prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the father of the artist who painted Head I?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Ivanoff Head
Ivanoff Head (66°53′S 109°7′E) is a small rocky headland, or probable island, which lies along the coast and is partly overlain by continental ice, situated 4 miles (6 4 km) west of the Hatch Islands at the head of Vincennes Bay, Antarctica  The feature was first mapped from aerial photographs taken by U S  Navy Operation Highjump, 1946–47, and was named "Brooks Island" by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1956  The name Ivanoff Head, inadvertently applied by Australia in 1961, has succeeded the earlier name in general use and is now recommended  Helicopter landings were made here by Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions from the Magga Dan in February 1960  The feature was used as a rescue base when a helicopter crashed nearby, and was named after Captain P  Ivanoff, the pilot of the crashed helicopter 

See also
Brooks Point
Passage 2:
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban   (; 22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626), also known as Lord Verulam, was an English philosopher and statesman who served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England under King James I  Bacon led the advancement of both natural philosophy and the scientific method and his works remained influential even in the late stages of the Scientific Revolution Bacon has been called the father of empiricism  He argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature  He believed that science could be achieved by the use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves  Although his most specific proposals about such a method, the Baconian method, did not have long-lasting influence, the general idea of the importance and possibility of a sceptical methodology makes Bacon one of the later founders of the scientific method  His portion of the method based in scepticism was a new rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, whose practical details are still central to debates on science and methodology  He is famous for his role in the scientific revolution, begun during the Middle Ages, promoting scientific experimentation as a way of glorifying God and fulfilling scripture 
Bacon was a patron of libraries and developed a system for cataloguing books under three categories – history, poetry, and philosophy –  which could further be divided into specific subjects and subheadings  About books he wrote, "Some books are to be tasted; others swallowed; and some few to be chewed and digested " The Shakespearean authorship thesis, which was first proposed in the mid-19th century, contends that Bacon wrote at least some and possibly all of the plays conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare Bacon was educated at Trinity College at the University of Cambridge, where he rigorously followed the medieval curriculum, which was presented largely in Latin  He was the first recipient of the Queen's counsel designation, conferred in 1597 when Elizabeth I reserved him as her legal advisor  After the accession of James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted, then created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St Alban in 1621  He had no heirs and so both titles became extinct on his death of pneumonia in 1626 at the age of 65  He is buried at St Michael's Church, St Albans, Hertfordshire 

Biography
Early life and education
Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon (Lord Keeper of the Great Seal) by his second wife, Anne (Cooke) Bacon, the daughter of the noted Renaissance humanist Anthony Cooke  His mother's sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, making Burghley Bacon's uncle Biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life  He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a strong leaning toward Puritanism  He attended Trinity College at the University of Cambridge on 5 April 1573 at the age of 12, living there for three years along with his older brother Anthony Bacon under the personal tutelage of Dr John Whitgift, future Archbishop of Canterbury  Bacon's education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum  It was at Cambridge that Bacon first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to calling him "The young lord keeper" His studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous  His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed to him barren, argumentative and wrong in its objectives 
On 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Gray's Inn  A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador at Paris, while Anthony continued his studies at home  The state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction  For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain  There is no evidence that he studied at the University of Poitiers  During his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks  On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, Leicester, and for the queen The sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England  Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money  Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt  To support himself, he took up his residence in law at Gray's Inn in 1579, his income being supplemented by a grant from his mother Lady Anne of the manor of Marks near Romford in Essex, which generated a rent of £46 

Parliamentarian
Bacon stated that he had three goals: to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church  He sought to achieve these goals by seeking a prestigious post  In 1580, through his uncle, Lord Burghley, he applied for a post at court that might enable him to pursue a life of learning, but his application failed  For two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn, until he was admitted as an outer barrister in 1582 His parliamentary career began when he was elected MP for Bossiney, Cornwall, in a by-election in 1581  In 1584 he took his seat in Parliament for Melcombe in Dorset, and in 1586 for Taunton  At this time, he began to write on the condition of parties in the church, as well as on the topic of philosophical reform in the lost tract Temporis Partus Maximus  Yet he failed to gain a position that he thought would lead him to success  He showed signs of sympathy to Puritanism, attending the sermons of the Puritan chaplain of Gray's Inn and accompanying his mother to the Temple Church to hear Walter Travers  This led to the publication of his earliest surviving tract, which criticized the English church's suppression of the Puritan clergy  In the Parliament of 1586, he openly urged execution for the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots About this time, he again approached his powerful uncle for help; this move was followed by his rapid progress at the bar  He became a bencher in 1586 and was elected a Reader in 1587, delivering his first set of lectures in Lent the following year  In 1589, he received the valuable appointment of reversion to the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, although he did not formally take office until 1608; the post was worth £1,600 a year In 1588 he became MP for Liverpool and then for Middlesex in 1593  He later sat three times for Ipswich (1597, 1601, 1604) and once for Cambridge University (1614) He became known as a liberal-minded reformer, eager to amend and simplify the law  Though a friend of the crown, he opposed feudal privileges and dictatorial powers  He spoke against religious persecution  He struck at the House of Lords in its usurpation of the Money Bills  He advocated for the union of England and Scotland, which made him a significant influence toward the consolidation of the United Kingdom; and he later would advocate for the integration of Ireland into the Union  Closer constitutional ties, he believed, would bring greater peace and strength to these countries 

Final years of the Queen's reign
Bacon soon became acquainted with Robert Devereux, the 2nd Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favourite  By 1591 he acted as the earl's confidential adviser  In 1592, he was commissioned to write a tract in response to the Jesuit Robert Parson's anti-government polemic, which he titled Certain Observations Made upon a Libel, identifying England with the ideals of democratic Athens against the belligerence of Spain  Bacon took his third parliamentary seat for Middlesex when in February 1593 Elizabeth summoned Parliament to investigate a Roman Catholic plot against her  Bacon's opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time offended the Queen: opponents accused him of seeking popularity, and for a time the Court excluded him from favour When the office of Attorney General fell vacant in 1594, Lord Essex's influence was not enough to secure the position for Bacon and it was given to Sir Edward Coke  Likewise, Bacon failed to secure the lesser office of Solicitor General in 1595, the Queen pointedly snubbing him by appointing Sir Thomas Fleming instead  To console him for these disappointments, Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which Bacon subsequently sold for £1,800 In 1597 Bacon became the first Queen's Counsel designate, when Queen Elizabeth reserved him as her legal counsel  In 1597, he was also given a patent, giving him precedence at the Bar  Despite his designations, he was unable to gain the status and notoriety of others  In a plan to revive his position he unsuccessfully courted the wealthy young widow Lady Elizabeth Hatton  His courtship failed after she broke off their relationship upon accepting marriage to Sir Edward Coke, a further spark of enmity between the men  In 1598 Bacon was arrested for debt  Afterward, however, his standing in the Queen's eyes improved  Gradually, Bacon earned the standing of one of the learned counsels  His relationship with the Queen further improved when he severed ties with Essex—a shrewd move, as Essex would be executed for treason in 1601 With others, Bacon was appointed to investigate the charges against Essex  A number of Essex's followers confessed that Essex had planned a rebellion against the Queen  Bacon was subsequently a part of the legal team headed by the Attorney General Sir Edward Coke at Essex's treason trial  After the execution, the Queen ordered Bacon to write the official government account of the trial, which was later published as A DECLARATION of the Practices and Treasons attempted and committed by Robert late Earle of Essex and his Complices, against her Majestie and her Kingdoms     after Bacon's first draft was heavily edited by the Queen and her ministers According to his personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, as a judge Bacon was always tender-hearted, "looking upon the examples with the eye of severity, but upon the person with the eye of pity and compassion"  And also that "he was free from malice", "no revenger of injuries", and "no defamer of any man" 

James I comes to the throne
The succession of James I brought Bacon into greater favour  He was knighted in 1603  In another shrewd move, Bacon wrote his Apologies in defense of his proceedings in the case of Essex, as Essex had favoured James to succeed to the throne  The following year, during the course of the uneventful first parliament session, Bacon married Alice Barnham  In June 1607, he was at last rewarded with the office of solicitor general and, in 1608, he began working as the Clerkship of the Star Chamber  Despite a generous income, old debts still could not be paid  He sought further promotion and wealth by supporting King James and his arbitrary policies  In 1610, the fourth session of James's first parliament met  Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's embarrassing extravagance  The House was finally dissolved in February 1611  Throughout this period Bacon managed to stay in the favor of the king while retaining the confidence of the Commons 
In 1613, Bacon was finally appointed attorney general, after advising the king to shuffle judicial appointments  As attorney general, Bacon, by his zealous efforts—which included torture—to obtain the conviction of Edmund Peacham for treason, raised legal controversies of high constitutional importance; and successfully prosecuted Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset, and his wife, Frances Howard, Countess of Somerset, for murder in 1616  The so-called Prince's Parliament of April 1614 objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for Cambridge and to the various royal plans that Bacon had supported  Although he was allowed to stay, parliament passed a law that forbade the attorney general to sit in parliament  His influence over the king had evidently inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers  Bacon, however, continued to receive the King's favour, which led to his appointment in March 1617 as temporary Regent of England (for a period of a month), and in 1618 as Lord Chancellor  On 12 July 1618 the king created Bacon Baron Verulam, of Verulam, in the Peerage of England; he then became known as Francis, Lord Verulam Bacon continued to use his influence with the king to mediate between the throne and Parliament, and in this capacity he was further elevated in the same peerage, as Viscount St Alban, on 27 January 1621 

Lord Chancellor and public disgrace
Bacon's public career ended in disgrace in 1621  After he fell into debt, a parliamentary committee on the administration of the law charged him with 23 separate counts of corruption  His lifelong enemy, Sir Edward Coke, who had instigated these accusations, was one of those appointed to prepare the charges against the chancellor  To the lords, who sent a committee to enquire whether a confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed " He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000 and committed to the Tower of London at the king's pleasure; the imprisonment lasted only a few days and the fine was remitted by the king  More seriously, parliament declared Bacon incapable of holding future office or sitting in parliament  He narrowly escaped undergoing degradation, which would have stripped him of his titles of nobility  Subsequently, the disgraced viscount devoted himself to study and writing 
There seems little doubt that Bacon had accepted gifts from litigants, but this was an accepted custom of the time and not necessarily evidence of deeply corrupt behaviour  While acknowledging that his conduct had been lax, he countered that he had never allowed gifts to influence his judgement and, indeed, he had on occasion given a verdict against those who had paid him  He even had an interview with King James in which he assured:

The law of nature teaches me to speak in my own defence: With respect to this charge of bribery I am as innocent as any man born on St  Innocents Day  I never had a bribe or reward in my eye or thought when pronouncing judgment or order    I am ready to make an oblation of myself to the King
He also wrote the following to Buckingham:

My mind is calm, for my fortune is not my felicity  I know I have clean hands and a clean heart, and I hope a clean house for friends or servants; but Job himself, or whoever was the justest judge, by such hunting for matters against him as hath been used against me, may for a time seem foul, especially in a time when greatness is the mark and accusation is the game  
As the conduct of accepting gifts was ubiquitous and common practice, and the Commons was zealously inquiring into judicial corruption and malfeasance, it has been suggested that Bacon served as a scapegoat to divert attention from Buckingham's own ill practice and alleged corruption The true reason for his acknowledgement of guilt is the subject of debate, but some authors speculate that it may have been prompted by his sickness, or by a view that through his fame and the greatness of his office he would be spared harsh punishment  He may even have been blackmailed, with a threat to charge him with sodomy, into confession The British jurist Basil Montagu wrote in Bacon's defense, concerning the episode of his public disgrace:

Bacon has been accused of servility, of dissimulation, of various base motives, and their filthy brood of base actions, all unworthy of his high birth, and incompatible with his great wisdom, and the estimation in which he was held by the noblest spirits of the age  It is true that there were men in his own time, and will be men in all times, who are better pleased to count spots in the sun than to rejoice in its glorious brightness  Such men have openly libelled him, like Dewes and Weldon, whose falsehoods were detected as soon as uttered, or have fastened upon certain ceremonious compliments and dedications, the fashion of his day, as a sample of his servility, passing over his noble letters to the Queen, his lofty contempt for the Lord Keeper Puckering, his open dealing with Sir Robert Cecil, and with others, who, powerful when he was nothing, might have blighted his opening fortunes for ever, forgetting his advocacy of the rights of the people in the face of the court, and the true and honest counsels, always given by him, in times of great difficulty, both to Elizabeth and her successor  When was a "base sycophant" loved and honoured by piety such as that of Herbert, Tennison, and Rawley, by noble spirits like Hobbes, Ben Jonson, and Selden, or followed to the grave, and beyond it, with devoted affection such as that of Sir Thomas Meautys 

Personal life
Religious beliefs
Bacon was a devout Anglican  He believed that philosophy and the natural world must be studied inductively, but argued that we can only study arguments for the existence of God  Information about God's attributes (such as nature, action, and purposes) can only come from special revelation  Bacon also held that knowledge was cumulative, that study encompassed more than a simple preservation of the past  "Knowledge is the rich storehouse for the glory of the Creator and the relief of man's estate," he wrote  In his Essays, he affirms that "a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion "Bacon's idea of idols of the mind may have self-consciously represented an attempt to Christianize science at the same time as developing a new, reliable scientific method; Bacon gave worship of Neptune as an example of the idola tribus fallacy, hinting at the religious dimensions of his critique of the idols Bacon was against the splintering within Christianity, believing that it would ultimately lead to the creation of atheism as a dominant worldview, as indicated with his quote that "The causes of atheism are: divisions in religion, if they be many; for any one main division, addeth zeal to both sides; but many divisions introduce atheism  Another is, scandal of priests; when it is come to that which St  Bernard saith "One cannot now say the priest is as the people, for the truth is that the people are not so bad as the priest"  A third is, custom of profane scoffing in holy matters; which doth by little and little deface the reverence of religion  And lastly, learned times, specially with peace and prosperity; for troubles and adversities do more bow men's minds to religion "

Architectural projects
Bacon built Verulam House to his own designs 

Marriage to Alice Barnham
When he was 36, Bacon courted Elizabeth Hatton, a young widow of 20  Reportedly, she broke off their relationship upon accepting marriage to a wealthier man, Bacon's rival, Sir Edward Coke  Years later, Bacon still wrote of his regret that the marriage to Hatton had not taken place At the age of 45, Bacon married Alice Barnham, the 13-year-old daughter of a well-connected London alderman and MP  Bacon wrote two sonnets proclaiming his love for Alice  The first was written during his courtship and the second on his wedding day, 10 May 1606  When Bacon was appointed lord chancellor, "by special Warrant of the King", Lady Bacon was given precedence over all other Court ladies  Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, wrote in his biography of Bacon that his marriage was one of "much conjugal love and respect", mentioning a robe of honour that he gave to Alice and which "she wore unto her dying day, being twenty years and more after his death" However, an increasing number of reports circulated about friction in the marriage, with speculation that this may have been due to Alice's making do with less money than she had once been accustomed to  It was said that she was strongly interested in fame and fortune, and when household finances dwindled, she complained bitterly  Bunten wrote in her Life of Alice Barnham  that, upon their descent into debt, she went on trips to ask for financial favours and assistance from their circle of friends  Bacon disinherited her upon discovering her secret romantic relationship with Sir John Underhill, rewriting his will (which had generously planned to leave her lands, goods, and income) and revoking her entirely as a beneficiary 

Sexuality
Several authors believe that, despite his marriage, Bacon was primarily attracted to men  Forker, for example, has explored the "historically documentable sexual preferences" of both Francis Bacon and King James I and concluded they were both oriented to "masculine love", a contemporary term that "seems to have been used exclusively to refer to the sexual preference of men for members of their own gender "The well-connected antiquary John Aubrey noted in his Brief Lives concerning Bacon, "He was a Pederast  His Ganimeds and Favourites tooke Bribes"  ("Pederast" in Renaissance diction meant generally "homosexual" rather than specifically a lover of minors; "ganimed" derives from the mythical prince abducted by Zeus to be his cup-bearer and bed warmer )
The Jacobean antiquarian Sir Simonds D'Ewes (Bacon's fellow Member of Parliament) implied there had been a question of bringing him to trial for buggery, which his brother Anthony Bacon had also been charged with In his Autobiography and Correspondence, in the diary entry for 3 May 1621, the date of Bacon's censure by Parliament, D'Ewes describes Bacon's love for his Welsh serving-men, in particular Godrick, a "very effeminate-faced youth" whom he calls "his catamite and bedfellow" This conclusion has been disputed by others, who point to lack of consistent evidence, and consider the sources to be more open to interpretation  Publicly, at least, Bacon distanced himself from the idea of homosexuality  In his New Atlantis, he described his utopian island as being "the chastest nation under heaven", and "as for masculine love, they have no touch of it" 

Death
On 9 April 1626, Bacon died of pneumonia while at Arundel mansion at Highgate outside London  An influential account of the circumstances of his death was given by John Aubrey's Brief Lives  Aubrey's vivid account, which portrays Bacon as a martyr to experimental scientific method, had him journeying to High-gate through the snow with the King's physician when he is suddenly inspired by the possibility of using the snow to preserve meat:They were resolved they would try the experiment presently  They alighted out of the coach and went into a poor woman's house at the bottom of Highgate hill, and bought a fowl, and made the woman exenterate it 
After stuffing the fowl with snow, Bacon contracted a fatal case of pneumonia  Some people, including Aubrey, consider these two contiguous, possibly coincidental events as related and causative of his death:The Snow so chilled him that he immediately fell so extremely ill, that he could not return to his Lodging     but went to the Earle of Arundel's house at Highgate, where they put him into     a damp bed that had not been layn-in     which gave him such a cold that in 2 or 3 days as I remember Mr Hobbes told me, he died of Suffocation Aubrey has been criticized for his evident credulousness in this and other works; on the other hand, he knew Thomas Hobbes, Bacon's fellow-philosopher and friend 
Being unwittingly on his deathbed, the philosopher dictated his last letter to his absent host and friend Lord Arundel:My very good Lord,—I was likely to have had the fortune of Caius Plinius the elder, who lost his life by trying an experiment about the burning of Mount Vesuvius; for I was also desirous to try an experiment or two touching the conservation and in-duration of bodies  As for the experiment itself, it succeeded excellently well; but in the journey between London and High-gate, I was taken with such a fit of casting as I know not whether it were the Stone, or some surfeit or cold, or indeed a touch of them all three  But when I came to your Lordship's House, I was not able to go back, and therefore was forced to take up my lodging here, where your housekeeper is very careful and diligent about me, which I assure myself your Lordship will not only pardon towards him, but think the better of him for it  For indeed your Lordship's House was happy to me, and I kiss your noble hands for the welcome which I am sure you give me to it  I know how unfit it is for me to write with any other hand than mine own, but by my troth my fingers are so disjointed with sickness that I cannot steadily hold a pen 
Another account appears in a biography by William Rawley, Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain:He died on the ninth day of April in the year 1626, in the early morning of the day then celebrated for our Savior's resurrection, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, at the Earl of Arundel's house in Highgate, near London, to which place he casually repaired about a week before; God so ordaining that he should die there of a gentle fever, accidentally accompanied with a great cold, whereby the defluxion of rheum fell so plentifully upon his breast, that he died by suffocation 
He was buried in St Michael's Church in St Albans  At the news of his death, over 30 great minds collected together their eulogies of him, which were then later published in Latin 
He left personal assets of about £7,000 and lands that realised £6,000 when sold  His debts amounted to more than £23,000, equivalent to more than £4m at current value 

Philosophy and works
Francis Bacon's philosophy is displayed in the vast and varied writings he left, which might be divided into three great branches:

Scientific works in which his ideas for a universal reform of knowledge into scientific methodology and the improvement of mankind's state using the Scientific method are presented 
Religious and literary works in which he presents his moral philosophy and theological meditations 
Juridical works in which his reforms in English Law are proposed 

