prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the spouse of the actor of Ethan in A Dog's Purpose?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Police dog
A police dog is a dog that is trained to assist police and other law enforcement officers, search and rescue, or the military  Their duties may include searching for drugs and explosives, locating missing people, finding crime scene evidence, protecting officers and other people, and attacking suspects who flee from officers  The breeds most commonly used by law enforcement are the German Shepherd, Belgian Malinois, Bloodhound, Dutch Shepherd, and Labrador Retriever  In recent years, the Belgian Malinois has become the leading choice for police and military work due to their intense drive, focus, agility, and smaller size, though German Shepherds remain the breed most associated with law enforcement Police dogs are used on a federal and local level for law enforcement purposes in many parts of the world  They are often assigned to a K-9 Unit with a specific handler, and must remember several verbal cues and hand gestures  Initial training for a police dog typically takes between eight months and a year, depending on where and how they are trained, and for what purpose  Police dogs often regularly take training programs with their assigned handler to reinforce their training  In many countries, intentionally injuring or killing a police dog is a criminal offense In some English-speaking countries, police dog units are referred to as K-9 or K9, which is a homophone of the word canine 

History
Early history
Dogs have been used in law enforcement since the Middle Ages  Wealth and money was then tithed in the villages for the upkeep of the parish constable's bloodhounds that were used for hunting down outlaws  The first recorded use of police dogs were in the early 14th century in St  Malo, France, where dogs were used to guard docks and piers  By the late 14th century, bloodhounds were used in Scotland, known as "Slough dogs" – the word "Sleuth", (meaning detective) was derived from this  Between the 12th and 20th centuries, police dogs on the British Isles and European continent were primarily used for their tracking abilities The rapid urbanization of England and France in the 19th century increased public concern regarding growing lawlessness  In London, the existing law enforcement, the Bow Street Runners, struggled to contain the crime on their own, and as a result, private associations were formed to help combat crime  Night watchmen were employed to guard premises, and were provided with firearms and dogs to protect themselves from criminals 

Modern era
One of the first attempts to use dogs in policing was in 1889 by the Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police of London, Sir Charles Warren  Warren's repeated failures at identifying and apprehending the serial killer Jack the Ripper had earned him much vilification from the press, including being denounced for not using bloodhounds to track the killer  He soon had two bloodhounds trained for the performance of a simple tracking test from the scene of another of the killer's crimes  The results were far from satisfactory, with one of the hounds biting the Commissioner and both dogs later running off, requiring a police search to find them It was in Continental Europe that dogs were first used on a large scale  Police in Paris began using dogs against roaming criminal gangs at night, but it was the police department in Ghent, Belgium that introduced the first organized police dog service program in 1899  These methods soon spread to Austria-Hungary and Germany; in the latter the first scientific developments in the field took place with experiments in dog breeding and training  The German police selected the German Shepherd Dog as the ideal breed for police work and opened up the first dog training school in 1920 in Greenheide  In later years, many Belgian Malinois dogs were added to the unit  The dogs were systematically trained in obedience to their officers and tracking and attacking criminals  
In Britain, the North Eastern Railway Police were among the first to use police dogs in 1908 to put a stop to theft from the docks in Hull  By 1910, railway police forces were experimenting with other breeds such as Belgian Malinois, Labrador Retrievers, and German shepherds 

Training
Popular dog breeds used by law enforcement include the Airedale terrier, Akita, Groenendael, Malinois dog, Bernese Mountain Dog, Bloodhound, Border Collie, Boxer, Bouvier des Flandres, Croatian Sheepdog, Doberman Pinscher, German Shepherd, German Shorthaired Pointer, Golden Retriever, Labrador Retriever, Rottweiler and English Springer Spaniel Training of police dogs is a very lengthy process since it begins with the training of the canine handler  The canine handlers go through a long process of training to ensure that they will train the dog to the best of its ability  First, the canine handler has to complete the requisite police academy training and one to two years of patrol experience before becoming eligible to transfer to a specialty canine unit  This is because the experience as an officer allows prospective canine officers to gain valuable experience in law enforcement  However, having dog knowledge and training outside of the police academy is considered to be an asset, this could be dog obedience, crowd control, communicating effectively with animals and being approachable and personable since having a dog will draw attention from surrounding citizens 
For a dog to be considered for a police department, it must first pass a basic obedience training course  They must be able to obey the commands of their handler without hesitation  This allows the officer to have complete control over how much force the dog should use against a suspect  Dogs trained in Europe are usually given commands in the country's native language  Dogs are initially trained with this language for basic behavior, so, it is easier for the officer to learn new words/commands, rather than retraining the dog to new commands  This is contrary to the popular belief that police dogs are trained in a different language so that a suspect cannot command the dog against the officer Dogs used in law enforcement are trained to either be "single purpose" or "dual purpose"  Single-purpose dogs are used primarily for backup, personal protection, and tracking  Dual-purpose dogs, however, are more typical  Dual-purpose dogs do everything that single-purpose dogs do, and also detect either explosives or narcotics  Dogs can only be trained for one or the other because the dog cannot communicate to the officer if it found explosives or narcotics  When a narcotics dog in the United States indicates to the officer that it found something, the officer has probable cause to search whatever the dog alerted on (i e  bag or vehicle) without a warrant, in most states In suspect apprehension, having a loud barking dog is helpful and can result in suspects surrendering without delay 

Specialization
Police dogs can be specialized to perform in specific areas 

Apprehension and attack dogs – This dog is used to locate, apprehend, and sometimes subdue suspects 
Detection dogs – Trained to detect explosives or drugs such as marijuana, heroin, cocaine, crack cocaine, or methamphetamines  Some dogs are specifically trained to detect firearms and ammunition 
Dual purpose dog – Also known as a patrol dog, these dogs are trained and skilled in tracking, handler protection, off-leash obedience, criminal apprehension, and article, area and building search 
Search and rescue dogs (SAR) – This dog is used to locate suspects or find missing people or objects  Belgian Malinois, German Shepherds, Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers, and Bloodhounds can all be used 

Retirement
Police dogs are retired if they become injured to an extent where they will not recover completely, pregnant or raising puppies, or are too old or sick to continue working  Since many dogs are raised in working environments for the first year of their life and retired before they become unable to perform, the working life of a dog is 6–9 years However, when police dogs retire in some countries they may have the chance to receive a pension plan for their contribution to policing  In 2013, a pension scheme for police dogs in Nottinghamshire, England was introduced, wherein the police force offered £805 over the span of three years to cover any additional medical costs; the dogs were also allowed to be adopted by their original handler In many countries, police dogs killed in the line of duty receive the same honors as their human partners 

Accusations of brutality and racial partiality
A 2020 investigation coordinated by the Marshall Project found evidence of widespread deployment of police dogs in the U S  as disproportionate force and disproportionately against people of color  A series of 13 linked reports found more than 150 cases from 2015 to 2020 of K-9 officers improperly using dogs as weapons to catch, bite, and injure people  The rate of police K-9 bites in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, a majority-Black city of 220,000 residents, averages more than double that of the next-ranked city, Indianapolis, and nearly one-third of the police dog bites are inflicted on teenage men, most of whom are Black  Medical researchers found that police dog attacks are "more like shark attacks than nips from a family pet” due to the aggressive training police dogs undergo  Many people bitten were not violent and were not suspected of crimes  Police officers are often shielded from liability, and federal civil rights laws don’t typically cover bystanders who are bitten by mistake  Even when victims can bring cases, lawyers say they struggle because jurors tend to love police dogs 

Usage by country and region
Australia
The Australian Federal Police employ "general purpose" police dogs, whose duties include searching for missing persons, suspect apprehension, and keeping the peace  The Australian Federal Police also employ police dogs trained for specialized purposes, such as detecting firearms, explosives, illegal narcotics, and currency  The Australian Border Force also utilizes detector dogs to search for concealed people or illegal products at border checkpoints 

Bangladesh
Border Guards Bangladesh, Rapid Action Battalion and the Dhaka Metropolitan Police maintain several dog squads to assist in anti-narcotic and anti-bombing campaigns 

Belgium
The Belgian Canine Support Group is part of the country's federal police  It has 35 dog teams, most of which are Belgian Malinois  Some dogs are trained to detect drugs, human remains, hormones or fire accelerants  About a third are tracker dogs trained to find or identify living people  These teams are often deployed to earthquake areas to locate people trapped in collapsed buildings   The federal police's explosive detector dogs are attached to the Federal Police Special Units 

Canada
Canadians started using police dogs occasionally in 1908  However, they used privately owned dogs until 1935 when the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) saw the value of police dogs and created the first team in 1937  By the 1950s, the RCMP had German Shepherds, Schnauzers, and Doberman Pinschers in service Many Canadian municipalities use dog squads as a means of tracking suspects  Most municipalities in Canada employ the bite and hold technique rather than the bark and hold technique meaning once the dog is deployed, it bites the suspect until the dog handler commands it to release  This often results in serious puncture wounds and is traumatic for suspects  A dog has the legal status of property in Canada  As such, developing case law is moving towards absolute liability for the handlers of animals deliberately released to intentionally maim suspects  The dog is effectively a weapon 
In 2010, an Alberta Court of Queen's Bench judge stayed criminal charges against Kirk Steele, a man who was near-fatally shot by a police officer while he stabbed the officer's police dog  The judge found that the shooting was cruel and unusual treatment and excessive force Police require reasonable suspicion they will recover evidence in order to use a dog to sniff a person or their possessions in public  This is because using a dog to detect scents is considered a search  The main exemption to that rule are the dogs of the Canada Border Services Agency who are allowed to make searches without warrants under s 98 of the Customs Act 
In 2017, it was reported that the Canadian forces had approximately 170 RCMP dog teams across Canada, and was continuing to grow as more and more Canadian municipalities saw the value of police dogs 

Denmark
There are a total of 240 active police dogs in Denmark, each of which are ranked in one of three groups: Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3  Dogs in Group 1 are very experienced, and highly trained  Group 1 dogs are typically within the age range of four to eight years old and are used for patrolling, rescue, searching for biological evidence and major crime investigations  Group 2 dogs are employed for the same tasks as members of Group 1, but they do not participate in major crime investigations or searching for biological evidence  Group 3 is the beginner rank for police dogs, and are only employed for patrol operations 

Hong Kong
The Police Dog Unit (PDU; Chinese: 警犬隊) was established in 1949 and is a specialist force of the Hong Kong Police under the direct command of the Special Operations Bureau  Their roles are crowd control, search and rescue, and poison and explosive detection  In addition, the PDU works in collaboration with other departments for anti-crime operations 

Netherlands
The Dutch  Police Dog Brigade is part of the national police corps national unit, and supports other units with specially trained dogs  The  dogs are trained to recognize a single specific scent  They specialize in identifying scents (identifying the scent shared by an object and a person), narcotics, explosives and firearms, detecting human remains, and locating drowning people and fire accelerants 
The 10 regional units also have dog brigades of their own  For example, the canine unit of the regional police East netherlands 

India
In India, the National Security Guard inducted the Belgian Malinois into its K-9 Unit, Border Security Force, and Central Reserve Police Force use Rajapalayam as guard dogs to support the Force on the borders of Kashmir  
For regional security, the Delhi Police has recruited many of the city's street dogs to be trained for security purposes  The Bengal Police uses German Shepherds, Labrador Retrievers, and the Indian pariah dog in its bomb-sniffing squad 

Israel
Israel utilizes canine units for border patrols to track illegal persons or objects that pose a threat  Police dogs serve in the Israel Police and Israel Prison Service 

Italy
All the law enforcement in Italy (Carabinieri, Polizia di Stato and Guardia di Finanza) have in service many patrol dogs for Public Order, Anti-Drug, Anti-explosive, Search and Rescue  The first train centers for police dogs in Italy were established after World War I and in 1924, Italy purchased German Shepherds from Germany for border patrol operations in the Alps  The Carabinieri Kennel Club was formed in 1957 to produce police dogs and train handlers in Italy  German and Belgian shepherds are used for multiple purposes, Labradors for drug, weapons and explosive surveillance and Rottweilers serve for protection 

Japan
Japan is one of the few east Asian countries that have dogs serving in law enforcement as others dislike dogs due to cultural norms  Between the 16th and 19th centuries, samurai had Akita service companions that would defend samurai while they slept at night  In modern times, the German shepherd is the common police dog of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department 

Kenya
Police dogs began their service in Kenya in 1948 as part of the Kenya Police Criminal Investigation Department of the Kenya Police  Since the 1950s, the main police dog in service is the German shepherd, with Labradors, Rottweilers and English Springer Spaniels being used for specialized purposes  Since the 2000s, the Kenya Police has increased the breeding and adoption of police dogs with the long-term goal of having canines serving in each police station of Kenya 

Nepal
The Nepal Police first established a canine unit in 1975 due to increased crime rates and to help with investigations  Since then, police dogs are in service throughout various regions of Nepal and have been present at the Tribhuwan International Airport since 2009 

Pakistan
Pakistan Customs uses a K-9 unit for anti-smuggling operations  Pakistan's Sindh Police also have a specialized K-9 unit 

Peru
Peru recruits various canine units for various governmental, military and police operations  The National Service of Agrarian Health (SENASA) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation has the Canine Brigade of Plant Health that detects plants that may violate phytosanitary trade practices and to prevent the contraband importation of pests in plants and fruit  The brigade is present at Jorge Chávez International Airport and in Peruvian territory For the National Police of Peru, they prefer the German Shepherd, Belgian Shepherd Malinois, Beagle, Weimaraner, Golden Retriever and Labrador Retriever breeds for their service and accept donations of dogs between the ages of 12 and 24 months  The National Police use canine units for drug surveillance in the country's main airport, Jorge Chávez International Airport, with the force receiving canine training from United States Customs and Border Protection The Peruvian Army has canine units trained for search and rescue as well as disaster situations  During the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru, a limitation of gatherings and curfew was enforced with the assistance of canine units that served for law enforcement 

Russia
Police dogs have been used in Russia since 1909 in Saint Petersburg  Attack dogs are used commonly by police and are muzzled at all times unless ordered to apprehend a suspect  Police dogs have also been used to track fugitives, which has remained common in most Soviet Union Successor States 

Sweden
The Swedish Police Authority currently deploys around 400 police canines  There is however no requirement for the dogs to be purebred, as long as they meet mental and physical requirements set by the police  Dogs aged 18–48 months are eligible to take admission tests for the K9 training  The police dogs live with their operators, and after retirement at age 8–10 the operator often assumes the ownership of the dog 

United Kingdom
Police forces across the country, as well as the RAF Police, employ dogs and handlers and dog training schools are available to cater for the ever-increasing number of dogs being used  The use of police dogs became popular in the 1930s when Scotland Yard officially added dogs to its police force There are over 2,500 police dogs employed amongst the various police forces in the UK, with the Belgian Malinois as the most popular breed for general purpose work  In 2008, a Belgian Malinois female handled by PC Graham Clarke won the National Police Dog Trials with the highest score ever recorded 
All British police dogs, irrespective of the discipline they are trained in, must be licensed to work operationally  To obtain the licence they have to pass a test at the completion of their training, and then again every year until they retire, which is usually at about the age of 8  The standards required to become operational are laid down by the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) sub-committee on police dogs and are reviewed on a regular basis to ensure that training and licensing reflects the most appropriate methods and standards 

United States
Police dogs are in widespread use across the United States  Police dogs are operated on the federal, state, county, and local levels and are used for a wide variety of duties, similar to those of other nations  Their duties generally include detecting illegal narcotics, explosives, and other weapons, search-and-rescue, and cadaver searches  The most common breeds for everyday duties are the German Shepherd and the Belgian Malinois, though other breeds may be used to perform specific tasks On the federal level, police dogs may be seen in some airports assisting Transportation Security Administration officials search for explosives and weapons, or by Customs and Border Protection searching for concealed narcotics and people  Some dogs may also be used by tactical components of such agencies as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States Marshals Service  Federally owned police dogs play a vital role in homeland security  An expert on police dogs, L  Paul Waggoner of the Canine Performance Sciences Program at Auburn University said, "detector dogs are a critical component of national security – and they also provide a very visible and proven deterrent to terrorist activities " The American Kennel Club estimates that between 80–90 percent of dogs purchased by the U S  Department of Homeland Security and U S  Department of Defense come from foreign vendors, mostly located in Europe Most police agencies in the United States – whether state, county, or local – use police dogs as means of law enforcement  Often, even the smallest of departments operates a K-9 division of at least one dog; in these cases, police dogs will usually serve all purposes deemed necessary, most commonly suspect apprehension and narcotics detection, and teams are often on call  In larger cities and metropolitan areas, police departments regularly employ dozens of police dogs  In these cases, individual dogs often serve individual purposes in which each particular animal is specialized, and teams usually serve scheduled shifts  In both cases, police dogs are almost always cared for by their specific handlers  The U S  Fish and Wildlife Services agency requires police dogs to undergo annual in-service training to recertify their skills and credentials  This training must last at least 24 hours each year 

