prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How many times did the plague occur in the city where Flora's painter died?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence (Titian)
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence is a 1558 painting by Titian, now in the church of I Gesuiti in Venice  It so impressed Philip II of Spain that he commissioned a second version in 1567 for the basilica at El Escorial 

See also
List of works by Titian
Passage 2:
Black Death
The Black Death (also known as the Pestilence, the Great Mortality or the Plague) was a bubonic plague pandemic occurring in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353  It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing the deaths of 75–200 million people, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351  Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis spread by fleas, but during the Black Death it probably also took a secondary form, spread by person-to-person contact via aerosols, causing pneumonic plague The Black Death was the beginning of the second plague pandemic  The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history 
The origin of the Black Death is disputed  Genetic analysis points to the evolution of Yersinia pestis in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China 2,600 years ago  The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remains unclear with some pointing towards Central Asia, China, the Middle East and Europe  The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347  From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean Basin and reaching North Africa, Western Asia and the rest of Europe via Constantinople, Sicily and the Italian Peninsula  There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread person-to-person as pneumonic plague, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary vector was rat fleas causing bubonic plague  In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may not have been due to Mongol conquests in the 14th century, as previously speculated The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317) and is estimated to have killed 30 percent to 60 percent of the European population, as well as about one-third of the population of the Middle East  The plague might have reduced the world population from c  475 million to 350–375 million in the 14th century  There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, with other contributing factors (the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages), the European population did not regain its level in 1300 until 1500  Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century 

Names
European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in Latin as pestis or pestilentia, 'pestilence'; epidemia, 'epidemic'; mortalitas, 'mortality'  In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death"  Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first murrain) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as "black" in the time of occurrence in any European language, though the expression "black death" had occasionally been applied to fatal disease beforehand  "Black death" was not used to describe the plague pandemic in English until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated Danish: den sorte død, lit  'the black death'  This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was transferred to other languages as a calque: Icelandic: svarti dauði, German: der schwarze Tod, and French: la mort noire  Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the Latin: magna mortalitas, lit  'Great Death' The phrase 'black death' – describing Death as black – is very old  Homer used it in the Odyssey to describe the monstrous Scylla, with her mouths "full of black Death" (Ancient Greek: πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο, romanized: pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio)  Seneca the Younger may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', (Latin: mors atra) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark prognosis of disease  The 12th–13th century French physician Gilles de Corbeil had already used atra mors to refer to a "pestilential fever" (febris pestilentialis) in his work On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium)  The phrase mors nigra, 'black death', was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to an astrological conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn  His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease The historian Cardinal Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague"  In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J  I  Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant) 

Previous plague epidemics
Research from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age  Research in 2018 found evidence of Yersinia pestis in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "Neolithic decline" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly  This Y  pestis may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near Samara The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a fragment of Rufus of Ephesus preserved by Oribasius; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the Roman Empire before the reign of Trajan, six centuries before arriving at Pelusium in the reign of Justinian I  In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the Plague of Justinian (541–542 CE, with recurrences until 750) was Y  pestis  This is known as the first plague pandemic  In 610, the Chinese physician Chao Yuanfang described a "malignant bubo" "coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue " The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in Lingnan (Guangzhou)  Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600 

14th-century plague
Causes
Early theory
The most authoritative contemporary account is found in a report from the medical faculty in Paris to Philip VI of France  It blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air" (miasma theory)  Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a "martyrdom and mercy" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise  For non-believers, it was a punishment  Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God  Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans  These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks 

Predominant modern theory
Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease  The plague disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas, including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, North India, Uganda and the western United States Y  pestis was discovered by Alexandre Yersin, a pupil of Louis Pasteur, during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacillus was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission  The mechanism by which Y  pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y  pestis several days after feeding on an infected host  This blockage starves the fleas and drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour and attempts to clear the blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host  The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lacks resistance  When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic 

DNA evidence
Definitive confirmation of the role of Y  pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in PLOS Pathogens by Haensch et al  They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y  pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences  The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y  pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages"  In 2011, these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England  Schuenemann et al  concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y  pestis that may no longer exist" Later in 2011, Bos et al  reported in Nature the first draft genome of Y  pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y  pestis Since this time, further genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the Y  pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor of later plague epidemics including the third plague pandemic and as the descendant of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian  In addition, plague genomes from significantly earlier in prehistory have been recovered DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th century London have shown plague is a strain of Y  pestis almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013  Further DNA evidence also proves the role of Y  Pestis and traces the source to the Tian Shan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan 

Alternative explanations
It is recognised that an epidemiological account of plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period  Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the Domesday Book of 1086 and the poll tax of the year 1377  Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy 
Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission  A research in 2018 challenged the popular hypothesis that "infected rats died, their flea parasites could have jumped from the recently dead rat hosts to humans"  It suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people"  The second model claims to better fit the trends of death toll because the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, which contradict historical death data Lars Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities  Similarly, Monica Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y  pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person  This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and fleas during the second plague pandemic 

Summary
Although academic debate continues, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance  Many scholars arguing for Y  pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections  In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicaemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms  In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis  Currently, while osteoarcheologists have conclusively verified the presence of Y  pestis bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and dental pulp, no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations 

Transmission
Lack of hygiene
The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century with the development of the germ theory of disease; until then streets were commonly filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding, facilitating the spread of transmissible disease By the early fourteenth century so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste  In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for "shit"  There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris  Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were as careless as William E  Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without  A complaint lodged against Cosner charges that "men could not pass [by his house] for the stink [of]       horse dung and horse piss "One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden "stinking and putrid", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, "making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near " In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, "Look out below!" three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street Early Christians, who thought self-abnegation a cardinal virtue, considered bathing, if not a vice, then a temptation  "Who knows what impure thoughts might arise in a tub of warm water? With this danger in mind, St  Benedict declared, "To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted " St  Agnes took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing 

Territorial origins
According to a team of medical geneticists led by Mark Achtman that analysed the genetic variation of the bacterium Yersinia pestis "evolved in or near China" over 2,600 years ago  Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko places the origins more specifically in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China  However more recent research notes that the previous sampling had a very heavy East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of Y  pestis in the Caucasus region that were previously thought to be restricted to China  There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China  As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day  According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years  The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic; this is supported by recent direct findings of Y  pestis DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to "pestilence" as the cause of death  Epidemics killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before the Black Death reached Constantinople in 1347 
The evidence does not suggest, at least at present, that these mortality crises were caused by plague  Although some scholars, including McNeill and Cao, see the 1333 outbreak as a prelude to the outbreaks in Europe from the late 1340s to the early 1350s, scholars of the Yuan and Ming periods remain skeptical about such an interpretation  Nonetheless, the remarkably high mortality rates during the Datong mortality should discourage us from rejecting the possibility of localized/regional outbreaks of plague in different parts of China, albeit differing in scale from, and unrelated to, the pandemic mortality of the Black Death  What we lack is any indication of a plague pandemic that engulfed vast territories of the Yuan Empire and later moved into western Eurasia through Central Asia 
According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact  According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the Silk Road, and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak  There are no records of the symptoms of the Black Death from Mongol sources or writings from travelers east of the Black Sea prior to the Crimean outbreak in 1346  Finally, the Silk Road had already been heavily disrupted before the spread of the Black Death  Western and Middle Eastern traders found it difficult to trade on the Silk Road by 1325 and impossible by 1340, making spread of the plague less likely Others still favor an origin in China or even Kurdistan, and not Central Asia  According to the theory of Chinese origin, the disease may have traveled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders, or it could have arrived via ship, but this theory is still contested  It is speculated that rats aboard Zheng He's ships in the 15th century may have carried the plague to Southeast Asia, India and Africa 
Research on the Delhi Sultanate and the Yuan Dynasty shows no evidence of any serious epidemic in fourteenth-century India and no specific evidence of plague in fourteenth-century China, suggesting that the Black Death may not have reached these regions  Ole Benedictow argues that since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from Kaffa, the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea 
Demographic historians estimate that China's population fell by at least 15 percent, and perhaps as much as a third, between 1340 and 1370  This population loss coincided with the Black Death that ravaged Europe and much of the Islamic world in 1347–52  However, there is a conspicuous lack of evidence for pandemic disease on the scale of the Black Death in China at this time  War and famine – and the diseases that typically accompanied them – probably were the main causes of mortality in the final decades of Mongol rule 
Monica H  Green suggests that the reason why other parts of Eurasia outside the west do not contain the same evidence of the Black Plague is because there were actually four strains of Yersinia pestis that became predominant in different parts of the world  Mongol records of illness such as food poisoning may have been referring to the Black Plague  Another theory is that the Black Death originated near Europe and cycled through the Mediterranean, Northern Europe and Russia before making its way to China  Other historians such as John Norris and Ole Benedictaw believe the Black Death likely originated in Europe or the Middle East and never reached China 

European outbreak
Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders from their port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347  During a protracted siege of the city, in 1345–1346 the Mongol Golden Horde army of Jani Beg, whose mainly Tatar troops were suffering from the disease, catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants, though it is more likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants  As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the Black Sea to Constantinople, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347 The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the Byzantine emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on Thucydides's account of the 5th century BCE Plague of Athens, but noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities  Nicephorus Gregoras also described in writing to Demetrios Kydones the rising death toll, the futility of medicine, and the panic of the citizens  The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400 Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in Sicily in October 1347; the disease spread rapidly all over the island  Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy  Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseilles From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain (the epidemic began to wreak havoc first on the Crown of Aragon in the spring of 1348), Portugal and England by June 1348, then spread east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350  It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland  Finally, it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351  Plague was somewhat more uncommon in parts of Europe with less developed trade with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavourable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations and forced their fleas onto alternative hosts, inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean, as well as during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic region  Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, malnutrition, even if distantly, also contributed to such an immense loss in European population, since it weakened immune systems 

Western Asian and North African outbreak
The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures  As infected rodents infected new rodents, the disease spread across the region, entering also from southern Russia 
By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople; according to a contemporary witness, from a single merchant ship carrying slaves  By late summer 1348 it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural centre of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died  The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex  The historian al-Maqrizi described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of funeral rites, and plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza by April; by July it had reached Damascus, and in October plague had broken out in Aleppo  That year, in the territory of modern Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine, the cities of Ascalon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon and Homs were all infected  In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch  The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey  Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa  The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 Tunis was infected by ship from Sicily  Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of Almería in al-Andalus Mecca became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the Hajj  In 1351 or 1352, the Rasulid sultan of the Yemen, al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home  During 1348, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease 

Signs and symptoms
Bubonic plague
Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise  Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 percent die within eight days Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise  The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened  Boccaccio's description:

In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg     From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous  As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves 
This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood  Most people died two to seven days after initial infection  Freckle-like spots and rashes, which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of plague 

Pneumonic plague
Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems  Symptoms include fever, cough and blood-tinged sputum  As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red  Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 percent 

Septicaemic plague
Septicaemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%  Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation)  In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicaemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes 

Consequences
Deaths
There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality  In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality  It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia  A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe between 1250 and 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death  The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia and Ireland The mortality rate of the Black Death in the 14th century was far greater than the worst 20th-century outbreaks of Y  pestis plague, which occurred in India and killed as much as 3% of the population of certain cities  The overwhelming number of deceased bodies produced by the Black Death caused the necessity of mass burial sites in Europe, sometimes including up to several hundred or several thousand skeletons  The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical and anthropological implications of the Black Death According to medieval historian Philip Daileader, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague  Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests it could have been as much as 60% of the European population  In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished  In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die  Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died  In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351  At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well, with a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353  Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348  Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450  The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to contagion  Plague did not appear in Douai in Flanders until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of Hainaut, Finland, northern Germany and areas of Poland  Monks, nuns and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people with the Black Death 

The physician to the Avignon Papacy, Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (Latin: Magister Raimundus, lit  'Master Raymond'), observed the decreasing mortality rate of successive outbreaks of plague in 1347–48, 1362, 1371 and 1382 in his 1382 treatise On Epidemics (De epidemica)  In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived  By the 1380s in Europe, it predominantly affected children  Chalmel de Vinario recognised that bloodletting was ineffective (though he continued to prescribe bleeding for members of the Roman Curia, whom he disliked), and said that all true cases of plague were caused by astrological factors and were incurable; he himself was never able to effect a cure The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population  The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population  In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months Italian chronicler Agnolo di Tura recorded his experience from Siena, where plague arrived in May 1348:

Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight  And so they died  And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship  Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices     great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead  And they died by the hundreds both day and night     And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug     And I, Agnolo di Tura     buried my five children with my own hands  And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city  There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death  And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world 

Economic
It has been suggested that the plague, like some others in history, disproportionately affected the poorest people, who were already in generally worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens   Nevertheless, with such a large overall population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a labour shortage  On the other hand, in the quarter century after the Black Death in England, it is clear many labourers, artisans and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, did suffer a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation  Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants 

Environmental
A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation  This may have led to the Little Ice Age 

Persecutions
Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death  Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", lepers and Romani, blaming them for the crisis  Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe 
Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks  Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness There were many attacks against Jewish communities  In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered  In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated  By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed  During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great 

Social
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy and led to the Renaissance  Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife  It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century  The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy  The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an influx of Greek scholars following the fall of the Byzantine Empire  As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom  To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the workings of Europe were run by the Catholic Church and the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of fiefs and city-states  The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled Cairo's population, partly owing to the numerous plague epidemics, was in the early 18th century half of what it was in 1347  The populations of some Italian cities, notably Florence, did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century  The demographic decline due to the pandemic had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30–40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400  Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall  The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably destabilised feudalism The word "quarantine" has its roots in this period, though the concept of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older  In the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas  The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty" 

Recurrences
Second plague pandemic
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries  According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671  (Note that some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data ) The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–63; 1374; 1400; 1438–39; 1456–57; 1464–66; 1481–85; 1500–03; 1518–31; 1544–48; 1563–66; 1573–88; 1596–99; 1602–11; 1623–40; 1644–54; and 1664–67  Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century)  The historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s  However, other sources suggest that the Second pandemic did indeed reach Sub-Saharan Africa According to historian Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31 " In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1 7 million people in Italy  More than 1 25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world  Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850  Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions  Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa  Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42  Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s  Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century  Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800  Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died 

Third plague pandemic
The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone  The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney  This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908 

Modern-day
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine  It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat  One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995  A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014  In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions 

See also
Black Death in England
Black Death in medieval culture
Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Flagellant
Globalization and disease
List of epidemics
Second plague pandemic
Timeline of plague
Passage 3:
Black Death in England
The Black Death was a bubonic plague pandemic, which reached England in June 1348  It was the first and most severe manifestation of the second pandemic, caused by Yersinia pestis bacteria  The term Black Death was not used until the late 17th century 
Originating in Asia, it spread west along the trade routes across Europe and arrived on the British Isles from the English province of Gascony  The plague was spread by flea-infected rats, as well as individuals who had been infected on the continent  Rats were the reservoir hosts of the Y  pestis bacteria and the Oriental rat flea was the primary vector 
The first-known case in England was a seaman who arrived at Weymouth, Dorset, from Gascony in June 1348  By autumn, the plague had reached London, and by summer 1349 it covered the entire country, before dying down by December  Low estimates of mortality in the early twentieth century have been revised upwards due to re-examination of data and new information, and a figure of 40–60 percent of the population is widely accepted 
The most immediate consequence was a halt to the campaigns of the Hundred Years' War  In the long term, the decrease in population caused a shortage of labour, with subsequent rise in wages, resisted by the landowners, which caused deep resentment among the lower classes  The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 was largely a result of this resentment, and even though the rebellion was suppressed, in the long term serfdom was ended in England  The Black Death also affected artistic and cultural efforts, and may have helped advance the use of the vernacular 
In 1361–62 the plague returned to England, this time causing the death of around 20 per cent of the population  After this the plague continued to return intermittently throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, in local or national outbreaks  From this point on its effect became less severe, and one of the last outbreaks of the plague in England was the Great Plague of London in 1665–1666 

Background
England in the mid-14th century
It is impossible to establish with any certainty the exact number of inhabitants in England at the eve of the Black Death, and estimates range from 3 to 7 million  The number is probably in the higher end, and an estimate of around 6 million inhabitants seems likely  Earlier demographic crises—in particular the Great Famine of 1315–1317—had resulted in great numbers of deaths, but there is no evidence of any significant decrease in the population prior to 1348  England was still a predominantly rural and agrarian society; close to 90 per cent of the population lived in the countryside  Of the major cities, London was in a class of its own, with perhaps as many as 70,000 inhabitants  Further down the scale were Norwich, with around 12,000 people, and York with around 10,000  The main export, and the source of the nation's wealth, was wool  Until the middle of the century the export had consisted primarily of raw wool to cloth makers in Flanders  Gradually though, the technology for cloth making used on the Continent was appropriated by English manufacturers, who started an export of cloths around mid-century that would boom over the following decades Politically, the kingdom was evolving into a major European power, through the youthful and energetic kingship of Edward III  In 1346, the English had won a decisive battle over the Scots at the Battle of Neville's Cross, and it seemed that Edward III would realise his grandfather Edward I's ambition of bringing the Scots under the suzerainty of the English crown  The English were also experiencing military success on the continent  Less than two months before the Battle of Neville's Cross, a numerically inferior English army led by the king himself won a spectacular victory over the French royal forces at the Battle of Crécy  The victory was immediately followed by Edward laying siege to the port city of Calais  When the city fell the next year, this provided the English with a strategically important enclave that would remain in their possession for over two centuries 

The Black Death
The term "Black Death"—which refers to the first and most serious outbreak of the second pandemic—was not used by contemporaries, who preferred such names as the "Great Pestilence" or the "Great Mortality"  It was not until the 17th century that the term under which we know the outbreak today became common, probably derived from Scandinavian languages  It is generally agreed today that the disease in question was plague, caused by Yersinia pestis bacteria  These bacteria are carried by fleas, which can be transferred to humans through contact with rats  Flea bites carry the disease into the lymphatic system, through which it makes its way to the lymph nodes  Here the bacteria multiply and form swellings called buboes, from which the term bubonic plague is derived  After three or four days the bacteria enter the bloodstream, and infect organs such as the spleen and the lungs  The patient will then normally die after a few days  A different strain of the disease is pneumonic plague, where the bacteria become airborne and enter directly into the patient's lungs  This strain is far more virulent, as it spreads directly from person to person  These types of infection probably both played a significant part in the Black Death, while a third strain was more rare  This is the septicaemic plague, where the flea bite carries the bacteria directly into the blood stream, and death occurs very rapidly A study reported in 2011 of skeletons exhumed from the Black Death cemetery in East Smithfield, London, found Yersinia pestis DNA  An archaeological dig in the vicinity of Thornton Abbey in Lincolnshire was reported in the science section of The Guardian for 30 November 2016, not only confirming evidence of the Y  pestis DNA in the human remains exhumed there but also dating the remains to mid-1349 
Genotyping showed that it was [at that time] a newly evolved strain, ancestor of all modern strains and proved the Black Death was bubonic plague  Modern medical knowledge suggests that because it was a new strain, the human immune system would have had little or no defence against it, helping to explain the plague's virulence and high death rates The Black Death seems to have originated in Central Asia, where the Y  pestis bacterium is endemic in the rodent population  It is unknown exactly what caused the outbreak, but a series of natural occurrences likely brought humans into contact with the infected rodents  The epidemic reached Constantinople in the late spring of 1347, through Genoese merchants trading in the Black Sea  From here it reached Sicily in October that same year, and by early 1348 it had spread over the entire Italian mainland  It spread rapidly through France, and had reached as far north as Paris by June 1348  Moving simultaneously westward, it arrived in the English province of Gascony around the same time 

