prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the source of the river of which Kraai River is a tributary?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Kabompo River
The Kabompo River is one of the main tributaries of the upper Zambezi River  It flows entirely in Zambia, rising to the east of the source of the Zambezi, in North-Western Province along the watershed between the Zambezi and Congo river basins which also forms the border between Zambia and DR Congo  It is the second deepest river in Africa and one of the top five in the world 

Geography
The Kabompo River flows south-west through miombo woodland, then a remote Cryptosepalum dry forest ecoregion, with the West Lunga National Park on its west bank  After flowing past the town of Kabompo, it develops a swampy floodplain up to 5 km wide  The Kabompo Ferry on its lower course carries the main north–south gravel highway on the eastern side of the Zambezi  The river enters the Zambezi north of the town of Lukulu, at the north end of the Barotse Floodplain  Its main tributaries are the Western Lunga River which flows from the north, and the Dongwe River from the east 

See also
List of rivers of Africa
Passage 2:
Chapare River
The Chapare River is a river in Bolivia, which is a tributary of the Mamoré River in the Amazon Basin  The river has its source at the confluence of Espíritu Santo River and San Mateo River in the Cochabamba Department at Villa Tunari  It is the main waterway of Chapare Province 

See also
Tunari National Park

External links
 Media related to Río Chapare at Wikimedia Commons

Chapare River Floods
Passage 3:
Rhonelle
The Rhonelle is a river of northern France  It is 32 km (20 mi) long  It is a right tributary of the Scheldt  Its source is near Locquignol  It flows generally northwest along Le Quesnoy, Villers-Pol and Famars  It flows into the Scheldt in Valenciennes 
Passage 4:
Utva River (Perm Krai)
The Utva (Russian: Утьва) is a river in Perm Krai, Russia, a right tributary of the Veslyana, which in turn is a tributary of the Kama  The river is 76 kilometres (47 mi) long, and its drainage basin covers 697 square kilometres (269 sq mi)  The source of the river is in the extreme southwest of the Gaynsky District of Perm Krai, near the border with Kirov Oblast and the Komi Republic  The main tributaries are the Chugrum (right) and the Yuzhnaya Anva (left) 
Passage 5:
Hushe River
The Hushe River is a tributary river to the Shyok River which itself is tributary to the Indus River  The main source of the Hushe River is the Gondogoro Glacier  Some streams also flow from other glaciers of the Hushe valley  The Hushe river joins with Saltoro River at Haldi village before joining the Shyok River  Both the Hushe and Saltoro rivers join the Shyok river at the Tsa thang Ghursa village 
Passage 6:
Loimijoki
The river Loimijoki is a river in Finland and the longest tributary of the river Kokemäenjoki  The river originates at the lake Pyhäjärvi in Tammela and joins the river Kokemäenjoki in Huittinen  There is a 54-metre (177 ft) difference in elevation between the source and the mouth of the river, which is 114 kilometres (71 mi) long  The river drains a catchment area of 3,140 square kilometres (1,210 sq mi)  The river has several dams at Forssa, Jokioinen and Loimaa The Loimijoki river runs through the most fertile lands of Finland making its water  relatively muddy  The river was badly polluted by sewage of industry and population centers along the river, but since the 1980s the river has been starting to recover and currently the river sees also recreational use like fishing and water sports 
Passage 7:
Kraai River
The Kraai River (literally "Crow River") is a tributary of the Orange River (also called Gariep River by locals) that flows near Barkly East in the Eastern Cape, South Africa 

The Kraai River originates in the mountains south of Lesotho and flows westward from the confluence of the Bell River and the Sterk Spruit at Moshesh's Ford at 30°51′09″S 27°46′40″E all the way to Aliwal North, where it joins the Orange River at 30°40′02″S 26°45′06″E The river flows almost entirely over sandstone rocks of the Clarens Formation 
The Kraai is fishable, containing rainbow trout, brown trout and smallmouth yellowfish 

In 1881
a sandstone arch bridge called the J W Sauer bridge was completed over the river   The bridge linked communities in the Kraai River basin with Aliwal North  The Sauer bridge and the Loch Bridge on the farm
Tyger Krantz, are now Provincial Heritage sites 

Major tributaries
Bell River and a tributary of the Bell, the Kloppershoek Spruit
Sterk Spruit, its tributaries are the Bok Spruit and Rifle Spruit
Joggem Spruit
Langkloof Spruit
Diep Spruit and its tributary, the Three Drifts Stream
Carlisleshoek Spruit and the Maartenshoek Spruit
Klein Wildebeest Spruit
Saalboom Spruit and its tributary, the Vaalhoek Spruit
Karnmelk Spruit

See also

List of rivers of South Africa
List of reservoirs and dams in South Africa
Passage 8:
Shaksgam River
The Shaksgam River (Chinese: 沙克思干河; pinyin: Shakesigan He, Hindi: शक्सगाम नदी, romanized: Shaksgām Nadi, Urdu: دریائے شکسگام, romanized: Daryá-e-Shaksgám) is a left tributary of the Yarkand River  The river is also known as the Kelechin River (Chinese: 克勒青河) and Muztagh River (Chinese: 穆斯塔格河)  It rises in the Gasherbrum, Urdok, Staghar, Singhi and Kyagar Glaciers in the Karakoram  It then flows in a general northwestern direction parallel to the Karakoram ridge line in  the Shaksgam Valley  It receives the waters of the Shimshal Braldu river and the Oprang river from the Pakistan-administered Hunza District before turning east and joining the Yarkand River  The stretch of the river's course between Shimshal Braldu and Oprang is used as the Pakistan–China border Administratively, the Chinese part of the valley is within the southernmost portions of Yarkand County (the source) and the Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County (lower course)  India claims the entire valley as part of its Jammu and Kashmir state, now part of Ladakh 

History
The river valley was explored in 1889 by Francis Younghusband (who referred to the Shaksgam as the Oprang) , and again in 1926 by Kenneth Mason, who confirmed the sources of the river 

Geography
The upper river valley is used by climbers approaching the north face of K2   The approach requires a crossing of the river, which is hazardous   Between its confluence with the Shimshal Braldu River and its confluence with the Oprang River the river forms the border between China and Pakistan administered Kashmir   The area is used as winter pastures by yak herdsmen from the village of Shimshal  Historically, the bed of the Yarkand river where Shaksgam joins it, was used for cultivation by farmers from the state of Hunza  The rulers of Hunza are said to have obtained these "territorial rights to Shaksgam" in the distant past The average annual temperature in the region can fall below freezing 

See also
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Dafdar
Yinsugaiti Glacier
Sarpo Laggo Glacier
Passage 9:
Neste (river)
The Neste (French pronunciation: ​[nɛst]; Occitan: Nestés) is a river in southern France, a left tributary of the Garonne  It is 73 1 km (45 4 mi) long  It rises from several sources around Saint-Lary-Soulan, central Pyrenees and flows through
the following departments and towns:

Hautes-Pyrénées: Saint-Lary-Soulan, Arreau, La Barthe-de-Neste
Haute-Garonne: MontréjeauTwo rivers, the Neste d'Aure and the Neste du Louron, join to form the Neste at Arreau  The Neste flows into the Garonne in Montréjeau 
Passage 10:
Bolshaya Lyampa
The Bolshaya Lyampa (Russian: Большая Лямпа) is a river in Perm Krai, Russia, a right tributary of the Uls which in turn is a tributary of the Vishera  The river is 34 kilometres (21 mi) long  Its source is near the border with Sverdlovsk Oblast  It flows into the Uls 55 kilometres (34 mi) from the larger river's mouth  The Bolshaya Lyampa's main tributary is the Malaya Lyampa 
Passage 11:
Raba (river)
The Raba is a river in the south of Poland (Lesser Poland Voivodeship), right tributary to the river Vistula  Its source is in the Beskids, between the towns of Rabka-Zdrój and Nowy Targ  It flows to the north and then to the northeast  Towns along the river Raba include Rabka-Zdrój, Mszana Dolna, Myślenice, Dobczyce and Bochnia 
For centuries, the Raba was an important artery, along which several towns and villages were established  Its name probably comes from Celtic languages, and the Raba is divided into three parts: the Upper Raba (60 kilometres [37 mi] long located in the Beskids), the Middle Raba (in the Carpathian Foothills), and the Lower Raba (in the Sandomierz Basin) 
The Raba has its source at the Sieniawa mountain pass, at the height of 750 metres (2,460 ft) above sea level  It flows into the Vistula near Uscie Solne, after 134 7 kilometres (83 7 mi), while the area of its drainage basin is  1,537 1 square kilometres (593 5 sq mi)  From its source downstream to the town of Myślenice, the Raba is a typical mountain river, with narrow valley, rock-covered bed, fast currents and big drops  Below Lake Dobczyce it retains its mountain features for several kilometers  The river has no tributaries for its last 19 kilometres (12 mi) 
The Raba marks the boundary between the Makow Beskids and the Island Beskids, as well as the boundary between the Wieliczka Foothills, and the Wisnicz Foothills  Its tributaries are mainly mountain streams, such as Poniczanka, Slonka, Krzyworzeka, Mszanka, Kasinianka, Kaczanka, Krzczonówka, Trzemesnianka, Stradomka, Babica 

See also
Rivers of Poland
1934 flood in Poland

Sources
Description of the Raba

External links
Fishing on the Raba
Kayaking on the Raba
Passage 12:
Congo River
The Congo River (Kongo: Nzâdi Kôngo, French: Fleuve Congo, Portuguese: Rio Congo), formerly also known as the Zaire River, is the second-longest river in Africa, shorter only than the Nile, as well as the third largest river in the world by discharge volume, following the Amazon and the Ganges rivers  It is also the world's deepest recorded river, with measured depths of around 220 m (720 ft)  The Congo-Lualaba-Chambeshi River system has an overall length of 4,700 km (2,900 mi), which makes it the world's ninth-longest river  The Chambeshi is a tributary of the Lualaba River, and Lualaba is the name of the Congo River upstream of Boyoma Falls, extending for 1,800 km (1,100 mi) 
Measured along with the Lualaba, the main tributary, the Congo River has a total length of 4,370 km (2,720 mi)  It is the only major river to cross the Equator twice  The Congo Basin has a total area of about 4,000,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi), or 13% of the entire African landmass 

Name
The name Congo/Kongo originates from the Kingdom of Kongo once located on the southern bank of the river  The kingdom in turn was named for the indigenous Bantu Kongo people, known in the 17th century as "Esikongo"  South of the Kingdom of Kongo proper lay the similarly named Kakongo kingdom, mentioned in 1535  Abraham Ortelius labeled "Manicongo" as the city at the mouth of the river in his world map of 1564  The tribal names in Kongo possibly derive from a word for a public gathering or tribal assembly  The modern name of the Kongo people or Bakongo was introduced in the early 20th century The name Zaire is from a Portuguese adaptation of a Kikongo word, nzere ("river"), a truncation of nzadi o nzere ("river swallowing rivers")  The river was known as Zaire during the 16th and 17th centuries; Congo seems to have replaced Zaire gradually in English usage during the 18th century, and Congo is the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to Zahir or Zaire as the name used by the inhabitants remained common  The Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo are named after it, as was the previous Republic of the Congo which had gained independence in 1960 from the Belgian Congo  The Republic of Zaire during 1971–1997 was also named after the river's name in French and Portuguese 

Basin and course
The Congo's drainage basin covers 4,014,500 km2 (1,550,000 sq mi), an area nearly equal to that of the European Union  The Congo's discharge at its mouth ranges from 23,000 to 75,000 m3/s (810,000 to 2,650,000 cu ft/s), with an average of 41,000 m3/s (1,400,000 cu ft/s)  The river transports annually 86 million tonnes of suspended sediment to the Atlantic Ocean and an additional 6% of bedload The river and its tributaries flow through the Congo rainforest, the second largest rainforest area in the world, after the Amazon rainforest in South America  The river also has the second-largest flow in the world, behind the Amazon; the second-largest drainage basin of any river, behind the Amazon; and is one of the deepest rivers in the world, at depths greater than 220 m (720 ft)  Because its drainage basin includes areas both north and south of the Equator, its flow is stable, as there is always at least one part of the river experiencing a rainy season The sources of the Congo are in the highlands and mountains of the East African Rift, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru, which feed the Lualaba River, which then becomes the Congo below Boyoma Falls  The Chambeshi River in Zambia is generally taken as the source of the Congo in line with the accepted practice worldwide of using the longest tributary, as with the Nile River 
The Congo flows generally toward the northwest from Kisangani just below the Boyoma Falls, then gradually bends southwestward, passing by Mbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River and running into the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool)  Kinshasa (formerly Léopoldville) and Brazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool, where the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons (collectively known as the Livingstone Falls), running by Matadi and Boma, and into the sea at Muanda 
Lower Congo constitutes the 'lower' parts of the great river; that is the section of the river from the river mouth at the Atlantic coast to the twin capitals of Brazzaville and Kinshasa  In this section of the river, there are two significant tributaries, both on the left or south side  The Kwilu River originates in the hills near the Angolan border and enters the Congo some 100 km upstream from Matadi  The other being the Inkisi River, that flows in a northerly direction from the Uíge Province in Angola to the confluence with the Congo at Zongo some 80 km downstream from the twin capitals  Because of the vast number of rapids, in particular the Livingstone Falls, this section of the river is not operated continuously by riverboats 

Drainage basin
The Congo basin covers ten countries and accounts for about 13% of Africa  The highest point in the Congo basin is in the Ruwenzori Mountains, at an altitude of around 4,340 m (14,240 ft) above sea level 

Distribution of the Congo basin area between countries:
The most important hydrological stations along the Congo river are:

Discharge
The Congo River discharge at Kinshasa/Brazzaville stations since the start of measurements (1902 to 2021):

Tributaries
The main river and tributaries are (sorted in order from the mouth heading upstream):

Lower Congo (river mouth to Kinshasa)
Downstream of Kinshasa, from the river mouth at Banana, there are a few major tributaries 

M'pozo (left)
Kwilu (left)
Inkisi (left)
Djoué (right)Middle Congo (Kinshasa to the Boyoma Falls)

Kwa-Kassai (left)
Fimi
Lukenie
Kwango
Kwilu
Sankuru
Alima (right)
Likouala-Mossaka (right)
Sangha (right)
Kadéï (570 km, 41,000 km², 466 m³/s)
Ubangi (right)
Mbomou
Uele
Tshuapa or Ruki (left)
Lulonga (left)
Lopori
Maringa
Mongala (right)
Itimbiri (right)
Aruwimi (right)
Lomami (left)
Lindi (right)Upper Congo (Lualaba; upstream from the Boyoma Falls)

Lowa (right)
Ulindi (right)
Elila (right)
Luama (right)
Lukuga (right)
Luvua (right)
Luapula (740 km, 173,386 km², 741 m³/s)
Chambeshi (500 km, 44,427 km², 185 m³/s)

Economic importance
Although the Livingstone Falls prevent access from the sea, nearly the entire Congo above them is readily navigable in sections, especially between Kinshasa and Kisangani  Large river steamers worked the river until quite recently  The Congo River still is a lifeline in a land with few roads or railways  Railways now bypass the three major falls, and much of the trade of Central Africa passes along the river, including copper, palm oil (as kernels), sugar, coffee, and cotton 

Hydroelectric power
The Congo River is the most powerful river in Africa  During the rainy season over 50,000 cubic metres (1,800,000 cu ft) of water per second flows into the Atlantic Ocean  Opportunities for the Congo River and its tributaries to generate hydropower are therefore enormous  Scientists have calculated that the entire Congo Basin accounts for 13 percent of global hydropower potential  This would provide sufficient power for all of Sub-Saharan Africa's electricity needs Currently, there are about 40 hydropower plants in the Congo Basin  The largest are the Inga dams, about 200 kilometres (120 mi) southwest of Kinshasa  The project was launched in the early 1970s, when the first dam was completed  The plan (as originally conceived) called for the construction of five dams that would have had a total generating capacity of 34,500 megawatts (MW)  To date only the Inga I and Inga II dams have been built, generating 1,776 MW In February 2005, South Africa's state-owned power company, Eskom, announced a proposal to expand generation through improvements and the construction of a new hydroelectric dam  The project would bring the maximum output of the facility to 40,000 megawatt (GW)  It is feared that these new hydroelectric dams could lead to the extinction of many of the fish species that are native to the river 