Under the Federal Law Enforcement Animal Protection Act, it is a felony to assault or kill a law enforcement animal, including police dogs and police horses, in all 50 states  However, police dogs are not treated as police officers for the purpose of the law, and attacking or killing a police dog is not punishable in the same manner as attacking or killing a human police officer  Although many police departments formally swear dogs in as police officers, this swearing-in is purely honorary, and carries no legal significance Police dogs also play a major role in American penal systems  Many jails and prisons will use special dog teams as a means of intervening in large-scale fights or riots by inmates  Also, many penal systems will employ dogs – usually bloodhounds – in searching for escaped prisoners 
In October 2017, the U S  House Oversight and Government Reform Intergovernmental Affairs Subcommittee held a hearing about whether there is a sufficient supply of dogs that can be trained as police dogs  Congressman Mike Rogers (R-AL) said that the continued ISIS-inspired attacks in the U S  and all over the world "have driven demand through the roof" for police dogs 
The Marshall Project maintains a database of police dog bites across the United States 

Supreme Court cases
The United States Supreme Court is the highest federal court in the United States of America  Some U S  Supreme Court cases that pertain to police dogs are:

United States v  Place (1983) – The Court held that the sniff of a specially trained police dog is sui generis and it does not violate the Fourth Amendment's prohibition of unreasonable search and seizure for one to sniff a person's personal items in a public place, even if done without a warrant 
City of Indianapolis v  Edmond (2000) – The Court held that is unconstitutional to set up a highway checkpoint for the primary purpose of illegal narcotic discovery  In the case, the Indianapolis Police Department was using police dogs to detect narcotics at the checkpoint without reasonable suspicion 
Illinois v  Caballes (2005) – The Court held that police do not need probable cause to bring a drug-detection dog to a vehicle during a legal traffic stop, and searches by a police dog do not count as an invasion of privacy, because a well-trained one will only alert to the presence of illegal substances 
Florida v  Harris (2013) – The Court held that a police dog's alert to the exterior of a vehicle gives the officer probable cause to search the vehicle without a warrant  Further, the Court affirmed that the state does not have to prove each dog's reliability in order for evidence gathered from them to be valid in court 
Florida v  Jardines (2013) – The Court held that evidence collected from a police dog at the front door of a house cannot be used in court  The front porch of a house is considered a private place, and the police need probable cause and a search warrant to bring a police dog to the front door 
Rodriguez v  United States (2015) – The Court held that, without reasonable suspicion, the use of a police dog after the conclusion of a legal traffic stop violates the Fourth Amendment 

See also
Detection dog
Dogs in warfare
Nosework
Working dog
Passage 2:
Dog
The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated descendant of the wolf  Also called the domestic dog, it is derived from extinct Pleistocene wolves, and the modern wolf is the dog's nearest living relative  Dogs were the first species to be domesticated by hunter-gatherers over 15,000 years ago before the development of agriculture  Due to their long association with humans, dogs have expanded to a large number of domestic individuals and gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids The dog has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes  Dog breeds vary widely in shape, size, and color  They perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship, therapy, and aiding disabled people  Over the millennia, dogs became uniquely adapted to human behavior, and the human–canine bond has been a topic of frequent study  This influence on human society has given them the sobriquet of "man's best friend" 

Taxonomy
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his Systema Naturae, the two-word naming of species (binomial nomenclature)  Canis is the Latin word meaning "dog", and under this genus, he listed the domestic dog, the wolf, and the golden jackal  He classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris and, on the next page, classified the grey wolf as Canis lupus  Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its upturning tail (cauda recurvata), which is not found in any other canid In 1999, a study of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from the grey wolf, with the dingo and New Guinea singing dog breeds having developed at a time when human communities were more isolated from each other  In the third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in 2005, the mammalogist W  Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf Canis lupus its wild subspecies and proposed two additional subspecies, which formed the domestic dog clade: familiaris, as named by Linnaeus in 1758 and, dingo named by Meyer in 1793  Wozencraft included hallstromi (the New Guinea singing dog) as another name (junior synonym) for the dingo  Wozencraft referred to the mtDNA study as one of the guides informing his decision  Mammalogists have noted the inclusion of familiaris and dingo together under the "domestic dog" clade with some debating it In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the dingo and the New Guinea singing dog to be feral Canis familiaris and therefore did not assess them for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 

Evolution
Domestication
The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany  Contextual, isotopic, genetic, and morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf  The dog was dated to 14,223 years ago and was found buried along with a man and a woman, all three having been sprayed with red hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks  The dog had died of canine distemper  Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 years ago have been described as Paleolithic dogs, but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the Late Pleistocene This timing indicates that the dog was the first species to be domesticated in the time of hunter–gatherers, which predates agriculture  DNA sequences show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population which was distinct from the modern wolf lineage  Most dogs form a sister group to the remains of a Late Pleistocene wolf found in the Kesslerloch cave near Thayngen in the canton of Schaffhausen, Switzerland, which dates to 14,500 years ago  The most recent common ancestor of both is estimated to be from 32,100 years ago  This indicates that an extinct Late Pleistocene wolf may have been the ancestor of the dog, with the modern wolf being the dog's nearest living relative The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely travelled a commensal pathway into domestication  The questions of when and where dogs were first domesticated have taxed geneticists and archaeologists for decades  Genetic studies suggest a domestication process commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia  In 2021, a literature review of the current evidence infers that the dog was domesticated in Siberia 23,000 years ago by ancient North Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across Eurasia 

Breeds
Dogs are the most variable mammal on earth with around 450 globally recognized dog breeds  In the Victorian era, directed human selection developed the modern dog breeds, which resulted in a vast range of phenotypes  Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years, and since then dogs have undergone rapid phenotypic change and were formed into today's modern breeds due to artificial selection imposed by humans  The skull, body, and limb proportions vary significantly between breeds, with dogs displaying more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores  These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type and colour  Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding, and hunting, retrieving, and scent detection  Their personality traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression, which demonstrates the functional and behavioral diversity of dogs  As a result, present day dogs are the most abundant carnivore species and are dispersed around the world  The most striking example of this dispersal is that of the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian era 

Biology
Anatomy
Skeleton
All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have an identical skeletal structure with the exception of the number of bones in the tail, although there is significant skeletal variation between dogs of different types  The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running; the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for powerful back muscles to connect to, the long ribs provide plenty of room for the heart and lungs, and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton allowing great flexibility Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen the dog's skeleton greatly enhanced in size for larger types as mastiffs and miniaturised for smaller types such as terriers; dwarfism has been selectively utilised for some types where short legs are advantageous such as dachshunds and corgis  Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some with naturally short tails have as few as three The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is significant divergence in terms of skull shape between types  The three basic skull shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the intermediate mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls 

Senses
A dog's senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch  One study suggested that dogs can feel Earth's magnetic field 

Coat
The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being familiar with dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only  Breeds may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside  Premature graying can occur in dogs from as early as one year of age; this is associated with impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, fear of noise, and fear of unfamiliar people or animals 

Tail
There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or corkscrew  As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be crucial in getting along with others  In some hunting dogs the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries 

Health
Some breeds of dogs are prone to specific genetic ailments such as elbow and hip dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees  Two severe medical conditions significantly affecting dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all breeds and ages, and Gastric dilatation volvulus (bloat), which affects larger breeds or deep-chested dogs  Both of these are acute conditions and can kill rapidly  Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks, mites, hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms, and heartworms, which is a roundworm species that lives in the hearts of dogs 
Several human foods and household ingestible are toxic to dogs, including chocolate solids, causing theobromine poisoning, onions and garlic, causing thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning, grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts, and xylitol  The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous to dogs  Signs of ingestion can include copious vomiting (e g , from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea  Some other symptoms are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis 

Lifespan
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most, the median longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) ranges from 10 to 13 years  The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged  For dogs in England, increased body weight has been found to be negatively correlated with longevity (i e , the heavier the dog, the shorter its lifespan), and mixed-breed dogs live on average 1 2 years longer than purebred dogs 

Reproduction
In domestic dogs, sexual maturity happens around six months to one year for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age for some large breeds, and is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle  They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body prepares for pregnancy  At the peak of the cycle, females will become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to copulation  Because the ova survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than one male can sire the same litter Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after ovulation; 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the uterus and after seven to eight more days, a heartbeat is detectable Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization, with an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary  An average litter consists of about six puppies 

Neutering
Neutering is the sterilization of animals, usually by removing the male's testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive  Because of dogs' overpopulation in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized According to the Humane Society of the United States, three to four million dogs and cats are euthanized each year  Many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes  Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs  Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop cancers affecting the mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs  However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs and prostate cancer in males and osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex 

Inbreeding depression
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e g , between half and full siblings)  Inbreeding depression is considered to be due mainly to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations  Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny In a study of seven dog breeds (the Bernese Mountain Dog, Basset Hound, Cairn Terrier, Brittany, German Shepherd Dog, Leonberger, and West Highland White Terrier), it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival  Another analysis of data on 42,855 Dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression  In a study of Boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age  Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection  Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding 

Behavior
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and external stimuli  As the oldest domesticated species, dogs' minds inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans  As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans more than any other species and they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors  Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs  These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest canine relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as great apes, but rather parallel to children's social-cognitive skills Unlike other domestic species selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors  In 2016, a study found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation between wolves and dogs  These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication  These genes have been shown to affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response (i e , selection for tameness) and emotional processing  Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared with wolves  Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and later in breed formation  Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of problem-solving ability 

Intelligence
Researchers have tested dogs' ability to perceive information, retain it as knowledge, and apply it to solve problems  Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can learn by inference and have advanced memory skills   A study with Rico, a Border Collie, showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items  He inferred the names of novel things by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those new items immediately and four weeks after the initial exposure  A study of another Border Collie, Chaser, documented his learning and memory capabilities  He had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words  Dogs can read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing, pointing, and human voice commands 
One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are no more exceptional than those of other animals, such as horses, chimpanzees, or cats  One limited study of 18 household dogs found that they lacked spatial memory, and were more focused on the "what" of a task rather than the "where" Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception  An experimental study showed compelling evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans  Another study revealed that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs faced with an unsolvable version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not 

Communication
Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, understand messages from humans and translate the information that dogs are transmitting : xii  Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste)  Humans communicate to dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture 

Ecology
Population
The dog is probably the most widely abundant large carnivoran living in the human environment 
In 2013, the estimated global dog population was between 700 million and 987 million  About 20% of dogs live as pets in developed countries  In the developing world, dogs are typically feral or communally owned, with pet dogs uncommon  Most of these dogs live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%)  Little is known about these dogs, or the dogs in developed countries that are feral, strays, or are in shelters because the great majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes 

Competitors and predators
Although dogs are the most abundant and widely distributed terrestrial carnivores, feral and free-ranging dogs' potential to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with humans  For example, a review of the studies in dogs' competitive effects on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves  Although wolves are known to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing large dog groups Wolves kill dogs wherever they are found together  In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed  Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs  In particular, leopards are known to have a preference for dogs and have been recorded to kill and consume them, no matter what their size  Siberian tigers in the Amur River region have killed dogs in the middle of villages  This indicates that the dogs were targeted  Amur tigers will not tolerate wolves as competitors within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in the same way  Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in their range 

Diet
Dogs have been described as omnivores  Compared to wolves, dogs from agricultural societies have extra copies of amylase and other genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet  Similar to humans, some dog breeds produce amylase in their saliva and are classified as having a high starch diet  However, more like cats and less like other omnivores, dogs can only produce bile acid with taurine and they cannot produce vitamin D, which they obtain from animal flesh  
Of the twenty-one amino acids common to all life forms (including selenocysteine), dogs cannot synthesize ten: arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine  
Also more like cats, dogs require arginine to maintain nitrogen balance  These nutritional requirements place dogs halfway between carnivores and omnivores 

Range
As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog is nearly universal among human societies  Notable exceptions once included:

The Aboriginal Tasmanians, who were separated from Australia before the arrival of dingos on that continent
The Andamanese peoples, who were isolated when rising sea levels covered the land bridge to Myanmar
The Fuegians, who instead domesticated the Fuegian dog, a different canid species
Individual Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs, or where dogs died out after original settlement, notably the Mariana Islands, Palau and most of the Caroline Islands with exceptions such as Fais Island and Nukuoro, the Marshall Islands, the Gilbert Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Tonga, Marquesas, Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Rapa Iti in French Polynesia, Easter Island, the Chatham Islands and Pitcairn Island (settled by the Bounty mutineers, who killed off their dogs to escape discovery by passing ships) Dogs were introduced to Antarctica as sled dogs, but were later outlawed by international agreement due to the possible risk of spreading infections 

Roles with humans
Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, which would have been pack hunters with a complex body language  These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness and ability to fit into human households and social situations  These attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful animals today The dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures  Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship and aiding disabled individuals  This influence on human society has given them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world  In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat 

Pets
It is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon "The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs" and the keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history  Pet dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased  In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today (the expression "in the doghouse" – recorded since 1932 – to describe exclusion from the group implies a distance between the doghouse and the home) and were still primarily functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or walking companion  From the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet dog's role, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians  People and their dogs have become increasingly integrated and implicated in each other's lives to the point where pet dogs actively shape how a family and home are experienced There have been two significant trends occurring within the second half of the 20th century in pet dogs' changing status  The first has been "commodification", shaping it to conform to social expectations of personality and behavior  The second has been the broadening of the family's concept and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices A vast range of commodity forms aims to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion  The list of goods, services, and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture, furniture and housing to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and beaches and dog hotels, airlines and cemeteries  Dog training books, classes, and television programs proliferated as the process of commodifying the pet dog continued The majority of contemporary dog owners describe their pet as part of the family, although some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog-human family as a pack  Some dog trainers, such as on the television program Dog Whisperer, have promoted a dominance model of dog-human relationships  However, it has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions  The idea of the "alpha dog" trying to be dominant is based on a disproved theory about wolf packs  Pet dogs play an active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in dog-human families showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, or talking through the dog; to mediate their interactions with each other Increasingly, human family-members engage in activities centered on the dog's perceived needs and interests, or in which the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog yoga According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, an estimated 77 5 million people in the United States have pet dogs  The same source shows that nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs  There does not seem to be any gender preference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an equal number of male and female pet dogs  Although several programs promote pet adoption, less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from shelters A study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to compare humans and dogs showed that dogs have the same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do  This gives dogs the ability to recognize human emotional sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans 

Workers
Dogs have lived and worked with humans in many roles  In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have been bred for herding livestock (collies, sheepdogs),  hunting (hounds, pointers) and rodent control (terriers)  Other types of working dogs include search and rescue dogs, detection dogs trained to detect illicit drugs or chemical weapons; guard dogs; dogs who assist fishermen with the use of nets; and dogs that pull loads  In 1957, the dog Laika became the first animal to be launched into Earth orbit, aboard the Soviets' Sputnik 2; she died during the flight Various kinds of service dogs and assistance dogs, including guide dogs, hearing dogs, mobility assistance dogs and psychiatric service dogs, assist individuals with disabilities  Some dogs owned by people with epilepsy have been shown to alert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometimes well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or medical care 

Athletes and models
People often enter their dogs in competitions, such as breed-conformation shows or sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions  In conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard  As the breed standard only deals with the dog's externally observable qualities (such as appearance, movement and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of the judging in conformation shows 

Food
Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including Korea, China, Vietnam and the Philippines, which dates back to antiquity  Based on limited data, it is estimated that 13–16 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year  In China, debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat   Following the Sui and Tang dynasties of the first millennium, however, people living on northern China's plains began to eschew eating dogs, which is likely due to Buddhism and Islam's spread, two religions that forbade the consumption of certain animals, including the dog  As members of the upper classes shunned dog meat, it gradually became a social taboo to eat it, even though the general population continued to consume it for centuries afterward  Dog meat is also consumed in some parts of Switzerland  Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog meat in their history  Dog fat is also reportedly believed to be beneficial for the lungs in some parts of Poland and Central Asia  Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is Western hypocrisy and that there is no difference in eating different animals' meat In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the Nureongi, differs from those breeds raised for pets that Koreans may keep in their homes The most popular Korean dog dish is called bosintang, a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months  Followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi, or the body's vital energy  A 19th-century version of bosintang explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder  Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots  While the dishes are still prevalent in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef, pork and chicken 