Progress of the plague
According to the chronicle of the grey friars at King's Lynn, the plague arrived by ship from Gascony to Melcombe in Dorset—today normally referred to as Weymouth—shortly before the Feast of St  John the Baptist on 24 June 1348  Other sources mention different points of arrival, including Bristol and Southampton  Though the plague might have arrived independently at Bristol at a later point, the Grey Friars' Chronicle is considered the most authoritative account  If it is assumed that the chronicle reports the first outbreak of the plague, rather than its actual arrival, then the arrival most likely happened around 8 May From Weymouth the disease spread rapidly across the south-west  The first major city to be struck was Bristol  The disease reached London in the autumn of 1348, before most of the surrounding countryside  This had certainly happened by November, though according to some accounts as early as 29 September  Arrival in London happened by three principal roads: overland from Weymouth—through Salisbury and Winchester—overland from Gloucester, and along the coast by ship  The full effect of the plague was felt in the capital early the next year  Conditions in London were ideal for the plague: the streets were narrow and flowing with sewage, and houses were overcrowded and poorly ventilated  By March 1349 the disease was spreading haphazardly across all of southern England During the first half of 1349 the Black Death spread northwards  A second front opened up when the plague arrived by ship at the Humber, after which it spread both south and north  In May it reached York, and during the summer months of June, July and August, it ravaged the north  Certain northern counties, like Durham and Cumberland, had been the victim of violent incursions from the Scots, and were therefore left particularly vulnerable to the devastations of the plague  Pestilence is less virulent during the winter months, and spreads less rapidly  The Black Death in England had survived the winter of 1348–49, but during the following winter it gave in, and by December 1349 conditions were returning to relative normality  It had taken the disease approximately 500 days to traverse the entire country 

Medical practice
Various methods were used including sweating, bloodletting, forced vomiting and urinating to treat patients infected with the plague  Several symptoms of the illness included blotches, hardening of the glands under the groin and underarms, and dementia  Within the initial phase of the disease, bloodletting was performed on the same side of where the physical manifestations of the buboes or risings appeared  For instance, if a rising appeared on the right side of the groin the physician would bleed a vein in the ankle on the same side  In the case of sweating, it was achieved with such medicines as Mithridate, Venice-Treacle, Matthiolus, Bezoar-Water, Serpentary Roots and Electuarium de Ovo  Sweating was used when measures were desperate; if a patient had tokens, a severe version of risings, the physician would wrap the naked patient in a blanket drenched in cold water  This measure was only performed while the patient still had natural heat in his system  The desired effect was to make the patient sweat violently and thus purge all corruption from the blood which was caused by the disease Another practice was the use of pigeons when treating swellings  Swellings which were white in appearance and deep were unlikely to break and were anointed with Oil of Lillies or Camomil  Once the swelling rose to a head and was red in appearance and not deep in the flesh, it was broken with the use of a feather from a young pigeon's tail  The feather's fundament was held to the swelling and would draw out the venom  However, if the swelling dropped and became black in appearance, the physician had to be cautious when drawing the cold from the swelling  If it was too late to prevent, the physician would take the young pigeon, cut it open from breast to back, break it open and apply the pigeon (while still alive) over the cold swelling  The cupping therapy was an alternative method which was heated and then placed over the swellings  Once the sore was broken, the physician would apply Mellilot Plaister with Linimentum Arcei and heal the sore with digence 

Victims
Death toll
Although historical records for England were more extensive than those of any other European country, it is still extremely difficult to establish the death toll with any degree of certainty  Difficulties involve uncertainty about the size of the total population, as described above, but also issues regarding the proportion of the population that died from the plague  Contemporary accounts are often grossly inflated, stating numbers as high as 90 per cent  Modern historians give estimates of death rates ranging from around 25 per cent to more than 60 per cent of the total population 
The pioneering work in the field was made by Josiah William Russell in his 1948 British Medieval Population  Russell looked at inquisitions post mortem (IPMs)—taken by the crown to assess the wealth of the greatest landowners after their death—to assess the mortality caused by the Black Death, and from this arrived at an estimate of 23 6 per cent of the entire population  He also looked at episcopal registers for the death toll among the clergy, where the result was between 30 and 40 per cent  Russell believed the clergy was at particular risk of contagion, and eventually concluded with a low mortality level of only 20 per cent Several of Russell's assumptions have been challenged, and the tendency since has been to adjust the assessment upwards  Philip Ziegler, in 1969, estimated the death rate to be at around one third of the population  Jeremy Goldberg, in 1996, believed a number closer to 45 per cent would be more realistic  A 2004 study by Ole Jørgen Benedictow suggests the exceptionally high mortality level of 62 5 per cent  Assuming a population of 6 million, this estimate would correspond to 3,750,000 deaths  Such a high percentage would place England above the average that Benedictow estimates for Western Europe as a whole, of 60 per cent  A death rate at such a high level has not been universally accepted in the historical community In 2016, Carenza Lewis reported the results of a new method of assessing the death toll  She argued that pottery before and after the Black Death is datable because there was a change at that time from the high medieval to the late medieval style, and that counts of pottery of each type therefore provide a useful proxy for long term changes in population  She and her colleagues analysed pottery sherds from test pits in more than 50 continuously occupied rural settlements in eastern England, and found a decline in the number of pottery producing pits of 45 per cent  Norfolk had the greatest drop of 65 per cent, while there was no drop in 10 per cent of settlements, mostly commercial centres 

Impact of the Black Death: 1349
Archbishop Zouche of York issued a warning throughout the diocese in July 1348 (when the epidemic was raging further south) of "great mortalities, pestilences and infections of the air" 
The Great Mortality, as it was then known, entered Yorkshire around February 1349 and quickly spread through the diocese  The clergy were on the front line of the disease, bringing comfort to the dying, hearing final confessions and organising burials  This, almost by necessity, put them at a greater risk of infection 
Estimates suggest that the death rate of clergy in some parts of the archdiocese could have been as high as 48 per cent  This is reflected in the Ordination Register, which shows a massive rise in ordained clergy over the period—some being recruited before the arrival of plague in a clerical recruitment drive, but many once plague had arrived, replacing those who had been killed  In 1346, 111 priests and 337 acolytes were recruited  In 1349, 299 priests and 683 acolytes are named, with 166 priests being ordained in one session alone in February 1350 "

Social distribution
Russell had trusted the IPMs to give a true picture of the national average, because he assumed death rates to be relatively equal across the social spectrum  This assumption has been proven wrong, and studies of peasant plague mortality from manor rolls have returned much higher rates  This could be a consequence of the elite's ability to avoid infection by escaping plague-infected areas  It could also result from lower post-infection mortality among those more affluent, due to better access to care and nursing  If so, this would also mean that the mortality rates for the clergy—who were normally better off than the general population—were no higher than the average 

The manorial records offer a good opportunity to study the geographical distribution of the plague  Its effect seems to have been about the same all over England, though a place like East Anglia, which had frequent contact with the Continent, was severely affected  On a local level, however, there were great variations  A study of the Bishop of Worcester's estates reveal that, while his manors of Hartlebury and Hanbury had a mortality of only 19 per cent, the manor of Aston lost as much as 80 per cent of its population  The manor rolls are less useful for studying the demographic distribution of the mortality, since the rolls only record the heads of households, normally an adult male  Here the IPMs show us that the most vulnerable to the disease were infants and the elderly There seem to have been relatively few deaths from the Black Death at higher levels of society  The only member of the royal family who can be said with any certainty to have died from the Black Death was in France at the time of her infection  Edward III's daughter Joan was residing in Bordeaux on her way to marry Pedro of Castile in the summer of 1348  When the plague broke out in her household she was moved to a small village nearby, but she could not avoid infection, and died there on 2 September  It is possible that the popular religious author Richard Rolle, who died on 30 September 1349, was another victim of the Black Death  The English philosopher William of Ockham has been mentioned as a plague victim  This, however, is an impossibility  Ockham was living in Munich at the time of his death, on 10 April 1347, two years before the Black Death reached that city 

Consequences
Economic, social and political effects
Among the most immediate consequences of the Black Death in England was a shortage of farm labour, and a corresponding rise in wages  The medieval world-view was unable to interpret these changes in terms of socio-economic development, and it became common to blame degrading morals instead  The landowning classes saw the rise in wage levels as a sign of social upheaval and insubordination, and reacted with coercion  In 1349, King Edward III passed the Ordinance of Labourers, fixing wages at pre-plague levels  The ordinance was reinforced by Parliament's passing of the Statute of Labourers in 1351  The labour laws were enforced with ruthless determination over the following decades 

These legislative measures proved largely inefficient at regulating the market, but the government's repressive measures to enforce them caused public resentment  These conditions were contributing factors to the Peasants' Revolt in 1381  The revolt started in Kent and Essex in late May, and once the rebels reached London they burnt down John of Gaunt's Savoy Palace, and killed both the Chancellor and the Treasurer  They then demanded the complete abolition of serfdom, and were not pacified until the young King Richard II personally intervened  The rebellion was eventually suppressed, but the social changes it promoted were already irreversible  By around 1400 serfdom was virtually extinct in England, replaced by the form of tenure called copyhold It is conspicuous how well the English government handled the crisis of the mid-fourteenth century, without descending into chaos and total collapse in the manner of the Valois government of France  To a large extent this was the accomplishment of administrators such as Treasurer William de Shareshull and Chief Justice William Edington, whose highly competent leadership guided the governance of the nation through the crisis  The plague's greatest effect on the government was probably in the field of war, where no major campaigns were launched in France until 1355 Another notable consequence of the Black Death was the raising of the real wage of England (due to the shortage of labour as a result of the reduction in population), a trait shared across Western Europe, which in general led to a real wage in 1450 that was unmatched in most countries until the 19th or 20th century  The higher wages for workers combined with sinking prices on grain products led to a problematic economic situation for the gentry  As a result, they started to show an increased interest for offices like justice of the peace, sheriff and member of parliament  The gentry took advantage of their new positions and a more systematic corruption than before spread  A result of this was that the gentry as a group became highly disliked by commoners 

Religious and cultural consequences
The omnipresence of death also inspired greater piety in the upper classes, which can be seen in the fact that three Cambridge colleges were founded during or shortly after the Black Death  England did not experience the same trend of roving bands of flagellants, common on the continent  Neither were there any pogroms against the Jews, since the Jews had been expelled by Edward I in 1290 The high rate of mortality among the clergy naturally led to a shortage of priests in many parts of the country  The clergy were seen to have an elevated status among ordinary people and this was partly due to their purported closeness with God, being his envoys on earth  However, as the church itself had given the cause of the Black Death to be the impropriety of the behaviour of men, the higher death rate among the clergy led the people to lose faith in the Church as an institution—it had proved as ineffectual against the horror of Y  pestis as every other medieval institution  The corruption within the Catholic priesthood also angered the English people  Many priests abandoned the terrified people  Others sought benefits from the rich families who needed burials  The dissatisfaction led to anti-clericalism and the rise of John Wycliffe, an English priest  His ideas paved a path for the Christian reformation in England  Some people did not lose their Christian faith, if anything it was renewed; they began to long for a more personal relationship with God—around the time after the Black Death many chantries (private chapels) began to spread in use from not just the nobility, but to among the well-to-do  This change in the power of the papacy in England is demonstrated by the statutes of Praemunire 
The Black Death also affected arts and culture significantly  It was inevitable that a catastrophe of such proportions would affect some of the greater building projects, as the amount of available labour fell sharply  The building of the cathedrals of Ely and Exeter was temporarily halted in the years immediately following the first outbreak of the plague  The shortage of labour also helped advance the transition from the Decorated style of building to the less elaborate Perpendicular style  The Black Death may also have promoted the use of vernacular English, as the number of teachers proficient in French dwindled, contributing to the late-14th-century flowering of English literature, represented by writers such as Geoffrey Chaucer and John Gower 

Recurrences
The Black Death was the first occurrence of the second pandemic, which continued to strike England and the rest of Europe more or less regularly until the 18th century  The first serious recurrence in England came in the years 1361−62  Little is known about the death rates caused by these later outbreaks, but the so-called pestis secunda may have had a mortality of around 20 per cent  Genetic analysis performed on remains recovered from the abbey of St  Mary's Graces dating between 1353 and 1364 found the pPCP1 plasmid, a plasmid only found in Yersinia pestis and not the related environmental agent Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, revealing that this outbreak was also caused by Yersinia pestis just as the initial outbreak had been  This epidemic was also particularly devastating for the population's ability to recover, since it disproportionately affected infants and young men  This was also the case with the next occurrence, in 1369, where the death rate was around 10−15 per cent Over the following decades the plague would return—on a national or a regional level—at intervals of five to 12 years, with gradually dwindling death tolls  Then, in the decades from 1430 to 1480, the disease returned in force  An outbreak in 1471 took as much as 10–15 per cent of the population, while the death rate of the plague of 1479–80 could have been as high as 20 per cent  From that point outbreaks became fewer and more manageable, due largely to conscious efforts by central and local governments—from the late 15th century onward—to curtail the disease  This included quarantines on people and goods coming from infected places, bans on public gatherings (such as fairs), enforced household quarantine for the infected (known as 'locking up') and quarantines on ships and crews coming from ports where Plague outbreaks had occurred  From the early seventeenth century there was also greater use of quarantine facilities, called pesthouses, in preference to household quarantine  Some of these, such as the Forlorn Hope Pesthouse established by Bristol in 1665–6, appear to have been proper quarantine hospitals, staffed by doctors  The establishment of such a hospital may help to explain why the death rate in Bristol in the 1665–66 outbreak was "only" c 0 6 percent  This was much lower than the mortality rate of 10–20 percent witnessed in Bristol's Plague epidemics of 1565, 1575, 1603–04 and 1645  The Great Plague of 1665–66 was the last major outbreak in England  It is best known for the famous Great Plague of London, which killed 100,000 people (20 per cent of the population) in the capital  Other places hit hard included Eyam in Derbyshire, Derby itself and Norwich 

See also
Passage 4:
2013 Houphouët-Boigny stampede
The 2013 Houphouët-Boigny stampede occurred as crowds departed a New Year's Eve fireworks display in the early hours of 1 January 2013 near the Félix Houphouët-Boigny Stadium in Abidjan, Ivory Coast  It resulted in 61 deaths and over 200 injuries, mostly women and children  This was the second time in four years that a fatal stampede occurred at the stadium 
President Alassane Ouattara declared three days of mourning and promised an investigation 

Incident
At some time between 1 and 4 am according to sources, following the New Year's Eve celebration and fireworks display, crowds stampeded as they exited the stadium into the Boulevard de la République near the Hotel Tirama  This was the second year that fireworks had been held by the government to commemorate the end of the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis and the Second Ivorian Civil War, following the controversial 2010 presidential election  According to official reports, 61 individuals were killed, with upwards of 200 injured  According to Alain Lobognon, the Minister of Youth, 26 children were among the dead, most of whom were between the ages of 8 and 15, as well as 28 women and six men 

Investigation and reaction
The cause of the stampede is not yet clear, however a senior police spokesman has confirmed they are investigating  Lieutenant Colonel Issa Sako, the officer in charge of the military responding to the disaster, said that the deaths were caused when "people were walked over and suffocated by the crowd"  According to an Ivorian government official, approximately "50,000 people [were] on the streets     going home" after the New Year's celebrations  Witnesses have alternatively claimed that two large crowds moving in opposite directions collided, and that security forces attempting to break up the crowd leaving the stadium caused a panic Visiting the injured in hospital, President Alassane Ouattara said that the national tragedy would be investigated  Minister of the Interior Hamed Bakayoko stated in a national television broadcast on Radiodiffusion Television Ivoirienne that "the government extends its condolences to the families of those deceased and assures them of its solidarity" and that the Ivorian government would help by "all means possible " Bakayoko went on to say that "the precise circumstances of this tragic occurrence are being looked into by the security services" 
Passage 5:
2010 Elazığ earthquake
The 2010 Elazığ earthquake was a 6 1 Mw earthquake that occurred on 8 March 2010 at 02:32 UTC (04:32 local time)  The epicentre was Başyurt in Elazığ Province, in eastern Turkey  Initial reports in global media said as many as 57 people had died  By 10 March, reports in the Turkish media placed the death toll at 41 and later, the death toll rose to 42  Another 74 were injured, many after falling and jumping from buildings  A stampede through the streets led to further injuries The earthquake came one week to the day after the Turkish Chamber of Civil Engineers sent a report to parliament detailing inadequate building projects and the possibility that Istanbul would be destroyed by an earthquake, which could kill tens of thousands of people, at some point in the next three decades 

Earthquake
The quake occurred on the East Anatolian Fault, a major transform fault which represents  the boundary between the Anatolian Plate and the Arabian Plate 

Damage
According to officials, most of the deaths occurred in three villages: Okçular, Yukarı Kanatlı and Kayalı  At least five villages, though, suffered loss of life  Villagers fled buildings, spending the night outside and lighting fires in the streets for warmth Thirty houses collapsed in Okçular, and the death toll is at least 17  Reports from the scene indicate "the village is totally flattened" and "everything has been knocked down – there is not a stone in place" At least 25 people died in Yukarı Demirci, and emergency services went to Kovancılar Many people used vehicles and taxis to drive to the hospital  Most were asleep at the time the quake struck, with four sleeping sisters perishing in one house  Farm animals were also killed, and minarets fell down 

Aftershocks
Several aftershocks were felt, the strongest measuring 5 5 (at 09:47 local time), 5 1 (at 12:14) and 5 3 (at 13:12)  A total of over 20 aftershocks were counted within a short time following the quake  Villagers were told to stay away from buildings for several days due to the potential of further aftershocks Onur Tan et al  (2011) analyzed 2130 aftershocks (ML≥0 3) and reported in Geophysical Research Letters 

