prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where is the country with ISO code ISO 3166-2:CV located?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
ISO 3166-2:JP
ISO 3166-2:JP is the entry for Japan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g  provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Japan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 47 prefectures 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is JP, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Japan  The second part is two digits (01–47), which is the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS X 0401 code of the prefecture  The codes are assigned roughly from north to south 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 

See also
Administrative divisions of Japan
FIPS region codes of Japan

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: JP
Districts of Japan, Statoids com
Passage 2:
ISO 3166-2:IN
ISO 3166-2:IN is the entry for India in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for India, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 28 states and 8 union territories 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is IN, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code for India  The second part is two letters, currently used in vehicle registration plates with some exceptions 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 

Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of India
FIPS region codes of India
Passage 3:
ISO 3166-2:DM
ISO 3166-2:DM is the entry for Dominica in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Dominica, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 10 parishes 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is DM, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Dominica  The second part is two digits (02–11) 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Dominica
FIPS region codes of Dominica

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: DM
Parishes of Dominica, Statoids com
Passage 4:
ISO 3166-2:BY
ISO 3166-2:BY is the entry for Belarus in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Belarus, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 6 oblasts and 1 city  The city Minsk is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the oblasts 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is BY, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Belarus  The second part is two letters 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:

(be): Belarusian — Romanization system: BGN/PCGN 1979, UN X/6 2012
(ru): Russian — Romanization system: BGN/PCGN 1947, GOST 1983 = UN V/18 1987Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

See also
Subdivisions of Belarus
FIPS region codes of Belarus

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BY
Regions of Belarus, Statoids com
Passage 5:
ISO 3166-2:JM
ISO 3166-2:JM is the entry for Jamaica in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Jamaica, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 14 parishes 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is JM, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Jamaica  The second part is two digits (01–14)  The codes are assigned in the 
counter-clockwise direction starting from Kingston Parish 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

See also
Subdivisions of Jamaica
FIPS region codes of Jamaica

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: JM
Parishes of Jamaica, Statoids com
Passage 6:
ISO 3166-2:AD
ISO 3166-2:AD is the entry for Andorra in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Andorra, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 7 parishes 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is AD, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Andorra  The second part is two digits:

02–06: parishes created before 1978 except Andorra la Vella
07–08: Andorra la Vella and Escaldes-Engordany (Escaldes-Engordany split from Andorra la Vella in 1978)

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

See also
Subdivisions of Andorra
FIPS region codes of Andorra
Neighbouring countries: ES, FR 

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: AD
Parishes of Andorra, Statoids com
Passage 7:
ISO 3166-2:BN
ISO 3166-2:BN is the entry for Brunei in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Brunei, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 4 districts 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is BN, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Brunei  The second part is two letters 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of Brunei
FIPS region codes of Brunei

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BN
Districts of Brunei Darussalam, Statoids com
Passage 8:
ISO 3166-2:GR
ISO 3166-2:GR is the entry for Greece in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Greece, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two categories of subdivisions:

13 administrative regions
1 self-governed partThe departments (also called prefectures) were abolished in 2011, and were replaced approximately by regional units  The regional units were deleted from the entry in 2016 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is GR, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Greece  The second part is either of the following:

one letter (A–M): administrative regions
two digits: self-governed part

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Administrative regions
Notes

Self-governed part
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

Codes changed in Newsletter II-1
Codes removed on 15 November 2016
See also
Subdivisions of Greece
FIPS region codes of Greece
NUTS codes of Greece

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: GR
Departments of Greece, Statoids com
Passage 9:
ISO 3166-2:BE
ISO 3166-2:BE is the entry for Belgium in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g  provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Belgium, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:

3 regions
10 provincesEach code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is BE, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Belgium  The second part is three letters  For the provinces, the first letter indicates the region where the province is in:

V: Flemish Region (Dutch: Vlaams Gewest)
W: Walloon Region (French: Région wallonne)

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:

(fr): French
(nl): DutchClick on the button in the header to sort each column 

Regions
Notes

Provinces
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of Belgium
FIPS region codes of Belgium
NUTS codes of Belgium

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BE
Provinces of Belgium, Statoids com
Passage 10:
ISO 3166-2:BT
ISO 3166-2:BT is the entry for Bhutan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Bhutan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 20 districts 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is BT, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Bhutan  The second part is two digits, except Gasa and Trashi Yangtse, which use two letters instead  The first digit indicates the zone where the district is in:

1: Western
2: Central (Gasa is also in this zone)
3: Southern
4: Eastern (Trashi Yangtse is also in this zone)

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of Bhutan
FIPS region codes of Bhutan

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BT
Districts of Bhutan, Statoids com
Passage 11:
ISO 3166-2:CH
ISO 3166-2:CH is the entry for Switzerland in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
The abbreviation is derived from Latin name for Switzerland, Confoederatio Helvetica ("Helvetic Confederation") 
Currently for Switzerland, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 26 cantons 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is CH, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Switzerland  The second part is two letters, currently used in vehicle registration plates 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:

(de): German
(fr): French
(it): Italian
(rm): RomanshClick on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Switzerland
FIPS region codes of Switzerland
NUTS codes of Switzerland
Comparison of ISO, FIPS, and NUTS codes of the cantons of Switzerland

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: CH
Cantons of Switzerland, Statoids com
Passage 12:
ISO 3166-2:HU
ISO 3166-2:HU is the entry for Hungary in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Hungary, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 capital city, 19 counties, and 23 cities with county rights  The capital of the country Budapest has special status equal to the counties, while the cities with county rights, often called urban counties, have extended powers but are technically not independent of the counties 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is HU, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Hungary  The second part is two letters 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Hungary
FIPS region codes of Hungary
NUTS codes of Hungary

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: HU
Counties of Hungary, Statoids com
Passage 13:
ISO 3166-2:AI
ISO 3166-2:AI is the entry for Anguilla in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently no ISO 3166-2 codes are defined in the entry for Anguilla 
Anguilla is officially assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code AI 

See also
Subdivisions of Anguilla

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: AI
Districts of Anguilla, Statoids com
Passage 14:
ISO 3166-2:GN
ISO 3166-2:GN is the entry for Guinea in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Guinea, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:

7 administrative regions and 1 governorate
33 prefecturesThe governorate Conakry is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the administrative regions 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is GN, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Guinea  The second part is either of the following:

one letter: administrative regions and governorate
two letters: prefectures

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Administrative regions and governorate
Prefectures
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Guinea
FIPS region codes of Guinea
Passage 15:
ISO 3166-2:GA
ISO 3166-2:GA is the entry for Gabon in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Gabon, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 9 provinces 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is GA, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Gabon  The second part is a digit (1–9) 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

See also
Subdivisions of Gabon
FIPS region codes of Gabon

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: GA
Provinces of Gabon, Statoids com
Passage 16:
ISO 3166-2:KM
ISO 3166-2:KM is the entry for the Comoros in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for the Comoros, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 3 islands 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is KM, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of the Comoros  The second part is a letter 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages  The Shikomor language does not have a single ISO 639 code 

(ar): Arabic using two romanization systems
(fr): French
(—): ShikomorClick on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of the Comoros
FIPS region codes of the Comoros

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: KM
Autonomous Islands of Comoros, Statoids com
Passage 17:
Cape Verde
Cape Verde ( (listen)) or Cabo Verde ( (listen), ; Portuguese: [ˈkaβu ˈveɾðɨ]), officially the Republic of Cabo Verde, is an archipelago and island country in the central Atlantic Ocean, consisting of ten volcanic islands with a combined land area of about 4,033 square kilometres (1,557 sq mi)  These islands lie between 600 and 850 kilometres (320 and 460 nautical miles) west of Cap-Vert, the westernmost point of continental Africa  The Cape Verde islands form part of the Macaronesia ecoregion, along with the Azores, the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Savage Isles 
The Cape Verde archipelago was uninhabited until the 15th century, when Portuguese explorers discovered and colonized the islands, thus establishing the first European settlement in the tropics  Because the Cape Verde islands were located in a convenient location to play a role in the Atlantic slave trade, Cape Verde became economically prosperous during the 16th and 17th centuries, attracting merchants, privateers, and pirates  It declined economically in the 19th century after the suppression of the Atlantic slave trade, and many of its inhabitants emigrated during that period  However, Cape Verde gradually recovered economically by becoming an important commercial center and useful stopover point along major shipping routes  Cape Verde became independent in 1975 
Since the early 1990s, Cape Verde has been a stable representative democracy and has remained one of the most developed and democratic countries in Africa  Lacking natural resources, its developing economy is mostly service-oriented, with a growing focus on tourism and foreign investment  Its population of around 483,628 (as of the 2021 Census) is mostly of mixed African and a minor European heritage, and predominantly Roman Catholic, reflecting the legacy of Portuguese rule  A sizeable Cape Verdean diaspora community exists across the world, especially in the United States and Portugal, considerably outnumbering the inhabitants on the islands  Cape Verde is a member state of the African Union 
Cape Verde's official language is Portuguese   It is the language of instruction and government  It is also used in newspapers, television, and radio  The recognized national language is Cape Verdean Creole, which is spoken by the vast majority of the population 
As of the 2021 census the most populated islands were Santiago, where the capital Praia is located (269,370), São Vincente (74,016), Santo Antão (36,632), Fogo (33,519) and Sal (33,347)  The largest cities are Praia (137,868), Mindelo (69,013), Espargos (24,500) and Assomada (21,297) 

Etymology
The country is named after the Cap-Vert peninsula, on the Senegalese coast  The name Cap-Vert, in turn, comes from the Portuguese language Cabo Verde ('green cape'), the name that Portuguese explorers gave the cape in 1444, a few years before they came across the islands 
On 24 October 2013, the country's delegation to the United Nations informed it that other countries should no longer use Cape Verde or any other translations of Cabo Verde as part of its official name: all countries should use Republic of Cabo Verde as the country's official name  Speakers of English have used the name Cape Verde for the archipelago and, since independence in 1975, for the country  In 2013, the Cape Verdean government determined that it would thenceforth use the Portuguese name Cabo Verde for official purposes, including at the United Nations, even when speaking or writing in English 

History
The archipelago of modern-day Cape Verde was formed approximately 40–50 million years ago during the Eocene era 
Before the arrival of Europeans, the Cape Verde Islands were uninhabited  They were discovered by Genoese and Portuguese navigators around 1456  According to Portuguese official records, the first discoveries were made by Genoa-born António de Noli, who was afterwards appointed governor of Cape Verde by the Portuguese king Afonso V  Other navigators mentioned as contributing to discoveries on the Cape Verde archipelago are Diogo Dias, Diogo Afonso, Venetian Alvise Cadamosto, and Diogo Gomes (who had accompanied António de Noli on his voyage of discovery, and who claimed to have been the first to land on the Cape Verdean island of Santiago, and the first to name that island) 
In 1462, Portuguese settlers arrived at Santiago and founded a settlement they called Ribeira Grande  Today it is called Cidade Velha ("Old City"), to distinguish it from a town of the same name on a different Cape Verdean island (Ribeira Grande on the island of Santo Antão)  The original Ribeira Grande was the first permanent European settlement in the tropics 
In the 16th century, the archipelago prospered from the Atlantic slave trade  Pirates occasionally attacked the Portuguese settlements  Francis Drake, an English privateer, twice sacked the (then) capital Ribeira Grande in 1585 when it was a part of the Iberian Union  After a French attack in 1712, the town declined in importance relative to nearby Praia, which became the capital in 1770 The decline in the slave trade in the 19th century resulted in an economic crisis  Cape Verde's early prosperity slowly vanished  However, the islands' position astride mid-Atlantic shipping lanes made Cape Verde an ideal location for re-supplying ships  Because of its excellent harbour, the city of Mindelo, located on the island of São Vicente, became an important commercial centre during the 19th century  Diplomat Edmund Roberts visited Cape Verde in 1832  Cape Verde was the first stop of Charles Darwin's voyage with HMS Beagle in 1832 
With few natural resources and inadequate sustainable investment from the Portuguese, the citizens grew increasingly discontented with the colonial masters, who refused to provide the local authorities with more autonomy  In 1951, Portugal changed Cape Verde's status from a colony to an overseas province in an attempt to blunt growing nationalism In 1956, Amílcar Cabral and a group of fellow Cape Verdeans and Guineans organized (in Portuguese Guinea) the clandestine African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC)  It demanded improvement in economic, social and political conditions in Cape Verde and Portuguese Guinea and formed the basis of the two nations' independence movement  Moving its headquarters to Conakry, Guinea in 1960, the PAIGC began an armed rebellion against Portugal in 1961  Acts of sabotage eventually grew into a war in Portuguese Guinea that pitted 10,000 Soviet Bloc-supported PAIGC soldiers against 35,000 Portuguese and African troops By 1972, the PAIGC controlled much of Portuguese Guinea despite the presence of the Portuguese troops, but the organization did not attempt to disrupt Portuguese control in Cape Verde  Portuguese Guinea declared independence in 1973 and was granted de jure independence in 1974  A budding independence movement – originally led by Amílcar Cabral, assassinated in 1973 – passed on to his half-brother Luís Cabral and culminated in independence for the archipelago in 1975 

Independence (1975)
Following the April 1974 revolution in Portugal, the PAIGC became an active political movement in Cape Verde  In December 1974, the PAIGC and Portugal signed an agreement providing for a transitional government composed of Portuguese and Cape Verdeans  On 30 June 1975, Cape Verdeans elected a National Assembly which received the instruments of independence from Portugal on 5 July 1975  In the late 1970s and 1980s, most African countries prohibited South African Airways from overflights but Cape Verde allowed them and became a centre of activity for the airline's flights to Europe and the United States 
Immediately following the November 1980 coup in Guinea-Bissau, relations between Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau became strained  Cape Verde abandoned its hope for unity with Guinea-Bissau and formed the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV)  Problems have since been resolved and relations between the countries are good  The PAICV and its predecessor established a one-party system and ruled Cape Verde from independence until 1990 Responding to growing pressure for pluralistic democracy, the PAICV called an emergency congress in February 1990 to discuss proposed constitutional changes to end one-party rule  Opposition groups came together to form the Movement for Democracy (MpD) in Praia in April 1990  Together, they campaigned for the right to contest the presidential election scheduled for December 1990 
The one-party state was abolished on 28 September 1990, and the first multi-party elections were held in January 1991  The MpD won a majority of the seats in the National Assembly, and MpD presidential candidate António Mascarenhas Monteiro defeated the PAICV's candidate with 73 5% of the votes  Legislative elections in December 1995 increased the MpD majority in the National Assembly  The party won 50 of the National Assembly's 72 seats 
A February 1996 presidential election returned President Monteiro to office  Legislative elections in January 2001 returned power to the PAICV, with the PAICV holding 40 of the National Assembly seats, MpD 30, and Party for Democratic Convergence (PCD) and Labour and Solidarity Party (PTS) 1 each  In February 2001, the PAICV-supported presidential candidate Pedro Pires defeated former MpD leader Carlos Veiga by only 13 votes  
President Pedro Pires was narrowly re-elected in 2006 elections President Jorge Carlos Fonseca led the country since 2011 Cape Verde presidential election and he was re-elected in the 2016 election  He was supported by the Movement for Democracy Party  MpD also won in the 2016 parliamentary elections, taking back parliamentary majority after 15 year-rule of African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV)  In April 2021, the ruling center-right Movement for Democracy (MpD) of Prime Minister Ulisses Correia e Silva won the parliamentary election On 26 August 2021, Cape Verde became the 150th country to ratify the 2005 Convention and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions In October 2021, opposition candidate and former prime minister, Jose Maria Neves of PAICV, won Cape Verde's presidential election  On 9 November 2021, Jose Maria Neves was sworn in as the new President of Cape Verde 

Government and politics
Cape Verde is a stable semi-presidential representative democratic republic  It was 2020 the most democratic nation in Africa, ranking 2023 as 45th in the world, according to the electoral democracy score of the V-Dem Democracy indices The constitution – adopted in 1980 and revised in 1992, 1995 and 1999 – defines the basic principles of its government  The president is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term The prime minister is the head of government and proposes other ministers and secretaries of state  The prime minister is nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the president  Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote for five-year terms  In 2016, three parties held seats in the National Assembly – MpD (36), PAICV (25), and the Cape Verdean Independent Democratic Union (UCID) (3) The two main political parties are PAICV and MpD Movement for Democracy (MpD) ousted the ruling African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) for the first time in 15 years in the 2016 parliamentary election, at which time its leader, Ulisses Correia e Silva, became prime minister  Jorge Carlos Almeida Fonseca was elected president in August 2011 and re-elected in October 2016  He is also supported by the MpD In November 2021, Cape Verde opened its first embassy in Nigeria 

International recognition
Cape Verde is often praised as an example among African nations for its stability and developmental growth despite its lack of natural resources  In 2013 then United States President Barack Obama said Cape Verde is "a real success story"  Among other achievements, it has been recognized with the following assessments:

Foreign relations
Cape Verde follows a policy of nonalignment and seeks cooperative relations with all friendly states  Angola, Brazil, China, Libya, Cuba, France, Guinea-Bissau, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Russia, Luxembourg, and the United States maintain embassies in Praia  Cape Verde maintains a vigorously active foreign policy, especially in Africa Cape Verde is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language 
Cape Verde has bilateral relations with some Lusophone nations and holds membership in a number of international organizations  It also participates in most international conferences on economic and political issues  Since 2007, Cape Verde has a special partnership status with the EU, under the Cotonou Agreement, and might apply for special membership, in particular because the Cape Verdean escudo, the country's currency, is indexed to the euro  In 2011 Cape Verde ratified the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court  In 2017 Cape Verde signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons 

Judiciary
The judicial system consists of a Supreme Court of Justice – whose members are appointed by the president, the National Assembly, and the Board of the Judiciary – and regional courts  Separate courts hear civil, constitutional, and criminal cases  Appeals are to the Supreme Court 

Military
The military of Cape Verde consists of the National Guard and the Coast Guard; 0 7% of the country's GDP was spent on the military in 2005 
Having fought their only battles in the war for independence against Portugal between 1974 and 1975, the efforts of the Cape Verdean armed forces have turned to combating international drug trafficking  In 2007, together with the Cape Verdean Police, they carried out Operation Flying Launch (Operacão Lancha Voadora), a successful operation to put an end to a drug trafficking group which smuggled cocaine from Colombia to the Netherlands and Germany using the country as a reorder point  The operation took more than three years, being a secret operation during the first two years, and ended in 2010  In 2016, Cape Verdean Armed Forces were involved in the Monte Tchota massacre, a green-on-green incident that resulted in 11 deaths Although located in Africa and being black Africans, Cape Verde has always had close relations with Europe  Because of this, some scholars argue that Cape Verde may be eligible to join the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and NATO 

Geography
The Cape Verde archipelago is in the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 570 kilometres (350 mi) off the western coast of the African continent, near Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania as well as part of the Macaronesia ecoregion  It lies between latitudes 14° and 18°N, and longitudes 22° and 26°W 
The country is a horseshoe-shaped cluster of ten islands (nine inhabited) and eight islets, that constitute an area of 4033 km2 (1557 sq mi) The islands are spatially divided into two groups:

The Barlavento Islands (windward islands): Santo Antão, São Vicente, Santa Luzia, São Nicolau, Sal, Boa Vista; and
The Sotavento Islands (leeward): Maio, Santiago, Fogo, Brava The largest island, both in size and population, is Santiago, which hosts the nation's capital, Praia, the principal urban agglomeration in the archipelago Three of the Cape Verde islands, Sal, Boa Vista, and Maio, are fairly flat, sandy, and dry; the others are generally rockier with more vegetation 

Physical geography and geology
Geologically, the islands, covering a combined area of slightly over 4,033 square kilometres (1,557 square miles), are principally composed of igneous rocks, with volcanic structures and pyroclastic debris comprising the majority of the archipelago's total volume  The volcanic and plutonic rocks are distinctly basic; the archipelago is a soda-alkaline petrographic province, with a petrologic succession similar to that found in other Macaronesian islands 
Magnetic anomalies identified in the vicinity of the archipelago indicate that the structures forming the islands date back 125–150 million years: the islands themselves date from 8 million (in the west) to 20 million years (in the east)  The oldest exposed rocks occurred on Maio and the northern peninsula of Santiago and are 128–131 million-year-old pillow lavas  The first stage of volcanism in the islands began in the early Miocene, and reached its peak at the end of this period when the islands reached their maximum sizes  Historical volcanism (within human settlement) has been restricted to the island of Fogo The islands lie on a bathymetric swell known as the Cape Verde Rise  The Rise is one of the largest protuberances in the world's oceans, rising 2 2 kilometres (1 4 miles) in a semi-circular region of 1200 km2 (460 sq mi), associated with a rise of the geoid Pico do Fogo, the largest active volcano in the region, erupted in 2014  It has an eight-kilometre-diameter (five-mile) caldera, the rim of which is at an elevation of 1,600 metres (5,249 feet) and an interior cone that rises to 2,829 metres (9,281 feet) above sea level  The caldera resulted from subsidence, following the partial evacuation (eruption) of the magma chamber, along a cylindrical column from within the magma chamber (at a depth of 8 kilometres (5 miles)) 
Extensive salt flats are found on Sal and Maio  On Santiago, Santo Antão, and São Nicolau, arid slopes give way in places to sugarcane fields or banana plantations spread along the base of towering mountains  Ocean cliffs have been formed by catastrophic debris landslides 

Climate
Cape Verde's climate is milder than that of the African mainland because the surrounding sea moderates temperatures on the islands and cold Atlantic currents produce an arid atmosphere around the archipelago  Conversely, the islands do not receive the upwelling (cold streams) that affect the West African coast, so the air temperature is cooler than in Senegal, but the sea is warmer  Due to the relief of some islands, such as Santiago with its steep mountains, the islands can have orographically induced precipitation, allowing rich woods and luxuriant vegetation to grow where the humid air condenses soaking the plants, rocks, soil, logs, moss, etc  On the higher islands and somewhat wetter islands, exclusively in mountainous areas, like Santo Antão island, the climate is suitable for the development of dry monsoon forests, and laurel forests  Average temperatures range from 22 °C (72 °F) in February to 27 °C (80 6 °F) in September  Cape Verde is part of the Sahelian arid belt, with nothing like the rainfall levels of nearby West Africa  It rains irregularly between August and October, with frequent brief heavy downpours  A desert is usually defined as terrain that receives less than 250 mm (9 8 in) of annual rainfall  Sal's total of 145 mm (5 7 in) confirms this classification  Most of the year's rain falls in September Sal, Boa Vista, and Maio have a flat landscape and arid climate, whilst the other islands are generally rockier and have more vegetation  Because of the infrequent occurrence of rainfall, where not mountainous, the landscape is so arid that less than two percent of it is arable  The archipelago can be divided into four broad ecological zones – arid, semiarid, subhumid and humid, according to altitude and average annual rainfall ranging from less than 100 millimetres (3 9 inches) in the arid areas of the coast as in the Deserto de Viana (67 millimetres (2 6 inches) in Sal Rei) to more than 1,000 millimetres (39 inches) in the humid mountain  Most rainfall precipitation is due to condensation of the ocean mist 

