medieval Watling Street  The A20 marks the southern boundary of the area, along Lewisham Way and Loampit Vale Since June 2016, Deptford has been on the cycling route of the London Quietway route Q1 that starts in Greenwich and ends near Waterloo Bridge in central London  A second Quietway route, Q14, between Waterloo and Thamesmead, passes through Deptford's riverfront 

Education
There are five primary schools in the area  There are no local secondary schools directly in Deptford, however there are two secondary schools near the border between New Cross and Deptford: Deptford Green, regarded by Ofsted as "needing improvement", and Addey and Stanhope, regarded by Ofsted as "good"  A branch of the further education college, Lewisham College incorporating Southwark College (known as LeSoCo), is located on Deptford Church Street; the college was regarded as "inadequate" in the 2014 Ofsted inspection 

Landmarks
Deptford railway station is one of the oldest suburban stations in the world, being built (c 1836-38) as part of the first suburban service (the London and Greenwich Railway), between London Bridge and Greenwich  Close to Deptford Creek is a Deptford pumping station, a Victorian pumping station built in 1864, part of the massive London sewerage system designed by civil engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette The former Deptford Power Station, in use from 1891 to 1983, originated as a pioneering plant designed by Sebastian de Ferranti, which when built was the largest station in the world In 2008, Lewisham Council granted permission for the last remnants of the Deptford Ragged School known as The Princess Louise Institute to be demolished and replaced by flats Albury Street (previously Union Street) contains a fine row of early urban houses largely dating from 1705 to 1717 which were once popular with naval captains and shipwrights Tanners Hill in the St John's or New Deptford area to the south of New Cross Road, is part of an Area of Archaeological Priority due to the longevity of settlement and early industry, and contains a set of commercial buildings from numbers 21 to 31 which are survivors from a row of 31 which were built in the 1750s on the site of cottages dating from the 17th century These timber-frame buildings have a Grade II listing from English Heritage and are home to established businesses such as bicycle maker Witcomb Cycles  Of Deptford's two important houses, Sayes Court no longer exists, but the Stone House in St Johns, built around 1772 by the architect George Gibson the Younger, and described by Pevsner as "the one individual house of interest in this area", still stands by Lewisham Way Deptford's Albany Theatre has a history stretching back over 100 years and is a prominent feature of the South-East London arts scene 

Churches
St Nicholas' Church, the original parish church, dates back to the 14th century but the current building is 17th century  The entrance to the churchyard features a set of skull-and-bones on top of the posts  A plaque on the north wall commemorates playwright Christopher Marlowe, who was stabbed to death by Ingram Frizer in a nearby house, and buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard on 1 June 1593  Frizer was pardoned for the killing on the grounds that he acted in self-defence There is also St  Luke's, another historic circular church, dating from 1870  It is the daughter church of the parish of St Nicholas' 
In the 18th century St  Paul's, Deptford (1712–1730) was built, acclaimed by the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England as one of the finest Baroque churches in the country  John Betjeman is attributed as referring to the church as "a pearl at the heart of Deptford"  It was designed by the architect Thomas Archer, who was a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren, as part of the Commission for Building Fifty New Churches with the intention of instilling pride in Britain, and encouraging people to stay in London rather than emigrate to the New World Adjacent to the church yard is Albury Street, which contains some fine 18th-century houses which were popular with sea captains and shipbuilders 

Deptford Dockyard
Deptford Dockyard was established in 1513 by Henry VIII as the first Royal Dockyard, building vessels for the Royal Navy, and was at one time known as the King's Yard  It was shut down from 1830 to 1844 before being closed as a dockyard in 1869, and is currently known as Convoys Wharf  From 1871 until the First World War it was the City of London Corporation's Foreign Cattle Market  In 1912, The Times reported that over 4 million head of live cattle, and sheep, had been landed From 1932 until 2008 the site was owned by News International, which used it to import newsprint and other paper products from Finland until early 2000  It is now owned by Hutchison Whampoa Limited and is subject to a planning application to convert it into residential units, though it has safeguarded wharf status Other notable shipyards in Deptford were, Charles Lungley's Dockyard and the General Steam Navigation Company's yards at Deptford Green and Dudman's Dock, also sometimes referred to as Deadmans Dock at Deptford Wharf 

Murder of Christopher Marlowe
The Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe was killed during an alleged drunken brawl in Eleanor Bull's house in Deptford Strand in May 1593  Various versions of Marlowe's death were current at the time  Francis Meres says Marlowe was "stabbed to death by a bawdy serving-man, a rival of his in his lewd love" as punishment for his "epicurism and atheism"  In 1917, in the Dictionary of National Biography, Sir Sidney Lee wrote that Marlowe was killed in a drunken fight  Some modern theories posit that he was assassinated  It is commonly assumed that the fight took place in a Deptford tavern The scholar Leslie Hotson discovered in 1925 the coroner's report on Marlowe's death in the Public Record Office which gave fuller details  Marlowe had spent all day in a house owned by the widow Eleanor Bull, along with three men, Ingram Frizer, Nicholas Skeres and Robert Poley  Witnesses testified that Frizer and Marlowe had earlier argued over the bill, exchanging "divers malicious words " Later, while Frizer was sitting at a table between the other two and Marlowe was lying behind him on a couch, Marlowe snatched Frizer's dagger and began attacking him  In the ensuing struggle, according to the coroner's report, Marlowe was accidentally stabbed above the right eye, killing him instantly  The jury concluded that Frizer acted in self-defence, and within a month he was pardoned  Marlowe was buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard of St Nicholas, Deptford, on 1 June 1593 

Notable people
Among people associated with Deptford are Christopher Marlowe, who was killed at Deptford Strand; diarist John Evelyn (1620–1706), who lived at Sayes Court, and had Peter the Great (1672–1725) as a guest for about three months in 1698; Sir Francis Drake, who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind in Deptford Docks; and Emperor Norton (Joshua Abraham Norton), the San Francisco eccentric and self-proclaimed "Emperor of the United States", who was born in Deptford in 1818 Other people who have lived in Deptford range from the first governor of the East India Company and ambassador to the court of Russia, Thomas Smythe, whose magnificent house was destroyed by fire in 1618; to early members of the Chartist movement, John Gast and George Julian Harney; and the Cleveleys, John Cleveley the Elder and his sons John and Robert, a family of marine artists who also worked as tradesmen in the Dockyard  Another artist born in Deptford is Henry Courtney Selous, who is known for The Opening of The Great Exhibition, painted in 1851 Members of rock groups Squeeze and Dire Straits lived on the Crossfield Estate in Deptford in the late 1970s, along with Mark Perry, founder of the punk fanzine Sniffin Glue and punk rock band Alternative TV  The DJ and music journalist Danny Baker lived near the Crossfield Estate, where he was born and brought up Children's author Robin Jarvis wrote two trilogies of books: The Deptford Mice (and a couple of spin off books called The Deptford Mouselets series) and The Deptford Histories, set in and around Deptford and featuring many of its landmarks 
Passage 6:
Valdes Peninsula
The Valdes Peninsula (Spanish: Península Valdés) is a peninsula into the Atlantic Ocean in the Biedma Department of north-east Chubut Province, Argentina  Around 3,625 km2 (896,000 acres; 1,400 sq mi) in size (not taking into account the isthmus of Carlos Ameghino which connects the peninsula to the mainland), it is an important nature reserve which was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1999 

Geography
The nearest large town is Puerto Madryn  The only town on the peninsula is the small settlement of Puerto Pirámides   There are also a number of estancias, where sheep are raised 
Most of the peninsula is barren land with some salt lakes   The largest of these lakes is at an elevation of about 40 m below sea level (see extremes on Earth), until recently thought to be the lowest elevation in Argentina and South America (the lowest point actually being Laguna del Carbón, Argentina) 

Fauna
The coastline is inhabited by marine mammals, like sea lions, elephant seals and fur seals  The peninsula also contains the most important breeding ground for Southern right whales in the world  They can be found in Golfo Nuevo and Golfo San José, protected bodies of water located between the peninsula and the Patagonian mainland  These baleen whales arrive between May and December, for mating and giving birth, because the water in the gulf is quieter and warmer than in the open sea  Orcas can also be found off the coast, in the open sea off the peninsula  They are known to beach themselves on shore to capture sea lions and elephant seals 
The inner part of the peninsula is inhabited by rheas, guanacos and maras  A high diversity and range of birds live in the peninsula as well; at least 181 bird species, 66 of which migratory, live in the area, including the Antarctic pigeon 