Response
Turkey: Four government ministers, including Deputy Prime Minister Cemil Çiçek, visited the scene as soon as news of the earthquake was reported  The Red Crescent and Turkey's disaster management centre donated blankets and tents  Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan later arrived  Pakistan: Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani sent a condolence message to his Turkish counterpart Recep Tayyip Erdoğan over the loss of lives and property and said that "We have learnt with utter sense of shock and profound sadness the news of the massive earthquake that has hit your beautiful country, today  Our hearts go out to our Turkish brethren over the loss of precious lives and destruction of property  I wish to convey, on behalf of the people and Government of Pakistan and on my own behalf our deepest condolences and commiserations to the people and Government of Turkey in bearing this enormous natural calamity " Israel: Defense Minister Ehud Barak ordered an aid proposal to be put together but later said that Turkey informed Israel that it did not require assistance at this time 

See also
2020 Elazığ earthquake
List of earthquakes in 2010
List of earthquakes in Turkey
Passage 6:
Flora (Titian)
Flora is an oil painting by Italian late Renaissance painter Titian, dated to around 1515 and now held at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence 

History
The work was reproduced in numerous 16th century etchings  Later, it followed an unclear series of changes of hands at Brussels and Vienna  In the 17th century, it was sold by the Spanish ambassador at Amsterdam to Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria and was cited by Rembrandt in his Saskia Dressing as Flora  of London and in two portraits in Dresden and New York  Later included in the Kunsthistorisches Museum of Vienna, it was one of the works exchanged with the Uffizi 
In the 18th century, it was erroneously attributed to Palma the Elder 

Description
It portrays an idealized beautiful woman, a model established in the Venetian school by Titian's master Giorgione with his Laura  Her left hand holds a pink-shaded mantle, and her right holds a handful of flowers and leaves 
The woman was portrayed by Titian in numerous other works of the period, including the Woman at the Mirror, the Vanity, Salome and Violante, as well as some Holy Conversations  The meaning of the painting is disputed: some, basing for example to inscriptions added to the 16th century reproductions, identifies the woman as a courtesan; other consider it a symbol of nuptial love, although her dress is not a dressing one  The identification with Flora, the ancient goddess of Spring and vegetation, derives from the presence of Spring flowers in her hands 

See also
List of works by Titian

Notes



ground_truth: 22

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the symbol of the Saints from the city that is the location of Blanton's manufacturer's headquarters called?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Billiken
The Billiken is a charm doll created by an American art teacher and illustrator, Florence Pretz of Kansas City, Missouri, who is said to have seen the mysterious figure in a dream  It is believed that Pretz found the name Billiken in Bliss Carman's 1896 poem "Mr  Moon: A Song Of The Little People"   In 1908, she obtained a design patent on the ornamental design of the Billiken, which she sold to the Billiken Company of Chicago   The Billiken was monkey-like with pointed ears, a mischievous smile and a tuft of hair on his pointed head  His arms were short and he was generally sitting with his legs stretched out in front of him  Billiken is known as "The God of Things as They Ought to Be" 
To buy a Billiken was said to give the purchaser luck, but to receive one as a gift would be better luck  The image was copyrighted and a trademark was put on the name  After a few years of popularity, the Billiken faded into obscurity  Although they are similar, the Billiken and the baby-like kewpie figures that debuted in the December 1909 Ladies' Home Journal are not the same 
Today, the Billiken is the official mascot of Saint Louis University and St  Louis University High School, both Jesuit institutions located in St  Louis  The Billiken is also the official mascot of the Royal Order of Jesters, an invitation only Shriner group affiliated with Freemasonry  The Billiken also became the namesake of Billiken Shokai, the Japanese toy & model manufacturing company (established 1976) 

History
The Billiken sprang from the height of the "Mind-Cure" craze in the United States at the start of the twentieth century   It represented the "no worry" ideal, and was a huge hit   Variations appeared, such as the "Teddy-Billiken Doll" and the Billycan/Billycant pair (to drive petty problems away)   The Billiken helped touch off the doll craze of the era At least two Billiken-themed songs were recorded, including "Billiken Rag" and the "Billiken Man Song " The latter was recorded by Blanche Ring The Billiken, as a good luck charm, appears multiple times in the Vivien Leigh and Robert Taylor movie Waterloo Bridge   It is employed as a device that both prompts recollections of the male lead, Robert Taylor, and that links several scenes within the movie as the plot unfolds  Wizard of Oz author L  Frank Baum kept a Billiken doll on his piano The Billiken made its Japanese debut in 1908  A statue was installed in the uppermost level of the original Tsutenkaku Tower as it was opened to the public in 1912  When the nearby Luna Park was closed in 1925, the tower's Billiken statue disappeared  In 1980, a replacement statue made its appearance in a new Tsutenkaku Tower that was built in 1956 

Sports mascot
In its heyday, the Billiken enjoyed worldwide celebrity   In the United States he became the athletic mascot of Saint Louis University, because the figure was said to resemble coach John R  Bender   The school's athletic teams remain the Billikens to this day  A bronze statue of the Billiken stands in front of the Chaifetz Arena on the Saint Louis University Campus   A junior version of the Billiken became the mascot of nearby St  Louis University High School; a stainless steel statue of the Junior Billiken stands adjacent to the Danis Fieldhouse, on the St  Louis University High School Campus  Bud Billiken was a youth-club mascot for The Chicago Defender, and was created in 1923, and is known more contemporarily as the inspiration for the yearly parade of the same name held shortly before the start of the school year 
The Billiken was the team nickname for several minor league professional baseball teams, including the Fort Wayne Billikens of the 1908–1910 Central League, the Montgomery Billikens of the 1910 Southern Association (a Class A league that ran from 1902–1935), the Bay City Billikens of the 1911 and 1912 Southern Michigan League (a league that dwelled in several classifications between 1906 and 1912), and the McLeansboro Billikens of the 1910 Kentucky–Illinois–Tennessee League ("KITTY League"), a Class D professional baseball league that ran from 1903 until 1955  McLeansboro is located in southern Illinois, 116 miles from St  Louis 

Alaska
In 1909, the Billiken began its appearance in souvenir shops of Alaska  In Nome, Alaska, an Inuit carver by the name Angokwazhuk copied a Billiken figurine in ivory brought to him by a merchant  Since that first appearance in Alaska, some Inuit carvers began to include the billiken in the collection of figurines they created  By the 1960s the Billiken was ubiquitous in larger Alaskan cities like Anchorage, and heavily touristed areas  Billikens were often carved from Alaskan ivory and were used in jewelry and knick-knacks  Often these souvenirs were accompanied by printed, romanticized Billiken lore  In Anchorage, the name was also adopted by merchants, as in the Billiken Drive-In movie theater 

Japan
Throughout Japan representations of the Billiken were enshrined  Pre-World War II statues of the Billiken could be found in Kobe city's Chinju Inari and Matsuo Inari shrines  Both of these statues were removed from display for many years at the onset of the war when foreign deities fell out of favor 
The most famous representation of the Billiken was in an amusement park, Luna Park, in the Shinsekai district of Osaka, Japan   In 1912, he was enshrined in the park as a symbol of Americana and there was revered as "The God of Things As They Ought to Be"  Popular Billiken souvenirs in the park included dolls and manjū  When the park closed in 1923, the wooden statue of the Billiken went missing 
A replica of the statue was placed in the second-generation Tsūtenkaku Tower in 1980  The Billiken was a star in Sakamoto Junji's 1996 comedy Billiken in which the statue is restored to the Tsutenkaku in an effort to revive the popularity of the tower and save Shinsekai The statue was a permanent fixture in the tower until September 2005 when it made its first departure and was taken, as an ambassador of sorts, to Shibuya's Tokyu Hands department store in Tokyo as a part of a fair to promote Naniwa (traditional Osaka) culture   As a part of the cultural exchange, a replica of the statue of Shibuya's most famous dog, Hachikō, was sent to Osaka 
In October 2008, the Billiken of Tsutenkaku took a journey all the way from Japan to its "home" city of St  Louis, Missouri where it was visited by students of St  Louis University, whose mascot is also the Billiken 
Due to wear (particularly to the soles of the feet), the dark, worn statue replica from 1980 was replaced in May 2012 with a new one  Presently he resides on the fifth floor observation deck and has become closely associated with the tower  Each year thousands of visitors place a coin in his donation box and rub the soles of his well-worn feet to make their wishes come true 
The Billiken also became the namesake of Billiken Shokai, the Japanese toy & model manufacturing company established in 1976 

Notes
See also
Billiken, an Argentine children's magazine named after the doll
Passage 2:
Economy of Saint Lucia
Once a single-crop agricultural economy, Saint Lucia has shifted to a tourism and banking serviced-based economy  Tourism, the island's biggest industry and main source of jobs, income and foreign exchange, accounts for 65% of its GDP  Agriculture, which was once the biggest industry, now contributes to less than 3% of GDP, but still accounts for 20% of jobs  The banana industry is now on a decline due to strong competition from low-cost Latin American producers and reduced European trade preferences, but the government has helped revitalize the industry, with 13,734 tonnes exported in 2018  Agricultural crops grown for export are bananas, mangoes, and avocados  The island is considered to have the most diverse and well-developed manufacturing industry in the eastern Caribbean 
Saint Lucia has been able to attract many foreign businesses and investors 

Economic history
The island's banana output was heavily impacted in 2007 by  Hurricane Dean  In 2006, the governor stated:

While living standards have improved for many, a large number of people have been pushed to the margin of economic activity, especially in the areas which once depended heavily on the banana industry for a livelihood 

Sectors
Agriculture
Agriculture is the second-largest industry in Saint Lucia  In 2020, agriculture only contributed 2 2% to Saint Lucia's GDP, but still accounts for a significant number of jobs - some 10% of the employed population  As of the 2010 census, the roughly 10,000 agricultural holdings covered an area of 30,204 acres, an average of 3 0 acres per agricultural holding 
About 18% of the land is used for agricultural practices  Most farms consist of less than 5 acres of land  The main agricultural products grown in Saint Lucia are bananas, coconuts, cocoa beans, mangoes, avocados, vegetables, citrus fruits, and root crops such as yams and sweet potatoes  Most of these agricultural products are grown for local consumption, but bananas and coconuts are mainly grown for export, with some vegetables  Bananas occupy about 14,826 acres of the agricultural land, while coconuts occupy 12,400 acres 
Saint Lucia has a small livestock sector, which is dominated by poultry and pork  The island is self-sufficient in egg production and is trying to become self-sufficient in poultry and pork production  The Ministry of Agriculture is encouraging farmers to raise sheep and goats to reduce the island's importation of frozen meats, and has helped by providing support to farmers, importing bloodlines of livestock to increase the productivity of animals, and providing subsidies on animal feed 
Help is also being given to revitalize the local dairy and beef industries through the introduction of efficient cattle breeds, training of farmers to care properly for livestock, and establishing funds for the construction of dairy units and abattoirs 
The island is also looking to expand its exports under the Taste of Saint Lucia brand sponsored by Export Saint Lucia  Products that are being promoted include Saint Lucia Honey, rum, chocolate, coconut oil, granola, and insect repellent 

Tourism
The island currently attracts over 900,000 visitors annually  St Lucia has been able to attract foreign businesses and investment, especially in its offshore banking and tourism industries  Tourism is St Lucia's main source of jobs and income, accounting for 65% of GDP, and the island's main source of foreign exchange earnings  The northern end of St Lucia is tourism's most urbanized area, with a fair number of hotels and resorts located along beaches, or with seaside views  This is also home to many of the island's large, all-inclusive resorts 

Economic trends
The level of island households living at or below the poverty level increased from 18 7 to 21 4% from 1995 to 2005  As of 2006, another 16 2% of the island's population are vulnerable to economic shocks that could easily push them below the poverty line   One rural district had 44 9% of households living below the poverty line (2005) To broaden the island's economic base, the government added small, computer-driven information technology and financial services as development objectives 
St  Lucia's leading revenue producers—agriculture, tourism, and small-scale manufacturing—benefited from a focus on infrastructure improvements in roads, communications, water supply, sewerage, and port facilities  Foreign investors also have been attracted by the infrastructure improvements and by the educated and skilled work force and relatively stable political conditions  The largest investment is in a petroleum storage and transshipment terminal built by Hess Oil  The Caribbean Development Bank  funded an airport expansion project 
Until the events of 11 September 2001, the tourism sector had made significant gains, experiencing a boom despite some untimely and destructive hurricanes  Stay-over visitors and cruise arrivals declined in 2001, and several hotels declared bankruptcy, including the Hyatt  The development of the tourism sector remains a priority, and the government is committed to providing a favourable investment environment  Incentives are available for building and upgrading tourism facilities  Use of public funds to improve the physical infrastructure of the island has been liberal, and the government has made efforts to attract cultural and sporting events and develop historical sites 

Overview
St  Lucia's economy depends primarily on revenue from tourism and banana production, with some contribution from small-scale manufacturing 
Although banana revenues have helped fund the country's development since the 1960s, the industry is now in a terminal decline, due to reduced European Union trade preferences and competition from lower-cost Latin American banana producers  The country is encouraging farmers to plant crops such as cocoa, mangoes, and avocados to diversify its agricultural production and provide jobs for displaced banana workers 
Tourism recovered in 2004, following the post-11 September 2001 recession, and continued to grow in 2005, making up more than 48% of St  Lucia's GDP  The hotel and restaurant industry grew by 6 3% during 2005  Stay-over arrivals increased by 6 5%, and the United States remained the most important market, accounting for 35 4% of these arrivals  Yacht passengers rose by 21 9%  Redeployment of cruise ships, remedial berth construction, and high fuel costs prevented higher growth rates  However, several investors have planned new tourism projects for the island, including a large hotel and resort in the southern part of the island  The global recession has caused a reduction in tourist revenue and foreign investment, significantly slowing growth rates 
St  Lucia's currency is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar (EC$), a regional currency shared among members of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union (ECCU)  The Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) issues the EC$, manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries  The ECCB has kept the EC$ pegged at EC$2 7 = US$1 
St  Lucia is a beneficiary of the U S  Caribbean Basin Initiative and is a member of the Caribbean Community and Common Market  The country hosts the executive secretariat of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States 
St  Lucia is the headquarters of the Eastern Caribbean Telecommunications authority, which is developing the regulations to liberalize the telecommunications sector in the region by 2004 

Economic statistics

GDP: purchasing power party - $1,667 billion (2016 est )
GDP - real growth rate: 3 5% (2012 est )
GDP - per capita: purchasing power party - $12,952 (2016 est )GDP - composition by sector:

agriculture: 2 43%
industry: 13 43%
services: 84 14% (2016 est )Population below poverty line: 21 4% (2005)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%:
NA%
highest 10%:
NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): -0 934% (2016 est )
Labour force: 50,300 (2011)
Labour force - by occupation:

agriculture 21 7%,
industry and commerce 24 7%,
services 53 6% (2002 est )Unemployment rate: 15% (2013 est )
Pay:
best is $350 a week
Budget:
revenues:
$141 2 million
expenditures:
$146 7 million, including capital expenditures of $25 1 million (2000 estimate)
Industries:
clothing, assembly of electronic components, beverages, corrugated cardboard boxes, tourism, lime processing, coconut processing
Industrial production growth rate:

8 9% (1997 est )Electricity - production: 281 GWh (2003)
Electricity - production by source:
fossil fuel:
100%
hydro:
0%
nuclear:
0%
other:
0% (1998)
Electricity - consumption: 102 KWh (1998)
Agriculture - products:
bananas, coconuts, vegetables, citrus, root crops, cocoa
Exports: $82 million (2004)
Exports - commodities:
bananas 41%, clothing, cocoa, vegetables, fruits, coconut oil
Exports - partners:France 25%, United States 18 3%, United Kingdom 14 5%, Brazil 6 8% (2005)
Imports:
$410 million (2004)
Imports - commodities:
food 23%, manufactured goods 21%, machinery and transportation equipment 19%, chemicals, fuels
Imports - partners:
United States 23 8%, Trinidad and Tobago 16%, Netherlands 11 1%, Venezuela 6 3%, Finland 6 2%, United Kingdom 5 7%, France 4 7% (2005)
Debt - external:

$214 million (2000)Economic aid - recipient: $51 8 million (1995)
Currency: 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
Exchange rates: East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 – 2 7000 (fixed rate since 1976)
Fiscal year: 1 April – 31 March
Passage 3:
Blanton's
Blanton's is a brand of bourbon whiskey produced and marketed by the Sazerac Company  Though it doesn't own the brand, it has exclusive distilling rights  It is owned by Age International, Inc  It is distilled in Frankfort, Kentucky at the Buffalo Trace Distillery 

History
The Blanton's brand was launched in 1984 under the guidance of the distillery's master distiller Elmer T  Lee, as the first modern bourbon brand marketed as a single barrel bourbon  The original brand name was "Blanton's Single Barrel Bourbon"  A single barrel bourbon is one for which each bottling batch is produced from the contents of only one particular aging barrel – not mixed with whiskey from any other barrels (and not blended with neutral spirits, colorings, or flavorings)  The company says that producing a high quality whiskey using this production method requires constant monitoring of every barrel in the middle of the warehouse by the Master Distiller  The barrels are dumped by hand without using machinery  There are eight different stopper designs, each with a different letter of the alphabet molded into it and topped with a figurine of a racehorse and jockey   When placed in order, spelling "B L A N T O N: S", the horse and jockey's poses display eight different scenes of a horse race, from standing at the gate, to crossing the finish line with a win 
Blanton's Single Barrel Bourbon is typically aged for 6 to 8 years  It is aged in Warehouse H at Buffalo Trace, which is the only metal-cladded warehouse at Buffalo Trace and was commissioned for construction by one of the distillery's early leaders, Albert B  Blanton, shortly after the end of the Prohibition era  Being metal, the warehouse transfers heat quicker than brick warehouses, which allows for more rapid aging There are multiple different expressions of Blanton's, each being a different proof  The original 93 proof Blanton's was the only expression available in the United States until 2020  That year, Sazerac Company announced domestic annual limited releases of 103 proof Blanton's Gold and cask proof Blanton's Straight From the Barrel 

Prior to these announcements, both Gold and Straight From the Barrel were available exclusively in select international markets  
Other export-only expressions are available in select international markets, including 80 proof Green Label Special Reserve, and the Japanese market's 80 proof Black Label, 93 proof Takara Red and 103 proof Takara Gold, all of which are aged for an additional two years  From 2014 to 2018 a 'Poland Limited Edition' release was bottled for the M&P Wine and Spirits Festival in Raszyn, Poland  Since 2019, this has been marketed as a 'Special Release' available to select European markets and retailers  Moreover, an annual collaboration with Parisian Whisky retailer La Maison du Whisky has been released every year since 2006, with the inaugural bottling celebrating the 50th Anniversary of La Maison, presented at their Whisky Festival 