Health risks
In 2018, the WHO reported that 59,000 people died globally from rabies, with 59 6% in Asia and 36 4% in Africa  Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most important vector  Significant dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year  Children in mid-to-late childhood are the largest percentage bitten by dogs, with a greater risk of injury to the head and neck  They are more likely to need medical treatment and have the highest death rate  Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections In the U S , cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year  It has been estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U K  hospitals are domestic accidents  The same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis  In the United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U S  population is infected  Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision  Dog feces can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans 

Health benefits
Dogs suffer from the same common disorders as humans; these include cancer, diabetes, heart disease and neurologic disorders  Their pathology is similar to humans, as is their response to treatment and their outcomes  Researchers are identifying the genes associated with dog diseases similar to human disorders, but lack mouse models to find cures for both dogs and humans  The genes involved in canine obsessive-compulsive disorders led to the detection of four genes in humans' related pathways The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether a dog's companionship can enhance human physical health and psychological well-being  Studies suggesting that there are benefits to physical health and psychological well-being have been criticized for being poorly controlled  It found that "the health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal " Earlier studies have shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical health than those who do not, making fewer visits to the doctor and being less likely to be on medication than non-guardians A 2005 paper states "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people  Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets " In one study, new guardians reported a highly significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition  This effect was sustained in those with dogs through to the end of the study People with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets  The results provide evidence that keeping pets may have positive effects on human health and behavior and that for guardians of dogs, these effects are relatively long-term  Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased coronary artery disease survival  Human guardians are significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own dogs  The association between dog ownership and adult physical activity levels has been reviewed by several authors The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, not solely from having dogs as pets  For example, when in a pet dog's presence, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral and psychological indicators of anxiety  Other health benefits are gained from exposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases according to the hygiene hypothesis  The benefits of contact with a dog also include social support, as dogs cannot only provide companionship and social support themselves but also act as facilitators of social interactions between humans  One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when accompanied by a dog than when they are not  In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners Using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders  Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease  One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared with those not in an animal-assisted program 

Cultural importance
Dogs were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, alertness, and love  In ancient Mesopotamia, from the Old Babylonian period until the Neo-Babylonian, dogs were the symbol of Ninisina, the goddess of healing and medicine, and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her  In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of magical protection  In China, Korea and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs  Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld recur throughout Indo-European mythologies and may originate from Proto-Indo-European religion  In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed, dragon-tailed watchdog who guards the gates of Hades  Dogs are also associated with the Greek goddess Hecate  In Norse mythology, a dog called Garmr guards Hel, a realm of the dead  In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge  In Welsh mythology, Annwn is guarded by Cŵn Annwn  In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death, owns two watchdogs who have four eyes  They are said to watch over the gates of Naraka  A black dog is also considered to be the vahana (vehicle) of Bhairava (an incarnation of Shiva) In Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness  Within the Roman Catholic denomination specifically, the iconography of Saint Dominic includes a dog, after the saint's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and becoming pregnant shortly after that  As such, the Dominican Order (Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis) means "dog of the Lord" or "hound of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis)  In Christian folklore, a church grim often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and their churchyards from sacrilege  Jewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets  Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them  The view on dogs in Islam is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing it as unclean, although Khaled Abou El Fadl states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet " Therefore, Sunni Malaki and Hanafi jurists permit the trade of and keeping of dogs as pets 

Terminology
Dog – the species (or subspecies) as a whole, also any male member of the same 
Bitch – any female member of the species (or subspecies) 
Puppy or pup – a young member of the species (or subspecies) under 12 months old 
Sire – the male parent of a litter 
Dam – the female parent of a litter 
Litter – all of the puppies resulting from a single whelping 
Whelping – the act of a bitch giving birth 
Whelps – puppies still dependent upon their dam 

See also
Passage 3:
Flesh and Bone (film)
Flesh and Bone is a 1993 American neo noir mystery thriller film written and directed by Steve Kloves that stars Meg Ryan, Dennis Quaid and James Caan  Gwyneth Paltrow is featured in an early role, for which she received some praise 

Plot
A family in rural Texas finds a boy, Arlis, who says he is lost  They take him into their home, feed him, and give a place to sleep  But the boy later lets his father, Roy (James Caan), into the house to commit a robbery  When they are discovered, Roy brutally murders the family, which the boy witnesses  The sole survivor is a baby girl 
Time passes, and Arlis (Dennis Quaid) lives a solitary life in which he drives a truckload of goods and novelties to restock vending machines and arcade games in roadside stores and restaurants  Making a stop at a roadhouse where a rowdy party is being held, he spots Kay (Meg Ryan), a woman who pops up out of a cake at the party and then passes out because she's been drinking liquor 
Arlis ends up giving her a ride home, a long drive, while continuing to make his rounds  Upon coming home, Kay sees that her husband Reese has sold the furniture, having lost their money gambling  She packs up her remaining belongings and leaves with Arlis  They spend more time together and grow close 
Meanwhile, a young woman named Ginnie (Gwyneth Paltrow) now travels with a much older Roy  She is a grifter who will pretend to be a mourner in order to steal the jewelry from a dead body at a funeral home  Ginnie brings an injured Roy to his estranged son, Arlis, to tend to his injury 
Passing the house where he grew up, Arlis realizes that Kay was the infant who survived the long-ago murders  Roy figures this out as well  He begins talking about tying up loose ends  It leads to a confrontation, and Arlis shoots Roy dead  Ginnie goes off on her own, and Kay and Arlis go their separate ways 

Cast
Dennis Quaid as Arlis Sweeney
Meg Ryan as Kay Davies
James Caan as Roy Sweeney
Gwyneth Paltrow as Ginnie
Scott Wilson as Elliott
Gail Cronauer as Emma
John Hawkes as Groom

Location
Principal photography began on October 5, 1992 and completed on December 26, 1992 
It was filmed in Lockhart and Marfa, Texas, as well as at the Mustang Mott store owned by Maxine McCoy, in Westhoff, Texas Producer Mark Rosenberg died of a heart attack suffered on the film's location in Stanton, Texas 
As the end credits begin, the film is dedicated to him 

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, Flesh and Bone holds a 65% approval rating from 26 reviews, with an average rating of 6/10  On Metacritic, the film has a score of 57 out of 100 based on 21 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale 
Passage 4:
A Dog's Purpose (film)
A Dog's Purpose is a 2017 American family comedy-drama adventure film directed by Lasse Hallström and written by W  Bruce Cameron, Cathryn Michon, Audrey Wells, Maya Forbes, and Wally Wolodarsky, based on the 2010 novel of the same name by W  Bruce Cameron  The film stars Britt Robertson, KJ Apa, Juliet Rylance, John Ortiz, Kirby Howell-Baptiste, Peggy Lipton, Dennis Quaid, and Josh Gad  The first film from the novel covers themes of loyalty, grief, dysfunctional family, and reincarnation from one lifetime to another 
The film is a co-production between Amblin Entertainment, Reliance Entertainment, Walden Media, and Pariah Entertainment Group  It was released by Universal Pictures on January 27, 2017, and grossed $205 million worldwide  It was Peggy Lipton's final film role before her death in 2019 
A sequel, titled A Dog's Journey, was released on May 17, 2019 

Plot
In the 1950s, a feral puppy wonders about life's true purpose  Weeks later, he is caught by dogcatchers, whisked away to the pound, and euthanized 
The dog is reborn as a Red Retriever in 1961  Leaving his cage at a puppy mill, he is taken by two garbage men, who plan to sell him  Left locked inside their pick-up truck, he begins to die of heatstroke, but is rescued by a kindhearted mother and her eight-year-old son, Ethan Montgomery  They break the truck's window and bring him home, naming him Bailey  Bailey and Ethan bond quickly, especially over the summer at Ethan's grandparents' farm, and Bailey decides Ethan alone is his purpose  Ethan gives him the nickname “Boss Dog”  Years pass, and after several attempts at advancing in his job fail, Ethan's father has become an alcoholic  In 1969, Ethan meets a girl named Hannah at a fair with Bailey, and they soon begin dating  They spend their summer together, happily, through senior year  They plan to go to the same college, Ethan getting a football scholarship and Hannah with an academic one  At home one night, Ethan's drunken father becomes abusive towards his mother and him  Ethan kicks him out  Later in 1971 at a football game watched by scouts, Ethan is offered a full scholarship to Michigan State University  That night, his vindictive classmate Todd throws a lit firecracker into Ethan's house, causing a house fire  Bailey alerts Ethan, who saves his mother out through an upstairs window  Ethan lowers her, then Bailey  However, he loses his rope and must jump, fracturing his leg and ending his athletic scholarship  Bailey attacks Todd, who is arrested by the police when firecrackers fall out of his pocket  Now, Ethan must go to an agricultural school, where he will learn to take over the farm  Depressed, Ethan breaks up with Hannah before leaving for college, while Bailey stays with Ethan's grandparents  Bailey ages and Ethan comes to say goodbye 
Bailey is reborn as a female German Shepherd puppy, growing into a police dog named Ellie, in the late 1970s/early 1980s, while fully retaining memories of her past lives  Ellie is partnered with lonely officer Carlos Ruiz who has recently split up with his partner, of the Chicago Police Department, and works hard at "seeking" and "finding", now seeing the job as life's purpose  They form a close bond, ending after Ellie saves a girl, kidnapped by her mother's ex-boyfriend, from drowning and is then fatally shot by the kidnapper while protecting Carlos 
Reborn in the mid-1980s as a male Corgi, Bailey is adopted by Atlanta college student Maya, who names him Tino  Lonely, he tries to find her happiness  She meets Al, a classmate, after Tino falls for Al's dog, a female Landseer named Roxy  They marry, having three children  Tino is heartbroken when one day Roxy does not return from the vet  As Tino ages and dies, he thanks Maya for giving him one of his best lives 
Bailey reincarnates again, this time as a St  Bernard/Australian Shepherd mix puppy in 2014  At first adopted by a woman named Wendi, he is named Waffles  Unfortunately, Wendi's husband neglects him, refuses to let her keep him inside, and after several years, abandons him  Waffles searches for a new life, gradually making his way back to where he spent summers as Bailey  He joyfully reunites with his old master Ethan, now in his 60s, lonely on his grandparents' old farm, now his  Not recognizing him, Ethan takes him to the local animal shelter, but later reclaims him, naming him Buddy  Sensing that he has finally found his true purpose, he reunites Ethan with a widowed Hannah, and they get married  Buddy shows Ethan that he is his “Boss Dog”, by performing tricks and responding to phrases that were known only to the two of them many years back  Ethan finds Bailey's collar, now old and rusty, and places it back on Bailey's neck, and they resume playing exactly the way they did so long ago  Bailey narrates that life is about having fun, saving others, finding someone to be with, not getting upset over the past or the future, and living for today 

Cast
Josh Gad as the voice of Bailey, Ellie, Tino and Buddy, the reincarnations of "Boss Dog", the main protagonist 
Dennis Quaid as Ethan Montgomery, an old man who runs a farm 
KJ Apa as teenaged Ethan Montgomery, a popular football player who later gets injured and must become a farmer 
Bryce Gheisar as eight-year-old Ethan Montgomery, a young boy interested in comics and football 
Juliet Rylance as Elizabeth Montgomery, Ethan's mother in an unhappy and abusive marriage to Jim, whom she later divorces 
Peggy Lipton as Hannah, an old woman who is widowed and has two children 
Britt Robertson as teenaged Hannah, the supportive and intelligent girlfriend of Ethan 
John Ortiz as Carlos Ruiz, Ellie’s partner who trains her as a police dog 
Kirby Howell-Baptiste as Maya, a shy young woman who adopts Tino 
Pooch Hall as Al, a young man who dates and later marries Maya, and has three children with her 
Luke Kirby as Jim Montgomery, Ethan's father in an unhappy and abusive marriage with Elizabeth and an alcoholic 
Michael Bofshever as Bill, Ethan's grandfather and a farmer 
Gabrielle Rose as Fran, Ethan's grandmother 
Logan Miller as Todd, a former friend of Ethan’s who is vindictive and jealous of him 

Production
In 2015, DreamWorks acquired the film rights for Cameron's novel  On May 8, 2015, it was announced Lasse Hallström would direct the film  On August 5, 2015, Britt Robertson and Dennis Quaid joined the cast  On September 18, 2015, Pooch Hall was cast in the film  On October 15, 2015, Bradley Cooper joined the cast to play Bailey's inner voice, but the role was eventually performed by Josh Gad  Principal photography began on August 17, 2015  During production, controversy ensued over treatment of a dog during filming 

Release
In December 2015, the film switched from a DreamWorks Pictures release to under the Amblin Entertainment banner as per Amblin Partners' newly enacted branded strategy  The film was released by Universal Pictures on January 27, 2017  Universal also distributed it overseas, except for countries where Mister Smith Entertainment handled international sales 

Reception
Box office
A Dog's Purpose has grossed $64 5 million in the United States and Canada and $140 5 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $205 million, against a production budget of $22 million In North America, it was released alongside Resident Evil: The Final Chapter and Gold, and was projected to gross $18–22 million from 3,050 theaters in its opening weekend, slightly lower than initial $27 million tracking had the film debuting to before boycotts against the film were called for  It made $466,000 from Thursday-night previews and $5 3 million on its first day  It ended up debuting to $18 2 million, finishing second at the box office behind the second weekend of Universal's own Split  The film dropped 40 6% in its second weekend, grossing $10 8 million and finishing third at the box office 

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 35% based on reviews from 142 critics, with an average rating of 4 8/10  The site's critics consensus reads, "A Dog's Purpose offers an awkward blend of sugary sentiment and canine suffering that tugs at animal-loving audiences' heartstrings with shameless abandon " On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 43 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale Andrew Barker of Variety wrote: "Viewed in a vacuum, it’s hard to fault the movie’s earnestness; Hallström’s canine cinema pedigree (which includes the superior Hachi: A Dog's Tale) shows through; and Rachel Portman's score is understandably sentimental without going completely saccharine " 
Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "While the human performers are more than adequate, there’s no doubt that the canine stars carry the day  Their utter irresistibility helps a long way in terms of getting past the corny plot machinations of A Dog’s Purpose "

Home media
A Dog's Purpose was released on digital HD on April 18, 2017, and was followed by a release on Blu-ray and DVD on May 2, 2017, from Universal Pictures Home Entertainment  The film topped the home-video sales chart for the week ending on May 7, 2017 

Controversy
On January 18, 2017, a video surfaced on TMZ showing footage taken from the set of the film, which shows a male German Shepherd named Hercules being dragged and dipped into rushing water while visibly resisting  After a cut in the video, the next clip shows the dog being submerged in the water at the other end of the tank while a voice on set can be heard shouting "CUT IT!", and various people are then seen rushing towards the dog  The American Humane Association, which ensures that animals are not harmed in entertainment productions, announced that its representative on set had been suspended over the incident, and that the incident was under further investigation  PETA called for a boycott of the film  Actor Josh Gad, who voices the dog in the movie and was not on set during the making of the film, said he was "shaken and sad to see any animal put in a situation against its will " Director Lasse Hallström said via Twitter that he "did not witness" the actions in the video, and was "very disturbed" by the footage  Due to the release of the video, Universal Pictures cancelled the film's scheduled January 19 Los Angeles premiere Amblin Entertainment released a statement in regards to the incident, saying, "on the day of the shoot, Hercules did not want to perform the stunt portrayed on the tape, so the Amblin production team did not proceed with filming that shot," and  "Hercules is happy and healthy " On February 4, 2017, the American Humane Association reported that an independent third-party animal-cruelty expert had concluded that safety measures on the set of the film were in place and the video had been deliberately edited to mislead the public 

Sequel
On June 21, 2017, CEO of Amblin Entertainment Michael Wright announced that a sequel was in development  On August 26, 2018, Universal began production on the sequel, which is directed by Gail Mancuso, and was released on May 17, 2019  In addition to Quaid and Gad reprising their roles, the cast also includes Marg Helgenberger (replacing Peggy Lipton, who had become seriously ill), Betty Gilpin, Kathryn Prescott, and Henry Lau  The trailer for the sequel, titled A Dog's Journey, was released in January 2019 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Tycho Brahe Prize
The Tycho Brahe Prize is awarded by the European Astronomical Society  Inaugurated in 2008, the prize is awarded annually in recognition of the pioneering development or exploitation of European astronomical instrumentation, or major discoveries based largely on such instruments 

Tycho Brahe Prize laureates
The following persons have received the Tycho Brahe Prize:

See also
List of astronomy awards
Prizes named after people
Passage 2:
Booktrust Teenage Prize
The Booktrust Teenage Prize was an annual award given to young adult literature published in the UK  The prize was administered by Book Trust, an independent charity which promotes books and reading  The Booktrust Teenage Prize was last awarded in 2010 and is no longer running 

