prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What province shares a border with the province where Lago District is located?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Tuymazinsky District
Tuymazinsky District (Russian: Туймази́нский райо́н; Bashkir and Tatar: Туймазы районы, Tuymazı rayonı) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the fifty-four in the Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia  It is located in the west of the republic and borders with Sharansky District in the north, Buzdyaksky District in the east, Belebeyevsky District in the southeast and south, Yermekeyevsky District in the south, and with the Republic of Tatarstan in the west  The area of the district is 2,403 square kilometers (928 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Tuymazy (which is administratively separate from the district)  As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 64,389 

History
The district was established on August 20, 1930  On March 20, 1937, the district was split into two—Tuymazinsky and Kandrinsky—but that was reversed in 1956 

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Tuymazinsky District is one of the fifty-four in the Republic of Bashkortostan  It is divided into 18 selsoviets, comprising 113 rural localities  The town of Tuymazy serves as its administrative center, despite being incorporated separately as a town of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Tuymazinsky Municipal District, with the town of republic significance of Tuymazy being incorporated within it as Tuymazy Urban Settlement  Its eighteen selsoviets are incorporated as eighteen rural settlements within the municipal district  The town of Tuymazy serves as the administrative center of the municipal district as well 
Passage 2:
Chaunsky District
Chaunsky District (Russian: Ча́унский райо́н; Chukchi: Чаан район, Čaan rajon) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the six in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia  It is located on the northern shore of the autonomous okrug and borders with Iultinsky District in the northeast, Anadyrsky District in the southeast, and with Bilibinsky District in the south and west  The area of the district is 67,091 square kilometers (25,904 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Pevek  Population:  5,148 (2010 Census); 6,962 (2002 Census); 32,167 (1989 Census)  The population of Pevek accounts for 80 8% of the district's total population Chaunsky District is flat compared to other districts in the autonomous okrug  The land within the current boundaries was first discovered by non-indigenous people in the 18th century, and now the indigenous people of the district are a minority as ethnic Russians came to the area following a growth in mining 

Geography
The district is centered around the Chaunskaya Bay, on the shores of which Pevek, the administrative center of the district, is situated  The district's territory also includes Ayon Island, found at the entrance to the Chaunskaya Bay  There is an eponymous settlement on the island 
The district's territory stretches for 330 kilometers (210 mi) from north to south and for 290 kilometers (180 mi) from east to west  Cape Shelagsky is its northernmost point  Chaunsky District is significantly flatter than Bilibinsky District located to the west and contains large areas devoted to reindeer pasture 
Approximately 350 kilometers (220 mi) long, the Chaun River, which flows into Chaunskaya Bay, is the longest river in the whole autonomous okrug There are a number of wetland areas of significance within the district  The most westerly of these is situated on the Kyttyk Peninsula and the mouth of the Rauchua River  This area is dominated by the Lower Rauchua delta and the alluvial plains of the Kyttyk Peninsula, from which Ayon Island is separated by the Maly Chaunsky Strait  The peninsula is almost completely covered in a complex system of lakes, ranging in size from small saline pools lying on a recently exposed marine terrace 1 to 2 m above sea level, near the coast, to lakes up to 1 km wide and 12 m deep on high level surfaces 10–15 m above sea level  In addition, the peninsula is scored by a number of rivers, the Eyukuul, Koz'mina, Rakvezan and Emykkyvian among the most significant The Ust-Chaun area of the district also contains significant wetlands at the south end of Chaunskaya Bay, consisting mainly of an alluvial plain approximately 100 km wide and 60 km north to south  The wetlands at Ust-Chaun are similar in structure to those at the Rauchua / Kyttyk wetland, consisting of a landscape almost entirely filled with small lakes, those nearest Chaunskaya Bay are the smallest and shallowest (less than 70 cm deep) and those on more elevated ground being deeper at 1 5–3 m deep The Ust-Chaun region serves a fishing centre for the inhabitants of Rytkuchi, although this has lost its importance in recent years as stocks of Char have diminished, as a result of overfishing both for sale to the local Sovkhoz and as bait for trapping foxes 

Flora
There are approximately 200 different species of plant within the Rauchua / Kyttyk wetland area comprising a variety of steppe, boreal and arctic species, a number of which occur at the eastern limit of their natural habitat  In the Ust-Chaun area, there are even more recorded plant species, at 252 , including a number of rare species 

Fauna
Humpback and chum salmon enter the lower reaches of the Rauchua  Several species of whitefish, grayling and smelt also live in the river or in the many surrounding lakes  Sticklebacks also live in the lakes along with Arctic char, although the community of char is infested with Acanthocephala  Similar fish exist in the Ust-Chaun region, and in addition to fish, the wetland is also home to the Siberian newt, which lives in the shrub-covered tundra near the delta The Rauchua / Kyttyk wetland area is considered to be the easternmost extent of so-called "Kolyma fauna", such as the Terek sandpiper, brown shrike and scarlet rosefinch  The most common bird species in the Rauchua / Kyttyk wetland are the yellow-billed, black-throated and Pacific divers  One of the main reasons for the importance of the Rauchua / Kyttyk is the breeding population (figures as of 1994) of Bewick's swan (approximately 300 birds), the Pacific eider (approximately 3,000 birds) and the spectacled eider (approximately 2,000 birds)  Spectacled and Pacific eider as well as black-throated and Pacific divers are also found in the Ust-Chaun region, though the Pacific eider is much more common on the Kyttyl Peninsula and near Apapelgino Birds of prey are found in the Ust-Chaun area, with the rough-legged buzzard nesting in the area and species such as the goshawk and peregrine falcon visiting the area regularly  Their prey consists of a wide variety of small mammals and almost all mammals found in the tundra regions of the Russian Far East are found in the Ust-Chaun area, including a number of species of shrew, vole and lemming  Larger mammals include wild reindeer, wolves and brown bear 

Demographics
Approximately 85% of the district's population in 2003 were non-indigenous peoples  As with most of the districts in Chukotka, indigenous peoples are more often found in the scattered rural localities, while ethnic Russians are more often found in the urban areas  These people either migrated to the Far East, or are the descendants of those who did, enticed by the higher pay, large pensions, and more generous allowances permitted to those prepared to endure the cold and the isolation, or, more likely, were exiled here as a result of one of Stalin's purges, or were exiled here having been released from the Gulag  The existence of the port of Pevek in the district is a major reason for the presence of ethnic Russians The indigenous people present in the district are almost exclusively Chukchi  An environmental impact study produced by Bema Gold for the Kupol gold project states that at the start of 2004, 846 of the districts inhabitants were of indigenous origin  Of these people, 841 were Chukchi, with 2 reported as Yupik, 2 Mansi and 1 Even comprising the remaining five indigenous individuals  The indigenous people of Chaunsky District reside mainly in Rytkuchi, Ayon and Yanranay 

History
18th and 19th centuries
The area of what is now Chaunsky District was first visited by non-indigenous people, when Karl Merk came across the Chaun River, as part of the overland element of the Billings Expedition—the expedition ordered by Catherine the Great and led by Englishman Joseph Billings in an attempt to find a true Northeast Passage   Prior to the river's discovery by Merk, the Chaun River represented the westernmost boundary of the Chukchi land  Merk named the river Chavaveyam after Mount Chaun, from where the river springs The Rauchua River was a place inhabited by mammoths in prehistoric times and was also the scene of a bloody battle between Chukchi herders and a combination of Yukaghirs and Evens during the 19th century  The name Rauchua comes from the Chukchi word "Ravchyvan", meaning place of a victory over a camp 

20th century
The district in its present form was founded in 1933  Gold and tin were discovered in the 1940s, which led to the first occurrences of industrial mining in the district in the 1950s  The effect of this growth in industry was that Chaunsky District became the first district in the region to have a road network constructed as well as an electricity grid  During World War II, the Chaunskaya Bay area of Chaunsky District was the most important tin producing area in the whole of the Soviet Union 

Economy
Industrial and administrative
Many of the populated places throughout Chukotka owe their existence to tin and gold mines, and deposits of these metals were first discovered in Chukotka in Chaunsky District in 1941  In 2002, the average monthly salary was just over 11,000 rubles per month, although agricultural wages were on average only around half that per month  Mining and ancillary services still form the major elements of the economy of Chaunsky District  There are two large mines and a number of small mines in the district, supported by a large trucking company 

Traditional and cultural
Compared to other districts in Chukotka, agricultural enterprise is not particularly well developed  There is only one farming brigade, Chaunskoye, employing just under 200 people  The brigade herds around 15,000 reindeer and is also involved in fishing 

Transportation
As a result of the development of the mining industry, Chaunsky District also has the most developed road transport network in Chukotka, with paved, unpaved, or snow roads leading from Pevek to all major population hubs  Pevek Airport, located about 14 kilometers (8 7 mi) from Pevek proper, provides a link for the region to Moscow  Pevek's port is the largest in Chukotka and is generally open for about two and a half months a year from mid-July to September The transport infrastructure of the district is more developed compared to the rest of Chukotka; this in part is helped by the presence of Pevek  Pevek itself has the second largest airport in Chukotka after the Ugolny Airport and offers one of the few means of direct air travel to Moscow  Pevek is also the naval headquarters of the East Arctic during the short summer 

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Chaunsky District is one of the six in the autonomous okrug  The town of Pevek serves as its administrative center  The district does not have any lower-level administrative divisions and has administrative jurisdiction over one town, six urban-type settlements, and four rural localities, consisting of all the inhabited localities listed below in the "Inhabited localities" section, except for Billings, which is administratively subordinated to Iultinsky District 
As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Chaunsky Municipal District and is divided into one urban settlement and three rural settlements 

Inhabited localities
Divisional source:Population source:*Administrative centers are shown in bold
Passage 3:
Shmidtovsky District
Shmidtovsky District (Russian: Шми́дтовский райо́н) was an administrative district (raion) of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia, which existed in 1973–2011  As a municipal division, it was, together with Iultinsky Administrative District, incorporated as Iultinsky Municipal District  It was located in the far north of the autonomous okrug and bordered with Iultinsky District in the east, Anadyrsky District in the south, and with Chaunsky District in the west  The area of the district was 70,900 square kilometers (27,400 sq mi)  Its administrative center was the urban locality (an urban-type settlement) of Mys Shmidta  Population:  1,469 (2010 Census); 2,660 (2002 Census); 15,726 (1989 Census)  The population of Mys Shmidta accounted for 33 5% of the district's total population 

History
Shmidtovsky District was founded in 1973  It was named after Otto Schmidt, a Soviet scientist  Beyond the mainland, the district also incorporated the UNESCO World Heritage Site, Wrangel Island, which straddles the 180° meridian, and its neighboring island Herald, which in 2004 was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Site list at the same time as Wrangel Island The indigenous population made up around 28% of the total population of the district, which, although lower than in Chukotsky and Providensky Districts, was at the time around average in the autonomous okrug 
Signs of earlier habitation by indigenous peoples can be seen at several sites throughout the former district's territory  In the central parts of the region one can still see the Pegtymel rock drawings, where images were carved into the rock by the local inhabitants using quartz  Over a hundred more examples of ancient artwork can be seen on eleven of the Kaikuul cliffs, describing hunting and farming scenes as well as what is thought to be early references to Shamanism 

Economy
The main economic drivers were gold mining, traditional reindeer herding, and marine hunting  However, there was little mining done in the vicinity of Mys Shmidta, with the three main prospecting teams in the region (Polyarnaya, Arktikaand, and Shakhtar) being based in Leningradsky 

Transportation
Although much of the internal region of the district was given over to reindeer pasture, thus creating a significant area of wilderness, connections between the populated places along the coast were present  As with all areas of Siberia and the Russian Far East, there was very limited road transport  There is a road, however, linking Mys Shmidta with Egvekinot  There is also a 435-kilometer (270 mi) unpaved road between Mys Shmidta and Komsomolsky, of which 235 kilometers (146 mi) is unpaved road and the remaining 199 kilometers (124 mi) is snow road In addition to local road transport, the district was also served by Mys Shmidta Airport, located immediately to the southwest of the settlement  The airport is now employed solely for civilian usage, providing flights to Anadyr  Flights are provided by Chukotavia  The runway is 2,450-meter (8,040 ft) long and 60-meter (200 ft) wide  The distance to Anadyr by air is 478 kilometers (297 mi) 
Unlike airports such as the Provideniya Bay Airport, which has always been a civilian airport, or the Iultin Airport, which was constructed specifically to serve the needs of the remote mine nearby, the Mys Shmidta airport was initially part of the ring of forward staging bases used by the Arctic Control Group (OGA) prior to intercontinental ballistic missiles gaining favor as the primary means of long-range defense 

Status changes
Before May 2008, Shmidtovsky Administrative District was municipally incorporated as Shmidtovsky Municipal District  In May 2008, Iultinsky and Shmidtovsky Municipal Districts were merged, forming an enlarged Vostochny Municipal District  This change, however, did not affect the administrative aspect of these districts  Both Iultinsky and Shmidtovsky Administrative Districts continued to exist separately  In October 2008, the law mandating the change was amended and the name Vostochny was discarded with the combined municipal district being renamed Iultinsky Municipal District 
Shmidtovsky Administrative District was itself merged into Iultinsky Administrative District effective June 13, 2011 

Climate
The climate of the former Shmidtovsky District is more severe than in neighboring Alaska or even as in the neighboring districts and varies significantly throughout the year  Average July temperatures could range from +4 °C (39 °F) to +14 °C (57 °F), and January temperatures from −18 to −42 °C (0 to −44 °F)  The lowest temperatures were characteristic for the western part of the region while storms and winds were frequent on the eastern coast  The summer was short but comparatively warm 

Divisions
Administrative divisions
Shmidtovsky Administrative District had administrative jurisdiction over two urban-type settlements (Mys Shmidta and Leningradsky) and two rural localities (Billings and Ryrkaypiy) 

Municipal
Shmidtovsky Municipal District was abolished in 2008, and all of the municipal formations previously within the district became a part of Iultinsky Municipal District 
Passage 4:
Gmina Włodawa
Gmina Włodawa is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Włodawa County, Lublin Voivodeship, in eastern Poland, on the border with Belarus and Ukraine  Its seat is the town of Włodawa, although the town is not part of the territory of the gmina 
The gmina covers an area of 243 75 square kilometres (94 1 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 5,936 

Villages
Gmina Włodawa contains the villages and settlements of Korolówka, Korolówka-Kolonia, Korolówka-Osada, Krasówka, Luta, Okuninka, Orchówek, Połód, Różanka, Sobibór, Stawki, Suszno, Szuminka, Wołczyny, Żłobek Duży, Żłobek Mały and Żuków 

Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Włodawa is bordered by the town of Włodawa and by the gminas of Hanna, Hańsk, Wola Uhruska and Wyryki  It also borders Belarus and Ukraine 

See also
Sobibor extermination camp
Passage 5:
Shumerlinsky District
Shumerlinsky District  (Russian: Шу́мерлинский райо́н; Chuvash: Çĕмĕрле районӗ, Śĕmĕrle rayonĕ) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the twenty-one in the Chuvash Republic, Russia  It is located in the west of the republic and borders with Alikovsky and Krasnochetaysky Districts in the north, Vurnarsky District in the east, Ibresinsky and Poretsky Districts in the south, and with Nizhny Novgorod Oblast on the Sura River in the west  The area of the district is 1,047 6 square kilometers (404 5 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Shumerlya (which is not administratively a part of the district)  Population: 10,765 (2010 Census); 13,298 (2002 Census); 16,187 (1989 Census) 

History
The district was formed on January 9, 1935 

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Shumerlinsky District is one of the twenty-one in the republic  The town of Shumerlya serves as its administrative center, despite being incorporated separately as a town of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Shumerlinsky Municipal District  The town of republic significance of Shumerlya is incorporated separately from the district as Shumerlya Urban Okrug 

Notable residents
Valery Yardy (1948–1994), Olympic road cyclist
Passage 6:
Dnovsky District
Dnovsky District (Russian: Дно́вский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the twenty-four in Pskov Oblast, Russia  It is located in the east of the oblast and borders with Soletsky District of Novgorod Oblast in the northeast, Volotovsky District, also of Novgorod Oblast, in the east, Dedovichsky District in the south, and with Porkhovsky District in the west  The area of the district is 1,194 square kilometers (461 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Dno  Population: 13,341 (2010 Census); 16,048 (2002 Census); 20,110 (1989 Census)  The population of Dno accounts for 67 9% of the district's total population 

Geography
Being a part of the Ilmen Depression, the district's landscape is essentially flat  The district lies in the basin of the Shelon River  The biggest rivers in the district, all of them being right tributaries of the Shelon, are the Dubyanka, the Polonka, and the Lyuta  A part of the Shelon itself flows through the district as well 

History
In the past, the area belonged to the Novgorod Republic  Two villages with the name of Dno (Bolshoye Dno and Maloye Dno) were first mentioned in chronicles in the 15th century  After the fall of the Novgorod Republic in 1478, the area was, together will the rest of Novgorod lands, annexed by the Grand Duchy of Moscow  It belonged to Shelonskaya Pyatina, one of the five pyatinas into which Novgorod lands were divided  In the 16th century, state-sponsored roads were built, and the area became one of the centers of yam, the road messenger system  In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, the area was included into Ingermanland Governorate (known since 1710 as Saint Petersburg Governorate)  In 1727, separate Novgorod Governorate was split off, and in 1772, Pskov Governorate (which between 1777 and 1796 existed as Pskov Viceroyalty) was established  In 1776, Porkhovsky Uyezd was transferred from Novgorod Governorate to Pskov Governorate  The area was a part of Porkhovsky Uyezd, and Dno was the seat of Dnovskaya Volost 
On August 1, 1927, the uyezds were abolished, and Dnovsky District was established, with the administrative center in the town of Dno  It included parts of former Porkhovsky Uyezd  The governorates were abolished as well, and the district became a part of Pskov Okrug of Leningrad Oblast  On July 23, 1930, the okrugs were also abolished, and the districts were directly subordinated to the oblast  Between August 1941 and February 1944, Dnovsky District was occupied by German troops  On August 23, 1944, the district was transferred to newly established Pskov Oblast 

Economy
Industry
The industrial enterprises in the district include two metalworking plants, a ceramic production plant, and a bakery 

Agriculture
The main agricultural specialization in the district is cattle breeding with meat and milk production  As of 2012, eight large- and mid-scale farms were operating in the district 

Transportation
Dno is an important railway station where two railways cross  One connects Bologoye and Pskov via Staraya Russa and runs from east to west  Another one connects St  Petersburg and Vitebsk and runs from north to south 
Dno is connected by roads with Soltsy, Porkhov, and Dedovichi  There are also local roads with bus traffic 

Culture and recreation
The district contains three cultural heritage monuments of federal significance and additionally twenty-six objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local significance  The federally protected monuments are archeological sites 
Passage 7:
Niassa Reserve
Niassa Reserve is a nature reserve in Cabo Delgado Province and Niassa Province, Mozambique  Covering over 42,000 square kilometres (10,000,000 acres), it is the largest protected area in the country  The reserve is part of the Trans-Frontier Conservation Area and links to the Tanzanian Lukwika-Lumesule Game Reserve  It will connect to the Lake Niassa Reserve when it is completed 

History
Founded in 1954 while Mozambique was still Portuguese East Africa, Niassa did not receive effective protection until the end of the Mozambican Civil War with the signing of the Rome General Peace Accords  Since then, the Mozambican government has set up management systems in order to protect the ecology of northern Mozambique  
The relative isolation and lack of development that protects the park also hurts its potential for tourism  Mozambican officials admit constraints to development of the park's appeal include "remoteness and difficult access     lack of any established tourism infrastructure and the logistical hardship associated with starting an enterprise under these conditions "Since 2005, the protected area is considered a Lion Conservation Unit 

Borders
The northern border is formed by the Rovuma River, which also forms the border with Tanzania  Niassa Reserve is twice the size of Kruger National Park and comparable to the total area of Wales, Denmark or Massachusetts 

Ecosystem
Niassa is part of the Eastern miombo woodlands, which also encompasses parts of Tanzania and Malawi  The reserve is one of the largest miombo woodland preserves in the world, with miombo forest covering half of the preserve  The remainder is mostly open savannah, with some wetlands and isolated patches of forest  95% of the preserve's biomass is vegetation, which includes 21 types of plant matter and 191 species of trees and shrubs Niassa Preserve boasts an African wild dog population of over 350, significant for an endangered mammal with a global population estimated at 8000  The park boasts a sable antelope population of over 12000, an elephant population of 16000, over 400 bird species, and large populations of Cape buffalo, impala, wildebeest, zebra and leopards  The area has three endemic species - the Niassa wildebeest, Boehm's zebra, and Johnston's Impala The reserve is home to Mecula Mountain, located at the center of the park with a height of 1,441 metres (4,728 ft) 
Passage 8:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 9:
Krasnovishersky District
Krasnovishersky District (Russian: Краснови́шерский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion) of Perm Krai, Russia; one of the thirty-three in the krai  Municipally, it is incorporated as Krasnovishersky Municipal District  It is located in the northeast of the krai, in the valley of the Vishera River, and borders with the Komi Republic in the north, Sverdlovsk Oblast in the east, Cherdynsky District in the west, Solikamsky District in the south, and with the territory of the town of krai significance of Alexandrovsk in the southeast  The area of the district is 15,375 square kilometers (5,936 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Krasnovishersk  Population:  22,554 (2010 Census); 27,871 (2002 Census); 30,827 (1989 Census)  The population of Krasnovishersk accounts for 71 4% of the district's total population 

Geography
The eastern part of the district is mostly mountainous, while the western part is mostly flat, with some hills with the height of about 190–220 meters (620–720 ft)  The highest point of Perm Krai, Mount Tulymsky Kamen, is located in the district  There are many rivers in the district, including the Vishera River with its tributaries the Yazva, the Vels, the Uls, and many others  The town of Krasnovishersk is located 320 kilometers (200 mi) from the city of Perm  Natural resources of the district include diamonds, gold, oil, natural gas, and others 
The climate is temperate continental  The average annual temperature is +0 1 °C (32 2 °F); annual precipitation is 550–700 millimeters (22–28 in)  Up to 87% of the district's territory is covered by forests  In the extreme northeast of the district the Vishera Nature Reserve is located 

History
The district was established on January 13, 1941  Until then, its territory was a part of Cherdynsky District  Krasnovishersk, the administrative center of the district, was granted town status on July 2, 1942 

Demographics
As of the 2002 Census, about 89 7% of district's population were Russians and 2 5% were the Komi people 

Economy
The industry of the district includes timber industry, pulp and paper mill, mining and food industry 