Influence and legacy
Science
Bacon's seminal work Novum Organum was influential in the 1630s and 1650s among scholars, in particular Sir Thomas Browne, who in his encyclopedia Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646–72) frequently adheres to a Baconian approach to his scientific enquiries  This book entails the basis of the scientific method as a means of observation and induction 
According to Bacon, learning and knowledge all derive from the basis of inductive reasoning  Through his belief in experimental encounters, he theorised that all the knowledge that was necessary to fully understand a concept could be attained using induction  In order to get to the point of an inductive conclusion, one must consider the importance of observing the particulars (specific parts of nature)  "Once these particulars have been gathered together, the interpretation of Nature proceeds by sorting them into a formal arrangement so that they may be presented to the understanding " Experimentation is essential to discovering the truths of Nature  When an experiment happens, parts of the tested hypothesis are started to be pieced together, forming a result and conclusion  Through this conclusion of particulars, an understanding of Nature can be formed  Now that an understanding of Nature has been arrived at, an inductive conclusion can be drawn  "For no one successfully investigates the nature of a thing in the thing itself; the inquiry must be enlarged to things that have more in common with it "Bacon explains how we come to this understanding and knowledge because of this process in comprehending the complexities of nature  "Bacon sees nature as an extremely subtle complexity, which affords all the energy of the natural philosopher to disclose her secrets " Bacon described the evidence and proof revealed through taking a specific example from nature and expanding that example into a general, substantial claim of nature  Once we understand the particulars in nature, we can learn more about it and become surer of things occurring in nature, gaining knowledge and obtaining new information all the while  "It is nothing less than a revival of Bacon's supremely confident belief that inductive methods can provide us with ultimate and infallible answers concerning the laws and nature of the universe " Bacon states that when we come to understand parts of nature, we can eventually understand nature better as a whole because of induction  Because of this, Bacon concludes that all learning and knowledge must be drawn from inductive reasoning 
During the Restoration, Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the Royal Society founded under Charles II in 1660  During the 18th-century French Enlightenment, Bacon's non-metaphysical approach to science became more influential than the dualism of his French contemporary Descartes, and was associated with criticism of the Ancien Régime  In 1733 Voltaire introduced him to a French audience as the "father" of the scientific method, an understanding which had become widespread by the 1750s  In the 19th century his emphasis on induction was revived and developed by William Whewell, among others  He has been reputed as the "Father of Experimental Philosophy" He also wrote a long treatise on Medicine, History of Life and Death, with natural and experimental observations for the prolongation of life 
One of his biographers, the historian William Hepworth Dixon, states: "Bacon's influence in the modern world is so great that every man who rides in a train, sends a telegram, follows a steam plough, sits in an easy chair, crosses the channel or the Atlantic, eats a good dinner, enjoys a beautiful garden, or undergoes a painless surgical operation, owes him something "In 1902 Hugo von Hofmannsthal published a fictional letter, known as The Lord Chandos Letter, addressed to Bacon and dated 1603, about a writer who is experiencing a crisis of language 

North America
Bacon played a leading role in establishing the British colonies in North America, especially in Virginia, the Carolinas and Newfoundland in northeastern Canada  His government report on "The Virginia Colony" was submitted in 1609  In 1610 Bacon and his associates received a charter from the king to form the Tresurer and the Companye of Adventurers and planter of the Cittye of London and Bristoll for the Collonye or plantacon in Newfoundland, and sent John Guy to found a colony there  Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton  I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences" In 1910, Newfoundland issued a postage stamp to commemorate Bacon's role in establishing the colony  The stamp describes Bacon as "the guiding spirit in Colonization Schemes in 1610"  Moreover, some scholars believe he was largely responsible for the drafting, in 1609 and 1612, of two charters of government for the Virginia Colony  William Hepworth Dixon considered that Bacon's name could be included in the list of Founders of the United States 

Law
Although few of his proposals for law reform were adopted during his lifetime, Bacon's legal legacy was considered by the magazine New Scientist in 1961 as having influenced the drafting of the Napoleonic Code as well as the law reforms introduced by 19th-century British Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel  The historian William Hepworth Dixon referred to the Napoleonic Code as "the sole embodiment of Bacon's thought", saying that Bacon's legal work "has had more success abroad than it has found at home", and that in France "it has blossomed and come into fruit" Harvey Wheeler attributed to Bacon, in Francis Bacon's Verulamium—the Common Law Template of The Modern in English Science and Culture, the creation of these distinguishing features of the modern common law system:

using cases as repositories of evidence about the "unwritten law";
determining the relevance of precedents by exclusionary principles of evidence and logic;
treating opposing legal briefs as adversarial hypotheses about the application of the "unwritten law" to a new set of facts As late as the 18th century, some juries still declared the law rather than the facts, but already before the end of the 17th century Sir Matthew Hale explained modern common law adjudication procedure and acknowledged Bacon as the inventor of the process of discovering unwritten laws from the evidences of their applications  The method combined empiricism and inductivism in a new way that was to imprint its signature on many of the distinctive features of modern English society  Paul H  Kocher writes that Bacon is considered by some jurists to be the father of modern Jurisprudence Bacon is commemorated with a statue in Gray's Inn, South Square in London where he received his legal training, and where he was elected Treasurer of the Inn in 1608 More recent scholarship on Bacon's jurisprudence has focused on his advocating torture as a legal recourse for the crown  Bacon himself was not a stranger to the torture chamber; in his various legal capacities in both Elizabeth I's and James I's reigns, Bacon was listed as a commissioner on five torture warrants  In 1613(?), in a letter addressed to King James I on the question of torture's place within English law, Bacon identifies the scope of torture as a means to further the investigation of threats to the state: "In the cases of treasons, torture is used for discovery, and not for evidence " For Bacon, torture was not a punitive measure, an intended form of state repression, but instead offered a modus operandi for the government agent tasked with uncovering acts of treason 

Organization of knowledge
Francis Bacon developed the idea that a classification of knowledge must be universal while handling all possible resources  In his progressive view, humanity would be better if access to educational resources were provided to the public, hence the need to organise it  His approach to learning reshaped the Western view of knowledge theory from an individual to a social interest 
The original classification proposed by Bacon organised all types of knowledge into three general groups: history, poetry, and philosophy  He did that based on his understanding of how information is processed: memory, imagination, and reason, respectively  His methodical approach to the categorization of knowledge goes hand-in-hand with his principles of scientific methods  Bacon's writings were the starting point for William Torrey Harris's classification system for libraries in the United States by the second half of the 1800s 
The phrase "scientia potentia est" (or "scientia est potentia"), meaning "knowledge is power", is commonly attributed to Bacon: the expression "ipsa scientia potestas est" ("knowledge itself is power") occurs in his Meditationes Sacrae (1597) 

Historical debates
Bacon and Shakespeare
The Baconian hypothesis of Shakespearean authorship, first proposed in the mid-19th century, contends that Francis Bacon wrote some or even all of the plays conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare 

Occult theories
Francis Bacon often gathered with the men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics and philosophy, and to try out various theatrical scenes that he admitted writing  Bacon's alleged connection to the Rosicrucians and the Freemasons has been widely discussed by authors and scholars in many books  However, others, including Daphne du Maurier in her biography of Bacon, have argued that there is no substantive evidence to support claims of involvement with the Rosicrucians  Frances Yates does not make the claim that Bacon was a Rosicrucian, but presents evidence that he was nevertheless involved in some of the more closed intellectual movements of his day  She argues that Bacon's movement for the advancement of learning was closely connected with the German Rosicrucian movement, while Bacon's New Atlantis portrays a land ruled by Rosicrucians  He apparently saw his own movement for the advancement of learning to be in conformity with Rosicrucian ideals The link between Bacon's work and the Rosicrucians' ideals which Yates allegedly found was the conformity of the purposes expressed by the Rosicrucian Manifestos and Bacon's plan of a "Great Instauration", for the two were calling for a reformation of both "divine and human understanding", as well as both, had in view the purpose of mankind's return to the "state before the Fall" Another major link is said to be the resemblance between Bacon's New Atlantis and the German Rosicrucian Johann Valentin Andreae's Description of the Republic of Christianopolis (1619)  Andreae describes a utopic island in which Christian theosophy and applied science ruled, and in which the spiritual fulfilment and intellectual activity constituted the primary goals of each individual, the scientific pursuits being the highest intellectual calling—linked to the achievement of spiritual perfection  Andreae's island also depicts a great advancement in technology, with many industries separated in different zones which supplied the population's needs—which shows great resemblance to Bacon's scientific methods and purposes While rejecting occult conspiracy theories surrounding Bacon and the claim Bacon personally identified as a Rosicrucian, intellectual historian Paolo Rossi has argued for an occult influence on Bacon's scientific and religious writing  He argues that Bacon was familiar with early modern alchemical texts and that Bacon's ideas about the application of science had roots in Renaissance magical ideas about science and magic facilitating humanity's domination of nature  Rossi further interprets Bacon's search for hidden meanings in myth and fables in such texts as The Wisdom of the Ancients as succeeding earlier occultist and Neoplatonic attempts to locate hidden wisdom in pre-Christian myths  As indicated by the title of his study, however, Rossi claims Bacon ultimately rejected the philosophical foundations of occultism as he came to develop a form of modern science Rossi's analysis and claims have been extended by Jason Josephson-Storm in his study, The Myth of Disenchantment  Josephson-Storm also rejects conspiracy theories surrounding Bacon and does not make the claim that Bacon was an active Rosicrucian  However, he argues that Bacon's "rejection" of magic actually constituted an attempt to purify magic of Catholic, demonic, and esoteric influences and to establish magic as a field of study and application paralleling Bacon's vision of science  Furthermore, Josephson-Storm argues that Bacon drew on magical ideas when developing his experimental method  Josephson-Storm finds evidence that Bacon considered nature a living entity, populated by spirits, and argues Bacon's views on the human domination and application of nature actually depend on his spiritualism and personification of nature The Rosicrucian organization AMORC claims that Bacon was the "Imperator" (leader) of the Rosicrucian Order in both England and the European continent, and would have directed it during his lifetime Bacon's influence can also be seen on a variety of religious and spiritual authors, and on groups that have utilized his writings in their own belief systems 

Bibliography
Some of the more notable works by Bacon are:

Essays
1st edition with 10 essays (1597)
2nd edition with 38 essays (1612)
3rd/final edition with 58 essays (1625)
The Advancement and Proficience of Learning Divine and Human (1605)
Instauratio magna (The Great Instauration) (1620) – a multi-part work including Distributio operis (Plan of the Work); Novum Organum (The New Organon); Parasceve ad historiam naturalem (Preparatory for Natural History) and Catalogus historiarum particularium (Catalogue of Particular Histories)
De augmentis scientiarum (1623) – an enlargement of The Advancement of Learning translated into Latin
New Atlantis (1626)

See also
Cestui que (defence and comment on Chudleigh's Case)
Romanticism and Bacon
Scientia potentia est
Works by Francis Bacon

Notes
Passage 3:
Red Head, Florida
Red Head is an unincorporated community in Washington County, Florida, United States  It is located along State Road 79 north of Ebro, and is the home of a local airstrip named Red Head Airport 
Passage 4:
Head I
Head I is a relatively small oil and tempera on hardboard painting by the Irish-born British figurative artist Francis Bacon  Completed in 1948, it is the first in a series of six heads, the remainder of which were painted the following year in preparation for a November 1949 exhibition at the Hanover Gallery in London  Like the others in the series, it shows a screaming figure alone in a room, and focuses on the open mouth  The work shows a skull which has disintegrated on itself and is largely a formless blob of flesh  The entire upper half has disappeared, leaving only the jaw, mouth and teeth and one ear still intact  It is the first of Bacon's paintings to feature gold background railings or bars; later to become a prominent feature of his 1950s work, especially in the papal portraits where they would often appear as enclosing or cages around the figures  It is not known what influences were behind the image; most likely they were multiple – press or war photography, and critic Denis Farr detects the influence of Matthias Grünewald Bacon juxtaposes traditional elements of portraiture with loose, spontaneous brushwork  In some passages he has rubbed or brushed out (perhaps with a cloth) the paint, a technique art historian Armin Zweite describes as "productive vandalism"   There are a number of ambiguous elements in the work  The hanging tassel rest just above the figure's right ear, giving the impression that it has hooked the head and is pulling it sideways  The gold railings suggest in the top right suggest the corner of a room, while those in the center background may be the headboard of a bed  The upper half is largely void of detail, while the lower portion, particularly the lower third has been heavily reworked, and consists of a blending of white, gray and black pigments The use of heavy impasto gives the impression of animal skin; critic Robert Melville described the "color of wet, black snakes lightly powdered with dust"  In 1951 Bacon said of his choice of colour and gloss; "One of the problems is to paint like Velázquez, but with the texture of a hippopotamus skin", and later "I had an idea in those days that textures should be very much thicker, and therefore the texture of, for instance a rhinoceros skin would help me to think about the texture of the human skin"  Furthering this impression, the mouth and teeth resemble those of a howling fanged animal Bacon began the Head series out of necessity; he was granted the 1949 exhibition at the Hayward a year in advance, but had not painted at all in 1947, and had only a few works he was happy with from 1948  Over time, the series became something quite apart from his initial idea; Head VI turned into the first of his many examinations of Velázquez's c  1650 Portrait of Innocent X 

See also
List of paintings by Francis Bacon
Passage 5:
Sun Ce
Sun Ce (Chinese: 孫策; pinyin: Sūn Cè; Wade–Giles: Sun1 Ts‘ê4) (pronunciation ) (175 – 5 May 200), courtesy name Bofu, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China  He was the eldest child of Sun Jian, who was killed during the Battle of Xiangyang when Sun Ce was only 16  Sun Ce then broke away from his father's overlord, Yuan Shu, and headed to the Jiangdong region in southern China to establish his own power base there  With the help of several people, such as Zhang Zhao and Zhou Yu, Sun Ce managed to lay down the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period 
In 200, when the warlord Cao Cao was at war with his rival Yuan Shao in the Battle of Guandu, Sun Ce was rumoured to be planning an attack on Xuchang, Cao Cao's base  However, he was assassinated before he could carry out the plan  Sun Ce was posthumously honoured as "Prince Huan of Changsha" (長沙桓王) by his younger brother Sun Quan when the latter became the founding emperor of Eastern Wu 
Chen Shou's Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) describes Sun Ce as a handsome man who was full of laughter  He was also a generous and receptive man who employed people according to their abilities  As such, his subjects were willing to risk their lives for him  One detractor named Xu Gong, in a letter to Emperor Xian, compared Sun Ce to Xiang Yu, the warrior-king who overthrew the Qin dynasty  As a result, Sun Ce was also referred to as the "Little Conqueror" in popular culture  Sun Ce is depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu (無雙譜, Table of Peerless Heroes) by Jin Guliang 

Early life and career
Born in 175, Sun Ce was the eldest son of Sun Jian, a military general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty  In 190, a year after Emperor Ling died, the warlord Dong Zhuo usurped power, placing in the throne the puppet Emperor Xian  Regional warlords in eastern China then launched a campaign against Dong Zhuo  Sun Jian rendered his service to Yuan Shu, one of the leaders of the coalition  The attempt to oust Dong Zhuo soon failed and China slid into a series of massive civil wars  In the next year, Sun Jian was sent by Yuan Shu to attack Liu Biao, governor of Jing Province, but he was killed in an ambush 
Sun Ce brought his father's body to Qu'e (曲阿; present-day Danyang, Jiangsu) for burial and settled his mother down before heading for Danyang, where his maternal uncle Wu Jing was the governor  There he raised a small militia a few hundred in strength  This small force was far from sufficient for him to establish his own power so in 194 Sun Ce went to Yuan Shu  Yuan Shu was very impressed with Sun Ce and often lamented that he had no son like him  He also returned Sun Jian's former division of troops to Sun Ce 
Initially, Yuan Shu promised to appoint Sun Ce the governor of Jiujiang but eventually gave the governorship to Chen Ji (陳紀)  Later, when Yuan Shu was denied a large loan of grains from the governor of Lujiang, he sent Sun Ce to attack the latter, promising to make Sun Ce the governor of Lujiang should he succeed  When Sun Ce did, however, Yuan Shu again went back on his words and appointed someone else instead  The disappointed Sun Ce then began to contemplate leaving 
Meanwhile, Liu Yao, who was by imperial decree the governor of Yang Province, occupied Qu'e as the regional seat Shouchun was already occupied by Yuan Shu  He then forced Wu Jing back west across the Yangtze River to Liyang (歷陽; present-day He County, Anhui)  However, Yuan Shu claimed to be the rightful governor and sent Wu Jing and Sun Ce's cousin Sun Ben to attack Liu Yao  After they were unable to break down Liu Yao's defences for more than a year, Sun Ce requested to lead forces to assist the effort 

Conquest of Wu territory
Though Yuan Shu knew Sun Ce intended to leave, he believed the latter would not be able to defeat Liu Yao  Thus he deployed the young general off with merely a thousand odd troops and a tiny cavalry force  Along with a few hundred more willing followers, Sun Ce proceeded to Liyang, where he boosted his strength to more than 5,000  He then launched an offensive across the Yangtze River and successfully occupied the strategic position of Niuzhu (牛渚; southwest of present-day Ma'anshan, Anhui) in 195 
Two of Liu Yao's allies then came south from Pengcheng and Xiapi respectively to aid him  Sun Ce chose to first attack one of them, Ze Rong, who made camp south of Moling  After suffering initial defeat in the hands of the aggressor, Ze Rong fell back in defence and refused to engage in battle  Sun Ce then marched further north and attacked Xue Li (薛禮) in Moling  Although Xue Li soon gave up the city and escaped, Liu Yao's subordinate Fan Neng (樊能) and others had regrouped their forces and launched a renewed attack on Niuzhu  Turning back, Sun Ce defeated Fan Neng and secured Niuzhu  He then began a second offensive against Ze Rong  However, he was struck by a stray arrow in the thigh  Returning to Niuzhu, he sent out false words that he was killed in battle  The exulted Ze Rong then sent a force to attack  Sun Ce led the enemies into an ambush and annihilated them  When Ze Rong heard that Sun Ce was still alive, he further reinforced his defences 
Sun Ce then temporarily gave up attacking Ze Rong and focused his forces on Qu'e  After all the surrounding areas were taken over by Sun Ce, Liu Yao gave up the city and escaped south to Nanchang, capital of Yuzhang Commandery, where he died later  Hua Xin, administrator of Yuzhang, joined Sun's forces  As Sun Ce implemented strict discipline among his troops, he won the instant support of the local people and gathered many talented men, such as Chen Wu, Zhou Tai, Jiang Qin, Zhang Zhao, Zhang Hong, Qin Song, and Lü Fan  He then pushed his force deeper into Yang Province and conquered Kuaiji along the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay, whose governor Wang Lang surrendered  Sun Ce made Kuaiji his base city and struck out at the wandering bandit army led by Yan Baihu  Yan Baihu sent his younger brother Yan Yu (嚴輿) to offer Sun Ce a position alongside Yan Baihu, but Sun Ce showed no mercy and personally slew the emissary  As Yan Yu was known among Yan Baihu's men as a fierce warrior, his death struck fear into their hearts and they were soon defeated  Sun Ce then appointed his relatives and a trusted subject to govern Danyang and Yuzhang, from which he divided a new commandery named Luling (廬陵)  His campaign, from the occupation of Niuzhu to the conquest of the entire region southeast of the Long River, took less than a year  He then defeated and received the services of Zu Lang (祖郎), the Chief of Danyang, and Taishi Ci, the leader of the remnants of Liu Yao's forces; he then urged the surrender of Hua Xin, another one of the remnants of Liu Yao's forces  Thus, with the exception of the scattered but still numerous army of Yan Baihu, the lands south of the Yangtze were mostly pacified 
The barbarians of Shanyue tribe, however, were not easily dealt with  To counter the frequent rebellions of the Shanyue (who would continue to rebel for many years), Sun Ce appointed He Qi to a military rank with orders to subdue the Shanyue  He Qi became a highly successful general later; truly, his appointment by Sun Ce was the first important step to Wu's eventual subjugation of the Shanyue 

Later life
In 197, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor – an act deemed treasonous against the Han dynasty  In a letter to Yuan Shu, Sun Ce denounced the move and broke ties with the former  In an effort to garner support from Sun Ce, the rising warlord Cao Cao then recommended him to be appointed General Who Attacks Rebels (討逆將軍) and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Wu (吳侯)  In 199 Yuan Shu died of sickness along with his short-lived Zhong Dynasty  His cousin Yuan Yin (袁胤) feared Cao Cao and gave up Shouchun  Bringing along Yuan Shu's coffin and his former troops, he headed to Wan County (皖縣; present-day Qianshan County, Anhui) to seek refuge under Liu Xun (劉勳)  As Liu Xun had insufficient food supplies in his realm to support the additional troops, he led a force south to pillage Haihun (海昏; east of present-day Yongxiu County, Jiangxi) 
Sun Ce was en route to attack Huang Zu in Xiakou when he received the news  He then turned back and captured the poorly-defended Wan County, taking over all of Yuan Shu's 30,000 former troops  Hearing that his base city had been taken, Liu Xun headed west and sought help from Huang Zu, who sent a 5,000-strong naval force to assist him  Sun Ce pressed forward and defeated Liu Xun, who escaped north to Cao Cao  Sun Ce annexed more than 2,000 former troops and 1,000 ships of his enemy and came upon Huang Zu  Despite reinforcements from Liu Biao, Huang Zu was utterly defeated  During the battle, Sun Ce slew Liu Biao's officer, Han Xi (韓希), and completely routed Huang Zu's son, Huang She (黃射) 
The victorious Sun Ce in 199 looked poised to take over the entire southern China  As he was threatened by rival Yuan Shao in the north and could not divide his attention, Cao Cao attempted to further reinforce the alliance with Sun Ce by marrying the daughter of his relative Cao Ren to Sun Ce's youngest brother Sun Kuang  Sun Ce in turn agreed to marry Sun Ben's daughter to Cao Cao's son Cao Zhang 
The former administrator of Wu Commandery, Xu Gong, had long opposed Sun Ce  Xu Gong wrote to Emperor Xian, recommending the emperor to summon Sun Ce to the capital as he deemed Sun Ce to be a hero comparable to Xiang Yu and too dangerous to be allowed to occupy a territory  However, the letter was intercepted by an official loyal to Sun Ce, who attacked and then had Xu Gong executed  Xu Gong's former servants then kept a low profile and waited for chance to revenge 
In the year 200, Cao Cao engaged in the decisive Battle of Guandu with Yuan Shao along the shores of the Yellow River, leaving the capital and his base city Xuchang poorly guarded  Sun Ce is said to have then plotted to attack Xuchang under the banner of rescuing Emperor Xian, who was a figurehead under Cao Cao's control  Preparations were underway for the military excursion when Sun Ce ran into three former servants of Xu Gong during a solo hunting trip  One of them managed to plant an arrow into Sun Ce's cheek before Sun Ce's men arrived and slew the assassins  Many differing accounts of Sun Ce's death exist (see below)  One generally accepted scenario is that he died that same night 
Another possible scenario has Sun Ce living for quite some time  The physician told Sun Ce to rest still for a hundred days to allow the wound to heal, but Sun Ce looked into the mirror one day and, seeing his scar, became so enraged that he slammed his table  The large movement caused the wound to break and he died in the same night  Although he was survived by one son, Sun Ce passed his legacy to his younger brother, Sun Quan  When Sun Quan declared himself emperor of the state of Eastern Wu in 222, he honoured Sun Ce with the posthumous title "Prince Huan of Changsha" (長沙桓王) 
Sun Ce was succeeded by a posthumous son, Sun Shao (孫紹), as well as at least two (possibly three) daughters, married to Gu Shao and later Zhu Ji (朱紀), and Lu Xun respectively  Sun Shao bore one son, Sun Feng (孫奉), who was executed by Sun Hao for alleged treason due to his popularity 