In some islands, like Santiago, the wetter climate of the interior and the eastern coast contrasts with the drier one on the south/southwest coast  Praia, on the southeast coast, is the largest city on the island and the largest city and capital of the country 
While most of Cape Verde receives little precipitation throughout the year, the northeastern slopes of high mountains see significant rainfall due to orographic lift, especially in areas far from the sea  In some such areas this precipitation is sufficient to support a rainforest habitat, albeit one significantly affected by the islands' human presence  These umbria areas are identified as cool and moist  Cape Verde lies in the Cape Verde Islands dry forests ecoregion Western Hemisphere-bound hurricanes often have their early beginnings near the Cape Verde Islands  These are referred to as Cape Verde-type hurricanes  These hurricanes can become very intense as they cross warm Atlantic waters away from Cape Verde  The average hurricane season has about two Cape Verde-type hurricanes, which are usually the largest and most intense storms of the season because they often have plenty of warm open ocean over which to develop before encountering land  The five largest Atlantic tropical cyclones on record have been Cape Verde-type hurricanes  Most of the longest-lived tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin are Cape Verde hurricanes As of 2015, the islands themselves have only been struck by hurricanes twice in recorded history (since 1851): once in 1892, and again in 2015 by Hurricane Fred, the easternmost hurricane ever to form in the Atlantic 

Climate Change
According to the president of Nauru, in 2011 Cape Verde was ranked the eighth most endangered nation due to flooding from climate change  In 2023 UN Secretary-General António Guterres arrived in Cabo Verde to raise concerns about climate change  He said that the country is on the frontlines of the existential crisis generated by climate disruptions and that world leaders need to take action to address the climate crisis  Cabo Verde is a leader in renewable energy in sub-Saharan Africa  Currently, 20% of its energy comes from renewable sources, and the goal is to increase that to 50% by 2030  In 2023, Portugal signed an agreement to forgive €140 million of Cape Verde's debt in exchange for the country investing in environmental projects  This agreement is one of the first debt-for-nature swap in Africa 

Biodiversity
Cape Verde's isolation has resulted in the islands having several endemic species, particularly birds and reptiles, many of which are endangered by human development  Endemic birds include Alexander's swift (Apus alexandri), Bourne's heron (Ardea purpurea bournei), the Raso lark (Alauda razae), the Cape Verde warbler (Acrocephalus brevipennis), and the Iago sparrow (Passer iagoensis)  The islands are also an important breeding area for seabirds including the Cape Verde shearwater  Reptiles include the Cape Verde giant gecko (Tarentola gigas) 

Administrative divisions
Cape Verde is divided into 22 municipalities (concelhos) and subdivided into 32 parishes (freguesias), based on the religious parishes that existed during the colonial period:

Economy
Cape Verde's notable economic growth and improvement in living conditions despite a lack of natural resources have garnered international recognition, with other countries and international organizations often providing development aid  Since 2007, the UN has classified it as a developing nation rather than a least developed country 
Cape Verde has few natural resources  Only five of the ten main islands (Santiago, Santo Antão, São Nicolau, Fogo, and Brava) normally support significant agricultural production, and over 90% of all food consumed in Cape Verde is imported  Mineral resources include salt, pozzolana (a volcanic rock used in cement production), and limestone  Its small number of wineries making Portuguese-style wines have traditionally focused on the domestic market, but have recently met with some international acclaim  Several wine tours of Cape Verde's various microclimates began to be offered in spring 2010 
The economy of Cape Verde is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for more than 70% of GDP  Although nearly 35% of the population lives in rural areas, agriculture and fishing contribute only about 9% of GDP  Light manufacturing accounts for most of the remainder  Fish and shellfish are plentiful, and small quantities are exported  Cape Verde has cold storage and freezing facilities and fish processing plants in Mindelo, Praia, and on Sal  Expatriate Cape Verdeans contribute an amount estimated at 20% of GDP to the domestic economy through remittances 
Despite having few natural resources and being semi-desert, the country boasts the highest living standards in the region and has attracted thousands of immigrants of different nationalities 
Since 1991, the government has pursued market-oriented economic policies, including an open welcome to foreign investors and a far-reaching privatization programme  It established as top development priorities the promotion of a market economy and the private sector; the development of tourism, light manufacturing industries, and fisheries; and the development of transport, communications, and energy facilities  From 1994 to 2000 about $407 million in foreign investments were made or planned, of which 58% were in tourism, 17% in industry, 4% in infrastructure, and 21% in fisheries and services In 2011, on four islands a wind farm was built that supplies about 30% of the electricity of the country 
As host to the ECOWAS Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, inaugurated in 2010, Cape Verde plans to lead by example by becoming entirely reliant on renewable energy sources by 2025  This policy is consistent with the plethora of documents adopted in 2015 paving the way to more sustainable development, including Cape Verde's Transformational Agenda to 2030, its National Renewable Energy Plan and its Low Carbon and Climate-resilient Development Strategy  Two years later, these were followed by a Strategic Plan for Sustainable Development, 2017–2021 Between 2000 and 2009, real GDP increased on average by over seven percent a year, well above the average for Sub-Saharan countries and faster than most small island economies in the region  Strong economic performance was bolstered by one of the fastest growing tourism industries in the world, as well as by substantial capital inflows that allowed Cape Verde to build up national currency reserves to the current 3 5 months of imports  Unemployment has been falling rapidly, and the country is on track to achieve most of the UN Millennium Development Goals – including halving its 1990 poverty level 
In 2007, Cape Verde joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) and in 2008 the country graduated from Least Developed Country (LDC) to Middle Income Country (MIC) status 
Cape Verde has significant cooperation with Portugal at every level of the economy, which has led it to link its currency first to the Portuguese escudo and, in 1999, to the euro  On 23 June 2008 Cape Verde became the 153rd member of the WTO In early January 2018, the government announced that the minimum wage would be raised to 13,000 CVE (US$140 or EUR 130) per month, from 11,000 CVE, which was effective in mid-January 2018 

Development
The European Commission's total allocation for the period of 2008–2013 foreseen for Cape Verde to address "poverty reduction, in particular in rural and peri-urban areas where women are heading the households, as well as good governance" amounts to €54 1 million 

Tourism
Cape Verde's strategic location at the crossroads of mid-Atlantic air and sea lanes has been enhanced by significant improvements at Mindelo's harbour (Porto Grande) and at Sal's and Praia's international airports  A new international airport was opened in Boa Vista in December 2007 and on the island of São Vicente, the newest international airport (Cesária Évora Airport) in Cape Verde was opened in late 2009  Ship repair facilities at Mindelo were opened in 1983 The major ports are Mindelo and Praia, but all other islands have smaller port facilities  In addition to the international airport on Sal, airports have been built on all of the inhabited islands  All but the airports on Brava and Santo Antão enjoy scheduled air service  The archipelago has 3,050 km (1,895 mi) of roads, of which 1,010 km (628 mi) are paved, most using cobblestone The country's future economic prospects depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, the encouragement of tourism, remittances, outsourcing labour to neighbouring African countries, and the momentum of the government's development programme 

Demographics
The official Census recorded that Cape Verde had a population of 512,096 in 2013  A large proportion (236,000) of Cape Verdeans live on the main island, Santiago Cape Verdeans are descendants of Africans (free or slaves) and Europeans of various origins  There are also Cape Verdeans who have Jewish ancestors from North Africa, mainly on the islands of Boa Vista, Santiago and Santo Antão  A large part of Cape Verdeans emigrated abroad, mainly to the United States, Portugal and France, so that there are more Cape Verdeans residing abroad than at home 
Unlike countries on the African continent, there are no tribes in Cape Verde  On the other hand, the country's historical trajectory included, from the beginning, a process of social class formation  At this moment, the absence of a "bourgeoisie" can be seen, but the existence of several types of "petty bourgeoisie", numerically significant  The majority of the population is, however, made up of the peasantry and some working class 

Languages
Cape Verde's official language is Portuguese  It is the language of instruction and government  It is also used in newspapers, television, and radio 
Cape Verdean Creole (Kriolu) is used colloquially throughout Cape Verde and is the mother tongue of virtually all Cape Verdeans  The national constitution calls for measures to give it parity with Portuguese  There is a substantial body of literature in Creole, especially in the Santiago Creole and the São Vicente Creole  Kriolu has been gaining prestige since the nation's independence from Portugal 
The differences between the forms of the language within the islands have been a major obstacle in the way of standardization of the language  Some people have advocated the development of two standards: a North (Barlavento) standard, centred on the São Vicente Creole, and a South (Sotavento) standard, centred on the Santiago Creole  Manuel Veiga, Ph D , a linguist and Minister of Culture of Cape Verde, is the premier proponent of Kriolu's officialization and standardization 

Religion
The vast majority of Cape Verdeans are Christian; reflecting centuries of Portuguese rule, Roman Catholics make up the single largest religious community, at just under 80 percent, as of 2010 (slightly down from 85 percent of the population in 2007)  Most other religious groups are Protestant, with the evangelical Church of the Nazarene forming the second largest community; other sizeable denominations are the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Assemblies of God, the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints  Islam is the largest minority religion  Judaism had a historical presence during the colonial era  Atheists constitute less than 1 percent of the population  Many Cape Verdeans syncretize Christianity with indigenous African beliefs and customs 

Emigration and immigration
Almost twice as many Cape Verdeans live abroad (nearly one million) than in the country itself  The islands have a long history of emigration and Cape Verdeans are highly dispersed worldwide, from Macau to Haiti and Argentina to Sweden  The diaspora may be much larger than official statistics indicate, as, until independence in 1975, Cape Verdean immigrants had Portuguese passports 
The majority of Cape Verdeans live in the United States and Western Europe, with the former hosting the largest overseas population at 500,000  Most Cape Verdeans in the U S  are concentrated in New England, particularly the cities of Providence, New Bedford, and Boston; Brockton, has the largest community of any American city (18,832) Cape Verdeans have been migrating to Massachusetts since the 1840s, but most of the current population arrived in the 1970s  They are now one of the top ten immigrant groups in Boston, and the largest hailing from Africa  The first wave of Cape Verdean immigrants came to Massachusetts to work in the whaling industry  When whaling declined, they moved into maritime jobs, seasonal agricultural work (like picking cranberries) , and factory work  The second wave of Cape Verdean immigrants arrived after Cape Verde gained independence in 1975  They also found work in factories, but as manufacturing plants closed down, they moved into the service industry in the 1990's  Cape Verdean immigrants have also developed a vibrant small business sector, including restaurants, groceries, real estate and insurance offices, and other enterprises  Cape Verdean immigrants in the U S  have a long history of enlistment in the U S  military, with a presence in every major conflict from the Revolutionary War to the Vietnam War Due to centuries of colonial ties, the second largest number of Cape Verdeans live in Portugal (150,000), with sizable communities in the former Portuguese colonies of Angola (45,000) and São Tomé and Príncipe (25,000)  Major populations exist in countries with cultural and linguistic similarities, such as Spain (65,500), France (25,000), Senegal (25,000), and Italy (20,000)  Other large communities live in the United Kingdom (35,500), the Netherlands (20,000, of which 15,000 are concentrated in Rotterdam), and Luxembourg and Scandinavia (7,000)  Outside the U S  and Europe, the biggest Cape Verdean populations are in Mexico (5,000) and Argentina (8,000) 
Over the years, Cape Verde has increasingly become a net recipient of migrants, due to its relatively high per capita income, political and social stability, and civil freedom  Chinese make up a sizeable and important segment of the foreign population, while nearby West African countries account for most immigration  In the 21st century, a few thousand Europeans and Latin Americans have settled in the country, mostly professionals, entrepreneurs, and retirees  Over 22,000 foreign-born residents are naturalized, hailing from over 90 countries 
The Cape Verdean diaspora experience is reflected in many artistic and cultural expressions, most famously the song Sodade by Cesária Évora 

Health
The infant mortality rate among Cape Verdean children between 0 and 5 years old is 15 per 1,000 live births according to the latest (2017) data from the National Statistics Bureau, while the maternal mortality rate is 42 deaths per 100,000 live births  The HIV-AIDS prevalence rate among Cape Verdeans between 15 and 49 years old is 0 8% According to the latest data (2017) from the National Statistics Bureau, life expectancy at birth in Cape Verde is 76 2 years; that is, 72 2 years for males and 80 2 years for females  There are six hospitals in the Cape Verde archipelago: two central hospitals (one in the capital city of Praia and one in Mindelo, São Vicente) and four regional hospitals (one in Santa Catarina (northern Santiago region), one on São Antão, one on Fogo, and one on Sal)  In addition, there are 28 health centers, 35 sanitation centers, and a variety of private clinics located throughout the archipelago 
Cape Verde's population is among the healthiest in Africa  Since its independence, it has greatly improved its health indicators  Besides having been promoted to the group of "medium development" countries in 2007, leaving the least developed countries category (becoming the second country to do so), as of 2020 it was the 11th best ranked country in Africa in its Human Development Index 
The total expenditure on health was 7 1% of GDP (2015) 

Education
Although the Cape Verdean educational system is similar to the Portuguese system, over the years the local universities have been increasingly adopting the American educational system; for instance, all ten existing universities in the country offer four-year bachelor's degree programs as opposed to five-year bachelor's degree programs that existed before 2010  Cape Verde has the second best educational system in Africa, after South Africa 
Primary school education in Cape Verde is mandatory and free for children between the ages of six and fourteen years In 2011, the net enrolment ratio for primary school was 85%  Approximately 90% of the total population over 15 years of age is literate, and roughly 25% of the population holds a college degree; a significant number of these college graduates hold doctorate degrees in different academic fields  Textbooks have been made available to 90 percent of school children, and 98 percent of the teachers have attended in-service teacher training  Although most children have access to education, some problems remain  For example, there is insufficient spending on school materials, lunches, and books As of October 2016, there were 69 secondary schools throughout the archipelago (including 19 private secondary schools) and at least 10 universities in the country, which are based on the two islands of Santiago and São Vicente 

In 2015, 23% of the Cape Verdean population had either attended or graduated from secondary schools 
When it came to higher education, 9% of Cape Verdean men and 8% of Cape Verdean women held a bachelor's degree or had attended universities  The overall college education rate (i e , college graduates and undergraduate students) in Cape Verde is about 24%, of the local college-age population 
The total expenditure on education was 5 6% of GDP (2010) 
The mean years of schooling of adults over 25 years is 12 
These trends were held in 2017  Cape Verde stands out in West Africa for the quality and inclusiveness of its higher education system  As of 2017, one in four young people attended university and one-third of students opted for fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics  Women made up one-third of students but two-thirds of graduates in 2018 

Science and technology
In 2011, Cape Verde devoted just 0 07% of its GDP to research and development, among the lowest rates in West Africa  The Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Culture plan to strengthen the research and academic sectors by emphasizing greater mobility, through exchange programmes and international cooperation agreements  As part of this strategy, Cape Verde is participating in the Ibero-American academic mobility programme that expects to mobilize 200,000 academics between 2015 and 2020  Cape Verde was ranked 89th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 Cape Verde counted 25 researchers in 2011, a researcher density of 51 per million inhabitants  The world average was 1,083 per million in 2013  All 25 researchers were working in the government sector in 2011 and one in three were women (36%)  There was no research being conducted in either medical or agricultural sciences  Of the eight engineers involved in research and development, one was a woman  Three of the five researchers working in natural sciences were women, as were three of the six social scientists and two of the five researchers from the humanities In 2015, the government announced a project to build a technology park for business, research, and development  As of late 2020, the project, now named TechPark Cabo Verde, is slated for completion in June 2022  The project is funded by both the African Development Bank and the government of Cape Verde  The goal of the endeavour, according to Cape Verde Minister of Finance Olavo Correia, is "to attract large international companies to set up shop [in order] to help local companies and start-ups become more competitive" Cape Verde has a high rate of internet penetration and a growing mobile phone market  The government has invested in improving ICT infrastructure and has created a number of initiatives to promote the development of the digital economy  The digital economy has the potential to create jobs, boost economic growth, and improve the quality of life for people in Cape Verde 

Crime
Theft and burglary are common in Cape Verde, especially in crowded environments such as marketplaces, festivals, and celebrations  Often the perpetrators of these crimes are gangs of street children  Murders are concentrated in the major population centres of Praia and Mindelo 

Culture
The culture of Cape Verde is characterized by a mixture of African and European elements  This is not a sum of two cultures living side by side, but a new culture resulting from an exchange that began in the 15th century 
Cape Verdean social and cultural patterns are unique  Football games and church activities are typical sources of social interaction and entertainment  The traditional walk around the praça (town square) to meet friends is practised regularly in Cape Verde towns 

Media
In towns with electricity, television is available on three channels; one state-owned (RTC – TCV) and three foreign-owned: RTI Cabo Verde launched by the Portuguese-based RTI in 2005; Record Cabo Verde, launched by the Brazilian-based Rede Record on 31 March 2007; and as of 2016, TV CPLP  Premium channels available include the Cape Verdean versions of Boom TV and Zap Cabo Verde, two channels owned by Brazil's Record  Other premium channels are available in Cape Verde, especially satellite network channels which are common in hotels and villas, though availability is otherwise limited  One such channel is RDP África, the African version of the Portuguese radio station RDP 
As of early 2023, about 99% of the Cape Verdean population own an active cellular phone, 70% have access to the Internet, 11% own a landline telephone, and 2% subscribe to local cable TV  In 2003, Cape Verde had 71,700 main line telephones with an additional 53,300 cellular phones in use throughout the country 
In 2004, there were seven radio stations, six independent and one state-owned  The media is operated by the Cape-Verdean News Agency (secondarily as Inforpress)  Nationwide radio stations include RCV, RCV+, Radio Kriola, and the religious station Radio Nova  Local radio stations include Rádio Praia, the first radio station in Cape Verde; Praia FM, the first FM station in the nation; Rádio Barlavento, Rádio Clube do Mindelo and Radio Morabeza in Mindelo 

Music
The Cape Verdean people are known for their musicality, well expressed by popular manifestations such as the Carnival of Mindelo  Cape Verde music incorporates "African, Portuguese and Brazilian influences " Cape Verde's quintessential national music is the morna, a melancholy and lyrical song form typically sung in Cape Verdean Creole  The most popular music genre after morna is the coladeira, followed by funaná and batuque music  Cesária Évora was the best-known Cape Verdean singer in the world, known as the "barefoot diva," because she liked to perform barefooted on stage  She was also referred to as "The Queen of Morna" as opposed to her uncle Bana, who was referred to as "King of Morna"  The international success of Cesária Évora has made other Cape Verdean artists, or descendants of Cape Verdeans born in Portugal, gain more space in the music market  Examples of this are singers Sara Tavares, Lura and Mayra Andrade 
Another great exponent of traditional music from Cape Verde was Antonio Vicente Lopes, better known as Travadinha, and Ildo Lobo, who died in 2004  The House of Culture in the center of the city of Praia is called Ildo Lobo House of Culture, in his honour 
There are also well-known artists born to Cape Verdean parents who excelled themselves in the international music scene  Amongst these artists are jazz pianist Horace Silver, Duke Ellington's saxophonist Paul Gonsalves, Teófilo Chantre, Paul Pena, the Tavares brothers and singer Lura 

Dance
Cape Verdean traditional dance is a mix of West and Central African influences  The most popular dance style in Cape Verde is called “Funana” which originated on the island of Santiago and is danced in pairs with fast hip movements and a lively rhythm  Another popular dance style is “Coladeira” which is a slower dance style that originated on the island of Sao Vicente  “Batuque” is another traditional Cape Verdean dance style that originated on the island of Santiago and involves a lot of hip movement and percussion  “Morna” is another popular Cape Verdean dance style that originated on the island of Boa Vista and has a slow tempo with a melancholic melody  Zouk and Kizomba are newer popular dance style in Cape Verde that originated in other countries 

Literature
Cape Verdean literature is one of the richest of Lusophone Africa  Famous poets include Paulino Vieira, Manuel de Novas, Sergio Frusoni, Eugénio Tavares, and B  Léza, and famous authors include Baltasar Lopes da Silva, António Aurélio Gonçalves, Manuel Lopes, Orlanda Amarílis, Henrique Teixeira de Sousa, Arménio Vieira, Kaoberdiano Dambará, Dr  Azágua, and Germano Almeida  The first novel written by a woman from Cabo Verde was A Louca de Serrano by Dina Salústio; its translation, as The Madwoman of Serrano, was the first translation of any Cabo Verdean novel to English 

Cinema
The Carnival and the island of São Vicente are portrayed in the 2015 feature documentary Tchindas, nominated at the 12th Africa Movie Academy Awards 

Cuisine
The Cape Verde diet is mostly based on fish and staple foods like corn and rice  Vegetables available during most of the year are potatoes, onions, tomatoes, manioc, cabbage, kale, and dried beans  Fruits such as bananas and papayas are available year-round, while others like mangoes and avocados are seasonal A popular dish served in Cape Verde is cachupa, a slow-cooked stew of corn (hominy), beans, and fish or meat  A common appetizer is the pastel, a pastry shell filled with fish or meat which is then fried 

Sports
The country's most successful sports team is the Cape Verde national basketball team, which won the bronze medal at the FIBA Africa Championship 2007, after beating Egypt in its last game  The country's most well-known player is Walter Tavares, who plays for Real Madrid of Spain 
Cape Verde is famous for wave sailing (a type of windsurfing) and kiteboarding  Josh Angulo, a Hawaiian and 2009 PWA Wave World Champion, has done much to promote the archipelago as a windsurfing destination  Mitu Monteiro, a local kitesurfer, was the 2008 Kite Surfing World Champion in the wave discipline 
The Cape Verde national football team, nicknamed the Tubarões Azuis (Blue Sharks), is the national team of Cape Verde and is controlled by the Cape Verdean Football Federation  The team has played at three Africa Cup of Nations, in 2013, 2015, and 2021 The country has competed at every Summer Olympics since 1996  In 2016, Gracelino Barbosa became the first Cape Verdean to win a medal at the Paralympic Games 

Transport
Ports
There are four international ports: Mindelo, Praia, Palmeira and Sal Rei  Mindelo on São Vicente is the main port for cruise ships and the terminus for the ferry service to Santo Antão  Praia on Santiago is the main hub for local ferry services to other islands  Palmeira on Sal supplies fuel for the main airport on the island, Amílcar Cabral International Airport, and is important for the hotel construction taking place on the island  Porto Novo on Santo Antão is the only source for imports and exports of produce from the island as well as passenger traffic since the closure of the airstrip at Ponta do Sol 
There are smaller harbours, essentially single jetties at Tarrafal on São Nicolau, Sal Rei on Boa Vista, Vila do Maio (Porto Inglês) on Maio, São Filipe on Fogo and Furna on Brava  These act as terminals for the inter-island ferry services, which carry both freight and passengers  The pier at Santa Maria on Sal used by both fishing and dive boats has been rehabilitated 

Airports
There were seven operational airports as of 2014 – four international and three domestic  Two others were non-operational, one on Brava and the other on Santo Antão closed for safety reasons 
Due to its geographical location, Cape Verde is often flown over by transatlantic airliners  It is part of the conventional air traffic route from Europe to South America, which goes from southern Portugal via the Canary Islands and Cape Verde to northern Brazil 

International airports
Amílcar Cabral International Airport, Sal Island
Nelson Mandela International Airport, Santiago Island
Aristides Pereira International Airport, Boa Vista Island
Cesária Évora Airport, São Vicente Island

Aerial drones
Small unmanned flying drones able to carry up to 5kg were being used experimentally for tasks such as delivering medicines between the islands in 2021 

See also
Outline of Cape Verde
Index of Cape Verde–related articles
Islands of Macaronesia
Azores
Madeira
Passage 18:
ISO 3166-2:CV
ISO 3166-2:CV is the entry for Cabo Verde in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Cabo Verde, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:

2 geographical regions (i e , the Barlavento Islands and the Sotavento Islands)
22 municipalitiesEach code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is CV, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Cabo Verde  The second part is either of the following:

one letter: geographical regions
two letters: municipalities

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
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Geographical regions
Municipalities
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Cape Verde
FIPS region codes of Cape Verde