See also
Visherogorsk
Zagovorukha
Passage 10:
Kazachinsky District
Kazachinsky District (Russian: Каза́чинский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-three in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia  It is located in the southern central part of the krai and borders with Yeniseysky and Motyginsky Districts in the north, Taseyevsky District in the east, Bolshemurtinsky District in the south, and with Pirovsky District in the west  The area of the district is 5,755 square kilometers (2,222 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the rural locality (a selo) of Kazachinskoye  Population:  11,430 (2010 Census); 12,732 (2002 Census); 16,015 (1989 Census)  The population of Kazachinskoye accounts for 33 8% of the district's total population 

Geography
The district is located in the Central part of Krasnoyarsk region, 160-230 km North of Krasnoyarsk And 110-130 km from Yeniseisk  The area is 5755 km² 
Situated on both banks of the Yenisey river, through the area the trail passes Р409 "Krasnoyarsk — Yeniseisk"  Near the village of kazachinsky (233-240 km from Krasnoyarsk) is one of the most impassable areas on the Yenisei — kazachinsky threshold (rus)   Adjacent territory:

North: Yeniseisky and Motyginsky districts of Krasnoyarsk region;
East: Taseevsky district of Krasnoyarsk territory;
South: Bolshemurtinsky district of Krasnoyarsk region;
West: Pirovsky district of Krasnoyarsk region 

History
The district was founded on April 4, 1924 

Divisions and government
Kazachinsky district Council of deputies
Date of formation: 13 09 2015  Term of office: 5 years
Chairman
Paskolniy Igor Nikolaevich
Head of kazachinsky district
Ozerskyh Yury Evgenievich  Date of election: 27 07 2015  Term of office: 5 years
Passage 11:
Swan Miara
Swan Miara (ساون میرا) is a village and union council (an administrative subdivision) of Mansehra District in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan  It is located in the south of the district where it borders Abbottabad District Formerly it was a part of the Princely State of Amb 
Passage 12:
Lago District
Lago District is a district of Niassa Province in north-western Mozambique  The principal town is Metangula  Lago District is bordered to the west by Lake Nyasa, on the south by Lichinga, on the east by Sanga District   Lago shares its northern boundary with Tanzania   

Area: 6,438 km2 
Population: 55, 892 (1997 census)
Population density: 8 7 people/km2 (1997)

Settlements
Lupilichi
Chicago

Further reading
District profile (PDF)
Passage 13:
Gallaratese
Gallaratese is a district ("quartiere") of Milan, Italy, part of the Zone 8 administrative division of the city  It is located about 7 km north-west of the city centre  It borders on the comune of Pero to the north and on the districts of Trenno to the west and Lampugnano to the south; to the east, its ideal border is the eponymous street, which in turn is named after Gallarate, the town it leads to 

Overview
The district is clearly subdivided into two parts; the first one, in the area of Via Cechov, has developed after the other one, enclosed between Via Cilea and Via Apennini; this latter, older part of the district is sometimes referred to as quartiere San Leonardo  These two parts are connected by a major shopping mall called Bonola  
Gallaratese is one of the largest districts in Italy to have been built "from scratch" in the 20th century (between the 1960s and 1980s) in a previously rural area  The Olona river, which traverses the district, has been laid underground  The first buildings to be created in Gallaratese were large apartment blocks; smaller palaces were added later  Today, the district has a population of about 60,000  The district is well connected by public transportation; it has four stops of the Milan Metro subway and five bus lines traversing it  It is also close to major thoroughfares such as the Tangenziale and the Strada del Sempione  
A major landmark of the Gallaratese district is Monte Amiata, a complex of apartment blocks that were designed by Carlo Aymonino, and that are characterized by a futuristic architecture  The most typical buildings are the so-called "tower houses" (case torri in Italian, tower-shaped apartment blocks 

History
The project for the Gallaraterse district was first laid down by architect Piero Bottoni in the mid 20th century  The objective was to create a low-income housing district with green areas, effective traffic connection to the city, and functional public services  Construction began in 1957, from a first core of the district named "Gallaratese G 1"  The original plan by Bottoni was then refined and developed by over 60 architects, led by Gianluigi Reggio   A second and third part of the district, named "Gallaratese G 2" and "San Leonardo" respectively, were developed between 1964 and 1974   In those years, the "tower houses" that now characterize the Gallaratese' skyline were built   The final outcome was quite different from the original plans; the district was in fact developed with less green areas and less services than it had been planned, resulting in a definitely "satellite" district  
In the last decades of the 20th century the district has grown larger, gradually extending north up to the borders of Pero; the Bonola shopping mall was also created 

Footnotes
External links
Portal of the Gallaratese district (in Italian)
Passage 14:
Nyuksensky District
Nyuksensky District (Russian: Ню́ксенский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the twenty-six in Vologda Oblast, Russia  It is located in the northeast of the oblast and borders with Ustyansky District of Arkhangelsk Oblast in the north, Velikoustyugsky District in the east, Kichmengsko-Gorodetsky District in the southeast, Babushkinsky District in the south, Totemsky District in the southwest, and with Tarnogsky District in the west  The area of the district is 5,167 42 square kilometers (1,995 15 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the rural locality (a selo) of Nyuksenitsa  District's population: 9,777 (2010 Census); 11,714 (2002 Census); 13,287 (1989 Census)  The population of Nyuksenitsa accounts for 43 7% of the district's total population 

Geography
The district is located on both banks of the Sukhona River  It is elongated from north to south and divided by the Sukhona roughly into two equal parts  The major part of the district belongs to the basin of the Sukhona and two of its tributaries: the Uftyuga (left) and the Gorodishna (right)  The rivers in the north of the district drain into the Ustya River basin and thus into the basin of the Vaga, a major tributary of the Northern Dvina  Some rivers in the southeast of the district drain into the Kichmenga and the Sharzhenga, left tributaries of the Yug River  The whole district belongs to the basin of the Northern Dvina 
The district is almost completely covered by coniferous forests (taiga)  The exception are the meadows in the floodplains 

History
The area was populated by Finnic peoples and then colonized by the Novgorod Republic (Totma) and Vladimir-Suzdal Principality (Veliky Ustyug)  The Novgorod merchants used the Sukhona River as one of the main waterways leading to the White Sea and the Pechora  After the fall of Novgorod, the area became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow  The village of Bobrovy Yam (currently Bobrovskoye) was mentioned in the chronicles in 1425  Nyuksenitsa was first mentioned in 1619 In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, the area was included into Archangelgorod Governorate  In 1780, the governorate was abolished and transformed into Vologda Viceroyalty  The latter was abolished in 1796, and the part of it which included Nyuksenitsa became Vologda Governorate  It was included into Velikoustyugsky Uyezd  In 1918, the area was transferred to the newly established Northern Dvina Governorate, and in 1924 the uyezds were abolished in favor of the new divisions, the districts (raions) 
Nyuksensky District was established on June 10, 1924 and included areas of former Solvychegodsky and Velikoustyugsky Uyezds  On February 27, 1928, it was renamed Sukhonsky District  In 1929, Northern Dvina Governorate was merged into Northern Krai, and Kokshengsky District was established  On July 30, 1931, Sukhonsky and Kokshengsky Districts were merged, and Nyuksensky District was re-established, with the administrative center located in Nyuksenitsa  In 1935, Tarnogsky District was split off from Nyuksensky District  In 1936, Northern Krai was transformed into Northern Oblast, and in 1937, Northern Oblast itself was split into Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda Oblast  Nyuksensky District remained in Vologda Oblast ever since 

Administrative and municipal divisions
Administratively, the district is divided into eleven selsoviets  Municipally, the district is incorporated as Nyuksensky Municipal District and is divided into four rural settlements  The municipal district includes all of the inhabited localities of the administrative district, with the exception of the settlement of Ilezka, which is municipally a part of Babushkinsky District 

Economy
Industry
The economy of the district is based on timber production  There is some food industry present, including a milk factory in Nyuksenitsa 

Agriculture
There is cattle farming in the district, which is still in crisis after the fall in the 1990s 

Transportation
Nyuksenitsa stands on the road connecting Vologda and Veliky Ustyug, and in Nyuksenitsa the road moves over the bridge from the left bank to the right bank of the Sukhona  Another paved road branches off in Nyuksenitsa northwest to Tarnogsky Gorodok and further to Oktyabrsky in Arkhangelsk Oblast  There is regular passenger bus service on both roads 
The Sukhona is navigable within the district; however, there is no passenger navigation 
Nyuksenitsa has an oil-pumping station in the Baltic Pipeline System 

Culture and recreation
The district contains 130 objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local importance  Most of these are wooden farm buildings and churches built prior to 1917 
The only state museum in the district is the Nyuksenitsa Regional Museum, located in Nyuksenitsa 
Passage 15:
Cherdynsky District
Cherdynsky District (Russian: Че́рдынский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion) of Perm Krai, Russia; one of the thirty-three in the krai  Municipally, it is incorporated as Cherdynsky Municipal District  It is located in the north and northeast of the krai and borders with the Komi Republic in the north, Krasnovishersky District in the east, Solikamsky District in the south, Kosinsky District in the southwest, and with Gaynsky District in the west  The area of the district is 20,872 square kilometers (8,059 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Cherdyn  Population:  24,568 (2010 Census); 35,152 (2002 Census); 40,688 (1989 Census)  The population of Cherdyn accounts for 20 0% of the district's total population 

Geography
About 94% of the district's territory is covered by forests, which are mostly coniferous  Large portions of the territory are also covered by swamps and lakes  Major rivers flowing through the district include the Kama and the Kolva, with tributaries 

History
The district was established in 1924 

Demographics
Russians, at 90 5%, are the predominant ethnicity in the district  Other ethnicities of note include Tatars and Ukrainians, at 1 5% each 

Economy
The economy of the district is based on forestry and timber industry  There is also food industry 

See also
Vilisova
Passage 16:
Novolaksky District
Novolaksky District (Russian: Новола́кский райо́н; Lak: Цӏуссалакрал кIану) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the forty-one in the Republic of Dagestan, Russia  It is located in the west of the republic and borders with Khasavyurtovsky District in the northeast, Kazbekovsky District in the southeast, and with the Chechen Republic in the west  The area of the district is 218 2 square kilometers (84 2 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the rural locality (a selo) of Novolakskoye  As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 28,556, with the population of Novolakskoye accounting for 20 8% of that number 

History
The area of the modern district was historically a part of Aukh, the homeland of the Aukhs Chechens (one of the nine Chechen tukkhums)  During the Soviet times, it was incorporated as Aukh District of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR and included the territories of modern Novolaksky District along with parts of Kazbekovsky and Khasavyurtovsky Districts  In 1944, when the Chechens were deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan, Aukh District was split, and Avars, Laks, Russians, and Kumyks were moved in to replace the deported Chechen population  Novolaksky District was resettled mainly by Laks (hence the name "Novolaksky"; literally "New Lak District"), but some Russians and Avars were settled there too  The mainly Chechen toponyms were replaced with Russian, Avar, and Lak ones 
When the Chechens began returning in 1957, conflicts erupted, as they found others literally living in their houses  Fortunately, the two sides came to an understanding  Neither Laks nor Chechens had much hatred for the other side, and both blamed Moscow for the conflict rather  Chechens understood that Laks had been forced against their will to move there, and did not want to be homeless; Laks understood that Aukh was the Chechens' historical home and they had nowhere else to go  The conflict is still being solved currently by the government of Dagestan with the help of local governments  Laks are being resettled, village by village, to the marsh north of Makhachkala, and Chechen names and the Chechen ownership have been restored to many villages  The process, however, is not complete, and there is still room for pitfalls in the negotiation process  Furthermore, there is still the problem of the Avar-settled former Chechen villages 

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Novolaksky District is one of the forty-one in the Republic of Dagestan  The district is divided into three selsoviets which comprise fifteen rural localities  As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Novolaksky Municipal District  Its three selsoviets are incorporated as twelve rural settlements within the municipal district  The selo of Novolakskoye serves as the administrative center of both the administrative and municipal district 

See also
History of the Lak people
History of Chechnya
Passage 17:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory  Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria  The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located  The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government  Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs)  There are 774 local governments in Nigeria  Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government  The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation 

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria 

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives  It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list 

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature)  The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state 

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government  The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly 

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007)  The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control  Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press  ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3 
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999)  The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research  ISBN 978-181-238-9 
Rotimi T  Suberu (1994)  1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan  ISBN 978-2015-28-8 

External links
"New States of Nigeria"  Statoids 
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors 
Passage 18:
Akshinsky District
Akshinsky District (Russian: Акшинский район) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the thirty-one in Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia  It is located in the south of the krai and borders with Ononsky, Ulyotovsky, and Kyrinsky Districts of Zabaykalsky Krai, as well as with Mongolia  The area of the district is 7,400 square kilometers (2,900 sq mi)    Administrative center is the rural locality (a selo) of Aksha  Population: 10,682 (2010 Census); 12,080 (2002 Census); 14,695 (1989 Census)  The population of Aksha accounts for 36 9% of the district's total population 

Geography
The Onon River flows through the district 

History
The district was established on March 4, 1926 

Economy
The district's landscape is suitable for agriculture  The mineral resources of the district include gold, uranium, precious stones, and timber 
Passage 19:
Michurinsky District
Michurinsky District  (Russian: Мичу́ринский райо́н) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the twenty-three in Tambov Oblast, Russia  It is located in the northwest of the oblast  The district borders with Pervomaysky District in the north, Nikiforovsky District in the east, Petrovsky District in the south, and with Dobrovsky District of Lipetsk Oblast in the west  The area of the district is 1,655 25 square kilometers (639 10 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Michurinsk (which is not administratively a part of the district)  Population: 34,245 (2010 Census);   35,196 (2002 Census); 39,224 (1989 Census) 

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Michurinsky District is one of the twenty-three in the oblast  The town of Michurinsk serves as its administrative center, despite being incorporated separately as a town of oblast significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Michurinsky Municipal District  The town of oblast significance of Michurinsk is incorporated separately from the district as Michurinsk Urban Okrug 

Notable residents
Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), Neoclassical architect, born in Vasilievskaya
Afanasiy Remnyov (1890–1919), Soviet soldier during the Russian Civil War

See also
Glazok
Passage 20:
Lago Verde (Queyras)
Lago Verde (Italian for "green lake") is a lake which is located  in Italy, close to the French border and the Queyras valley 



ground_truth: Cabo Delgado Province

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In 1990, who became the president of the country that Germany invaded?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Hans Modrow
Hans Modrow (German pronunciation: [ˈhans ˈmoːdʁo]; 27 January 1928 – 10 February 2023) was a German politician best known as the last communist premier of East Germany 
Taking office in the middle of the Peaceful Revolution, he was the de facto leader of the country for much of the winter of 1989 and 1990  He was a transitional figure, paving the way to the first and only free elections in East Germany and including many opposition politicians in his cabinet  
After the end of Communist rule and reunification of Germany, he was convicted of electoral fraud and perjury by the Dresden District Court in 1995, on the basis that he had been the SED official nominally in charge of the electoral process  He was later convicted of the first charge and was given a nine-month suspended sentence  One of the few high-ranking former SED officials to not have been expelled, he was the honorary chairman of the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) and was the president of the "council of elders" of the Left Party from 2007 

Early life and education
Modrow was born on 27 January 1928 in Jasenitz, Province of Pomerania, German Reich, now Jasienica, part of the town of Police in Poland  As a child he was a Hitler Youth leader and attended a Volksschule  He trained as a machinist from 1942 to 1945 when he was filled with intense hatred of the Bolsheviks, whom he deemed as subhumans, inferior to Germans physically and morally  For six months during the Allied bombing of Stettin he served as a volunteer firefighter  He later served briefly in the Volkssturm in January 1945, and was subsequently captured as a prisoner of war by the Soviet Red Army in Stralsund in May 1945  He and other German prisoners were sent to a farm in Hinterpommern to work  Upon arrival, his backpack was stolen, making him begin to rethink the Germans' so-called camaraderie  Days later, he was appointed a driver to a Soviet captain, who asked him about Heinrich Heine, a German poet  Modrow had never heard of him and felt embarrassed that the people he thought of as "subhumans" knew more about German culture than he  Transported to a POW camp near Moscow, he joined a National Committee for a Free Germany anti-fascist school run by future SED Politburo member Alfred Neumann for Wehrmacht members and received training in Marxism-Leninism, which he embraced  Upon release in 1949 he worked as a machinist for LEW Hennigsdorf  That same year he joined the Socialist Unity Party (SED) From 1949 to 1961, Modrow worked in various functions for the Free German Youth (FDJ) in Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, and Berlin and in 1952 and 1953 studied at the Komsomol college in Moscow  In 1953, he attended the state funeral of Joseph Stalin  After Nikita Khrushchev's Secret Speech at the 20th Party Congress condemning Stalin and beginning de-Stalinization, Modrow claimed to have complained to his former teacher Neumann "Comrade, this is unacceptable — you are accusing us of having learned Stalin off by heart, but I never had the inclination to do this myself, you asked us to!" From 1953 to 1961, he served as an FDJ functionary in East Berlin  From 1954 to 1957, he studied at the SED's Karl Marx school in Berlin, graduating as a social scientist  In 1959 to 1961 he studied at the University of Economics in Berlin-Karlshorst and obtained the degree of graduate economist  He gained his doctorate at the Humboldt University of Berlin in 1966  West Germany's Federal Intelligence Service (BND) kept Modrow under observation from 1958 to 2013 

Communist party career
Modrow had a long political career in East Germany, serving as a member of the Volkskammer from 1957 to 1990 and in the SED's Central Committee (ZK) from 1967 to 1989, having previously been a candidate for the ZK from 1958 to 1967  From 1961 to 1967 he was first secretary of the district administration of the SED in Berlin-Köpenick and secretary for agitation and propaganda from 1967 to 1971 in the SED's district leadership in Berlin  During this time he was involved in the formation of the Union Berlin football club, which is based in the Köpenick district  From 1971 to 1973 he worked as the head of the SED's department of agitation  In 1975 he was awarded the GDR's Patriotic Order of Merit in gold and received the award of the Order of Karl Marx in 1978 From 1973 onward, he was the SED's first secretary in Dresden, East Germany's third-largest city  He was prevented from rising any further than a local party boss, largely because he was one of the few SED leaders who dared to publicly criticise longtime SED chief Erich Honecker  He developed some important contacts with the Soviet Union, including eventual Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev  Modrow initially supported Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika reforms  In early 1987, Gorbachev and the KGB explored the possibility of installing Modrow as Honecker's successor  From 1988 to 1989, the Stasi, under the orders of Honecker and Erich Mielke, conducted a massive surveillance operation against Modrow with the intention of gathering enough evidence to convict him of high treason 

Peaceful Revolution and premiership
During the Peaceful Revolution of 1989, Modrow ordered thousands of Volkspolizei, Stasi, Combat Groups of the Working Class, and National People's Army troops to crush a demonstration at the Dresden Hauptbahnhof on 4–5 October  Some 1,300 people were arrested  In a top secret and encrypted telex to Honecker on 9 October, Modrow reported: "With the determined commitment of the comrades of the security organs, anti-state terrorist riots were suppressed" When Honecker was toppled on 18 October, Gorbachev hoped that Modrow would become the new leader of the SED  Egon Krenz was selected instead  He became premier following the resignation of Willi Stoph on 13 November, four days after the Berlin Wall fell  The SED formally abandoned power on 1 December  Krenz resigned two days later, on 3 December  Since the premiership was the highest state post in East Germany, Modrow became the de facto leader of the country To defeat the opposition's demand for the complete dissolution of the Stasi, it was renamed as the "Office for National Security" (Amt für Nationale Sicherheit – AfNS) on 17 November 1989  Modrow's attempt to re-brand it further as the "Office for the Protection of the Constitution of the GDR" (Verfassungsschutz der DDR) failed due to pressure from the public and the opposition parties and the AfNS was dissolved on 13 January 1990  The Modrow government gave orders to destroy incriminating Stasi files On 7 December 1989, Modrow accepted the proposal of the East German Round Table opposition groups to hold free elections within six months  Modrow and the Round Table agreed on 28 January to bring the elections forward to 18 March  By this time, the SED had added "Party of Democratic Socialism" to its name; the SED portion was dropped altogether in February  Some of the Round Table parties strove for a "third way" model of democratic socialism and therefore agreed with Modrow to slow down or block a reunification with capitalist West Germany  As the SED-PDS regime grew weaker, Modrow on 1 February 1990 proposed a slow, three-stage process that would create a neutral German confederation and continued to oppose "rapid" reunification  The collapse of the East German state and economy in early 1990 and the approaching East German free elections allowed Helmut Kohl's government in Bonn to disregard Modrow's demand for neutrality From 5 February 1990 on, Modrow included eight representatives of opposition parties and civil liberties groups as ministers without portfolio in his cabinet  On 13 February 1990, Modrow met with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, asking for an accommodation loan of 15 billion DM, which was rejected by Kohl  Modrow remained premier until the 18 March 1990 elections  The PDS expelled Honecker, Krenz, and other Communist-era leaders in February 1990 

Criminal sentence
On 27 May 1993, the Dresden District Court found Modrow guilty of electoral fraud committed in the Dresden municipal elections in May 1989, specifically, understating the percentage of voters who refused to vote for the official slate  The judge declined to impose a prison sentence or a fine  The Dresden District Court revoked the decision in August 1995 and Modrow was sentenced to nine months on probation  Modrow did not directly deny the charges, but argued that the trial was politically motivated and that the court lacked jurisdiction for crimes committed in East Germany   "We were all members of a political system," he said, speaking to the court in Dresden   "Some perhaps had the good fortune not to come into contact with manipulation, while others could not or were not allowed to turn away "

Later life and death
After German reunification, Modrow served as a member of the Bundestag (1990–1994) and of the European Parliament (1999–2004)  After leaving office, he wrote a number of books on his political experiences, his continued Marxist political views, and his disappointment at the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc  Although a supporter of Gorbachev's reforms in the 1980s, after the fall of Communism he criticised them for weakening the Eastern Bloc's economy  In 2006, he suggested both West Germany and East Germany were responsible for the killings of East Germans by the communist regime at the Berlin Wall, and later defended the construction of the wall as a necessary measure to prevent a war over West Berlin  He also called East Germany an "effective democracy"  He was criticised for maintaining contacts with Neo-Stalinist groups  In 2018, he sued the Federal Intelligence Service for access to West German intelligence files on him from the Cold War  In 2019 he criticised the enlargement of NATO, which he also opposed reunified Germany's membership in  Modrow died on 10 February 2023, aged 95  He was buried at Dorotheenstadt Cemetery 

