prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In what year did Margaret Knox's spouse pass away?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Miller Township, Knox County, Ohio
Miller Township is one of the twenty-two townships of Knox County, Ohio, United States   The 2010 census found 1,006 people in the township 

Geography
Located in the southern part of the county, it borders the following townships:

Clinton Township - north
Pleasant Township - northeast
Morgan Township - east
Burlington Township, Licking County - south
Bennington Township, Licking County - southwest corner
Milford Township - west
Liberty Township - northwest cornerNo municipalities are located in Miller Township 

Name and history
Miller Township was named for James Miller, a pioneer settler who gave elections officials five and one half gallons of whiskey to secure the honor   It is the only Miller Township statewide Miller Township was originally built up chiefly by settlers from Vermont and Rhode Island 

Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1  Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it  There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election  Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees 
Passage 2:
Margaret McWade
Margaret McWade (born Margaret May Fish; September 3, 1871 –  April 1, 1956) was an American stage and film actress  She began her career in vaudeville in the early 1890s  Her most memorable role was as one of The Pixilated Sisters, a comedic stage act with actress Margaret Seddon  Later in 1936, they reprised their roles in the movie Mr  Deeds Goes to Town 

Biography
Margaret May Fish was born September 3, 1871, in Chicago, Illinois, the eldest of three daughters  A number of short biographies state that Fish was born in 1872; however, the 1900 U S  Census reports her birth in 1871 

Career
During her early career, Margaret May Fish went by the stage name Margaret May  In the late 1890s, while performing in vaudeville, she met fellow actress Margaret Seddon  The two actresses teamed to create a stage act known as The Pixillated Sisters  The act proved to be a hit for the duo  Years later, they would reprise The Pixilated Sisters in the 1936 movie Mr  Deeds Goes to Town 
On September 4, 1897, Margaret married actor Edward McWade  Margaret and her husband appeared in a number of stage performances together in Boston and New York before their marriage  Their earliest stage appearance together was in March 1892 in Boston  They were cast as supporting characters in County Fair at the Whitney Opera House  Until late 1919, Margaret continued to use her stage name Margaret May Margaret McWade made her screen debut in the 1914 silent film The Drama of Heyville, starring Marc McDermott and directed by Ashley Miller  She was under contract to the Edison Film Company and was later picked up by the Vitagraph Film Company  She acted in a total of 59 films from 1914 to 1954 Between films, she was a prolific stage actress, touring the U S  with various theatrical companies  Margaret also toured in theater shows with her husband Edward, several which he wrote  In April 1901, Edward McWade wrote and produced the play Winchester at the American Theater in New York  The play was based upon an event during the Civil War  Edward McWade wrote a supporting role for his wife  In 1902, he wrote the play The Land of Mystery, a romantic drama in which Margaret also had a role In 1922, Margaret was cast in the movie The Blot, produced and directed by Lois Weber  The Blot is considered by many critics to be Weber's greatest film  McWade played Mrs  Griggs, and she is described in reviews as the, "old mother hubbard, shouldering most of the burden for the penny pinching family " The movie received critical acclaim, which paved the way for more acting roles  McWade most often was described as playing the mother, aunt, older sister, spinster, and later in her career, the grandmother  In the Louisiana newspaper Monroe Morning World on June 5, 1938, she is described physically as "the one with the angular face and black hair" In 1935, producers approached both McWade and Seddon and asked them to reprise their roles as The Pixilated Sisters for the 1936 movie Mr  Deeds Goes to Town, starring Gary Cooper and directed by Frank Capra  In the film, the two actresses play sisters who believe that Cooper's character is "pixilated"  Reprising these characters set off a brief firestorm of stage and film performances for the duo  In The Corsicana Daily Sun, McWade is quoted regarding having played the Pixilated Sisters in the movie: "it's a one chance in a million, like something out of a book  It's not hard to understand  It wasn't we who clicked individually or even collectively  It was a grand part  If you recall, we turned the tide by our testimony in favor of Gary Cooper at an insanity hearing  He was a beloved character, and by helping him we helped ourselves "The two actresses teamed for a variety of films throughout the late 1930s and into the 1940s, often playing spinster sisters in comedic roles written for them, such as One Man's Bonus  After 1936, they often were billed in newspapers and posters as those "beloved Pixilated Sisters" 

Later years and death
Two years after performing in her last movie, Margaret McWade died on April 1, 1956, in Los Angeles at the age of 83  She was buried in her hometown of Chicago, Illinois in Rosehill Cemetery 

Stage performances
1892: The County Fair  The Whitney Opera House; Boston, MA; ** Edward McWade in production 
1893: Comic Stage Sketches  Boston, MA; **Edward McWade in production 
1901: Winchester  The American Theater, New York; Written by Edward McWade 
1902: The Land of Mystery  New York Theater Company; New York; Written by husband Edward McWade 
1912: Robert A  Hudson Theater; San Francisco, CA; New York Stage Production Company 
1925: The Painted Lady The William Fox Players  Touring theatrical show  Bar Harbor Maine 

Partial filmography
Passage 3:
Peggy Wehmeyer
Margaret "Peggy" Wehmeyer is an American journalist and op-ed writer contributing to The New York Times, Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, and The Dallas Morning News  She also served for seven years as the religion correspondent on the ABC News television network, before becoming the host and managing editor of The World Vision Report Wehmeyer was born in Oklahoma City and was raised mostly in Barbados and Texas  An ethnic German Jew, she is religiously Christian   She is a graduate of the University of Texas in Austin  As a young woman, Wehmeyer worked and studied at Dallas Theological Seminary  In 1994, she was hired by ABC News, with the strong support of Peter Jennings, to become the first full-time religion correspondent on a national news network where she served for seven years   20/20 and Good Morning America also aired her stories  Prior to her job at ABC, she worked at WFAA-TV in Dallas on the station's religion beat In 2002, she left ABC to become the host and managing editor of the World Vision Report, a public radio broadcast funded by the World Vision charitable organization  As host of The World Vision Report, Peggy reported on global stories about justice and poverty  She has received multiple awards including two Cine Golden Eagle Awards, the Columbus International Film and Video Festival Award and a New York Festivals award 

Personal life
Wehmeyer has two adult daughters, Hannah Woods Buchannan (Assoc  Pastor, HPUMC) and Lauren Woods Meyer (Federal Public Defender)  Her marriage to Mark Woods lasted until his death in 2008 
Passage 4:
Thundering Caravans
Thundering Caravans is a 1952 American Western film directed by Harry Keller and starring Allan Lane, Mona Knox and Eddy Waller The film's art direction was by Frank Hotaling 

Plot
Cast
Allan Lane as Marshal Rocky Lane
Black Jack as Black Jack
Eddy Waller as Sheriff Nugget Clark
Mona Knox as Alice Scott
Roy Barcroft as Ed Brill
Isabel Randolph as Deborah Cranston
Richard Crane as Deputy Dan Reed
William Henry as Bert Cranston
Edward Clark as Printer Tom
Pierre Watkin as Head Marshal
Stanley Andrews as Henry Scott
Boyd 'Red' Morgan as Henchman Joe
Fred Aldrich as Townsman
Art Dillard as Henchman
Roy Engel as Frank
Marshall Reed as Wounded Driver
Tex Terry as Rogers
Dale Van Sickel as Cave Henchman
Passage 5:
Margaret Knox
Margaret Knox (née Stewart; 1547 – after 1612) was a Scottish noblewoman and the second wife of Scottish reformer John Knox, whom she married when she was 17 years old and he 54  The marriage caused consternation from Mary, Queen of Scots, as the couple had married without having obtained royal consent 

Family
Margaret Stewart was born in 1547, the daughter of Andrew Stewart, 2nd Lord Ochiltree, and Agnes Cunningham  The family was staunchly Protestant, and also related to the Scottish royal family and the Hamiltons  Margaret had three sisters and four brothers, including James Stewart, Earl of Arran 

Marriages and children
On 26 March 1564, she married her first husband, John Knox, leader of the Scottish Reformation, and a close friend of her father  His first wife, Marjorie Bowes, had died in December 1560, leaving him with two small sons, Nathaniel and Eleazer  The marriage was strongly criticised by Queen Mary, as they had married without having first obtained her consent  Margaret, as the Queen's relative, was required to ask the monarch for permission to marry 
The couple made their home on Edinburgh's Royal Mile, and together they had three daughters:
Martha Knox (1565–1592), married Alexander Fairlie, by whom she had issue 
Margaret Knox (b 1567), married Zachary Pont, by whom she had issue 
Elizabeth Knox (1570- January 1622), married in 1594, John Welsh, minister of Ayr, by whom she had issue Margaret served as Knox's secretary, and later, when he became ill, his nurse  Following Knox's death in November 1572, the General Assembly, at the suggestion of the Regent, Morton, allowed Margaret to receive, for the year succeeding her husband's death, his pension of 500 merks In January 1574, she married her second husband, Sir Andrew Ker of Faldonside  He had been part of the conspiracy of Protestant nobles, led in March 1566 by Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven, who had stabbed to death Queen Mary's Italian secretary, David Rizzio in the presence of the Queen, who was almost six months pregnant at the time  It was Ker who had held his pistol at Mary's side, while she was constrained to watch Rizzio's killing Together they had a number of children, one of which was named John Ker, minister of Salt Preston On 8 April 1574, a Charter of Alienation confirmed Ker's provision for Margaret, in her widowhood, of the liferent of a third of ancestral lands in Haddingtonshire  Kerr died on 19 December 1599, and she did not remarry 
Margaret died sometime after 1612 
Passage 6:
Blue Chip Conference
The Blue Chip Conference is a high school athletic conference in southwestern Indiana, United States  The conference's members are small A or AA high schools located in Daviess, Dubois, Gibson, Knox, and Martin counties  The BCC was founded in 1968, with Barr-Reeve, Bloomfield, Loogootee, North Daviess, North Knox, South Knox, and Springs Valley  Barr-Reeve had to wait until 1969 to be released from the Patoka Valley Conference to play in the league, and Loogootee also had to wait until 1970 to leave the Southwestern Indiana Conference  The conference grew to 11 schools in the mid-1970s, but for the most part has stabilized at nine schools since then with the only exception being the 6 year period between the addition of Wood Memorial in 2000 and loss of Forest Park in 2006 where the count was at 10 

Member schools
North Knox is a member of the Southwest Football Conference for football 
North Knox played in the Western Indiana Conference 1977-81, then played independently from 1981 to 1986 before rejoining the BCC 
Shoals played concurrently in the BCC and SWIAC from 1977 to 1979 

Former members
Bloomfield played concurrently in the BCC and SWIAC for its entire BCC duration 

Membership timeline
Conference championships
Football
Football was discontinued as a conference sport after the 1977-78 school year  Mitchell and Springs Valley would move to the Patoka Lake Conference one year later, and North Daviess would be an independent until joining the Southwest Seven Conference 

Boys basketball
Champions before 1993-94 season unverified 

Girls basketball
Champions before 2000-01 season unverified 

State titles
Barr-Reeve Vikings (3)
2013 Volleyball (A)
2015 Boys Basketball (A)
2018 Girls Volleyball (A)
2020 Girls Volleyball (AA)
2021 Boys Basketball (A)

Loogootee Lions (2)
2012 Boys Basketball (A)
2020 Girls Basketball (A)

North Knox Warriors (0)
Northeast Dubois Jeeps (0)
Shoals Jug Rox (0)
South Knox Spartans (0)
Vincennes Rivet Patriots (0)
1A Girls Basketball (2011)

Washington Catholic Cardinals (0)
Wood Memorial Trojans (1)
2017 Girls Basketball (A)

Runner-Up Titles, and State Finals Appearances
Barr-Reeve Vikings
1998 Boys Baseball   (A)
1998 Girls Volleyball(A)
2001 Girls Volleyball(A)
2002 Boys Basketball (A)
2007 Boys Basketball (A)
2008 Girls Volleyball(A)
2009 Girls Volleyball(A)
2010 Boys Basketball (A)
2014 Boys Basketball (A)
2015 Girls Basketball (A)
2016 Boys Cross Country - Single Class
2018 Girls Cross Country - Single Class
2019 Boys Basketball (A)

Wood Memorial Trojans
2007 Girls Basketball (A)

Loogootee Lions
2005 Boys Basketball  (A)
1975 Boys Basketball  (Pre-Class)
1970 Boys Basketball (Pre-Class)
2012 Girls Volleyball (A)
2007 Girls Volleyball (A)
2006 Girls Volleyball (A)
2005 Girls Volleyball (A)
2000 Girls Volleyball (A)
2021 Girls Basketball (A)
2020 Girls Volleyball (A)

Vincennes Rivet Patriots
2009 Girls Basketball (A)
2009 Boys Baseball (A)
2010 Girls Basketball (A)
2013 Boys Baseball (A)
2018 Girls Basketball (A)
2019 Girls Basketball (A)

Washington Catholic Cardinals
2005 Girls Basketball (A)

Former Member State Titles
Forest Park Rangers (3)
2001 Softball (A)
2005 Boys Basketball (2A)
2006 Boys Basketball (2A)

Neighboring Conferences
Pocket Athletic Conference
Patoka Lake Conference
Passage 7:
Monroe City, Indiana
Monroe City is a town in Harrison Township, Knox County, Indiana, United States  The population was 545 at the 2010 census 
Monroe City was named for one of its founders, Monroe Alton 

Geography
Monroe City is located at 38°36′57″N 87°21′19″W (38 615891, -87 355232) According to the 2010 census, Monroe City has a total area of 0 27 square miles (0 70 km2), all land 

Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 545 people, 217 households, and 153 families living in the town  The population density was 2,018 5 inhabitants per square mile (779 3/km2)  There were 238 housing units at an average density of 881 5 per square mile (340 3/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 98 7% White, 0 6% African American, 0 2% Native American, and 0 6% from other races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 7% of the population 
There were 217 households, of which 37 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53 0% were married couples living together, 14 3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3 2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29 5% were non-families  29 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 51 and the average family size was 3 08 
The median age in the town was 32 8 years  28 8% of residents were under the age of 18; 8 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29% were from 25 to 44; 20 7% were from 45 to 64; and 13 2% were 65 years of age or older  The gender makeup of the town was 47 3% male and 52 7% female 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 548 people, 231 households, and 157 families living in the town  The population density was 2,039 4 inhabitants per square mile (787 4/km2)  There were 259 housing units at an average density of 963 9 per square mile (372 2/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 99 27% White, 0 18% African American, and 0 55% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 36% of the population 
There were 231 households, out of which 32 9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53 7% were married couples living together, 11 3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32 0% were non-families  31 2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 36 and the average family size was 2 94 
In the town, the population was spread out, with 24 6% under the age of 18, 8 4% from 18 to 24, 26 8% from 25 to 44, 22 6% from 45 to 64, and 17 5% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 39 years  For every 100 females, there were 93 6 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90 3 males 
The median income for a household in the town was $32,788, and the median income for a family was $43,125  Males had a median income of $31,364 versus $18,269 for females  The per capita income for the town was $15,579  About 7 2% of families and 7 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9 0% of those under age 18 and 2 0% of those age 65 or over 
Passage 8:
Margaret Blair Young
Margaret Blair Young (born 1955) is an American author, filmmaker, and writing instructor who taught for thirty years at Brigham Young University 

Biography
Young's published work includes the novels House Without Walls (1991), Salvador (1992), and Heresies of Nature (2002) and the short story collections Elegies and Love Songs (1992) (which won an Association of Mormon Letters award) and Love Chains (1997)  She also co-authored a trilogy of historical novels about Black Mormon pioneers titled Standing on the Promises with Darius Gray   The trilogy, published between 2000 and 2003, was republished in revised and expanded form in 2012 and 2013 Young scripted and helped direct a 2005 television documentary based on the life of Jane Elizabeth Manning James, "Jane Manning James: Your Sister in the Gospel "  The 20-minute documentary has been shown at This Is The Place Heritage Park in Salt Lake City, Utah, the 2005 annual conference of the Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research (FAIR), and on public television (PBS)   Documentary filmmaker Scott Freebairn produced and directed the film   More recently, Young served as the project director for the Utah chapter of the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society's film The Wisdom of our Years   In 2008, Young and Gray completed a long documentary titled Nobody Knows: The Untold Story of Black Mormons, which has been shown on PBS stations, in film festivals, and on the Documentary Channel   Her award-winning play, I Am Jane, also about Black Mormon pioneer Jane Manning James, has been produced throughout the country  Young has also authored encyclopedia articles on Blacks in the western United States, and has served as president of the Association for Mormon Letters  In 2014 she received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Whitney Awards and the Smith-Pettit Foundation Award for Outstanding Contribution to Mormon Letters Young’s recent efforts have been directed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where she and her team are working to launch the film industry, which disappeared amidst the chaos of war and corruption in the 1990s   She has teamed up with Tshoper Kabambi, Deborah Basa, and Ephraim Faith on film initiatives   They work with Bimpa Production in Kinshasa, which is producing a film that Young has scripted and that Tshoper Kabambi is directing   Young is also working on literacy and educational projects, and is teaching students at various schools throughout the DR-Congo how to create their own books, given the relative lack of books in the Congo   In Lodja, DR-Congo, she works with Professor Abbé On'okundji Okavu Ekanga, author of Les Entrailles du Porc-épic: Une nouvelle éthique pour l’Afrique   Mr  Okundji returned to his home village in the Congo to help it recover from the Congo war of 1998-2004 
Young is married to English professor Bruce Wilson Young (1950- )  Bruce is a BYU, Columbia and Harvard graduate who has written multiple essays and the book Family Life in the Age of Shakespeare   They are the parents of four children, including vocal performer and music instructor Kaila Lifferth and writer Robbie Blair 

See also
LDS fiction
Passage 9:
Butler Township, Knox County, Ohio
Butler Township is one of the twenty-two townships of Knox County, Ohio, United States   The 2010 census found 1,171 people in the township 

Geography
Located in the eastern part of the county, it borders the following townships:

Union Township - north
Tiverton Township, Coshocton County - northeast corner
Newcastle Township, Coshocton County - east
Perry Township, Coshocton County - southeast corner
Jackson Township - south
Clay Township - southwest corner
Harrison Township - west
Howard Township - northwest cornerNo municipalities are located in Butler Township 

Name and history
Butler Township was organized in 1825 It is one of six Butler Townships statewide 

Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1  Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it  There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election  Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees 
Passage 10:
The Education of Shelby Knox
The Education of Shelby Knox is 2005 documentary film that tells the coming-of-age story of public speaker and feminist Shelby Knox, a teenager who joins a campaign for comprehensive sex education in the high schools of Lubbock, Texas  TEOSK was an official selection of the Sundance Film Festival in 2005 and aired on PBS’ P O V  series that same year  It was directed and produced by Marion Lipschutz and Rose Rosenblatt 

Overview
Lubbock has some of the highest teen pregnancy and STD rates in the nation, the "solution" to which is a strict abstinence-only sex education curriculum in the public schools and a conservative preacher who urges kids to pledge abstinence until marriage 
Shelby Knox is a deeply religious Southern Baptist teenager who joins the Lubbock Youth Commission, a group of high school students representing a youth voice in city government  When the teens confront Lubbock's sexual health crisis and campaign for comprehensive sex education, Knox throws herself into the battle with missionary fervor, struggling to reconcile her newfound political beliefs with her conservative religious views  When the campaign broadens to include a fight for a gay-straight alliance, Knox must confront her family and pastor in this coming-of-age story 

Awards
The Education of Shelby Knox has received a number of awards:

2005 Sundance Film Festival (Excellence in Cinematography, Documentary Category)
2005 SXSW Film Festival (Audience Award)
2005 Sonoma Valley Film Festival (Jury Prize)
2005 Miami Gay & Lesbian Film Festival (Jury Prize, Best Documentary)
2005 Full Frame Documentary Film Festival (Emerging Pictures Audience Award)
Council on Foundations (2005 Henry Hampton Award for Excellence in Film & Digital Media)
2005 Fresno Reel Pride Film Festival (Audience Award, Best Feature)
2006 The Index on Censorship's Freedom of Expression Film Award (Nominee)

Shelby Knox in the News
The Dixie Chicks' 2006 album Taking the Long Way features a track titled "Lubbock or Leave It", which is based on The Education of Shelby Knox  When the song came out, the group's member Emily Robison told the press: "We'd seen a documentary called The Education of Shelby Knox, which was about a girl     trying to get Lubbock to teach sex education in the schools  Lubbock has one of the highest rates of teen pregnancy and STDs in the U S , so it really showed what happens when you keep that information away from people " Lead singer Natalie Maines, who is from Lubbock, subsequently spoke (during a 2006 episode of VH1 Storytellers) about watching the film and drawing from her own experiences of living there to write the song 
In the 2013 documentary How to Lose Your Virginity, scenes from The Education of Shelby Knox are featured alongside interviews with Shelby Knox As of June 2011, Shelby Knox is living in New York City and serving as the Director of Organizing, Women's Rights for Change org 
Passage 11:
Warren, Kentucky
Warren is an unincorporated community and coal town in Knox County, Kentucky, United States  It was also known as Cumberland Station 
Passage 12:
Enoch Arden law
The Enoch Arden law is a legal precedent in the United States that grants a divorce or a legal exemption so that a person can remarry, if his or her spouse has been absent without explanation for a certain number of years, typically seven 
After seven years the missing spouse can be declared legally dead 
The "Enoch Arden doctrine" is named after Tennyson's 1864 melodrama Enoch Arden 
Passage 13:
Presbyterianism
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism that broke from the Roman Catholic Church  Presbyterian churches derive their name from the presbyterian form of church government by representative assemblies of elders  Many Reformed churches are organised this way, but the word Presbyterian, when capitalized, is often applied to churches that trace their roots to the Church of Scotland or to English Dissenter groups that formed during the English Civil War Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ  Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain  In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, and the Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America, mostly by Scots and Scotch-Irish immigrants  The Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism  Local congregations of churches which use Presbyterian polity are governed by sessions made up of representatives of the congregation (elders), a conciliar approach as with other levels of decision-making (presbytery, synod, and general assembly)  There are roughly 75 million Presbyterians in the world The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Reformation of the 16th century, the example of John Calvin's Republic of Geneva being particularly influential  Most Reformed churches that trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government  In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, including the World Council of Churches  Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches  Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, and Methodists  Presbyterians in the United States came largely from Scottish immigrants, Scots-Irish immigrants, and also from New England communities that had originally been Congregational but changed because of an agreed-upon Plan of Union of 1801 for frontier areas 

Presbyterian identity
Early history
Presbyterian tradition, particularly that of the Church of Scotland, traces its early roots to the Christian Church founded by Saint Columba, through the 6th-century Hiberno-Scottish mission  Tracing their apostolic origin to Saint John, the Culdees practised Christian monasticism, a key feature of Celtic Christianity in the region, with a presbyter exercising "authority within the institution, while the different monastic institutions were independent of one another " The Church in Scotland kept the Christian feast of Easter at a date different from the See of Rome and its monks used a unique style of tonsure  The Synod of Whitby in 664, however, ended these distinctions as it ruled "that Easter would be celebrated according to the Roman date, not the Celtic date " Although Roman influence came to dominate the Church in Scotland, certain Celtic influences remained in the Scottish Church, such as "the singing of metrical psalms, many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes", which later became a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship" 

Development
Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation  As the Catholic Church resisted the Reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church and bore different denominations  
Presbyterianism was especially influenced by the French theologian John Calvin, who is credited with the development of Reformed theology, and the work of John Knox, a Scottish Catholic Priest who studied with Calvin in Geneva and brought back Reformed teachings to Scotland  An important influence on the formation of presbyterianism in Britain also came from John a Lasco - a Polish reformer, the founder of a Stranger's Church in London, based on the Geneva models The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland  In August 1560, the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom  In December 1560, the First Book of Discipline was published, outlining important doctrinal issues but also establishing regulations for church government, including the creation of ten ecclesiastical districts with appointed superintendents which later became known as presbyteries In time, the Scots Confession would be supplanted by the Westminster Confession of Faith, and the larger and shorter catechisms, which were formulated by the Westminster Assembly between 1643 and 1649 

Characteristics
Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organisation (or "church order") and worship; often using a "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order  The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism  Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups  Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the Westminster Confession of Faith, which historically serves as an important confessional document – second only to the Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardisation and translation of the Bible – in Presbyterian churches 
Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, tempered with the belief that no human action can affect salvation 
Continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of the church, often referred to as "subordinate standards" 
When the women with Eliza Thompson gathered to pray at a Presbyterian church in Hillsboro, Ohio, this became the birthplace of the highly influential Woman's Temperance Crusade  Presbyterian evangelist Billy Sunday also persuaded many thousands who drank to turn to Christ instead – wanting Christ now and no more alcohol 

Government
Presbyterian government is by councils (still known as courts in some countries, as boards in others) of elders  Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local congregation  Teaching elders (pastors or ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments  Pastors or ministers are called by individual congregations  A congregation issues a call for the pastor or minister's service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery  The pastor or minister is a teaching elder, and Moderator of the Session, but is not usually a member of the congregation; instead, this person is a member of the Presbytery of which the given church is a member 
Ruling elders are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for the nurture and leadership of the congregation  Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations)  This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court"  These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to the full congregation  Since the 20th century, most denominations allow women to be teaching or ruling elders 
Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities  These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations  The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists  This congregation / presbytery / synod / general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the Church of Scotland or the Presbyterian Church (U S A ); some bodies, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually the step skipped is the Synod  The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993 Presbyterian governance is practiced by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches 

Doctrine
Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition  This has two implications  The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith," which have some level of authoritative status  However this is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter  While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as a whole  It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to confessionalism  The manner of subscription, or the degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, is a practical matter  That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard 
Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the Westminster Confession of Faith as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to the Larger and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction  Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible  These documents are Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation  The Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting the historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read 
The Westminster Confession is "The principal subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland" but "with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith" (V)  This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and the struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e g  William Robertson Smith)  Some Presbyterian Churches, such as the Free Church of Scotland, have no such "conscience clause" 
The Presbyterian Church (U S A ) has adopted the Book of Confessions, which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the Westminster Standards  These other documents include ancient creedal statements (the Nicene Creed, the Apostles' Creed), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the Scots Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism, the Second Helvetic Confession), and 20th century documents (The Theological Declaration of Barmen, Confession of 1967 and A Brief Statement of Faith) 
The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document Living Faith (1984) and retains it as a subordinate standard of the denomination  It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to original Bible text 
Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland 
John Gresham Machen, the prominent Presbyterian theologian and Professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary between 1906 and 1929, led a revolt against modernist doctrine in his Christianity and Liberalism (1923) that critiqued theological modernism  He argued that modernism and liberal theology was a false religion, a pretender that cloaks itself in Christian language – "Liberalism"  This religion is a marriage of naturalism, humanism, secularism, and sentimentalism all rolled into one 

Worship and sacraments
Worship
Presbyterian denominations that trace their heritage to the British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the Directory of Public Worship, developed by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s  This directory documented Reformed worship practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British Puritans, initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox  It was enacted as law by the Scottish Parliament, and became one of the foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere 

Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the Regulative principle of worship, which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing hymnody, instrumental accompaniment, and ceremonial vestments into worship  However, there is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style  Although there are set services for the Lord's Day in keeping with first-day Sabbatarianism, one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of Lutheranism or more of Anglicanism (especially where Scottish tradition is esteemed), or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by many American Presbyterians)  Most Presbyterian churches follow the traditional liturgical year and observe the traditional holidays, holy seasons, such as Advent, Christmas, Ash Wednesday, Holy Week, Easter, Pentecost, etc  They also make use of the appropriate seasonal liturgical colors, etc  Many incorporate ancient liturgical prayers and responses into the communion services and follow a daily, seasonal, and festival lectionary  Other Presbyterians, however, such as the Reformed Presbyterians, would practice a cappella exclusive psalmody, as well as eschew the celebration of holy days 

Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging church movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black Geneva gown to such vestments as the alb and chasuble, but also cassock and surplice (typically a full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old Gallican Rite), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past 

Sacraments
Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two sacraments:

Baptism, in which they baptize infants, as well as unbaptized adults by the Aspersion (sprinkling) or Affusion (pouring) method in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, rather than the Immersion method 
The Lord's Supper (also known as Communion), in which Presbyterians believe in the Real Presence of Christ (pneumatic presence) in the spiritual sense, in the bread and wine through the Holy Spirit, as opposed to being locally present as in transubstantiation or consubstantiation 

Architecture
Some early Presbyterians, which were influenced by the puritan movement, were careful to distinguish between the "church," which referred to the members, and the "meeting house," which was the building in which the church met  Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches " Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support the worship of God  The decor in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship  Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain  No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house  The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building  But these were not the standard characteristics of the mainline Presbyterians  These were more of the wave of Presbyterians that were influenced by the Puritans 
In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur  Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago, Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City, Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pennsylvania, St Stephen Presbyterian in Fort Worth, Texas, and many others 
Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a Roman Catholic church  Instead, there is a "communion table," usually on the same level as the congregation, and sometimes elevated similar to an altar, however surrounded by the chancel  There may be a rail between the communion table and the chancel behind it, which may contain a more decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir stalls, lectern and clergy area  The altar is called the communion table, and the altar area is called the chancel by Presbyterians  In Presbyterian, and in Reformed churches, there may be an altar cross, either on the communion table or on a table in the chancel  By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the Westminster/Celtic cross, Presbyterians emphasize the resurrection and that Christ is not continually dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity  Quite a few Presbyterian church buildings are decorated with a cross, that has a circle around the center, or Celtic cross  This not only emphasizes the resurrection, but also acknowledges historical aspects of Presbyterianism  A baptismal font will be located either at the entrance or near the chancel area  Presbyterian architecture generally makes significant use of symbolism  One may also find decorative and ornate stained glass windows depicting scenes from the Bible  Some Presbyterian churches will also have ornate statues of Christ or graven scenes from the Last Supper located behind the chancel  St  Giles' Cathedral in Scotland has a crucifix next to an ornate elevated communion table that hangs alongside  The image of Christ is more of a faint image, with a more modern design 

By region
Europe
Scotland
John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and urged his countrymen to reform the Church in line with Calvinist doctrines  After a period of religious convulsion and political conflict culminating in a victory for the Protestant party at the Siege of Leith the authority of the Catholic Church was abolished in favour of Reformation by the legislation of the Scottish Reformation Parliament in 1560  The Church was eventually organised by Andrew Melville along Presbyterian lines to become the national Church of Scotland  King James VI and I moved the Church of Scotland towards an episcopal form of government, and in 1637, James' successor, Charles I and William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted to force the Church of Scotland to use the Book of Common Prayer  What resulted was an armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the Solemn League and Covenant  The Covenanters would serve as the government of Scotland for nearly a decade, and would also send military support to the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War  Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Charles II, despite the initial support that he received from the Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of government on the church 

However, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Church of Scotland was unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed the Church of Scotland's form of government  However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church  In 1733, a group of ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland  Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of the established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland 
There are now eight Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today  These are, in order of size: the Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland, the United Free Church of Scotland, the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing), the Associated Presbyterian Church, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and the International Presbyterian Church  Combined, they have over 1500 congregations in Scotland 
Within Scotland the term 'kirk' is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church  Informally, the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland  Some of the values and ideals espoused in Scottish Presbyterian denominations can be reflected in this reference in a book from Norman Drummond, chaplain to the Queen in Scotland Chart of splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches

England
In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1592  Thomas Cartwright is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England  Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge University condemning the episcopal hierarchy of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his emigration abroad  Between 1645 and 1648, a series of ordinances of the Long Parliament established Presbyterianism as the polity of the Church of England  Presbyterian government was established in London and Lancashire and in a few other places in England, although Presbyterian hostility to the execution of Charles I and the establishment of the republican Commonwealth of England meant that Parliament never enforced the Presbyterian system in England  The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in Non-Conformity, outside of the established church  In 1719 a major split, the Salter's Hall controversy, occurred; with the majority siding with nontrinitarian views  Thomas Bradbury published several sermons bearing on the controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the reproaches cast on the dissenting ministers who subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity " By the 18th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become Unitarian in doctrine 
A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants to England in the 19th century and later  Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876  Some, such as Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London) and Swallow Street (London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at Crown Court, and St Columba's, Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London  There is also a congregation in the heart of London's financial district called London City Presbyterian Church that is affiliated with the Free Church of Scotland 
In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form the United Reformed Church (URC)  Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire), Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney Meeting House URC) – these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century  The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former Congregationalist Churches  Two former Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's, Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St Columba's, Oxford (founded as a chaplaincy by the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the Church of Scotland 
In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the International Presbyterian Church planted by evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer of the L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s, and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales founded in the North of England in the late 1980s 

Wales
In Wales, Presbyterianism is represented by the Presbyterian Church of Wales, which was originally composed largely of Calvinistic Methodists who accepted Calvinist theology rather than the Arminianism of the Wesleyan Methodists  They broke off from the Church of England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers  They were originally known as the Calvinist Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it became alternatively known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales 

Ireland
Presbyterianism (Irish: Preispitéireachas, Ulster Scots: Prisbytairinism) is the largest Protestant denomination in Northern Ireland and the second largest on the island of Ireland (after the Anglican Church of Ireland), and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, also James I of Ireland and England  An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the Boyne in 1690  The Presbytery of Ulster was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church  Presbyterians, along with Roman Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century  Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland, the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church 

France
There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in central Paris: The Scots Kirk, which is English-speaking, and is attended by many nationalities  It maintains close links with the Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as with the Reformed Church of France 

Italy
The Waldensian Evangelical Church (Chiesa Evangelica Valdese, CEV) is an Italian Protestant denomination 
The church was founded in the 12th century, and centuries later, after the Protestant Reformation, it adhered to Calvinist theology and became the Italian branch of the Presbyterian churches  As such, the church is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches 

North America
Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in the larger Presbyterian family  Some later rejoined only to separate again  In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split Ps" 

United States
Presbyterianism first officially arrived in Colonial America in 1644 with the establishment of Christ's First Presbyterian Church in Hempstead, New York  The Church was organized by the Rev  Richard Denton 
In 1703 the first Presbytery in Philadelphia was established  In time, the presbytery would be joined by two more to form a synod (1717) and would eventually evolve into the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in 1789  The nation's largest Presbyterian denomination, the Presbyterian Church (U S A ) – PC (USA) – can trace its heritage back to the original PCUSA, as can the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA), the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC), the Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC), and the Evangelical Covenant Order of Presbyterians (ECO) 
Other Presbyterian bodies in the United States include the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America (RPCNA), the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP), the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States (RPCUS), the Reformed Presbyterian Church General Assembly, the Reformed Presbyterian Church – Hanover Presbytery, the Covenant Presbyterian Church, the Presbyterian Reformed Church, the Westminster Presbyterian Church in the United States, the Korean American Presbyterian Church, and the Free Presbyterian Church of North America 
The territory within about a 50-mile (80 km) radius of Charlotte, North Carolina, is historically the greatest concentration of Presbyterianism in the Southern United States, while an almost identical geographic area around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, contains probably the largest number of Presbyterians in the entire nation 
The PC (USA), beginning with its predecessor bodies, has, in common with other so-called "mainline" Protestant denominations, experienced a significant decline in members in recent years  Some estimates have placed that loss at nearly half in the last forty years Presbyterian influence, especially through Princeton theology, can be traced in modern Evangelicalism  Balmer says that:

Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is a quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism  Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans – even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped the various manifestations of evangelicalism: fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement, and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism 
In the late 1800s, Presbyterian missionaries established a presence in what is now northern New Mexico  This provided an alternative to the Catholicism, which was brought to the area by the Spanish Conquistadors and had remained unchanged  The area experienced a "mini" reformation, in that many converts were made to Presbyterianism, prompting persecution  In some cases, the converts left towns and villages to establish their own neighboring villages  The arrival of the United States to the area prompted the Catholic church to modernize and make efforts at winning the converts back, many of which did return  However, there are still stalwart Presbyterians and Presbyterian churches in the area 
Historically, along with Lutherans and Episcopalians, Presbyterians tend to be considerably wealthier and are better educated (having more graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in United States; a group known as White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs), they are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business, law, and politics 

Canada
In Canada, the largest Presbyterian denomination – and indeed the largest Protestant denomination – was the Presbyterian Church in Canada, formed in 1875 with the merger of four regional groups  In 1925, the United Church of Canada was formed by the majority of Presbyterians combining with the Methodist Church, Canada, and the Congregational Union of Canada  A sizable minority of Canadian Presbyterians, primarily in southern Ontario but also throughout the entire nation, withdrew, and reconstituted themselves as a non-concurring continuing Presbyterian body  They regained use of the original name in 1939 

Latin America
Presbyterianism arrived in Latin America in the 19th century 

Mexico
The biggest Presbyterian church is the National Presbyterian Church in Mexico (Iglesia Nacional Presbiteriana de México), which has around 2,500,000 members and associates and 3000 congregations, but there are other small denominations like the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church in Mexico which was founded in 1875 by the Associate Reformed Church in North America  The Independent Presbyterian Church, the Presbyterian Reformed Church in Mexico, and the National Conservative Presbyterian Church in Mexico are existing churches in the Reformed tradition 

Brazil
In Brazil, the Presbyterian Church of Brazil (Igreja Presbiteriana do Brasil) totals approximately 1,011,300 members; other Presbyterian churches (Independents, United, Conservatives, Renovated, etc ) in this nation have around 350,000 members  The Renewed Presbyterian Church in Brazil was influenced by the charismatic movement and has about 131 000 members as of 2011  The Conservative Presbyterian Church in Brazil was founded in 1940 and has eight presbyteries  The Fundamentalist Presbyterian church in Brazil was influenced by Carl McIntire and the US Bible Presbyterian Church and has around 1 800 members  The Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil was founded in 1903 by Rev  Eduardo Carlos Pereira, has 500 congregations and 75 000 members  The United Presbyterian Church of Brazil has around 4 000 members  There are also ethnic Korean Presbyterian churches in the country  The Evangelical Reformed Churches in Brazil has Dutch origin  The Reformed Churches in Brazil were recently founded by the Canadian Reformed Churches with the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated) 
Congregational churches present in the country are also part of the Calvinistic tradition in Latin America 

Other Latin American states
There are probably more than four million members of Presbyterian churches in all of Latin America  Presbyterian churches are also present in Peru, Bolivia, Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Colombia, Chile, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Argentina, Honduras and others, but with few members  The Presbyterian Church in Belize has 17 churches and church plants and there is a Reformed Seminary founded in 2004  Some Latin Americans in North America are active in the Presbyterian Cursillo Movement 

Africa
Presbyterianism arrived in Africa in the 19th century through the work of Scottish missionaries and founded churches such as St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, Malawi  The church has grown extensively and now has a presence in at least 23 countries in the region African Presbyterian churches often incorporate diaconal ministries, including social services, emergency relief, and the operation of mission hospitals  A number of partnerships exist between presbyteries in Africa and the PC(USA), including specific connections with Lesotho, Cameroon, Malawi, South Africa, Ghana and Zambia  For example, the Lackawanna Presbytery, located in Northeastern Pennsylvania, has a partnership with a presbytery in Ghana  Also the Southminster Presbyterian Church, located near Pittsburgh, has partnerships with churches in Malawi and Kenya  The Presbyterian Church of Nigeria, western Africa is also healthy and strong in mostly the southern states of this nation, strong density in the south-eastern states of this country  Beginning from Cross River state, the nearby coastal states, Rivers state, Lagos state to Ebonyi and Abia States  Hope Waddel's missionary expedition in the mid 19th century, and later Mary Slessor's stay in this coastal regions of the then British colony has brought about the beginning and the flourishing of this church in these areas 

Kenya
The Presbyterian Church of East Africa, based in Kenya, is particularly strong, with 500 clergy and 4 million members 

Malawi
The Reformed Presbyterian Church in Malawi has 150 congregations and 17 000–20 000 members  It was a mission of the Free Presbyterian church of Scotland  The Restored Reformed Church works with RPCM  Evangelical Presbyterian Church in Malawi is an existing small church  Part of the Presbyterian Church in Malawi and Zambia is known as CCAP, Church of Central Africa-Presbyterian  Often the churches there have one main congregation and a number of prayer houses develop  Education, health ministries, and worship and spiritual development are important 

Southern Africa
Southern Africa is a major base of Reformed and Presbyterian Churches 

Northern Africa
The Presbyterian Church of South Sudan and Sudan, founded in 1902 by American missionaries in Malakal, was deprived of foreign pastors since 1962 by decision of the Sudanese government but it continued to grow  It is now the 3rd largest Christian church in Sudan with 1,000,000 members, now shared between Sudan and South Sudan 
The Presbyterian Evangelical Church of Sudan was founded in the north of the country and in Khartoum by the same American missionaries in the late 19th century but left under the guidance of Egyptian evangelical pastors of Coptic origin In addition, there are a number of Presbyterian Churches in north Africa, the most known is the Nile Synod in Egypt and a recently founded synod for Sudan 

Asia
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Council of the Church of Christ in China (CCC) is a uniting church formed by Presbyterians and Congregationalists, which inherited the Reformed tradition  HKCCCC is also the only mainline Reformed church in Hong Kong 
Cumberland Presbyterian Church Yao Dao Secondary School is a Presbyterian school in Yuen Long, New Territories  The Cumberland Presbyterian Church also have a church on the island of Cheung Chau  There are also Korean Christians resident in Hong Kong who are Presbyterians 

South Korea
Presbyterian Churches are the biggest and by far the most influential Protestant denominations in South Korea, with close to 20,000 churches affiliated with the two largest Presbyterian denominations in the country  In South Korea there are 9 million Presbyterians, forming the majority of the 15 million Korean Protestants  In South Korea there are 100 different Presbyterian denominations Most of the Korean Presbyterian denominations share the same name in Korean, 대한예수교장로회 (literally means the Presbyterian Church of Korea or PCK), tracing its roots to the United Presbyterian Assembly before its long history of disputes and schisms  The Presbyterian schism began with the controversy in relation to the Japanese shrine worship enforced during the Japanese colonial period and the establishment of a minor division (Koryu-pa, 고려파, later The Koshin Presbyterian Church in Korea, Koshin 고신) in 1952  And in 1953 the second schism happened when the theological orientation of the Chosun Seminary (later Hanshin University) founded in 1947 could not be tolerated in the PCK and another minor group (The Presbyterian Church in the Republic of Korea, Kijang, 기장) was separated  The last major schism had to do with the issue of whether the PCK should join the WCC  The controversy divided the PCK into two denominations, The Presbyterian Church of Korea (Tonghap, 통합) and The General Assembly of Presbyterian Church in Korea (Hapdong, 합동) in 1959  All major seminaries associated with each denomination claim heritage from the Pyung Yang Theological Seminary, therefore, not only Presbyterian University and Theological Seminary and Chongsin University which are related to PCK but also Hanshin University of PROK all celebrated the 100th class in 2007, 100 years from the first graduates of Pyung Yang Theological Seminary Korean Presbyterian denominations are active in evangelism and many of its missionaries are being sent overseas, being the second biggest missionary sender in the world after the United States  GMS, the missionary body of the "Hapdong" General Assembly of Presbyterian Churches of Korea, is the single largest Presbyterian missionary organization in Korea 
In addition there are many Korean-American Presbyterians in the United States, either with their own church sites or sharing space in pre-existing churches as is the case in Australia, New Zealand and even Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia with Korean immigration 
The Korean Presbyterian Church started through the mission of the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the Australian Presbyterian theological tradition is central to the United States  But after independence, the 'Presbyterian Church in Korea (KoRyuPa)' advocated a Dutch Reformed position  In the 21st century, a new General Assembly of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church of Korea (Founder  Ha Seung-moo) in 2012 declared itself an authentic historical succession of Scottish Presbyterian John Knox 

Taiwan
The Presbyterian Church in Taiwan (PCT) is by far the largest Protestant denomination in Taiwan, with some 238,372 members as of 2009 (including a majority of the island's aborigines)  English Presbyterian Missionary James Laidlaw Maxwell established the first Presbyterian church in Tainan in 1865  His colleague George Leslie Mackay, of the Canadian Presbyterian Mission, was active in Tamsui and north Taiwan from 1872 to 1901; he founded the island's first university and hospital, and created a written script for Taiwanese Minnan  The English and Canadian missions joined as the PCT in 1912  One of the few churches permitted to operate in Taiwan through the era of Japanese rule (1895–1945), the PCT experienced rapid growth during the era of Kuomintang-imposed martial law (1949–1987), in part due to its support for democracy, human rights, and Taiwan independence  Former ROC president Lee Teng-hui (in office 1988–2000) was a Presbyterian 

India
In the mainly Christian Indian state of Mizoram, Presbyterianism is the largest of all Christian denominations  It was brought there by missionaries from Wales in 1897  Prior to Mizoram, Welsh Presbyterians started venturing into the northeast India through the Khasi Hills (now in the state of Meghalaya in India) and established Presbyterian churches all over the Khasi Hills from the 1840s onwards  Hence, there is a strong presence of Presbyterians in Shillong (the present capital of Meghalaya) and the areas adjoining it  The Welsh missionaries built their first church in Sohra (aka Cherrapunji) in 1846  The Presbyterian church in India was integrated in 1970 into the United Church of Northern India (originally formed in 1924)  It is the largest Presbyterian denomination in India 

Oceania
Australia
In Australia, Presbyterianism is the fourth largest denomination of Christianity, with nearly 600,000 Australians claiming to be Presbyterian in the 2006 Commonwealth Census  Presbyterian churches were founded in each colony, some with links to the Church of Scotland and others to the Free Church  There were also congregations originating from United Presbyterian Church of Scotland as well as a number founded by John Dunmore Lang  Most of these bodies merged between 1859 and 1870, and in 1901 formed a federal union called the Presbyterian Church of Australia but retaining their state assemblies  The Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia representing the Free Church of Scotland tradition, and congregations in Victoria of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, originally from Ireland, are the other existing denominations dating from colonial times 
In 1977, two-thirds of the Presbyterian Church of Australia, along with most of the Congregational Union of Australia and all the Methodist Church of Australasia, combined to form the Uniting Church in Australia  The third who did not unite had various reasons for so acting, often cultural attachment but often conservative theological or social views  The permission for the ordination of women given in 1974 was rescinded in 1991 without affecting the two or three existing woman ministers  The approval of women elders given in the 1960s has been rescinded in all states except New South Wales, which has the largest membership  The theology of the church is now generally conservative and Reformed  A number of small Presbyterian denominations have arisen since the 1950s through migration or schism 

New Zealand
In New Zealand, Presbyterian is the dominant denomination in Otago and Southland due largely to the rich Scottish and to a lesser extent Ulster-Scots heritage in the region  The area around Christchurch, Canterbury, is dominated philosophically by the Anglican denomination 
Originally there were two branches of Presbyterianism in New Zealand, the northern Presbyterian church which existed in the North Island and the parts of the South Island north of the Waitaki River, and the Synod of Otago and Southland, founded by Free Church settlers in southern South Island  The two churches merged in 1901, forming what is now the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand 
In addition to the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand, there is also a more conservative Presbyterian church called Grace Presbyterian Church of New Zealand  Many of its members left the largely liberal PCANZ because they were seeking a more conservative church  It has 17 churches throughout New Zealand 

Vanuatu
The Presbyterian Church in Vanuatu is the largest denomination in the country, with approximately one-third of the population of Vanuatu members of the church  The PCV was taken to Vanuatu by missionaries from Scotland  The PCV (Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu) is headed by a moderator with offices in Port Vila  The PCV is particularly strong in the provinces of Tafea, Shefa, and Malampa  The Province of Sanma is mainly Presbyterian with a strong Roman Catholic minority in the Francophone areas of the province  There are some Presbyterian people, but no organised Presbyterian churches in Penama and Torba, both of which are traditionally Anglican  Vanuatu is the only country in the South Pacific with a significant Presbyterian heritage and membership  The PCV is a founding member of the Vanuatu Christian Council (VCC)  The PCV runs many primary schools and Onesua secondary school  The church is strong in the rural villages 

See also
Celtic cross
English Presbyterianism
Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy
Ghost Ranch
Puritan's Pit
Presbyterian confessions of faith
Religion in Scotland
Category:Presbyterian universities and colleges
Category:Presbyterians

Churches
List of Christian denominations#Presbyterianism
List of Presbyterian churches
St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh (Church of Scotland) – famous among Presbyterians worldwide for John Knox's success in preaching there
Passage 14:
Knox United Church (Saskatoon)
Knox United Church is a designated municipal heritage building at 838 Spadina Crescent East, in the Central Business District, of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada The congregation was established as part of the Saskatoon Presbyterian Field Mission in 1885 after the North-West Rebellion  Meetings were held in homes, the Old Stone Schoolhouse, the Methodist Church and even the railway roundhouse until a wood church holding 160 was constructed near the river Architects Brown and Vallance of Montreal designed the present-day church in the Collegiate Gothic style  Construction started in 1912 and was completed in 1914  The two-storey building is made of dark red brick walls, features stained-glass windows, and has seating 1,200  The acoustic qualities of the church have made it a regular venue for various social and cultural events, including chamber music performances 
The Institute for stained glass in Canada has documented the stained glass at Knox United Church
Context 2: Passage 1:
Labyrinth (1984 video game)
Labyrinth is an action-adventure game published in 1984 by Acornsoft for the BBC Micro  Its author, Michael Mathison, describes it as: 

an amalgam of what I'd seen and liked visually and I wanted to make something like an 'arcade' version of an adventure game - with lots of creatures and lots of running around shooting at things but also with some simple puzzle elements 

Gameplay
Labyrinth consists of a complex labyrinth made up of multiple levels  Each level is made up of a number of rooms, with the player only able to see a single room at any one time  Doorways are provided allowing the player to move between rooms 
Each level contains two special rooms: the "Gate Room," and the "Key Room"  The Gate Room contains the doorway to the next level which is barred by a deadly forcefield  The Key Room contains a magical crystal which will remove the forcefield, and is generally the most well-guarded and dangerous room in the level 
Rooms are populated with a variety of monsters which become more dangerous as the player progresses through the game as they move more quickly, shoot at the player, or lay poisonous mushrooms  The player can choose to avoid the various monsters (though they may well follow the player through the labyrinth), or try to kill them by shooting at them (though some monsters are invulnerable in this way and reflect the shots back), or squash them with a "boulder" that the player is able to push around with them as they travel (trickier and more risky than shooting and therefore scores more points)   Colliding with a monster will kill it but causes the player to lose health, often leading to the player's death 
Different types of fruit are scattered throughout the labyrinth, which will increase the player's health when eaten  The player slowly loses health at all times while in the Labyrinth, and will eventually die if they don't progress through the game 

Legacy
In 1987 the game was reissued on Superior Software's Acornsoft Hits compilation 
Passage 2:
The Sense of an Ending
The Sense of an Ending is a 2011 novel written by British author Julian Barnes  The book is Barnes's eleventh novel written under his own name (he has also written crime fiction under the pseudonym Dan Kavanagh) and was released on 4 August 2011 in the United Kingdom  The Sense of an Ending is narrated by a retired man named Tony Webster, who recalls how he and his clique met Adrian Finn at school and vowed to remain friends for life  When the past catches up with Tony, he reflects on the paths he and his friends have taken  In October 2011, The Sense of an Ending was awarded the Booker Prize  The following month it was nominated in the novels category at the Costa Book Awards 

Publication and marketing
The Sense of an Ending is Barnes's eleventh novel and was released in hardback on 4 August 2011   The Sense of an Ending is published by Random House (as a Jonathan Cape publication) in the United Kingdom  The book was released in October 2011 in the United States, after its previously scheduled publication date for the United States was brought forward by three months by Random House's Knopf publishing group to capitalise on the shortlisting of the book as a candidate for the Booker prize  Suzanne Dean designed the cover for The Sense of an Ending  The cover shows floating dandelion seeds, with its edge and the edges of all the pages blackened 

Title
The title is shared by a book of the same name by Frank Kermode first published in 1967, subtitled Studies in the Theory of Fiction, the stated aim of which is "making sense of the ways we try to make sense of our lives"  Kermode's book is a well-received piece of literary criticism  Critic Colin Burrow called it one of "the three most inspiring works of literary criticism written in the twentieth century", comparing Kermode's work with Erich Auerbach's Mimesis and E  R  Curtius's European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages Barnes has stated his choice of title was coincidental with that of Kermode, of whose book he had not previously heard, and which he has never read  He came up with the title before one of his friends pointed out that it had been used already, but decided "there's no copyright in titles"   Notwithstanding which, several reviewers described the novel as being "in conversation" with Kermode    For example, the critic Boyd Tonkin adds the additional interpretation that Barnes's "show-off" characters could be typical readers of Kermode's work 

Reception
The Sense of an Ending has received mostly positive reviews from critics  Michael Prodger of The Financial Times said the novel's inclusion on the Man Booker Prize longlist was "absolutely merited" and he praised the intricate mechanism of the novel and said Barnes's writing is "founded on precision as well as on the nuances of language "
Prodger added "Its brevity, however, in no way compromises its intensity – every word has its part to play; with great but invisible skill Barnes squeezes into it not just a sense of the infinite complexity of the human heart but the damage the wrong permutations can cause when combined  It is perhaps his greatest achievement that, in his hands, the unknowable does not mean the implausible " The Guardian's Justine Jordan said "With its patterns and repetitions, scrutinising its own workings from every possible angle, the novella becomes a highly wrought meditation on ageing, memory and regret " Boyd Tonkin from The Independent said The Sense of an Ending is "A slow burn, measured but suspenseful, this compact novel makes every slyly crafted sentence count " Anita Brookner, writing for The Daily Telegraph, said the novel is not a thriller, but a tragedy, which resembles Henry James's The Turn of the Screw  She opined that Barnes's reputation would be enhanced by the novel and added, "Do not be misled by its brevity  Its mystery is as deeply embedded as the most archaic of memories "Entertainment Weekly's Stephen Lee gave The Sense of an Ending a B+ and said "Barnes's latest—a meditation on memory and aging—occasionally feels more like a series of wise, underline-worthy insights than a novel  But the many truths he highlights make it worthy of a careful read " Robert McCrum writing for The Observer thought the novel would win the Man Booker Prize because it is "a work of art, in a minor key " During a feature on the 2011 Man Booker Prize nominees, the Channel 4 newsroom team gave The Sense of an Ending a nine out of ten for readability and said "It's beautifully written, very readable, and raises questions which linger in the mind long after the covers are closed " Geordie Williamson from The Australian said the novel is a pleasure to read and explained there is "a fierce and unforgiving lucidity about The Sense of an Ending, a mature reckoning with ageing that makes its competitors seem petulant and shrill " Geoff Dyer in The New York Times said the novel is average at best  "It is averagely compelling     involves an average amount of concentration and, if such a thing makes sense, is averagely well written: excellent in its averageness!" David Sexton in The Spectator drew a comparison between the narrator of the novel and the "unreliable narrator" of Ford Madox Ford's The Good Soldier, for which – he noted – Barnes wrote an introduction to the Folio Society edition  Although Sexton praised Barnes's skill, "Yet this novella does not move or satisfy     It is a story repelled by the responsibility of having children, and its final disclosure is offputting     where's the heart?"