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: CV
Counties of Cape Verde, Statoids com
Passage 19:
ISO 3166-2:AL
ISO 3166-2:AL is the entry for Albania in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Albania, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 12 counties 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is AL, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Albania  The second part is two digits 
The codes for the counties are assigned in Albanian alphabetical order, except Dibër, whose code is assigned based on its capital, Peshkopi 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency  
Subdivision names are sorted in Albanian alphabetical order: a-c, ç, d, dh, e, ë, f-g, gj, h-l, ll, m-n, nj, o-r, rr, s, sh, t, th, u-x, xh, y-z, zh 
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Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

District codes
Before 27 November 2015, codes for the 36 districts of Albania were included   The code for Kolonjë (AL-ER) was assigned based on its capital, Ersekë 

See also
Subdivisions of Albania
FIPS region codes of Albania

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: AL
Counties of Albania, Statoids com
Context 2: Passage 1:
Bellevue (Accokeek, Maryland)
Bellevue is a historic plantation house located at 200 Manning Road East, in Accokeek, Prince George's County, Maryland, United States  This Greek Revival style home was constructed in about 1840  It is one of only three surviving examples in Prince George's County of the once-popular Tidewater house style, typical of successful small plantations of that period  Bellevue is in excellent condition, and retains its freestanding chimneys with brick pent, as well as a roughly contemporary kitchen wing  The house stands on a five-acre, partially wooded lot which exemplifies its original plantation setting Bellevue was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 
Passage 2:
Borough House Plantation
Borough House Plantation, also known as Borough House, Hillcrest Plantation and Anderson Place, is an historic plantation on South Carolina Highway 261, 0 8 miles (1 3 km) north of its intersection with U S  Route 76/US Route 378 in Stateburg, in the High Hills of Santee near Sumter, South Carolina   A National Historic Landmark, the plantation is noted as the largest assemblage of high-style pisé (rammed earth) structures in the United States   The main house and six buildings on the plantation were built using this technique, beginning in 1821   The plantation is also notable as the home of Confederate Army General Richard H  Anderson 

Description and history
The original house built in 1758 served at different times during the American Revolution as headquarters for both British General Lord Cornwallis and Continental Army General Nathanael Greene   The second house was built in 1820 of rammed earth by William Wallace Anderson, M D  It was designed by architect A C  Jones 
On October 7, 1821, Anderson's wife, the former Mary Jane Mackensie, gave birth at home to their son, Richard H  Anderson  He later served as a Confederate Army general in the American Civil War   Stateburg was originally called Stateborough, as when the town was laid out, Borough House was the only residence in it In 1850–1852, Dr  Anderson chaired the committee that built the Church of the Holy Cross of rammed earth across the road from Borough Hall  It was also designed by Jones 
In 1851, Joel Roberts Poinsett, physician, American statesman and botanist (for whom the poinsettia is named), died while visiting Dr  Anderson  He was buried in the churchyard across the road On March 23, 1972, Borough Hall plantation was added to the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark  It is also part of the defined Stateburg Historic District, as is the Church of the Holy Cross 

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places listings in Sumter County, South Carolina
Passage 3:
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the most populous city in the U S  state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston metropolitan area  The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina's coastline on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley, Cooper, and Wando rivers  Charleston had a population of 150,277 at the 2020 census  The 2020 population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester counties, was 799,636 residents, the third-largest in the state, 8th-largest in the Deep South and the 74th-largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States 
Charleston was founded in 1670 as Charles Town, honoring King Charles II, at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River (now Charles Towne Landing) but relocated in 1680 to its present site, which became the fifth-largest city in North America within ten years  It remained unincorporated throughout the colonial period; its government was handled directly by a colonial legislature and a governor sent by Parliament  Election districts were organized according to Anglican parishes, and some social services were managed by Anglican wardens and vestries  Charleston adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783  Population growth in the interior of South Carolina influenced the removal of the state government to Columbia in 1788, but Charleston remained among the ten largest cities in the United States through the 1840 census Charleston's significance in American history is tied to its role as a major slave trading port  Charleston slave traders like Joseph Wragg were the first to break through the monopoly of the Royal African Company and pioneered the large-scale slave trade of the 18th century; almost one-half of slaves imported to the United States arrived in Charleston  In 2018, the city formally apologized for its role in the American slave trade 

History
Colonial era (1670–1786)
King Charles II granted the chartered Province of Carolina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Proprietors, on March 24, 1663  In 1670, Governor William Sayle arranged for several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda and Barbados  These settlers established what was then called Charles Town at Albemarle Point, on the west bank of the Ashley River, a few miles northwest of the present-day city center  Charles Town became the first comprehensively planned town in the Thirteen Colonies  Its governance, settlement, and development was to follow a visionary plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lords Proprietors by John Locke  Because the Carolina's Fundamental Constitutions was never ratified, however, Charles Town was never incorporated during the colonial period  Instead, local ordinances were passed by the provincial government, with day-to-day administration handled by the wardens and vestries of St Philip's and St Michael's Anglican parishes At the time of European colonization, the area was inhabited by the indigenous Cusabo, whom the settlers declared war on in October 1671  The settlers initially allied with the Westo, a northern indigenous tribe that traded in enslaved Indians  The settlers abandoned their alliance with the Westo in 1679 and allied with the Cusabo instead The initial settlement quickly dwindled away and disappeared while another village—established by the settlers on Oyster Point at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers around 1672—thrived  This second settlement formally replaced the original Charles Town in 1680  (The original site is now commemorated as Charles Towne Landing ) The second location was more defensible and had access to a fine natural harbor  The new town had become the fifth largest in North America by 1690 A smallpox outbreak erupted in 1698, followed by an earthquake in February 1699  The latter caused a fire that destroyed about a third of the town  During rebuilding, a yellow fever outbreak killed about 15% of the remaining inhabitants  Charles Town suffered between five and eight major yellow fever outbreaks over the first half of the 18th century 
It developed a reputation as one of the least healthy locations in the Thirteen Colonies for ethnic Europeans  Malaria was endemic  Although malaria did not have such high mortality as yellow fever, it caused much illness  It was a major health problem through most of the city's history before dying out in the 1950s after use of pesticides cut down on the mosquitoes that transmitted it 

Charles Town was fortified according to a plan developed in 1704 under Governor Nathaniel Johnson  Both Spain and France contested Britain's claims to the region  Various bands of Native Americans and independent pirates also raided it 
On September 5–6, 1713 (O S ) a violent hurricane passed over Charles Town  The Circular Congregational Church manse was damaged during the storm, in which church records were lost  Much of Charles Town was flooded as "the Ashley and Cooper rivers became one " At least seventy people died in the disaster From the 1670s Charleston attracted pirates  The combination of a weak government and corruption made the city popular with pirates, who frequently visited and raided the city  Charles Town was besieged by the pirate Blackbeard for several days in May 1718  Blackbeard released his hostages and left in exchange for a chest of medicine from Governor Robert Johnson Around 1719, the town's name began to be generally written as Charlestown and, excepting those fronting the Cooper River, the old walls were largely removed over the next decade  Charlestown was a center for the inland colonization of South Carolina  It remained the southernmost point of the Southern Colonies until the Province of Georgia was established in 1732  As noted, the first settlers primarily came from Europe, Barbados and Bermuda  The Barbadian and Bermudan immigrants were planters who brought enslaved Africans with them, having purchased them in the West Indies 
Early immigrant groups to the city included the Huguenots, Scottish, Irish, and Germans, as well as hundreds of Jews, predominately Sephardi from London and major cities of the Dutch Republic, where they had been given refuge  As late as 1830, Charleston's Jewish community was the largest and wealthiest in North America By 1708, the majority of the colony's population were Black Africans  They had been brought to Charlestown via the Atlantic slave trade, first as indentured servants and then as slaves  In the early 1700s, Charleston's largest slave trader, Joseph Wragg, pioneered the settlement's involvement in the slave trade  Of the estimated 400,000 captive Africans transported to North America to be sold into slavery, 40% are thought to have landed at Sullivan's Island off Charlestown  Free people of color also migrated from the West Indies, being descendants of white planters and their Black consorts, and unions among the working classes In 1767 Gadsden's Wharf was constructed at the city port on the Cooper River; it ultimately extended 840 feet and was able to accommodate six ships at a time  Many slaves were sold from here  Devoted to plantation agriculture that depended on enslaved labor, South Carolina became a slave society: it had a majority-Black population from the colonial period until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century, when many rural Blacks moved to northern and midwestern industrial cities to escape Jim Crow laws 

At the foundation of the town, the principal items of commerce were pine timber and pitch for ships and tobacco  The early economy developed around the deerskin trade, in which colonists used alliances with the Cherokee and Creek peoples to secure the raw material 
At the same time, Indians took each other as captives and slaves in warfare  From 1680 to 1720, approximately 40,000 native men, women, and children were sold through the port, principally to the West Indies such as (Bermuda and the Bahamas), but also to other Southern colonies  The Lowcountry planters did not keep Indian slaves, considering them too prone to escape or revolt  They used the proceeds of their sale to purchase enslaved Black Africans for their own plantations  The slave raiding—and the European firearms it introduced—helped destabilize Spanish Florida and French Louisiana in the 1700s during the War of the Spanish Succession  But it also provoked the Yamasee War of the 1710s that nearly destroyed the colony  After that, South Carolina largely abandoned the Indian slave trade The area's unsuitability for growing tobacco prompted the Lowcountry planters to experiment with other cash crops  The profitability of growing rice led the planters to pay premiums for slaves from the "Rice Coast" who knew its cultivation; their descendants make up the ethnic Gullah who created their own culture and language in this area  Slaves imported from the Caribbean showed the planter George Lucas's daughter Eliza how to raise and use indigo for dyeing in 1747 
Throughout this period, the slaves were sold aboard the arriving ships or at ad hoc gatherings in town's taverns  Runaways and minor slave rebellions prompted the 1739 Security Act, which required all white men to carry weapons at all times (even to church on Sundays)  Before it had fully taken effect, the Cato or Stono Rebellion broke out  The white community had recently been decimated by a malaria outbreak, and the rebels killed about 25 white people before being stopped by the colonial militia  As a result of their fears of rebellion, whites killed a total of 35 to 50 Black people The planters attributed the violence to recently imported Africans and agreed to a 10-year moratorium on slave importation through Charlestown  They relied for labor upon the slave communities they already held  The 1740 Negro Act also tightened controls, requiring a ratio of one white for every ten Blacks on any plantation (which was often not achieved), and banning slaves from assembling together, growing their own food, earning money, or learning to read  Drums were banned because Africans used them for signaling; slaves were allowed to use string and other instruments  When the moratorium expired and Charlestown reopened to the slave trade in 1750, the memory of the Stono Rebellion resulted in traders avoiding buying slaves from the Congo and Angola, whose populations had a reputation for independence 
By the mid-18th century, Charlestown was the hub of the Atlantic slave trade in the Southern Colonies  Even with the decade-long moratorium, its customs processed around 40% of the enslaved Africans brought to North America between 1700 and 1775, and about half up until the end of the African trade 
The plantations and the economy based on them made this the wealthiest city in the Thirteen Colonies and the largest in population south of Philadelphia  In 1770, the city had 11,000 inhabitants—half slaves—and was the 4th-largest port in the colonies, after Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia 
The elite began to use their wealth to encourage cultural and social development  America's first theater building was constructed here in 1736; it was later replaced by today's Dock Street Theater  St Michael's was erected in 1753  Benevolent societies were formed by the Huguenots, free people of color, Germans, and Jews  The Library Society was established in 1748 by well-born young men who wanted to share the financial cost to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day 

American Revolution (1776–1783)
Delegates for the Continental Congress were elected in 1774, and South Carolina declared its independence from Britain on the steps of the Exchange  Slavery was again an important factor in the city's role during the Revolutionary War  The British attacked the settlement three times, assuming that the settlement had a large base of Loyalists who would rally to their cause once given some military support  The loyalty of white Southerners towards the Crown had largely been forfeited, however, by British legal cases (such as the 1772 Somersett case which marked the prohibition of slavery in England and Wales; a significant milestone in the abolitionist struggle) and military tactics (such as Dunmore's Proclamation in 1775) that promised the emancipation of slaves owned by Patriot planters; these efforts did, however, unsurprisingly win the allegiance of thousands of Black Loyalists 
The Battle of Sullivan's Island saw the British fail to capture a partially constructed palmetto palisade from Col  Moultrie's militia regiment on June 28, 1776  The Liberty Flag used by Moultrie's men formed the basis of the later South Carolina flag, and the victory's anniversary continues to be commemorated as Carolina Day 
Making the capture of Charlestown their chief priority, the British sent Sir Henry Clinton, who laid siege to Charleston on April 1, 1780, with about 14,000 troops and 90 ships  Bombardment began on March 11, 1780  The Patriots, led by Benjamin Lincoln, had about 5,500 men and inadequate fortifications to repel the forces against them  After the British cut his supply lines and lines of retreat at the battles of Monck's Corner and Lenud's Ferry, Lincoln's surrender on May 12, 1780 became the greatest American defeat of the war 
The British continued to hold Charlestown for over a year following their defeat at Yorktown in 1781, although they alienated local planters by refusing to restore full civil government  Nathanael Greene had entered the state after Cornwallis's pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse and kept the area under a kind of siege  British Army officer Alexander Leslie, commanding Charlestown, requested a truce in March 1782 to purchase food for his garrison and the town's inhabitants  Greene refused and formed a brigade under Mordecai Gist to counter British forays  Charlestown was finally evacuated by the British in December 1782  Greene presented the British leaders of the town with the Moultrie Flag 

Antebellum era (1783–1861)
Between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, Charleston experienced an economic boom, at least for the top strata of society  The expansion of cotton as a cash crop in the South both led to huge wealth for a small segment of society and funded impressive architecture and culture but also escalated the importance of slaves and led to greater and greater restrictions on Black Charlestonians 
By 1783, the growth of the city had reached a point where a municipal government became desirable; therefore on August 13, 1783, an act of incorporation for the city of Charleston was ratified  The act originally specified the city's name as "Charles Ton," as opposed to the previous Charlestown, but the spelling "Charleston" quickly came to dominate Although Columbia had replaced it as the state capital in 1788, Charleston became even more prosperous as Eli Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin sped the processing of the crop over 50 times  Britain's Industrial Revolution—initially built upon its textile industry—took up the extra production ravenously and cotton became Charleston's major export commodity in the 19th century  

The Bank of South Carolina, the second-oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798; branches of the First and Second banks of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817 
Throughout the Antebellum Period, Charleston continued to be the only major American city with a majority-slave population  The city's widespread use of slaves as workers was a frequent subject of writers and visitors: a merchant from Liverpool noted in 1834 that "almost all the working population are Negroes, all the servants, the carmen & porters, all the people who see at the stalls in Market, and most of the Journeymen in trades"  American traders had been prohibited from equipping the Atlantic slave trade in 1794 and all importation of slaves was banned in 1808, but American merchantmen frequently refused to permit British inspection for enslaved cargo, and smuggling remained common  Much more important was the domestic slave trade, which boomed as the Deep South was developed in new cotton plantations  As a result of the trade, there was a forced migration of more than one million slaves from the Upper South to the Lower South in the antebellum years  During the early 19th century, the first dedicated slave markets were founded in Charleston, mostly near Chalmers and State streets  Many domestic slavers used Charleston as a port in what was called the coastwise trade, traveling to such ports as Mobile and New Orleans 
Slave ownership was the primary marker of class and even the town's freedmen and free people of color typically kept slaves if they had the wealth to do so  Visitors commonly remarked on the sheer number of Blacks in Charleston and their seeming freedom of movement, though in fact—mindful of the Stono Rebellion and the slave revolution that established Haiti—the whites closely regulated the behavior of both slaves and free people of color  Wages and hiring practices were fixed, identifying badges were sometimes required, and even work songs were sometimes censored  Punishment was handled out of sight by the city's workhouse, whose fees provided the municipal government with thousands a year  In 1820, a state law mandated that each act of manumission (freeing a slave) required legislative approval, effectively halting the practice The effects of slavery were pronounced on white society as well  The high cost of 19th-century slaves and their high rate of return combined to institute an oligarchic society controlled by about ninety interrelated families, where 4% of the free population controlled half of the wealth, and the lower half of the free population—unable to compete with owned or rented slaves—held no wealth at all  The white middle class was minimal: Charlestonians generally disparaged hard work as the lot of slaves  All the slaveholders taken together held 82% of the city's wealth and almost all non-slaveholders were poor  Olmsted considered their civic elections "entirely contests of money and personal influence" and the oligarchs dominated civic planning: the lack of public parks and amenities was noted, as was the abundance of private gardens in the wealthy's walled estates In the 1810s, the town's churches intensified their discrimination against their Black parishioners, culminating in Bethel Methodist's 1817 construction of a hearse house over its Black burial ground  4,376 Black Methodists joined Morris Brown in establishing Hampstead Church, the African Methodist Episcopal church now known as Mother Emanuel  State and city laws prohibited Black literacy, limited Black worship to daylight hours, and required a majority of any church's parishioners be white  In June 1818, 140 Black church members at Hampstead Church were arrested and eight of its leaders given fines and ten lashes; police raided the church again in 1820 and pressured it in 1821 In 1822, members of the church, led by Denmark Vesey, a lay preacher and carpenter who had bought his freedom after winning a lottery, planned an uprising and escape to Haiti—initially for Bastille Day—that failed when one slave revealed the plot to his master  Over the next month, the city's intendant (mayor) James Hamilton Jr  organized a militia for regular patrols, initiated a secret and extrajudicial tribunal to investigate, and hanged 35 and exiled 35 or 37 slaves to Spanish Cuba for their involvement  Hamilton imposed more restrictions on both free and enslaved Blacks: South Carolina required free Black sailors to be imprisoned while their ships were in Charleston Harbor though international treaties eventually required the United States to quash the practice; free Blacks were banned from returning to the state if they left for any reason; slaves were given a 9:15 pm curfew; the city razed Hampstead Church to the ground and erected a new arsenal  This structure later was the basis of the Citadel's first campus  The AME congregation built a new church but in 1834 the city banned it and all Black worship services, following Nat Turner's 1831 rebellion in Virginia  The estimated 10% of slaves who came to America as Muslims never had a separate mosque  Slaveholders sometimes provided them with beef rations in place of pork in recognition of religious traditions The registered tonnage of Charleston shipping in 1829 was 12,410  In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts  Soon, federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston's forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor "to take possession of any vessel arriving from a foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with " This federal action became known as the Charleston incident  The state's politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs Charleston's embrace of classical architecture began after a devastating fire leveled much of the city  On April 27, 1838, Charleston suffered a catastrophic fire that burned more than 1000 buildings and caused about $3 million in damage at the time  The damaged buildings amounted to about one-fourth of all the businesses in the main part of the city  When the many homes and business were rebuilt or repaired, a great cultural awakening occurred  Previous to the fire, only a few homes were styled as Greek Revival; many residents decided to construct new buildings in that style after the conflagration  This tradition continued and made Charleston one of the foremost places to view Greek Revival architecture  The Gothic Revival also made a significant appearance in the construction of many churches after the fire that exhibited picturesque forms and reminders of devout European religion By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity  The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves bought and sold  The legal importation of African slaves had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant  However, the domestic trade was booming  More than one million slaves were transported from the Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cotton plantations were widely developed through what became known as the Black Belt  Many slaves were transported in the coastwise slave trade, with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston 

Civil War (1861–1865)
Charleston played a major part in the Civil War  As a pivotal city, both the Union and Confederate Armies vied for control of it  The Civil War began in Charleston Harbor in 1861, and ended mere months after the Union forces took control of Charleston in 1865 
Following the election of Abraham Lincoln, the South Carolina General Assembly voted on December 20, 1860, to secede from the Union  South Carolina was the first state to secede  On December 27, Castle Pinckney was surrendered by its garrison to the state militia and, on January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on the USS Star of the West as it entered Charleston Harbor 
The first full battle of the American Civil War occurred on April 12, 1861, when shore batteries under the command of General P  G  T  Beauregard opened fire on the US Army-held Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor  After a 34-hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort 
On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over 500 acres (200 ha) of the city 
Union control of the sea permitted the repeated bombardment of the city, causing vast damage  Although Admiral Du Pont's naval assault on the town's forts in April 1863 failed, the Union navy's blockade shut down most commercial traffic  Over the course of the war, some blockade runners got through but not a single one made it into or out of the Charleston Harbor between August 1863 and March 1864  The early submarine H L  Hunley made a night attack on the USS Housatonic on February 17, 1864 General Gillmore's land assault in July 1864 was unsuccessful but the fall of Columbia and advance of General William T  Sherman's army through the state prompted the Confederates to evacuate the town on February 17, 1865, burning the public buildings, cotton warehouses, and other sources of supply before their departure  Union troops moved into the city within the month  The War Department recovered what federal property remained and also confiscated the campus of the Citadel Military Academy and used it as a federal garrison for the next 17 years  The facilities were finally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E  Marichak 

Postbellum (1865–1945)
Reconstruction
After the defeat of the Confederacy, federal forces remained in Charleston during Reconstruction  The war had shattered the city's prosperity, but the African-American population surged (from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880) as freedmen moved from the countryside to the major city  Blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church and resumed open meetings of the African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches  They purchased dogs, guns, liquor, and better clothes—all previously banned—and ceased yielding the sidewalks to whites  Despite the efforts of the state legislature to halt manumissions, Charleston had already had a large class of free people of color as well  At the onset of the war, the city had 3,785 free people of color, many of mixed race, making up about 18% of the city's black population and 8% of its total population  Many were educated and practiced skilled crafts; they quickly became leaders of South Carolina's Republican Party and its legislators  Men who had been free people of color before the war comprised 26% of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876 By the late 1870s, industry was bringing the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality; new jobs attracted new residents  As the city's commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions  In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston's African American population  Gen  Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war  Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now a university-preparatory school, Porter-Gaud School 
In 1875, blacks made up 57% of the city's and 73% of the county's population  With leadership by members of the antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as "unique" in being able to defend themselves without provoking "massive white retaliation", as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction  In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as a violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to maintain white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and granting of citizenship to freedmen by federal constitutional amendments  After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by conservative Democratic paramilitary groups, known as the Red Shirts  Violent incidents took place in Charleston on King Street on September 6 and in nearby Cainhoy on October 15, both in association with political meetings before the 1876 election  The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks  The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of the state legislature  Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election, when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed 

Politics
In the early 20th century strong political machines emerged in the city reflecting economic, class, racial, and ethnic tensions  The factions nearly all opposed U S  Senator Ben Tillman who repeatedly attacked and ridiculed the city in the name of upstate poor farmers  Well organized factions within the Democratic Party in Charleston gave the voters clear choices and played a large role in state politics 

1886 earthquake
On August 31, 1886, Charleston experienced a strong earthquake  The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7 0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme)  It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda  It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($163 million in 2021 dollars), at a time when all the city's buildings were valued around $24 million ($653 million in 2021 dollars) 

Charleston race riots
The Charleston race riot of 1919 took place on the night of Saturday, May 10, between members of the US Navy and the local black population  They attacked black individuals, businesses, and homes killing six and injuring dozens 