Citations
Passage 2:
Mátyás Szűrös
Mátyás Szűrös (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈmaːcaːʃ ˈsyːrøʃ]; born 11 September 1933 in Püspökladány) is a Hungarian politician  He served as provisional president of the Republic from 23 October 1989 to 2 May 1990  His presidency occurred during Hungary's transition from Communism to democratic government 

Biography
Szűrös served as Speaker of the National Assembly of Hungary from March 1989 to May 1990  In the fall of 1989, as part of an agreement between the Communists and the opposition to establish multiparty democracy, the 1949 Constitution was almost completely rewritten to remove its Communist character  The Presidential Council, the country's Communist-era collective presidency, was dissolved  Under the Constitution, Szűrös became provisional president until the election  Soon after taking office on 23 October he made the official proclamation that Hungary had removed the "People's Republic" from its constitutional name and was now the "Republic of Hungary "He remained in parliament until 2002 as a member of the Hungarian Socialist Party, often voting against the party consensus  He quit the party, in 2002, joined the newly established New Left Party and ran as their prime minister candidate at the parliamentary elections, but the party only got 0 1% of the popular vote  In 2003, he joined the Social Democratic Party and was later elected chairman of the party  He resigned his position in 2005 
Passage 3:
Friedrich Ebert Foundation
The Friedrich Ebert Foundation (German: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e V ; Abbreviation: FES) is a German political party foundation associated with, but independent from, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)  Established in 1925 as the political legacy of Friedrich Ebert, Germany's first democratically elected President, it is the largest and oldest of the German party-associated foundations  It is headquartered in Bonn and Berlin, and has offices and projects in over 100 countries  It is Germany's oldest organisation to promote democracy, political education, and promote students of outstanding intellectual abilities and personality 

History
The FES was named after Friedrich Ebert (1871–1925), the Social Democratic President of Germany, 1919–1925  In his will, he specified that the proceeds from donations at his funeral should be used to create a foundation   The SPD chairman at the time, Konrad Ludwig, was given the responsibility of building this foundation, which he did a few days after Ebert's death in 1925  The main concern of the foundation was to work against discrimination of workers in the area of education: "The Friedrich Ebert Foundation pursues the goal of giving young, empowered proletarians government aid to fund an education at state-accredited institutions  As a basic principle, only those people who have a recommendation from the party organisation will receive funding " (SPD Yearbook 1926) By the end of 1931, 295 students had been funded with over 52,000 marks  At this point the funding of the foundation fell through, as a result of the Great Depression  The FES was a section of the Social Democratic Education and Culture Organisation, and was banned along with the party itself in 1933 by the Nazis 
In 1946, the FES was reinstituted at the founding assembly of the Socialist German Student Federation  In 1954, the FES was restructured into a charitable organisation "for the advancement of democratic education"  This established the FES as an independent, self-contained institute  In addition to education programmes, the FES has also worked in the area of development aid since the 1960s  In this effort, it has supported democracy and freedom movements, for instance in the African National Congress (ANC), and played an important role in overcoming dictatorial regimes in Greece, Spain, and Portugal   Thus it was not a coincidence that the Socialist Party of Portugal was formed in an FES school in the German town of Bad Münstereifel 
The German state did subsidize the work of the foundation with 170 Million Euros in 2018 

Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Academic Foundation
The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Academic Foundation (FES) is one of thirteen state-funded organizations for the promotion of young talents (Begabtenförderwerke) in Germany  Less than 1% of German students achieve a scholarship at one of the thirteen organizations (i e  FES, Studienstiftung, Konrad Adenauer Foundation, Friedrich Naumann Foundation, Hanns Seidel Foundation, Heinrich Böll Foundation, Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, Cusanuswerk, Ernst Ludwig Ehrlich Scholarship Fund)  It is financially funded and subsidized by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and supports students with outstanding academical and political achievements  Awards are granted after a multi-stage selection process and are based on grades, letters of recommendation, letters of motivation, political and social engagement as well as personality and character  Until today it has sponsored more than 12,000 grantees  Over 90% of those sponsored graduate with honours   In 2005, there were 1,731 students in the programme, of which 51% were women   
Beyond the financial support, grantees also receive so-called ideational support, which comes from opportunities to attend political seminars, conferences, and other activities, which can be important job qualifications  Students are assigned advisors who work with them for the length of their grants 
Each year, the grantees vote for a board during the nationwide conference at the Gustav Stresemann Institute in Bonn   This board serves for the next full year as the representation of grantees for dialog with the foundation   The FES maintains a website ([1] www fes-stip de) for networking among grantees, which includes a wide variety of mailing lists, services, and communications tools 
Since 1971, foreign students have also had the opportunity to receive grants through solidarity funds   Preference for these grants goes to people who are persecuted on political, racial or religious grounds   Funding for this program comes exclusively from donations from current and former grantees   The program have helped over 1,000 students  Currently there are 31 students who are in the solidarity programme  Two grantees from this programme are chosen every year at the conference in Bonn to work on the steering committee of the fund 

Further activities
Today, the Friedrich Ebert Foundation's main goals are to promote political and societal education of people from all walks of life in the spirit of democracy and pluralism, to enable young people the opportunity to study and do research through grants, and to work toward international understanding and cooperation 
The foundation employs several hundred employees in their offices in Bonn and Berlin, as well as in 14 regional offices and an academy within Germany and in over 100 foreign agencies   It is financed mainly through grants from the federal budget and the budgets of the various Bundesländer 
The FES had its own conference center on the Venusberg in Bonn for these activities until its closure in 2009   
The historical research center of the foundation also contains the Archive of Social Democracy and its libraries in Bonn and at the Karl Marx House in Trier   This is one of the largest collections of documents on social history and the history of the workers movement 
Since 1982, the foundation has awarded a prize of 10,000 euro called Das politische Buch ("The Political Book") to promote noteworthy political books  The prize serves to remind people of the Nazi book burnings of May 10, 1933 

Controversy
In 2017, Friedrich Ebert Foundation was attacked by a group dubbed “Pawn Storm”, the same cyber spy group that targeted that year's campaign of French presidential candidate Emmanuel Macron; the group used email phishing tricks and attempted to install malware at the foundation In 2022, the Friedrich Ebert Foundation was barred from working in Russia 

Leadership
1953–1970: Gerhard Weisser
1970–1983: Alfred Nau
1983–1987: Heinz Kühn
1987–2003: Holger Börner (chairman laureate from 2003 until his death in 2006)
2003–2010: Anke Fuchs
2010–2012: Peter Struck
2013–2020: Kurt Beck and Dieter Schulte (interim since Struck's death)
2020–present: Martin Schulz

See also
Konrad Adenauer Foundation (CDU)
Hanns Seidel Foundation (CSU)
Friedrich Naumann Foundation für die Freiheit (FDP)
Heinrich Böll Foundation (Grüne)
Rosa Luxemburg Foundation (Die Linke)
Desiderius-Erasmus-Stiftung (AfD)
Passage 4:
LSV Berlin
LSV Berlin was a short-lived German association football club from the city of Berlin  It served as the sports club for Luftwaffe (German air force) personnel in the city during World War II and disappeared with the end of the conflict 

History
The formation of military-based sports and football clubs was common under the Third Reich and they took part in the country's established football competition alongside traditional civilian clubs 
German football was re-organized under the Reich's politically motivated sports policies in 1933 into sixteen top-flight regional divisions  Luftwaffensportverein Berlin was a latecomer to the Gauliga Berlin-Brandenburg, joining the top-flight division for the 1943–44 season and earning a 2nd-place result As the tide of the war turned against Germany and Allied forces invaded the country, most military football sides were disbanded  LSV Berlin was lost in September 1944, before the start of the 1944–45 season, its place in the Oberliga being taken by SG OrPo Berlin 

Stadium
LSV played its home matches in Steitstaße Spandau or Mommsenstadion (capacity 37,570) 
Passage 5:
Gleiwitz incident
The Gleiwitz incident (German: Überfall auf den Sender Gleiwitz; Polish: Prowokacja gliwicka) was a false flag attack on the radio station Sender Gleiwitz in Gleiwitz (then Germany and now Gliwice, Poland) staged by Nazi Germany on the night of 31 August 1939  Along with some two dozen similar incidents, the attack was manufactured by Germany as a casus belli to justify the invasion of Poland  Prior to the invasion, Adolf Hitler gave a radio address condemning the acts and announcing German plans to attack Poland, which began the next morning  Despite the German government using the attack as a justification to go to war with Poland, the Gleiwitz assailants were not Polish but were German SS officers wearing Polish uniforms  
During his declaration of war, Hitler did not mention the Gleiwitz incident but grouped all provocations staged by the SS as an alleged "Polish assault" on Germany  The Gleiwitz incident is the best-known action of Operation Himmler, a series of special operations undertaken by the Schutzstaffel (SS) to serve German propaganda at the outbreak of war  The operation was intended to create the appearance of a Polish aggression against Germany to justify the invasion of Poland  On September 3, Britain and France declared war on Germany, and the European theatre of World War II had begun  Manufactured evidence for the Gleiwitz attack by the SS was provided by the German SS officer Alfred Naujocks in 1945 

Events at Gleiwitz
Much of what is known about the Gleiwitz incident comes from the affidavit of SS-Sturmbannführer Alfred Naujocks at the Nuremberg Trials  In his testimony, he stated that he organised the incident under orders from Reinhard Heydrich and Heinrich Müller, chief of the Gestapo  On the night of 31 August, a small group of German operatives dressed in Polish uniforms and led by Naujocks seized the Gleiwitz station and broadcast a short anti-German message in Polish (sources vary on the content of the message)   The operation was named "Grossmutter gestorben" (Grandmother died)  The operation was to make the attack and the broadcast look like the work of Polish anti-German saboteurs  The operation was planned and carried out from the Sławięcice Palace (Schloss Slawentzitz) To make the attack seem more convincing, the Gestapo executed Franciszek Honiok, a 43-year-old unmarried Upper Silesian Catholic farmer, known for sympathising with the Poles  He had been arrested the previous day by the Gestapo and dressed to look like a saboteur, then rendered unconscious by an injection of drugs, then killed by gunshot wounds  Honiok was left dead at the scene so that he appeared to have been killed while attacking the station  His corpse was then presented to the police and press as proof of the attack  Several prisoners from the Dachau concentration camp were drugged, shot dead on the site and their faces disfigured to make identification impossible  The Germans referred to them by the code phrase "Konserve" (canned goods)  Some sources incorrectly refer to the incident as Operation Canned Goods In an oral testimony at the trials, Erwin von Lahousen stated that his division of the Abwehr was one of two that were given the task of providing Polish Army uniforms, equipment and identification cards; he was later told by Wilhelm Canaris that people from concentration camps had been disguised in these uniforms and ordered to attack the radio stations Oskar Schindler, who is credited with later saving the lives of 1,200 Jews during the Holocaust, played a role in supplying the Polish uniforms and weapons used in the operation as an agent for the Abwehr 

Context
The Gleiwitz incident was a part of a larger operation carried out by Abwehr and SS forces  Other orchestrated incidents were conducted along the Polish–German border at the same time as the Gleiwitz attack, such as a house burning in the Polish Corridor and spurious propaganda  The project was called Operation Himmler and comprised incidents intended to give the appearance of Polish aggression against Germany  German newspapers and politicians, including Adolf Hitler, had made accusations against Polish authorities for months before the 1939 invasion of organising or tolerating violent ethnic cleansing of ethnic Germans living in Poland  On 1 September, the day following the Gleiwitz attack, Germany launched Fall Weiss (Case White), the strategic plan for the invasion of Poland, which precipitated World War II in Europe  Hitler cited the border incidents in a speech in the Reichstag on the same day, with three of them called very serious, as justification for his invasion of Poland  Hitler had told his generals on 22 August, "I will provide a propagandistic casus belli  Its credibility doesn't matter  The victor will not be asked whether he told the truth" 

International reactions
American correspondents were summoned to the scene the next day but no neutral parties were allowed to investigate the incident in detail and the international public was skeptical of the German version of the incident 

In popular culture
There have been several adaptations of the incident in cinema  Der Fall Gleiwitz (1961), directed by Gerhard Klein for DEFA studios (The Gleiwitz Case; English subtitles), is an East German film that reconstructs the events Operacja Himmler (1979) is a Polish film that covers the events Both Die Blechtrommel (1979), directed by Volker Schlöndorff and Hitler's SS: Portrait in Evil (1985), directed by Jim Goddard, briefly include the incident It was also mentioned in a video game; Codename: Panzers (2004), which stirred up some controversy in Poland where the game was briefly discussed in Polish media as anti-Polish falsification of history, before the issue was cleared up as a case of poor reporting 

See also
1939 in Poland
1939 Tarnow rail station bomb attack
Jablunkov incident
Mukden Incident, a similar false flag operation that started the Japanese invasion of Manchuria
Nazi crimes against the Polish nation
Operation Greif
Shelling of Mainila, a similar false flag operation that started the Soviet invasion of Finland
Passage 6:
1990 Polish presidential election
Presidential elections were held in Poland on 25 November 1990, with a second round on 9 December  They were the first direct presidential elections in the history of Poland, and the first free presidential elections since the May Coup of 1926  Before World War II, presidents were elected by the Sejm   From 1952 to 1989—the bulk of the Communist era—the presidency did not exist as a separate institution, and most of its functions were fulfilled by the State Council of Poland, whose chairman was considered the equivalent of a president 
The leader of the Solidarity movement, Lech Wałęsa, won the first round  However, he did not earn over 50% of the vote, which led to a runoff election  Wałęsa faced Polish-Canadian businessman Stanisław Tymiński in the second round, defeating him easily 

Background
Wałęsa was an electrician and union leader with the image of an emotional, shirtsleeves populist  The first non-communist prime minister, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, was very popular and widely considered a front-runner   He appeared as a more respectable and intellectual leader than Wałęsa   but also as more of a compromiser   However, in the first round, Mazowiecki finished in a distant third, with only 18 7 percent of the vote, well behind Tymiński 
The reasons for Tymiński's unexpected success remain unclear  His vague promise to create wealth for everyone quickly, supported by his image as a patriotic Pole who had succeeded abroad, was well received at a time of radical political change and a worsening economic situation  There was increasing disappointment with the trench warfare that had broken out within the former anti-communist opposition so a mysterious, honest and patriotic stranger "straight out of nowhere" had considerable appeal 
Another factor was that Tymiński's use of political-marketing methods unknown in Poland at the time  A key element of his campaign was an omnipresent black briefcase, allegedly containing "secret documents" which would destroy his rivals' careers when the time was right  Although the elections passed without the briefcase being opened, its presence attracted constant attention  Tymiński's adversaries adopted a similar strategy; the daily Gazeta Wyborcza (which supported Mazowiecki) reported that Tymiński had had contact with the secret police, a story that was not withdrawn until after the elections 
Despite Tymiński's defeat, he had not only humiliated Mazowiecki (one of the best-known and most-respected figures in Polish politics), but also forced Wałęsa (who at that time was a national hero) into a runoff   After the election Tymiński tried to establish a new political party, but quickly disappeared from the political scene in Poland 

Candidates
Results
Passage 7:
Raymond Triboulet
Raymond Triboulet (3 October 1906 – 26 May 2006) was a French politician  He was a leading World War II resistance fighter who helped U S , Canadian, and British troops invade France, which was then occupied by Nazi Germany 

Biography
Born in Paris, Raymond Triboulet was a farmer and also had a law degree  At the start of World War II he enlisted in the French Army and was taken prisoner, but was later freed and returned home under the German occupation in 1941  He then joined the Calvados section of the group "Ceux de la Résistance", or Those of the Resistance 
By informing Allied forces of German movements between the towns of Caen and Bayeux, he contributed to the success of the D-Day landings of 6 June 1944  Following the reinstatement of a legitimate French government, Charles de Gaulle appointed him the first local governor of liberated France, in the Normandy town of Bayeux 
He was elected to Parliament in 1946 and served until 1973  He served as a minister in the governments of Michel Debré and Georges Pompidou from 1959 to 1966 and then became a member of the Council of Europe and the European Parliament 
He was elected to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques in 1979, serving as its president in 1991 

Publications
Un gaulliste de la IVe, Plon, 1985 (A Gaullist from the IVth Republic)
Un ministre du Général, Plon, 1985 (Minister to the General)

External links
Obituary, The Guardian, 16 June 2006 accessed at [1] 19 July 2006
Raymond Triboulet accessed at fr:Raymond Triboulet 21:02, 21 October 2006 (UTC)
Passage 8:
Green
Green is the color between cyan and yellow on the visible spectrum  It is evoked by light which has a dominant wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm  In subtractive color systems, used in painting and color printing, it is created by a combination of yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors  By far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy  Many creatures have adapted to their green environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage  Several minerals have a green color, including the emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content 
During post-classical and early modern Europe, green was the color commonly associated with wealth, merchants, bankers, and the gentry, while red was reserved for the nobility  For this reason, the costume of the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci and the benches in the British House of Commons are green while those in the House of Lords are red  It also has a long historical tradition as the color of Ireland and of Gaelic culture  It is the historic color of Islam, representing the lush vegetation of Paradise  It was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries In surveys made in American, European, and Islamic countries, green is the color most commonly associated with nature, life, health, youth, spring, hope, and envy  In the European Union and the United States, green is also sometimes associated with toxicity and poor health, but in China and most of Asia, its associations are very positive, as the symbol of fertility and happiness  Because of its association with nature, it is the color of the environmental movement  Political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties  This has led to similar campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly, products  Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission; a green light means go ahead, a green card permits permanent residence in the United States 

Etymology and linguistic definitions
The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene, which, like the German word grün, has the same root as the words grass and grow  It is from a Common Germanic *gronja-, which is also reflected in Old Norse grænn, Old High German gruoni (but unattested in East Germanic), ultimately from a PIE root *ghre- "to grow", and root-cognate with grass and to grow 
The first recorded use of the word as a color term in Old English dates to ca  AD 700 Latin with viridis also has a genuine and widely used term for "green"  Related to virere "to grow" and ver "spring", it gave rise to words in several Romance languages, French vert, Italian verde (and English vert, verdure etc )  Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ  Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish, pale green – χλωρός, chloros (cf  the color of chlorine), cognate with χλοερός "verdant" and χλόη "chloe, the green of new growth" 
Thus, the languages mentioned above (Germanic, Romance, Slavic, Greek) have old terms for "green" which are derived from words for fresh, sprouting vegetation 
However, comparative linguistics makes clear that these terms were coined independently, over the past few millennia, and there is no identifiable single Proto-Indo-European or word for "green"  For example, the Slavic zelenъ is cognate with Sanskrit hari "yellow, ochre, golden" 
The Turkic languages also have jašɨl "green" or "yellowish green", compared to a Mongolian word for "meadow" 

Languages where green and blue are one color
In some languages, including old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese, the same word can mean either blue or green  The Chinese character 青 (pronounced qīng in Mandarin, ao in Japanese, and thanh in Sino-Vietnamese) has a meaning that covers both blue and green; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of "青"  In more contemporary terms, they are 藍 (lán, in Mandarin) and 綠 (lǜ, in Mandarin) respectively  Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green, 緑 (midori, which is derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb midoru "to be in leaf, to flourish" in reference to trees) and グリーン (guriin, which is derived from the English word "green")  However, in Japan, although the traffic lights have the same colors as other countries have, the green light is described using the same word as for blue, aoi, because green is considered a shade of aoi; similarly, green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples, green shiso (as opposed to red apples and red shiso) will be described with the word aoi  Vietnamese uses a single word for both blue and green, xanh, with variants such as xanh da trời (azure, lit  "sky blue"), lam (blue), and lục (green; also xanh lá cây, lit  "leaf green") 
"Green" in modern European languages corresponds to about 520–570 nm, but many historical and non-European languages make other choices, e g  using a term for the range of ca  450–530 nm ("blue/green") and another for ca  530–590 nm ("green/yellow")  In the comparative study of color terms in the world's languages, green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors (white, black, red, green, yellow, and blue), or more rarely in systems with five colors (white, red, yellow, green, and black/blue)  These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote "green", but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms (much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit)  Thus, the Thai word เขียว kheīyw, besides meaning "green", also means "rank" and "smelly" and holds other unpleasant associations The Celtic languages had a term for "blue/green/grey", Proto-Celtic *glasto-, which gave rise to Old Irish glas "green, grey" and to Welsh glas "blue"  This word is cognate with the Ancient Greek γλαυκός "bluish green", contrasting with χλωρός "yellowish green" discussed above 

In modern Japanese, the term for green is 緑, while the old term for "blue/green", blue (青, Ao) now means "blue"  But in certain contexts, green is still conventionally referred to as 青, as in blue traffic light (青信号, ao shingō) and blue leaves (青葉, aoba), reflecting the absence of blue-green distinction in old Japanese (more accurately, the traditional Japanese color terminology grouped some shades of green with blue, and others with yellow tones) 

In science
Color vision and colorimetry
In optics, the perception of green is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm  The sensitivity of the dark-adapted human eye is greatest at about 507 nm, a blue-green color, while the light-adapted eye is most sensitive about 555 nm, a yellow-green; these are the peak locations of the rod and cone (scotopic and photopic, respectively) luminosity functions The perception of greenness (in opposition to redness forming one of the opponent mechanisms in human color vision) is evoked by light which triggers the medium-wavelength M cone cells in the eye more than the long-wavelength L cones  Light which triggers this greenness response more than the yellowness or blueness of the other color opponent mechanism is called green  A green light source typically has a spectral power distribution dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 487–570 nm 

Human eyes have color receptors known as cone cells, of which there are three types  In some cases, one is missing or faulty, which can cause color blindness, including the common inability to distinguish red and yellow from green, known as deuteranopia or red-green color blindness 
Green is restful to the eye  Studies show that a green environment can reduce fatigue In the subtractive color system, used in painting and color printing, green is created by a combination of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors  On the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel, the complement of green is magenta; that is, a color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light (one of the purples)  On a traditional color wheel, based on subtractive color, the complementary color to green is considered to be red In additive color devices such as computer displays and televisions, one of the primary light sources is typically a narrow-spectrum yellowish-green of dominant wavelength ~550 nm; this "green" primary is combined with an orangish-red "red" primary and a purplish-blue "blue" primary to produce any color in between – the RGB color model  A unique green (green appearing neither yellowish nor bluish) is produced on such a device by mixing light from the green primary with some light from the blue primary 