Dispute over cause of death
Sun Sheng (孫盛) in his Exposition on Disparities and Similarities (異同評) discounted the theory that Sun Ce made plans to attack Xuchang  He believed that although Sun Ce was a rising power, he was threatened in the west by Huang Zu, who was defeated but not eliminated, in the north by Chen Deng, governor of Guangling Commandery, and in the south by indigenous tribes yet to be assimilated  These prevented Sun Ce from striking far out at Xuchang and moving the emperor to southeastern China  He further argued that Sun Ce died on the fifth day in the fourth month of 200, before the Battle of Guandu even took place 
Pei Songzhi, who annotated the Records of the Three Kingdoms, rebutted Sun Sheng, arguing that Huang Zu was newly broken and had yet to recollect his forces while the indigenous tribes were scattered and not much of a threat  Pei Songzhi believed that the first objective of Sun Ce's planned northward excursion was to attack Chen Deng, which would provide a platform for capturing Xuchang  On the other hand, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao had been engaging in skirmishes and small-scale battles before Sun Ce's death  Thus there was in fact no discrepancy in timing 
A historically implausible legend regarding Sun Ce's death involves a highly respected Taoist priest of his time, Gan Ji (干吉), whom he condemned as a sorcerer due to his popularity  Despite petitions from his subjects and his own mother, Sun Ce ordered Gan Ji's execution  According to In Search of the Supernatural (搜神記) by Gan Bao (干竇), a compilation largely based on legends and hearsay, Sun Ce began to see apparitions of Gan Ji ever since the execution of the latter  After he was injured by assassins, Sun Ce was told by the physician to rest still to allow the wound to heal  However, he looked into the mirror one day and saw Gan Ji's face, whereupon he let out a cry and slammed the mirror  His wound broke and he died shortly  This version was adopted and further dramatised in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, in which Gan Ji's name was taken to be "Yu Ji" (于吉) 

Family
In popular culture
Chinese opera
In Peking opera, Sun Ce's role is usually that of a hero or tragic hero, while his brother, Sun Quan is usually portrayed as a villain at worst or self-seeking at best  Several operas even toy with the idea that Sun Quan had Sun Ce assassinated so that he could take control of the warlord state, though there is no historical evidence to support this view  In the opera Fenghuang Er Qiao, Sun Ce borrows 3,000 troops from Yuan Shu and allies with the Qiao army, which is led by the Two Qiaos  Sun Ce, the protagonist of the opera, eventually gains Da Qiao's hand in marriage through a martial arts contest with the help of Zhou Yu and Xiao Qiao 

Film and television
In the 1983 Shaw Brothers Studio film The Weird Man, Sun Ce has Yu Ji executed and the sorcerer becomes a vengeful ghost  In this film Sun Ce is portrayed as the anti-hero and Yu Ji as the hero due to the controversy between them in the novel  The 1993 Hong Kong film Ninja in Ancient China is also adapted from this story except Yu Ji's apprentices try to avenge him 
Sha Yi portrayed Sun Ce in the 2010 Chinese television series Three Kingdoms 

Comics and anime
In the anime Yokoyama Mitsuteru Sangokushi, Sun Ce fights alongside his father against Dong Zhuo and is befriended by Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei, with whom he trains to become a hero 
The protagonist of the manga/anime Ikki Tousen, Sonsaku Hakufu, is loosely based on the historical figure Sun Ce ("Sonsaku Hakufu" being the Japanese reading of Sun Ce's name and courtesy name)  Her guardian, Shuuyu Koukin, bears the same name and personality as Zhou Yu 
In the anime Kōtetsu Sangokushi, Sun Ce is portrayed as a once kind-hearted and virtuous hero who was corrupted by the power of the Imperial Seal, causing him to kill its protector 
In the Chinese manhua The Ravages of Time, Sun Ce is a cunning, ruthless and manipulative character 

Video games
Sun Ce appears in Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy game series 
Sun Ce is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors video game series, as well as Warriors Orochi, a crossover between Dynasty Warriors and Samurai Warriors 
Sun Ce is also a legendary character in Creative Assembly's Total War: Three Kingdoms, the newest part of the Total War video games series which was released on May 23, 2019 
Sun Ce is also a playable character in the fighting game Sango Fighter 2 

Card games
In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering there is a card named "Sun Ce, Young Conqueror", in the Portal Three Kingdoms set 

See also
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
Eastern Wu family trees

Notes
Passage 6:
Gorgons Head
Gorgons Head (79°33′S 157°30′E) is a peak southeast of Mount Hughes in the Cook Mountains of Antarctica  The peak is sandstone with dolerite intrusions and is a sharp summit ridge  It was named after the Gorgons, three winged creatures of Greek mythology only one of which (Medusa) could be killed by having its head cut off 
Passage 7:
Louise of Savoy
Louise of Savoy (11 September 1476 – 22 September 1531) was a French noble and regent, Duchess suo jure of Auvergne and Bourbon, Duchess of Nemours and the mother of King Francis I and Marguerite of Navarre  She was politically active and served as the regent of France in 1515, in 1525–1526 and in 1529 

Family and early life
Louise of Savoy was born at Pont-d'Ain, the eldest daughter of Philip II, Duke of Savoy and his first wife, Margaret of Bourbon  Her brother, Philibert II, Duke of Savoy, succeeded her father as ruler of the duchy and head of the House of Savoy  He was, in turn, succeeded by their half-brother Charles III, Duke of Savoy 
Because her mother died when she was only seven, she was brought up by Anne de Beaujeu, who was regent of France for her brother Charles VIII  At Amboise she met Margaret of Austria (daughter of Maximlian and Mary of Burgundy), who was betrothed to the young king and with whom Louise would negotiate peace several decades later 

Marriage
At age eleven, Louise married Charles of Orléans, Count of Angoulême, on 16 February 1488 in Paris  She only began living with him when she was fifteen, though  Despite her husband having two mistresses, the marriage was not unhappy and they shared a love for books 
The household of Charles was presided over by his châtelaine Antoinette de Polignac, Dame de Combronde, by whom he had two illegitimate daughters, Jeanne of Angoulême and Madeleine  Antoinette became Louise's lady-in-waiting and confidante  Her children were raised alongside Louise's own  Charles had another illegitimate daughter, Souveraine, by Jeanne le Conte, who also lived in the Angoulême chateau  She would later arrange marriages for her husband's illegitimate children Their first child, Marguerite, was born on 11 April 1492; their second child, Francis, was born on 12 September 1494 
When her husband fell ill after going out riding in the winter of 1495, she nursed him and suffered much grief when he died on 1 January 1496 

Widowed and motherhood
When she was widowed at the young age of 19, Louise deftly manoeuvred her children into a position that would secure for each of them a promising future  Though they remained in Cognac for two years, she moved her family to court at the ascension of King Louis XII, her husband's cousin 
Louise had a keen awareness of the intricacies of politics and diplomacy, and was deeply interested in the advances in arts and sciences in Renaissance Italy  She made certain that her children were educated in the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, also helped by her Italian confessor, Cristoforo Numai from Forlì  She commissioned books specifically for them and she taught Francis Italian and Spanish When Louis XII became ill in 1505, he determined that Francis should succeed him and that both Louise and his wife Anne of Brittany should be part of the regency council  He recovered and Francis became a favourite of the king, who eventually gave him his daughter Claude of France in marriage on 8 May 1514  Following the marriage, Louis XII designated Francis as his heir 

Mother of the King
With the death of Louis XII on 1 January 1515, Francis became king of France  On 4 February 1515, Louise was named Duchess of Angoulême, and on 15 April 1524, Duchess of Anjou 

The Bourbon inheritance
Her mother having been one of the sisters of the last dukes of the main branch of Bourbon, after the death of Suzanne, Duchess of Bourbon, in 1521, Louise, on basis of proximity of blood, advanced claims to the Duchy of Auvergne and other possessions of the Bourbons  This led her (supported by her son) in rivalry against Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, Suzanne's widower, whom she proposed to marry in order to settle the Bourbon inheritance issue  When her suit was insultingly rejected by Charles, Louise instigated efforts to undermine him  This led to Charles' exile and his attempt to regain his lost status by waging war against the King  He died in 1527 having failed to regain his lost lands and titles  Louise recovered Auvergne from confiscations and became duchess in the name of her son 

Regent
Louise of Savoy remained politically active on behalf of her son in the early years of his reign especially  During his absences, she acted as regent on his behalf  Louise served as the Regent of France in 1515, during the king's war in Italy, and again from 1525 to 1526, when the king was at war and during his time as a prisoner in Spain 
In 1524, she sent one of her servants, Jean-Joachim de Passano, to London to open unofficial negotiations with Cardinal Wolsey for a peace treaty; the negotiations were not a success, although they may have prepared the ground for the Treaty of the More the following year 

She initiated friendly relations with the Ottoman Empire by sending a mission to Suleiman the Magnificent requesting assistance, but the mission was lost on its way in Bosnia  In December 1525, a second mission was sent, led by John Frangipani, which managed to reach Constantinople, the Ottoman capital, with secret letters asking for the deliverance of King Francis I and an attack on the Habsburg  Frangipani returned with a positive answer from Suleiman, on 6 February 1526, initiating the first steps of a Franco-Ottoman alliance She was the principal negotiator for the Treaty of Cambrai between France and the Holy Roman Empire, which concluded on 3 August 1529  That treaty, called "the Ladies' Peace", put an end to the second Italian war between the head of the Valois dynasty, Francis I of France, and the head of the Habsburg dynasty, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor  The Treaty temporarily confirmed Habsburg hegemony in Italy  The treaty was signed by Louise of Savoy for France and her sister-in-law, Margaret of Austria, for the Holy Roman Empire 

Death
Louise of Savoy died on 22 September 1531, in Grez-sur-Loing of the plague  Her remains were entombed at Saint-Denis in Paris  After her death, her lands, including Auvergne, merged in the crown  Through her daughter Marguerite (Queen of Navarre) and her granddaughter Jeanne d'Albret, she is the ancestress of the Bourbon kings of France, as her great-grandson, Henry of Navarre, succeeded as Henry IV of France 

Ancestors
Passage 8:
Chen Peisi
Chen Peisi (Chinese: 陈佩斯; born 1 February 1954) is a Chinese sketch comedian, film and stage actor, and voice actor   Chen's oft-time comedy partner is Zhu Shimao 

Name
Chen Peisi is the second son of famous stage and film actor Chen Qiang  Chen Qiang's first son (Chen Peisi's brother) was born in 1951 while he was overseas in the Hungarian capital Budapest performing The White-Haired Girl, so he named his first son Chen Buda (陈布达) after Buda, the western half of Budapest, as he loved the city during the visit   When the second son was born three years later, he named the son Peisi after Pest, the eastern half of Budapest, as the Standard Chinese phonetic translation of Budapest is "Bù Dá Peì Sī"   Chen Qiang's youngest child and daughter Chen Lida (陈丽达) was also named after a part of Budapest — the Margaret Island in the Danube between Buda and Pest 

Biography
Chen was born in Changchun, Jilin on 1 February 1954  In 1966, Chen studied at The High School Affiliated to Beijing Normal University  In 1969, during the Cultural Revolution, he worked in Inner Mongolia Production and Construction Corps  In 1973, Chen worked in August First Film Studio as an actor  In 1991, Chen set up a company named Hainan Comedy Film and Television Limited Company (海南喜剧影视有限公司), then renamed it Dadao Film and Television Limited Company (大道影业有限公司)  In 2000, Chen and his partner Zhu Shimao sued the China International Television Corporation over royalties from broadcasts which they won, but they were then taken off air by the parent company, China Central Television On October 26, 2020, he returned to the CCTV stage and served as the first instructor of the variety show "Gold Medal Comedy Class" after 20 years 

Filmography
Film
Television
Variety show
Passage 9:
Hugi Glacier
Hugi Glacier (66°11′S 65°7′W) is a glacier flowing northward into the head of Holtedahl Bay southwest of Rasnik Peak, on the west coast of Graham Land, Antarctica  It was charted by the British Graham Land Expedition under John Rymill, 1934–37, and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1959 for Franz Joseph Hugi, a Swiss teacher who was called the "father of winter mountaineering," and was author of two pioneer works on glacier phenomena 
Passage 10:
Rivers Inlet, British Columbia
Rivers Inlet is an unincorporated settlement and First Nations community of the Wuikinuxv (Owikeno) people, located at the head of the inlet of the same name in the Central Coast region of British Columbia, Canada   The community is located adjacent to the Wannock River, a short waterway connecting Owikeno Lake to the head of Rivers Inlet 
Passage 11:
Head of Grassy, Kentucky
Head of Grassy is an unincorporated community in Lewis County, Kentucky, United States  Head of Grassy is located on Kentucky Route 59 and the Grassy Fork 14 7 miles (23 7 km) south-southeast of Vanceburg; its name is a misnomer, as it lies 5 miles (8 0 km) downstream from the head of the Grassy Fork  Head of Grassy had a post office, which opened on November 19, 1878, and closed in 1982 or 1984 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Thirukkanur
Thirukkanur is a village in the union territory of Puducherry, India  It is one of 16 villages located in Mannadipet commune panchayat of the Villianur taluk  It is bordered by the state of Tamil Nadu both to the east and west 
Thirukkanur has a primary health center, police station, post office, electricity office and registrar office   The area is mainly oriented to agriculture  Thirukkanur market is the only bazaar catering to the needs of about 20 nearby villages   There is no major industry within the purview area of the Thirukkanar Police Station 


== Notes ==
Passage 2:
Mount Bosworth
Mount Bosworth is located in the Canadian Rockies on the border of Alberta and British Columbia  The mountain is situated immediately northwest of Kicking Horse Pass and straddles the shared border of Banff National Park with Yoho National Park  It was named in 1903 after George Morris Bosworth, an executive and long-time employee of the Canadian Pacific Railway 

Geology
Mount Bosworth is composed of sedimentary rock laid down during the Precambrian to Jurassic periods  Formed in shallow seas, this sedimentary rock was pushed east and over the top of younger rock during the Laramide orogeny 

Climate
Based on the Köppen climate classification, Mount Bosworth is located in a subarctic climate with cold, snowy winters, and mild summers  Temperatures can drop below −20 °C with wind chill factors  below −30 °C 

See also
List of peaks on the Alberta–British Columbia border
List of mountains of Alberta
Mountains of British Columbia
Passage 3:
Berhale (woreda)
Berahle(Baracle) is a woreda in Afar Region, Ethiopia  Part of the Administrative Zone 2, Berahle's territory includes part of the Afar Depression  This woreda is bordered on the south by Afdera and Abala, on the southwest by the Tigray Region, on the west by Koneba, on the north by Dallol, and on the northeast by Eritrea  Towns in Berahle include Berhale and Tayaraboda

Overview
The average elevation in this woreda is 233 meters above sea level  The major body of water in this woreda is the saline Lake Karum (also known as Lake Assela)  As of 2008, Berhale has 236 kilometers of all-weather gravel road; about 13% of the total population has access to drinking water Education in the principal town of Berahle consists of eight grades  In 7 of the 9 rural kebeles, school consists of grades 1 through 4, while in the remaining two kebeles, the students are taught under a tree  As of 2004, a total of 2,501 children, 445 females, are enrolled in the woreda; the number of workers who have completed Grade 12 is between 1-2% and 15% are reported to be literate  Of the woreda and kebele leaders, 3% are literate 

Demographics
Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), this woreda has a total population of 78,881, of whom 45,501 are men and 33,380 women; with an area of 2,509 17 square kilometers, Berahle has a population density of 31 44  While 6,098 or 7 73% are urban inhabitants, a further 7,353 or 9 32% are pastoralists  A total of 11,402 households were counted in this woreda, which results in an average of 6 9 persons to a household, and 11,653 housing units  98 93% of the population said they were Muslim, and 1 03% were Orthodox Christians 


== Notes ==
Passage 4:
Troy Independent School District
Troy Independent School District is a public school district based in Troy, Texas (USA) 
Located in Bell County, the district extends into a small portion of Falls County  In addition to Troy, the district also serves the unincorporated communities of Pendleton, Belfalls, and Oenaville In 2009, the school district was rated "academically acceptable" by the Texas Education Agency 

Schools
Troy High School (Grades 9-12)
Raymond Mays Middle School (Grades 6-8)
Troy Elementary School (Grades 2-5)
Mays Elementary School (Grades PK-1)
Passage 5:
Notogawa, Shiga
Notogawa (能登川町, Notogawa-chō) was a town located in Kanzaki District, Shiga Prefecture, Japan 
Notogawa Station (Location: N35 179899,E136 165913) is the only Japan Railway station in Higashiomi  The station is a rapid stop on the JR Biwako Line, located between stations in Omi-Hachiman to the east and Hikone to the west  The town shares a small border with Lake Biwa to the northwest 

History
On January 1, 2006, Notogawa, along with the town of Gamō (from Gamō District), was merged into the expanded city of Higashiōmi 

Demographics
As of 2005, the town had an estimated population of 23,385 and a density of 751 45 persons per km²  The total area is 31 12 km² 

Sister town
Taber, Alberta, Canada 

External links
 Media related to Notogawa, Shiga at Wikimedia Commons
Passage 6:
Canada–United States border
The Canada–United States border (French: Frontière entre le Canada et les États-Unis) is the longest international border in the world  The terrestrial boundary (including boundaries in the Great Lakes, Atlantic, and Pacific coasts) is 8,891 km (5,525 mi) long  The land border has two sections: Canada's border with the contiguous United States to its south, and with the U S  state of Alaska to its west  The bi-national International Boundary Commission deals with matters relating to marking and maintaining the boundary, and the International Joint Commission deals with issues concerning boundary waters  The agencies currently responsible for facilitating legal passage through the international boundary are the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) and U S  Customs and Border Protection (CBP) 

History
18th century
The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the United States  In the second article of the Treaty, the parties agreed on all boundaries of the United States, including, but not limited to, the boundary to the north along then-British North America  The agreed-upon boundary included the line from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia to the northwesternmost head of the Connecticut River and proceeded down along the middle of the river to the 45th parallel of north latitude 
The parallel had been established in the 1760s as the boundary between the provinces of Quebec and New York (including what would later become the State of Vermont)  It was surveyed and marked by John Collins and Thomas Valentine from 1771 to 1773 The St  Lawrence River and the Great Lakes became the boundary further west, between the United States and what is now Ontario  Northwest of Lake Superior, the boundary followed rivers to the Lake of the Woods  From the northwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods, the boundary was agreed to go straight west until it met the Mississippi River  In fact, that line never meets the river since the river's source is further south 

Jay Treaty (1794)
The Jay Treaty of 1794 (effective 1796) created the International Boundary Commission, which was charged with surveying and mapping the boundary  It also provided for the removal of British military and administration from Detroit, as well as other frontier outposts on the U S  side  The Jay Treaty was superseded by the Treaty of Ghent (effective 1815) concluding the War of 1812, which included pre-war boundaries 