Awards and nominations
In September 2011, The Sense of an Ending was shortlisted for the Booker Prize  Barnes had been shortlisted for the prize on three previous occasions for Flaubert's Parrot (1984), England, England (1998) and Arthur & George (2005)  On choosing The Sense of an Ending for the shortlist, judge Gaby Wood said: "It seems to be the most obvious book on this list  It's a quiet book, but the shock that comes doesn't break stride with the tone of the rest of the book  In purely technical terms it is one of the most masterful things I've ever read " On 18 October 2011, The Sense of an Ending was awarded the Booker Prize  Head judge Stella Rimington described the novel as "exquisitely written, subtly plotted and reveals new depths with each reading " She added: "We thought it was a book that spoke to the humankind in the 21st Century "On 15 November 2011, it was announced The Sense of an Ending had been nominated in the Best Novel category at the 2011 Costa Book Awards, though the book lost out to Andrew Miller's novel, Pure 

Film adaptation

A film adaptation of the same name made its world premiere as the opening film at the Palm Springs International Film Festival in Palm Springs, California, on 5 January 2017  The limited US release began on 10 March 2017  It was directed by Ritesh Batra from a screenplay adaptation by Nick Payne with a cast including Michelle Dockery, Emily Mortimer, Jim Broadbent, Charlotte Rampling, and Harriet Walter 
Passage 3:
Indianapolis News
The Indianapolis News was an evening newspaper published for 130 years, beginning December 7, 1869, and ending on October 1, 1999   The "Great Hoosier Daily," as it was known, at one time held the largest circulation in the state of Indiana   It was also the oldest Indianapolis newspaper until it closed and was housed in the Indianapolis News Building from 1910 to 1949 : 3–5  After Eugene C  Pulliam, the founder and president of Central Newspapers acquired the News in 1948, he became its publisher, while his son, Eugene S  Pulliam, served as the newspaper's managing editor  Eugene S  Pulliam succeeded his father as publisher of the News in 1975 The Indianapolis News was an evening paper, and its decline matched a growing circulation of the morning newspaper, the Indianapolis Star  Prior to the closing, there had been a partial merging of the newspaper staff with the Star 

Notable staff members
Medford Stanton Evans (1934–2015) was an award-winning journalist, educator, and author who became the head editorial writer for the News in 1959  He was promoted to editor of the News in 1960, at the age twenty-six, and became the youngest editor of a metropolitan daily newspaper at that time  Because of his editorial at the News, Evans was selected in 1960 to draft the Sharon Statement, which outlined the founding principles for the Young Americans for Freedom  The conservative writer remained as editor of the News through 1974, when he left the city and became a nationally syndicated columnist for The Los Angeles Times  Evans also taught journalism as Troy University in Troy, Alabama, for more than thirty years  Among his many other activities, Evans lead the American Conservative Union from 1971 to 1977, authored several books, and founded the National Journalism Center in 1977 in Washington, D C 
Frank McKinney "Kin" Hubbard (1868–1930) was a nationally known American cartoonist, humorist, and journalist whose most famous work was the Abe Martin cartoon series  Hubbard  introduced his Abe Martin character to Indianapolis News readers on December 17, 1904, and it appeared six days a week on the back page of the newspaper for twenty-six years  Hubbard also originated and illustrated a once-a-week humor essay for the "Short Furrows" column in the Sunday edition  The Abe Martin cartoon series went into national print syndication in 1910 and the "Short Furrows" column went into syndication the following year  For years after Hubbard's death in 1930, the News and other newspapers continued to print his Abe Martin cartoon series 
Eugene S  Pulliam (1914–1999) began working at the News as its managing editor in 1948 and rose through the managerial ranks to become assistant publisher of the Indianapolis News and the Star  in 1962  He succeeded his father, Eugene C  Pulliam, as publisher of both newspapers in 1975  Known for his advocacy for First Amendment rights and freedom of the press, Eugene S  Pulliam remained the publisher of the News and the Star  until his death in 1999  He also became president of Central Newspapers in 1979 following the death of his stepmother, Nina Mason Pulliam 
Juliet V  Strauss (1863–1918) was a well-known journalist, author, and public speaker from Rockville, Indiana, who wrote a regular weekly column for the News using the pseudonym of "The Country Contributor" from November 1903 until her death in May 1918  Strauss also was a leader in efforts to generate public and state government support to establish Turkey Run State Park in Parke County, Indiana, in 1916 as Indiana's second state park  She began her journalism career as a regular newspaper columnist at the Rockville Tribune in 1893  In addition to her regular newspaper columns, Strauss authored "The Ideas of a Plain Country Woman," a monthly column for the Ladies' Home Journal from 1905 until 1918  She was also a founder in 1913 of the Woman's Press Club of Indiana 
Passage 4:
Someone in the Dark
Someone in the Dark is a collection of fantasy and horror short stories by author August Derleth  It was released in 1941 and was the second book published by Arkham House   1,115 copies were printed, priced at $2 00  In Thirty Years of Arkham House, Derleth implied that this title had sold out by the end of 1944 
However, more than twenty years later, in 1967, Derleth listed Someone in the Dark in an Arkham House bulletin with this announcement: "We have acquired a small stock of this title, Derleth's first collection of macabre tales, published in 1941  They will be sold at $5 00 the copy to patrons interested in acquiring the book   "
Derleth was being disingenuous in suggesting these 'unearthed' copies were the 1941 edition   The additional 300 copies were printed in offset by Hunter Publishing Co  in Winston-Salem in 1965, the reprint probably authorized by Derleth himself   (In The Arkham House Companion, Sheldon Jaffery quotes a letter that seems to indicate this)  The 1965 reprint are a quarter-inch higher than the originals, and are bound with headbands (not present in the 1941 first editions) 
The 1965 edition is scarce  While it is not generally considered an official Arkham House publication, it is considered an essential acquisition for Arkham House completists 
A paperback reprint was issued by Jove Books in 1978 

Contents
Someone in the Dark contains the following tales:

"When the Night and House "
"Glory Hand"
"Compliments of Spectro"
"A Gift for Uncle Herman"
"McGovern's Obsession"
"Three Gentlemen in Black"
"Muggridge's Aunt"
"Bramwell's Guardian"
"Joliper's Gift"
"Altimer's Amulet"
"The Shuttered House"
"The Sheraton Mirror"
"The Wind from the River"
"The Telephone in the Library"
"The Panelled Room"
"The Return of Hastur"
"The Sandwin Compact"

Reception
E  F  Bleiler noted that "the local, regionalistic American stories are best, while those in imitation of Lovecraft are weakest"  New York Times reviewer Louise Maunsell Field gave the collection a relatively favorable review, saying that "The stories are for the most part well told, and lovers of tales of the occult will find the volume entertaining and congenial, although it has little of either sensitivity or beauty " Thrilling Wonder Stories commented that "Mr  Derleth writes quietly and with restraint, in beautifully measured sentences that stick to the essentials of the story he has to tell  His very restraint sometimes plays a trick on him -- and makes his writing appear at time to lack fire" 
Passage 5:
Minotaur: The Labyrinths of Crete
Minotaur: The Labyrinths of Crete is a 1992 role-playing adventure video game for Macintosh by Bungie; produced by Jason Jones and Alex Seropian  The game distinguished itself from other games of its time by including a multiplayer mode that functioned over the AppleTalk protocol or Point-to-Point Protocol  A single-player exploration mode was also available, but this mode had no end goal and was useful to discover how the various items found in the maze operated  The game originated in 1988 as an Apple game played over a modem between two opponents, but was never officially released on that platform 
The game's tagline was "Kill your enemies  Kill your friends' enemies  Kill your friends"  This tagline has reappeared as a description in the multiplayer menu screens for some of Bungie's other games, such as Myth: The Fallen Lords and Halo 3 
Bungie later licensed Minotaur's game engine to the studio Paranoid Productions (Richard Rouse) who used it to create Odyssey: The Legend of Nemesis, released in 1996 

Reception
Computer Gaming World favorably reviewed Minotaur although criticizing its not using the mouse and lack of a single-player option, and concluded that "a group of dedicated opponents [that] enjoy fast-thinking and ad-lib strategizing will find long-lasting enjoyment from this game"  The game was reviewed in 1992 in Dragon #188 by Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser in "The Role of Computers" column  The reviewers gave the game 4 out of 5 stars  The game sold 2,500 copies 

See also
Pathways into Darkness, originally to be a sequel to this game
Passage 6:
Crónicas
Crónicas ("chronicles") is a 2004 Ecuadorian thriller film, written and directed by Sebastián Cordero  The film was produced by, among others, Guillermo del Toro, director of Pan's Labyrinth, and Alfonso Cuarón, director of Children of Men  It was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival 

Overview
Set in rural Ecuador, the movie follows a television journalist named Manolo Bonilla (played by John Leguizamo) as he investigates the rape and murder of children in the area  The film also stars Leonor Watling and José María Yazpik as Manolo's producer and cameraman, respectively  The film was the official Oscar selection from Ecuador in the Best Foreign Language category 

Plot summary
After traveling to a small village in Ecuador, Miami tabloid news reporter Manolo Bonilla (Leguizamo) witnesses the death of a local boy after Vinicio Cepeda, a traveling salesman, hits the boy with his pickup truck  When Cepeda attempts to back his truck away from the boy, a mob, led by the boy's father, Don Lucho, pulls him from his car, severely beats him, and sets him on fire before the local authorities intervene  After both men are arrested, Cepeda is examined at the jail infirmary and taken to his cell where, later that night, he is attacked by Don Lucho and severely injured 
The next morning Manolo Bonilla comes to the prison to interview the men involved  After agreeing to an interview alongside Cepeda, Lucho attacks Cepeda a second time and is taken away  The interview with Cepeda is cancelled due to concerns about Manolo's safety; however, before the reporter leaves, Cepeda notifies him that he has information on the Monster of Babahoyo, a notorious murderer and rapist in the area, and tells him the location where one of the murderer's victims, a nine-year-old girl, is buried  Manolo agrees to interview Cepeda and attempts to free him from prison in exchange for information about the murders  Later that evening Manolo and his cameraman Ivan drive to the location Cepeda mentioned and dig up a shallow grave, indeed containing the body of a small girl 
Over the following days Manolo begins interviewing Cepeda, as well as Cepeda’s wife, son, and babysitter  While interviewing Cepeda, Manolo begins to suspect that Cepeda is, in fact, the Monster of Babahoyo and using him to exonerate himself  After Manolo attempts to get Cepeda to incriminate himself, Cepeda tells him to leave and never come back  Manolo then informs Cepeda that the interview which would free him will not be aired 
Manolo calls the authorities and tells them that he had been receiving anonymous calls about the location of the girl's grave   He discovers circumstantial evidence placing Cepeda at the locations of the murders on the dates they occurred; however, despite Manolo's request, the news agency airs Cepeda's interviews which help set Cepeda free  After being interviewed by authorities, Manolo and his crew return to Cepeda's home in search of him only to find that he left his pregnant wife alone at their house and took their son to school before leaving the area  Manolo is offered his own show on the news network and, after deciding against turning over the evidence to the police, the team arrives at the airport and parts ways 

Cast
John Leguizamo as Manolo Bonilla
Leonor Watling as Marisa Iturralde
Damián Alcázar as Vinicio Cepeda
José María Yazpik as Iván Suárez
Alfred Molina as Victor Hugo Puentes
Henry Layana as Don Lucho
Tamara Navas as Doña Etelvina
Washington Garzón as Joseph Juan
Rosa Alina Ortiz as Amiga Don Lucho
Raymundo Zambrano as Cura
Camilo Luzuriaga as Capitán Bolivar Rojas
Peki Andino as Sargento Saltos (as Peky Andino)
Luiggi Pulla as Robert

Awards
Crónicas was Ecuador's submission to the 77th Academy Awards for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, but was not accepted as a nominee 

See also
List of submissions to the 77th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
Passage 7:
Fiscal year
A fiscal year (or financial year, or sometimes budget year) is used in government accounting, which varies between countries, and for budget purposes  It is also used for financial reporting by businesses and other organizations  Laws in many jurisdictions require company financial reports to be prepared and published on an annual basis but generally with the reporting period not aligning with the calendar year (1 January to 31 December)  Taxation laws generally require accounting records to be maintained and taxes calculated on an annual basis, which usually corresponds to the fiscal year used for government purposes  The calculation of tax on an annual basis is especially relevant for direct taxes, such as income tax  Many annual government fees—such as council tax and license fees, are also levied on a fiscal year basis, but others are charged on an anniversary basis 
Some companies, such as Cisco Systems, end their fiscal year on the same day of the week each year: the day that is closest to a particular date (for example, the Friday closest to 31 December)  Under such a system, some fiscal years have 52 weeks and others 53 weeks The calendar year is used as the fiscal year by about 65% of publicly-traded companies in the United States and for most large corporations in the United Kingdom  That is the case in many countries around the world with a few exceptions such as Australia, New Zealand, and Japan Many universities have a fiscal year which ends during the summer to align the fiscal year with the academic year (and, in some cases involving public universities, with the state government's fiscal year) and also because the university is normally less busy during the summer months  In the Northern Hemisphere, that is July to the next June  In the Southern Hemisphere, that is the calendar year, January to December  In a similar fashion, many nonprofit performing arts organizations will have a fiscal year which ends during the summer, so that their performance season that begins in the fall and ends in the spring will be within one fiscal year 
Some media/communication-based organizations use a broadcast calendar as the basis for their fiscal year 

Chart of various fiscal years
Tax year
The fiscal year for individuals and entities to report and pay income taxes is often known as the taxpayer's tax year or taxable year   Taxpayers in many jurisdictions may choose their tax year  Some federal countries, such as Canada and Switzerland, require the provincial or cantonal tax year to align with the federal year  In the United States, most states retained a 30 June fiscal year-end date when the federal government switched to 30 September in 1976  Nearly all jurisdictions require that the tax year be 12 months or 52/53 weeks  However, short years are permitted as the first year or when changing tax years Most countries require all individuals to pay income tax based on the calendar year   Significant exceptions include:

Australia: individuals pay income tax based on the financial year of 1 July until 30 June 
United Kingdom: the tax year for individuals begins on 6 April  This is due to Britain historically having a calendar year starting on Lady Day (25 March) in the Julian calendar but a fiscal year ending on that day  When the UK adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752, 25 March translated to 5 April and 26 March to 6 April  (See History of taxation in the United Kingdom#Why the United Kingdom income tax year begins on 6 April for more detailed explanation )
United States: individuals may (but rarely do) elect any tax year, subject to IRS approval Many jurisdictions require that the tax year conform to the taxpayer's fiscal year for financial reporting  The United States is a notable exception: taxpayers may choose any tax year, but must keep books and records for such year 

Operation in various countries/region
In some jurisdictions, particularly those that permit tax consolidation, companies that are part of a group of businesses must use nearly the same fiscal year (differences of up to three months are permitted in some jurisdictions, such as the U S  and Japan), with consolidating entries to adjust for transactions between units with different fiscal years, so the same resources will not be counted more than once or not at all 

Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, from 2011 to 2021, the fiscal year began on 1 Hamal (20th or 21 March)  The fiscal year aligned with the Persian or Solar Hijri calendar used in Afghanistan at the time 
Following transfer of power to the Taliban administration in September 2021, Afghanistan abandoned the Solar Hijri calendar in favour of the Lunar Hijri calendar  The fiscal cycle was restarted with effect from 1 Muharram 1444 AH (30 July 2022)

Australia
In Australia, a fiscal year is commonly called a "financial year" (FY) and starts on 1 July and ends on the next 30 June  Financial years are designated by the calendar year of the second half of the period  For example, financial year 2024 is the 12-month period ending on 30 June 2024 and can be referred to as FY2023/24  It is used for official purposes, by individual taxpayers and by the overwhelming majority of business enterprises  Business enterprises may opt to use a financial year that ends at the end of a week (e g , 52 or 53 weeks in length, and therefore is not exactly one calendar year in length), or opt for its financial year to end on a date that matches the reporting cycle of its foreign parent  All entities within the one group must use the same financial year 
For government accounting and budget purposes, pre-Federation colonies changed the financial year from the calendar year to a year ending 30 June on the following dates: Victoria changed in 1870, South Australia in 1874, Queensland in 1875, Western Australia in 1892, New South Wales in 1895 and Tasmania in 1904  The Commonwealth adopted the near-ubiquitous financial year standard since its inception in 1901  The reason given for the change was for convenience, as Parliament typically sits during May and June, while it was difficult for it to meet in November and December to pass a budget The Financial year is split into the following four-quarters

Austria
In Austria, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, the fiscal year is 1 July to the next 30 June 

Belarus
In Belarus, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Brazil
In Brazil, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Bulgaria
In Bulgaria, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December, both for personal income tax and for corporate taxes 

Canada
In Canada, the government's financial year is 1 April to 31 March (Q1 1 April - 30 June, Q2 1 July - 30 Sept, Q3 1 Oct - 31 Dec and Q4 1 Jan - 31 Mar)
For individual taxpayers, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

China
In China, the fiscal year for all entities is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December, and applies to the tax year, statutory year, and planning year 

Colombia
In Colombia, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Costa Rica
In Costa Rica, the fiscal year is 1 October to 30 September 

Egypt
In Egypt, the fiscal year is 1 July to 30 June 

France
In France, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December, and has been since at least 1911 

Germany
In Germany, the fiscal year runs from 1st January until 31st December 

Greece
In Greece, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, the government's financial year runs from 1 April to 31 March However, a company incorporated in Hong Kong can determine its own financial year-end, which may be different from the government fiscal year 

India
In India, the government's financial year runs from 1 April to 31 March the following year  The financial year from 1 April 2020 to 31 March 2021 would generally be abbreviated as FY 2020-21, but it may also be called FY 2021 on the basis of the ending year  Companies following the Indian Depositary Receipt (IDR) are given freedom to choose their financial year  For example, Standard Chartered's IDR follows the UK calendar despite being listed in India  Companies following Indian fiscal year get to know their economic health on 31 March of every Indian financial or fiscal year 
The current fiscal year was adopted by the colonial British government in 1867 to align India's financial year with that of the British Empire  Prior to 1867, India followed a fiscal year that ran from 1 May to 30 April In 1984, the LK Jha committee recommended adopting a fiscal year that ran from 1 January to 31 December  However, this proposal was not adopted by the government fearing possible issues during the transition period  A panel set up by the NITI Aayog in July 2016, recommended starting the next fiscal year from 1 January to 31 December after the end of the current five-year plan On 4 May 2017, Madhya Pradesh announced that it would move to a January–December financial year, becoming the first Indian state to do so  But later it dropped the idea 

Indonesia
In Indonesia, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Iran
In Iran, the fiscal year usually starts on 21st or 22 March (1st of Farvardin in the Solar Hejri calendar) and concludes on next year's 20th or 21 March (29th or 30th of Esfand in the Solar Hijri calendar) 

Ireland
In Ireland, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December  Until 2001, it was the year ending 5 April, as in the United Kingdom, but was changed with the introduction of the euro  The 2001 tax year was nine months, from April to December 

Israel
In Israel, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Italy
In Italy, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December  It was changed in 1965, before which it was 1 July to 30 June 

Japan
In Japan, the government's financial year is from 1 April to 31 March Japan's income tax year is 1 January to 31 December, but corporate tax is charged according to the corporation's own annual period 

Lithuania
In Lithuania, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Macau
In Macau, the government's financial year is 1 January to 31 December 

Mexico
In Mexico, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Moldova
In Moldova, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Myanmar/Burma
In Myanmar, the fiscal year is 1 October to 30 September 

Nepal
In Nepal, the fiscal year is July 16 (1 Shrawan in Bikram calendar) to July 15 (31 Ashad in Bikram calendar) 

New Zealand
In New Zealand, the government's fiscal and financial reporting year is 1 July to the next 30 June and applies also to the budget  The company and personal financial year is 1 April to 31 March and applies to company and personal income tax 

Pakistan
In Pakistan, the government's fiscal year is 1 July of the previous calendar year and concludes on 30 June  Private companies are free to observe their own accounting year, which may not be the same as government's fiscal year 

Philippines
In the Philippines, the government's fiscal year is the calendar year, from 1 January to 31 December The accounting period for the private sector must follow a 12-month fiscal period which can or can not be synchronized with the calendar year  Most Philippine companies end their fiscal years in December or March 

Poland
In Poland, the fiscal year is the calendar year, from 1 January to 31 December 

Portugal
In Portugal, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Qatar
In Qatar, the fiscal year is from 1 January to 31 December 

Romania
In Romania, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Russia
In Russia, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Singapore
In Singapore, the fiscal year for the calculation of personal income taxes is 1 January to 31 December The fiscal year for the Government of Singapore and many government-linked corporations is 1 April to 31 March Corporations and organisations are permitted to select any date as the end of each fiscal year, as long as this date remains constant  However, new companies should consciously choose their financial year end to stretch as much as a duration of 12 months as possible 

South Africa
In South Africa, the financial year for the Government of South Africa is 1 April to 31 March The year of assessment for individuals covers twelve months, 1 March to the final day of February the following year  The Act also provides for certain classes of taxpayers to have a year of assessment ending on a day other than the last day of February  Companies are permitted to have a tax year ending on a date that coincides with their financial year  Many older companies still use a tax year that runs from 1 July to 30 June, inherited from the British system  A common practice for newer companies is to run their tax year from 1 March to the final day of February following, to synchronize with the tax year for individuals 

South Korea
In South Korea, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Spain
In Spain, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Sweden
In Sweden, the fiscal year for individuals is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December The fiscal year for an organisation is typically one of the following:

1 January to 31 December
1 May to 30 April
1 July to 30 June
1 September to 31 AugustHowever, all calendar months are allowed  If an organisation wishes to change into a non-calendar year, permission from the Tax Authority is required 

Switzerland
In Switzerland, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Taiwan
In Taiwan, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December  However, an enterprise may elect to adopt a special fiscal year at the time it is established and can request approval from the tax authorities to change its fiscal year 

Thailand
In Thailand, the government's fiscal year (FY) is 1 October to 30 September of the following year  For individual taxpayers it is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Turkey
In Turkey, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Ukraine
In Ukraine, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

United Arab Emirates
In the United Arab Emirates, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the financial year runs from 1 April to 31 March for the purposes of government financial statements  For personal tax purposes the fiscal year starts on 6 April and ends on 5 April of the next calendar year Although United Kingdom corporation tax is charged by reference to the government's financial year, companies can adopt any year as their accounting year: if there is a change in tax rate, the taxable profit is apportioned to financial years on a time basis A number of major corporations that were once government-owned, such as BT Group and the National Grid, continue to use the government's financial year, which ends on the last day of March, as they have found no reason to change since privatisation The 5 April year end for income tax reflects the old civil and ecclesiastical calendar under which New Year began on 25 March (Lady Day)  The difference between the two dates is accounted for by the eleven days omitted in September 1752 due to the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 by which Great Britain also converted from the Julian Calendar to the Gregorian Calendar  However, although the calendar year finished on 24 March, the tax year finished a day later, on 25 March, the Quarter Day 
For a fuller explanation about the history of the United Kingdom income tax year and its start date, see History of taxation in the United Kingdom#Why the United Kingdom income tax year begins on 6 April 

United States
Federal government
In the United States, the federal government's fiscal year is the 12-month period beginning 1 October and ending 30 September the following year  The identification of a fiscal year is the calendar year in which it ends; thus, the current fiscal year is 2023, often written as "FY2023" or "FY23", which began on 1 October 2022 and will end on 30 September 2023 
Until 1976, the fiscal year began on 1 July and ended on 30 June  The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 made the change to allow Congress more time to arrive at a budget each year, and provided for what is known as the "transitional quarter" from 1 July 1976 to 30 September 1976  An earlier shift in the federal government's fiscal year was made in 1843, shifting the fiscal year from a calendar year to one starting on 1 July For example, the United States government Fiscal Year 2023 is:

1st quarter: 1 October 2022 – 31 December 2022
2nd quarter: 1 January 2023 – 31 March 2023
3rd quarter: 1 April 2023 – 30 June 2023
4th quarter: 1 July 2023 – 30 September 2023

State governments
State governments set their own fiscal year  Forty-six of the fifty states set their fiscal year to end on 30 June  Four states have fiscal years that end on a different date:

Alabama, ends 30 September
Michigan, ends 30 September
New York, ends 31 March
Texas, ends 31 AugustThe fiscal year for the Washington, D C , government ends on 30 September Among the inhabited territories of the United States, most align with the federal fiscal year, ending on 30 September  These include American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U S  Virgin Islands  Puerto Rico is the exception, with its fiscal year ending on 30 June 

Vietnam
In Vietnam, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Businesses and organizations
The tax year for a business is governed by the fiscal year it chooses   A business may choose any consistent fiscal year that it wants; however, for seasonal businesses such as farming and retail, a good account practice is to end the fiscal year shortly after the highest revenue time of year   Consequently, most large agriculture companies end their fiscal years after the harvest season, and most retailers end their fiscal years shortly after the Christmas shopping season 

See also
4–4–5 calendar
Passage 8:
Headwall Pond
Headwall Pond (77°34′4″S 160°47′2″E) is a very small ice-covered pond in the Labyrinth of Wright Valley, in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica  The pond lies along a rock headwall close northeast of Craig Pond  The descriptive name was suggested by the United States Antarctic Program field party that sampled the pond in 2003–04 
Passage 9:
Acornsoft
Acornsoft was the software arm of Acorn Computers, and a major publisher of software for the BBC Micro and Acorn Electron  As well as games, it also produced a large number of educational titles, extra computer languages and business and utility packages – these included word processor VIEW and the spreadsheet ViewSheet supplied on ROM and cartridge for the BBC Micro/Acorn Electron and included as standard in the BBC Master and Acorn Business Computer 

History
Acornsoft was formed in late 1980 by Acorn Computers directors Hermann Hauser and Chris Curry, and David Johnson-Davies, author of the first game for a UK personal computer and of the official Acorn Atom manual "Atomic Theory and Practice"  David Johnson-Davies was managing director and in early 1981 was joined by Tim Dobson, Programmer and Chris Jordan, Publications Editor 
While some of their games were clones or remakes of popular arcade games (e g  Hopper is a clone of Sega's Frogger, Snapper is Namco's Pac-Man, Arcadians is Namco's Galaxian), they also published a number of original titles such as Aviator, Elite, and Revs  Acornsoft also published text adventures by authors such as Peter Killworth, including Philosopher's Quest (previously titled Brand X) and Countdown to Doom As a result of the publication of a method to circumvent copy protection measures employed by Acornsoft titles, a High Court injunction against Computing Publications - publisher of Personal Computer World - was granted to Acorn Computers "requiring all copies of the January 1984 issue of PCW to be withdrawn from sale", with the article concerned being regarded as inciting readers to "duplicate computer programs"  This injunction was subsequently lifted as a consequence of an out-of-court settlement between the parties involving a damages payment of £65,000 plus costs to Acorn "to meet Acorn's expenses in developing a new locking device"  The article's author, Guy Kewney, and the magazine's editor, Jane Bird, argued that printing a software routine showing how to save Acornsoft cassette software to disk was a service to the magazine's readers  The cost of printing the magazine issue concerned was estimated at £100,000 Acornsoft became a subsidiary within Acorn Computer Group, distinct from Acorn Computers who were responsible for the development of Acorn's microcomputer systems, but Acornsoft ceased to operate as a separate company upon the departure of David Johnson-Davies in January 1986  Past this date, Acorn Computers used the Acornsoft name on office software it released in the VIEW family for the BBC Master series  In 1986 Superior Software was granted a licence to publish some Acornsoft games and re-released many, individually and as compilations such as the Play It Again Sam and Acornsoft Hits series  By agreement, the Acornsoft name was also used on the packaging of some of the subsequent Superior games  Superior chose not to take on Acornsoft's text adventure games, most of which were released in updated versions by Topologika along with some sequels from the same authors 
In 1997, Acorn sought to revive the Acornsoft brand for new software releases, such as upgrades to RISC OS, programming tools, a new Web browser, multitasking movie playback (using Acorn Replay), and Java for RISC OS  A stated objective was to demonstrate that a "wide range of innovative software at competitive prices" was available for RISC OS, with support also being potentially offered to third-party software producers  Acornsoft products themselves would be supported by marketing, including advertising, and the provision of press review samples 