Albert Blanton and the Buffalo Trace distillery
Blanton's bourbon was named in honor of one of the distillery's early leaders, Albert B  Blanton, who the company claims spent most of his life preserving the tradition of handcrafted bourbon  Blanton worked at the facility now known as the Buffalo Trace Distillery for approximately 55 years  He was born and raised on a farm just outside Frankfort, Kentucky, and he began working at the distillery (then called the O F C  Distillery or Old Fire Copper Distillery) in 1897 as an office boy when he was 16 years old  Over the next few years, he reportedly worked in every department, and in 1912 he was appointed superintendent of the distillery, its warehouse, and bottling shop – at the same time that the distillery was renamed to become the George T  Stagg Distillery  He became president of the whiskey plant in 1921  Blanton died in 1959 
The company refers to him as "Colonel Blanton", as he held the honorific title of Kentucky Colonel (a relatively common honorific bestowed by the Commonwealth of Kentucky)  The distillery had several owners during its history, and was renamed by its current owner, the Sazerac Company, to become the Buffalo Trace Distillery in 2001 
Elmer T  Lee, the originator of Blanton's, was hired by the distillery by Blanton in 1949  He introduced the Blanton's brand in 1984, a year before he retired, as the first modern brand of bourbon marketed as single barrel bourbon  Lee continued to act as an ambassador for Buffalo Trace until his death in 2013 
Passage 4:
Auguste Levêque
Auguste Levêque (1866 – 1921) was a Belgian painter influenced both by realism and symbolism  Levêque was also a sculptor, poet and art theoretician 
Levêque was born in Nivelles, Walloon Brabant  He studied under Jean-François Portaels at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, and received the Prix Godecharle for his painting Job in 1890 
Levêque was a member of the "Salon d'Art Idéaliste", formed by Jean Delville in Brussels in 1896, which is considered the Belgian equivalent to the Parisian Rose & Cross Salon  Other members of the group were  Léon Frédéric, Albert Ciamberlani, Constant Montald, Emile Motte, Victor Rousseau, Armand Point and Alexandre Séon  The Salon was abandoned in 1898  He died in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode 

Notable paintings
Job
Les Dentelles d'airain
Panthéra et Vipérena
Mater dolorosa
Circé
Dante
Parque
Repos
Ouvriers tragiques
Triomphe de la Mort
Moisson future
Hymne d'Amour
Repos de Diane
Combat de Centaures
Portrait d'Edmond Picard (I)
Portrait d'Edmond Picard (II)

Notable sculptures
Fin de Sodome
Triomphe de la Vigne
Combat d'amazones
Vision païenne
Passage 5:
KCC Corporation
KCC Corporation (renamed from Kumkang Korea Chemicals Co , Ltd  on February 25, 2005) is a Korean chemical and auto parts manufacturer, headquartered in Seoul, South Korea 

Operations
KCC's products include various kinds of paints, float glass, soft sponges, silicon, chassis, and car parts  This company is the biggest provider of construction materials and paints in South Korea  Various types of industrial materials such as epoxy moulding compound, alumina metallizing, silicone etc  are produced in 13 domestic locations 
KCC Corporation has 9 overseas liaison offices and 7 overseas factories over the world:

KCC Houston (Texas, U S  - Liaison Office)
KCC Tokyo (Tokyo, Japan - Liaison Office)
KCC Hong Kong (Hong Kong, China - Liaison Office)
KCC Dubai (Dubai, U A E  - Liaison Office)
KCC Greece (Piraeus, Greece - Liaison Office)
KCC Hamburg (Hamburg, Germany - Liaison Office)
KCC Iran (Teheran, Iran - Liaison Office)
KCC Moscow (Moscow, Russia - Liaison Office)
KCC Shanghai (Shanghai, China - Liaison Office)
KCC Kunshan (Shanghai, China - Paint Factory)
KCC Beijing (Beijing, China - Paint Factory)
KCC Guangzhou (Guangzhou, China - Paint Factory)
KCC Singapore (Singapore - Paint Factory)
KCC Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - Paint Factory)
KCC India (Chennai, India - Paint Factory)
KCC Turkey (Istanbul, Turkey - Paint Factory)
KCC Poland (Lublin, Poland - Liaison Office)
KCC Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh, VietNam - Liaison Office)

Main Rivals in Silicone Markets
KCC's silicone is one of major market which is developing  There are some main rivals for this Korean company to develop market as the list below:
Dow Corning (USA)
Momentive (USA)
Shin-Etsu (Japan)
Wacker (Germany)
Bluestar silicone (China)

Purchasing Basildon Chemical
April 2011, Basildon Chemicals was purchased by the KCC Corporation of Korea  In this partnership, KCC gains a company with a history in silicone emulsification 

See also
Economy of South Korea
Jeonju KCC Egis
Passage 6:
Intrall
Intrall, or International Truck Alliance, is a Russo-British automotive company with headquarters in London, England, and manufacturing in Poland   At the end of 2003, the company acquired from Intrall Treasury factory of Daewoo Motor Poland in Lublin, then operating from January 2004 to 2007 years, called Intrall Polska (Intrall Poland)   Under the new production in 2005, FSC Lublin and Honker models were produced under the Intrall brand   In 2006 the company acquired the rights to produce models of trucks of the Czech brand Praga   A brand-new commercial van/truck was developed called the Intrall Lubo 
Production was suspended in 2007 as tougher engine emission requirements were implemented, plus the Polish government (a major customer) required all Polish-military providers to be at least 50% owned by Polish interests  In October 2007, Intrall Polska was declared bankrupt by Polish court  In 2007, Intrall was declared bankrupt in London court 

Products
Lublin vehicles
Lublin Furgon all metal van
Lublin Furgon with raised roof
Lublin Towas work van
Lublin Kombi
Lublin Skrzyniowy flatbed
Lublin Brygadowy four door flatbed
Lublin Kontener - box body
Lublin special vehicles
Police, fire an emergency vehicles

Honker vehicles
Honker hardtop
Honker Softtop
Honker Skorpion - desert patrol vehicle [1]
Honker Sibil - civil version of the Skorpion
Honker special vehicles
Military ambulance

Gallery
See also
Honker
Passage 7:
Fleur-de-lis
The fleur-de-lis, also spelled fleur-de-lys (plural fleurs-de-lis or fleurs-de-lys), is a common heraldic charge in the shape of a lily (in French, fleur and lis mean 'flower' and 'lily' respectively)  Most notably, the fleur-de-lis is depicted on the traditional coat of arms of France that was used from the High Middle Ages until the French Revolution in 1792, and then again in brief periods in the 19th century  This design still represents France and the House of Bourbon in the form of marshalling in e g  the arms of Spain, Quebec and Canada 
Other European nations have also employed the symbol  The fleur-de-lis became "at one and the same time, religious, political, dynastic, artistic, emblematic, and symbolic," especially in French heraldry  The Virgin Mary and Saint Joseph are among saints often depicted with a lily 
The fleur-de-lis is represented in Unicode at U+269C ⚜  in the Miscellaneous Symbols block 

Origin
The fleur-de-lis is widely thought to be a stylized version of the species Iris pseudacorus, or Iris florentina  However, the lily (genus Lilium, family Liliaceae) and the iris (family Iridaceae) are two different plants, phylogenetically and taxonomically unrelated  Lily (in Italian: giglio) is the name usually associated with the stylized flower in the Florentine heraldic devices 
Decorative ornaments that resemble the fleur-de-lis have appeared in artwork from the earliest human civilizations  According to Pierre-Augustin Boissier de Sauvages, an 18th-century French naturalist and lexicographer:
The old fleurs-de-lis, especially the ones found in our first kings' sceptres, have a lot less in common with ordinary lilies than the flowers called flambas [in Occitan], or irises, from which the name of our own fleur-de-lis may derive  What gives some colour of truth to this hypothesis that we already put forth, is the fact that the French or Franks, before entering Gaul itself, lived for a long time around the river named Lys in the Flanders  Nowadays, this river is still bordered with an exceptional number of irises —as many plants grow for centuries in the same places—: these irises have yellow flowers, which is not a typical feature of lilies but fleurs-de-lis  It was thus understandable that our kings, having to choose a symbolic image for what later became a coat of arms, set their minds on the iris, a flower that was common around their homes, and is also as beautiful as it was remarkable  They called it, in short, the fleur-de-lis, instead of the flower of the river of lis  This flower, or iris, looks like our fleur-de-lis not just because of its yellow colour but also because of its shape: of the six petals, or leaves, that it has, three of them are alternatively straight and meet at their tops  The other three on the opposite, bend down so that the middle one seems to make one with the stalk and only the two ones facing out from left and right can clearly be seen, which is again similar with our fleurs-de-lis, that is to say exclusively the one from the river Luts whose white petals bend down too when the flower blooms 

The heraldist François Velde is known to have expressed the same opinion:
However, a hypothesis ventured in the 17th c  sounds very plausible to me  One species of wild iris, the Iris pseudacorus, yellow flag in English, is yellow and grows in marshes (cf  the azure field, for water)  Its name in German is Lieschblume (also gelbe Schwertlilie), but Liesch was also spelled Lies and Leys in the Middle Ages  It is easy to imagine that, in Northern France, the Lieschblume would have been called 'fleur-de-lis'  This would explain the name and the formal origin of the design, as a stylized yellow flag  There is a fanciful legend about Clovis which links the yellow flag explicitly with the French coat of arms 
Sauvages' hypothesis seems to be supported by the archaic English spelling fleur-de-luce and by the Luts's variant name Lits 

Alternative derivations
Another (debated) hypothesis is that the symbol derives from the angon or sting,  a typical Frankish throwing spear  The medieval Bec de Corban, a bladed and hooked polearm, bears similarities to the symbol as well  
A possibly derived symbol of Frankish royalty was the bee, of similar shape, as found in the burial of Childric I, whose royal see of power over the Salian Franks was based over the valley of the Lys Other imaginative explanations include the shape having been developed from the image of a dove descending, which is the symbol of the Holy Ghost 

Ancient usages
It has consistently been used as a royal emblem, though different cultures have interpreted its meaning in varying ways  Gaulish coins show the first Western designs which look similar to modern fleurs-de-lis  In the East it was found on the gold helmet of a Scythian king uncovered at the Ak-Burun kurgan and conserved in Saint Petersburg's Hermitage Museum 

Heraldic use
France
While the fleur-de-lis has appeared on countless European coats of arms and flags over the centuries, it is particularly associated with the French monarchy in a historical context and continues to appear in the arms of the king of Spain (from the French House of Bourbon), the grand duke of Luxembourg, and members of the House of Bourbon  It remains an enduring symbol of France which appears on French postage stamps, although it has never been adopted officially by any of the French republics  According to French historian Georges Duby, the three petals represent the three medieval social estates: the commoners, the nobility, and the clergy Although the origin of the fleur-de-lis is unclear, it has retained an association with French nobility  It is widely used in French city emblems as in the coat of arms of the city of Lille, Saint-Denis, Brest, Clermont-Ferrand, Boulogne-Billancourt, and Calais  Some cities that had been particularly faithful to the French Crown were awarded a heraldic augmentation of two or three fleurs-de-lis on the chief of their coat of arms; such cities include Paris, Lyon, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Reims, Le Havre, Angers, Le Mans, Aix-en-Provence, Tours, Limoges, Amiens, Orléans, Rouen, Argenteuil, Poitiers, Chartres, and Laon, among others  The fleur-de-lis was the symbol of Île-de-France, the core of the French kingdom  It has appeared on the coat-of-arms of other historical provinces of France including Burgundy, Anjou, Picardy, Berry, Orléanais, Bourbonnais, Maine, Touraine, Artois, Dauphiné, Saintonge, and the County of La Marche  Many of the current French departments use the symbol on their coats-of-arms to express this heritage 

The graphic evolution of crita to fleur-de-lis was accompanied by textual allegory  By the late 13th century, an allegorical poem by Guillaume de Nangis (d  1300), written at Joyenval Abbey in Chambourcy, relates how the golden lilies on an azure ground were miraculously substituted for the crescents on Clovis' shield, a projection into the past of contemporary images of heraldry The fleur-de-lis' symbolic origins with French monarchs may stem from the baptismal lily used in the crowning of King Clovis I  The French monarchy may have adopted the Fleur-de-lis for its royal coat of arms as a symbol of purity to commemorate the conversion of Clovis I, and a reminder of the Fleur-de-lis ampulla that held the oil used to anoint the king  So, the fleur-de-lis stood as a symbol of the king's divinely approved right to rule  The thus "anointed" kings of France later maintained that their authority was directly from God  A legend enhances the mystique of royalty by informing us that a vial of oil—the Holy Ampulla—descended from Heaven to anoint and sanctify Clovis as King, descending directly on Clovis or perhaps brought by a dove to Saint Remigius  One version explains that an angel descended with the Fleur-de-lis ampulla to anoint the king  Another story tells of Clovis putting a flower in his helmet just before his victory at the Battle of Vouillé  Through this propagandist connection to Clovis, the fleur-de-lis has been taken in retrospect to symbolize all the Christian Frankish kings, most notably Charlemagne In the 14th-century French writers asserted that the monarchy of France, which developed from the Kingdom of the West Franks, could trace its heritage back to the divine gift of royal arms received by Clovis  This story has remained popular, even though modern scholarship has established that the fleur-de-lis was a religious symbol before it was a true heraldic symbol  Along with true lilies, it was associated with the Virgin Mary, and in the 12th century Louis VI and Louis VII (House of Capet) started to use the emblem, on sceptres for example, so connecting their rulership with this symbol of saintliness and divine right  Louis VII ordered the use of fleur-de-lis clothing in his son Philip's coronation in 1179, while the first visual evidence of clearly heraldic use dates from 1211: a seal showing the future Louis VIII and his shield strewn with the "flowers"  Until the late 14th century the French royal coat of arms was Azure semé-de-lis Or (a blue shield "sown" (semé) with a scattering of small golden fleurs-de-lis), but Charles V of France changed the design from an all-over scattering to a group of three in about 1376  These two coats are known in heraldic terminology as France Ancient and France Modern, respectively 

In the reign of King Louis IX (St  Louis) the three petals of the flower were said to represent faith, wisdom and chivalry, and to be a sign of divine favour bestowed on France  During the next century, the 14th, the tradition of Trinity symbolism was established in France, and then spread elsewhere In 1328, King Edward III of England inherited a claim to the crown of France, and in about 1340 he quartered France Ancient with the arms of Plantagenet, as "arms of pretence"    After the kings of France adopted France Modern, the kings of England adopted the new design as quarterings from about 1411  The monarchs of England (and later of Great Britain) continued to quarter the French arms until 1801, when George III abandoned his formal claim to the French throne King Charles VII ennobled Joan of Arc's family on 29 December 1429 with an inheritable symbolic denomination  The Chamber of Accounts in France registered the family's designation to nobility on 20 January 1430  The grant permitted the family to change their surname to du Lys 

France Moderne
France moderne remained the French royal standard, and with a white background was the French national flag until the French Revolution, when it was replaced by the tricolor of modern-day France  The fleur-de-lis was restored to the French flag in 1814, but replaced once again after the revolution against Charles X of France in 1830  In a very strange turn of events after the end of the Second French Empire, where a flag apparently influenced the course of history, Henri, comte de Chambord, was offered the throne as King of France, but he agreed only if France gave up the tricolor and brought back the white flag with fleurs-de-lis  His condition was rejected and France became a republic 

Other contries
In Brazil, the city of Joinville has three fleurs-de-lis surmounted with a label of three points on its flag and coat of arms  Due to the city is named after François d'Orléans, Prince of Joinville, son of King Louis-Philippe I of France, who married Princess Francisca of Brazil in 1843 
The fleur-de-lis appears on the coat of Guadeloupe, an overseas département of France in the Caribbean, Saint Barthélemy, an overseas collectivity of France, and French Guiana  The overseas department of Réunion in the Indian Ocean uses the same feature  It appears on the coat of Port Louis, the capital of Mauritius which was named in honour of King Louis XV  On the coat of arms of Saint Lucia it represents the French heritage of the country 
In Ukraine, the Foreign Intelligence Service used the emblem with the coat of arms of Ukraine in conjunction with four golden fleurs-de-lis, along with the motto "Omnia, Vincit, Veritas" 

Municipal coats-of-arms
Fleurs-de-lis feature prominently in the Crown Jewels of England and Scotland  In English heraldry, they are used in many different ways, and can be the cadency mark of the sixth son  Additionally, it features in a large number of royal arms of the House of Plantagenet, from the 13th century onwards to the early Tudors (Elizabeth of York and the de la Pole family) The tressure flory–counterflory (flowered border) has been a prominent part of the design of the Scottish royal arms and Royal Standard since James I of Scotland 

In Italy, fleurs-de-lis have been used for some papal crowns and coats of arms, the Farnese Dukes of Parma, and by some doges of Venice The fleur-de-lis was also the symbol of the House of Kotromanić, a ruling house in medieval Bosnia allegedly in recognition of the Capetian House of Anjou, where the flower is thought of as a Lilium bosniacum  Today, fleur-de-lis is a national symbol of Bosniaks Other countries include Spain in recognition of rulers from the House of Bourbon  Coins minted in 14th-century Romania, from the region that was the Principality of Moldova at the time, ruled by Petru I Mușat, carry the fleur-de-lis symbol As a dynastic emblem it has also been very widely used: not only by noble families but also, for example, by the Fuggers, a medieval banking family 
Three fleurs-de-lis appeared in the personal coat of arms of Grandmaster Alof de Wignacourt who ruled the Malta between 1601 and 1622  His nephew Adrien de Wignacourt, who was Grandmaster himself from 1690 to 1697, also had a similar coat of arms with three fleurs-de-lis 
The heraldic fleur-de-lis is still widespread: among the numerous cities which use it as a symbol are some whose names echo the word 'lily', for example, Liljendal, Finland, and Lelystad, Netherlands  This is called canting arms in heraldic terminology  Other European examples of municipal coats-of-arms bearing the fleur-de-lis include Lincoln in England, Morcín in Spain, Wiesbaden and Darmstadt in Germany, Skierniewice in Poland and Jurbarkas in Lithuania  The Swiss municipality of Schlieren and the Estonian municipality of Jõelähtme also have a fleur-de-lis on their coats In Malta, the town of Santa Venera has three red fleurs-de-lis on its flag and coat of arms  These are derived from an arch which was part of the Wignacourt Aqueduct that had three sculpted fleurs-de-lis on top, as they were the heraldic symbols of Alof de Wignacourt, the Grand Master who financed its building  Another suburb which developed around the area became known as Fleur-de-Lys, and it also features a red fleur-de-lis on its flag and coat of arms 