Honorees
Passage 3:
Adam Smith Prize
The Adam Smith Prizes are prizes currently awarded for the best overall examination performance and best dissertation in Part IIB of the Economics Tripos (the graduation examination for economics undergraduates) at the University of Cambridge  The prize - named after Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith - was originally established in 1891 and awarded triennially for the best submitted essay on a subject of the writer's choice 

List of past recipients
1894 Arthur Lyon Bowley
1897 Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence
1900 Sydney Chapman
1903 Arthur Cecil Pigou
1906 Ernest Alfred Benians
1909 John Maynard Keynes
1929 R  F  Kahn
1930 Ruth Cohen
1932 K  S  Isles
1933 B  P  Adarkar
1935 W  B  Reddaway
1936 D  G  Champernowne
1954 Amartya Sen
1956 Manmohan Singh
1974 Martin Osborne
1987 Richard J  Parkin
2000 Saugato Datta and Richard Fearon
2004 James Benford
2006 Mark Shields
2007 Stefanie Stantcheva
2008 Thomas Mckendrick and Shivam Patel
2009 Praneet Shah
2011 Ossie Akushie and Shafi Anwar
2013 Inna Grinis and Ivan Kuznetsov
2014 James Walker
2015 Ben Andrews and Jonathon Hazell
2016 Isar Bhattacharjee and Toni Oki
2017 Joel Flynn and Joseph Lee
2018 Tireni Ajilore, George Nikolakoudis, Laurence O’Brien and Sajan Shah
2019 Vlastimil Rasocha and Kuishuai Yi
2020 Neal Patel, David Lee, Liam Grant, Andrew Koh and Michael Bennett
2021 Valerie Chuang, Matthew Chen and Jack Golden

See also
List of economics awards
Passage 4:
Berwick Prize
The Berwick Prize and Senior Berwick Prize are two prizes of the London Mathematical Society awarded in alternating years in memory of William Edward Hodgson Berwick, a previous Vice-President of the LMS  Berwick left some money to be given to the society to establish two prizes  His widow Daisy May Berwick gave the society the money and the society established the prizes, with the first Senior Berwick Prize being presented in 1946 and the first Junior Berwick Prize the following year  The prizes are awarded "in recognition of an outstanding piece of mathematical research     published by the Society" in the eight years before the year of the award The Berwick Prize was known as the Junior Berwick Prize up to 1999, and was given its current name for the 2001 award 

Senior Berwick Prize winners
Source:

Berwick Prize winners
Source:

See also
Whitehead Prize
Senior Whitehead Prize
Shephard Prize
Fröhlich Prize
Naylor Prize and Lectureship
Pólya Prize (LMS)
De Morgan Medal
List of mathematics awards 
Passage 5:
Lilienfeld Prize
The Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society, to remember Julius Edgar Lilienfeld, has been awarded annually, since 1989  (It was not awarded in 2002)  The purpose of the Prize is to recognize outstanding contributions to physics 

Recipients
Source: American Physical Society

External links
J  E  Lilienfeld Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics APS

See also
List of physics awards
Passage 6:
List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Swedish: Nobelpriset i kemi) is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry  It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, who died in 1896   These prizes are awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine  As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences  The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 1901 to Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, of the Netherlands  Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years  In 1901, van 't Hoff received 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007   The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death At least 25 laureates have received the Nobel Prize for contributions in the field of organic chemistry, more than any other field of chemistry  Two Nobel Prize laureates in Chemistry, Germans Richard Kuhn (1938) and Adolf Butenandt (1939), were not allowed by their government to accept the prize  They would later receive a medal and diploma, but not the money  Frederick Sanger is one out of three laureates to be awarded the Nobel Prize twice in the same subject, in 1958 and 1980  John Bardeen, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 and 1972, and Karl Barry Sharpless, who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2001 and 2022, are the others  Two others have won Nobel Prizes twice, one in chemistry and one in another subject: Maria Skłodowska-Curie (physics in 1903, chemistry in 1911) and Linus Pauling (chemistry in 1954, peace in 1962)  As of 2022, the prize has been awarded to 189 individuals, including eight women (Maria Skłodowska-Curie being the first to be awarded in 1911) There have been eight years for which the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was not awarded (1916, 1917, 1919, 1924, 1933, 1940–42)  There were also nine years for which the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was delayed for one year  The Prize was not awarded in 1914, as the Nobel Committee for Chemistry  decided that none of that year's nominations met the necessary criteria, but was awarded to Theodore William Richards in 1915 and counted as the 1914 prize  This precedent was followed for the 1918 prize awarded to Fritz Haber in 1919, the 1920 prize awarded to Walther Nernst in 1921, the 1921 prize awarded to Frederick Soddy in 1922, the 1925 prize awarded to Richard Zsigmondy in 1926, the 1927 prize awarded to Heinrich Otto Wieland in 1928, the 1938 prize awarded to Richard Kuhn in 1939, the 1943 prize awarded to George de Hevesy in 1944, and the 1944 prize awarded to Otto Hahn in 1945 In 2020, Ioannidis et al  reported that half of the Nobel Prizes for science awarded between 1995 and 2017 were clustered in just a few disciplines within their broader fields  Atomic physics, particle physics, cell biology, and neuroscience dominated the two subjects outside chemistry, while molecular chemistry was the chief prize-winning discipline in its domain  Molecular chemists won 5 3% of all science Nobel Prizes during this period 

Laureates
See also
Timeline of chemistry
Passage 7:
Karl Jaspers Prize
The Karl Jaspers Prize or Karl-Jaspers-Preis is a German philosophy award named after Karl Jaspers and awarded by the city of Heidelberg and the University of Heidelberg  It was first awarded in 1983 "for a scientific work of international significance supported by philosophical spirit"  The Karl Jaspers Prize was initially endowed with 5,000 euros, though since 2013 this has increased to €25,000  Next to the Friedrich Nietzsche Prize it is one of the highest awards in Germany awarded exclusively for philosophical achievements 

Award winners
Passage 8:
British Empire
The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states  It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries  
At its height in the 19th and early 20th century, it was the largest empire in history and, for a century, was the foremost global power  By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 per cent of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35 5 million km2 (13 7 million sq mi), 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area  As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread  At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories  Today, numerous nations across the world trace their contemporary statehood to the end of British rule, including the United States, India, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates and Israel 
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires  Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia  A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial power in North America  Britain became the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 
The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783  British attention then turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific  After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings  It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory in Southeast Asia   The  "Scramble for Africa" and "Great Game" also ensued  The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica (Latin for "British Peace")  Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America  Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were formally reclassified as Dominions in the 1920s  By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead  Military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire  The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources  Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power 
In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan  Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped accelerate the decline of the empire  India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire  The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the transfer of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire, though fourteen overseas territories that are remnants of the empire remain under British sovereignty  After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states  Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain a common monarch, currently King Charles III 

Origins (1497–1583)
The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms  In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead an expedition to discover a northwest passage to Asia via the North Atlantic  Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, and made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland  He believed he had reached Asia, and there was no attempt to found a colony  Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but did not return; it is unknown what happened to his ships No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century  In the meantime, Henry VIII's 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared "that this realm of England is an Empire"  The Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies  In 1562, Elizabeth I encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of establishing an Atlantic slave trade  This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World  At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term "British Empire") were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire  By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the Ulster Plantation, in 16th century Ireland by settling English Protestants in Ulster  England had already colonised part of the country following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169  Several people who helped establish the Ulster Plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country Men 

English overseas possessions (1583–1707)
In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration  That year, Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic  In 1583, he embarked on a second attempt  On this occasion, he formally claimed the harbour of the island of Newfoundland, although no settlers were left behind  Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England and was succeeded by his half-brother, Walter Raleigh, who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584  Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present-day North Carolina, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail In 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Spain  Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies  The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of joint-stock companies, most notably the East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade  This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as the "First British Empire" 

Americas, Africa and the slave trade
England's early efforts at colonisation in the Americas met with mixed success  An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits  Colonies on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) rapidly folded  The first permanent English settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown by Captain John Smith, and managed by the Virginia Company; the Crown took direct control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia  Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company's flagship, while attempts to settle Newfoundland were largely unsuccessful  In 1620, Plymouth was founded as a haven by Puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims  Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive for many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous trans-Atlantic voyage: Maryland was established by English Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists  England's North American holdings were further expanded by the annexation of the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, following the capture of New Amsterdam, which was renamed New York  Although less financially successful than colonies in the Caribbean, these territories had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of English emigrants, who preferred their temperate climates The British West Indies initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies  Settlements were successfully established in St  Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628), but struggled until the "Sugar Revolution" transformed the Caribbean economy in the mid-17th century  Large sugarcane plantations were first established in the 1640s on Barbados, with assistance from Dutch merchants and Sephardic Jews fleeing Portuguese Brazil  At first, sugar was grown primarily using white indentured labour, but rising costs soon led English traders to embrace the use of imported African slaves  The enormous wealth generated by slave-produced sugar made Barbados the most successful colony in the Americas, and one of the most densely populated places in the world  This boom led to the spread of sugar cultivation across the Caribbean, financed the development of non-plantation colonies in North America, and accelerated the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, particularly the triangular trade of slaves, sugar and provisions between Africa, the West Indies and Europe To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies  This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces—a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars—which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch  In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas 
In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert's Land, which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada  Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France Two years later, the Royal African Company was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean  The company would transport more slaves across the Atlantic than any other, and significantly grew England's share of the trade, from 33 per cent in 1673 to 74 per cent in 1683  The removal of this monopoly between 1688 and 1712 allowed independent British slave traders to thrive, leading to a rapid escalation in the number of slaves transported  British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3 5 million Africans—until the abolition of the trade by Parliament in 1807 (see § Abolition of slavery)  To facilitate the shipment of slaves, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island, Accra and Bunce Island  In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 per cent in 1650 to around 80 per cent in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 per cent to 40 per cent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies)  The transatlantic slave trade played a pervasive role in British economic life, and became a major economic mainstay for western port cities  Ships registered in Bristol, Liverpool and London were responsible for the bulk of British slave trading  For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven 

Rivalry with other European empires
At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively  The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade network, India  There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other  Although England eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia  Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England  A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the Nine Years' War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget to the costly land war in Europe  The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philip V of Spain, a grandson of the King of France, raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe  In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted for thirteen years 

Scottish attempt to expand overseas
In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a charter to the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama  Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada, and affected by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later  The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland: a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise  The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the Kingdom of Scotland of the merits of turning the personal union with England into a political and economic one under the Kingdom of Great Britain established by the Acts of Union 1707 

"First" British Empire (1707–1783)
The 18th century saw the newly united Great Britain rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage  Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire continued the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714 and was concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht  Philip V of Spain renounced his and his descendants' claim to the French throne, and Spain lost its empire in Europe  The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia, and from Spain Gibraltar and Menorca



ground_truth: Meg Ryan

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In which county was Larkin I. Smith born?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Larkin I  Smith
Larkin Irvin Smith (June 26, 1944 – August 13, 1989) was an American Congressman from Mississippi serving for seven months until he was killed in a plane crash in Perry County, Mississippi in 1989 
Smith was born in Poplarville, Mississippi to Nona Orene Bounds and her husband Hezekiah K  Smith, Sr  Smith was named after his maternal grandfather Larkin Bounds and his maternal uncle Irvin E  Bounds  He received his bachelor's degree from William Carey University and then served at various positions in the police forces in both Pearl River and then Harrison counties  He became the police chief in Gulfport and thereafter the Harrison County sheriff 
In 1988, Smith ran for the U S  House of Representatives as a Republican from Mississippi's 5th congressional district in the southern portion of the state after eight-term incumbent Trent Lott gave up the seat to make a successful run for the Senate 
He defeated Democratic State Senator Gene Taylor and took office on January 3, 1989  However, Smith died on the night of August 13 in a plane crash in rural Perry County near Gulfport after returning from opening the Little League baseball "Dixie Youth World Series" in Hattiesburg  The bodies of Smith and pilot Chuck Vierling were not recovered until the next morning after a search in which rescuers had to bulldoze their way through the forest  Smith's death came only six days after fellow Representative Mickey Leland of Texas died in a plane crash in Ethiopia on August 7, 1989 
Taylor would succeed Smith in a special election held some two months after the crash, beating Republican candidate Tom Anderson  Taylor was reelected every two years until 2010, when he was defeated by Republican State Representative Steven Palazzo 

See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1950–99)
Passage 2:
The Darling Buds of May (TV series)
The Darling Buds of May is a British comedy drama television series, produced by Yorkshire Television for the ITV network, first broadcast between 7 April 1991 and 4 April 1993  The first six episodes of Series 1 and the first two of Series 2 are adaptations of the 1958 novel of the same name, and three of its four sequels, by H  E  Bates   The remaining episodes are original storylines based on the same format 
Set in rural 1950s Kent, it follows the life of the Larkin family  It starred David Jason as "Pop" Larkin alongside Pam Ferris as "Ma" Larkin, with Catherine Zeta-Jones playing their eldest daughter Mariette, who marries tax inspector Cedric "Charley" Charlton, played by Philip Franks  A ratings success, it was Zeta-Jones's breakout role 
Featuring a total of 20 episodes, it was broadcast as three series of six double-episode story lines in the spring of 1991, 1992 and 1993, plus two single-episode Christmas specials aired in 1991 and 1992 
The title is from the third line of Shakespeare's sonnet 18 

Synopsis
The Larkin family lives on a farm in rural England, in the county of Kent  Sidney ("Pop") and his common law wife Florence ("Ma") have six children, eldest daughter Mariette, followed by their only son Montgomery, and other daughters Primrose, twins Zinnia and Petunia, and Victoria  Ma is a housewife while Pop supplements his farm income with various other not entirely legitimate enterprises  Tax collector Cedric ("Charley") visits to audit Pop, but falls in love with Mariette and quits his job to live the rural life  As Ma and Pop raise their other children, Charley attempts to provide for his now wife Mariette  Ma and Pop soon have a seventh child, Oscar, followed around a year later by Charley and Mariette's first baby, John Blenheim 
Pop and Ma's relationship is depicted as loving and affectionate throughout, although Pop is flirtatious and subject to numerous advances, most of which Ma is aware of and evidently unconcerned by  Proud of all his children, Pop's schemes evidently provide well for the family, enough to fund boarding school for the twins, naval boarding school for Monty, a swimming pool, a fairground, and a holiday to France, although he is just as motivated by doing good and helping others as making a profit  Ma occasionally becomes involved in Pop's schemes, or creates a scheme of her own  Possessing some very close friends, their lifestyle, in particular the fact they have never been married, nonetheless raises eyebrows in the stuffy environs of the local village 
Mariette and Charley's relationship is more torrid, in part due to his insecurity over Mariette being so attractive, and Charley's varying success in providing financially, with their newly acquired hop garden struggling  Mariette's business skills eventually come to bear as they purchase a local brewery  Primrose is depicted as a frustrated romantic, moving to France to live with a boy her own age and attempting to seduce both Charley and the village minister upon her return  Monty meanwhile contends with bullying, both at home and at naval boarding school  The increasingly mischievous twins gradually grow apart from their younger sibling Victoria, who delights in teasing and embarrassing all her siblings, especially Primrose 

Period
All the episodes are seemingly set during 1958–59, despite the timespan of events across all three series making this a logical impossibility  The first serial is based on the first book, written and set in 1958, during which Florence finds out she is pregnant  In the second serial ("When the green woods laugh") Sidney is accused of committing indecent assault on 23 August 1958, with the trial taking place on the same day as Charley and Mariette's wedding  The date of the trial is given as 7 July; this would seem to be a continuity error, because it cannot be July of the following year, as Florence's baby had not yet been born  By the time of the third serial ("A breath of French air"), Florence has already given birth to Oscar, and the Larkins have a late-August holiday in Brittany, during which Charley and Mariette celebrate their first wedding anniversary  The fourth serial ("Christmas is coming") is set at Christmas, and it is established Mariette is five months pregnant; she gives birth in the fifth serial ("Oh! to be in England!"), which would be some time in the spring of 1960 at the earliest, according to the dating of the first series and the chronology of events up to that point 
However, in the sixth serial ("Stranger at the gates") the twins celebrate their birthday, which a close-up of a wall calendar reveals to be 15 August 1959  In the eighth serial ("Le Grand Weekend"), the Larkins' weekend getaway coincides with Charles de Gaulle's state visit, which would date the events of the episode to April 1960, if it does indeed coincide with the real-life visit  Primrose's birthday was revealed to be in May in "Stranger at the gates", and she celebrates it in the ninth serial, "The happiest days of your life", dating the events either to May 1960 (using the retconned second series date) or 1961 (going by the date given in the first series) 
By the eleventh serial ("Climb the greasy pole"), when the children are older and the babies have grown to toddlerhood, another close-up of a calendar reveals the month to be October 1959  At the end of the final episode, Sidney is elected to the Rural District Council on 5 November 1959 (Guy Fawkes Night) 