Branding
Acornsoft titles extended their consistent branding to the software's loading screens 

Select titles
Acheton – A text adventure
Arcadians – A Galaxian clone
Aviator – A Spitfire flight simulator  With aliens   
Black Box & Gambit - 2 board game type games which were the winning entries of a 'design a game' competition on ITV's The Saturday Show  Black Box was a licensed version of the Waddingtons game of the same name developed by Ben Finn who would go on to co-write Sibelius  Gambit was created by the Oliver Twins and their first commercially released game
Bouncer – A Q*Bert clone
Business Games – An educational package
Carousel – A Carnival clone
Castle of Riddles – A text adventure
Countdown to Doom – A text adventure; first in a trilogy (although sequels Return to Doom and Last Days of Doom were not published by Acornsoft)
Crazy Tracer – An Amidar clone
Creative Graphics – A series of graphical demonstrations of the BBC Micro's visual capabilities, with user editable code
Drogna – Strategy game based on a section of the BBC TV game show The Adventure Game
Elite – A 3D space battle and trading game
Firebug – A platform and ladders game
Free Fall – Survival game set in an out of control space station
Gateway to Karos – A text adventure
Graphs and Charts – Graphical mathematical modelling
Hopper – A Frogger clone
JCB Digger – A scrolling 2D dig-em-up
Kingdom of Hamil – A text adventure
Labyrinth – A 2D maze based shoot-em-up
Magic Mushrooms – A platform and ladders game with built-in level editor
Meteor Mission – A Lunar Rescue clone
Meteors – An Asteroids clone
Missile Base – A Missile Command clone
Monsters – A Space Panic clone
Philosopher's Quest – A text adventure
Planetoid – A Defender clone originally released as Defender
Revs – A Formula Three racing car simulation
Rocket Raid – A Scramble clone
Snapper – A Pac-Man clone
Sphinx Adventure – A text adventure
Starship Command – A 2D space battle game
Super Invaders – A Space Invaders clone
Volcano – A game in which you rescue people from the other side of an active volcano with a helicopter

Acornsoft Games range
Including all arcade, text adventure and board games  All games were compatible with the BBC Micro Model B  Games followed by Model A & B were compatible with both machines  Games followed by Electron were also released separately for the Acorn Electron  Games are listed by their catalogue numbers which are roughly the order of release of the BBC versions 

G01 Philosopher's Quest (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G02 Defender (BBC 1982) deleted for legal reasons and later re-released as Planetoid
G02 Aviator (BBC 1983) released with G26-G28 but re-used the deleted Defender's number
G03 Monsters (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G04 Snapper (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G05 Rocket Raid (BBC 1982)
G06 Arcade Action (BBC Model A & B 1982) 4 games: Invaders, Breakout, Dodgems and Snake
G07 Sphinx Adventure (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G08 Cube Master (BBC 1982)
G09 JCB Digger (BBC 1983)
G10 Chess (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G11 Maze (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G12 Sliding-Block Puzzles (BBC 1982)
G13 Meteors (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G14 Arcadians (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G15 Planetoid (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G16 Super Invaders (BBC 1982)
G17 Castle of Riddles (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G18 Missile Base (BBC 1982)
G19 Countdown to Doom (BBC 1982, Electron ROM Cartridge 1984)
G20 Draughts & Reversi (BBC Model A & B 1983, Electron 1983)
G21 Snooker (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G22 Starship Command (BBC 1983, Electron 1983)
G23 Hopper (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G24 Carousel (BBC 1983)
G25 Kingdom of Hamil (BBC 1983)
G26 Crazy Tracer (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G27 Drogna (BBC 1983)
G28 Free Fall (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G29 Meteor Mission (BBC 1984)
G30 Gateway to Karos (BBC 1983)
G31 Boxer (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G32 Tetrapod (BBC 1984)
G33 Volcano (BBC 1984)
G34 Black Box & Gambit (BBC 1984)
G35 Bouncer (BBC 1984)
G36 The Seventh Star (BBC 1984)
G37 Acheton (BBC 1984)
G38 Elite (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G39 Firebug (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G40 Quondam (BBC 1984)
G41 Labyrinth (BBC 1984)
G42 Go (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G43 Revs (BBC 1985)
G44 Revs 4 Tracks (BBC 1985) extra tracks for the main game
G45 Elite original BBC Micro 6502 Second Processor version
G46 Magic Mushrooms (BBC 1985, Electron 1985)
G47 Elite enhanced (BBC 1986) incl  6502 Second Processor and Master 128 versionsThere are also a number of completed but unreleased games that have found their way into the public domain such as Crazy Balloon, Hellforce and Bandit that date from around 1983 

Acornsoft Education range
Acornsoft produced a wide range of educational titles aimed at many different age groups 

E01 Algebraic Manipulation (BBC Model A & B 198?)
E02 Peeko-Computer (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984)
E03 Business Games (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984) 2 games: Stokmark and Telemark
E04 Tree of Knowledge (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
E05 Word Hunt (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
E06 Word Sequencing (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984)
E07 Sentence Sequencing (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
E08 Number Balance (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
E09 Missing Signs (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984)
E?? Speed and Light (BBC 198?)
E?? Density and Circuit (BBC 198?)
E12 Chemical Analysis (BBC 198?)
E13 Chemical Simulations (BBC 198?)
E14 Chemical Structures (BBC 198?)
E15 Jars (BBC 198?)
E16 Temperature Control Simulation (BBC 1983)
E17 The Examiner (BBC 198?)
E18 Spooky Manor (BBC 198?)
E19
E20
E21
E22 Talkback (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
E23 Workshop (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
E24 ABC (BBC 1984)Acornsoft also published and distributed a range of educational software developed by ASK (Applied Systems Knowledge) that were widely used in schools running BBC Micros  These included Podd (find out which actions a red blobby character can perform (e g  jump, smile, dance), Squeeze (a two player strategy game of squeezing shapes onto a board) and Cranky (solve maths problems to repair a living calculator)  These titles were part of the Acornsoft catalogue but used a different code (XBE?? – all other Acornsoft titles began with S so the Education range on BBC Micro cassettes would be SBE??)  They ran on both the BBC Micro Model B and Acorn Electron 
The Ivan Berg Software range was also mainly educational but had its own distinct code (XBX??)  This included the 6 Grandmaster Quizzes (Theatre, Crime & Detection, Music, History, Science Fiction and Royal), relationship aids "  I Do" Your Guide to a Happy Marriage and The Dating Game and GCE/CSE revision guides (Mathematics, Biology and English) 
Acornsoft also distributed other ranges of educational programs developed by companies such as ICL, Good Housekeeping and Bourne but they are not considered part of the official catalogue 

Acornsoft Business range
Acornsoft produced a range of office software for home and business use 

B01 Desk Diary (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
B02 Forecast (BBC 198?)
B03 VIEW (BBC 198?, Electron ROM cartridge 1984)
B04 VIEW Printer Drivers (BBC 198?)
B05 Personal Money Management (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
B06 Database (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
B07 ViewSheet (BBC 1984, Electron ROM cartridge 1984)
B08 Invoicing (BBC 1984)
B09 Mailing (BBC 1984)
B10 Accounts Receivable (BBC 1984)
B11 Stock Control (BBC 1984)
B12 Order Processing (BBC 1984)
B13 Accounts Payable (BBC 1984)
B14 Purchasing (BBC 1984)
B15 Hi-View (BBC 19??)
B26 P-System (BBC with 6502 Second Processor)The series continues but mainly with add-on products for the VIEW word processor such as ViewIndex (an automatic index generator) and ViewSpell (spell-checker) as well as newer versions 
View Professional (1987) was a combined wordprocessor, spreadsheet and database similar to PipeDream on the Z88 Although primarily a programming language suite, Acornsoft released its P-System product featuring UCSD Pascal and Fortran 77 compilers as part of its business range  Developed by TDI for Acornsoft, the product required a 6502 second processor and disc system, preferably with two drives  Despite the £299 price, various tools including an assembler and linker were omitted from the product, these being made available in a separate Advanced Development Toolkit from TDI 

Acornsoft Languages range
Acorn systems came with a version of the BBC BASIC programming language as standard but Acornsoft also produced a wide range of other languages that could be loaded in by cassette or disc or in some cases, supplied in ROM form 

L01 FORTH (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
L02 LISP (BBC 1982, Electron 1983, Electron ROM cartridge 1984)
L03 BCPL (BBC 1983)
L04 Microtext (BBC 1983)
L05 6502 Development System (BBC 1985)
L06 Logo (BBC 1983, Electron ROM cartridge 1985)
L07 Turtle Graphics (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
L08 S-Pascal (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
L09 LISP Demonstrations (BBC 1984)
L10 BCPL Calculations Package (BBC 198?)
L11
L12 BCPL Stand Alone Generator (BBC 1983)
L13 FORTH – ROM version (BBC 1984)
L14 LISP – ROM version (BBC 1982)
L15
L16
L17 PROLOG Micro (BBC 1985)
L18 ISO-Pascal (BBC 1984, Electron ROM cartridge 1985)
L19 COMAL (BBC 1984) 
L20
L21
L22 BASIC Editor (BBC 1985)
L23 Termulator (BBC 1987)
L24 ISO-Pascal Stand Alone Generator (BBC 198?)The relative performance of some of Acornsoft's languages was evaluated using a benchmark based on the Takeuchi function, Tak by former Acornsoft managing director, David Johnson-Davies, noting that "it is difficult to imagine a language that performs badly on Tak being much use for anything", illustrating a diversity amongst these language implementations in terms of readability, speed and generated code size  A follow-up article expanded the comparison to other language implementations such as Oxford Pascal, Z80 versions of BBC BASIC, Turbo Pascal and Small-C 

Acornsoft Graphics range and more
The graphics range was used to demonstrate the graphical power of the Acorn computers but only three titles were made available  The X?? code was then used for other types of software 

X01 Creative Graphics (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
X02 Graphs & Charts (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
X03 Picture Maker (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
X04 Shirley Conran's Magic Garden (BBC 1983)
X05 Collector's Catalogue (BBC 198?)
X06 Membership Manager (BBC 198?)
X07 One To Nine (BBC 198?)
X08 Hooked on Numbers (BBC 1983)
X09
X10 Complete Cocktail Maker (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
X11 Paul Daniels' Magic Show (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
X12 100 Programs for the BBC Micro (BBC 198?)
X13 Linkword French (BBC 1984)
X14 Linkword Italian (BBC 1984)
X15 Linkword Spanish (BBC 1984)
X16 Linkword German (BBC 1984)
X17 Watch Your Weight (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
X18 Me & My Micro (Electron 1984)The range took on various themes including Creative Sound (X26) 
Passage 10:
Blast Corps
Blast Corps is an action game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64  In the game, the player uses vehicles to destroy buildings in the path of a runaway nuclear missile carrier  In the game's 57 levels, the player solves puzzles by transferring between vehicles to move objects and bridge gaps  It was released in March 1997 in Japan and North America  A wider release followed at the end of that year 
The game was Rare's first game for the Nintendo 64  Its development team ranged between four and seven members, many of whom were recent graduates  The team sought to find gameplay to fit Rare co-founder Chris Stamper's idea for a building destruction game  The puzzle game mechanics were inspired by those of Donkey Kong (1994) 
Blast Corps was released to critical acclaim and received Metacritic's second highest Nintendo 64 game ratings of 1997  The game sold one million copies—lower than the team's expectations—and received several editor's choice awards  Reviewers praised its originality, variety, and graphics, but some criticized its controls and repetition  Reviewers of Rare's 2015 Rare Replay retrospective compilation noted Blast Corps as a standout title 

Gameplay
Blast Corps is a single-player action video game  The player controls vehicles to destroy buildings, farms, and other structures in the path of a runaway nuclear missile carrier  The player fails if the carrier collides with an object  The eight demolition vehicles vary in the way they clear structures: the bulldozer rams, the dump truck drifts, the lightweight buggy crashes from higher ground, the tricycle shoots missiles, another truck presses outwards from its sides, and robot mechs tumble and stomp from the land and the air  The player must transfer between vehicles and other machinery to solve puzzles  Objectives include transporting timed explosive crates and bridging gaps  The game's puzzles increase in difficulty as the player progresses through its 57 levels The world is portrayed from a three-quarters overhead view  The player can adjust the game's viewable perspective with zoom and horizontal panning functions  Pop-up hints will guide the player in the early stages of the game, and other characters audibly encourage the player as each level wears on  The cheery soundtrack increases in tempo as the level's timer runs low  After completing a level, the player can return to explore without a time limit  By finding secrets and activating lights throughout the level, the player raises their score and final medal ranking  There are also secret levels hidden throughout the game, where the player completes objectives against the clock  The player can compete against a ghost copy of their previous path through a level  There are no settings to change the game's difficulty, and the game saves to both the game cartridge itself and external storage 

Plot
The game's story takes place on a parallel Earth, in which mankind lives in relative peace, until an event occurs that threatens the lives of the whole planet  The national government of an unnamed country discovers that the transportation of two defective nuclear missiles has gone wrong, after they begin leaking radiation  The automated carrier transporting them becomes damaged as a result and automatically sets itself on a direct course towards the site for a controlled detonation, effectively placing it in danger where the slightest jolt from hitting buildings or falling into pits would trigger the missiles, causing a catastrophic explosion 
To prevent this, the government hires the demolition company known as Blast Corps - founded by several former military soldiers who were stationed in the base the missiles came from, until an accident involving one of their members led the others to desert their post  Using a variety of different machines to assist them, Blast Corps assigns a new recruit to help clear the carrier's path, ensuring it can get past areas safely, while at the same time seeking out a group of missing scientists needed to conduct the safe detonation of the missiles  Dealing with an array of difficult situations, Blast Corps manages to prevent catastrophe, finding the scientists and putting an end to the threat from the missiles 
After Blast Corps successfully complete their mission, the company finds themselves contracted to help clear several buildings in a city in order to create an emergency runway for a space shuttle returning to Earth  The company successfully completes the mission, later earning a contract to clear debris on the moon, before its employees take a well-earned break after establishing a reputation for being the best demolition company in the business 

Development
Blast Corps was among Rare's first games for the Nintendo 64 and led a run of seven critically acclaimed Rare titles for the console  The game's production began in early 1996  The development team consisted of four recent graduates, though it expanded at times to seven concurrent staff  Martin Wakeley became the game's lead designer  He credited the team's small size for their easy progression from planning to market  Rare founder Chris Stamper was the impetus for the project  He had wanted to make a game about destroying buildings for years prior to Blast Corps's development  The team worked to fit his idea to a gameplay concept and devised a "Constantly Moving Object" conceit that would give the levels a time limit  This idea became the nuclear missile carrier 

Retro Gamer credited Wakeley for Blast Corps's idiosyncratic ideas and humor in light of the game's serious premise  For instance, the Mario Kart 64 "power slide" drift mechanics inspired that of Blast Corps's dump truck  Wakeley championed the drift controls against the rest of the team, who found them aggravating  The game's lead artist, Ricky Berwick, had developed the vehicle concepts without consideration for their in-game function, and the vehicles were only later retrofitted to the gameplay  One of the robot vehicles was designed without an arm because the developers had run out of computer memory to store the data and liked the look anyway  Wakeley determined the game's high score "goal medal" objectives, in which players would attempt to better a set completion time on each level  Blast Corps's Japanese and American quality assurance teams later competed to push the levels to their limits, which resulted in the game's platinum level objectives  Wakeley described these platinum challenges as "just insane" and said he could only finish four himself Wakeley saw Blast Corps as a puzzle game at its core  He was influenced by the 1994 Donkey Kong, in which the player begins each level with all the tools they need to finish but must learn how to use them  Wakeley said this was Blast Corp's core game mechanic  He was also inspired by the Super Mario 64 demo at Nintendo's annual trade show in 1995, which introduced him to the 3D analog stick and spurred him to achieve something similar  The team's technical accomplishments included character and environment models composed completely of polygons and the absence of distance fog to obscure the draw distance Nintendo published Blast Corps for their Nintendo 64  In its 1995 trade show preview, it was originally titled Blast Dozer, a name it retained for its Japanese release  (The team had considered other titles, including "Heavy Duty Heroes", "Blast Radius", and "Power Dozer" ) Blast Corps was first released in Japan on March 21, 1997, and in North America three days later  Its European and Australian release followed on December 22  The game had been in production for just over a year 

Reception
The game received "universal acclaim", according to review aggregator Metacritic, and "unanimous critical success", according to Retro Gamer  Reviewers highly praised the novelty and variety of Blast Corps's gameplay  Peer Schneider of IGN, in particular, lauded the game's originality  Trent Ward commented in GameSpot that the premise taps into childhood fantasies, while "the unique relationship between the terrain and the vehicles you pilot ensures that Blast Corps will exercise your mind as well as your reflexes" Reviewers struggled to master the game's controls  GamePro's Slo Mo praised this aspect of the game, saying that even mastering the extreme precision of the steering is fun, and rewards the player with both better gameplay technique and an appreciation for the strong distinction between the game's many vehicles  Schneider likewise overcame his initial concerns to appreciate the complexity of the controls and the differences between the vehicles  He considered the locked camera view restrictive when compared to the unrestricted 3D camera in the game's contemporaries  Schneider thought the game should have been longer, with fewer bonus levels and more main missions, though he did appreciate the pacing, design, and difficulty of the included levels  Slo Mo instead asserted that "Over 60 levels and hidden areas within hidden areas give you your money's worth"  A Next Generation critic agreed, asserting that the vast size of the levels and numerous secrets and bonus areas make Blast Corps "one of the few Nintendo 64 games that justifies its exorbitant price tag"  Shawn Smith and Sushi-X of Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM) thought the game was repetitive, as did Computer and Video Games  The latter, though, praised Blast Corps's level design and difficulty progression  Ward had fewer reservations, writing that "basically what you have here is a game with great graphics, great sound, and a great premise  What's even more impressive is that the game doesn't really have any substantial flaws to speak of – unless you want to count lack of a two-player mode, which really isn't fair " Crispin Boyer of EGM wrote that the game's best feature was its "palpable sense of suspense" as the carrier advanced on resistant buildings Critics praised the game's graphics and sound  Schneider found the game unpretentious in comparison to video game trends of photorealistic rendering and cartoonish art  He likened the slick vehicle animations and metallic elements to Micro Machines and Rare's R C  Pro-Am  Schneider praised the game's texture maps, which made the night scenes and houses look realistic, and the canyons breathtaking  He wrote that the game's 3D programming was errorless, and was particularly pleased about the game's lack of fog, usually used to cover developer limitations  EGM echoed Schneider's praise of the deep landscapes, which Boyer called "incredible"  Scott McCall (AllGame) praised the game's realistic polygonal models and technical prowess, and Steve Polak (The Weekend Australian) wrote that Blast Corps showcased the console's graphics capabilities  Schneider described the soundtrack as between "70s pop, disaster movie score, and Country Bear Jamboree"  He praised the range of engine, tire screeching, and crashing sound effects  Reviewers disliked the country music tracks with jaw harp IGN wrote that Blast Corps exemplified qualities of enjoyable Nintendo Entertainment System and arcade games, while EGM considered the game unlike all others  Retro Gamer wrote that the game's combination of puzzles and continuous destruction made the game so unique as to defy genre classification  The magazine described the gameplay concept of returning to explore without a time limit as "a stroke of genius"  Retro Gamer thought of Blast Corps as a 3D successor to "nail-biting reaction games" such as Loco-Motion  Computer and Video Games agreed with a reader that Blast Corps was part of a "Destroy" subgenre including games like Desert Strike, Return Fire, and Body Harvest, and Matt Fox of The Video Games Guide put the game in a lineage with Highway Encounter and Lunar Jetman  Slo Mo said it was "like Pilotwings with a kamikaze twist  It's a multifaceted game that melds a slick vehicle sim and a mind-thumping action/strategy challenge with massive destructive force " Schneider said Blast Corps was on par with the quality of Shigeru Miyamoto games and an excellent display of Rare's potential  Next Generation described it as "effectively every Tonka fantasy brought vividly and explosively to life" EGM named it a runner-up for "Most Original Game of the Year" (behind PaRappa the Rapper) at their 1997 Editors' Choice Awards Blast Corps sold close to a million copies  The game sold reasonably well in Japan  Metacritic ranked the title among the top ten games released in 1997  It remained Metacritic's highest ranked 1997 Nintendo 64 game after GoldenEye 007  Blast Corps was selected as Electronic Gaming Monthly's May 1997 Game of the Month and an IGN Editors' Choice  Later the same year, Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked it number 93 on their 100 best console video games of all time, remarking, "C'mon, not only are you driving all the vehicles you thought were mega cool as a kid – you're using 'em to plow through buildings " Four of six Nintendo Power reviewers recommended the game 

Legacy
Wakeley, the game's designer, considered making a sequel as an action combat game, but thought the concepts behind Blast Corps had been fully exhausted  After praising the game in a 2010 Rare retrospective feature, Retro Gamer's writers craved a sequel  The magazine said the title was proof of the company's inventiveness  Steve Ellis, who was a programmer at Rare, thought Blast Corps to be among the company's most underrated games, and though its physics were now dated, he continued to find the game fun enough to revisit regularly  Blast Corps is included in Rare Replay, a compilation of 30 Rare titles, released on the Xbox One on August 4, 2015  The release's bonus features included behind-the-scenes interviews with Blast Corps's developers  Blast Corps was a standout favorite among Rare Replay reviewers Rare's Blast Corps began a run of highly praised Nintendo 64 games, including GoldenEye 007, Banjo-Kazooie, Perfect Dark, and Jet Force Gemini  Retro Gamer wrote that Rare had doubled the number of classic Nintendo 64 games and was an important alliance for Nintendo  Microsoft acquired Rare in 2002 for a record price of $377 million  After the industry had changed, Blast Corps designer Martin Wakeley reflected a decade after the game's 1997 release  In 2009, Wakeley said, a studio would rarely entrust the scope of a project like Blast Corps to a team of four recent graduates The staff of Nintendo Power (1997) and IGN (2014) both listed Blast Corps in the bottom halves of their top 100 Nintendo games of all time  Official Nintendo Magazine ranked the game 84th on a list of the greatest Nintendo games 
Passage 11:
The Long Week-End
The Long Week-End is a social history of interwar Britain, written by Robert Graves and Alan Hodge  It was first published in 1940, just after the end of the period it treats 
Their story covers a wide range of popular and social themes, including politics, business, science, religion, art, literature, fashion, education, popular amusements, domestic life, sexual relations, and much else The Long Week-End has gone through several reprints, the latest in 2009 by the Folio Society 
Historian Adrian Tinniswood named his 2016 book, The Long Weekend: Life in the English Country House, 1918–1939, after it 

Reception
In a contemporary book review in the peer-reviewed Journal of Modern History, William D  Clark wrote, "To write a social history of England from the newspapers of the last twenty years… demands extraordinary powers of selection and interpretation  Mr  Graves has given us proof that he possesses such powers, but unfortunately in this book he resolutely refuses to use them, misled perhaps by the ideals of the Mass-Observation school  The result is a strange unfocused photograph of the times, in which, although the 'camera-eye' has not lied, it has failed entirely to introduce any perspective or integration " A 1941 review by Kirkus Reviews summarized the book with; "a graphic panorama of fads, fancies, facts, foibles and fingerposts along the way from war to war    Thoroughly good reading of the background of those years, if one wants to look back "
Passage 12:
Linguistics (journal)
Linguistics: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the Language Sciences is a peer-reviewed academic journal of general linguistics published by De Gruyter Mouton  The journal publishes both articles and book reviews  It  publishes two special issues a year  The current Editor-in-Chief is Johan van der Auwera  Since 2010, it publishes 1400 pages per year 

History
Linguistics was started in 1963 by Mouton Publishers in The Hague, apparently on the initiative of Mouton's Peter de Ridder as well as linguist C H  van Schooneveld  In 1979, after Mouton had been bought by Walter de Gruyter, a new editorial board was established, consisting of Brian Butterworth, Bernard Comrie, Östen Dahl, Norbert Dittmar, Flip Droste, Jaap van Marle, and Jürgen Weissenborn  De facto, Brian Butterworth was editor-in-chief between 1979 and 1982  From 1982 through 2005, the editor was Wolfgang Klein, who was succeeded by Johan van der Auwera 

Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:

The journal has a Thomson Reuters 2015 impact factor of 0 763 and a 5-year impact factor of 0 872 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Hans Modrow
Hans Modrow (German pronunciation: [ˈhans ˈmoːdʁo]; 27 January 1928 – 10 February 2023) was a German politician best known as the last communist premier of East Germany 
Taking office in the middle of the Peaceful Revolution, he was the de facto leader of the country for much of the winter of 1989 and 1990  He was a transitional figure, paving the way to the first and only free elections in East Germany and including many opposition politicians in his cabinet  
After the end of Communist rule and reunification of Germany, he was convicted of electoral fraud and perjury by the Dresden District Court in 1995, on the basis that he had been the SED official nominally in charge of the electoral process  He was later convicted of the first charge and was given a nine-month suspended sentence  One of the few high-ranking former SED officials to not have been expelled, he was the honorary chairman of the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) and was the president of the "council of elders" of the Left Party from 2007 

Early life and education
Modrow was born on 27 January 1928 in Jasenitz, Province of Pomerania, German Reich, now Jasienica, part of the town of Police in Poland  As a child he was a Hitler Youth leader and attended a Volksschule  He trained as a machinist from 1942 to 1945 when he was filled with intense hatred of the Bolsheviks, whom he deemed as subhumans, inferior to Germans physically and morally  For six months during the Allied bombing of Stettin he served as a volunteer firefighter  He later served briefly in the Volkssturm in January 1945, and was subsequently captured as a prisoner of war by the Soviet Red Army in Stralsund in May 1945  He and other German prisoners were sent to a farm in Hinterpommern to work  Upon arrival, his backpack was stolen, making him begin to rethink the Germans' so-called camaraderie  Days later, he was appointed a driver to a Soviet captain, who asked him about Heinrich Heine, a German poet  Modrow had never heard of him and felt embarrassed that the people he thought of as "subhumans" knew more about German culture than he  Transported to a POW camp near Moscow, he joined a National Committee for a Free Germany anti-fascist school run by future SED Politburo member Alfred Neumann for Wehrmacht members and received training in Marxism-Leninism, which he embraced  Upon release in 1949 he worked as a machinist for LEW Hennigsdorf  That same year he joined the Socialist Unity Party (SED) From 1949 to 1961, Modrow worked in various functions for the Free German Youth (FDJ) in Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, and Berlin and in 1952 and 1953 studied at the Komsomol college in Moscow  In 1953, he attended the state funeral of Joseph Stalin  After Nikita Khrushchev's Secret Speech at the 20th Party Congress condemning Stalin and beginning de-Stalinization, Modrow claimed to have complained to his former teacher Neumann "Comrade, this is unacceptable — you are accusing us of having learned Stalin off by heart, but I never had the inclination to do this myself, you asked us to!" From 1953 to 1961, he served as an FDJ functionary in East Berlin  From 1954 to 1957, he studied at the SED's Karl Marx school in Berlin, graduating as a social scientist  In 1959 to 1961 he studied at the University of Economics in Berlin-Karlshorst and obtained the degree of graduate economist  He gained his doctorate at the Humboldt University of Berlin in 1966  West Germany's Federal Intelligence Service (BND) kept Modrow under observation from 1958 to 2013 