Albania
In Albania, fleur-de-lys (alb: Lulja e Zambakut) has been always associated with the Noble House of Topia  After the Ottoman invasion of Albania, the symbol was removed by the Toptani family, a branch of the Topia Family 

Belarus
The Belarusian Scouting and Guiding organization that, while preserving the traditions of the past, uses a fleur-de-lis as a symbol 

Bosnia and Herzegovina
The golden lily is a traditional symbol of the Bosniak people  The coat of arms of the medieval Kingdom of Bosnia contained six fleurs-de-lis, understood as the native Bosnian or Golden Lily, Lilium bosniacum  This emblem was revived in 1992 as a national symbol of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and was the flag of Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1992 to 1998  The state insignia were changed in 1999  The former flag of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina contains a fleur-de-lis alongside the Croatian chequy  Fleurs also appear in the flags and arms of many cantons, municipalities, cities and towns  It is still used as official insignia of the Bosniak Regiment of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Canada
The Royal Banner of France or "Bourbon Flag"  symbolizing royal France, was the most commonly used flag in New France  The  "Bourbon Flag" has three gold fleur-de-lis on a dark blue field arranged two and one  The fleur-de-lys was also seen on New France's currency often referred to as "card money"  The white Royal Banner of France was used by the military of New France and was seen on naval vessels and forts of New France  After the fall of New France to the British Empire the fleur-de-lys remained visible on churches and remained part of French cultural symbolism  There are many French-speaking Canadians for whom the fleur-de-lis remains a symbol of their French cultural identity  Québécois, Franco-Ontarians, Franco-Ténois and Franco-Albertans, feature the fleur-de-lis prominently on their flags 
The Fleur-de-lys, as a traditional Royal symbol in Canada, has been incorporated into many national symbols, provincial symbols and
municipal symbols, The Canadian Red Ensign that served as the nautical flag and civil ensign for Canada from 1892 to 1965 and later as an informal flag of Canada before 1965 featured the traditional number of three golden fleur-de-lys on a blue background  The Arms of Canada throughout its variations has used fleur-de-lys, beginning in 1921 and subsequent various has featuring the blue "Bourbon Flag" in two locations within arms  The Canadian Royal cypher and the Arms of Canada feature St Edward's Crown that displays five cross pattée and four fleur-de-lys   The fleur-de-lis is featured on the flag of Quebec, known as the Fleurdelisé, as well as the flags of the cities of Montreal, Sherbrooke and Trois-Rivières 

Italy
In Italy, the fleur de lis - called giglio bottonato (it) - is mainly known from the crest of the city of Florence  In the Florentine fleurs-de-lis  the stamens are always posed between the petals  Originally argent (silver or white) on gules (red) background, the emblem became the standard of the imperial party in Florence (parte ghibellina), causing the town government, which maintained a staunch Guelph stance, being strongly opposed to the imperial pretensions on city states, to reverse the color pattern to the final gules lily on argent background  This heraldic charge is often known as the Florentine lily to distinguish it from the conventional (stamen-not-shown) design  As an emblem of the city, it is therefore found in icons of Zenobius, its first bishop, and associated with Florence's patron Saint John the Baptist in the Florentine fiorino  Several towns subjugated by Florence or founded within the territory of the Florentine Republic adopted a variation of the Florentine lily in their crests, often without the stamens 

Lithuania
The design of the arms of Jurbarkas is believed to originate from the arms of the Sapieha house, a Lithuanian noble family which was responsible for Jurbarkas receiving city rights and a coat of arms in 1611 The three fleurs-de-lis design on the Jurbarkas coat of arms was abolished during the final years of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but officially restored in 1993 after the independence of present-day Lithuania was re-established  Before restoration, several variant designs, such as using one over two fleurs-de-lis, had been restored and abolished  The original two over one version was briefly readopted in 1970 during the Soviet occupation, but abolished that same year 

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, a fleur-de-lis has appeared in the official arms of the Norroy King of Arms for hundreds of years  A silver fleur-de-lis on a blue background is the arms of the Barons Digby In English and Canadian heraldry the fleur-de-lis is the cadence mark of a sixth son It can also be found on the arms of the Scottish clan Chiefs of both Carruthers; Gules two engrailed chevrons between three fleur-d-lis Or and the Brouns/Browns: Gules a chevron between three fleur d-lis Or 

United States
Fleurs-de-lis crossed the Atlantic along with Europeans going to the New World, especially with French settlers  Their presence on North American flags and coats of arms usually recalls the involvement of French settlers in New France of the town or region concerned, and in some cases the persisting presence there of a population descended from such settlers 

In the US, the fleur-de-lis symbols tend to be along or near the Mississippi and Missouri rivers  These are areas of strong French colonial empire settlement  Some of the places that have it in their flag or seal are the cities of Baton Rouge, Detroit, Lafayette, Louisville, Mobile, New Orleans, Ocean Springs and St  Louis  On 9 July 2008, Louisiana governor Bobby Jindal signed a bill into law making the fleur-de-lis an official symbol of the state  Following Hurricane Katrina on 29 August 2005, the fleur-de-lis has been widely used in New Orleans and throughout Louisiana, as a symbol of grassroots support for New Orleans' recovery  The coat of arms of St  Augustine, Florida has a fleur-de-lis on the first quarter, due to its connection with Huguenots  Several counties have flags and seals based on pre-1801 British royal arms also includes fleur-de-lis symbols  They are King George County, Virginia and Prince George's County, Somerset County, Kent County, and Montgomery County in Maryland 
It has also become the symbol for the identity of the Cajuns and Louisiana Creole people, and their French heritage 

Military
Fleurs-de-lis are featured in military healdry  E g , in the United States, the New Jersey Army National Guard unit 112th Field Artillery (Self Propelled)—part of the much larger 42nd Infantry Division Mechanized—which has it in the upper left side of their distinctive unit insignia; the U S  Army's 2nd Cavalry Regiment, 319th Airborne Field Artillery Regiment, 62nd Medical Brigade, 256th Infantry Brigade Combat Team; and the Corps of Cadets at Louisiana State University   The U S  Air Force's Special Operations Weather Beret Flash also used a fleurs-de-lis in its design, carried over from its Vietnam War era Commando Weatherman Beret Flash  It is also featured by the Israeli Intelligence Corps, and the First World War Canadian Expeditionary Force  In the British Army, the fleur-de-lis was the cap badge of the Manchester Regiment from 1922 until 1958, and also its successor, the King's Regiment up to its amalgamation in 2006  It commemorates the capture of French regimental colours by their predecessors, the 63rd Regiment of Foot, during the Invasion of Martinique in 1759  It is also the formation sign of the 2nd (Independent) Armored Brigade of the Indian Army, known as the 7th Indian Cavalry Brigade in First World War, which received the emblem for its actions in France 

In religion and art
In the Middle Ages, the symbols of lily and fleur-de-lis overlapped considerably in Christian religious art  The historian Michel Pastoureau says that until about 1300 they were found in depictions of Jesus, but gradually they took on Marian symbolism and were associated with the Song of Solomon's "lily among thorns" (lilium inter spinas), understood as a reference to Mary  Other scripture and religious literature in which the lily symbolizes purity and chastity also helped establish the flower as an iconographic attribute of the Virgin  It was also believed that the fleur-de-lis represented the Holy Trinity In medieval England, from the mid-12th century, a noblewoman's seal often showed the lady with a fleur-de-lis, drawing on the Marian connotations of "female virtue and spirituality"  Images of Mary holding the flower first appeared in the 11th century on coins issued by cathedrals dedicated to her, and next on the seals of cathedral chapters, starting with Notre Dame de Paris in 1146  A standard portrayal was of Mary carrying the flower in her right hand, just as she is shown in that church's Virgin of Paris statue (with lily), and in the centre of the stained glass rose window (with fleur-de-lis sceptre) above its main entrance  The flowers may be "simple fleurons, sometimes garden lilies, sometimes genuine heraldic fleurs-de-lis"  As attributes of the Madonna, they are often seen in pictures of the Annunciation, notably in those of Sandro Botticelli and Filippo Lippi  Lippi also uses both flowers in other related contexts: for instance, in his Madonna in the Forest 
The three petals of the heraldic design reflect a widespread association with the Holy Trinity, with the band on the bottom symbolizing Mary  The tradition says that without Mary you can not understand the Trinity since it was she who bore the Son  A tradition going back to 14th century France added onto the earlier belief that they also represented faith, wisdom and chivalry  Alternatively, the cord can be seen as representing the one Divine Substance (godhood) of the three Persons, which binds Them together 
"Flower of light" symbolism has sometimes been understood from the archaic variant fleur-de-luce (see Latin lux, luc- = "light"), but the Oxford English Dictionary suggests this arose from the spelling, not from the etymology 

Sports
The fleur-de-lis is used by a number of sports teams, especially when it echoes a local flag  This is true with the teams from Quebec (Nordiques (ex-NHL), Montreal Expos (ex-MLB) and CF Montréal (MLS)), the teams of New Orleans, Louisiana (Saints (NFL), Pelicans (NBA), and Zephyrs (PCL)), the Serie A team Fiorentina, the Bundesliga side SV Darmstadt 98 (also known as Die Lilien – The Lilies), the Rugby league team Wakefield Trinity Wildcats, the NPSL team Detroit City FC Marc-André Fleury, a Canadian ice hockey goaltender, has a fleur-de-lis logo on his mask  The UFC Welterweight Champion from 2006 to 2013, Georges St-Pierre, has a tattoo of the fleur-de-lis on his right calf  The IT University of Copenhagen's soccer team ITU F C  has it in their logo  France uses the symbol in the official emblem on the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup 

Education
The emblem appears in coats of arms and logos for universities (like Washington University in St  Louis, Saint Louis University in Spain, University of Lincoln in England and University of Louisiana at Lafayette) and schools such as in Hilton College (South Africa), Adamson University and St  Paul's University in the Philippines  The Lady Knights of the University of Arkansas at Monticello have also adopted the fleur de lis as one of the symbols associated with their coat of arms  The flag of Lincolnshire, adopted in 2005, has a fleur-de-lis for the city of Lincoln  It is one of the symbols of the American sororities Kappa Kappa Gamma and Theta Phi Alpha, the American fraternities Alpha Epsilon Pi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon and Sigma Alpha Mu, as well as the international co-ed service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega  It is also used by the high school and college fraternity Scouts Royale Brotherhood of the Philippines 

Scouting
The fleur-de-lis is the main element in the logo of most Scouting organizations  The symbol was first used by Sir Robert Baden-Powell as an arm-badge for soldiers who qualified as scouts (reconnaissance specialists) in the 5th Dragoon Guards, which he commanded at the end of the 19th century; it was later used in cavalry regiments throughout the British Army until 1921  In 1907, Baden-Powell made brass fleur-de-lis badges for the boys attending his first experimental "Boy Scout" camp at Brownsea Island  In his seminal book Scouting for Boys, Baden-Powell referred to the motif as "the arrowhead which shows the North on a map or a compass" and continued; "It is the Badge of the Scout because it points in the right direction and upward    The three points remind you of the three points of the Scout Promise", being duty to God and country, helping others, and keeping the Scout Law  The World Scout Emblem of the World Organization of the Scout Movement has elements which are used by most national Scout organizations  The stars stand for truth and knowledge, the encircling rope for unity, and its reef knot or square knot, service 

Organizations
Fleurs-de-lis appear on military insignia and the logos of many organisations  During the 20th century the symbol was adopted by various Scouting organisations worldwide for their badges  Architects and designers use it alone and as a repeated motif in a wide range of contexts, from ironwork to bookbinding, especially where a French context is implied 

Healdic feature in architecture
In building and architecture, the fleur-de-lis is often placed on top of iron fence posts, as a pointed defence against intruders  It may ornament any tip, point or post with a decorative flourish, for instance, on finials, the arms of a cross, or the point of a gable  The fleur-de-lis can be incorporated in friezes or cornices, although the distinctions between fleur-de-lis, fleuron, and other stylized flowers are not always clear, or can be used as a motif in an all-over tiled pattern, perhaps on a floor 
It may appear in a building for heraldic reasons, as in some English churches where the design paid a compliment to a local lord who used the flower on his coat of arms  Elsewhere the effect seems purely visual, like the crenellations on the 14th-century Muslim Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan 
It can also be seen on the doors of the 16th-century Hindu Padmanabhaswamy Temple 

Derived non-heraldic usage
Some modern usage of the fleur-de-lis reflects "the continuing presence of heraldry in everyday life", often intentionally, but also when users are not aware that they are "prolonging the life of centuries-old insignia and emblems" 

The symbol may be used in less traditional ways  After Hurricane Katrina many New Orleanians of varying ages and backgrounds were tattooed with "one of its cultural emblems" as a "memorial" of the storm, according to a researcher at Tulane University  The US Navy Blue Angels have named a looping flight demonstration manoeuvre after the flower as well, and there are even two surgical procedures called "after the fleur "
American automobile manufacturer Chevrolet takes its name from the racing driver Louis Chevrolet, who was born in Switzerland   But, because the Chevrolet name is French, the manufacturer has used the fleur-de-lis emblems on their cars, most notably the Corvette, but also as a small detail in the badges and emblems on the front of a variety of full-size Chevys from the 1950s, and 1960s   The fleur-de-lis has also been featured more prominently in the emblems of the Caprice sedan A fleur-de-lis also appears in some of the logos of local Louisiana media, such as WGNO-TV and WVUE-TV, the local ABC-affiliated and Fox-affiliated television stations in New Orleans respectively 
The fleur-de-lis is one of the objects to drop during the New Year's Eve celebrations in New Orleans, which was broadcast for the first time during Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve '17 with Ryan Seacrest 
New Orleans sludge metal band Crowbar use it as a logo  It's appeared on every album cover since Lifesblood for the Downtrodden and is sometimes incorporated into the artwork (on The Serpent Only Lies as a snake and on Sever the Wicked Hand as a sword's hilt)  The Fleur-de-lis is also used decoratively on fire apparatus 

Compass rose
The symbol is also often used on a compass rose to mark the north direction, a tradition started by the Portuguese cartographer Jorge de Aguiar in his chart of 1492 

Slave branding
In Mauritius, slaves were branded with a fleur-de-lis, when being punished for escaping or stealing food In France, some categories of outlaws were branded with a fleur de lys iron rod as a punishment for crimes involving a banishment sentence  In 1724, the punishment evolved in a system of letters brandings relative to the crime  The fleur de lys became an exclusive punishment for slaves in the colonies 
The fleur-de-lis (or flower de Luce) could be branded on slaves as punishment for certain offenses in French Louisiana   For instance, the Louisiana Code Noir (1724) stated:

XXXII  The runaway slave, who shall continue to be so for one month from the day of his being denounced to the officers of justice, shall have his ears cut off, and shall be branded with the flower de luce on the shoulder: and on a second offence of the same nature, persisted in during one month from the day of his being denounced, he shall be hamstrung, and be marked with the flower de luce on the other shoulder  On the third offence, he shall suffer death" 
The Code Noir was an arrangement of controls received in Louisiana in 1724 from other French settlements around the globe, intended to represent the state's slave populace  Those guidelines included marking slaves with the fleur-de-lis as discipline for fleeing 

In fiction
The symbol has featured in modern fiction on historical and mystical themes, as in the bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code and other books discussing the Priory of Sion  It recurs in French literature, where examples well known in English translation include Fleur-de-Lys de Gondelaurier, a character in The Hunchback of Notre Dame by Victor Hugo, and the mention in Dumas's The Three Musketeers of the old custom of branding a criminal with the sign (fleurdeliser)  During the reign of Elizabeth I of England, known as the Elizabethan era, it was a standard name for an iris, a usage which lasted for centuries, but occasionally refers to lilies or other flowers  It also appeared in the novel A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole on a sign composed by the protagonist 

In John Steinbeck's East of Eden, Cathy Ames ("Kate") wears a gold watch with a fleur-de-lis pin around her neck A variation on the symbol has also been used in the Star Wars franchise to represent the planet of Naboo  The fleur de lis is also used as the heraldic emblem for the Kingdom of Temeria in Andrzej Sapkowski's fantasy novel series The Witcher 
The fleur de lis has also been used in the TV series The Originals, in which it is used to represent the Mikaelson family, the first vampires in the world  The symbol's representation of unity and its usage in New Orleans where the show is set, are used to represent the vow three of the Mikaelson siblings made to each other that they remain together, always and forever 
The fleur de lis is displayed in Champion, a cavalry unit that appears in Heroes of Might and Magic V: Tribes of the East, and is also a symbol adopted by the Sisters of Battle, a faction in Warhammer 40,000  A heavily stylized fleur de lis symbol can also be recognized as the symbol of the ICA in the Hitman series of video games The Pokémon villain Lysandre; whose debut game was Pokémon X and Y is known in Japan as フラダリ (Furadari); a romanised name for the fleur-de-lis  Relevant is that Pokémon X and Y are inspired by France  Many locations and landmarks across Kalos have real-world inspirations, including Prism Tower (Eiffel Tower), the Lumiose Art Museum (the Louvre) and the stones outside Geosenge Town (Carnac stones) This symbol is also used as the icon for the fictional street gang "Third Street Saints" in the Saints Row series 
The symbol is also seen in the video games Gangstar: New Orleans and Persona 5, on Yusuke Kitagawa's shirt 

See also
Cross fleury
Floral emblem
Armorial of France
The Golden Lily (disambiguation)
Iris florentina
Iris pseudacorus
Jessant-de-lys
Lilium
Palmette
Prince of Wales's feathers
Shamrock
Scottish thistle
Tree of LifeUse of the lily in coinage and coat-of-arms in the Land of Israel/PalestineAcre, Israel, where the Hospitaller refectory contains two early depictions of the French fleur-de-lis
Hasmonean coinage, coins minted during Hasmonean rule, sometimes depicting a lily
Yehud coinage, Achaemenid period coinage often depicting a lily

Explanatory notes
Passage 8:
Sazerac
The Sazerac is a local variation of a cognac or whiskey cocktail originally from New Orleans, named for the Sazerac de Forge et Fils brand of cognac brandy that served as its original main ingredient  The drink is most traditionally a combination of
cognac or rye whiskey, absinthe, Peychaud's Bitters, and sugar, although bourbon whiskey is sometimes substituted for the rye and Herbsaint is sometimes substituted for the absinthe  Some claim it is the oldest known American cocktail, with origins in antebellum New Orleans, although drink historian David Wondrich is among those who dispute this, and American instances of published usage of the word cocktail to describe a mixture of spirits, bitters, and sugar can be traced to the dawn of the 19th century 