Natural history
The current course of the Congo River formed between 1 5 and 2 million years BP, during the Pleistocene  It is likely that during this period many upper tributaries of the Congo were captured from adjacent river basins, including the Uele and upper Ubangi from the Chari system and the Chambeshi River alongside a number of upper Kasai River tributaries from the Zambezi system The Congo's formation may have led to the allopatric speciation of the bonobo and the common chimpanzee from their most recent common ancestor  The bonobo is endemic to the humid forests in the region, as are other iconic species like the Allen's swamp monkey, dryas monkey, aquatic genet, okapi, and Congo peafowl In terms of aquatic life, the Congo River Basin has a very high species richness and among the highest known densities of endemics  As of 2009, almost 800 fish species have been recorded from the Congo River Basin (not counting Lake Tanganyika, which is connected but ecologically very different), and large sections remain virtually unstudied  For example, the section in Salonga National Park, which is about the size of Belgium, had still not been sampled at all in 2006  New fish species are scientifically described with some regularity from the Congo River Basin, and many undescribed species are known The Congo has by far the highest diversity of any African river system; in comparison, the next richest are the Niger, Volta and Nile with about 240, 140 and 130 fish species, respectively  Because of the great ecological differences between the regions in the Congo basin —including habitats such as river rapids, deep rivers, swamps, and lakes— it is often divided into multiple ecoregions (instead of treating it as a single ecoregion)  Among these ecoregions, the Livingstone Falls cataracts has more than 300 fish species, including approximately 80 endemics while the southwestern part (Kasai River basin) has more than 200 fish species, of which about a quarter are endemic The dominant fish families – at least in parts of the river – are Cyprinidae (carp/cyprinids, such as Labeo simpsoni), Mormyridae (elephant fishes), Alestidae (African tetras), Mochokidae (squeaker catfishes), and Cichlidae (cichlids)  Among the natives in the river is the huge, highly carnivorous giant tigerfish  Three of the more unusual endemics are the whitish (non-pigmented) and blind Lamprologus lethops, which is believed to live as deep as 160 metres (520 ft) below the surface, Heterochromis multidens, which is more closely related to cichlids of the Americas than other African cichlids, and Caecobarbus geertsii, the only known cavefish in Central Africa  There are also numerous endemic frogs and snails  Several hydroelectric dams are planned on the river, and these may lead to the extinction of many of the endemics Several species of turtles and the slender-snouted, Nile and dwarf crocodile are native to the Congo River Basin  African manatees inhabit the lower parts of the river 

History
Pre-colonial history
The entire Congo basin is populated by Bantu peoples, divided into several hundred ethnic groups  Bantu expansion is estimated to have reached the middle Congo by about 500 BC and the upper Congo by the first century AD  Remnants of the aboriginal population displaced by the Bantu migration, Pygmies/Abatwa of the Ubangian phylum, remain in the remote forest areas of the Congo Basin 
The Kingdom of Kongo was formed in the late 14th century from a merging of the kingdoms of Mpemba Kasi and Mbata Kingdom on the left banks of the lower Congo River  Its territorial control along the river remained limited to what corresponds to the modern Kongo Central province  European exploration of the Congo began in 1482 when Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão discovered the river estuary (likely in August 1482), which he marked by a Padrão, or stone pillar (still existing, but only in fragments) erected on Shark Point  Cão sailed up the river for a short distance, establishing contact with the Kingdom of Kongo  The full course of the river remained unknown throughout the early modern period The upper Congo basin runs west of the Albertine Rift  Its connection to the Congo was unknown until 1877  The extreme northeast of the Congo basin was reached by the Nilotic expansion at some point between the 15th and 18th centuries, by the ancestors of the Southern Luo speaking Alur people  Francisco de Lacerda followed the Zambezi and reached the uppermost part of the Congo basin (the Kazembe in the upper Luapula basin) in 1796 
The upper Congo River was first reached by the Arab slave trade by the 19th century  Nyangwe was founded as a slavers' outpost around 1860  David Livingstone was the first European to reach Nyangwe in March 1871  Livingstone proposed to prove that the Lualaba connected to the Nile, but on 15 July, he witnessed a massacre of about 400 Africans by Arab slavers in Nyangwe, which experience left him too horrified and shattered to continue his mission to find the sources of the Nile, so he turned back to Lake Tanganyika 

Early European colonization
The Europeans had not reached the central regions of the Congo basin from either the east or west, until Henry Morton Stanley's expedition of 1876–77, supported by the Committee for Studies of the Upper Congo  At the time one of the last open questions of the European exploration of Africa was whether the Lualaba River fed the Nile (Livingstone's theory), the Congo, or even the Niger River  Financed in 1874, Stanley's first trans-Africa exploration started in Zanzibar and reached the Lualaba on October 17, 1876  Overland he reached Nyangwe, the center of a lawless area containing cannibal tribes at which Tippu Tip based his trade in slaves  Stanley managed to hire a force from Tippu Tip to guard him for the next 150 kilometres (90 mi) or so, for 90 days  
The party left Nyangwe overland through the dense Matimba forest  On November 19 they reached the Lualaba again  Since the going through the forest was so heavy, Tippu Tip turned around with his party on December 28, leaving Stanley on his own, with 143 people, including eight children and 16 women  They had 23 canoes  His first encounter with a local tribe was with the cannibal Wenya  In total Stanley reports 32 unfriendly meetings on the river, some violent, even though he attempted to negotiate a peaceful thoroughfare  But the tribes were wary as their only experience of outsiders was with slave traders 
On January 6, 1877, after 640 kilometres (400 mi), they reached Boyoma Falls (called Stanley Falls for some time after), consisting of seven cataracts spanning 100 kilometres (60 mi) which they had to bypass overland  It took them to February 7 to reach the end of the falls  Here Stanley learned that the river was called Ikuta Yacongo, proving to him that he had reached the Congo and that the Lualaba did not feed the Nile 
From this point, the tribes were no longer cannibals but possessed firearms, apparently as a result of Portuguese influence  Some four weeks and 1,900 kilometres (1,200 mi) later he reached Stanley Pool (now Pool Malebo), the site of the present day cities Kinshasa and Brazzaville  Further downstream were the Livingstone Falls, misnamed as Livingstone had never been on the Congo: a series of 32 falls and rapids with an elevation change of 270 metres (900 ft) over 350 kilometres (220 mi)  On 15 March they started the descent of the falls, which took five months and cost numerous lives  From the Isangile Falls, five falls from the foot, they beached the canoes and Lady Alice and left the river, aiming for the Portuguese outpost of Boma via land  
On August 3 they reached the hamlet Nsada  From there Stanley sent four men with letters forward to Boma, asking for food for his starving people  On August 7 relief came, being sent by representatives from the Liverpool trading firm Hatton & Cookson  On August 9 they reached Boma, 1,001 days since leaving Zanzibar on November 12, 1874  The party then consisted of 108 people, including three children born during the trip  Most probably (Stanley's own publications give inconsistent figures), he lost 132 people through disease, hunger, drowning, killing and desertion Kinshasa was founded as a trading post by Stanley in 1881 and named Léopoldville in honor of Leopold II of Belgium  The Congo Basin was privately claimed by Leopold II as Congo Free State in 1885 where the many Atrocities in the Congo Free State were committed until the region was called the Belgian Congo 

See also
List of crossings of the Congo River
2021 Congo River disaster

Notes
Passage 13:
Rufiji River
The Rufiji River lies entirely within Tanzania  It is also the largest and longest river in the country  The river is formed by the confluence of the Kilombero and Luwegu rivers  It is approximately 600 kilometres (370 mi) long, with its source in southwestern Tanzania and its mouth on the Indian Ocean opposite Mafia Island across the Mafia Channel, in Pwani Region  Its principal tributary is the Great Ruaha River  It is navigable for approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) 
The Rufiji river is approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi) south of Dar es Salaam  The river's delta contains the largest mangrove forest in eastern Africa 

History
A branch of ancient sea routes led down the East African coast called "Azania" by the Greeks and Romans in the 1st century CE as described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (and, very probably, Chinese: 澤散 in the 3rd century by the Chinese), at least as far as the port known to the Romans as Rhapta, which was probably located in the delta of the Rufiji River in modern Tanzania During the First World War, from October 1914 to July 1915, the river delta was the scene of a protracted naval operation  These were the attempts, and later achievement, by the Royal Navy to neutralize and destroy the German cruiser Konigsberg 

Basin
The catchment basin for the Rufiji River complex is 177,429 square kilometres (68,506 sq mi) 

Hydroelectric Project
Tanzania president John Magufuli has approved the construction of a controversial new dam and power station on the river at Stiegler's Gorge  The power station is expected to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more than triple Tanzania's existing installed hydropower capacity which is only 562 megawatts  Construction of the dam started on July 26, 2019, and it is expected be ready by 2022 
Passage 14:
Mangalam River
Mangalam River is the main tributary of the river Gayathripuzha, which in turn is a tributary of Bharathapuzha, the second longest river in Kerala, India   It is around 30 km long in length, with its source from Nelliyampathi forests, and passing through Vadakkencherry, Kannambra, Puthucode, Padur, etc  and joining Gayathripuzha at Plazhi in the border of Thrissur and Palakkad districts 
Cherukunnapuzha is a tributary of Mangalam River and Mangalam Dam is constructed across this river  A canal system for irrigation purpose was completed and opened in 1966, in Alathur taluk, Palakkad district 

Tributaries of the river Mangalam river
Cherukunnapuzha

See also
Bharathapuzha - Main river
Gayathripuzha - One of the main  tributaries of the river Bharathapuzha

Other tributaries of the river Gayathripuzha
Ayalurpuzha
Vandazhippuzha
Meenkarappuzha
Chulliyar
Passage 15:
Cagne
The Cagne is a river that flows through the Alpes-Maritimes department of southeastern France  Its source is near Coursegoules, and it flows into the Mediterranean Sea in Cagnes-sur-Mer  It is 27 5 km (17 1 mi) long  The Malvan is one of its tributaries 
Passage 16:
Thoré
The Thoré (French pronunciation: ​[tɔʁe]) is a 61 6-kilometre-long (38 3 mi) river in the Hérault and Tarn departments in southern France  Its source is in the northern part of Rieussec  It flows generally northwest  It is a left tributary of the Agout, into which it flows between Navès and Castres 

Departments and communes along its course
This list is ordered from source to mouth: 

Hérault: Rieussec, Verreries-de-Moussans,
Tarn: Labastide-Rouairoux, Anglès, Lacabarède, Rouairoux, Sauveterre, Albine, Saint-Amans-Valtoret, Saint-Amans-Soult, Bout-du-Pont-de-Larn, Mazamet, Pont-de-Larn, Aussillon, Payrin-Augmontel, Aiguefonde, Caucalières, Labruguière, Castres, Navès,
Passage 17:
Klehini River
The Klehini River is a large, glacially fed stream in the vicinity of Haines in the U S  state of Alaska 
The Klehini River is about 42 miles (68 km) long from its source in British Columbia to its mouth at the Chilkat River, of which it is the largest tributary   The Klehini River is renowned for its salmon runs, its biannual congregation of bald eagles—the second largest in the Haines area after the Chilkat River's Council Grounds—and for the Klehini Falls  The Klehini also delineates the northern boundary of the Chilkat Range 
The name Klehini appears to be derived from the Tlingit phrase l’éiw héeni, which translates to river with sand or gravel in it    The Klehini River contains abundances of both sand and gravel 
The lower Klehini is located within the Alaska Chilkat Bald Eagle Preserve 
Walt Disney's 1991 rendition of White Fang was filmed along the Klehini River 

Klehini Falls
The Klehini Falls are a series of four cataracts in far northwestern British Columbia occurring in a narrow gorge near the headwaters of the Klehini River  The falls are separated from one another by a distance of approximately 300 feet (91 m), with an average plunge of 30 to 40 feet (9 1 to 12 2 m)  The individual cataracts are currently unnamed 

See also
List of rivers of Alaska
List of British Columbia rivers
Passage 18:
Orange River
The Orange River (from Afrikaans/Dutch: Oranjerivier) is a river in Southern Africa  It is the longest river in South Africa  With a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi), the Orange River Basin extends from Lesotho into South Africa and Namibia to the north  It rises in the Drakensberg mountains in Lesotho, flowing westwards through South Africa to the Atlantic Ocean  The river forms part of the international borders between South Africa and Lesotho and between South Africa and Namibia, as well as several provincial borders within South Africa  Except for Upington, it does not pass through any major cities  The Orange River plays an important role in the South African economy by providing water for irrigation and hydroelectric power  The river was named the Orange River in honour of the Dutch ruling family, the House of Orange, by the Dutch explorer Robert Jacob Gordon  Other names include simply the word for river, in Khoekhoegowab orthography written as !Garib, which is rendered in Afrikaans as Gariep River with the intrusion of a velar fricative in place of the alveolar click, Groote River (derived from Kai !Garib) or Senqu River (used in Lesotho), derived from ǂNū "Black"  It is known in isiZulu as isAngqu 

Course
The Orange rises in the Drakensberg mountains along the border between South Africa and Lesotho, about 193 km (120 mi) west of the Indian Ocean and at an altitude of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft)  The extremity of the Orange River inside Lesotho is known as the Senqu  Parts of the Senqu River freeze in winter because of the high altitude  This creates droughts downstream, which mainly affect goat and cattle production 

The Orange River then runs westward through South Africa, forming the south-western boundary of the Free State province  In this section, the river flows first into the Gariep Dam and later into the Vanderkloof Dam  From the border of Lesotho to below the Vanderkloof Dam, the river bed is deeply incised  Further downstream, the land is flatter, and the river is used extensively for irrigation 
At the western point of the Free State, southwest of Kimberley, the Orange meets with its main tributary, the Vaal River, which forms much of the northern border of the province  From here, the river flows further westward through the arid wilderness of the southern Kalahari region and Namaqualand in the Northern Cape province to meet with Namibia at 20°E longitude  From here, it flows westward for 550 km (340 mi), forming the international border between the province and Namibia's ǁKaras Region  On the border, the river passes the town of Vioolsdrif, the main border post between South Africa and Namibia 

In the last 800 km (500 mi) of its course, the Orange receives many intermittent streams, and several large wadis lead into it  In this section, the Namib Desert terminates on the north bank of the river, so under normal circumstances, the volume of water added by these tributaries is negligible  Here, the bed of the river is once again deeply incised  The Augrabies Falls are located on this section of the Orange, where the river descends 122 m (400 ft) in a course of 26 km (16 mi) 
The Orange empties into the Atlantic Ocean between the small towns of Oranjemund (meaning "Orange mouth") in Namibia and Alexander Bay in South Africa, about equidistant between Walvis Bay and Cape Town  Some 33 km (21 mi) from its mouth, it is obstructed by rapids and sand bars and is generally not navigable for long stretches 
The river has a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi) 

Catchment and rainfall
In the dry season, the volume of the water in the river is considerably reduced because of the rapid run-off and evaporation  At the source of the Orange, the rainfall is about 2,000 mm (79 in) per annum, but precipitation decreases as the river flows westward; at its mouth, the rainfall is less than 50 mm (2 0 in) per year  The factors that support evaporation, though, tend to increase in a westerly direction  In the wet season (summer), the Orange river becomes a brown colored torrent  The huge mass of sediment carried constitutes a long-term threat to engineering projects on the river The total catchment of the Orange River (including the Vaal) extends over 973,000 km2 (376,000 sq mi), i e  equivalent to about 77% of the land area of South Africa (1,221,037 km2 (471,445 sq mi))  Around 366,000 km2 (141,000 sq mi) (38%), however, are situated outside the country in Lesotho, Botswana, and Namibia 

Tributaries
Vaal River - 1,458 km (906 mi)
Caledon River - 642 km (399 mi)
Khubelu River - 144 km (89 mi)

Dams
Armenia Dam
Egmont Dam
Gariep Dam
Newberry Dam
Vanderkloof Dam
Welbedacht Dam

History
Etymology
Some of the earliest precolonial inhabitants called the river ǂNūǃarib, referring to its black colour, or sometimes just Kai !Arib ("Great River"), from which is derived the Afrikaans version Gariep, and translation "Groote Rivier"  The early Dutch name for the river was just that translation, Groote Rivier, meaning "Great River"  The river was named the Orange River by Colonel Robert Gordon, commander of the United East India Company (VOC) garrison at Cape Town, on a trip to the interior in 1779  Gordon named the river in honor of William V of Orange  A popular but incorrect belief is that the river was named after the supposedly orange color of its water, as opposed to the color of its tributary, the Vaal River, which name is derived from the name ǀHaiǃarib "pale river" (vaal being Afrikaans for pale or grey)  Since the end of apartheid, the name "Gariep" has had greater favour in official correspondence in South Africa, although the name "Orange" has greater international recognition  In Lesotho, where the river rises, it is known as the Senqu River, derived from the original Khoemana name 

The Eastern Cape Geographical Names Committee has advertised its intention to consider a name change from the colonial name, for that portion of the river that forms the border between the Eastern Cape and the Free State, with suggestions being IGqili or Senqu  The advertisement placed in the Aliwal Weekblad newspaper states that the "present name is perceived to have a strong association with the history of colonial subjugation and has therefore no place under the current democratic dispensation "

The Grootslang
In South African folklore, the Orange River is often associated with the Grootslang, a mythical being resembling a giant serpent, which is often connected to the river's alluvial diamonds  The Grootslang is described as living in a gem-filled cave connected to the Orange River by a natural pipe through which the diamonds gradually enter the river  Other sites said to be lairs of the creature include the pool beneath the King George Cataract at Aughrabies Falls, which is also said to be a source of diamonds, and a large rock in the middle of the river itself  In this version of the legend, the Grootslang is also said to prey on cattle from the river's banks 

