prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who gives out the prize named after the author of Lectures on Jurisprudence?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
3rd Berlin International Film Festival
The 3rd annual Berlin International Film Festival was held from 18 to 28 June 1953 

Description
This year's festival did not give any official jury prizes; instead awards were given by audience voting  This continued until the FIAPF granted Berlin "A-Status" in 1956 The Golden Bear was awarded to Le Salaire de la peur by audience vote  It was at this edition that the first replica of the Bär first created by sculptor Renée Sintenis, produced by the Noack Foundry, was presented The festival held a retrospective on silent films 

Films in competition
The following films were in competition for the Golden Bear award:

Key
Awards
The following prizes were awarded by audience votes:
Golden Bear: Le Salaire de la peur by Henri-Georges Clouzot
Silver Bear: Magia verde by Gian Gaspare Napolitano
Bronze Berlin Bear: Sie fanden eine Heimat by Leopold Lindtberg
Passage 2:
Lars Jakobson
Lars Jakobson (1959, Lund) is a Swedish author  Among the awards he won are the Svenska Dagbladet book prize and the Selma Lagerlöf Prize, both in 2006  For many years he lived in  Stockholm 

Bibliography
Vinterkvarteret (novel, 1985)
Vetten (novel, 1986)
Menageri (short stories, 1989)
Pumpan (novel, 1991)
Hemsökelser (short stories, 1994)
Kanalbyggarnas barn (novel, 1997)
I den Röda damens slott  En martiansk biografi (novel, 2000)
Stjärnfall  Om sf (essays, 2003)  (Co-written with Ola Larsmo and Steve Sem-Sandberg)
Berättelser om djur och andra (short stories, 2004)
Vid den stora floden (novel, 2006)
Vännerna (novel, 2010)
Effekter (essays and short stories, 2011)
Passage 3:
The Corrections
The Corrections is a 2001 novel by American author Jonathan Franzen  It revolves around the troubles of an elderly Midwestern couple and their three adult children, tracing their lives from the mid-20th century to "one last Christmas" together near the turn of the millennium  The novel was awarded the National Book Award in 2001 and the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 2002 
The Corrections was published to wide acclaim from literary critics for its characterization and prose  While the novel's release preceded the September 11 terrorist attacks by ten days, many have interpreted The Corrections as having prescient insight into the major concerns and general mood of post-9/11 American life, and it has been listed in multiple publications as one of the greatest novels of the 21st century 

Plot summary
The novel shifts back and forth through the late 20th century, intermittently following spouses Alfred and Enid Lambert as they raise their children Gary, Chip, and Denise in the traditional Midwestern suburb of St  Jude, and the lives of each family member as the three children grow up, distancing themselves and living on the East Coast  Alfred, a rigid and strict patriarch who worked as a railroad engineer, has developed Parkinson's and shows increasingly unmanageable symptoms of dementia  Enid takes out her frustrations with him by attempting to impose her traditional judgments on her adult children's lives, to their annoyance 
The middle son, Chip, is an unemployed academic living in New York City following his termination as a tenure-track university professor due to a sexual relationship with a student  Living on borrowed money from Denise, Chip works obsessively on a screenplay, but finds no success or motivation to pay off his debts  Following a rejection of his screenplay, Chip takes a job from his girlfriend's estranged husband Gitanas, a friendly but corrupt Lithuanian government official, later moving to Vilnius and working to defraud American investors over the Internet 
Their eldest son, Gary, is a successful but increasingly depressive and alcoholic banker living in Philadelphia with his wife, Caroline, and their three young sons  When Enid attempts to persuade Gary to bring his family to St  Jude for Christmas, Caroline is reluctant, and turns Gary's sons against him and Enid, worsening his depressive tendencies  In return, Gary attempts to force his parents to move to Philadelphia so that Alfred may undergo an experimental neurological treatment that he and Denise learn about 
Also living in Philadelphia, their youngest child Denise finds growing success as an executive chef despite Enid's disapproval and persistent scrutiny of her personal life, and is commissioned to open a new restaurant  Simultaneously impulsive and a workaholic, Denise begins affairs with both her boss and his wife, and though the restaurant is successful, she is fired when they are uncovered  Flashbacks to her childhood show her responding to her repressed upbringing by beginning an affair with one of her father's subordinates, a married railroad signals worker 
As Alfred's condition worsens, Enid attempts to manipulate all of her children into going to St  Jude for Christmas, with increasing desperation  Initially only Gary and Denise are present, Gary having failed to convince his wife or children, while Chip is delayed by a violent political conflict in Lithuania, eventually arriving late after being attacked and robbed of all his savings  Denise inadvertently discovers that her father had known of her teenaged affair with his subordinate, and had kept his knowledge a secret to protect her privacy, at great personal cost  After a disastrous Christmas morning together, the three children are dismayed by their father's condition, and Alfred is finally moved into a nursing home 
As Alfred's condition deteriorates in care, Chip stays with Enid and visits his father frequently while dating a doctor, eventually having twins with her  Denise leaves Philadelphia and moves to New York to work at a new restaurant where she is much happier  Enid, freed of her responsibilities and long-time frustrations with Alfred, slowly becomes a more open-minded person, and enjoys a healthier involvement in her children's and grandchildren's lives, finally stating that she is ready to make some changes in her life 

Themes
The title of The Corrections refers most literally to the decline of the technology-driven economic boom of the late nineties  Franzen makes this clear at the beginning of the book's final chapter, also titled "The Corrections": 

The Correction, when it finally came, was not an overnight bursting of a bubble but a much more gentle let-down, a year-long leakage of value from key financial markets   
(On a more abstract level, the title is an homage to William Gaddis' The Recognitions )This economic correction parallels the simultaneous "corrections" that Franzen's characters make to their own lives in the novel's final pages  Franzen has said that "the most important corrections of the book are the sudden impingements of truth or reality on characters who are expending ever larger sums of energy on self-deception or denial " Enid becomes more flexible in her worldview and less submissive to her husband's authority, and Chip begins a more mature relationship with a woman, simultaneously reconciling with his father  Gary, the only central character who fails to learn from his mistakes and grow during the course of the novel, loses a lot of money as technology stocks begin to decline 
Another key theme in the book is America's transition from an industrial economy to an economy based largely on the financial, high-tech and service sectors  Alfred, a railroad engineer with a pension and a deep loyalty to his company, embodies the old economic order of mid-twentieth century America  His children, a chef, an investment banker, and a professor/internet entrepreneur, embody the new economic order at the turn of the millennium  Franzen depicts this economic transition most concretely in his descriptions of Denise's workplace, an abandoned Philadelphia coal plant converted into a trendy, expensive restaurant 
The narrative of Chip's involvement with Gitanas' attempt to bring the country of Lithuania to the market – "lithuania com" on the internet – comments on unrestrained capitalism and the privileges and power of the wealthy while meaningful distinctions between private and public sectors disappear  "The main difference between America and Lithuania, as far as Chip could see, was that in America the wealthy few subdued the unwealthy many by means of mind-numbing and soul-killing entertainments and gadgetry and pharmaceuticals, whereas in Lithuania the powerful few subdued the unpowerful many by threatening violence "
The book addresses conflicts and issues within a family that arise from the presence of a progressive debilitating disease of an elder  As Alfred's dementia and parkinsonism unfold mercilessly, they affect Enid and all three children, eliciting different and, over time, changing reactions  Medical help and hype – the latter in the form of the investigatory method “Corecktall” – do not provide a solution  At the end, Alfred refuses to eat and dies, the ultimate “correction” of the problem 

Reception
The novel won the 2001 National Book Award for Fiction
and the 2002 James Tait Black Memorial Prize, was a finalist for the 2002 Pulitzer Prize, was nominated for the 2001 National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction and the 2002 PEN/Faulkner Award, and was shortlisted for the 2003 International Dublin Literary Award  According to John Leonard, the novel explores the generation gap and the grasp of one generation on another in a way that reminds you of "why you read serious fiction in the first place"  In 2005, The Corrections was included in TIME magazine's list of the 100 best English-language novels since 1923  In 2006, Bret Easton Ellis declared the novel "one of the three great books of my generation " In 2009, website The Millions polled 48 writers, critics, and editors, including Joshua Ferris, Sam Anderson, and Lorin Stein; the panel voted The Corrections the best novel since 2000 "by a landslide" The novel was a selection of Oprah's Book Club in 2001  Franzen caused some controversy when he publicly expressed his ambivalence at his novel having been chosen by the club due to its inevitable association with the "schmaltzy" books selected in the past  As a result, Oprah Winfrey rescinded her invitation to him to appear on The Oprah Winfrey Show Entertainment Weekly put The Corrections on its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, saying, "Forget all the Oprah hoo-ha: Franzen's 2001 doorstop of a domestic drama teaches that, yes, you can go home again  But you might not want to "

Style and interpretations
With The Corrections, Franzen moved away from the postmodernism of his earlier novels and towards literary realism  In a conversation with novelist Donald Antrim for BOMB Magazine, Franzen said of this stylistic change, "Simply to write a book that wasn't dressed up in a swashbuckling, Pynchon-sized megaplot was enormously difficult " Critics pointed out many similarities between Franzen's childhood in St  Louis and the novel, but the work is not an autobiography   Franzen said in an interview that "the most important experience of my life     is the experience of growing up in the Midwest with the particular parents I had  I feel as if they couldn’t fully speak for themselves, and I feel as if their experience—by which I mean their values, their experience of being alive, of being born at the beginning of the century and dying towards the end of it, that whole American experience they had—[is] part of me  One of my enterprises in the book is to memorialize that experience, to give it real life and form " The novel also focuses on topics such as the multi-generational transmission of family dysfunction and the waste inherent in today's consumer economy, and each of the characters "embody the conflicting consciousnesses and the personal and social dramas of our era " Influenced by Franzen's life, the novel in turn influenced it; during its writing, he said in 2002, he moved "away from an angry and frightened isolation toward an acceptance – even a celebration – of being a reader and a writer "In a Newsweek feature on American culture during the George W  Bush administration, Jennie Yabroff said that despite being released less than a year into Bush's term and before the September 11 attacks, The Corrections "anticipates almost eerily the major concerns of the next seven years " According to Yabroff, a study of The Corrections demonstrates that much of the apprehension and disquiet that is seen as characteristic of the Bush era and post-9/11 America actually predated both  In this way, the novel is both characteristic of its time and prophetic of things to come; for Yabroff, even the controversy with Oprah, which saw Franzen branded an "elitist," was symptomatic of the subsequent course of American culture, with its increasingly prominent anti-elitist strain  She argues that The Corrections stands above later novels which focus on similar themes, because unlike its successors it addresses these themes without being "hamstrung by the 9/11 problem" which preoccupied Bush-era novels by writers such as Don DeLillo, Jay McInerney, and Jonathan Safran Foer 

Film adaptation
In August 2001, producer Scott Rudin optioned the film rights to The Corrections for Paramount Pictures  The rights still have not yet been turned into a completed film In 2002, the film was said to be in pre-production, with Stephen Daldry attached to direct and dramatist David Hare working on the screenplay  In October 2002, Franzen gave Entertainment Weekly a wish-list for the cast of the film, saying, "If they told me Gene Hackman was going to do Alfred, I would be delighted  If they told me they had cast Cate Blanchett as [Alfred's daughter] Denise, I would be jumping up and down, even though officially I really don't care what they do with the movie "In January 2005, Variety announced that, with Daldry presumably off the project, Robert Zemeckis was developing Hare's script "with an eye toward directing "  In August 2005, Variety confirmed that the director would definitely be helming The Corrections  Around this time, it was rumored that the cast would include Judi Dench as the family matriarch Enid, along with Brad Pitt, Tim Robbins and Naomi Watts as her three children  In January 2007, Variety wrote that Hare was still at work on the film's screenplay In September 2011, it was announced that Rudin and the screenwriter and director Noah Baumbach were preparing The Corrections as a "drama series project," to potentially co-star Anthony Hopkins and air on HBO  Baumbach and Franzen collaborated on the screenplay, which Baumbach would direct  In 2011, it was announced that Chris Cooper and Dianne Wiest would star in the HBO adaptation  In November 2011, it was announced that Ewan McGregor had joined the cast  In a March 7, 2012, interview, McGregor confirmed that work on the film was "about a week" in and noted that both Dianne Wiest and Maggie Gyllenhaal were among the cast members  But on May 1, 2012, HBO decided not to pick up the pilot for a full series 

Radio adaptation
In January 2015, the BBC broadcast a 15-part radio dramatisation of the work  The series of 15-minute episodes, adapted by Marcy Kahan and directed by Emma Harding, also starred Richard Schiff (The West Wing), Maggie Steed (The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus), Colin Stinton (Rush, The Bourne Ultimatum) and Julian Rhind-Tutt (Lucy, Rush, Notting Hill)  The series was part of BBC Radio 4's 15 Minute Drama "classic and contemporary original drama and book dramatisations" 
Passage 4:
Lectures on Jurisprudence
Lectures on Jurisprudence, also called Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms (1763) is a collection of Adam Smith's lectures, comprising notes taken from his early lectures  It contains the formative ideas behind The Wealth of Nations 

Background
Published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Adam Smith   It consists of two sets of lecture notes that were apparently taken from Smith's lectures of the 1760s, along with an 'Early Draft' of The Wealth of Nations  The same material had also appeared as An Early Draft of Part of The Wealth of Nations and as Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms 

Summary
Smith’s Lectures on Jurisprudence, originally delivered at the University of Glasgow in 1762–1763, present his ‘theory of the rules by which civil government ought to be directed ’ The chief purpose of government, according to Smith, is to preserve justice; and ‘the object of justice is security from injury ’ The state must protect the individual’s right to his person, property, reputation, and social relations  Smith specifically defines the term jurisprudence as "the theory of general principles of law and government"  It is also defined as the general guidelines about the essence of a nation's laws  Smith specifically defines the term jurisprudence as "the theory of general principles of law and government"  It is also defined as the general guidelines about the essence of a nation's laws 

Part I: Of Justice
Division I  Of Public Jurisprudence
Division II  Domestic Law
Division III  Private Law

Part II: Of Police
The pros and cons of money, prices, and financial exchanges fall under this section of the Lectures "since the regulation of prices and the creation of money by the state both came under the head of police "
Division I  Cleanliness and Security
Division II  Cheapness or Plenty

Part III: Of Revenue
Part IV: Of Arms
Part V: Of the Laws of Nations
Scholarly critique
According to William Caldwell, the lectures accomplish three goals: they detail Smith's philosophy and beliefs about economics, they explain his motivation to write about the historical origins of political societies, and they show the influence of mercantilism and Francis Hutcheson on Smith's thoughts on the political economy  In an article for Political Science Quarterly, Wilhelm Hasbach opines that Smith believed that the political economy is the foundation for morality, law, government, wealth, revenue, and arms, a position that originated from the idea of natural law  He also notes that Smith's relationship with the  physiocrats is important in the Lectures and that some critics state that Smith produced the same concepts as the physiocrats on economics   Hasbach also states that Smith expands on physiocratic ideas by advocating a freedom of  industry  Smith expects that industry - and also commerce - be  laisser-faire and relevant to all aspects of political economics  Another scholar,  C  F  Bastable, notes that Smith recognizes the need for industry for the production of wealth  Industry creates capital which is much needed in an economically viable society Hasbach has also written that the Lectures offer a perspective of Smith's view on property that differs from that of John Locke  Smith believes that property does not lie within the individual but rather that it ought to be shared within society   "The individual and his labor are in no respect the ultimate source of the  right of property in land: the origin of this right is in society " Also, according to Hasbach, Smith rejects a state of nature and the doctrine on an  original contract, two ideas supported by Locke 

Notes
External links
Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms on OLL
Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms on archive org
Passage 5:
John Dear
John Dear (born August 13, 1959) is an American Catholic priest, peace activist, lecturer, and author of 35 books on peace and nonviolence  He has spoken on peace around the world, organized hundreds of demonstrations against war, injustice and nuclear weapons and been arrested 85 times in acts of nonviolent civil disobedience against war, injustice, poverty, nuclear weapons and environmental destruction   
Dear has been nominated several times for the Nobel Peace Prize, including in January 2008 by Archbishop Desmond Tutu  He has served as the director of the Fellowship of Reconciliation, and currently serves as the founder and director of the Beatitudes Center for the Nonviolent Jesus 

Biography
Early life
Dear was born in Elizabeth City, North Carolina, on August 13, 1959  He graduated magna cum laude from Duke University, in Durham, North Carolina, in 1981  He then worked for the Robert F  Kennedy Memorial Foundation in Washington, D C 

Jesuit formation
In August 1982, Dear entered the Society of Jesus, commonly known as the Jesuits, at their novitiate in Wernersville, Pennsylvania  He then spent two years studying philosophy at Fordham University in the Bronx, New York (1984–1986), during which time he lived and worked for the Jesuit Refugee Service in a refugee camp in El Salvador for three months in 1985  
For his period of regency, he taught at Scranton Preparatory School in Scranton, Pennsylvania, from 1986 to 1988  He then spent a year working at the Fr  McKenna Center, a drop-in center and shelter for the homeless, in Washington, D C  From 1989 to 1993, he attended the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley, California, and received two master's degrees in theology from the Jesuit School of Theology at Berkeley  
He was ordained a Catholic priest in Baltimore, Maryland on June 12, 1993, and began serving as associate pastor of St  Aloysius' Church in Washington, D C 

Promoting peace and nonviolence
Dear founded Bay Area Pax Christi, a region of Pax Christi USA, the national Catholic peace movement, and began to arrange for Mother Teresa to intervene with various governors on behalf of people scheduled to be executed on death row 
Dear was arrested in scores of nonviolent civil disobedience actions against war, injustice and nuclear weapons—from the Pentagon to Livermore Laboratories in California  On December 7, 1993, he was arrested with three others at the Seymour Johnson Air Force Base in Goldsboro, North Carolina, for hammering on an F-15 nuclear capable fighter bomber  He was jailed, tried and convicted of two felony counts, and served seven-and-a-half months in North Carolina jails and four-and-a-half months, under house arrest in Washington, D C , followed by 3 years probation  As part of the Plowshares disarmament movement, the defendants argued that they were fulfilling Isaiah's mandate to "beat swords into plowshares," and Jesus' command to "love your enemies "From 1994–1996, Dear served as executive director of the Sacred Heart Center, a community center for low-income African-American women and children, in Richmond, Virginia  In the Spring of 1997, he taught theology for one semester at Fordham University in the Bronx, New York  From 1997–98, he lived in Derry, Northern Ireland, as part of the Jesuit "tertianship" sabbatical program, and worked at a human rights center in Belfast 
From 1998–2001, Dear served as executive director of the Fellowship of Reconciliation, the largest interfaith peace organization in the United States, based in Nyack, New York  In 1999, he led a delegation of Nobel Peace Prize winners on a peace mission to Iraq, and also an interfaith delegation to Palestine/Israel 
Immediately after September 11, 2001, Dear served as a Red Cross coordinator of chaplains at the Family Assistance Center in Manhattan, and personally counseled thousands of relatives and rescue workers  From 2002–04, he served as pastor to five parishes in the high desert of northeastern New Mexico, and founded Pax Christi New Mexico, a region of Pax Christi USA 
In 2006, Dear led a demonstration against the U S  war in Iraq in Santa Fe, New Mexico  In 2009, he joined the Creech 14 in a civil disobedience protest at Creech Air Force base against the U S  drone war in Afghanistan and Pakistan, and was arrested and put in the Clark County, Nevada jail for a night  He was later found guilty but given time served 
In January 2014, Dear left the Jesuits and wrote about his leaving in the National Catholic Reporter, saying that the Society of Jesus has turned from its commitment to social justice, and that he would not be permitted to work for peace and disarmament  Dear then joined the Diocese of Monterey, California where he remains a Catholic priest 

Speaker, writer, teacher
Over the years, Dear has given thousands of lectures on peace, disarmament and nonviolence in churches, schools and groups across the United States, and around the world, including national speaking tours of Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, Canada and England 
Dear formerly wrote a weekly column for the National Catholic Reporter and the Huffington Post  He is also featured in several other books and featured in a wide variety of U S  publications, including The New York Times and The Washington Post  He is featured in the DVD documentary film, The Narrow Path, and the subject of John Dear on Peace, by Patti Normile (St  Anthony Messenger Press, 2009)  He has published hundreds of articles (see: www johndear org) and over 35 books 