Characteristics
The defining feature of the Sazerac is its method of preparation, which commonly involves two chilled old-fashioned glasses  The first glass is swirled with a wash of absinthe for its flavor and strong scent  The second glass is used to combine the remaining ingredients, which are stirred with ice, then strained into the first glass  Various anisettes such as pastis, Pernod, or Herbsaint are common substitutes when absinthe is unavailable  In New Orleans, Herbsaint is most commonly used due to the absence of absinthe in the U S  market from 1912 until 2007 

History
Around 1850, Sewell T  Taylor sold his New Orleans bar, the Merchants Exchange Coffee House, to become an importer of spirits, and he began to import a brand of cognac named Sazerac-de-Forge et Fils  Meanwhile, Aaron Bird assumed proprietorship of the Merchants Exchange and changed its name to Sazerac Coffee House  On October 2, 2019, the Sazerac House opened to the public as a museum and immersive experience that shares the history of the New Orleans cocktail culture, including the Sazerac Legend has it that Bird began serving the "Sazerac Cocktail", made with Sazerac cognac imported by Taylor, and allegedly with bitters being made by the local apothecary, Antoine Amedie Peychaud  The Sazerac Coffee House subsequently changed hands several times, until around 1870 Thomas Handy became its proprietor  It is around this time that the primary ingredient changed from cognac to rye whiskey, due to the phylloxera epidemic in Europe that devastated the vineyards of France At some point before his death in 1889, Handy recorded the recipe for the cocktail, which made its first printed appearance in William T  "Cocktail Bill" Boothby's The World's Drinks and How to Mix Them (1908), although his recipe calls for Selner Bitters, not Peychaud's  After absinthe was banned in the United States in 1912, it was replaced by various anise-flavored liqueurs, most notably the locally produced Herbsaint, which first appeared in 1934 By the early 20th century, simple cocktails like the Sazerac had become rare, which eventually rekindled their popularity The creation of the Sazerac has also been credited to Antoine Amédée Peychaud, a Creole apothecary who emigrated to New Orleans from the West Indies and set up shop in the French Quarter in the early 19th century  He was known to dispense a proprietary mix of aromatic bitters from an old family recipe  
According to popular myth, he served his drink in the large end of an egg cup that was called a coquetier in French, and the Americanized mispronunciation resulted in the name cocktail  This belief was debunked when people discovered that the term "cocktail" as a type of drink first appeared in print at least as far back as 1803—and was defined in print in 1806 as, "a mixture of spirits of any kind, water, sugar and bitters, vulgarly called a bittered sling" 

Official cocktail of New Orleans
In March 2008, Louisiana state senator Edwin R  Murray (D-New Orleans) filed Senate Bill 6 designating the Sazerac as Louisiana's official state cocktail  The bill was defeated on April 8, 2008  After further debate, on June 23, 2008, the Louisiana Legislature agreed to proclaim the Sazerac as New Orleans' official cocktail In 2011, as a writer for the HBO TV series Treme, Anthony Bourdain penned a scene in which chef Janette Desautel (played by Kim Dickens) tosses one in the face of restaurant critic and food writer Alan Richman (appearing as himself)  Richman had angered many New Orleanians in 2006 with an article in the magazine GQ, in which he criticized New Orleans' food culture post-Hurricane Katrina  Despite reservations, he agreed to participate in the scene and called Sazerac "a good choice of weaponry, because it symbolizes the city", despite a running feud with Bourdain over, among other things, the review 

Similar cocktails
A cocktail named the Zazarack was included in the 1910 version of Jack's Manual, an early bartender's reference written by Jacob "Jack" Grohusko, the head bartender at Baracca's restaurant in New York  It is essentially the same cocktail as the Sazerac, but called for bourbon (and not rye) instead of cognac Later versions of the drink were spelled Zazarac and added rum, and are thought by some to be a variant of the Sazerac, although it might have originated completely independently of the more famous drink 

Brands
Sazerac is also a brand of rye whiskey produced by the Sazerac Company 

See also
List of cocktails
Old Fashioned
Passage 9:
Marie Ragghianti
Marie Fajardo Ragghianti (born June 13, 1942) is an American parole board administrator, famous as the whistleblower who exposed Tennessee Governor Ray Blanton's "clemency for cash" scandal in 1977-79 
Ragghianti grew up in Florida, where she was regarded as a beauty queen  She married a boxer, but her husband became an alcoholic  Their son nearly died from a lung infection at the age of two  They divorced, leaving Ragghianti with three young children In 1971, at the age of 29, Ragghianti won a scholarship to Vanderbilt University, and earned a Bachelor of Science in English Literature and Psychology (1975)  She was active in the Vanderbilt Young Democrats Club and caught the attention of newly elected governor Blanton's legal counsel, T  Edward "Eddie" Sisk  She was an extradition officer for the Tennessee Department of Correction (1975–76) and the chair of the Tennessee Board of Pardons and Paroles (1976–77) Ragghianti earned a M S  in Management of Human Services in 1978 from Vanderbilt University, and a Master of Public Administration (M P A ) from the Harvard University John F  Kennedy School of Government in 1992  She worked as a consultant to the Tennessee legislature in 1979  From 1979 through 1997, she worked as a criminal justice consultant  From 1997 through 1999, she worked as the chief of staff for the United States Parole Commission Ragghianti was responsible for a federal investigation of corruption in the Tennessee parole and pardon process that led to the conviction of the governor and two aides, and was the subject of the 1985 movie Marie  Her attorney during the trial was Fred Thompson, who began his acting career portraying himself in the movie 
Ragghianti received the Goldsmith Award for journalism while attending the Kennedy School of Government and was a National Institute on Drug Abuse fellow while attending the graduate program in criminal justice at the University of Albany, SUNY She was appointed a member of the U S  Parole Commission National Appeals Board on December 9, 1999, by President Bill Clinton in a recess appointment  She was designated as the board's vice chairperson on January 6, 2000  Her appointment expired December 15, 2000 after no action on her nomination had been taken by the United States Senate 
Passage 10:
Aérodrome Saint-Louis
The Aérodrome Saint-Louis, also called Aérodrome du Bois Gomin or Canadian Transcontinental Airways Airport, was the first airfield of the Quebec City area of Quebec, Canada  It was located in the suburb of Sainte-Foy 
It was established by Canadian Transcontinental Airways (1927–38)  (Compagnie Aérienne Transcontinentale) in 1928 in the fields between Cap-Rouge Road (now called Chemin Saint-Louis) and Gomin Road (Chemin Gomin), east of the Route de l'Église where the Laurier Québec and Place Sainte-Foy shopping centres are currently located  It was used during winter to transport mail between Montreal and Rimouski 
It was closed in 1938, when Canadian Transcontinental Airways ceased operations, and in 1939 a new airfield was established in Quebec City; Aéroport de l'Ancienne Lorette, today known as Québec City Jean Lesage International Airport 

See also
List of airports in Canada
Québec/Lac Saint-Augustin Water Airport

External links
Un chemin Gomin au long parcours
Context 3: Passage 1:
Miller Township, Knox County, Ohio
Miller Township is one of the twenty-two townships of Knox County, Ohio, United States   The 2010 census found 1,006 people in the township 

Geography
Located in the southern part of the county, it borders the following townships:

Clinton Township - north
Pleasant Township - northeast
Morgan Township - east
Burlington Township, Licking County - south
Bennington Township, Licking County - southwest corner
Milford Township - west
Liberty Township - northwest cornerNo municipalities are located in Miller Township 

Name and history
Miller Township was named for James Miller, a pioneer settler who gave elections officials five and one half gallons of whiskey to secure the honor   It is the only Miller Township statewide Miller Township was originally built up chiefly by settlers from Vermont and Rhode Island 

Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1  Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it  There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election  Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees 
Passage 2:
Margaret McWade
Margaret McWade (born Margaret May Fish; September 3, 1871 –  April 1, 1956) was an American stage and film actress  She began her career in vaudeville in the early 1890s  Her most memorable role was as one of The Pixilated Sisters, a comedic stage act with actress Margaret Seddon  Later in 1936, they reprised their roles in the movie Mr  Deeds Goes to Town 

Biography
Margaret May Fish was born September 3, 1871, in Chicago, Illinois, the eldest of three daughters  A number of short biographies state that Fish was born in 1872; however, the 1900 U S  Census reports her birth in 1871 

Career
During her early career, Margaret May Fish went by the stage name Margaret May  In the late 1890s, while performing in vaudeville, she met fellow actress Margaret Seddon  The two actresses teamed to create a stage act known as The Pixillated Sisters  The act proved to be a hit for the duo  Years later, they would reprise The Pixilated Sisters in the 1936 movie Mr  Deeds Goes to Town 
On September 4, 1897, Margaret married actor Edward McWade  Margaret and her husband appeared in a number of stage performances together in Boston and New York before their marriage  Their earliest stage appearance together was in March 1892 in Boston  They were cast as supporting characters in County Fair at the Whitney Opera House  Until late 1919, Margaret continued to use her stage name Margaret May Margaret McWade made her screen debut in the 1914 silent film The Drama of Heyville, starring Marc McDermott and directed by Ashley Miller  She was under contract to the Edison Film Company and was later picked up by the Vitagraph Film Company  She acted in a total of 59 films from 1914 to 1954 Between films, she was a prolific stage actress, touring the U S  with various theatrical companies  Margaret also toured in theater shows with her husband Edward, several which he wrote  In April 1901, Edward McWade wrote and produced the play Winchester at the American Theater in New York  The play was based upon an event during the Civil War  Edward McWade wrote a supporting role for his wife  In 1902, he wrote the play The Land of Mystery, a romantic drama in which Margaret also had a role In 1922, Margaret was cast in the movie The Blot, produced and directed by Lois Weber  The Blot is considered by many critics to be Weber's greatest film  McWade played Mrs  Griggs, and she is described in reviews as the, "old mother hubbard, shouldering most of the burden for the penny pinching family " The movie received critical acclaim, which paved the way for more acting roles  McWade most often was described as playing the mother, aunt, older sister, spinster, and later in her career, the grandmother  In the Louisiana newspaper Monroe Morning World on June 5, 1938, she is described physically as "the one with the angular face and black hair" In 1935, producers approached both McWade and Seddon and asked them to reprise their roles as The Pixilated Sisters for the 1936 movie Mr  Deeds Goes to Town, starring Gary Cooper and directed by Frank Capra  In the film, the two actresses play sisters who believe that Cooper's character is "pixilated"  Reprising these characters set off a brief firestorm of stage and film performances for the duo  In The Corsicana Daily Sun, McWade is quoted regarding having played the Pixilated Sisters in the movie: "it's a one chance in a million, like something out of a book  It's not hard to understand  It wasn't we who clicked individually or even collectively  It was a grand part  If you recall, we turned the tide by our testimony in favor of Gary Cooper at an insanity hearing  He was a beloved character, and by helping him we helped ourselves "The two actresses teamed for a variety of films throughout the late 1930s and into the 1940s, often playing spinster sisters in comedic roles written for them, such as One Man's Bonus  After 1936, they often were billed in newspapers and posters as those "beloved Pixilated Sisters" 

Later years and death
Two years after performing in her last movie, Margaret McWade died on April 1, 1956, in Los Angeles at the age of 83  She was buried in her hometown of Chicago, Illinois in Rosehill Cemetery 

Stage performances
1892: The County Fair  The Whitney Opera House; Boston, MA; ** Edward McWade in production 
1893: Comic Stage Sketches  Boston, MA; **Edward McWade in production 
1901: Winchester  The American Theater, New York; Written by Edward McWade 
1902: The Land of Mystery  New York Theater Company; New York; Written by husband Edward McWade 
1912: Robert A  Hudson Theater; San Francisco, CA; New York Stage Production Company 
1925: The Painted Lady The William Fox Players  Touring theatrical show  Bar Harbor Maine 

Partial filmography
Passage 3:
Peggy Wehmeyer
Margaret "Peggy" Wehmeyer is an American journalist and op-ed writer contributing to The New York Times, Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, and The Dallas Morning News  She also served for seven years as the religion correspondent on the ABC News television network, before becoming the host and managing editor of The World Vision Report Wehmeyer was born in Oklahoma City and was raised mostly in Barbados and Texas  An ethnic German Jew, she is religiously Christian   She is a graduate of the University of Texas in Austin  As a young woman, Wehmeyer worked and studied at Dallas Theological Seminary  In 1994, she was hired by ABC News, with the strong support of Peter Jennings, to become the first full-time religion correspondent on a national news network where she served for seven years   20/20 and Good Morning America also aired her stories  Prior to her job at ABC, she worked at WFAA-TV in Dallas on the station's religion beat In 2002, she left ABC to become the host and managing editor of the World Vision Report, a public radio broadcast funded by the World Vision charitable organization  As host of The World Vision Report, Peggy reported on global stories about justice and poverty  She has received multiple awards including two Cine Golden Eagle Awards, the Columbus International Film and Video Festival Award and a New York Festivals award 

Personal life
Wehmeyer has two adult daughters, Hannah Woods Buchannan (Assoc  Pastor, HPUMC) and Lauren Woods Meyer (Federal Public Defender)  Her marriage to Mark Woods lasted until his death in 2008 
Passage 4:
Thundering Caravans
Thundering Caravans is a 1952 American Western film directed by Harry Keller and starring Allan Lane, Mona Knox and Eddy Waller The film's art direction was by Frank Hotaling 

Plot
Cast
Allan Lane as Marshal Rocky Lane
Black Jack as Black Jack
Eddy Waller as Sheriff Nugget Clark
Mona Knox as Alice Scott
Roy Barcroft as Ed Brill
Isabel Randolph as Deborah Cranston
Richard Crane as Deputy Dan Reed
William Henry as Bert Cranston
Edward Clark as Printer Tom
Pierre Watkin as Head Marshal
Stanley Andrews as Henry Scott
Boyd 'Red' Morgan as Henchman Joe
Fred Aldrich as Townsman
Art Dillard as Henchman
Roy Engel as Frank
Marshall Reed as Wounded Driver
Tex Terry as Rogers
Dale Van Sickel as Cave Henchman
Passage 5:
Margaret Knox
Margaret Knox (née Stewart; 1547 – after 1612) was a Scottish noblewoman and the second wife of Scottish reformer John Knox, whom she married when she was 17 years old and he 54  The marriage caused consternation from Mary, Queen of Scots, as the couple had married without having obtained royal consent 

Family
Margaret Stewart was born in 1547, the daughter of Andrew Stewart, 2nd Lord Ochiltree, and Agnes Cunningham  The family was staunchly Protestant, and also related to the Scottish royal family and the Hamiltons  Margaret had three sisters and four brothers, including James Stewart, Earl of Arran 

Marriages and children
On 26 March 1564, she married her first husband, John Knox, leader of the Scottish Reformation, and a close friend of her father  His first wife, Marjorie Bowes, had died in December 1560, leaving him with two small sons, Nathaniel and Eleazer  The marriage was strongly criticised by Queen Mary, as they had married without having first obtained her consent  Margaret, as the Queen's relative, was required to ask the monarch for permission to marry 
The couple made their home on Edinburgh's Royal Mile, and together they had three daughters:
Martha Knox (1565–1592), married Alexander Fairlie, by whom she had issue 
Margaret Knox (b 1567), married Zachary Pont, by whom she had issue 
Elizabeth Knox (1570- January 1622), married in 1594, John Welsh, minister of Ayr, by whom she had issue Margaret served as Knox's secretary, and later, when he became ill, his nurse  Following Knox's death in November 1572, the General Assembly, at the suggestion of the Regent, Morton, allowed Margaret to receive, for the year succeeding her husband's death, his pension of 500 merks In January 1574, she married her second husband, Sir Andrew Ker of Faldonside  He had been part of the conspiracy of Protestant nobles, led in March 1566 by Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven, who had stabbed to death Queen Mary's Italian secretary, David Rizzio in the presence of the Queen, who was almost six months pregnant at the time  It was Ker who had held his pistol at Mary's side, while she was constrained to watch Rizzio's killing Together they had a number of children, one of which was named John Ker, minister of Salt Preston On 8 April 1574, a Charter of Alienation confirmed Ker's provision for Margaret, in her widowhood, of the liferent of a third of ancestral lands in Haddingtonshire  Kerr died on 19 December 1599, and she did not remarry 
Margaret died sometime after 1612 
Passage 6:
Blue Chip Conference
The Blue Chip Conference is a high school athletic conference in southwestern Indiana, United States  The conference's members are small A or AA high schools located in Daviess, Dubois, Gibson, Knox, and Martin counties  The BCC was founded in 1968, with Barr-Reeve, Bloomfield, Loogootee, North Daviess, North Knox, South Knox, and Springs Valley  Barr-Reeve had to wait until 1969 to be released from the Patoka Valley Conference to play in the league, and Loogootee also had to wait until 1970 to leave the Southwestern Indiana Conference  The conference grew to 11 schools in the mid-1970s, but for the most part has stabilized at nine schools since then with the only exception being the 6 year period between the addition of Wood Memorial in 2000 and loss of Forest Park in 2006 where the count was at 10 

Member schools
North Knox is a member of the Southwest Football Conference for football 
North Knox played in the Western Indiana Conference 1977-81, then played independently from 1981 to 1986 before rejoining the BCC 
Shoals played concurrently in the BCC and SWIAC from 1977 to 1979 

Former members
Bloomfield played concurrently in the BCC and SWIAC for its entire BCC duration 

Membership timeline
Conference championships
Football
Football was discontinued as a conference sport after the 1977-78 school year  Mitchell and Springs Valley would move to the Patoka Lake Conference one year later, and North Daviess would be an independent until joining the Southwest Seven Conference 

Boys basketball
Champions before 1993-94 season unverified 

Girls basketball
Champions before 2000-01 season unverified 

State titles
Barr-Reeve Vikings (3)
2013 Volleyball (A)
2015 Boys Basketball (A)
2018 Girls Volleyball (A)
2020 Girls Volleyball (AA)
2021 Boys Basketball (A)

Loogootee Lions (2)
2012 Boys Basketball (A)
2020 Girls Basketball (A)

North Knox Warriors (0)
Northeast Dubois Jeeps (0)
Shoals Jug Rox (0)
South Knox Spartans (0)
Vincennes Rivet Patriots (0)
1A Girls Basketball (2011)

Washington Catholic Cardinals (0)
Wood Memorial Trojans (1)
2017 Girls Basketball (A)

Runner-Up Titles, and State Finals Appearances
Barr-Reeve Vikings
1998 Boys Baseball   (A)
1998 Girls Volleyball(A)
2001 Girls Volleyball(A)
2002 Boys Basketball (A)
2007 Boys Basketball (A)
2008 Girls Volleyball(A)
2009 Girls Volleyball(A)
2010 Boys Basketball (A)
2014 Boys Basketball (A)
2015 Girls Basketball (A)
2016 Boys Cross Country - Single Class
2018 Girls Cross Country - Single Class
2019 Boys Basketball (A)

Wood Memorial Trojans
2007 Girls Basketball (A)