Climate
Valdes Peninsula has a semi-arid climate  It has a climate typical of northern Patagonia that is modified with interactions between atmospheric circulation patterns and the adjacent ocean  The peninsula is located between the subtropical high-pressure belt (located at 30oS) and the subpolar low-pressure zone (located between 60o and 70oS), resulting in the wind being predominantly from the west  The mean annual temperature is 10 6 °C (51 1 °F), ranging from a mean monthly temperature of 8 °C (46 4 °F) in winter to 18 °C (64 4 °F) in summer  During winter, temperatures fluctuate between 0 and 15 °C (32 0 and 59 0 °F) with frosts being common, averaging 12–20 days during the season  Temperatures in the summer can fluctuate between 15 and 35 °C (59 0 and 95 0 °F) Mean annual precipitation is low, averaging 240 mm (9 4 in) although this is highly variable from year to year  The interior of the peninsula receives slightly lower precipitation than the coastal areas, receiving 200 to 225 mm (7 9 to 8 9 in) per year  Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year though April–June receives the most precipitation  The El Niño Southern Oscillation strongly influences the climate of the peninsula  During an El Niño year, precipitation is higher from November to February 
Passage 7:
Tenth Avenue Angel
Tenth Avenue Angel is a 1948 American drama film directed by Roy Rowland and starring Margaret O'Brien, Angela Lansbury, and George Murphy  It chronicles the life and family of Flavia Mills (Margaret O'Brien) in the late 1930s  Filming took place 11 March–15 May 1946, with retakes in April 1947  However, the film was not released until February 20, 1948 

Plot
Eight-year-old Flavia (Margaret O'Brien) lives in a New York tenement during the Great Depression with mother Helen (Phyllis Thaxter) and father Joe (Warner Anderson), who's nearly broke and needs a job  Her aunt Susan (Angela Lansbury) lives with them, too  Flavia's thrilled because her aunt's sweetheart, Steve (George Murphy), is returning from a one-year absence  The little girl is unaware that Steve has been in jail for associating with a gangster 
Flavia sees a mouse and is afraid  Her mother tells Flavia a fable that if you catch a mouse and make a wish, it will turn into money  This leads her to hide a mouse in a cigar box in the alley near Mac (the blind newspaper man)'s stand  Two neighborhood youths rob Mac
(Rhys Williams) and, by coincidence, hide the money right by the girl's box with the mouse  Flavia finds it and is overjoyed until the adults accuse her of stealing it from Blind Mac  Her mother has to tell her the truth about the fable and Flavia realizes that so many stories she has heard are "lies" 
Everybody's desperate for money  Helen's pregnant and faces physical complications  Steve's unable to get his old job, driving a taxi  The gangster offers him a payday for stealing a truck, but Steve's conscience gets the better of him at the last minute  Flavia tries to find the kneeling cow near a railroad before it's too late   Helen is all right, Joe finds a job, and Flavia's thrilled because Susan's going to marry Steve 

Cast
Margaret O'Brien as Flavia Mills
Angela Lansbury as Susan Bratten
George Murphy as Steve Abbott
Phyllis Thaxter as Helen Mills
Warner Anderson as Joseph Mills
Rhys Williams as Blind Mac
Barry Nelson as Al Parker
Connie Gilchrist as Mrs  Murphy
Charles Cane as Parole Officer
Richard Lane as Street Vendor

Reception
The film was an expensive failure at the box office, earning only $725,000 in the US and Canada and $75,000 elsewhere, resulting in a loss of $1,227,000 It has received mixed to negative reviews 
Passage 8:
Don't judge a book by its cover
The English idiom "don't judge a book by its cover" is a metaphorical phrase that means one should not judge the worth or value of something by its outward appearance alone  For example, "That man may look very small and insignificant, but don't judge a book by its cover – he's a very powerful man in his circle" 

Early reference
In George Eliot's The Mill on the Floss (1860), Mr  Tulliver uses the phrase in discussing Daniel Defoe's The History of the Devil, saying how it was beautifully bound 
The phrase was popularized when it appeared in the 1946 murder mystery, Murder in the Glass Room, by Lester Fuller and Edwin Rolfe: “You can never tell a book by its cover ”

See also
All that glitters is not gold
Face value
Prima facie
Passage 9:
Edward T



ground_truth: La Goulette

Tunis

Rome

Roma

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the body of water by the area where Athlete was formed?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
457 visa
In Australia, the 457 visa was the most common visa for Australian or overseas employers to sponsor skilled overseas workers to work temporarily in Australia  It was abolished on 18 March 2018 by the Turnbull government and replaced by another visa category  The full title of this subclass of visa was Temporary Business (Long Stay) and was introduced soon after John Howard became Prime Minister in 1996  The title of the visa was changed to Temporary Work (Skilled) (Subclass 457) visa on 24 November 2012   Applications were processed by the Department of Immigration and Border Protection (DIBP)  On 18 April 2017, Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull announced that the 457 visas will be replaced with two new visa categories 

Requirements
Holders of a 457 visa may be employed for a period of up to four years and may bring any eligible family members, including same-sex partners, who have unrestricted work and study rights in Australia  "If your sponsor is a start-up business or has traded in Australia for less than 12 months, then the visa will be granted for 18 months " Holders of the subclass 457 visa have no limit on the number of times they travel in and out of Australia Employers must be approved by the Department of Immigration and Border Protection as an approved sponsor  Primary subclass 457 visa holders are restricted to working for their sponsor and may not work (or volunteer) for any other organisation (other than associated entities as defined by the Corporations Act)  In order to change employer and sponsor, the "new employer" must be or become an approved 457 sponsor and then lodge a 457 nomination  Once the nomination is approved, the employer obligations will shift to the new employer and the visa applicant is restricted to working for it  There is no need to apply for a new 457 visa within the validity of the visa 
Employees must also meet minimum levels of skill and English language requirements, in addition to character and health requirements  Some trades occupations and passport holders from certain countries may be required to do a skills assessment (see the TRA website) 
It is common for 457 visa holders to apply for a permanent Australia residents visa with a view to permanently settle in Australia and become Australian citizens 

Restrictions on the 457 visa
A 457 visa holder can only work in a nominated occupation for the sponsor employer  Medical practitioners and general managers must work in their nominated occupation but they can work for employers other than their sponsor or an associated entity of their sponsor  The specific occupations to which this rule applies are listed in Exemption from the requirement to work directly for the sponsor  The worker must also not have ceased employment for more than 60 consecutive days 

457 visa update
The Australian Government reviewed the 457 skilled immigrant visa and made some provisions to quicken the transition to permanent residency starting on 1 July 2012   From that date, non-resident workers on the 457 skilled immigration visa are able to transition to permanent residency if they have two years with the employer who has sponsored them and if the employer provides a full-time position in the 457 visa holder's nominated occupation 
Furthermore, the Australian government has recognised that 457 visas deserve priority in review as they are highly responsive to the needs of the market  Overseas workers will be able to work in Australia on a six-month short term work visa before they apply for a 457 visa 
As at 30 June 2016, the size of the subclass 457 programme was 94,890 Primary visa holders in Australia 

Criticisms
An audit by the Fair Work Ombudsman conducted between September 2013 and June 2014 found that 40% of 457 visa holders were no longer employed by a sponsor or were being paid well below the statutory minimum wage of $53,900 In October 2014, the Abbott government announced that it would make it easier for businesses to apply for 457 visa workers by relaxing rules for English language competency to broaden the pool of potential workers from overseas With the commencement of the Japan free trade agreement in 2015, employers no longer need to offer jobs to locals or to prove that none could fill vacancies before Japanese nationals eligible for 457 visas are employed In December 2014, the Department of Immigration and Border Protection released recommendations to relax 457 visa requirements  The recommendations include extending the six-month short term work visa to 12 months with no obligation to apply for a 457 visa  The Construction, Forestry, Mining and Energy Union (CFMEU) has criticized this change on the grounds that it avoids the 457 visa's requirement for English language and skills tests and employers would not be required to demonstrate they had first tried to fill job vacancies with Australian workers 

Replacement
On 18 April 2017, Malcolm Turnbull announced his intention to replace the 457 visas with 2 new categories (short term and medium term) of visas One of the replacements was the Temporary Skill Shortage visa, known as a 482 Visa  It allows immigration It requires candidates to obtain an IELTS (English Language) exam band score of 5 or higher, or other method of showing the English level 

See also
Visa documentation
Working holiday visa
Working Holidays in Australia
Passage 2:
M  King Hubbert
Marion King Hubbert (October 5, 1903 – October 11, 1989) was an American geologist and geophysicist  He worked at the Shell research lab in Houston, Texas   He made several important contributions to geology, geophysics, and petroleum geology, most notably the Hubbert curve and Hubbert peak theory (a basic component of peak oil), with important political ramifications   He was often referred to as "M  King Hubbert" or "King Hubbert" 