19th century
Signed in December 1814, the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812, returning the boundaries of British North America and the United States to the state they were prior to the war  In the following decades, the United States and the United Kingdom concluded several treaties that settled the major boundary disputes between the two, enabling the border to be demilitarized  The Rush–Bagot Treaty of 1817 provided a plan for demilitarizing the two combatant sides in the War of 1812 and also laid out preliminary principles for drawing a border between British North America and the United States 

London Convention (1818)
The Treaty of 1818 saw expansion of both British North America and the US, where the boundary extended westward along the 49th parallel, from the Northwest Angle at Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains  The treaty extinguished British claims to the south of that line up to the Red River Valley, which was part of Rupert's Land  The treaty also extinguished U S  claims to land north of that line in the watershed of the Missouri River, which was part of the Louisiana Purchase  This amounted to three small areas, consisting of the northern part of the drainages of the Milk River (today in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan), the Poplar River (Saskatchewan), and Big Muddy Creek (Saskatchewan)  Along the 49th parallel, the border vista is theoretically straight, but in practice follows the 19th-century surveyed border markers and varies by several hundred feet in spots 

Webster–Ashburton Treaty (1842)
Disputes over the interpretation of the border treaties and mistakes in surveying required additional negotiations, which resulted in the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842  The treaty resolved the Aroostook War, a dispute over the boundary between Maine, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada  The treaty redefined the border between New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York on the one hand, and the Province of Canada on the other, resolving the Indian Stream dispute and the Fort Blunder dilemma at the outlet to Lake Champlain 
The part of the 45th parallel that separates Quebec from the U S  states of Vermont and New York had first been surveyed from 1771 to 1773 after it had been declared the boundary between New York (including what later became Vermont) and Quebec  It was surveyed again after the War of 1812  The U S  federal government began to construct fortifications just south of the border at Rouses Point, New York, on Lake Champlain  After a significant portion of the construction was completed, measurements revealed that at that point, the actual 45th parallel was three-quarters of a mile (1 2 km) south of the surveyed line  The fort, which became known as "Fort Blunder", was in Canada, which created a dilemma for the U S  that was not resolved until a provision of the treaty left the border on the meandering line as surveyed  The border along the Boundary Waters in present-day Ontario and Minnesota between Lake Superior and the Northwest Angle was also redefined 

Oregon Treaty (1846)
An 1844 boundary dispute during the Presidency of James K  Polk led to a call for the northern boundary of the U S  west of the Rockies to be 54°40′N related to the southern boundary of Russia's Alaska Territory  However, Great Britain wanted a border that followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean  The dispute was resolved in the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary through the Rockies 

Boundary surveys (mid–19th century)
The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–1861) laid out the land boundary  However, the water boundary was not settled for some time  After the Pig War in 1859, arbitration in 1872 established the border between the Gulf Islands and the San Juan Islands 
The International Boundary Survey (or, the "Northern Boundary Survey" in the US) began in 1872  Its mandate was to establish the border as agreed to in the Treaty of 1818  Archibald Campbell led the way for the United States, while Donald Cameron, supported by chief astronomer Samuel Anderson, headed the British team  This survey focused on the border from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains 

20th century
In 1903, following a dispute that arose because of the Klondike Gold Rush, a joint United Kingdom–Canada–U S  tribunal established the boundary of southeast Alaska On April 11, 1908, the United Kingdom and the United States agreed, under Article IV of the Treaty of 1908 "concerning the boundary between the United States and the Dominion of Canada from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean", to survey and delimit the boundary between Canada and the U S  through the St  Lawrence River and Great Lakes, in accordance with modern surveying techniques, and thus accomplished several changes to the border   In 1925, the International Boundary Commission's temporary mission became permanent for maintaining the survey and mapping of the border; maintaining boundary monuments and buoys; and keeping the border clear of brush and vegetation for 6 m (20 ft)  This "border vista" extends for 3 m (9 8 ft) on each side of the line In 1909, under the Boundary Waters Treaty, the International Joint Commission was established for Canada and the U S  to investigate and approve projects that affect the waters and waterways along the border 

21st century
As a result of the 2001 September 11 attacks, the Canada–U S  border was shut without any warning, and no goods or people were allowed to cross  In the wake of the impromptu border closure, procedures were jointly developed to ensure that commercial traffic could cross the border even if people were restricted from crossing  These procedures were later used for a border closure caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 

2020–2021 closure
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada and the United States, the governments of Canada and the United States agreed to close the border to "non-essential" travel on March 21, 2020, for an initial period of 30 days  The closure has been extended 15 times since then; it expired on July 21, 2021  However, in mid-June 2021, the Canadian government announced it will ease some entry requirements for fully vaccinated Canadian citizens, permanent residents, and foreign nationals starting on July 5, 2021  In mid-July, the Canadian government announced that fully vaccinated American citizens and permanent residents can visit Canada starting August 9, 2021  The American government reopened its land border to fully vaccinated Canadian citizens effective November 8, 2021  Provided that COVID cases remain stable and/or decline, fully vaccinated international visitors can enter Canada starting September 7  The 2020–21 closure was reportedly the first blanket, long-term closure of the border since the War of 1812 Essential travel, as defined by Canadian and US regulations, includes travel for employment or education purposes  "Non-essential" travel to Canada, includes travel "for an optional or discretionary purpose, such as tourism, recreation or entertainment " The U S  Department of Homeland Security issued defined non-essential travel to include "tourism purposes (e g , sightseeing, recreation, gambling, or attending cultural events)" and gave an extensive, non-exhaustive definition of what sorts of travel qualify as essential Business advocacy groups, noting the substantial economic impact of the closure on both sides of the border, called for more nuanced restrictions in place of the blanket ban on non-essential travel  The Northern Border Caucus, a group in the US Congress composed of members from border communities, made similar suggestions to the governments of both countries  Beyond the closure itself, US President Donald Trump also initially suggested the idea of deploying United States military personnel near the border with Canada in connection with the pandemic  He later abandoned the idea following vocal opposition from Canadian officials 

Security
Law enforcement approach
The International Boundary is commonly referred to as the world's "longest undefended border", though this is true only in the military sense, as civilian law enforcement is present  It is illegal to cross the border outside border controls, as anyone crossing the border must be checked per immigration and customs laws  The relatively low level of security measures stands in contrast to that of the United States–Mexico border (one-third length of Canada–U S  border), which is actively patrolled by U S  Customs and Border Protection personnel to prevent illegal migration and drug trafficking 

Parts of the International Boundary cross through mountainous terrain or heavily forested areas, but significant portions also cross remote prairie farmland and the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, in addition to the maritime components of the boundary at the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans  The border also runs through the middle of the Akwesasne Nation and even divides some buildings found in communities in New England and Quebec 
The U S  Customs and Border Protection (CBP) identifies the chief issues along the border as domestic and international terrorism; drug smuggling and smuggling of products (such as tobacco) to evade customs duties; and illegal immigration  A June 2019 U S  Government Accountability Office report identified specific staffing and resource shortfalls faced by the CBP on the Northern border that adversely affect enforcement actions; the U S  Border Patrol "identified an insufficient number of agents that limited patrol missions along the northern border" while CBP Air and Marine Operations "identified an insufficient number of agents along the northern border, which limited the number and frequency of air and maritime missions "There are eight U S  Border Patrol sectors based on the Canada–U S  border, each covering a designated "area of responsibility"; the sectors are (from west to east) based in Blaine, Washington; Spokane, Washington; Havre, Montana; Grand Forks, North Dakota; Detroit, Michigan; Buffalo, New York; Swanton, Vermont; and Houlton, Maine Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, security along the border was dramatically tightened by the two countries in both populated and rural areas  Both nations are also actively involved in detailed and extensive tactical and strategic intelligence sharing 
In December 2010, Canada and the United States were negotiating an agreement titled "Beyond the Border: A Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Competitiveness" which would give the U S  more influence over Canada's border security and immigration controls, and more information would be shared by Canada with the U S 

Security measures
Residents of both nations who own property adjacent to the border are forbidden to build within the 6-metre-wide (20 ft) boundary vista without permission from the International Boundary Commission  They are required to report such construction to their respective governments 
All persons crossing the border are required to report to the customs agency of the country they have entered  Where necessary, fences or vehicle blockades are used  In remote areas, where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden sensors on roads, trails, railways, and wooded areas, which are located near crossing points  There is no border zone; the U S  Customs and Border Protection routinely sets up checkpoints as far as 100 miles (160 km) into U S  territory In August 2020, the United States constructed 3 8 km (2 4 mi) of short cable fencing along the border between Abbotsford, British Columbia, and Whatcom County, Washington 

Identification
Prior to 2007, American and Canadian citizens were only required to produce a birth certificate and driver's license/government-issued identification card when crossing the Canada–United States border However, in late 2006, the U S  Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced the final rule of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which pertained to new identification requirements for travelers entering the United States  This rule, which marked the first phase of the initiative, was implemented on January 23, 2007, specifying six forms of identification acceptable for crossing the U S  border (depending on mode):
a valid passport—required in order to enter by air;
a United States passport card;
an enhanced driver's license—issued by the U S  States of Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Vermont, and Washington, as well as the Canadian Provinces of British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec;
a trusted traveler program card (i e  NEXUS, FAST, or SENTRI);
a valid Merchant Mariner Credential—to be used when traveling in conjunction with official maritime business; and
a valid U S  military identification card—to be used when traveling on official orders The requirement of a passport or an enhanced form of identification to enter the United States by air went into effect in January 2007; and went into effect for those entering the U S  by land and sea in January 2008  Although the new requirements for land and sea entry went into legal effect in January 2008, its enforcement did not begin until June 2009  Since June 2009, every traveller arriving via a land or sea port-of-entry (including ferries) has been required to present one of the above forms of identification in order to enter the United States 

Conversely in order to cross into Canada, a traveler must also carry identification, as well as a valid visa (if necessary) when crossing the border  Forms of identification include a valid passport, a Canadian Emergency Travel Document, an enhanced driver's license issued by a Canadian province or territory, or an enhanced identification/photo card issued by a Canadian province or territory  Several other documents may be used by Canadians to identify their citizenship at the border, although use of such documents requires it to be supported with additional photo identification American and Canadian citizens who are members of a trusted traveler program such as FAST or NEXUS, may present their FAST or NEXUS card as an alternate form of identification when crossing the international boundary by land or sea, or when arriving by air from only Canada or the United States  Although permanent residents of Canada and the United States are eligible for FAST or NEXUS, they are required to travel with a passport and proof of permanent residency upon arrival at the Canadian border  American permanent residents who are NEXUS members also require Electronic Travel Authorization when crossing the Canadian border 

Security issues
Smuggling
Smuggling of alcoholic beverages ("rum running") was widespread during the 1920s, when Prohibition was in effect nationally in the United States and parts of Canada 
In more recent years, Canadian officials have brought attention to drug, cigarette, and firearms smuggling from the United States, while U S  officials have made complaints of drug smuggling via Canada  In July 2005, law enforcement personnel arrested three men who had built a 110-metre (360 ft) tunnel under the border between British Columbia and Washington, intended for the use of smuggling marijuana, the first such tunnel known on this border  From 2007 to 2010, 147 people were arrested for smuggling marijuana on the property of a bed-and-breakfast in Blaine, Washington, but agents estimate that they caught only about 5% of smugglers Because of its location, Cornwall, Ontario, experiences ongoing smuggling—mostly of tobacco and firearms from the United States  The neighboring Mohawk territory of Akwesasne straddles the Ontario–Quebec–New York borders, where its First Nations sovereignty prevents Ontario Provincial Police, Sûreté du Québec, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Canada Border Services Agency, Canadian Coast Guard, United States Border Patrol, United States Coast Guard, and New York State Police from exercising jurisdiction over exchanges taking place within the territory 

2009 border occupation
In May 2009, the Mohawk people of Akwesasne occupied the area around the Canada Border Services Agency port of entry building to protest the Canadian government's decision to arm its border agents while operating on Mohawk territory   The north span of the Seaway International Bridge  and the CBSA inspection facilities were closed   During this occupation, the Canadian flag was replaced with the flag of the Mohawk people  Although U S  Customs remained opened to southbound traffic, northbound traffic was blocked on the U S  side by both American and Canadian officials  The Canadian border at this crossing remained closed for six weeks   On July 13, 2009, the CBSA opened a temporary inspection station at the north end of the north span of the bridge in the city of Cornwall, allowing traffic to once again flow in both directions The Mohawk people of Akwesasne have staged ongoing protests at this border   In 2014 they objected to a process that made their crossing more tedious, believing it violated their treaty rights of free passage   When traveling from the U S  to Cornwall Island, they must first cross a second bridge into Canada, for inspection at the new Canadian border station  Discussions between inter-governmental agencies were being pursued on the feasibility of relocating the Canadian border inspection facilities on the U S  side of the border 

2017 border crossing crisis
In August 2017, the border between Quebec and New York saw an influx of up to 500 irregular crossings each day, by individuals seeking asylum in Canada  As a result, Canada increased border security and immigration staffing in the area, reiterating the fact that crossing the border irregularly had no effect on one's asylum status From the beginning of January 2017 up until the end of March 2018, the RCMP intercepted 25,645 people crossing the border into Canada from an unauthorized point of entry  Public Safety Canada estimates another 2,500 came across in April 2018 for a total of just over 28,000 

Border lengths and regions
The length of the terrestrial boundary is 8,891 km (5,525 mi), of which 6,416 km (3,987 mi) is against the contiguous 48 states, and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) against Alaska  Eight out of thirteen provinces and territories of Canada and thirteen out of fifty U



ground_truth: Nicholas Bacon

Sir Nicholas Bacon

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What else happened in the northern part of Erich Zakowski's birthplace in the now Russian area?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Arenal Volcano Emergency Forest Reserve
Arenal Volcano Emergency Forest Reserve is a Forest Reserve, part of the Arenal Huetar Norte Conservation Area, in the northern part of Costa Rica in the emergency zone of the Arenal Volcano  It was created in 1972 covering an area of forest, and there are no public facilities at the reserve 
Passage 2:
Occupation of Gori
The Occupation of Gori was the military occupation of Gori and its surrounding areas by Russian military forces, which started on 13 August 2008 as part of the Russo-Georgian War; it ended with the withdrawal of Russian units from the city on 22 August 2008 

Background and initial airstrikes
Gori is a strategic city in central Georgia, about 25 km (16 mi) from Tskhinvali  Gori is a major military installation and transportation hub in Georgia  75 tanks and armored personnel carriers (a third of the Georgian military's arsenal) were assembled near Gori on 7 August Around 6:27 AM on 9 August 2008, Reuters reported that two Russian fighters had bombed a Georgian artillery position about 10 km north of Gori  On 9 August, a Russian air attack targeted military barracks in Gori  In the resulting explosion, besides the base, several apartment buildings and a school were also damaged  The Georgian government reported that 60 civilians were killed when bombs hit the apartment buildings  According to the Russian media, Russian aircraft dropped three bombs on an armament depot, and the façade of one of the adjacent 5-story apartment buildings suffered damage as a result of exploding ammunition from the depot  Russian aircraft had bombed at least five Georgian cities by 9 August 

Georgian abandonment
Following its defeat in Tskhinvali, the Georgian Army regrouped at Gori  Georgian military entered the city on 10 August  On 10 August, BBC reported that people were leaving Gori because they feared of Russian advance towards the city  The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and World Food Programme determined that about 80 percent of residents had left Gori as of 10 August  Russians began advancing towards Gori On 11 August 2008, the Georgian forces retreated from Gori  A senior Georgian security official, Kakha Lomaia, said that the troops were ordered to defend Tbilisi  Police sealed off the highway from Tbilisi, and did not allow any cars into the city  The Russian attacks were met with Georgian artillery firing towards South Ossetia, and at least six Georgian helicopters were reported to have also attacked targets in South Ossetia  A Times reporter described the Georgian withdrawal as "sudden and dramatic", saying that the "residents watched in horror" as their army abandoned their positions  Georgian tanks and armored personnel carries fled to Tbilisi  A tank exploded on the mountain road due to unspecified reasons, and an armored car pushing it out of the way also caught fire  Georgian infantry fled the city by any means available  Five soldiers escaped the city on one Quad bike  By late 11 August, Gori was deserted after most remaining residents and Georgian soldiers had fled   Initial Georgian reports that Russian troops were in Gori, were later discounted by Georgia Georgian armed forces concentrated on holding Mtskheta, 15 miles (24 km) from the capital Tbilisi  Deputy Defense Minister Batu Kutelia said that the defense line was being moved to Mtskheta 

The final air attacks
On 12 August 2008, a Dutch television journalist Stan Storimans was killed and another journalist injured when Russian warplanes bombed the city  As a result of the explosion 7 people were killed, over 30 were injured  Georgian officials said Russian forces had been targeting the city's administrative buildings; the university of Gori and its post office were on fire after the bombings  Russia's deputy head of the General Staff, Colonel-General Anatoliy Nogovitsyn, denied that Russian forces had attacked the town  That day, a missile struck the Gori Military Hospital Human Rights Watch (HRW), an international rights group, accused Russia of deploying indiscriminately deadly cluster bombs in civilian areas Russian military official denied using cluster munitions  Numerous unexploded submunitions were subsequently found by local population in the Gori district and the HRW documented them 

Russian occupation
Several hours after the ceasefire agreement was reached, a Russian tank battalion occupied parts of Gori  Rumors of a possible attack on Tbilisi circulated  Russian troops took control of Gori on 13 August 2008  Russian troops said they were removing military hardware and ammunition from an arms depot outside Gori  A Russian armored column left Gori, traveling along the main road to Tbilisi  Russian forces then halted their advance and camped out in a field about an hour's drive from Tbilisi In the morning of 14 August,vehicles from the Georgian police and military prepared to re-enter Gori  Russian major general Vyacheslav Borisov told Aleksandre Lomaia, secretary of Georgia's National Security Council, that the residents of Gori were not disturbed by the Russians' presence  Later, Russian forces allowed Georgian police to return  Vyacheslav Borisov claimed that the city of Gori was controlled jointly by Georgian Police and Russian troops  He further said that Russian troops would start leaving Gori in two days  But joint patrols soon broke down because of apparent discord among personnel and the city returned to full Russian control  More than 30 police officers returned to a Georgian post outside the city Russian forces pushed to about 25 miles (40 km) from Tbilisi, the closest during the war; they stopped in Igoeti 41°59′22″N 44°25′04″E  The parts of Georgia’s army, which had manned a narrow front in the immediate vicinity down the road, maintained their positions  The Russian move coincided with the U S  Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice’s meeting with Georgian president Saakashvili on 15 August "Now Ossetians are running around and killing poor Georgians in their enclaves," said Major-General Vyacheslav Borisov on 14 August  A Russian lieutenant said: "We have to be honest  The Ossetians are marauding " Answering a journalist's question, a Russian lieutenant colonel said: "We're not a police force, we're a military force  [   ] It's not our job to do police work " The New York Times noted, that "the Russian military might be making efforts in some places to stop the rampaging"  On 17 August, BBC reported that humanitarian aid was being delivered to the city  The Russian commander in Gori said his troops were staying to prevent looting and would leave when Georgian police was ready to take over According to the Hague Convention, an occupying power has to insure public order and safety in the occupied areas  The Russian human rights group Memorial called the attacks by South Ossetian militia "pogroms" 

Russian pullout of Gori
The last Russian military formations left the city late on 22 August 2008, and Georgian law enforcement units moved into Gori shortly thereafter 
Passage 3:
Davidson, New South Wales
Davidson is a suburb on the Northern Beaches of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia  Davidson is located 20 kilometres north of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of Northern Beaches Council  Davidson is part of the Forest District 

Location
Davidson is adjacent to Belrose and Frenchs Forest and is located on the eastern edge of the Garigal National Park  Davidson is located approximately 15 kilometres (9 3 mi) from the Sydney CBD 
Davidson comprises part of the "Forest" area, which also encompasses the suburbs of Belrose, Frenchs Forest, Forestville, Killarney Heights, Terrey Hills and Duffys Forest  The Forest forms part of the Northern Beaches Council jurisdiction, which encompasses a large part of the Northern Beaches area of Sydney 

History
Davidson was named for Sir Walter Davidson, Governor of New South Wales from 18 February 1918 to 4 September 1923  A park was dedicated in his honour in this area in 1923 and the developing suburb later took this name  Davidson began life as a mining quarry, with residential developments not beginning until the late 1970s  
The area faced a significant threat in January 1994 when bushfires in the Garigal National Park came dangerously close to the suburb   These fires were suppressed by the brigades of the Warringah/Pittwater Rural Fire Service from entering the Davidson Valley System 

Geography
Davidson features uneven topography, in large part due to the area’s origins as a mining quarry, as well as its proximity to Garigal National Park  Steep descents are evident in Stone Parade, Borgnis Street and Maitland Street, whereas more undulatory landscapes can be seen along parts of Prahran Avenue and Kambora Avenue 
The Eucalyptus trees and Liquid Ambers that line the streets of Davidson provide a pleasant backdrop for those living in the suburb  They also provide a haven for large numbers of native birds such as Kookaburras, Galahs and Rainbow Lorikeets 