Economy
As the collection point for the majority of South Africa's water, the Orange River plays a major role in supporting agriculture, industry, and mining  To assist in this, two large water schemes have been created, the Orange River Project and the Lesotho Highlands Water Project  Historically, the river played an important role in the South African diamond rush, with the first diamonds in the country being discovered in alluvial deposits on the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate along the final stretch of the Orange River and around its mouth 
Because of the lack of dangerous animals and high water levels during summer, the river is used for recreational canoeing and rafting  Orange River rafting has become very popular with many companies using their camps along the river from which to operate  The most popular trips are four-day and six-day river trips that take place either along the gorge below the Augrabies Falls or along the Richtersveld area 

Orange River Project
The Orange River Project (ORP) was one of the largest and most imaginative projects of its kind in South Africa  It was constructed by Hendrik Verwoerd's government at the height of the apartheid era  The ORP was built to exploit the waters of the Orange River—which, without the Vaal River, represents some 14 1% of the total runoff in South Africa—and in the process, to satisfy an increasing demand for water  The main objectives of the project were:

to stabilise river flow,
the generation and transmission of hydroelectric power,
to provide a reliable water supply for users in the Orange River basin, and
to give a new lease on life to water-deficient areas in the Eastern Cape, such as the Great Fish and Sundays River valleys The Gariep Dam near Colesberg is the main storage structure within the Orange River  From here, the water is supplied in two directions, westward along the Orange River (via hydroelectric power generators) to the Vanderkloof Dam and southward through the Orange-Fish Tunnel to the Eastern Cape 

Hydroelectricity
Eskom operates hydroelectric power stations at both the Gariep Dam and the Vanderkloof Dam  The hydroelectric power station at the Vanderkloof Dam was the first power-generation station in South Africa situated entirely underground  The towns Oviston and Oranjekrag were established to facilitate the construction and operation of the new infrastructure 

Irrigation
Irrigation in the vast area downstream of the Vanderkloof Dam, which has turned thousands of hectares of arid veld into highly productive agricultural land, was made possible by the construction of the Gariep and Vanderkloof Dams  Old established irrigation schemes such as those at Buchuberg, Upington, Kakamas, and Vioolsdrif have also benefitted because regulation of the flow is now possible  On the Namibian side of the river, Aussenkehr produces grapes with the help of water from the Orange 
In recent years, the wine-producing areas along the Orange River have grown in importance  Irrigation in the Eastern Cape has also received a tremendous boost, not only from the additional water being made available, but also owing to improvement in water quality  Without this improvement, the citrus farmers along the Lower Sundays River would almost certainly have continued to suffer losses of productivity 

Lesotho Highlands Water Project
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was conceived to supplement the water supply in the Vaal River System  Water is delivered to South Africa by means of the delivery tunnel which passes under the Lesotho South Africa border at the Caledon River, and then under the Little Caledon River south of Clarens in the Free State, and discharges into the Ash River about 30 kilometres (19 mi) further to the north  The scheme became viable when water demands in Gauteng reached levels that could no longer be supported economically by alternative schemes such as the Tugela River-Vaal River pumped storage scheme, which used the Sterkfontein Dam, located near Harrismith in the Free State 

Alluvial diamonds
In 1867, the first diamond discovered in South Africa, the Eureka Diamond, was found near Hopetown on the Orange River  Two years later, a much larger diamond known as the Star of South Africa was found in the same area, causing a diamond rush  This was soon eclipsed by the diamond rush to mine diamonds directly from kimberlite at Kimberley in 1871, although alluvial diamonds continued to be found in the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate on the last stretch of the river, as well as the beaches around its mouth  Diamond mines also operate on the middle stretch of the river 

Rafting and canoeing
During the temperate months of March and April, given good rains and the sluices of the dams being open, a canoeist (or rafter) can easily travel 30 kilometres (19 mi) per day  The lower reaches of the river are most popular, because of the spectacular topography  Commercial tours are available, and these expeditions depart from the border town of Vioolsdrif 

Wildlife
The Orange River has no large animals  It lies outside the range of the Nile crocodile, and although hippopotami were once abundant, they were hunted to extermination in the 19th century  The Orange River has a relative paucity of species diversity  A 2011 survey of 13,762 fish found only 16 species of fish present   Three of these, the common carp, the Mozambique tilapia, and the western mosquitofish are not indigenous   Another exotic species, rainbow trout, is found in the river headwaters in Lesotho 
Seven species are endemic to the Vaal-Orange River system:
Rock-catfish (Austroglanis sclateri)
Maluti redfin or Maloti minnow (Pseudobarbus quathlambae)
Namaquab barb (Barbus hospes)
River sardine (Mesobola brevianalis)
Smallmouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus aeneus)
Largemouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus kimberlyensis)
Orange River Mudfish (Labeo capensis)

See also
List of rivers in South Africa
List of international border rivers
List of crossings of the Orange River
Passage 19:
Bhilangna River
Bhilangna River is a Himalayan river in Uttarakhand, India, which is the major tributary of the Bhagirathi river, the source stream of the Ganges River of India  Bhilangana is a combination of Bhil and Ganga The mainstem, Bhilangna, rises at the foot of the Khatling Glacier (elevation 3,717 m (12,195 ft)) approximately 50 km (31 mi) south of the ice cave at Gaumukh, traditionally considered the source of both the Bhagirathi and the Ganges and flows into the Bhagirathi at Old Tehri, the site of the Tehri dam   It meets its major tributary the Bal Ganga at Ghansali (elevation 976 m (3,202 ft)) 
The Bal Ganga, whose headwaters are formed at the foot of Mount Kukhli Dhar (elevation 4,600 m (15,100 ft)), itself has a minor tributary, the Dharam Ganga, which meets it at Thati Kathur (also Budha Kedar) at elevation 1,524 m (5,000 ft)
The Khatling trek route passes alongside the Bhilangna, starting from the last point accessible by road, Ghuttu, until the glacier, which stands at 3700 metres  If one were to go further on the trail past the glacier, one could reach Kedarnath 

See also
Bhagirathi River
Ganges
Alaknanda River
Context 3: Passage 1:
Battle of Palmito Ranch
The Battle of Palmito Ranch, also known as the Battle of Palmito Hill, is considered by some criteria as the final battle of the American Civil War  It was fought May 12 and 13, 1865, on the banks of the Rio Grande east of Brownsville, Texas, and a few miles from the seaport of Los Brazos de Santiago, at the southern tip of Texas  The battle took place more than a month after the general surrender of Confederate forces to Union forces at Appomattox Court House, which had since been communicated to both commanders at Palmito, and in the intervening weeks the Confederacy had collapsed entirely, so it could also be classified as a postwar action 
Union and Confederate forces in southern Texas had been observing an unofficial truce since the beginning of 1865, but Union Colonel Theodore H  Barrett, newly assigned to command an all-black unit and never having been involved in combat, ordered an attack on a Confederate camp near Fort Brown for unknown reasons  The Union attackers captured a few prisoners, but the following day the attack was repulsed near Palmito Ranch by Colonel John Salmon Ford, and the battle resulted in a Confederate victory  Union forces were surprised by artillery said to have been supplied by the French Army garrison occupying the up-river Mexican town of Matamoros 
Casualty estimates are not dependable, but Union Private John J  Williams of the 34th Indiana Infantry Regiment is believed to have been the last man killed during the engagement  He could then arguably be considered the last man killed in the war 

Background
After July 27, 1864, the Union Army withdrew most of the 6,500 troops deployed to the lower Rio Grande Valley, including Brownsville, which they had occupied since November 2, 1863  The Confederates were determined to protect their remaining ports, which were essential for cotton sales to Europe and the importation of supplies  The Mexicans across the border tended to side with the Confederates because of the lucrative cotton export trade  Beginning in early 1865, the rival armies in south Texas honored a gentlemen's agreement, as they saw no point in further hostilities between them Union Major General Lew Wallace proposed a negotiated end of hostilities in Texas to Confederate Brigadier General James E  Slaughter, and met with Slaughter and his subordinate Colonel Ford at Port Isabel on March 11–12, 1865  Despite Slaughter's and Ford's agreement that combat would prove tragic, Slaughter's superior, Confederate Maj  Gen  John G  Walker, rejected the ceasefire in a scathing exchange of letters with Wallace  Despite this, both sides honored a tacit agreement not to advance on the other without prior written notice 
A brigade of 1,900 Union troops commanded by Col  Robert B  Jones of the 34th Indiana Veteran Volunteer Infantry were on blockade duty at the Port of Brazos Santiago at the mouth of the present-day ship channel of the Port of Brownsville  The 400-man 34th Indiana was an experienced regiment that had served in the Vicksburg Campaign and was reorganized in December 1863 as a "Veteran" regiment, composed entirely of veterans from several other regiments whose original enlistments had expired  The 34th Indiana deployed to Los Brazos de Santiago on December 22, 1864, replacing the 91st Illinois Volunteer Infantry, which returned to New Orleans  The brigade also included the 87th and 62nd United States Colored Infantry Regiments ("United States Colored Troops", or U S C T ) which had a combined strength of about 1,100  Shortly after Gen  Walker rejected the armistice proposal, Col  Jones resigned from the army to return to Indiana  He was replaced in the regiment by Lt  Col  Robert G  Morrison and at Los Brazos de Santiago by Colonel Theodore H  Barrett, commander of the 62nd U S C T 
The 30-year-old Barrett had been an army officer since 1862, but he had yet to see combat  Anxious for higher rank, he volunteered for the newly raised "colored" regiments and was appointed in 1863 as colonel of the 1st Missouri Colored Infantry  In March 1864, the regiment became the 62nd U S C T  Regiment  Barrett contracted malaria in Louisiana that summer, and while he was on convalescent leave, the 62nd was posted to Los Brazos de Santiago  He joined it there in February 1865 

Reasons for fighting
Historians still debate why this engagement at Palmito Ranch took place  Lee had surrendered to Grant in Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, triggering a series of formal surrenders in other places throughout the country  The Confederate and Union officers in Brownsville also knew that Lee had surrendered, effectively ending the war 
Soon after the battle, Barrett's detractors claimed he desired "a little battlefield glory before the war ended altogether " Others have suggested that Barrett needed horses for the 300 unmounted cavalrymen in his brigade and decided to take them from his enemy  Louis J  Schuler, in his 1960 pamphlet "The last battle in the War Between the States, May 13, 1865: Confederate Force of 300 defeats 1,700 Federals near Brownsville, Texas", asserts that Brig  Gen  Egbert B  Brown of the U S  Volunteers had ordered the expedition to seize as contraband 2,000 bales of cotton stored in Brownsville and sell them for his own profit, but Brown was not even appointed to command at Brazos Santiago until later in May According to historian Jerry Thompson:

What was at stake was honor and money  With a stubborn reluctance to admit defeat, Ford asserted that the dignity and manhood of his men had to be defended   Having previously proclaimed that he would never capitulate to "a mongrel force of Abolitionists, Negroes, plundering Mexicans, and perfidious renegades"   Ford was not about to surrender to invading black troops     Even more important was the large quantity of Richard King and Mifflin Kenedy's cotton stacked in Brownsville waiting to be sent across the river to Matamoros  If Ford did not hold off the invading Federal force, the cotton would be confiscated by the Yankees and thousands of dollars lost "

Battle
Union Lieutenant Colonel David Branson wanted to attack the Confederate encampments commanded by Ford at White and Palmito ranches near Fort Brown outside Brownsville  Branson's Union forces consisted of 250 men of the 62nd U S C T  in eight companies and two companies of the (U S ) 2nd Texas Cavalry Battalion  The 300-man 2nd Texas, like the earlier-formed 1st Texas Cavalry Regiment, was composed largely of Texans of Mexican origin who remained loyal to the United States  They moved from Brazos Santiago to the mainland  At first Branson's expedition was successful, capturing three prisoners and some supplies, although it failed to achieve the desired surprise  During the afternoon, Confederate forces under Captain William N  Robinson counterattacked with less than 100 cavalry, driving Branson back to White's Ranch, where the fighting stopped for the night  Both sides sent for reinforcements; Ford arrived with six French guns and the remainder of his cavalry force (for a total of 300 men), while Barrett came with 200 troops of the 34th Indiana in nine under-strength companies The next day, Barrett started advancing westward, passing a half-mile to the west of Palmito Ranch, with skirmishers from the 34th Indiana deployed in advance  Ford attacked Barrett's force as it was skirmishing with an advance Confederate force along the Rio Grande about 4 p m  He sent a couple of companies with artillery to attack the Union right flank and the remainder of his force into a frontal attack  After some confusion and fierce fighting, the Union forces retreated toward Boca Chica  Barrett attempted to form a rearguard, but Confederate artillery prevented him from rallying a force sufficient to do so  During the retreat, which lasted until 14 May, 50 members of the 34th Indiana's rearguard company, 30 stragglers, and 20 of the dismounted cavalry were surrounded in a bend of the Rio Grande and captured  The battle is recorded as a Confederate victory 

Fighting in the battle involved Caucasian, African-American, Hispanic, and Native American troops  Reports of shots from the Mexican side, the sounding of a warning to the Confederates of the Union approach, the crossing of Imperial cavalry into Texas, and the participation by several among Ford's troops are unverified, despite many witnesses reporting shooting from the Mexican shore In Barrett's official report of August 10, 1865, he reported 115 Union casualties: one killed, nine wounded, and 105 captured  Confederate casualties were reported as five or six wounded, with none killed  Historian and Ford biographer Stephen B  Oates, however, concludes that Union deaths were much higher, probably around 30, many of whom drowned in the Rio Grande or were attacked by French border guards on the Mexican side  He likewise estimated Confederate casualties at approximately the same number Using court-martial testimony and post returns from Brazos Santiago, historian Jerry D  Thompson of Texas A&M International University determined that:

the 62nd U S C T  incurred two killed and four wounded;
the 34th Indiana had one killed, one wounded, and 79 captured; and
the 2nd Texas Cavalry Battalion had one killed, seven wounded, and 22 captured,
totaling four killed, 12 wounded, and 101 captured Private John J  Williams of the 34th Indiana was the last fatality during the Battle at Palmito Ranch, likely making him the final combat death of the entire war 

Aftermath
President Jefferson Davis was captured and imprisoned on May 10, 1865, marking the effective end of the Confederate government  In addition, that day United States President Andrew Johnson declared "armed resistance    virtually at an end " Historian James McPherson joins other historians in concluding that the war ended when the Confederate government ended 
Confederate General Edmund Kirby Smith officially surrendered all Confederate forces in the Trans-Mississippi Department on June 2, 1865, except those under the command of Brigadier General Chief Stand Watie in the Indian Territory  Stand Watie, of the 1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles, on June 23, 1865, became the last Confederate general to surrender his forces, in Doaksville, Indian Territory  On that same day, United States President Andrew Johnson ended the Union blockade of the Southern states 

Many senior Confederate commanders in Texas (including Smith, Walker, Slaughter, and Ford) and many troops with their equipment fled across the border to Mexico  Wanting to resist capture, they may also have intended to ally with French Imperial forces, or with Mexican forces under deposed President Benito Juárez 
The Military Division of the Southwest (after June 27 the Division of the Gulf), commanded by Maj  Gen  Phillip H  Sheridan, occupied Texas between June and August  Consisting of the IV Corps, XIII Corps, the African-American XXV Corps, and two 4,000-man cavalry divisions commanded by Brig  Gen  Wesley Merritt and Maj  Gen  George A  Custer, it aggregated a 50,000-man force on the Gulf Coast and along the Rio Grande to pressure the French intervention in Mexico and garrison the Reconstruction Department of Texas 
In July 1865, Barrett proffered charges of disobedience of orders, neglect of duty, abandoning his colors, and conduct prejudicial to good order and military discipline against Morrison for actions in the battle, resulting in the latter's court martial  Confederate Col  Ford, who had returned from Mexico at the request of Union Gen  Frederick Steele to act as parole commissioner for disbanding Confederate forces, appeared as a defense witness and assisted in absolving Morrison of responsibility for the defeat at Palmito Ranch The history of this engagement provides accounts of the roles of Hispanic Confederate veterans and of the treatment by Confederates in South Texas of black prisoners-of-war  Hispanic Confederates served at Fort Brown in Brownsville and on the field of Palmito Ranch  Col



ground_truth: Thaba Putsoa

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the mayor presiding now where Merrill Elam was born?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
2017 Cincinnati mayoral election
The 2017 Cincinnati mayoral election took place on November 7, 2017, to elect the Mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio  The election was officially nonpartisan, with the top two candidates from the May 2 primary election advancing to the general election, regardless of party  Incumbent Democratic Mayor John Cranley won re-election to a second term 
While the election was nonpartisan, all the candidates were known Democrats 

Primary election
Candidates
Declared
John Cranley (D), incumbent Mayor of Cincinnati
Rob Richardson, Jr  (D), former University of Cincinnati board chairman
Yvette Simpson (D), Cincinnati City Council member