Contemporary era (1945–present)
Charleston languished economically for several decades in the 20th century, though the large federal military presence in the region helped to shore up the city's economy  Charleston's tourism boom began in earnest following the publication of Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham's Architecture of Charleston in the 1920s The Charleston Hospital Strike of 1969, in which mostly black workers protested discrimination and low wages, was one of the last major events of the civil rights movement  It attracted Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Andrew Young, and other prominent figures to march with the local leader, Mary Moultrie 
Joseph P  Riley Jr  was elected mayor in the 1970s, and helped advance several cultural aspects of the city 
Between 1989 and 1996, Charleston saw two significant economic hits  First, the eye of Hurricane Hugo came ashore at Charleston Harbor in 1989, and though the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, three-quarters of the homes in Charleston's historic district sustained damage of varying degrees  The hurricane caused over $2 8 billion in damage  The city was able to rebound fairly quickly after the hurricane and has grown in population, reaching an estimated 124,593 residents in 2009  Second, in 1993, the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) directed that Naval Base Charleston be closed  Pursuant to BRAC action, Naval Base Charleston was closed on April 1, 1996, although some activities remain under the cognizance of Naval Support Activity Charleston, now part of Joint Base Charleston After having been a majority-minority city for most of its history, in the late 20th century many whites began returning to the urban core of Charleston and the area gentrified with rising prices and rents  From 1980 to 2010, the peninsula's population shifted from two-thirds black to two-thirds white; in 2010 residents numbered 20,668 whites to 10,455 blacks  Many African Americans moved to the less-expensive suburbs in these decades On June 17, 2015, 21-year-old white supremacist Dylann Roof entered the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church and sat in on part of a Bible study before shooting and killing nine people and injuring a tenth, all African Americans  Senior pastor Clementa Pinckney, who also served as a state senator, was among those killed during the attack  The deceased also included congregation members Susie Jackson, 87; Rev  Daniel Simmons Sr , 74; Ethel Lance, 70; Myra Thompson, 59; Cynthia Hurd, 54; Rev  Depayne Middleton-Doctor, 49; Rev  Sharonda Coleman-Singleton, 45; and Tywanza Sanders, 26  The attack garnered national attention, and sparked a debate on historical racism, Confederate symbolism in Southern states, and gun violence, in part based on Roof's online postings  A memorial service on the campus of the College of Charleston was attended by President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and Speaker of the House John Boehner 

Condemnation of role in the slave trade
On June 17, 2018, the Charleston City Council apologized for its role in the slave trade and condemned its "inhumane" history  It also acknowledged wrongs committed against African Americans by slavery and Jim Crow laws 

Geography
The city proper consists of six distinct districts 

Downtown, or sometimes referred to as "The Peninsula", is Charleston's center city separated by the Ashley River to the west and the Cooper River to the east 
West Ashley, residential area to the west of Downtown bordered by the Ashley River to the east and the Stono River to the west
Johns Island, far western limits of Charleston, bordered by the Stono River to the east, Kiawah River to the south and Wadmalaw Island to the west
James Island, popular residential area between Downtown and the town of Folly Beach with portions of the independent town of James Island intermixed
Cainhoy Peninsula, far eastern limits of Charleston bordered by the Wando River to the west and Nowell Creek to the east
Daniel Island, residential area to the north of downtown, east of the Cooper River and west of the Wando River

Topography
The incorporated city fitted into 4–5 sq mi (10–13 km2) as late as the First World War, but has since greatly expanded, crossing the Ashley River and encompassing James Island and some of Johns Island  The city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area  The present city has a total area of 127 5 sq mi (330 2 km2), of which 109 0 sq mi (282 2 km2) is land and 18 5 sq mi (47 9 km2) is covered by water  North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River 
Charleston Harbor runs about 7 mi (11 km) southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 mi (3 2 km), surrounded on all sides except its entrance  Sullivan's Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to the south  The entrance itself is about 1 mi (2 km) wide; it was originally only 18 ft (5 m) deep but began to be enlarged in the 1870s  The tidal rivers (Wando, Cooper, Stono, and Ashley) are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline  There is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor, and the Cooper River is deep 

Climate
Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with mild winters, hot humid summers, and significant rainfall all year long  Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers  Fall remains relatively warm through the middle of November  Winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain  Measurable snow (≥0 1 in or 0 25 cm) has a median occurrence of only once per decade at the airport, but freezing rain is more common; a snowfall/freezing rain event on January 3, 2018, was the first such event in Charleston since December 26, 2010  However, 6 0 in (15 cm) fell at the airport on December 23, 1989, during the December 1989 United States cold wave, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8 0 in (20 cm) snowfall Downtown Charleston's climate is considerably milder than the airport's due to stronger maritime influence  This is especially true in the winter, with the average January low in downtown being 43 6 °F (6 °C) to the airport's 38 9 °F (4 °C) for example 
The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F (40 °C) on June 2, 1985, and June 24, 1944; the lowest was 7 °F (−14 °C) on February 14, 1899
Context 3: Passage 1:
Happy, Happy
Happy, Happy (Norwegian: Sykt lykkelig, lit  'Insanely Happy') is a 2010 Norwegian comedy film directed by Anne Sewitsky  The film was selected as the Norwegian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 84th Academy Awards, but it did not make the final shortlist 

Plot
Kaja (Agnes Kittelsen) is a school teacher living in the countryside with her husband, Eirick, and son  Despite the fact that her husband is cold to her, she maintains a cheerful happy-go-lucky disposition and tries her best to please him 
A couple from Denmark, Elisabeth and Sigve, come to live in the neighbouring house with their adopted son Noa  Kaja is in awe of Elisabeth and is impressed by the couple's relationship and their strong bond  The four play a game during which the couples must answer questions to reveal how well they know each other; Kaja becomes upset when she and Eirick fail to get a single question right  Kaja begins crying saying that they never have sex, which Eirick blames on her yeast infection  Alone with Sigve, Kaja apologizes for her outburst explaining that she wishes that she and Eirick were more like Elisabeth and Sigve  Sigve reveals that things are not as perfect as they seem as the two have moved to the country to rebuild their marriage after Elisabeth had an affair  In response Kaja kisses Sigve and then performs oral sex on him 
Kaja and Sigve embark on an affair which leaves Kaja sexually fulfilled  She joins Elisabeth and Sigve's choir and tries to initiate sex with her husband only to be shut down 
One day, while leaving Kaja's home, Sigve is joined on his jog by Eirick  The two men talk about their past lives as bachelors and when Sigve remarks that they deserve better Eirick misinterprets his meaning and kisses him, only to be rebuffed 
Eventually Elisabeth spies Kaja flirting with and touching Sigve  She confronts him about his affair and he tells her that he enjoys feeling needed  Elisabeth then tells Eirick what has happened, causing him to attack Sigve  As a result Sigve moves into Kaja's home  Elisabeth briefly invites Eirick to stay with her but after an uncomfortable and awkward attempt at sex she kicks him out again 
Kaja and Sigve host a Christmas dinner for the children inviting Elisabeth  After Elisabeth gets drunk she confesses to Sigve that she misses him and asks him to come home  He kisses her and the two are caught by Kaja  She realizes that Sigve will always love Elisabeth and that all she ever really wanted was to be loved by Eirick, who she now realizes is gay  Sigve leaves to go home with Elisabeth and Eirick comes back and asks to move back in, swearing he will never leave Kaja and will be a better husband  Kaja tells him she is leaving him 
Elisabeth and Sigve pack up their things and say goodbye to Kaja and Eirick  Eirick meanwhile moves into their home so that he can be close to Kaja and their son while the two of them start separate lives 

Cast
Agnes Kittelsen as Kaja
Henrik Rafaelsen as Sigve
Joachim Rafaelsen as Eirik
Maibritt Saerens as Elisabeth
Oskar Hernæs Brandsø as Theodor
Ram Shihab Ebedy as Noa
Heine Totland as Dirigenten

See also
List of submissions to the 84th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Norwegian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Passage 2:
PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award for the Art of the Essay
The PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award for the Art of the Essay is awarded by the PEN America (formerly PEN American Center) to an author for a book of original collected essays  The award was founded by PEN Member and author Barbaralee Diamonstein and Carl Spielvogel, former New York Times columnist, "to preserve the dignity and esteem that the essay form imparts to literature " The winner receives a cash award of $10,000 The award was on hiatus from 2005 to 2010 The award is one of many PEN awards sponsored by International PEN affiliates in over 145 PEN centres around the world  The PEN American Center awards have been characterized as being among the "major" American literary prizes 

Award winners
Passage 3:
Aaron Robinson (composer)
Aaron Robinson is an American composer, conductor, and musicologist  He is the author of Does God Sing? – A Musical Journey  He created the musical work Black Nativity – In Concert: A Gospel Celebration  He also served as conductor and musical director in the PBS documentary On This Island  In 2013, he was nominated for an Emmy Award for composing Maine Public Broadcasting Network's Maine Arts series theme music 

Personal background
Robinson attended Medomak Valley High School in Waldoboro, Maine  At 16 years of age—a self-taught musician who never took piano lessons—he became the organist at both the Broad Cove Community Church in Cushing and the Friendship United Methodist Church  By his late teens, he was creating, performing and producing concerts and theatrical productions, including the musical Moody Blue for which he wrote both the music and lyrics  According to a 2013 interview, Robinson studied composition and piano performance at the Boston Conservatory of Music with composer John Adams and Lawrence Thomas Bell, as well as film scoring with John Williams at the Berklee School of Music; but chose not to graduate with a degree  Instead, Robinson "went out and lived the life of music," as he said in a 2017 interview  In 2001, he became organist and choirmaster for "Music at Immanuel" at the Immanuel Baptist Church in Portland, Maine In 2009, he retired from public performing due to illness  During which time Robinson wrote the memoir, Does God Sing – A Musical Journey  It reached No  5 on the Barnes & Nobles best-sellers non-fiction paperback list for March 2013 Robinson lives on the coast of Maine with his wife and son 

Career
Robinson has conducted works for the concert and theatrical stage, including Leonard Bernstein's Candide – The Concert Version  In 1997, Robinson conducted Treemonisha: The Concert Version by ragtime composer Scott Joplin at the Rockport Opera House in Rockport, Maine, with a new libretto by Judith Kurtz Bogdanove In 2001, he orchestrated, arranged, and conducted the musical Islands, which was produced on Broadway at the New Victory Theater by John Wulp, with music and lyrics by Cidny Bullens Robinson conducted the world premiere performance of his Black Nativity – In Concert: A Gospel Celebration in 2001 at the Immanuel Baptist Church  The concert version recreated the original performance of Langston Hughes's Gospel Song-Play Black Nativity that opened in 1961 at the 41st Street Theatre in New York City  In 2004, the documentary film Black Nativity – In Concert: A Gospel Celebration was made about the world premiere performance, production, and creation under the direction of Robinson with the original cast  In December 2013, Robinson collaborated with Dr  Anthony Antolini and the Bowdoin College Chorus and Down East Singers to mount a revised version of his 2004 creation Robinson composed An American Requiem, which had its New England Premiere under the direction of Dr  Robert Russell and the USM Chorale  He also wrote Driving Old Memories (The Rockland Maine Song) with his father Ervin Robinson  On June 2, 2021, the Mayor of Rockland, Maine presented a key to the city and proclaimed June 2021 "Driving Old Memories" month In 2012 he wrote the music for the independent documentary In the Shadows of Grey Gardens In an article entitled "Robinson and Ragtime", David Welker called him "one of today’s leading proponents of early jazz and ragtime music"  He is perhaps best known for his composition "The New England Ragtime Suite" for piano In 2014, the opening of Maine Public Broadcasting's "Maine Arts!" Series received an Emmy Award at the 36th annual New England Emmy Awards for which Robinson contributed the series’ theme music and was nominated for a separate Emmy Award  Robinson composed the Maine-based musical, The Legend of Jim Cullen – A Dramatic Musical, which received its world premiere at the Heartwood Regional Theater Company in the summer of 2014 In May 2017, Robinson premiered two choral works in Studzinski Hall at Bowdoin College: "Requiem For a New World" and "This Will Be Our Reply To Violence" with words by Leonard Bernstein  With a famous line taken from an address Bernstein gave a few days after the assassination of President John F  Kennedy, according to a 2017 interview, it was the first time the Bernstein Estate had ever granted a composer the rights to set the words to music  It was performed later that year by the Vox Nova Chamber Choir  Robinson received acclaim for his compositions from Maine's Senators Angus King and Susan Collins, who remarked: "With the scourge of violence unabated in our times, we all must increase our devotion to the highest ideals of humanity  Through your remarkable career as a composer, performer, and author, you are helping to elevate our nation as you bring distinction to our great state of Maine ”Robinson collaborated with children's book author and illustrator Ashley Bryan in 2018 on an African-American Requiem titled "A Tender Bridge"  The work celebrates Bryan's life and career based on his writings; and uses "jazz, ragtime, Negro spirituals, Southern hymns and other musical idioms, along with a full choir, gospel choir, children’s choir, orchestra jazz ensemble and multiple narrators "

Published works
Robinson, Aaron (2013)  Does God Sing?: A Musical Journey, Tate Publishing  182 pages  ISBN 978-1621474630
Langston, Hughes (1961) Aaron Robinson (2004)  Black Nativity, Dramatic Publishing  34 pages  ISBN 0871291924

Filmography
Television
Film
Discography
Awards and nominations
Passage 4:
Brandon Bays
Brandon Bays (born August 21, 1953) is an American author and motivational speaker  She has authored New Thought self-help books, and is best known for her 1999 book, The Journey, which became a bestseller in England and Australia She was born in New York City to an American father and a Romanian mother, who grew up in Vienna, Austria 

The Journey
The Journey is the title of Brandon's first book, The Journey (1999 and 2012)  The Journey book has been translated into 23 languages The book describes her experience of healing from a basketball-sized tumour, without drugs or surgery, in 6 weeks  
Ultimately, she attributes her healing to 4 key elements:

Gaining access to the 'cellular memory' where the trauma associated with the tumour was stored
Forgiveness of the circumstances surrounding the trauma 
Accessing 'Source' / her own soul / infinite intelligence / Purusha 
Feeling the emotions associated with the trauma, as a gateway into the direct experience of Source Based on these experiences, she pioneered a healing methodology that combines all four elements of healing  The Journey method is designed to help individuals access and resolve the root cause of longstanding difficulties – emotional or physical 

The Journey Method
The Journey is also the name of the healing method Brandon developed  This method is currently taught in 44 countries via live online workshops 

Education and career
As she writes in The Journey book:
Brandon Bays studied at University
Her informal studies included naturopathy, iridology, philosophy, storytelling, among other things  
Together with a group of colleagues, she volunteered at a free-of-charge clinic in New York City which provided alternative treatments to people with terminal illness and no other options from the medical profession  
She worked for Tony Robbins for 10 years, presenting the Living Health program as a Master Trainer 

Spiritual life
Brandon was deeply influenced by a spiritual teacher she fondly calls 'Papaji' ( H  W  L  Poonjaji ) whom she met in Lucknow, India in the early 90s  Papaji was a teacher of self inquiry in the tradition of the sage, Ramana Maharshi 

Personal life
Brandon's first husband, Dr  Bob (Robert) Bays was also a former Head Trainer for Tony Robbins  
In the 1990s, Brandon and Bob lived on the beach in Malibu and lost everything when flames from the Californian brushfires leapt over the 6 lane highway and burned their house down  
Brandon lives in Greece with her second husband, Kevin Billet, who is co-director of The Journey and the primary author of Light in The Heart of Darkness: The Surprising Truth About Depression & How To Free Yourself Completely from its Grips, which Brandon Bays co-authored 

Bibliography
The Journey: A Road Map to the soul  Simon and Schuster  2001  ISBN 978-0743443920  Retrieved July 9, 2012 
The Journey for Kids: Liberating your child's shining potential  Harpercollins UK  2003  ISBN 978-0007155262  Retrieved July 9, 2012 
Freedom Is: Liberating Your Boundless Potential  New World Library  2007  ISBN 978-1577316008  Retrieved July 9, 2012 
Consciousness: The New Currency  Journey Productions, Limited  2009  ISBN 978-0956337900  Retrieved July 9, 2012 
The Journey: A Practical Guide to Healing Your Life and Setting Yourself Free  Atria Books  2012  ISBN 978-1451665611 
Living The Journey: Using The Journey Method to Heal Your Life and Set Yourself Free  Atria Books  2012  ISBN 978-1451665628 
Passage 5:
Happy Feet
Happy Feet is a 2006 computer-animated jukebox musical comedy film directed, produced, and co-written by George Miller  It stars the voices of Elijah Wood, Robin Williams, Brittany Murphy, Hugh Jackman, Nicole Kidman, Hugo Weaving, and E G  Daily  An international co-production between the United States and Australia, the film was produced at Sydney-based visual effects and animation studio Animal Logic for Warner Bros  Pictures, Village Roadshow Pictures, and Kingdom Feature Productions, and was released in North American theaters on November 17, 2006, and in Australian theaters on December 26, 2006  It is the first animated film produced by Kennedy Miller and Animal Logic  Set in the cold land of Antarctica, the film follows Mumble, an emperor penguin who, despite his lacking the ability to sing the heartsong to attract a soul mate, is able to tap dance brilliantly  After being continuously ridiculed and rejected by peers and his own father, Mumble departs on a journey to learn what is causing the local fish population to decline--and to find himself along the way 
Though primarily an animated film, the film does incorporate motion capture of live action humans in certain scenes  The film was simultaneously released in both conventional theatres and in IMAX 2D format  The studio had hinted that a future IMAX 3D release was a possibility  However, Warner Bros , the film's production company, was on too tight a budget to release Happy Feet in IMAX digital 3D Happy Feet received generally positive reviews from critics with praise for its visuals, storyline and songs, and grossed $384 million against its $100 million production budget  It earned the recipient of the inaugural BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film, and the fourth non-Disney or Pixar film to win the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature  It was nominated for the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature and the Saturn Award for Best Animated Film, both losing to Cars  A sequel, Happy Feet Two, was released on November 18, 2011, but it was unable to replicate the critical and commercial success of the original film 

Plot
Every emperor penguin attracts a mate by singing a unique "heartsong"  If the male penguin's heartsong matches the female's song, the two penguins mate  Norma Jean, a female penguin, falls for Memphis, a male penguin and they become mates  They lay an egg, which Memphis cares for while Norma Jean leaves with the other females to fish  While the males struggle through the harsh winter, Memphis briefly drops the egg  The resulting chick, Mumble, is unable to sing but can tap dance  Nevertheless, he is enamored with Gloria, a female penguin who is regarded as the most talented of her age  One day, Mumble encounters a group of hostile skua, with a leader who is tagged with a yellow band, which he says is from an alien abduction  Mumble narrowly escapes the hungry birds by falling into a crevice 
Now a young adult, Mumble is frequently ridiculed by the elders and their leader Noah  After escaping from a leopard seal attack, Mumble befriends five Adelie penguins named Ramón, Nestor, Lombardo, Rinaldo and Raul, known collectively as "the Amigos", who embrace Mumble's dance moves and assimilate him into their group  After seeing a hidden human excavator in an avalanche, they opt to ask Lovelace, a rockhopper penguin, about its origin  Lovelace has the plastic rings of a six pack entangled around his neck, saying that they have been bestowed upon him by mystic beings 
For the emperor penguins, it is mating season and Gloria is the center of attention  The Amigos unsuccessfully attempt to help Mumble win her affection by having Ramón sing a Spanish version of "My Way" behind Mumble, with the latter lip syncing  After Mumble desperately begins tap dancing in synch with her song, she falls for him and the youthful penguins join in for singing and dancing to "Boogie Wonderland"  The elders are appalled by Mumble's conduct, which they see as the reason for their lean fishing season  Memphis begs Mumble to stop dancing, for his own sake, but when Mumble refuses, he is exiled 
Mumble and the Amigos return to Lovelace, only to find him being choked by the plastic rings  Lovelace confesses they were snagged on him while swimming off the forbidden shores, beyond the land of the elephant seals  Not long into their journey, Gloria encounters them, wishing to become Mumble's mate  Fearing for her safety, he ridicules Gloria, driving her away 
At the forbidden shore, Mumble, Lovelace and the Amigos are attacked by the two orcas, during which Lovelace gets free from the plastic rings  After escaping, they find a fishing boat  Mumble exhaustingly pursues it alone, eventually washing up on the shore of Florida, where he is rescued and kept at Sea World with Magellanic penguins  After a long and secluded confinement in addition to fruitlessly trying to communicate with the humans, he nearly succumbs to madness  When a girl attempts to interact with Mumble by tapping the glass, he starts dancing, which attracts a large crowd  He is released back into the wild, with a tracking device attached to his back  He returns to his colony and challenges the will of the elders  Memphis reconciles with him, just as a research team arrives, verifying Mumble's statements of "aliens" existing  The entire colony engages in dance in front of the research team, whose expedition footage prompts a worldwide debate, which eventually leads to the banning of all Antarctic overfishing, satisfying both the emperor penguins and the Amigos 

Cast
Production
George Miller cites as an initial inspiration for the film an encounter with a grizzled old cameraman, whose father was Frank Hurley of the Shackleton expeditions, during the shooting of Mad Max 2: "We were sitting in this bar, having a milkshake, and he looked across at me and said, ‘Antarctica ’ He'd shot a documentary there  He said, ‘You’ve got to make a film in Antarctica  It’s just like out here, in the wasteland  It’s spectacular ’ And that always stuck in my head "Happy Feet was also partially inspired by earlier documentaries such as the BBC's Life in the Freezer  In 2001, during an otherwise non-sequitur meeting, Doug Mitchell impulsively presented Warner Bros , studio president Alan Horn with an early rough draft of the film's screenplay, and asked them to read it while he and Miller flew back to Australia  By the time they'd landed, Warner had decided to provide funding on the film  Production was slated to begin sometime after the completion of the fourth Mad Max film, Fury Road, but geo-political complications pushed Happy Feet to the forefront in early 2003 
The animation is invested heavily in motion capture technology, with the dance scenes acted out by human dancers  The tap-dancing for Mumble in particular was provided by Savion Glover who was also co-choreographer for the dance sequences  The dancers went through "Penguin School" to learn how to move like a penguin, and also wore head apparatus to mimic a penguin's beak Happy Feet needed an enormous group of computers, and Animal Logic worked with IBM to build a server farm with sufficient processing potential  The film took four years to make  Ben Gunsberger, Lighting Supervisor and VFX Department Supervisor, says this was partly because they needed to build new infrastructure and tools  The server farm used IBM BladeCenter framework and BladeCenter HS20 blade servers, which are extremely dense separate computer units each with two Intel Xeon processors  Rendering took up 17 million CPU hours over a nine-month period According to Miller, the environmental message was not a major part of the original script, but "In Australia, we're very, very aware of the ozone hole," he said, "and Antarctica is literally the canary in the coal mine for this stuff  So it sort of had to go in that direction " This influence led to a film with a more environmental tone  Miller said, "You can't tell a story about Antarctica and the penguins without giving that dimension "The film was dedicated to the memory of Nick Enright, Michael Jonson, Robby McNeilly Green, and Steve Irwin 

Music
Happy Feet is a jukebox musical, taking previously recorded songs and working them into the film's soundtrack to fit with the mood of the scene or character  Two soundtrack albums were released for the film; one containing songs from and inspired by the film, and another featuring John Powell's instrumental score  They were released on 31 October 2006 and 19 December 2006, respectively 
Prince's "Song of the Heart" won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song  The film won Golden Trailer Award for Best Music  The song was written by Prince specifically for Happy Feet shortly after he was given a private screening of the film in order to gain his approval for the use of his song "Kiss" in a musical number  Prince enjoyed the film, gave his approval for the use of "Kiss" and offered to write an original song for the production, which he completed a week later 

Soundtrack
Happy Feet: Music from the Motion Picture is the lyrical soundtrack album from the 2006 animated film Happy Feet  As of March 2007, the OST has sold over 272,627 copies in the US 