Communist party career
Modrow had a long political career in East Germany, serving as a member of the Volkskammer from 1957 to 1990 and in the SED's Central Committee (ZK) from 1967 to 1989, having previously been a candidate for the ZK from 1958 to 1967  From 1961 to 1967 he was first secretary of the district administration of the SED in Berlin-Köpenick and secretary for agitation and propaganda from 1967 to 1971 in the SED's district leadership in Berlin  During this time he was involved in the formation of the Union Berlin football club, which is based in the Köpenick district  From 1971 to 1973 he worked as the head of the SED's department of agitation  In 1975 he was awarded the GDR's Patriotic Order of Merit in gold and received the award of the Order of Karl Marx in 1978 From 1973 onward, he was the SED's first secretary in Dresden, East Germany's third-largest city  He was prevented from rising any further than a local party boss, largely because he was one of the few SED leaders who dared to publicly criticise longtime SED chief Erich Honecker  He developed some important contacts with the Soviet Union, including eventual Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev  Modrow initially supported Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika reforms  In early 1987, Gorbachev and the KGB explored the possibility of installing Modrow as Honecker's successor  From 1988 to 1989, the Stasi, under the orders of Honecker and Erich Mielke, conducted a massive surveillance operation against Modrow with the intention of gathering enough evidence to convict him of high treason 

Peaceful Revolution and premiership
During the Peaceful Revolution of 1989, Modrow ordered thousands of Volkspolizei, Stasi, Combat Groups of the Working Class, and National People's Army troops to crush a demonstration at the Dresden Hauptbahnhof on 4–5 October  Some 1,300 people were arrested  In a top secret and encrypted telex to Honecker on 9 October, Modrow reported: "With the determined commitment of the comrades of the security organs, anti-state terrorist riots were suppressed" When Honecker was toppled on 18 October, Gorbachev hoped that Modrow would become the new leader of the SED  Egon Krenz was selected instead  He became premier following the resignation of Willi Stoph on 13 November, four days after the Berlin Wall fell  The SED formally abandoned power on 1 December  Krenz resigned two days later, on 3 December  Since the premiership was the highest state post in East Germany, Modrow became the de facto leader of the country To defeat the opposition's demand for the complete dissolution of the Stasi, it was renamed as the "Office for National Security" (Amt für Nationale Sicherheit – AfNS) on 17 November 1989  Modrow's attempt to re-brand it further as the "Office for the Protection of the Constitution of the GDR" (Verfassungsschutz der DDR) failed due to pressure from the public and the opposition parties and the AfNS was dissolved on 13 January 1990  The Modrow government gave orders to destroy incriminating Stasi files On 7 December 1989, Modrow accepted the proposal of the East German Round Table opposition groups to hold free elections within six months  Modrow and the Round Table agreed on 28 January to bring the elections forward to 18 March  By this time, the SED had added "Party of Democratic Socialism" to its name; the SED portion was dropped altogether in February  Some of the Round Table parties strove for a "third way" model of democratic socialism and therefore agreed with Modrow to slow down or block a reunification with capitalist West Germany  As the SED-PDS regime grew weaker, Modrow on 1 February 1990 proposed a slow, three-stage process that would create a neutral German confederation and continued to oppose "rapid" reunification  The collapse of the East German state and economy in early 1990 and the approaching East German free elections allowed Helmut Kohl's government in Bonn to disregard Modrow's demand for neutrality From 5 February 1990 on, Modrow included eight representatives of opposition parties and civil liberties groups as ministers without portfolio in his cabinet  On 13 February 1990, Modrow met with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, asking for an accommodation loan of 15 billion DM, which was rejected by Kohl  Modrow remained premier until the 18 March 1990 elections  The PDS expelled Honecker, Krenz, and other Communist-era leaders in February 1990 

Criminal sentence
On 27 May 1993, the Dresden District Court found Modrow guilty of electoral fraud committed in the Dresden municipal elections in May 1989, specifically, understating the percentage of voters who refused to vote for the official slate  The judge declined to impose a prison sentence or a fine  The Dresden District Court revoked the decision in August 1995 and Modrow was sentenced to nine months on probation  Modrow did not directly deny the charges, but argued that the trial was politically motivated and that the court lacked jurisdiction for crimes committed in East Germany   "We were all members of a political system," he said, speaking to the court in Dresden   "Some perhaps had the good fortune not to come into contact with manipulation, while others could not or were not allowed to turn away "

Later life and death
After German reunification, Modrow served as a member of the Bundestag (1990–1994) and of the European Parliament (1999–2004)  After leaving office, he wrote a number of books on his political experiences, his continued Marxist political views, and his disappointment at the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc  Although a supporter of Gorbachev's reforms in the 1980s, after the fall of Communism he criticised them for weakening the Eastern Bloc's economy  In 2006, he suggested both West Germany and East Germany were responsible for the killings of East Germans by the communist regime at the Berlin Wall, and later defended the construction of the wall as a necessary measure to prevent a war over West Berlin  He also called East Germany an "effective democracy"  He was criticised for maintaining contacts with Neo-Stalinist groups  In 2018, he sued the Federal Intelligence Service for access to West German intelligence files on him from the Cold War  In 2019 he criticised the enlargement of NATO, which he also opposed reunified Germany's membership in  Modrow died on 10 February 2023, aged 95  He was buried at Dorotheenstadt Cemetery 

Citations
Passage 2:
Mátyás Szűrös
Mátyás Szűrös (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈmaːcaːʃ ˈsyːrøʃ]; born 11 September 1933 in Püspökladány) is a Hungarian politician  He served as provisional president of the Republic from 23 October 1989 to 2 May 1990  His presidency occurred during Hungary's transition from Communism to democratic government 

Biography
Szűrös served as Speaker of the National Assembly of Hungary from March 1989 to May 1990  In the fall of 1989, as part of an agreement between the Communists and the opposition to establish multiparty democracy, the 1949 Constitution was almost completely rewritten to remove its Communist character  The Presidential Council, the country's Communist-era collective presidency, was dissolved  Under the Constitution, Szűrös became provisional president until the election  Soon after taking office on 23 October he made the official proclamation that Hungary had removed the "People's Republic" from its constitutional name and was now the "Republic of Hungary "He remained in parliament until 2002 as a member of the Hungarian Socialist Party, often voting against the party consensus  He quit the party, in 2002, joined the newly established New Left Party and ran as their prime minister candidate at the parliamentary elections, but the party only got 0 1% of the popular vote  In 2003, he joined the Social Democratic Party and was later elected chairman of the party  He resigned his position in 2005 
Passage 3:
Friedrich Ebert Foundation
The Friedrich Ebert Foundation (German: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e V ; Abbreviation: FES) is a German political party foundation associated with, but independent from, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)  Established in 1925 as the political legacy of Friedrich Ebert, Germany's first democratically elected President, it is the largest and oldest of the German party-associated foundations  It is headquartered in Bonn and Berlin, and has offices and projects in over 100 countries  It is Germany's oldest organisation to promote democracy, political education, and promote students of outstanding intellectual abilities and personality 

History
The FES was named after Friedrich Ebert (1871–1925), the Social Democratic President of Germany, 1919–1925  In his will, he specified that the proceeds from donations at his funeral should be used to create a foundation   The SPD chairman at the time, Konrad Ludwig, was given the responsibility of building this foundation, which he did a few days after Ebert's death in 1925  The main concern of the foundation was to work against discrimination of workers in the area of education: "The Friedrich Ebert Foundation pursues the goal of giving young, empowered proletarians government aid to fund an education at state-accredited institutions  As a basic principle, only those people who have a recommendation from the party organisation will receive funding " (SPD Yearbook 1926) By the end of 1931, 295 students had been funded with over 52,000 marks  At this point the funding of the foundation fell through, as a result of the Great Depression  The FES was a section of the Social Democratic Education and Culture Organisation, and was banned along with the party itself in 1933 by the Nazis 
In 1946, the FES was reinstituted at the founding assembly of the Socialist German Student Federation  In 1954, the FES was restructured into a charitable organisation "for the advancement of democratic education"  This established the FES as an independent, self-contained institute  In addition to education programmes, the FES has also worked in the area of development aid since the 1960s  In this effort, it has supported democracy and freedom movements, for instance in the African National Congress (ANC), and played an important role in overcoming dictatorial regimes in Greece, Spain, and Portugal   Thus it was not a coincidence that the Socialist Party of Portugal was formed in an FES school in the German town of Bad Münstereifel 
The German state did subsidize the work of the foundation with 170 Million Euros in 2018 

Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Academic Foundation
The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Academic Foundation (FES) is one of thirteen state-funded organizations for the promotion of young talents (Begabtenförderwerke) in Germany  Less than 1% of German students achieve a scholarship at one of the thirteen organizations (i e  FES, Studienstiftung, Konrad Adenauer Foundation, Friedrich Naumann Foundation, Hanns Seidel Foundation, Heinrich Böll Foundation, Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, Cusanuswerk, Ernst Ludwig Ehrlich Scholarship Fund)  It is financially funded and subsidized by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and supports students with outstanding academical and political achievements  Awards are granted after a multi-stage selection process and are based on grades, letters of recommendation, letters of motivation, political and social engagement as well as personality and character  Until today it has sponsored more than 12,000 grantees  Over 90% of those sponsored graduate with honours   In 2005, there were 1,731 students in the programme, of which 51% were women   
Beyond the financial support, grantees also receive so-called ideational support, which comes from opportunities to attend political seminars, conferences, and other activities, which can be important job qualifications  Students are assigned advisors who work with them for the length of their grants 
Each year, the grantees vote for a board during the nationwide conference at the Gustav Stresemann Institute in Bonn   This board serves for the next full year as the representation of grantees for dialog with the foundation   The FES maintains a website ([1] www fes-stip de) for networking among grantees, which includes a wide variety of mailing lists, services, and communications tools 
Since 1971, foreign students have also had the opportunity to receive grants through solidarity funds   Preference for these grants goes to people who are persecuted on political, racial or religious grounds   Funding for this program comes exclusively from donations from current and former grantees   The program have helped over 1,000 students  Currently there are 31 students who are in the solidarity programme  Two grantees from this programme are chosen every year at the conference in Bonn to work on the steering committee of the fund 

Further activities
Today, the Friedrich Ebert Foundation's main goals are to promote political and societal education of people from all walks of life in the spirit of democracy and pluralism, to enable young people the opportunity to study and do research through grants, and to work toward international understanding and cooperation 
The foundation employs several hundred employees in their offices in Bonn and Berlin, as well as in 14 regional offices and an academy within Germany and in over 100 foreign agencies   It is financed mainly through grants from the federal budget and the budgets of the various Bundesländer 
The FES had its own conference center on the Venusberg in Bonn for these activities until its closure in 2009   
The historical research center of the foundation also contains the Archive of Social Democracy and its libraries in Bonn and at the Karl Marx House in Trier   This is one of the largest collections of documents on social history and the history of the workers movement 
Since 1982, the foundation has awarded a prize of 10,000 euro called Das politische Buch ("The Political Book") to promote noteworthy political books  The prize serves to remind people of the Nazi book burnings of May 10, 1933 

Controversy
In 2017, Friedrich Ebert Foundation was attacked by a group dubbed “Pawn Storm”, the same cyber spy group that targeted that year's campaign of French presidential candidate Emmanuel Macron; the group used email phishing tricks and attempted to install malware at the foundation In 2022, the Friedrich Ebert Foundation was barred from working in Russia 

Leadership
1953–1970: Gerhard Weisser
1970–1983: Alfred Nau
1983–1987: Heinz Kühn
1987–2003: Holger Börner (chairman laureate from 2003 until his death in 2006)
2003–2010: Anke Fuchs
2010–2012: Peter Struck
2013–2020: Kurt Beck and Dieter Schulte (interim since Struck's death)
2020–present: Martin Schulz

See also
Konrad Adenauer Foundation (CDU)
Hanns Seidel Foundation (CSU)
Friedrich Naumann Foundation für die Freiheit (FDP)
Heinrich Böll Foundation (Grüne)
Rosa Luxemburg Foundation (Die Linke)
Desiderius-Erasmus-Stiftung (AfD)
Passage 4:
LSV Berlin
LSV Berlin was a short-lived German association football club from the city of Berlin  It served as the sports club for Luftwaffe (German air force) personnel in the city during World War II and disappeared with the end of the conflict 

History
The formation of military-based sports and football clubs was common under the Third Reich and they took part in the country's established football competition alongside traditional civilian clubs 
German football was re-organized under the Reich's politically motivated sports policies in 1933 into sixteen top-flight regional divisions  Luftwaffensportverein Berlin was a latecomer to the Gauliga Berlin-Brandenburg, joining the top-flight division for the 1943–44 season and earning a 2nd-place result As the tide of the war turned against Germany and Allied forces invaded the country, most military football sides were disbanded  LSV Berlin was lost in September 1944, before the start of the 1944–45 season, its place in the Oberliga being taken by SG OrPo Berlin 

Stadium
LSV played its home matches in Steitstaße Spandau or Mommsenstadion (capacity 37,570) 
Passage 5:
Gleiwitz incident
The Gleiwitz incident (German: Überfall auf den Sender Gleiwitz; Polish: Prowokacja gliwicka) was a false flag attack on the radio station Sender Gleiwitz in Gleiwitz (then Germany and now Gliwice, Poland) staged by Nazi Germany on the night of 31 August 1939  Along with some two dozen similar incidents, the attack was manufactured by Germany as a casus belli to justify the invasion of Poland  Prior to the invasion, Adolf Hitler gave a radio address condemning the acts and announcing German plans to attack Poland, which began the next morning  Despite the German government using the attack as a justification to go to war with Poland, the Gleiwitz assailants were not Polish but were German SS officers wearing Polish uniforms  
During his declaration of war, Hitler did not mention the Gleiwitz incident but grouped all provocations staged by the SS as an alleged "Polish assault" on Germany  The Gleiwitz incident is the best-known action of Operation Himmler, a series of special operations undertaken by the Schutzstaffel (SS) to serve German propaganda at the outbreak of war  The operation was intended to create the appearance of a Polish aggression against Germany to justify the invasion of Poland  On September 3, Britain and France declared war on Germany, and the European theatre of World War II had begun  Manufactured evidence for the Gleiwitz attack by the SS was provided by the German SS officer Alfred Naujocks in 1945 

Events at Gleiwitz
Much of what is known about the Gleiwitz incident comes from the affidavit of SS-Sturmbannführer Alfred Naujocks at the Nuremberg Trials  In his testimony, he stated that he organised the incident under orders from Reinhard Heydrich and Heinrich Müller, chief of the Gestapo  On the night of 31 August, a small group of German operatives dressed in Polish uniforms and led by Naujocks seized the Gleiwitz station and broadcast a short anti-German message in Polish (sources vary on the content of the message)   The operation was named "Grossmutter gestorben" (Grandmother died)  The operation was to make the attack and the broadcast look like the work of Polish anti-German saboteurs  The operation was planned and carried out from the Sławięcice Palace (Schloss Slawentzitz) To make the attack seem more convincing, the Gestapo executed Franciszek Honiok, a 43-year-old unmarried Upper Silesian Catholic farmer, known for sympathising with the Poles  He had been arrested the previous day by the Gestapo and dressed to look like a saboteur, then rendered unconscious by an injection of drugs, then killed by gunshot wounds  Honiok was left dead at the scene so that he appeared to have been killed while attacking the station  His corpse was then presented to the police and press as proof of the attack  Several prisoners from the Dachau concentration camp were drugged, shot dead on the site and their faces disfigured to make identification impossible  The Germans referred to them by the code phrase "Konserve" (canned goods)  Some sources incorrectly refer to the incident as Operation Canned Goods In an oral testimony at the trials, Erwin von Lahousen stated that his division of the Abwehr was one of two that were given the task of providing Polish Army uniforms, equipment and identification cards; he was later told by Wilhelm Canaris that people from concentration camps had been disguised in these uniforms and ordered to attack the radio stations Oskar Schindler, who is credited with later saving the lives of 1,200 Jews during the Holocaust, played a role in supplying the Polish uniforms and weapons used in the operation as an agent for the Abwehr 

Context
The Gleiwitz incident was a part of a larger operation carried out by Abwehr and SS forces  Other orchestrated incidents were conducted along the Polish–German border at the same time as the Gleiwitz attack, such as a house burning in the Polish Corridor and spurious propaganda  The project was called Operation Himmler and comprised incidents intended to give the appearance of Polish aggression against Germany  German newspapers and politicians, including Adolf Hitler, had made accusations against Polish authorities for months before the 1939 invasion of organising or tolerating violent ethnic cleansing of ethnic Germans living in Poland  On 1 September, the day following the Gleiwitz attack, Germany launched Fall Weiss (Case White), the strategic plan for the invasion of Poland, which precipitated World War II in Europe  Hitler cited the border incidents in a speech in the Reichstag on the same day, with three of them called very serious, as justification for his invasion of Poland  Hitler had told his generals on 22 August, "I will provide a propagandistic casus belli  Its credibility doesn't matter  The victor will not be asked whether he told the truth" 

International reactions
American correspondents were summoned to the scene the next day but no neutral parties were allowed to investigate the incident in detail and the international public was skeptical of the German version of the incident 

In popular culture
There have been several adaptations of the incident in cinema  Der Fall Gleiwitz (1961), directed by Gerhard Klein for DEFA studios (The Gleiwitz Case; English subtitles), is an East German film that reconstructs the events Operacja Himmler (1979) is a Polish film that covers the events Both Die Blechtrommel (1979), directed by Volker Schlöndorff and Hitler's SS: Portrait in Evil (1985), directed by Jim Goddard, briefly include the incident It was also mentioned in a video game; Codename: Panzers (2004), which stirred up some controversy in Poland where the game was briefly discussed in Polish media as anti-Polish falsification of history, before the issue was cleared up as a case of poor reporting 

See also
1939 in Poland
1939 Tarnow rail station bomb attack
Jablunkov incident
Mukden Incident, a similar false flag operation that started the Japanese invasion of Manchuria
Nazi crimes against the Polish nation
Operation Greif
Shelling of Mainila, a similar false flag operation that started the Soviet invasion of Finland
Passage 6:
1990 Polish presidential election
Presidential elections were held in Poland on 25 November 1990, with a second round on 9 December  They were the first direct presidential elections in the history of Poland, and the first free presidential elections since the May Coup of 1926  Before World War II, presidents were elected by the Sejm   From 1952 to 1989—the bulk of the Communist era—the presidency did not exist as a separate institution, and most of its functions were fulfilled by the State Council of Poland, whose chairman was considered the equivalent of a president 
The leader of the Solidarity movement, Lech Wałęsa, won the first round  However, he did not earn over 50% of the vote, which led to a runoff election  Wałęsa faced Polish-Canadian businessman Stanisław Tymiński in the second round, defeating him easily 

Background
Wałęsa was an electrician and union leader with the image of an emotional, shirtsleeves populist  The first non-communist prime minister, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, was very popular and widely considered a front-runner   He appeared as a more respectable and intellectual leader than Wałęsa   but also as more of a compromiser   However, in the first round, Mazowiecki finished in a distant third, with only 18 7 percent of the vote, well behind Tymiński 
The reasons for Tymiński's unexpected success remain unclear  His vague promise to create wealth for everyone quickly, supported by his image as a patriotic Pole who had succeeded abroad, was well received at a time of radical political change and a worsening economic situation  There was increasing disappointment with the trench warfare that had broken out within the former anti-communist opposition so a mysterious, honest and patriotic stranger "straight out of nowhere" had considerable appeal 
Another factor was that Tymiński's use of political-marketing methods unknown in Poland at the time  A key element of his campaign was an omnipresent black briefcase, allegedly containing "secret documents" which would destroy his rivals' careers when the time was right  Although the elections passed without the briefcase being opened, its presence attracted constant attention  Tymiński's adversaries adopted a similar strategy; the daily Gazeta Wyborcza (which supported Mazowiecki) reported that Tymiński had had contact with the secret police, a story that was not withdrawn until after the elections 
Despite Tymiński's defeat, he had not only humiliated Mazowiecki (one of the best-known and most-respected figures in Polish politics), but also forced Wałęsa (who at that time was a national hero) into a runoff   After the election Tymiński tried to establish a new political party, but quickly disappeared from the political scene in Poland 

Candidates
Results
Passage 7:
Raymond Triboulet
Raymond Triboulet (3 October 1906 – 26 May 2006) was a French politician  He was a leading World War II resistance fighter who helped U S , Canadian, and British troops invade France, which was then occupied by Nazi Germany 

Biography
Born in Paris, Raymond Triboulet was a farmer and also had a law degree  At the start of World War II he enlisted in the French Army and was taken prisoner, but was later freed and returned home under the German occupation in 1941  He then joined the Calvados section of the group "Ceux de la Résistance", or Those of the Resistance 
By informing Allied forces of German movements between the towns of Caen and Bayeux, he contributed to the success of the D-Day landings of 6 June 1944  Following the reinstatement of a legitimate French government, Charles de Gaulle appointed him the first local governor of liberated France, in the Normandy town of Bayeux 
He was elected to Parliament in 1946 and served until 1973  He served as a minister in the governments of Michel Debré and Georges Pompidou from 1959 to 1966 and then became a member of the Council of Europe and the European Parliament 
He was elected to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques in 1979, serving as its president in 1991 

Publications
Un gaulliste de la IVe, Plon, 1985 (A Gaullist from the IVth Republic)
Un ministre du Général, Plon, 1985 (Minister to the General)

External links
Obituary, The Guardian, 16 June 2006 accessed at [1] 19 July 2006
Raymond Triboulet accessed at fr:Raymond Triboulet 21:02, 21 October 2006 (UTC)
Passage 8:
Green
Green is the color between cyan and yellow on the visible spectrum  It is evoked by light which has a dominant wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm  In subtractive color systems, used in painting and color printing, it is created by a combination of yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors  By far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy  Many creatures have adapted to their green environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage  Several minerals have a green color, including the emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content 
During post-classical and early modern Europe, green was the color commonly associated with wealth, merchants, bankers, and the gentry, while red was reserved for the nobility  For this reason, the costume of the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci and the benches in the British House of Commons are green while those in the House of Lords are red  It also has a long historical tradition as the color of Ireland and of Gaelic culture  It is the historic color of Islam, representing the lush vegetation of Paradise  It was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries In surveys made in American, European, and Islamic countries, green is the color most commonly associated with nature, life, health, youth, spring, hope, and envy  In the European Union and the United States, green is also sometimes associated with toxicity and poor health, but in China and most of Asia, its associations are very positive, as the symbol of fertility and happiness  Because of its association with nature, it is the color of the environmental movement  Political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties  This has led to similar campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly, products  Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission; a green light means go ahead, a green card permits permanent residence in the United States 

Etymology and linguistic definitions
The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene, which, like the German word grün, has the same root as the words grass and grow  It is from a Common Germanic *gronja-, which is also reflected in Old Norse grænn, Old High German gruoni (but unattested in East Germanic), ultimately from a PIE root *ghre- "to grow", and root-cognate with grass and to grow 
The first recorded use of the word as a color term in Old English dates to ca  AD 700 Latin with viridis also has a genuine and widely used term for "green"  Related to virere "to grow" and ver "spring", it gave rise to words in several Romance languages, French vert, Italian verde (and English vert, verdure etc )  Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ  Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish, pale green – χλωρός, chloros (cf  the color of chlorine), cognate with χλοερός "verdant" and χλόη "chloe, the green of new growth" 
Thus, the languages mentioned above (Germanic, Romance, Slavic, Greek) have old terms for "green" which are derived from words for fresh, sprouting vegetation 
However, comparative linguistics makes clear that these terms were coined independently, over the past few millennia, and there is no identifiable single Proto-Indo-European or word for "green"  For example, the Slavic zelenъ is cognate with Sanskrit hari "yellow, ochre, golden" 
The Turkic languages also have jašɨl "green" or "yellowish green", compared to a Mongolian word for "meadow" 

Languages where green and blue are one color
In some languages, including old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese, the same word can mean either blue or green  The Chinese character 青 (pronounced qīng in Mandarin, ao in Japanese, and thanh in Sino-Vietnamese) has a meaning that covers both blue and green; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of "青"  In more contemporary terms, they are 藍 (lán, in Mandarin) and 綠 (lǜ, in Mandarin) respectively  Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green, 緑 (midori, which is derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb midoru "to be in leaf, to flourish" in reference to trees) and グリーン (guriin, which is derived from the English word "green")  However, in Japan, although the traffic lights have the same colors as other countries have, the green light is described using the same word as for blue, aoi, because green is considered a shade of aoi; similarly, green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples, green shiso (as opposed to red apples and red shiso) will be described with the word aoi  Vietnamese uses a single word for both blue and green, xanh, with variants such as xanh da trời (azure, lit  "sky blue"), lam (blue), and lục (green; also xanh lá cây, lit  "leaf green") 
"Green" in modern European languages corresponds to about 520–570 nm, but many historical and non-European languages make other choices, e g  using a term for the range of ca  450–530 nm ("blue/green") and another for ca  530–590 nm ("green/yellow")  In the comparative study of color terms in the world's languages, green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors (white, black, red, green, yellow, and blue), or more rarely in systems with five colors (white, red, yellow, green, and black/blue)  These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote "green", but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms (much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit)  Thus, the Thai word เขียว kheīyw, besides meaning "green", also means "rank" and "smelly" and holds other unpleasant associations The Celtic languages had a term for "blue/green/grey", Proto-Celtic *glasto-, which gave rise to Old Irish glas "green, grey" and to Welsh glas "blue"  This word is cognate with the Ancient Greek γλαυκός "bluish green", contrasting with χλωρός "yellowish green" discussed above 

In modern Japanese, the term for green is 緑, while the old term for "blue/green", blue (青, Ao) now means "blue"  But in certain contexts, green is still conventionally referred to as 青, as in blue traffic light (青信号, ao shingō) and blue leaves (青葉, aoba), reflecting the absence of blue-green distinction in old Japanese (more accurately, the traditional Japanese color terminology grouped some shades of green with blue, and others with yellow tones) 

In science
Color vision and colorimetry
In optics, the perception of green is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm  The sensitivity of the dark-adapted human eye is greatest at about 507 nm, a blue-green color, while the light-adapted eye is most sensitive about 555 nm, a yellow-green; these are the peak locations of the rod and cone (scotopic and photopic, respectively) luminosity functions The perception of greenness (in opposition to redness forming one of the opponent mechanisms in human color vision) is evoked by light which triggers the medium-wavelength M cone cells in the eye more than the long-wavelength L cones  Light which triggers this greenness response more than the yellowness or blueness of the other color opponent mechanism is called green  A green light source typically has a spectral power distribution dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 487–570 nm 