Cast
Main cast members
Of the four main cast members, Jason and Ferris appeared in all twenty episodes, while Zeta-Jones and Franks appeared in eighteen, their only absences being in the third series' double episode "Cast Not Your Pearls Before Swine" (3 3 & 3 4) 

David Jason, as Sidney Charles "Pop" Larkin, the father of the family
Pam Ferris, as Florence Daisy "Ma" (Parker) Larkin, the mother of the family
Catherine Zeta-Jones, as Mariette Charlton, née Larkin, eldest Larkin daughter
Philip Franks, Cedric "Charley" Charlton, husband of Mariette

Recurring cast – Larkin family
The actors playing the other Larkin children and grandchild were as below (listed in descending character age)  All the children except those yet to be born appeared in the first episode  After appearing in the first six episodes, the actor playing Primrose was replaced, the second appearing from the seventh episode (the first Christmas special) onwards  The actors playing the roles of Oscar and John Blenheim first appear in episodes 1 5 and 2 1, respectively  Although a male character, John Blenheim was played by Daisy-May Bates, granddaughter of the author of the books 

Julie Stichbury, as Primrose Larkin (1991) (6 episodes)
Abigail Rokison, as Primrose Larkin (1991–1993) (12 episodes)
Ian Tucker, as Montgomery 'Monty' Larkin, their eldest son (13 episodes)
Christina Giles, as Petunia Larkin, twin sister to Zinnia (18 episodes)
Katherine Giles, as Zinnia Larkin, twin sister to Petunia (18 episodes)
Stephanie Ralph, as Victoria Larkin, the youngest Larkin daughter (19 episodes)
Ross Marriott, as Oscar Larkin, their youngest child (16 episodes)
Daisy-May Bates, as John Marlborough Churchill Blenheim Charlton, the only son of Charlie and Mariette (11 episodes)

Recurring cast – others
Various other actors appeared in more than one storyline, i e  in more than one double episode 

Rachel Bell as Edith Pilchester, a local spinster (16 episodes)
Moray Watson as the Brigadier, a local retired army officer (11 episodes)
Kika Mirylees as Angela Snow, a local woman (7 episodes)
Martyn Read as Sergeant Wilson, a local police officer (6 episodes)
Tyler Butterworth as Reverend John Candy, the local vicar (4 episodes)
Michael Jayston as Ernest Bristow, the brewery owner (4 episodes)
Carol MacReady as Mrs  Daws, a local shopkeeper (4 episodes)
Sheila Burrell as Mrs  Kinthley, owner of the hop-garden bought by Charlie (4 episodes)
Steven Brand as Tom Sargent, love interest of Mariette (4 episodes)
Anna Massey as Mademoiselle Antoinette Dupont, a French hotelier (3 episodes)
Michael Culver as Sir George Bluff-Gore, a local landowner (3 episodes)
Richenda Carey as Lady Bluff-Gore, wife of Sir George (3 episodes)
John Carlin as Reverend Spink (3 episodes)

Episodes
Series 1
Series 2
Series 3
Production
Conception and development
Having been sold to MGM films in 1959, it was not until 1989 that Richard Bates, son of the author of the original books H  E  Bates, was able to purchase the rights to the novels  At the same time, Yorkshire Television were looking for a new project for David Jason, who had starred for them in A Bit of a Do  Richard Bates went on to executive produce the show, alongside Vernon Lawrence of Yorkshire Television 

Casting
Bates had originally considered Bob Hoskins as ideal for the role of Pop, but Lawrence was of the view his increasing fame as a film actor would create problems  Jason was cast first, followed by Ferris and Franks  Finding an actor to fit with the novel's description of Mariette as a black-haired and olive-skinned beauty proved difficult, with over 300 hopefuls being rejected until Zeta-Jones was cast  With filming due to start, she had been spotted appearing in 42nd Street at the Drury Lane Theatre 

Filming
Each one-hour episode took two weeks to film, followed by two months in post production 

Filming locations
Much of the series was filmed in and around the village of Pluckley in Kent; executive producer Richard Bates lived just a few miles away The location for "Home Farm", the Larkin residence, was Buss Farm, a few miles south of Pluckley, owned by the Holmes family  All four main buildings of the Grade II listed farm were utilised: the farmhouse itself, a square oast house (depicted in the title sequence), a Tudor barn and cart lodge  After being put up for sale by the family in 2012, it was purchased in 2013 by a businessman  It was renamed "Darling Buds Farm", and several buildings were converted into guest accommodation themed around the show 

Other locations in Pluckley village itself were used extensively; the Black Horse pub in The Street was renamed the Hare and Hounds and used as the Larkins' local  Church Gate Cottage and Fig Tree Cottage in The Street served as Edith Pilchester's and The Brigadier's homes, respectively  Pluckley primary school, also in The Street, served as the village hall  The butcher's shop also featured, and the Post Office (dressed as the grocer's)  Church scenes were filmed at St Nicholas Church in the village The cricket scenes were filmed at Little Chart Cricket Club, a village north east of Pluckley 

Further afield, in and around Tenterden, Kent, Halden Place in Halden Lane, Cranbrook, served as Mrs Kinthley's hop garden, Wentwood Cottage in Swain Road served as Charley and Mariette's cottage, and the Kent & East Sussex Railway was the location of Charley's arrival in Kent, and the station used by Ma, Charley and Mariette shopping for her wedding dress  Other scenes shot in Kent included the Shepherd Neame Brewery in Faversham, and scenes of the Larkins' beach holiday, filmed in Folkestone, including a backdrop of the Leas Lift  Mlle  Dupont is met by the Larkins at Folkestone Harbour after her channel crossing Little filming was done inside the farmhouse, the interiors having been shot in a studio at Yorkshire Television  Scenes shot in the former Wennington School near Wetherby in Yorkshire, which stood in for Bluff Hall, were included  Other filming locations in Yorkshire include the Hotel Metropole in Leeds, which stood in for the 'Marble Arch Hotel' 
To mark the series' 20th anniversary, Kent County Council established a tourist trail featuring the various film locations, other local attractions, and Kent food 

Music
The series' music producer Pip Burley wrote the title theme, "Perfick!"  He had submitted the piece anonymously, having deemed the submissions received from a shortlist of composers missed the point of the essential romanticism of the show  Although it also featured lyrics, drawn from the words used in the novels, the theme music for the series did not feature them  The song with lyrics was later sung by David Jason for the radio adaptation of the last book in the Larkin series, A Little of What You Fancy 

Future
In 2016, having filmed a cinema adaptation of another classic TV series, Dad's Army, Zeta-Jones responded positively to suggestions that The Darling Buds of May might also be similarly remade, stating "I'd be playing Ma Larkin, but I'm up for it"  However, by 2020, any plans for a film were put on hold, with the Radio Times reporting that ITV was to remake the series, with Simon Nye writing the scripts and with Bradley Walsh and Joanna Scanlan in the cast  The series, with the title The Larkins, first aired in October 2021 starring Walsh and Scanlan, with Sabrina Bartlett and Peter Davison also amongst the cast 

Themes
Locally produced food and drink intentionally played a core role in the series  Due to not being ripe at the right time, the strawberries used in the series were imported from Holland  One of the most iconic scenes features Pop and Ma eating a meal together whilst having a bath  With several scenes featuring eating, the fact Ferris was a vegetarian had to be worked around by the production staff  Both Ferris and Jason gained weight due to the amount of food they had to consume, often doing multiple takes for several scenes at one time, to make the scenes look realistic Another theme of the series was the Larkin family's habit of giving their children unusual or themed first and middle names  Mariette was created by combining 'Marie' and 'Antoinette'  Montgomery was named after wartime officer Field Marshall Montgomery  Victoria was named for being born during the plum season (Victoria plum)  While Monty and Victoria have no middle names, the other children have several: Primrose Violet Anemone Iris Magnolia Narcissa, twins Petunia June Florence Nightingale and Zinnia June Florence Nightingale, and Oscar Columbus Septimus Dupont, the last one being in tribute to the French hotelier Madamoiselle Dupont, who features in the series  Mariette and Charlie continue the family penchant for elaborate naming by christening their son John Marlborough Churchill Blenheim 

Release
Broadcast
The first episode was transmitted on the ITV channel at 8pm on a Sunday night 

Home media
When the series was first released on video, it sold £1m worth of copies in the first four days DVD releases:

Note: The 2008 and 2011 DVD sets from ITV Studios list that there are 11 episodes; this is due to the fact that all episodes in series 1–3 (not including the specials) contain two parts, making them count as a whole 

Soundtrack
A 16-track soundtrack of the series was released by EMI on CD in 1991 

Reception
The series was a ratings success, its "feel-good" factor during economic recession often noted as the reason  Whilst Yorkshire TV classified it as a drama, audiences and critics have generally considered it to be a comedy/drama 
The first episode broke a British broadcasting record, becoming the first instance of a new series topping the national ratings, beating the soap opera Coronation Street (also an ITV production) on the night  This came as a shock to producers, although they had been hopeful of good ratings due to dull weather and the belief that people would be looking for something to lift their spirits following the end of the Gulf War Jason attributed the series' popularity to the public wanting a more wholesome, inclusive and inoffensive viewing option at a time when violence on television was increasing  This was one of the main reasons he decided to take the role The series generated an upsurge in sales of H  E  Bates's novels 

Awards
1992 Ivor Novello Award – Best Theme from a TV/Radio Production

Source novels and other adaptations
The series is based on the works of H  E  Bates, who died in 1974  Having moved from the industrialised English Midlands to a granary in Little Chart in Kent in 1930 in search of new inspirations for his work, he was initially frustrated in his efforts to create a novel based on the Kent way of life  His inspiration for the Larkin stories eventually came in 1955 while on a trip to Sittingbourne  Pausing at Faversham, he observed the joyful camaraderie of a large boisterous family as they emerged from a shop and departed in a large blue truck  Combining this with observations of another family on a nearby small-holding, he set about writing about how these families might live  Originally a short story, he expanded it into a novel, followed by a further four books, the titles of the first four of which were used as episode titles for the TV series:
The Darling Buds of May (1958)
A Breath of French Air (1959)
When the Green Woods Laugh (1960)
Oh! To be in England! (1963)
A Little of What You Fancy? (1970)The first novel in the series was originally adapted to the screen in 1959 as The Mating Game, starring Debbie Reynolds and Tony Randall as Mariette and Charley 
The fifth novel, A Little of What You Fancy?, was never adapted for television, but it was adapted into a six-part series by Eric Pringle for BBC Radio, with Jason and Ferris reprising their roles, first airing in February 1996 In May 2011 a stage production of the series was put on at Buss Farm The most recent version is The Larkins, adapted for television in 2021 
Passage 3:
Sant Martí d'Empúries
Sant Martí d'Empúries is an entity of the town of L'Escala  It is located next to the ruins of Empúries or Empòrion  Ancient Greeks established the settlement in the 6th century BC  It was the county seat until 1079 Empúries moved to Castelló d'Empúries place less exposed to attack 
Sant Martí d'Empúries is a staging point on the GR 92 long distance footpath, which roughly follows the length of the Mediterranean coast of Spain  Stage 5, to the north, takes a route behind the coast to the El Cortalet pond in the Parc Natural dels Aiguamolls de l'Empordà, a distance of 20 2 kilometres (12 6 mi)  Stage 6, to the south, follows the coast to l'Escala and then takes an inland route across the Montgri Massif to reach the next staging point of Torroella de Montgrí, a distance of 20 0 kilometres (12 4 mi) 

History
It was an inhabited place since the arrival of Greeks from Massalia, actual Marseille (France) in the 6th century BC  Greeks established a settlement there called it, Kypsela (Greek: Κύψελα)  At the ancient times there is a possibility that there was a temple of Artemis on the island It was Christianized by Saint Feliu, an African martyr who died in 304 in Girona  He was bishop between 516 and 693  Charlemagne mentions Ermenguer as first Count of Empúries in 812 
Passage 4:
Smith Island, Maryland
Smith Island is a collection of three distinct island communities, Tylerton, Rhodes Point, and Ewell, Maryland on the Chesapeake Bay, on the border of Maryland and Virginia territorial waters in the United States  The island is the last inhabited island in Maryland that is not accessible by vehicle, where most of the islands are eroding due to tidal currents and sea level rise  A study conducted in 2008 by the DNR reported that Smith Island is expected to completely erode by 2100 if no action was taken The island's population is approximately 220, down from a peak of about 800   On its Maryland side, Smith Island is a census-designated place (CDP) in Somerset County  It is included in the Salisbury, Maryland-Delaware Metropolitan Statistical Area 

Geography
Smith Island lies approximately 10 miles (16 km) west of Crisfield, Maryland, across the Tangier Sound portion of the Chesapeake Bay  The island consists of three communities, namely Ewell, Tylerton and Rhodes Point, which all sit on the Maryland portion of the island  The Virginia portion is uninhabited, although it once contained many homes of early settlers Although a portion of this island lies within Virginia, "Smith Island, Virginia" refers to a separate but identically named barrier island off Cape Charles 

Climate change and sea level rise
By the 2010s, the island had shrunk mainly due to erosion and rising sea levels  In the last 150 years, Smith Island has lost over 3,300 acres (13 km2) of wetlands  The island is projected to be completely eroded by 2100 should the sea level rise by another foot  Preventative measures including a jetty-building project completed in 2018, and the realignment of waterways through dredging, were implemented in the hope to stop this  These restoration efforts will be ongoing for the next 50 years to restore 1,900 acres (8 km2) of submerged aquatic vegetation and 240 acres (1 km2) of wetlands  Moreover, the island is building additional coastal defenses 

Demographics
The community is located in a small town-area in the central part of the island, spread across the three inhabited locations of Ewell, Rhodes Point and Tylerton, all located in the state of Maryland  The northern part of Smith Island also includes the Martin National Wildlife Refuge  The southernmost portion of the island consisting of marsh lies in Accomack County, Virginia As of the 2010 Census, there were 276 people residing in the CDP  The population density was 81 7 inhabitants per square mile (31 5/km2)  There were 218 housing units at an average density of 57 5 per square mile (22 2/km2)  The racial makeup of the CDP was 99 6% White, 0 82% African American, 0 27% Native American, and 0 82% from two or more races  51% of Smith Island's residents were English, 4% Greek, 3% Irish, 3% Scottish, and 3% French There were 167 households, out of which 19 2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60 5% were married couples living together, 4 2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32 9% were non-families  29 3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 18 and the average family size was 2 69 In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 14 6% under the age of 18, 5 5% from 18 to 24, 22 3% from 25 to 44, 34 6% from 45 to 64, and 23 1% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 50 years  For every 100 females, there were 95 7 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96 8 males The median income for a household in the CDP was $26,324, and the median income for a family was $29,375  Males had a median income of $26,250 versus $28,750 for females  The per capita income for the CDP was $25,469  About 14 4% of families and 37 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26 9% of those under age 18 and 67 9% of those age 65 or over 

Transportation
Smith Island has no airport and no bridges to the mainland; it can be accessed only by boat  Passenger-only ferries connect Smith Island at Ewell to Point Lookout, Maryland, and Reedville, Virginia, on the Western shore of the Chesapeake Bay (seasonal) and from Crisfield, Maryland, on its Eastern Shore (year-round)   A daily passenger ferry also runs between Crisfield, Maryland, and the smaller island of Tylerton, Maryland Few motor vehicles exist on the islands, those of which are all on the northern community of Ewell and the connected Rhodes Point   Main modes of transportation for all three communities include golf carts as well as non-motorized transportation 