Certifications
Reception
Box office
The film opened at number 1 in the United States on its first weekend of release (17–19 November), grossing $41 6 million and beating Casino Royale for the top spot  It remained number 1 for the Thanksgiving weekend, making $51 6 million over the five-day period  In total, the film was the top grosser for three weeks, a 2006 box office feat matched only by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest  As of 8 June 2008,  Happy Feet had grossed $198 0 million in the U S  and $186 3 million overseas, making about $384 3 million worldwide  Happy Feet was the third highest grossing animated film of 2006 in the U S , behind Cars and Ice Age: The Meltdown  The film was released in about 35 international territories at the close of 2006 The production budget was $100 million 

Critical reception
Happy Feet received generally positive reviews from critics  On review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 76% "Certified Fresh" score based on 169 reviews, with an average rating of 6 9/10  The site's consensus reads, "Visually dazzling, with a thoughtful storyline and catchy musical numbers, Happy Feet marks a successful animated debut from the makers of Babe " Metacritic reports a 77 out of 100 rating, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale 

Analysis
The film garnered analysis and dissection from various critics  Film critic Yar Habnegnal wrote an essay in Forum on Contemporary Art and Society that examines the themes of encroachment presented throughout the film, as well as various other subtexts and themes, such as religious hierarchy and interracial tensions   Vadim Rizov of IFC sees Mumble as just the latest in a long line of cinematic religious mavericks  Some Christians have also considered the film to be anti-Christian (or antireligious in general) due to the imagery and behaviours of various characters On a technical or formal level, the film has also been lauded in some corners for its innovative introduction of Miller's roving style of subjective cinematography into contemporary animation 

Home media
Happy Feet was released on home media on March 27, 2007, in the United States in three formats: DVD (in separate widescreen and pan-and-scan editions), Blu-ray Disc, and an HD DVD/DVD combo pack  Overall, Happy Feet was the third best-selling film of 2007 with 12 2 million units sold and earning a revenue of $196 9 million Among the DVD's special features is a scene that was cut from the film where Mumble meets a blue whale and an albatross while pursuing the fishing boat  The albatross was Steve Irwin's first voice role in the film before he voiced the elephant seal in the final cut  The scene was finished and included on the DVD in Irwin's memory  This scene is done in Irwin's classic documentary style, with the albatross telling the viewer all about the other characters in the scene, and the impact people are having on their environment  Another special feature included with the DVD is the 1936 Merrie Melodies short I Love to Singa 

Accolades
The film appeared on numerous critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2006 

Video games
A video game based on the film was developed by A2M and published by Midway Games  It has the same main cast as the film  It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, and Wii Artificial Life, Inc  has also developed a mobile game for the Japan market 

Sequel
Happy Feet Two was produced at Dr  D Studios and released on November 18, 2011  Wood and Williams reprised their roles for the sequel  Murphy was set to reprise her role and begin recording sometime in 2010, but was replaced by P!nk after Murphy died from pneumonia on December 20, 2009  Matt Damon and Brad Pitt signed on as Bill the Krill and Will the Krill respectively  The film was neither critically nor financially as successful as its predecessor and its performance at the box office resulted in Dr  D Studios closing down 

4-D attraction
Happy Feet 4-D Experience is a 12-minute 4D film shown at various 4D theaters over the world  It retells the condensed story of Happy Feet with the help of 3D projection and sensory effects, including moving seats, wind, mist and scents  Produced by SimEx-Iwerks, the 4D experience premiered in March 2010 at the Drayton Manor Theme Park  Other locations included Sea World (2010–2011), Shedd Aquarium (2010–2012), Moody Gardens (2010–2011), Nickelodeon Suites Resort, and Adventure Aquarium 

See also
March of the Penguins — A 2005 nature documentary film about the real life emperor penguins  It won the 2005 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature 
Passage 6:
Trenton Lee Stewart
Trenton Lee Stewart (born May 27, 1970) is an American author best known for the Mysterious Benedict Society series  Stewart is a graduate of Hendrix College and the Iowa Writers' Workshop  He lives in Little Rock, Arkansas 

Life and career
Trenton Lee Stewart was born on May 27, 1970, to Jerry and Sandi Stewart, and he grew up in Hot Springs, Arkansas  In 1992, Stewart received a bachelor's degree in English from Hendrix College  Afterwards he attended the University of Iowa's Writers' Workshop, receiving his Master of Fine Arts in creative writing in 1995  Stewart taught at the Iowa Summer Writing Festival and, after moving to Cincinnati, at the Miami University of Ohio in 2005  After that he returned to Arkansas in 2006 Stewart's first novels were published during this time: Flood Summer in 2005 and The Mysterious Benedict Society in 2007, the latter remaining on The New York Times Best Seller list for over a year 
Two more books were completed in the series: The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Perilous Journey in 2008, and The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Prisoner's Dilemma in 2009, both of which appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list  In 2012, a bestselling prequel to the series, The Extraordinary Education of Nicholas Benedict, was published, and 2016 saw the release of Stewart's The Secret Keepers, a stand-alone novel for young readers that was also a bestseller 
Stewart was a Murphy Visiting Writer-in-Residence and taught a Writing Fiction course at Hendrix College in the spring of 2019  Stewart's latest novel, The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Riddle of Ages, was published September 24, 2019 

Bibliography
Flood Summer: A Novel (2005)
The Mysterious Benedict Society (2007)
The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Perilous Journey (2008)
The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Prisoner's Dilemma (2009)
The Mysterious Benedict Society: Mr  Benedict's Book of Perplexing Puzzles, Elusive Enigmas, and Curious Conundrums (2011)
The Extraordinary Education of Nicholas Benedict (2012)
The Secret Keepers (2016)
The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Riddle of Ages (2019)
Secret Keepers Zeit der Späher (2019)
Passage 7:
The Skin of Our Teeth
The Skin of Our Teeth is a play by Thornton Wilder that won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama  It opened on October 15, 1942, at the Shubert Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, before moving to the Plymouth Theatre on Broadway on November 18, 1942  It was produced by Michael Myerberg and directed by Elia Kazan with costumes by Mary Percy Schenck  The play is a three-part allegory about the life of mankind, centering on the Antrobus family of the fictional town of Excelsior, New Jersey  The epic comedy-drama is noted as among the most heterodox of classic American comedies — it broke nearly every established theatrical convention 
The phrase used as the title comes from the King James Bible, Job 19:20: "My bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the skin of my teeth "

Overview
The main characters of the play are George and Maggie Antrobus (from Greek: άνθρωπος (anthropos), "human" or "person"), their two children, Henry and Gladys, and Sabina, who appears as the family's maid in the first and third acts, and as a beauty queen temptress in the second act   The play's action takes place in a modern setting, but is full of anachronisms reaching back to prehistoric times   The characters' roles as archetypes are emphasized by their identification with Biblical and classical personalities:
The name Lilly Sabina is a reference to the myth of Lilith and to the historical rape of the Sabine women, identifications made relatively explicit in the play's text  Henry Antrobus's name was changed from "Cain", following his murder of his brother Abel, mirroring the biblical story in which Adam's son murders his brother after God favors Abel over Cain by gifts  This implies that George Antrobus is Adam, and Maggie Antrobus Eve, supported when George composes a song for his wife Maggie in honor of their anniversary: "Happy w'dding ann'vers'ry dear Eva "
The murder of Abel is an underlying theme in the play  Mr  Antrobus pays far more attention to his "perfect" third child Gladys than he does Henry  As this treatment of Henry continues, Henry's anger progresses throughout the play, reaching its climax in the third act 
While the Antrobus family remains constant throughout the play, the three acts do not form a continuous narrative   The first act takes place during an impending ice age; in the second act the family circumstances have changed as George becomes president of the Fraternal Order of Mammals (apparent references to Sodom and Gomorrah but also to the Roaring Twenties), while the end of the world approaches a second time; the third act opens with Maggie and Gladys emerging from a bunker at the end of a seven-year-long war 
An additional layer of stylistic complexity is added by the occasional interruption of the recite narrative scene by actors directly addressing the audience: In the first scene, the actress playing Sabina reveals her misgivings to the audience about the play; in the second act she refuses to recite her lines and instead talks to the spectators, causing a woman in the audience to run from the theater sobbing; and in the third act, the actor playing Mr  Antrobus interrupts to announce that several actors have taken ill, asking the audience to indulge them while the  "stage manager" of the play conducts a rehearsal with the replacements 

Plot
Act I
Act one is an amalgam of early 20th century New Jersey and the dawn of the Ice Age  The father is inventing things such as the lever, the wheel, the alphabet, and multiplication tables  The family and the entire northeastern U S  face extinction by a wall of ice moving southward from Canada  The story is introduced by a narrator and further expanded by the family maid, Sabina   There are unsettling parallels between the members of the Antrobus family and various characters from the Bible  In addition, time is compressed and scrambled to such an extent that the refugees who arrive at the Antrobus house seeking food and fire include the Old Testament prophet Moses, the ancient Greek poet Homer, and women who are identified as Muses 

Act II
Act II takes place on the Boardwalk at Atlantic City, New Jersey, where the Antrobuses are present for George's swearing-in as president of the Ancient and Honorable Order of Mammals, Subdivision Humans  Sabina is present, also, in the guise of a scheming beauty queen, who tries to steal George's affection from his wife and family  The conventioneers are rowdy and party furiously, but there is an undercurrent of foreboding as a fortune teller warns of an impending storm  The weather soon transforms from summery sunshine to hurricane to deluge  Gladys and George each attempt their individual rebellions, and are brought back into line by the family  The act ends with the family members reconciled and, paralleling the Biblical story of Noah's Ark, directing pairs of animals to safety on a large boat where they survive the storm and the end of the world 

Act III
The final act takes place in the ruins of the Antrobuses' former home   A devastating war has occurred; Maggie and Gladys have survived by hiding in a cellar   When they come out of the cellar we see that Gladys has a baby   Sabina joins them, "dressed as a Napoleonic camp-follower"   George has been away at the front lines leading an army  Henry also fought, on the opposite side, and returns as a general   The family members discuss the ability of the human race to rebuild and continue after continually destroying itself   The question is raised: "Is there any accomplishment or attribute of the human race of enough value that its civilization should be rebuilt?"
The stage manager interrupts the play-within-the-play to explain that several members of their company can't perform their parts, possibly due to food poisoning (as the actress playing Sabina saw blue mold on the lemon meringue pie at dinner)  The stage manager drafts a janitor, a dresser, and other non-actors to fill their parts, which involve quoting philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle to mark the passing of time within the play 
The alternate history action ends where it began, with Sabina dusting the living room and worrying about George's arrival from the office  Her final act is to address the audience and turn over the responsibility of continuing the action, or life, to them 

Themes
Sabina's stock-maid monologue begins and ends the play in the same way; this "stage-play" goes on and on 
In her role as resident pessimist, lacking vision, Sabina says, "That's all we do—always beginning again! Over and over again  Always beginning again " After each disaster, they just rebuild the world again  She also says: "Don't forget that a few years ago we came through the depression by the skin of our teeth! One more tight squeeze like that and where will we be?" And later she says,   "My nerves can't stand it  But if you have any ideas about improving this crazy old world, I'm really with you  I really am "
The Ice Age, the Great Flood, the War imply we are always plagued by the potential for disaster, both natural and man-made 
Art and literature are ways of advancing our humanity: enhancing empathy, tolerance, vision  Improvements in technology, though, don't necessarily advance human nature at all 

Influences and criticism
Similarities between the play and James Joyce's novel Finnegans Wake (1939) were noted in the Saturday Review during the play's run on Broadway  Norman Cousins, editor of the Review, printed a short article by Joseph Campbell and Henry Morton Robinson titled "The Skin of Whose Teeth? The Strange Case of Mr  Wilder's New Play and Finnegans Wake" in the issue for December 19, 1942, with a second part in the February 13, 1943, issue 
In Campbell's book Pathways to Bliss, Campbell recalls his reaction to the similarities he noted between Wilder's play and Joyce's novel:[W]hen I went to see Thornton Wilder's The Skin of Our Teeth, which was the big Broadway hit at the time   all I heard was Finnegans Wake  [   ] I phoned Robinson, and I said, "Good God, here's Wilder making tons of money and a lot of fame on this thing, and it's simply Finnegans Wake " Joyce had just died, and his family was destitute  So I said, "I think we should write a letter to the New York Times "
Campbell claimed to have compared Finnegans Wake and the book form of The Skin of Our Teeth and found "nearly two hundred and fifty analogues—characters, themes, and finally a four-line, word-for-word quote "

Notable productions
The original production starred Tallulah Bankhead, Fredric March, Florence Eldridge, and Montgomery Clift  Bankhead won a Variety Award for Best Actress and the New York Drama Critics Award for Best Actress of the Year for her role as Sabina  When she left the production in March 1943, she was replaced by Miriam Hopkins  Hopkins was in turn replaced by Gladys George  For two performances, while George was ill, Lizabeth Scott, who had been Bankhead's understudy, was called in to play the role  Scott then played the role for the production's run in Boston  Originally billed in New York as "Elizabeth Scott", she dropped the "E" before taking the part in Boston, and it became her breakthrough role 
Following a pre-London tryout tour of the UK, the play had its London premiere at the Phoenix Theatre on 16 May 1945, where it ran for 77 performances, closing 21 July 1945   It re-opened in London at the Piccadilly Theatre on 11 September 1946, running there for a further 109 performances, until 14 December   Directed by Laurence Olivier, Sabina was played by Vivien Leigh, with Cecil Parker as George Antrobus (George Devine at the Piccadilly)  The Oliviers also included the production on their Old Vic tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1948, and Leigh revived the role in a 1959 television production filmed live by Granada Television The play was revived on Broadway in 1955, premiering at the ANTA Theatre  It was staged by the Edinburgh Gateway Company in 1961 In 1983, American Playhouse, on PBS, aired a production that was produced at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego   It starred Blair Brown, Harold Gould, Sada Thompson, Rue McClanahan, Jeffrey Combs and was directed by Jack O'Brien 
New York City's Public Theater presented a production as part of its 1998 summer Shakespeare in the Park festival at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park   That production starred Kristen Johnston, John Goodman and Frances Conroy   It was directed by Irene Lewis In 2017, Theatre for a New Audience performed The Skin of Our Teeth directed by Arin Arbus  It won the 2017 Obie Award for Directing and Performance by Kecia Lewis A Broadway revival of the play directed by Lileana Blain-Cruz  premiered at the Vivian Beaumont Theater in previews on April 1, 2022, and officially on April 25  It was subsequently nominated for six Tony Awards including Best Direction, Best Lead Actress, Best Costume Design, Best Lighting Design, Best Sound Design, and Best Set Design 

Cast list
Awards and nominations
2022 Broadway Revival
Passage 8:
Battle of Trenton
The Battle of Trenton was a small but pivotal American Revolutionary War battle on the morning of December 26, 1776, in Trenton, New Jersey  After General George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River north of Trenton the previous night, Washington led the main body of the Continental Army against Hessian auxiliaries garrisoned at Trenton  After a brief battle, almost two-thirds of the Hessian force were captured, with negligible losses to the Americans  The battle significantly boosted the Continental Army's waning morale, and inspired re-enlistments 
The Continental Army had previously suffered several defeats in New York and had been forced to retreat through New Jersey to Pennsylvania  Morale in the army was low; to end the year on a positive note, George Washington—Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army—devised a plan to cross the Delaware River on the night of December 25–26 and surround the Hessians' garrison 
Because the river was icy and the weather severe, the crossing proved dangerous  Two detachments were unable to cross the river, leaving Washington with only 2,400 men under his command in the assault, 3,000 fewer than planned  The army marched 9 mi (14 5 km) south to Trenton  The Hessians had lowered their guard, thinking they were safe from the Americans' army, and had no long-distance outposts or patrols  Washington's forces caught them off guard, and after a short but fierce resistance, most of the Hessians surrendered and were captured, with just over a third escaping across Assunpink Creek 
Despite the battle's small numbers, the victory inspired patriots and sympathizers of the newly formed United States  With the success of the ongoing revolution in doubt a week earlier, the army had seemed on the verge of collapse  The dramatic victory inspired soldiers to serve longer and attracted new recruits to the ranks 

Background
In early December 1776, American morale was very low  The Americans had been ousted from New York by the British and their Hessian auxiliaries, and the Continental Army was forced to retreat across New Jersey  Ninety percent of the Continental Army soldiers who had served at Long Island were gone  Men had deserted, feeling that the cause for independence was lost  Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, expressed some doubts, writing to his cousin in Virginia, "I think the game is pretty near up "At the time a small town in New Jersey, Trenton was occupied by four regiments of Hessian soldiers (numbering about 1,400 men) commanded by Colonel Johann Rall  Washington's force comprised 2,400 men, with infantry divisions commanded by Major Generals Nathanael Greene and John Sullivan, and artillery under the direction of Brigadier General Henry Knox 

Prelude
Intelligence
George Washington had stationed a spy named John Honeyman, posing as a Tory, in Trenton  Honeyman had served with Major General James Wolfe in Quebec at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham on September 13, 1759, and had no trouble establishing his credentials as a Tory  Honeyman was a butcher and bartender, who traded with the British and Hessians  This enabled him to gather intelligence and to convince the Hessians that the Continental Army was in such a low state of morale that they would not attack Trenton  Shortly before Christmas, he arranged to be captured by the Continental Army, who had orders to bring him to Washington unharmed  After being questioned by Washington, he was imprisoned in a hut to be tried as a Tory in the morning, but a small fire broke out nearby, enabling him to "escape"  On the evening before the battle, Hessian commander Rall was celebrating Christmas with his troops at the farm of Abraham Hunt, a wealthy merchant and farmer of Trenton  Hunt played the role of a friendly Loyalist host, giving Rall a false sense of serenity while Washington and his troops were preparing for a surprise attack 

U S  plan
The U S  plan relied on launching coordinated attacks from three directions  General John Cadwalader would launch a diversionary attack against the British garrison at Bordentown, New Jersey, to block off reinforcements from the south  General James Ewing would take 700 militia across the river at Trenton Ferry, seize the bridge over the Assunpink Creek and prevent enemy troops from escaping  The main assault force of 2,400 men would cross the river 9 mi (14 km) north of Trenton and split into two groups, one under Greene and one under Sullivan, to launch a pre-dawn attack  Sullivan would attack the town from the south, and Greene from the north  Depending on the success of the operation, the Americans would possibly follow up with separate attacks on Princeton and New Brunswick During the week before the battle, U S  advance parties began to ambush enemy cavalry patrols, capturing dispatch riders and attacking Hessian pickets  The Hessian commander, to emphasize the danger his men were facing, sent 100 infantry and an artillery detachment to deliver a letter to the British commander at Princeton  Washington ordered Ewing and his Pennsylvania militia to try to gain information on Hessian movements and technology  Ewing instead made three successful raids across the river  On December 17 and 18, 1776, they attacked an outpost of jägers and on the 21st, they set fire to several houses  Washington put constant watches on all possible crossings near the Continental Army encampment on the Delaware, as he believed William Howe would launch an attack from the north on Philadelphia if the river froze over On December 20, 1776, some 2,000 troops led by General Sullivan arrived in Washington's camp  They had been under the command of Charles Lee and had been moving slowly through northern New Jersey when Lee was captured  That same day, an additional 800 troops arrived from Fort Ticonderoga under the command of Horatio Gates 

Hessian moves
On December 14, 1776, the Hessians arrived in Trenton to establish their winter quarters  At the time, Trenton was a small town with about 100 houses and two main streets, King (now Warren) Street and Queen (now Broad) Street  Carl von Donop, Rall's superior, had marched south to Mount Holly on December 22 to deal with the resistance in New Jersey, and had clashed with some New Jersey militia there on December 23 Donop, who despised Rall, was reluctant to give command of Trenton to him  Rall was known to be loud and unacquainted with the English language, but he was also a 36-year veteran with a great deal of battle experience  His request for reinforcements had been turned down by British commander General James Grant, who disdained the American rebels and thought them poor soldiers  Despite Rall's experience, the Hessians at Trenton did not admire their commander Trenton lacked city walls or fortifications, which was typical of U S  settlements  Some Hessian officers advised Rall to fortify the town, and two of his engineers advised that a redoubt be constructed at the upper end of town and fortifications be built along the river  The engineers went so far as to draw up plans, but Rall disagreed with them  When Rall was again urged to fortify the town, he replied, "Let them come     We will go at them with the bayonet "As Christmas approached, Loyalists came to Trenton to report the Americans were planning action  U S  deserters told the Hessians that rations were being prepared for an advance across the river  Rall publicly dismissed such talk as nonsense, but privately in letters to his superiors, he said he was worried about an imminent attack  He wrote to Donop that he was "liable to be attacked at any moment"  Rall said that Trenton was "indefensible" and asked that British troops establish a garrison in Maidenhead (now Lawrenceville)  Close to Trenton, this would help defend the roads from Americans  His request was denied  As the Americans disrupted Hessian supply lines, the officers started to share Rall's fears  One wrote, "We have not slept one night in peace since we came to this place " On December 22, 1776, a spy reported to Grant that Washington had called a council of war; Grant told Rall to "be on your guard" The main Hessian force of 1,500 men was divided into three regiments: Knyphausen, Lossberg and Rall  That night, they did not send out any patrols because of the severe weather 

Crossing and march
Before Washington and his troops left, Benjamin Rush came to cheer up the general  While he was there, he saw a note Washington had written, saying, "Victory or Death"  Those words would be the password for the surprise attack  Each soldier carried 60 rounds of ammunition, and three days of rations  When the army arrived at the shores of the Delaware, they were already behind schedule, and clouds began to form above them  It began to rain  As the air's temperature dropped, the rain changed to sleet, and then to snow  The Americans began to cross the river, with John Glover in command  The men went across in Durham boats, while the horses and artillery went across on large ferries  The 14th Continental Regiment of Glover manned the boats  During the crossing, several men fell overboard, including Colonel John Haslet  Haslet was quickly pulled out of the water  No one died during the crossing, and all the artillery pieces made it over in good condition Two small detachments of infantry of about 40 men each were ordered ahead of main columns  They set roadblocks ahead of the main army and were to take prisoner whoever came into or left the town  One of the groups was sent north of Trenton, and the other was sent to block River Road, which ran along the Delaware River to Trenton 

The terrible weather conditions delayed the landings in New Jersey until 3:00 am; the plan was that they were supposed to be completed by 12:00 am  Washington realized it would be impossible to launch a pre-dawn attack  Another setback occurred for the Americans, as generals Cadwalader and Ewing were unable to join the attack because of the weather conditions At 4:00 am, the soldiers began to march towards Trenton  Along the way, several civilians joined as volunteers and led as guides (such as John Mott) because of their knowledge of the terrain  After marching 1 5 mi (2 4 km) through winding roads into the wind, they reached Bear Tavern, where they turned south onto Bear Tavern Road   The ground was slippery, but it was level, making it easier for the horses and artillery  They began to make better time  They soon reached Jacobs Creek, where, with difficulty, the Americans made it across  The two groups stayed together until they reached Birmingham (now West Trenton), where they split apart, with Greene’s force heading east to approach Trenton by the Scotch and Pennington roads and Sullivan’s heading southwest to approach via River Road  Soon after, they reached the house of Benjamin Moore, where the family offered food and drink to Washington  At this point, the first signs of daylight began to appear  Many of the troops did not have boots, so they were forced to wear rags around their feet  Some of the men's feet bled, turning the snow to a dark red  Two men died on the march As they marched, Washington rode up and down the line, encouraging the men to continue  General Sullivan sent a courier to tell Washington that the weather was wetting his men's gunpowder  Washington replied, "Tell General Sullivan to use the bayonet  I am resolved to take Trenton "About 2 mi (3 km) outside the town, the main columns reunited with the advance parties  They were startled by the sudden appearance of 50 armed men, but they were American  Led by Adam Stephen, they had not known about the plan to attack Trenton and had attacked a Hessian outpost  Washington feared the Hessians would have been put on guard, and shouted at Stephen, "You sir! You Sir, may have ruined all my plans by having them put on their guard " Despite this, Washington ordered the advance continue to Trenton  In the event, Rall thought the first raid was the attack which Grant had warned him about, and that there would be no further action that day 