Declined
Greg Hartmann (R), former Hamilton County Commissioner
Charlie Winburn (R), Cincinnati City Council member

Endorsements
Polling
Results
General election
Candidates
John Cranley (D), incumbent Mayor of Cincinnati
Yvette Simpson (D), Cincinnati City Council member, President Pro-Tempore

Endorsements
Polling
Results
Passage 2:
2017 Atlanta mayoral election
The 2017 Atlanta mayoral election occurred on November 7, 2017, with a runoff election held on December 5, 2017   Incumbent mayor Kasim Reed, a member of the Democratic Party who had been in office since 2010, was ineligible to run for reelection due to term limits 
A total of 14 candidates qualified for the November 7 non-partisan election   However, no candidate revived a majority, so a runoff was held between Keisha Lance Bottoms and Mary Norwood, the top two finishers, on December 5   On election night, unofficial results suggested that Keisha Lance Bottoms had narrowly won, but Norwood called for a recount The election was first certified on December 11, 2017, and had Bottoms winning by a margin of 823 votes   This margin was less than the 1 percent threshold needed to avoid a mandatory recount   The recount, which occurred on December 14, resulted in Norwood gaining five votes and Bottoms losing six in Fulton County, while the vote totals in DeKalb County remained the same   The election was re-certified on December 17 after Fulton County accepted the new results   Norwood officially conceded the race on December 21, and Lance Bottoms was inaugurated as the 60th mayor of Atlanta on January 2, 2018 

Candidates
Declared
Peter Aman, former Chief Operating Officer of Atlanta
Rohit Ammanamanchi, Georgia Institute of Technology graduate
Keisha Lance Bottoms, Atlanta City Councilmember (District 11)
John Eaves, Fulton County Chairman, District 7, At-Large
Vincent Fort, Georgia State Senator 
Kwanza Hall, Atlanta City Councilmember (District 2)
Laban King, co-founder of the real estate investment firm, Millennial Global Investments
Ceasar Mitchell, Atlanta City Council President
Mary Norwood, Atlanta City Councilmember (Post 2 At Large) and candidate for Mayor in 2009
Cathy Woolard, former Atlanta City Council President
Glenn Wrightson

Failed to qualify
Alex Barrella, cartoonist

Dropped out
Al Bartell, Certified Mediator  Dropped out August 22, 2017 
Margaret Kaiser, Georgia State Representative, District 59, 2007–2016  Dropped out October 25, 2016 
Michael Sterling, former Executive Director of the City of Atlanta Workforce Development Agency  Dropped out October 24, 2017

Endorsements
Polling
Results
General election
Runoff
See also
Mayor of Atlanta
2017 United States elections
Passage 3:
Merrill Elam
Merrill Elam is an American architect and educator based in Atlanta, Georgia  She is a principal with Mack Scogin in Mack Scogin Merrill Elam Architects where their work spans between buildings, interiors, planning, graphics and exhibition design, and research 

Biography and education
She received a Bachelor of Architecture from the Georgia Institute of Technology in 1971 and a Master of Business Administration at the J  Mack Robinson College of Business Georgia State University in 1982 

Career
She worked as an architect and senior associate at Heery & Heery Architects & Engineers for 12 years prior to establishing Scogin Elam and Bray Architects in 1984  In 2000, Mack Scogin and Merrill Elam Architects was established  She has been a licensed architect in 13 states, a member of the American Institute of Architects and is NCARB certified 
In addition to an active practice, she  has been a visiting architecture professor in architecture programs across the country including Harvard University, Yale University, University of Toronto, University of Virginia, Ohio State University, Syracuse University, and University of Texas at Austin  She also formerly acted as president of the Georgia State Board of Architects  In addition she aided in founding the Architecture Society of Atlanta and is the former organization's former president 

Selected projects
The Round House, Connecticut, 2020 
One Midtown Plaza Lobby, Atlanta, Georgia, 2007
Health Services Center, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 2006
Ernie Davis Hall, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, 2005
Gates Center for Computer Science and Hillman Center for Future Generation Technologies, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 2005
Zhongkai Sheshan Villas, Shanghai, China, 2004
Carroll A  Campbell Jr  Graduate Engineering Center, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, 2004
U S  Federal Courthouse, General Services Administration, Austin, Texas, 2003
Lulu Chow Wang Campus Center and Davis Garage, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Massachusetts, 2001
Carol Cobb Turner Branch Library, Marrow, Georgia, 1991
John J  Ross - William C  Blakley Law Library, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, 1993
Austin E  Knowlton School of Architecture, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1998
Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 1998
Mountain Tree House, Dillard, Georgia, 1998

Honors and awards
2014 Design Leader award, Women in Architecture Awards, Architectural Record, 2014
Shutze Medal, Georgia Institute of Technology with Mack Scogin, 2013
Cooper-Hewitt National Design Award for Architecture with Mack Scogin, 2012 
Arnold W  Brunner Memorial Prize in Architecture, American Academy of Arts and Letters with Mack Scogin, 2011
Royal Institute of British Architects, International Fellow, 2008
Chrysler Award for Innovation in Design with Mack Scogin, 1996
Arts and Letters Award in Architecture, American Academy of Arts and Letters with Mack Scogin, 1995
Passage 4:
Joseph Rakowski
Joseph Rakowski is an American Democratic Party politician who served as Acting Mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey  He became acting mayor when he was elected to serve as City Council President of Jersey City  Rakowski was the third person to hold the office in the same year 

Biography
During his four-month term of office, Rakowski worked with New York City Mayor David Dinkins and New Jersey Attorney General Robert J  Del Tufo to address a problem where trucks full of garbage were being driven from New York City to Jersey City, New Jersey and their full trailers abandoned  Rakowski did not seek to complete the unexpired term as mayor in the special election that was held during his tenure  He was succeeded by Bret Schundler 
Passage 5:
Joan McBride
Joan Leslie McBride (born 1951 or 1952) is an American politician  A Democrat, she was the mayor of Kirkland, Washington, from 2010 to 2013, after which she was elected to the Washington House of Representatives as a member from District 48  She also served on the Kirkland City Council since 1998, sitting as deputy mayor from 2002 until her election as mayor in 2010 McBride originally announced a bid to succeed state Senator Rodney Tom  However, in April 2014, she and state Representative Cyrus Habib announced they would switch races, with Habib running for Tom's seat and McBride running to replace Habib in the House  McBride was elected in November and sworn on January 12, 2015  She was named assistant Democratic whip McBride announced her retirement from the State legislature on March 29, 2018 

Personal life
McBride is married with children  She has a background in nonprofit work and community relations  She resides in Kirkland 
Passage 6:
Rusty Paul
Russell K  Paul (born June 23, 1952) is an American politician serving as the mayor of Sandy Springs, Georgia since 2014 

Early life and education
Paul was born in 1952, and grew up in the Birmingham, Alabama area  He received a Bachelor’s degree at Samford University and attended graduate school at Georgia State University 

Career
Paul was the Stone Mountain city council member from 1977 to 1983  From1989 to 1993, he served as Assistant Secretary for Congressional and Intergovernmental Relations for the Housing and Urban Development Department under Secretary Jack Kemp  He chaired the Georgia Republican Party from 1995 to 1999, and became a State Senator representing northern Fulton County from 2001 to 2003  In 2005, he was elected to Sandy Springs city council  Paul was elected to succeed Eva Galambos in November 2013 

Personal life
Paul is married to Jan Paul and has 5 children  He is an Episcopalian 

Controversies
Paul has courted controversy for his lobbying work in relation to the Development Authority of Fulton County while serving as a publicly elected official 
Passage 7:
Kraków
Kraków (Polish: [ˈkrakuf] (listen)) is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland  Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century  Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 and has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, economic, cultural and artistic life  Cited as one of Europe's most beautiful cities, its Old Town with Wawel Royal Castle was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978, one of the world's first sites granted the status 
The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland's second-most-important city  It began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was reported by Ibrahim Ibn Yakoub, a merchant from Córdoba, as a busy trading centre of Central Europe in 985  With the establishment of new universities and cultural venues at the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918 and throughout the 20th century, Kraków reaffirmed its role as a major national academic and artistic centre  As of 2022, the city has a population of 800,653, with approximately 8 million additional people living within a 100 km (62 mi) radius of its main square After the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany at the start of World War II, the newly defined Distrikt Krakau (Kraków District) became the capital of Germany's General Government  The Jewish population of the city was forced into a walled zone known as the Kraków Ghetto, from where they were sent to Nazi extermination camps such as the nearby Auschwitz, and Nazi concentration camps like Płaszów  However, the city was spared from destruction and major bombing 
In 1978, Karol Wojtyła, archbishop of Kraków, was elevated to the papacy as Pope John Paul II—the first non-Italian pope in 455 years  Also that year, UNESCO approved Kraków's entire Old Town and historic centre and the nearby Wieliczka Salt Mine as Poland's first World Heritage Sites  Kraków is classified as a global city with the ranking of "high sufficiency" by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network  Its extensive cultural heritage across the epochs of Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture includes Wawel Cathedral and Wawel Royal Castle on the banks of the Vistula, St  Mary's Basilica, Saints Peter and Paul Church and the largest medieval market square in Europe, Rynek Główny  Kraków is home to Jagiellonian University, one of the oldest universities in the world and traditionally Poland's most reputable institution of higher learning  The city also hosts a number of institutions of national significance such as the National Museum, Kraków Opera, Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, National Stary Theatre and the Jagiellonian Library  The city is served by John Paul II International Airport, the country's second busiest airport and the most important international airport for the inhabitants of south-eastern Poland 
In 2000, Kraków was named European Capital of Culture  In 2013, Kraków was officially approved as a UNESCO City of Literature  The city hosted World Youth Day in July 2016 

Etymology
The name of Kraków is traditionally derived from Krakus (Krak, Grakch), the legendary founder of Kraków and a ruler of the tribe of Vistulans  In Polish, Kraków is an archaic possessive form of Krak and essentially means "Krak's (town)"  The true origin of the name is highly disputed among historians, with many theories in existence and no unanimous consensus  The first recorded mention of Prince Krakus (then written as Grakch) dates back to 1190, although the town existed as early as the seventh century, when it was inhabited by the tribe of Vistulans  It is possible that the name of the city is derived from the word kruk, meaning 'crow' or 'raven' The city's full official name is Stołeczne Królewskie Miasto Kraków, which can be translated as "Royal Capital City of Kraków"  In English, a person born or living in Kraków is a Cracovian (Polish: krakowianin or krakus)  Until the 1990s the English version of the name was often written as Cracow, but now the most widespread modern English version is Krakow 

History
Kraków's early history begins with evidence of a Stone Age settlement on the present site of the Wawel Hill  A legend attributes Kraków's founding to the mythical ruler Krakus, who built it above a cave occupied by a dragon, Smok Wawelski  The first written record of the city's name dates back to 965, when Kraków was described as a notable commercial centre controlled first by Moravia (876–879), but captured by a Bohemian duke Boleslaus I in 955  The first acclaimed ruler of Poland, Mieszko I, took Kraków from the Bohemians and incorporated it into the holdings of the Piast dynasty towards the end of his reign 
In 1038, Kraków became the seat of the Polish government  By the end of the tenth century, the city was a leading centre of trade  Brick buildings were constructed, including the Royal Wawel Castle with St  Felix and Adaukt Rotunda, Romanesque churches such as St  Andrew's Church, a cathedral, and a basilica  The city was sacked and burned during the Mongol invasion of 1241  It was rebuilt practically identically, based on new location act and incorporated in 1257 by the high duke Bolesław V the Chaste who following the example of Wrocław, introduced city rights modelled on the Magdeburg law allowing for tax benefits and new trade privileges for the citizens  In 1259, the city was again ravaged by the Mongols  A third attack in 1287 was repelled thanks in part to the newly built fortifications 

In 1335, King Casimir III the Great (Polish: Kazimierz) declared the two western suburbs to be a new city named after him, Kazimierz (Latin: Casimiria)  The defensive walls were erected around the central section of Kazimierz in 1362, and a plot was set aside for the Augustinian order next to Skałka  The city rose to prominence in 1364, when Casimir founded the University of Kraków, the second oldest university in central Europe after the Charles University in Prague  Casimir also began work on a campus for the academy in Kazimierz, but he died in 1370 and the campus was never completed 
The city continued to grow under the joint Lithuanian-Polish Jagiellon dynasty  As the capital of the Kingdom of Poland and a member of the Hanseatic League, the city attracted many craftsmen from abroad, businesses, and guilds as science and the arts began to flourish  The royal chancery and the university ensured a first flourishing of Polish literary culture in the city 

Kraków's "Golden Age"
The 15th and 16th centuries were known as Poland's Złoty Wiek or Golden Age  Many works of Polish Renaissance art and architecture were created, including ancient synagogues in Kraków's Jewish quarter located in the north-eastern part of Kazimierz, such as the Old Synagogue  During the reign of Casimir IV, various artists came to work and live in Kraków, and Johann Haller established a printing press in the city after Kasper Straube had printed the Calendarium Cracoviense, the first work printed in Poland, in 1473 In 1520, the most famous church bell in Poland, named Zygmunt after Sigismund I of Poland, was cast by Hans Behem  At that time, Hans Dürer, a younger brother of artist and thinker Albrecht Dürer, was Sigismund's court painter  Hans von Kulmbach made altarpieces for several churches  In 1553, the Kazimierz district council gave the Jewish Qahal (council of a Jewish self-governing community) a licence for the right to build their own interior walls across the western section of the already existing defensive walls  The walls were expanded again in 1608 due to the growth of the community and influx of Jews from Bohemia  In 1572, King Sigismund II, the last of the Jagiellons, died childless  The Polish throne passed to Henry III of France and then to other foreign-based rulers in rapid succession, causing a decline in the city's importance  Furthermore, in 1596, Sigismund III of the House of Vasa moved the administrative capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Kraków to Warsaw  The city was destabilised by pillaging in the 1650s during the Swedish invasion, especially during the 1655 siege  Later in 1707, the city underwent an outbreak of bubonic plague that left 20,000 of the city's residents dead 

19th century
Already weakened during the 18th century, by the mid-1790s the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had twice been partitioned by its neighbors: Russia, the Habsburg empire and Prussia  In 1791, the Austrian and Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II changed the status of Kazimierz as a separate city and made it into a district of Kraków  The richer Jewish families began to move out  However, because of the injunction against travel on the Sabbath, most Jewish families stayed relatively close to the historic synagogues  In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated an unsuccessful insurrection in the town's Main Square which, in spite of his victorious Battle of Racławice against a numerically superior Russian army, resulted in the third and final partition of Poland In 1802, German became the town's official language  Of the members appointed by the Habsburgs to the municipal council only half were Polish  From 1796 to 1809, the population of the city rose from 22 000 to 26 000 with an increasing percentage of nobles and officials  In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte captured former Polish territories from Austria and made the town part of the Duchy of Warsaw  During the time of the Duchy of Warsaw, requirements to upkeep the Polish army followed by tours of Austrian, Polish and Russian troops, plus Russian occupation and a flood in the year 1813 all added up to the adverse development of the city with a high debt burden on public finances and many workshops and trading houses needing to close their activities  Following Napoleon's defeat, the 1815 Congress of Vienna restored the pre-war boundaries but also created the partially independent Free City of Kraków  An insurrection in 1846 failed, resulting in the city being annexed by Austria under the name the Grand Duchy of Kraków (Polish: Wielkie Księstwo Krakowskie, German: Großherzogtum Krakau) 

This Republic of Kraków (1815–1846) included the towns of Chrzanow, Trzebinia and Nowa Gora and 224 villages  Outside the city, mining and metallurgy started developing  The population of Cracow itself grew in this time from 23 000 to 43 000, the one in the Republic from 88 000 to 103 000  The population of the city had an increasing number of catholic clergy, officials and intelligentsia with which the rich townspeople sympathised  They were opposed to the conservative landed aristocracy who also were drawn more and more to the city real estates even though their income still mainly came from their agricultural possessions in the Republic, the Kingdom of Poland and Galicia  The percentage of the Jewish population in the city also increased in this time from 20 8% to 30 4%  A free trade zone led to positive economic development  But because of the unstable political situation and insecurity about the future, not much of the accumulated wealth was invested  Through the increase of taxes, customs and regulations, prices soared and the city fell into a recession  From 1844 to 1850 the population was diminished by over 4 000 inhabitants  
In 1866, Austria granted a degree of autonomy to Galicia after its own defeat in the Austro-Prussian War  Politically freer Kraków became a Polish national symbol and a centre of culture and art, known frequently as the "Polish Athens" (Polskie Ateny)  Many leading Polish artists of the period resided in Kraków, among them the seminal painter Jan Matejko, laid to rest at Rakowicki Cemetery, and the founder of modern Polish drama, Stanisław Wyspiański  Fin de siècle Kraków evolved into a modern metropolis; running water and electric streetcars were introduced in 1901, and between 1910 and 1915, Kraków and its surrounding suburban communities were gradually combined into a single administrative unit called Greater Kraków (Wielki Kraków) At the outbreak of World War I on 3 August 1914, Józef Piłsudski formed a small cadre military unit, the First Cadre Company—the predecessor of the Polish Legions—which set out from Kraków to fight for the liberation of Poland  The city was briefly besieged by Russian troops in November 1914  Austrian rule in Kraków ended in 1918 when the Polish Liquidation Committee assumed power 