History and language
The island was charted by John Smith  British settlers arrived on the island in the 17th century, arriving from Cornwall, Wales, and Dorset, England, via Virginia  The island's population peaked at 800 in the 1900s Smith Island is inhabited by one of the region's oldest English-speaking communities, which is known for its relic accent, preserving speech patterns from the original English colonial settlers  The local dialect is like the dialects of the West Country of England, including Cornwall  The dialect contains some relict features indicative of its origins  The dialect is like the Ocracoke Brogue, sometimes referred to as the Outer Banks Brogue 
The 1940 Maryland guide described a series of economic conflicts that characterized relationships between the inhabitants of Smith Island, the inhabitants of nearby Tangier Island, and agencies of the Federal government in the late 19th and early 20th centuries  For example, although 23,000 acres of rich oyster beds had been ceded from Maryland to Virginia in 1877,the Smith Island men kept on dredging there for 50 years despite repeated attacks by Virginia patrol boats and inter-island battles in which oystermen on both sides were killed and wounded  The warfare ended only when the oysters in the area died     Although killing wild ducks for market has been outlawed by Federal enactment since 1918, Smith Island remains a source of anxiety to the United States Biological Survey  Wardens risk their lives when drawn to the lonely island marshes by the deep booming of swivel guns mounted in sneak-boats—artillery that throws a pound of shot at a blast to kill and cripple ducks by the hundreds  To spot wire-enclosed duck traps, wardens in airplanes drop streamers of paper for the guidance of wardens in boats who attempt to make arrests, sometimes successfully, sometimes not  The islanders are sure that God has given them the ducks, oysters, fish, and crabs to take as they wish and they bitterly resent man-made game laws 
The Island Belle, a former passenger ferry to the islands, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 After the 2012 Hurricane Sandy, the Department of Housing and Community Development for the state of Maryland offered buyouts to landowners, most of whom refused the offer 

Smith Island cake
Smith Island traditions include a region-specific cuisine, its most famous dish being the Smith Island cake, somewhat resembling the Prinzregententorte, with 8 to 15 thin layers alternating with cooked chocolate frosting Beginning in the 1800s, Smith Islanders would send these cakes with the watermen on the autumn oyster harvest  The bakers began using fudge instead of buttercream frostings, as cakes frosted with fudge lasted much longer than cakes with other types of frosting Scratch recipes typically involve evaporated milk, while recipes based on commercial cake mixes add condensed milk The most common recipes yield yellow cake with chocolate frosting, but other flavors variation include coconut, fig, strawberry, lemon, and orange   Smith Island cake is baked for any occasion, a dessert that needs no holiday Smith Island cake is also baked as the feature prize for a local fundraising tradition called a cake walk, which is a game played like musical chairs where donated cakes serve as the prize   Great attention is paid to the perfection of the pencil-thin layers that form the distinctive cake   Before each round, the prize Smith Island cake at stake is cut in half and shown to the players who pay to participate in the game   A poorly stacked Smith Island cake may not attract many players and as a result, not raise as much money as a more perfectly executed cake Smith Island cake became the officially designated state dessert of Maryland on April 24, 2008 

See also
Island Belle (vessel)
Fog Point Light
Solomons Lump Light
Tangier Island
Passage 5:
British nationality law
The primary law governing nationality in the United Kingdom is the British Nationality Act 1981, which came into force on 1 January 1983  Regulations apply to the British Islands, which include the UK itself and the Crown dependencies, and the 14 British Overseas Territories 
The six classes of British nationality each have varying degrees of civil and political rights, due to the UK's historical status as a colonial empire  The principal class of British nationality is British citizenship, which is associated with the British Islands  British nationals associated with an overseas territory are British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs)  Almost all BOTCs (except for those from Akrotiri and Dhekelia) have also been British citizens since 2002  Individuals connected with former British colonies may hold residual forms of British nationality, which do not confer an automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom and generally may no longer be acquired  These residual nationalities are the statuses of British Overseas citizen, British subject, British National (Overseas), and British protected person 
All persons born in the British Islands before 1 January 1983 were automatically granted citizenship by birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents  Individuals born in those territories since that date only receive citizenship at birth if at least the mother is a British citizen or holds settled status  Foreign nationals may naturalise as British citizens after meeting a minimum residence requirement (usually five years) and acquiring settled status 
The United Kingdom was previously a member state of the European Union (EU) and British citizens held full EU citizenship  They had held automatic and permanent permission to live and work in any EU or European Free Trade Association (EFTA) country and were able to vote in elections to the European Parliament  Despite the UK's withdrawal from the union in 2020, British citizens continue to hold permanent permission to work and reside in the Republic of Ireland as part of the Common Travel Area 

Terminology
The distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country  Generally, nationality refers to a person's legal belonging to a sovereign state and is the common term used in international treaties when addressing members of a country, while citizenship usually means the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation  This distinction is clearly defined in many non-English speaking countries but not in the Anglosphere  Historically, an individual associated with Britain was neither a national nor a citizen, but a British subject  British citizenship was not created until passage of the British Nationality Act 1981  This Act defined six types of nationality with varying degrees of civil and political rights, dependent on a person's connections with the United Kingdom, overseas territories, or former colonies  British citizens hold their status because of a close connection with the British Islands, usually through their own (or parents' or grandparents') birth, adoption, naturalisation, or registration as citizens of the UK 

Types of British nationality
There are six types of British nationality: any person who is a British citizen, British Overseas Territories citizen (BOTC), British Overseas citizen (BOC), British National (Overseas) (BN(O)), British subject, or British protected person is a British national  Of these statuses, only British citizenship grants automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom  British Overseas Territories are areas outside of the British Islands where the UK holds sovereignty  Since 2002, nearly all BOTCs also hold British citizenship, except for those associated with Akrotiri and Dhekelia The other four categories are residual nationality classes that generally cannot be acquired  BOCs are people connected with former British colonies who have no close ties to the UK or overseas territories  BN(O)s are Hong Kong residents who voluntarily registered for this status before the territory's transfer to China in 1997  British subjects hold their status through a connection either to former  British India or to what is now the Republic of Ireland as they existed before 1949  British protected persons come from areas controlled by the British Empire but were never formally incorporated as Crown territory; this includes protectorates, protected states, mandated territories, and Indian princely states 

History
Development from feudal allegiance
Before the concept of nationality was codified in legislation, inhabitants of English communities owed allegiance to their feudal lords, who were themselves vassals of the monarch  This system of loyalty, indirectly owed to the monarch personally, developed into a general establishment of subjecthood to the Crown  Calvin's Case in 1608 established the principle of jus soli, that all those who were born within Crown dominions were natural-born subjects  After passage of the Acts of Union 1707, English and Scottish subjects became British subjects  Similarly, the Kingdom of Ireland was merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801  Natural-born subjects were considered to owe perpetual allegiance to the Crown and could not voluntarily renounce British subject status until this was first permitted in 1870 Prior to 1708, foreigners could only be naturalised through Acts of Parliament  Protestants fleeing religious persecution in mainland Europe were allowed to naturalise as subjects in 1708, but this was quickly repealed in 1711 in response to the number of migrants exercising that ability  A standard administrative process was not introduced until 1844, when applicants were first able to acquire naturalisation grants from the Home Office  Despite the creation of this pathway, personalised naturalising legislation continued to be enacted until 1975 The monarch could personally make any individual a subject by royal prerogative  By this method, a foreigner became a denizen – although they were no longer considered an alien, they could not pass subject status to their children by descent and were barred from Crown service and public office  This mechanism was no longer used after 1873 Until the mid-19th century, it was unclear whether nationality regulations in the United Kingdom were applicable elsewhere in the British Empire  Individual colonies had each developed their own procedures and requirements for naturalisation, granting subject status at the discretion of the local governments  In 1847, Parliament formalised a clear distinction between subjects who were naturalised in the UK and those who became British subjects in other territories  Individuals who naturalised in the UK were deemed to have received the status by imperial naturalisation, which was valid throughout the Empire  Those naturalising in colonies were said to have gone through local naturalisation and were given subject status valid only within the relevant territory; a subject who locally naturalised in Canada was a British subject there, but not in England or New Zealand  When travelling outside of the Empire, British subjects who were locally naturalised in a colony were still entitled to imperial protection Certain territories that came under British jurisdiction were not formally incorporated as Crown territory proper  These included protectorates, protected states, mandated territories, and Indian princely states  Because domestic law treated these areas as foreign territory, birth in one of these areas did not automatically confer British subject status  Instead, most people associated with these territories were designated as British protected persons  British protected persons were treated as aliens in the United Kingdom, but both British subjects and protected persons could be issued British passports  Protected persons could not travel to the UK without first requesting permission, but were afforded the same consular protection as British subjects when travelling outside of the Empire 

Imperial common code
Parliament brought regulations for British subject status into codified statute law for the first time with passage of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914  British subject status was standardised as a common nationality across the Empire  Dominions that adopted Part II of this Act as part of local legislation were authorised to grant subject status to aliens by imperial naturalisation The 1914 regulations codified the doctrine of coverture into imperial nationality law, where a woman's consent to marry a foreigner was also assumed to be intent to denaturalise; British women who married foreign men automatically lost their British nationality  There were two exceptions to this: a wife married to a husband who lost his British subject status was able to retain British nationality by declaration, and a British-born widow or divorcée who had lost her British nationality through marriage could reacquire that status without meeting residence requirements after the dissolution or termination of her marriage By the end of the First World War, the Dominions had exercised increasing levels of autonomy in managing their own affairs and each by then had developed a distinct national identity  Britain formally recognised this at the 1926 Imperial Conference, jointly issuing the Balfour Declaration with all the Dominion heads of government, which stated that the United Kingdom and Dominions were autonomous and equal to each other within the British Commonwealth of Nations  Full legislative independence was granted to the Dominions with passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931 Women's rights groups throughout the Empire pressured the imperial government during this time to amend nationality regulations that tied a married woman's status to that of her husband  Because the government could no longer enforce legislative supremacy over the Dominions after 1931 and wanted to maintain a strong constitutional link to them through the common nationality code, it was unwilling to make major changes without unanimous agreement among the Dominions on this issue, which it did not have  Imperial legal uniformity was nevertheless eroded during the 1930s; New Zealand and Australia amended their laws in 1935 and 1936 to allow women denaturalised by marriage to retain their rights as British subjects, and Ireland changed its regulations in 1935 to cause no change to a woman's nationality after her marriage 

Irish independence
Irish resistance to the Union and desire for local self-governance led to the Irish War of Independence  Following the war, the island of Ireland was partitioned into two parts  Southern Ireland became the Irish Free State in 1922, while Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom  Under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Northern Ireland was included in the Irish Free State on independence, but had the right to opt out of the new state within one month of its establishment  This option was exercised on 7 December 1922  The 24-hour period in which Northern Ireland was officially part of the Irish Free State meant that every person ordinarily resident in Northern Ireland on 6 December who fulfilled the citizenship provisions in the Constitution of the Irish Free State had automatically become an Irish citizen on that date At its inception, the Irish Free State gained independence as a Dominion within the British Empire  Imperial legislation at the time dictated that although individual Dominions could define a citizenship for their own citizens, that citizenship would only be effective within the local Dominion's borders  A Canadian, New Zealand, or Irish citizen who traveled outside of their own country would have been regarded as a British subject  This was reinforced by Article 3 of the 1922 Free State Constitution, which stated that Irish citizenship could be exercised "within the limits of the jurisdiction of the Irish Free State" When Free State authorities were first preparing to issue Irish passports in 1923, the British government insisted on the inclusion of some type of wording that described the holders of these passports as "British subjects"  The two sides could not reach agreement on this issue and when the Irish government began issuing passports in 1924, British authorities refused to accept these documents  British consular staff were instructed to confiscate any Irish passports that did not include the term "British subject" and replace them with British passports  This situation continued until 1930, when Irish passports were amended to describe its holders as "one of His Majesty's subjects of the Irish Free State"  Despite these disagreements, the two governments agreed not to establish border controls between their jurisdictions and all Irish citizens and British subjects continued to have the ability to move freely within the Common Travel Area  Although Irish citizens have not been considered British subjects under Irish law since 1935, the British government continued to treat virtually all Irish citizens as British subjects, except for those who had acquired Irish citizenship by naturalisation since the Free State had not incorporated Part II of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 into its legislation 

Changing relationship with the Empire and Commonwealth
Diverging developments in Dominion legislation, as well as growing assertions of local national identity separate from that of Britain and the Empire, culminated with the creation of a substantive Canadian citizenship in 1946, breaking the system of a common imperial nationality  Combined with the approaching independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, comprehensive reform to nationality law was necessary at this point to address ideas that were incompatible with the previous system The British Nationality Act 1948 redefined British subject as any citizen of the United Kingdom, its colonies, or other Commonwealth countries  Commonwealth citizen was first defined in this Act to have the same meaning  This alternative term was necessary to retain a number of newly independent countries in the Commonwealth that wished to become republics rather than preserve the monarch as head of state  The change in naming also indicated a shift in the base theory to this aspect of British nationality; allegiance to the Crown was no longer a requirement to possess British subject status and the common status would be maintained by voluntary agreement among the various members of the Commonwealth British subject/Commonwealth citizen status co-existed with the citizenships of each Commonwealth country  A person born in Australia would be both an Australian citizen and a British subject  British subjects under the previous meaning who held that status on 1 January 1949 because of a connection with the United Kingdom or a remaining colony became Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC)  CUKC status was the principal form of British nationality during this period of time There was also a category of people called British subjects without citizenship  Irish citizens who fulfilled certain requirements could file formal claims with the Home Secretary to remain British subjects under this definition  Additionally, those who did not qualify for CUKC status or citizenship in other Commonwealth countries, or were connected with a country that had not yet defined citizenship laws, would transitionally remain British subjects in this group 

Irish departure from the Commonwealth
Despite the accommodations for republics, Ireland ended its Commonwealth membership in 1948 when it formally declared itself a republic and removed the British monarch's remaining official functions in the Irish state  This was recognised by Britain after passage of the Ireland Act 1949  Although Irish citizens have no longer been defined as British subjects in British law since 1949, they continue to be treated as non-foreign in the United Kingdom and retain the same rights and privileges exercised by Commonwealth citizens; Irish citizens remain eligible to vote and stand for parliament in the UK The British Nationality Act 1948 unintentionally excluded certain British subjects associated with Ireland from acquiring CUKC status  The wording of that law did not take into account the 24-hour period during which Northern Ireland was part of the Irish Free State in 1922  Individuals born before 1922 in the area that became the Republic of Ireland to fathers also born in that area but were domiciled in Northern Ireland on Irish independence had nevertheless automatically acquired Irish citizenship  The Ireland Act 1949 specifically addresses this by deeming any person in such circumstances who had never registered for Irish citizenship and had not permanently resided in the Republic between 10 April 1935 and 1 January 1949 as a CUKC and having never ceased to be a British subject 

Restricting Commonwealth free movement
All British subjects under the reformed system initially continued to hold free movement rights in both the UK and Ireland  Non-white immigration into the UK was systemically discouraged, but strong economic conditions in Britain following the Second World War attracted an unprecedented wave of colonial migration  This entitlement was part of a wider initiative to preserve close relationships with certain Dominions and colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia) and to moderate nationalist attitudes within the Commonwealth  In response, Parliament imposed immigration controls on any subjects originating from outside the British Islands with the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962  This restriction was somewhat relaxed by the Immigration Act 1971 for patrials, subjects whose parents or grandparents were born in the United Kingdom, which gave effective preferential treatment to white Commonwealth citizens  Ireland mirrored this restriction and limited free movement only to people born on the islands of Great Britain or Ireland  However, individuals born in the UK since 1983 are only British citizens if at least one parent is already a British citizen  The Irish regulation created a legal anomaly where persons born in Britain without British citizenship nevertheless held an unrestricted right to settle in Ireland; this inconsistency was removed in 1999 In other parts of the Commonwealth, British subjects already did not have an automatic right to settle  Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa had immigration restrictions in place for British subjects from outside their jurisdictions targeted at non-white migrants since the late 19th century  After 1949, non-local British subjects under the new definition who were resident in these independent Commonwealth countries continued to retain certain privileges  This included eligibility to vote in elections, for preferred paths to citizenship, and for welfare benefits  British subjects were eligible to vote in New Zealand until 1975 and Australia until 1984 (though subjects on the electoral roll in that year are still eligible)  In Canada, voting eligibility was revoked at the federal level in 1975, but not fully phased out in provinces until 2006  All Commonwealth citizens remain eligible to vote and stand for public office in the UK 

Post-imperial redefinition of nationality classes
By the 1970s and 1980s, most colonies of the British Empire had become independent and remaining ties to the United Kingdom had been significantly weakened  The UK updated its nationality law to reflect the more modest boundaries of its remaining territory and possessions with the British Nationality Act 1981  CUKCs were reclassified in 1983 into different nationality groups based on their ancestry, birthplace, and immigration status: CUKCs who had right of abode in the United Kingdom became British citizens while those connected with a remaining colony became British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs)  Remaining CUKCs who were no longer associated with a British territory became British Overseas citizens  The definition of "British subject" became limited to include only the category of people previously called British subjects without citizenship who held that status through a connection with former British India or Ireland before 1949 