Biography
Hubbert was born in San Saba, Texas  He attended the University of Chicago, where he received a Bachelor of Science in 1926, a Master of Science in 1928, and a Doctor of Philosophy in 1937, studying geology, mathematics, and physics   He worked as an assistant geologist for the Amerada Petroleum Company for two years while pursuing the PhD, additionally teaching geophysics at Columbia University  He also served as a senior analyst at the Board of Economic Warfare  He joined the Shell Oil Company in 1943, retiring from that firm in 1964  After he retired from Shell, he became a senior research geophysicist for the United States Geological Survey until his retirement in 1976   He also held positions as a professor of geology and geophysics at Stanford University from 1963 to 1968, and as a professor at UC Berkeley from 1973 to 1976 Hubbert was an avid technocrat  He co-founded Technocracy Incorporated with Howard Scott  Hubbert wrote a study course that was published without attribution called the Technocracy Study Course, which advocates a non-market economics form of energy accounting, in contrast to the current price system method Hubbert was a member of the board of governors, and served as secretary of education in that organization  Hubert died on October 11, 1988 at the age of 86 while receiving treatment for pulmonary embolism 

Research
Hubbert made several contributions to geophysics, including a mathematical demonstration that rock in the earth's crust, because it is under immense pressure in large areas, should exhibit plasticity, similar to clay   This demonstration explained the observed results that the earth's crust deforms over time   He also studied the flow of underground fluids 
Based on theoretical arguments, Hubbert (1940) proposed a constitutive equation 
  
    
      
        
          K
          
            a
            b
            s
          
        
        =
        N
        
          D
          
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle K_{abs}=ND^{2}}
   for absolute permeability 
  
    
      
        
          K
          
            a
            b
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle K_{abs}}
   of an underground water or oil reservoir where 
  
    
      
        D
      
    
    {\displaystyle D}
   is the average grain diameter and 
  
    
      
        N
      
    
    {\displaystyle N}
   is a dimensionless proportionality constant  However, Kozeny (1927) proposed a constitutive equation for absolute permeability which contains Hubbert's proposal as a factor  Hubbert (1940, 1956) also presented a force potential, denoted 
  
    
      
        Φ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Phi }
   or 
  
    
      
        
          Φ
          
            h
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Phi _{h}}
  , that bears his name:

  
    
      
        Φ
        =
        
          ∫
          
            P
            r
            e
            f
          
          
            P
          
        
        
          
            
              d
              P
            
            
              ρ
              (
              P
              )
            
          
        
        −
        g
        z
        
        ⟹
        
        ∇
        
          Φ
          
            h
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            ρ
          
        
        ∇
        P
        −
        g
        ∇
        z
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Phi =\int _{Pref}^{P}{\frac {dP}{\rho (P)}}-gz\implies \nabla \Phi _{h}={\frac {1}{\rho }}\nabla P-g\nabla z}
  Some years later Hubbert (1956) showed that Darcy's law can be derived from the Navier-Stokes equation of motion of a viscous fluid 
Hubbert is best known for his studies on the size of oil fields and natural gas reserves, and the limits these impose on rates of oil and gas production  He predicted that for any oil-producing area, whether a province, a nation, or the planet as a whole, the rate of petroleum production of the reserve over time would resemble a bell curve  Based on his theory, he presented a paper to the 1956 meeting of the American Petroleum Institute in San Antonio, Texas, which predicted that overall petroleum production would peak in the United States between 1965, which he considered most likely, and 1970, which he considered an upper bound  At first his prediction received much criticism, for the most part because many other predictions of oil capacity had been made over the preceding half century, but these had usually been based on the reserves-to-production ratio, had not taken into account future discoveries, and had proven false   Hubbert became famous when U S  oil production peaked in 1970 and began to decline, as he had predicted 
In 1974, Hubbert projected that global oil production would peak in 1995 "if current trends continue"  Various subsequent predictions have been made by others as trends have fluctuated in the intervening years 
Hubbert believed that solar power would be a practical renewable energy replacement for fossil fuels, and that nuclear energy in breeder reactors would be able to sustain humanity for centuries  He also states that "provided world population can somehow be brought under control, we may at last have found an energy supply (uranium) adequate for our needs for at least the next few centuries of the 'foreseeable future' "

Contributions
Hubbert's contributions to science have been summarized as follows:

Mathematical demonstration that rock in the earth's crust is plastic, and that the earth's crust deforms over time 
Prediction of migration paths of hydrocarbons 
Predictions of peak rates of oil and gas production, based on a consistent mathematical model which ties reserves, discovery rates, and production rates  His model remains highly influential, and has been widely applied to other finite resources 

Renewable resources
Fisheries: At least one researcher has attempted to perform Hubbert linearization (Hubbert curve) on the whaling industry, as well as charting the transparently dependent price of caviar on sturgeon depletion  The Atlantic northwest cod fishery was a renewable resource, but the numbers of fish taken exceeded the fish's rate of recovery  The end of the cod fishery matches the exponential drop of the Hubbert bell curve  The comparison of the cases of fisheries and of mineral extraction tells us that the human pressure on the environment is causing a wide range of resources to go through a depletion cycle which mirrors the Hubbert curve 

Accolades
Hubbert was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences   He was long affiliated with the Geological Society of America, receiving their Arthur L  Day Medal in 1954, being elected President of the Society in 1962, and receiving the Society's Penrose Medal in 1973   He received the Vetlesen Prize from the G  Unger Vetlesen Foundation and Columbia University in 1981   He also received the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1981 

Hubbert on peak oil
Hubbert explaining some aspects of worldwide peak oil  1976 video clip of M King Hubbert speaking about fossil fuel depletion on YouTube 

See also
Bioeconomics (biology)
Fred Meissner

Notes
External links
 Media related to Marion King Hubbert at Wikimedia Commons
 Quotations related to M  King Hubbert at Wikiquote
M  King Hubbert Bibliography Archived 2019-08-01 at the Wayback Machine
M  King Hubbert papers at the University of Wyoming - American Heritage Center
Passage 3:
Royal Dutch Shell
Shell plc is a British multinational oil and gas company headquartered in London, England  Shell is a public limited company with a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange (LSE) and secondary listings on Euronext Amsterdam and the New York Stock Exchange  A core component of Big Oil, Shell is the second largest investor-owned oil and gas company in the world by revenue (after ExxonMobil), and among the world's largest companies out of any industry  Measured by both its own emissions, and the emissions of all the fossil fuels it sells, Shell was the ninth-largest corporate producer of greenhouse gas emissions in the period 1988–2015 Shell was formed in 1907 through the merger of Royal Dutch Petroleum Company of the Netherlands and The "Shell" Transport and Trading Company of the United Kingdom  The combined company rapidly became the leading competitor of the American Standard Oil and by 1920 Shell was the largest producer of oil in the world  Shell first entered the chemicals industry in 1929  Shell was one of the "Seven Sisters" which dominated the global petroleum industry from the mid-1940s to the mid-1970s  In 1964, Shell was a partner in the world's first commercial sea transportation of liquefied natural gas (LNG)  In 1970, Shell acquired the mining company Billiton, which it subsequently sold in 1994 and now forms part of BHP  In recent decades gas has become an increasingly important part of Shell's business and Shell acquired BG Group in 2016 Shell is vertically integrated and is active in every area of the oil and gas industry, including exploration, production, refining, transport, distribution and marketing, petrochemicals, power generation, and trading  Shell has operations in over 99 countries, produces around 3 7 million barrels of oil equivalent per day and has around 44,000 service stations worldwide  As of 31 December 2019, Shell had total proved reserves of 11 1 billion barrels (1 76×109 m3) of oil equivalent  Shell USA, its principal subsidiary in the United States, is one of its largest businesses  Shell holds 44% of Raízen, a publicly-listed joint venture with Cosan, which is the third-largest Brazil-based energy company  In addition to the main Shell brand, the company also owns the Jiffy Lube, Pennzoil and Quaker State brands 
Shell is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index and had a market capitalisation of US$199 billion on 15 September 2022, the largest of any company listed on the LSE and the 44th-largest of any company in the world  By 2021 revenues, Shell is the second-largest investor-owned oil company in the world (after ExxonMobil), the largest company headquartered in the United Kingdom, the second-largest company headquartered in Europe (after Volkswagen), and the 15th largest company in the world  Until its unification in 2005 as Royal Dutch Shell plc, the firm operated as a dual-listed company, whereby the British and Dutch companies maintained their legal existence and separate listings but operated as a single-unit partnership  From 2005 to 2022, the company had its headquarters in The Hague, its registered office in London and had two types of shares (A and B)  In January 2022, the firm merged the A and B shares, moved its headquarters to London, and changed its legal name to Shell plc 