Parks
Davidson has many parks  The suburb adjoins Garigal and Kur-ing-gai Chase National Parks and in addition, has numerous other reserves suitable for picnics, ambling and quiet moments of reflection  These include McFarlane Reserve, Maitland Street Reserve, Aranda Place Reserve and Richard Healy Oval, to name but a few 

Education
Davidson is home to two primary schools:

Kambora Public School
St Martin De Porres Catholic Primary SchoolDavidson High School is named for the suburb, but is located in neighbouring suburb Frenchs Forest 

Commercial and Fire Brigade
A shopping complex on the corner of Yindela Street and Pound Avenue contains a small number of commercial premises, including a popular café, a hairdressers salon and a sports injury clinic  The complex also contains the only apartment accommodation in the suburb 
Davidson is also home to the Davidson Rural Fire Brigade since the station relocated from Cannons Parade Forestville in 1976  The Station has approximately 110 members, including former Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott, and is one of 13 Brigades in the Warringah/Pittwater District of the New South Wales Rural Fire Service (RFS) 
On 2 October 2013 a small bush fire swept through the national park in the area behind Maitland Street and Cambage Court, Frenchs Forest  No homes were directly threatened due to the fast action of the RFS  Ultimately, the fire was contained without any loss of property 

Population
At the 2016 census, there were 2,849 residents in Davidson  The most common ancestries in Davidson were English 32 1%, Australian 24 1%, Irish 9 1%, Scottish 7 6% and Chinese 2 8%   68 3% of people were born in Australia  The next most common countries of birth was England at 10 3%  84 8% of people only spoke English at home  The most common responses for religion were No Religion 32 7%, Catholic 23 8% and Anglican 22 3% 
The median weekly household income in Davidson was $2,630, higher than the national median of $1,438  In Davidson, the majority of the dwellings are separate houses (97 7%), with a total of just 20 properties that were semi-detached or units 

Notable residents
Michael Hutchence – Former frontman of the Australian band INXS
Matt Shirvington – Olympic athlete, sprinter and television news presenter
Peter Hardcastle – Olympic level athlete, rowing, three time Olympian 2000, 2004 & 2008
Robert Lee – Mythbusters narrator

Culture
Davidson garners attention each December for its residents' enthusiastic display of Christmas lights  The "Davidson Lights" draw families from all over Sydney  Borgnis Street provides the centre of the nightly celebrations in the lead-up to Christmas, however the festive spirit is spread widely throughout the suburb with residents of Stone Parade and its various cul-de-sacs also actively participating 

Transport
Davidson's mode of public transport is solely operated by bus services operated by CDC NSW  The bus routes go throughout the suburb regularly with routes straight to the City and Chatswood, while residents who want to go Manly can do so by catching any bus that would take them to Forestway, where they can get a transfer 
Passage 4:
Mizugaki
Mizugaki is a climbing area in Japan, located in the northern part of the Yamanashi Prefecture  The forest of Mizugaki is owned by the Emperor of Japan It is known for highball bouldering and long trad lines 
The rock consists of granite with many natural pockets  
Because of the higher altitude it is also possible to climb in Mizugaki during the summer Jason Kehl can be seen climbing in Mizugaki in the movie Big in Japan  He praises Mizugaki for its beautiful forest setting 
Passage 5:
Erich Zakowski
Erich Zakowski (born 25 November 1934 in East Prussia) is a German master mechanic, and the founder and longtime head of the Zakspeed racing team 
After the Second World War, Zakowski fled from Prussia with his mother and four siblings initially to Dortmund then Hamburg and finally the family settled in Niederzissen  Zakowski graduated in Andernach as an apprentice auto mechanic, and passed his master exam  He founded his own garage in Niederzissen, which was the location of the Zakspeed racing operation, starting in 1968  In 1968, under the name "Zakowski Niederzissen tuning", he started using a Ford Escort for the Eifel race on the Nürburgring 
In the 1970s and 1980s, under the direction of Erich Zakowski, Zakspeed established itself in various racing series, (especially in sports car racing)  Zakspeed entered the Formula 1 series in 1985  In 1990, after five years of racing, Zakowski retired active leadership of the team and handed it to his son Peter 
Passage 6:
East Prussia
East Prussia (German: Ostpreußen) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and again from 1878 (with the Kingdom itself being part of the German Empire from 1871); following World War I it formed part of the Weimar Republic's Free State of Prussia, until 1945  Its capital city was Königsberg (present-day Kaliningrad)  East Prussia was the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast The bulk of the ancestral lands of the Baltic Old Prussians were enclosed within East Prussia  During the 13th century, the native Prussians were conquered by the crusading Teutonic Knights  After the conquest the indigenous Balts were gradually converted to Christianity  Because of Germanization and colonisation over the following centuries, Germans became the dominant ethnic group, while Masurians and Lithuanians formed minorities  From the 13th century, East Prussia was part of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights  After the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466 it became a fief of the Kingdom of Poland  In 1525, with the Prussian Homage, the province became the Duchy of Prussia  The Old Prussian language had become extinct by the 17th or early 18th century Because the duchy was outside of the core Holy Roman Empire, the prince-electors of Brandenburg were able to proclaim themselves King beginning in 1701  After the annexation of most of western Royal Prussia in the First Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, eastern (ducal) Prussia was connected by land with the rest of the Prussian state and was reorganized as a province the following year (1773)  Between 1829 and 1878, the Province of East Prussia was joined with West Prussia to form the Province of Prussia 
The Kingdom of Prussia became the leading state of the German Empire after its creation in 1871  However, the Treaty of Versailles following World War I granted West Prussia to Poland and made East Prussia an exclave of Weimar Germany (the new Polish Corridor separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany), while the Memel Territory was detached and annexed by Lithuania in 1923  Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, war-torn East Prussia was divided at Joseph Stalin's insistence between the Soviet Union (the Kaliningrad Oblast became part of the Russian SFSR, and the constituent counties of the Klaipėda Region in the Lithuanian SSR) and the People's Republic of Poland (the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship)  The capital city Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946  The German population of the province was largely evacuated during the war or expelled shortly afterwards in the expulsion of Germans after World War II  An estimated 300,000 died either in wartime bombing raids, in the battles to defend the province, or through mistreatment by the Red Army or  from hunger, cold and disease 

Background
At the instigation of Duke Konrad I of Masovia, the Teutonic Knights took possession of Prussia in the 13th century and created a monastic state to administer the conquered Old Prussians  Local Old-Prussian (north) and Polish (south) toponyms were gradually Germanised  The Knights' expansionist policies, including occupation of Polish Pomerania with Gdańsk/Danzig and western Lithuania, brought them into conflict with the Kingdom of Poland and embroiled them in several wars, culminating in the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War, whereby the united armies of Poland and Lithuania, defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) in 1410  Its defeat was formalised in the Second Treaty of Thorn in 1466 ending the Thirteen Years' War, and leaving the former Polish region Pomerania/Pomerelia under Polish control  Together with Warmia it formed the province of Royal Prussia  Eastern Prussia remained under the Knights but as a fief of Poland  1466 and 1525 arrangements by kings of Poland were not verified by the Holy Roman Empire, as well as the previous gains of the Teutonic Knights, were not verified 
The Teutonic Order lost eastern Prussia when Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach converted to Lutheranism and secularized the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order in 1525  Albert established himself as the first duke of the Duchy of Prussia and a vassal of the Polish crown by the Prussian Homage  Walter von Cronberg, the next Grand Master, was enfeoffed with the title to Prussia after the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, but the Order never regained possession of the territory  In 1569 the Hohenzollern prince-electors of the Margraviate of Brandenburg became co-regents with Albert's son, the feeble-minded Albert Frederick 
The Administrator of Prussia, the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order Maximilian III, son of emperor Maximilian II died in 1618  When Maximilian died, Albert's line died out, and the Duchy of Prussia passed to the Electors of Brandenburg, forming Brandenburg-Prussia  Taking advantage of the Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655, and instead of fulfilling his vassal's duties towards the Polish Kingdom, by joining forces with the Swedes and subsequent treaties of Wehlau, Labiau, and Oliva, Elector and Duke Frederick William succeeded in revoking the king of Poland's sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia in 1660  The absolutist elector also subdued the noble estates of Prussia 

History as a province
Kingdom of Prussia
Although Brandenburg was a part of the Holy Roman Empire, the Prussian lands were not within the Holy Roman Empire and were with the administration by the Teutonic Order grandmasters under jurisdiction of the Emperor  In return for supporting Emperor Leopold I in the War of the Spanish Succession, Elector Frederick III was allowed to crown himself "King in Prussia" in 1701  The new kingdom ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty became known as the Kingdom of Prussia  The designation "Kingdom of Prussia" was gradually applied to the various lands of Brandenburg-Prussia  To differentiate it from the larger entity, the former Duchy of Prussia became known as Altpreußen ("Old Prussia"), the province of Prussia, or "East Prussia" 
Approximately one-third of East Prussia's population died in the Great Northern War plague outbreak and famine of 1709–1711, including the last speakers of Old Prussian  The plague, probably brought by foreign troops during the Great Northern War, killed 250,000 East Prussians, especially in the province's eastern regions  Crown Prince Frederick William I led the rebuilding of East Prussia, founding numerous towns  Thousands of Protestants expelled from the Archbishopric of Salzburg were allowed to settle in depleted East Prussia  The province was overrun by Imperial Russian troops during the Seven Years' War 

In the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i e , the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Chełmno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby connecting his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting the rest of Poland from the Baltic coast  The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1772 were named East Prussia  The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Chełmno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) in 1773  The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1772, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself a King "of" Prussia 
The former Ducal Prussian districts of Eylau (Iława), Marienwerder, Riesenburg (Prabuty) and Schönberg (Szymbark) passed to West Prussia  Until the Prussian reforms of 1808, the administration in East Prussia was transferred to the General War and Finance Directorate in Berlin, represented by two local chamber departments:

German chamber department at Königsberg with the districts of:
Brandenburg
Neidenburg
Rastenburg
Samland
Tapiau
Braunsberg (Ermland)
Heilsberg (Ermland)
Mohrungen (Ermland)
Lithuanian chamber department at Gumbinnen (Gusev) with the districts of:
Gumbinnen
Insterburg
Memel
Olecko
Ragnit
Seehesten (Sensburg)
TilsitOn 31 January 1773, King Frederick II announced that the newly annexed lands were to be known as the Province of West Prussia, while the former Duchy of Prussia and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia became the Province of East Prussia 

Napoleonic Wars
After the disastrous defeat of the Royal Prussian Army at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, Napoleon occupied Berlin and had the officials of the Prussian General Directorate swear an oath of allegiance to him, while King Frederick William III and his consort Louise fled via Königsberg and the Curonian Spit to Memel  The French Grande Armée troops immediately took up pursuit but were delayed in the Battle of Eylau on 9 February 1807 by an East Prussian contingent under General Anton Wilhelm von L'Estocq  Napoleon had to stay at the Finckenstein Palace, but in May, after a siege of 75 days, his troops led by Marshal François Joseph Lefebvre were able to capture the city of Danzig, which had been tenaciously defended by General Count Friedrich Adolf von Kalkreuth  On 14 June, Napoleon ended the War of the Fourth Coalition with his victory at the Battle of Friedland  Frederick William and Queen Louise met with Napoleon for peace negotiations, and on 9 July the Prussian king signed the Treaty of Tilsit 
The succeeding Prussian reforms instigated by Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg included the implementation of an Oberlandesgericht appellation court at Königsberg, a municipal corporation, economic freedom as well as emancipation of the serfs and Jews  In the course of the Prussian restoration by the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the East Prussian territories were re-arranged in the Regierungsbezirke of Gumbinnen and Königsberg  From 1905, the southern districts of East Prussia formed the separate Regierungsbezirk of Allenstein  East and West Prussia were first united in personal union in 1824 and then merged in a real union in 1829 to form the Province of Prussia  The united province was again split into separate East and West Prussian provinces in 1878 

German Empire
From 1824 to 1878, East Prussia was combined with West Prussia to form the Province of Prussia, after which they were reestablished as separate provinces  Along with the rest of the Kingdom of Prussia, East Prussia became part of the German Empire during the unification of Germany in 1871 

From 1885 to 1890 Berlin's population grew by 20%, Brandenburg and the Rhineland gained 8 5%, Westphalia 10%, while East Prussia lost 0 07% and West Prussia 0 86%  This stagnancy in population despite a high birth surplus in eastern Germany was because many people from the East Prussian countryside moved westward to seek work in the expanding industrial centres of the Ruhr Area and Berlin (see Ostflucht) 
The population of the province in 1900 was 1,996,626 people, with a religious makeup of 1,698,465 Protestants, 269,196 Roman Catholics, and 13,877 Jews  The Low Prussian dialect predominated in East Prussia, although High Prussian was spoken in Warmia  The numbers of Masurians, Kursenieki and Prussian Lithuanians decreased over time due to the process of Germanization  The Polish-speaking population concentrated in the south of the province (Masuria and Warmia) and all German geographic atlases at the start of 20th century showed the southern part of East Prussia as Polish with the number of Polish-speakers estimated at the time to be 300,000  Kursenieki inhabited the areas around the Curonian lagoon, while Lithuanian-speaking Prussians concentrated in the northeast in (Lithuania Minor)  The Old Prussian ethnic group became completely Germanized over time and the Old Prussian language died out in the 18th century 

World War I
At the German entry into World War I, East Prussia became a theatre of war when the Russian Empire invaded the country  The Imperial Russian Army encountered at first little resistance because the bulk of the Imperial German Army had been directed towards the Western Front according to the Schlieffen Plan  Despite early success and the capture of the towns of Rastenburg and Gumbinnen, in the Battle of Tannenberg in 1914 and the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes in 1915, the Russians were decisively defeated and forced to retreat  The Russians were followed by the German Army advancing into Russian territory 
After the Russian army's first invasion the majority of the civilian population fled westwards, while several thousand remaining civilians were deported to Russia  Treatment of civilians by both armies was mostly disciplined, although 74 civilians were killed by Russian troops in the Abschwangen massacre  The region had to be rebuilt because of damage caused by the war 

Division after 1918
Weimar Republic
With the forced abdication of Emperor Wilhelm II in the German Revolution of 1918–1919, Germany became a republic  Most of the former Prussian provinces of West Prussia and Posen, territories annexed by Prussia in the 18th century Partitions of Poland, were ceded to the Second Polish Republic according to the Treaty of Versailles  East Prussia became an exclave, being separated from mainland Germany  The Memelland was also separated from the province  Because most of West Prussia became part of the Second Polish Republic as the Polish Corridor, the formerly West Prussian Marienwerder region became part of East Prussia as the administrative district (Regierungsbezirk) of West Prussia  Also, the Soldau district in the Allenstein region became part of the Second Polish Republic  The Seedienst Ostpreußen (Sea Service East Prussia) was established to provide an independent transport service to East Prussia 
On 11 July 1920, amidst the backdrop of the Polish-Soviet War in which the Second Polish Republic appeared to be on the brink of defeat, the East Prussian plebiscite in eastern West Prussia and southern East Prussia was held under Allied supervision to determine if the areas should join Poland or remain in the Weimar Germany Province of East Prussia  96 7% of the people voted to remain within Germany (97 89% in the East Prussian plebiscite district) 
The Klaipėda Territory (Memelland), a League of Nations mandate since 1920, was occupied by the Lithuanian Armed Forces in 1923 and annexed without giving the inhabitants a choice by ballot 

Nazi Germany
After Adolf Hitler's rise to power, opposition politicians were persecuted and newspapers banned  Erich Koch, who headed the East Prussian Nazi party from 1928, led the district from 1932  The Otto-Braun-House was requisitioned to become the headquarters of the SA, which used the house to imprison and torture its opponents  Walter Schütz, a communist member of the Reichstag, was murdered here  This period was characterized by efforts to collectivize the local agriculture and ruthlessness in dealing with his [whose? Koch's?] critics inside and outside the Nazi Party  He also had long-term plans for mass-scale industrialization of the largely agricultural province  These actions made him unpopular among the local peasants  In 1932 the local paramilitary SA had already started to terrorise their political opponents  On the night of 31 July 1932 there was a bomb attack on the headquarters of the Social Democrats in Königsberg, the Otto-Braun-House  The Communist politician Gustav Sauf was killed; the executive editor of the Social Democratic newspaper "Königsberger Volkszeitung", Otto Wyrgatsch; and the German People's Party politician Max von Bahrfeldt were all severely injured  Members of the Reichsbanner were assaulted while the local Reichsbanner Chairman of Lötzen, Kurt Kotzan, was murdered on 6 August 1932 In the March 1933 German federal election, the last pre-war German elections, the local population of East Prussia voted overwhelmingly for the Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party 
Through publicly funded emergency relief programs concentrating on agricultural land-improvement projects and road construction, the "Erich Koch Plan" for East Prussia allegedly made the province free of unemployment: on 16 August 1933 Koch reported to Hitler that unemployment had been banished entirely from the province, a feat that gained admiration throughout the Reich  In actuality, the Erich Koch Plan had been a staged propaganda event organized by Walther Funk and the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda to promote the Nazi Party's work creation policies, with East Prussia chosen because it already had relatively low unemployment due to its agrarian economy  Koch's industrialization plans provoked conflict with Richard Walther Darré, who held the office of the Reich Peasant Leader (Reichsbauernführer) and Minister of Agriculture  Darré, a neopaganist rural romantic, wanted to enforce his vision of an agricultural East Prussia   When his "Land" representatives challenged Koch's plans, Koch arrested them In 1938 the Nazis changed about one-third of the toponyms of the area, eliminating, Germanizing, or simplifying a number of Old Prussian, as well as those Polish or Lithuanian names originating from colonists and refugees to Prussia during and after the Protestant Reformation  More than 1,500 places were ordered to be renamed by 16 July 1938 following a decree issued by Gauleiter and Oberpräsident Erich Koch and initiated by Adolf Hitler  Many who would not cooperate with the rulers of Nazi Germany were sent to concentration camps and held prisoner there until their death or liberation 
After the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania, the Klaipėda region was integrated again into East Prussia 

World War II
After the 1939 invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany opening World War II, the borders of East Prussia were revised  Regierungsbezirk Westpreußen became part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, while Regierungsbezirk Zichenau was added to East Prussia  Originally part of the Zichenau region, the Sudauen district in Sudovia was later transferred to the Gumbinnen region 
In 1939 East Prussia had 2 49 million inhabitants, 85% of them ethnic Germans, the others Poles in the south who, according to Polish estimates numbered in the interwar period around 300,000-350,000, the Latvian speaking Kursenieki, and Lietuvininkai who spoke Lithuanian in the northeast  Most German East Prussians, Masurians, Kursieniki, and Lietuvininkai were Lutheran, while the population of Ermland was mainly Roman Catholic due to the history of its bishopric  The East Prussian Jewish Congregation declined from about 9,000 in 1933 to 3,000 in 1939, as most fled from Nazi rule 
During World War II, the Polish ethnic minorities of Catholic Warmians and Lutheran Masurians were persecuted by the Nazi German government, which wanted to erase all aspects of Polish culture and Polish language in Warmia and Masuria The Jews who remained in East Prussia in 1942 were shipped to concentration camps, including Theresienstadt in occupied Czechoslovakia, Kaiserwald in occupied Latvia, and camps in Minsk in occupied Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic  Those who remained were later deported and killed in the Holocaust 
In 1939 the Regierungsbezirk Zichenau was annexed by Germany and incorporated into East Prussia  Parts of it were transferred to other regions, e g  Suwałki Region to Regierungsbezirk Gumbinnen and Soldau to Regierungsbezirk Allenstein  Despite Nazi propaganda presenting all of the regions annexed as possessing significant German populations that wanted reunification with Germany, the Reich's statistics of late 1939 show that only 31,000 out of 994,092 people in this territory were ethnic Germans Hitler's top-secret Eastern front headquarters during the war, the Wolf's Lair, was located in East Prussia, near the town of Rasternburg 
East Prussia was only slightly affected by the war until January 1945, when it was devastated during the East Prussian Offensive  Most of its inhabitants became refugees in bitterly cold weather during the Evacuation of East Prussia 

Evacuation of East Prussia
In 1944 the medieval city of Königsberg, which had never been severely damaged by warfare in its 700 years of existence, was almost completely destroyed by two RAF Bomber Command raids – the first on the night of 26/27 August 1944, with the second one three nights later, overnight on 29/30 August 1944  Winston Churchill (The Second World War, Book XII) had erroneously believed it to be "a modernized heavily defended fortress" and ordered its destruction 
Gauleiter Erich Koch delayed the evacuation of the German civilian population until the Eastern Front approached the East Prussian border in 1944  The population had been systematically misinformed by Endsieg Nazi propaganda about the real state of military affairs  As a result, many civilians fleeing westward were overtaken by retreating Wehrmacht units and the rapidly advancing Red Army 
Reports of Soviet atrocities in the Nemmersdorf massacre of October 1944 and organized rape spread fear and desperation among the civilians  Thousands lost their lives during the sinkings (by Soviet submarine) of the evacuation ships Wilhelm Gustloff, the Goya, and the General von Steuben  Königsberg surrendered on 9 April 1945, following the desperate four-day Battle of Königsberg  An estimated 300,000 died either in wartime bombing raids, in the battles to defend the province, or through mistreatment by the Red Army or from hunger, cold and disease However, most of the German inhabitants, which then consisted primarily of women, children and old men, did manage to escape the Red Army as part of the largest exodus of people in human history: "A population which had stood at 2 2 million in 1940 was reduced to 193,000 at the end of May 1945 "