Human eyes have color receptors known as cone cells, of which there are three types  In some cases, one is missing or faulty, which can cause color blindness, including the common inability to distinguish red and yellow from green, known as deuteranopia or red-green color blindness 
Green is restful to the eye  Studies show that a green environment can reduce fatigue In the subtractive color system, used in painting and color printing, green is created by a combination of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors  On the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel, the complement of green is magenta; that is, a color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light (one of the purples)  On a traditional color wheel, based on subtractive color, the complementary color to green is considered to be red In additive color devices such as computer displays and televisions, one of the primary light sources is typically a narrow-spectrum yellowish-green of dominant wavelength ~550 nm; this "green" primary is combined with an orangish-red "red" primary and a purplish-blue "blue" primary to produce any color in between – the RGB color model  A unique green (green appearing neither yellowish nor bluish) is produced on such a device by mixing light from the green primary with some light from the blue primary 

Lasers
Lasers emitting in the green part of the spectrum are widely available to the general public in a wide range of output powers  Green laser pointers outputting at 532 nm (563 5 THz) are relatively inexpensive compared to other wavelengths of the same power, and are very popular due to their good beam quality and very high apparent brightness  The most common green lasers use diode pumped solid state (DPSS) technology to create the green light 
An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces it to emit 281 76 THz (1064 nm)  This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium, titanium and phosphorus (KTP), whose non-linear properties generate light at a frequency that is twice that of the incident beam (563 5 THz); in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 532 nm ("green") 
Other green wavelengths are also available using DPSS technology ranging from 501 nm to 543 nm 
Green wavelengths are also available from gas lasers, including the helium–neon laser (543 nm), the Argon-ion laser (514 nm) and the Krypton-ion laser (521 nm and 531 nm), as well as liquid dye lasers  Green lasers have a wide variety of applications, including pointing, illumination, surgery, laser light shows, spectroscopy, interferometry, fluorescence, holography, machine vision, non-lethal weapons, and bird control As of mid-2011, direct green laser diodes at 510 nm and 500 nm have become generally available,
although the price remains relatively prohibitive for widespread public use  The efficiency of these lasers (peak 3%) compared to that of DPSS green lasers (peak 35%)
may also be limiting adoption of the diodes to niche uses 

Pigments, food coloring and fireworks
Many minerals provide pigments which have been used in green paints and dyes over the centuries  Pigments, in this case, are minerals which reflect the color green, rather that emitting it through luminescent or phosphorescent qualities  The large number of green pigments makes it impossible to mention them all  Among the more notable green minerals, however is the emerald, which is colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium 
Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3), is called chrome green, also called viridian or institutional green when used as a pigment  For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery  Widely thought to have been due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors, the blue-green color is likely to be derived from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar 
Copper is the source of the green color in malachite pigments, chemically known as basic copper(II) carbonate Verdigris is made by placing a plate or blade of copper, brass or bronze, slightly warmed, into a vat of fermenting wine, leaving it there for several weeks, and then scraping off and drying the green powder that forms on the metal  The process of making verdigris was described in ancient times by Pliny  It was used by the Romans in the murals of Pompeii, and in Celtic medieval manuscripts as early as the 5th century AD  It produced a blue-green which no other pigment could imitate, but it had drawbacks: it was unstable, it could not resist dampness, it did not mix well with other colors, it could ruin other colors with which it came into contact, and it was toxic  Leonardo da Vinci, in his treatise on painting, warned artists not to use it  It was widely used in miniature paintings in Europe and Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries  Its use largely ended in the late 19th century, when it was replaced by the safer and more stable chrome green  Viridian, as described above, was patented in 1859  It became popular with painters, since, unlike other synthetic greens, it was stable and not toxic  Vincent van Gogh used it, along with Prussian blue, to create a dark blue sky with a greenish tint in his painting Café Terrace at Night Green earth is a natural pigment used since the time of the Roman Empire  It is composed of clay colored by iron oxide, magnesium, aluminum silicate, or potassium  Large deposits were found in the South of France near Nice, and in Italy around Verona, on Cyprus, and in Bohemia  The clay was crushed, washed to remove impurities, then powdered  It was sometimes called Green of Verona Mixtures of oxidized cobalt and zinc were also used to create green paints as early as the 18th century Cobalt green, sometimes known as Rinman's green or zinc green, is a translucent green pigment made by heating a mixture of cobalt (II) oxide and zinc oxide  Sven Rinman, a Swedish chemist, discovered this compound in 1780 
Green chrome oxide was a new synthetic green created by a chemist named Pannetier in Paris in about 1835  Emerald green was a synthetic deep green made in the 19th century by hydrating chrome oxide  It was also known as Guignet green 

There is no natural source for green food colorings which has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration  Chlorophyll, the E numbers E140 and E141, is the most common green chemical found in nature, and only allowed in certain medicines and cosmetic materials Quinoline Yellow (E104) is a commonly used coloring in the United Kingdom but is banned in Australia, Japan, Norway and the United States Green S (E142) is prohibited in many countries, for it is known to cause hyperactivity, asthma, urticaria, and insomnia To create green sparks, fireworks use barium salts, such as barium chlorate, barium nitrate crystals, or barium chloride, also used for green fireplace logs  Copper salts typically burn blue, but cupric chloride (also known as "campfire blue") can also produce green flames  Green pyrotechnic flares can use a mix ratio 75:25 of boron and potassium nitrate  Smoke can be turned green by a mixture: solvent yellow 33, solvent green 3, lactose, magnesium carbonate plus sodium carbonate added to potassium chlorate 

Biology
Green is common in nature, as many plants  are green because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll, which is involved in photosynthesis  Chlorophyll absorbs the long wavelengths of light (red) and short wavelengths of light (blue) much more efficiently than the wavelengths that appear green to the human eye, so light reflected by plants is enriched in green 
Chlorophyll absorbs green light poorly because it first arose in organisms living in oceans where purple halobacteria were already exploiting photosynthesis  Their purple color arose because they extracted energy in the green portion of the spectrum using bacteriorhodopsin  The new organisms that then later came to dominate the extraction of light were selected to exploit those portions of the spectrum not used by the halobacteria 

Animals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment  Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment  Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment  For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light  Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially  Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet  This can causes their feces to look green as well  Other chemicals which generally contribute to greenness among organisms are flavins (lychochromes) and hemanovadin  Humans have imitated this by wearing green clothing as a camouflage in military and other fields  Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one's skin include biliverdin, the green pigment in bile, and ceruloplasmin, a protein that carries copper ions in chelation 
The green huntsman spider is green due to the presence of bilin pigments in the spider's hemolymph (circulatory system fluids) and tissue fluids 
It hunts insects in green vegetation, where it is well camouflaged 

Green eyes
There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light Nobody is brought into the world with green eyes  An infant has one of two eye hues: dark or blue  Following birth, cells called melanocytes start to discharge melanin, the earthy colored shade, in the child's irises  This begins happening since melanocytes respond to light in time 
Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe 
They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia  In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green eye color 
A study of Icelandic and Dutch adults found green eyes to be much more prevalent in women than in men 
Among European Americans, green eyes are most common among those of recent Celtic and Germanic ancestry, about 16% 

In history and art
Prehistoric history
Neolithic cave paintings do not have traces of green pigments, but neolithic peoples in northern Europe did make a green dye for clothing, made from the leaves of the birch tree  It was of very poor quality, more brown than green  Ceramics from ancient Mesopotamia show people wearing vivid green costumes, but it is not known how the colors were produced 

Ancient history
In Ancient Egypt, green was the symbol of regeneration and rebirth, and of the crops made possible by the annual flooding of the Nile  For painting on the walls of tombs or on papyrus, Egyptian artists used finely ground malachite, mined in the west Sinai and the eastern desert; a paintbox with malachite pigment was found inside the tomb of King Tutankhamun  They also used less expensive green earth pigment, or mixed yellow ochre and blue azurite  To dye fabrics green, they first colored them yellow with dye made from saffron and then soaked them in blue dye from the roots of the woad plant For the ancient Egyptians, green had very positive associations  The hieroglyph for green represented a growing papyrus sprout, showing the close connection between green, vegetation, vigor and growth  In wall paintings, the ruler of the underworld, Osiris, was typically portrayed with a green face, because green was the symbol of good health and rebirth  Palettes of green facial makeup, made with malachite, were found in tombs  It was worn by both the living and the dead, particularly around the eyes, to protect them from evil  Tombs also often contained small green amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite, which would protect and give vigor to the deceased  It also symbolized the sea, which was called the "Very Green" In Ancient Greece, green and blue were sometimes considered the same color, and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees  The philosopher Democritus described two different greens: chloron, or pale green, and prasinon, or leek green  Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black, symbolizing the earth, and white, symbolizing water  However, green was not counted among the four classic colors of Greek painting – red, yellow, black and white – and is rarely found in Greek art The Romans had a greater appreciation for the color green; it was the color of Venus, the goddess of gardens, vegetables and vineyards  The Romans made a fine green earth pigment that was widely used in the wall paintings of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Lyon, Vaison-la-Romaine, and other Roman cities  They also used the pigment verdigris, made by soaking copper plates in fermenting wine  By the second century AD, the Romans were using green in paintings, mosaics and glass, and there were ten different words in Latin for varieties of green 

Postclassical history
In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the color of clothing showed a person's social rank and profession  Red could only be worn by the nobility, brown and gray by peasants, and green by merchants, bankers and the gentry and their families  The Mona Lisa wears green in her portrait, as does the bride in the Arnolfini portrait by Jan van Eyck 
There were no good vegetal green dyes which resisted washing and sunlight for those who wanted or were required to wear green  Green dyes were made out of the fern, plantain, buckthorn berries, the juice of nettles and of leeks, the digitalis plant, the broom plant, the leaves of the fraxinus, or ash tree, and the bark of the alder tree, but they rapidly faded or changed color  Only in the 16th century was a good green dye produced, by first dyeing the cloth blue with woad, and then yellow with Reseda luteola, also known as yellow-weed The pigments available to painters were more varied; monks in monasteries used verdigris, made by soaking copper in fermenting wine, to color medieval manuscripts  They also used finely-ground malachite, which made a luminous green  They used green earth colors for backgrounds 
During the early Renaissance, painters such as Duccio di Buoninsegna learned to paint faces first with a green undercoat, then with pink, which gave the faces a more realistic hue  Over the centuries the pink has faded, making some of the faces look green 

Modern history
In the 18th and 19th century
The 18th and 19th centuries brought the discovery and production of synthetic green pigments and dyes, which rapidly replaced the earlier mineral and vegetable pigments and dyes  These new dyes were more stable and brilliant than the vegetable dyes, but some contained high levels of arsenic, and were eventually banned 
In the 18th and 19th centuries, green was associated with the romantic movement in literature and art  The German poet and philosopher Goethe declared that green was the most restful color, suitable for decorating bedrooms  Painters such as John Constable and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot depicted the lush green of rural landscapes and forests  Green was contrasted to the smoky grays and blacks of the Industrial Revolution 
The second half of the 19th century saw the use of green in art to create specific emotions, not just to imitate nature  One of the first to make color the central element of his picture was the American artist James McNeill Whistler, who created a series of paintings called "symphonies" or "noctures" of color, including Symphony in gray and green; The Ocean between 1866 and 1872 
The late 19th century also brought the systematic study of color theory, and particularly the study of how complementary colors such as red and green reinforced each other when they were placed next to each other  These studies were avidly followed by artists such as Vincent van Gogh  Describing his painting, The Night Cafe, to his brother Theo in 1888, Van Gogh wrote: "I sought to express with red and green the terrible human passions  The hall is blood red and pale yellow, with a green billiard table in the center, and four lamps of lemon yellow, with rays of orange and green  Everywhere it is a battle and antithesis of the most different reds and greens "

In the 20th and 21st century
In the 1980s green became a political symbol, the color of the Green Party in Germany and in many other European countries  It symbolized the environmental movement, and also a new politics of the left which rejected traditional socialism and communism  (See § In politics section below )

Symbolism and associations
Safety and permission
Green can communicate safety to proceed, as in traffic lights  Green and red were standardized as the colors of international railroad signals in the 19th century  The first traffic light, using green and red gas lamps, was erected in 1868 in front of the Houses of Parliament in London  It exploded the following year, injuring the policeman who operated it  In 1912, the first modern electric traffic lights were put up in Salt Lake City, Utah  Red was chosen largely because of its high visibility, and its association with danger, while green was chosen largely because it could not be mistaken for red  Today green lights universally signal that a system is turned on and working as it should  In many video games, green signifies both health and completed objectives, opposite red 

Nature, vivacity, and life
Green is the color most commonly associated in Europe and the United States with nature, vivacity and life 
It is the color of many environmental organizations, such as Greenpeace, and of the Green Parties in Europe  Many cities have designated a garden or park as a green space, and use green trash bins and containers  A green cross is commonly used to designate pharmacies in Europe 
In China, green is associated with the east, with sunrise, and with life and growth  In Thailand, the color green is considered auspicious for those born on a Wednesday (light green for those born at night) 

Springtime, freshness, and hope
Green is the color most commonly associated in the United States and Europe with springtime, freshness, and hope  Green is often used to symbolize rebirth and renewal and immortality  In Ancient Egypt; the god Osiris, king of the underworld, was depicted as green-skinned  Green as the color of hope is connected with the color of springtime; hope represents the faith that things will improve after a period of difficulty, like the renewal of flowers and plants after the winter season 

Youth and inexperience
Green the color most commonly associated in Europe and the United States with youth  It also often is used to describe anyone young, inexperienced, probably by the analogy to immature and unripe fruit  Examples include green cheese, a term for a fresh, unaged cheese, and greenhorn, an inexperienced person 

Food and diet
The color green has been increasingly used by food companies, governments, and practitioners themselves to identify veganism and vegetarianism  The government of India requires food that is vegetarian to be marked with a green circle as part of the Food Safety and Standards Act of 2006 with changes to symbolism since but still maintaining the color green  In 2021, India introduced a green V to exclusively label vegan options  In the west, the V-Label, a green V designed by the European Vegetarian Union, has been used by food distributors to label vegan and vegetarian options 

Calm, tolerance, and the agreeable
Surveys also show that green is the color most associated with the calm, the agreeable, and tolerance  Red is associated with heat, blue with cold, and green with an agreeable temperature  Red is associated with dry, blue with wet, and green, in the middle, with dampness  Red is the most active color, blue the most passive; green, in the middle, is the color of neutrality and calm, sometimes used in architecture and design for these reasons 
Blue and green together symbolize harmony and balance  Experimental studies also show this calming effect in a statistical significant decrease of negative emotions
and increase of creative performance 

Jealousy and envy
Green is often associated with jealousy and envy  The expression "green-eyed monster" was first used by William Shakespeare in Othello: "it is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on " Shakespeare also used it in the Merchant of Venice, speaking of "green-eyed jealousy" 

Love and sexuality
Green today is not commonly associated in Europe and the United States with love and sexuality, but in stories of the medieval period it sometimes represented love and the base, natural desires of man  It was the color of the serpent in the Garden of Eden who caused the downfall of Adam and Eve  However, for the troubadours, green was the color of growing love, and light green clothing was reserved for young women who were not yet married In Persian and Sudanese poetry, dark-skinned women, called "green" women, were considered erotic  The Chinese term for cuckold is "to wear a green hat " This was because in ancient China, prostitutes were called "the family of the green lantern" and a prostitute's family would wear a green headscarf In Victorian England, the color green was associated with homosexuality 

Dragons, fairies, monsters, and devils
In legends, folk tales and films, fairies, dragons, monsters, and the devil are often shown as green 
In the Middle Ages, the devil was usually shown as either red, black or green  Dragons were usually green, because they had the heads, claws and tails of reptiles 
Modern Chinese dragons are also often green, but unlike European dragons, they are benevolent; Chinese dragons traditionally symbolize potent and auspicious powers, particularly control over water, rainfall, hurricane, and floods  The dragon is also a symbol of power, strength, and good luck  The Emperor of China usually used the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power and strength  The dragon dance is a popular feature of Chinese festivals 
In Irish folklore and English folklore, the color was sometimes was associated with witchcraft, and with faeries and spirits  The type of Irish fairy known as a leprechaun is commonly portrayed wearing a green suit, though before the 20th century he was usually described as wearing a red suit 
In theater and film, green was often connected with monsters and the inhuman  The earliest films of Frankenstein were in black and white, but in the poster for the 1935 version The Bride of Frankenstein, the monster had a green face  Actor Bela Lugosi wore green-hued makeup for the role of Dracula in the 1927–1928 Broadway stage production 

Poison and sickness
Like other common colors, green has several completely opposite associations  While it is the color most associated by Europeans and Americans with good health, it is also the color most often associated with toxicity and poison  There was a solid foundation for this association; in the nineteenth century several popular paints and pigments, notably verdigris, vert de Schweinfurt and vert de Paris, were highly toxic, containing copper or arsenic  The intoxicating drink absinthe was known as "the green fairy" 
A green tinge in the skin is sometimes associated with nausea and sickness  The expression 'green at the gills' means appearing sick  The color, when combined with gold, is sometimes seen as representing the fading of youth  In some Far East cultures the color green is used as a symbol of sickness or nausea 

Social status, prosperity and the dollar
Green in Europe and the United States is sometimes associated with status and prosperity  From the Middle Ages to the 19th century it was often worn by bankers, merchants country gentlemen and others who were wealthy but not members of the nobility  The benches in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, where the landed gentry sat, are colored green 
In the United States green was connected with the dollar bill  Since 1861, the reverse side of the dollar bill has been green  Green was originally chosen because it deterred counterfeiters, who tried to use early camera equipment to duplicate banknotes  Also, since the banknotes were thin, the green on the back did not show through and muddle the pictures on the front of the banknote  Green continues to be used because the public now associates it with a strong and stable currency One of the more notable uses of this meaning is found in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz  The Emerald City in this story is a place where everyone wears tinted glasses that make everything appear green  According to the populist interpretation of the story, the city's color is used by the author, L  Frank Baum, to illustrate the financial system of America in his day, as he lived in a time when America was debating the use of paper money versus gold 

On flags
The flag of Italy (1797) was modeled after the French tricolor  It was originally the flag of the Cisalpine Republic, whose capital was Milan; red and white were the colors of Milan, and green was the color of the military uniforms of the army of the Cisalpine Republic  Other versions say it is the color of the Italian landscape, or symbolizes hope 
The flag of Brazil has a green field adapted from the flag of the Empire of Brazil  The green represented the royal family 
The flag of India was inspired by an earlier flag of the independence movement of Gandhi, which had a red band for Hinduism and a green band representing Islam, the second largest religion in India 
The flag of Pakistan symbolizes Pakistan's commitment to Islam and equal rights of religious minorities where the larger portion (3:2 ratio) of flag is dark green representing Muslim majority (98% of total population) while a white vertical bar (3:1 ratio) at the mast representing equal rights for religious minorities and minority religions in country  The crescent and star symbolizes progress and bright future respectively 
The Flag of Bangladesh has a green field based on a similar flag used during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971  It consists of a red disc on top of a green field  The red disc represents the sun rising over Bengal, and also the blood of those who died for the independence of Bangladesh  The green field stands for the lushness of the land of Bangladesh 
The flag of the international constructed language Esperanto has a green field and a green star in a white area  The green represents hope ("esperanto" means "one who hopes"), the white represents peace and neutrality and the star represents the five inhabited continents Green is one of the three colors (along with red and black, or red and gold) of Pan-Africanism  Several African countries thus use the color on their flags, including Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Togo, Guinea, Benin, and Zimbabwe  The Pan-African colors are borrowed from the Ethiopian flag, one of the oldest independent African countries  Green on some African flags represents the natural richness of Africa Many flags of the Islamic world are green, as the color is considered sacred in Islam (see below)  The flag of Hamas, as well as the flag of Iran, is green, symbolizing their Islamist ideology  The 1977 flag of Libya consisted of a simple green field with no other characteristics  It was the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details  Some countries used green in their flags to represent their country's lush vegetation, as in the flag of Jamaica, and hope in the future, as in the flags of Portugal and Nigeria  The green cedar of Lebanon tree on the Flag of Lebanon officially represents steadiness and tolerance 

Green is a symbol of Ireland, which is often referred to as the "Emerald Isle"  The color is particularly identified with the republican and nationalist traditions in modern times  It is used this way on the flag of the Republic of Ireland, in balance with white and the Protestant orange  Green is a strong trend in the Irish holiday St  Patrick's Day 

In politics
The first recorded green party was a political faction in Constantinople during the 6th century Byzantine Empire  which took its name from a popular chariot racing team  They were bitter opponents of the blue faction, which supported Emperor Justinian I and which had its own chariot racing team  In 532 AD rioting between the factions began after one race, which led to the massacre of green supporters and the destruction of much of the center of Constantinople  (See Nika Riots) 
Green was the traditional color of Irish nationalism, beginning in the 17th century  The green harp flag, with a traditional gaelic harp, became the symbol of the movement  It was the banner of the Society of United Irishmen, which organized the ultimately unsuccessful Irish Rebellion of 1798  When Ireland achieved independence in 1922, green was incorporated into the national flag In the 1970s green became the color of the third biggest Swiss Federal Council political party, the Swiss People's Party SVP  The ideology is Swiss nationalism, national conservatism, right-wing populism, economic liberalism, agrarianism, isolationism, euroscepticism  The SVP was founded on September 22, 1971 and has 90,000 members In the 1980s green became the color of a number of new European political parties organized around an agenda of environmentalism  Green was chosen for its association with nature, health, and growth  The largest green party in Europe is Alliance '90/The Greens (German: Bündnis 90/Die Grünen) in Germany, which was formed in 1993 from the merger of the German Green Party, founded in West Germany in 1980, and Alliance 90, founded during the Revolution of 1989–1990 in East Germany  In the 2009 federal elections, the party won 11% of the votes and 68 out of 622 seats in the Bundestag 
Green parties in Europe have programs based on ecology, grassroots democracy, nonviolence, and social justice  Green parties are found in over one hundred countries, and most are members of the Global Green Network Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization which emerged from the anti-nuclear and peace movements in the 1970s  Its ship, the Rainbow Warrior, frequently tried to interfere with nuclear tests and whaling operations  The movement now has branches in forty countries 
The Australian Greens was founded in 1992  In the 2010 federal election, the party received 13% of the vote (more than 1 6 million votes) in the Senate, a first for any Australian minor party 
Green is the color associated with Puerto Rico's Independence Party, the smallest of that country's three major political parties, which advocates Puerto Rican independence from the United States 
In Taiwan, green is used by Democratic Progressive Party  Green in Taiwan associates with Taiwan independence movement 

In religion
Green is the traditional color of Islam  According to tradition, the robe and banner of Muhammad were green, and according to the Koran (XVIII, 31 and LXXVI, 21) those fortunate enough to live in paradise wear green silk robes  Muhammad is quoted in a hadith as saying that "water, greenery, and a beautiful face" were three universally good things  Green was accordingly adopted as a Shi'a color Al-Khidr ("The Green One"), was an important Qur'anic figure who was said to have met and traveled with Moses  He was given that name because of his role as a diplomat and negotiator  Green was also considered to be the median color between light and obscurity Roman Catholic and more traditional Protestant clergy wear green vestments at liturgical celebrations during Ordinary Time  In the Eastern Catholic Church, green is the color of Pentecost  Green is one of the Christmas colors as well, possibly dating back to pre-Christian times, when evergreens were worshiped for their ability to maintain their color through the winter season  Romans used green holly and evergreen as decorations for their winter solstice celebration called Saturnalia, which eventually evolved into a Christmas celebration  In Ireland and Scotland especially, green is used to represent Catholics, while orange is used to represent Protestantism  This is shown on the national flag of Ireland 
In Paganism, green represents abundance, growth, wealth, renewal, and balance  In magickal practices, green is often used to bring money and luck  One figure who shares parallels with various deities is the Green Man 

In gambling and sports
Gambling tables in a casino are traditionally green  The tradition is said to have started in gambling rooms in Venice in the 16th century 
Billiards tables are traditionally covered with green woolen cloth  The first indoor tables, dating to the 15th century, were colored green after the grass courts used for the similar lawn games of the period 
Green was the traditional color worn by hunters in the 19th century, particularly the shade called hunter green  In the 20th century most hunters began wearing the color olive drab, a shade of green, instead of hunter green 
Green is a common color for sports teams  Well-known teams include A S  Saint-Étienne of France, known as Les Verts (The Greens)  The Green Bay Packers, an American football team, has the color in its official name and wears green uniforms  A number of national soccer teams feature the color, with the color usually reflective of the teams' national flag 
British racing green was the international motor racing color of Britain from the early 1900s until the 1960s, when it was replaced by the colors of the sponsoring automobile companies 
A green belt in karate, taekwondo, and judo symbolizes a level of proficiency in the sport 

Idioms and expressions
Having a green thumb (American English) or green fingers (British English)  To be passionate about or talented at gardening  The expression was popularized beginning in 1925 by a BBC gardening program 
Greenhorn  Someone who is inexperienced 
Green-eyed monster  Refers to jealousy  (See section above on jealousy and envy) 
Greenmail  A term used in finance and corporate takeovers  It refers to the practice of a company paying a high price to buy back shares of its own stock to prevent an unfriendly takeover by another company or businessman  It originated in the 1980s on Wall Street, and originates from the green of dollars 
Green room  A room at a theater where actors rest when not onstage, or a room at a television studio where guests wait before going on-camera  It originated in the late 17th century from a room of that color at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London 
Greenwashing  Environmental activists sometimes use this term to describe the advertising of a company which promotes its positive environmental practices to cover up its environmental destruction 
Green around the gills  A description of a person who looks physically ill 
Going green  An expression commonly used to refer to preserving the natural environment, and participating in activities such as recycling materials 
Looking green  A description of a person who looks revolted or repulsed 

Notes
See also
Shades of green
Green pigments



ground_truth: 1572

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What year did the publisher of Labyrinth end?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Gold Hill, North Carolina
Gold Hill is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in southeastern Rowan County, North Carolina, United States near the Cabarrus County line  It was first listed as a CDP in the 2020 census with a population of 372  It is situated near the Yadkin River and is served by U S  Highway 52 and Old Beatty Ford Road  Gold was found in this small town outside Salisbury in the 19th century 

Mining
Gold was first discovered in what would become the town of Gold Hill in southeastern Rowan County in 1824  $6 million in gold was mined here prior to the Civil War and a mint was located in Charlotte as a result  In the 1840s, Gold Hill was "a raucous mining camp town with a considerable number of saloons and brothels " The Barnhardt shaft, named for Col  George Barnhardt of the Reed Mine (NC State Historic Site) family, was opened in 1842 and reached a depth of 435 feet  The Earnhardt/Randolph Mine Shaft was opened in 1843 across the street from the Barnhardt Mine and reached a depth of 850 feet becoming the deepest gold mine in the United States  The Barnhardt and Randolph mines together were described as "the richest and most productive gold mines east of the Mississippi"  Gold Hill was incorporated in 1843 and had a population of 3000 people and a total of 23 mines in the Gold Hill Mining District  The California Gold Rush and the American Civil War significantly reduced the mining activity  Although some mining occurred in the years following the Civil War a greater resurgence of mining began with the purchase of the Gold Hill Mines and the establishment of 'The New Gold Hill Mining Company' based in London, England  Considerable profits were realized with gold being shipped to England during the period of 1880-1900  Production came to an end by 1915 