Lasers
Lasers emitting in the green part of the spectrum are widely available to the general public in a wide range of output powers  Green laser pointers outputting at 532 nm (563 5 THz) are relatively inexpensive compared to other wavelengths of the same power, and are very popular due to their good beam quality and very high apparent brightness  The most common green lasers use diode pumped solid state (DPSS) technology to create the green light 
An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces it to emit 281 76 THz (1064 nm)  This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium, titanium and phosphorus (KTP), whose non-linear properties generate light at a frequency that is twice that of the incident beam (563 5 THz); in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 532 nm ("green") 
Other green wavelengths are also available using DPSS technology ranging from 501 nm to 543 nm 
Green wavelengths are also available from gas lasers, including the helium–neon laser (543 nm), the Argon-ion laser (514 nm) and the Krypton-ion laser (521 nm and 531 nm), as well as liquid dye lasers  Green lasers have a wide variety of applications, including pointing, illumination, surgery, laser light shows, spectroscopy, interferometry, fluorescence, holography, machine vision, non-lethal weapons, and bird control As of mid-2011, direct green laser diodes at 510 nm and 500 nm have become generally available,
although the price remains relatively prohibitive for widespread public use  The efficiency of these lasers (peak 3%) compared to that of DPSS green lasers (peak 35%)
may also be limiting adoption of the diodes to niche uses 

Pigments, food coloring and fireworks
Many minerals provide pigments which have been used in green paints and dyes over the centuries  Pigments, in this case, are minerals which reflect the color green, rather that emitting it through luminescent or phosphorescent qualities  The large number of green pigments makes it impossible to mention them all  Among the more notable green minerals, however is the emerald, which is colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium 
Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3), is called chrome green, also called viridian or institutional green when used as a pigment  For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery  Widely thought to have been due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors, the blue-green color is likely to be derived from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar 
Copper is the source of the green color in malachite pigments, chemically known as basic copper(II) carbonate Verdigris is made by placing a plate or blade of copper, brass or bronze, slightly warmed, into a vat of fermenting wine, leaving it there for several weeks, and then scraping off and drying the green powder that forms on the metal  The process of making verdigris was described in ancient times by Pliny  It was used by the Romans in the murals of Pompeii, and in Celtic medieval manuscripts as early as the 5th century AD  It produced a blue-green which no other pigment could imitate, but it had drawbacks: it was unstable, it could not resist dampness, it did not mix well with other colors, it could ruin other colors with which it came into contact, and it was toxic  Leonardo da Vinci, in his treatise on painting, warned artists not to use it  It was widely used in miniature paintings in Europe and Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries  Its use largely ended in the late 19th century, when it was replaced by the safer and more stable chrome green  Viridian, as described above, was patented in 1859  It became popular with painters, since, unlike other synthetic greens, it was stable and not toxic  Vincent van Gogh used it, along with Prussian blue, to create a dark blue sky with a greenish tint in his painting Café Terrace at Night Green earth is a natural pigment used since the time of the Roman Empire  It is composed of clay colored by iron oxide, magnesium, aluminum silicate, or potassium  Large deposits were found in the South of France near Nice, and in Italy around Verona, on Cyprus, and in Bohemia  The clay was crushed, washed to remove impurities, then powdered  It was sometimes called Green of Verona Mixtures of oxidized cobalt and zinc were also used to create green paints as early as the 18th century Cobalt green, sometimes known as Rinman's green or zinc green, is a translucent green pigment made by heating a mixture of cobalt (II) oxide and zinc oxide  Sven Rinman, a Swedish chemist, discovered this compound in 1780 
Green chrome oxide was a new synthetic green created by a chemist named Pannetier in Paris in about 1835  Emerald green was a synthetic deep green made in the 19th century by hydrating chrome oxide  It was also known as Guignet green 

There is no natural source for green food colorings which has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration  Chlorophyll, the E numbers E140 and E141, is the most common green chemical found in nature, and only allowed in certain medicines and cosmetic materials Quinoline Yellow (E104) is a commonly used coloring in the United Kingdom but is banned in Australia, Japan, Norway and the United States Green S (E142) is prohibited in many countries, for it is known to cause hyperactivity, asthma, urticaria, and insomnia To create green sparks, fireworks use barium salts, such as barium chlorate, barium nitrate crystals, or barium chloride, also used for green fireplace logs  Copper salts typically burn blue, but cupric chloride (also known as "campfire blue") can also produce green flames  Green pyrotechnic flares can use a mix ratio 75:25 of boron and potassium nitrate  Smoke can be turned green by a mixture: solvent yellow 33, solvent green 3, lactose, magnesium carbonate plus sodium carbonate added to potassium chlorate 

Biology
Green is common in nature, as many plants  are green because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll, which is involved in photosynthesis  Chlorophyll absorbs the long wavelengths of light (red) and short wavelengths of light (blue) much more efficiently than the wavelengths that appear green to the human eye, so light reflected by plants is enriched in green 
Chlorophyll absorbs green light poorly because it first arose in organisms living in oceans where purple halobacteria were already exploiting photosynthesis  Their purple color arose because they extracted energy in the green portion of the spectrum using bacteriorhodopsin  The new organisms that then later came to dominate the extraction of light were selected to exploit those portions of the spectrum not used by the halobacteria 

Animals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment  Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment  Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment  For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light  Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially  Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet  This can causes their feces to look green as well  Other chemicals which generally contribute to greenness among organisms are flavins (lychochromes) and hemanovadin  Humans have imitated this by wearing green clothing as a camouflage in military and other fields  Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one's skin include biliverdin, the green pigment in bile, and ceruloplasmin, a protein that carries copper ions in chelation 
The green huntsman spider is green due to the presence of bilin pigments in the spider's hemolymph (circulatory system fluids) and tissue fluids 
It hunts insects in green vegetation, where it is well camouflaged 

Green eyes
There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light Nobody is brought into the world with green eyes  An infant has one of two eye hues: dark or blue  Following birth, cells called melanocytes start to discharge melanin, the earthy colored shade, in the child's irises  This begins happening since melanocytes respond to light in time 
Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe 
They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia  In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green eye color 
A study of Icelandic and Dutch adults found green eyes to be much more prevalent in women than in men 
Among European Americans, green eyes are most common among those of recent Celtic and Germanic ancestry, about 16% 

In history and art
Prehistoric history
Neolithic cave paintings do not have traces of green pigments, but neolithic peoples in northern Europe did make a green dye for clothing, made from the leaves of the birch tree  It was of very poor quality, more brown than green  Ceramics from ancient Mesopotamia show people wearing vivid green costumes, but it is not known how the colors were produced 

Ancient history
In Ancient Egypt, green was the symbol of regeneration and rebirth, and of the crops made possible by the annual flooding of the Nile  For painting on the walls of tombs or on papyrus, Egyptian artists used finely ground malachite, mined in the west Sinai and the eastern desert; a paintbox with malachite pigment was found inside the tomb of King Tutankhamun  They also used less expensive green earth pigment, or mixed yellow ochre and blue azurite  To dye fabrics green, they first colored them yellow with dye made from saffron and then soaked them in blue dye from the roots of the woad plant For the ancient Egyptians, green had very positive associations  The hieroglyph for green represented a growing papyrus sprout, showing the close connection between green, vegetation, vigor and growth  In wall paintings, the ruler of the underworld, Osiris, was typically portrayed with a green face, because green was the symbol of good health and rebirth  Palettes of green facial makeup, made with malachite, were found in tombs  It was worn by both the living and the dead, particularly around the eyes, to protect them from evil  Tombs also often contained small green amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite, which would protect and give vigor to the deceased  It also symbolized the sea, which was called the "Very Green" In Ancient Greece, green and blue were sometimes considered the same color, and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees  The philosopher Democritus described two different greens: chloron, or pale green, and prasinon, or leek green  Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black, symbolizing the earth, and white, symbolizing water  However, green was not counted among the four classic colors of Greek painting – red, yellow, black and white – and is rarely found in Greek art The Romans had a greater appreciation for the color green; it was the color of Venus, the goddess of gardens, vegetables and vineyards  The Romans made a fine green earth pigment that was widely used in the wall paintings of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Lyon, Vaison-la-Romaine, and other Roman cities  They also used the pigment verdigris, made by soaking copper plates in fermenting wine  By the second century AD, the Romans were using green in paintings, mosaics and glass, and there were ten different words in Latin for varieties of green 

Postclassical history
In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the color of clothing showed a person's social rank and profession  Red could only be worn by the nobility, brown and gray by peasants, and green by merchants, bankers and the gentry and their families  The Mona Lisa wears green in her portrait, as does the bride in the Arnolfini portrait by Jan van Eyck 
There were no good vegetal green dyes which resisted washing and sunlight for those who wanted or were required to wear green  Green dyes were made out of the fern, plantain, buckthorn berries, the juice of nettles and of leeks, the digitalis plant, the broom plant, the leaves of the fraxinus, or ash tree, and the bark of the alder tree, but they rapidly faded or changed color  Only in the 16th century was a good green dye produced, by first dyeing the cloth blue with woad, and then yellow with Reseda luteola, also known as yellow-weed The pigments available to painters were more varied; monks in monasteries used verdigris, made by soaking copper in fermenting wine, to color medieval manuscripts  They also used finely-ground malachite, which made a luminous green  They used green earth colors for backgrounds 
During the early Renaissance, painters such as Duccio di Buoninsegna learned to paint faces first with a green undercoat, then with pink, which gave the faces a more realistic hue  Over the centuries the pink has faded, making some of the faces look green 

Modern history
In the 18th and 19th century
The 18th and 19th centuries brought the discovery and production of synthetic green pigments and dyes, which rapidly replaced the earlier mineral and vegetable pigments and dyes  These new dyes were more stable and brilliant than the vegetable dyes, but some contained high levels of arsenic, and were eventually banned 
In the 18th and 19th centuries, green was associated with the romantic movement in literature and art  The German poet and philosopher Goethe declared that green was the most restful color, suitable for decorating bedrooms  Painters such as John Constable and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot depicted the lush green of rural landscapes and forests  Green was contrasted to the smoky grays and blacks of the Industrial Revolution 
The second half of the 19th century saw the use of green in art to create specific emotions, not just to imitate nature  One of the first to make color the central element of his picture was the American artist James McNeill Whistler, who created a series of paintings called "symphonies" or "noctures" of color, including Symphony in gray and green; The Ocean between 1866 and 1872 
The late 19th century also brought the systematic study of color theory, and particularly the study of how complementary colors such as red and green reinforced each other when they were placed next to each other  These studies were avidly followed by artists such as Vincent van Gogh  Describing his painting, The Night Cafe, to his brother Theo in 1888, Van Gogh wrote: "I sought to express with red and green the terrible human passions  The hall is blood red and pale yellow, with a green billiard table in the center, and four lamps of lemon yellow, with rays of orange and green  Everywhere it is a battle and antithesis of the most different reds and greens "

In the 20th and 21st century
In the 1980s green became a political symbol, the color of the Green Party in Germany and in many other European countries  It symbolized the environmental movement, and also a new politics of the left which rejected traditional socialism and communism  (See § In politics section below )

Symbolism and associations
Safety and permission
Green can communicate safety to proceed, as in traffic lights  Green and red were standardized as the colors of international railroad signals in the 19th century  The first traffic light, using green and red gas lamps, was erected in 1868 in front of the Houses of Parliament in London  It exploded the following year, injuring the policeman who operated it  In 1912, the first modern electric traffic lights were put up in Salt Lake City, Utah  Red was chosen largely because of its high visibility, and its association with danger, while green was chosen largely because it could not be mistaken for red  Today green lights universally signal that a system is turned on and working as it should  In many video games, green signifies both health and completed objectives, opposite red 

Nature, vivacity, and life
Green is the color most commonly associated in Europe and the United States with nature, vivacity and life 
It is the color of many environmental organizations, such as Greenpeace, and of the Green Parties in Europe  Many cities have designated a garden or park as a green space, and use green trash bins and containers  A green cross is commonly used to designate pharmacies in Europe 
In China, green is associated with the east, with sunrise, and with life and growth  In Thailand, the color green is considered auspicious for those born on a Wednesday (light green for those born at night) 

Springtime, freshness, and hope
Green is the color most commonly associated in the United States and Europe with springtime, freshness, and hope  Green is often used to symbolize rebirth and renewal and immortality  In Ancient Egypt; the god Osiris, king of the underworld, was depicted as green-skinned  Green as the color of hope is connected with the color of springtime; hope represents the faith that things will improve after a period of difficulty, like the renewal of flowers and plants after the winter season 

Youth and inexperience
Green the color most commonly associated in Europe and the United States with youth  It also often is used to describe anyone young, inexperienced, probably by the analogy to immature and unripe fruit  Examples include green cheese, a term for a fresh, unaged cheese, and greenhorn, an inexperienced person 

Food and diet
The color green has been increasingly used by food companies, governments, and practitioners themselves to identify veganism and vegetarianism  The government of India requires food that is vegetarian to be marked with a green circle as part of the Food Safety and Standards Act of 2006 with changes to symbolism since but still maintaining the color green  In 2021, India introduced a green V to exclusively label vegan options  In the west, the V-Label, a green V designed by the European Vegetarian Union, has been used by food distributors to label vegan and vegetarian options 

Calm, tolerance, and the agreeable
Surveys also show that green is the color most associated with the calm, the agreeable, and tolerance  Red is associated with heat, blue with cold, and green with an agreeable temperature  Red is associated with dry, blue with wet, and green, in the middle, with dampness  Red is the most active color, blue the most passive; green, in the middle, is the color of neutrality and calm, sometimes used in architecture and design for these reasons 
Blue and green together symbolize harmony and balance  Experimental studies also show this calming effect in a statistical significant decrease of negative emotions
and increase of creative performance 

Jealousy and envy
Green is often associated with jealousy and envy  The expression "green-eyed monster" was first used by William Shakespeare in Othello: "it is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on " Shakespeare also used it in the Merchant of Venice, speaking of "green-eyed jealousy" 

Love and sexuality
Green today is not commonly associated in Europe and the United States with love and sexuality, but in stories of the medieval period it sometimes represented love and the base, natural desires of man  It was the color of the serpent in the Garden of Eden who caused the downfall of Adam and Eve  However, for the troubadours, green was the color of growing love, and light green clothing was reserved for young women who were not yet married In Persian and Sudanese poetry, dark-skinned women, called "green" women, were considered erotic  The Chinese term for cuckold is "to wear a green hat " This was because in ancient China, prostitutes were called "the family of the green lantern" and a prostitute's family would wear a green headscarf In Victorian England, the color green was associated with homosexuality 

Dragons, fairies, monsters, and devils
In legends, folk tales and films, fairies, dragons, monsters, and the devil are often shown as green 
In the Middle Ages, the devil was usually shown as either red, black or green  Dragons were usually green, because they had the heads, claws and tails of reptiles 
Modern Chinese dragons are also often green, but unlike European dragons, they are benevolent; Chinese dragons traditionally symbolize potent and auspicious powers, particularly control over water, rainfall, hurricane, and floods  The dragon is also a symbol of power, strength, and good luck  The Emperor of China usually used the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power and strength  The dragon dance is a popular feature of Chinese festivals 
In Irish folklore and English folklore, the color was sometimes was associated with witchcraft, and with faeries and spirits  The type of Irish fairy known as a leprechaun is commonly portrayed wearing a green suit, though before the 20th century he was usually described as wearing a red suit 
In theater and film, green was often connected with monsters and the inhuman  The earliest films of Frankenstein were in black and white, but in the poster for the 1935 version The Bride of Frankenstein, the monster had a green face  Actor Bela Lugosi wore green-hued makeup for the role of Dracula in the 1927–1928 Broadway stage production 

Poison and sickness
Like other common colors, green has several completely opposite associations  While it is the color most associated by Europeans and Americans with good health, it is also the color most often associated with toxicity and poison  There was a solid foundation for this association; in the nineteenth century several popular paints and pigments, notably verdigris, vert de Schweinfurt and vert de Paris, were highly toxic, containing copper or arsenic  The intoxicating drink absinthe was known as "the green fairy" 
A green tinge in the skin is sometimes associated with nausea and sickness  The expression 'green at the gills' means appearing sick  The color, when combined with gold, is sometimes seen as representing the fading of youth  In some Far East cultures the color green is used as a symbol of sickness or nausea 

Social status, prosperity and the dollar
Green in Europe and the United States is sometimes associated with status and prosperity  From the Middle Ages to the 19th century it was often worn by bankers, merchants country gentlemen and others who were wealthy but not members of the nobility  The benches in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, where the landed gentry sat, are colored green 
In the United States green was connected with the dollar bill  Since 1861, the reverse side of the dollar bill has been green  Green was originally chosen because it deterred counterfeiters, who tried to use early camera equipment to duplicate banknotes  Also, since the banknotes were thin, the green on the back did not show through and muddle the pictures on the front of the banknote  Green continues to be used because the public now associates it with a strong and stable currency One of the more notable uses of this meaning is found in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz  The Emerald City in this story is a place where everyone wears tinted glasses that make everything appear green  According to the populist interpretation of the story, the city's color is used by the author, L  Frank Baum, to illustrate the financial system of America in his day, as he lived in a time when America was debating the use of paper money versus gold 

On flags
The flag of Italy (1797) was modeled after the French tricolor  It was originally the flag of the Cisalpine Republic, whose capital was Milan; red and white were the colors of Milan, and green was the color of the military uniforms of the army of the Cisalpine Republic  Other versions say it is the color of the Italian landscape, or symbolizes hope 
The flag of Brazil has a green field adapted from the flag of the Empire of Brazil  The green represented the royal family 
The flag of India was inspired by an earlier flag of the independence movement of Gandhi, which had a red band for Hinduism and a green band representing Islam, the second largest religion in India 
The flag of Pakistan symbolizes Pakistan's commitment to Islam and equal rights of religious minorities where the larger portion (3:2 ratio) of flag is dark green representing Muslim majority (98% of total population) while a white vertical bar (3:1 ratio) at the mast representing equal rights for religious minorities and minority religions in country  The crescent and star symbolizes progress and bright future respectively 
The Flag of Bangladesh has a green field based on a similar flag used during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971  It consists of a red disc on top of a green field  The red disc represents the sun rising over Bengal, and also the blood of those who died for the independence of Bangladesh  The green field stands for the lushness of the land of Bangladesh 
The flag of the international constructed language Esperanto has a green field and a green star in a white area  The green represents hope ("esperanto" means "one who hopes"), the white represents peace and neutrality and the star represents the five inhabited continents Green is one of the three colors (along with red and black, or red and gold) of Pan-Africanism  Several African countries thus use the color on their flags, including Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Togo, Guinea, Benin, and Zimbabwe  The Pan-African colors are borrowed from the Ethiopian flag, one of the oldest independent African countries  Green on some African flags represents the natural richness of Africa Many flags of the Islamic world are green, as the color is considered sacred in Islam (see below)  The flag of Hamas, as well as the flag of Iran, is green, symbolizing their Islamist ideology  The 1977 flag of Libya consisted of a simple green field with no other characteristics  It was the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details  Some countries used green in their flags to represent their country's lush vegetation, as in the flag of Jamaica, and hope in the future, as in the flags of Portugal and Nigeria  The green cedar of Lebanon tree on the Flag of Lebanon officially represents steadiness and tolerance 

Green is a symbol of Ireland, which is often referred to as the "Emerald Isle"  The color is particularly identified with the republican and nationalist traditions in modern times  It is used this way on the flag of the Republic of Ireland, in balance with white and the Protestant orange  Green is a strong trend in the Irish holiday St  Patrick's Day 

In politics
The first recorded green party was a political faction in Constantinople during the 6th century Byzantine Empire  which took its name from a popular chariot racing team  They were bitter opponents of the blue faction, which supported Emperor Justinian I and which had its own chariot racing team  In 532 AD rioting between the factions began after one race, which led to the massacre of green supporters and the destruction of much of the center of Constantinople  (See Nika Riots) 
Green was the traditional color of Irish nationalism, beginning in the 17th century  The green harp flag, with a traditional gaelic harp, became the symbol of the movement  It was the banner of the Society of United Irishmen, which organized the ultimately unsuccessful Irish Rebellion of 1798  When Ireland achieved independence in 1922, green was incorporated into the national flag In the 1970s green became the color of the third biggest Swiss Federal Council political party, the Swiss People's Party SVP  The ideology is Swiss nationalism, national conservatism, right-wing populism, economic liberalism, agrarianism, isolationism, euroscepticism  The SVP was founded on September 22, 1971 and has 90,000 members In the 1980s green became the color of a number of new European political parties organized around an agenda of environmentalism  Green was chosen for its association with nature, health, and growth  The largest green party in Europe is Alliance '90/The Greens (German: Bündnis 90/Die Grünen) in Germany, which was formed in 1993 from the merger of the German Green Party, founded in West Germany in 1980, and Alliance 90, founded during the Revolution of 1989–1990 in East Germany  In the 2009 federal elections, the party won 11% of the votes and 68 out of 622 seats in the Bundestag 
Green parties in Europe have programs based on ecology, grassroots democracy, nonviolence, and social justice  Green parties are found in over one hundred countries, and most are members of the Global Green Network Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization which emerged from the anti-nuclear and peace movements in the 1970s  Its ship, the Rainbow Warrior, frequently tried to interfere with nuclear tests and whaling operations  The movement now has branches in forty countries 
The Australian Greens was founded in 1992  In the 2010 federal election, the party received 13% of the vote (more than 1 6 million votes) in the Senate, a first for any Australian minor party 
Green is the color associated with Puerto Rico's Independence Party, the smallest of that country's three major political parties, which advocates Puerto Rican independence from the United States 
In Taiwan, green is used by Democratic Progressive Party  Green in Taiwan associates with Taiwan independence movement 

In religion
Green is the traditional color of Islam  According to tradition, the robe and banner of Muhammad were green, and according to the Koran (XVIII, 31 and LXXVI, 21) those fortunate enough to live in paradise wear green silk robes  Muhammad is quoted in a hadith as saying that "water, greenery, and a beautiful face" were three universally good things  Green was accordingly adopted as a Shi'a color Al-Khidr ("The Green One"), was an important Qur'anic figure who was said to have met and traveled with Moses  He was given that name because of his role as a diplomat and negotiator  Green was also considered to be the median color between light and obscurity Roman Catholic and more traditional Protestant clergy wear green vestments at liturgical celebrations during Ordinary Time  In the Eastern Catholic Church, green is the color of Pentecost  Green is one of the Christmas colors as well, possibly dating back to pre-Christian times, when evergreens were worshiped for their ability to maintain their color through the winter season  Romans used green holly and evergreen as decorations for their winter solstice celebration called Saturnalia, which eventually evolved into a Christmas celebration  In Ireland and Scotland especially, green is used to represent Catholics, while orange is used to represent Protestantism  This is shown on the national flag of Ireland 
In Paganism, green represents abundance, growth, wealth, renewal, and balance  In magickal practices, green is often used to bring money and luck  One figure who shares parallels with various deities is the Green Man 