History
Origins
The Royal Dutch Shell Group was created in April 1907 through the amalgamation of two rival companies: the Royal Dutch Petroleum Company (Dutch: Koninklijke Nederlandse Petroleum Maatschappij) of the Netherlands and the Shell Transport and Trading Company Limited of the United Kingdom  It was a move largely driven by the need to compete globally with Standard Oil  The Royal Dutch Petroleum Company was a Dutch company founded in 1890 to develop an oilfield in Pangkalan Brandan, North Sumatra, and initially led by August Kessler, Hugo Loudon, and Henri Deterding  The "Shell" Transport and Trading Company (the quotation marks were part of the legal name) was a British company, founded in 1897 by Marcus Samuel, 1st Viscount Bearsted, and his brother Samuel Samuel  Their father had owned an antique company in Houndsditch, London, which expanded in 1833 to import and sell seashells, after which the company "Shell" took its name For various reasons, the new firm operated as a dual-listed company, whereby the merging companies maintained their legal existence but operated as a single-unit partnership for business purposes  The terms of the merger gave 60 percent stock ownership of the new group to Royal Dutch, and 40 percent to Shell  Both became holding companies for Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij, containing the production and refining assets, and Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company, containing the transport and storage assets  National patriotic sensibilities would not permit a full-scale merger or takeover of either of the two companies  The Dutch company, Koninklijke Nederlandsche Petroleum Maatschappij at The Hague, was in charge of production and manufacture  The British Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company was based in London, to direct the transport and storage of the products In 1912, Royal Dutch Shell purchased the Rothschilds' Russian oil assets in a stock deal  The Group's production portfolio then consisted of 53 percent from the East Indies, 29 percent from the Russian Empire, and 17 percent from Romania 

20th century
During the First World War, Shell was the main supplier of fuel to the British Expeditionary Force  It was also the sole supplier of aviation fuel and supplied 80 percent of the British Army's TNT  It also volunteered all of its shipping to the British Admiralty The German invasion of Romania in 1916 saw 17% of the group's worldwide production destroyed In 1919, Shell took control of the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company and in 1921 formed Shell-Mex Limited, which marketed products under the "Shell" and "Eagle" brands in the United Kingdom  During the Genoa Conference of 1922 Royal Dutch Shell was in negotiations for a monopoly over Soviet oilfields in Baku and Grosny, although the leak of a draft treaty led to breakdown of the talks  In 1929, Shell Chemicals was founded  By the end of the 1920s, Shell was the world's leading oil company, producing 11 percent of the world's crude oil supply and owning 10 percent of its tanker tonnage Shell Mex House was completed in 1931, and was the head office for Shell's marketing activity worldwide  In 1932, partly in response to the difficult economic conditions of the Great Depression, Shell-Mex merged its UK marketing operations with those of BP to create Shell-Mex & BP, a company that traded until the brands separated in 1975  Royal Dutch Company ranked 79th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts 
The 1930s saw Shell's Mexican assets seized by the local government  After the invasion of the Netherlands by Nazi Germany in 1940, the head office of the Dutch companies was moved to Curaçao  In 1945 Shell's Danish headquarters in Copenhagen, at the time being used by the Gestapo, was bombed by Royal Air Force De Havilland Mosquitoes in Operation Carthage In 1937, Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), 23 75 percent owned by Royal Dutch Shell plc, signed an oil concession agreement with the Sultan of Muscat  In 1952, IPC offered financial support to raise an armed force that would assist the Sultan in occupying the interior region of Oman, an area that geologists believed to be rich in oil  This led to the 1954 outbreak of Jebel Akhdar War in Oman that lasted for more than 5 years Around 1952, Shell was the first company to purchase and use a computer in the Netherlands  The computer, a Ferranti Mark 1*, was assembled and used at the Shell laboratory in Amsterdam  In 1970 Shell acquired the mining company Billiton, which it subsequently sold in 1994 In the 1990s, protesters criticised the company's environmental record, particularly the possible pollution caused by the proposed disposal of the Brent Spar platform into the North Sea  Despite support from the UK government, Shell reversed the decision under public pressure but maintained that sinking the platform would have been environmentally better  Shell subsequently published an unequivocal commitment to sustainable development, supported by executive speeches reinforcing this commitment  Shell was subsequently criticised by the European Commission and five European Union members after deciding to leave part of its decommissioned oil rigs standing in the North Sea  Shell argued that removing them would be too costly and risky  Germany said that the estimated 11,000 tonnes of raw oil and toxins remaining in the rigs would eventually seep into the sea, and called it a 'ticking timebomb' On 15 January 1999, off the Argentinian town of Magdalena, Buenos Aires, the Shell tanker Estrella pampeana collided with a German cargo ship, emptying its contents into the lake, polluting the environment, drinkable water, plants and animals  Over a decade after the spill, a referendum held in Magdalena determined the acceptance of a US$9 5 million compensatory payout from Shell  Shell denied responsibility for the spill, but an Argentine court ruled in 2002 that the corporation was responsible 

21st century
In 2002, Shell acquired Pennzoil-Quaker State through its American division for $22 USD per share, or about $1 8 billion USD  Through its acquisition of Pennzoil, Shell became a descendant of Standard Oil  With its acquisition, Shell inherited multiple auto part brands including Jiffy Lube, Rain-X, and Fix-a-Flat  The company was notably late in its acquisition as seen by journalists, with Shell seen as streamlining its assets around the same time of other major mergers and acquisitions in the industry, such as BP's purchase of Amoco and the merger of Exxon and Mobil In 2004, Shell overstated its oil reserves, resulting in loss of confidence in the group, a £17 million fine by the Financial Services Authority and the departure of the chairman Philip Watts  A lawsuit resulted in the payment of $450 million to non-American shareholders in 2007 As a result of the scandal, the corporate structure was simplified  Two classes of ordinary shares, A (code RDSA) and B (code RDSB), identical but for the tax treatment of dividends, were issued for the company In November 2004, following a period of turmoil caused by the revelation that Shell had been overstating its oil reserves, it was announced that the Shell Group would move to a single capital structure, creating a new parent company to be named Royal Dutch Shell plc, with its primary listing on the LSE, a secondary listing on Euronext Amsterdam, its headquarters and tax residency in The Hague, Netherlands and its registered office in London  The company was already incorporated in 2002 as Forthdeal Limited, a shelf corporation incorporated by Swift Incorporations Limited and Instant Companies Limited, both based in Bristol  The unification was completed on 20 July 2005 and the original owners delisted their companies from the respective exchanges  On 20 July 2005, the Shell Transport & Trading Company plc was delisted from the LSE, whereas, Royal Dutch Petroleum Company from the New York Stock Exchange on 18 November 2005  The shares of the company were issued at a 60/40 advantage for the shareholders of Royal Dutch in line with the original ownership of the Shell Group During the 2009 Iraqi oil services contracts tender, a consortium led by Shell (45%) and which included Petronas (30%) was awarded a production contract for the "Majnoon field" in the south of Iraq, which contains an estimated 12 6 billion barrels (2 00×109 m3) of oil  The "West Qurna 1 field" production contract was awarded to a consortium led by ExxonMobil (60%) and included Shell (15%) In February 2010, Shell and Cosan formed a 50:50 joint-venture, Raízen, comprising all of Cosan's Brazilian ethanol, energy generation, fuel distribution and sugar activities, and all of Shell's Brazilian retail fuel and aviation distribution businesses  In March 2010, Shell announced the sale of some of its assets, including its liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) business, to meet the cost of a planned $28bn capital spending programme  Shell invited buyers to submit indicative bids, due by 22 March, with a plan to raise $2–3bn from the sale  In June 2010, Shell agreed to acquire all the business of East Resources for a cash consideration of $4 7 billion  The transaction included East Resources' tight gas fields Over the course of 2013, the corporation began the sale of its US shale gas assets and canceled a US$20 billion gas project that was to be constructed in the US state of Louisiana  A new CEO Ben van Beurden was appointed in January 2014, prior to the announcement that the corporation's overall performance in 2013 was 38 percent lower than in 2012—the value of Shell's shares fell by 3 percent as a result  Following the sale of the majority of its Australian assets in February 2014, the corporation plans to sell a further US$15 billion worth of assets in the period leading up to 2015, with deals announced in Australia, Brazil and Italy Shell announced on 8 April 2015 it had agreed to buy BG Group for £47 billion (US$70 billion), subject to shareholder and regulatory approval  The acquisition was completed in February 2016, resulting in Shell surpassing Chevron Corporation and becoming the world's second largest non-state oil company On 7 June 2016, Shell announced that it would build an ethane cracker plant near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, after spending several years doing an environmental cleanup of the proposed plant's site In January 2017, Shell agreed to sell £2 46bn worth of North Sea assets to oil exploration firm Chrysaor  In 2017, Shell sold its oil sands assets to Canadian Natural Resources in exchange of approximately 8 8% stake in that company  In May 2017, it was reported that Shell plans to sell its shares in Canadian Natural Resources fully exiting the oil sands business On 5 November 2017, the Paradise Papers, a set of confidential electronic documents relating to offshore investment, revealed that Argentine Energy Minister Juan José Aranguren was revealed to have managed the offshore companies 'Shell Western Supply and Trading Limited' and 'Sol Antilles y Guianas Limited', both subsidiaries of Shell  One is the main bidder for the purchase of diesel oil by the government through the state owned CAMMESA (Compañía Administradora del Mercado Mayorista Eléctrico) On 30 April 2020, Shell announced that it would cut its dividend for the first time since the Second World War, due to the oil price collapse following the reduction in oil demand during the COVID-19 pandemic  Shell stated that their net income adjusted for the cost of supply dropped to US$2 9 billion in three months to 31 March  This compared with US$5 3 billion in the same period the previous year  On 30 September 2020, the company said that it would cut up to 9,000 jobs as a result of the economic effects caused by the pandemic and announced a "broad restructuring"  In December 2020, Shell forecast another write-down of $3 5-4 5 billion for the fourth quarter due to lower oil prices, following $16 8 billion of impairment in the second quarter In February 2021, Shell announced a loss of $21 7 billion in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, despite reducing its operating expenses by 12%, or $4 5 billion, according to a Morningstar analysis cited by Barron's In November 2021, Shell announced that it is planning to relocate their headquarters to London, abandon its dual share structure, and change its name from Royal Dutch Shell plc to Shell plc  The company's name change was registered in the Companies House on 21 January 2022 In December 2021, Shell pulled out of the Cambo oil field, off the Shetland Islands, claiming that "the economic case for investment in this project is not strong enough at this time, as well as having the potential for delays"  The proposed oilfield had been the subject of intense campaigning by environmentalists in the run-up to the COP26 UN climate summit in Glasgow in November 2021 On 4 March 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine and in the midst of the growing boycott of Russian economy and related divestments, Shell bought a cargo of discounted Russian crude oil  The next day, following criticism from Ukraine's Foreign Minister Dmytro Kuleba, Shell defended the purchase as a short term necessity, but also announced that it intended to reduce such purchases, and it would put profits from any Russian oil it purchases into a fund that would go towards humanitarian aid to Ukraine  On 8 March, Shell announced that it would stop buying Russian oil and gas and close its service stations in the country In 2022, the major oil and gas companies, including Shell, reported sharp rises in interim revenues and profits  In fact, this rise in profit for Shell was so sharp, that 2022 was the company's best year, as Shell recorded double the profits from 2021, and the highest profit in its entire history 