Tourist attraction
The town's first Founders' Day, which was not called by that name, took place in 1989 and was not intended to become an annual event, but it ended up being so popular that a steering committee was formed for the purpose of starting a foundation to find and preserve the town's heritage  The Historic Gold Hill and Mines Foundation, Inc  began in 1992, and that year, a second Founders' Day took place  Gold Hill Mines Historic Park began with a donation of 16 acres by Billie Johnson and was dedicated in 1993; by the 25th Founders' Day it was 70 acres  Founders' Day became an annual event on the fourth Saturday in September, and they were moved from the fire department to the park located  at 735 St  Stephens Church Road E H  Montgomery General Store, Mauney’s Store, the jail and a rock wall date back to the 1840s  Several buildings were moved to and restored for what has been described as a "re-creation" of a historic village  A gas station built in 1928 was moved from U S  52 in 1998  The File Store from Craven, North Carolina near Salisbury was built in 1906 and moved to Gold Hill in 2001  A miner's cabin was moved to Gold Hill in 2011 and became a bakery The Daniel Isenhour House and Farm was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000 Website: https://historicgoldhill org

Demographics
2020 census
Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category  This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category  Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race 
Passage 2:
Cleveland, North Carolina
Cleveland is a town in the Cleveland Township of Rowan County, North Carolina, United States  The population was 871 at the 2010 census 

History
The town dates from 1831 but was not incorporated until 1833   The first post office in Cleveland, Cowansville, was established in 1831   By 1850, prior to the US Civil War and the completion of the Western Carolina Railroad, the town was named Rowan Mills   Rowan Mills was named for the five story flour mill that Osborn Giles Foard owned in Cleveland   The Rowan Mills Post Office served the area north of the rail line and extended into Scotch Irish Township after the Civil War in 1870   The town and post office kept the name Rowan Mills until 1876 when it was renamed Third Creek Station   In the 1880 U S  Census, there were 17 families and 89 persons living in the Village of Third Creek Station   It was not until 1884 that the townspeople renamed the town after Grover Cleveland, who is supposed to have visited the town during his presidential campaign 

Geography
Cleveland is located at 35°43′52″N 80°40′44″W (35 731021, -80 678963) According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1 5 square miles (3 9 km2), all  land 

Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 846 people, 392 households, and 283 families residing in the town 

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 871 people, 328 households, and 236 families residing in the town  The population density was 580 7 inhabitants per square mile (224 2/km2)  There were 377 housing units at an average density of 251 3 per square mile (97 0/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 66 9% White, 24 1% African American, 5 4% from other races, and 3 6% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6 5% of the population 
There were 328 households, out of which 34 1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47 6% were married couples living together, 16 5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28 0% were non-families  24 1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 66 and the average family size was 3 10 
In the town, the population was spread out, with 28 4% under the age of 18, 7 2% from 18 to 24, 29 3% from 25 to 44, 23 4% from 45 to 64, and 11 7% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 34 8 years  For every 100 females, there were 95 3 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90 2 males 
The median income for a household in the town was $39,474, and the median income for a family was $58,000  Males had a median income of $51,000 versus $29,500 for females  The per capita income for the town was $19,506  About 13 1% of families and 20 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25 0% of those under age 18 and 8 9% of those age 65 or over 

Town twinning / sister city
Since February 8, 2008, Cleveland has been twinned with Killyleagh, Northern Ireland 

See also
Cleveland Township
2007 Freightliner wildcat strike
Passage 3:
Canada–United States border
The Canada–United States border (French: Frontière entre le Canada et les États-Unis) is the longest international border in the world  The terrestrial boundary (including boundaries in the Great Lakes, Atlantic, and Pacific coasts) is 8,891 km (5,525 mi) long  The land border has two sections: Canada's border with the contiguous United States to its south, and with the U S  state of Alaska to its west  The bi-national International Boundary Commission deals with matters relating to marking and maintaining the boundary, and the International Joint Commission deals with issues concerning boundary waters  The agencies currently responsible for facilitating legal passage through the international boundary are the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) and U S  Customs and Border Protection (CBP) 

History
18th century
The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the United States  In the second article of the Treaty, the parties agreed on all boundaries of the United States, including, but not limited to, the boundary to the north along then-British North America  The agreed-upon boundary included the line from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia to the northwesternmost head of the Connecticut River and proceeded down along the middle of the river to the 45th parallel of north latitude 
The parallel had been established in the 1760s as the boundary between the provinces of Quebec and New York (including what would later become the State of Vermont)  It was surveyed and marked by John Collins and Thomas Valentine from 1771 to 1773 The St  Lawrence River and the Great Lakes became the boundary further west, between the United States and what is now Ontario  Northwest of Lake Superior, the boundary followed rivers to the Lake of the Woods  From the northwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods, the boundary was agreed to go straight west until it met the Mississippi River  In fact, that line never meets the river since the river's source is further south 

Jay Treaty (1794)
The Jay Treaty of 1794 (effective 1796) created the International Boundary Commission, which was charged with surveying and mapping the boundary  It also provided for the removal of British military and administration from Detroit, as well as other frontier outposts on the U S  side  The Jay Treaty was superseded by the Treaty of Ghent (effective 1815) concluding the War of 1812, which included pre-war boundaries 

19th century
Signed in December 1814, the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812, returning the boundaries of British North America and the United States to the state they were prior to the war  In the following decades, the United States and the United Kingdom concluded several treaties that settled the major boundary disputes between the two, enabling the border to be demilitarized  The Rush–Bagot Treaty of 1817 provided a plan for demilitarizing the two combatant sides in the War of 1812 and also laid out preliminary principles for drawing a border between British North America and the United States 

London Convention (1818)
The Treaty of 1818 saw expansion of both British North America and the US, where the boundary extended westward along the 49th parallel, from the Northwest Angle at Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains  The treaty extinguished British claims to the south of that line up to the Red River Valley, which was part of Rupert's Land  The treaty also extinguished U S  claims to land north of that line in the watershed of the Missouri River, which was part of the Louisiana Purchase  This amounted to three small areas, consisting of the northern part of the drainages of the Milk River (today in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan), the Poplar River (Saskatchewan), and Big Muddy Creek (Saskatchewan)  Along the 49th parallel, the border vista is theoretically straight, but in practice follows the 19th-century surveyed border markers and varies by several hundred feet in spots 

Webster–Ashburton Treaty (1842)
Disputes over the interpretation of the border treaties and mistakes in surveying required additional negotiations, which resulted in the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842  The treaty resolved the Aroostook War, a dispute over the boundary between Maine, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada  The treaty redefined the border between New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York on the one hand, and the Province of Canada on the other, resolving the Indian Stream dispute and the Fort Blunder dilemma at the outlet to Lake Champlain 
The part of the 45th parallel that separates Quebec from the U S  states of Vermont and New York had first been surveyed from 1771 to 1773 after it had been declared the boundary between New York (including what later became Vermont) and Quebec  It was surveyed again after the War of 1812  The U S  federal government began to construct fortifications just south of the border at Rouses Point, New York, on Lake Champlain  After a significant portion of the construction was completed, measurements revealed that at that point, the actual 45th parallel was three-quarters of a mile (1 2 km) south of the surveyed line  The fort, which became known as "Fort Blunder", was in Canada, which created a dilemma for the U S  that was not resolved until a provision of the treaty left the border on the meandering line as surveyed  The border along the Boundary Waters in present-day Ontario and Minnesota between Lake Superior and the Northwest Angle was also redefined 

Oregon Treaty (1846)
An 1844 boundary dispute during the Presidency of James K  Polk led to a call for the northern boundary of the U S  west of the Rockies to be 54°40′N related to the southern boundary of Russia's Alaska Territory  However, Great Britain wanted a border that followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean  The dispute was resolved in the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary through the Rockies 

Boundary surveys (mid–19th century)
The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–1861) laid out the land boundary  However, the water boundary was not settled for some time  After the Pig War in 1859, arbitration in 1872 established the border between the Gulf Islands and the San Juan Islands 
The International Boundary Survey (or, the "Northern Boundary Survey" in the US) began in 1872  Its mandate was to establish the border as agreed to in the Treaty of 1818  Archibald Campbell led the way for the United States, while Donald Cameron, supported by chief astronomer Samuel Anderson, headed the British team  This survey focused on the border from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains 

20th century
In 1903, following a dispute that arose because of the Klondike Gold Rush, a joint United Kingdom–Canada–U S  tribunal established the boundary of southeast Alaska On April 11, 1908, the United Kingdom and the United States agreed, under Article IV of the Treaty of 1908 "concerning the boundary between the United States and the Dominion of Canada from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean", to survey and delimit the boundary between Canada and the U S  through the St  Lawrence River and Great Lakes, in accordance with modern surveying techniques, and thus accomplished several changes to the border   In 1925, the International Boundary Commission's temporary mission became permanent for maintaining the survey and mapping of the border; maintaining boundary monuments and buoys; and keeping the border clear of brush and vegetation for 6 m (20 ft)  This "border vista" extends for 3 m (9 8 ft) on each side of the line In 1909, under the Boundary Waters Treaty, the International Joint Commission was established for Canada and the U S  to investigate and approve projects that affect the waters and waterways along the border 

21st century
As a result of the 2001 September 11 attacks, the Canada–U S  border was shut without any warning, and no goods or people were allowed to cross  In the wake of the impromptu border closure, procedures were jointly developed to ensure that commercial traffic could cross the border even if people were restricted from crossing  These procedures were later used for a border closure caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 

2020–2021 closure
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada and the United States, the governments of Canada and the United States agreed to close the border to "non-essential" travel on March 21, 2020, for an initial period of 30 days  The closure has been extended 15 times since then; it expired on July 21, 2021  However, in mid-June 2021, the Canadian government announced it will ease some entry requirements for fully vaccinated Canadian citizens, permanent residents, and foreign nationals starting on July 5, 2021  In mid-July, the Canadian government announced that fully vaccinated American citizens and permanent residents can visit Canada starting August 9, 2021  The American government reopened its land border to fully vaccinated Canadian citizens effective November 8, 2021  Provided that COVID cases remain stable and/or decline, fully vaccinated international visitors can enter Canada starting September 7  The 2020–21 closure was reportedly the first blanket, long-term closure of the border since the War of 1812 Essential travel, as defined by Canadian and US regulations, includes travel for employment or education purposes  "Non-essential" travel to Canada, includes travel "for an optional or discretionary purpose, such as tourism, recreation or entertainment " The U S  Department of Homeland Security issued defined non-essential travel to include "tourism purposes (e g , sightseeing, recreation, gambling, or attending cultural events)" and gave an extensive, non-exhaustive definition of what sorts of travel qualify as essential Business advocacy groups, noting the substantial economic impact of the closure on both sides of the border, called for more nuanced restrictions in place of the blanket ban on non-essential travel  The Northern Border Caucus, a group in the US Congress composed of members from border communities, made similar suggestions to the governments of both countries  Beyond the closure itself, US President Donald Trump also initially suggested the idea of deploying United States military personnel near the border with Canada in connection with the pandemic  He later abandoned the idea following vocal opposition from Canadian officials 

Security
Law enforcement approach
The International Boundary is commonly referred to as the world's "longest undefended border", though this is true only in the military sense, as civilian law enforcement is present  It is illegal to cross the border outside border controls, as anyone crossing the border must be checked per immigration and customs laws  The relatively low level of security measures stands in contrast to that of the United States–Mexico border (one-third length of Canada–U S  border), which is actively patrolled by U S  Customs and Border Protection personnel to prevent illegal migration and drug trafficking 

Parts of the International Boundary cross through mountainous terrain or heavily forested areas, but significant portions also cross remote prairie farmland and the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, in addition to the maritime components of the boundary at the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans  The border also runs through the middle of the Akwesasne Nation and even divides some buildings found in communities in New England and Quebec 
The U S  Customs and Border Protection (CBP) identifies the chief issues along the border as domestic and international terrorism; drug smuggling and smuggling of products (such as tobacco) to evade customs duties; and illegal immigration  A June 2019 U S  Government Accountability Office report identified specific staffing and resource shortfalls faced by the CBP on the Northern border that adversely affect enforcement actions; the U S  Border Patrol "identified an insufficient number of agents that limited patrol missions along the northern border" while CBP Air and Marine Operations "identified an insufficient number of agents along the northern border, which limited the number and frequency of air and maritime missions "There are eight U S  Border Patrol sectors based on the Canada–U S  border, each covering a designated "area of responsibility"; the sectors are (from west to east) based in Blaine, Washington; Spokane, Washington; Havre, Montana; Grand Forks, North Dakota; Detroit, Michigan; Buffalo, New York; Swanton, Vermont; and Houlton, Maine Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, security along the border was dramatically tightened by the two countries in both populated and rural areas  Both nations are also actively involved in detailed and extensive tactical and strategic intelligence sharing 
In December 2010, Canada and the United States were negotiating an agreement titled "Beyond the Border: A Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Competitiveness" which would give the U S  more influence over Canada's border security and immigration controls, and more information would be shared by Canada with the U S 

Security measures
Residents of both nations who own property adjacent to the border are forbidden to build within the 6-metre-wide (20 ft) boundary vista without permission from the International Boundary Commission  They are required to report such construction to their respective governments 
All persons crossing the border are required to report to the customs agency of the country they have entered  Where necessary, fences or vehicle blockades are used  In remote areas, where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden sensors on roads, trails, railways, and wooded areas, which are located near crossing points  There is no border zone; the U S  Customs and Border Protection routinely sets up checkpoints as far as 100 miles (160 km) into U S  territory In August 2020, the United States constructed 3 8 km (2 4 mi) of short cable fencing along the border between Abbotsford, British Columbia, and Whatcom County, Washington 

Identification
Prior to 2007, American and Canadian citizens were only required to produce a birth certificate and driver's license/government-issued identification card when crossing the Canada–United States border However, in late 2006, the U S  Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced the final rule of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which pertained to new identification requirements for travelers entering the United States  This rule, which marked the first phase of the initiative, was implemented on January 23, 2007, specifying six forms of identification acceptable for crossing the U S  border (depending on mode):
a valid passport—required in order to enter by air;
a United States passport card;
an enhanced driver's license—issued by the U S  States of Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Vermont, and Washington, as well as the Canadian Provinces of British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec;
a trusted traveler program card (i e  NEXUS, FAST, or SENTRI);
a valid Merchant Mariner Credential—to be used when traveling in conjunction with official maritime business; and
a valid U S  military identification card—to be used when traveling on official orders The requirement of a passport or an enhanced form of identification to enter the United States by air went into effect in January 2007; and went into effect for those entering the U S  by land and sea in January 2008  Although the new requirements for land and sea entry went into legal effect in January 2008, its enforcement did not begin until June 2009  Since June 2009, every traveller arriving via a land or sea port-of-entry (including ferries) has been required to present one of the above forms of identification in order to enter the United States 

Conversely in order to cross into Canada, a traveler must also carry identification, as well as a valid visa (if necessary) when crossing the border  Forms of identification include a valid passport, a Canadian Emergency Travel Document, an enhanced driver's license issued by a Canadian province or territory, or an enhanced identification/photo card issued by a Canadian province or territory  Several other documents may be used by Canadians to identify their citizenship at the border, although use of such documents requires it to be supported with additional photo identification American and Canadian citizens who are members of a trusted traveler program such as FAST or NEXUS, may present their FAST or NEXUS card as an alternate form of identification when crossing the international boundary by land or sea, or when arriving by air from only Canada or the United States  Although permanent residents of Canada and the United States are eligible for FAST or NEXUS, they are required to travel with a passport and proof of permanent residency upon arrival at the Canadian border  American permanent residents who are NEXUS members also require Electronic Travel Authorization when crossing the Canadian border 

Security issues
Smuggling
Smuggling of alcoholic beverages ("rum running") was widespread during the 1920s, when Prohibition was in effect nationally in the United States and parts of Canada 
In more recent years, Canadian officials have brought attention to drug, cigarette, and firearms smuggling from the United States, while U S  officials have made complaints of drug smuggling via Canada  In July 2005, law enforcement personnel arrested three men who had built a 110-metre (360 ft) tunnel under the border between British Columbia and Washington, intended for the use of smuggling marijuana, the first such tunnel known on this border  From 2007 to 2010, 147 people were arrested for smuggling marijuana on the property of a bed-and-breakfast in Blaine, Washington, but agents estimate that they caught only about 5% of smugglers Because of its location, Cornwall, Ontario, experiences ongoing smuggling—mostly of tobacco and firearms from the United States  The neighboring Mohawk territory of Akwesasne straddles the Ontario–Quebec–New York borders, where its First Nations sovereignty prevents Ontario Provincial Police, Sûreté du Québec, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Canada Border Services Agency, Canadian Coast Guard, United States Border Patrol, United States Coast Guard, and New York State Police from exercising jurisdiction over exchanges taking place within the territory 

2009 border occupation
In May 2009, the Mohawk people of Akwesasne occupied the area around the Canada Border Services Agency port of entry building to protest the Canadian government's decision to arm its border agents while operating on Mohawk territory   The north span of the Seaway International Bridge  and the CBSA inspection facilities were closed   During this occupation, the Canadian flag was replaced with the flag of the Mohawk people  Although U S  Customs remained opened to southbound traffic, northbound traffic was blocked on the U S  side by both American and Canadian officials  The Canadian border at this crossing remained closed for six weeks   On July 13, 2009, the CBSA opened a temporary inspection station at the north end of the north span of the bridge in the city of Cornwall, allowing traffic to once again flow in both directions The Mohawk people of Akwesasne have staged ongoing protests at this border   In 2014 they objected to a process that made their crossing more tedious, believing it violated their treaty rights of free passage   When traveling from the U S  to Cornwall Island, they must first cross a second bridge into Canada, for inspection at the new Canadian border station  Discussions between inter-governmental agencies were being pursued on the feasibility of relocating the Canadian border inspection facilities on the U S  side of the border 

2017 border crossing crisis
In August 2017, the border between Quebec and New York saw an influx of up to 500 irregular crossings each day, by individuals seeking asylum in Canada  As a result, Canada increased border security and immigration staffing in the area, reiterating the fact that crossing the border irregularly had no effect on one's asylum status From the beginning of January 2017 up until the end of March 2018, the RCMP intercepted 25,645 people crossing the border into Canada from an unauthorized point of entry  Public Safety Canada estimates another 2,500 came across in April 2018 for a total of just over 28,000 

Border lengths and regions
The length of the terrestrial boundary is 8,891 km (5,525 mi), of which 6,416 km (3,987 mi) is against the contiguous 48 states, and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) against Alaska  Eight out of thirteen provinces and territories of Canada and thirteen out of fifty U S  states are located along this international boundary 

Yukon
The Canadian territory of Yukon shares its entire western border with the U S  state of Alaska, beginning at the Beaufort Sea at 69°39′N 141°00′W and proceeds southwards along the 141st meridian west  At 60°18′N, the border proceeds away from the 141st meridian west in a southeastward direction, following the St  Elias Mountains  South of the 60th parallel north, the border continues into British Columbia 

British Columbia
British Columbia has two international borders with the United States: with the state of Alaska along BC's northwest, and with the contiguous United States along the southern edge of the province, including (west to east) Washington, Idaho, and Montana BC's Alaskan border, continuing from Yukon's, proceeds through the St  Elias Mountains, followed by Mt  Fairweather at 58°54′N 137°31′W, where the border heads northwestward towards the Coast Mountains  At 59°48′N 135°28′W, the border begins a general southeastward direction along the Coast Mountains  The border eventually reaches the Portland Canal and follows it outward to the Dixon Entrance, which takes the border down and out into the Pacific Ocean, terminating it upon reaching international waters 
BC's border along the contiguous U S  begins southwest of Vancouver Island and northwest of the Olympic Peninsula, at the terminus of international waters in the Pacific Ocean  It follows the Strait of Juan de Fuca eastward, turning northeastward to enter Haro Strait  The border follows the strait in a northward direction, but turns sharply eastward through Boundary Pass, separating the Canadian Gulf Islands from the American San Juan Islands  Upon reaching the Strait of Georgia, the border turns due north and then towards the northwest, bisecting the strait until the 49th parallel north  After making a sharp turn eastbound, the border follows this parallel across the Tsawwassen Peninsula, separating Point Roberts, Washington from Delta, British Columbia, and continues into Alberta 

Prairies
The entire Canada–U S  border in the provinces of both Alberta and Saskatchewan lies along the 49th parallel north  Both provinces share borders with the state of Montana, while, farther east, Saskatchewan also shares a border with North Dakota Along with the U S  states of North Dakota and Minnesota (west to east), nearly the entire Canada–U S  border in Manitoba lies along the 49th parallel north  At the province's eastern end, however, the border briefly enters the Lake of the Woods, turning north at 48°59′N 95°09′W where it continues into land along the western end of Minnesota's Northwest Angle, the only part of the United States besides the state of Alaska that is north of the 49th parallel  The border reaches Ontario at 49°23′N 95°09′W 

Ontario
The province of Ontario shares its border (west to east) with the U S  states of Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York  The largest provincial international border, most of the border is a water boundary   It begins at the north-westernmost point of Minnesota's Northwest Angle (49°23′N 95°09′W)  From here, it proceeds eastward through the Angle Inlet into the Lake of the Woods, turning southward at 49°19′N 94°48′W where it continues into the Rainy River  The border follows the River to Rainy Lake, then subsequently through various smaller lakes, including Namakan Lake, Lac la Croix, and Sea Gull Lake, until it reaches the Pigeon River, which leads it out into Lake Superior  The border continues through Lake Superior and Whitefish Bay, into the St  Mary's River then the North Channel  At 45°59′N 83°26′W, the border turns southward into the False Detour Channel, from which it reaches Lake Huron  Through the Lake, the border heads southward until reaching the St  Clair River, leading it to Lake St  Clair  The border proceeds through Lake St  Clair, reaching the Detroit River, which leads it to Lake Erie  From Lake Erie the border is led into the Niagara River, which takes it into Lake Ontario  From here, the boundary heads northwestward until it reaches 43°27′N 79°12′W, where it makes a sharp turn towards the northeast  The border then reaches the St  Lawrence River, proceeding through it until finally, at 45°00′N 74°40′W, the border splits from the river and continues into Quebec 

Quebec
The province of Quebec borders (west to east) the U S  states of New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, beginning where the Ontario-New York border ends in the St  Lawrence River at the 45th parallel north  This border heads inland towards the east, remaining on or near the parallel  At 45°00′N 71°30′W, the border begins to follow various natural features of the Appalachian Mountains, continuing to do so until  46°25′N 70°03′W, where it heads north, then northeastward at 46°41′N 69°59′W  Finally, at 47°27′N 69°13′W, the border heads toward Beau Lake, going through it and continuing into New Brunswick 

New Brunswick
The entire border of New Brunswick is shared with the U S  state of Maine, beginning at the southern tip of Beau Lake at 47°18′N 69°03′W, subsequently proceeding to the Saint John River  The border moves through the River until  47°04′N 67°47′W, where it splits from the river and heads southward into the Chiputneticook Lakes at 45°56′N 67°47′W, which subsequently leads the border to the St  Croix River  The border proceeds through the St  Croix to Passamaquoddy Bay, which then leads it to Grand Manan Island into the middle of the Bay of Fundy  Here, the border turns towards the south and terminates upon reaching international waters 

Crossings and border straddling
Airports
The U S  maintains pre-clearance facilities (i e  immigration offices) at eight Canadian airports with international air service to the United States: Calgary; Edmonton; Halifax Stanfield; Montreal–Trudeau; Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier; Toronto Island Airport (Billy Bishop Airport), Toronto–Pearson, Vancouver; and Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson  These procedures expedite travel by allowing flights originating in Canada to land at a U S  airport without being processed as an international arrival  Canada does not maintain equivalent personnel at U



ground_truth: 1986

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In 1990, who became the president of the country that Germany invaded?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: S  airports due to the sheer number of Canada-bound flights from numerous U S  departure locations 

Cross-border airports
One curiosity on the Canada–U S  border is the presence of six airports and eleven seaplane bases whose runways straddle the borderline  Such airports were built prior to the U S  entry into World War II as a way to legally transfer U S -built aircraft, such as the Lockheed Hudson, to Canada under the provisions of the Lend-Lease Act  In the interest of maintaining neutrality, U S  military pilots were forbidden to deliver combat aircraft to Canada  As result, the aircraft were flown to the border, where they landed, then were towed on their wheels over the border by tractors or horses overnight  The next day, the planes were crewed by RCAF pilots and flown to other locations, typically airbases in Eastern Canada and Newfoundland, from where they were flown to the United Kingdom and deployed in the Battle of Britain 

Piney Pinecreek Border Airport is located in Piney, Manitoba and Pinecreek, Minnesota  The northwest–southeast-oriented runway straddles the border, and there are two ramps: one in the U S  and one in Canada  The airport is owned by the Minnesota Department of Transportation International Peace Garden Airport is located in Boissevain, Manitoba and Dunseith, North Dakota adjacent to the International Peace Garden  The runway is entirely within North Dakota, but a ramp extends across the border to allow aircraft to access Canadian customs  While not jointly owned, it is operated as an international facility for customs clearance as part of the Peace Garden 
Coronach/Scobey Border Station Airport (or East Poplar Airport) is located in Coronach, Saskatchewan and Scobey, Montana  The airport is jointly owned by the Canadian and U S  government, with its east–west runway sited exactly on the borderline 
Coutts/Ross International Airport is located in Alberta and Montana  Like Coronach/Scobey, the east–west runway is sited exactly on the border  The airport is owned entirely by the Montana Department of Transportation (DOT) Aeronautics Division 
Del Bonita/Whetstone International Airport, located in Del Bonita, Alberta and Del Bonita, Montana, has an east–west runway sited exactly on the border, similar to Coutts/Ross  The airport is officially owned by the state of Montana and run by the state's DOT Aeronautics Division, thus it has been assigned a U S  identifier only  The facility is set up for both the general public (15 passengers maximum per plane) as well as the American military Avey Field State Airport is located in Washington and British Columbia  The privately owned airfield is mostly in the U S , but several hundred feet of the north–south runway extend into Canada  As such, both Canadian and U S  customs are available  It is assigned a U S  identifier, but does not have a Canadian one 
Several seaplane bases have water runways that cross the border, though the extent to which they do may be difficult to ascertain  The land-based facilities for the bases are all contained within one country or the other, however, leading to multiple situations where twin seaplane bases may share the same body of water  The following seaplane facilities exist on the border:

Rouses Point SPB (New York / Quebec)
Van Buren SPB (Maine / New Brunswick)
Sault Ste Marie SPB and Sault Ste  Marie Water Aerodrome (Michigan / Ontario)
Sand Point Lake Water Aerodrome (Minnesota / Ontario)
International Falls SPB and Fort Frances Water Aerodrome (Minnesota / Ontario)
Baudette International Airport and Rainy River Water Aerodrome (Minnesota / Ontario)
Hyder Seaplane Base and Stewart Water Aerodrome (Alaska / British Columbia)

Land border crossings
Currently there are 119 legal land border crossings between the United States and Canada, 26 of which take place at a bridge or tunnel  Only 2 of the 119 crossings are one-way: the Churubusco–Franklin Centre Border Crossing, where travelers may enter only the United States; and the Four Falls Border Crossing, where travelers may enter only Canada 
There are six roads that have unstaffed road crossings, and do not have border inspection services in one or both directions, where travelers are legally allowed to cross the border  Those that cross are required to report to customs, which are stationed farther within 

Trail crossings
The Fourth Connecticut Lake Trail (New Hampshire/Quebec) crosses several times while following the border vista before heading back to the United States 
The Pacific Crest Trail crosses into E  C  Manning Provincial Park in the remote North Cascades mountains  Hikers can only legally cross into Canada from the US and not vice-versa, requiring an advance permit 