In gambling and sports
Gambling tables in a casino are traditionally green  The tradition is said to have started in gambling rooms in Venice in the 16th century 
Billiards tables are traditionally covered with green woolen cloth  The first indoor tables, dating to the 15th century, were colored green after the grass courts used for the similar lawn games of the period 
Green was the traditional color worn by hunters in the 19th century, particularly the shade called hunter green  In the 20th century most hunters began wearing the color olive drab, a shade of green, instead of hunter green 
Green is a common color for sports teams  Well-known teams include A S  Saint-Étienne of France, known as Les Verts (The Greens)  The Green Bay Packers, an American football team, has the color in its official name and wears green uniforms  A number of national soccer teams feature the color, with the color usually reflective of the teams' national flag 
British racing green was the international motor racing color of Britain from the early 1900s until the 1960s, when it was replaced by the colors of the sponsoring automobile companies 
A green belt in karate, taekwondo, and judo symbolizes a level of proficiency in the sport 

Idioms and expressions
Having a green thumb (American English) or green fingers (British English)  To be passionate about or talented at gardening  The expression was popularized beginning in 1925 by a BBC gardening program 
Greenhorn  Someone who is inexperienced 
Green-eyed monster  Refers to jealousy  (See section above on jealousy and envy) 
Greenmail  A term used in finance and corporate takeovers  It refers to the practice of a company paying a high price to buy back shares of its own stock to prevent an unfriendly takeover by another company or businessman  It originated in the 1980s on Wall Street, and originates from the green of dollars 
Green room  A room at a theater where actors rest when not onstage, or a room at a television studio where guests wait before going on-camera  It originated in the late 17th century from a room of that color at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London 
Greenwashing  Environmental activists sometimes use this term to describe the advertising of a company which promotes its positive environmental practices to cover up its environmental destruction 
Green around the gills  A description of a person who looks physically ill 
Going green  An expression commonly used to refer to preserving the natural environment, and participating in activities such as recycling materials 
Looking green  A description of a person who looks revolted or repulsed 

Notes
See also
Shades of green
Green pigments
Context 3: Passage 1:
Mother lode
Mother lode is a principal vein or zone of gold or silver ore  The term is also used colloquially to refer to the real or imaginary origin of something valuable or in great abundance 

Term
The term probably came from a literal translation of the Spanish veta madre, a term common in old Mexican mining  Veta madre, for instance, is the name given to an 11-kilometre-long (6 8 mi) silver vein discovered in 1548 in Guanajuato, New Spain (modern-day Mexico) 

California Mother Lode
In the United States, Mother Lode is most famously the name given to a long alignment of hard-rock gold deposits stretching northwest-southeast in the Sierra Nevada of California, bounded on the east by the Melones Fault Zone  It was discovered in the early 1850s, during the California gold rush  The California Mother Lode is a zone from 1 5 to 6 kilometres (0 93 to 3 73 mi) wide and 190 kilometres (120 mi) long, between Georgetown on the north and Mormon Bar on the south     
The Mother Lode coincides with the suture line of a terrane, the Smartville Block  The zone contains hundreds of mines and prospects, including some of the best-known historic mines of the gold-rush era  Individual gold deposits within the Mother Lode are gold-bearing quartz veins up to 15 metres (49 ft) thick and a few thousand feet long  The California Mother Lode was one of the most productive gold-producing districts in the United States  Now it is known as a destination for tourism and for its vineyards As with most gold rushes, the California gold rush started with the discovery of placer gold in sands and gravels of streambeds, where the gold had eroded from hard-rock vein deposits  Placer miners followed the gold-bearing sands upstream to discover the source in the bedrock  This source was the "mother" of the gold in the river and so was dubbed the "mother lode" 

See also
Alaska Gold Rush (disambiguation)
Gold Country
Placer mining
Passage 2:
Passage to Zarahemla
Passage to Zarahemla is an adventure film directed and written by Chris Heimerdinger   It tells the story of a young pair of siblings seeking to find a new life following the abrupt death of their mother   Their exploits lead them to a relative's home in Utah and eventually a thrilling confrontation with their past and the merger of time  It is based partly on Book of Mormon people, including the Zarahemla of the title  It is only the second commercial theatrical release of a film with the Book of Mormon as a principal theme, the first being The Book of Mormon Movie (2003) 
This movie is based on the novel by the same name, originally published by Heimerdinger Entertainment in November 2003  The movie version of Passage to Zarahemla, was released to theaters October 15, 2007   Originally intended only as a film, the working title of this film was "Summer of the Nephite", but after unsuccessful attempts to gain backing for its production, the title was reworked and released in novel form as Passage to Zarahemla The film ranked 4th overall in Utah the first week of its release  According to BoxOfficeMojo the film currently ranks 125th on the all-time highest gross box office for a Christian film coming in behind Pride & Prejudice: A Latter-Day Comedy, ahead of Noëlle and 122nd for Fantasy Live-Action The film was released to DVD in June 2008 

Overview
Kerra (nicknamed "Sakura" by her father) and Brock McConnell are orphans on the run   To keep from being separated by state authorities, Kerra flees to the only relative she remembers from her earliest childhood - an aunt and uncle who are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and live near a wondrous place in the woods where parallel realities collide and where an ancient people called Nephites cross paths with the residents of a sleepy Utah town 

Plot
The story begins with its focus on a group of hunters illegally hunting game out in the woods   Originally thought to be dead, the hunter's target springs back to life and flees into the heavy brush and trees   Determined not to let the game suffer, one of the hunters decides to pursue the elk in its flight   After some amount of exploration he finds his elk   hanging over a branch, shot by an arrow   Hearing noises he turns around to an arrow shot at him and screams 
Kerra and Brock are introduced to the story line at their mother's funeral   With their father having apparently disappeared for some unknown reason years ago, their mother recently dying, and no other known relatives within the area, the two are set to become wards of the state   In an effort to keep the two together, Kerra decides that they must pack up their belongings and escape before the return of the social worker assigned to their case   Brock, having prior association with a local gang and a criminal record, assists his sister in stealing the social worker's vehicle   The two drive off in a fury in an effort to escape 
Remembering a relative from early on in her childhood, Kerra plots a course for Leeds, Utah, a small LDS rich community in the southern part of the state   Arriving at their aunt and uncle's house, the two concoct a story indicating that they are traveling across the country to meet up with their mother who had recently acquired a new place of employment   With the stolen car having problems, the pair is unable to travel any further until it is fixed, and are offered a place to stay until repairs are completed 
Shortly after their arrival, Kerra is confronted by her cousins with stories from her early childhood days   These stories recall "strange noises" in the woods behind their house and dealings with an "imaginary" being whom Kerra had termed to be "Kid Donni "  One night after the siblings arrival, an earthquake shakes the area with the epicenter believed to be near the property of their Aunt Corrine and Uncle Drew 
Following the quake, Kerra is reunited with her "imaginary" childhood friend Kiddoni, who is in reality a noted being from the Book of Mormon   The earthquake is revealed to have caused a "rift" in time - allowing Kerra contact with the ancient Nephite peoples and their adversaries, and allowing Kiddoni and his people to cross the time gap into the modern world 
As the story progresses, the time portal gap expands and eventually allows the Nephite and  Gadianton armies to exit the past near the  Whitman's home   Brock on the other hand is unaware of this time rift and eventually finds himself captured by the Gadianton armies   It is at this time that he comes into contact with a scraggly-bearded individual from "modern" times named Chris 
Meanwhile, during their escape from California, Brock had been given a bag by a former gang-member to take out of the area, which is later revealed to be a bag full of illegal drugs   Upon realizing who was in possession of the bag, the gang leader decides to make a trip to the small Utah community to recover the bag 
Near the end of the story the two worlds clash as the rift in time grows very large   The Gadianton army crosses the time border into the present day in an effort to find food for their armies   Through sheer coincidence Chris and Brock reunite with Kerra near the Whitman home, where it is revealed that Chris is the siblings father, who had disappeared during a hunting trip many years earlier   A major Nephite-Gadianton battle eventually ensues near the Whitman home while the trio of family retreats into hiding   Shortly thereafter, another quake hits the area and the division between the time periods is restored   Kerra is heartbroken at not getting to say goodbye to her Nephite friend, but both families are happy that they were kept safe and that father and children were reunited again 

Cast
Summer Naomi Smart as Kerra McConnell
Moronai Kanekoa as Kiddoni
Brian Kary as Brock McConnell
Jan Felt as Aunt Corrine
Seth Packard as Spree
Alex Petrovitch as Hitch
Bryce Chamberlain as Grandpa Lee
Spencer King as Lobo
Jose Bacio as Adder
Jenny Latimer as Natasha

Soundtrack
The soundtrack is titled Whispered Visions and is a compilation of songs with music and lyrics by Chris Heimerdinger

Reception
Critic Sean P  Means of The Salt Lake Tribute gave the film 2 5 stars out of a possible 4  He wrote that Heimerdinger made "a few rookie mistakes" in his debut as a film director, but also "squeezes a lot of visual flair from a minuscule budget" and effectively balances entertaining filmmaking with beliefs of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 
Passage 3:
List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower
On the Eiffel Tower, 72 names of French scientists, engineers, and mathematicians are engraved in recognition of their contributions  Gustave Eiffel chose this "invocation of science" because of his concern over the protests against the tower  The engravings are found on the sides of the tower under the first balcony, in letters about 60 cm (24 in) tall, and originally painted in gold  The engraving was painted over at the beginning of the 20th century and restored in 1986–87 by Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, the company that the city of Paris contracts to operate the Tower  The repainting of 2010–11 restored the letters to their original gold colour  There are also names of the engineers who helped build the Tower and design its architecture on a plaque on the top of the Tower, where a laboratory was built as well 

List
Location
The list is split in four parts (for each side of the tower)  The sides have been named after the parts of Paris that each side faces:

The North-East side (also known as La Bourdonnais side)
The South-East side (also known as the Military School side)
The South-West side (also known as the Grenelle side)
The North West side (also known as the Trocadéro side)

Names
In the table below are all the names on the four sides 

Criticism
Women
The list contains no women  The list has been criticized for excluding the name of Sophie Germain, a noted French mathematician whose work on the theory of elasticity was used in the construction of the tower itself  In 1913, John Augustine Zahm suggested that Germain was excluded because she was a woman 

Hydraulic engineers and scholars
Fourteen hydraulic engineers and scholars are listed on the Eiffel Tower  Eiffel acknowledged most of the leading scientists in the field  Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy is missing; some of his work did not come into wide use until the 20th century  Also missing are Antoine Chézy, who was less famous; Joseph Valentin Boussinesq, who was  early in his career at the time; and mathematician Évariste Galois 

Notes
Passage 4:
Jacob Folkema
Jacob Folkema (18 August 1692 – 3 February 1767), a Dutch designer and engraver, was born and died at Dokkum, in Friesland  He was first instructed by his father, Johann Jakob Folkema, a goldsmith, and studied afterwards under B  Picart at Amsterdam  During that time he worked for Royaumont's Bible, 1712, and Ruysch's Anatomy, 1737  Folkema was also an excellent engraver in mezzotint  He had a sister, Anna Folkema, who painted miniatures, assisted her brother, and engraved some few plates  She was born in 1695, and died in 1768  By Jakob Folkema there are, among others, the following plates:

An Emblematical Print on the Death of the Prince of Orange 
Time discovering the Bust of F  Rabelais, with figures and satirical and emblematical attributes 
The Martyrdom of St  Peter and St  Paul; after Niccolò dell'Abbate 
Several plates for the Dresden Gallery; after Le Brun and Niccolò dell'Abbate 

Portraits
Miguel Cervantes de Saavedra; after C  Kort 
Johannes Ens, Professor of Theology at Utrecht; after Colla 
Petrus de Maestricht, Professor of Theology at Frankfort; after the same 
Humphrey Prideaux, Dean of Norwich; after Seeman 
Suethlagius, Pastor at Amsterdam; after Anna Folkema 
Passage 5:
Étienne Ficquet
Étienne Ficquet (13 September 1719 – 11 December 1794) was a French engraver 
Ficquet was born in Paris in 1719, and was instructed by G  F  Schmidt and Le Bas  He acquired great reputation by a set of small portraits which he engraved of distinguished literary characters of France  They are executed with extraordinary neatness and delicacy, and are very correctly drawn  One of his best plates is a portrait of Madame de Maintenon, after Mignard, now become very scarce  He engraved also several of the plates for Descamps' Vie des Peintres Flamands et Hollandais, of which those of Rubens and Van Dyck are very highly finished  He died in Paris in 1794 

Works
Françoise d'Aubigné; after P  Mignard 
J  de La Fontaine; after Rigaud 
J  F  Regnard; after the same 
J  J  Rousseau; after De La Tour  1763 
F  M  Arouet de Voltaire; after the same  1762 
Pierre Corneille; after Le Brun 
J  de Crébillon; after Aved 
J  B  P  de Molière; after Coypel 
René Descartes; after F  Hals 
M  Montaigne; after Dumonstier  1772 
De La Mothe Le Vayer; after Nanteuil 
F  de La Mothe Fénélon; after Vivien 
J  J   Vadé; after Richard 
P  P  Rubens; after Van Dyck 
Anton Van Dyck; after the same 
Passage 6:
Alma the Younger
According to the Book of Mormon, Alma, the son of Alma () was a Nephite prophet often referred to as Alma the Younger to distinguish him from his father, who is often referred to as Alma the Elder  These appellations, "the Younger" and "the Elder," are not used in the Book of Mormon; they are distinctions made by scholars, useful because both individuals were prominent during the same time period in the Book of Mormon's story and filled a similar cultural and religious role  Alma is the namesake of the Book of Alma 

Summary of his life
Alma the Younger lived in Zarahemla during the end of the reign of the Nephite King Mosiah  Adherents of Mormonism believe that he was born in 126 BC   As a young man, he, the four sons of Mosiah, and others wanted to destroy the church and actively persecuted its members  After they were visited personally by an angel and rebuked for their actions, Alma fell into an unconscious state where for three days and three nights he lay unable to move until he felt within that he had been forgiven of his sins  He later recounted that he had experienced a vision during unconsciousness, in which he renounced his behavior against the church and subsequently received a glimpse of God sitting on his throne (Alma 36:12–22)  He and those who persecuted church members with him abdicated their role as persecutors and became followers of Christ Alma the Younger subsequently became the first elected chief judge of the Nephites as well as their religious leader  He observed that the Nephites of the church were becoming increasingly wicked, proud, disdainful of outsiders and neglectful toward the poor and needy (Alma 4:11–12)  When the "unbelievers" began to follow their example, Alma feared the entire people were on the path to self-destruction (Alma 4:11)  He resigned his post as chief judge and began traveling from city to city to preach to the Nephites  He began in Zarahemla, where his efforts were successful  A thorough purge of the church leadership and membership took place, with those former insiders and leaders who refused to relinquish their pride being "rejected, and their names blotted out" (Alma 6:3) 
Alma moved on to the cities of Gideon and Melek, where his call to humility was also well received   From Melek he traveled three days journey north to Ammonihah, whose inhabitants proved much more hardened than those of the previous three cities In Ammonihah the people were very wicked  They considered themselves superior to outsiders, especially the Lamanites, and gloried in the strength of their city, which they considered indestructible  According to Alma chapter 9, Satan held such control over them that they would not listen to Alma   While trying to speak to them he was abused and thrown out of the city  Commanded by an angel to return, Alma slipped back into the city through a different route from the south  There he met Amulek, a lapsed believer (Alma 10:5-6) of some social prominence who fed Alma and housed him for a time   In the city streets, the two of them joined up and preached to the people, where they were challenged by a lawyer named Zeezrom   After Amulek had silenced Zeezrom through his teaching and aroused his conscience, Alma took his turn, preaching to the people with similar results  When finished, Alma and Amulek were cast into prison and delivered by a miracle  A repentant Zeezrom eventually joined Alma in his missionary work 
Several years later, Alma met up with a man named Korihor, whom the Book of Mormon describes as an anti-Christ  This Korihor tried to lead the Nephites astray  Alma confronted him, confounding his arguments and miraculously removing Korihor's power of speech  The stricken Korihor signaled acknowledgement that he had acted maliciously, knowing all along that he was wrong and bringing destruction upon others  He was reduced to begging and was eventually run down and killed in a city of Nephite dissenters called Zoramites These same Zoramites were found to practice things that perverted the ways of the Lord  This led Alma to extend his missionary work to these people  While among them, he was most successful with the poor Alma's final instruction was to his sons, Helaman, Shiblon, and Corianton   He gave each separate lessons, and finally gave the records of the church to Helaman  He then departed, in the 19th year of the reign of the judges (or 73 BC) as if to go to Melek, but was never heard from again  Both Mormon and Helaman believed that he was taken up like Moses of old, and buried by the Lord 

Descendants
The Book of Mormon narrative describes several of Alma's notable descendants as shown in the following family tree:

Alleged similarities to Saul
Various critics argue that there are similarities in both plot and language between Alma the Younger's conversion story and the conversion story of Saul of Tarsus in the Bible  Critic Grant H  Palmer argues for nine specific parallels between Alma and Paul's conversion narrative plus various similarities in language  FAIR, the Latter-day Saint apologetics organization, argues that the parallels are superficial or otherwise poorly contrived  Latter-day Saint philosopher and historian Alan Goff, in a long paper written for and published in Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship, argues that the "New and Old Testaments appropriate an ancient narrative genre called the prophetic commissioning story  Paul’s and Alma’s commissioning narratives hearken back to this literary genre, and to refer to either as pilfered is to misunderstand not just these individual narratives but the larger approach Hebraic writers used in composing biblical and Book of Mormon narrative "
Passage 7:
Johan Bara
Johan Bara or Johannes Barra (1581–1634) was a Dutch painter, designer and engraver 

Life
Barra was probably born in 's-Hertogenbosch or Middelburg  He was active in Augsburg and Neurenberg in 1599, in Middelburg in 1604, in London between 1624 and 1627, in Amsterdam in 1631, and back in London in 1634, where he died He called himself, sometimes, "sculptor et vitrearum imaginum pictor", and published, from 1598 to 1632, several engravings which resemble, without equalling, those of Aegidius Sadeler  His first plate, "Susanna in the Bath", signed Barra (1598), is very rare  His plates are numerous 
Passage 8:
Étienne Fessard
Étienne Fessard, a French engraver, was born in Paris in 1714  He was a pupil of Edme Jeaurat, and proved an artist of sufficient merit to be accepted for candidacy (agréé) at the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (1753)   A protegé of le comte de Caylus, whom he may have assisted in the development of skill in etching, Fessard received the appointment Engraver of the King's Library (graveur de la Bibliothèque du Roi) in 1756, with responsibility for the engravings of the royal collection of paintings and drawings, as a result of Caylus' influence   On his death in 1777, the position was given to his student Augustin de Saint-Aubin  Fessard executed a considerable number of plates, but his efforts to resume the engraving of the King's paintings did not obtain the support of the Acadmie royale and resulted in only two plates: "Feste Flamande" after Rubens and "L'Empire de Flore" after Poussin 

Portraits
Hortensia Mancini, Duchess of Mazarin; after Ferdinand 
Marie Madeleine de Lavergne, Countess de La Fayette; after the same 
J  P  de Bougainville, of the French Academy; after C  N  Cochin 
The Marquis de Mirabeau; after Van Loo 
The Duke de Choiseul; after the same 

Subjects after various masters
Diana and Actaeon; after Giacomo Bassano; for the Crozat Collection 
The Virgin enthroned, with SS  Francis, John, and Catharine; after Correggio 
The Holy Family, with St  Charles Borromeo; after Scarsellino 
The Four Liberal Arts, personified by Children; four plates; after C  van Loo 
Jupiter and Antiope; after the same  1758 
Herminia armed as Clorinda; after J  B  Pierre 
The Birth of Venus; after F  de Troy 
Jupiter and Leda; after the same 
The Triumph of Galatea; after Bouchardon; etched by Count de Caylus, and finished by Fessard 
The Triumph of Bacchus; after the same; etched by Count de Caylus, and finished by Fessard 
The Nativity; after Boucher 
A Flemish Festival; after Rubens  1762 
Psyche abandoned by Cupid; after Le Moine 
Passage 9:
Nicolaes Visscher II
Nicolaes Visscher II (1649, Amsterdam – 1702, Amsterdam) was a Dutch engraver, cartographer and publisher  He was the son of Nicolaes Visscher I and the grandson of Claes Janszoon Visscher  After his death, his wife, Elisabeth, continued the family tradition of mapmaking and publishing  The works, engraved plates, were then sold to Peter Schenk, who also reprinted them 

Works
Passage 10:
Jean Audran
Jean Audran (1667-1756) was a French engraver and printmaker  The brother of Benoit, and the third son of Germain Audran, he was born at Lyons in 1667  After learning the rudiments of the art under his father, he was placed under the care of his uncle, the famous Gérard Audran, in Paris  Before he was twenty years of age he displayed uncommon ability, and became a very celebrated engraver  In 1706 he was made engraver to the king, with a pension and apartments at the Gobelins  The hand of a great master is discernible in all his plates; and without having attained the extraordinary perfection of Gérard Audran, his claim to excellence is very considerable  He died in 1756  His principal prints are:

Portraits
Louis XV; full length; after Gobert 
Maximilian Emmanuel, Elector of Bavaria, with his Page; full length; after Vivien 
Clement Augustus of Bavaria, Elector-Archbishop of Cologne; after the same 
The Duke d'Antin; after Rigaud 
The Abbé Jean d'Estrées; after the same 
Victor Marie, Duke d'Estrées, Marshal of France; after Zargilliere 
Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni; after Trevisani 
François de Salignac de la Motte Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray; after Vivien 
François Pierre Gillet; after Tortebat 
Francois Robert Secousse, sitting; after Rigaud 
Peter Paul Rubens; after van Dyck; for the Luxembourg Gallery 
Noel Coypel, Painter to the King; after Coypel 
Antoine Coysevox, Sculptor to the King; after Rigaud  [The two last were engraved by Audran for his reception at the Academy in 1708 ]