Battle
U S  attack
At 8 am on the morning of December 26, the outpost was set up by the Hessians at a cooper shop on Pennington Road about one mile northwest of Trenton  Washington led the assault, riding in front of his soldiers  As the Hessian commander of the outpost, Lieutenant Andreas Wiederholdt, left the shop, an American fired at him but missed  Wiederholdt immediately shouted, "Der Feind!" (The Enemy!) and other Hessians came out  The Americans fired three volleys, and the Hessians returned one of their own  Washington ordered Edward Hand's Pennsylvania Riflemen and a battalion of German-speaking infantry to block the road that led to Princeton  They attacked the Hessian outpost there  Wiederholdt soon realized that this was more than a raiding party; seeing other Hessians retreating from the outpost, he led his men to do the same  Both Hessian detachments made organized retreats, firing as they fell back  On the high ground at the north end of Trenton, they were joined by a duty company from the Lossberg Regiment  They engaged the Americans, retreating slowly, keeping up continuous fire and using houses for cover  Once in Trenton, they gained covering fire from other Hessian guard companies on the outskirts of the town  Another guard company nearer to the Delaware River rushed east to their aid, leaving open the River Road into Trenton  Washington ordered the escape route to Princeton be cut off, sending infantry in battle formation to block it, while artillery formed at the head of King and Queen streets Leading the southern U S  column, General Sullivan entered Trenton by the abandoned River Road and blocked the only crossing over the Assunpink Creek to cut off the Hessian escape  Sullivan briefly held up his advance to make sure Greene's division had time to drive the Hessians from their outposts in the north  Soon after, they continued their advance, attacking the Hermitage, home of Philemon Dickinson, where 50 jägers under the command of Lieutenant von Grothausen were stationed  Lieutenant von Grothausen brought 12 of his jägers into action against the advanced guard but had only advanced a few hundred yards when he saw a column of Americans advancing to the Hermitage  Pulling back to the Hessian barracks, he was joined by the rest of the jägers  After the exchange of one volley, they turned and ran, some trying to swim across the creek, while others escaped over the bridge, which had not yet been cut off  The 20 British dragoons also fled  As Greene and Sullivan's columns pushed into the town, Washington moved to high ground north of King and Queens streets to see the action and direct his troops  By this time, U S  artillery from the other side of the Delaware River had come into action, devastating the Hessian positions With the sounding of the alarm, the three Hessian regiments began to prepare for battle  The Rall regiment formed on lower King Street along with the Lossberg regiment, while the Knyphausen regiment formed at the lower end of Queen Street  Lieutenant Piel, Rall's brigade adjutant, woke his commander, who found that the rebels had taken the "V" of the main streets of the town  This is where the engineers had recommended building a redoubt  Rall ordered his regiment to form up at the lower end of King Street, the Lossberg regiment to prepare for an advance up Queen Street, and the Knyphausen regiment to stand by as a reserve for Rall's advance up King Street The U S  cannon stationed at the head of the two main streets soon came into action  In reply, Rall directed his regiment, supported by a few companies of the Lossberg regiment, to clear the guns  The Hessians formed ranks and began to advance up the street, but their formations were quickly broken by the U S  guns and fire from Mercer's men who had taken houses on the left side of the street  Breaking ranks, the Hessians fled  Rall ordered two three-pound cannons into action  After getting off six rounds each, within just a few minutes, half of the Hessians manning their guns were killed by the U S  cannon  After the men fled to cover behind houses and fences, their cannons were taken by the Americans  Following capture of the cannons, men under the command of George Weedon advanced down King Street On Queen Street, all Hessian attempts to advance up the street were repulsed by guns under the command of Thomas Forrest  After firing four rounds each, two more Hessian guns were silenced  One of Forrest's howitzers was put out of action with a broken axle  The Knyphausen regiment became separated from the Lossberg and the Rall regiments  The Lossberg and the Rall regiments fell back to a field outside of town, taking heavy losses from grapeshot and musket fire  In the southern part of the town, Americans under command of Sullivan began to overwhelm the Hessians  John Stark led a bayonet charge at the Knyphausen regiment, whose resistance broke because their weapons would not fire  Sullivan led a column of men to block off escape of troops across the creek 

Hessian resistance collapses
The Hessians in the field attempted to reorganize and make one last attempt to retake the town so they could make a breakout  Rall decided to attack the U S  flank on the heights north of the town  Rall yelled "Forward! Advance! Advance!", and the Hessians began to move, with the brigade's band playing fifes, bugles and drums to help the Hessians' spirit Washington, still on high ground, saw the Hessians approaching the U S  flank  He moved his troops to assume battle formation against the enemy  The two Hessian regiments began marching toward King Street but were caught in U S  fire that came at them from three directions  Some Americans had taken up defensive positions inside houses, reducing their exposure  Some civilians joined the fight against the Hessians  Despite this, they continued to push, recapturing their cannons  At the head of King Street, Knox saw the Hessians had retaken the cannons and ordered his troops to take them  Six men ran and, after a brief struggle, seized the cannons, turning them on the Hessians  With most of the Hessians unable to fire their guns, the attack stalled  The Hessians' formations broke, and they began to scatter  Rall was mortally wounded  Washington led his troops down from high ground while yelling, "March on, my brave fellows, after me!" Most of the Hessians retreated into an orchard, with the Americans in close pursuit  Quickly surrounded, the Hessians were offered terms of surrender, to which they agreed 
Although ordered to join Rall, the remains of the Knyphausen regiment mistakenly marched in the opposite direction  They tried to escape across the bridge but found it had been taken  The Americans quickly swept in, defeating a Hessian attempt to break through their lines  Surrounded by Sullivan's men, the regiment surrendered, just minutes after the rest of the brigade 

Casualties and capture
The Hessian forces lost 22 killed in action, including their commander Colonel Johann Rall, 83 wounded, and 896 captured–including the wounded  The Americans suffered only two deaths during the march and five wounded from battle, including a near-fatal shoulder wound to future president James Monroe  Other losses incurred by the patriots from exhaustion, exposure, and illness in the following days may have raised their fatalities above those of the Hessians The captured Hessians were sent to Philadelphia and later Lancaster  In 1777 they were moved to Virginia  Rall was mortally wounded and died later that night at his headquarters  All four Hessian colonels in Trenton were killed in the battle  The Lossberg regiment was effectively removed from the British forces  Parts of the Knyphausen regiment escaped to the south, but Sullivan captured some 200 additional men, along with the regiment's cannon and supplies  They also captured approximately 1,000 arms and much-needed ammunition  The Americans also captured their entire store of provisions—tons of flour, dried and salted meats, ale and other liquors, as well as shoes, boots, clothing and bedding—things that were as much needed by the ragtag Continental forces, such as weapons and horses 
Among those captured by the Patriots was Christian Strenge, later to become a schoolmaster and fraktur artist in Pennsylvania 

Hessian drinking
An officer in Washington's staff wrote before the battle, "They make a great deal of Christmas in Germany, and no doubt the Hessians will drink a great deal of beer and have a dance to-night  They will be sleepy tomorrow morning " Popular history commonly portrays the Hessians as drunk from Christmas celebrations  However, historian David Hackett Fischer quotes Patriot John Greenwood, who fought in the battle and supervised Hessians afterward, who wrote, "I am certain not a drop of liquor was drunk during the whole night, nor, as I could see, even a piece of bread eaten " Military historian Edward G  Lengel wrote, "The Germans were dazed and tired but there is no truth to the legend claiming that they were helplessly drunk "

Aftermath
After the Hessians' surrender, Washington is reported to have shaken the hand of a young officer and said, "This is a glorious day for our country " On December 28, General Washington interviewed Lieutenant (later Colonel) Andreas Wiederhold, who detailed the failures of Rall's preparation  Washington soon learned, however, that Cadwalader and Ewing had been unable to complete their crossing, leaving his worn-out army of 2,400 men isolated  Without their 2,600 men, Washington realized he did not have the forces to attack Princeton and New Brunswick By noon, Washington's force had moved across the Delaware back into Pennsylvania, taking their prisoners and captured supplies with them  Washington would follow up his success a week later in the Battle of the Assunpink Creek and the Battle of Princeton solidifying Patriot gains 

Legacy
This small but decisive battle, as with the later Battle of Cowpens, had an effect disproportionate to its size  The Patriot victory gave the Continental Congress new confidence, as it proved colonial forces could defeat them in the future  It also increased re-enlistments in the Continental Army forces  By defeating a European army, the colonials reduced the fear that the Hessians had caused earlier that year after the fighting in New York  Howe was stunned that the Patriots so easily surprised and overwhelmed the Hessian garrison  Colonial support for the rebellion was further buoyed significantly at this time by writings of Thomas Paine and additional successful actions by the New Jersey Militia Two notable U S  officers were wounded while leading the charge down King Street: William Washington, cousin of General Washington, and Lieutenant James Monroe, the future President of the United States  Monroe was carried from the field bleeding badly after he was struck in the left shoulder by a musket ball, which severed an artery  Doctor John Riker clamped the artery, preventing him from bleeding to death The Trenton Battle Monument, erected at "Five Points" in Trenton, stands as a tribute to this U S  victory  The crossing of the Delaware River and battle are reenacted by local enthusiasts every year (unless the weather is too severe on the river) Eight current Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn, 103rd Eng Bn, A/1-104th Cav, 111th Inf, 125th QM Co, 175th Inf, 181st Inf and 198th Sig Bn) and one currently-active Regular Army Artillery battalion (1–5th FA) are derived from U S  units that participated in the Battle of Trenton  There are thirty current units of the U S  Army with colonial roots 

Painting
In 1851, German-American artist Emanuel Leutze painted the second of three paintings depicting Washington crossing the Delaware  It is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and is "one of the most famous American paintings " At the time of its first exhibition it caused a sensation, in Europe and the United States  Leutze hoped it would stir revolutionary sentiments in Germany  After six months in Germany it was shipped to New York City where the New-York Mirror newspaper lauded it with the words, "the grandest, most majestic, and most effective painting ever exhibited in America " The painting is the center-piece of the collections in the American Wing  It is still one of the most recognizable paintings at the Metropolitan  It is central to the canon of American historical art images, its monumental popularity undimmed in the years since it was first exhibited 

See also
American Revolutionary War British New York counter-offensive  The 'Battle of Trenton' placed in overall sequence and strategic context 
Battle of Bennington
Battle of Iron Works Hill
Battle of Princeton – fought the day after the Battle of the Assunpink Creek
Battle of the Assunpink Creek – also known as the Second Battle of Trenton, fought one week later
Battles of Saratoga
Battle of Yorktown* List of American Revolutionary War battles
New Jersey in the American Revolution

Footnotes
Bibliography
Brooks, Victor (1999)  How America Fought Its Wars  New York: Da Capo Press  ISBN 1-58097-002-8 
Burt, Daniel S  (2001)  The Biography Book  New York: Oryx Press  ISBN 1-57356-256-4 
Ferling, John (2007)  Almost a Miracle  Oxford University Press  ISBN 978-0-19-518121-0 
Fischer, David Hackett (2006)  Washington's Crossing  Oxford University Press  ISBN 0-19-517034-2 
Ketchum, Richard (1999)  The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton (1st Owl books ed )  Holt Paperbacks  ISBN 0-8050-6098-7 
Lengel, Edward (2005)  General George Washington, a Military Life  New York: Random House Paperbacks  ISBN 0-8129-6950-2 
McCullough, David (2006)  1776  New York: Simon and Schuster Paperback  ISBN 0-7432-2672-0  1776 David 
Mitchell, Craig (2003)  George Washington's New Jersey  Middle Atlantic Press  ISBN 0-9705804-1-X 
Rosenfeld, Lucy (2007)  History Walks in New Jersey  Rutgers  ISBN 978-0-8135-3969-0 
Savas, Theodore (2006)  Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution  Savas Beatie  ISBN 1-932714-12-X 
Sawicki, James A  (1981)  Infantry Regiments of the US Army  Dumfries, VA: Wyvern Publications  ISBN 978-0-9602404-3-2 
Scheer, George (1987)  Rebels and Redcoats  Da Capo Press  ISBN 0-306-80307-0 
Schuyler, Hamilton (1929)  A history of Trenton, 1679-1929  Princeton : Princeton University Press: The Trenton Historical Society 
Stanhope, Phillip Henry (1854)  History of England: From the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles  GB, Murray 
Stryker, William S  (1898)  The Battles of Trenton and Princeton  Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company  OCLC 49835662 
Tucker, Philip Thomas (2014), George Washington's Surprise Attack: A New Look at the Battle That Decided the Fate of America, Skyhorse Publishing, ISBN 978-1628736526
Wiederholdt, Andreas (2015) [1862]   M D  Learned; C  Grosse (eds )  Tagebuch des Capt  Wiederholdt vom 7 Oktober bis 7 December 1780  The University of Michigan Library: The MacMillan Co, New York 
Wood, W J  Henry (2003)  Battles of the Revolutionary War  Da Capo Press  ISBN 0-306-81329-7 

Further reading
Maloy, Mark  Victory or Death: The Battles of Trenton and Princeton, December 25, 1776 – January 3, 1777  Emerging Revolutionary War Series  El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2018  ISBN 978-1-61121-381-2 

External links

"The Two Battles of Trenton"  The Trenton Historical Society 
"The Winter Patriots: The Trenton-Princeton Campaign of 1776–1777"  George Washington's Mount Vernon 
Passage 9:
Hellfire: A Journey from Hiroshima
Hellfire: A Journey from Hiroshima is a 1986 American documentary film directed by John Junkerman  It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature 
Passage 10:
The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden
The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden is a one act play by American novelist and playwright Thornton Wilder written in 1931   It was first published in The Long Christmas Dinner and Other Plays in One Act (New York: Coward-McCann, 1931) 

Productions
The first production of The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden was by the Yale Dramatic Association and the Vassar College Philalethis  at the Yale University theater in New Haven, Connecticut, on November 25, 1931   It opened on Broadway at the Cort Theatre on March 16, 1948, in a production starring Peggy Allenby as Ma Kirby and Don MacLaughlin as Elmer   A production by Theodore Mann at the Circle in the Square Theatre which opened on April 21, 1993, won both a Tony Award and a Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Play 

Plot summary
Almost the entire play takes place during an automobile journey from Newark to Camden, New Jersey by a family on their way to visit a married daughter, who has recently lost a baby in childbirth   Very little happens, but the father, mother, and children reminisce, joke, and sightsee and somehow, in classic Thornton Wilder fashion, capture something of the universal joy and sadness of life as they motor along 

Themes
Comparing this play with his later masterpiece, Our Town, Wilder said in 1974, "In my plays I attempted to raise ordinary daily conversation between ordinary people to the level of the universal human experience " In his "Notes to the Producer" written in 1931, Wilder stated that:

It should constantly be borne in mind that the purpose of this play is the portrayal of the character of Ma Kirby     the director should constantly keep in mind that Ma Kirby's humor, strength and humanity constitute the unifying element throughout 
Eric Specie in an overview of the play says:

A family car trip occurs on a bare stage  Yet the ordinary is only the setting for an investigation of extraordinary existential issues  In this family drama, nothing much happens—and yet everything important happens 
In this play, Ma Kirby is the leading and strong character  She is a loving mother, an active woman, strict about dress and manners, thoughts and beliefs in God  She is satisfied and joyful with her family members  For her, the place where her family lives is the best place on earth  As a responsible or good mother, she wants her children to be honest by doing good and think good  She is a philosophical, determined, and kind-hearted person 
Passage 11:
Old Barracks Museum
The Old Barracks Museum, also known just as the Old Barracks, is a historic building located at 101 Barracks Street in Trenton, Mercer County, New Jersey  Built in 1758 to house soldiers of the British Army, it is the only remaining colonial barracks in the state and is one of the only tangible surviving elements of the 1776 Battle of Trenton  The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 25, 1971 and listed as a National Historic Landmark on November 28, 1972, for its significance in military history   It is now a state-run historic site and museum 

History
The Old Barracks were built in 1758 to house British soldiers during the French and Indian War, after colonists complained about the forced quartering of soldiers engaged in the conflict   It was built as a U-shaped stone structure, capable of housing about 300 soldiers at a time   It was reoccupied as a winter quarters by Hessian troops in the fall of 1776, during the American Revolutionary War   George Washington crossed the Delaware River to catch the Hessian garrison by surprise during the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26, 1776   Most of this battlefield is now occupied by downtown Trenton   For the remainder of that conflict it was occupied by whichever force controlled Trenton, including at various times British and American Continental Army troops  In the later stages of the war it was used as a military hospital by the Continental Army Following the Revolution, the building was sold off, and it was converted into a series of private residences   One arm of the barracks was demolished in 1813 to make way for Front Street   From 1855 to 1899 it was used as a home for elderly women   In 1902, members of the Daughters of the Revolution, under the leadership of Beulah A  Oliphant, bought part of the building to preserve it   The state bought the other part and formed a museum in 1914 which continues to be open and supported by the State of New Jersey The museum is open to visitors year round, Monday–Saturday, and is known for the annual Battle of Trenton Reenactments 

Gallery
See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Mercer County, New Jersey
East Jersey Olde Towne Village, site of replica of New Brunswick Barracks



ground_truth: central Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the oldest college in the state that contains Borough House Plantation?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  At the airport, where official records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F (41 °C) on August 1, 1999, down to 6 °F (−14 °C) on January 21, 1985  Hurricanes are a major threat to the area during the summer and early fall, with several severe hurricanes hitting the area—most notably Hurricane Hugo on September 21, 1989 (a category 4 storm)  The dewpoint from June to August ranges from 67 8 to 71 4 °F (19 9 to 21 9 °C) 

Metropolitan Statistical Area
As defined by the U S  Office of Management and Budget, for use by the U S  Census Bureau and other U S  Government agencies for statistical purposes only, Charleston is included within the Charleston–North Charleston, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area and the smaller Charleston-North Charleston urban area  The Charleston–North Charleston metropolitan area consists of three counties: Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester  As of the 2020 U S  Census, the metropolitan statistical area had a total population of 799,636 people  North Charleston is the second-largest city in the metro area and ranks as the third-largest city in the state; Mount Pleasant and Summerville are the next-largest cities  These cities combined with other incorporated and unincorporated areas along with the city of Charleston form the Charleston–North Charleston urban area with a population of 548,404 as of 2010  The metropolitan statistical area also includes a separate and much smaller urban area within Berkeley County, Moncks Corner (with a 2000 population of 9,123) 
The traditional parish system persisted until the Reconstruction Era, when counties were imposed  Nevertheless, traditional parishes still exist in various capacities, mainly as public service districts  When the city of Charleston was formed, it was defined by the limits of the Parish of St  Philip and St  Michael, now also includes parts of St  James' Parish, St  George's Parish, St  Andrew's Parish, and St  John's Parish, although the last two are mostly still incorporated rural parishes 

Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 150,227 people, 58,902 households, and 31,780 families residing in the city 

Language
Given Charleston's high concentration of African Americans who spoke the Gullah language, a creole language that developed on the Sea Islands and in the Low Country, the local speech patterns were also influenced by this community  Today, Gullah is still spoken by many African American residents  However, rapid development since 1980, especially on the surrounding Sea Islands, has attracted residents from outside the area and led to a decline in Gullah's prominence 
The traditional educated Charleston accent has long been noted in the state and throughout the South  It is typically heard in wealthy European American older people who trace their families back generations in the city  It has ingliding or monophthongal long mid-vowels, raises ay and aw in certain environments, and is nonrhotic  Sylvester Primer of the College of Charleston wrote about aspects of the local dialect in his late 19th-century works: "Charleston Provincialisms" (1887) and "The Huguenot Element in Charleston's Provincialisms", published in a German journal  He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers  The disappearing "Charleston accent" spoken mainly by older natives is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city's name  Many Charleston natives ignore the 'r' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as "Chalston" 

Religion
Charleston is known as "The Holy City"  Despite beliefs that the term dates to the city's earliest days and refers to its religiously tolerant culture, the term was coined in the 20th century, likely as a mockery of Charlestonians' self-satisfied attitude about their city  Regardless of the nickname's origination, residents have embraced the term and explained it in more flattering terms 
The Anglican church was dominant in the colonial era, and the Cathedral of St  Luke and St  Paul is today the seat of the Anglican Diocese of South Carolina  St  John's Protestant Episcopal Church is another historic church in Charleston  Many French Huguenot refugees settled in Charleston in the early 18th century  The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal church in the Southern United States and houses the oldest black congregation south of Baltimore, Maryland South Carolina has long allowed Jews to practice their faith without restriction  Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim, founded in 1749 by Sephardic Jews from London, is the fourth-oldest Jewish congregation in the continental United States and was an important site for the development of Reform Judaism  Brith Sholom Beth Israel is the oldest Orthodox synagogue in the South, founded by Sam Berlin and other Ashkenazi German and Central European Jews in the mid-19th century The city's oldest Catholic parish, St  Mary of the Annunciation Catholic Church, is the mother church of Catholicism in South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia  In 1820, Charleston was established as the see city of the Diocese of Charleston, which at the time comprised the Carolinas and Georgia, and presently encompasses the state of South Carolina 
The Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite, established in Charleston in 1801, is considered the mother council of the world by Scottish Rite Freemasons 

Culture
Charleston's culture blends traditional Southern U S , English, French, and West African elements  The downtown peninsula has a number of art, music, local cuisine, and fashion venues  Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy 
Charleston's oldest community theater group, the Footlight Players, has provided theatrical productions since 1931  A variety of performing arts venues includes the historic Dock Street Theatre  The annual Charleston Fashion Week held each spring in Marion Square brings in designers, journalists, and clients from across the nation  Charleston is known for its local seafood, which plays a key role in the city's renowned cuisine, comprising staple dishes such as gumbo, she-crab soup, fried oysters, Lowcountry boil, deviled crab cakes, red rice, and shrimp and grits  Rice is the staple in many dishes, reflecting the rice culture of the Low Country  The cuisine in Charleston is also strongly influenced by British and French elements 

Annual cultural events and fairs
Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17-day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines  The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city  Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation's Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival  The Charleston Conference is a major library industry event, held in the city center since 1980 

Music
The Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music  In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country  The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake's "Charleston Rag" and later James P  Johnson's "Charleston", as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s  "Ballin' the Jack", which was a popular dance in the years before "Charleston", was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by the Rev  Daniel J  Jenkins in Charleston  The orphanage accepted donations of musical instruments and Rev  Jenkins hired local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music  As a result, Charleston musicians became proficient on a variety of instruments and were able to read music expertly  These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land some of them positions in big bands with Duke Ellington and Count Basie  William "Cat" Anderson, Jabbo Smith, and Freddie Green are but a few of the alumni who became professional musicians  Orphanages around the country began to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins Orphanage Band's success As many as five bands were on tour during the 1920s  The Jenkins Orphanage Band played in the inaugural parades of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft and toured the US and Europe  The band also played on Broadway for the play "Porgy" by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, a stage version of their novel of the same title  The story was based in Charleston and featured the Gullah community  The Heywards insisted on hiring the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on stage  Only a few years later, DuBose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel into the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess (so named so as to distinguish it from the play)  George Gershwin and Heyward spent the summer of 1934 at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing this "folk opera", as Gershwin called it  Porgy and Bess is considered one of the first Great American Operas and is widely performed To this day, Charleston is home to many musicians in all genres 