Corporate affairs
Management
On 4 August 2005, the board of directors announced the appointment of Jorma Ollila, chairman and CEO of Nokia at the time, to succeed Aad Jacobs as the company's non-executive chairman on 1 June 2006  Ollila is the first Shell chairman to be neither Dutch nor British  Other non-executive directors include Maarten van den Bergh, Wim Kok, Nina Henderson, Lord Kerr, Adelbert van Roxe, and Christine Morin-Postel Since 3 January 2014, Ben van Beurden has been CEO of Shell  His predecessor was Peter Voser who became CEO of Shell on 1 July 2009 Following a career at the corporation, in locations such as Australia and Africa, Ann Pickard was appointed as the executive vice president of the Arctic at Royal Dutch Shell, a role that was publicized in an interview with McKinsey & Company in June 2014 In January 2023, Wael Sawan succeeded Ben van Beurden as CEO 

Board of directors
As of 25 January 2023, the Shell board members are:
Andrew Mackenzie (chair), former CEO of BHP Billiton
Euleen Goh, former CEO of Standard Chartered Singapore
Wael Sawan, CEO of Shell plc
Sinead Gorman, CFO of Shell plc
Dick Boer, former president and CEO of Ahold Delhaize
Neil Carson, former CEO of Johnson Matthey
Ann Godbehere, former CFO of Swiss Re and Northern Rock
Catherine J  Hughes, former executive at Nexen, Husky Oil, and Schlumberger
Jane Holl Lute, former president and CEO of SICPA North America
Martina Hund-Mejean, former CFO of Mastercard
Abraham Schot, former CEO of Audi AG
Caroline Omloo, company secretary

Historical leadership
Name and logo
The name Shell is linked to The "Shell" Transport and Trading Company  In 1833, the founder's father, Marcus Samuel Sr , founded an import business to sell seashells to London collectors  When collecting seashell specimens in the Caspian Sea area in 1892, the younger Samuel realised there was potential in exporting lamp oil from the region and commissioned the world's first purpose-built oil tanker, the Murex (Latin for a type of snail shell), to enter this market; by 1907 the company had a fleet  Although for several decades the company had a refinery at Shell Haven on the Thames, there is no evidence of this having provided the name The Shell logo is one of the most familiar commercial symbols in the world  This logo is known as the "pecten" after the sea shell Pecten maximus (the giant scallop), on which its design is based  The yellow and red colours used are thought to relate to the colours of the flag of Spain, as Shell built early service stations in California, previously a Spanish colony  The current revision of the logo was designed by Raymond Loewy in 1971 The slash was removed from the name "Royal Dutch/Shell" in 2005, concurrent with moves to merge the two legally separate companies (Royal Dutch and Shell) to the single legal entity which exists today On 15 November 2021, Royal Dutch Shell plc announced plans to change its name to Shell plc 

Logo evolution
Operations
Business groupings
Shell is organised into four major business groupings:
Upstream – manages the upstream business  It searches for and recovers crude oil and natural gas and operates the upstream and midstream infrastructure necessary to deliver oil and gas to the market  Its activities are organised primarily within geographic units, although there are some activities that are managed across the business or provided through support units 
Integrated Gas and New Energies – manages to liquefy natural gas, converting gas to liquids and low-carbon opportunities 
Downstream – manages Shell's manufacturing, distribution, and marketing activities for oil products and chemicals  Manufacturing and supply include refinery, supply, and shipping of crude oil 
Projects and technology – manages the delivery of Shell's major projects, provides technical services and technology capability covering both upstream and downstream activities  It is also responsible for providing functional leadership across Shell in the areas of health, safety and environment, and contracting and procurement 

Oil and gas activities
Shell's primary business is the management of a vertically integrated oil company  The development of technical and commercial expertise in all stages of this vertical integration, from the initial search for oil (exploration) through its harvesting (production), transportation, refining and finally trading and marketing established the core competencies on which the company was founded  Similar competencies were required for natural gas, which has become one of the most important businesses in which Shell is involved, and which contributes a significant proportion of the company's profits  While the vertically integrated business model provided significant economies of scale and barriers to entry, each business now seeks to be a self-supporting unit without subsidies from other parts of the company Traditionally, Shell was a heavily decentralised business worldwide (especially in the downstream) with companies in over 100 countries, each of which operated with a high degree of independence  The upstream tended to be far more centralised with much of the technical and financial direction coming from the central offices in The Hague  The upstream oil sector is also commonly known as the "exploration and production" sector Downstream operations, which now also includes the chemicals business, generate the majority of Shell's profits worldwide and is known for its global network of more than 40,000 petrol stations and its various oil refineries  The downstream business, which in some countries also included oil refining, generally included a retail petrol station network, lubricants manufacture and marketing, industrial fuel and lubricants sales, and a host of other product/market sectors such as LPG and bitumen  The practice in Shell was that these businesses were essentially local and that they were best managed by local "operating companies" – often with middle and senior management reinforced by expatriates 

Sponsorships
Shell has a long history of motorsport sponsorship, most notably Scuderia Ferrari (1951–1964, 1966–1973 and 1996-present), BRM (1962–1966 and 1968–1972), Scuderia Toro Rosso (2007–2013 and 2016), McLaren (1967–1968 and 1984–1994), Lotus (1968–1971), Ducati Corse (since 1999), Team Penske (2011–present), Hyundai Motorsport (since 2005), AF Corse, Risi Competizione, BMW Motorsport (2015–present with also Pennzoil) and Dick Johnson Racing (1987-2004 and 2017–present) Starting in 2023, Shell will become the official fuel for IndyCar Series, supplying E100 race fuel for all teams 