Awards
Dear has received several peace awards, including the 2010 Pacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Award, from the Diocese of Davenport, Iowa; and the Courage of Conscience Award, from Peace Abbey in Boston, Massachusetts 
Dear has been also nominated several times for the Nobel Peace Prize, including a nomination in January 2008 by Archbishop Desmond Tutu and later by Senator Barbara Mikulski 

Bibliography
Disarming the Heart: Toward a Vow of Nonviolence (Foreword by John Stoner)
Jean Donovan and the Call to Discipleship
Christ Is With the Poor: Sayings of Horace McKenna, S J  (Ed )
Our God Is Nonviolent: Witnesses in the Struggle for Peace and Justice (Foreword by Elizabeth McAlister)
It's a Sin to Build a Nuclear Weapon: The Writings of Richard McSorley, S J  (Ed )
Oscar Romero and the Nonviolent Struggle for Justice
Seeds of Nonviolence (Foreword by Thomas Gumbleton)
The God of Peace: Toward a Theology of Nonviolence (Foreword by James W  Douglass) 
The Sacrament of Civil Disobedience (Foreword by Daniel Berrigan)
Peace Behind Bars: A Peacemaking Priest's Journal from Jail (Foreword by Philip Berrigan) 
The Road to Peace: Writings on Peace and Justice by Henri Nouwen (Ed )
Jesus the Rebel (Foreword by Daniel Berrigan)
The Vision of Peace: Writings by Mairead Maguire (Foreword by the Dalai Lama) (Ed )
The Sound of Listening: A Retreat Journal from Thomas Merton's Hermitage
And the Risen Bread: The Selected Poetry of Daniel Berrigan, S J  (Ed )
Living Peace: A Spirituality of Contemplation and Action
Christianity and Vegetarianism: Pursuing the Nonviolence of Jesus (online excerpt)
Mohandas Gandhi: Essential Writings (Ed )
Mary of Nazareth, Prophet of Peace (Foreword by Joan Chittister)
The Questions of Jesus (Foreword by Richard Rohr)
Testimony: Essays by Daniel Berrigan (Ed )
Transfiguration (Foreword by Desmond Tutu)
You Will Be My Witnesses (with icons by Rev  William McNichols)
The Advent of Peace
A Persistent Peace: An Autobiography (Foreword by Martin Sheen)
Put Down Your Sword: Essays on Peace and Justice
Daniel Berrigan: Essential Writings (Ed )
Lazarus Come Forth!: How Jesus Confronts the Culture of Death, and How We Can Too
Thomas Merton Peacemaker
The Nonviolent Life
Radical Prayers
They Will Inherit the Earth: Peace and Nonviolence in a Time of Climate Change
The Beatitudes of Peace
Walking the Way
The Trouble with Our State: Poetry of Daniel Berrigan (ed )
Praise be Peace
Passage 6:
Gyldendal's Endowment
Gyldendal's Endowment was a literature prize that was awarded in the period 1934–1995 by the Norwegian publisher Gyldendal Norsk Forlag   The prize was awarded to significant authors, regardless of which publisher the author was associated with 
From 1996 the Gyldendals endowment was superseded by the Gyldendal Prize for "particularly significant writing" and (since 1998) by the Sult-prisen (Hunger Award) for "eminent young authors" 

Endowment winners
1934 – Olav Duun
1935 – Peter Egge, Herman Wildenvey, Arnulf Øverland
1936 – Gabriel Scott
1937 – Cora Sandel
1938 – Arthur Omre
1939 – Johan Falkberget
1940 – Sigurd Christiansen, Ronald Fangen, Sigurd Hoel
1941 – Gunnar Reiss-Andersen, Kristian Elster
1942 – Inge Krokann
1943 – Tarjei Vesaas
1944 – Inger Hagerup
1945 – Johan Borgen
1946 – Emil Boyson, Ernst Orvil, Tore Ørjasæter
1947 – Nils Johan Rud
1948 – Ingeborg Møller, Aksel Sandemose
1949 – Gunnar Larsen, Magnhild Haalke
1950 – Egil Rasmussen, Hans Henrik Holm
1951 – Gunvor Hofmo
1952 – Jakob Sande, Mikkjel Fønhus
1953 – Engvald Bakkan
1954 – Agnar Mykle, Terje Stigen
1955 – Bjørn Rongen, Alfred Hauge
1956 – Sigbjørn Hølmebakk
1957 – Eivind Tverbak, Halldis Moren Vesaas
1958 – Astrid Tollefsen
1959 – Alf Larsen, Åge Rønning
1960 – Finn Bjørnseth
1961 – Johannes Heggland, Per Bronken
1962 – Bergljot Hobæk Haff
1963 – Åsta Holth, Arnold Eidslott, Ola Viker
1964 – Aslaug Låstad Lygre, Odd Hølaas
1965 – Marie Takvam, Gisken Wildenvey
1966 – Georg Johannesen, Odd Winger
1967 – Kåre Holt, Per Hansson
1968 – Jan Erik Vold
1969 – Knut Faldbakken
1970 – Espen Haavardsholm, Sigmund Skard, Merete Wiger
1971 – Tor Obrestad
1972 – Jens Bjørneboe
1973 – Tor Edvin Dahl
1974 – Emil Boyson, Nils Johan Rud, Gunvor Hofmo, Bergljot Hobæk Haff, Tor Åge Bringsværd
1975 – Pål Sundvor
1976 – Finn Carling, Sigurd Evensmo
1977 – Jan Jakob Tønseth
1978 – Olav Nordrå, Arne Ruste
1979 – Cecilie Løveid, Wera Sæther
1980 – Marta Schumann, Tormod Haugen
1981 – Gidske Anderson, Stein Mehren
1982 – Ola Bauer, Ketil Gjessing
1983 – Karin Bang, Terje Johanssen
1984 – Mari Osmundsen, Simen Skjønsberg
1985 – Paal-Helge Haugen, Geir Kjetsaa
1986 – Inger Elisabeth Hansen, Erland Kiøsterud
1987 – Hans Herbjørnsrud, Tor Ulven
1988 – Liv Køltzow, Øystein Lønn
1989 – Edvard Hoem, Gunnar Staalesen
1990 – Sigmund Mjelve, Atle Næss
1991 – Kjartan Fløgstad and Herbjørg Wassmo
1992 – Sissel Lie, Steinar Løding og Tor Fretheim
1993 – Britt Karin Larsen, Thorvald Steen
1994 – Kjersti Scheen, Bjørn Aamodt
1995 – Torgrim Eggen, Terje Holtet Larsen
Passage 7:
Adam Smith Prize
The Adam Smith Prizes are prizes currently awarded for the best overall examination performance and best dissertation in Part IIB of the Economics Tripos (the graduation examination for economics undergraduates) at the University of Cambridge  The prize - named after Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith - was originally established in 1891 and awarded triennially for the best submitted essay on a subject of the writer's choice 

List of past recipients
1894 Arthur Lyon Bowley
1897 Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence
1900 Sydney Chapman
1903 Arthur Cecil Pigou
1906 Ernest Alfred Benians
1909 John Maynard Keynes
1929 R  F  Kahn
1930 Ruth Cohen
1932 K  S  Isles
1933 B  P  Adarkar
1935 W  B  Reddaway
1936 D  G  Champernowne
1954 Amartya Sen
1956 Manmohan Singh
1974 Martin Osborne
1987 Richard J  Parkin
2000 Saugato Datta and Richard Fearon
2004 James Benford
2006 Mark Shields
2007 Stefanie Stantcheva
2008 Thomas Mckendrick and Shivam Patel
2009 Praneet Shah
2011 Ossie Akushie and Shafi Anwar
2013 Inna Grinis and Ivan Kuznetsov
2014 James Walker
2015 Ben Andrews and Jonathon Hazell
2016 Isar Bhattacharjee and Toni Oki
2017 Joel Flynn and Joseph Lee
2018 Tireni Ajilore, George Nikolakoudis, Laurence O’Brien and Sajan Shah
2019 Vlastimil Rasocha and Kuishuai Yi
2020 Neal Patel, David Lee, Liam Grant, Andrew Koh and Michael Bennett
2021 Valerie Chuang, Matthew Chen and Jack Golden

See also
List of economics awards
Passage 8:
Faraday Lectureship Prize
The Faraday Lectureship Prize, previously known simply as the Faraday Lectureship, is awarded once every two years (approximately) by the Royal Society of Chemistry for "exceptional contributions to physical or theoretical chemistry"  Named after Michael Faraday, the first Faraday Lecture was given in 1869, two years after Faraday's death, by Jean-Baptiste Dumas  As of 2009, the prize was worth £5000, with the recipient also receiving a medal and a certificate  As the name suggests, the recipient also gives a public lecture describing his or her work 

Winners
Source: RSC

See also
List of chemistry awards
Passage 9:
Puffin/Nation Prize for Creative Citizenship
The Puffin Prize for Creative Citizenship is an American award given jointly by Type Media Center (a nonprofit media organization previously associated with The Nation magazine) and the Puffin Foundation  The annual $100,000 award honors artists and others who have "challenged the status quo through distinctive, courageous, imaginative and socially responsible work of significance " The prize is intended to "encourage the recipients to continue their work, and to inspire others to challenge the prevailing orthodoxies they face in their careers " The inaugural award was in 2001 The Puffin Prize for Creative Citizenship was renamed in 2017   It was formerly known as the Puffin/Nation Prize for Creative Citizenship 

Winners
2001 Robert Parris Moses
2002 Dolores Huerta
2003 David Protess
2004 Barbara Ehrenreich
2005 Jonathan Kozol
2006 Amy Goodman
2007 Michael Ratner
2008 Van Jones
2009 Jim Hightower
2010 Bill McKibben
2010 Cecile Richards
2011 Tony Kushner
2012 Benjamin Todd Jealous
2013 Barry W  Lynn
2014 Frances Fox Piven
2015 William J  Barber II
2016 Bryan Stevenson
2017 Colin Kaepernick
2018 Parkland student activists
2019 The Sunrise Movement
2020 Desmond Meade
2021 The National Network for Abortion Funds
Passage 10:
List of Nobel laureates
The Nobel Prizes (Swedish: Nobelpriset, Norwegian: Nobelprisen) are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Swedish Academy, the Karolinska Institutet, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals and organizations who make outstanding contributions in the fields of chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine  They were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which dictates that the awards should be administered by the Nobel Foundation  An additional prize in memory of Alfred Nobel was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank (Sweden’s central bank) for outstanding contributions to the field of economics  Each recipient, a Nobelist or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma, and a sum of money which is decided annually by the Nobel Foundation 

Prize
Each prize is awarded by a separate committee; the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, and Economics; the Karolinska Institute awards the Prize in Physiology or Medicine; and the Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Prize in Peace  Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award that has varied throughout the years  In 1901, the recipients of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 8,402,670 SEK in December 2017  In 2017, the laureates were awarded a prize amount of 9,000,000 SEK  The awards are presented in Stockholm in an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death In years in which the Nobel Prize is not awarded due to external events or a lack of nominations, the prize money is returned to the funds delegated to the relevant prize  The Nobel Prize was not awarded between 1940 and 1942 due to the outbreak of World War II 

Laureates
Between 1901 and 2017, the Nobel Prizes and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 585 times to 923 people and organizations  With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 892 individuals (including 844 men, 48 women) and 24 organizations  Six Nobel laureates were not permitted by their governments to accept the Nobel Prize  Adolf Hitler forbade four Germans, Richard Kuhn (Chemistry, 1938), Adolf Butenandt (Chemistry, 1939), Gerhard Domagk (Physiology or Medicine, 1939) and Carl von Ossietzky (Peace, 1936) from accepting their Nobel Prizes  The Chinese government forbade Liu Xiaobo from accepting his Nobel Prize (Peace, 2010) and the government of the Soviet Union pressured Boris Pasternak (Literature, 1958) to decline his award  Liu Xiaobo, Carl von Ossietzky and Aung San Suu Kyi were all awarded their Nobel Prize while in prison or detention  Two Nobel laureates, Jean-Paul Sartre (Literature, 1964) and Lê Ðức Thọ (Peace, 1973), declined the award; Sartre declined the award as he declined all official honors, and Thọ declined the award due to the situation Vietnam was in at the time 
Seven laureates have received more than one prize; of the seven, the International Committee of the Red Cross has received the Nobel Peace Prize three times, more than any other  UNHCR has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize twice  Also the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to John Bardeen twice, as was the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Frederick Sanger and Karl Barry Sharpless  Two laureates have been awarded twice but not in the same field: Marie Curie (Physics and Chemistry) and Linus Pauling (Chemistry and Peace)  Among the 892 Nobel laureates, 48 have been women; the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize was Marie Curie, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903  She was also the first person (male or female) to be awarded two Nobel Prizes, the second award being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, given in 1911 

List of laureates
50 year secrecy rule
The Committee neither informs the media nor the candidates themselves of the names of the nominees  Insofar as specific names frequently appear in the early predictions of who will receive the award in any given year, this is either pure speculation or inside information from the person or people who submitted the nomination  After fifty years, the database of nominations maintained by the Nobel Committee is made available to the public  Statutes of the Nobel Foundation, § 10, states:A prize-awarding body may, however, after due consideration in each individual case, permit access to material which formed the basis for the evaluation and decision concerning a prize, for purposes of research in intellectual history  Such permission may not, however, be granted until at least 50 years have elapsed after the date on which the decision in question was made 

See also
List of Nobel laureates by country
List of female Nobel laureates
List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Literature
List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physics
List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize
List of individuals nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize
List of organizations nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize

Notes
Passage 11:
Bel Canto (novel)
Bel Canto is the fourth novel by American author Ann Patchett, published in 2001 by Perennial, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers  It was awarded both the Orange Prize for Fiction and PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction  It was placed on several top book lists, including Amazon's Best Books of the Year (2001)  It was also adapted into an opera in 2015 
Based on the Japanese embassy hostage crisis (also called the Lima Crisis) of 1996–1997 in Lima, Peru, the novel follows the relationships among a group of young terrorists and their hostages, who are mostly high-profile executives and politicians, over several months  Many of the characters form unbreakable bonds of friendship, while some fall in love 
Opera is a centralizing theme on many levels throughout the story; the operatic term bel canto literally means "beautiful singing "

Plot summary
Set in an unspecified South American country, the story begins at a birthday party thrown at the country's vice presidential home in honor of Katsumi Hosokawa, the visiting chairman of a large Japanese company and opera enthusiast  As a not-so-subtle pretext to get Hosokawa to invest in the country, famous American soprano Roxane Coss is scheduled to perform as the highlight of the party 
Near the end of the party, members of a terrorist organization break into the house, intending to take the President of the country hostage  When they realize the President is not in attendance, the terrorist group decides to take the entire party hostage  After determining they have too many hostages, the terrorists decide to release all of the hostages except those they deem most likely to return a large ransom 
Two major romantic relationships develop as the standoff drags on and serve as the backdrop to the rest of the story  The first is between Coss and Hosokawa, who develop a deep bond even though they do not speak each other's language and thus cannot communicate verbally  The second relationship is between the translator Gen and the young terrorist Carmen, who must keep their love a secret  The two lovers meet in the china closet every night 
At the end of the novel, the government breaks into the house and kills all the terrorists  All of the hostages are freed except for Hosokawa, who is shot by government forces in the struggle  
In an epilogue that takes place some years later, former hostages Simon Thibault and his wife meet with Gen and Roxane, who are getting married in Italy 

Characters
Katsumi Hosokawa is a Japanese business mogul, who is married with two daughters  He has a strong bond with his young translator Gen  He doesn't speak Spanish and must use Gen for all communication in the host country  Since attending a performance with his father as a child, opera has been his greatest love, and he is passionate about the soprano Roxane Coss, having heard her recordings  He falls in love with the woman herself during their time together  However, he knows their relationship can only last for the duration of the standoff  He is gunned down in the final scenes by the soldiers of the host country, in his attempt to save the teenaged terrorist Carmen 
Roxane Coss is an internationally renowned American soprano  At first a prima donna who sets herself apart from the rest of the guests, she eventually begins to bond with the others when she receives a box of musical scores and begins singing to them every morning  She is especially touched by her relationships with Mr  Hosokawa, with whom she falls in love; Gen, with whom she forms a strong bond and eventually marries; Carmen, who sleeps in her bed, braids her hair, and comforts her; and Cesar, another young terrorist with a gifted singing voice whom she begins tutoring 
Gen Watanabe is Mr  Hosokawa's translator and assistant  He is a quiet, sensitive and gifted young man who speaks several languages  As the translator, he is usually at the center of the action of the novel, although he is the only hostage, besides a priest, who is not fabulously wealthy and powerful  He begins tutoring Carmen when she asks him to teach her how to read and write in Spanish and English, and they begin meeting each night in the china closet to study and eventually make love 
General Benjamin is the most intelligent and thoughtful of the three generals who lead the terrorists  Benjamin was a       schoolteacher until his brother was arrested and imprisoned for handing out flyers publicizing a political protest  After that, he joined the terrorist group La Familia de Martin Suarez, named after a ten-year-old boy who was shot dead while handing out flyers for a political rally  Benjamin has left behind a wife and children, and he is fatherly to some of the young terrorists under his command  He is plagued with shingles, which rage across much of his face 
Joachim Messner is a Swiss representative for the Red Cross  who negotiates between the government and the terrorists  He is the one person allowed to come and go from the mansion  Messner punctuates the general happiness with frequent reminders that the situation will end badly 
Carmen is the terrorist whom Gen loves  Carmen remains incognito in the guise of a male terrorist for the first part of the novel  The leader of the organization, General Benjamin, notices what a beautiful young woman she has become and notes that, "had she been this pretty before, he never would have let her sign up " She often prays to Saint Rose of Lima  In the ultimate shootout, she is gunned down before Gen can get to her  In the ensuing newspaper articles, there is no record of her ever existing 
Simon Thibault is the French ambassador to the South American country where the novel is set  Because he longs for his wife Edith, who is released early with the rest of the women and children, Thibault is the hostage who is most unhappy during the long standoff  He spends much of his time cooking for both the hostages and the terrorists, and he is almost always wearing Edith's scarf  He and Edith are reunited after the standoff, and they are the witnesses to the marriage of Gen and Roxane in the final chapter 

Creative process
Patchett was inspired by the Lima Crisis as she watched the events unfold on the news and thought how operatic the crisis was  Patchett was an opera novice prior to writing the book, although she has stated that the character Roxane was modeled on Karol Bennett, an acquaintance of hers who was an opera singer  Since she was not familiar with Bennett's voice, she listened to recordings by the famous American soprano Renée Fleming and imagined Roxane Coss as possessing Fleming's voice  (Patchett and Fleming became friends only after the novel was published )
The original working title was How to Fall in Love with Opera, but her editor advised against it in case bookstores would mis-shelve it in their "how to" section  The manuscript originally contained a prologue from Gen's perspective, establishing the book as a story about how he met his wife  However, Patchett's mentor Elizabeth McCracken told her that the prologue was not needed, so Patchett cut it Patchett has stated that she always wanted to write with an omniscient third person narrator that "moves from person to person within a room"—a style she calls "Anna Karenina-third " Her first two novels were in first-person and her third novel was in third-person, but it was limited to one character's perspective  She was pleased when she was able to write in this style for Bel Canto, deeming her achievement of the style a progression in her writing 

Reception
Sue MacGregor, the broadcaster and chairman of the Orange Prize judges, praised the work, saying, "This is a fine piece of writing, mixing tenderness and danger to an impressive degree " Critic Alex Clark praised the wide range of Patchett's writing, which "encompass[es] both lightning flashes of brutality and terror and long stretches of incarcerated ennui " Several reviews note a departure in style from Patchett's earlier works and credit Bel Canto for pushing her into the national spotlight Critic James Polk largely praised the novel, but noted Patchett "strained a bit too hard" to highlight the terrorists' humanizing traits, which he argued "diminished the story's taut ambivalence, making some scenes near the end sound almost like accounts of a Boy Scout jamboree " Other reviewers also criticize the slow pacing and unrealistic characterizations, although other critics attribute this to Patchett's brand of magic realism Bel Canto has been translated into over 30 languages  According to Patchett, it was slated to become a movie five or six times, a Broadway musical, and an opera by Aaron Jay Kernis, commissioned for the Santa Fe Opera's 2006 season, all of which fell through, until the opera came together in 2015 and the film in 2018 