Rail crossings
There are 39 railroads that cross the U S –Canada border, nine of which are no longer in use  Eleven of these railroads cross the border at a bridge or tunnel 
Only three international rail lines currently carry passengers between the U S  and Canada  At Vancouver's Pacific Central Station, passengers are required to pass through U S  partial pre-clearance and pass their baggage through an X-ray machine before being allowed to board the Seattle-bound Amtrak Cascades train, which makes no further stops before crossing the border at Blaine, Washington, where the train stops for another CBP inspection  Pre-clearance facilities are not available for the popular Adirondack (New York City to Montreal) or Maple Leaf (New York City to Toronto) trains, since these lines have stops between Montreal or Toronto and the border  Instead, passengers must clear customs at a stop located at the actual border 

Seaports
There are 13 international ferry crossings operating between the U S  and Canada  Two of them carry passengers only and one carries only rail cars   Four of the ferries operate only on a seasonal basis 
Similar to that of the pre-clearance facilities at Canadian airports, arrangements exist at major Canadian seaports that handle sealed direct import shipments into the U S  Along the East coast, ferry services operate between the province of New Brunswick and the state of Maine, while on the West coast, they operate between British Columbia and the states of Washington and Alaska  There are also several ferry services in the Great Lakes operating between the province of Ontario and the states of Michigan, New York, and Ohio  The ferry between Maine and Nova Scotia ended its operations in 2009, resuming again in 2014 
On Heart Island in the St  Lawrence River, the Boldt Castle has a border control point with no specific location on the Canadian side  As such, Canadians must present identification to land on the island 

Cross-border buildings
A line house is a building located so that an international boundary passes through it  There are several such buildings that exist along the U S –Canada border:

The Haskell Free Library and Opera House straddles the border in Derby Line, Vermont, and Stanstead, Quebec 
Private homes divided by the boundary line between Estcourt Station, Maine, and Pohénégamook, Quebec 
Private homes divided between Beebe Plain, Quebec and Beebe Plain, Vermont;
A seasonal home divided at the intersection of Matthias Lane in Alburgh, Vermont, and Chemin au Bord de l'Eau in Noyan, Quebec;
A house divided between Richford, Vermont, and Abercorn, Quebec 
The Halfway House (also known as Taillon's International Hotel) is a tavern, built in 1820 before the border was surveyed, that straddles the border between Dundee, Quebec, and Fort Covington, New York The Maine–New Brunswick border divides the Aroostook Valley Country Club 

Boundary divisions
Practical exclaves
To be a true international exclave, all potential paths of travel from the exclave to the home country must cross over only the territory of a different country or countries  Like exclaves, practical exclaves are not contiguous with the land of the home country and have land access only through another country or countries  Unlike exclaves, they are not entirely surrounded by foreign territory  Hence, they are exclaves for practical purposes, without meeting the strict definition 
The term pene-exclave, also known as a "functional" or "practical" exclave,: 31  was defined by G  W  S  Robinson (1959) as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country ": 283  Thus, a pene-exclave has land borders with other territory but is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters : 60  Catudal (1974) and Vinokurov (2007): 31–33  provide examples to further elaborate, including Point Roberts, Washington: "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada ": 113  Practical exclaves can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless, a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts : 47

Practical exclaves of Canada
The Quebec western portion of the Akwesasne reserve is a practical exclave of Canada because of the St  Lawrence River to the north, the St  Regis River to the east, New York State, U S  to the south  To travel by land to elsewhere in Canada, one must drive through New York State 
Campobello Island is another practical exclave located at the entrance to Passamaquoddy Bay, adjacent to the entrance to Cobscook Bay, and within the Bay of Fundy  The island is part of Charlotte County, New Brunswick, but is actually physically connected by the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge with Lubec, Maine, the easternmost tip of the continental United States 
Premier, British Columbia is an abandoned mining site accessible only through Hyder, Alaska 

Practical exclaves of the United States
Alaska is a non-contiguous U S  state bounded by the Bering Sea; the Arctic and Pacific oceans; and Canada's British Columbia and Yukon Territory  Additionally, because of the terrain, several municipalities in southeast Alaska (the "Panhandle") are inaccessible by road, except via Canada  Specifically, the town of Hyder, Alaska, is accessible only through Stewart, British Columbia, or by floatplane  Moreover, Haines and Skagway are accessible by road only through Canada, although there are car ferries which connect them to other Alaskan places 
Point Roberts, Washington is bounded by British Columbia, the Strait of Georgia, and Boundary Bay 
In Minnesota, Elm Point, two small pieces of land to its west (Buffalo Bay Point), and the Northwest Angle are bounded by the province of Manitoba and Lake of the Woods 
In Vermont, the Alburgh Tongue, as well as Province Point, which is the small end of a peninsula east of Alburgh, are bounded by Quebec and Lake Champlain 

Split features
Between Quebec and Vermont, Province Island is a piece of land that primarily lies in Canada, though a small portion of the island is situated in the U S  state, lying south of the 45th parallel with a border vista marking the international boundary 
Canusa Street in Beebe Plain, VT is the only portion of the Canada–United States border split down the middle of a street 
Between North Dakota and Manitoba, the international border splits a peninsula within a lake on the border of Rolette County, North Dakota, and the Wakopa Wildlife Management Area, MB  Likewise, Lake Metigoshe, lying in the Township of Roland, borders the municipality of Winchester, Manitoba  The border splits a shoreline, putting Canadian cabins on one side and the beach and boat docks for those cabins on the U S  side, while land access is only through Canada 

Remaining boundary disputes
Machias Seal Island and North Rock (Maine / New Brunswick)
Dixon Entrance (Alaska / British Columbia)
Beaufort Sea (Alaska / Yukon)
Strait of Juan de Fuca (Washington / British Columbia)

See also
Canada Border Services Agency
United States Customs and Border Protection
United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints
Canada–United States relations
Illegal immigration to Canada
Illegal immigration to the United States
Indian barrier state, British plans to set up a new country in the Old Northwest
John Lewis Tiarks, a British surveyor of the border
Joseph Smith Harris' account of the Northwest Boundary Survey
Mexico–United States border

Footnotes
Passage 4:
Cyprus Popular Bank
Cyprus Popular Bank (from 2006 to 2011 known as Marfin Popular Bank) was the second-largest banking group in Cyprus behind the Bank of Cyprus until it was 'shuttered' in March 2013 and split into two parts  The 'good' Cypriot part was merged into the Bank of Cyprus (including insured deposits under 100,000 Euro) and the 'bad' part or legacy entity holds all the overseas operations as well as uninsured deposits above 100,000 Euro, old shares and bonds  The uninsured depositors were subject to a bail-in and became the new shareholders of the legacy entity   As at May 2017, the legacy entity is one of the largest shareholders of Bank of Cyprus with 4 8% but does not hold a board seat  All the overseas operations, of the now defunct Cyprus Popular Bank, are also held by the legacy entity, until they are sold by the Special Administrator, at first Ms Andri Antoniadou, who ran the legacy entity for two years, from March 2013 until 3 March 2015  She tendered her resignation due to disagreements, with the Governor of the Central Bank of Cyprus and the Central Bank Board members, who amended the lawyers of the legacy entity, without consulting her  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou who is an expert in Treasury and risk management took over as Special Administrator of the legacy entity in April 2015 until December 2016  The legacy entity is pursuing legal action against former major shareholder Marfin Investment Group 
Its shares were listed on the Cyprus Stock Exchange and the Athens Stock Exchange  CPB had a network of more than 295 branches in Cyprus, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, the UK and Malta  The bank had applied to open a representative office in Beijing, People's Republic of China Trading on the island as Laiki Bank (Laiki being the Greek word for Popular), as of September 2012 it held a 16% share of the market in loans and a 14 4% share of deposits   The Bank made a series of large loans, many to Greek companies prior to and during their financial crisis  What followed has been described as "billions handed out in bad loans created a financial time-bomb"  After the bank collapsed, it was rescued by the Cypriot government, which took 84% ownership on 30 June 2012 and as of March 2013 it is being dismantled as part of the 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis 

History
In 1901, four leading citizens of Limassol—Agathoclis Francoudis, Ioannis Kyriakides, Christodoulos Sozos and Neoklis Ioannides—established the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to encourage saving among the workforce  More than two decades later, in 1924, the bank changed its name from the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to the Popular Bank of Limassol  The bank also became the first company in Cyprus to register as a public-traded company 
Then in 1967, the Popular Bank of Limassol changed its name to Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) to reflect the bank’s expansion beyond Limassol  Expansion beyond Limassol followed quickly, with the establishment of its first branches in Nicosia,  Famagusta (1969), and Paphos and Larnaca (1970)  Also in 1970, Midland Bank acquired 22% of the company's shares, making Midland a major shareholder in CPB  The next year CPB relocated its headquarters from Limassol to Nicosia 

1974 CPB established its first London branch 
1983 CPB acquired all the Cyprus operations of Grindlays Bank located in the area under government control 
1992 CPB opened the first branch of European Popular Bank in Athens  CPB owned 58% of the shares of the bank; other shareholders included HSBC (formerly Midland Bank) and Greek and Cypriot investors  CPB retained branches in Heraklion and Thessaloniki
1995 CPB opened its first representative offices in South Africa and in Toronto, Ontario, Canada 
1996 CPB opened its first representative offices in Australia 
1997 CPB opened its first representative offices in Serbia and in Russia ("Rosprombank")
1998 CPB establishes a representative office in New York  (NY State Banking Dept says State chartered) 
2000 The Cyprus Popular Bank Group changed its name to Laiki Group 
2001 The Laiki Group established a subsidiary in Australia with five branches 
2005 The Group established Laiki Bank (Guernsey), and purchased Bank Centrobank in Serbia 
2006 The Greek Marfin Investment Group acquired HSBC's shares in Laiki Bank, establishing a strong minority share position   Subsequently, the Marfin Investment Group through more acquisitions managed to take control of Laiki Bank, which it re-branded as Marfin Popular Bank   In Greece, the Marfin Group consolidated Egnatia, Laiki and Marfin to form Marfin Egnatia Bank, which is the 95%-owned Greek subsidiary of Marfin Popular Bank 
2007 The bank announced the planned takeover of 50 12% of the share capital of AS SBM Pank, a bank in Estonia MPB also acquired 99 2% of the shares of Marine Transport Bank Ukraine for US$156 million  This bank was founded in 1993 as Marine Trade Bank and changed its name to Marine Transport Bank in 1996  It has its headquarters in the Odesa region and has 86 branches 
Lastly, MPB acquired 43% of the share capital of Lombard Bank Malta for €48 million from Banca della Svizzera Italiana (BSI) of Lugano  CPB now holds c  49% of Lombard Bank Malta In 2007, the bank announced a multi-million financial deal to sponsor the football First Division in Cyprus until 2010 
2008 Marfin Popular Bank completed its acquisition of 50 4% of the shares of CJSC RPB Holding, parent company of the Rossisysky Promishlenny Bank (Rosprombank), for €83 million  The acquisition makes Marfin the first Greek or Cypriot bank to acquire control of a bank in Russia 
In 2010, they launched a new mobile banking and mobile trading service  In the same year, the company was selected as the bank of the year in Cyprus by the Banker 
2010 MPB sold 85% of Laiki Bank Australia to Bank of Beirut  The Australian bank received a new name, Beirut Hellenic Bank  At the time, the bank had a branch in Adelaide, four branches in Melbourne and five branches in Sydney 
2011 MPB sold the majority of its shareholding in its Estonian subsidiary and returned to its historic name of Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) 
In 2012 CPB converted its Greek subsidiary into a branch of the parent bank 
The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis resulted in financial difficulties at CPB  The Cypriot state recapitalized CPB on 30 June 2012 with the result that the government acquired 84% of the bank's equity  This increased the bank's core tier 1 capital ratio towards 9%, the level mandated by the European Banking Authority 
In early 2013 CPB renamed its Greek branches to CPB Bank and on 26 March the bank sold them to Piraeus Bank  Laiki was split into a good and bad bank, the good bank (Cyprus operations) merged with Bank of Cyprus and the bad bank is in the process of being sold and finally shuttered  The board and CEO were replaced on 27 March  The bad bank was being run by a Special Administrator Ms Andri Antoniadou who was acting CEO until 3 March 2015  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou took over as Special Administrator in April 2015 until December 2016 In 2018 European Court dismisses compensation claim in Cyprus 2013 deposit-grab 
Passage 5:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory  Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria  The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located  The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government  Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs)  There are 774 local governments in Nigeria  Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government  The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation 

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria 

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives  It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list 

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature)  The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state 

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government  The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly 

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007)  The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control  Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press  ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3 
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999)  The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research  ISBN 978-181-238-9 
Rotimi T  Suberu (1994)  1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan  ISBN 978-2015-28-8 

External links
"New States of Nigeria"  Statoids 
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors 
Passage 6:
I'm Gonna Love You Through It
"I'm Gonna Love You Through It" is a song written by Ben Hayslip, Sonya Isaacs and Jimmy Yeary and recorded by American country music artist Martina McBride  It was released in July 2011 as the second single from her album Eleven  On November 30, 2011, the song received a nomination at the 54th Grammy Awards for Best Country Solo Performance  To date, this is McBride’s final Top 10 hit 

Content
The song is about a 38-year-old woman who is supported by her husband while battling breast cancer  The subject of the song survives  Co-writer Sonya Isaacs' inspiration for the song was her mother, Lily, who is a breast cancer survivor  It is in F major with an approximate tempo of 70 beats per minute, a vocal range of F3-D5 and a main chord pattern of F2-B♭2-F2 

Critical reception
Amanda Hensel of Taste of Country gave the song five stars out of five, saying that McBride "captures our hearts with this one, reminding us why she's one of the best in the business " Matt Bjorke of Roughstock also gave the song a positive review, writing that it has "all the hallmarks of her best and most powerful tunes "

Commercial performance
"I'm Gonna Love You Through It" debuted at number 50 on the U S  Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for the week of August 6, 2011  In its sixth week on the Hot 100, the song ascended to number 61  In January 2012, the song became McBride's first Top Ten hit since "Anyway" in 2007, nearly five years earlier  Two months later, it peaked at number 4 on the country chart   The song has sold 561,000 copies in the US as of October 2015, and has since been certified Gold by the R I A A

Music video
The music video was directed by Roman White and premiered in August 2011  It features appearances from cancer survivors Sheryl Crow, Robin Roberts and Hoda Kotb and cancer activist Katie Couric 

Charts
Year-end charts
Passage 7:
He's Gonna Step on You Again
"He's Gonna Step on You Again" (also known as "Step On") is a song originally performed by John Kongos, co-written by Kongos and Christos Demetriou, and first released in 1971 by Fly Records  It entered the UK Singles Chart on 22 May 1971 and spent 14 weeks there, peaking at No  4  Covers of the song have been chart successes several times, including for Happy Mondays in 1990 
It was cited in the Guinness Book of Records as being the first song to have used a sample  However, according to the sleeve note of the CD reissue of the Kongos album, it is actually a tape loop of African drumming, and the use of tape loops and instruments using prerecorded samples such as the Mellotron and Optigan was well established by this time 

Chart performance
Cover versions
1987 Australian versions
In 1987 three Australian bands (The Party Boys, Chantoozies and Exploding White Mice) each released their own cover version of "He's Gonna Step on You Again"  The Party Boys' single was issued in May, and peaked at No  1, for two weeks, in late July on the Australian Music Report chart while the Chantoozies version reached No  36 

The Party Boys
The Party Boys were an Australian rock band with a floating membership that mostly performed cover versions and existed from 1982 until 1992  By 1987, the members were Kevin Borich on guitar and backing vocals, John Brewster on guitar and backing vocals, Paul Christie on drums and backing vocals, Richard Harvey on drums, Alan Lancaster on bass guitar and backing vocals, and John Swan on lead vocals  Their version also reached No  10 on the New Zealand Singles Chart  The Party Boys also recorded a 12" single, "He's Gonna Step on You Again" (Stomp mix) with Nick Mainsbridge remixing, which was backed by "She's a Mystery" 

Chantoozies
The Chantoozies released a version in 1987 as the second single from their debut studio album Chantoozies  The song peaked at number 36 on the Australian Kent Music Report 

Track listings
7" single (K301)

Side A "He's Gonna Step on You Again"
Side B "Twenty Six 02"12" single (X 14504)

Side A "He's Gonna Step on You Again" (12" version)
Side B1 "He's Gonna Step on You Again" (7" version)
Side B2 "Twenty Six 02"

Charts
Happy Mondays version
English band Happy Mondays covered the song in 1990, retitling it "Step On", with two different music videos  It was originally intended as a contribution to the Rubáiyát: Elektra's 40th Anniversary compilation for their US label Elektra, but they decided to keep it to release as a single, and instead covered Kongos's "Tokoloshe Man" for the compilation  The Happy Mondays version incorporates a short sample of three guitar notes from the original "Step On" became Happy Mondays' biggest-selling single, peaking at No  5 in the UK and No  57 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart  The lyric "you're twisting my melon, man" was used for singer Shaun Ryder's autobiography Twisting My Melon 

Charts
Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications
See also
List of number-one singles in Australia during the 1980s
Passage 8:
Thirukkanur
Thirukkanur is a village in the union territory of Puducherry, India  It is one of 16 villages located in Mannadipet commune panchayat of the Villianur taluk  It is bordered by the state of Tamil Nadu both to the east and west 
Thirukkanur has a primary health center, police station, post office, electricity office and registrar office   The area is mainly oriented to agriculture  Thirukkanur market is the only bazaar catering to the needs of about 20 nearby villages   There is no major industry within the purview area of the Thirukkanar Police Station 


== Notes ==
Passage 9:
The Definitive Collection (Eric Carmen album)
The Definitive Collection is a 1997 greatest hits album of all the singles released by Cleveland, Ohio singer-songwriter Eric Carmen  It features five hits by the Raspberries, a power pop group which he led in the early 1970s  It also contains his versions of two major hits which he wrote for Shaun Cassidy, two popular songs from the movie Dirty Dancing, and his greatest hit, "All By Myself", which peaked at No  2 on the Billboard Hot 100 on March 5, 1976 

Critical reception
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic writes, "The Definitive Collection lives up to its title  Over the course of a single disc, the compilation features all of Eric Carmen's best-known songs and biggest hits"

Track listing
Musicians
Eric Carmen – Bass, Drums, Guitar, Acoustic Guitar, Electric Guitar, Rhythm Guitar, Harpsichord, Mellotron, Percussion, Piano, Electric Piano, Synthesizer, Tack Piano, Vocals, Background Vocals
Jim Bonfanti – Drums, Vocals
Mike Botts – Drums
Ollie E  Brown – Percussion
Wally Bryson – Guitar, Acoustic Guitar, Rhythm Guitar, Vocals
Charles Calello – Horn Arrangements
Tony Camillo – Horn Arrangements
Burton Cummings – Piano
– Percussion
Jimmie Haskell – Horn Arrangements
James Newton Howard – Synthesizer
Dan Hrdlicka – Guitar, Background Vocals
Bruce Johnston – Background Vocals
Steve Knill – Bass, Background Vocals
Danny Kortchmar – Acoustic Guitar
D  Dwight Krueger – Drums, Percussion, Background Vocals
Michael McBride – Drums, Percussion, Vocals, Background Vocals
Scott McCarl – Bass, Acoustic Guitar, Vocals
Tommy Morgan – Harmonica
Nigel Olsson – Drums, Background Vocals
Joe Porcaro – Drums, Percussion
Richard Reising – Guitar, Electric Guitar, Harpsichord, Synthesizer, Background Vocals
Valerie Carter – Background Vocals
Joe Chemay – Background Vocals
Curt Becher – Background Vocals
Brenda Russell – Background Vocals
Brian Russell – Background Vocals
Samantha Sang – Background Vocals
George Sipl – Organ, Synthesizer, Background Vocals
Dave Smalley – Bass, Rhythm Guitar, Vocals
Jai Winding – Piano, Electric Piano
Dave Wintour – Bass
Richie Zito – Electric Guitar

Production
Eric Carmen – Arranger, Producer
Bob Irwin – Compilation Producer, Mastering, Producer
Bob Gaudio – Producer
Jimmy Ienner – Executive Producer, Producer
Tom Rabstenek – Mastering
George Marino – Mastering
Greg Calbi – Mastering
Doug Sax – Mastering
Bernie Grundman – Mastering
Mark Howlett – Engineer
Tim Kramer – Engineer
Jim Bell – Engineer
Kevin Beamish – Engineer
Arnei Rosenberg – Engineer
Shelly Yakus – Engineer
Howard Steele – Engineer
Thom Wilson – Engineer
Jack Sherdel – Engineer
Dennis Kirk – Engineer
David Henson – Engineer
Don Gehman – Engineer
Larry Emerine – Engineer
Tony d'Amico – Engineer
Jim DeMain – Engineer, Remixing
Val Garay – Mixing
Joe Barbaria – Assistant Engineer
Rod O'Brien – Assistant Engineer
George Ybara – Assistant Engineer
Corky Stasiak – Assistant Engineer
David Thoener – Assistant Engineer
Kevin Herron – Assistant Engineer
Dennis Ferrante – Assistant Engineer
George Sipl – Remixing
Rita Karidis – Art DirectionTrack information and credits adapted from AllMusic and the album's liner notes 
Passage 10:
Krasnovishersky District
Krasnovishersky District (Russian: Краснови́шерский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion) of Perm Krai, Russia; one of the thirty-three in the krai  Municipally, it is incorporated as Krasnovishersky Municipal District  It is located in the northeast of the krai, in the valley of the Vishera River, and borders with the Komi Republic in the north, Sverdlovsk Oblast in the east, Cherdynsky District in the west, Solikamsky District in the south, and with the territory of the town of krai significance of Alexandrovsk in the southeast  The area of the district is 15,375 square kilometers (5,936 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Krasnovishersk  Population:  22,554 (2010 Census); 27,871 (2002 Census); 30,827 (1989 Census)  The population of Krasnovishersk accounts for 71 4% of the district's total population 

Geography
The eastern part of the district is mostly mountainous, while the western part is mostly flat, with some hills with the height of about 190–220 meters (620–720 ft)  The highest point of Perm Krai, Mount Tulymsky Kamen, is located in the district  There are many rivers in the district, including the Vishera River with its tributaries the Yazva, the Vels, the Uls, and many others  The town of Krasnovishersk is located 320 kilometers (200 mi) from the city of Perm  Natural resources of the district include diamonds, gold, oil, natural gas, and others 
The climate is temperate continental  The average annual temperature is +0 1 °C (32 2 °F); annual precipitation is 550–700 millimeters (22–28 in)  Up to 87% of the district's territory is covered by forests  In the extreme northeast of the district the Vishera Nature Reserve is located 

History
The district was established on January 13, 1941  Until then, its territory was a part of Cherdynsky District  Krasnovishersk, the administrative center of the district, was granted town status on July 2, 1942 

Demographics
As of the 2002 Census, about 89 7% of district's population were Russians and 2 5% were the Komi people 

Economy
The industry of the district includes timber industry, pulp and paper mill, mining and food industry 

See also
Visherogorsk
Zagovorukha
Passage 11:
Never Gonna Fall in Love Again
"Never Gonna Fall in Love Again" is a song co-written and recorded by American pop rock artist Eric Carmen  It was released as the second single from Carmen's self-titled debut solo album and peaked at No 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in June 1976, remaining in the Top 40 for ten weeks  The song reached No 1 on the Billboard Easy Listening chart  In Canada, it was a hit at No  1 on both charts The melody of "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again" is based on the third movement (Adagio) from Symphony No  2 by Russian composer Sergei Rachmaninoff 
Billboard described the song as a "ballad with characteristically good Carmen lyrics and vocals and lush orchestration " Cash Box said that it "has a hook-filled melody and chorus" and that "the tune will doubtless be covered by many artists, but the others will have to work hard to measure up to Carmen's version of his own song " Record World called it a "lush offering driven by an emotive performance "On his second solo LP, Boats Against the Current, Carmen had a subsequent Top 40 hit entitled "She Did It", a happy answer to the loneliness and lovelessness described in this song and its equally melancholy predecessor, "All By Myself" 

Television performance
Carmen performed "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again" and his prior hit, "All By Myself" on The Midnight Special television program on July 23, 1976 (season 4, episode 37)   The show was hosted by The Spinners 

Charts
Notable cover versions
Australian singer-songwriter Mark Holden's 1975 debut studio album Dawn in Darkness, which consisted entirely of original songs, was a commercial failure, selling only approximately 2,000 copies  In April 1976, Holden received a call from Colin Petersen, EMI Music Australia's A&R, who suggested he cover "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again"  In his 2017 autobiography, Holden said recording it "was a chance for me to have a hit"  He promoted the song by performing it on the Australian music television program Countdown while handing out red carnations to the audience  It became an infamous performance which led to Holden's nickname of "The Carnation Kid" His version, released in April 1976 as his debut single, peaked at No 13 on the Kent Music Report, becoming a commercial success  It was the 71st-biggest selling single in Australia in 1976 Unlike "All by Myself," Carmen's version of "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again" was not released in Australia and therefore did not chart  Also in 1976, Dana reached No 31 in the UK  with her cover of the song  Her British release charted concurrently with the versions by Carmen and Holden 

See also
List of number-one adult contemporary singles of 1976 (U S )
List of number-one singles of 1976 (Canada)
Passage 12:
Virginia, Lempira
Virginia (Spanish pronunciation: [biɾˈxinja]) is a municipality in the Honduran department of Lempira 
Virginia is located in Lempira Honduras and shares a border with El Salvador  Many Virginians travel to El Salvador to do their shopping, because the Honduran cities are far away from Virginia 
It is one of the smallest municipalities of the Lempira department  It is 15 km or 30 minutes away from Mapulaca if accessed through Gracias 

History
It was founded back in 1830  In the national division of 1889 it was one municipality of Candelaria 

Geography
It is situated in a semi flat place and surrounded by many hills   The predominant vegetation corresponds to the sub tropical dry forest  In the municipality capital there are some inclined streets 

Boundaries
Its boundaries are: 

North : Candelaria municipality 
South : El Salvador 
East  : Piraera municipality 
West  : Mapulaca municipality 
Surface Extents: 36 km2

Resources
Since it is on the border with El Salvador, it is much easier for people to go there to establish commercial activities  Also there are more and better jobs on the other side of the border, with the advantage of receiving their wages in US dollars  It is not an ideal location for coffee plantations, therefore corn and beans crops became important (even though they are for local consumption); followed by cattle raising  Like the rest of the department, it has electricity and mobile communication services 

Population
Population: The amount of inhabitants was 2,734 and according to INE Honduras estimates, there will be 2,574 in 2015 
Villages: 5
Settlements: 35

Demographics
At the time of the 2013 Honduras census, Virginia municipality had a population of 2,548  Of these, 97 06% were Mestizo, 2 90% Indigenous (2 86% Lenca) and 0 04% Black or Afro-Honduran 

Tourism
As for the remaining 15 km, although this dirt road is not in the best condition, it is still an easy drive  A half-hour visit will be enough to see all there is to see in the municipality capital  For those who are interested in rural and quiet towns, this is a good place to visit  Surprisingly, the mobile phone signal from El Salvador is stronger than the Honduran signal  Since it is near the Lempa River, the local pastime is going there to bathe  The local holidays and festivals attract many visitors 

Local Holidays: "Santa Lucia" day on December 13 



ground_truth: Lech Wałęsa