History after partition and annexation
Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, East Prussia was partitioned between Poland and the Soviet Union according to the Potsdam Conference, pending a final peace conference with Germany  Since a peace conference never took place, the region was effectively ceded by Germany  Southern East Prussia was placed under Polish administration, while northern East Prussia was divided between the Soviet republics of Russia (the Kaliningrad Oblast) and Lithuania (the constituent counties of the Klaipėda Region)  The city of Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946  Most of the German population of the province had left during the evacuation at the end of the war, but several hundreds of thousands died during the years 1944–46 and the remainder were subsequently expelled 

Expulsion of Germans from East Prussia after World War II
Shortly after the end of the war in May 1945, Germans who had fled in early 1945 tried to return to their homes in East Prussia  An estimated number of 800,000 Germans were living in East Prussia during the summer of 1945  Many more were prevented from returning, and the German population of East Prussia was almost completely expelled by the communist regimes  During the war and for some time thereafter 45 camps were established for about 200,000-250,000 forced labourers, the vast majority of whom were deported to the Soviet Union, including the Gulag camp system  The largest camp with about 48,000 inmates was established at Deutsch Eylau (Iława)  Orphaned children who were left behind in the zone occupied by the Soviet Union were referred to as Wolf children 

Southern East Prussia to Poland
Representatives of the Polish government officially took over the civilian administration of the southern part of East Prussia on 23 May 1945  Subsequently, Polish expatriates from Polish lands annexed by the Soviet Union as well as Ukrainians and Lemkos from southern Poland, expelled in Operation Vistula, were settled in the area, initially organised as the Masurian District, later replaced by the Olsztyn Voivodeship in 1947, with a few counties incorporated into Białystok Voivodeship and to Gdańsk Voivodeship  The latter counted in 1950 689,000 inhabitants, 22 6% of them coming from areas annexed by the Soviet Union, 10% Ukrainians, and 18 5% of them pre-war inhabitants  It was dissolved in 1975 to form three smaller units: a much smaller homonymous Olsztyn Voivodeship, the bulk of Elbląg Voivodeship and a significant part of the Suwałki Voivodeship 
The remaining pre-war population was treated as Germanized Poles and a policy of re-Polonization was pursued throughout the country Most of these "Autochthons" chose to emigrate to West Germany from the 1950s through 1980s (between 1970 and 1988 55,227 persons from Warmia and Masuria moved to Western Germany)  Local toponyms were Polonised by the Polish Commission for the Determination of Place Names 

Origin of the post-war population
During the Polish post-war census of December 1950, data about the pre-war places of residence of the inhabitants as of August 1939 was collected  In case of children born between September 1939 and December 1950, their origin was reported based on the pre-war places of residence of their mothers  Thanks to this data it is possible to reconstruct the pre-war geographical origin of the post-war population  The same area corresponding to pre-war southern parts of East Prussia (which became Polish in 1945) was inhabited in December 1950 by:

Over 80% of the 1950 inhabitants were new in the region, less than 20% had resided in the province already back in 1939 (so called autochthons, who had German citizenship before World War II and were granted Polish citizenship after 1945)  Over 20% of all inhabitants were Poles expelled from areas of Eastern Poland annexed by the USSR  The rest were mostly people from neighbouring areas located right next to East Prussia (almost 44% came from Masovia, Sudovia, Podlachia and pre-war Polish Pomerania) and southern Poland (≈16%) 

Northern part to the Soviet Union
In April 1946, northern East Prussia became an official province of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic as the "Kyonigsbergskaya Oblast", with the Memel Territory becoming part of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic  In June 1946 114,070 German and 41,029 Soviet citizens were registered in the Oblast, with an unknown number of disregarded unregistered persons  In July of that year, the historic city of Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad to honour Mikhail Kalinin and the area named the Kaliningrad Oblast  Between 24 August and 26 October 1948 21 transports with in total 42,094 Germans left the Oblast to the Soviet Occupation Zone (which became East Germany)  The last remaining Germans left in November 1949 (1,401 persons) and January 1950 (7 persons) The Prussian Lithuanians also experienced the same fate 
A similar fate befell the Curonians who lived in the area around the Curonian Lagoon  While many fled from the Red Army during the evacuation of East Prussia, Curonians that remained behind were subsequently expelled by the Soviet Union  Only 219 lived along the Curonian Spit in 1955  Many had German names such as Fritz or Hans, a cause for anti-German discrimination  The Soviet authorities considered the Curonians fascists  Because of this discrimination, many immigrated to West Germany in 1958, where the majority of Curonians now live 
After the expulsion of the German population ethnic Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians were settled in the northern part  In the Soviet part of the region, a policy of eliminating all remnants of German history was pursued  All German place names were replaced by new Russian names  The exclave was a military zone, which was closed to foreigners; Soviet citizens could only enter with special permission  In 1967 the remnants of Königsberg Castle were demolished on the orders of Leonid Brezhnev to make way for a new "House of the Soviets" 

Modern status
Although the 1945–1949 expulsion of Germans from the northern part of former East Prussia was often conducted in a violent and aggressive way by Soviet officials, the present Russian inhabitants of the Kaliningrad Oblast have much less animosity towards Germans  German names have been revived in commercial Russian trade and there is sometimes talk of reverting Kaliningrad's name to its historical name of Königsberg  The city centre of Kaliningrad was completely rebuilt, as Royal Air Force bombs in 1944 and the Soviet siege in 1945 had left it in ruins 
Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, some German groups have tried to help settle the Volga Germans from eastern parts of European Russia in the Kaliningrad Oblast  This effort was only a minor success, however, as most impoverished Volga Germans preferred to emigrate to the richer Federal Republic of Germany, where they could become German citizens through the right of return 
The Polish part of the region, divided in 1975 to form three units: the Olsztyn Voivodeship, the Elbląg Voivodeship, and the Suwałki Voivodeship, has been reestablished as a single entity in 1999 under the name of Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, whose borders correspond closely to those of southern East Prussia  Since 2004, Poland and Lithuania have become European Union member states, and both the Polish part of the region as well as the Lithuanian Klaipėda Region, has thereafter become freely accessible by Germans, in line with the free movement of people policy 

Demographics
Historical ethnic and religious structure
In year 1824, shortly before its merger with West Prussia, the population of East Prussia was 1,080,000 people  Of that number, according to Karl Andree, ethnic Germans were slightly more than half, while 280,000 (≈26%) were ethnically Polish and 200,000 (≈19%) were ethnically Lithuanian  As of year 1819, there were also 20,000 strong ethnic Curonian and Latvian minorities as well as 2,400 Jews, according to Georg Hassel  Similar numbers are given by August von Haxthausen in his 1839 book, with a breakdown by county  However, the majority of East Prussian Polish and Lithuanian inhabitants were Lutherans, not Roman Catholics like their ethnic kinsmen across the border in the Russian Empire  Only in Southern Warmia (German: Ermland) Catholic Poles - so called Warmiaks (not to be confused with predominantly Protestant Masurians) - comprised the majority of population, numbering 26,067 people (≈81%) in county Allenstein (Polish: Olsztyn) in 1837  Another minority in 19th century East Prussia, were ethnically Russian Old Believers, also known as Philipponnen - their main town was Eckersdorf (Wojnowo) In year 1817, East Prussia had 796,204 Evangelical Christians, 120,123 Roman Catholics, 864 Mennonites and 2,389 Jews 

Ethnolinguistic composition by district
As of 1905, the province of East Prussia was divided into three government regions, known as Regierungsbezirke  These were the regions of Königsberg, Gumbinnen and Allenstein 

Administration
The Prussian central government appointed for every province an Oberpräsident ("Upper President") carrying out central prerogatives on the provincial level and supervising the implementation of central policy on the lower levels of administration 
Since 1875, with the strengthening of self-rule, the urban and rural districts (Kreise) within each province (sometimes within each governorate) formed a corporation with common tasks and assets (schools, traffic installations, hospitals, cultural institutions, jails etc ) called the Provinzialverband (provincial association)  Initially the assemblies of the urban and rural districts elected representatives for the provincial diets (Provinziallandtage), which were thus indirectly elected  As of 1919 the provincial diets (or as to governorate diets, the so-called Kommunallandtage) were directly elected by the citizens of the provinces (or governorates, respectively)  These parliaments legislated within the competences transferred to the provincial associations  The provincial diet of East Prussia elected a provincial executive body (government), the provincial committee (Provinzialausschuss), and a head of province, the Landeshauptmann ("Land Captain"; till the 1880s titled Landdirektor, land director) 

Upper Presidents of East Prussia and Prussia
1765–1791: Johann Friedrich von Domhardt, president of the Gumbinnen and Königsberg War and Demesnes Chambers
1791–1808: Friedrich Leopold von Schrötter, president of the Gumbinnen and Königsberg War and Demesnes Chambers, as of 1795 Minister for East and New East Prussia
1808–1814: vacancy?
1814–1824: Hans Jakob von Auerswald, upper president of East Prussia
1824–1842: Heinrich Theodor von Schön, upper president of Prussia, merged from East and West Prussia, since 1816 already upper president of West Prussia
1842–1848: Carl Wilhelm von Bötticher, upper president of Prussia
1848–1849: Rudolf von Auerswald, upper president of Prussia
1849–1850: Eduard Heinrich von Flottwell (1786–1865), upper president of Prussia
1850–1868: Franz August Eichmann, upper president of Prussia
1868–1869: vacancy
1869–1882: Carl Wilhelm Heinrich Georg von Horn, upper president of Prussia, after 1878 of East Prussia
1882–1891: Albrecht Heinrich von Schlieckmann, upper president of East Prussia
1891–1895: Count Udo zu Stolberg-Wernigerode, upper president of East Prussia
1895–1901: Count Wilhelm von Bismarck-Schönhausen, upper president of East Prussia
1901–1903: Hugo Samuel von Richthofen, upper president of East Prussia
1903–1907: Count Friedrich von Moltke, upper president of East Prussia
1907–1914: Ludwig von Windheim, upper president of East Prussia
1914–1916: Adolf Tortilowicz von Batocki-Friebe, upper president of East Prussia
1916–1918: Friedrich von Berg, upper president of East Prussia
1918–1919: Adolf Tortilowicz von Batocki-Friebe, upper president of East Prussia
1919–1920: August Winnig (SPD), upper president of East Prussia
1920–1932: Ernst Siehr (DDP), upper president of East Prussia
1932–1933: Wilhelm Kutscher (DNVP), upper president of East Prussia
1933–1945: Erich Koch (NSDAP), upper president of East Prussia

Elections to the provincial diets
Land Directors and Land Captains of East Prussia
1876–1878: Heinrich Edwin Rickert (NLP, later DFP), titled land director
1878–1884: Kurt von Saucken-Tarputschen (Fortschritt, later DFP), titled land director
1884–1888: Alfred von Gramatzki (DKP), titled land director
1888–1896: Klemens von Stockhausen, titled land director
1896–1909: Rudolf von Brandt, titled land captain
1909–1916: Friedrich von Berg, titled land captain
1916–1928: Manfred Graf von Brünneck-Bellschwitz, titled land captain
1928–1936: Paul Blunk, titled land captain
1936–1941: Helmuth von Wedelstädt (NSDAP), titled land captain
1941–1945: vacancy
1941–1945: Reinhard Bezzenberger, first land councillor, per pro

Cities and towns
See also
Drang nach Osten
Landsmannschaft Ostpreußen
East Prussian Regional Museum
Ostsiedlung

Explanatory notes
Citations
General bibliography
Publications in EnglishBaedeker, Karl, Northern Germany, 14th revised edition, London, 1904 
Beevor, Antony (2002)  "chapters 1-8"  Berlin: The Downfall 1945  Penguin Books  ISBN 0-670-88695-5  Archived from the original on 5 February 2006  Retrieved 6 May 2006  (on the years 1944/45)
Alfred-Maurice de Zayas, " Nemesis at Potsdam"  London, 1977  ISBN 0-8032-4910-1 
Alfred-Maurice de Zayas, A Terrible Revenge: The Ethnic Cleansing of the East European Germans, 1944-1950, 1994, ISBN 0-312-12159-8
Carsten, F  L  "East Prussia"  History 33#119 (1948), pp  241–246  JSTOR 24402359  Historiography of medieval and early modern period 
Dickie, Reverend J F , with E Compton, Germany, A & C Black, London, 1912 
Douglas, R M : Orderly and Humane  The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War  Yale University Press, 2012  ISBN 978-0300166606 
von Treitschke, Heinrich, History of Germany - vol 1: The Wars of Emancipation, (translated by E & C Paul), Allen & Unwin, London, 1915 
Powell, E  Alexander, Embattled Borders, London, 1928 
Prausser, Steffen and Rees, Arfon: The Expulsion of the "German" Communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the Second World War  Florence, Italy, European University Institute, 2004 
Naimark, Norman: Fires of Hatred  Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe  Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2001 
Steed, Henry Wickham, Vital Peace - A Study of Risks, Constable & Co , London, 1936 
Newman, Bernard, Danger Spots of Europe, London, 1938 
Wieck, Michael: A Childhood Under Hitler and Stalin: Memoirs of a "Certified Jew", University of Wisconsin Press, 2003, ISBN 0-299-18544-3 
Woodward, E L , Butler, Rohan; Medlicott, W N , Dakin, Douglas, & Lambert, M E , et al  (editors), Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939, Three Series, Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO), London, numerous volumes published over 25 years  Cover the Versailles Treaty including all secret meetings; plebiscites and all other problems in Europe; includes all diplomatic correspondence from all states 
Previté-Orton, C W , Professor, The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, Cambridge University Press, 1952 (2 volumes) 
Balfour, Michael, and John Mair, Four-Power Control in Germany and Austria 1945-1946, Oxford University Press, 1956 
Kopelev, Lev, To Be Preserved Forever, ("Хранить вечно"), 1976 
Koch, H W , Professor, A History of Prussia, Longman, London, 1978/1984, (P/B), ISBN 0-582-48190-2
Koch, H W , Professor, A Constitutional History of Germany in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Longman, London, 1984, (P/B), ISBN 0-582-49182-7
MacDonogh, Giles, Prussia, Sinclair-Stevenson, London, 1994, ISBN 1-85619-267-9
Nitsch, Gunter, Weeds Like Us, AuthorHouse, 2006, ISBN 978-1-4259-6755-0
Denny, Isabel (2007)  The fall of Hitler's fortress city : the battle of Konigsberg, 1945  Havertown, Penn : Casemate  ISBN 978-1-61200-058-9  OCLC 783289112 
Tooze, Adam (2006)  The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy  New York: Viking  ISBN 978-0-670-03826-8 Publications in GermanB  Schumacher: Geschichte Ost- und Westpreussens, Würzburg 1959
Boockmann, Hartmut: Ostpreußen und Westpreußen (= Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas)  Siedler, Berlin 1992, ISBN 3-88680-212-4
Buxa, Werner and Hans-Ulrich Stamm: Bilder aus Ostpreußen
Dönhoff, Marion Gräfin v  :Namen die keiner mehr nennt - Ostpreußen, Menschen und Geschichte
Dönhoff, Marion Gräfin v : Kindheit in Ostpreussen
Falk, Lucy:  Ich Blieb in Königsberg  Tagebuchblätter aus dunklen Nachkriegsjahren
Kibelka, Ruth:  Ostpreußens Schicksaljahre, 1945-1948
Bernd, Martin (1998)  Masuren, Mythos und Geschichte  Karlsruhe: Evangelische Akademie Baden  ISBN 83-85135-93-6 
Nitsch, Gunter: "Eine lange Flucht aus Ostpreußen", Ellert & Richter Verlag, 2011, ISBN 978-3-8319-0438-9
Wieck, Michael: Zeugnis vom Untergang Königsbergs: Ein "Geltungsjude" berichtet, Heidelberger Verlaganstalt, 1990, 1993, ISBN 3-89426-059-9 Publications in FrenchPierre Benoît, Axelle
Georges Blond, L'Agonie de l'Allemagne
Michel Tournier, Le Roi des aulnesPublications in PolishK  Piwarski (1946)  Dzieje Prus Wschodnich w czasach nowożytnych  Gdańsk 
Gerard Labuda, ed  (1969–2003)  "Historia Pomorza", vol  I–IV  Poznań 
collective work (1958–61)  "Szkice z dziejów Pomorza", vol  1–3  Warszawa 
Andreas Kossert (2009)  PRUSY WSCHODNIE, Historia i mit  Warszawa  ISBN 978-83-7383-354-8 

External links
Pictures of East Prussia Large archive
Brandenburg Prince-Electors co-inheritors 1568, co-regent 1577
East Prussia FAQ
Extensive East & West Prussian Historical Materials Archived 14 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine (in English and German)
East and West Prussia Gazetteer
Provinz Ostpreußen (in German)
Ostpreußen net (in German)
Ostpreußen Info – East Prussia Information (in German)
East- and West Prussia in Photos
Spuren der Vergangenheit / Следы Пρошлого (Traces of the past) This site by W A  Milowskij, a Kaliningrad resident, contains hundreds of interesting photos, often with text explanations, of architectural and infrastructural artifacts of the territory's long German past (in German and Russian)
German Empire: Province of East Prussia (in German)
"East Prussia"   Encyclopædia Britannica  Vol  8 (11th ed )  1911 
Britannica 2007 article
Growing up in East Prussia An oral history project, documenting the German history of East Prussia with memories and reports by contemporary witnesses (in German and Polish)
East & West Prussia Map Collection
Historical borders of East Prussia (in German)
Passage 7:
Russian Far East
The Russian Far East (Russian: Дальний Восток России) is a region in Northeast Asia  It is the easternmost part of Russia and the Asian continent; and is administered as part of the Far Eastern Federal District, which is located between Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia and the Pacific Ocean  The area's largest city is Khabarovsk, followed by Vladivostok  The region shares land borders with the countries of Mongolia, China, and North Korea to its south, as well as maritime boundaries with Japan to its southeast, and with the United States along the Bering Strait to its northeast  
Although the Russian Far East is often considered as a part of Siberia abroad, it has been historically categorized separately from Siberia in Russian regional schemes (and previously during the Soviet era when it was called the Soviet Far East) 

Terminology
In Russia, the region is usually referred to as just "Far East" (Дальний Восток - Dal'niy Vostok)  What is known in English as the Far East is usually referred to as "the Asia-Pacific Region" (Азиатско-тихоокеанский регион - Aziatsko-tikhookeanskiy region, abbreviated to АТР - ATR), or "East Asia" (Восточная Азия - Vostochnaya Aziya), depending on the context 

Geographical features
Beyenchime-Salaatin crater
Klyuchevskaya Sopka volcano
Kuril–Kamchatka Trench
Lake Baikal

Fauna
Order Galliformes
Family Tetraonidae
Hazel grouse
Siberian grouse
Black grouse
Black-billed capercaillie
Willow ptarmigan
Rock ptarmigan

Family Phasianidae
Daurian partridge
Japanese quail
Ring-necked pheasant

Order Artiodactyla
Sika deer
Snow sheep
Caribou
Elk
Wild boar
Siberian roe deer
Manchurian wapiti
Siberian musk deer

Order Carnivora
Family Canidae
Eurasian wolf
Tundra wolf
Arctic fox
Red fox

Family Felidae
Amur leopard
Siberian tiger

Family Ursidae
Ussuri black bear
Eurasian brown bear
East Siberian brown bear
Kamchatka brown bear
Ussuri brown bear
Polar bear

Flora
Picea obovata
Pinus pumila
Alnus japonica

History
Russian expansion
Russians reached the Pacific coast in 1647 with the establishment of Okhotsk, and the Russian Empire consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century, after the annexation of part of Chinese Manchuria (1858-1860)  Primorskaya Oblast was established as a separate administrative division of the Russian Empire in 1856, with its administrative center at Khabarovsk 

Administrative history
Several entities with the name "Far East" existed in the first half of the 20th century, all with rather different boundaries:

1920–1922: the Far Eastern Republic, which included Transbaikal, Amur, Primorskaya, and Kamchatka Oblasts and northern Sakhalin;
1922–1926: Far-Eastern Oblast, which included Amur, Transbaikal and Kamchatka Guberniyas and others;
1926–1938: Far-Eastern Krai, which included the present-day Primorsky and Khabarovsk Krais Until 2000 the Russian Far East lacked officially-defined boundaries   A single term "Siberia and the Far East" (Сибирь и Дальний Восток) often referred to Russia's regions east of the Urals without drawing a clear distinction between "Siberia" and "the Far East" 
In 2000 Russia's federal subjects were grouped into larger federal districts, one of which, the Far Eastern Federal District, comprised Amur Oblast, the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Kamchatka Oblast with the Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Khabarovsk Krai, Magadan Oblast, Primorsky Krai, the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, and Sakhalin Oblast  In November 2018 Zabaykalsky Krai and the Republic of Buryatia were added they had previously formed part of the Siberian Federal District  Since 2000, Russians have increasingly used the term "Far East" to refer to the federal district, though the term is often also used more loosely 
Defined by the boundaries of the federal district, the Far East has an area of 6 2 million square kilometres (2,400,000 sq mi)—over one-third of Russia's total area 

Russo-Japanese War
Russia in the early 1900s persistently sought a warm-water port on the Pacific Ocean for the Imperial Russian Navy as well as to facilitate maritime trade  The recently-established Pacific seaport of Vladivostok (founded in 1860) was operational only during the summer season, but Port Arthur (leased by Russia from China from 1896 onwards) in Manchuria could operate all year  After the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the failure of the 1903 negotiations between Japan and the Tsar Nicholas II's government, Japan chose war to protect its domination of Korea and adjacent territories  Russia, meanwhile, saw war as a means of distracting its populace from government repression and of rallying patriotism in the aftermath of several general strikes  Japan issued a declaration of war on 8 February 1904  However, three hours before Japan's declaration of war was received by the Russian government, the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the Russian 1st Pacific Squadron at Port Arthur  Eight days later Russia declared war on Japan 
The war ended in September 1905 with a Japanese victory following the fall of Port Arthur and the failed Russian invasion of Japan through the Korean Peninsula and Northeast China; also, Japan had threatened to invade Primorsky Krai via Korea  The warring parties signed the Treaty of Portsmouth on 5 September 1905, and both Japan and Russia agreed to evacuate Manchuria and to return its sovereignty to China, but Japan was allowed to lease the Liaodong Peninsula (containing Port Arthur and Talien, aka Kwantung Leased Territory), and the Russian rail system in southern Manchuria with its access to strategic resources  Japan also received the southern half of the island of Sakhalin from Russia  In 1907 Japan forced Russia to confiscate land from Korean settlers (who formed the majority of Primorsky Krai's population) due to a fear of an invasion of Korea and of the ousting of Japanese troops by Korean guerrillas 

Soviet era
Between 1937 and 1939, the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin deported over 200,000 Koreans to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, fearing that the Koreans might act as spies for Japan  Many Koreans died on the way in cattle trains due to starvation, illness, or freezing conditions  Soviet authorities purged and executed many community leaders; Koryo-saram were not allowed to travel outside of Central Asia for the next 15 years  Koreans were also not allowed to use the Korean language and its use began to become lost with the involvement of the Koryo-mar dialect and the use of Russian 
Development of numerous remote locations in the Soviet Far East relied on Gulag labour camps during Stalin's rule, especially in the region's northern half  After the death of Stalin in 1953 the large-scale use of forced labour waned and was superseded by volunteer employees attracted by relatively high wages 

Soviet–Japanese conflicts
During the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Soviets occupied Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island, Yinlong Island, and several adjacent islets to separate the city of Khabarovsk from the territory controlled by a possibly hostile power Indeed, Japan turned its military attention to Soviet territories  Conflicts between the Japanese and the Soviets frequently happened on the border of Manchuria between 1938 and 1945  The first confrontation occurred in Primorsky Krai, the Battle of Lake Khasan (July–August 1938) involved an attempted military incursion of Japanese-controlled Manchukuo into territory claimed by the Soviet Union  This incursion was founded in the beliefs of the Japanese side that the Soviet Union had misinterpreted the demarcation of the boundary based on the 1860 Treaty of Peking between Imperial Russia and Manchu China  Primorsky Krai was always threatened by a Japanese invasion despite the fact that most of the remaining clashes occurred in Manchukuo 
The clashes ended shortly before and after the conclusion of World War II (see Soviet–Japanese War) when a war-weakened Japan found its territories of Manchukuo, Mengjiang, Korea, and South Sakhalin invaded by Soviet and Mongolian troops (August 1945) 

World War II
Both the Soviet Union and Japan regarded the Primorsky Krai as a strategic location in World War II, and clashes over the territory were common  The Soviets and the other Allies considered it a key location for the planned invasion of Japan through Korea; Japan viewed it as a key location to begin a mass invasion of Eastern Russia  The Primorsky Krai served as the Soviet Union's Pacific headquarters in the war to plan an invasion for allied troops of Korea in order to reach Japan 
After the Soviet invasion, the USSR returned Manchukuo and Mengjiang to China; Korea became liberated  The Soviet Union also occupied and annexed Japan's Kuril Islands and southern Sakhalin  The planned Soviet invasion of Japan proper never happened 

Cold War
During the Korean War, Primorsky Krai became the site of extreme security concern for the Soviet Union 
Vladivostok became the site of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks in 1974  At the time, the Soviet Union and the United States decided quantitative limits on various nuclear weapons systems and banned the construction of new land-based ICBM launchers  Vladivostok and other cities in Primorsky Krai soon became closed cities because of the bases of the Soviet Pacific Fleet 
Incursions of American reconnaissance aircraft from Alaska sometimes happened  Concerns of the Soviet military caused the infamous Korean Air Lines Flight 007 incident in 1983 

Russian Federation
Russian Homestead Act
In 2016, President Vladimir Putin proposed the Russian Homestead Act to populate the Russian Far East 

Demographics
Population
According to the 2010 Census, Far Eastern Federal District had a population of 6,293,129 
Most of it is concentrated in the southern parts   Given the vast territory of the Russian Far East, 6 3 million people translates to slightly less than one person per square kilometer, making the Russian Far East one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world   The population of the Russian Far East has been rapidly declining since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (even more so than for Russia in general), dropping by 14% in the last fifteen years   The Russian government had been discussing a range of re-population programs to avoid the forecast drop to 4 5 million people by 2015, hoping to attract in particular the remaining Russian population of the near abroad but eventually agreeing on a program to resettle Ukrainian Illegal immigrants 
Ethnic Russians and Ukrainians make up the majority of the population 

Cities
75% of the population is urban   The largest cities are:

Vladivostok
Khabarovsk
Ulan-Ude
Chita
Komsomolsk-on-Amur
Blagoveshchensk
Yakutsk
Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky
Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk
Nakhodka
Ussuriysk

Traditional ethnic groups
The original population groups of the Russian Far East include (grouped by language group):

Mongolic: Buryats
Turkic: Sakha
Eskimo–Aleut: Aleuts, Siberian Yupiks (Yuits)
Chukotko-Kamchatkan: Chukchi, Koryaks, Alutors, Kereks, Itelmens
Tungusic: Evenks, Evens, Nanais, Orochs, Ul'ch, Udegey, Orok, Manchus
Isolate: Yukaghirs, Nivkhs, Ainus

Transportation
The region was not connected with the rest of Russia via domestic highways until the M58 highway was completed in 2010 
Uniquely for Russia, most cars have right-hand drive (73% of all cars in the region), though traffic still flows on the right-hand side of the road 
Railways are better developed  The Trans-Siberian Railway and Baikal–Amur Mainline (since 1984) provide a connection with Siberia (and the rest of the country)  The Amur–Yakutsk Mainline is aimed to link the city of Yakutsk to the Russian railway network  Passenger trains connect to Nizhny Bestyakh as of 2013 
Like in nearby Siberia, for many remote localities, aviation is the main mode of transportation to/from civilisation, but the infrastructure is often poor 
Maritime transport is also important for delivering supplies to localities at (or near) the Pacific and Arctic coasts, and for shipping exports, especially oil, gas and ores 

See also
Bering Strait
Far North (Russia)
Kolyma
List of Russian explorers
Russian Manchuria

Footnotes
Bibliography
Beer, Daniel  The house of the dead: Siberian exile under the tsars (Vintage, 2017) 
Bobrick, Benson/ East of the Sun: the Epic Conquest and Tragic History of Siberia, (NY: Poseidon Press, 1992)
Forsyth, James  History of the Peoples of Siberia, (Cambridge: University Press 1992)
Glebov, Sergei  "Center, Periphery, and Diversity in the Late Imperial Far East: New Historiography of a Russian Region " Ab Imperio 2019 3 (2019): 265–278 
Hartley, Janet M  Siberia, A History of the People, (New Haven: Yale University Press 2014)
Haywood, A J  Siberia: A Cultural History, (Oxford UP, 2010)
Monahan, Erika  The merchants of Siberia: Trade in early modern Eurasia (Cornell UP, 2016) 
Naumov, Igor  History of Siberia, (London: Routledge, 2006)
Reid, Anna  The Shaman's Coat: A Native History of Siberia, (NY: Walker & Comp , 2002)
Stolberg  Eva-Maria  (ed ), Siberian Saga: a History of Russia's Wild East, (2005)
Vajda (ed ),  Edward J Languages and Prehistory of Central Siberia, (Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2004)
Wood, Alan  The History of Siberia, (London: Rutledge, 1991)
Wood, Alan    Russian Far East 1581 -1991, (London:  Bloomsbury Academic, 2011)

External links

Meeting of Frontiers: Siberia, Alaska, and the American West (includes materials on Russian Far East)
Дальневосточный федеральный округ at WGEO
Context 3: S  states are located along this international boundary 

Yukon
The Canadian territory of Yukon shares its entire western border with the U S  state of Alaska, beginning at the Beaufort Sea at 69°39′N 141°00′W and proceeds southwards along the 141st meridian west  At 60°18′N, the border proceeds away from the 141st meridian west in a southeastward direction, following the St  Elias Mountains  South of the 60th parallel north, the border continues into British Columbia 

British Columbia
British Columbia has two international borders with the United States: with the state of Alaska along BC's northwest, and with the contiguous United States along the southern edge of the province, including (west to east) Washington, Idaho, and Montana BC's Alaskan border, continuing from Yukon's, proceeds through the St  Elias Mountains, followed by Mt  Fairweather at 58°54′N 137°31′W, where the border heads northwestward towards the Coast Mountains  At 59°48′N 135°28′W, the border begins a general southeastward direction along the Coast Mountains  The border eventually reaches the Portland Canal and follows it outward to the Dixon Entrance, which takes the border down and out into the Pacific Ocean, terminating it upon reaching international waters 
BC's border along the contiguous U S  begins southwest of Vancouver Island and northwest of the Olympic Peninsula, at the terminus of international waters in the Pacific Ocean  It follows the Strait of Juan de Fuca eastward, turning northeastward to enter Haro Strait  The border follows the strait in a northward direction, but turns sharply eastward through Boundary Pass, separating the Canadian Gulf Islands from the American San Juan Islands  Upon reaching the Strait of Georgia, the border turns due north and then towards the northwest, bisecting the strait until the 49th parallel north  After making a sharp turn eastbound, the border follows this parallel across the Tsawwassen Peninsula, separating Point Roberts, Washington from Delta, British Columbia, and continues into Alberta 

Prairies
The entire Canada–U S  border in the provinces of both Alberta and Saskatchewan lies along the 49th parallel north  Both provinces share borders with the state of Montana, while, farther east, Saskatchewan also shares a border with North Dakota Along with the U S  states of North Dakota and Minnesota (west to east), nearly the entire Canada–U S  border in Manitoba lies along the 49th parallel north  At the province's eastern end, however, the border briefly enters the Lake of the Woods, turning north at 48°59′N 95°09′W where it continues into land along the western end of Minnesota's Northwest Angle, the only part of the United States besides the state of Alaska that is north of the 49th parallel  The border reaches Ontario at 49°23′N 95°09′W 

Ontario
The province of Ontario shares its border (west to east) with the U S  states of Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York  The largest provincial international border, most of the border is a water boundary   It begins at the north-westernmost point of Minnesota's Northwest Angle (49°23′N 95°09′W)  From here, it proceeds eastward through the Angle Inlet into the Lake of the Woods, turning southward at 49°19′N 94°48′W where it continues into the Rainy River  The border follows the River to Rainy Lake, then subsequently through various smaller lakes, including Namakan Lake, Lac la Croix, and Sea Gull Lake, until it reaches the Pigeon River, which leads it out into Lake Superior  The border continues through Lake Superior and Whitefish Bay, into the St  Mary's River then the North Channel  At 45°59′N 83°26′W, the border turns southward into the False Detour Channel, from which it reaches Lake Huron  Through the Lake, the border heads southward until reaching the St  Clair River, leading it to Lake St  Clair  The border proceeds through Lake St  Clair, reaching the Detroit River, which leads it to Lake Erie  From Lake Erie the border is led into the Niagara River, which takes it into Lake Ontario  From here, the boundary heads northwestward until it reaches 43°27′N 79°12′W, where it makes a sharp turn towards the northeast  The border then reaches the St  Lawrence River, proceeding through it until finally, at 45°00′N 74°40′W, the border splits from the river and continues into Quebec 

Quebec
The province of Quebec borders (west to east) the U S  states of New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, beginning where the Ontario-New York border ends in the St  Lawrence River at the 45th parallel north  This border heads inland towards the east, remaining on or near the parallel  At 45°00′N 71°30′W, the border begins to follow various natural features of the Appalachian Mountains, continuing to do so until  46°25′N 70°03′W, where it heads north, then northeastward at 46°41′N 69°59′W  Finally, at 47°27′N 69°13′W, the border heads toward Beau Lake, going through it and continuing into New Brunswick 

New Brunswick
The entire border of New Brunswick is shared with the U S  state of Maine, beginning at the southern tip of Beau Lake at 47°18′N 69°03′W, subsequently proceeding to the Saint John River  The border moves through the River until  47°04′N 67°47′W, where it splits from the river and heads southward into the Chiputneticook Lakes at 45°56′N 67°47′W, which subsequently leads the border to the St  Croix River  The border proceeds through the St  Croix to Passamaquoddy Bay, which then leads it to Grand Manan Island into the middle of the Bay of Fundy  Here, the border turns towards the south and terminates upon reaching international waters 

Crossings and border straddling
Airports
The U S  maintains pre-clearance facilities (i e  immigration offices) at eight Canadian airports with international air service to the United States: Calgary; Edmonton; Halifax Stanfield; Montreal–Trudeau; Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier; Toronto Island Airport (Billy Bishop Airport), Toronto–Pearson, Vancouver; and Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson  These procedures expedite travel by allowing flights originating in Canada to land at a U S  airport without being processed as an international arrival  Canada does not maintain equivalent personnel at U S  airports due to the sheer number of Canada-bound flights from numerous U S  departure locations 

Cross-border airports
One curiosity on the Canada–U S  border is the presence of six airports and eleven seaplane bases whose runways straddle the borderline  Such airports were built prior to the U S  entry into World War II as a way to legally transfer U S -built aircraft, such as the Lockheed Hudson, to Canada under the provisions of the Lend-Lease Act  In the interest of maintaining neutrality, U S  military pilots were forbidden to deliver combat aircraft to Canada  As result, the aircraft were flown to the border, where they landed, then were towed on their wheels over the border by tractors or horses overnight  The next day, the planes were crewed by RCAF pilots and flown to other locations, typically airbases in Eastern Canada and Newfoundland, from where they were flown to the United Kingdom and deployed in the Battle of Britain 

Piney Pinecreek Border Airport is located in Piney, Manitoba and Pinecreek, Minnesota  The northwest–southeast-oriented runway straddles the border, and there are two ramps: one in the U S  and one in Canada  The airport is owned by the Minnesota Department of Transportation International Peace Garden Airport is located in Boissevain, Manitoba and Dunseith, North Dakota adjacent to the International Peace Garden  The runway is entirely within North Dakota, but a ramp extends across the border to allow aircraft to access Canadian customs  While not jointly owned, it is operated as an international facility for customs clearance as part of the Peace Garden 
Coronach/Scobey Border Station Airport (or East Poplar Airport) is located in Coronach, Saskatchewan and Scobey, Montana  The airport is jointly owned by the Canadian and U S  government, with its east–west runway sited exactly on the borderline 
Coutts/Ross International Airport is located in Alberta and Montana  Like Coronach/Scobey, the east–west runway is sited exactly on the border  The airport is owned entirely by the Montana Department of Transportation (DOT) Aeronautics Division 
Del Bonita/Whetstone International Airport, located in Del Bonita, Alberta and Del Bonita, Montana, has an east–west runway sited exactly on the border, similar to Coutts/Ross  The airport is officially owned by the state of Montana and run by the state's DOT Aeronautics Division, thus it has been assigned a U S  identifier only  The facility is set up for both the general public (15 passengers maximum per plane) as well as the American military Avey Field State Airport is located in Washington and British Columbia  The privately owned airfield is mostly in the U S , but several hundred feet of the north–south runway extend into Canada  As such, both Canadian and U S  customs are available  It is assigned a U S  identifier, but does not have a Canadian one 
Several seaplane bases have water runways that cross the border, though the extent to which they do may be difficult to ascertain  The land-based facilities for the bases are all contained within one country or the other, however, leading to multiple situations where twin seaplane bases may share the same body of water  The following seaplane facilities exist on the border:

Rouses Point SPB (New York / Quebec)
Van Buren SPB (Maine / New Brunswick)
Sault Ste Marie SPB and Sault Ste  Marie Water Aerodrome (Michigan / Ontario)
Sand Point Lake Water Aerodrome (Minnesota / Ontario)
International Falls SPB and Fort Frances Water Aerodrome (Minnesota / Ontario)
Baudette International Airport and Rainy River Water Aerodrome (Minnesota / Ontario)
Hyder Seaplane Base and Stewart Water Aerodrome (Alaska / British Columbia)

Land border crossings
Currently there are 119 legal land border crossings between the United States and Canada, 26 of which take place at a bridge or tunnel  Only 2 of the 119 crossings are one-way: the Churubusco–Franklin Centre Border Crossing, where travelers may enter only the United States; and the Four Falls Border Crossing, where travelers may enter only Canada 
There are six roads that have unstaffed road crossings, and do not have border inspection services in one or both directions, where travelers are legally allowed to cross the border  Those that cross are required to report to customs, which are stationed farther within 

Trail crossings
The Fourth Connecticut Lake Trail (New Hampshire/Quebec) crosses several times while following the border vista before heading back to the United States 
The Pacific Crest Trail crosses into E  C  Manning Provincial Park in the remote North Cascades mountains  Hikers can only legally cross into Canada from the US and not vice-versa, requiring an advance permit 

Rail crossings
There are 39 railroads that cross the U S –Canada border, nine of which are no longer in use  Eleven of these railroads cross the border at a bridge or tunnel 
Only three international rail lines currently carry passengers between the U S  and Canada  At Vancouver's Pacific Central Station, passengers are required to pass through U S  partial pre-clearance and pass their baggage through an X-ray machine before being allowed to board the Seattle-bound Amtrak Cascades train, which makes no further stops before crossing the border at Blaine, Washington, where the train stops for another CBP inspection  Pre-clearance facilities are not available for the popular Adirondack (New York City to Montreal) or Maple Leaf (New York City to Toronto) trains, since these lines have stops between Montreal or Toronto and the border  Instead, passengers must clear customs at a stop located at the actual border 

Seaports
There are 13 international ferry crossings operating between the U S  and Canada  Two of them carry passengers only and one carries only rail cars   Four of the ferries operate only on a seasonal basis 
Similar to that of the pre-clearance facilities at Canadian airports, arrangements exist at major Canadian seaports that handle sealed direct import shipments into the U S  Along the East coast, ferry services operate between the province of New Brunswick and the state of Maine, while on the West coast, they operate between British Columbia and the states of Washington and Alaska  There are also several ferry services in the Great Lakes operating between the province of Ontario and the states of Michigan, New York, and Ohio  The ferry between Maine and Nova Scotia ended its operations in 2009, resuming again in 2014 
On Heart Island in the St  Lawrence River, the Boldt Castle has a border control point with no specific location on the Canadian side  As such, Canadians must present identification to land on the island 

Cross-border buildings
A line house is a building located so that an international boundary passes through it  There are several such buildings that exist along the U S –Canada border:

The Haskell Free Library and Opera House straddles the border in Derby Line, Vermont, and Stanstead, Quebec 
Private homes divided by the boundary line between Estcourt Station, Maine, and Pohénégamook, Quebec 
Private homes divided between Beebe Plain, Quebec and Beebe Plain, Vermont;
A seasonal home divided at the intersection of Matthias Lane in Alburgh, Vermont, and Chemin au Bord de l'Eau in Noyan, Quebec;
A house divided between Richford, Vermont, and Abercorn, Quebec 
The Halfway House (also known as Taillon's International Hotel) is a tavern, built in 1820 before the border was surveyed, that straddles the border between Dundee, Quebec, and Fort Covington, New York The Maine–New Brunswick border divides the Aroostook Valley Country Club 