Adaptations
The novel has been adapted under the same title into an opera by composer Jimmy López to a libretto Nilo Cruz  It premiered at the Lyric Opera of Chicago on December 7, 2015 
A film adaptation of the same name from director Paul Weitz with Julianne Moore and Ken Watanabe was released in 2018 The television series Archer parodied Bel Canto during its seventh season with a two-episode arc called "Bel Panto": the visitors of a charity event are taken hostage by a group of clowns seeking to steal a jeweled necklace from a wealthy actress 
Passage 12:
Geoffrey Keynes
Sir Geoffrey Langdon Keynes ( KAYNZ; 25 March 1887, Cambridge – 5 July 1982, Cambridge) was a British surgeon and author  He began his career as a physician in World War I, before becoming a doctor at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London, where he made notable innovations in the fields of blood transfusion and breast cancer surgery  Keynes was also a publishing scholar and bibliographer of English literature and English medical history, focusing primarily on William Blake and William Harvey 

Early life and education
Geoffrey Keynes was born on 25 March 1887 in Cambridge, England  His father was John Neville Keynes, an economics lecturer at the University of Cambridge and his mother was Florence Ada Brown, a successful author and a social reformer  Geoffrey Keynes was the third child, after his older brother, the prominent economist John Maynard Keynes, and his sister Margaret, who married the Nobel Prize–winning physiologist Archibald Hill 
He attended Rugby School, where he became friends with English poet Rupert Brooke  In 1915 he was appointed literary executor for Brooke's estate 
He graduated from Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he earned a first-class degree in the Natural Sciences Tripos  He was later made an honorary fellow of Pembroke College  Keynes then qualified for a scholarship to become a surgeon with the Royal College of Surgeons in London 

Career
First and Second world wars
Keynes delayed his medical education in order to serve in World War I, where he served as a Lieutenant in the Royal Army Medical Corps and then worked as a consultant surgeon, becoming an expert in blood transfusion  His experience in the First World War led him to publish Blood Transfusion, the first book on the subject written by a British author  Keynes also founded the London Blood Transfusion Service with P  L  Oliver  Alexander Bogdanov acquired a copy of this book whilst visiting London to negotiate the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement in 1922  Bogdanov went on to found the Institute for Haematology and Blood Transfusions in Moscow Keynes was deeply affected by the brutality and gore that he witnessed in the field, which may have influenced his dislike for radical surgery later in his career 
Keynes enlisted to be a consulting surgeon to the Royal Air Force at the outbreak of World War II  In 1944 he was promoted to the rank of acting air vice-marshal 

Medical career
Keynes began working full-time at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London, where he worked under George Gask and Sir Thomas Dunhill, after returning from World War I  Keynes used his influence as an assistant surgeon to advocate for limited surgery instead of the invasive radical mastectomy  Frustrated with the mortality rate and gruesomeness of the radical mastectomy, Keynes experimented by inserting 50 milligrams of radium in a patient's tumour  He later observed that, "The ulcer rapidly healed     and the whole mass became smaller, softer and less fixed "Keynes pursued his new idea through a number of trials, observing the effectiveness of injecting radium chloride into breast cancer tumours compared with the effectiveness of the radical mastectomy  The promising results of these trials led Keynes to be cautiously optimistic, writing in 1927 that the "extension of [an] operation beyond a local removal might sometimes be unnecessary " Keynes' outlook was considered a radical break from the medical consensus at the time  Keynes wrote in his autobiography that his work with radium "was regarded with some interest by American surgeons," but that the concept of a limited mastectomy failed to gain significant traction in the medical community at the time  His doubts regarding the radical mastectomy were vindicated some 50 years later, when innovators like Bernard Fisher and others revisited his data and pursued what became known as a lumpectomy  Limited surgeries, like the lumpectomy, accompanied by radiation are now the standard treatment for breast cancer Keynes was also a pioneer in the treatment of myasthenia gravis  Much like with breast cancer, the medical community knew little about how to treat the disease at the time  Keynes pioneered the removal of the thymus gland, which is now the standard treatment for myasthenia gravis In 1955 Keynes received a knighthood for services to medicine 

Literary work
Keynes maintained a passionate interest in English literature all his life and devoted a large amount of his time to literary scholarship and the science of bibliography  He was a leading authority on the literary and artistic work of William Blake  He also produced biographies and bibliographies of English writers such as Sir Thomas Browne, John Evelyn, Siegfried Sassoon, John Donne and Jane Austen  He was also a pioneer in the history of science, with studies of John Ray, William Harvey and Robert Hooke  His biography The Life of William Harvey was awarded the 1966 James Tait Black Memorial Prize  Keynes also collected books, with a personal library with around four thousand works His autobiography The Gates of Memory was published in 1981, and he died the following year, aged 95  The Gates of Memory includes anecdotes of Keynes' numerous run-ins and friendships with other famous public figures  For example, Keynes often went climbing with George Mallory, the renowned British mountaineer; he also once performed life-saving treatment on Virginia Woolf after the budding author overdosed on pills 

Personal life
On 12 May 1917 Keynes married Margaret Elizabeth Darwin, the daughter of Sir George Howard Darwin and granddaughter of Charles Darwin  They had one daughter, who died in infancy, and four sons:

Harriet Frances Keynes (1918–1918)
Richard Darwin Keynes (1919–2010)
Quentin George Keynes (1921–2003)
William Milo Keynes (1924–2009)
Stephen John Keynes (1927–2017)Keynes dedicated his life to his work and was also sociable with many friends  He took pride in never having been drunk, and was known by most as an affable, well-mannered man 

Legacy
Keynes' contributions profoundly influenced the fields of surgery and English literature  He pioneered limited breast cancer surgery accompanied by radiation, a strategy that has endured the test of time  His work on William Blake "was instrumental in establishing Blake as a central figure in the history of English art and literature "A library of his scholarly works, notes, and correspondences is held by the University of Cambridge 

Works
A Bibliography of Dr  John Donne (1914, 1932, 1958, 1973)
A Bibliography of William Blake (The Grolier Club, New York, 1921)
Blood Transfusion (H  Frowde, London, 1922)
A Bibliography of Sir Thomas Browne (Cambridge, 1924, 1968)
William Pickering, Publisher: A Memoir and a Hand-List of his Editions (The Fleuron, 1924)
Jane Austen: a Bibliography (Nonesuch Press, 1929)
Selected Essays of William Hazlitt 1778 : 1830 (Nonesuch Press, 1930)
The Works of Sir Thomas Browne (Faber & Gwyer / Faber & Faber 1928-1931 [6 volumes], 1964 [4 volumes])
The Note-Book of William Blake (Nonesuch Press, 1935)
John Evelyn: a Study in Bibliophily & a Bibliography of his Writings (Cambridge, 1937)
The Faber Gallery Series: Blake (Faber and Faber, 1945)
The Poetical Works of Rupert Brooke (Faber & Faber, 1946)
William Blake, 1757–1827 (1947)
Poetry and Prose of William Blake (Nonesuch Press, 1948)
The Portraiture of William Harvey (The Thomas Vicary Lecture 1948) (Royal College of Surgeons, 1949)
The Personality of William Harvey (Cambridge University Press: 1949)
William Blake's Engravings, edited with an introduction (Faber and Faber, (1950)
The Tempera Paintings of William Blake (1951)
The Apologie and Treatise of Ambroise Containing the Voyages Made into Divers Places with Many of His Writings Upon Surgery (1951)
Samuel Butler's Note-Books, selections (1951) with Brian Hill
Poems of Rupert Brooke (1954)
A Bibliography of Rupert Brooke (The Soho Bibliographies, No 4) (Rupert Hart-Davis, 1954)
The Letters of William Blake (Rupert Hart-Davis, 1956, 1968)
Harvey Though John Aubrey's Eyes (1958)
A Bibliography of Dr  Robert Hooke (1960)
Essays in Biography 1961 by J  M  Keynes, editor
Dr  Timothie Bright 1550—1615  A Survey of his Life with a Bibliography of his Writings (1962)
A Study of the Illuminated Books of William Blake: Poet, Printer, Prophet (1964)
An Exhibition of the Illuminated Books of William Blake: Poet – Printer – Prophet (1964) with Lessing J  Rosenwald
On Editing Blake (1964)
Blake  The Masters 6 (1965)
Blake: Complete Writings with Variant Readings, editor, Oxford University Press, 1966 (UK-Paperback, Revised)  ISBN 0192810502
William Blake  Songs of Innocence and of Experience, editor, with Introduction and Commentary  London: Oxford University Press (1967)
Henry James in Cambridge (1967)
Sir Thomas Browne, Selected Writings (1968)
The Letters of Rupert Brooke (1968)
William Blake Engraver (1969)
William Pickering, Publisher: A Memoir and a Check-List of his Publications (London, Galahad Press, 1969; New York, Burt Franklin, 1969)
Drawings of William Blake: 92 Pencil Studies  Selection, Introduction and Commentary, Dover Publications, Inc , New York, 1970 ISBN 0-486-22303-5
A Bibliography of Sir William Petty F R S  and of 'Observations on the Bills of Mortality' by John Graunt F R S  Oxford : Clarendon Press (1971)
William Blake's Water-Colours Illustrating the Poems of Thomas Gray (1972)
Deaths Duell by John Donne (Godine, 1973)
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (Oxford University Press, 1975)
A Bibliography of Henry King D D , Bishop of Chichester (Douglas Cleverdon, 1977)
The Gates of Memory (Oxford University Press, 1981)
A Watch of Nightingales (Stourton Press, 1981) edited with Peter Davidson
Passage 13:
Sophie Prize
The Sophie Prize was an international environment and development prize (USD 100,000) awarded annually from 1998 to 2013   It was established in 1997 by the Norwegian author Jostein Gaarder and his wife Siri Dannevig, and is named after Gaarder's novel Sophie's World  It aimed to recognize individuals or organizations working with the environment and sustainable development  In 2013, representatives announced that the prize would not be awarded any longer due to a lack of funds 

Prize winners
1998: Environmental Rights Action, Nigeria
1999: Herman Daly and Thomas Kocherry
2000: Sheri Liao
2001: ATTAC France
2002: Patriarch Bartholomew I
2003: John Pilger
2004: Wangari Maathai
2005: Sheila Watt-Cloutier
2006: Romina Picolotti
2007: Göran Persson
2008: Gretchen Daily
2009: Marina Silva, Brazil
2010: James Hansen
2011: Tristram Stuart
2012: Eva Joly
2013: Bill McKibben

Board members
Åslaug Haga (chair)
Petter Nome (deputy chair)
Helene Bank
Siri Dannevig
Nikolas Dannevig Gaarder
Elin Enge
Thomas Hylland Eriksen
Jostein Gaarder
Elizabeth Hartmann
Dag Olav Hessen
Bård Lahn
Ylva Lindberg
Sidsel Mørck

See also
List of environmental awards
Passage 14:
Million Writers Award
Million Writers Award was a short story literary award presented annually by storySouth from 2003 to 2016  It honored the best online short stories  The award was structured to be egalitarian allowing for anyone to nominate a story including readers, authors, editors and publishers; prize money was donated by readers and writers; and the winners were selected by public vote from a short-list of entries selected by judges 

Overview
The Million Writers Award was founded by author Jason Sanford in 2003 at a time when the literary establishment "didn't believe online magazines were legitimate places to publish fiction," seeing it as a fad  Sanford set out to honor and highlight online only publications and stories with the award 
Stories eligible for the award include those first published in online literary journals, magazines, and e-zines that have an editorial process  The award had a variable cash prize, in 2011 for example it was $600 for the winner, $200 for the runner-up and $100 for third place  Prize money was raised through donations from writers, editors and readers and thus fluctuates each year  Anyone could nominate up to one story, while editors and publishers can nominate three stories  Stories must be at least 1000 words The award became one of the premier online literary awards and was named a Hot Site by USA Today  The award was profiled in a six-page feature interview with editor Jason Sanford in the 2005 Novel and Short Story Writer's Market and mentioned in The 100 Best Trends, 2006: Emerging Developments You Can't Afford to Ignore as an example of the emerging online literary movement In 2012 Spotlight Publishing released two anthologies of stories from the Million Writers Award, with one focused on literary stories and the other on science fiction and fantasy stories 

Winners
Previous winners 2003

Top 10 stories:2004

Best story: Randa Jarrar, "You Are a 14-Year-Old Arab Chick Who Just Moved to Texas" (Eyeshot)
Best online publication: Eclectica
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: The King's English
Best new online magazine or journal: Narrative Magazine2005

Best story: Alicia Gifford, "Toggling the Switch" (Narrative Magazine)
Best story runnerup: Terry Bisson, "Super 8" (Scifiction com)
Best story runnerup: Anjana Basu, "The Black Tongue" (Gowanus)
Best online publication: Strange Horizons
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: The King's English
Best new online magazine or journal: Anderbo2006

Best story: Richard Bowes, "There's a Hole in the City" (Scifiction com)
Best story runnerup: Michael Croley, "Two Lives" (Blackbird)
Best online publication: Storyglossia
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: Narrative Magazine (co-winner)
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: The King's English (co-winner)
Best new online magazine or journal: Menda City Review (co-winner)
Best new online magazine or journal: Clarkesworld Magazine (co-winner)2007

Best story: Catherynne M  Valente, "Urchins, While Swimming" (Clarkesword Magazine)
Best story runnerup: A  Ray Norsworthy, "All the Way to Grangeville" (Eclectica Magazine)
Best story runnerup: Marshall Moore, "The Infinite Monkey Theorem" (Word Riot)
Best online publication: Blackbird
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: Jim Baen's Universe
Best new online magazine or journal: Farrago's Wainscot2008

Best story: Matt Bell, "Alex Trebek Never Eats Fried Chicken" (Storyglossia)
Best story runnerup: Sruthi Thekkiam, "Friday Afternoons on Bus 51" (Blackbird)
Best online publication: Narrative Magazine
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: (no award)
Best new online magazine or journal: Cha: An Asian Literary Journal2009

Winner: Jenny Williams, "The Fisherman's Wife" (LitNImage)
Runner-up: Roderic Crooks, "Fuckbuddy" (Eyeshot)
Honorable mention: Geronimo Madrid, "No Bullets in the House" (Drunken Boat)
Best online publication: Fantasy Magazine
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: Subterranean Magazine
Best new online magazine or journal: Kill Author2010

Winner: Summer Block, "Hospitality" (Wheelhouse Magazine)
Runner-up: Rachel Swirsky, "Eros, Philia, Agape" (Tor com)
Honorable mention: Eric Beetner, "Ditch" (Thuglit)
Best online publication: Words Without Borders
Best new online magazine or journal: Lightspeed Magazine2011

Winner: Adam-Troy Castro, "Arvies" (Lightspeed Magazine)
Runner-up: Eric Maroney, "The Incorrupt Body of Carlo Busso" (Eclectica)
Honorable mention: Amal El-Mohtar, "The Green Book" (Apex Magazine)2012

Winner: xTx, "The Mill Pond" (StoryGlossia)
Runner-up: Kelly Cherry, "On Familiar Terms" (Blackbird)
Honorable mention: Micah Dean Hicks, "The Butcher's Chimes" (Menda City Review)2013

First place : Rachel Steiger-Meister, "Chlorine Mermaid" (Carve Magazine)
Second place: Lou Gaglia, "Hands" (Waccamaw)
Third place : Adrienne Celt, "The Eternal Youth of Everyone Else" (Carve Magazine)2014

First place: Caroline Casper, "Eminence" (Carve Magazine)
Second place: Susan Tepper, "Distance" (Thrice Fiction)
Third place: Carmen Maria Machado, "Inventory" (Strange Horizons)2015

First place: Wendy Oleson, “The Snow Children” (Carve Magazine)
Second place: Chikodili Emelumadu, “Jermyn” (Eclectica)
Third place: Allegra Hyde, “Syndication” (Nashville Review)2016

First place: Reza Ghasemi Ataee, "Anatomy of Mr wakefield" (Time magazine)
Second place: Jude Whelchel, "Big Joy Family" (North Carolina Literary Review)
Third place: Annie Reid, "Last Song" (Baltimore Review)
Passage 15:
Hickinbottom Award
The Hickinbottom Award (also referred to as the Hickinbottom Fellowship) is awarded annually by the Royal Society of Chemistry for contributions in the area of organic chemistry from an early career scientist  The prize winner receives a monetary award and will complete a lecture tour within the UK  The winner is chosen by the awards committee of the Royal Society of Chemistry's organic division 

Award history
The award was established by the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1979 following Wilfred Hickinbottom's bequest  Hickinbottom was noted for supporting high standards in experimental chemistry  
Part of the monetary award is the Briggs scholarship, which was funded following a bequest from Lady Alice Lilian Thorpe, William Briggs' daughter 

Previous recipients
The award was first granted in 1981 to Steven Ley and Jeremy Sanders Subsequent recipients include:

See also
List of chemistry awards
Passage 16:
Francis Ambrière
Francis Ambrière (27 September 1907 – 1 July 1998) was a French author who was selected for the Prix Goncourt in 1940, for his book Les Grandes Vacances; the prize was awarded in 1946 because of World War II  He was born in Paris 

Biography
Francis Ambriere has been recognised for his novel Les Grandes Vacances, which chronicles the lives of French prisoners of war in 1940  He was the author of several Guides bleus for example in Paris in 1949, and then Greece in 1957, or on Italy published in 1960 

Works
Joachim du Bellay, Firmin-Didot et cie, 1930
Estaunié, John Charpentier, Francis Ambrière, Firmin-Didot et cie, 1932
Les grandes vacances, 1939-1945, Les Éditions de la nouvelle France, 1946, (reprint Éditions du Seuil, 1956)
The long holiday Translator Elaine P  Halperin, Publisher Ziff-Davis Pub  Co , 1948
Le solitaire de la Cervara, V  Attinger, 1947
The exiled, Staples Press, 1951
Le Maroc, Les Documents d'art, 1952
Théâtre et collectivité, Flammarion, 1953
Le Siecle des Valmore, Seuil, 1987 
Mademoiselle Mars et Marie Dorval: au théâtre et dans la vie, Seuil, 1992
Talma, ou l'histoire au théâtre, Madeleine Ambrière, Francis Ambrière, Éditions de Fallois, 2007, ISBN 978-2-87706-638-9
Context 3: Passage 1:
Mehmet Çetingöz
Mehmet Çetingöz (born May 12, 1991, in Şanlıurfa, Turkey) is a Turkish wheelchair basketball player in center position  He is a 4 point player competing for Beşiktaş JK wheelchair basketball team  He is part of the Turkey men's junior national wheelchair basketball team and captain of the U23 team Çetingöz became paralyzed at his right leg as a result of polio he contracted when he was four years of age  He began with wheelchair basketball with fourteen in a disabled sports club in Şanlıurfa After playing eight years for Şanlıurfa Wheelchair, he was transferred in August 2013 to Beşiktaş JK, which  competes in the Turkish Wheelchair Basketball Super League Çetingöz became champion with the national junior team at the 5th Fazza International Wheelchair Basketball Championships held on April 17–23, 2013 in Dubai and was named Top Scorer 

Awards
Individual
5th Fazza International Wheelchair Basketball Championships - "Top Scorer"

National team
5th Fazza International Wheelchair Basketball Championships -  with national junior team
Passage 2:
Mehmet Hayri Tarhan
Mehmet Hayri Tarhan (1884; Tirnovadjik (Malko Tarnovo) – December 11, 1934; Ankara) was a military officer of the Ottoman Army and a general of the Turkish Army 

See also
List of high-ranking commanders of the Turkish War of Independence

Sources
External links
 Media related to Mehmet Hayri Tarhan at Wikimedia Commons
Works by or about Mehmet Hayri Tarhan at Internet Archive
Passage 3:
Mehmet Eroğlu
Mehmet Eroğlu (born 2 October 1948) is a Turkish novelist  His most known work is Issızlığın Ortasında ("In the Midst of Solitude") 