Subjects after various masters
Our Saviour preaching to the Multitude; after Raphael 
The Infant Saviour regarding the Cross presented by Angels; after Albani 
The Nativity; after Pietro da Cortona; oval 
The Good Samaritan; after Ann  Carracci; arched 
St  John administering the Sacrament to the Virgin; after Lodovico Carracci 
Our Saviour on the Mount of Olives; after Domenichino 
St  Andrew led to Crucifixion; after Guido 
The Martyrdom of St  Peter; after Guido; on the plate improperly called after Domenichino 
St  Paul preaching at Athens; after Ciro Ferri; a small frieze 
The Triumph of Galatea; after Carlo Maratti; for the Crozat Collection 
The Miracle of the Loaves; after Claude Audran 
Six plates — Copies of the large Battles of Alexander; by G  Audran 
St  Augustine; after P  de Champagne 
Simeon holding the Infant Jesus; after M  Corneille 
Moses saved from the Nile; after Ant  Coypel 
Jacob and Laban; after the same 
Athaha and Joash; after the same 
Esther before Ahasuerus; after the same 
The Resurrection; after the same 
Cupid and Psyche; after the same 
Our Saviour curing the Sick; after Ant  Dieu 
Christ bearing His Cross; after the same 
The Elevation of the Cross; after Van Dijck 
The Crucifixion; after the same 
The French Parnassus; after the bronze by Gamier 
The Miraculous Draught of Fishes; after Jouvenet 
The Resurrection of Lazarus; after the same 
The Queen Blanche inspired with the Holy Spirit; after the same 
Acis and Galatea; after F  Marot 
Venus punishing Psyche; after J  M  Nattier 
Psyche consoled by Cupid; after the same 
The dead Christ, with the Marys, St  John, and Nicodemus; after Poussin 
The Rape of the Sabines; after Poussin; his most esteemed print 
St  Scholastica at the point of Death; after J  Restout 
Andromache entreating for her Son; after L  Silvestre 
Henri IV deliberating on his future Marriage; after Rubens 
Henri IV departing for the German War; after the same 
The Coronation of Marie de Médicis; after the same  [The three last form part of the Luxembourg Gallery ]
Passage 11:
Golden plates
According to Latter Day Saint belief, the golden plates (also called the gold plates or in some 19th-century literature, the golden bible) are the source from which Joseph Smith translated the Book of Mormon, a sacred text of the faith  Some accounts from people who reported handling the plates describe the plates as weighing from 30 to 60 pounds (14 to 27 kg), gold in color, and composed of thin metallic pages engraved with hieroglyphics on both sides and bound with three D-shaped rings Smith said that he found the plates on September 22, 1823, on a hill near his home in Manchester, New York, after the angel Moroni directed him to a buried stone box  He said that the angel prevented him from taking the plates but instructed him to return to the same location in a year  He returned to that site every year, but it was not until September 1827 that he recovered the plates on his fourth annual attempt to retrieve them  He returned home with a heavy object wrapped in a frock, which he then put in a box  He allowed others to heft the box but said that the angel had forbidden him to show the plates to anyone until they had been translated from their original "reformed Egyptian" language 
Smith dictated the text of the plates while a scribe wrote down the words which would later become the Book of Mormon  Eyewitnesses to the process said Smith translated the plates, not by looking directly at them, but by looking through a transparent seer stone in the bottom of his hat  Smith published the first edition of the translation in March 1830 as the Book of Mormon, with a print run of 5,000 copies at a production cost of $3,000 (or 60 cents per book) 
Smith eventually obtained testimonies from 11 men who said that they had seen the plates, known as the Book of Mormon witnesses  After the translation was complete, Smith said that he returned the plates to the angel Moroni; thus they could never be examined  Latter Day Saints believe the account of the golden plates as a matter of faith, while critics often assert that either Smith manufactured them himself or that the Book of Mormon witnesses based their testimony on visions rather than physical experience 

Origin and historicity
In the words of Mormon historian Richard Bushman, "For most modern readers, the plates are beyond belief, a phantasm, yet the Mormon sources accept them as fact " Smith said that he returned the plates to the angel Moroni after he finished translating them, and their authenticity cannot be determined by physical examination  They were reportedly shown to several close associates of Smith  Mormon scholars have formed collaborations such as Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies to provide apologetic answers to critical research about the golden plates and topics in the field of Mormon studies  The credibility of the plates has been a "troublesome item", according to Bushman The Book of Mormon itself portrays the golden plates as a historical record, engraved by two pre-Columbian prophet-historians from around the year AD 400: Mormon and his son Moroni  Mormon and Moroni, the book says, had abridged earlier historical records from other sets of metal plates  Their script, according to the book, was described as "reformed Egyptian", a language unknown to linguists or Egyptologists  Scholarly reference works on languages do not acknowledge the existence of either a "reformed Egyptian" language or "reformed Egyptian" script as it has been described in Mormon belief, and there is no archaeological, linguistic, or other evidence of the use of Egyptian writing in ancient America  Historically, Latter Day Saint movement denominations have taught that the Book of Mormon's description of the plates' origin is accurate, and that the Book of Mormon is a translation of the plates  The Community of Christ, however, accepts the Book of Mormon as scripture but no longer takes an official position on the historicity of the golden plates  Some adherents accept the Book of Mormon as inspired scripture but do not believe that it is a literal translation of a physical historical record, even in the more theologically conservative Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) Non-Mormons and some liberal Mormons have advanced naturalistic explanations for the story of the plates  For example, it has been theorized that the plates were fashioned by Smith or one of his associates, that Smith had the ability to convince others of their existence through illusions or hypnosis, or that witnesses were having ecstatic visions 

Story
The story of the golden plates consists of how, according to Joseph Smith and his contemporaries, the plates were found, received from the angel Moroni, translated, and returned to the angel before the publication of the Book of Mormon  Smith is the only source for a great deal of the story because much of it occurred while he was the only human witness  Nevertheless, Smith told the story to his family, friends, and acquaintances, and many of them provided second-hand accounts  Other parts of the story are derived from the statements of those who knew Smith, including several witnesses who said that they saw the golden plates 
The best-known elements of the golden plates story are found in an account told by Smith in 1838 and incorporated into the official church histories of some Latter Day Saint movement denominations  The LDS Church has canonized part of this 1838 account as part of its scripture, the Pearl of Great Price 

Background
During the Second Great Awakening, Joseph Smith lived on his parents' farm near Palmyra, New York  At the time, churches in the region contended so vigorously for souls that western New York later became known as the "burned-over district" because the fires of religious revivals had burned over it so often  Western New York was also noted for its participation in a "craze for treasure hunting"  Beginning as a youth in the early 1820s, Smith was periodically hired, for about $14 per month, as a scryer, using what were termed "seer stones" in attempts to locate lost items and buried treasure  Smith's contemporaries described his method for seeking treasure as putting the stone in a white stovepipe hat, putting his face over the hat to block the light, and then "seeing" the information in the reflections of the stone According to Richard Bushman, Smith did not consider himself to be a "peeper" or "glass-looker", a practice he is said to have called "nonsense", despite his use of seer stones  Rather, Smith and his family viewed their folk magical practices as spiritual gifts  Although Smith later rejected his youthful treasure-hunting activities as frivolous and immaterial, he never repudiated the stones themselves,  denied their presumed power to find treasure, or ever relinquish the magic culture in which he was raised  He came to view seeing with a stone in religious terms as the work of a "seer"  Smith's first stone, apparently the same one that he used at least part of the time to translate the golden plates, was chocolate-colored and about the size of a chicken egg, found in a deep well he helped dig for one of his neighbors  The LDS Church released photographs of the stone on August 4, 2015 

Finding the plates
According to Smith, he found the plates after he was directed to them by a heavenly messenger whom he later identified as the angel Moroni  According to the story, the angel first visited Smith's bedroom late at night, on September 22 in 1822 or 1823  Moroni told Smith that the plates could be found buried in a prominent hill near his home, later called Cumorah, a name found in the Book of Mormon  Before dawn, Moroni reappeared two more times and repeated the information 
However, the angel would not allow Smith to take the plates until he obeyed certain "commandments"  Smith recorded some of these commandments but made it clear the main thrust of Moroni's message was that he had to keep God's commandments in general  Some contemporaries who later claimed he told them the story said there were others, some of which are relevant to the modern debate about whether or how closely events of early Mormonism were related to the practice of contemporary folk magic  Smith's writings say that the angel required at least the following: (1) that he have no thought of using the plates for monetary gain, (2) that he tell his father about the vision, and (3) that he never show the plates to any unauthorized person  Smith's contemporaries who claimed to have heard the story, both sympathetic and unsympathetic, generally agreed that Smith mentioned the following additional commandments: (4) that Smith take the plates and leave the site in which they had been buried without looking back, and (5) that the plates never directly touch the ground until they were safe at home in a locked chest  Some unsympathetic listeners who allegedly heard the story from Smith or his father recalled that Smith had said the angel required him (6) to wear "black clothes" to the place where the plates were buried, (7) to ride a "black horse with a switchtail", (8) to call for the plates by a certain name, and (9) to "give thanks to God "

In the morning, Smith began work as usual and did not mention the visions to his father because, he said, he did not think his father would believe him  Smith said he then fainted because he had been awake all night, and while unconscious, the angel appeared a fourth time and chastised him for failing to tell the visions to his father  When Smith then told all to his father, he believed his son and encouraged him to obey the angel's commands  Smith then set off to visit the hill, later stating that he used his seer stone to locate the place that the plates were buried but that he "knew the place the instant that [he] arrived there "Smith said he saw a large stone covering a box made of stone (or possibly iron)  Using a stick to remove dirt from the edges of the stone cover and prying it up with a lever, Smith saw the plates inside the box, together with other artifacts 

Unsuccessful retrieval attempts
According to Smith's followers, Smith said he took the plates from the box, put them on the ground, and covered the box with the stone to protect the other treasures that it contained  Nevertheless, the accounts say that when Smith looked back at the ground after closing the box, the plates had once again disappeared into it  When Smith once again raised the stone and attempted to retrieve the plates, he said that he was stricken by a supernatural force that hurled him to the ground as many as three times Disconcerted by his inability to obtain the plates, Smith said he briefly wondered whether his experience had been a "dreem of Vision" [sic]  Concluding that it was not, he said he prayed to ask why he had been barred from taking the plates In response to his question, Smith said the angel appeared and told him he could not receive the plates because he "had been tempted of the advisary and saught the Plates to obtain riches and kept not the commandments that I should have an eye single to the Glory of God" [sic]  According to Smith's followers, Smith had also broken the angel's commandment "not to lay the plates down, or put them for a moment out of his hands," and according to a nonbeliever, Smith said, "I had forgotten to give thanks to God," as required by the angel Smith said the angel instructed him to return the next year, on September 22, 1824, with the "right person": his older brother Alvin  Alvin had died in November 1823, and Smith returned to the hill in 1824 to ask what he should do  Smith said he was told to return the following year (1825) with the "right person" but the angel did not tell Smith who that person might be  However, Smith determined after looking into his seer stone that the "right person" was Emma Hale, his future wife  For the visit on September 22, 1825, Smith may have attempted to bring his treasure-hunting associate Samuel T  Lawrence Smith said that he visited the hill "at the end of each year" for four years after the first visit in 1823, but there is no record of him being in the vicinity of Palmyra between January 1826 and January 1827, when he returned to New York from Pennsylvania with his new wife  In January 1827, Smith visited the hill and then told his parents that the angel had severely chastised him for not being "engaged enough in the work of the Lord," which may have meant that he had missed his annual visit to the hill in 1826 

Receiving the plates
The next annual visit on September 22, 1827, would be, Smith told associates, his last chance to receive the plates  According to Brigham Young, as the scheduled final date to obtain the plates approached, several Palmyra residents expressed concern "that they were going to lose that treasure" and sent for a skilled necromancer from 60 miles (96 km) away, encouraging him to make three separate trips to Palmyra to find the plates  During one of the trips, the unnamed necromancer is said to have discovered the location but was unable to determine the value of the plates  A few days prior to the September 22, 1827, visit to the hill, Smith's loyal treasure-hunting friends Josiah Stowell and Joseph Knight Sr  traveled to Palmyra, in part, to be there during Smith's scheduled visit to the hill Another of Smith's former treasure-hunting associates, Samuel T  Lawrence, was also apparently aware of the approaching date to obtain the plates, and Smith was concerned that he might cause trouble  Therefore, on the eve of September 22, 1827, the scheduled date for retrieving the plates, Smith dispatched his father to spy on Lawrence's house until dark  If Lawrence attempted to leave, the elder Smith was to tell him that his son would "thrash the stumps with him" if he found him at the hill  Late at night, Smith took a horse and carriage to the hill Cumorah with Emma  While Emma stayed behind kneeling in prayer, Smith walked to the site of the buried plates  Some time in the early morning hours, he said that he retrieved the plates and hid them in a hollow log on or near Cumorah  At the same time, Smith said he received a pair of large spectacles he called the Urim and Thummim or "Interpreters," with lenses consisting of two seer stones, which he showed his mother when he returned in the morning Over the next few days, Smith took a well-digging job in nearby Macedon to earn enough money to buy a solid lockable chest in which to put the plates  By then, however, some of Smith's treasure-seeking company had heard that Smith had said that he had been successful in obtaining the plates, and they wanted what they believed was their share of the profits from what they viewed as part of a joint venture in treasure hunting  Spying once again on the house of Samuel Lawrence, Smith Sr , determined that a group of ten to twelve of these men, including Lawrence and Willard Chase, had enlisted the talents of a renowned and supposedly talented seer from 60 miles (96 km) away, in an effort to locate where the plates were hidden by means of divination  When Emma heard of that, she rode a stray horse to Macedon and informed Smith, who reportedly determined through his Urim and Thummim that the plates were safe  He nevertheless hurriedly rode home with Emma Once home in Manchester, he said he walked to Cumorah, removed the plates from their hiding place, and walked home through the woods and away from the road with the plates wrapped in a linen frock under his arm  On the way, he said a man had sprung up from behind a log and struck him a "heavy blow with a gun     Knocking the man down with a single punch, Joseph ran as fast as he could for about a half mile before he was attacked by a second man trying to get the plates  After similarly overpowering the man, Joseph continued to run, but before he reached the house, a third man hit him with a gun  In striking the last man, Joseph said, he injured his thumb " He returned home with a dislocated thumb and other minor injuries  Smith sent his father, Joseph Knight, and Josiah Stowell to search for the pursuers, but they found no one Smith is said to have put the plates in a locked chest and hid them in his parents' home in Manchester  He refused to allow anyone, including his family, to view the plates or the other artifacts that he said he had in his possession, but some people were allowed to heft them or feel what were said to be the artifacts through a cloth  A few days after retrieving the plates, Smith brought home what he said was an ancient breastplate, which he said had been hidden in the box at Cumorah with the plates  After letting his mother feel through a thin cloth what she said was the breastplate, he placed it in the locked chest The Smith home was approached "nearly every night" by villagers hoping to find the chest, where Smith said the plates were kept  After hearing that a group of them would attempt to enter the house by force, Smith buried the chest under the hearth, and the family was able to scare away the intended intruders  Fearing the chest might still be discovered, Smith hid it under the floor boards of his parents' old log home nearby that was then being used as a cooper shop  Later, Smith told his mother he had taken the plates out of the chest, left the empty chest under the floor boards of the cooper shop, and hid the plates in a barrel of flax  Shortly thereafter the empty box was discovered and the place ransacked by Smith's former treasure-seeking associates, who had enlisted one of the men's sisters to find the hiding place by looking in her seer stone 

Translating the plates
Smith said that the plates were engraved in an unknown language, and he told associates that he was capable of reading and translating them  The translation took place mainly in Harmony, Pennsylvania (now Oakland Township), Emma's hometown, where Smith and his wife had moved in October 1827 with financial assistance from a prominent, though superstitious, Palmyra landowner Martin Harris  The translation occurred in two phases: the first, from December 1827 to June 1828, during which Smith transcribed some of the characters and then dictated 116 manuscript pages to Harris, which were lost  The second phase began sporadically in early 1829 and then in earnest in April 1829 with the arrival of Oliver Cowdery, a schoolteacher who volunteered to serve as Smith's full-time scribe  In June 1829, Smith and Cowdery moved to Fayette, New York, completing the translation early the following month 

Smith used scribes to write the words he said were a translation of the golden plates, dictating the words while peering into seer stones, which he said allowed him to see the translation  Smith's translation process evolved from his previous use of seer stones in treasure-seeking  During the earliest phase of translation, Smith said he used what he called Urim and Thummim, two stones set in a frame like a set of large spectacles  Witnesses said Smith placed the Urim and Thummim in his hat while he was translating After the loss of the first 116 manuscript pages, Smith translated with a single seer stone, which some sources say he had previously used in treasure-seeking  Smith placed the stone in a hat, buried his face in it to eliminate all outside light, and peered into the stone to see the words of the translation  A few times during the translation, a curtain or blanket was raised between Smith and his scribe or between the living area and the area where Smith and his scribe worked  Sometimes, Smith dictated to Harris from upstairs or from a different room Smith's translation did not require the use of the plates themselves  Though Smith himself said very little about the translation process, his friends and family said that as he looked into the stone, the written translation of the ancient script appeared to him in English  There are several proposed explanations for how Smith composed his translation  In the 19th century, the most common explanation among anti-Mormons was that he copied the work from a manuscript written by Solomon Spaulding  That theory is repudiated by Smith's preeminent modern biographers  The most prominent modern theory among many ex-Mormons is that Smith composed the translation in response to the provincial opinions of his time, perhaps while in a magical trance-like state  As a matter of faith, Latter Day Saints generally view the translation process as either an automatic process of transcribing text written within the stone or an intuitive translation by Smith, assisted by a mystical connection with God, through the stone  Some Latter Day Saint apologists argue that because of the length of the Book of Mormon (roughly 270,000 words) and the timeframe in which the Book was dictated, it is unlikely that he wrote it or memorized the words from elsewhere  It is also argued that Smith was unfamiliar with the text, often pausing to attempt to pronounce names of people and places that were unfamiliar to him, and therefore it is unlikely that he had read the text before or written it previously Smith's dictations were written down by a number of assistants, including Emma Smith, Martin Harris, and Oliver Cowdery  In May 1829, after Smith had lent 116 unduplicated manuscript pages to Harris, and Harris had lost them, Smith dictated a revelation explaining that Smith could not simply retranslate the lost pages because his opponents would attempt to see if he could "bring forth the same words again " According to Grant Palmer, Smith believed "a second transcription would be identical to the first  This confirms the view that the English text existed in some kind of unalterable, spiritual form rather than that someone had to think through difficult conceptual issues and idioms, always resulting in variants in any translation "

Location of the plates during translation
When Smith and Emma moved to Pennsylvania in October 1827, they transported a wooden box, which Smith said contained the plates, hidden in a barrel of beans  For a time, the couple stayed in the home of Emma's father, Isaac Hale, but when Smith refused to show Hale the plates, Hale banished the concealed objects from his house  Afterward, Smith told several of his associates that the plates were hidden in the nearby woods  Emma said that she remembered the plates being on a table in the house, wrapped in a linen tablecloth, which she moved from time to time when it got in the way of her chores  According to Smith's mother, the plates were also stored in a trunk on Emma's bureau  However, Smith did not require the physical presence of the plates to translate them In April 1828, Martin Harris's wife, Lucy, visited Harmony with her husband and demanded to see the plates  When Smith refused to show them to her, she searched the house, grounds, and woods  According to Smith's mother, during the search Lucy was frightened by a large, black snake and so was prevented from digging up the plates  As a result of Martin Harris's loss of the 116 pages of manuscript, Smith said that between July and September 1828, the angel Moroni took back both the plates and the Urim and Thummim as a penalty for his having delivered "the manuscript into the hands of a wicked man " According to Smith's mother, the angel returned the objects to Smith on September 22, 1828, the anniversary of the day that he first received them In March 1829, Martin Harris visited Harmony and asked to see the plates  Smith told him that he "would go into the woods where the Book of Plates was, and that after he came back, Harris should follow his tracks in the snow, and find the Book, and examine it for himself " Harris followed the directions but could not find the plates In early June 1829, the unwanted attentions of locals around Harmony necessitated Smith's move to the home of David Whitmer and his parents in Fayette, New York  Smith said that during this move the plates were transported by the angel Moroni, who put them in the garden of the Whitmer house, where Smith could recover them  The translation was completed at the Whitmer home 

Returning the plates
After translation was complete, Smith said he returned the plates to the angel, but he did not elaborate about this experience  According to accounts by several early Mormons, a group of Mormon leaders, including Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and possibly others accompanied Smith and returned the plates to a cave inside the Hill Cumorah  There, Smith is said to have placed the plates on a table near "many wagon loads" of other ancient records, and the Sword of Laban hanging on the cave wall  According to Brigham Young's understanding, which he said that he had gained from Cowdery, on a later visit to the cave, the Sword of Laban was said to be unsheathed and placed over the plates and inscribed with the words: "This sword will never be sheathed again until the kingdoms of this world become the kingdom of our God and his Christ "Smith taught that part of the golden plates were "sealed " The "sealed" portion is said to contain "a revelation from God, from the beginning of the world to the ending thereof " Many Latter Day Saints believe that the plates will be kept hidden until a future time, when the sealed part will be translated and, according to one early Mormon leader, transferred from the hill to one of the Mormon temples David Whitmer is quoted as stating that he saw just the untranslated portion of the plates sitting on the table with the sword (and also a breastplate)  Apparently, Whitmer was aware of expeditions at Cumorah to locate the sealed portion of the plates through "science and mineral rods," which, he said, "testify that they are there "

Descriptions of the plates
Smith said the angel Moroni had commanded him not to show the plates to any unauthorized person  However, Smith eventually obtained the written statement of several witnesses who saw the plates  It is unclear whether the witnesses believed they had seen the plates with their physical eyes or had seen them in a vision  For instance, although Martin Harris continued to testify to the truth of the Book of Mormon even when he was estranged from the church, at least during the early years of the movement, he "seems to have repeatedly admitted the internal, subjective nature of his visionary experience "According to some sources, Smith initially intended that the first authorized witness be his firstborn son; but this child was stillborn in 1828  In March 1829, Martin Harris came to Harmony to see the plates, but was unable to find them in the woods where Smith said they could be found  The next day, Smith dictated a revelation stating that Harris could eventually qualify himself to be one of three witnesses with the exclusive right to "view [the plates] as they are" By June 1829, Smith determined that there would be eight additional witnesses, a total of twelve including Smith  During the second half of June 1829, Smith took Harris, Oliver Cowdery and David Whitmer (known collectively as the Three Witnesses) into woods in Fayette, New York, where they said they saw an angel holding the golden plates and turning the leaves  The four also said they heard "the voice of the Lord" telling them that the translation of the plates was correct, and commanding them to testify of what they saw and heard  A few days later, Smith took a different group of Eight Witnesses to a location near Smith's parents' home in Palmyra where they said Smith showed them the golden plates  Statements over the names of these men, apparently drafted by Smith, were published in 1830 as an appendix to the Book of Mormon  According to later statements ascribed to Martin Harris, he viewed the plates in a vision and not with his "natural eyes "In addition to Smith and the other eleven who claimed to be witnesses, a few other early Mormons said they saw the plates  For instance, Smith's mother Lucy Mack Smith said she had "seen and handled" the plates  Smith's wife Emma and his younger brother William and younger sister Katharine also said they had examined and lifted the plates while they were wrapped in fabric  Others said they had visions of the plates or had been shown the plates by an angel, in some cases years after Smith said he had returned the plates 