Operations by region
Arctic
Kulluk oil rig
Following the purchase of an offshore lease in 2005, Shell initiated its US$4 5 billion Arctic drilling program in 2006, after the corporation purchased the "Kulluk" oil rig and leased the Noble Discoverer drillship  At inception, the project was led by Pete Slaiby, a Shell executive who had previously worked in the North Sea  However, after the purchase of a second offshore lease in 2008, Shell only commenced drilling work in 2012, due to the refurbishment of rigs, permit delays from the relevant authorities and lawsuits  The plans to drill in the Arctic led to protests from environmental groups, particularly Greenpeace; furthermore, analysts in the energy field, as well as related industries, also expressed skepticism due to perceptions that drilling in the region is "too dangerous because of harsh conditions and remote locations" Further problems hampered the Arctic project after the commencement of drilling in 2012, as Shell dealt with a series of issues that involved air permits, Coast Guard certification of a marine vessel, and severe damage to essential oil-spill equipment  Additionally, difficult weather conditions resulted in the delay of drilling during mid-2012 and the already dire situation was exacerbated by the "Kulluk" incident at the end of the year  Shell had invested nearly US$5 billion by this stage of the project As the Kulluk oil rig was being towed to the American state of Washington to be serviced in preparation for the 2013 drilling season, a winter storm on 27 December 2012 caused the towing crews, as well as the rescue service, to lose control of the rig  As of 1 January 2013, the Kulluk was grounded off the coast Sitkalidak Island, near the eastern end of Kodiak Island  Following the accident, a Fortune magazine contacted Larry McKinney, the executive director at the Harte Research Institute for Gulf of Mexico Studies at Texas A&M, and he explained that "A two-month delay in the Arctic is not a two-month delay     A two-month delay could wipe out the entire drilling season "It was unclear if Shell would recommence drilling in mid-2013, following the "Kulluk" incident, and, in February 2013, the corporation stated that it would "pause" its closely watched drilling project off the Alaskan coast in 2013, and will instead prepare for future exploration  In January 2014, the corporation announced the extension of the suspension of its drilling program in the Arctic, with chief executive van Beurden explaining that the project is "under review" due to both market and internal issues A June 2014 interview with Pickard indicated that, following a forensic analysis of the problems encountered in 2012, Shell will continue with the project and Pickard stated that she perceives the future of the corporation activity in the Arctic region as a long-term "marathon"  Pickard stated that the forensic "look back" revealed "there was an on/off switch" and further explained:

In other words, don't spend the money unless you're sure you're going to have the legal environment to go forward  Don't spend the money unless you're sure you're going to have the permit  No, I can't tell you that I'm going to have that permit until June, but we need to plan like we're going to have that permit in June  And so probably the biggest lesson is to make sure we could smooth out the on/off switches wherever we could and take control of our own destiny 
Based upon the interview with Pickard, Shell is approaching the project as an investment that will reap energy resources with a lifespan of around 30 years According to the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management report in 2015 the chances of a major spill in a deep-sea Arctic drilling is 75% before century's end 

Kodiak Island
In 2010, Greenpeace activists painted "No Arctic Drilling" using spilled BP oil on the side of a ship in the Gulf of Mexico that was en route to explore for Arctic oil for Shell  At the protest, Phil Radford of Greenpeace called for "President Obama [to] ban all offshore oil drilling and call for an end to the use of oil in our cars by 2030 "On 16 March 2012, 52 Greenpeace activists from five different countries boarded Fennica and Nordica, multipurpose icebreakers chartered to support Shell's drilling rigs near Alaska  Around the same time period, a reporter for Fortune magazine spoke with Edward Itta, an Inupiat leader and the former mayor of the North Slope Borough, who expressed that he was conflicted about Shell's plans in the Arctic, as he was concerned that an oil spill could destroy the Inupiat peoples hunting-and-fishing culture, but his borough also received major tax revenue from oil and gas production; additionally, further revenue from energy activity was considered crucial to the future of the living standard in Itta's community In July 2012, Greenpeace activists shut down 53 Shell petrol stations in Edinburgh and London in a protest against the company's plans to drill for oil in the Arctic  Greenpeace's "Save the Arctic" campaign aims to prevent oil drilling and industrial fishing in the Arctic by declaring the uninhabited area around the North Pole a global sanctuary A review was announced after the Kulluk oil rig ran aground near Kodiak Island in December 2012 In response, Shell filed lawsuits to seek injunctions from possible protests, and Benjamin Jealous of the NAACP and Radford argued that the legal action was "trampling Americans' rights " According to Greenpeace, Shell lodged a request with Google to take down video footage of a Greenpeace protest action that occurred at the Shell-sponsored Formula One (F1) Belgian Grand Prix on 25 August 2013, in which "SaveTheArctic org" banners appear at the winners' podium ceremony  In the video, the banners rise up automatically—activists controlled their appearance with the use of four radio car antennas—revealing the website URL, alongside an image that consists of half of a polar bear's head and half of the Shell logo Shell then announced a "pause" in the timeline of the project in early 2013 and, in September 2015, the corporation announced the extension of the suspension of its drilling program in the Arctic 

Polar Pioneer rig
A June 2014 interview with the corporation's new executive vice president of the Arctic indicated that Shell will continue with its activity in the region In Seattle protests began in May 2015 in response to the news that the Port of Seattle made an agreement with Shell to berth rigs at the Port's Terminal 5 during the off-season of oil exploration in Alaskan waters  The arrival of Shell's new Arctic drilling vessel, Polar Pioneer (IMO number: 8754140), a semi-submersible offshore drilling rig, was greeted by large numbers of environmental protesters paddling kayaks in Elliott Bay On 6 May 2015, it was reported that during a coast guard inspection of Polar Pioneer, a piece of anti-pollution gear failed, resulting in fines and delay of the operation  Oil executives from Total and Eni interviewed by the New York Times, expressed scepticism about Shell's new ambitions for offshore drilling in the Arctic, and cited economic and environmental hurdles  ConocoPhillips and Equinor (formerly Statoil) suspended Arctic drilling earlier, after Shell's failed attempt in 2012 

Australia
On 20 May 2011, Shell's final investment decision for the world's first floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) facility was finalized following the discovery of the remote offshore Prelude field—located off Australia's northwestern coast and estimated to contain about 3 trillion cubic feet of natural gas equivalent reserves—in 2007  FLNG technology is based on liquefied natural gas (LNG) developments that were pioneered in the mid-20th century and facilitates the exploitation of untapped natural gas reserves located in remote areas, often too small to extract any other way The floating vessel to be used for the Prelude field, known as Prelude FLNG, is promoted as the longest floating structure in the world and will take in the equivalent of 110,000 barrels of oil per day in natural gas—at a location 200 km (125 miles) off the coast of Western Australia—and cool it into liquefied natural gas for transport and sale in Asia  The Prelude is expected to start producing LNG in 2017—analysts estimated the total cost of construction at more than US$12 billion Following the decision by the Shell fuel corporation to close its Geelong Oil Refinery in Australia in April 2013, a third consecutive annual loss was recorded for Shell's Australian refining and fuel marketing assets  Revealed in June 2013, the writedown is worth A$203 million and was preceded by a A$638m writedown in 2012 and a A$407m writedown in 2011, after the closure of the Clyde Refinery in Sydney, Australia



ground_truth: River Thames

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which is the body of water near George Mills' place of birth?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Archibald House
The Edward T  Archibald House is a historic farmhouse in Dundas, Minnesota, United States   The private home was placed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on June 17, 1976   Built in the 1860s, the farmhouse is significant for its association with the prominent miller Edward T  Archibald, whose nearby Archibald Mill was an important mill in the history of Minnesota's flour milling industry 

Structure
The Edward T  Archibald House is located on the southwest corner of 2nd Street and Hamilton Street in Dundas   The structure is a two-story wood frame structure built in a simple clapboard-sided Greek Revival architecture with a gable roof   It originally had a service wing, but only the main portion of the house remains   The property also once included a wood frame stable carriage barn, but it was later demolished and replaced by neighboring homes 