Live theater
Charleston has a vibrant theater scene and is home to America's first theater  Most of the theaters are part of the League of Charleston Theatres, better known as Theatre Charleston  Some of the city's theaters include:

The Dock Street Theatre, opened in the 1930s on the site of America's first purpose-built theater building, is home of the Charleston Stage Company, South Carolina's largest professional theater company 
Sottile Theater is on the campus of The College of Charleston 
The Queen Street Playhouse is a former cotton warehouse that was fully converted to a theater in 1986  It is the home of the Footlight Players, a Charleston theater troupe first organized in 1932 

Museums, historical sites, and other attractions
Charleston has many historic buildings, art and historical museums, public parks, and other attractions, including:

Halsey Institute of Contemporary Art at the College of Charleston is free a non-collecting contemporary arts organization 
The Calhoun Mansion, a 24,000-square-foot, 1876 Victorian home at 16 Meeting Street, is named for a grandson of John C  Calhoun who lived there with his wife, the builder's daughter  The private house is periodically open for tours 
The Charleston Museum, America's first museum, was founded in 1773 
The Exchange and Provost was built in 1767  It is operated as a museum by the Daughters of the American Revolution 
The Powder Magazine is a 1713 gunpowder magazine and museum  It is the oldest surviving public building in South Carolina 
The Gibbes Museum of Art, opened in 1905, houses principally American works with a Charleston or Southern connection 
The Fireproof Building houses the South Carolina Historical Society which has a rotating series of historical displays 
The Nathaniel Russell House is an important federal-style house open to the public as a house museum 
The Gov  William Aiken House, also known as the Aiken-Rhett House, is a house museum built in 1820 
The Heyward-Washington House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  Furnished for the late 18th century, the house includes a collection of Charleston-made furniture 
The Joseph Manigault House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  The house was designed by Gabriel Manigault and is significant for its Adam style architecture 
The Market Hall and Sheds, also known as the City Market or simply the Market, stretch several blocks behind 188 Meeting Street  Market Hall was built in the 1841 and houses the Daughters of the Confederacy Museum  The sheds house some permanent stores, but are mainly occupied by open-air vendors 
The Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture was established to collect, preserve, and make public the unique historical and cultural heritage of African Americans in Charleston and the South Carolina Low Country  Avery's archival collections, museum exhibitions, and public programming reflect these diverse populations, as well as the wider African Diaspora 
Fort Sumter, site of the first shots fired in the Civil War, is located in Charleston Harbor  The National Park Service maintains a visitor center for Fort Sumter at Liberty Square (near the South Carolina Aquarium), and boat tours including the fort depart nearby 
The Battery is an historic defensive seawall and promenade located at the tip of the peninsula along with White Point Garden, a park featuring several memorials and Civil War-era artillery pieces 
Rainbow Row is an iconic strip of homes along the harbor that date back to the mid-18th century  Though the homes are not open to the public, they are one of the most photographed attractions in the city and are featured heavily in local art 
The South Carolina Aquarium includes revolving exhibits while its permanent focus is on the aquatic life of South Carolina 
Waterfront Park located on the Cooper River 
Old Slave Mart museum – Located at 6 Chalmers St in the historic district is the first African American Museum  It has operated since 1938 

Sports
Charleston is home to a number of professional, minor league, and amateur sports teams:

The Charleston Battery, a professional soccer team, play in the USL Championship  The Battery play at Patriots Point Soccer Complex 
The South Carolina Stingrays, a professional hockey team, plays in the ECHL  The Stingrays play in North Charleston at the North Charleston Coliseum  The Stingrays are an affiliate of the Washington Capitals and Hershey Bears 
The Charleston RiverDogs, a Minor League Baseball team, plays in the Low-A East and are an affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays  The RiverDogs play at Joseph P  Riley Jr  Park 
The Charleston Outlaws RFC is a rugby union club in the Palmetto Rugby Union, USA Rugby South, and USA Rugby  It competes in Men's Division II against the Cape Fear, Columbia, Greenville, and Charlotte "B" clubs  The club also hosts a rugby sevens tournament during Memorial Day weekend 
The Charleston Gaelic Athletic Association is a Gaelic athletic club focusing on the sports of hurling and Gaelic football  The club competes in the Southeastern Division of the North American County Board of the GAA  The club hosts other division clubs in the Holy City Cup each spring 
The Lowcountry Highrollers is a women's flat-track roller derby league in the Charleston area  The league is a local member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association 
The Family Circle Tennis Center hosts the Volvo Car Open, a major Women's Tennis Association Event  The facility is located on Daniel Island Other notable sports venues in Charleston include Johnson Hagood Stadium (home of The Citadel Bulldogs football team), McAlister Field House (home of The Citadel Bulldogs basketball team), and Toronto Dominion Bank Arena at the College of Charleston, which seats 5,100 people who view the school's basketball and volleyball teams 

Books and films
Various books and films have been set in Charleston; some of the best known works are listed below  In addition, Charleston is a popular filming location for movies and television, both in its own right and as a stand-in for Southern and/or historic settings 

Porgy (1925), by DuBose Heyward, adapted into the play in 1927  George Gershwin's folk opera Porgy and Bess (1935), based on the novel Porgy, is set in Charleston and was partially written at Folly Beach, near Charleston  A film version was released in 1959 
North and South series of books by John Jakes, was partially set in Charleston  The North and South miniseries was partially set and filmed in Charleston 
Part of the 1989 film Glory, starring Matthew Broderick, Denzel Washington, and Morgan Freeman, features the 1863 Second Battle of Fort Wagner on Morris Island 
The movies Swamp Thing (1982) and The Lords of Discipline (1983) (based on the novel by Pat Conroy) were partly filmed in Charleston 

Economy
Commercial shipping is important to the economy  The city has two shipping terminals, of a total of five terminals owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority in the Charleston metropolitan area, which are part of the fourth-largest container seaport on the East Coast and the seventh-largest container seaport in the United States  The port is also used to transfer cars and car parts for Charleston's auto manufacturing business, such as Mercedes and Volvo Sometimes known as Silicon Harbor, the city is becoming a popular location for high tech and innovation, and this sector has had the highest rate of growth between 2011 and 2012, due in large part to the Charleston Digital Corridor  In 2013, the Milken Institute ranked the Charleston region as the ninth-best performing economy in the US because of its growing IT sector  Notable companies include Blackbaud, Greystar Real Estate Partners, Evening Post Industries, Le Creuset, SPARC a Booz Allen Hamilton subsidiary, BoomTown, CSS, and Benefitfocus 
In June 2017, the mean sales price for a home in Charleston was $351,186 and the median price was $260,000 

Government
Charleston has a strong mayor-council government, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive officer of the municipality  The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as other council members  The current mayor, since 2016, is John Tecklenburg  The council has 12 members who are each elected from single-member districts 

Fire department
The City of Charleston Fire Department consists over 300 full-time firefighters  These firefighters operate out of 21 companies located throughout the city: 16 engine companies, two tower companies, two ladder companies, a heavy rescue company, a HAZ-MAT unit and several special units  Training, Fire Marshall, Operations, and Administration are the divisions of the department  The department operates on a 24/48 schedule and is a Class 1 ISO rating  Russell (Rusty) Thomas served as Fire Chief until June 2008, and was succeeded by Chief Thomas Carr in November 2008  The department is presently led by Chief Daniel Curia 

Police department
The City of Charleston Police Department, with a total of 458 sworn officers, 117 civilians, and 27 reserve police officers, is South Carolina's largest police department  Luther Reynolds serves as the current Chief of Police  He follows Greg Mullen and Reuben Greenberg  Chief Reynolds is credited with continuing successful community outreach programs such as The Illumination Project and fostering a culture of mutual respect  Under Chief Reynolds, the agency has successfully withstood challenges such as the Coronavirus and downtown disturbances  Additionally, the agency continues to recruit police candidates in a competitive market 

EMS and medical centers
Emergency medical services (EMS) for the city are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services (CCEMS) & Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (BCEMS)  The city is served by the EMS and 911 services of both Charleston and Berkeley counties since the city is part of both counties 
Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state  The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H  Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital  MUSC is the state's first school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth-oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States  The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals  Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at another major hospital located in the West Ashley portion of the city: Bon Secours-St Francis Xavier Hospital  The Trident Regional Medical Center located in the City of North Charleston and East Cooper Regional Medical Center located in Mount Pleasant also serve the needs of residents of the city of Charleston 

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Station Charleston responds to search and rescue emergencies, conducts maritime law enforcement activities, and Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security (PWCS) missions  Personnel from Station Charleston are highly trained professionals, composed of federal law enforcement officers, boat crewmen, and coxswains who are capable of completing a wide range of missions  In 2020, the Coast Guard announced plans to construct a 2,800-acre (11 km2) "superbase" on the former Charleston Naval Shipyard complex to consolidate all its Charleston-area facilities and become the homeport for five Security cutters and additional offshore cutters Coast Guard Sector Charleston (District 7)

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Helicopter Air Facility, Johns Island, Charleston
Coast Guard Reserves, Charleston
USCGC Yellowfin, Marine Protector-class coastal patrol boat, Charleston
USCGC Anvil, 75-foot inland construction tender, Charleston
USCGC Willow, (WLB-202), Charleston

Military
Army Corps of Engineers, Charleston District Headquarters
U S  Coast Guard
Joint Base Charleston (Navy & Air Force)

Crime
The following table shows Charleston's crime rate for six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses to calculate the ranking of "America's most dangerous cities", in comparison to the national average  The statistics shown are for the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people  Since 1999, the overall crime rate of Charleston has declined markedly  The total crime index rate for Charleston in 1999 was 597 1 crimes committed per 100,000 people, while in 2011, the total crime index rate was 236 4 per 100,000 

Transportation
Airport and rail
The City of Charleston is served by the Charleston International Airport  It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 mi (19 km) northwest of downtown Charleston  It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS)  The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base  Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John's Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft  Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority  As of April 2019, British Airways does seasonal non-stop flights from Charleston to London-Heathrow 
Charleston is served by two daily Amtrak trains: The Palmetto and Silver Meteor at the Amtrak station located at 4565 Gaynor Avenue in the City of North Charleston located around 7 5 miles from downtown Charleston 

Interstates and highways
Interstate 26 (I-26) begins in downtown Charleston, with exits to the Septima Clark Expressway, the Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Meeting Street  Heading northwest, it connects the city to North Charleston, the Charleston International Airport, I-95, and Columbia  The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Septima Clark Expressway are part of U S  Route 17 (US 17), which travels east–west through the cities of Charleston and Mount Pleasant  The Mark Clark Expressway, or I-526, is the bypass around the city and begins and ends at US 17  US 52 is Meeting Street and its spur is East Bay Street, which becomes Morrison Drive after leaving the east side  This highway merges with King Street in the city's Neck area (industrial district)  US 78 is King Street in the downtown area, eventually merging with Meeting Street 

Major highways
Interstate 26 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
Interstate 526
U S  Route 17
U S  Route 52 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
U S  Route 78 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
State Highway 7 (Sam Rittenberg Boulevard)
State Highway 30 (James Island Expressway)
State Highway 61 (St  Andrews Boulevard/Ashley River Road)
State Highway 171 (Old Towne Road/Folly Road)
State Highway 461 (Paul Cantrell Boulevard/Glenn McConnell Parkway)
South Carolina Highway 700 (Maybank Highway)

Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge
The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge across the Cooper River opened on July 16, 2005, and was the longest cable-stayed bridge in the Americas at the time of its construction  The bridge links downtown Charleston with Mount Pleasant, and has eight lanes plus a 12-foot lane shared by pedestrians and bicycles  The height of the bridge varies, but it is estimated that it has a height of 573 feet  It replaced the Grace Memorial Bridge (built in 1929) and the Silas N  Pearman Bridge (built in 1966)  They were considered two of the more dangerous bridges in America and were demolished after the Ravenel Bridge opened 

City bus service
The city is also served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA)  Most of the urban area is served by regional fixed route buses, which are equipped with bike racks as part of the system's Rack and Ride program  CARTA offers connectivity to historic downtown attractions and accommodations with the Downtown Area Shuttle trolley buses, and it offers curbside pickup for disabled passengers with its Tel-A-Ride buses  A bus rapid transit system is in development, called Lowcountry Rapid Transit that will connect Charleston to Summerville through North Charleston 
Rural parts of the city and metropolitan area are served by a different bus system, operated by Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Rural Transportation Management Association  The system is also commonly called the TriCounty Link 

Port
The Port of Charleston, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, is one of the largest ports in the United States, ranked seventh in the top 25 by containerized cargo volume in 2018  It consists of six terminals, with the sixth having opened in April 2021  Port activity at the two terminals located in the city of Charleston is one of the city's leading sources of revenue, behind tourism 
Today, the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal  A harbor-deepening project is currently underway to take the Port of Charleston's entrance channel to 54 feet and harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide  With an average high tide of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and 58 feet, respectively 
Part of Union Pier Treminal, in the city of Charleston, is a cruise ship passenger terminal which hosted numerous cruise departures annually through 2019  Beginning in May 2019, until cruise operations were interrupted in April 2020, the Carnival Sunshine was permanently stationed in Charleston, offering 4, 5, and 7-day cruises to the Caribbean With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc  signed a long-term lease  With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc  is one of the largest commercial marine repair facilities on the East Coast  Projects include military, commercial, and cruise ships 

Schools, colleges, and universities
Because most of the city of Charleston is located in Charleston County, it is served by the Charleston County School District  Part of the city, however, is served by the Berkeley County School District in northern portions of the city, such as the Cainhoy Industrial District, Cainhoy Historical District and Daniel Island 
Charleston is also served by a large number of independent schools, including Porter-Gaud School (K-12), Charleston Collegiate School (K-12), Ashley Hall (Pre K-12), Charleston Day School (K-8), First Baptist Church School (K-12), Palmetto Christian Academy (K-12), Coastal Christian Preparatory School (K-12), Mason Preparatory School (K-8), and Addlestone Hebrew Academy (K-8) 
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston Office of Education also operates out of the city and oversees several K-8 parochial schools, such as Blessed Sacrament School, Christ Our King School, Charleston Catholic School, Nativity School, and Divine Redeemer School, all of which are "feeder" schools into Bishop England High School, a diocesan high school within the city  Bishop England, Porter-Gaud School, and Ashley Hall are the city's oldest and most prominent private schools, and are a significant part of Charleston history, dating back some 150 years 
Public institutions of higher education in Charleston include the College of Charleston, The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, and the Medical University of South Carolina  The city is also home to private schools including the Charleston Southern University and Charleston School of Law  Charleston is also home to the Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing, and the city has a downtown satellite campus for the region's technical school, Trident Technical College  Charleston has the only college in the country that offers bachelor's degrees in the building arts, The American College of the Building Arts 

Media
Broadcast television
Charleston is the nation's 89th-largest Designated market area (DMA), with 332,770 households and 0 27% of the U S  TV population  These stations are licensed in Charleston and have significant operations or viewers in the city:
WCBD-TV (2, NBC) and (14, CW)
WGWG (4, MeTV)
WCSC-TV (5, CBS, Bounce TV, Grit)
WITV (7, PBS)
WLCN-CD (18, CTN)
WTAT-TV (24, Fox)
WAZS-CD (29, Azteca America Independent)
WJNI-CD (31, America One Independent)
WCIV (36, MyNetworkTV, ABC)

Notable people
As a population and wealth center with colleges and cultural outlets, Charleston has produced many notable people in all fields  Among the most notable historical and contemporary figures are:

Jarrell Brantley (born 1996), basketball player
Madelyn Cline, Actress in Outer Banks
Stephen Colbert, comedian and host of The Late Show
Wesley Donehue, political strategist, Internet consultant, CEO
Ann Drayton, 18th-century landowner
Shepard Fairey, graffiti artist
Robert F  Furchgott, recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1998)
Thomas Gibson, actor and star of Criminal Minds
Fritz Hollings, former US Senator and Governor of South Carolina
Lauren Hutton, model and actress, starring in American Gigolo and The Gambler (1974)
Robert Jordan (James Oliver Rigney Jr ), fantasy author, notable for Wheel of Time series
John Laurens, American revolutionary lieutenant colonel in the continental army
Peter Manigault, wealthiest person in British North America in 1770
Khris Middleton, NBA basketball player for the Milwaukee Bucks, gold medal Olympian
Darius Rucker, country music artist, former member of Hootie & The Blowfish
Robert Smalls, African American civil war hero, businessman, politician, and civil rights activist
Denmark Vesey, revolutionary
Joseph Wragg, a pioneer of the large-scale slave trade

Sister cities
Charleston's sister cities are:
Doha, Qatar
Freetown, Sierra Leone
Panama City, Panama
Speightstown, Barbados
Spoleto, ItalyThe relationship with Spoleto began when Pulitzer Prize-winning Italian composer Gian Carlo Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto's annual Festival of Two Worlds  "Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location  The historic city provided a perfect fit: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure "Sister city relation with Panama City was described as follows:
As you may be aware, the city of Charleston, like the city of Panama City, is a historic port City that shares a proud and prosperous history  Our stories are very similar as reflected by our citizens of European, African, Caribbean, native descent, our cuisine, our architecture, and our mutual modern growth in meritime commerce  As Panama City is enjoying a global surge of interest so is Charleston, being ranked as a top destination for travellers, commerce, technology, education, culture and fashion 
Charleston is also twinned with Speightstown  The first colonists to settle in the region designed the original parts of Charlestown based on the plans of Barbados's capital city, Bridgetown  Many indigo, tobacco, and cotton planters relocated their slaves and plantation operations from Speightstown to Charleston after the sugarcane industry came to dominate agricultural production in Barbados 

See also
List of municipalities in South Carolina
USS Charleston, 6 ships

Notes
Passage 4:
Fairhope Plantation
Fairhope Plantation is a historic Carpenter Gothic plantation house and historic district, located one mile east of Uniontown, Alabama, US  The 2+1⁄2-story wood-framed main house was built in the Gothic Revival style in the late 1850s   The plantation historic district includes six other contributing buildings, in addition to the main house   It was added to the Alabama Register of Landmarks and Heritage on December 19, 1991, and subsequently to the National Register of Historic Places on May 29, 1992, due to its architectural and historical significance 

History
Fairhope Plantation was built for Joseph Selden, a native of Virginia   He was born on June 4, 1831, and grew up at Westover Plantation in Charles City County, Virginia   Selden married Elizabeth Collier Minge, of Weynoke Plantation, Virginia, near Faunsdale, in 1854  Elizabeth was born on May 30, 1833  Her family was also originally from Charles City County   Joseph and Elizabeth established Fairhope on property given to them by Elizabeth's family   The main house was built by Theophilus Gilliam Fowler, a local builder  Construction began in 1857 and was completed by 1861   The 1860 United States Census of Perry County indicates that Joseph Selden owned 80 slaves in that year   Selden organized Selden's Battery, an artillery unit, at his own expense during the American Civil War   The unit saw action in several major engagements, including the battles of Kennesaw Mountain, Franklin and Nashville   Elizabeth Selden died following childbirth in 1868, Joseph died in a hotel fire in 1900   Fairhope continued to be owned by Selden descendants and operated as a farm for another century after their deaths 

Architecture
The inspiration for the main house at Fairhope Plantation is thought by architectural historians to be an enlarged adaptation of a design by Alexander Jackson Davis, published in Andrew Jackson Downing's Cottage Residences in 1842   The house features numerous Gothic Revival details, including intricate bargeboards on the eaves and gables,  hood moldings over the doors and windows, octagonal brick chimneys, and central gables topped by finials on all four sides   Additionally, it has a one-story cast-iron veranda around three sides of the ground floor   It is one of only about twenty Gothic Revival residential structures remaining in Alabama   Other historic Gothic Revival residences in the area include Waldwic in Gallion and Ashe Cottage in Demopolis 
Passage 5:
Union Oyster House
Union Oyster House, open to diners since 1826, is amongst the oldest operating restaurants in the United States, and the oldest known that has been continuously operating since being opened  The building was listed as a National Historic Landmark on May 27, 2003 

History
The building itself was built prior to 1714, most likely in 1704  Before it became a restaurant, Hopestill Capen's dress goods business occupied the property  In 1771 printer Isaiah Thomas published his newspaper, The Massachusetts Spy, from the second floor  The restaurant originally opened as the Atwood & Bacon Oyster House on August 3, 1826 The Union Oyster House has had a number of famous people in history as diners, including the Kennedy family and Daniel Webster  Webster was known for regularly consuming at least six plates of oysters  Perhaps most surprisingly, in 1796 Louis Philippe, King of the French from 1830 to 1848, lived in exile on the second floor  He earned his living by teaching French to young women  Labor economist and president of Haverford College John Royston Coleman worked here incognito as a "salad-and-sandwich man" for a time in the 1970s and documented the experience in his book The Blue Collar Journal The menu is traditional New England fare, including seafoods such as oysters, clams, and lobsters, as well as poultry, baked beans, steak and chops 

Image gallery
See also
List of the oldest restaurants in the United States
Cuisine of New England
List of National Historic Landmarks in Boston
List of seafood restaurants
National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts



ground_truth: College of Charles Towne

Charles Towne

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What award did the author of The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden receive?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: S  Senator Sam Nunn, won the Democratic nomination  Other declared Democratic candidates included former State Senator Steen Miles, psychiatrist Branko Radulovacki, and former US Army Ranger Todd Robinson  Amanda Swafford, a former Flowery Branch, Georgia, city councilwoman, received the Libertarian Party of Georgia nomination 

Hawaii (special)
Daniel Inouye, the second longest serving United States Senator in U S  history, died on December 17, 2012, after respiratory complications  Hawaii law allows the Governor of Hawaii, to appoint an interim Senator "who serves until the next regularly-scheduled general election, chosen from a list of three prospective appointees that the prior incumbent's political party submits"  Governor Neil Abercrombie did so, selecting Lieutenant Governor Brian Schatz to fill the Senate seat  Inouye had been re-elected in 2010 with 72% of the vote  Schatz was challenged in the Democratic primary by Congresswoman Colleen Hanabusa of Hawaii's 1st congressional district, who Inouye had hoped would be his successor  Schatz defeated Hanabusa in the primary with 48 5% to 47 8% Campbell Cavasso, former State Representative and nominee for the U S  Senate in 2004 and 2010, was the Republican nominee 

Idaho
One-term incumbent Republican Jim Risch had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Risch sought a second term Boise attorney Nels Mitchell was the Democratic nominee 

Illinois
Three-term incumbent and Senate Majority Whip Democrat Dick Durbin had been re-elected with 68% of the vote in 2008  Durbin ran for a fourth term State Senator Jim Oberweis was the Republican nominee  He defeated primary challenger Doug Truax with 56% of the vote 

Iowa
Five-term incumbent Democrat Tom Harkin had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Harkin announced on January 26, 2013, that he would not seek a sixth term  Congressman Bruce Braley was the Democratic nominee State Senator Joni Ernst was the Republican nominee Doug Butzier, who was the Libertarian Party's nominee, died in a plane crash on October 13, 2014, but still appeared on the ballot 