Described format, binding, and dimensions
The plates were said to be bound at one edge by a set of rings  In 1828, Martin Harris, is reported to have said that the plates were "fastened together in the shape of a book by wires"  In 1859 Harris said that the plates "were seven inches [18 cm] wide by eight inches [20 cm] in length, and were of the thickness of plates of tin; and when piled one above the other, they were altogether about four inches [10 cm] thick; and they were put together on the back by three silver rings, so that they would open like a book"  David Whitmer, another of the Three Witnesses, was quoted by an 1831 Palmyra newspaper as having said the plates were "the thickness of tin plate; the back was secured with three small rings     passing through each leaf in succession"  Anomalously, Smith's father is quoted as saying that the plates were only half an inch (1 27 centimeter) thick  Smith's mother, who said she had "seen and handled" the plates, is quoted as saying they were "eight inches [20 cm] long, and six [15 cm] wide     all connected by a ring which passes through a hole at the end of each plate" Hyrum Smith and John Whitmer, also witnesses in 1829, are reported to have stated that the rings holding the plates together were, in Hyrum's words, "in the shape of the letter D, which facilitated the opening and shutting of the book"  Smith's wife Emma and his younger brother William said they had examined the plates while wrapped in fabric  Emma said she "felt of the plates, as they thus lay on the table, tracing their outline and shape  They seemed to be pliable like thick paper, and would rustle with a metallic sound when the edges were moved by the thumb, as one does sometimes thumb the edges of a book"  William agreed that the plates could be rustled with one's thumb like the pages of a book Smith did not provide his own published description of the plates until 1842, when he said in a letter that "each plate was six inches [15 cm] wide and eight inches [20 cm] long, and not quite so thick as common tin  They were     bound together in a volume, as the leaves of a book, with three rings running through the whole  The volume was something near six inches [15 cm] in thickness" 

Described composition and weight
The plates were first described as "gold", and beginning about 1827, the plates were widely called the "gold bible"  When the Book of Mormon was published in 1830, the Eight Witnesses described the plates as having "the appearance of gold"  The Book of Mormon describes the plates as being made of "ore"  In a June 1830 court hearing, Josiah Stowell testified that he inadvertently caught a glimpse of a corner of the plates (making him "the only witness to see the plates 'by accident,'") and said it "resembled a stone of a greenish caste " In 1831, a Palmyra newspaper quoted David Whitmer, one of the Three Witnesses, as having said that the plates were a "whitish yellow color", with "three small rings of the same metal" Smith's first published description of the plates said that the plates "had the appearance of gold", and Smith said that Moroni had referred to the plates as "gold " Late in life, Martin Harris stated that the rings holding the plates together were made of silver, and he said the plates themselves, based on their heft of "forty or fifty pounds" (18–23 kg), "were lead or gold"  Joseph's brother William, who said he felt the plates inside a pillow case in 1827, said in 1884 that he understood the plates to be "a mixture of gold and copper     much heavier than stone, and very much heavier than wood" Different people estimated the weight of the plates differently  According to Smith's one-time-friend Willard Chase, Smith told him in 1827 that the plates weighed between 40 and 60 pounds (18–27 kg), most likely the latter  Smith's father Joseph Smith Sr , who was one of the Eight Witnesses, reportedly weighed them and said in 1830 that they "weighed thirty pounds" (14 kg)  Smith's brother William, who had lifted the plates, thought they "weighed about sixty pounds [27 kg] according to the best of my judgment"  Others who lifted the plates while they were wrapped in cloth or enclosed in a box thought that they weighed about 60 pounds [27 kg]  Martin Harris said that he had "hefted the plates many times, and should think they weighed forty or fifty pounds [18–23 kg]"  Smith's wife Emma never estimated the weight of the plates but said they were light enough for her to "move them from place to place on the table, as it was necessary in doing my work" From descriptions of the plates' dimensions, had the plates been made of 24-karat gold (which Smith never claimed), they would have weighed about 140 pounds (64 kg)  Based on the plates' lighter weight and Stowell's description of its corner's "greenish cast", one scholar has hypothesized Smith made the plates from copper, which weighs less than gold and rusts green  LDS writers have speculated the plates could also exhibit those qualities if it were made of a copper-gold alloy like Mesoamerican tumbaga 

"Sealed" portion
According to Smith and others, the golden plates contained a "sealed" portion containing "a revelation from God, from the beginning of the world to the ending thereof " Smith never described the nature of the seal, and the language of the Book of Mormon may be interpreted to describe a sealing that was spiritual, metaphorical, physical, or a combination of these elements 
The Book of Mormon refers to other documents and plates as being "sealed" to be revealed at some future time  For example, the Book of Mormon says the entire set of plates was "sealed up, and hid up unto the Lord" and that separate records of John the Apostle were "sealed up to come forth in their purity" in the end times  One set of plates to which the Book of Mormon refers was "sealed up" in the sense that they were written in a language that could not be read Smith may have understood the sealing to be a supernatural or spiritual sealing "by the power of God" (2 Nephi 27:10), an idea supported by a reference in the Book of Mormon to the "interpreters" with which Smith said they were buried or "sealed " Oliver Cowdery also stated that when Smith visited the hill, he was stricken by a supernatural force because the plates were "sealed by the prayer of faith "Several witnesses described a physical sealing placed on part of the plates by Mormon or Moroni  David Whitmer said that when an angel showed him the plates in 1829, "a large portion of the leaves were so securely bound together that it was impossible to separate them," that the "sealed" part of the plates were held together as a solid mass "stationary and immovable," "as solid to my view as wood," and that there were "perceptible marks where the plates appeared to be sealed" with leaves "so securely bound that it was impossible to separate them " In 1842, Lucy Mack Smith said that some of the plates were "sealed together" while others were "loose " The account of the Eight Witnesses says they saw the plates in 1829 and handled "as many of the leaves as Smith has translated," implying that they did not examine untranslated parts, such as the sealed portion  In one interview, David Whitmer said that "about half" the book was unsealed; in 1881, he said "about one-third" was unsealed  Whitmer's 1881 statement is consistent with an 1856 statement by Orson Pratt, an associate of Smith's who never saw the plates himself but who had spoken with witnesses, that "about two-thirds" of the plates were "sealed up" 

Engravings
The golden plates were said to contain engravings that the Book of Mormon describes as reformed Egyptian  Smith described the writing as "Egyptian characters     small, and beautifully engraved," exhibiting "much skill in the art of engraving "John Whitmer, one of the Eight Witnesses, said the plates had "fine engravings on both sides," and Orson Pratt, who did not see the plates himself but who had spoken with witnesses, understood that there were engravings on both sides of the plates, "stained with a black, hard stain, so as to make the letters more legible and easier to be read "

Significance in the Latter Day Saint tradition
The golden plates are significant within the Latter Day Saint movement because they are the reputed source for the Book of Mormon, which Smith called the "most correct of any book on earth, and the keystone of our religion " However, the golden plates are just one of many known and reputed metal plates with significance in the Latter Day Saint movement  The Book of Mormon itself refers to a long tradition of writing historical records on plates, of which the golden plates are a culmination (see List of plates (Latter Day Saint movement)) 
Some Latter Day Saints, especially those within the Community of Christ, have doubted the historicity of the golden plates and downplayed their significance  For most adherents of the Latter Day Saint faith, however, the physical existence and authenticity of the golden plates are essential elements of their faith  For them, the message of the Book of Mormon is inseparable from the story of its origins Hugh Nibley, a Latter-day Saint scholar popular among church members, said in 1957 that he believed even proof of the actual existence of the golden plates would not settle disputes about the Book of Mormon and the story of its origin 

Other plates
A few other sets of plates have arisen to prominence in various denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement 

Kinderhook plates hoax
In 1843, after reading a missionary tract written by Orson Pratt, three men in Kinderhook, Pike County, Illinois—Robert Wiley, Wilburn Fugate, and Bridge Whitton—decided to collaborate to counterfeit a set of metal plates and "startle the natives," as one of Fugate's sons recalled  The trio forged plates from copper, etched them with acid, and buried them in a mound, digging them up on April 23, 1843, in a pretended discovery  The Quincy Whig published a story on the discovery, and the Times and Seasons and Nauvoo Neighbor, a publication of the church and of the city respectively, reprinted the story  The Mormon community soon expressed much interest in the plates 
By May 1, the plates had been brought to Nauvoo and Smith, apparently believing they were authentic, attempted to translate them  Smith's private secretary William Clayton recorded that upon receiving the plates, Smith sent for his "Hebrew Bible & Lexicon", suggesting that rather than translate the plates by direct revelation, Smith attempted to translate the plates by more conventional means  That day, Clayton wrote in his journal:
I have seen 6 brass plates     covered with ancient characters of language containing from 30 to 40 on each side of the plates  Prest J  [Joseph Smith] has translated a portion and says they contain the history of the person with whom they were found and he was a descendant of Ham through the loins of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and that he received his kingdom from the ruler of heaven and earth 
Scholars examining the Kinderhook plates in retrospect have found that one character coincidentally resembles a character in Smith's Egyptian Alphabet Book, the alleged meaning of which matches Smith's attempted translation of the Kinderhook plates, further suggesting Smith tried to translate the plates as an amateur linguist Apostles John Taylor and Wilford Woodruff, editors of the Nauvoo Neighbor, anticipated Smith would translate the plates in their entirety and promised in a June 1843 article that "The contents of the plates, together with a Fac-simile of the same, will be published in the 'Times and Seasons,' as soon as the translation is completed " However, the plates were returned untranslated to Wiley and Fugate in Kinderhook  Smith did not express reservations about the plates to any of his compatriots, but whether or not he recognized the Kinderhook plates as fraudulent, "he did not swing into a full-fledged translation" as he had with his earlier encounter with Egyptian scrolls In 1886, a signed letter from Fugate was published in the book Joseph Smith the Prophet, His Family and His Friends: A Study Based on Facts and Documents, and in the letter Fugate revealed the hoax and the fabrication of the plates  Nevertheless, many members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (a denomination of Mormons who followed Brigham Young after Smith's death) refused to accept Fugate's confession and defended the Kinderhook plates as authentic and Smith's translation as legitimate until 1980, when Northwestern University materials science professor D  Lynn Johnson examined a plate still held by the Chicago Historical Society and conclusively proved it was a nineteenth-century creation 

Strangite plates
Two other sets of alleged plates, the Voree plates and the Book of the Law of the Lord, were translated by James Strang—one of three major contenders to succeed Smith—who went on to lead the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)  The Voree plates were alleged to have been written by an ancient inhabitant of what is now Burlington, Wisconsin, while the Book of the Law of the Lord was alleged by Strang to be a translation of the Plates of Laban mentioned in the Book of Mormon  Neither of these alleged discoveries by Strang is accepted as authentic outside of the Strangite community 

Notes
Passage 12:
Jan van de Velde the Elder
Jan van de Velde the Elder (1568, Antwerp – 1623, Haarlem), was a Dutch calligrapher, writing teacher, and engraver  He was the father of the engraver Jan van de Velde 

Biography
According to the RKD he was possibly the pupil of Felix van Sambix  He married Mayken van Bracht from Turnhout, sister-in-law of the publisher Jan van Waesberghe, in 1592 in Rotterdam and opened a French school there  Their son, Jan van de Velde, became a painter  He published his calligraphy in the Spieghel der Schrijfkonste in 1605  In 1620 moved to Haarlem, where he was possibly the teacher of the Haarlem calligraphers Jean de la Chambre or Nicolaes Bodding van Laer 
Passage 13:
History of Joseph Smith by His Mother
History of Joseph Smith by His Mother is a biography of Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, according to his mother, Lucy Mack Smith   It was originally titled Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith, the Prophet, and His Progenitors for Many Generations and was published by Orson Pratt in Liverpool in 1853 

Background
Shortly following the death of Joseph Smith in 1844, and into 1845, Lucy Mack Smith dictated her recollections and family story to Nauvoo schoolteacher Martha Jane Coray  Coray worked with her husband to compile these books of notes and other sources into a manuscript, which was then copied 
One copy was given to apostle Brigham Young, and the other stayed with Lucy Smith in Nauvoo  Eventually, apostle Orson Pratt obtained Lucy's copy and published it in 1853, to great controversy 

Brigham Young's opposition
After its publication, Brigham Young declared the book to be a "tissue of lies" and wanted corrections made  In the Millennial Star in 1855, he said,

There are many mistakes in the work     I have had a written copy of those sketches in my possession for several years, and it contains much of the history of the Prophet Joseph  Should it ever be deemed best to publish these sketches, it will not be done until after they are carefully corrected 
In 1865, Young ordered the church members to have their copies destroyed  There was no "corrected" version until the church published a 1901 serialization and 1902 book, which were done under the direction of Joseph F  Smith, Lucy's grandson Later historians theorized that Young opposed the book because of his own conflicts with its publisher, Orson Pratt, as well as the book's favorable references to William Smith, Young's opponent and Lucy's son  Lucy Mack Smith portrayed the Smith family as the legitimate leaders of the church, which Young may also have seen as a challenge to his leadership 

Importance
LDS historian Leonard Arrington saw the book as "informative, basically accurate, and extremely revealing of Joseph Smith's early life and family background," and felt it "perhaps tells more about Mormon origins than any other single source   Richard L  Anderson called it one of "the essential sources for Mormon origins "  Non-Mormon historian Jan Shipps identifies this history as being "of central importance in the Mormon historical corpus "

Editions
The book has been republished several times, under various publishers, editors and titles   The following is a list of editions with significant changes to the text or title 

Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet, and His Progenitors for Many Generations, by Lucy Smith, Mother of the Prophet  Liverpool: S W  Richards for Orson Pratt  1853 
Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet and His Progenitors for Many Generations  Plano, Illinois: Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints  1880 
Smith, George A ; Smith, Elias, eds  (1902)  History of the Prophet Joseph, by His Mother, Lucy Smith, as Revised by George A  Smith and Elias Smith  Salt Lake City, Utah: Improvement Era  
Nibley, Preston, ed  (1945)  History of Joseph Smith, By His Mother, Lucy Mack Smith  Salt Lake City, Utah: Stevens & Wallis 
Nibley, Preston, ed  (1956)  History of Joseph Smith, By His Mother, Lucy Mack Smith  Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft 
Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith, the Prophet  New York: Arno Press  1969 
Tanner, Jerald and Sandra (1978)  Joseph Smith's History By His Mother: The Book Brigham Young Tried to Destroy  Salt Lake City, Utah: Modern Microfilm Co 
Proctor, Scot Facer; Proctor, Maurine Jensen, eds  (1996)  The Revised and Enhanced History of Joseph Smith By His Mother  Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft  ISBN 1-57008-267-7  
Anderson, Lavina Fielding, ed  (2001)  Lucy's Book: A Critical Edition of Lucy Mack Smith's Family Memoir  Salt Lake City, Utah: Signature Books  ISBN 1-56085-137-6 
Ingleton, R  Vernon, ed  (2005)  History of Joseph Smith by His Mother, Lucy Mack Smith; the Unabridged Original Version  Provo, Utah: Stratford Books  ISBN 0-929753-05-4 

Notes



ground_truth: Lech Wałęsa

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the mother of the person who found the sacred writings that became the Book of Mormon?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: 

Winners
Source: RSC

See also
List of chemistry awards
Passage 9:
Puffin/Nation Prize for Creative Citizenship
The Puffin Prize for Creative Citizenship is an American award given jointly by Type Media Center (a nonprofit media organization previously associated with The Nation magazine) and the Puffin Foundation  The annual $100,000 award honors artists and others who have "challenged the status quo through distinctive, courageous, imaginative and socially responsible work of significance " The prize is intended to "encourage the recipients to continue their work, and to inspire others to challenge the prevailing orthodoxies they face in their careers " The inaugural award was in 2001 The Puffin Prize for Creative Citizenship was renamed in 2017   It was formerly known as the Puffin/Nation Prize for Creative Citizenship 

Winners
2001 Robert Parris Moses
2002 Dolores Huerta
2003 David Protess
2004 Barbara Ehrenreich
2005 Jonathan Kozol
2006 Amy Goodman
2007 Michael Ratner
2008 Van Jones
2009 Jim Hightower
2010 Bill McKibben
2010 Cecile Richards
2011 Tony Kushner
2012 Benjamin Todd Jealous
2013 Barry W  Lynn
2014 Frances Fox Piven
2015 William J  Barber II
2016 Bryan Stevenson
2017 Colin Kaepernick
2018 Parkland student activists
2019 The Sunrise Movement
2020 Desmond Meade
2021 The National Network for Abortion Funds
Passage 10:
List of Nobel laureates
The Nobel Prizes (Swedish: Nobelpriset, Norwegian: Nobelprisen) are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Swedish Academy, the Karolinska Institutet, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals and organizations who make outstanding contributions in the fields of chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine  They were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which dictates that the awards should be administered by the Nobel Foundation  An additional prize in memory of Alfred Nobel was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank (Sweden’s central bank) for outstanding contributions to the field of economics  Each recipient, a Nobelist or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma, and a sum of money which is decided annually by the Nobel Foundation 

Prize
Each prize is awarded by a separate committee; the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, and Economics; the Karolinska Institute awards the Prize in Physiology or Medicine; and the Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Prize in Peace  Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award that has varied throughout the years  In 1901, the recipients of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 8,402,670 SEK in December 2017  In 2017, the laureates were awarded a prize amount of 9,000,000 SEK  The awards are presented in Stockholm in an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death In years in which the Nobel Prize is not awarded due to external events or a lack of nominations, the prize money is returned to the funds delegated to the relevant prize  The Nobel Prize was not awarded between 1940 and 1942 due to the outbreak of World War II 

Laureates
Between 1901 and 2017, the Nobel Prizes and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 585 times to 923 people and organizations  With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 892 individuals (including 844 men, 48 women) and 24 organizations  Six Nobel laureates were not permitted by their governments to accept the Nobel Prize  Adolf Hitler forbade four Germans, Richard Kuhn (Chemistry, 1938), Adolf Butenandt (Chemistry, 1939), Gerhard Domagk (Physiology or Medicine, 1939) and Carl von Ossietzky (Peace, 1936) from accepting their Nobel Prizes  The Chinese government forbade Liu Xiaobo from accepting his Nobel Prize (Peace, 2010) and the government of the Soviet Union pressured Boris Pasternak (Literature, 1958) to decline his award  Liu Xiaobo, Carl von Ossietzky and Aung San Suu Kyi were all awarded their Nobel Prize while in prison or detention  Two Nobel laureates, Jean-Paul Sartre (Literature, 1964) and Lê Ðức Thọ (Peace, 1973), declined the award; Sartre declined the award as he declined all official honors, and Thọ declined the award due to the situation Vietnam was in at the time 
Seven laureates have received more than one prize; of the seven, the International Committee of the Red Cross has received the Nobel Peace Prize three times, more than any other  UNHCR has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize twice  Also the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to John Bardeen twice, as was the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Frederick Sanger and Karl Barry Sharpless  Two laureates have been awarded twice but not in the same field: Marie Curie (Physics and Chemistry) and Linus Pauling (Chemistry and Peace)  Among the 892 Nobel laureates, 48 have been women; the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize was Marie Curie, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903  She was also the first person (male or female) to be awarded two Nobel Prizes, the second award being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, given in 1911 

List of laureates
50 year secrecy rule
The Committee neither informs the media nor the candidates themselves of the names of the nominees  Insofar as specific names frequently appear in the early predictions of who will receive the award in any given year, this is either pure speculation or inside information from the person or people who submitted the nomination  After fifty years, the database of nominations maintained by the Nobel Committee is made available to the public  Statutes of the Nobel Foundation, § 10, states:A prize-awarding body may, however, after due consideration in each individual case, permit access to material which formed the basis for the evaluation and decision concerning a prize, for purposes of research in intellectual history  Such permission may not, however, be granted until at least 50 years have elapsed after the date on which the decision in question was made 

See also
List of Nobel laureates by country
List of female Nobel laureates
List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Literature
List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physics
List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize
List of individuals nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize
List of organizations nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize

Notes
Passage 11:
Bel Canto (novel)
Bel Canto is the fourth novel by American author Ann Patchett, published in 2001 by Perennial, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers  It was awarded both the Orange Prize for Fiction and PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction  It was placed on several top book lists, including Amazon's Best Books of the Year (2001)  It was also adapted into an opera in 2015 
Based on the Japanese embassy hostage crisis (also called the Lima Crisis) of 1996–1997 in Lima, Peru, the novel follows the relationships among a group of young terrorists and their hostages, who are mostly high-profile executives and politicians, over several months  Many of the characters form unbreakable bonds of friendship, while some fall in love 
Opera is a centralizing theme on many levels throughout the story; the operatic term bel canto literally means "beautiful singing "

Plot summary
Set in an unspecified South American country, the story begins at a birthday party thrown at the country's vice presidential home in honor of Katsumi Hosokawa, the visiting chairman of a large Japanese company and opera enthusiast  As a not-so-subtle pretext to get Hosokawa to invest in the country, famous American soprano Roxane Coss is scheduled to perform as the highlight of the party 
Near the end of the party, members of a terrorist organization break into the house, intending to take the President of the country hostage  When they realize the President is not in attendance, the terrorist group decides to take the entire party hostage  After determining they have too many hostages, the terrorists decide to release all of the hostages except those they deem most likely to return a large ransom 
Two major romantic relationships develop as the standoff drags on and serve as the backdrop to the rest of the story  The first is between Coss and Hosokawa, who develop a deep bond even though they do not speak each other's language and thus cannot communicate verbally  The second relationship is between the translator Gen and the young terrorist Carmen, who must keep their love a secret  The two lovers meet in the china closet every night 
At the end of the novel, the government breaks into the house and kills all the terrorists  All of the hostages are freed except for Hosokawa, who is shot by government forces in the struggle  
In an epilogue that takes place some years later, former hostages Simon Thibault and his wife meet with Gen and Roxane, who are getting married in Italy 