History and significance

The house was originally built by Lorenzo Hamblin in the 1860s   Edward T  Archibald purchased the property and lived there from 1867 until 1885   Archibald's work in milling garnered him attention in trade publications of his time as "The man or firm who takes the leading place among flour makers of this country or of the world "Though there were settlers before them, brothers John Sidney and Edward T , along with their cousin George Archibald were responsible for founding Dundas in 1867; they named it after their hometown of Dundas, Ontario, Canada   They built mills on both sides of the Cannon River Due to the great care that was taken in its manufacture, flour from the Archibald Mill was recognized as the best in the United States   "Dundas straight", as it became known, was sold for $1 00 or more per barrel in New York City and Boston markets than the flours produced in Minneapolis   As a result, Minneapolis millers would come down to Dundas to study the Archibald Mill A progressive miller, John Sidney imported three barrels of Red Fife wheat from Canada; the Archibalds developed the seed into the No  1 hard spring wheat that revolutionized farming in Minnesota   Before 1860, the wheat grown in the United States was soft winter wheat, but spring wheat was better suited to the soil   What initially prevented spring wheat from wide adoption was its characteristic flinty quality and high middlings content   Under the low grinding process used before 1870, the wheat's hardness caused the mash to heat and its thin brittle bran filled the flour with specks that discolored the flour   To fix this issue, millstones in their mills were run at a lower speed and were set higher so as to simply crack the kernel at the first grinding  It was then put through several grindings   The purpose was to make middlings the most valuable part of the product, as gluten was found in the middlings and provided nutrition and gave bread its rising quality   The Archibalds' mills would later be among the first to adopt the middlings purifier, developed in Minneapolis, which allowed for large scale production of the higher gluten flour Recognizing the need to rise to the competition of Minneapolis mills, Edward T  Archibald made further improvements   In 1879, he remodeled the mills to use rollers, also known as the "Hungarian milling process", which increased productivity while maintaining quality   The Archibald Mill was among the first to use the roller system in its entirety   At this time the mills were at their peak in notability and importance in the flour milling world Edward T  Archibald moved to nearby Northfield in 1885   The mill complex burned down on New Year's Eve in 1892 and was immediately rebuilt  It burned down again in 1914, was rebuilt and sold as the industry began to decline   The patents involved were sold to what is now General Mills 
Passage 10:
Lenoir Cotton Mill
The Lenoir Cotton Mill was a 19th-century cotton mill located in the U S  city of Lenoir City, Tennessee   One of the earliest examples of industrial architecture in Tennessee, the mill operated variously from its construction around 1830 until the 1950s   The mill was documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey and placed on the National Register of Historic Places in the 1970s   Efforts to restore the mill began in 1980, but before the restoration could be completed, the mill was destroyed by arson in 1991 The Lenoir Cotton Mill was one of several enterprises established by early settler and entrepreneur William Ballard Lenoir (1775–1852)   Lenoir moved to the area in 1810 after his father, General William Lenoir, deeded to him the 5,000-acre (2,000 ha) tract of land comprising what is now Lenoir City   The younger Lenoir established the Lenoir Manufacturing Company in 1817, which engaged in multiple agricultural and industrial enterprises throughout the 19th century   The cotton mill was completed in the early 1830s and gradually expanded in subsequent decades   During the U S  Civil War, Union soldiers destroyed parts of the estate of the Confederate-leaning Lenoir family, but spared the mill due to William Ballard Lenoir's son Benjamin's Mason affiliations   After the Lenoir family sold the mill in the 1890s, it operated variously as a hosiery mill and later as a flour mill 

Location
The Lenoir Cotton Mill site is located near the corner of Depot Street and South Hill Street, just off U S  Route 11 in downtown Lenoir City   Town Creek, which flows along the eastern base of the mill site, empties into the Tennessee River about a half-mile to the south   The William Ballard Lenoir house, built in 1821, still stands across the street from the mill site, although it has been drastically modified as a residential apartment complex 
Another structure related to the mill, the Lenoir Cotton Mill Warehouse, stands about a half-mile to the southeast, and has recently been restored and currently serves as a residence 

History
What is now Lenoir City was originally part of a 5,000-acre (2,000 ha) grant of land given to General William Lenoir (1751–1839) for service in the American Revolution   Lenoir deeded the land to his son, William Ballard Lenoir, who moved his family to the area in 1810   William Ballard Lenoir established the Lenoir Manufacturing Company in 1817, and engaged in numerous agricultural and industrial endeavors   Along with the cotton mill, Lenoir built a sawmill and gristmill on Town Creek, and raised livestock   The Lenoir family used both slave labor and paid labor in their enterprises 

The cotton mill was completed in the early 1830s   A Pittsburgh miller named E F  Faber built a 113-spindle spinning jack and three looms for Lenoir's mill in 1831   Lenoir's farm grew and ginned its own cotton throughout the 1830s, but eventually Lenoir employed his sons to purchase raw cotton for the mill   By the mid-1850s, the mill had 620 spindles, and was powered by an overshot waterwheel   In 1855, the mill's value was listed at $12,000, making it the Lenoirs' most valuable asset 

After Lenoir's death in 1852, his sons continued operating the mill   During the Civil War (1861–1865), the Lenoirs supported the Confederacy, and when Union soldiers occupied the Lenoir estate in 1863, they burned the Lenoirs' railroad depot, general store, and several other outbuildings   As they prepared to burn the cotton mill, William Ballard Lenoir's son, Benjamin Ballard Lenoir, walked through the ranks of the Union troops flashing a secret Masonic sign, and the troops spared the mill 

By 1890, when the Lenoir City Company purchased the Lenoir estate, the mill had been expanded to include over 1,000 spindles   The Holston Manufacturing Company used the mill for a hosiery operation in the 1890s, although the mill was eventually converted into a flour mill, which operated until the 1950s   In 1980, the Lenoir Cotton Mill Association was formed to preserve the mill, and eventually raised over $100,000 for its restoration   The mill was destroyed by arson in 1991, however, and in 1996 Lenoir City rejected a plan to rebuild the mill, choosing instead to include the mill's ruins in plans for a city park   One of the mill's warehouses, known as the Lenoir Cotton Mill Warehouse, was restored and placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006 

See also
Blair's Ferry Storehouse
Passage 11:
Perkins Tide Mill
The Perkins Tide Mill was one of the last surviving 18th-century tide mills in the United States   Located on Mill Lane in Kennebunkport, Maine, it was built in 1749 and operated until 1939   It was destroyed by an arsonist in 1994   Listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, the property's present owners, the Kennebunkport Conservation Trust, are contemplating construction of a replica 

Description and history
The Perkins Tide Mill was located on the north side of Kennebunkport village, on the northeast shore of Mill Stream, a tidal arm of the Kennebunk River   Its main building was an L-shaped wood-frame structure, set on wooden pilings and a rubblestone foundation   It had a cross-gabled roof, and was finished in wooden shingles   The mill interior housed a wide variety of equipment related to the history of its operation as a grist mill, including a waterwheel, grindstones, and gears and shafts   A dam, still partially in evidence, extended across Mill Stream, with a sluiceway near the building The mill was built in 1749, and was successively adapted to new technologies until 1939, when it ceased operations   Its original grindstone was imported from England, and the dam was originally granite with pine posts   A new grindstone was imported from France in 1866, and the dam was rebuilt in 1963, with most of the old structure retained under the new   The mill building was destroyed by an arsonist in 1994   In 2006 the property was acquired by the Kennebunkport Conservation Trust, a local historic preservation organization   It is presently working on plans to reconstruct the mill, using timbers from period structures and parts from antique mills 

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in York County, Maine
Passage 12:
Sea of Sardinia
The Sea of Sardinia is a body of water in the Mediterranean Sea between the Spanish archipelago of Balearic Islands and the Italian island of Sardinia 
The deepest point is at some 3,000 m, some 150 km north-west to the island of Menorca 

Recognition
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin  It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia 

See also
Balearic Sea


== Notes ==
Passage 13:
Female reproductive system
The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in the reproduction of new offspring  In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a fetus to full term  The internal sex organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries  The female reproductive tract includes the vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes and is prone to infections  The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and childbirth, and is connected to the uterus at the cervix   The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the fetus  The uterus also produces secretions which help the transit of sperm to the fallopian tubes, where sperm fertilize ova (egg cells) produced by the ovaries  The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening During the menstrual cycle, the ovaries release an ovum, which transits through the fallopian tube into the uterus  If an egg cell meets with sperm on its way to the uterus, a single sperm cell can enter and merge with it, fertilizing it into a zygote 
Fertilization usually occurs in the fallopian tubes and marks the beginning of embryogenesis  The zygote will then divide over enough generations of cells to form a blastocyst, which implants itself in the wall of the uterus  This begins the period of gestation and the embryo will continue to develop until full-term  When the fetus has developed enough to survive outside the uterus, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the newborn through the birth canal (the vagina) 
The corresponding equivalent among males is the male reproductive system 

External organs
The female external reproductive organs are the secondary sex organs that are visible externally 

Vulva
The vulva consists of all of the external parts and tissues and includes the mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora, labia minora, Bartholin's glands, Skene's glands, clitoris, urethra, and vaginal opening 

Internal organs
The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries 

Vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular (made up of fibrous and muscular tissue) canal leading from the outside of the body to the cervix of the uterus or womb  It is also referred to as the birth canal in the context of pregnancy  The vagina accommodates the male penis during sexual intercourse  Semen containing spermatozoa is ejaculated from the male at orgasm, into the vagina potentially enabling fertilization of the egg cell (ovum) to take place 

Cervix
The cervix is the neck of the uterus, the lower, narrow portion where it joins with the upper part of the vagina  It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall  Approximately half its length is visible, the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view  The vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where the fetus emerges during delivery 