Life
He was born on 2 August 1948 in İzmir  In 1971, he graduated from the Department of Civil Engineering  at the Middle East Technical University  He then worked as a civil engineer at the Turkish General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works, the Tourism Bank and at a private company 
He shared the first award at the Milliyet Novel Contest (of the Milliyet news paper) in 1978 with Orhan Pamuk, with his novel Issızlığın Ortasında (In the Midst of Solitude)  He also collected the Madaralı Novel Award in 1985 with the same work and the Orhan Kemal Novel Award in 1985 with Geç Kalmış Ölü (The Delayed Dead), which was a continuation of the previous book  His work reflects various situations of humanity by creating anti-heroes, while also not concealing his political point of view 

Works
Novels:
Issızlığın Ortasında (In the Midst of Isolation, 1984)
Geç Kalmış Ölü (The Delayed Dead, 1985)
Yarım Kalan Yürüyüş (The March Interrupted, 1986)
Adını Unutan Adam (The Man Who Forgot His Name, 1989)
Yürek Sürgünü (Exile of Heart, 1994)
Zamanın Manzarası (View of Time, 2002)
Kusma Kulübü (Vomit Club, 2004) 
Passage 4:
Turhan Tezol
Turhan Tezol (9 August 1932 – 27 April 2014) was a Turkish basketball player, who competed in the 1952 Summer Olympics 
Turhan Tezol was born to Mehmet Şükrü, an immigrant from Kavala, (then Ottoman Empire), and his wife Zeliha at Istanbul on August 9, 1932  He had four brothers, Alaettin, Tayyar, Erdoğan and Ayhan, as well as two sisters İnal and Mualla (Kuşçu) Tezol began his playing career at the local team Modaspor  He enjoyed three times Turkish Basketball League championship title with his club  he left Modaspor, and moved to Izmir joining the basketball side of Altınordu  After retiring from active sports, he served as executive at the Izmir-based clubs Altay, Göztepe and Altınordu  Tezol worked also for the Turkish Basketball Federation At the age of 19, he was called up to the Turkey juniors national team  Later, he became member of the Turkey national team, taking part at the 1952 Summer Olympic in Helsinki, Finland, and three times at FIBA EuroBasket in 1955, 1957 and 1959  He capped 71 times in total for the national team, and served also as captain He is remembered for his capacity in dribbling technique Turhan Tezol suffered from pancreatic cancer, and was treated a long time  He died following surgery on 27 April 2014 Izmir  He was survived by his wife Nesrin (née Gündoğdu), two sons, Erhan and Ersin, and five grandchildren 
Passage 5:
Birth certificate
A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a person  The term "birth certificate" can refer to either the original document certifying the circumstances of the birth or to a certified copy of or representation of the ensuing registration of that birth  Depending on the jurisdiction, a record of birth might or might not contain verification of the event by such as a midwife or doctor 
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 17, an integral part of the 2030 Agenda, has a target to increase the timely availability of data regarding age, gender, race, ethnicity, and other relevant characteristics which documents like a birth certificate has the capacity to provide 

History and contemporary times
The documentation of births is a practice widely held throughout human civilization  The original purpose of vital statistics was for tax purposes and for the determination of available military manpower  In England, births were initially registered with churches, who maintained registers of births  This practice continued into the 19th century  The compulsory registration of births with the United Kingdom government is a practice that originated at least as far back as 1853  The entire United States did not get a standardized system until 1902 Most countries have statutes and laws that regulate the registration of births  In all countries, it is the responsibility of the mother's physician, midwife, hospital administrator, or the parent(s) of the child to see that the birth is properly registered with the appropriate government agency 
The actual record of birth is stored with a government agency  That agency will issue certified copies or representations of the original birth record upon request, which can be used to apply for government benefits, such as passports  The certification is signed and/or sealed by the registrar or other custodian of birth records, who is commissioned by the government 
The right of every child to a name and nationality, and the responsibility of national governments to achieve this are contained in Articles 7 and 8 in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: "The child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right from birth to a name, the right to acquire a nationality   " (CRC Article 7) and "States Parties undertake to respect the right of the child to preserve his or her identity, including nationality, name and family relations   " (CRC Article 8) 
   it's a small paper but it actually establishes who you are and gives access to the rights and the privileges, and the obligations, of citizenship 
Despite 191 countries ratifying the convention, the births of millions of children worldwide go unregistered  By their very nature, data concerning unregistered children are approximate  About 29% of countries do not have available or sufficient data to assess global progress toward the SDG goal of universal coverage  However, from the data that is available, UNICEF estimates that more than a quarter of children under 5 worldwide are unregistered  The lowest levels of birth registration are found in sub-Saharan Africa (43 percent)  This phenomenon disproportionately impacts poor households and indigenous populations  Even in many developed countries, it contributes to difficulties in fully accessing civic rights Birth registration opens the door to rights to children and adults which many other human beings take for granted: to prove their age; to prove their nationality; to receive healthcare; to go to school; to take exams; to be adopted; to protection from underage military service or conscription; to marry; to open a bank account; to hold a driving licence; to obtain a passport; to inherit money or property; and to vote or stand for elected office There are many reasons why births go unregistered, including social and cultural beliefs and attitudes; alternative documents and naming ceremonies; remote areas, poor infrastructure; economic barriers; lack of office staff, equipment and training; legal and political restrictions; fear of discrimination and persecution; war, conflict and unrest or simply the fact that there is no system in place Retrospective registration may be necessary where there is a backlog of children whose births have gone unregistered  In Senegal, the government is facilitating retrospective registration through free local court hearings and the number of unregistered children has fallen considerably as a result 
In Sierra Leone, the government gave the National Office of Births and Deaths special permission to issue birth certificates to children over seven  In Bolivia, there was a successful three-year amnesty for the free registration of young people aged between 12 and 18 Statelessness, or the lack of effective nationality, impacts the daily lives of some 11–12 million people around the world  Perhaps those who suffer most are stateless infants, children, and adolescents  Although born and raised in their parents' country of habitual residence, they lack formal recognition of their existence 

Algeria
The establishment of the first birth certificates in Algeria dates from the 1830s, during the French colonial era  Full copies are issued only by the commune of birth  However, birth certificates can be issued by any municipality or consulate on presentation of a family record book and are valid for 10 years In 2020, the government launched an online service for requesting civil status documents The secure birth certificate, known as 12S (in Arabic: 12خ), is an extract of birth certificate issued once in a lifetime on a special and secured paper, this document is mandatory for the issuance of the biometric ID and passport 

Australia
States and territories of Australia are responsible for the issuance of birth certificates, through agencies generally titled "Registry of Births Deaths and Marriages" or similar Initially registering a birth is done by a hospital through a "Birth Registration Statement" or similar, signed by appropriately licensed and authorized health professionals, and provided to the state or territory registry  Home births are permitted, but a statement is required from a registered midwife, doctor or 2 other witnesses other than the parent(s)  Unplanned births require in some states that the baby be taken to a hospital within 24 hours  Once registered, a separate application (sometimes it can be done along with the Birth Registration Statement) can be made for a birth certificate, generally at a cost  The person(s) named or the parent(s) can apply for a certificate at any time  Generally, there is no restriction on re-applying for a certificate at a later date, so it could be possible to legally hold multiple original copies 
The Federal government requires that births be also registered through a "Proof of Birth Declaration" similarly signed as above by a doctor or midwife  This ensures the appropriate benefits can be paid, and the child is enrolled for Medicare The state or territory issued birth certificate is a secure A4 paper document, generally listing: Full name at birth, sex at birth, parent(s) and occupation(s), older sibling(s), address(es), date and place of birth, name of the registrar, date of registration, date of issue of certificate, a registration number, with the signature of the registrar and seal of the registry printed and/or embossed  Most states allow for stillbirths to be issued a birth certificate  Some states issue early pregnancy loss certificates (without legal significance if before 20 weeks)  Depending on the state or territory, amendments on the certificate are allowed to correct an entry, add ascendant, recognize same-sex relationship, changing the sex of the holder is possible in all states and territories The full birth certificate in Australia is an officially recognized identity document generally in the highest category  The birth certificate assists in establishing citizenship  Shorter and/or commemorative birth certificates are available; however, they are not generally acceptable for identification purposes Birth certificates in Australia can be verified online by approved agencies through the Attorney-General's Department Document Verification Service and can be used to validate identity digitally, e g  online 

Canada
In Canada, the issuance of birth certificates is a function of the provinces and territories  In 2008, provinces and territories started rolling out new polymer certificates to new applicants Canadian birth certificates may be obtained from the following:

Alberta – A registry agent authorised by the Province
British Columbia – British Columbia Vital Statistics Agency
Manitoba – Manitoba Vital Statistics Agency
New Brunswick – Service New Brunswick
Newfoundland and Labrador – Service NL
Northwest Territories – Health Services Administration Office
Nova Scotia – Access Nova Scotia
Nunavut – Registrar-General of Vital Statistics
Ontario – ServiceOntario
Prince Edward Island – Vital Statistics Registry
Quebec – Director of Civil Status (Directeur de l'état civil)
Saskatchewan – eHealth Saskatchewan
Yukon – Vital Statistics, Government of Yukon

Types issued
There are three forms of birth certificates issued:

Certified true copy/photostat – contains all information available on the birth of a person 
Long-form – contains name, place and date of birth, parental information, date of issue, date of registration, registration number, certificate number, and authorised signature(s) 
Short-form – as with long-form, except for parental information  Previously in card format 
Residents of Quebec born elsewhere can have their non-Quebec birth record inserted into Quebec's birth register  Quebec birth certificates issued with regard to a birth that occurred outside of Quebec are referred to as "semi-authentic" under paragraph 137 of the Civil Code of Québec, until their full authenticity is recognised by a Quebec court  Inserting one's birth record into the Quebec register is a prerequisite for anyone born outside of Quebec to apply for a legal name and/or legal gender change in the province  Semi-authentic birth certificates are issued in the long-form only 

Languages
Depending on the province, certificates are in English, French or both languages  Birth certificates from Canadian territories are in English and French, as well as Inuktitut in Nunavut (though individual data is in the Roman alphabet only, not in Inuktitut syllabics)  The Northwest Territories previously issued certificates bearing Inuktitut 

DND 419 birth certificates
In 1963, the Department of National Defence started issuing birth certificates to dependents of Canadian Forces members born overseas  These certificates were never accorded legal status, but served as a convenient substitute for the original record of birth from the country of birth  In November 1979, production of these certificates ceased Today, the DND 419 is recognised as a proof of age, but not of citizenship  At least two Canadians have had Canadian passports withheld on the basis of their DND 419 birth certificates 

China
The People's Republic of China issued its first medical birth certificate on 1 January 1996  Persons born prior to that date can obtain a birth certificate from a Chinese notary public by way of presenting their hukou and other supporting documents  The notary then proceeds to issue a notarial birth certificate based on the information contained in the said documentation  This notarial birth certificate is acceptable for immigration purposes The fifth-generation medical birth certificate was adopted nationwide on 1 January 2014  Still, China is amongst those countries with no globally comparable data, presenting challenges to researchers who wish to assess global and regional progress towards universal birth registration 

Cuba
In Cuba, birth certificates are issued by the local civil registries 
With the passage of Extraordinary Official Gazette Number 9 of 2020, issued by the Cuban Ministry of Justice, birth certificates (as with all other vital records, excepting certificates of single status) will no longer expire after a certain amount of time Children born to Cuban citizens abroad may have the details of their birth transcribed in a Cuban civil registry through a Cuban overseas mission  This is known as a Birth Certificate Transcript  Because of the considerable difficulty of obtaining Cuban vital records for individuals residing outside of Cuba – even where Cuban overseas missions have been delegated to provide these services – private services such as the Massachusetts-based Cuba City Hall offer retrieval services, wherein they apply for a certificate from a Cuban civil registry on behalf of an overseas individual  These services have been called overpriced 

Czech Republic
The Czech Republic maintains a registry of vital records, including births, of people, regardless of nationality, or birthplace  Every citizen of the Czech Republic will need to register their birth if born abroad, effectively granting a foreign born person two birth certificates  The Czech Republic will also register foreigners in some cases  The office that registers births is colloquially called 'matrika' 

Denmark
In Denmark, the authority responsible for registering births is the Registrar of the Church of Denmark There are three types of Danish birth certificates:

Personattest (Certificate of Personal Data): issued to persons born in (or baptised in) Denmark 
Foedsels- og Daabsattest (Birth and Baptism Certificate): issued to persons born in Denmark and baptised in the Church of Denmark 
Foedsels- og Navneattest (Birth and Naming Certificate): issued to persons born in Denmark but not baptised in the Church of Denmark 

France
Civil records in France have been compulsory since the 1539 ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts, in which the King Francis I ordered the parishes to record baptisms, marriages and sepultures  Then in 1667 the parishes were asked to issue two registers in two different places in order to avoid the loss of data  Jews and Protestants were allowed to have their own records by Louis XVI in 1787  In 1792, the registers were fully secularized (birth, civil marriage and death replaced baptism, religious marriage and sepulture, plus an official kept the records instead of a priest), and the Code civil did create the compulsory birth certificate in 1804 (in its articles 34, 38, 39 et 57)  This document should be completed at one's marriage since 1897, at one's divorce since 1939, at one's death since 1945 and at one's civil union since 2006  A note is added on the certificate for all these events 

Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, the system is similar to England and Wales, wherein the government keeps a birth register book, and the birth certificate is actually a certified copy of the birth register book entry Currently, the Immigration Department is the official birth registrar  All parents need to register their children's birth within 42 days  Birth certificates issued between 1 July 1997 and 27 April 2008 recorded whether or not the child's Hong Kong permanent resident status was established at birth  Birth certificates issued after the latter date record which provision of the Immigration Ordinance the said status has been established under 

India
Traditionally births were poorly recorded in India For official purposes, other proofs are accepted in India in lieu of the birth certificate, such as matriculation certificates  Facilities are available to produce a birth certificate from a passport By law since 1969, registration of births is compulsory as per provisions of Registration of Births & Deaths Act  Birth certificates are issued by the Government of India or the municipality concerned  Specific rules vary by state, region and municipality 
In Delhi, for example, births must be registered within 21 days by the hospital or institution, or by a family member if the birth has taken place at home  After registration, a birth certificate can be obtained by applying to the relevant authority  Certificates can also be issued under special provisions to adopted children, and undocumented orphans  Overseas births can also be registered Some municipalities, such as the Greater Chennai Corporation allow for fully digital birth certificates to be applied for, printed, and verified online 

Indonesia
The current legislation governing the registration of births is the 2006 Act No 23 on the Administration of Civil Status (UU No  23 Tahun 2006 tentang Administrasi Kependudukan), as amended by 2013 Act No 24 on Amendments to 2006 Act No 23 

Births outside Indonesia
Pursuant to Chapter 29 of the Act, Indonesian citizens born overseas must register their births with the local civil registrar using a foreign birth certificate upon returning to Indonesia, and receive a Report of Birth Abroad (Tanda Bukti Laporan Kelahiran)  If born in a jurisdiction which does not register the births of non-citizens, they will instead be issued a regular Birth Certificate by the local Indonesian overseas mission 

Births within Indonesia
Within Indonesia, local civil registrars are responsible for issuing birth certificates (akta kelahiran) 
The following Staatsbladen (state gazettes), enacted by the Dutch colonial government, were supplanted by the Act:

1849 Staatsblad 25 for persons of European descent
1917 Staatsblad 130 for persons of Chinese descent
1920 Staatsblad 751 for persons of Indigenous descent
1923 Staatsblad 75 for persons of Indigenous descent professing the Christian faithPrior to 1986, persons not born in any of the above groups had to be registered through court order  This changed by a 1986 decree of the Minister of Home Affairs, resulting in a jolt in the number of births being registered  In 1989, a subsequent decree was effected by the Minister, allowing those born between 1986 and 1989 to have their births registered There are several types of birth certificates issued to Indonesian-born individuals, per the Denpasar Civil Registry:
General Birth Certificate (Akta Kelahiran Umum)
Delayed Birth Certificate (Akta Kelahiran Terlambat)
Birth Certificate for a Child Born to a Single Mother (Akta Kelahiran Anak Seorang Ibu)Pursuant to the Act's domicile principle, a birth certificate is issued by the Civil Registry of the parents' home regency or city, as determined from their Indonesian identity card  This is not always the same place as the actual regency or city of birth of the child 
There is no such thing as a certified copy of the original birth registration form; all Indonesian birth certificates are abstracts in nature and list an individual's nationality, name, place and date of birth, birth order, parents' names and marital status only  Indonesian birth certificates are typically laminated like Malaysian and Singaporean ones; however, unlike Malaysia and Singapore, it is not done at the time of issuance by the civil registry  The Indonesian government recommends against lamination, as it may render the certificate unacceptable for use overseas (laminated certificates cannot be legalised) In 2019, Indonesian local civil registrars began to issue birth certificates with QR codes in lieu of the traditional authenticating signature and stamp  Widodo, director of civil registry services for the Bengkulu Civil Registry, is quoted as saying that "this is by decree of the Minister of Home Affairs, and will help simplify things for the general public as they will no longer be required to go through the hassle of getting [birth certificates] legalised " In July 2020, Indonesia phased out birth certificates printed on security paper, and started allowing Indonesian-born people to print out their own birth certificates on regular A4 paper; these certificates have the same legal value as birth certificates printed on security paper  The move reportedly helped the central government save 450 billion rupiahs in the 2020 fiscal year 

Iran
A shenasnameh (شناسنامه), or birth certificate is issued by the National Organization for Civil Registration  It includes the name and surname of the infant, place and date of birth, gender, information relating to the parents including their names and residences, and the "registration documentation (witness or physician's certificate)  A newer format was introduced in 2015  Those eligible to replication include newborn babies, people who are changing their names, those who have lost their original birth certificates, and those born before 2001 who have reached the age of 15 and need to change their cards to add the photograph  Those applying for a new certificate must show their old certificate 

Japan
In Japan, the household registration document (jp: 戸籍, koseki) is generally used in lieu of a birth certificate 
Since a koseki also acts as proof of Japanese citizenship, only Japanese citizens can hold one  Anyone born in Japan, including children born to non-Japanese parents, can obtain a Certificate of Matters Stated In a Written Notification (jp: 出生届記載事項証明書, shussei todoke kisai jiko shomeisho)  A Certificate of Matters Stated In a Written Notification may be obtained from the city/ward/town office the birth was reported to, and is the equivalent of a birth certificate  This is to be distinguished from a Certificate of Acceptance of Birth Notification (jp: 出生届受理証明 書, shussei todoke juri shomeisho), which, according to the Australian Embassy at Tokyo, only constitutes a receipt proving that a birth registration has been lodged with a city/ward/town office Birth records for children born to non-Japanese parents in Japan are not maintained permanently; usually only for the duration of ten years from the date of lodgement, but this varies from one city/ward/town office to another 

Malaysia
In Malaysia, the National Registration Department (Jabatan Pendaftaran Negara) is responsible for the registration of births, and for issuing birth certificates (sijil kelahiran) 
In 2011, the department started colour-coding birth certificates  Henceforth, citizens at birth would receive a pale-green birth certificate, while those who do not acquire Malaysian citizenship at birth would be given a red birth certificate  Then-director Datin Jariah Mohd Said was reported as saying that "it [would] address the wrong impression among foreign parents that their children automatically become Malaysians by virtue of them having the pale green certificate "Malaysian birth certificates are laminated at the time of issuance, forming an exception to most countries' need for an unlaminated document (e g  the United Kingdom when applying for a passport) 

Morocco
In Morocco, there are 3 birth documents: the "Extrait d'acte de naissance" (proof of Moroccan citizenship), a "Fiche individuelle de naissance" and an "Acte de naissance"  All of them are valid for 3 months  In 2017, the government opened requests for birth certificates online 

New Zealand
The Department of Internal Affairs is responsible for issuing birth certificates in New Zealand  Certain historical records including historical birth certificates are available online in a searchable format on the Birth, Death and Marriage Historical Records website  The available records are for births recorded at least one hundred years ago 

Citizenship information is recorded on New Zealand birth certificates for births after 1 January 2006, as this was when the country formally ended its practice of jus soli 