Former membership in the European Union
In 1973, the United Kingdom joined the European Communities (EC), a set of organisations that later developed into the European Union (EU)  British citizens were able to work in other EC/EU countries under the freedom of movement for workers established by the 1957 Treaty of Rome and participated in their first European Parliament elections in 1979  With the creation of European Union citizenship by the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, free movement rights were extended to all nationals of EU member states regardless of their employment status  The scope of these rights was further expanded with the establishment of the European Economic Area in 1994 to include any national of an EFTA member state except for Switzerland, which concluded a separate free movement agreement with the EU that came into force in 2002 Not all British nationals were EU citizens  Only British citizens, British Overseas Territories citizens connected with Gibraltar, and British subjects under the 1981 Act who held UK right of abode were defined as UK nationals for the purposes of EU law  Although the Crown dependencies were part of the European Union Customs Union, free movement of persons was never implemented in those territories  Following the UK's withdrawal from the EU on 31 January 2020, British nationals have no longer been EU citizens  Despite this, British citizens continue to have free movement in Ireland as part of the preexisting arrangement for the Common Travel Area While the UK was a member state of the EU, Cypriot and Maltese citizens held a particularly favoured status there  While non-EU Commonwealth citizens continued to need a residence visa to live in the UK, Cypriot and Maltese citizens were able to settle there and immediately hold full rights to political participation due to their status as both Commonwealth and EU citizens  This group of EU citizens (along with Irish citizens) domiciled in the UK were able to vote in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum while all other non-British EU citizens could not 

Acquisition and loss of nationality
British citizenship
Prior to 1983, all Individuals born within the British Islands (the United Kingdom and Crown Dependencies) received British citizenship at birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents  Individuals born afterwards only receive citizenship at birth if at least one parent is a British citizen or considered to have settled status in the UK  Children born overseas are British citizens by descent if either parent is a citizen otherwise than by descent, subject to regulations  Adopted children are treated as if they were naturally born to the adopting parents at the time of adoption  Children born abroad to members of the British Armed Forces or British citizens on Crown service are treated as if they were born in the UK Children born in the UK to a resident Irish citizen at any time are always British citizens at birth  Since 1983, the status of a child born in the UK is dependent on whether their parents held British citizenship or settled status at the time of their birth  Irish citizens residing in the UK are deemed to hold settled status upon arrival  Regulations concerning settled status for other European Union (EU), European Economic Area (EEA), and Swiss citizens have changed greatly over time, affecting the status of their children born during the different regulatory periods  EU/EEA citizens living in the UK before 2 October 2000 were automatically considered to be settled  Between that date and 29 April 2006, EU/EEA citizens were required to apply for permanent residency  Swiss citizens became subject to the same regulations on 1 June 2002  From 30 April 2006 until 30 June 2021, EU/EEA and Swiss citizens living in the UK for at least five years automatically received permanent resident status  Permanent resident status for these citizens expired on 1 July 2021, after which they have been required to hold settled status through the European Union Settlement Scheme or another path Foreign nationals may naturalise as British citizens after residing in the UK for more than five years and possessing indefinite leave to remain (ILR) for at least one year  The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a British citizen and they immediately become eligible for naturalisation after receiving ILR or equivalent  Applicants must demonstrate proficiency in the English, Welsh, or Scottish Gaelic languages and pass the Life in the United Kingdom test 

British Overseas Territories citizenship
Individuals born in a territory automatically receive BOTC status if at least one parent is a BOTC or has belonger status  Children born in an overseas territory to British citizen parents who are not settled in a territory are British citizens at birth, but not BOTCs  Parents do not necessarily need to be connected with the same overseas territory to pass on BOTC status  Alternatively, a child born in an overseas territory may be registered as a BOTC if either parent becomes a BOTC or settles in any overseas territory subsequent to birth  A child who lives in the same territory until age 10 and is not absent for more than 90 days in each year is also entitled to registration as a BOTC  Furthermore, an adopted child automatically become a BOTC on the effective day of adoption if either parent is a BOTC or has belonger status  In all cases that an individual is a British Overseas Territories citizen at birth or adoption within the territories, that person is a BOTC otherwise than by descent Individuals born outside of the territories are BOTCs by descent if either parent is a BOTC otherwise than by descent  Unmarried fathers cannot automatically pass on BOTC status, and it would be necessary for them to register children as BOTCs  If a parent is a BOTC by descent, additional requirements apply to register children as BOTCs  Parents in Crown service who have children abroad are exempted from these circumstances, and their children would be BOTCs otherwise than by descent, as if they had been born on their home territory Foreigners and non-BOTC British nationals may naturalise as British Overseas Territories citizens after residing in a territory for more than five years and possessing belonger status or permanent residency for more than one year  The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a BOTC  All applicants for naturalisation and registration are normally considered by the governor of the relevant territory, but the Home Secretary retains discretionary authority to grant BOTC status  Since 2004, BOTC applicants aged 18 or older are required to take an oath of allegiance to the Sovereign and loyalty pledge to the relevant territory during their citizenship ceremonies All British Overseas Territories citizens other than those solely connected with Akrotiri and Dhekelia became British citizens on 21 May 2002, and children born on qualified overseas territories to dual BOTC-British citizens since that date are both BOTCs and British citizens otherwise than by descent  Prior to 2002, only BOTCs from Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands were given unrestricted access to citizenship  BOTCs naturalised after that date may also become British citizens by registration at the discretion of the Home Secretary  Becoming a British citizen has no effect on BOTC status; BOTCs may also simultaneously be British citizens 

Other nationality classes
It is generally not possible to acquire other forms of British nationality  British Overseas citizenship, British subjecthood, and British protected person status are only transferred by descent if an individual born to a parent holding one of these statuses would otherwise be stateless  British Overseas citizens retain their status by association with most former British colonies, British subjects are connected specifically with Ireland or British India before 1949, and British protected persons are associated with territories that were under British control but not formally incorporated as part of the British Empire  British National (Overseas) status was exclusively granted by voluntary registration to Hong Kong residents who had been British Dependent Territories citizens prior to the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997 and cannot be newly acquired in any case  Noncitizen British nationals may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation, after residing in the United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing ILR for more than one year 

Renunciation and restoration
Any type of British nationality can be renounced by making a declaration to the Home Secretary, provided that the declarant possesses or intends to acquire another nationality  Former British citizens or BOTCs may subsequently apply for nationality restoration  Applicants who had originally renounced their British nationality in order to retain or acquire another nationality are entitled to register as British citizens or BOTCs once  Any subsequent renunciation and application for restoration, or someone applying for restoration who originally renounced their British nationality for a reason unrelated to acquiring or retaining an alternate nationality, would be subject to the discretionary approval of the Home Secretary 

Automatic loss of British nationality
British subjects (other than British subjects by virtue of a connection with the Republic of Ireland) and British protected persons lose British nationality upon acquiring any other form of nationality 

These provisions do not apply to British citizens 
British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs) who acquire another nationality do not lose their BOTC status but they may be liable to lose belonger status in their home territory under its immigration laws  Such persons are advised to contact the governor of that territory for information 
British Overseas citizens (BOCs) do not lose their BOC status upon acquisition of another citizenship, but any entitlement to registration as a British citizen on the grounds of having no other nationality no longer applies after acquiring another citizenship 

Deprivation of British nationality
The British government does not publish the number of people it strips of citizenship, but independent research by a lawyer-run website, in 2022, found at least 464 people's citizenship was revoked in the last 15 years  After the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 came into force British nationals could be deprived of their citizenship if and only if the Secretary of State was satisfied they were responsible for acts seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the United Kingdom or an Overseas Territory This was extended under the Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006: people with dual nationality who are British nationals can be deprived of their British citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied that "deprivation is conducive to the public good", or if nationality was obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact  Between 2006 and the end of 2021 at least 464 people have had their citizenship removed by the government since the law was introduced  There is a right of appeal  This provision has been in force since 16 June 2006 when the Immigration, Nationality and Asylum Act 2006 (Commencement No 1) Order 2006 brought it into force  Loss of British nationality in this way applies also to dual nationals who are British by birth  The Secretary of State may not deprive a person of British nationality, unless obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact, if they are satisfied that the order would make a person stateless This provision was again modified by the Immigration Act 2014 so as not to require that a third country would actually grant nationality to a person; British nationality can be revoked if "the Secretary of State has reasonable grounds for believing that the person is able, under the law of a country or territory outside the United Kingdom, to become a national of such a country or territory "The powers to strip citizenship were initially very rarely used  Between 2010 and 2015, 33 dual nationals had been deprived of their British citizenship  In the two years to 2013 six people were deprived of citizenship; then in 2013, 18 people were deprived, increasing to 23 in 2014  In 2017, over 40 people had been deprived as of July (at this time increased numbers of British citizens went to join "Islamic State" and then tried to return) The Home Office does not issue information on these cases and is resistant to answering questions, for example under the Freedom of Information Act 2000  It appears that the government usually waits until the person has left Britain, then sends a warning notice to their British home and signs a deprivation order a day or two later  Appeals are heard at the highly secretive Special Immigration Appeals Commission (SIAC), where the government can submit evidence that cannot be seen or challenged by the appellant Home Secretary Sajid Javid said in 2018 that until then deprivation of nationality had been restricted to "terrorists who are a threat to the country", but that he intended to extend it to "those who are convicted of the most grave criminal offences"  The acting director of Liberty responded "The home secretary is taking us down a very dangerous road      making our criminals someone else’s problem is     the government washing its hands of its responsibilities     Banishment belongs in the dark ages "A Nationality and Borders Bill was introduced to the British House of Commons in July 2021, sponsored by the Home Office under Home Secretary Priti Patel  In November 2021, an amendment to the Bill was introduced which, if passed, would allow people to be deprived of British citizenship without being given notice  At the time the Home Office reiterated its position on citizenship: "British citizenship is a privilege, not a right" 

British citizenship ceremonies
From 1 January 2004, all new applicants for British citizenship by naturalisation or registration aged 18 or over if their application is successful must attend a citizenship ceremony and either make an affirmation or take an oath of allegiance to the monarch, and make a pledge to the UK 
Citizenship ceremonies are normally organised by:

local councils in England, Scotland, and Wales
the Northern Ireland Office
the governments of the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey
the Governors of British Overseas Territories
British consular offices outside the United Kingdom and territories Persons from what is now the Republic of Ireland born before 1949 reclaiming British subject status under section 31 of the 1981 Act do not need to attend a citizenship ceremony  If such a person subsequently applies for British citizenship by registration or naturalisation, attendance at a ceremony is required 
For those who applied for British citizenship before 2004:

the oath of allegiance was administered privately through signing a witnessed form in front of a solicitor or other accredited person
those who already held British nationality (other than British protected persons) were exempt, as were those citizens of countries with the King as Head of State (such as Australia and Canada) 

See also
Visa policy of the United Kingdom
Visa requirements for British citizens
Visa requirements for British Nationals (Overseas)
Visa requirements for British Overseas citizens
Visa requirements for British Overseas Territories citizens

Notes
Passage 6:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 7:
Larkin's Hundred
Larkin's Hundred, also known as The Castle, is a historic home at Harwood, Anne Arundel County, Maryland, United States  It is a two-story brick house  Although tradition holds that it was built in 1704 by Thomas Larkin, a son of John Larkin of nearby Larkin's Hill Farm, evidence suggest it was actually constructed in the second quarter of the 18th century for Captain Joseph Cowman, a mariner and wealthy Quaker  A white clapboard kitchen wing at the west end was added in 1870  A noteworthy interior feature is a graceful stairway of American walnut Larkin's Hundred was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969 
Passage 8:
Poplarville, Mississippi
Poplarville is a city in Pearl River County, Mississippi, United States  As of the 2010 census, the city population was 2,894  It is the county seat of Pearl River County  It hosts an annual Blueberry Jubilee, which includes rides, craft vendors and rodeos 

History
Poplarville was named for Poplar Jim Smith, the original owner of the town site In 1959, Mack Charles Parker, an African-American accused of rape, was abducted from the Pearl River County jail in Poplarville by a mob and shot to death  Despite confessions, no charges were filed against anyone  The mayor of Poplarville told a New York Times reporter, "You couldn't convict the guilty parties if you had a sound film of the lynching " It was the fourth lynching in Poplarville since the Civil War  The case focused national attention on the persistence of lynching in the South and helped accelerate the American Civil Rights Movement 
On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina inflicted heavy damage on the small town  The storm's most powerful, unofficially recorded gust of wind was reported at Pearl River Community College, at 135 mph (217 km/h)  On September 2, 2005, the 1st Battalion, 134th Field Artillery (Ohio Army National Guard) arrived at the National Guard armory in Poplarville to assist the community and Pearl River County in recovery efforts in the wake of Hurricane Katrina   Initial efforts were the security of banks, pharmacies and gas stations as well as initial responses to rural emergencies   The unit stayed for three weeks ultimately checking on every family and structure in the county  On September 5, 2005, Poplarville played host to a visit by George W  Bush, Laura Bush, and Governor Haley Barbour to Pearl River Community College in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina On December 21, 2006, an early morning fire destroyed three downtown buildings 
On March 25, 2014 citizens voted to allow for beer and wine sales  The final vote count was 361 votes for the measure and 149 against 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3 9 square miles (10 km2), of which, 3 8 square miles (9 8 km2) of it is land and 0 04 square miles (0 10 km2) of it (0 52%) is water 

Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 2,833 people, 733 households, and 499 families residing in the city 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,601 people, 852 households, and 558 families residing in the city  The population density was 676 5 inhabitants per square mile (261 2/km2)  There were 936 housing units at an average density of 243 4 per square mile (94 0/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 74 32% White, 23 95% African American, 0 50% Asian, 0 15% Native American, 0 12% Pacific Islander, 0 15% from other races, and 0 81% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 65% of the population 
There were 852 households, out of which 32 5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42 6% were married couples living together, 19 0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34 4% were non-families  30 5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 37 and the average family size was 2 99 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 21 6% under the age of 18, 20 8% from 18 to 24, 22 3% from 25 to 44, 18 2% from 45 to 64, and 17 0% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 32 years  For every 100 females, there were 84 9 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81 0 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $26,417, and the median income for a family was $32,339  Males had a median income of $35,250 versus $21,667 for females  The per capita income for the city was $12,833  About 20 8% of families and 25 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 38 8% of those under age 18 and 17 5% of those age 65 or over 

Notable people
Theodore G  Bilbo, U S  Senator, was born in 1877 in Juniper Grove, an eastern township of Poplarville 
Jimmy Buffett, musician, lived in Poplarville for a period of time starting in 1959 
Glen Day, PGA Tour Golfer 
Jonathan J C  Grey, federal judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan
Chapel Hart, country music group 
Whitney Miller, America's first MasterChef 
Mack Charles Parker, African-American victim of lynching in the United States who had been accused of raping a pregnant white woman in northern Pearl River County, Mississippi 
Larkin I  Smith was born in Poplarville in June 1944  In August 1989, Smith died in a plane crash just 7 months after taking office in the U S  House of Representatives and was succeeded by Democrat Gene Taylor, who would hold that office until his defeat by Republican Steven Palazzo in the 2010 midterm elections  Smith served capacities in both the Harrison and Pearl River County Sheriff's Departments and as Sheriff of Harrison County before being elected to the U S  Congress 
Martin T  Smith, American lawyer and politician 

Education
The City of Poplarville is served by the Poplarville School District and is home to Pearl River Community College 
Passage 9:
Tumaraa
Tumaraa is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The commune of Tumaraa is located on the island of Raiatea, in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, themselves part of the Society Islands  At the 2017 census it had a population of 3,721, making it the least populous commune on Raiatea Tumaraa consists of the following associated communes:

Fetuna
Tehurui
Tevaitoa
VaiaauThe administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Tevaitoa  The tallest mountain on Raiatea - Mont Temehani - is located within Tumaraa 
Context 3:  Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean  Spain ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento (permission to sell African slaves in Spanish America) to Britain  With the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739, Spanish privateers attacked British merchant shipping along the Triangle Trade routes  In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the 1750 Treaty of Madrid Britain lost its slave-trading rights in Latin America In the East Indies, British and Dutch merchants continued to compete in spices and textiles  With textiles becoming the larger trade, by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch  During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, as the English East India Company and its French counterpart, struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire  The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India  France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India  In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the Presidency Armies, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys, led by British officers  The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers The signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 had important consequences for the future of the British Empire  In North America, France's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land, and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain  Spain ceded Florida to Britain  Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful maritime power 

Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies
During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent  This was summarised at the time by the colonists' slogan "No taxation without representation", a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen  The American Revolution began with a rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government  In response, Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775  The following year, in 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence proclaiming the colonies' sovereignty from the British Empire as the new United States of America  The entry of French and Spanish forces into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms  American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783 The loss of such a large portion of British America, at the time Britain's most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the "first" and "second" empires, in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa  Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal  The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000 defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following independence  The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia, felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax, so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784  The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English speaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy  The United States Congress declared war, the War of 1812, and invaded Canadian territory  In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States 