Kansas
Three-term incumbent Republican Pat Roberts had been re-elected with 60% of the vote in 2008  Roberts sought a fourth term  He faced a primary challenge from radiologist Milton Wolf, a conservative Tea Party supporter  Roberts defeated Wolf in the Republican primary by 48% to 41%  Shawnee County District Attorney Chad Taylor won the Democratic nomination  Randall Batson from Wichita was on the general election ballot as a Libertarian  Also, Greg Orman qualified for the ballot as an independent On September 3, Taylor announced he was dropping out of the election, leading to speculation that Democrats would support Orman's candidacy  On September 18, the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Taylor's name had to be removed from the ballot 

Kentucky
Five-term Republican incumbent and Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell had been re-elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  McConnell sought re-election to a sixth term  McConnell defeated businessman Matt Bevin in the Republican primary on May 20 Kentucky Secretary of State Alison Lundergan Grimes, with support from much of Kentucky's Democratic leadership, won the Democratic primary  Actress Ashley Judd publicly claimed to be considering a run for the Democratic nomination, but ultimately decided against it Ed Marksberry pursued an independent bid after dropping out of the Democratic field in September 2013 

Louisiana
Three-term incumbent Democrat Mary Landrieu had been re-elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Landrieu ran for a fourth term Louisiana uses a unique jungle primary system that eschews primaries in favor of run-off elections between the top two candidates; this run-off can be avoided if the winning candidate receives over 50% of the vote  Democrats Wayne Ables, Vallian Senegal, and William Waymire ran against Landrieu in the election, as did Republicans Bill Cassidy (representative of Louisiana's 6th congressional district), Thomas Clements (small business owner), and retired Air Force Colonel Rob Maness  Electrical Engineer Brannon McMorris ran as a Libertarian Because Republican candidate Maness took almost 14% of the votes in the primary, there was a runoff election on December 6, 2014, between Landrieu (42%) and Cassidy (41%)  Cassidy won the runoff with 56% of the vote 

Maine
Three-term incumbent Republican Susan Collins was seeking a fourth term  Shenna Bellows, former executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Maine, was the Democratic nominee 

Massachusetts
Five-term incumbent and 2004 Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry had been re-elected with 66% of the vote in 2008  Kerry resigned in early 2013 to become U S  Secretary of State  Governor Deval Patrick appointed Democrat Mo Cowan to the seat  Democratic Congressman Ed Markey beat Republican Gabriel E  Gomez in the June 25, 2013 special election by a 55% to 45% margin  Markey had served the remainder of Kerry's term before running for re-election to a first full term in 2014  Hopkinton Town Selectman Brian Herr was the Republican nominee 

Michigan
Six-term incumbent Senator and Chairman of the Armed Services Committee Democrat Carl Levin, the longest-serving senator in Michigan's history, had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Levin announced on March 7, 2013, that he would not seek re-election 
Three term Democratic Representative Gary Peters of MI-14 was the Democratic nominee  He defeated Republican former Secretary of State Terri Lynn Land who was unopposed for the Republican nomination 

Minnesota
One-term incumbent Democrat Al Franken unseated one-term Republican Norm Coleman by 312 votes in a contested three-way race with 42% of the vote in 2008; the third candidate in the race, former Senator Dean Barkley of the Independence Party of Minnesota, won 15% of the vote  Franken sought re-election  State Representative Jim Abeler, St  Louis County Commissioner Chris Dahlberg, co-CEO of Lazard Middle Market Mike McFadden, bison farmer and former hair salon owner Monti Moreno, state Senator Julianne Ortman, and U S  Navy reservist Phillip Parrish ran for the Republican nomination  McFadden won the Republican primary and was the Republican nominee in the general election Hannah Nicollet of the Independence Party of Minnesota also ran 

Mississippi
Six-term incumbent Republican Thad Cochran, re-elected with 62% of the vote in 2008, ran for re-election  Cochran was the last incumbent Senator to declare his plans, leading to widespread speculation that he might announce his retirement Tea Party candidate Chris McDaniel, a conservative Mississippi state senator, ran against Cochran in the Republican primary  Neither McDaniel nor Cochran was able to get 50% of the vote in the first round of the primary, so a runoff election was held June 24  Cochran won the runoff election by 51% to 49%, with the help of Democratic voters eligible to vote in the state's open primaries who chose Cochran as their preferred Republican  McDaniel filed a lawsuit to challenge the results of the run-off, but the challenge was rejected on appeal by the Supreme Court of Mississippi Former Congressman Travis Childers was the Democratic nominee 

Montana
Six-term incumbent Democrat Max Baucus, the longest-serving senator in Montana's history, had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Baucus announced on April 23, 2013, that he would retire in 2014, rather than seek re-election to a seventh term  Baucus was appointed as the United States Ambassador to China, leading him to resign from the Senate in February 2014 Following Baucus's confirmation as ambassador, Governor Steve Bullock appointed the Lieutenant Governor John Walsh to fill the vacant senate seat  Former Lieutenant Governor John Bohlinger was defeated by Walsh in the Democratic primary  Amid controversy over alleged plagiarism in a 2007 research paper, Walsh pulled out of the race  The Montana Democratic Party held a special nominating convention on August 16 to choose a replacement for Walsh  First-term State Representative Amanda Curtis won the nomination, thereby becoming the new Democratic nominee Congressman Steve Daines won the Republican nomination over state Representative Champ Edmunds of Missoula and David Leaser of Kalispell 

Nebraska
One-term incumbent Republican Mike Johanns had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  He did not seek a second term  Term limited Republican Governor Dave Heineman considered running for the Republican nomination, but ultimately decided not to do so  Former state Treasurer Shane Osborn, attorney Bart McLeay, banker Sid Dinsdale, and Midland University President Ben Sasse ran for the Republican nomination  In the May 13 primary, Sasse won the Republican nomination 
Trial lawyer David Domina was the Democratic nominee 

New Hampshire
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeanne Shaheen had been elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Shaheen ran for re-election  Shaheen defeated Republican nominee Scott Brown, who had represented neighboring Massachusetts in the Senate from 2010 to 2013 

New Jersey
Incumbent Democrat Frank Lautenberg had been re-elected with 56% of the vote in 2008  After announcing he would not seek re-election, Lautenberg died in June 2013, aged 89, after a long period of ill health Newark Mayor Cory Booker, a Democrat, defeated Republican nominee Steve Lonegan by 55%-to-45% in a 2013 special election to replace interim Republican appointee Jeffrey Chiesa  Booker ran for re-election to a full term in 2014  1978 and 1982 Republican candidate and political operative Jeff Bell was the Republican nominee 

New Mexico
One-term incumbent Democrat Tom Udall had been elected with 61% of the vote in 2008  Former Doña Ana County Republican Party Chairman David Clements and former New Mexico Republican Party Chairman Allen Weh sought the Republican nomination  Weh won the June 3 primary but lost to Udall in the general election 

North Carolina
One-term incumbent Democrat Kay Hagan had been elected with 53% of the vote against incumbent Republican Elizabeth Dole in 2008  Hagan was seeking re-election State House Speaker Thom Tillis was the Republican nominee  Sean Haugh won the Libertarian nomination 

Oklahoma
There were 2 elections in Oklahoma, due to the resignation of Tom Coburn 

Oklahoma (regular)
Three-term incumbent Republican Jim Inhofe had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008  Inhofe sought re-election  Matt Silverstein, an insurance agency owner, ran for the Democratic nomination 

Oklahoma (special)
Two-term incumbent Republican Tom Coburn had been re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2010, and was not scheduled to be up for election again until 2016  However, Coburn announced his intention to resign at the end of the 113th Congress  A special election to fill his seat took place in November 2014, concurrent with the other Senate elections  Congressman James Lankford was the Republican nominee  State Senator Connie Johnson was the Democratic nominee 

Oregon
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeff Merkley was narrowly elected with 49% of the vote in 2008  Merkley was running for a second term  State representative Jason Conger, attorney Tim Crawley, IT consultant Mark Callahan, neurosurgeon Dr  Monica Wehby, and former Linn County Republican Chair Jo Rae Perkins all ran for the Republican nomination, with Wehby ultimately winning the nomination in the May 20 primary 

Rhode Island
Three-term incumbent Democrat Jack Reed had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Reed defeated Republican nominee Mark Zaccaria in the 2014 election 

South Carolina
There were 2 elections in South Carolina, due to the resignation of Jim DeMint 

South Carolina (regular)
Two-term Republican Lindsey Graham had been re-elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Graham won the Republican nomination over a field that included state senator Lee Bright  State Senator Brad Hutto won the Democratic nomination 

South Carolina (special)
Jim DeMint had been elected to a second term in 2010, but resigned from the Senate in January 2013 to become president of The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank  Governor Nikki Haley appointed Congressman Tim Scott as DeMint's replacement  Scott, an African-American, was the Republican nominee to serve out the remainder of DeMint's term  Scott is the first African-American Republican since shortly after Reconstruction to represent a Southern state  Richland County Councilwoman Joyce Dickerson won the Democratic nomination 

South Dakota
Three-term incumbent Democrat Tim Johnson had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Johnson announced on March 26, 2013, that he would not run for re-election  Former Congressional aide Rick Weiland was the Democratic nominee Among Republicans, former two-term Governor Mike Rounds announced his candidacy for the GOP nomination on November 29, 2012  Rounds won the Republican nomination over state senator Larry Rhoden, state representative Stace Nelson, and physician Annette Bosworth Former Republican U S  Senator Larry Pressler and Republican State Senator Gordon Howie ran as independents  Pressler did not commit to caucusing with either party, while Howie said he would caucus with the Senate Republicans 

Tennessee
Two-term incumbent Republican Lamar Alexander had been re-elected with 65% of the vote in 2008  Alexander sought re-election to a third term  On August 7, 2014, Alexander won the Republican nomination over six challengers, including State Representative Joe Carr On November 4, 2014, Alexander faced Democratic nominee Gordon Ball, Libertarian Party nominee Joshua James, Constitution Party nominee Joe Wilmothm, and independent Danny Page also ran in the general election 

Texas
Two-term incumbent Republican John Cornyn, the Senate Minority Whip, had been re-elected with 55% of the vote in 2008  Cornyn sought re-election, and won the 2014 Republican primary with 59% of the vote  David Alameel, a dentist, and Kesha Rogers, a volunteer for The Lyndon LaRouche Policy Institute, faced each other in a run-off election for the Democratic nomination  Alameel won the run-off and was the Democratic nominee 

Virginia
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Warner had been elected with 65% of the vote in 2008; he sought re-election  Ed Gillespie, former RNC Chairman and presidential adviser, ran for the Republican nomination  Robert Sarvis, the Libertarian nominee for Governor in 2013, also ran 

West Virginia
Five-term incumbent Democrat Jay Rockefeller had been re-elected with 64% of the vote in 2008  He announced on January 11, 2013, that he would not seek re-election to a sixth term  Secretary of State Natalie Tennant won the Democratic nomination On November 26, 2012, Republican Congresswoman Shelley Moore Capito announced her plans to run for the seat, in hopes of becoming the first Republican Senator elected from West Virginia since 1956  Moore Capito won the Republican nomination and the general election, the first woman to serve as United States Senator from West Virginia 

Wyoming
Three-term incumbent Republican Mike Enzi had been re-elected with 76% of the vote in 2008  Enzi sought re-election  Liz Cheney, daughter of former Vice President Dick Cheney, briefly entered the race for the Republican nomination, but dropped her bid in January 2014  On August 19, Enzi won the Republican primary election with 82% of the vote, and Democrat Charlie Hardy, a former Catholic priest, won his party's primary election with 48% of the vote 

See also
2014 United States elections
2014 United States gubernatorial elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
113th United States Congress
114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 8:
115th United States Congress
The 115th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States of America federal government, composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives  It met in Washington, D C , from January 3, 2017, to January 3, 2019, during the final weeks of Barack Obama's presidency and the first two years of Donald Trump's presidency  The seats in the House were apportioned based on the 2010 United States census The Republican Party retained their majority in both the House and the Senate, and, with inauguration of Donald Trump on January 20, 2017, attained an overall federal government trifecta for the first time since the 109th Congress in 2005 
Several political scientists described the legislative accomplishments of this Congress as modest, considering that both Congress and the presidency were under unified Republican Party control  According to a contemporary study, "House and Senate GOP majorities struggled to legislate: GOP fissures and the president frequently undermined the Republican agenda  Most notably, clashes within and between the two parties (for example, on healthcare issues) strained old ways of doing business "

Major events
January 5, 2017: House of Representatives condemned United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334 
January 6, 2017: Joint session counted and certified the electoral votes of the 2016 presidential election 
January 11–12, 2017: Senate, in an all-night session, took first steps to repeal the Affordable Care Act, (ACA)  The final vote was 51 to 48 to approve a budget resolution to allow "broad swaths of the Affordable Care Act to be repealed through a process known as budget reconciliation "
January 20, 2017: Donald Trump became 45th President of the United States
February 7, 2017: Vice President Mike Pence cast the tie-breaking vote to confirm Betsy DeVos as Secretary of Education  This was the first time in United States history that a cabinet confirmation was tied in the Senate and required a tie-breaking vote 
February 28, 2017: President Trump addressed a joint session of Congress 
April 6, 2017: Senate invoked the "nuclear option" to weaken Supreme Court filibusters  Nominee Neil Gorsuch was then confirmed the next day 
June 14, 2017: Majority Whip Steve Scalise and several staffers were shot during the Congressional baseball shooting  They were practicing for the annual Congressional Baseball Game 
September 1, 2017: The Parliamentarian of the United States Senate decreed that the Senate had until the end of the month to pass ACA repeal via the reconciliation process, or the option would no longer be viable 
October 24 – December 14, 2017: 2017 United States political sexual scandals from the "Me too" movement:
Allegations that Democratic Congressman Ruben Kihuen sexually harassed a campaign staffer led some in congressional leadership to call for his resignation  Kihuen later announced he would not seek another term in office 
Democratic senator Al Franken announced he would resign "in the coming weeks" after photographs were made public suggesting that he sexually assaulted (groped) a Los Angeles-based radio personality during a USO tour in Iraq in 2006  He was also accused by multiple female constituents of groping at various Minnesota fair appearances that he attended 
Three members of Congress either resigned or announced their impending resignations  (See "Changes in membership")
Allegations that President Donald Trump previously raped and sexually harassed at least nineteen women, one girl, and Miss Teen USA contestants resulted in calls by members of Congress for him to resign 
Allegations that Republican Alabama Senate candidate Roy Moore previously raped and sexually harassed at least eight women and one girl contributed to his defeat by Democrat Doug Jones in a special Senate election to replace Attorney General Jeff Sessions 
Allegations that House member Blake Farenthold sexually harassed a former staffer resulted in the commencement of an investigation by the House Ethics Committee and his announcement he would not seek re-election in 2018  He subsequently resigned on April 6, 2018 
January 20–22, 2018: United States federal government shutdown of January 2018
January 30, 2018: 2018 State of the Union Address
February 9, 2018: United States federal government funding gap
October 6, 2018: Senate confirms Brett Kavanaugh's nomination to the U S  Supreme Court 
November 28, 2018: Senate discharges from committee and calendars S J Res  54, bill that ends US intervention in the Yemeni Civil War 
December 22, 2018 – January 25, 2019: 2018–19 United States federal government shutdown

Major legislation
Enacted
January 31, 2017: GAO Access and Oversight Act of 2017, Pub L  115-3
February 28, 2017: Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act, Pub L  115-6
February 28, 2017: INSPIRE Women Act, Pub L  115-7
March 28, 2017: Vietnam War Veterans Recognition Act of 2017, Pub L  115-15
April 18, 2017: Weather Research and Forecasting Innovation Act of 2017, Pub L  115-25
May 5, 2017: Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2017, H R  244, Pub  L  115–31 (text) (PDF)
August 2, 2017: Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, H R  3364, Pub  L  115–44 (text) (PDF)
November 2, 2017: Strengthening State and Local Cyber Crime Fighting Act of 2017, Pub L  115-76
December 12, 2017: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2018, H R  2810, Pub  L  115–91 (text) (PDF)
December 22, 2017: Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, H R  1, Pub  L  115–97 (text) (PDF)
February 9, 2018: Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018, H R  1892, Pub  L  115–123 (text) (PDF)
February 14, 2018: Protecting Young Victims from Sexual Abuse and Safe Sport Authorization Act of 2017, Pub L  115-126
March 16, 2018: Taiwan Travel Act, H R  535, Pub  L  115–135 (text) (PDF)
March 23, 2018: Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2018 (including the CLOUD Act), H R  1625, Pub  L  115–141 (text) (PDF)
April 11, 2018: Stop Enabling Sex Traffickers Act, H R  1865, Pub  L  115–164 (text) (PDF)
May 9, 2018: Justice for Uncompensated Survivors Today (JUST) Act, Pub L  115-171
May 24, 2018: Economic Growth, Regulatory Relief and Consumer Protection Act, S  2155, Pub  L  115–174 (text) (PDF)
May 30, 2018: Trickett Wendler, Frank Mongiello, Jordan McLinn, and Matthew Bellina Right to Try Act of 2017, S  204, Pub  L  115–176 (text) (PDF)
August 13, 2018: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, H R  5515, Pub  L  115–232 (text) (PDF)
October 5, 2018: FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018, H R  302, Pub  L  115–254 (text) (PDF)
October 9, 2018: Marrakesh Treaty Implementation Act, Pub L  115-261
October 11, 2018: Music Modernization Act, H R  1551, Pub  L  115–264 (text) (PDF)
October 23, 2018: America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018, S  3021, Pub  L  115–270 (text) (PDF)
October 24, 2018: SUPPORT for Patients and Communities Act, H R  6, Pub  L  115–271 (text) (PDF)
November 16, 2018: Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency Act, H R  3359, Pub  L  115–278 (text) (PDF)
December 7, 2018: Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018, Pub L  115-299
December 11, 2018: Iraq and Syria Genocide Relief and Accountability Act of 2018, Pub L  115-300
December 20, 2018: Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018, H R  2, Pub  L  115–334 (text) (PDF)
December 21, 2018: National Quantum Initiative Act, Pub L  115-368
December 21, 2018: FIRST STEP Act, S  756, Pub  L  115–391 (text) (PDF)
January 14, 2019: Foundations for Evidence-Based Policymaking Act of 2018, Pub L  115-435
January 14, 2019: Elie Wiesel Genocide and Atrocities Prevention Act of 2018, Pub L  115-441

Proposed
May 4, 2017: American Health Care Act (H R  1628), passed House May 4, 2017
June 8, 2017: Financial CHOICE Act (H R  10), passed House June 8, 2017

Party summary
Resignations and new members are discussed in the "Changes in membership" section, below 

Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Section contents: Senate: Majority (R), Minority (D) • House: Majority (R),  Minority (D)

Senate
President: Joe Biden (D), until January 20, 2017
Mike Pence (R), from January 20, 2017
President pro tempore: Orrin Hatch (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Mitch McConnell
Majority Whip: John Cornyn
Republican Conference Chairman: John Thune
Republican Conference Vice Chairman: Roy Blunt
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Cory Gardner
Policy Committee Chairman: John Barrasso

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Chuck Schumer
Minority Whip: Dick Durbin
Assistant Minority Leader: Patty Murray
Chief Deputy Whip: Jeff Merkley
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Chuck Schumer
Policy Committee Chairwoman: Debbie Stabenow
Democratic Caucus Vice Chairs: Mark Warner and Elizabeth Warren
Democratic Caucus Secretary: Tammy Baldwin
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Chris Van Hollen
Policy Committee Vice Chairman: Joe Manchin
Steering Committee Chairwoman: Amy Klobuchar
Outreach Chair: Bernie Sanders

House of Representatives
Speaker: Paul Ryan (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Kevin McCarthy
Majority Whip: Steve Scalise
Republican Conference Chairman: Cathy McMorris Rodgers
Republican Conference Vice-Chairman: Doug Collins
Republican Conference Secretary: Jason T  Smith
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Steve Stivers
Policy Committee Chairman: Luke Messer

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Nancy Pelosi
Minority Whip: Steny Hoyer
Assistant Minority Leader: Jim Clyburn
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Joseph Crowley
Democratic Caucus Vice-Chairwoman: Linda Sánchez
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Ben Ray Luján
Steering and Policy Committee Co-Chairs: Rosa DeLauro and Eric Swalwell
Policy and Communications Chairmen: Cheri Bustos, David Cicilline, and Hakeem Jeffries

Demographics
Note: Demographics are accurate as of the commencement of the 115th Congress on January 3, 2017 
The average age of members of the House of Representatives during the 115th Congress was 57 8 years, while the average age of U S  senators was 61 8 years 
The most common occupation of senators prior to being elected to their posts was law, followed by public service/politics and business  In the House of Representatives, business was the dominant prior occupation, followed by public service/politics and law  In the 115th Congress, 94 1% of House members and 100% of senators had attained a bachelor's degree or a higher degree; this was a historically high level of education for a United States Congress  In addition, 167 members of the House and 55 members of the Senate had law degrees  Only 18 members of Congress had no college education Ethnic minorities in the 115th Congress consisted of 52 African American members, 45 Hispanic or Latino members, 18 Asian-American or Pacific Islander members, and two members of Native American ancestry  Women comprised 20 1% of the membership in the 115th Congress, which had 109 women and 326 men  This represented an increase of 21 women from the 114th Congress Seven openly LGBT members served in the 115th Congress  Tammy Baldwin, Jared Polis, Sean Patrick Maloney, Mark Takano, David Cicilline, and Mark Pocan are openly gay, while Kyrsten Sinema is openly bisexual The majority of the 115th Congress was religiously affiliated, with 90 7% identifying as Christians  Approximately half of the Christians were Protestant  Other religious faiths of congressmembers in the 115th Congress included Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism 

Members
Senate
The numbers refer to their Senate classes  All of the class 3 seats were contested in the November 2016 elections  Class 1 terms end with this Congress, requiring re-election in 2018; Class 2 began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 2020; and Class 3 began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 2022 

House of Representatives
All 435 seats were filled by the regular elections on November 8, 2016, or subsequent special elections thereafter 

Caucuses
Changes in membership
Senate
House of Representatives
Committees
Section contents: Senate, House, Joint

Senate
House of Representatives
Joint
Employees and legislative agency directors
Senate
Chaplain: Barry C  Black (Seventh-day Adventist)
Curator: Melinda Smith
Historian: Betty Koed
Librarian: Leona I  Faust
Parliamentarian: Elizabeth MacDonough
Secretary: Julie E  Adams
Sergeant at Arms: Frank J  Larkin, until April 16, 2018
Michael C  Stenger, starting April 16, 2018
Secretary for the Majority: Laura Dove
Secretary for the Minority: Gary B  Myrick

House of Representatives
Chaplain: Patrick J  Conroy (Roman Catholic)
Chief Administrative Officer: Phil Kiko
Clerk: Karen L  Haas
Historian: Matthew Wasniewski
Inspector General: Theresa M  Grafenstine then Michael Ptasienski
Parliamentarian: Thomas J  Wickham Jr 
Reading Clerks: Susan Cole and Joseph Novotny
Sergeant at Arms: Paul D  Irving

Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Stephen T  Ayers, until November 25, 2018
Christine A  Merdon (acting), starting November 25, 2018
Attending Physician of the United States Congress: Brian P  Monahan
Comptroller General of the United States: Eugene Louis Dodaro
Director of the Congressional Budget Office: Keith Hall
Librarian of Congress: Carla Diane Hayden
Public Printer of the United States: Jim Bradley

See also
Elections
2016 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
2016 United States presidential election
2016 United States Senate elections
2016 United States House of Representatives elections
2018 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
2018 United States Senate elections
2018 United States House of Representatives elections

Membership lists
List of new members of the 115th United States Congress

Notes



ground_truth: Pulitzer Prize for Drama