Nigeria
The birth certificate in Nigeria is a document that entails the date of birth, location (Town, L G A and state) and details of the parents  It is issued by the National Population Commission for every child and is usually issued at the hospital where the child is born and it is compulsory for everyone 
The National Population Commission (NPC) formed in 1992, is the only body responsible for registering births, and issuing certificates in the country For those who were not issued a certificate at birth, it is possible to apply for one up until their 18th birthday  However, only people aged 18 and below are issued a birth certificate  
People above age 18 are issued an 'Age Declaration Affidavit'  Although now in Nigeria, you will have to provide an attestation letter issued by the NPC as the 'Age Declaration Affidavit' is no longer a sufficient document 
An attestation letter is a written document given as backup for the 'Age Declaration Affidavit' 
However, in terms of legal value and effect, the attestation of a birth certificate is equal to a birth certificate  
The NPC Act states that only people born after 1992 are eligible to apply for birth certificate since that was when the NPC was formed  Also only birth certificate issued at birth or 60 days after birth is free any scenario after birth would require you to pay 

Philippines
A birth certificate in the Philippines is a document being issued by the Philippine Statistics Authority and has lifetime validity  In almost all cases, this document is required by other government agencies as a primary requirement for getting service or benefits 

Russia
Russian birth certificates were previously issued in a booklet format, similar to that of internal passports; today, they are issued on numbered and watermarked A4 security paper  They are typically issued in the Russian language only; however, if a birth is recorded in one of the Russian republics with federal subject status, the resulting birth certificate may be bilingual (Russian and the official language of the said republic) 

Filling a birth certificate
A Russian birth certificate may either be filled out in type or print  It is then signed and sealed by a qualified officer of the public authority issuing the certificate (a local civil registry or Russian overseas mission)  By default, information on the parents' ethnic origins is no longer recorded – however, it may be recorded upon request 

Obtaining a birth certificate
A Russian birth certificate may be applied for by the person named on the certificate if they are of full age, their parents if still vested with parental rights, their guardian(s) and/or caregiver(s)  If the certificate is lost, the public authority that issued the original document issues a replacement on application 

Singapore
In Singapore, the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority is the registrar of births  All births in the country must be registered at a gazetted birth registration centre by the parents or by authorised proxy  A Certificate of Registration of Birth is received after the registration of birth; a Certificate of Extract from Register of Births is issued for all subsequent requests for birth certificates 
The ICA annotates birth certificates with citizenship information; a child born without a claim to Singapore citizenship will have a remark on their birth certificate stating "this child is not a citizen of Singapore at the time of birth"  Conversely, a child born with a claim to Singapore citizenship will have "this child is a citizen of Singapore at the time of birth" on theirs 
Singaporean birth certificates are laminated at the time of issuance, forming an exception to most foreign countries' need for an unlaminated document (e g  the United Kingdom when applying for a passport)  This practice began on 1 January 1967 

Somalia
In Somalia, many births go unregistered – owing to the mainly nomadic nature of the populace Prior to 1991, the Siad Barre government issued birth certificates (Somali: shahaadada dhalashada or warqadda dhalashada) for events occurring in urban areas  Subsequent to the collapse of said government, Somalia ceased to have a functioning birth registration system  As of January 2014, it has been reported by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs that Somalia has once again started issuing birth certificates, primarily for Somali citizens to be able to obtain the new Somali passport  In Mogadishu, this function is fulfilled by the Mayor of Mogadishu 

Somali autonomous regions, such as Jubaland, Puntland, and Somaliland, have separate, functioning birth registration systems for those born within their respective jurisdictions  In Somaliland, birth certificates are routinely issued only to babies born at a hospital  Home births are registered by way of affidavit with the Somaliland Ministry of Religious Affairs at Hargeisa 

Sweden
Sweden no longer issues birth certificates  Instead, the Swedish Tax Agency will issue a Personbevis (Extract from the Population Register) for individuals born in Sweden  This takes the place of both birth and marriage certificates for international purposes  The Extract contains, inter alia, place and date of birth, parental information, marriage status, and current registered address 

Syria
In Syria, the father is primarily responsible for registering the birth of a child  Due to the ongoing civil war, many births have gone unregistered 

South Korea
Birth certificates are not issued in Korea  When a foreign embassy requests a birth certificate, Koreans submit a basic certificate containing the place of birth, date of birth, etc , and a family relations certificate containing their parents' resident registration number and name 

United Kingdom
England and Wales
In England and Wales, the description "birth certificate" is used to describe a certified copy of an entry in the birth register Civil registration of births, marriages and deaths in England and Wales started on 1 July 1837  Registration was not compulsory until 1875, following the Registration of Births and Deaths Act 1874, which made registration of a birth the responsibility of those present at the birth  When a birth is registered, the details are entered into the register book at the local register office for the district in which the birth took
place and is retained permanently in the local register office  A copy of each entry in the birth register is sent to the General Register Office (GRO) 

Pre-1837 birth and baptism records
Before the government's registration system was created, evidence of births and/or baptisms (and also marriages and death or burials) was dependent on the events being recorded in the records of the Church of England or in those of other various churches – not all of which maintained such records or all types of those records  Copies of such records are not issued by the General Register Office; but can be obtained from these churches, or from the local or national archive, which usually now keeps the records in original or copy form 

Types of certified copies issued in England and Wales
Long-form certificates are copies of the original entry in the birth register, giving all the recorded details  Information includes; name, sex, date, and place of birth of the child, parents' name, place of birth and occupation  Certificates for births registered before 1 April 1969 do not show the parents' places of birth, and those before 1984 do not show mother's occupation Short-form certificates show the child's full name, sex, date, and place of birth  They do not give any detail(s) of the parent(s); they therefore do not prove parentage  Both versions of a certificate can be used in the verification of identity by acting as a support to other information or documentation
provided  Where proof of parentage is required, only a full certificate will be accepted The original registrations are required by law to be issued in the form of certified copies to any person who identifies an index entry and pays the prescribed fee  They can be ordered by registered users from the General Register Office Certificate Ordering Service or by postal or telephone ordering from the General Register Office or by post or in person from local registrars  If the birth was registered within the past 50 years, detailed information is required before a certificate will be issued  The General Register Office draws on several registers for the issuance of birth certificates: the Register of Live Births, the Register of Stillbirths, the Abandoned Children Register, the Adopted Children Register, the Parental Order Register, and the Gender Recognition Register (for holders of Gender Recognition Certificates) 
The General Register Office also issues birth certificates relating to births on UK-registered aircraft, vessels, and births of His Majesty's Armed Forces dependents  This authority is delegated to the Office by the Registry of Shipping and Seamen, part of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency, for births aboard UK-flagged ships; and by the Civil Aviation Authority for births aboard UK-flagged aircraft 

Rest of the British Isles
In the rest of the British Isles, there are several different birth registration authorities:

In Scotland, the National Records of Scotland 
In Northern Ireland, the General Register Office Northern Ireland (GRONI) 
In Guernsey, the Greffe of the Royal Court of Guernsey 
In Jersey, the Office of the Superintendent Registrar 
In the Isle of Man, the Civil Registry  The registration of births became mandated in 1878 on the Isle 

Other cases
Consular birth registration is available for those who establish entitlement to British nationality at birth overseas  This is especially helpful when the jurisdiction in question does not allow multiple citizenship or the registration of an illegitimate child's birth  Prior to 1983, such registrations were accepted as proof of British nationality alone  Pursuant to a Reform Order by the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, new consular birth registrations issued for children born after 1 January 1983, and certificates for people born before that date re-issued starting 1 January 2014, are no longer accepted as stand-alone proof of British nationality In addition, certificates of birth issued under the Registration of  Births, Deaths and Marriages (Special Provisions) Act 1957 (registered on HM Forces bases overseas), are also not recognised as proof of nationality status alone  Such births would also have to be registered in the local authority where the birth took place, and the parents would have to apply for a foreign certificate as proof of citizenship British Overseas Territories have their own independent regimes for issuance of a birth certificate  Additionally, as a result of Argentina's claim over the Falkland Islands, Falklander-born people may also apply for an Argentine birth certificate 

United States
In the U S , the issuance of birth certificates is a function of the vital statistics agency or equivalent of the state, federal district, territory or former territory of birth  Birth in the U S  typically confers citizenship by birth (non-citizen nationality in American Samoa), so a U S  birth certificate doubly serves as evidence of United States citizenship or non-citizen nationality  U S  birth certificates are therefore commonly provided to the federal government to obtain a U S  passport The U S  State Department issues a Consular Report of Birth Abroad (which does not technically certify birth but often substitutes for a birth certificate) for children born to U S  citizens or non-citizen nationals (who are also eligible for citizenship or non-citizen nationality), including births on military bases in foreign territory  Children who do not receive the certificate at the time of birth may apply for it anytime until the age of 18  Natural-born citizens of the United States born abroad may receive a USCIS Certificate of Citizenship instead to prove their citizenship status 
The federal and state governments have traditionally cooperated to some extent to improve vital statistics  From 1900 to 1946 the U S  Census Bureau designed standard birth certificates, collected vital statistics on a national basis, and generally sought to improve the accuracy of vital statistics  In 1946 that responsibility was passed to the U S  Public Health Service  Unlike the British system of recording all births in "registers", the states file an individual document for each and every birth The U S  National Center for Health Statistics creates standard forms that are recommended for use by the individual states to document births  However, states are free to create their own forms  As a result, neither the appearance nor the information content of birth certificate forms is uniform across states  These forms are completed by the attendant at birth or a hospital administrator, which are then forwarded to a local or state registrar, who stores the record and issues certified copies upon request 

Birth certificates for individuals born in or adopted to the United States
According to the Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector General, as of 2000 there were more than 6,000 entities issuing birth certificates  The Inspector General report stated that according to the staff at the Immigration and Naturalization Service's Forensics Document Laboratory the number of legitimate birth certificate versions in use exceeded 14,000 

Short-form birth certificates and acceptance thereof
In the case of applying for a U S  passport, not all legitimate government-issued birth certificates are acceptable:
A certified birth certificate has a registrar's raised, embossed, impressed or multicolored seal, registrar's signature, and the date the certificate was filed with the registrar's office, which must be within 1 year of your birth  Please note, some short (abstract) versions of birth certificates may not be acceptable for passport purposes 
Beginning June 10, 2009, all birth certificates must also include the full name of the applicant's parent(s) 
The U S  State Department has paid close attention to abstract certificates from both Texas and California  There have been reports of a high incidence of midwife registration fraud along the border region between Texas and Mexico, and the Texas abstract certificate form does not list the name or occupation of the attendant  The California Abstract of Birth did not include an embossed seal, was no longer considered a secure document, and have not been issued in California since 2001 

Souvenir birth certificates
Most hospitals in the U S  issue a souvenir birth certificate which may include the footprints of the newborn  However, these birth certificates are not legally accepted as proof of age or citizenship, and are frequently rejected by the Bureau of Consular Affairs during passport applications  Many Americans believe the souvenir records to be their official birth certificates when, in reality, they hold little legal value 

Birth certificates after adoption
When an adoption is finalized in the U S , most states and the District of Columbia seal the original birth certificate  In its place, a replacement or amended birth certificate is issued, with the adoptee's new name and adoptive parents listed "as if" the adoptee was born to the adoptive parents  Adopted persons in ten states have an unrestricted right to obtain a copy of the original birth certificate when they are adults: Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Connecticut, Kansas, Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, and Rhode Island  The remaining states and the District of Columbia either require a court order to release a copy of the original birth certificate or have other restrictions, such as permission of biological parent(s) or redaction of information upon request of a biological parent For foreign-born intercountry adoptees, U S  jurisdictions may issue a Certificate of Foreign Birth that serves as documentary evidence of the child's birth and the child's legal relationship to the adoptive United States parents  These certificates, however, do not serve as evidence of U S  citizenship and must be supplemented by another document to prove citizenship, such as a Certificate of Citizenship, a United States passport or a Certificate of Naturalization 

Consular reports of birth for individuals born overseas
Prior to 1990, the Vital Records Section of the Department's Passport Services office was responsible for certifying American births overseas, and issued form FS-545, formally known as a Certification of Birth Abroad of a Citizen of the United States of America  In 1990, the department changed its policy to make clear that a report issued by them is only supplementary to, and does not substitute for a locally issued birth certificate; the report, however, does serve as prima facie documentary evidence of the acquisition of United States citizenship or non-citizen nationality at birth  The department contends that the issuance of birth certificates is a function that is expressly reserved to local vital statistics authorities and may not be assumed by a consular officer 
Notwithstanding the Department's position, however, a consular report of birth is often the only government-issued record of birth for certain individuals  For example, those born on a U S  Armed Forces base in Germany do not have their births registered with the local German registrar, but only with the Department of State  Because they cannot receive a German birth certificate, their CRBA is their de facto birth certificate  Between 1990 and December 2010, the department issued form DS-1350, formally known as a Certification of Report of Birth of a United States Citizen; and form FS-240, formally known as the Consular Report of Birth Abroad of a Citizen of the United States of America  Since January 2011, the Department of State has issued only form FS-240 

See also
Birth registration in ancient Rome
Birth registration campaign in Liberia
Closed adoption
Death certificate
Identity card
Use of birth certificates in smart contracts
Marriage certificate
Marriage license
Passport
Sealed birth records
Vital record
People's Republic of China Marriage Certificate
Passage 6:
Malko Tarnovo Municipality
Malko Tarnovo Municipality (Bulgarian: Община Малко Търново, Obshtina Malko Tarnovo) is a municipality in Burgas Province, Bulgaria  It includes the town of Malko Tarnovo and a number of villages 

Demographics
Religion
According to the latest Bulgarian census of 2011, the religious composition, among those who answered the optional question on religious identification, was the following:
Passage 7:
Cargo 360
Cargo 360 was a cargo airline based in Seattle, Washington, USA  It specialised in ACMI (Aircraft, Crew, Maintenance and Insurance) wet lease operations  Its main headquarters was at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport 

History
The airline started operations on 15 May 2006  It was established by H  David Greenberg, and other entrepreneurs  The airline was owned by Oak Hill Capital Partners (86%) and David Greenberg, President and CEO (14%) On July 30, 2007, Oak Hill Capital Partners acquired Southern Air and merged the two airlines into one, giving birth to Southern Air Holdings, Inc  Consequently, Cargo 360 was absorbed into Southern Air in January 2008 and ceased operating under its own colors 
The logo and aircraft livery was designed by Dave and Jackie Greenberg and Chad Hill while with Redorchestra Creative (now defunct) in Chicago, IL 

Destinations
Cargo 360 had an ACMI contract with Korean Air Cargo between Incheon International Airport Incheon, South Korea and multiple destinations within the United States 

Fleet
As of September 2007, the Cargo 360 fleet included:
1 Boeing 747-3B5M(SF) - N301JD
2 Boeing 747-2B5F/SCD - N298JD and N299JD

See also
List of defunct airlines of the United States
Passage 8:
Female reproductive system
The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in the reproduction of new offspring  In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a fetus to full term  The internal sex organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries  The female reproductive tract includes the vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes and is prone to infections  The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and childbirth, and is connected to the uterus at the cervix   The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the fetus  The uterus also produces secretions which help the transit of sperm to the fallopian tubes, where sperm fertilize ova (egg cells) produced by the ovaries  The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening During the menstrual cycle, the ovaries release an ovum, which transits through the fallopian tube into the uterus  If an egg cell meets with sperm on its way to the uterus, a single sperm cell can enter and merge with it, fertilizing it into a zygote 
Fertilization usually occurs in the fallopian tubes and marks the beginning of embryogenesis  The zygote will then divide over enough generations of cells to form a blastocyst, which implants itself in the wall of the uterus  This begins the period of gestation and the embryo will continue to develop until full-term  When the fetus has developed enough to survive outside the uterus, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the newborn through the birth canal (the vagina) 
The corresponding equivalent among males is the male reproductive system 

External organs
The female external reproductive organs are the secondary sex organs that are visible externally 

Vulva
The vulva consists of all of the external parts and tissues and includes the mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora, labia minora, Bartholin's glands, Skene's glands, clitoris, urethra, and vaginal opening 

Internal organs
The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries 

Vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular (made up of fibrous and muscular tissue) canal leading from the outside of the body to the cervix of the uterus or womb  It is also referred to as the birth canal in the context of pregnancy  The vagina accommodates the male penis during sexual intercourse  Semen containing spermatozoa is ejaculated from the male at orgasm, into the vagina potentially enabling fertilization of the egg cell (ovum) to take place 

Cervix
The cervix is the neck of the uterus, the lower, narrow portion where it joins with the upper part of the vagina  It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall  Approximately half its length is visible, the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view  The vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where the fetus emerges during delivery 

Uterus
The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ  The uterus provides mechanical protection, nutritional support, and waste removal for the developing embryo (weeks 1 to 8) and fetus (from week 9 until the delivery)  In addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus are important in pushing out the fetus at the time of birth 
The uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of the uterus and limits its range of movement  The uterosacral ligaments keep the body from moving inferiorly and anteriorly  The round ligaments restrict posterior movement of the uterus  The cardinal ligaments also prevent the inferior movement of the uterus 
The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ  Its major function is to accept a fertilized ovum which becomes implanted into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose  The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, develops into a fetus and gestates until childbirth  If the egg does not embed in the wall of the uterus, a female begins menstruation 

Fallopian tube
The Fallopian tubes are two tubes leading from the ovaries into the uterus  On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube  There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes  This trip takes hours or days   If the ovum is fertilized while in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning of pregnancy 

Ovaries
The ovaries are small, paired organs located near the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity  These organs are responsible for the production of the egg cells (ova) and the secretion of hormones   The process by which the egg cell (ovum) is released is called ovulation  The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to the length of a menstrual cycle 
After ovulation, the egg cell is captured by the Fallopian tube, after traveling down the Fallopian tube to the uterus, occasionally being fertilized on its way by an incoming sperm  During fertilization the egg cell plays a role; it releases certain molecules that are essential to guiding the sperm and allows the surface of the egg to attach to the sperm's surface  The egg can then absorb the sperm and fertilization can then begin 

Function
The female reproductive system functions to produce offspring 
In the absence of fertilization, the ovum will eventually traverse the entire reproductive tract from the fallopian tube until exiting the vagina through menstruation 
The reproductive tract can be used for various transluminal procedures such as fertiloscopy, intrauterine insemination, and transluminal sterilization 

Development
Chromosome characteristics determine the genetic sex of a fetus at conception  This is specifically based on the 23rd pair of chromosomes that is inherited  Since the mother's egg contains an X chromosome and the father's sperm contains either an X or Y chromosome, it is the male who determines the fetus's sex  If the fetus inherits the X chromosome from the father, the fetus will be a female  In this case, testosterone is not made and the Wolffian duct will degrade thus, the Müllerian duct will develop into female sex organs  The clitoris is the remnants of the Wolffian duct  On the other hand, if the fetus inherits the Y chromosome from the father, the fetus will be a male  The presence of testosterone will stimulate the Wolffian duct which will bring about the development of the male sex organs and the Müllerian duct will degrade 

Clinical significance
Vaginitis
Vaginitis is inflammation of the vagina and largely caused by an infection  It is the most common gynaecological condition presented  It is difficult to determine any one organism most responsible for vaginitis because it varies from range of age, sexual activity, and method of microbial identification  Vaginitis is not necessarily caused by a sexually transmitted infection as there are many infectious agents that make use of the close proximity to mucous membranes and secretions  Vaginitis is usually diagnosed based on the presence of vaginal discharge, which can have a certain color, odor, or quality 

Bacterial vaginosis
This is a vaginal infection in women  It differs from vaginitis in that there is no inflammation  Bacterial vaginosis is polymicrobial, consisting of many bacteria species  The diagnosis for bacterial vaginosis is made if three of the following four criteria are present: (1) Homogenous, thin discharge, (2) a pH of 4 5 in the vagina, (3) epithelial cells in the vagina with bacteria attached to them, or (4) a fishy odor  It has been associated with an increased risk of other genital tract infections such as endometritis 

Yeast infection
This is a common cause of vaginal irritation and according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at least 75% of adult women have experienced one at least once in their lifetime  Yeast infections are caused by an overgrowth of fungus in the vagina known as Candida  Yeast infections are usually caused by an imbalance of the pH in the vagina, which is usually acidic  Other factors such as pregnancy, diabetes, weakened immune systems, tight fitting clothing, or douching can also be a cause  Symptoms of yeast infections include itching, burning, irritation, and a white cottage-cheese-like discharge from the vagina  Women have also reported that they experience painful intercourse and urination as well  Taking a sample of the vaginal secretions and placing them under a microscope for evidence of yeast can diagnose a yeast infection  Treatment varies from creams that can be applied in or around the vaginal area to oral tablets that stop the growth of fungus 