Rise of the "Second" British Empire (1783–1815)
Exploration of the Pacific
Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year  Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to Australia  The coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch in 1606, but there was no attempt to colonise it  In 1770 James Cook charted the eastern coast while on a scientific voyage, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales  In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788  Unusually, Australia was claimed through proclamation  Indigenous Australians were considered too uncivilised to require treaties, and colonisation brought disease and violence that together with the deliberate dispossession of land and culture were devastating to these peoples  Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to Tasmania until 1853 and to Western Australia until 1868  The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold, mainly because of the Victorian gold rush, making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world During his voyage, Cook visited New Zealand, known to Europeans due to the 1642 voyage of the Dutch explorer, Abel Tasman  Cook claimed both the North and the South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively  Initially, interaction between the indigenous Maori population and European settlers was limited to the trading of goods  European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with many trading stations being established, especially in the North  In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand  On 6 February 1840, Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which is considered to be New Zealand's founding document, despite differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text being the cause of ongoing dispute The British also expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific  Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area, culminating in the Nootka Crisis in 1789  Both sides mobilised for war, but when France refused to support Spain it was forced to back down, leading to the Nootka Convention  The outcome was a humiliation for Spain, which practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast  This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island  On land, expeditions sought to discover a river route to the Pacific for the extension of the North American fur trade  Alexander Mackenzie of the North West Company led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year a later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande, reaching the ocean near present-day Bella Coola  This preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by twelve years  Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, John Finlay, founded the first permanent European settlement in British Columbia, Fort St  John  The North West Company sought further exploration and backed expeditions by David Thompson, starting in 1797, and later by Simon Fraser  These pushed into the wilderness territories of the Rocky Mountains and Interior Plateau to the Strait of Georgia on the Pacific Coast, expanding British North America westward 

Wars with France
Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations  It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win  French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy, which won a decisive victory over a French Imperial Navy-Spanish Navy fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805  Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810  France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815  Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands, Malta (which it had occupied in 1798), Mauritius, St Lucia, the Seychelles, and Tobago; Spain ceded Trinidad; the Netherlands ceded Guyana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony, while the Danish ceded Heligoland  Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France; Menorca to Spain; Danish West Indies to Denmark and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands 

Abolition of slavery
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, goods produced by slavery became less important to the British economy  Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions  With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire  In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony was designated an official British colony for freed slaves  Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline  The Slavery Abolition Act, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844)  Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of "apprenticeship"  Facing further opposition from abolitionists, the apprenticeship system was abolished in 1838  The British government compensated slave-owners 

Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)
Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's "imperial century" by some historians, around 10 million sq mi (26 million km2) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire  Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia  Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica, and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation"  Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been described by some historians as an "Informal Empire" 

British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire  By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the All Red Line 

East India Company rule and the British Raj in India
The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia  The company's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826) From its base in India, the company had been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to Qing China since the 1730s  This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by China in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China  In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement, and other Treaty Ports including Shanghai During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the company  A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired  The company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion in 1857, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline  The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides  The following year the British government dissolved the company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India  India became the empire's most valuable possession, "the Jewel in the Crown", and was the most important source of Britain's strength A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died  The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule  Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect 

Rivalry with Russia
During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar dynasty and Qing dynasty  This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the "Great Game"  As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India  In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan, but the First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain When Russia invaded the Ottoman Balkans in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East led Britain and France to enter the war in support of the Ottoman Empire and invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities  The ensuing Crimean War (1854–1856), which involved new techniques of modern warfare, was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica and was a resounding defeat for Russia  The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan  For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente  The destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy by the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 limited its threat to the British 

Cape to Cairo
The Dutch East India Company had founded the Dutch Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies  Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the Flanders Campaign  British immigration to the Cape Colony began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own—mostly short-lived—independent republics, during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s  In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the Sotho people and the Zulu Kingdom  Eventually, the Boers established two republics that had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852–1877; 1881–1902) and the Orange Free State (1854–1902)  In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899–1902) In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III, linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean  Initially the Canal was opposed by the British; but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the "jugular vein of the Empire"  In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44 per cent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £400 million in 2021)  Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage  Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882   Although Britain controlled the Khedivate of Egypt into the 20th century, it was officially a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and not part of the British Empire   The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position, but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the Canal officially neutral territory With competitive French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the "Scramble for Africa" by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims  The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan  A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896 and rebuffed an attempted French invasion at Fashoda in 1898  Sudan was nominally made an Anglo-Egyptian condominium, but a British colony in reality British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Southern Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo" railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich south of the continent  During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed territories named after him, Rhodesia 

Changing status of the white colonies
The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report, which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in armed rebellions in 1837  This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada  Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies  With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament, the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception of international relations  Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901  The term "dominion status" was officially introduced at the 1907 Imperial Conference The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule  Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852  Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone, who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament  Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation, many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire  A second Home Rule bill was defeated for similar reasons  A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising 

World wars (1914–1945)
By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation"  Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war  Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy, Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively 

First World War
Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War  Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa  In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and German Samoa respectively  Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement  This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca, who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support  Over 2 5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions, as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies  The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right  The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day  Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light  The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1 8 million sq mi (4 7 million km2) and 13 million new subjects  The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates  Britain gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of Cameroon and Togoland, and Tanganyika  The Dominions themselves acquired mandates of their own: the Union of South Africa gained South West Africa (modern-day Namibia), Australia gained New Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa  Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions 

Inter-war period
The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy  Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Anglo-Japanese Alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States  This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s as militaristic governments took hold in Germany and Japan helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations  The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British economy In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led the MPs of Sinn Féin, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats in the 1918 British general election, to establish an independent parliament in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared  The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration  The Irish War of Independence ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown



ground_truth: Pearl River County

Pearl River County, Mississippi

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who gives out the award named after the person who argued that colonies were redundant?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Northern Ireland, consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom 

A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy the demand for independence  Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar conspiracy ensured that war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts  This led to tension, particularly in the Punjab region, where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre  In Britain, public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion  The non-cooperation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War, was granted formal independence, though it continued to be a British client state until 1954  British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1936, under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone  In return, Egypt was assisted in joining the League of Nations  Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932  In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arabs and increasing numbers of Jews  The Balfour Declaration, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power  This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936  As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference  Britain's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne  After pressure from the Irish Free State and South Africa, the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration of 1926, declaring the Dominions to be "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another" within a "British Commonwealth of Nations"  This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster  The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control, they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent  Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933, suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression  In 1937 the Irish Free State introduced a republican constitution renaming itself Ireland 

Second World War
Britain's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa  All soon declared war on Germany  While Britain continued to regard Ireland as still within the British Commonwealth, Ireland chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war After the Fall of France in June 1940, Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the German invasion of Greece on 7 April 1941  British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D  Roosevelt for military aid from the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war  In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter, which included the statement that "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected  This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany and Italy, or the peoples colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements For Churchill, the entry of the United States into the war was the "greatest joy"  He felt that Britain was now assured of victory, but failed to recognise that the "many disasters, immeasurable costs and tribulations [which he knew] lay ahead" in December 1941 would have permanent consequences for the future of the empire  The manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power, including, particularly, the Fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar  The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United States and, ultimately, the 1951 ANZUS Pact  The war weakened the empire in other ways: undermining Britain's control of politics in India, inflicting long-term economic damage, and irrevocably changing geopolitics by pushing the Soviet Union and the United States to the centre of the global stage 

Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997)
Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War, the effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad  Much of Europe, a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance of global power  Britain was left essentially bankrupt, with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a US$4 33 billion loan from the United States, the last installment of which was repaid in 2006  At the same time, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations  The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union  In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism  In practice, American anti-communism prevailed over anti-imperialism, and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check  At first, British politicians believed it would be possible to maintain Britain's role as a world power at the head of a re-imagined Commonwealth, but by 1960 they were forced to recognise that there was an irresistible "wind of change" blowing  Their priorities changed to maintaining an extensive zone of British influence and ensuring that stable, non-Communist governments were established in former colonies  In this context, while other European powers such as France and Portugal waged costly and unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact, Britain generally adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies, although violence occurred in Malaya, Kenya and Palestine  Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to 5 million, 3 million of whom were in Hong Kong 

Initial disengagement
The pro-decolonisation Labour government, elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee, moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire: Indian independence  India's two major political parties—the Indian National Congress (led by Mahatma Gandhi) and the Muslim League (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah)—had been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed as to how it should be implemented  Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by the Hindu majority, desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim-majority regions  Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than 30 June 1948  When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947  The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan  Millions of Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives  Burma, which had been administered as part of British India until 1937, and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948  India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join The British Mandate in Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the British with a similar problem to that of India  The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state  Frustrated by the intractability of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve  The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state  It was immediately followed by the outbreak of a civil war between the Arabs and Jews of Palestine, and British forces withdrew amid the fighting  The British Mandate for Palestine officially terminated at midnight on 15 May 1948 as the State of Israel declared independence and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War broke out, during which the territory of the former Mandate was partitioned between Israel and the surrounding Arab states  Amid the fighting, British forces continued to withdraw from Israel, with the last British troops departing from Haifa on 30 June 1948 Following the surrender of Japan in the Second World War, anti-Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British, who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a source of rubber and tin  The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malaysian Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would be granted  The Malayan Emergency, as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but by 1957, Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth  In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia, but in 1965 Chinese-majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations and became an independent city-state  Brunei, which had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to join the union 

Suez and its aftermath
In the 1951 general election, the Conservative Party returned to power in Britain under the leadership of Winston Churchill  Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India  Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952, and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self-determination by 1955, with independence to follow  Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956 In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal  The response of Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal  Eden infuriated US President Dwight D  Eisenhower by his lack of consultation, and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion  Another of Eisenhower's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side  Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency  Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives, UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and Eden resigned The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain's decline on the world stage and its end as a first-rate power, demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not the full support, of the United States  The events at Suez wounded British national pride, leading one Member of Parliament (MP) to describe it as "Britain's Waterloo" and another to suggest that the country had become an "American satellite"  Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain's political leaders after Suez where they "went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing", from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982 While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken, it did not collapse  Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in Oman (1957), Jordan (1958) and Kuwait (1961), though on these occasions with American approval, as the new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States  Although Britain granted Kuwait independence in 1961, it continued to maintain a military presence in the Middle East for another decade  On 16 January 1968, a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British Armed Forces troops would be withdrawn from major military bases East of Suez, which included the ones in the Middle East, and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971, instead of 1975 as earlier planned  By that time over 50,000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East, including 30,000 in Singapore  The British granted independence to the Maldives in 1965 but continued to station a garrison there until 1976, withdrew from Aden in 1967, and granted independence to Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates in 1971 

Wind of change
Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town, South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of "the wind of change blowing through this continent"  Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly  To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s—Sudan, the Gold Coast and Malaya—were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s  Owing to the rapid pace of decolonisation during this period, the cabinet post of Secretary of State for the Colonies was abolished in 1966, along with the Colonial Office, which merged with the Commonwealth Relations Office to form the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (now the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office) in October 1968 Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for self-governing Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968  British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process  Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau uprising, in which tens of thousands of suspected rebels were interned by the colonial government in detention camps  Throughout the 1960s, the British government took a "No independence until majority rule" policy towards decolonising the empire, leading the white minority government of Southern Rhodesia to enact the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain, resulting in a civil war that lasted until the British-mediated Lancaster House Agreement of 1979  The agreement saw the British Empire temporarily re-establish the Colony of Southern Rhodesia from 1979 to 1980 as a transitionary government to a majority-rule Republic of Zimbabwe  This was the last British possession in Africa  
In Cyprus, a guerrilla war waged by the Greek Cypriot organisation EOKA against British rule, was ended in 1959 by the London and Zürich Agreements, which resulted in Cyprus being granted independence in 1960  The UK retained the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia as sovereign base areas  The Mediterranean colony of Malta was amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of Malta, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain Most of the UK's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members  Jamaica attained independence in 1962, as did Trinidad and Tobago  Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands, including the Bahamas, in the 1970s and 1980s, but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence  The British Virgin Islands, The Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain, while Guyana achieved independence in 1966  Britain's last colony on the American mainland, British Honduras, became a self-governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achieving full independence in 1981  A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved British Overseas Territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980  Vanuatu's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French-speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France  Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu became Commonwealth realms 

End of empire
By 1981, aside from a scattering of islands and outposts, the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete  In 1982, Britain's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a long-standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire  Britain's successful military response to retake the Falkland Islands during the ensuing Falklands War contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain's status as a world power The 1980s saw Canada, Australia, and New Zealand sever their final constitutional links with Britain  Although granted legislative independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931, vestigial constitutional links had remained in place  The British Parliament retained the power to amend key Canadian constitutional statutes, meaning that effectively an act of the British Parliament was required to make certain changes to the Canadian Constitution  The British Parliament had the power to pass laws extending to Canada at Canadian request  Although no longer able to pass any laws that would apply as Australian Commonwealth law, the British Parliament retained the power to legislate for the individual Australian states  With regard to New Zealand, the British Parliament retained the power to pass legislation applying to New Zealand with the New Zealand Parliament's consent  In 1982, the last legal link between Canada and Britain was severed by the Canada Act 1982, which was passed by the British parliament, formally patriating the Canadian Constitution  The act ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution  Similarly, the Australia Act 1986 (effective 3 March 1986) severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states, while New Zealand's Constitution Act 1986 (effective 1 January 1987) reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain On 1 January 1984, Brunei, Britain's last remaining Asian protectorate, was granted independence  Independence had been delayed due to the opposition of the Sultan, who had preferred British protection In September 1982 the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese Communist government, on the future of Britain's last major and most populous overseas territory, Hong Kong  Under the terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1860 Convention of Peking, Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula had been respectively ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the majority of the colony consisted of the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99-year lease in 1898, due to expire in 1997  Thatcher, seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by China  A deal was reached in 1984—under the terms of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China  The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many, including King Charles III, then Prince of Wales, who was in attendance, "the end of Empire", though many British territories that are remnants of the empire still remain 

Legacy
Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles  In 1983, the British Nationality Act 1981 renamed the existing Crown Colonies as "British Dependent Territories", and in 2002 they were renamed the British Overseas Territories  Most former British colonies and protectorates are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2 2 billion people  The United Kingdom and 14 other countries, all collectively known as the Commonwealth realms, voluntarily continue to share the same person—King Charles III—as their respective head of state  These 15 nations are distinct and equal legal entities: the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that rose from the British Empire  The empire established the use of the English language in regions around the world  Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about 1 5 billion as a first, second or foreign language  Individual and team sports developed in Britain, particularly football, cricket, lawn tennis, and golf were exported  British missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread Protestantism (including Anglicanism) to all continents  The British Empire provided refuge for religiously persecuted continental Europeans for hundreds of years 

Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas  The British Empire was responsible for large migrations of peoples  Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler colonist populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland  Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities, and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe  Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland  Millions of people moved to and from British colonies, with large numbers of Overseas Indian people emigrating to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Overseas Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean  The demographics of the United Kingdom itself were changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies In the 19th century, innovation in Britain led to revolutionary changes in manufacturing, the development of factory systems, and the growth of transportation by railway and steamship  British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire  The British choice of system of measurement, the imperial system, continues to be used in some countries in various ways  The convention of driving on the left-hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire The Westminster system of parliamentary democracy has served as the template for the governments for many former colonies, and English common law for legal systems  International commercial contracts are often based on English common law  The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for twelve former colonies Historians' approaches to understanding the British Empire are diverse and evolving  Two key sites of debate over recent decades have been the impact of post-colonial studies, which seek to critically re-evaluate the history of imperialism, and the continued relevance of historians Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, whose work greatly influenced imperial historiography during the 1950s and 1960s  In addition, differing assessments of the empire's legacy remain relevant to debates over recent history and politics, such as the Anglo-American invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as Britain's role and identity in the contemporary world Historians such as Caroline Elkins have argued against perceptions of the British Empire as a primarily liberalising and modernising enterprise, criticising its widespread use of violence and emergency laws to maintain power  Common criticisms of the empire include the use of detention camps in its colonies, massacres of indigenous peoples, and famine-response policies  Some scholars, including Amartya Sen, assert that British policies worsened the famines in India that killed millions during British rule  Conversely, historians such as Niall Ferguson say that the economic and institutional development the British Empire brought resulted in a net benefit to its colonies  Other historians treat its legacy as varied and ambiguous  Public attitudes towards the empire within Britain remain somewhat positive 

See also
Notes



ground_truth: University of Cambridge

Cambridge