20th century to the present
Following the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918, Kraków resumed its role as a major Polish academic and cultural centre, with the establishment of new universities such as the AGH University of Science and Technology and the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, including a number of new and essential vocational schools  The city became an important cultural centre for Polish Jews, including both Zionist and Bundist groups  Kraków was also an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life, with all its manifestations of religious observance - from Orthodox to Hasidic and Reform Judaism - flourishing side by side 
Following the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in September 1939, the city of Kraków became part of the General Government, a separate administrative region of the Third Reich  On 26 October 1939, the Nazi régime set up Distrikt Krakau, one of a total of four districts within the General Government  On the same day, the city of Kraków also became the capital of the administration  The General Government was ruled by Governor-General Hans Frank, who was based in the city's Wawel Castle  The Nazis envisioned turning Kraków into a completely Germanised city; after removal of all the Jews and Poles, renaming of locations and streets into the German language, and sponsorship of propaganda trying to portray it as a historically German city  On 28 November 1939 Hans Frank set up Judenräte ('Jewish Councils') to be run by Jewish citizens for the purpose of carrying out orders for the Nazis  These orders included the registration of all Jewish people living in each area, the collection of taxes, and the formation of forced-labour groups  The Polish Home Army maintained a parallel underground administrative system On the eve of World War II some 56,000 Jews resided in Krakow, almost one-quarter of a total population of about 250,000  By November 1939, the Jewish population of Krakow had grown to approximately 70,000  According to German statistics from 1940, over 200,000 Jews lived within the entire Kraków District, comprising more than 5 percent of the total population in the district  These statistics, however, probably underestimate the situation In November 1939, during an operation known as "Sonderaktion Krakau", the Germans arrested more than 180 university professors and academics and sent them to the Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps, though the survivors were later released on the request of prominent Italians 

Before the formation of ghettos, which began in the Distrikt in December 1939, Jews were encouraged to flee the city  For those who remained the German authorities decided in March 1941 to allocate a then suburban neighborhood, Podgórze District, to become Kraków's ghetto - there many Jews would die of illness or starvation  Initially, most ghettos were open and Jews were allowed to enter and exit freely  However, with time ghettos were generally closed and security became tighter  From autumn 1941, the SS developed the policy of Extermination through labour, which further worsened the already bleak conditions for Jews  The ghetto inhabitants were later murdered or sent to German Extermination camps, including Bełżec and Auschwitz, and to Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp  The largest deportations within the Distrikt occurred from June to September 1942  More specifically, the Kraków ghetto deportation occurred in the first week of June 1942, and in March 1943 the ghetto was definitely liquidated Roman Polanski, the film director, survived the Kraków ghetto  Oskar Schindler selected employees from the ghetto to work in his enamelware factory Deutsche Emailwaren Fabrik (Emalia for short), saving them from the camps  Similarly, many men capable of physical labor were saved from the deportations to extermination camps and instead sent to labor camps across the General Government  By September 1943, the last of the Jews from the Kraków ghetto had been deported  Although looted by occupational authorities, Kraków remained relatively undamaged at the end of World War II, with most of the city's historical and architectural legacy spared  Soviet forces under the command of Marshal Ivan Konev entered the city on 18 January 1945, and began arresting Poles loyal to the Polish government-in-exile or those who had served in the Home Army 

After the war, under the Polish People's Republic (officially declared in 1952), the intellectual and academic community of Kraków came under complete political control  The universities were soon deprived of printing rights and autonomy  The Stalinist government of Poland ordered the construction of the country's largest steel mill in the newly created suburb of Nowa Huta  The creation of the giant Lenin Steelworks (now Sendzimir Steelworks owned by Mittal) sealed Kraków's transformation from a university city into an industrial centre  The new working-class population, drawn by the industrialization of Kraków, contributed to rapid growth 
In an effort that spanned two decades, Karol Wojtyła, cardinal archbishop of Kraków from 1964 to 1978, successfully lobbied for permission to build the first churches in the newly-industrial suburbs  In 1978 the Catholic Church elevated Wojtyła to the papacy as John Paul II, the first non-Italian pope in 455 years  In the same year, UNESCO, following the application of local authorities, placed Kraków Old Town on the first-ever list of World Heritage Sites 

Geography
Kraków lies in the southern part of Poland, on the Vistula River, in a valley at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains, 219 m (719 ft) above sea level; halfway between the Jurassic Rock Upland (Polish: Jura Krakowsko-Częstochowska) to the north, and the Tatra Mountains 100 km (62 mi) to the south, constituting the natural border with Slovakia and the Czech Republic; 230 km (143 mi) west from the border with Ukraine 
There are five nature reserves in Kraków, with a combined area of ca  48 6 hectares (120 acres)  Due to their ecological value, these areas are legally protected  The western part of the city, along its northern and north-western side, borders an area of international significance known as the Jurassic Bielany-Tyniec refuge  The main motives for the protection of this area include plant and animal wildlife and the area's geomorphological features and landscape  Another part of the city is located within the ecological 'corridor' of the Vistula River valley  This corridor is also assessed as being of international significance as part of the Pan-European ecological network  The city centre is situated on the left (northern) bank of the river 

Climate
Officially, Kraków has a temperate oceanic climate, denoted by Köppen classification as Cfb, best defined as a semicontinental climate  In older reference periods it was classified as a warm summer continental climate (Dfb)  By classification of Wincenty Okołowicz, it has a warm temperate climate in the centre of continental Europe with the "fusion" of different features Due to its geographic location, the city may be under marine influence, sometimes Arctic influence, but without direct influence, giving the city variable meteorological conditions over short spaces of time Being towards Eastern Europe and a relatively considerable distance from the sea, Krakow has significant temperature differences according to the progress of different air masses, having four defined seasons of the year  Average temperatures in summer range from 18 6 to 20 4 °C (65 to 69 °F) and in winter from −0 6 to 0 8 °C (31 to 33 °F)  The average annual temperature is 10 0 °C (50 °F)  In summer temperatures often exceed 25 °C (77 °F), even reaching 30 °C (86 °F), while in winter temperatures drop to −5 °C (23 °F) at night and about 0 °C (32 °F) during the day  During very cold nights the temperature can drop to −15 °C (5 °F)  The city lies near the Tatra Mountains, there are often occurrences of halny blowing (a foehn wind), causing temperatures to rise rapidly, and even in winter reach up to 20 °C (68 °F) In relation to Warsaw, temperatures are very similar for most of the year, except that in the colder months southern Poland has a larger daily temperature range, more moderate winds, generally more rainy days and with greater chances of clear skies on average, especially in winter  The higher sun angle also allows for a longer growing season  In addition, for older data there was less sun than the capital of the country, about 30 minutes daily per year, but both have small differences in relative humidity and the direction of the winds is northeast The climate table below presents weather data from 2000 to 2012, although the official Köppen reference period was from 1981 to 2010 (therefore not being technically a climatological normal)  According to ongoing measurements, the temperature has increased during these years as compared with the last series  This increase averages about 0 6 °C (1 1 °F) over all months  Warming is most pronounced during the winter months, with an increase of more than 1 0 °C (1 8 °F) in January 

Cityscape
Developed over many centuries, Kraków provides a showcase setting for many historic styles of architecture  As the city expanded, so too did the architectural achievements of its builders  It is for this reason that the variations in style and urban planning are so easily recognisable Built from its earliest nucleus outward, and having escaped much of the destruction endured by Poland during the 20th-century wars, Kraków's many architectural monuments can typically be seen in historical order by walking from the city centre out, towards its later districts  Kraków is one of the few medieval towns in Poland that does not have a historic Ratusz town hall in its Main Square, because it has not survived the Partitions of Poland Kraków's historic centre, which includes the Old Town, Kazimierz and the Wawel Castle, was included as the first of its kind on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1978  The Stare Miasto is the most prominent example of an old town in the country  For many centuries Kraków was the royal capital of Poland, until Sigismund III Vasa relocated the court to Warsaw in 1596  The whole district is bisected by the Royal Road, the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland  The Route begins at St  Florian's Church outside the northern flank of the old city-walls in the medieval suburb of Kleparz; passes the Barbican of Kraków (Barbakan) built in 1499, and enters Stare Miasto through the Florian Gate  It leads down Floriańska Street through the Main Square, and up Grodzka to Wawel, the former seat of Polish royalty, overlooking the Vistula river  Old Town attracts visitors from all over the World  Kraków historic centre is one of the 13 places in Poland that are included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites  The architectural design of the district had survived all cataclysms of the past and retained its original form coming from the medieval times 

In addition to the old town, the city's district of Kazimierz is particularly notable for its many renaissance buildings and picturesque streets, as well as the historic Jewish quarter located in the north-eastern part of Kazimierz  Kazimierz was founded in the 14th century to the south-east of the city centre and soon became a wealthy, well-populated area where construction of imposing properties became commonplace  Perhaps the most important feature of medieval Kazimierz was the only major, permanent bridge (Pons Regalis) across the northern arm of the Vistula  This natural barrier used to separate Kazimierz from the Old Town for several centuries, while the bridge connected Kraków to the Wieliczka Salt Mine and the lucrative Hungarian trade route  The last structure at this location (at the end of modern Stradom Street) was dismantled in 1880 when the northern arm of the river was filled in with earth and rock, and subsequently built over 

By the 1930s, Kraków had 120 officially registered synagogues and prayer houses that spanned across the old city  Much of Jewish intellectual life had moved to new centres like Podgórze  This in turn, led to the redevelopment and renovation of much of Kazimierz and the development of new districts in Kraków  Most historic buildings in central Kazimierz today are preserved in their original form  Some old buildings, however, were not repaired after the devastation brought by the Second World War, and have remained empty  Most recent efforts at restoring the historic neighborhoods gained new impetus around 1993  Kazimierz is now a well-visited area, seeing a booming growth in Jewish-themed restaurants, bars, bookstores and souvenir shops 

As the city of Kraków began to expand further under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the new architectural styles also developed  Key buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries in Kraków include the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, the directorate of the Polish State Railways as well as the original complex of Kraków Główny railway station and the city's Academy of Economics  It was also at around that time that Kraków's first radial boulevards began to appear, with the city undergoing a large-scale program aimed at transforming the ancient Polish capital into a sophisticated regional centre of the Austro-Hungarian Empire  New representative government buildings and multi-story tenement houses were built at around that time  Much of the urban-planning beyond the walls of the Old Town was done by Polish architects and engineers trained in Vienna  Some major projects of the era include the development of the Jagiellonian University's new premises and the building of the Collegium Novum just west of the Old Town  The imperial style planning of the city's further development continued until the return of Poland's independence, following the First World War  Early modernist style in Kraków is represented by such masterpieces as the Palace of Art by Franciszek Mączyński and the 'House under the Globe'  Secession style architecture, which had arrived in Kraków from Vienna, became popular towards the end of the Partitions 

With Poland's regained independence came the major change in the fortunes of Kraków—now the second most important city of a sovereign nation  The state began to make new plans for the city development and commissioned a number of representative buildings  The predominant style for new projects was modernism with various interpretations of the art-deco style  Important buildings constructed in the style of Polish modernism include the Feniks 'LOT' building on Basztowa Street, the Feniks department store on the Main Square and the Municipal Savings Bank on Szczepański Square  The Józef Piłsudski house is also of note as a particularly good example of interwar architecture in the city After the Second World War, new government turned toward Soviet influence and the Stalinist monumentalism  The doctrine of Socialist realism in Poland, as in other countries of the People's Republics, was enforced from 1949 to 1956  It involved all domains of art, but its most spectacular achievements were made in the field of urban design  The guidelines for this new trend were spelled-out in a 1949 resolution of the National Council of Party Architects  Architecture was to become a weapon in establishing the new social order by the communists  The ideological impact of urban design was valued more than aesthetics  It aimed at expressing persistence and power  This form of architecture was implemented in the new industrial district of Nowa Huta with apartment blocks constructed according to a Stalinist blueprint, with repetitious courtyards and wide, tree-lined avenues 

Since the style of the Renaissance was generally regarded as the most revered in old Polish architecture, it was also used for augmenting Poland's Socialist national format  However, in the course of incorporating the principles of Socialist realism, there were quite a few deviations introduced by the communists  One of these was to more closely reflect Soviet architecture, which resulted in the majority of works blending into one another  From 1953, critical opinions in the Party were increasingly frequent, and the doctrine was given up in 1956 marking the end of Stalinism  The soc-realist centre of Nowa Huta is considered to be a meritorious monument of the times  This period in postwar architecture was followed by the mass-construction of large Panel System apartment blocks, most of which were built outside the city centre and thus do not encroach upon the beauty of the old or new towns  Some examples of the new style (e g , Hotel Cracovia) recently listed as heritage monuments were built during the latter half of the 20th century in Kraków After the Revolutions of 1989 and the birth of the Third Republic in the latter half of the 20th century, a number of new architectural projects were completed, including the construction of large business parks and commercial facilities such as the Galeria Krakowska, or infrastructure investments like the Kraków Fast Tram  A good example of this would be the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology designed by Arata Isozaki, the 2007-built Pawilon Wyspiański 2000, which is used as a multi-purpose information and exhibition space, or the Małopolski Garden of Arts (Małopolski Ogród Sztuki), a multi-purpose exhibition and theatre complex located in the historic Old Town 

Parks and gardens
There are about 40 parks in Kraków including dozens of gardens and forests  Several, like the Planty Park, Botanical Garden, Zoological Garden, Royal Garden, Park Krakowski, Jordan Park and Błonia Park are located in the centre of the city; with Zakrzówek, Lasek Wolski forest, Strzelecki Park and Park Lotników (among others) in the surrounding districts  Parks cover about 318 5 hectares (787 acres), 1 2 sq mi) of the city 
The Planty Park is the best-known park in Kraków  It was established between 1822 and 1830 in place of the old city walls, forming a green belt around the Old Town  It consists of a chain of smaller gardens designed in various styles and adorned with monuments  The park has an area of 21 hectares (52 acres) and a length of 4 kilometres (2 5 mi), forming a scenic walkway popular with Cracovians The Jordan Park founded in 1889 by Dr Henryk Jordan, was the first public park of its kind in Europe  The park built on the banks of the Rudawa river was equipped with running and exercise tracks, playgrounds, the swimming pool, amphitheatre, pavilions, and a pond for boat rowing and water bicycles  It is located on the grounds of a larger Kraków's Błonia Park  The less prominent Park Krakowski was founded in 1885 by Stanisław Rehman but has since been greatly reduced in size because of rapid real estate development  It was a popular destination point with many Cracovians at the end of the 19th century 

Environment
There are five nature reserves in Kraków with a total area of 48 6 hectares (120 acres)  Smaller green zones constitute parts of the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland Jurassic Landscape Parks' Board, which deals with the protection areas of the Polish Jura  Under its jurisdiction are: the Bielany-Tyniec Landscape Park (Park Bielańsko-Tyniecki), Tenczynek Landscape Park (Park Tencziński) and Kraków Valleys Landscape Park (Park Krajobrazowy Dolinki Krakowskie), with their watersheds  All natural reserves of the Polish Jura Chain are part of the CORINE biotopes programme due to their unique flora, fauna, geomorphology and landscape  The western part of Kraków constitutes the so-called Obszar Krakowski ecological network, including the ecological corridor of the Vistula river  The southern slopes of limestone hills provide conditions for the development of thermophilous vegetation, grasslands and scrubs 
The city is spaced along an extended latitudinal transect of the Vistula River Valley with a network of tributaries including its right tributary Wilga, and left: Rudawa, Białucha, Dłubnia and Sanka  The rivers and their valleys along with bodies of water are some of the most interesting natural wonders of Kraków 
Kraków and its environment, surrounded by mountains, suffer from Europe's dirtiest air pollution because of smog, caused by burning coal for heating, especially in winter 

Governance
The Kraków City Council has 43 elected members, one of whom is the mayor, or President of Kraków, elected every four years  The election of the City Council and of the local head of government, which takes place at the same time, is based on legislation introduced on 20 June 2002  The President of Kraków, re-elected for his fourth term in 2014, is Jacek Majchrowski  Several members of the Polish national Parliament (Sejm) are elected from the Kraków constituency  The city's official symbols include a coat of arms, a flag, a seal, and a banner 