Genital mutilation
There are many practices of mutilating female genitalia in different cultures  The most common two types of genital mutilation practiced are clitoridectomy, the circumcision of the clitoris and the excision of the prepuce the skin around the clitoris  They can all involve a range of adverse health consequences such as bleeding, irreparable tissue damage, and sepsis which can sometimes prove fatal 

Genital surgery
Genitoplasty refers to surgery that is carried out to repair damaged sex organs particularly following cancer and its treatment 
There are also elective surgical procedures which change the appearance of the external genitals 

Birth control
There are many types of birth control available to females   Birth control can be hormonal or physical in nature   Oral contraception can assist with management of various medical conditions, such as menorrhagia   However, oral contraceptives can have a variety of side effects, including depression 

Reproductive rights
The International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics was founded in 1954 to promote the well-being of women particularly in raising the standards of gynaecological practice and care  As of 2010 there were 124 countries involved 
Reproductive rights are legal rights related to reproduction and reproductive health  Women have the right to control matters involving their sexuality including their sexual and reproductive health  Violation of these rights include forced pregnancy, forced sterilization, forced abortion and genital mutilation  Female genital mutilation is the complete or partial removal of a female's external genitals 

History
It is claimed in the Hippocratic writings that both males and females contribute their seed to conception; otherwise, children would not resemble either or both of their parents  Four-hundred years later, Galen "identified" the source of 'female semen' as the ovaries in female reproductive organs 

See also
Conception
Development of the reproductive system
Evolution of sexual reproduction
Female infertility
Oogenesis
Human sexuality § Female anatomy and reproductive system
Orgasm § In females
Passage 9:
Sleen
Sleen is a village in Drenthe, Netherlands of about 2,500 people  Sleen has been inhabited for centuries  Much ancient history can be found in the area, particularly in the forests (which are planted, though)  At birth and during the Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden (Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (1581–1795))  Sleen became the capital of one of the six “dingspels” (administrative areas) of Drenthe  When Drenthe was recognised as a province, Sleen became a municipality capital, before it merged into the municipality of Coevorden 
Sleen has a 450-year-old church  At about 68 meters, it is the highest church in the entire province  Nowadays, it functions as a Dutch Reformed Church  There is also another Protestant church in the village 
Nowadays, Sleen has its own supermarket (behind the former police station), library,  fish stand (every Wednesday), cafés, a few other shops, hair salons, petrol station, sports park (soccer, tennis, multipurpose indoor complex), horse riding school, houses for the elderly, and other facilities 
There are also two schools: CBS “de Fontein” (Christian primary school) and OBS “de Akker” (public primary school) 
“De Brink” is the “centre” and the old part of the village, with some historic houses and a brick road  This is also where the two churches are, and other facilities like the former municipal centre  New houses were constructed over time, and an area known as “de nieuwbouw” is where the most recently constructed houses can be found 
The famous Pieterpad (a long hiking route that runs from Pieterburen in the north of the country to the St Pietersberg in Maastricht in the south) goes straight through Sleen  The windmill De Hoop has been restored to working order 

Notable people
Joël Voordewind (born 1965), politician
Passage 10:
Star Trek: Birth of the Federation
Star Trek: Birth of the Federation (also known as Star Trek: The Next Generation: Birth of the Federation and Birth of the Federation) is a 4X turn-based strategy video game developed by MicroProse and published by Hasbro Interactive  The game was initially released in 1999 for Windows personal computers 
The game is set in the Star Trek fictional universe, specifically related to Star Trek: The Next Generation  The player takes control of one of five civilisations, either the Federation, Ferengi, Klingons, Romulans or Cardassians  Thirty other races from the Star Trek universe are included as minor races in the game  In addition to the strategy mode of the game, Birth of the Federation also features a 3D combat mode which uses the Falcon 4 0 engine 
The game's release was intended to tie-in with the film Star Trek: Insurrection  Birth of the Federation received average to good ratings from critics, who praised the look of the game but were critical of the AI of enemy factions, the research technologies and the time it took to play  It was compared to other games such as Master of Orion II and Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri 

Gameplay
The game is a 4X turn-based computer strategy game set in The Next Generation era of Star Trek, with only starships and races from that series and movies  There are no ships or races from The Original Series or Star Trek: Voyager unless they appeared on The Next Generation  For example, the Romulan Warbird from The Next Generation appears, but the Romulan Bird of Prey from The Original Series does not  There are two designs from Deep Space Nine that are in the game: the Heavy Escort Defiant Class and the Cardassian Starbase design used for Deep Space Nine, both of which appeared in a TNG episode or movie as well  The game is played on a 2d Galaxy Map which represents star systems, task forces, empire borders and other space phenomena via the use of icons  Map size varies: small (10x13), medium (12x16), and huge (18x26)  There are also separate screens for empire research, colony management, intelligence and diplomacy which are all accessed from a right-click main menu The player starts with a star system under their control and the purpose of the game is to create the most powerful empire in the galaxy  This is achieved through diplomacy, colonization of new worlds and defeating rivals  Winning the game in an alliance with a rival empire is also possible  Unlike similar games such as Master of Orion, diplomacy isn't the core means of winning the game for all factions  Instead the victory conditions also allow for the player to win if they control 60% of the population of the galaxy and the inhabited systems, but an alliance with another empire increases the percentage required to 75%  The "Vendetta" victory conditions requires an Empire to defeat two rivals; for the Federation it is the Romulans and the Cardassians Space Battles are turn-based, and allow for the player to issue orders to individual vessels  The player then watches the two sides follow their respective orders at the same time  These sequences can be recorded and replayed later in multiple camera angles  Space combats can also be skipped, allowing the computer to work out the results  Unlike games like Master of Orion II, there is no ability to customise the look of individual vessels or classes  Each of these use predefined designs  Multiplayer for up to five players can be played over a LAN, and was available on the internet via Hasbro Interactive's Games com The player is also required to manage resources for their empire  At an individual system level, the player must manage energy to power structures, food to feed the population and industry units which determines how quickly ships and structures can be constructed  Across an empire, the player must also manage credits which allow for structures and ships to be instantly constructed, to support ships beyond the maximum allowed by the population and to be used as gifts or bribes  In addition to population, the number of starships that an empire can build simultaneously is restricted by the number of dilithium refineries it owns 

Factions
Although the title of the game is Birth of the Federation, the player can choose from five major powers: The Federation, the Klingon Empire, the Romulan Star Empire, the Cardassian Union, and the Ferengi Alliance  Each of these factions have different advantages, so while the Federation is more proficient at diplomacy, the Klingons are better in military matters, and the Romulans at espionage  The Ferengi are the best at trading and have the unique ability to set up trade routes with minor factions without the need for treaties, and the Cardassians benefit from an increased production speed  In addition, the minor races can be befriended by the player and can eventually become part of their empire (either by joining peacefully or by conquest)  There are 30 minor races in the game  Each minor race adds a unique ability to the empire that controls them, for example the Bolians allow the player to construct a building which increases the effectiveness of spies in the game, and the Betazoids (with their telepathy) boost the effectiveness of counterintelligence 

Production
MicroProse had developed similar games such as Civilization (1991) and had been involved in the publishing of the Simtex games Master of Orion (1993), Master of Magic (1994) and Master of Orion II: Battle at Antares (1996)  Simtex itself closed in 1997, but Birth of the Federation had been described by critics as an unofficial sequel to the Orion games, and was in the mold of Civilization and Master of Magic  Microprose had the rights to create games based on Star Trek: The Next Generation, but did not hold the rights to Star Trek: The Original Series which were held by Interplay Entertainment The 3D battle sequences used the Falcon 4 0 engine, with each vessel rendered fully  In addition to being called Star Trek: The Next Generation: Birth of the Federation, it was also referred to as Star Trek: Birth of the Federation  Microprose previewed the game alongside Star Trek: Klingon Honour Guard at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in Atlanta, Georgia, in May 1998 The release of Birth of the Federation was intended to coincide with the theatrical release of the film Star Trek: Insurrection  Birth of the Federation was released on May 25, 1999, in the United States, and on May 28, in the United Kingdom 

Reception
The game received average reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings  Peter Suciu reviewed the game for CNN, and criticised the computer AI as it didn't portray the races in the same manner as in the television series  For example, the Klingon faction will seek peace agreements when they begin to lose a war, and the Federation will request tributes in order to prevent that faction from attacking the player  He was also disappointed that the earlier ships were still from Star Trek: The Next Generation rather than Star Trek: The Original Series  Suciu felt that the game was on-par with both Master of Orion and Master of Orion II, and said that knowledge of the races "makes for a more compelling game"  Keith Ferrell in his review for Computer Gaming World said that whilst the game was "attractively presented", the learning curve was steep and took a long time to play through  However, Daniel Erickson in his review for NextGen called it "A wonderful look at the Star Trek universe, but the actual game is sleep-inducing "The review in PC Magazine described Birth of the Federation said that the game had a "cool design" and "evocative music"  Mark Hill's review in PC Zone praised the turn based strategy mode, but described the battle sequences as "somewhat lacking"  He forgave that issue as the rest of the game was so "absorbing", and said that it was an "essential purchase for hard-core strategy nuts " He called it "the best Star Trek game yet "Trent C  Ward's review for IGN said that while the menu screens were "really cool-looking", they did a poor job when the game became complex because of the expansion of the player's empire during the course of the game  This meant that it could take up to fifteen minutes for each turn because the player would have to constantly click into and out of the various menu systems  As with the review for CNN, the IGN review also criticised the lack of a link between the diplomatic characteristics in the game and those seen in the television series  It summed up the game, saying "Birth of the Federation is nothing more than a frustrating copy of earlier turn based strategy games that doesn't work like it's supposed to  My recommendation is to leave this one on the shelf "The game entered the British all-format games charts at number five, the second highest new entry for that week  After one week, it dropped to tenth place, and then moved out of the top ten altogether in the week after that In 2017, PC Gamer ranked the game among the best Star Trek games 

Notes
Passage 11:
A Prisoner of Birth
A Prisoner of Birth is a mystery novel by English author Jeffrey Archer, first published on 6 March 2008 by Macmillan  This book is a contemporary retelling of Dumas's 1844 novel The Count of Monte Cristo  The novel saw Archer return to the first place in the fiction best-seller list for the first time in a decade 

Plot summary
After proposing to his childhood sweetheart Beth Wilson, Danny Cartwright takes her and her brother Bernie to celebrate at a nearby pub  In the pub, they are accosted by four people  Danny, Beth and Bernie attempt to leave the pub without getting involved in a fracas, but Spencer Craig, one of the four that confronted them, follows them out of the pub along with his friends 
A fight breaks out; Bernie is stabbed and dies  Danny is blamed for his murder in a well-orchestrated plot by Spencer (a barrister) and his friends: a popular actor, an aristocrat, and a young estate agent  Danny is arrested and convicted  Sentenced to 22 years in Belmarsh prison, the highest security jail in South-east London, United Kingdom, he encounters his two cellmates, Albert Crann, known as "Big Al," and Sir Nicholas Moncrieff  Meanwhile, outside the prison, Beth is pregnant with Danny's daughter 
Sir Nicholas slowly teaches Danny to read and to write  Their friendship grows closer, and Danny decides to dress like his friend in the hope that it will help his upcoming appeal  Danny begins to gather evidence for his appeal with the help of a young lawyer, Alex Redmayne, but unable to present the new evidence, Danny's appeal is denied, and he must serve his complete sentence in Belmarsh prison  He tries to escape several times but of no avail 
Nicholas is murdered by a fellow inmate and his death is made to be seen as a suicide by the murderer  The dead body is mistakenly presumed to be that of Danny's by the guards due to similarities between Nick and Danny's height and features  The timely intervention of Big Al leads to the subsequent escape of Danny who pretends to be Nick (who had completed his sentence in prison)  On the outside of the prison, Danny pretends to be Nicholas  He finds that he must sort out his friend's family affairs before pursuing his goals of clearing his name and taking revenge upon the four individuals who framed him for Bernie's murder 
A lengthy legal battle between himself and Nicholas' hated uncle Hugo leaves Danny Cartwright in the possession of over 50 million pounds with which he plans to expose Spencer Craig and clear his name, so that he will be able to live with Beth and his daughter 
Danny is caught out by Nick's friends and is held in custody  While his counsel begins Danny's bid for freedom his accusers are all brought to justice  Alex's father (an ex-barrister, QC, and Judge at the High Court) gains Danny's freedom and his name is cleared  Danny has another child and is called Nick in honour of his friend  Alex (his barrister) is made godfather for all his hard work in freeing Danny 
Passage 12:
Sincik
Sincik (Kurdish: Sinciq) is a town of Adıyaman Province of Turkey  It is the seat of Sincik District  The town is populated by Kurds of the Reşwan tribe and had a population of 4,344 in 2021  The mayor is Mehmet Korkut (BBP) 
The town is divided into the neighborhoods of Ayengin, Cumhuriyet, Fatih, Karaman, Mahmutoğlu (Serindere), Onur and Zeynel Aslan 
Passage 13:
29th government of Turkey
The 29th government of Turkey (20 February 1965 – 27 October 1965) was a caretaker government in Turkey  The prime minister was Suat Hayri Ürgüplü, an independent  Four parties supported him: Justice Party (AP), New Turkey Party (YTP), Republican Villagers Nation Party (CKMP), and Nation Party (MP)  (This was the only time Nation Party ever participated in a government) 

The government
Some of the cabinet members were changed during the lifespan of the cabinet  In the list below, the serving period of cabinet members who served only a part of the cabinet's lifespan are shown in the column "Notes" 

Aftermath
The government resigned after the elections held on 10 October 1965, which the Justice Party won by a landslide  The 29th government was succeeded by the government of Süleyman Demirel 
Passage 14:
Suat Hayri Ürgüplü
Ali Suat Hayri Ürgüplü (13 August 1903, in Damascus, Ottoman Empire – 26 December 1981, in Istanbul, Turkey) was a Turkish politician who served a brief term as Prime Minister of Turkey in 1965  He was also the last Prime Minister to be born outside the territory of present-day Turkey, being born in Damascus, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire 

Early life
Ürgüplü graduated from Galatasaray High School  He was the descendant of a distinguished line of Ottoman religious scholars and administrators  His father was the celebrated Sheikh ul-Islam Ürgüplü Hayri Efendi, minister of religious affairs under the Committee of Union and Progress (or Young Turk) regime of 1913–1918 

Career
After a brief career as a judge, Ürgüplü entered the Parliament in 1939 and served as Minister of Customs and Public Monopolies in the Şükrü Saracoğlu cabinet in 1947–1948  He returned to the senate of Parliament in 1961 and was its chairman from 27 November 1963 to 6 November 1963  Ürgüplü was asked to form a non-partisan caretaker cabinet after the collapse of Premier İsmet İnönü's coalition government in 1965  The cabinet was formed on 5 February, and served until the parliamentary elections of 10 October, although it never received a vote of confidence in Parliament 
Ürgüplü continued to serve in the senate until 1972  He died on 27 December 1981 in Istanbul and was interred at the 
Edirnekapı Martyr's Cemetery 
Passage 15:
Hayrat
Hayrat is a town and district of Trabzon Province, located in the Black Sea region of Turkey  The mayor is Mehmet Nuhoğlu (AKP) 

History
During World War I, occupied by the Russians, Hayrat was freed from the occupation on 28 February 1918 
Passage 16:
Naim Talu
Mehmet Naim Talu (22 July 1919 – 15 May 1998) was a Turkish economist, banker, politician and former Prime Minister of Turkey 

Biography
Naim Talu was born in Istanbul in 1919  He was educated at Kabataş Erkek Lisesi  After graduating with a degree in economics from Istanbul University in 1943, he worked for a while in Sümerbank, a state owned textile company  He transferred to the Central Bank of Turkey in 1946  He became the general director of the bank in 1967 after serving one year as deputy  Following the reorganization of the Central Bank in 1970, he was appointed Governor of this institution  He died in Istanbul in 1998 

Political career
Naim Talu started his political career in 1971 by appointment to the ministry of trade in the second Erim cabinet  He kept his post also in the cabinet of Melen until President Cevdet Sunay admitted him to the Senate in 1972  Commissioned by President Fahri Korutürk following the resignation of Prime Minister Ferit Melen, he formed the 36th government on 15 April 1973 in consensus of the Justice Party with the Republican Reliance Party  His caretaker government lasted beyond the general elections in 1973, which did not set a clear majority for any party  With the forming of a coalition cabinet of the Republican People's Party along with the National Salvation Party under Bülent Ecevit on 26 January 1974, Talu's prime ministry ended  His membership in the Senate continued until 1976 
Naim Talu was a member of the board of Akbank, one of Turkey's largest banks, between 1974 and 1976, prior to his appointment as the chairman, which lasted until shortly before his death in 1998  He served the same period as a member of the board of trustees of the Sabancı Foundation VakSA 
He was survived by his wife Gevher Talu and his two daughters Tülin Talu and Füsun San 



ground_truth: University of Cambridge

Cambridge

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which two features were played up the person who had the biggest net worth in 2017?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Red Bull
Red Bull is a brand of energy drinks created and owned by the Austrian company Red Bull GmbH  With a market share of 43%, it is the most popular energy drink brand as of 2020, and the third most valuable soft drink brand behind Coca-Cola and Pepsi  Since its launch in 1987, more than 100 billion cans of Red Bull have been sold worldwide, including over 11 5 billion in 2022 Originally available only in a single nondescript flavor sold in a tall and slim silver-blue can, called Red Bull Energy Drink, numerous variants of the drink were added over the course of time  Its slogan, "Red Bull Gives You Wings", is considered one of the most popular and memorable advertising slogans in the United States, ranking at 16 out of 25 with a 59 3% slogan recognition rate according to a study by advertising and market research firm Survata  Rather than following a traditional marketing approach, Red Bull has generated awareness and created a "brand myth" through proprietary extreme sport event series such as Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series, Red Bull Air Race, Red Bull Crashed Ice and standout stunts such as the Stratos space diving project  In addition to sport series, its marketing includes multiple sports team ownerships; celebrity endorsements; and music, through its Red Bull Records label Red Bull was first derived from a similar drink called Krating Daeng that originated in Thailand and was introduced by the pharmacist Chaleo Yoovidhya  While doing business in Thailand, Dietrich Mateschitz purchased a can of Krating Daeng and claimed it cured his jet lag  Mateschitz sought to create a partnership with Yoovidhya and formulated a product that would suit the tastes of Westerners, such as by carbonating the drink  In 1984, the two founded Red Bull GmbH in Fuschl am See, Salzburg, Austria  When branding their new product, Mateschitz referenced Krating Daeng's name: in Thai, daeng means red, and a krating (known in English as a gaur or Indian bison) is a large species of wild bovine native to the Indian subcontinent  In 1987, the company sold its first can of Red Bull in Austria  In 1996, Red Bull began operation in the United States, and has seen steady growth ever since  Both Red Bull and Kraeting Daeng use the same red bull on yellow sun logo while continuing to market their drinks separately in the Thai and Western markets 

History
In 1976, Chaleo Yoovidhya introduced a drink called Krating Daeng in Thailand, which means "red gaur" in English  It was popular among Thai truck drivers and labourers  While working for German manufacturer Blendax (later acquired by Procter & Gamble) in 1982, Dietrich Mateschitz travelled to Thailand and met Chaleo, owner of T C  Pharmaceutical  During his visit, Mateschitz discovered that Krating Daeng helped cure his jet lag  In 1984, Mateschitz co-founded Red Bull GmbH with Yoovidhya and turned it into an international brand  Each partner invested US$500,000 of savings to fund the company  Yoovidhya and Mateschitz each held a 49 percent share of the new company  They gave the remaining two percent to Yoovidhya's son, Chalerm, but it was agreed that Mateschitz would run the company  The product was first launched in Austria on 1 April 1987 In Thailand, energy drinks are most popular with blue-collar workers  Red Bull re-positioned the drink as a trendy, upscale drink, first introducing it at Austrian ski resorts  Pricing was a key differentiator, with Red Bull positioned as a premium drink and Krating Daeng as a lower cost item  In many countries, both drinks are available, dominating both ends of the price spectrum  The flavouring used for Red Bull is still produced in Bangkok and exported worldwide  Gary Smith is one of the co-CEOs of Red Bull  As a senior board member and corporate secretary between 2000 and 2007, Mr  Smith was also responsible for all day-to-day operations of the company as the COO, including sales, trade marketing, motorsports marketing, finance, information systems, legal, supply chain, operations, and human resources During the 1990s, the product expanded into Hungary, Slovenia, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States  It entered Germany and the UK in 1994, the United States (via California) in 1996 and the Middle East in 2000  In 2008, Forbes magazine listed both Chaleo and Mateschitz as the 250th richest people in the world with an estimated net worth of US$4 billion Mateschitz died on 22 October 2022 aged 78, following a long illness Red Bull GmbH is headquartered in Fuschl am See, an Austrian village of about 1,500 inhabitants near Salzburg  The company is 51 percent controlled by the Yoovidhya family who, for technical reasons, own the trademark in Europe and the US 