Characters
Katsumi Hosokawa is a Japanese business mogul, who is married with two daughters  He has a strong bond with his young translator Gen  He doesn't speak Spanish and must use Gen for all communication in the host country  Since attending a performance with his father as a child, opera has been his greatest love, and he is passionate about the soprano Roxane Coss, having heard her recordings  He falls in love with the woman herself during their time together  However, he knows their relationship can only last for the duration of the standoff  He is gunned down in the final scenes by the soldiers of the host country, in his attempt to save the teenaged terrorist Carmen 
Roxane Coss is an internationally renowned American soprano  At first a prima donna who sets herself apart from the rest of the guests, she eventually begins to bond with the others when she receives a box of musical scores and begins singing to them every morning  She is especially touched by her relationships with Mr  Hosokawa, with whom she falls in love; Gen, with whom she forms a strong bond and eventually marries; Carmen, who sleeps in her bed, braids her hair, and comforts her; and Cesar, another young terrorist with a gifted singing voice whom she begins tutoring 
Gen Watanabe is Mr  Hosokawa's translator and assistant  He is a quiet, sensitive and gifted young man who speaks several languages  As the translator, he is usually at the center of the action of the novel, although he is the only hostage, besides a priest, who is not fabulously wealthy and powerful  He begins tutoring Carmen when she asks him to teach her how to read and write in Spanish and English, and they begin meeting each night in the china closet to study and eventually make love 
General Benjamin is the most intelligent and thoughtful of the three generals who lead the terrorists  Benjamin was a       schoolteacher until his brother was arrested and imprisoned for handing out flyers publicizing a political protest  After that, he joined the terrorist group La Familia de Martin Suarez, named after a ten-year-old boy who was shot dead while handing out flyers for a political rally  Benjamin has left behind a wife and children, and he is fatherly to some of the young terrorists under his command  He is plagued with shingles, which rage across much of his face 
Joachim Messner is a Swiss representative for the Red Cross  who negotiates between the government and the terrorists  He is the one person allowed to come and go from the mansion  Messner punctuates the general happiness with frequent reminders that the situation will end badly 
Carmen is the terrorist whom Gen loves  Carmen remains incognito in the guise of a male terrorist for the first part of the novel  The leader of the organization, General Benjamin, notices what a beautiful young woman she has become and notes that, "had she been this pretty before, he never would have let her sign up " She often prays to Saint Rose of Lima  In the ultimate shootout, she is gunned down before Gen can get to her  In the ensuing newspaper articles, there is no record of her ever existing 
Simon Thibault is the French ambassador to the South American country where the novel is set  Because he longs for his wife Edith, who is released early with the rest of the women and children, Thibault is the hostage who is most unhappy during the long standoff  He spends much of his time cooking for both the hostages and the terrorists, and he is almost always wearing Edith's scarf  He and Edith are reunited after the standoff, and they are the witnesses to the marriage of Gen and Roxane in the final chapter 

Creative process
Patchett was inspired by the Lima Crisis as she watched the events unfold on the news and thought how operatic the crisis was  Patchett was an opera novice prior to writing the book, although she has stated that the character Roxane was modeled on Karol Bennett, an acquaintance of hers who was an opera singer  Since she was not familiar with Bennett's voice, she listened to recordings by the famous American soprano Renée Fleming and imagined Roxane Coss as possessing Fleming's voice  (Patchett and Fleming became friends only after the novel was published )
The original working title was How to Fall in Love with Opera, but her editor advised against it in case bookstores would mis-shelve it in their "how to" section  The manuscript originally contained a prologue from Gen's perspective, establishing the book as a story about how he met his wife  However, Patchett's mentor Elizabeth McCracken told her that the prologue was not needed, so Patchett cut it Patchett has stated that she always wanted to write with an omniscient third person narrator that "moves from person to person within a room"—a style she calls "Anna Karenina-third " Her first two novels were in first-person and her third novel was in third-person, but it was limited to one character's perspective  She was pleased when she was able to write in this style for Bel Canto, deeming her achievement of the style a progression in her writing 

Reception
Sue MacGregor, the broadcaster and chairman of the Orange Prize judges, praised the work, saying, "This is a fine piece of writing, mixing tenderness and danger to an impressive degree " Critic Alex Clark praised the wide range of Patchett's writing, which "encompass[es] both lightning flashes of brutality and terror and long stretches of incarcerated ennui " Several reviews note a departure in style from Patchett's earlier works and credit Bel Canto for pushing her into the national spotlight Critic James Polk largely praised the novel, but noted Patchett "strained a bit too hard" to highlight the terrorists' humanizing traits, which he argued "diminished the story's taut ambivalence, making some scenes near the end sound almost like accounts of a Boy Scout jamboree " Other reviewers also criticize the slow pacing and unrealistic characterizations, although other critics attribute this to Patchett's brand of magic realism Bel Canto has been translated into over 30 languages  According to Patchett, it was slated to become a movie five or six times, a Broadway musical, and an opera by Aaron Jay Kernis, commissioned for the Santa Fe Opera's 2006 season, all of which fell through, until the opera came together in 2015 and the film in 2018 

Adaptations
The novel has been adapted under the same title into an opera by composer Jimmy López to a libretto Nilo Cruz  It premiered at the Lyric Opera of Chicago on December 7, 2015 
A film adaptation of the same name from director Paul Weitz with Julianne Moore and Ken Watanabe was released in 2018 The television series Archer parodied Bel Canto during its seventh season with a two-episode arc called "Bel Panto": the visitors of a charity event are taken hostage by a group of clowns seeking to steal a jeweled necklace from a wealthy actress 
Passage 12:
Geoffrey Keynes
Sir Geoffrey Langdon Keynes ( KAYNZ; 25 March 1887, Cambridge – 5 July 1982, Cambridge) was a British surgeon and author  He began his career as a physician in World War I, before becoming a doctor at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London, where he made notable innovations in the fields of blood transfusion and breast cancer surgery  Keynes was also a publishing scholar and bibliographer of English literature and English medical history, focusing primarily on William Blake and William Harvey 

Early life and education
Geoffrey Keynes was born on 25 March 1887 in Cambridge, England  His father was John Neville Keynes, an economics lecturer at the University of Cambridge and his mother was Florence Ada Brown, a successful author and a social reformer  Geoffrey Keynes was the third child, after his older brother, the prominent economist John Maynard Keynes, and his sister Margaret, who married the Nobel Prize–winning physiologist Archibald Hill 
He attended Rugby School, where he became friends with English poet Rupert Brooke  In 1915 he was appointed literary executor for Brooke's estate 
He graduated from Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he earned a first-class degree in the Natural Sciences Tripos  He was later made an honorary fellow of Pembroke College  Keynes then qualified for a scholarship to become a surgeon with the Royal College of Surgeons in London 

Career
First and Second world wars
Keynes delayed his medical education in order to serve in World War I, where he served as a Lieutenant in the Royal Army Medical Corps and then worked as a consultant surgeon, becoming an expert in blood transfusion  His experience in the First World War led him to publish Blood Transfusion, the first book on the subject written by a British author  Keynes also founded the London Blood Transfusion Service with P  L  Oliver  Alexander Bogdanov acquired a copy of this book whilst visiting London to negotiate the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement in 1922  Bogdanov went on to found the Institute for Haematology and Blood Transfusions in Moscow Keynes was deeply affected by the brutality and gore that he witnessed in the field, which may have influenced his dislike for radical surgery later in his career 
Keynes enlisted to be a consulting surgeon to the Royal Air Force at the outbreak of World War II  In 1944 he was promoted to the rank of acting air vice-marshal 

Medical career
Keynes began working full-time at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London, where he worked under George Gask and Sir Thomas Dunhill, after returning from World War I  Keynes used his influence as an assistant surgeon to advocate for limited surgery instead of the invasive radical mastectomy  Frustrated with the mortality rate and gruesomeness of the radical mastectomy, Keynes experimented by inserting 50 milligrams of radium in a patient's tumour  He later observed that, "The ulcer rapidly healed     and the whole mass became smaller, softer and less fixed "Keynes pursued his new idea through a number of trials, observing the effectiveness of injecting radium chloride into breast cancer tumours compared with the effectiveness of the radical mastectomy  The promising results of these trials led Keynes to be cautiously optimistic, writing in 1927 that the "extension of [an] operation beyond a local removal might sometimes be unnecessary " Keynes' outlook was considered a radical break from the medical consensus at the time  Keynes wrote in his autobiography that his work with radium "was regarded with some interest by American surgeons," but that the concept of a limited mastectomy failed to gain significant traction in the medical community at the time  His doubts regarding the radical mastectomy were vindicated some 50 years later, when innovators like Bernard Fisher and others revisited his data and pursued what became known as a lumpectomy  Limited surgeries, like the lumpectomy, accompanied by radiation are now the standard treatment for breast cancer Keynes was also a pioneer in the treatment of myasthenia gravis  Much like with breast cancer, the medical community knew little about how to treat the disease at the time  Keynes pioneered the removal of the thymus gland, which is now the standard treatment for myasthenia gravis In 1955 Keynes received a knighthood for services to medicine 

Literary work
Keynes maintained a passionate interest in English literature all his life and devoted a large amount of his time to literary scholarship and the science of bibliography  He was a leading authority on the literary and artistic work of William Blake  He also produced biographies and bibliographies of English writers such as Sir Thomas Browne, John Evelyn, Siegfried Sassoon, John Donne and Jane Austen  He was also a pioneer in the history of science, with studies of John Ray, William Harvey and Robert Hooke  His biography The Life of William Harvey was awarded the 1966 James Tait Black Memorial Prize  Keynes also collected books, with a personal library with around four thousand works His autobiography The Gates of Memory was published in 1981, and he died the following year, aged 95  The Gates of Memory includes anecdotes of Keynes' numerous run-ins and friendships with other famous public figures  For example, Keynes often went climbing with George Mallory, the renowned British mountaineer; he also once performed life-saving treatment on Virginia Woolf after the budding author overdosed on pills 

Personal life
On 12 May 1917 Keynes married Margaret Elizabeth Darwin, the daughter of Sir George Howard Darwin and granddaughter of Charles Darwin  They had one daughter, who died in infancy, and four sons:

Harriet Frances Keynes (1918–1918)
Richard Darwin Keynes (1919–2010)
Quentin George Keynes (1921–2003)
William Milo Keynes (1924–2009)
Stephen John Keynes (1927–2017)Keynes dedicated his life to his work and was also sociable with many friends  He took pride in never having been drunk, and was known by most as an affable, well-mannered man 

Legacy
Keynes' contributions profoundly influenced the fields of surgery and English literature  He pioneered limited breast cancer surgery accompanied by radiation, a strategy that has endured the test of time  His work on William Blake "was instrumental in establishing Blake as a central figure in the history of English art and literature "A library of his scholarly works, notes, and correspondences is held by the University of Cambridge 

Works
A Bibliography of Dr  John Donne (1914, 1932, 1958, 1973)
A Bibliography of William Blake (The Grolier Club, New York, 1921)
Blood Transfusion (H  Frowde, London, 1922)
A Bibliography of Sir Thomas Browne (Cambridge, 1924, 1968)
William Pickering, Publisher: A Memoir and a Hand-List of his Editions (The Fleuron, 1924)
Jane Austen: a Bibliography (Nonesuch Press, 1929)
Selected Essays of William Hazlitt 1778 : 1830 (Nonesuch Press, 1930)
The Works of Sir Thomas Browne (Faber & Gwyer / Faber & Faber 1928-1931 [6 volumes], 1964 [4 volumes])
The Note-Book of William Blake (Nonesuch Press, 1935)
John Evelyn: a Study in Bibliophily & a Bibliography of his Writings (Cambridge, 1937)
The Faber Gallery Series: Blake (Faber and Faber, 1945)
The Poetical Works of Rupert Brooke (Faber & Faber, 1946)
William Blake, 1757–1827 (1947)
Poetry and Prose of William Blake (Nonesuch Press, 1948)
The Portraiture of William Harvey (The Thomas Vicary Lecture 1948) (Royal College of Surgeons, 1949)
The Personality of William Harvey (Cambridge University Press: 1949)
William Blake's Engravings, edited with an introduction (Faber and Faber, (1950)
The Tempera Paintings of William Blake (1951)
The Apologie and Treatise of Ambroise Containing the Voyages Made into Divers Places with Many of His Writings Upon Surgery (1951)
Samuel Butler's Note-Books, selections (1951) with Brian Hill
Poems of Rupert Brooke (1954)
A Bibliography of Rupert Brooke (The Soho Bibliographies, No 4) (Rupert Hart-Davis, 1954)
The Letters of William Blake (Rupert Hart-Davis, 1956, 1968)
Harvey Though John Aubrey's Eyes (1958)
A Bibliography of Dr  Robert Hooke (1960)
Essays in Biography 1961 by J  M  Keynes, editor
Dr  Timothie Bright 1550—1615  A Survey of his Life with a Bibliography of his Writings (1962)
A Study of the Illuminated Books of William Blake: Poet, Printer, Prophet (1964)
An Exhibition of the Illuminated Books of William Blake: Poet – Printer – Prophet (1964) with Lessing J  Rosenwald
On Editing Blake (1964)
Blake  The Masters 6 (1965)
Blake: Complete Writings with Variant Readings, editor, Oxford University Press, 1966 (UK-Paperback, Revised)  ISBN 0192810502
William Blake  Songs of Innocence and of Experience, editor, with Introduction and Commentary  London: Oxford University Press (1967)
Henry James in Cambridge (1967)
Sir Thomas Browne, Selected Writings (1968)
The Letters of Rupert Brooke (1968)
William Blake Engraver (1969)
William Pickering, Publisher: A Memoir and a Check-List of his Publications (London, Galahad Press, 1969; New York, Burt Franklin, 1969)
Drawings of William Blake: 92 Pencil Studies  Selection, Introduction and Commentary, Dover Publications, Inc , New York, 1970 ISBN 0-486-22303-5
A Bibliography of Sir William Petty F R S  and of 'Observations on the Bills of Mortality' by John Graunt F R S  Oxford : Clarendon Press (1971)
William Blake's Water-Colours Illustrating the Poems of Thomas Gray (1972)
Deaths Duell by John Donne (Godine, 1973)
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (Oxford University Press, 1975)
A Bibliography of Henry King D D , Bishop of Chichester (Douglas Cleverdon, 1977)
The Gates of Memory (Oxford University Press, 1981)
A Watch of Nightingales (Stourton Press, 1981) edited with Peter Davidson
Passage 13:
Sophie Prize
The Sophie Prize was an international environment and development prize (USD 100,000) awarded annually from 1998 to 2013   It was established in 1997 by the Norwegian author Jostein Gaarder and his wife Siri Dannevig, and is named after Gaarder's novel Sophie's World  It aimed to recognize individuals or organizations working with the environment and sustainable development  In 2013, representatives announced that the prize would not be awarded any longer due to a lack of funds 

Prize winners
1998: Environmental Rights Action, Nigeria
1999: Herman Daly and Thomas Kocherry
2000: Sheri Liao
2001: ATTAC France
2002: Patriarch Bartholomew I
2003: John Pilger
2004: Wangari Maathai
2005: Sheila Watt-Cloutier
2006: Romina Picolotti
2007: Göran Persson
2008: Gretchen Daily
2009: Marina Silva, Brazil
2010: James Hansen
2011: Tristram Stuart
2012: Eva Joly
2013: Bill McKibben

Board members
Åslaug Haga (chair)
Petter Nome (deputy chair)
Helene Bank
Siri Dannevig
Nikolas Dannevig Gaarder
Elin Enge
Thomas Hylland Eriksen
Jostein Gaarder
Elizabeth Hartmann
Dag Olav Hessen
Bård Lahn
Ylva Lindberg
Sidsel Mørck

See also
List of environmental awards
Passage 14:
Million Writers Award
Million Writers Award was a short story literary award presented annually by storySouth from 2003 to 2016  It honored the best online short stories  The award was structured to be egalitarian allowing for anyone to nominate a story including readers, authors, editors and publishers; prize money was donated by readers and writers; and the winners were selected by public vote from a short-list of entries selected by judges 

Overview
The Million Writers Award was founded by author Jason Sanford in 2003 at a time when the literary establishment "didn't believe online magazines were legitimate places to publish fiction," seeing it as a fad  Sanford set out to honor and highlight online only publications and stories with the award 
Stories eligible for the award include those first published in online literary journals, magazines, and e-zines that have an editorial process  The award had a variable cash prize, in 2011 for example it was $600 for the winner, $200 for the runner-up and $100 for third place  Prize money was raised through donations from writers, editors and readers and thus fluctuates each year  Anyone could nominate up to one story, while editors and publishers can nominate three stories  Stories must be at least 1000 words The award became one of the premier online literary awards and was named a Hot Site by USA Today  The award was profiled in a six-page feature interview with editor Jason Sanford in the 2005 Novel and Short Story Writer's Market and mentioned in The 100 Best Trends, 2006: Emerging Developments You Can't Afford to Ignore as an example of the emerging online literary movement In 2012 Spotlight Publishing released two anthologies of stories from the Million Writers Award, with one focused on literary stories and the other on science fiction and fantasy stories 

Winners
Previous winners 2003

Top 10 stories:2004

Best story: Randa Jarrar, "You Are a 14-Year-Old Arab Chick Who Just Moved to Texas" (Eyeshot)
Best online publication: Eclectica
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: The King's English
Best new online magazine or journal: Narrative Magazine2005

Best story: Alicia Gifford, "Toggling the Switch" (Narrative Magazine)
Best story runnerup: Terry Bisson, "Super 8" (Scifiction com)
Best story runnerup: Anjana Basu, "The Black Tongue" (Gowanus)
Best online publication: Strange Horizons
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: The King's English
Best new online magazine or journal: Anderbo2006

Best story: Richard Bowes, "There's a Hole in the City" (Scifiction com)
Best story runnerup: Michael Croley, "Two Lives" (Blackbird)
Best online publication: Storyglossia
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: Narrative Magazine (co-winner)
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: The King's English (co-winner)
Best new online magazine or journal: Menda City Review (co-winner)
Best new online magazine or journal: Clarkesworld Magazine (co-winner)2007

Best story: Catherynne M  Valente, "Urchins, While Swimming" (Clarkesword Magazine)
Best story runnerup: A  Ray Norsworthy, "All the Way to Grangeville" (Eclectica Magazine)
Best story runnerup: Marshall Moore, "The Infinite Monkey Theorem" (Word Riot)
Best online publication: Blackbird
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: Jim Baen's Universe
Best new online magazine or journal: Farrago's Wainscot2008

Best story: Matt Bell, "Alex Trebek Never Eats Fried Chicken" (Storyglossia)
Best story runnerup: Sruthi Thekkiam, "Friday Afternoons on Bus 51" (Blackbird)
Best online publication: Narrative Magazine
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: (no award)
Best new online magazine or journal: Cha: An Asian Literary Journal2009

Winner: Jenny Williams, "The Fisherman's Wife" (LitNImage)
Runner-up: Roderic Crooks, "Fuckbuddy" (Eyeshot)
Honorable mention: Geronimo Madrid, "No Bullets in the House" (Drunken Boat)
Best online publication: Fantasy Magazine
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: Subterranean Magazine
Best new online magazine or journal: Kill Author2010

Winner: Summer Block, "Hospitality" (Wheelhouse Magazine)
Runner-up: Rachel Swirsky, "Eros, Philia, Agape" (Tor com)
Honorable mention: Eric Beetner, "Ditch" (Thuglit)
Best online publication: Words Without Borders
Best new online magazine or journal: Lightspeed Magazine2011

Winner: Adam-Troy Castro, "Arvies" (Lightspeed Magazine)
Runner-up: Eric Maroney, "The Incorrupt Body of Carlo Busso" (Eclectica)
Honorable mention: Amal El-Mohtar, "The Green Book" (Apex Magazine)2012

Winner: xTx, "The Mill Pond" (StoryGlossia)
Runner-up: Kelly Cherry, "On Familiar Terms" (Blackbird)
Honorable mention: Micah Dean Hicks, "The Butcher's Chimes" (Menda City Review)2013

First place : Rachel Steiger-Meister, "Chlorine Mermaid" (Carve Magazine)
Second place: Lou Gaglia, "Hands" (Waccamaw)
Third place : Adrienne Celt, "The Eternal Youth of Everyone Else" (Carve Magazine)2014

First place: Caroline Casper, "Eminence" (Carve Magazine)
Second place: Susan Tepper, "Distance" (Thrice Fiction)
Third place: Carmen Maria Machado, "Inventory" (Strange Horizons)2015

First place: Wendy Oleson, “The Snow Children” (Carve Magazine)
Second place: Chikodili Emelumadu, “Jermyn” (Eclectica)
Third place: Allegra Hyde, “Syndication” (Nashville Review)2016

First place: Reza Ghasemi Ataee, "Anatomy of Mr wakefield" (Time magazine)
Second place: Jude Whelchel, "Big Joy Family" (North Carolina Literary Review)
Third place: Annie Reid, "Last Song" (Baltimore Review)
Passage 15:
Hickinbottom Award
The Hickinbottom Award (also referred to as the Hickinbottom Fellowship) is awarded annually by the Royal Society of Chemistry for contributions in the area of organic chemistry from an early career scientist  The prize winner receives a monetary award and will complete a lecture tour within the UK  The winner is chosen by the awards committee of the Royal Society of Chemistry's organic division 

Award history
The award was established by the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1979 following Wilfred Hickinbottom's bequest  Hickinbottom was noted for supporting high standards in experimental chemistry  
Part of the monetary award is the Briggs scholarship, which was funded following a bequest from Lady Alice Lilian Thorpe, William Briggs' daughter 

Previous recipients
The award was first granted in 1981 to Steven Ley and Jeremy Sanders Subsequent recipients include:

See also
List of chemistry awards
Passage 16:
Francis Ambrière
Francis Ambrière (27 September 1907 – 1 July 1998) was a French author who was selected for the Prix Goncourt in 1940, for his book Les Grandes Vacances; the prize was awarded in 1946 because of World War II  He was born in Paris 

Biography
Francis Ambriere has been recognised for his novel Les Grandes Vacances, which chronicles the lives of French prisoners of war in 1940  He was the author of several Guides bleus for example in Paris in 1949, and then Greece in 1957, or on Italy published in 1960 

Works
Joachim du Bellay, Firmin-Didot et cie, 1930
Estaunié, John Charpentier, Francis Ambrière, Firmin-Didot et cie, 1932
Les grandes vacances, 1939-1945, Les Éditions de la nouvelle France, 1946, (reprint Éditions du Seuil, 1956)
The long holiday Translator Elaine P  Halperin, Publisher Ziff-Davis Pub  Co , 1948
Le solitaire de la Cervara, V  Attinger, 1947
The exiled, Staples Press, 1951
Le Maroc, Les Documents d'art, 1952
Théâtre et collectivité, Flammarion, 1953
Le Siecle des Valmore, Seuil, 1987 
Mademoiselle Mars et Marie Dorval: au théâtre et dans la vie, Seuil, 1992
Talma, ou l'histoire au théâtre, Madeleine Ambrière, Francis Ambrière, Éditions de Fallois, 2007, ISBN 978-2-87706-638-9



ground_truth: Lucy Mack Smith