The responsibilities of Kraków's president include drafting and implementing resolutions, enacting city bylaws, managing the city budget, employing city administrators, and preparing against floods and natural disasters  The president fulfills his duties with the help of the City Council, city managers and city inspectors  In the 1990s, the city government was reorganised to better differentiate between its political agenda and administrative functions  As a result, the Office of Public Information was created to handle inquiries and foster communication between city departments and citizens at large In 2000, the city government introduced a new long-term program called "Safer City" in cooperation with the Police, Traffic, Social Services, Fire, Public Safety, and the Youth Departments  Subsequently, the number of criminal offences dropped by 3 percent between 2000 and 2001, and the rate of detection increased by 1 4 percent to a total of 30 2 percent in the same period  The city is receiving help in carrying out the program from all educational institutions and the local media, including TV, radio and the press 

Districts
Kraków is divided into 18 administrative districts (dzielnica) or boroughs, each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government  Prior to March 1991, the city had been divided into four quarters which still give a sense of identity to Kraków – the towns of Podgórze, Nowa Huta, and Krowodrza which were amalgamated into the city of Kraków as it expanded, and the ancient town centre of Kraków itself 

The oldest neighborhoods of Kraków were incorporated into the city before the late-18th century  They include the Old Town (Stare Miasto), once contained within the city defensive walls and now encircled by the Planty park; the Wawel District, which is the site of the Royal Castle and the cathedral; Stradom and Kazimierz with its historic Jewish quarter, the latter originally divided into Christian and Jewish quarters; as well as the ancient town of Kleparz 
Major districts added in the 19th and 20th centuries include Podgórze, which until 1915, was a separate town on the southern bank of the Vistula, and Nowa Huta, east of the city centre, built after World War II 

Among the most notable historic districts of the city are: Wawel Hill, home to Wawel Castle and Wawel Cathedral, where many historic Polish kings are buried; the medieval Old Town, with its Main Market Square (200 metres (660 ft) square); dozens of old churches and museums; the 14th-century buildings of the Jagiellonian University; and Kazimierz, the historical centre of Kraków's Jewish social and religious life The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about 6,000 historic sites and more than 2,000,000 works of art  Its rich variety of heritage architecture includes Romanesque (e g , St  Andrew's Church, Kraków), Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic buildings  Kraków's palaces, churches, theatres and mansions display a great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings In the Market Square stands the Gothic St  Mary's Basilica (Kościół Mariacki)  It was rebuilt in the 14th-century and features the famous wooden altar (Altarpiece of Veit Stoss), the largest Gothic altarpiece in the world, carved by Veit Stoss  From the church's main tower a trumpet call (hejnał mariacki), is sounded every hour  The melody, which used to announce the opening and closing of city gates, ends unexpectedly in midstream  According to legend, the tune was played during the 13th-century Tatar invasion by a guard warning citizens against the attack  He was shot by an archer of the invading Tatar forces whilst playing, the bugle call breaking off at the moment he died  The story was recounted in a book published in 1928 called The Trumpeter of Krakow, by Eric P  Kelly, which won a Newbery Award 
The current divisions were introduced by the Kraków City Hall on 19 April 1995  Districts were assigned Roman numerals as well as the name: Stare Miasto (I), Grzegórzki (II), Prądnik Czerwony (III), Prądnik Biały (IV), Łobzów (V), Bronowice (VI), Zwierzyniec (VII), Dębniki (VIII), Łagiewniki-Borek Fałęcki (IX), Swoszowice (X), Podgórze Duchackie (XI), Bieżanów-Prokocim (XII), Podgórze (XIII), Czyżyny (XIV), Mistrzejowice (XV), Bieńczyce (XVI), Wzgórza Krzesławickie (XVII), and Nowa Huta (XVIII) 

Map of districts of the City of Kraków

Economy
Kraków is one of Poland's most important economic centres and the economic hub of the Lesser Poland (Małopolska) region  Since the fall of communism, the private sector has been growing steadily  There are about 50 large multinational companies in the city, including Google, Uber, IBM, Shell, UBS, HSBC, Motorola, Aptiv, MAN, General Electric, ABB, Aon, Akamai, Cisco, Hitachi, Altria, Capgemini, and Sabre Holdings, along with other British, German and Scandinavian-based firms  The city is also the global headquarters for Comarch, an enterprise software house  Kraków is the second most-visited city in Poland (after Warsaw)  According to the World Investment Report 2011 by the UN Conference for Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Kraków is also the most emergent city location for investment in global BPO projects (Business Process Outsourcing) in the world 

In 2011, the city budget, which is presented by the Mayor of Kraków on 15 November annually, has a projected revenue of 3,500,000,000 złoty  The primary sources of revenue were as follows: 14% from the municipal taxation on real estate properties and the use of amenities, 30% in transfers from the national budget, and 34% in state subsidies  Projected expenditures, totaling 3,520,000,000 złoty, included 21% in city development costs and 79% in city maintenance costs  Of the maintenance costs, as much as 39% were spent on education and childcare  The City of Kraków's development costs included; 41% toward construction of roads, transport, and communication (combined), and 25% for the city's infrastructure and environment  The city has a high bond credit rating, and some 60% of the population is under the age of 45 Unity Tower was completed in 2020 after almost 30 years, creating a new business and residential centre  It is the tallest building in the city 

Entrepreneurship
Krakow has a long history of entrepreneurship, perhaps best reflected in the fact the most important square in the city is called the Main Market Square (Rynek Główny) 

Startup community
Since the early 2000s a startup community has emerged in Krakow, In the early days the Krakow: Europe's Silicon Valley web page was the on line hub of the community  Most important now is the OMGKRK foundation and its Facebook group which has over 5000 members and acts as a community notice board for the startup community 

Entrepreneurs
Jan Thurzo, a Hungarian entrepreneur and mining engineer who was from 1477 an Alderman and later Mayor of Kraków  He established the Fugger–Thurzo company with Jakob Fugger  Fugger monopolised copper mining and trade in the Holy Roman Empire around 1500 and has been described as the richest man who has ever lived Michal Hornstein, born in Krakow, and graduate of a Krakow Business School, escaped from a Nazi death camp transport  He moved to Montreal in 1951 where he founded Federal Construction Ltd , a real estate company focussing on apartments and shopping centres  He was recognised as a major philanthropist in Montreal and supported the arts, education and medicine, for example with this Gift of Old Masters to the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts 
Helena Rubinstein, born in Kraków, established the Helena Rubenstein inc  cosmetics company which was sold to Colgate Palmolive in 1973 for $142 3 million in stock and cash, and was said to be one of the world's richest women 
Janusz Filipiak established the successful IT company Comarch in 1993 which in 2018 employed 5500 people, and sponsors the Cracovia football team 
Piotr Wilam established the Pascal Publishing House, the internet portal Onet pl and seed capital fund Innovation Nest 
Rafal Brzoska Rafal Brzoska is the founder and CEO of InPost, which went public in January 2021 raising $3 billion 

Knowledge and innovation community
Kraków is one of the co-location centres of Knowledge and Innovation Community (Sustainable Energy) of The European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT) InnoEnergy is an integrated alliance of reputable organisations from the education, research and industry sectors  It was created based on long standing links of cooperation as well as the principles of excellence  The partners have jointly developed a strategy to tackle the weaknesses of the European innovation landscape in the field of sustainable energy 

Transport
Public transport is based on a fairly dense network of tram and bus routes operated by a municipal company, supplemented by a number of private minibus operators  Local trains connect some of the suburbs  The bulk of the city's historic area has been turned into a pedestrian zone with rickshaws and horse-drawn carriages; however, the trams run within a three-block radius  The historic means of transportation in the city can be examined at the Museum of Municipal Engineering in the Kazimierz district, with many old trams, cars and buses 

Railway connections are available to most Polish cities, e g  Katowice, Częstochowa, Szczecin, Gdynia and Warsaw  International destinations include Bratislava, Budapest, Vienna, Prague, Berlin, Hamburg, Lviv, Kyiv, and Odesa (June–September)  The main railway station is located just outside the Old Town District and is well-served by public transport 
Kraków's airport, officially named Kraków John Paul II International Airport (IATA: KRK), is located 11 km (7 mi) west of the city  Direct trains cover the route between Kraków Główny train station and the airport in 20 minutes  Kraków Airport served around 5,800,000 passengers in 2017  Also, the Katowice International Airport is located 80 kilometres (50 miles) or about 75 minutes from Kraków In Autumn 2016 Poland's oldest Bicycle-sharing system was modernized and now offers 1,500 bikes at 150 stations under the name of Wavelo (pl), which is owned by BikeU of the French multinational company Egis 

Demographics
Kraków had a recorded population of 774,839 in 2019  Selected demographic indicators are presented in a table (below), compiled on the basis of only the population living in Kraków permanently  The larger metropolitan area of the city encompasses a territory in which (in 2010) 1,393,893 inhabitants live Already in the Middle Ages, the population of Kraków consisting of numerous ethnic groups, began to grow rapidly  It doubled between 1100 and 1300 from 5,000 to 10,000, and in 1400 counted 14,000 inhabitants  By 1550, the population of metropolitan Kraków was 18,000; although it decreased to 15,000 in the next fifty years due to calamity  By the early 17th century the Kraków population had reached 28,000 inhabitants In the historical 1931 census preceding World War II, 78 1% of Cracovians declared Polish as their primary language, with Yiddish or Hebrew at 20 9%, Ukrainian 0 4%, German 0 3%, and Russian 0 1%  The ravages of history have greatly reduced the percentage of ethnic minorities living in Kraków 
In the last two decades, Kraków has seen a large growth of immigrant population  In the 2002 census, only 0 25% of respondents living in the city declared a non-Polish nationality primarily Ukrainian and Russian  As of 2019, it was estimated that foreigners accounted for as much as 10% of the city's population, with Ukrainians being the most numerous group (between 11,000 and 50,000) 
Population growth in Kraków since 1791

Religion
The metropolitan city of Kraków is known as the city of churches  The abundance of landmark, historic temples along with the plenitude of monasteries and convents earned the city a countrywide reputation as the "Northern Rome" in the past  The churches of Kraków comprise over 120 places of worship (2007) of which over 65 were built in the 20th century  More are still being added  In addition to Roman Catholicism, other denominations present include Jehovah's Witnesses, Mariavite Church, Polish Catholic Church, Polish Orthodox Church, Protestantism and Latter-Day Saints As of 2017, weekly Mass attendance in the Archdiocese of Krakow was 49 9 percent, above the national Polish average of 38 3 percent 

Kraków contains also an outstanding collection of monuments of Jewish sacred architecture unmatched anywhere in Poland  Kraków was an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life before the outbreak of World War II, with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox to Hasidic and Reform flourishing side by side  There were at least 90 synagogues in Kraków active before the Nazi German invasion of Poland, serving its burgeoning Jewish community of 60,000–80,000 (out of the city's total population of 237,000), established since the early 12th century Most synagogues of Kraków were ruined during World War II by the Nazis who despoiled them of all ceremonial objects, and used them as storehouses for ammunition, firefighting equipment, as general storage facilities and stables  The post-Holocaust Jewish population of the city had dwindled to about 5,900 before the end of the 1940s  Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah (emigration to Israel) without visas or exit permits upon the conclusion of World War II  By contrast, Stalin forcibly kept Russian Jews in the Soviet Union, as agreed to in the Yalta Conference  In recent time, thanks to efforts of the local Jewish and Polish organisations including foreign financial aid from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, many synagogues underwent major restorations and serve religious and tourist purposes 

Education
Kraków is a major centre of education  Twenty-four institutions of higher education offer courses in the city, with more than 200,000 students  Jagiellonian University, the oldest university in Poland and ranked by the Times Higher Education Supplement as the second-best university in the country, was founded in 1364 as Studium Generale and renamed in 1817 to commemorate the royal Jagiellonian dynasty of Poland and Lithuania  Its principal academic asset is the Jagiellonian Library, with more than 4 million volumes, including a large collection of medieval manuscripts like Copernicus' De Revolutionibus and the Balthasar Behem Codex  With 42,325 students (2005) and 3,605 academic staff, the Jagiellonian University is also one of the leading research centres in Poland  Famous historical figures connected with the university include Saint John Cantius, Jan Długosz, Nicolaus Copernicus, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Jan Kochanowski, King John III Sobieski, Pope John Paul II and Nobel laureates Ivo Andrić and Wisława Szymborska AGH University of Science and Technology, established in 1919, is the largest technical university in Poland, with more than 15 faculties and student enrollment exceeding 30,000  It was ranked by the Polish edition of Newsweek as the best technical university in the country in 2004  During its 80-year history, more than 73,000 students graduated from AGH with master's or bachelor's degrees  Some 3,600 persons were granted the degree of Doctor of Science, and about 900 obtained the qualification of Habilitated Doctor 

Other institutions of higher learning include Academy of Music in Kraków first conceived as conservatory in 1888, one of the oldest and most prestigious conservatories in Central Europe and a major concert venue; Kraków University of Economics, established in 1925; Pedagogical University, in operation since 1946; Agricultural University of Kraków, offering courses since 1890 (initially as a part of Jagiellonian University); Academy of Fine Arts, the oldest Fine Arts Academy in Poland, founded by the Polish painter Jan Matejko; Ludwik Solski Academy for the Dramatic Arts; The Pontifical Academy of Theology; AGH University of Science and Technology and Krakow University of Technology, which has more than 37,000 graduates 
Scientific societies and their branches in Kraków conduct scientific and educational work in local and countrywide scale  The Academy of Learning, Krakow Scientific Society, Association of Law Students' Library of the Jagiellonian University, Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists, Polish Geological Society, Polish Theological Society in Kraków, Polish Section of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and Polish Society for Synchrotron Radiation all have their main seats in Kraków 

Culture
Kraków was named the official European Capital of Culture for the year 2000 by the European Union  It is a major attraction for both local and international tourists, attracting nearly 13 million visitors a year  Major landmarks include the Main Market Square with St  Mary's Basilica and the Sukiennice Cloth Hall, the Wawel Castle, the National Art Museum, the Zygmunt Bell at the Wawel Cathedral, and the medieval St  Florian's Gate with the Barbican along the Royal Coronation Route  Kraków has 28 museums and public art galleries  Among them is the Czartoryski Museum featuring works by Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt as well as the EUROPEUM - European Culture Centre and the Archaeological Museum of Kraków whose collection highlights include the Zbruch Idol and the Bronocice Pot 

Museums and national art galleries
Kraków's 28 museums are separated into the national and municipal museums; the city also has a number of art collections and public art galleries  The National Museum, established in 1879, as well as the National Art Collection on Wawel Hill, are all accessible to the general public 
The National Art Collection is located at the Wawel, the former residence of three dynasties of Polish monarchs  Royal Chambers feature art, period furniture, Polish and European paintings, collectibles, and a major collection of 16th-century monumental Flemish tapestries  Wawel Treasury and Armoury features Polish royal memorabilia, jewels, applied art, and 15th- to 18th-century arms  The Wawel Eastern Collection features Turkish tents and military accessories  The National Museum holds the largest body of artworks in the country with collections consisting of several hundred thousand items kept in big part in the Main Building at Ul  3 Maja, although there are eleven other separate divisions of the museum in the city, one of the most popular being The Gallery of the 19th Century Polish Art in Sukiennice with the collection of some of the best known paintings and sculptures of the Young Poland movement  The latest division called Europeum with Brueghel among a hundred Western European paintings was inaugurated in 2013 

Other notable museums in Kraków include the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology (at M  Konopnickiej 26), Stanisław Wyspiański Museum (at 11 Szczepanska St), Jan Matejko Manor House in Krzesławice, – a museum devoted to the master painter and his life, Emeryk Hutten Czapski Museum, and Józef Mehoffer Manor The Rynek Underground museum, under the main square, showcases Kraków's over 1,000-year history though its streets, activities and artifacts  The construction of the museum was preceded by extensive excavations which started in 2005 and, as more and more was found, continued eventually until 2010 
Krakil - Museum of illusions is a space where illusions meet scientific inventions and the arts: physics and optics are displayed together with artworks and classical riddles 
The Polish Aviation Museum, considered the world's eighth best aviation museum by CNN, features over 200 aircraft including a Sopwith Camel among other First World War biplanes; a comprehensive display of aero engines; and a complete collection of airplane types developed by Poland after 1945  Activities of smaller museums around Kraków and in the Lesser Poland region are promoted and supported by the Małopolska Institute of Culture; the Institute organises annual Małopolska Heritage Days  The Lenin Museum was open from 1954 to 1989 

Performing arts
The city has several famous theatres, including the Narodowy Stary Teatr (the National Old Theatre), the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, the Bagatela Theatre, the Ludowy Theatre, and the Groteska Theatre of Puppetry, as well as the Opera Krakowska and Kraków Operetta  The city's principal concert hall and the home of the Kraków Philharmonic Orchestra is the Kraków Philharmonic (Filharmonia Krakowska) built in 1931 Kraków hosts many annual and biannual artistic events, some of international significance such as the Misteria Paschalia (Baroque music), Sacrum-Profanum (contemporary music), the Krakow Screen Festival (popular music), the Festival of Polish Music (classical music), Dedications (theatre), the Kraków Film Festival (one of Europe's oldest short films events), Etiuda&Anima International Film Festival (the oldest international art-film event in Poland), Biennial of Graphic Arts, and the Jewish Culture Festival  Kraków was the residence of two Polish Nobel laureates in literature, Wisława Szymborska and Czesław Miłosz; a third Nobel laureate, the Yugoslav writer Ivo Andric, lived and studied in Kraków  Other former longtime residents include internationally renowned Polish film directors Andrzej Wajda and Roman Polanski, both of whom are Academy Award winners 