Ingredients
Depending on the country, Red Bull contains different amounts of caffeine, taurine, B vitamins (B2, B3, B5, B6, B12), glucuronolactone and simple sugars (sucrose and glucose) in a buffer solution of carbonated water, sodium bicarbonate and magnesium carbonate (substituted in some flavours with a trisodium citrate/citric acid buffer, each solution providing electrolytes)  To produce Red Bull Sugarfree, sucrose and glucose have been replaced by artificial sweeteners acesulfame K and aspartame or sucralose 

Health effects
Claims about the drink's effects and performance have been challenged on various occasions, with the UK's Advertising Standards Authority imposing advertising restrictions in 2001 in response to complaints recorded as early as 1997 Energy drinks have the effects that caffeine and sugar provide, but experts still argue about the possible effects of the other ingredients  Most of the effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine  There is evidence that energy drinks can increase mental and athletic performance  A study funded by Red Bull GmbH, which did not include a caffeine-only control group, found that performance during prolonged driving is increased after consumption of Red Bull  Other tests for physical performance showed results such as increased endurance and power  Red Bull energy drink increased upper body muscle endurance during repeated Wingate tests in young healthy adults  Excessive or repeated consumption of energy drinks can lead to cardiac and psychiatric conditions The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that exposure to taurine and glucuronolactone at the levels presently used in energy drinks is not a safety concern  In a separate analysis, they also concluded that there is insufficient evidence to support a number of commercial health claims about taurine  A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, including Red Bull 

Caffeine content
The caffeine content of a single 250ml can of Red Bull is approximately 40–80 mg / 250 ml (15–32 mg / 100 ml)  The caffeine level in Red Bull varies depending on country, as some countries have legal restrictions on how much caffeine is allowed in drinks  As is the case with other caffeinated beverages, Red Bull drinkers may experience adverse effects as a result of overuse  Excessive consumption may induce mild to moderate euphoria primarily caused by stimulant properties of caffeine and may also induce agitation, anxiety, irritability and insomnia The general population of healthy adults is not at risk for potential adverse effects from caffeine if they limit their consumption to 400 mg per day, which is provided by 5 standard 250 ml cans  Consumption of a single energy drink will not lead to excessive caffeine intake  Adverse effects associated with caffeine consumption in amounts greater than 400 mg include nervousness, irritability, sleeplessness, increased urination, abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia), and dyspepsia  Consumption also has been known to cause pupil dilation when taken with certain antidepressants or SSRIs  Caffeine dosage is not required to be on the product label for food in the United States, unlike drugs, but some advocates are urging the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to change this practice  (Red Bull voluntarily lists the caffeine content in each can along with the ingredient list )

Variants
Over the years, Red Bull has offered many variations of its drink, all based on the same formula but differing in taste and colour Red Bull began offering variations on its drinks in 2003 with a sugar-free version of the drink with a different flavor from the original, called Red Bull Sugarfree  In 2012, Red Bull released Red Bull Total Zero, a variant with zero calories  In 2018, the company released Red Bull Zero, a different sugar-free formulation designed to taste more like the original flavor In 2009, Red Bull unveiled a highly concentrated variant of its drink called Red Bull Energy Shot, supplied in 2 oz (60 ml) cans The company began expanding its flavor offerings in 2013 with the launch of Red Bull Editions  Initially available in cranberry, lime, and blueberry, the Editions line has expanded to include a variety of flavours, including some available only during specific seasons or in certain regions 

Other products
Red Bull released a cola drink, called Simply Cola, in 2008  A new version of the cola was released in 2019, as part of Red Bull's Organics line 
In 2018, the company launched Organics by Red Bull, a line of organic sodas with four flavours; bitter lemon, ginger ale, tonic water, and a new version of Red Bull Simply Cola 

Regulatory approval and legal status
Authorities in France, Denmark, and Norway initially did not permit the sale of Red Bull  However, as of 2021, it is on sale in all 27 member states of the European Union and in 171 countries around the world The French food safety agency was concerned about taurine; a Red Bull drink that did not contain taurine was introduced  The French refusal of market approval was challenged by the European Commission, and partially upheld by the European Court of Justice in 2004  The French food safety agency relented in 2008, because it was unable to prove a definite health risk, taurine-related or not 

Litigation
In 2013, Red Bull told the Redwell Brewery, a Norfolk micro brewery, to change its name or face legal action, because it sounded too similar to Red Bull  The eight-man brewery in Norwich was told its name could "confuse" customers and "tarnish" its trademark  The two companies reached a settlement permitting Redwell to continue using its name In 2014, Red Bull entered into a US$13 million settlement to resolve two consumer class action lawsuits in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York  Named as plaintiffs were Benjamin Careathers, David Wolf, and Miguel Almarez, who had sued the company claiming breach of express warranty and unjust enrichment, saying that Red Bull falsely asserted performance-enhancing benefits from the drink's ingredients that were unsubstantiated by scientific studies  On 1 May 2015 the Court approved the settlement, giving customers who had submitted claims the opportunity to receive a US$10 cash reimbursement or US$15 in Red Bull products within 150 days of affirmance on any appeal  Contrary to reports from some news outlets, the plaintiffs had not alleged that the drink did not give consumers actual wings 

Advertising, sports team ownership, and sponsorships
Since 1997, Red Bull has been making commercials bearing its slogan "Red Bull gives you wings " Commercials usually were crudely animated and featured characters with constant squints 
Red Bull's international marketing campaign is largely linked to extreme sports  These range from motorcycle racing, such as MotoGP, Dakar Rally, motorcycle speedway, mountain biking, aerobatics, BMX, motocross, windsurfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, kayaking, rowing, wakeboarding, cliff-diving, parkour, surfing, skating, freestyle motocross, rallycross, Formula 1 motor racing, NASCAR racing, to breakdancing  Red Bull uses music and video games, and has enlisted celebrities, such as Eminem (sponsoring the Red Bull "EmSee Battle Rap championships")  It hosts events such as art shows and the "Red Bull Flugtag" (German for "flight day" or "flying day") Red Bull owns football teams, with clubs in Austria, Germany, the United States, and Brazil featuring the Red Bull trademark in their names  By associating the drink's image with these activities, the company seeks to promote a "cool" public image and raise brand power  The energy drink has created a market for over 150 related types of products In the PlayStation 3's social gaming platform, PlayStation Home, Red Bull developed its own in-game island, specifically advertising its energy drink and the Red Bull Air Race event (for which the space is named) released in January 2009  In late November 2009, Red Bull produced two new spaces, the Red Bull Illume space, and the Red Bull Beach space featuring the Red Bull Flugtag, both released on the same day  In January 2012, Red Bull released its first personal space called the "Red Bull House of Skate" featuring an indoor skate park In 2010, the company enlisted Adrian Newey to design a prototype racing car, the Red Bull X2010, for the video game Gran Turismo 5 In 2022, Red Bull announced a full-on production of a hypercar called RB17, also designed by Newey 

Red Bull Arts
Red Bull Arts is an art fellowship program launched by Red Bull in 2013 under the name Red Bull House of Arts  The program has multiple locations, including Detroit, Michigan; São Paulo, Brazil; and formerly New York City  The program typically consists of a three-month period during which six to eight participants create new artwork to be displayed at a final exhibition  During the fellowship, artists receive unlimited access to the galleries and a stipend for art supplies  Some of the artwork has been used in Red Bull advertising campaigns 

Sports and esports sponsorships
Red Bull has used sports sponsorships as an advertising vehicle for most of its existence  The company first started sponsoring athletes in 1989, initially focusing on Formula One racing and extreme sports such as windsurfing and hang gliding, and later growing to include more mainstream sports such as basketball and soccer  As of 2016, the company sponsored more than 750 individual athletes and more than a dozen teams in various disciplines, including motorsports, soccer, and esports 

Athlete sponsorships
Austrian Formula One driver Gerhard Berger was the first athlete to be sponsored by Red Bull in 1989  Many of the company's early sponsorships were in lesser-known or extreme sports, including Olympic rower Xeno Müller, who won a gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics in the single scull race and BASE jumpers Frank "Gambler" Gambalie, Miles Dashier, and Shane McConkey  In the 2010s, Red Bull began expanding its athlete base to include athletes from more mainstream sports, including Austrian tennis player Dominic Thiem, Brazilian skateboarder Letícia Bufoni, American skier Lindsey Vonn, and American Major League Baseball player Kris Bryant  The company also started sponsoring video game players and esports athletes, including American Fortnite player Richard "Ninja" Blevins, Spanish League of Legends player Enrique Cedeño "xPeke" Martinez, and Swedish Super Smash Bros  player William "Leffen" Hjelte 

Team ownership and sponsorships
The first team sponsored by Red Bull was ice hockey's EC Salzburg during the 1987–88 season  Red Bull acquired the club outright in 2000  Since 2014, Salzburg has also hosted the company's joint ice hockey and soccer academy  Red Bull became the title sponsor of DEL team EHC München in 2012, and took full ownership the following year  It also financed the team's new arena, SAP Garden In 1995, Red Bull sponsored its first motorsports team, the Swiss Formula One team Sauber and in 1999 started sponsoring the Flying Bulls, a Czech aerobatics team In the 2000s, the company expanded its sporting team ownership to include several soccer teams, including the Austrian Bundesliga team SV Austria Salzburg (rebranded as Red Bull Salzburg), the Major League Soccer team the New York MetroStars (rebranded as the New York Red Bulls) in 2006, and the fifth-tier German team SSV Markranstadt (rebranded as RasenBallsport Leipzig) in 2009, which the company sought to move to the top of the German Bundesliga  RB Leipzig has been divisive and the subject of protests by some fans but has also experienced rapid success, climbing through the German soccer divisions to get a place in the top-flight German Bundesliga and earning berths in the UEFA Champions League in 2017–2018 and 2019–2020, the latter trip ending with a semi-final loss to Paris St  Germain  The company also sponsors the Los Angeles Clippers NBA team and Red Bull 3X, a series of men's and women's 3x3 basketball tournaments In the 2010s, Red Bull began sponsoring gamers and esports organizations, including OG, G2 Esports and Cloud9, and founded the Red Bulls League of Legends team In 2021, Red Bull sponsored Hoang Anh Gia Lai from V League 1 
 Red Bull Salzburg
 FC Liefering
 Red Bull Bragantino
 Red Bull Brasil
 RB Leipzig
 RB Leipzig II
 Red Bull New York
 Red Bull New York II

Events
Current and former Red Bull events include ACF Nationals (2009), Air Race World Championship (2003–2019), Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix, Art of Motion, BC One, Big Wave Africa, Cape Fear, Cliff Diving World Series, Crashed Ice, Dolomitenmann, Drifting World Championship, Flugtag, Frozen Rush, Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix, King of the Air, King of the Rock Tournament, Last Man Standing, MotoGP Rookies Cup, Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas, New Year No Limits, Paper Wings, Rampage, Red Bull 400, Red Bull Joyride, Road Rage, Romaniacs Hard Enduro Rallye, Soapbox Race, Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix, Stratos, Street Freestyle World Champions (2019), Trolley Grand Prix, Unleashed (2015), Wings for Life World Run, X-Alps, Xcbusa, and X-Fighters 

See also
Red Bull Stratos – 2012 stratospheric parachute jump
Passage 2:
Ural Rakhimov
Ural Murtazovich Rakhimov (Russian: Урал Муртазович Рахимов; Bashkir: Рәхимов Урал Мортаза улы, Räximov Ural Mortaza ulı; born 13 December 1961) is a Russian businessman of Bashkir ethnicity  Rakhimov is the 191st richest man in Russia with a net worth of US$500 million as of 2011 

Biography
Rakhimov was born in Ufa  Worldwide, Rakhimov is known to be the only son of Murtaza Rakhimov, the former president of Bashkortostan  Throughout most of Rakhimov's life, he maintained a deep interest in science, eventually studying at Ufa State Petroleum Technological University and graduating in 1984 He then studied at the French Petroleum Institute, receiving a Master's of Science, and then he studied in the United States for another Master's degree  For most of his business career, he was a member of Bashneft  In 2003, he initiated the creation of Bashkir capital  During 2009 till early 2010, he was the owner of Salavat Yulaev Ufa 
Passage 3:
The World's Billionaires
The World's Billionaires is an annual ranking of people who are considered to have a net worth of $1 billion or more, by the American business magazine Forbes  The list was first published in March 1987  The total net worth of each individual on the list is estimated and is cited in United States dollars, based on their documented assets and accounting for debt and other factors  Royalty and dictators whose wealth comes from their positions are excluded from these lists  This ranking is an index of the wealthiest documented individuals, excluding any ranking of those with wealth that is not able to be completely ascertained In 2018, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos was ranked at the top for the first time and became the first centibillionaire included in the ranking, surpassing Microsoft founder Bill Gates, who had topped the list 18 of the previous 24 years  In 2022, after topping the list for four years, Bezos was surpassed by Elon Musk  In 2023, Musk was in turn surpassed by French businessman Bernard Arnault, after topping the list for just a year  Arnault became the first French person to top the list 

Methodology
Each year, Forbes employs a team of over 50 reporters from a variety of countries to track the activity of the world's wealthiest individuals and sometimes groups or families – who share wealth  Preliminary surveys are sent to those who may qualify for the list  According to Forbes, they received three types of responses – some people try to inflate their wealth, others cooperate but leave out details, and some refuse to answer any questions  Business deals are then scrutinized and estimates of valuable assets – land, homes, vehicles, artwork, etc  – are made  Interviews are conducted to vet the figures and improve the estimate of an individual's holdings  Finally, positions in a publicly traded stock are priced to market on a date roughly a month before publication  Privately held companies are priced by the prevailing price-to-sales or price-to-earnings ratios  Known debt is subtracted from assets to get a final estimate of an individual's estimated worth in United States dollars  Since stock prices fluctuate rapidly, an individual's true wealth and ranking at the time of publication may vary from their situation when the list was compiled When a living individual has dispersed his or her wealth to immediate family members it is included under a single listing (as a single "family fortune") provided that individual (the grantor) is still living  However, if a deceased billionaire's fortune has been dispersed, it will not appear as a single listing, and each recipient will only appear if his or her own total net worth is over a $Billion (his or her net worth will not be combined with family members') Royal families and dictators that have their wealth contingent on a position are always excluded from these lists 

Annual rankings
The rankings are published annually in March, so the net worths listed are snapshots taken at that time  These lists only show the top 10 wealthiest billionaires for each year 

Legend
2023
In the 37th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,640 billionaires with a total net wealth of $12 2 trillion, down 28 members and $500 billion from 2022  Nearly half the list is poorer than the previous year, including Elon Musk, who fell from No  1 to No  2  The list also marks for the first time a French citizen was in the top position as well as a non-American for the first time since 2013 when the Mexican Carlos Slim Helu was the world's richest person  The list, like in 2022, counted 15 under 30 billionaires with the richest of them being Red Bull heir Mark Mateschitz with a net worth of $34 7 billion  The youngest of the lot were Clemente Del Vecchio, heir to the Luxottica fortune shared with his six siblings and stepmother and Kim Jung-yang, whose fortune lies in Japanese-South Korean gaming giant Nexon, both under-20s 

2022
In the 36th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,668 billionaires with a total net wealth of $12 7 trillion, down 97 members from 2021 

2021
In the 35th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,755 billionaires with a total net wealth of $13 1 trillion, up 660 members from 2020; 86% of these billionaires had more wealth than they possessed last year 

2020
In the 34th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,095 billionaires with a total net wealth of $8 trillion, down 58 members and $700 billion from 2019; 51% of these billionaires had less wealth than they possessed last year  The list was finalized as of 18 March, thus was already partially influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic 

2019
In the 33rd annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,153 billionaires with a total net wealth of $8 7 trillion, down 55 members and $400 billion from 2018   The U S  continued to have the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 609, while China dropped to 324 (when not including Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan) 

2018
In the 32nd annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the aggregate wealth of the top 20 richest people on Earth amounted to about 13 percent of all billionaires' fortunes combined  A record of 2,208 billionaires were in the ranking and the total wealth was $9 1 trillion, up 18% since 2017  For the first time, Jeff Bezos was listed as the top billionaire due to Amazon's rising stock price that resulted in one person's biggest one-year gain in wealth ($35 billion) since Forbes started tracking in 1987  The U S  had the most billionaires in the world, with 585, while China was catching up with 476 when including Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan; it had 372 when excluding those three places  Forbes excluded Al-Walid bin Talal and all other Saudi billionaires due to the absence of accurate wealth estimations as a result of the 2017–19 Saudi Arabian purge 

2017
On the 30th anniversary of the Forbes list of the world's billionaires, for the fourth year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world  In 2017, there was a record of 2,043 people on the list, which is the first time over 2,000 people were listed  This included 195 newcomers of whom 76 were from China and 25 from the U S ; there were 56 people under 40 and it had a record of 227 women  The number of billionaires increased 13% to 2,043 from 1,810 in 2016; this was the biggest change in over 30 years of tracking billionaires globally  Added together, the total net worth for 2017's billionaires was US$7 67 trillion, up from US$7 1 trillion in 2015  This was the first time after 12 years that Carlos Slim was not within the top five  The U S  had the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 565  China had 319 (not including Hong Kong, Taiwan or Macau), Germany had 114, and India had the fourth most with 101; India reached over 100 billionaires for its first time 

2016
For the third year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes' 2016 list of the world's billionaires  This is the 17th time that the founder of Microsoft had claimed the top spot  Amancio Ortega rose from last year's position of number four to second  Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway came in third for the second consecutive time, while Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim slipped  from last year's second position to fourth  Jeff Bezos of Amazon, Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook and Michael Bloomberg of Bloomberg L P , appeared for the first time on the Forbes top 10 billionaires list, coming at fifth, sixth and eighth positions, respectively  Zuckerberg became the youngest top 10 billionaire this year at the age of 31  Larry Ellison, Charles Koch and David Koch also slipped from their previous year's positions, with Ellison dropping to seventh from fifth, and the Kochs falling to ninth position from sixth 

2015
In the 29th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, a record 1,826 billionaires were named with an aggregated net worth of $7 1 trillion compared to $6 4 trillion in the previous year  46 of the billionaires in this list were under the age of 40  A record number of 290 people joined the list for the first time, of whom 25 percent hailed from China, which produced a world-leading 71 newcomers  The United States came in second, with 57; followed by India, with 28; and Germany, with 23  The United States had the largest number of billionaires with 526  Russia went down to 88 from 111 in 2014  Russia was placed behind China, Germany and India by the number of billionaires  Self-made billionaires made up the largest number of people on the list with 1,191 positions (over 65 percent), while just 230 (under 13 percent) had wealth through inheritance  The number of billionaires who inherited a portion but were still working to increase their fortunes is 405 Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes' annual list of the world's billionaires  This was the 16th time that the founder of Microsoft claimed the top spot  Carlos Slim came in second for the second consecutive time  Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway placed third, while Amancio Ortega of Spain, slipped down a position from the previous year to number four  Larry Ellison, the founder of Oracle, rounded off the top five  Christy Walton was the highest-ranking female at number eight  America's Evan Spiegel, co-founder of photo messaging app Snapchat, became the youngest billionaire this year at age 24  At age 99, David Rockefeller maintained his position as the oldest billionaire included in the list  Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of Facebook, rose to number 16 with $33 4 billion  Iceland had a billionaire, Thor Bjorgolfsson, in the list after a gap of five years  Guatemala had a billionaire, Mario Lopez Estrada, for the first time in its history 