Loogootee Lions
2005 Boys Basketball  (A)
1975 Boys Basketball  (Pre-Class)
1970 Boys Basketball (Pre-Class)
2012 Girls Volleyball (A)
2007 Girls Volleyball (A)
2006 Girls Volleyball (A)
2005 Girls Volleyball (A)
2000 Girls Volleyball (A)
2021 Girls Basketball (A)
2020 Girls Volleyball (A)

Vincennes Rivet Patriots
2009 Girls Basketball (A)
2009 Boys Baseball (A)
2010 Girls Basketball (A)
2013 Boys Baseball (A)
2018 Girls Basketball (A)
2019 Girls Basketball (A)

Washington Catholic Cardinals
2005 Girls Basketball (A)

Former Member State Titles
Forest Park Rangers (3)
2001 Softball (A)
2005 Boys Basketball (2A)
2006 Boys Basketball (2A)

Neighboring Conferences
Pocket Athletic Conference
Patoka Lake Conference
Passage 7:
Monroe City, Indiana
Monroe City is a town in Harrison Township, Knox County, Indiana, United States  The population was 545 at the 2010 census 
Monroe City was named for one of its founders, Monroe Alton 

Geography
Monroe City is located at 38°36′57″N 87°21′19″W (38 615891, -87 355232) According to the 2010 census, Monroe City has a total area of 0 27 square miles (0 70 km2), all land 

Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 545 people, 217 households, and 153 families living in the town  The population density was 2,018 5 inhabitants per square mile (779 3/km2)  There were 238 housing units at an average density of 881 5 per square mile (340 3/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 98 7% White, 0 6% African American, 0 2% Native American, and 0 6% from other races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 7% of the population 
There were 217 households, of which 37 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53 0% were married couples living together, 14 3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3 2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29 5% were non-families  29 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 51 and the average family size was 3 08 
The median age in the town was 32 8 years  28 8% of residents were under the age of 18; 8 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29% were from 25 to 44; 20 7% were from 45 to 64; and 13 2% were 65 years of age or older  The gender makeup of the town was 47 3% male and 52 7% female 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 548 people, 231 households, and 157 families living in the town  The population density was 2,039 4 inhabitants per square mile (787 4/km2)  There were 259 housing units at an average density of 963 9 per square mile (372 2/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 99 27% White, 0 18% African American, and 0 55% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 36% of the population 
There were 231 households, out of which 32 9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53 7% were married couples living together, 11 3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32 0% were non-families  31 2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 36 and the average family size was 2 94 
In the town, the population was spread out, with 24 6% under the age of 18, 8 4% from 18 to 24, 26 8% from 25 to 44, 22 6% from 45 to 64, and 17 5% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 39 years  For every 100 females, there were 93 6 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90 3 males 
The median income for a household in the town was $32,788, and the median income for a family was $43,125  Males had a median income of $31,364 versus $18,269 for females  The per capita income for the town was $15,579  About 7 2% of families and 7 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9 0% of those under age 18 and 2 0% of those age 65 or over 
Passage 8:
Margaret Blair Young
Margaret Blair Young (born 1955) is an American author, filmmaker, and writing instructor who taught for thirty years at Brigham Young University 

Biography
Young's published work includes the novels House Without Walls (1991), Salvador (1992), and Heresies of Nature (2002) and the short story collections Elegies and Love Songs (1992) (which won an Association of Mormon Letters award) and Love Chains (1997)  She also co-authored a trilogy of historical novels about Black Mormon pioneers titled Standing on the Promises with Darius Gray   The trilogy, published between 2000 and 2003, was republished in revised and expanded form in 2012 and 2013 Young scripted and helped direct a 2005 television documentary based on the life of Jane Elizabeth Manning James, "Jane Manning James: Your Sister in the Gospel "  The 20-minute documentary has been shown at This Is The Place Heritage Park in Salt Lake City, Utah, the 2005 annual conference of the Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research (FAIR), and on public television (PBS)   Documentary filmmaker Scott Freebairn produced and directed the film   More recently, Young served as the project director for the Utah chapter of the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society's film The Wisdom of our Years   In 2008, Young and Gray completed a long documentary titled Nobody Knows: The Untold Story of Black Mormons, which has been shown on PBS stations, in film festivals, and on the Documentary Channel   Her award-winning play, I Am Jane, also about Black Mormon pioneer Jane Manning James, has been produced throughout the country  Young has also authored encyclopedia articles on Blacks in the western United States, and has served as president of the Association for Mormon Letters  In 2014 she received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Whitney Awards and the Smith-Pettit Foundation Award for Outstanding Contribution to Mormon Letters Young’s recent efforts have been directed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where she and her team are working to launch the film industry, which disappeared amidst the chaos of war and corruption in the 1990s   She has teamed up with Tshoper Kabambi, Deborah Basa, and Ephraim Faith on film initiatives   They work with Bimpa Production in Kinshasa, which is producing a film that Young has scripted and that Tshoper Kabambi is directing   Young is also working on literacy and educational projects, and is teaching students at various schools throughout the DR-Congo how to create their own books, given the relative lack of books in the Congo   In Lodja, DR-Congo, she works with Professor Abbé On'okundji Okavu Ekanga, author of Les Entrailles du Porc-épic: Une nouvelle éthique pour l’Afrique   Mr  Okundji returned to his home village in the Congo to help it recover from the Congo war of 1998-2004 
Young is married to English professor Bruce Wilson Young (1950- )  Bruce is a BYU, Columbia and Harvard graduate who has written multiple essays and the book Family Life in the Age of Shakespeare   They are the parents of four children, including vocal performer and music instructor Kaila Lifferth and writer Robbie Blair 

See also
LDS fiction
Passage 9:
Butler Township, Knox County, Ohio
Butler Township is one of the twenty-two townships of Knox County, Ohio, United States   The 2010 census found 1,171 people in the township 

Geography
Located in the eastern part of the county, it borders the following townships:

Union Township - north
Tiverton Township, Coshocton County - northeast corner
Newcastle Township, Coshocton County - east
Perry Township, Coshocton County - southeast corner
Jackson Township - south
Clay Township - southwest corner
Harrison Township - west
Howard Township - northwest cornerNo municipalities are located in Butler Township 

Name and history
Butler Township was organized in 1825 It is one of six Butler Townships statewide 

Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1  Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it  There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election  Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees 
Passage 10:
The Education of Shelby Knox
The Education of Shelby Knox is 2005 documentary film that tells the coming-of-age story of public speaker and feminist Shelby Knox, a teenager who joins a campaign for comprehensive sex education in the high schools of Lubbock, Texas  TEOSK was an official selection of the Sundance Film Festival in 2005 and aired on PBS’ P O V  series that same year  It was directed and produced by Marion Lipschutz and Rose Rosenblatt 

Overview
Lubbock has some of the highest teen pregnancy and STD rates in the nation, the "solution" to which is a strict abstinence-only sex education curriculum in the public schools and a conservative preacher who urges kids to pledge abstinence until marriage 
Shelby Knox is a deeply religious Southern Baptist teenager who joins the Lubbock Youth Commission, a group of high school students representing a youth voice in city government  When the teens confront Lubbock's sexual health crisis and campaign for comprehensive sex education, Knox throws herself into the battle with missionary fervor, struggling to reconcile her newfound political beliefs with her conservative religious views  When the campaign broadens to include a fight for a gay-straight alliance, Knox must confront her family and pastor in this coming-of-age story 

Awards
The Education of Shelby Knox has received a number of awards:

2005 Sundance Film Festival (Excellence in Cinematography, Documentary Category)
2005 SXSW Film Festival (Audience Award)
2005 Sonoma Valley Film Festival (Jury Prize)
2005 Miami Gay & Lesbian Film Festival (Jury Prize, Best Documentary)
2005 Full Frame Documentary Film Festival (Emerging Pictures Audience Award)
Council on Foundations (2005 Henry Hampton Award for Excellence in Film & Digital Media)
2005 Fresno Reel Pride Film Festival (Audience Award, Best Feature)
2006 The Index on Censorship's Freedom of Expression Film Award (Nominee)

Shelby Knox in the News
The Dixie Chicks' 2006 album Taking the Long Way features a track titled "Lubbock or Leave It", which is based on The Education of Shelby Knox  When the song came out, the group's member Emily Robison told the press: "We'd seen a documentary called The Education of Shelby Knox, which was about a girl     trying to get Lubbock to teach sex education in the schools  Lubbock has one of the highest rates of teen pregnancy and STDs in the U S , so it really showed what happens when you keep that information away from people " Lead singer Natalie Maines, who is from Lubbock, subsequently spoke (during a 2006 episode of VH1 Storytellers) about watching the film and drawing from her own experiences of living there to write the song 
In the 2013 documentary How to Lose Your Virginity, scenes from The Education of Shelby Knox are featured alongside interviews with Shelby Knox As of June 2011, Shelby Knox is living in New York City and serving as the Director of Organizing, Women's Rights for Change org 
Passage 11:
Warren, Kentucky
Warren is an unincorporated community and coal town in Knox County, Kentucky, United States  It was also known as Cumberland Station 
Passage 12:
Enoch Arden law
The Enoch Arden law is a legal precedent in the United States that grants a divorce or a legal exemption so that a person can remarry, if his or her spouse has been absent without explanation for a certain number of years, typically seven 
After seven years the missing spouse can be declared legally dead 
The "Enoch Arden doctrine" is named after Tennyson's 1864 melodrama Enoch Arden 
Passage 13:
Presbyterianism
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism that broke from the Roman Catholic Church  Presbyterian churches derive their name from the presbyterian form of church government by representative assemblies of elders  Many Reformed churches are organised this way, but the word Presbyterian, when capitalized, is often applied to churches that trace their roots to the Church of Scotland or to English Dissenter groups that formed during the English Civil War Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ  Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain  In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, and the Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America, mostly by Scots and Scotch-Irish immigrants  The Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism  Local congregations of churches which use Presbyterian polity are governed by sessions made up of representatives of the congregation (elders), a conciliar approach as with other levels of decision-making (presbytery, synod, and general assembly)  There are roughly 75 million Presbyterians in the world The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Reformation of the 16th century, the example of John Calvin's Republic of Geneva being particularly influential  Most Reformed churches that trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government  In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, including the World Council of Churches  Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches  Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, and Methodists  Presbyterians in the United States came largely from Scottish immigrants, Scots-Irish immigrants, and also from New England communities that had originally been Congregational but changed because of an agreed-upon Plan of Union of 1801 for frontier areas 

Presbyterian identity
Early history
Presbyterian tradition, particularly that of the Church of Scotland, traces its early roots to the Christian Church founded by Saint Columba, through the 6th-century Hiberno-Scottish mission  Tracing their apostolic origin to Saint John, the Culdees practised Christian monasticism, a key feature of Celtic Christianity in the region, with a presbyter exercising "authority within the institution, while the different monastic institutions were independent of one another " The Church in Scotland kept the Christian feast of Easter at a date different from the See of Rome and its monks used a unique style of tonsure  The Synod of Whitby in 664, however, ended these distinctions as it ruled "that Easter would be celebrated according to the Roman date, not the Celtic date " Although Roman influence came to dominate the Church in Scotland, certain Celtic influences remained in the Scottish Church, such as "the singing of metrical psalms, many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes", which later became a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship"



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prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In what year did Margaret Knox's spouse pass away?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 

Development
Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation  As the Catholic Church resisted the Reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church and bore different denominations  
Presbyterianism was especially influenced by the French theologian John Calvin, who is credited with the development of Reformed theology, and the work of John Knox, a Scottish Catholic Priest who studied with Calvin in Geneva and brought back Reformed teachings to Scotland  An important influence on the formation of presbyterianism in Britain also came from John a Lasco - a Polish reformer, the founder of a Stranger's Church in London, based on the Geneva models The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland  In August 1560, the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom  In December 1560, the First Book of Discipline was published, outlining important doctrinal issues but also establishing regulations for church government, including the creation of ten ecclesiastical districts with appointed superintendents which later became known as presbyteries In time, the Scots Confession would be supplanted by the Westminster Confession of Faith, and the larger and shorter catechisms, which were formulated by the Westminster Assembly between 1643 and 1649 

Characteristics
Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organisation (or "church order") and worship; often using a "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order  The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism  Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups  Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the Westminster Confession of Faith, which historically serves as an important confessional document – second only to the Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardisation and translation of the Bible – in Presbyterian churches 
Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, tempered with the belief that no human action can affect salvation 
Continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of the church, often referred to as "subordinate standards" 
When the women with Eliza Thompson gathered to pray at a Presbyterian church in Hillsboro, Ohio, this became the birthplace of the highly influential Woman's Temperance Crusade  Presbyterian evangelist Billy Sunday also persuaded many thousands who drank to turn to Christ instead – wanting Christ now and no more alcohol 

Government
Presbyterian government is by councils (still known as courts in some countries, as boards in others) of elders  Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local congregation  Teaching elders (pastors or ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments  Pastors or ministers are called by individual congregations  A congregation issues a call for the pastor or minister's service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery  The pastor or minister is a teaching elder, and Moderator of the Session, but is not usually a member of the congregation; instead, this person is a member of the Presbytery of which the given church is a member 
Ruling elders are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for the nurture and leadership of the congregation  Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations)  This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court"  These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to the full congregation  Since the 20th century, most denominations allow women to be teaching or ruling elders 
Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities  These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations  The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists  This congregation / presbytery / synod / general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the Church of Scotland or the Presbyterian Church (U S A ); some bodies, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually the step skipped is the Synod  The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993 Presbyterian governance is practiced by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches 

Doctrine
Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition  This has two implications  The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith," which have some level of authoritative status  However this is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter  While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as a whole  It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to confessionalism  The manner of subscription, or the degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, is a practical matter  That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard 
Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the Westminster Confession of Faith as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to the Larger and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction  Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible  These documents are Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation  The Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting the historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read 
The Westminster Confession is "The principal subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland" but "with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith" (V)  This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and the struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e g  William Robertson Smith)  Some Presbyterian Churches, such as the Free Church of Scotland, have no such "conscience clause" 
The Presbyterian Church (U S A ) has adopted the Book of Confessions, which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the Westminster Standards  These other documents include ancient creedal statements (the Nicene Creed, the Apostles' Creed), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the Scots Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism, the Second Helvetic Confession), and 20th century documents (The Theological Declaration of Barmen, Confession of 1967 and A Brief Statement of Faith) 
The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document Living Faith (1984) and retains it as a subordinate standard of the denomination  It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to original Bible text 
Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland 
John Gresham Machen, the prominent Presbyterian theologian and Professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary between 1906 and 1929, led a revolt against modernist doctrine in his Christianity and Liberalism (1923) that critiqued theological modernism  He argued that modernism and liberal theology was a false religion, a pretender that cloaks itself in Christian language – "Liberalism"  This religion is a marriage of naturalism, humanism, secularism, and sentimentalism all rolled into one 

Worship and sacraments
Worship
Presbyterian denominations that trace their heritage to the British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the Directory of Public Worship, developed by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s  This directory documented Reformed worship practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British Puritans, initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox  It was enacted as law by the Scottish Parliament, and became one of the foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere 

Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the Regulative principle of worship, which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing hymnody, instrumental accompaniment, and ceremonial vestments into worship  However, there is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style  Although there are set services for the Lord's Day in keeping with first-day Sabbatarianism, one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of Lutheranism or more of Anglicanism (especially where Scottish tradition is esteemed), or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by many American Presbyterians)  Most Presbyterian churches follow the traditional liturgical year and observe the traditional holidays, holy seasons, such as Advent, Christmas, Ash Wednesday, Holy Week, Easter, Pentecost, etc  They also make use of the appropriate seasonal liturgical colors, etc  Many incorporate ancient liturgical prayers and responses into the communion services and follow a daily, seasonal, and festival lectionary  Other Presbyterians, however, such as the Reformed Presbyterians, would practice a cappella exclusive psalmody, as well as eschew the celebration of holy days 

Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging church movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black Geneva gown to such vestments as the alb and chasuble, but also cassock and surplice (typically a full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old Gallican Rite), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past 

Sacraments
Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two sacraments:

Baptism, in which they baptize infants, as well as unbaptized adults by the Aspersion (sprinkling) or Affusion (pouring) method in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, rather than the Immersion method 
The Lord's Supper (also known as Communion), in which Presbyterians believe in the Real Presence of Christ (pneumatic presence) in the spiritual sense, in the bread and wine through the Holy Spirit, as opposed to being locally present as in transubstantiation or consubstantiation 

Architecture
Some early Presbyterians, which were influenced by the puritan movement, were careful to distinguish between the "church," which referred to the members, and the "meeting house," which was the building in which the church met  Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches " Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support the worship of God  The decor in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship  Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain  No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house  The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building  But these were not the standard characteristics of the mainline Presbyterians  These were more of the wave of Presbyterians that were influenced by the Puritans 
In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur  Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago, Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City, Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pennsylvania, St Stephen Presbyterian in Fort Worth, Texas, and many others 
Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a Roman Catholic church  Instead, there is a "communion table," usually on the same level as the congregation, and sometimes elevated similar to an altar, however surrounded by the chancel  There may be a rail between the communion table and the chancel behind it, which may contain a more decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir stalls, lectern and clergy area  The altar is called the communion table, and the altar area is called the chancel by Presbyterians  In Presbyterian, and in Reformed churches, there may be an altar cross, either on the communion table or on a table in the chancel  By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the Westminster/Celtic cross, Presbyterians emphasize the resurrection and that Christ is not continually dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity  Quite a few Presbyterian church buildings are decorated with a cross, that has a circle around the center, or Celtic cross  This not only emphasizes the resurrection, but also acknowledges historical aspects of Presbyterianism  A baptismal font will be located either at the entrance or near the chancel area  Presbyterian architecture generally makes significant use of symbolism  One may also find decorative and ornate stained glass windows depicting scenes from the Bible  Some Presbyterian churches will also have ornate statues of Christ or graven scenes from the Last Supper located behind the chancel  St  Giles' Cathedral in Scotland has a crucifix next to an ornate elevated communion table that hangs alongside  The image of Christ is more of a faint image, with a more modern design 

By region
Europe
Scotland
John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and urged his countrymen to reform the Church in line with Calvinist doctrines  After a period of religious convulsion and political conflict culminating in a victory for the Protestant party at the Siege of Leith the authority of the Catholic Church was abolished in favour of Reformation by the legislation of the Scottish Reformation Parliament in 1560  The Church was eventually organised by Andrew Melville along Presbyterian lines to become the national Church of Scotland  King James VI and I moved the Church of Scotland towards an episcopal form of government, and in 1637, James' successor, Charles I and William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted to force the Church of Scotland to use the Book of Common Prayer  What resulted was an armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the Solemn League and Covenant  The Covenanters would serve as the government of Scotland for nearly a decade, and would also send military support to the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War  Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Charles II, despite the initial support that he received from the Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of government on the church 

However, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Church of Scotland was unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed the Church of Scotland's form of government  However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church  In 1733, a group of ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland  Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of the established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland 
There are now eight Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today  These are, in order of size: the Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland, the United Free Church of Scotland, the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing), the Associated Presbyterian Church, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and the International Presbyterian Church  Combined, they have over 1500 congregations in Scotland 
Within Scotland the term 'kirk' is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church  Informally, the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland  Some of the values and ideals espoused in Scottish Presbyterian denominations can be reflected in this reference in a book from Norman Drummond, chaplain to the Queen in Scotland Chart of splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches

England
In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1592  Thomas Cartwright is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England  Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge University condemning the episcopal hierarchy of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his emigration abroad  Between 1645 and 1648, a series of ordinances of the Long Parliament established Presbyterianism as the polity of the Church of England  Presbyterian government was established in London and Lancashire and in a few other places in England, although Presbyterian hostility to the execution of Charles I and the establishment of the republican Commonwealth of England meant that Parliament never enforced the Presbyterian system in England  The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in Non-Conformity, outside of the established church  In 1719 a major split, the Salter's Hall controversy, occurred; with the majority siding with nontrinitarian views  Thomas Bradbury published several sermons bearing on the controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the reproaches cast on the dissenting ministers who subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity " By the 18th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become Unitarian in doctrine 
A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants to England in the 19th century and later  Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876  Some, such as Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London) and Swallow Street (London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at Crown Court, and St Columba's, Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London  There is also a congregation in the heart of London's financial district called London City Presbyterian Church that is affiliated with the Free Church of Scotland 
In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form the United Reformed Church (URC)  Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire), Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney Meeting House URC) – these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century  The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former Congregationalist Churches  Two former Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's, Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St Columba's, Oxford (founded as a chaplaincy by the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the Church of Scotland 
In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the International Presbyterian Church planted by evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer of the L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s, and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales founded in the North of England in the late 1980s 

Wales
In Wales, Presbyterianism is represented by the Presbyterian Church of Wales, which was originally composed largely of Calvinistic Methodists who accepted Calvinist theology rather than the Arminianism of the Wesleyan Methodists  They broke off from the Church of England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers  They were originally known as the Calvinist Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it became alternatively known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales 

Ireland
Presbyterianism (Irish: Preispitéireachas, Ulster Scots: Prisbytairinism) is the largest Protestant denomination in Northern Ireland and the second largest on the island of Ireland (after the Anglican Church of Ireland), and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, also James I of Ireland and England  An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the Boyne in 1690  The Presbytery of Ulster was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church  Presbyterians, along with Roman Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century  Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland, the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church 

France
There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in central Paris: The Scots Kirk, which is English-speaking, and is attended by many nationalities  It maintains close links with the Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as with the Reformed Church of France 

Italy
The Waldensian Evangelical Church (Chiesa Evangelica Valdese, CEV) is an Italian Protestant denomination 
The church was founded in the 12th century, and centuries later, after the Protestant Reformation, it adhered to Calvinist theology and became the Italian branch of the Presbyterian churches  As such, the church is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches 

North America
Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in the larger Presbyterian family  Some later rejoined only to separate again  In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split Ps" 

United States
Presbyterianism first officially arrived in Colonial America in 1644 with the establishment of Christ's First Presbyterian Church in Hempstead, New York  The Church was organized by the Rev  Richard Denton 
In 1703 the first Presbytery in Philadelphia was established  In time, the presbytery would be joined by two more to form a synod (1717) and would eventually evolve into the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in 1789  The nation's largest Presbyterian denomination, the Presbyterian Church (U S A ) – PC (USA) – can trace its heritage back to the original PCUSA, as can the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA), the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC), the Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC), and the Evangelical Covenant Order of Presbyterians (ECO) 
Other Presbyterian bodies in the United States include the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America (RPCNA), the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP), the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States (RPCUS), the Reformed Presbyterian Church General Assembly, the Reformed Presbyterian Church – Hanover Presbytery, the Covenant Presbyterian Church, the Presbyterian Reformed Church, the Westminster Presbyterian Church in the United States, the Korean American Presbyterian Church, and the Free Presbyterian Church of North America 
The territory within about a 50-mile (80 km) radius of Charlotte, North Carolina, is historically the greatest concentration of Presbyterianism in the Southern United States, while an almost identical geographic area around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, contains probably the largest number of Presbyterians in the entire nation 
The PC (USA), beginning with its predecessor bodies, has, in common with other so-called "mainline" Protestant denominations, experienced a significant decline in members in recent years  Some estimates have placed that loss at nearly half in the last forty years Presbyterian influence, especially through Princeton theology, can be traced in modern Evangelicalism  Balmer says that:

Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is a quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism  Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans – even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped the various manifestations of evangelicalism: fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement, and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism 
In the late 1800s, Presbyterian missionaries established a presence in what is now northern New Mexico  This provided an alternative to the Catholicism, which was brought to the area by the Spanish Conquistadors and had remained unchanged  The area experienced a "mini" reformation, in that many converts were made to Presbyterianism, prompting persecution  In some cases, the converts left towns and villages to establish their own neighboring villages  The arrival of the United States to the area prompted the Catholic church to modernize and make efforts at winning the converts back, many of which did return  However, there are still stalwart Presbyterians and Presbyterian churches in the area 
Historically, along with Lutherans and Episcopalians, Presbyterians tend to be considerably wealthier and are better educated (having more graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in United States; a group known as White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs), they are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business, law, and politics 

Canada
In Canada, the largest Presbyterian denomination – and indeed the largest Protestant denomination – was the Presbyterian Church in Canada, formed in 1875 with the merger of four regional groups  In 1925, the United Church of Canada was formed by the majority of Presbyterians combining with the Methodist Church, Canada, and the Congregational Union of Canada  A sizable minority of Canadian Presbyterians, primarily in southern Ontario but also throughout the entire nation, withdrew, and reconstituted themselves as a non-concurring continuing Presbyterian body  They regained use of the original name in 1939 

Latin America
Presbyterianism arrived in Latin America in the 19th century 

Mexico
The biggest Presbyterian church is the National Presbyterian Church in Mexico (Iglesia Nacional Presbiteriana de México), which has around 2,500,000 members and associates and 3000 congregations, but there are other small denominations like the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church in Mexico which was founded in 1875 by the Associate Reformed Church in North America  The Independent Presbyterian Church, the Presbyterian Reformed Church in Mexico, and the National Conservative Presbyterian Church in Mexico are existing churches in the Reformed tradition 

Brazil
In Brazil, the Presbyterian Church of Brazil (Igreja Presbiteriana do Brasil) totals approximately 1,011,300 members; other Presbyterian churches (Independents, United, Conservatives, Renovated, etc ) in this nation have around 350,000 members  The Renewed Presbyterian Church in Brazil was influenced by the charismatic movement and has about 131 000 members as of 2011  The Conservative Presbyterian Church in Brazil was founded in 1940 and has eight presbyteries  The Fundamentalist Presbyterian church in Brazil was influenced by Carl McIntire and the US Bible Presbyterian Church and has around 1 800 members  The Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil was founded in 1903 by Rev  Eduardo Carlos Pereira, has 500 congregations and 75 000 members  The United Presbyterian Church of Brazil has around 4 000 members  There are also ethnic Korean Presbyterian churches in the country  The Evangelical Reformed Churches in Brazil has Dutch origin  The Reformed Churches in Brazil were recently founded by the Canadian Reformed Churches with the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated) 
Congregational churches present in the country are also part of the Calvinistic tradition in Latin America 

Other Latin American states
There are probably more than four million members of Presbyterian churches in all of Latin America  Presbyterian churches are also present in Peru, Bolivia, Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Colombia, Chile, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Argentina, Honduras and others, but with few members  The Presbyterian Church in Belize has 17 churches and church plants and there is a Reformed Seminary founded in 2004  Some Latin Americans in North America are active in the Presbyterian Cursillo Movement 

Africa
Presbyterianism arrived in Africa in the 19th century through the work of Scottish missionaries and founded churches such as St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, Malawi  The church has grown extensively and now has a presence in at least 23 countries in the region African Presbyterian churches often incorporate diaconal ministries, including social services, emergency relief, and the operation of mission hospitals  A number of partnerships exist between presbyteries in Africa and the PC(USA), including specific connections with Lesotho, Cameroon, Malawi, South Africa, Ghana and Zambia  For example, the Lackawanna Presbytery, located in Northeastern Pennsylvania, has a partnership with a presbytery in Ghana  Also the Southminster Presbyterian Church, located near Pittsburgh, has partnerships with churches in Malawi and Kenya  The Presbyterian Church of Nigeria, western Africa is also healthy and strong in mostly the southern states of this nation, strong density in the south-eastern states of this country  Beginning from Cross River state, the nearby coastal states, Rivers state, Lagos state to Ebonyi and Abia States  Hope Waddel's missionary expedition in the mid 19th century, and later Mary Slessor's stay in this coastal regions of the then British colony has brought about the beginning and the flourishing of this church in these areas 

Kenya
The Presbyterian Church of East Africa, based in Kenya, is particularly strong, with 500 clergy and 4 million members 

Malawi
The Reformed Presbyterian Church in Malawi has 150 congregations and 17 000–20 000 members  It was a mission of the Free Presbyterian church of Scotland  The Restored Reformed Church works with RPCM  Evangelical Presbyterian Church in Malawi is an existing small church  Part of the Presbyterian Church in Malawi and Zambia is known as CCAP, Church of Central Africa-Presbyterian  Often the churches there have one main congregation and a number of prayer houses develop  Education, health ministries, and worship and spiritual development are important 

Southern Africa
Southern Africa is a major base of Reformed and Presbyterian Churches 

Northern Africa
The Presbyterian Church of South Sudan and Sudan, founded in 1902 by American missionaries in Malakal, was deprived of foreign pastors since 1962 by decision of the Sudanese government but it continued to grow  It is now the 3rd largest Christian church in Sudan with 1,000,000 members, now shared between Sudan and South Sudan 
The Presbyterian Evangelical Church of Sudan was founded in the north of the country and in Khartoum by the same American missionaries in the late 19th century but left under the guidance of Egyptian evangelical pastors of Coptic origin In addition, there are a number of Presbyterian Churches in north Africa, the most known is the Nile Synod in Egypt and a recently founded synod for Sudan 

Asia
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Council of the Church of Christ in China (CCC) is a uniting church formed by Presbyterians and Congregationalists, which inherited the Reformed tradition  HKCCCC is also the only mainline Reformed church in Hong Kong 
Cumberland Presbyterian Church Yao Dao Secondary School is a Presbyterian school in Yuen Long, New Territories  The Cumberland Presbyterian Church also have a church on the island of Cheung Chau  There are also Korean Christians resident in Hong Kong who are Presbyterians 

South Korea
Presbyterian Churches are the biggest and by far the most influential Protestant denominations in South Korea, with close to 20,000 churches affiliated with the two largest Presbyterian denominations in the country  In South Korea there are 9 million Presbyterians, forming the majority of the 15 million Korean Protestants  In South Korea there are 100 different Presbyterian denominations Most of the Korean Presbyterian denominations share the same name in Korean, 대한예수교장로회 (literally means the Presbyterian Church of Korea or PCK), tracing its roots to the United Presbyterian Assembly before its long history of disputes and schisms  The Presbyterian schism began with the controversy in relation to the Japanese shrine worship enforced during the Japanese colonial period and the establishment of a minor division (Koryu-pa, 고려파, later The Koshin Presbyterian Church in Korea, Koshin 고신) in 1952  And in 1953 the second schism happened when the theological orientation of the Chosun Seminary (later Hanshin University) founded in 1947 could not be tolerated in the PCK and another minor group (The Presbyterian Church in the Republic of Korea, Kijang, 기장) was separated  The last major schism had to do with the issue of whether the PCK should join the WCC  The controversy divided the PCK into two denominations, The Presbyterian Church of Korea (Tonghap, 통합) and The General Assembly of Presbyterian Church in Korea (Hapdong, 합동) in 1959  All major seminaries associated with each denomination claim heritage from the Pyung Yang Theological Seminary, therefore, not only Presbyterian University and Theological Seminary and Chongsin University which are related to PCK but also Hanshin University of PROK all celebrated the 100th class in 2007, 100 years from the first graduates of Pyung Yang Theological Seminary Korean Presbyterian denominations are active in evangelism and many of its missionaries are being sent overseas, being the second biggest missionary sender in the world after the United States  GMS, the missionary body of the "Hapdong" General Assembly of Presbyterian Churches of Korea, is the single largest Presbyterian missionary organization in Korea 
In addition there are many Korean-American Presbyterians in the United States, either with their own church sites or sharing space in pre-existing churches as is the case in Australia, New Zealand and even Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia with Korean immigration 
The Korean Presbyterian Church started through the mission of the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the Australian Presbyterian theological tradition is central to the United States  But after independence, the 'Presbyterian Church in Korea (KoRyuPa)' advocated a Dutch Reformed position  In the 21st century, a new General Assembly of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church of Korea (Founder  Ha Seung-moo) in 2012 declared itself an authentic historical succession of Scottish Presbyterian John Knox 

Taiwan
The Presbyterian Church in Taiwan (PCT) is by far the largest Protestant denomination in Taiwan, with some 238,372 members as of 2009 (including a majority of the island's aborigines)  English Presbyterian Missionary James Laidlaw Maxwell established the first Presbyterian church in Tainan in 1865  His colleague George Leslie Mackay, of the Canadian Presbyterian Mission, was active in Tamsui and north Taiwan from 1872 to 1901; he founded the island's first university and hospital, and created a written script for Taiwanese Minnan  The English and Canadian missions joined as the PCT in 1912  One of the few churches permitted to operate in Taiwan through the era of Japanese rule (1895–1945), the PCT experienced rapid growth during the era of Kuomintang-imposed martial law (1949–1987), in part due to its support for democracy, human rights, and Taiwan independence  Former ROC president Lee Teng-hui (in office 1988–2000) was a Presbyterian 

India
In the mainly Christian Indian state of Mizoram, Presbyterianism is the largest of all Christian denominations  It was brought there by missionaries from Wales in 1897  Prior to Mizoram, Welsh Presbyterians started venturing into the northeast India through the Khasi Hills (now in the state of Meghalaya in India) and established Presbyterian churches all over the Khasi Hills from the 1840s onwards  Hence, there is a strong presence of Presbyterians in Shillong (the present capital of Meghalaya) and the areas adjoining it  The Welsh missionaries built their first church in Sohra (aka Cherrapunji) in 1846  The Presbyterian church in India was integrated in 1970 into the United Church of Northern India (originally formed in 1924)  It is the largest Presbyterian denomination in India 

Oceania
Australia
In Australia, Presbyterianism is the fourth largest denomination of Christianity, with nearly 600,000 Australians claiming to be Presbyterian in the 2006 Commonwealth Census  Presbyterian churches were founded in each colony, some with links to the Church of Scotland and others to the Free Church  There were also congregations originating from United Presbyterian Church of Scotland as well as a number founded by John Dunmore Lang  Most of these bodies merged between 1859 and 1870, and in 1901 formed a federal union called the Presbyterian Church of Australia but retaining their state assemblies  The Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia representing the Free Church of Scotland tradition, and congregations in Victoria of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, originally from Ireland, are the other existing denominations dating from colonial times 
In 1977, two-thirds of the Presbyterian Church of Australia, along with most of the Congregational Union of Australia and all the Methodist Church of Australasia, combined to form the Uniting Church in Australia  The third who did not unite had various reasons for so acting, often cultural attachment but often conservative theological or social views  The permission for the ordination of women given in 1974 was rescinded in 1991 without affecting the two or three existing woman ministers  The approval of women elders given in the 1960s has been rescinded in all states except New South Wales, which has the largest membership  The theology of the church is now generally conservative and Reformed  A number of small Presbyterian denominations have arisen since the 1950s through migration or schism 

New Zealand
In New Zealand, Presbyterian is the dominant denomination in Otago and Southland due largely to the rich Scottish and to a lesser extent Ulster-Scots heritage in the region  The area around Christchurch, Canterbury, is dominated philosophically by the Anglican denomination 
Originally there were two branches of Presbyterianism in New Zealand, the northern Presbyterian church which existed in the North Island and the parts of the South Island north of the Waitaki River, and the Synod of Otago and Southland, founded by Free Church settlers in southern South Island  The two churches merged in 1901, forming what is now the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand 
In addition to the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand, there is also a more conservative Presbyterian church called Grace Presbyterian Church of New Zealand  Many of its members left the largely liberal PCANZ because they were seeking a more conservative church  It has 17 churches throughout New Zealand 

Vanuatu
The Presbyterian Church in Vanuatu is the largest denomination in the country, with approximately one-third of the population of Vanuatu members of the church  The PCV was taken to Vanuatu by missionaries from Scotland  The PCV (Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu) is headed by a moderator with offices in Port Vila  The PCV is particularly strong in the provinces of Tafea, Shefa, and Malampa  The Province of Sanma is mainly Presbyterian with a strong Roman Catholic minority in the Francophone areas of the province  There are some Presbyterian people, but no organised Presbyterian churches in Penama and Torba, both of which are traditionally Anglican  Vanuatu is the only country in the South Pacific with a significant Presbyterian heritage and membership  The PCV is a founding member of the Vanuatu Christian Council (VCC)  The PCV runs many primary schools and Onesua secondary school  The church is strong in the rural villages 

See also
Celtic cross
English Presbyterianism
Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy
Ghost Ranch
Puritan's Pit
Presbyterian confessions of faith
Religion in Scotland
Category:Presbyterian universities and colleges
Category:Presbyterians

Churches
List of Christian denominations#Presbyterianism
List of Presbyterian churches
St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh (Church of Scotland) – famous among Presbyterians worldwide for John Knox's success in preaching there
Passage 14:
Knox United Church (Saskatoon)
Knox United Church is a designated municipal heritage building at 838 Spadina Crescent East, in the Central Business District, of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada The congregation was established as part of the Saskatoon Presbyterian Field Mission in 1885 after the North-West Rebellion  Meetings were held in homes, the Old Stone Schoolhouse, the Methodist Church and even the railway roundhouse until a wood church holding 160 was constructed near the river Architects Brown and Vallance of Montreal designed the present-day church in the Collegiate Gothic style  Construction started in 1912 and was completed in 1914  The two-storey building is made of dark red brick walls, features stained-glass windows, and has seating 1,200  The acoustic qualities of the church have made it a regular venue for various social and cultural events, including chamber music performances 
The Institute for stained glass in Canada has documented the stained glass at Knox United Church



ground_truth: 1572