Music
Opera Krakowska one of the leading national opera companies, stages 200 performances each year including ballet, operettas and musicals  It has, in its main repertoire, the greatest world and Polish opera classics  The Opera moved into its first permanent House in the autumn of 2008  It is in charge also of the Summer Festival of Opera and Operetta 
Kraków is home to two major Polish festivals of early music presenting forgotten Baroque oratorios and operas: Opera Rara, and Misteria Paschalia  Meanwhile, Capella Cracoviensis runs the Music in Old Krakow International Festival 
Academy of Music in Kraków, founded in 1888, is known worldwide as the alma mater of the contemporary Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki and it is also the only one in Poland to have two winners of the International Chopin Competition in Warsaw among its alumni  The academy organises concerts of its students and guests throughout the whole year Music organisations and venues include: Kraków Philharmonic, Sinfonietta Cracovia (a k a  the Orchestra of the Royal City of Kraków), the Polish Radio Choir of Kraków, Organum Academic Choir, the Mixed Mariański Choir (Mieszany Chór Mariański), Kraków Academic Choir of the Jagiellonian University, the Kraków Chamber Choir, Amar Corde String Quartet, Consortium Iagellonicum Baroque Orchestra of the Jagiellonian University, Brass Band of T  Sendzimir Steelworks, and Camerata Chamber Orchestra of Radio Kraków 

Tourism
According to official statistics, in 2019 Kraków was visited by over 14 million tourists including 3 3 million foreign travellers  The visitors spent over 7 5 billion zlotys (ca  €1 7 billion) in the city (without travel costs and pre-booked accommodation)  Most foreign tourists came from Germany (14 2%), United Kingdom (13 9%), Italy (11 5%), France (11 2%), Spain (10 4%) and Ukraine (5 4%)  The Kraków tour-guide from the Lesser Poland Visitors Bureau indicated that not all statistics are recorded due to the considerable number of those who come, staying in readily available private rooms paid for by cash, especially from Eastern Europe The main reasons for visiting the city are: its historical monuments, recreation as well as relatives and friends (placing third in the ranking), religion and business  There are 120 quality hotels in Kraków (usually about half full) offering 15,485 overnight accommodations  The average stay last for about 4 to 7 nights  The survey conducted among the travelers showed that they enjoyed the city's friendliness most, with 90% of Polish tourists and 87% foreigners stating that they would recommend visiting it  Notable points of interest outside the city include the Wieliczka salt mine, the Tatra Mountains 100 km (62 mi) to the south, the historic city of Częstochowa (north-west), the well-preserved former Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz, and Ojcowski National Park, which includes the Renaissance Castle at Pieskowa Skała  Kraków has been awarded a number of top international rankings such as the 1st place in the Top city-break destinations 2014 survey conducted by the British consumer association Which? 

Sports
Kraków was the host city of the 2014 FIVB Men's Volleyball World Championship and 2016 European Men's Handball Championship  It has also been selected as the European City of Sport for 2014 Football is one of the most popular sports in the city  The two teams with the largest following are thirteen-time Polish champion Wisła Kraków, and five-time champion Cracovia, both founded in 1906 as the oldest still existing in Poland  They have been involved in the most intense rivalry in the country and one of the most intense in all of Europe, known as the Holy War (Święta Wojna)  Other football clubs include Hutnik Kraków, Wawel Kraków, Wieczysta Kraków and one-time Polish champion Garbarnia Kraków  There is also the first-league rugby club Juvenia Kraków  Kraków has a number of additional, equally valued sports teams including twelve-time Polish ice hockey champions Cracovia and the twenty-time women's basketball champions Wisła Kraków 

The Cracovia Marathon, with thousands of participants from two dozen countries annually, has been held in the city since 2002  Poland's first F1 racing driver Robert Kubica was born and brought up in Kraków, as was former WWE tag team champion Ivan Putski, and Top 10 ranked women's tennis player Agnieszka Radwańska 
The construction of a new Tauron Arena Kraków began in May 2010; for concerts, indoor athletics, hockey, basketball, futsal and other events  The facility area has 61,434 m2, with maximum area of the arena court of 4 546 m2  The average capacity is 18,000 for concerts, and 15,000 for sport events, with maximum number of spectators being 22,000  The Arena boasts Poland's largest LED media façade, with a total surface of 5,200 m2 of LED strip lighting, wrapping around the stadium, and one of Europe's largest LED screens, measuring over 540 m2 Kraków was bidding to host the 2022 Winter Olympics with Jasná but the bid was rejected by a majority (69 72%) of the vote in a referendum on 16 May 2014  The referendum was organised after a wave of criticism from citizens who believed that the Olympics would not promote the city  The organizing committee of "Krakow 2022" spent almost $40,000 to pay for a citizen-approved logo, but many citizens considered this a waste of public money  The committee was rumoured to have fraudulently used several million zlotys for unknown expenses 
In May 2019, the Polish Olympic Committee announced Kraków as host of the Polish bid for the 2023 European Games, On 22 June 2019, The European Olympic Committees at the General Assembly in Minsk, Belarus announced that Kraków will host the 2023 edition 

Notable people
International relations
Contemporary foreign names for the city
Kraków is referred to by various names in different languages  An old English name for the city is Cracow; though it has become less common in recent decades, some sources still use it  The city is known in Czech, Slovak and Serbian as Krakov, in Hungarian as Krakkó, in Lithuanian as Krokuva, in Finnish as Krakova, in German and Dutch as Krakau, in Latin, Spanish and Italian as Cracovia, in French as Cracovie, in Portuguese as Cracóvia and in Russian as Краков  Ukrainian and Yiddish languages refer to it as Krakiv (Краків) and Kroke (קראָקע) respectively 

Twin towns and sister cities
Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations, with 36 cities around the world:

See also
Cracow Circle Thomism
Tourism in Poland
Context 3:  Santos Benavides, who was the highest-ranking Hispanic in either army, led between 100 and 150 Hispanic soldiers in the Brownsville Campaign in May 1865 
Some of the Sixty-Second Colored Regiment were also taken [in the Battle of Palmito Ranch]  They had been led to believe that if captured they would either be shot or returned to slavery  They were agreeably surprised when they were paroled and permitted to depart with the white prisoners  Several of the prisoners were from Austin and vicinity  They were assured they would be treated as prisoners of war  There was no disposition to visit upon them a mean spirit of revenge 
When Colonel Ford surrendered his command following the campaign of Palmito Ranch, he urged his men to honor their paroles  He insisted that "The negro had a right to vote "

"Last battle of the Civil War"
Although officially most historians say this was the last land action fought between the North and the South, some sources suggest that the battle on May 19, 1865, of Hobdy's Bridge, located near Eufaula, Alabama, was the last skirmish between the two forces  Union records show that the last Northern soldier killed in combat during the war was Corporal John W  Skinner in this action  Three others were wounded, also from the same unit, Company C, 1st Florida U S  Cavalry Historian Richard Gardiner stated in 2013 that on May 10, 1865:

A confrontation took place at Palmetto Ranch  There was no Confederacy in existence when the "battle" occurred  The ex-Confederates at Palmetto Ranch were aware that Lee had surrendered and that the war was over  What happened in Texas can only be understood as a "post-war" encounter between Federals and ex-Confederate "outlaws "The Confederates won this engagement, but as there was no organized command structure, there has been controversy about the Union casualties  In 1896 these same men had their pensions cut, although this was quickly rectified by an appeal to the commissioner of pensions  The assistant secretary to the commissioner overturned the pension cut, legally ruling the men as the last Union casualties of the war On April 2, 1866, President Johnson declared the insurrection at an end, except in Texas  There a technicality concerning incomplete formation of a new state government prevented declaring the insurrection over  Johnson declared the insurrection at an end in Texas and throughout the United States on August 20, 1866 

Battlefield
The area has remained relatively unchanged, with the marshy, windswept prairies almost the same as they were in 1865  The site is more than 5,400 acres (2,200 ha) in size, and was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1997  The area is indicated by a large highway marker telling the history of the engagement, installed on the "Boca Chica Highway" (Texas State Highway 4) near where Palmito Ranch originally stood  The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 3 acres (0 012 km2) of the battlefield 

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in Texas
National Register of Historic Places listings in Cameron County, Texas

Notes
Passage 2:
Taifa of Baeza
The Taifa of Baeza (Arabic: طائفة بياسة) was a medieval taifa Moorish kingdom  It existed only from 1224 to 1226, when it fell to the Christian Kingdom of Castile 

List of Emirs
Bayasid dynasty
'Abd Allah al-Bayasi "El Baezano": 1224–1226
Passage 3:
Taifa of Saltés and Huelva
The Taifa of Saltés and Huelva (Arabic: طائفة ولبة وشلطيش) was a medieval Arab  taifa kingdom that existed in southern Iberia from around 1012 to 1051   From 1051 until 1091 it was under the forcible control of Seville, by Abbad II al-Mu'tadid The geographer al-Bakri (d  1094) was born in the taifa of Saltés and Huelva 

List of Emirs
Bakrid dynasty
'Abd al-'Aziz 'Izz ad-Dawla: 1012/3–1051/2 or 53
Passage 4:
Taifa of Alpuente
The Taifa of Alpuente (Arabic: طائفة ألبونت) was a medieval taifa kingdom, of Berber origin, that existed from around 1009 to 1106 created following the end of the Caliphate of Córdoba in the Iberian Peninsula in 1010  It was centered at the city of Alpuente  It was ruled by a Berber family of the Banu Qasim tribe 

List of Emirs
Qasimid dynasty
'Abd Allah I: c  1009–1030
Muhammad I Yumn ad-Dawla: 1030–1042
Ahmad b Muhammad 'Izz (o Adud) al-Dawla: 1042–1043
Muhammad II: 1043
'Abd Allah II: 1043–c  1106

See also
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties


== Sources ==
Passage 5:
Taifa of Niebla
The Taifa of Niebla (Arabic: طائفة لبلة) was an Arab taifa kingdom that existed during three distinct time periods: from 1023 to 1053, from 1145 to 1150 and from 1234 to 1262 
From 1053 until 1091 it was under the forcible control of Taifa of Seville, by Abbad II al-Mu'tadid  It was finally conquered by the Crown of Castile  In 1262 it was eventually absorbed by Castile 

List of Emirs
Yahsubid dynasty
Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad: 1023/4–1041/2
Muhammad al-Yahsubi Izz ad-Dawla: 1041/2–1051/2
Abu Nars Fath: 1051/2–1053/4
To Seville: 1053/4–1091
To Morocco: 1091–c  1145

Bitruyid dynasty
Yusuf al-Bitruyi (in Tejada 1146–1150): 1145–11??, d  1150
al-Wahbi: 11??–1150
To Morocco: 1150–1234

Mahfuzid dynasty
Su'ayb: 1234–1262
To Castile thereafter 

See also
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
Passage 6:
Francisco Giner de los Ríos
Francisco Giner de los Ríos (10 October 1839 in Ronda, Spain – 18 February 1915 in Madrid) was a philosopher, educator and one of the most influential Spanish intellectuals at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century 

Biography
He studied philosophy in Barcelona and Granada and eventually became professor of the philosophy of law and of international law at the University of Madrid  He was strongly influenced by the ideas of the Kantian German philosopher Karl Christian Friedrich Krause (as imported into Spain by Julián Sanz del Río and became an important exponent of "Krausismo" in Spain 
He openly criticized the government for its attempts to stifle academic freedom  As a consequence, in 1875, he lost his chair at the university, which led to what can be seen as his major achievement: the 1876 foundation of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Institute of Free Teaching), a private school of higher learning  He dedicated his life to the formation of human beings along coeducation; rationalism; and freedom of teaching, research, and literary communication  The goal was a society in which free citizens would be governed by free citizens on the basis of an adequate education  Because of his "rational realist" approach to law, he can also be seen as one of the forerunners of the sociology of law 
Giner continued his work outside the university, even after he was reinstated in his university chair in 1881  Among the many important people who were at one time or another associated with the Institución Libre de Enseñanza and the related Residencia de Estudiantes were José Ortega y Gasset, Federico García Lorca, Salvador Dalí, Antonio Machado, Luis Buñuel and Miguel de Unamuno 

Further reading
Solomon Lipp: Francisco Giner de los Ríos  A Spanish Socrates  Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfried Laurier 1985 ISBN 978-08-89201-59-0
J B  Trend: The Origins of Modern Spain  New York: The Macmillan Company 1934 

External links

Francisco Giner de los Ríos  Polymath Virtual Library, Fundación Ignacio Larramendi
Passage 7:
Río Frío de Juárez
Río Frío de Juárez, originally Río Frío (Cold River), a Mexican populated place, is located in the municipality of Ixtapaluca in the State of Mexico   Río Frío de Juárez is located at the highest point on the highway between Mexico City to Puebla de Zaragoza being located at the top of the pass on the historic road between the two cities 
Rio Frio de Juárez, is located near the far eastern border of the State of Mexico, almost on the border of the State of Puebla, at an altitude of 3,000 meters above sea level   It is located on the main roads of the Federal Highway 150D and Mexico-Puebla Highway 190 or Mexico-Puebla Highway 
The results of the Census of Population and Housing 2005 conducted by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography state that the total population of Rio Frio is 5,272 and that there are 2,620 men and 2,655 women 

History
Rio Frio had its origins with the establishment and development of the Camino Real (Royal Road) linking Mexico City and Veracruz via Puebla, during the colonial era and renamed Camino Nacional (National Road) in the early years of the independent Mexico when there was no other major roadway to the capital from the east coast 
Rio Frio was established at the pass at the top of the mountain range between the Valley of Mexico and Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley surrounded by lush pine forests  It provided food and lodging for the huge number of travelers and riches that were transported along this road, since it was often necessary stay to over night in this place 
During the early years of independent Mexico, this area known as El Monte Rio Frio, became the haunt of bands of raiders who robbed travelers passing through the area   The Mexican government had no ability to protect the roads from these bandits which became common in the area of Rio Frio 
During the Mexican–American War, Río Frío was the post of E,F,G,H,I,J and L companies of the Second Ohio Volunteer Infantry   It was one of the American garrisons protecting their line of communications from Mexico City via Puebla to Vera Cruz from the guerrilla forces of Mexico The story of the banditry of Río Frío was made famous by the novel, Los bandidos de Río Frío, by the writer Manuel Payno; this situation ended with the arrival of the government of Porfirio Diaz, who with the use of the Guardia Rural restored security on the roads   This novel was made into a telenovela in 1976 
Popular for hikers and climbers, the town is the main point of access to the Zoquiapan National Forest, which has large areas covered in high mountain forests and volcanos, such as Iztaccíhuatl, Telapón, mount Tlaloc and Cerro Gordo  From the north west part of town there are antique trails that lead to the summit of mount Tlaloc, an extinct volcano on which stands an archeological ceremonial site which at 4,120 m is the highest standing archeological site in the Americas  It was historically recorded as a place of  pilgrimship during precolonial times, intended to the adoration of the Mesoamerican rain deity Tlaloc  Today there are still followers of these traditions, most notably people who believe the site to be the Tlalocan, a mythological utopia referred in various ancient Toltec and aztec codexes  In this Mythology the site regarded as the dwelling place of Tlaloc 
The  town is also famous for its alpine architecture  and for having one of the lowest average temperature rates in central Mexico; the surroundings of the town are also famous for having a large number of weekend alpine style farms and cabins, and for the High Mountain food style stands along the main roads between Mexico City and Puebla 
Passage 8:
Taifa of Morón
The Taifa of Morón (Arabic: طائفة مورور) was a medieval Berber taifa kingdom that existed from around 1010 to 1066  From 1066 until 1091 it was under the forcible control of Seville, by Abbad II al-Mu'tadid 

List of Emirs
Dammarid dynasty
Abu Tuziri al-Dammari: ?–1013/4
Nuh: 1013/4–1041/2
Muhammad: 1041/2–1057
Manad: 1057–1066

See also
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
Passage 9:
Mission San Francisco Solano (California)
Mission San Francisco Solano was the 21st, last, and northernmost mission in Alta California  It was named for Saint Francis Solanus  It was the only mission built in Alta California after Mexico gained independence from Spain  The difficulty of its beginning demonstrates the confusion resulting from that change in governance   The California Governor wanted a robust Mexican presence north of the San Francisco Bay to keep the Russians who had established Fort Ross on the Pacific coast from moving further inland   A young Franciscan friar from Mission San Francisco de Asis wanted to move to a location with a better climate and access to a larger number of potential converts The Mission was successful, given its short eleven year life, but was smaller in number of converts and with lower productivity and diversity of industries than the older California missions The mission building is now part of the Sonoma State Historic Park and is located in the city of Sonoma, California 