Boundary divisions
Practical exclaves
To be a true international exclave, all potential paths of travel from the exclave to the home country must cross over only the territory of a different country or countries  Like exclaves, practical exclaves are not contiguous with the land of the home country and have land access only through another country or countries  Unlike exclaves, they are not entirely surrounded by foreign territory  Hence, they are exclaves for practical purposes, without meeting the strict definition 
The term pene-exclave, also known as a "functional" or "practical" exclave,: 31  was defined by G  W  S  Robinson (1959) as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country ": 283  Thus, a pene-exclave has land borders with other territory but is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters : 60  Catudal (1974) and Vinokurov (2007): 31–33  provide examples to further elaborate, including Point Roberts, Washington: "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada ": 113  Practical exclaves can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless, a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts : 47

Practical exclaves of Canada
The Quebec western portion of the Akwesasne reserve is a practical exclave of Canada because of the St  Lawrence River to the north, the St  Regis River to the east, New York State, U S  to the south  To travel by land to elsewhere in Canada, one must drive through New York State 
Campobello Island is another practical exclave located at the entrance to Passamaquoddy Bay, adjacent to the entrance to Cobscook Bay, and within the Bay of Fundy  The island is part of Charlotte County, New Brunswick, but is actually physically connected by the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge with Lubec, Maine, the easternmost tip of the continental United States 
Premier, British Columbia is an abandoned mining site accessible only through Hyder, Alaska 

Practical exclaves of the United States
Alaska is a non-contiguous U S  state bounded by the Bering Sea; the Arctic and Pacific oceans; and Canada's British Columbia and Yukon Territory  Additionally, because of the terrain, several municipalities in southeast Alaska (the "Panhandle") are inaccessible by road, except via Canada  Specifically, the town of Hyder, Alaska, is accessible only through Stewart, British Columbia, or by floatplane  Moreover, Haines and Skagway are accessible by road only through Canada, although there are car ferries which connect them to other Alaskan places 
Point Roberts, Washington is bounded by British Columbia, the Strait of Georgia, and Boundary Bay 
In Minnesota, Elm Point, two small pieces of land to its west (Buffalo Bay Point), and the Northwest Angle are bounded by the province of Manitoba and Lake of the Woods 
In Vermont, the Alburgh Tongue, as well as Province Point, which is the small end of a peninsula east of Alburgh, are bounded by Quebec and Lake Champlain 

Split features
Between Quebec and Vermont, Province Island is a piece of land that primarily lies in Canada, though a small portion of the island is situated in the U S  state, lying south of the 45th parallel with a border vista marking the international boundary 
Canusa Street in Beebe Plain, VT is the only portion of the Canada–United States border split down the middle of a street 
Between North Dakota and Manitoba, the international border splits a peninsula within a lake on the border of Rolette County, North Dakota, and the Wakopa Wildlife Management Area, MB  Likewise, Lake Metigoshe, lying in the Township of Roland, borders the municipality of Winchester, Manitoba  The border splits a shoreline, putting Canadian cabins on one side and the beach and boat docks for those cabins on the U S  side, while land access is only through Canada 

Remaining boundary disputes
Machias Seal Island and North Rock (Maine / New Brunswick)
Dixon Entrance (Alaska / British Columbia)
Beaufort Sea (Alaska / Yukon)
Strait of Juan de Fuca (Washington / British Columbia)

See also
Canada Border Services Agency
United States Customs and Border Protection
United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints
Canada–United States relations
Illegal immigration to Canada
Illegal immigration to the United States
Indian barrier state, British plans to set up a new country in the Old Northwest
John Lewis Tiarks, a British surveyor of the border
Joseph Smith Harris' account of the Northwest Boundary Survey
Mexico–United States border

Footnotes
Passage 7:
Oak Lawn, Illinois
Oak Lawn is a village in Cook County, Illinois, United States   The population was 58,362 at the 2020 census  Oak Lawn is a suburb of Chicago, located southwest of the city  It shares borders with the city in two areas but is surrounded mostly by other suburbs 

History
Founding
In August 1835, James B  Campbell purchased the land stretching between Cicero Avenue and Central Avenue from 95th Street to 103rd Street  It is unclear what Campbell's intentions with the area were, but by 1840, he had lost a court battle with the Illinois State Bank and his land was sold in a public auction  John Simpson, a prominent figure in early Oak Lawn history, bought the northern half of the property in 1842  By 1859, the recently incorporated government of Worth Township paid for the construction of Black Oak Grove Road, an early name for 95th Street  Black Oak Grove is also the earliest known name of the area that would become Oak Lawn  It was later shortened to Black Oak or Black Oaks, but in 1882, the post office, train depot and surrounding community became known simply as Oak Lawn  Before this however, the area now known as Oak Lawn was, briefly during the early 1800s, called Agnes  It was also on some occasion referred to as Oak Park  Over the next two decades, the area grew in population as more homes were built and local business sprang into being  As the area continued to grow, many residents visited Englewood by train to shop  Oak Lawn residents also made income during early days by selling their farm and dairy products to various markets in Chicago 

Incorporation
In 1909, Oak Lawn was incorporated as a village  The following years, there were major improvements to local infrastructure and government services, such as the introduction of the police magistrate and village marshal, along with the building of a village hall and jailhouse  Electric lights were brought to 95th Street in 1911, the volunteer fire department began in 1923, Oak Lawn's first bank opened in 1925, and the Community High School District 218 was formed  The population had grown to 2,045 by 1930, and civic improvements were steadily made over the next decade  In 1934, a collection of one hundred books was the beginning of the Oak Lawn Public Library  By 1935, President Franklin D  Roosevelt created the Works Progress Administration as part of the New Deal, which supported a variety of public works, including libraries  With the help of a WPA grant, the new library opened its doors in 1936 

Post 1945
After World War II, with veterans returning home and taking advantage of the G I  Bill, Oak Lawn experienced a major population boom  Beginning in 1949, Oak Lawn Round-Up Days became an annual event and helped to promote the village  It started with 25,000 people, and the Western-themed celebration brought in over 100,000 attendees in 1952  In this year, Jack Brickhouse was master of ceremonies, and the parade was televised on WGN-TV  By 1957, Round-Up Days had become too large, and the next year a final scaled-down version was held In the 1950s, a village managerial government began, and a new library and fire station were constructed  By 1960, there were nearly 20,000 residents in Oak Lawn 
On April 21, 1967, a tornado touched down in Oak Lawn that is recorded as one of the worst to strike an urban area  Roughly 900 buildings were damaged or destroyed, and over 30 people were killed 
The town was rebuilt in the coming years, and witnessed further population growth, peaking at 63,500 between 1973 and 1976  However, there was a decrease in residents in the 1980s, and an aging population led to the closure of several schools during this time  In response, the village began a process of redevelopment to counteract the decrease  This redevelopment has focused primarily on businesses and structures in the core area of Oak Lawn, around 95th Street between Cicero Avenue and Central Avenue 

1967 tornado
On April 21, 1967, an F4 tornado touched down at 105th Street and Kean Avenue in Palos Hills, 5 miles (8 km) west of Oak Lawn  There were no deaths in Palos Hills, although a number of homes were destroyed and two transmission towers collapsed  After rising from the ground, the tornado touched down again at the Starlite Drive-In Theater at 6400 West 95th Street



ground_truth: names were replaced by new Russian names

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What county shares a border with Cedar Springs?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  With winds estimated to be over 200 miles per hour (320 km/h), the tornado tore through Oak Lawn, tossing cars and buses in the air  After cutting Oak Lawn Community High School in half, it caused damage to St  Gerald's and continued to 91st Street and Cicero Avenue, heavily damaging the Airway Trailer Park and the Oak Lawn Roller Rink before rising from ground level  It touched down again in nearby Hometown, Evergreen Park, and Chicago before dissipating over Lake Michigan  In just 16 minutes, the storm left a 16-mile (26 km) path of destruction and over 30 people dead 

Downtown redevelopment
Starting in 2002, downtown Oak Lawn (95th Street between Tulley Avenue and 55th Court) became the target of a massive redevelopment program; properties on the north and south sides of 95th Street were demolished  Eventually, several square blocks were leveled, making room for several multistory, high-end condominium complexes with retail space on the main floors  Part of the project was the expansion of the Metra commuter train station that houses a retail/office center and a new  children's museum  This complex also includes a multistory parking garage  Downtown Oak Lawn as seen today bears little resemblance to the downtown from 2002  It now features modern high-rise buildings, new shopping areas, a large contemporary Metra train station, and several new retail and service facilities 

Geography
According to the 2010 census, Oak Lawn has a total area of 8 59 square miles (22 25 km2), all land 

Demographics
As of the 2020 census there were 58,362 people, 21,154 households, and 13,544 families residing in the village  The population density was 6,809 24 inhabitants per square mile (2,629 06/km2)  There were 23,362 housing units at an average density of 2,725 70 per square mile (1,052 40/km2)  The racial makeup of the village was 68 31% White, 7 65% African American, 0 87% Native American, 2 83% Asian, 0 02% Pacific Islander, 9 43% from other races, and 10 89% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 22 56% of the population 
There were 21,154 households, out of which 48 24% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46 89% were married couples living together, 11 64% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35 97% were non-families  32 16% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15 73% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 3 33 and the average family size was 2 60 
The village's age distribution consisted of 21 7% under the age of 18, 7 0% from 18 to 24, 25 3% from 25 to 44, 27 6% from 45 to 64, and 18 5% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 41 0 years  For every 100 females, there were 96 5 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91 8 males 
The median income for a household in the village was $69,352, and the median income for a family was $90,690  Males had a median income of $54,168 versus $38,363 for females  The per capita income for the village was $33,998  About 7 5% of families and 10 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13 2% of those under age 18 and 9 6% of those age 65 or over 

Parks and recreation
Oak Lawn maintains an expansive park system  From small corner play lots to the 38-acre (150,000 m2) Centennial Park, there are over 300 acres (1 2 km2) of parks, recreational facilities and open land  These include playgrounds, walking paths, baseball fields, basketball, volleyball and tennis courts, plus outdoor swimming pools, an indoor ice arena, two fitness centers, and an 18-hole golf course  Each area in Oak Lawn has its own recreational area, totaling 22 parks 

Education
Oak Lawn has public education schooling children from K–5 in its many elementary schools, including Kolb, Lieb, Harnew, Columbus Manor, Covington, Hannum, Hometown, Kolmar, and Sward  Oak Lawn has two public middle schools:  Simmons Middle School, and Oak Lawn-Hometown Middle School 
There are two public high schools, Oak Lawn Community High School and Harold L  Richards High School 
The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago operates Catholic schools  Catholic grammar schools include St  Germaine, St  Catherine, St  Linus, and St  Gerald  St  Louis de Montfort School closed in 2017 with 133 students that year 

Infrastructure
Stop sign program
In mid-2007, Oak Lawn began hanging additional messages to village stop signs in an attempt to have drivers obey the signs  The signs were the idea of the village President and local residents were encouraged to submit their own ideas  Found throughout the village, the signs garnered attention with the press and were not well received by residents, nor did they noticeably impact public safety  While considered humorous by some, many others considered it a publicity stunt at tax payer's expense The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and IDOT voiced their concerns about the use of these nonconforming stop signs and the village removed them in April 2008  Initially, the Village President refused to remove the signs until IDOT threatened to withhold millions of dollars in funding for infrastructure 

Notable people
Diandra Asbaty (born 1980), professional bowler; Team USA member and spokesperson for USBC
Brian Bogusevic (born 1984), former outfielder for Chicago Cubs
Tim Byrdak (born 1973), Major League Baseball pitcher 1998 to 2013; born in Oak Lawn
Kevin Cronin (born 1951), lead vocalist for rock band REO Speedwagon
David Diehl (born 1980), football player, two-time Super Bowl champion for New York Giants
Mark Donahue, football player, lineman for Cincinnati Bengals, two-time Consensus All-American at University of Michigan
Dan Donegan, guitarist for rock band Disturbed
John Joseph Duda, actor; born in Oak Lawn
Michael Flatley (born 1958), Irish step dancer; attended St  Linus and Brother Rice High School
Jack Gwynne, illusionist and actor, died in Oak Lawn (1969)
David A  Johnston, volcanologist, killed during 1980 Mount St  Helens eruption
Benn Jordan, recording artist known as The Flashbulb; attended Oak Lawn Community High School
C J  Kupec, basketball player, Oak Lawn High School star, played for Michigan and NBA's Los Angeles Lakers
Rob Mackowiak, player for several Major League Baseball teams
Bobby Madritsch, former pitcher for Seattle Mariners
Rory Markham, UFC and IFL mixed martial arts fighter
Mike Mollo, heavyweight boxer
Bryan Rekar, former pitcher for Colorado Rockies, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, and Kansas City Royals; born in Oak Lawn
Michael A  Ruddy, Illinois state representative and businessman, lived in Oak Lawn
Marc Rzepczynski, pitcher for Seattle Mariners; born in Oak Lawn
Dwyane Wade, former NBA player and three-time NBA champion with Miami Heat, attended Richards High School in Oak Lawn
Harry Yourell, Illinois state representative and businessman
Kanye West, musician, rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, and fashion designer
Juice WRLD, rapper, died in Oak Lawn (2019)
Passage 8:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory  Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria  The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located  The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government  Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs)  There are 774 local governments in Nigeria  Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government  The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation 

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria 

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives  It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list 

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature)  The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state 

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government  The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly 

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007)  The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control  Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press  ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3 
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999)  The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research  ISBN 978-181-238-9 
Rotimi T  Suberu (1994)  1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan  ISBN 978-2015-28-8 

External links
"New States of Nigeria"  Statoids 
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors 
Passage 9:
Cedar Springs, Texas
Cedar Springs is an unincorporated community in west Falls County, Texas, United States  It is located on Farm-to-market road #2027 
Passage 10:
Swan Miara
Swan Miara (ساون میرا) is a village and union council (an administrative subdivision) of Mansehra District in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan  It is located in the south of the district where it borders Abbottabad District Formerly it was a part of the Princely State of Amb 
Passage 11:
Virginia, Lempira
Virginia (Spanish pronunciation: [biɾˈxinja]) is a municipality in the Honduran department of Lempira 
Virginia is located in Lempira Honduras and shares a border with El Salvador  Many Virginians travel to El Salvador to do their shopping, because the Honduran cities are far away from Virginia 
It is one of the smallest municipalities of the Lempira department  It is 15 km or 30 minutes away from Mapulaca if accessed through Gracias 

History
It was founded back in 1830  In the national division of 1889 it was one municipality of Candelaria 

Geography
It is situated in a semi flat place and surrounded by many hills   The predominant vegetation corresponds to the sub tropical dry forest  In the municipality capital there are some inclined streets 

Boundaries
Its boundaries are: 

North : Candelaria municipality 
South : El Salvador 
East  : Piraera municipality 
West  : Mapulaca municipality 
Surface Extents: 36 km2

Resources
Since it is on the border with El Salvador, it is much easier for people to go there to establish commercial activities  Also there are more and better jobs on the other side of the border, with the advantage of receiving their wages in US dollars  It is not an ideal location for coffee plantations, therefore corn and beans crops became important (even though they are for local consumption); followed by cattle raising  Like the rest of the department, it has electricity and mobile communication services 

Population
Population: The amount of inhabitants was 2,734 and according to INE Honduras estimates, there will be 2,574 in 2015 
Villages: 5
Settlements: 35

Demographics
At the time of the 2013 Honduras census, Virginia municipality had a population of 2,548  Of these, 97 06% were Mestizo, 2 90% Indigenous (2 86% Lenca) and 0 04% Black or Afro-Honduran 

Tourism
As for the remaining 15 km, although this dirt road is not in the best condition, it is still an easy drive  A half-hour visit will be enough to see all there is to see in the municipality capital  For those who are interested in rural and quiet towns, this is a good place to visit  Surprisingly, the mobile phone signal from El Salvador is stronger than the Honduran signal  Since it is near the Lempa River, the local pastime is going there to bathe  The local holidays and festivals attract many visitors 

Local Holidays: "Santa Lucia" day on December 13 
Passage 12:
Gmina Włodawa
Gmina Włodawa is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Włodawa County, Lublin Voivodeship, in eastern Poland, on the border with Belarus and Ukraine  Its seat is the town of Włodawa, although the town is not part of the territory of the gmina 
The gmina covers an area of 243 75 square kilometres (94 1 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 5,936 

Villages
Gmina Włodawa contains the villages and settlements of Korolówka, Korolówka-Kolonia, Korolówka-Osada, Krasówka, Luta, Okuninka, Orchówek, Połód, Różanka, Sobibór, Stawki, Suszno, Szuminka, Wołczyny, Żłobek Duży, Żłobek Mały and Żuków 

Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Włodawa is bordered by the town of Włodawa and by the gminas of Hanna, Hańsk, Wola Uhruska and Wyryki  It also borders Belarus and Ukraine 

See also
Sobibor extermination camp
Passage 13:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 14:
Clear Springs, Texas
Clear Springs is a historic settlement in Guadalupe County, Texas, United States  It is part of the San Antonio Metropolitan Statistical Area  It shares its name with the nearby Clear Springs Air Force Base 

History
German settlers first immigrated to the area in the 1840s  Clear Springs was named for the natural springs water source for the settlement, which is now covered by Lake Dunlap  The location on which Clear Springs sits had been surveyed by James Bowie 
In 1873 a cotton-gin and general store were built for the processing, storage, and sale of cotton and goods  Wagon loads of cotton were brought from the region to the gin be to be weighed, sold and processed  The community had a post office in 1874 and called the location Bernhardsville  In 1875, the name was officially changed to Clear Springs 
In the 1890s, Clear Springs hosted the general store, cotton gin, and a population of 100  The post office was closed in 1906, however the residents stayed on to support the community  In later years the store was incorporated into a dance hall and saloon  The dance hall became a local favorite as it was the only establishment of the kind for several miles  Clear Springs had two businesses and a school in 1946  The school was consolidated with the New Braunfels school district in the 1950s  In 1990, several businesses as well as a church served a population of 60 
The historical Clear Springs Hall and Store now houses Clear Springs Restaurant  This establishment has tried to preserve the German small town heritage and historical atmosphere of the structure itself 
Clear Springs is located just off SH 46, at the intersection of SH 46 and FM 758, nine miles northwest of Seguin, Texas in northwestern Guadalupe County 

Geography
Clear Springs is located at 29°40′34″N 98°03′35″W (29 6760591, -98 0597292  This is about 30 miles (48 km) east of Downtown San Antonio and 50 miles (80 km) south of Austin 
Passage 15:
Wewela, South Dakota
Wewela (Lakota: wiwíla; "A spring") is an unincorporated community in Tripp County, South Dakota, United States  Wewela is located on U S  Route 183 near the Nebraska border, south of Colome 
The community most likely was named for springs near the original town site, Wewela meaning "small spring" in the Sioux language 
Passage 16:
Cedar Creek (Dix River tributary)
Cedar Creek, located in Lincoln County in south-central Kentucky, USA, is an 8-mile-long (13 km) tributary to the Dix River  Via the Dix, Kentucky and Ohio rivers, it is part of the Mississippi River watershed   In 2002, a section of Cedar Creek was impounded to form Cedar Creek Lake 

See also
List of rivers of Kentucky
Passage 17:
Krasnovishersky District
Krasnovishersky District (Russian: Краснови́шерский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion) of Perm Krai, Russia; one of the thirty-three in the krai  Municipally, it is incorporated as Krasnovishersky Municipal District  It is located in the northeast of the krai, in the valley of the Vishera River, and borders with the Komi Republic in the north, Sverdlovsk Oblast in the east, Cherdynsky District in the west, Solikamsky District in the south, and with the territory of the town of krai significance of Alexandrovsk in the southeast  The area of the district is 15,375 square kilometers (5,936 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Krasnovishersk  Population:  22,554 (2010 Census); 27,871 (2002 Census); 30,827 (1989 Census)  The population of Krasnovishersk accounts for 71 4% of the district's total population 

Geography
The eastern part of the district is mostly mountainous, while the western part is mostly flat, with some hills with the height of about 190–220 meters (620–720 ft)  The highest point of Perm Krai, Mount Tulymsky Kamen, is located in the district  There are many rivers in the district, including the Vishera River with its tributaries the Yazva, the Vels, the Uls, and many others  The town of Krasnovishersk is located 320 kilometers (200 mi) from the city of Perm  Natural resources of the district include diamonds, gold, oil, natural gas, and others 
The climate is temperate continental  The average annual temperature is +0 1 °C (32 2 °F); annual precipitation is 550–700 millimeters (22–28 in)  Up to 87% of the district's territory is covered by forests  In the extreme northeast of the district the Vishera Nature Reserve is located 

History
The district was established on January 13, 1941  Until then, its territory was a part of Cherdynsky District  Krasnovishersk, the administrative center of the district, was granted town status on July 2, 1942 

Demographics
As of the 2002 Census, about 89 7% of district's population were Russians and 2 5% were the Komi people 

Economy
The industry of the district includes timber industry, pulp and paper mill, mining and food industry 

See also
Visherogorsk
Zagovorukha



ground_truth: Bell County