Uterus
The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ  The uterus provides mechanical protection, nutritional support, and waste removal for the developing embryo (weeks 1 to 8) and fetus (from week 9 until the delivery)  In addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus are important in pushing out the fetus at the time of birth 
The uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of the uterus and limits its range of movement  The uterosacral ligaments keep the body from moving inferiorly and anteriorly  The round ligaments restrict posterior movement of the uterus  The cardinal ligaments also prevent the inferior movement of the uterus 
The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ  Its major function is to accept a fertilized ovum which becomes implanted into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose  The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, develops into a fetus and gestates until childbirth  If the egg does not embed in the wall of the uterus, a female begins menstruation 

Fallopian tube
The Fallopian tubes are two tubes leading from the ovaries into the uterus  On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube  There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes  This trip takes hours or days   If the ovum is fertilized while in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning of pregnancy 

Ovaries
The ovaries are small, paired organs located near the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity  These organs are responsible for the production of the egg cells (ova) and the secretion of hormones   The process by which the egg cell (ovum) is released is called ovulation  The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to the length of a menstrual cycle 
After ovulation, the egg cell is captured by the Fallopian tube, after traveling down the Fallopian tube to the uterus, occasionally being fertilized on its way by an incoming sperm  During fertilization the egg cell plays a role; it releases certain molecules that are essential to guiding the sperm and allows the surface of the egg to attach to the sperm's surface  The egg can then absorb the sperm and fertilization can then begin 

Function
The female reproductive system functions to produce offspring 
In the absence of fertilization, the ovum will eventually traverse the entire reproductive tract from the fallopian tube until exiting the vagina through menstruation 
The reproductive tract can be used for various transluminal procedures such as fertiloscopy, intrauterine insemination, and transluminal sterilization 

Development
Chromosome characteristics determine the genetic sex of a fetus at conception  This is specifically based on the 23rd pair of chromosomes that is inherited  Since the mother's egg contains an X chromosome and the father's sperm contains either an X or Y chromosome, it is the male who determines the fetus's sex  If the fetus inherits the X chromosome from the father, the fetus will be a female  In this case, testosterone is not made and the Wolffian duct will degrade thus, the Müllerian duct will develop into female sex organs  The clitoris is the remnants of the Wolffian duct  On the other hand, if the fetus inherits the Y chromosome from the father, the fetus will be a male  The presence of testosterone will stimulate the Wolffian duct which will bring about the development of the male sex organs and the Müllerian duct will degrade 

Clinical significance
Vaginitis
Vaginitis is inflammation of the vagina and largely caused by an infection  It is the most common gynaecological condition presented  It is difficult to determine any one organism most responsible for vaginitis because it varies from range of age, sexual activity, and method of microbial identification  Vaginitis is not necessarily caused by a sexually transmitted infection as there are many infectious agents that make use of the close proximity to mucous membranes and secretions  Vaginitis is usually diagnosed based on the presence of vaginal discharge, which can have a certain color, odor, or quality 

Bacterial vaginosis
This is a vaginal infection in women  It differs from vaginitis in that there is no inflammation  Bacterial vaginosis is polymicrobial, consisting of many bacteria species  The diagnosis for bacterial vaginosis is made if three of the following four criteria are present: (1) Homogenous, thin discharge, (2) a pH of 4 5 in the vagina, (3) epithelial cells in the vagina with bacteria attached to them, or (4) a fishy odor  It has been associated with an increased risk of other genital tract infections such as endometritis 

Yeast infection
This is a common cause of vaginal irritation and according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at least 75% of adult women have experienced one at least once in their lifetime  Yeast infections are caused by an overgrowth of fungus in the vagina known as Candida  Yeast infections are usually caused by an imbalance of the pH in the vagina, which is usually acidic  Other factors such as pregnancy, diabetes, weakened immune systems, tight fitting clothing, or douching can also be a cause  Symptoms of yeast infections include itching, burning, irritation, and a white cottage-cheese-like discharge from the vagina  Women have also reported that they experience painful intercourse and urination as well  Taking a sample of the vaginal secretions and placing them under a microscope for evidence of yeast can diagnose a yeast infection  Treatment varies from creams that can be applied in or around the vaginal area to oral tablets that stop the growth of fungus 

Genital mutilation
There are many practices of mutilating female genitalia in different cultures  The most common two types of genital mutilation practiced are clitoridectomy, the circumcision of the clitoris and the excision of the prepuce the skin around the clitoris  They can all involve a range of adverse health consequences such as bleeding, irreparable tissue damage, and sepsis which can sometimes prove fatal 

Genital surgery
Genitoplasty refers to surgery that is carried out to repair damaged sex organs particularly following cancer and its treatment 
There are also elective surgical procedures which change the appearance of the external genitals 

Birth control
There are many types of birth control available to females   Birth control can be hormonal or physical in nature   Oral contraception can assist with management of various medical conditions, such as menorrhagia   However, oral contraceptives can have a variety of side effects, including depression 

Reproductive rights
The International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics was founded in 1954 to promote the well-being of women particularly in raising the standards of gynaecological practice and care  As of 2010 there were 124 countries involved 
Reproductive rights are legal rights related to reproduction and reproductive health  Women have the right to control matters involving their sexuality including their sexual and reproductive health  Violation of these rights include forced pregnancy, forced sterilization, forced abortion and genital mutilation  Female genital mutilation is the complete or partial removal of a female's external genitals 

History
It is claimed in the Hippocratic writings that both males and females contribute their seed to conception; otherwise, children would not resemble either or both of their parents  Four-hundred years later, Galen "identified" the source of 'female semen' as the ovaries in female reproductive organs 

See also
Conception
Development of the reproductive system
Evolution of sexual reproduction
Female infertility
Oogenesis
Human sexuality § Female anatomy and reproductive system
Orgasm § In females
Passage 14:
Clipper Mills, California
Clipper Mills (also, Clipper Mill) is a census-designated place in Butte County, California  It lies at an elevation of 3550 feet (1082 m)   Clipper Mills has a post office, first established in 1861 and moved in 1891  Its zip code is 95930  Clipper Mills's population was 142 at the 2010 census 
Clipper Mills' history and economy is centered on the lumber industry  A sawmill started operating nearby in 1852, and by 1855 Clipper Mills had its own sawmills 

Demographics
At the 2010 census Clipper Mills had a population of 142  The population density was 81 7 inhabitants per square mile (31 5/km2)  The racial makeup of Clipper Mills was 131 (92 3%) White, 0 (0 0%) African American, 3 (2 1%) Native American, 0 (0 0%) Asian, 0 (0 0%) Pacific Islander, 2 (1 4%) from other races, and 6 (4 2%) from two or more races   Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5 people (3 5%) The whole population lived in households, no one lived in non-institutionalized group quarters and no one was institutionalized 
There were 77 households, 9 (11 7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 26 (33 8%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 8 (10 4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 2 (2 6%) had a male householder with no wife present   There were 10 (13 0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 2 (2 6%) same-sex married couples or partnerships  33 households (42 9%) were one person and 18 (23 4%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older  The average household size was 1 84   There were 36 families (46 8% of households); the average family size was 2 39 
The age distribution was 13 people (9 2%) under the age of 18, 10 people (7 0%) aged 18 to 24, 17 people (12 0%) aged 25 to 44, 57 people (40 1%) aged 45 to 64, and 45 people (31 7%) who were 65 or older   The median age was 55 4 years  For every 100 females, there were 105 8 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104 8 males 
There were 148 housing units at an average density of 85 1 per square mile (32 9/km2),of which 77 were occupied, 63 (81 8%) by the owners and 14 (18 2%) by renters   The homeowner vacancy rate was 0%; the rental vacancy rate was 22 2%   120 people (84 5% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 22 people (15 5%) lived in rental housing units 

Climate
This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71 6 °F   According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Clipper Mills has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps 
Passage 15:
1926 Men's European Water Polo Championship
The 1926 Men's European Water Polo Championship was the 1st edition of the event,  organised by the Europe's governing body in aquatics, the Ligue Européenne de Natation  The event took place between 18 and 22 August in Budapest, Hungary as an integrated part of the 1926 European Aquatics Championships 

Teams
Belgium
 Germany
 Hungary
 Sweden

Main round
First round
Second round
Third round
Fourth round
Fifth round

Final ranking
Passage 16:
List of mills in Longdendale and Glossopdale
Mills in Glossop, Derbyshire and Tintwistle, Cheshire, England  The first mills were built in the 1760s, and were powered by the water of the River Etherow and its tributaries  As the industry developed, the mills changed hands, were demolished, were converted to use steam, or consolidated into larger units  They changed their names and their functions  Water-powered mills were smaller than the later steam-powered mills found in Greater Manchester 

The mills
All registered in Annals of Glossop 



ground_truth: River Thames