History
The mission was founded then managed by a succession of priests and friars over its duration 

Fr  Altamira
Fr  José Altimira at age 33 arrived from Barcelona, Spain, to serve at Mission San Francisco de Asís  The mission was not thriving because of its climate and had established a medical asistencia ("sub-mission") in San Rafael to help the mission's ill neophytes (baptized Native Americans) recover their health  California Governor Luis Argüello was interested in blocking the Russians at Bodega Bay and Fort Ross from moving further inland  Together they developed and presented to the church authorities and the territory (legislature) a plan for moving Mission San Francisco de Asís and the San Rafael asistencia to a new location north of the Bay  The legislature approved but the church authorities did not respond (they had forwarded the plan to their superiors in Mexico)  Under the old Spanish regime, founding a new mission required the approval of both New Spain's Bishop and the King's Viceroy Beginning in 1823, while waiting for a response from the church authorities, Fr  Altimira, with military escorts, began exploring north of the Bay for a suitable mission site  On July 4, 1823, the soldiers placed a large redwood cross on the place in the Sonoma Valley where they expected the new Mission San Francisco de Assis to be established  They celebrated Mass to consecrate the location, then returned south to begin gathering men and materials to begin construction The area around the selected site was not empty  It was near the northeast corner of the territory of the Coast Miwok, Southern Pomo to the northwest, Wappo to the northeast, Suisunes and Ptwin peoples to the east  A detachment of soldiers from the Presidio of San Francisco would be provided to protect the Mission and guard the neophytes Altimira with soldiers and neophytes primarily from Mission San Francisco de Asís returned to the Sonoma area near the end of August  Altimira decided there was a better place to build on the other side of the valley  Just after starting he received a letter from Father-President Sarria who refused Altimira permission to continue building  Fr  Altimira obeyed and the month of September saw continuing negotiations between California's civil and religious leaders  On September 30 an agreement was reached:  a new mission could be built and Fr  Altimira would be its minister, but Mission San Francisco de Asís would not be closed and the San Rafael asistencia had already been designated as a full mission (Mission San Rafael Arcángel) Beginning in October 1823 Fr  Altimira had the opportunity to build his new mission at the location he chose, but since Mission San Francisco de Asís would remain open this Mission needed a different patron saint  Altimira chose San Francisco Solano, a 17th-century Franciscan missionary to South America  His company of soldiers and neophytes set about building all the facilities needed in a California mission  His annual report for 1823 listed no baptisms, one marriage, one funeral, a population of 482 Indians (all transferred from other missions) and 1341 animals  The work had started too late in the year for anything to be planted and harvested 
On April 4, 1824, Passion Sunday, Father Altimira proudly dedicated his church  It was a crude, temporary structure but it symbolized development at the Mission  The church was built of whitewashed boards but was well furnished and decorated  Many of the articles were gifts from the Russians at Fort Ross  It also held a canvas painting of San Francisco Solano which had been donated by the Father-President  Furthermore, the Mission had been promised a relic of the patron saint to put in the altar The Mission continued to develop until an argument arose about the sharing of the bountiful 1826 harvest  Indians not living at the Mission were unhappy with the amount allocated for their work; they burned some of the wooden buildings in protest  Fr  Altimira with a few faithful neophytes fled to Mission San Rafael Arcángel 

Fr  Fortuni
Fr  Buenaventura Fortuni, an aging Spanish Franciscan who had been working at Mission San José in California, was assigned to replace Altimira  Fr  Fortuni quickly reestablished order and morale and the work of building the mission restarted



ground_truth: Lance Bottoms

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In which year did Taifa of Francisco Giner de los Rios' birthplace cease to exist?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  He arranged the main buildings to form a large, square enclosure 
In 1830 Fr  Fortuni, having labored alone at this mission for three and a half years, felt the need to transfer to another mission where the workload could be shared  He was 58 years old  The Mexican government had in 1826 required that all the Spanish friars who would not pledge loyalty to Mexico leave  Fr  Fortuni had been exempt from this rule but all new churchmen would be required to take the pledge 

Fr  Gutierrez
Fr  Fortuni was replaced by Fr  José Gutiérrez, a Franciscan friar from South America  Fr  Gutierrez continued to build and increased the agricultural effort  By 1832 the mission had 27 rooms in the convento or priest's quarters, with a great adobe church at the east end, and a wooden storehouse (the original mission chapel) at the west end  Completing this enclosure were workshops where the Indians were taught to be craftsmen and created the items needed to help the mission be self-sufficient  Along the back of the courtyard were the living quarters and workrooms for the young Indian girls  In addition to the quadrangle, there were orchards, gardens, vineyards, fields of grain, a gristmill, houses for the soldiers and Indian families, a jail, a cemetery, and an infirmary The most successful year of this mission's short life span (11 years) was 1832  In his annual report for that year, Fr  Gutierrez recorded the following: 127 baptisms, 34 marriages, and 70 deaths; a total of 996 neophytes (coming from 35 area villages); the livestock inventory included 6,000 sheep and goats, 900 horses, 13 mules, 50 pigs and 3,500 head of cattle  Crops were measured in fanegas, or Spanish bushels, a variable measure of volume generally between 50 and 60 liters  In 1832 the mission produced 800 fanegas of wheat, 1025 fanegas of barley, 52 fanegas of peas, 300 fanegas of corn, 32 fanegas of beans, and 2 fanegas of garbanzos 

Secularization
In 1833 the Mexican Congress decided to close all of the missions in Alta California with the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833  Governor Figueroa issued a regulation (Reglamento Provisional para la secularization de las Misiones) on August 9, 1834, outlining the requirements for the distribution of property (land, cattle, and equipment) to each mission's neophytes  Among the provisions were that "5  To each head of a family and to all over 20 years old, will be given from the Mission lands a lot not over 400 nor less than 100 varas square" (28 to 7 acres)  Plus "6     pro rata   one-half of the livestock" and "7      half or less of the existing chattels, tools, and seed   " 

Closure
Mission San Francisco Solano officially ceased to exist on November 3, 1834, when it was designated a First Class Parish  The Spanish missionaries were to be replaced by parish priests – the first was Fr  Lorenzo Quijas who had earlier been assigned to Sonoma and San Rafael Lieutenant (teniente) Mariano Vallejo, Commandant of the Presidio of San Francisco, was named administrator (comisionado) to oversee the closing of the Mission under the Reglamento  Fr  Quijas moved back to San Rafael in July 1835, after many disputes with Guadalupe Antonio Ortega, Vallejo's majordomo to whom he had delegated the work of secularization  Ortega (sometimes called Sergeant Ortega) was “uneducated, coarse and licentious"  Right after returning to San Rafael, Padre Quijas wrote a letter to Commissary Perfect Garcia Diego, his superior, complaining about the situation in Sonoma and specifically the "abominable deeds of Ortega " Quijas then gives names of witnesses to be called against Ortega  Upon receipt of the letter, Fr  Diego forwarded it to Governor José Figueroa demanding some action against Ortega  The Governor was critically ill and died at the end of the following month  No action was taken  It wasn't until the summer of 1837, because of new scandals and unsatisfactory accounts, that Ortega was removed After Fr  Quijas left, the neophyte population decreased rapidly, most returning to their home villages – taking their movable property with them – or moving to ranchos {including Vallejo's Petaluma Adobe} to work, or staying in Sonoma as servants  Some former Mission Indians reportedly received their allotted land and cattle from the Mission (none of these small plots of land were permanently recorded ) In August 1839, the government sent William Edward Petty Hartnell as Visitador General de Misiones to check compliance with the Reglamento but Vallejo avoided responding – claiming he did not have time because of military affairs  No effective review of the secularization of the Sonoma mission was ever completed 

Decline
The mission buildings rapidly fell into disrepair  The town of Sonoma was growing and building materials were in great demand  Roof tiles, timbers, and adobe bricks were salvaged from the mission buildings  After the settlers had ransacked the old buildings, nature began recycling the remnants 

In 1841, Mariano Vallejo ordered a small adobe chapel to be built on the location of the first wooden mission chapel  It became the church of the parish and replaced the large mission church which was rapidly deteriorating  It stood on the west end of the Convento and so is often thought to be the church of the old mission During 1863 President Abraham Lincoln transferred ownership of all the mission churches in California to the Roman Catholic Church  In 1881, the Sonoma church property was sold to a local businessman and a new parish church was built across town  At one time, the old adobe chapel was used as a warehouse  The Convento may have been used as a winery 

Reconstruction, memorial and hospital
In 1903, the two remaining mission buildings were purchased by California Historic Landmarks League, and became part of the California Park System in 1906  By 1913, both had been reconstructed  After the 1940s, the former church and Convento were remodeled along more authentic lines suited to exhibits devoted exclusively to mission history Dedicated in 1999, the Sonoma Mission Indian Memorial honors the more than 800 native people (including over 200 children) who died while living and working at the Mission between 1824 and 1839   Their Christian names, as recorded by the priests in the Mission's records, are inscribed on this granite memorial  European diseases such as measles and smallpox, for which Native Americans had no inherited resistance, together with the overcrowded and unhealthy living conditions (by today's standards) at all California missions (especially for women and children) contributed to the high death rate  However, the missions served, with the resources of the time, the health needs of its inhabitants, including those of Indian origin  Thus, the first hospital in California was founded in 1817 to care for the Indians of the Mission San Francisco de Asís, in what later became an independent Mission, the Mission San Rafael Arcangel, in San Rafael, California 

California Historic Landmark
On June 1, 1932, Mission San Francisco Solano was designated California Historical Landmark #3 

See also
San Francisco Bay Area portal

Spanish missions in California
List of Spanish missions in California
Mission San Gabriel
Mission San Rafael Arcángel
El Presidio de Sonoma
USNS Mission Solano (AO-135) – a Mission Buenaventura Class fleet oiler built during World War II
Sonoma Plaza – the U S  National Historic Landmark District in front of the mission
Mission Guadalupe - the final Dominican mission to be founded, June 1834

Notes
Passage 10:
Taifa of Tejada
The Taifa of Tejada (Arabic: طائفة تيجادا) was a medieval Islamic taifa kingdom that existed only from 1146 to 1150 when it was conquered by the Almohad Caliphate  It was centered at the town of Tejada located in the present day Province of Burgos in northern Spain  It was ruled by an Arab family of the Banu Khazraj tribe  They claimed descent from Anas ibn Malik who was a sahaba (companion) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad 

List of Emirs
Khazraj dynasty
Yusuf al-Khazraji (in Niebla 1145–?): 1146–1150
Passage 11:
Taifa of Mértola
The Taifa of Mértola (Arabic: طائفة مارتلة) was a medieval Islamic Moorish taifa that existed in what is now southeastern Portugal  It existed during three distinct periods: from 1033 to 1044, from 1144 to 1145, and from 1146 to 1151  From 1044 until 1091 it was under the forcible control of the Taifa of Seville, by Abbad II al-Mu'tadid  Its short-lived history ended in 1151, when it was finally conquered by the Almohad Caliphate 

List of Emirs
Abbadid dynasty
Abbad II al-Mu'tadid:1033-1044Becomes part of Seville: 1044–1091 (Abbadid Family)

Almoravid dynasty
To Almoravid dynasty: 1091–1144

Qasid dynasty
Abu-l-Qasim Ahmad ibn al-Husayn ibn Qasi: 1144–1145, d  1151
To Badajoz: 1145–1146
Abu-l-Qasim Ahmad ibn al-Husayn ibn Qasi (restored): 1146–1151
To Almohads: 1151–1250
Passage 12:
Taifa of Jaén
The Taifa of Jaén (Arabic: طائفة جيان) was a medieval Islamic taifa Moorish kingdom centered in Al-Andalus  It existed for only two very short periods: first in 1145 and then in 1168  It was ruled by Arabs of the Banu Khazraj tribe  The Taifa was centred in the present day region of Jaén in southern Spain 

List of Emirs
Yuzaid dynasty
Ibn Yuzai: 1145

Huddid dynasty
Abu Dja'far Ahmad Zafadola (also Cord , Gran , Val ): 1145
To Almohads: 1145–1159
To Murcia: 1159–1168

Hamuskid dynasty
Ibrahim: 1168
To Murcia: 1168–1232
Passage 13:
Taifa of Murviedro and Sagunto
The Taifa of Murviedro and Sagunto was a medieval taifa kingdom that existed in a short period from 1086 to 1092 

List of Emirs
Lubbunid dynasty
Abu 'Isa Lubbun: 1086–1092
Passage 14:
Taifa of Guadix and Baza
The Taifa of Guadix and Baza was a medieval Moorish taifa kingdom  It existed from 1145 to 1151, when it was conquered by the Taifa of Murcia 

List of Emirs
Malyanid dynasty
Ahmed ibn Muhammed ibn Malyan al-Muta'yyad: 1145–1151
Passage 15:
Taifa of Santarém
The Taifa of Santarém (Arabic: طائفة شنترين) was a medieval Islamic taifa Moorish kingdom in what is now central Portugal  It existed from 1144 to 1145  It was centered in the city of Santarém and encompassed much of the present day Santarém District  The Taifa was ruled by the Arab tribe of Banu Khazraj which had its origin in the Hejaz region of Arabia 

List of Emirs
Labidid dynasty
Labid: 1144–1145
To Badajoz: c  1145–1147
Passage 16:
Gonzalo Güell
Gonzalo Güell y Morales de los Ríos (February 16, 1895, in Havana, Cuba – September 2, 1985, in Coral Gables, Florida, U S ) was a Cuban lawyer and a career diplomat (1919–1959) 

Career
Guell was Foreign Minister of Cuba from 1956 to 1959 and Prime Minister of Cuba from March 12, 1958, to January 1, 1959  He also served as the Cuban Ambassador to Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Norway and the United Nations 
He was one of the 40 persons that flew with Fulgencio Batista to the Dominican Republic on New Year's Eve 1959 when Fidel Castro took over Cuba 

Personal life
He was married three times  Two of his wives were Francisca Pubill and Juana Inigo  He had one daughter 
Passage 17:
Taifa of Tortosa
The Taifa of Tortosa (Arabic: طائفة طرطوشة) was a medieval Islamic taifa kingdom  It existed for two separate periods, from 1010 to 1060 and 1081 to 1099  It was founded by the Slavic warlord Labib al-Fata al-Saqlabi 

List of Emirs
Saqlabi (Servile Rulers) dynasty
Labib al-Fata al-Saqlabi (Valencia 1017–1019): c  1009–bfr  1039/40
Muqatil Sayf al-Milla: bfr  1039/40–1053/4
Ya'la: 1053/4–1057/8
Nabil: 1057/8–1060
To Zaragoza: 1060–1081 or 2/3

Huddid dynasty
al-Mundir 'Imad ad-Dawla: 1081 or 1082/3–1090
Sulayman Sayyid: 1090–c 1115
To Morocco: c 1115–1148

See also
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
Passage 18:
Taifa of Tavira
The Taifa of Tavira (Arabic: طائفة تاويرا) was a medieval Islamic taifa Moorish kingdom in what is now southern Portugal  It existed only from around 1146 to 1150  It was centered in the city of Tavira 

List of Emirs
'Umarid dynasty
'Umar: fl  mid-12th century (1146–1150)
To Almoravids: c  1150–1250
Passage 19:
Taifa of Carmona
The Taifa of Carmona (Arabic: طائفة قرمونة) was a medieval Berber taifa kingdom  It existed for two distinct periods: first from 1013 to 1066 when it was conquered by the Taifa of Seville, and secondly from around 1143 to 1150 when it was finally conquered by the Almohad Caliphate  The taifa was established and ruled by the Zenata Berber Birzalid dynasty 

Origins
The Banu Birzal was a Zenata Berber tribe  settled in the Zab region and belonging to the confederations of the central Maghreb (Maghreb al-Awsat) 

List of emirs
Birzalid dynasty
'Abd Allah: 1013/4–1023/4
Muhammad: 1023/4–1042/3
Ishaq: 1042/3–1052/3
Al-'Aziz: 1052/3–1066/7
To Seville: 1066/7–1091
To Morocco: 1091-c  1143

Darddusid dynasty
Darddus: fl  mid-12th century
To Morocco: 1150–1248

See also
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
Passage 20:
Taifa of Ronda
The Taifa of Ronda (Arabic: طائفة رندة) was a medieval Berber taifa kingdom centered in Moorish al-Andalus in what is now southern Spain  It existed from 1039 to 1065  The taifa was ruled by a family from the Berber Banu Ifran tribe of North Africa  Its capital was the city of Ronda  From 1065 until 1091, the taifa was under the control of the Taifa of Seville, led by Abbad II al-Mu'tadid 

List of Emirs
Yafranid dynasty
Abu Nour: 1039/40–1053/4
Badis ibn Hilal: 1053/4–1057/8
Abu Nur Hilal (restored): 1057/8
Abu Nars Fatuh: 1057/8–1065

See also
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties



ground_truth: 1065