2014
Gates added $9 billion to his fortune since 2013 and topped the Forbes 2014 billionaire list  He had topped the list in 15 of the previous 20 years, but his previous number one ranking was in 2009  Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim came in second place after being number one the previous four years  Zara founder Amancio Ortega placed third for the second consecutive year  American investor Warren Buffett was in the top five for the 20th consecutive year, placing fourth  America's Christy Walton was the highest ranking woman, placing ninth overall  Aliko Dangote of Nigeria became the first African to enter the top 25, with an estimated net worth of $25 billion A total of 1,645 people made the 2014 billionaire list, representing a combined wealth of $6 4 trillion  Of those, a record 268 were newcomers, surpassing 2008's 226 newcomers  100 people listed in 2013 failed to make the list  The number of women on the list rose to a record 172 in 2014  Approximately 66 percent of the list were self-made, 13 percent achieved their wealth through inheritance alone, and 21 percent through a mixture of the two The United States had 492 billionaires on the list, the most of any country  It also had the most newcomers with 50, and women with 54  China had the second most billionaires with 152, while Russia was third with 111  Algeria, Lithuania, Tanzania, and Uganda were all represented on the list for the first time  Turkey saw the most people drop off the list, 19, due to a period of high inflation in the country 

2013
Carlos Slim topped the 2013 billionaire list, marking his fourth consecutive year at the top  Gates remained in second, while Amancio Ortega moved up to third  Ortega's gain of $19 5 billion was the largest of anyone on the list  Warren Buffett failed to make the top three for the first time since 2000, placing fourth  Diesel founder Renzo Rosso was among the top newcomers, debuting with an estimate net worth of $3 billion A global rise in asset prices led Forbes editor Randall Lane to declare "It [was] a very good year to be a billionaire"  However, it was not a good year to be Eike Batista, who fell from seventh to 100th, suffering the largest net loss of anyone on the list  Overall, net gainers outnumbered net losers by 4:1 A record total of 1,426 people made the 2013 list, representing $5 4 trillion of assets  Of those, 442 billionaires hailed from the United States  The Asian-Pacific region had 386 billionaires and Europe 366  The list also featured a record number of newcomers, 210, representing 42 countries  60 people from the 2012 list fell below a billion dollars of assets in 2013, and eight others from the 2012 list died  The Asia-Pacific region had the most drop-offs, with 29, followed by the United States with 16  The 2013 list featured 138 women, of which 50 came from the United States  A majority of the list (961 individuals, 67 percent) were entirely self-made; 184 (13 percent) inherited their wealth, and 281 (20 percent) achieved their fortune through a combination of inheritance and business acumen  Vietnam's Phạm Nhật Vượng was the first person from that country to be included in this list 

2012
Carlos Slim topped the 2012 list, marking this third consecutive year at the top  Gates placed second but narrowed the gap from 2011 as Slim's fortune fell $5 billion while Gates' rose $5 billion  Warren Buffett remained in third place  Bernard Arnault of France was the top-ranking European on the list, placing fourth  Ricardo Salinas Pliego was the greatest gainer in terms of dollars, adding $9 2 billion to his fortune and moving up to number 37 overall  Making her debut on the list at age 27, Spanx founder Sara Blakely became the youngest self-made female billionaire ever  Colombia's Alejandro Santo Domingo was the highest-ranked newcomer, inheriting a $9 5 billion stake in Santo Domingo Group from his father  India's Lakshmi Mittal was the largest loser as his fortune dropped from $31 1 billion to $20 7 billion as the price of steelmaker ArcelorMittal fell sharply  As a result, he failed to make the top 10 for the first time since 2004 and lost his title of richest Asian to Hong Kong's Li Ka-shing A record total of 1,226 people made the 2012 list, representing 58 countries  Of those, 126 were newcomers to the list and 104 were women  The United States had the greatest number of billionaires with 425  Russia had 96 people on the list, while China had 95  Georgia, Morocco, and Peru were newly represented on the list  Falling stock prices in Asia contributed to 117 former billionaires falling from the list worldwide  Twelve others listed in 2011 died  Overall, net gainers (460) barely outnumbered net losers (441) To coincide with the release of the 2012 list, Forbes announced a then-new "Billionaire Real-Time Ticker" updating the wealth of the world's top 50 billionaires in real time 

2011
In the 25th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, Slim added $20 5 billion to his fortune, the most of anyone, and retained his number one ranking with a total fortune of $74 billion  Gates remained in second place with $56 billion, while Warren Buffett was third with $50 billion  The top 10 had a combined wealth of $406 billion, up from $342 billion in 2010  According to Forbes editor Kerry Dolan, "media and technology billionaires definitely benefited from a stronger stock market and a growing enthusiasm for all things social" since the 2010 list  However, Nigerian commodity mogul Aliko Dangote was the greatest gainer on a percentage basis as his fortune increased 557 percent to $13 5 billion  Mark Zuckerberg was one of seven Facebook-related billionaires on the list, as he added $9 5 billion to his net worth to move up to 52nd  Facebook co-founder Dustin Moskovitz was the youngest person on the list  Aged 26, eight days younger than Zuckerberg, he debuted at number 420 with an estimated fortune of $2 7 billion  IKEA founder Ingvar Kamprad was the largest loser as he saw his fortune plummet from $23 billion to $6 billion, dropping him from 11th to 162nd overall A record 1,210 billionaires made the 2011 list, representing a combined wealth of $4 5 trillion, up from $3 6 trillion the previous year  One third of the world's billionaires, 413, came from the United States  China had the second most billionaires with 115, while Russia was third with 101  Asia moved up to 332 billionaires, passing Europe as a region for the first time since the 1990s  The 2011 list included 214 newcomers and the average net worth of those on it increased to $3 7 billion 

2010
Slim narrowly eclipsed Gates to top the billionaire list for the first time  Slim saw his estimated worth surge $18 5 billion to $53 5 billion as shares of America Movil rose 35 percent  Gates' estimated wealth rose $13 billion to $53 billion, placing him second  Warren Buffett was third with $47 billion  Christy Walton was the highest-ranking woman, placing 12th overall, with an inherited fortune of $22 5 billion  At age 25, Mark Zuckerberg continued to be the world's youngest self-made billionaire  American Isaac Perlmutter was among the newcomers with an estimated fortune of $4 billion largely acquired in his sale of Marvel Entertainment to Disney A total of 1,011 people made the 2010 list  The United States accounted for 403 billionaires, followed by China with 89 and Russia with 62  It was the first time China, while including Hong Kong, placed second  A total of 55 countries were represented on the 2010 list, including Finland and Pakistan which claimed their first billionaires  Eighty-nine women made the list, but only 14 of them were self-made  The combined net worth of the list was $3 6 trillion, up 50 percent from 2009's $2 4 trillion, while the average net worth was $3 5 billion The 2010 list featured 164 re-entries and 97 true newcomers  Asia accounted for more than 100 of the new entrants  Overall, just 12 percent of the list lost wealth since 2009, and 30 people fell off the list  13 others died  Of the 89 women, 12 were newcomers in 2010  Steve Forbes said the growing number of billionaires was a clear sign that the world's economy was recovering from 2009's global financial crisis In June 2010, Gates and Buffett announced the Giving Pledge, a promise to give the majority of their wealth to philanthropic causes  As of 2017, the pledge had 158 signatories, but some of the signatories have since died  Most of the signers of the pledge are billionaires, and their pledges total over $365 billion 

2009
In the wake of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008, the world's billionaires lost $2 trillion in net worth and the list became 30% smaller than the previous year's list 

2008
Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, four years after starting the company, joined the list at 23 to become the youngest self-made billionaire 

2007
Forbes recorded a then record of 946 billionaires  There were 178 newcomers, as well as the first billionaires from Cyprus, Oman, Romania and Serbia  Over 66% of the previous year's billionaires became richer  The billionaires' net worth increased in 2007 by $900 billion to $3 5 trillion 

2006
Free cash used by consumers from home equity extraction, known as the real estate bubble created a total of nearly $5 trillion in 2005, contributing to economic growth worldwide 

2005
The net worth of 2005's 691 billionaires was $2 2 trillion  More than half of them had self-made fortunes 

2004
The founders of Google, Sergey Brin and Larry Page, became billionaires at age 30 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2003
Oprah Winfrey became the first female African-American billionaire 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2002
As a result of the market crash caused by the Dot-com bubble, 83 billionaires dropped off the list from the previous year 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2001
In 2001, BET founder Robert L  Johnson became the first ever African-American billionaire 
* Each hold an essentially equal share in Wal-Mart  Had he been alive in 2001, Sam Walton would have been the world's wealthiest person 

2000
Gates became the first American to take the top spot of the world's billionaires in 1995 with a net worth of $12 5 billion, and he remained there during the dot-com bubble's height in 1999 when his fortune peaked at $90 billion  After the dot-com bubble started to collapse in 2000, his wealth dropped to $60 billion, although he remained at the top of the list 

1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
Statistics
The dot-com bubble created the most paper wealth for some billionaires  However, once the dotcom bubble burst the new rich saw their fortunes disappear  Billionaires' fortunes were hit even harder by the global financial crisis; 2009 was the first time in five years that the world had a net loss in the number of billionaires  The strong performance of the financial markets and global economic recovery have erased financial assets losses  Most of the richest people in the world saw their fortunes soar in the early 2010s 

See also
Passage 4:
Windows 98
Windows 98 is a consumer-oriented operating system developed by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x family of Microsoft Windows operating systems  The second operating system in the 9x line, it is the successor to Windows 95, and was released to manufacturing on May 15, 1998, and generally to retail on June 25, 1998  Like its predecessor, it is a hybrid 16-bit and 32-bit monolithic product with the boot stage based on MS-DOS Windows 98 is a web-integrated operating system that bears numerous similarities to its predecessor  Most of its improvements were cosmetic or designed to improve the user experience, but there were also a handful of features introduced to enhance system functionality and capabilities, including improved USB support and accessibility, as well as support for hardware advancements such as DVD players  Windows 98 was the first edition of Windows to adopt the Windows Driver Model, and introduced features that would become standard in future generations of Windows, such as Disk Cleanup, Windows Update, multi-monitor support, and Internet Connection Sharing 
Microsoft had marketed Windows 98 as a "tune-up" to Windows 95, rather than an entirely improved next generation of Windows  Upon release, it was generally well-received for its web-integrated interface and ease of use, as well as its addressing of issues present in Windows 95, although some pointed out that it was not significantly more stable than its predecessor  Windows 98 sold an estimated 58 million licenses and saw one major update, known as Windows 98 Second Edition (SE), released on May 5, 1999  After the release of its successor, Windows Me in 2000, mainstream support for Windows 98 and 98 SE ended on June 30, 2002, followed by extended support on July 11, 2006 

Development
Following the success of Windows 95, the development of Windows 98 began, initially under the development codename "Memphis " The first test version, Windows Memphis Developer Release, was released in January 1997 Memphis first entered beta as Windows Memphis Beta 1, released on June 30, 1997  It was followed by Windows 98 Beta 2, which dropped the Memphis name and was released in July  Microsoft had planned a full release of Windows 98 for the first quarter of 1998, along with a Windows 98 upgrade pack for Windows 95, but it also had a similar upgrade for Windows 3 x operating systems planned for the second quarter  Stacey Breyfogle, a product manager for Microsoft, explained that the later release of the upgrade for Windows 3 was because the upgrade required more testing than that for Windows 95 due to the presence of more compatibility issues, and without user objections, Microsoft merged the two upgrade packs into one and set all of their release dates to the second quarter On December 15, Microsoft released Windows 98 Beta 3  It was the first build to be able to upgrade from Windows 3 1x, and introduced new startup and shutdown sounds Near its completion, Windows 98 was released as Windows 98 Release Candidate on April 3, 1998, which expired on December 31  This coincided with a notable press demonstration at COMDEX that month  Microsoft CEO Bill Gates was highlighting the operating system's ease of use and enhanced support for Plug and Play (PnP)  However, when presentation assistant Chris Capossela plugged a USB scanner in, the operating system crashed, displaying a Blue Screen of Death  Bill Gates remarked after derisive applause and cheering from the audience, "That must be why we're not shipping Windows 98 yet " Video footage of this event became a popular Internet phenomenon Microsoft had quietly marketed the operating system as a "tune-up" to Windows 95  It was compiled as Windows 98 on May 11, 1998, before being fully released to manufacturing on May 15  The company was facing pending legal action for allowing free downloads of, and planning to ship Windows licenses with, Internet Explorer 4 0 in an alleged effort to expand its software monopoly  Microsoft's critics believed the lawsuit would further delay Windows 98's public release; it did not, and the operating system was released on June 25, 1998 A second major version of the operating system called Windows 98 Second Edition was later unveiled in March 1999  Microsoft compiled the final build on April 23, 1999, before publicly releasing it on May 5, 1999  Windows 98 was to be the final product in the Windows 9x line until Microsoft briefly revived the line to release Windows Me in 2000 as the final Windows 9x product before the introduction of Windows XP in 2001, which was based on the Windows NT architecture and kernel used in Windows 2000 

New and updated features
Web integration and shell enhancements
The first release of Windows 98 included Internet Explorer 4 01  This was updated to 5 0 in the Second Edition  Besides Internet Explorer, many other Internet companion applications are included such as Outlook Express, Windows Address Book, FrontPage Express, Microsoft Chat, Personal Web Server and a Web Publishing Wizard, and NetShow  NetMeeting allows multiple users to hold conference calls and work with each other on a document The Windows 98 shell is web-integrated; it contains deskbands, Active Desktop, Channels, ability to minimize foreground windows by clicking their button on the taskbar, single-click launching, Back and Forward navigation buttons, favorites, and address bar in Windows Explorer, image thumbnails, folder infotips and Web view in folders, and folder customization through HTML-based templates  The taskbar supports customizable toolbars designed to speed up access to the Web or the user's desktop; these toolbars include an Address Bar and Quick Launch  With the Address Bar, the user accesses the Web by typing in a URL, and Quick Launch contains shortcuts or buttons that perform system functions such as switching between windows and the desktop with the Show Desktop button  Another feature of this new shell is that dialog boxes show up in the Alt-Tab sequence 
Windows 98 also integrates shell enhancements, themes and other features from Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 such as DriveSpace 3, Compression Agent, Dial-Up Networking Server, Dial-Up Scripting Tool and Task Scheduler  3D Pinball Space Cadet is included on the CD-ROM, but not installed by default  Windows 98 had its own separately purchasable Plus! pack, called Plus! 98 Title bars of windows and dialog boxes support two-color gradients, a feature ported from and refined from Microsoft Office 95  Windows menus and tooltips support slide animation  Windows Explorer in Windows 98, as in Windows 95, converts all-uppercase filenames to sentence case for readability purposes; however, it also provides an option Allow all uppercase names to display them in their original case  Windows Explorer includes support for compressed CAB files  The Quick Res and Telephony Location Manager Windows 95 PowerToys are integrated into the core operating system 

Improvements to hardware support
Windows Driver Model
Windows 98 was the first operating system to use the Windows Driver Model (WDM)  This fact was not well publicized when Windows 98 was released, and most hardware producers continued to develop drivers for the older VxD driver standard, which Windows 98 supported for compatibility's sake  The WDM standard only achieved widespread adoption years later, mostly through Windows 2000 and Windows XP, as they were not compatible with the older VxD standard  With the Windows Driver Model, developers could write drivers that were compatible with other versions of Windows  Device driver access in WDM is implemented through a VxD device driver, NTKERN VXD, which implements several Windows NT-specific kernel support functions Support for WDM audio enables digital mixing, routing and processing of simultaneous audio streams and kernel streaming with high quality sample rate conversion on Windows 98  WDM Audio allows for software emulation of legacy hardware to support MS-DOS games, DirectSound support and MIDI wavetable synthesis  The Windows 95 11-device limitation for MIDI devices is eliminated  A Microsoft GS Wavetable Synthesizer licensed from Roland shipped with Windows 98 for WDM audio drivers  Windows 98 supports digital playback of audio CDs, and the Second Edition improves WDM audio support by adding DirectSound hardware mixing and DirectSound 3D hardware abstraction, DirectMusic kernel support, KMixer sample-rate conversion for capture streams and multichannel audio support  All audio is sampled by the Kernel Mixer to a fixed sampling rate which may result in some audio getting upsampled or downsampled and having a high latency, except when using Kernel Streaming or third-party audio paths like ASIO which allow unmixed audio streams and lower latency  Windows 98 also includes a WDM streaming class driver (Stream sys) to address real time multimedia data stream processing requirements and a WDM kernel-mode video transport for enhanced video playback and capture 
Windows Driver Model also includes Broadcast Driver Architecture, the backbone for TV technologies support in Windows  WebTV for Windows utilized BDA to allow viewing television on the computer if a compatible TV tuner card is installed  TV listings could be updated from the Internet and WaveTop Data Broadcasting allowed extra data about broadcasts to be received via regular television signals using an antenna or cable, by embedding data streams into the vertical blanking interval portion of existing broadcast television signals 

Other device support improvements
Windows 98 had more robust USB support than Windows 95, which only had support in OEM versions OSR2 1 and later  Windows 98 supports USB hubs, USB scanners and imaging class devices  Windows 98 also introduced built-in support for some USB Human Interface Device class (USB HID) and PID class devices such as USB mice, keyboards, force feedback joysticks etc  including additional keyboard functions through a certain number of Consumer Page HID controls Windows 98 introduced ACPI 1 0 support which enabled Standby and Hibernate states  However, hibernation support was extremely limited and vendor-specific  Hibernation was only available if compatible (PnP) hardware and BIOS are present, and the hardware manufacturer or OEM supplied compatible WDM drivers, non-VxD drivers  However, there are hibernation issues with the FAT32 file system, making hibernation problematic and unreliable 
Windows 98, in general, provides improved — and a broader range of — support for IDE and SCSI drives and drive controllers, floppy drive controllers and all other classes of hardware as compared to Windows 95  There is integrated Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) support (although the USB Supplement to Windows 95 OSR2 and later releases of Windows 95 did have AGP support)  Windows 98 has built-in DVD support and UDF 1 02 read support  The Still imaging architecture (STI) with TWAIN support was introduced for scanners and cameras and Image Color Management 2 0 for devices to perform color space transformations  Multiple monitor support allows using up to nine multiple monitors on a single PC, with the feature requiring one PCI graphics adapter per monitor  Windows 98 shipped with DirectX 5 2, which notably included DirectShow  Windows 98 Second Edition would later ship with DirectX 6 1 

Networking enhancements
Windows 98 networking enhancements to TCP/IP include built-in support for Winsock 2, SMB signing, a new IP Helper API, Automatic Private IP Addressing (also known as link-local addressing), IP multicasting, and performance enhancements for high-speed high bandwidth networks  Multihoming support with TCP/IP is improved and includes RIP listener support 
The DHCP client has been enhanced to include address assignment conflict detection and longer timeout intervals  NetBT configuration in the WINS client has been improved to continue persistently querying multiple WINS servers if it failed to establish the initial session until all of the WINS servers specified have been queried or a connection is established 
Network Driver Interface Specification 5 support means Windows 98 can support a wide range of network media, including Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Token Ring, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), ISDN, wide area networks, X 25, and Frame Relay  Additional features include NDIS power management, support for quality of service, Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) and support for a single INF file format across all Windows versions Windows 98 Dial-Up Networking supports PPTP tunneling, support for ISDN adapters, multilink support, and connection-time scripting to automate non-standard login connections  Multilink channel aggregation enables users to combine all available dial-up lines to achieve higher transfer speeds  PPP connection logs can show actual packets being passed and Windows 98 allows PPP logging per connection  The Dial-Up Networking improvements are also available in Windows 95 OSR2 and are downloadable for earlier Windows 95 releases 
For networked computers that have user profiles enabled, Windows 98 introduces Microsoft Family Logon which lists all users that have been configured for that computer, enabling users to simply select their names from a list rather than having to type them in Windows 98 supports IrDA 3 0 which specifies both Serial Infrared Devices and Fast Infrared devices, which are capable of sending and receiving data at 4 Mbit/s  Infrared Recipient, a new application for transferring files through an infrared connection is included  The IrDA stack in Windows 98 supports networking profiles over the IrCOMM kernel-mode driver  Windows 98 also has built-in support for browsing Distributed File System trees on Server Message Block shares such as Windows NT servers UPnP and NAT traversal APIs can be installed on Windows 98 by installing the Windows XP Network Setup Wizard  An L2TP/IPsec VPN client can also be downloaded  By installing Active Directory Client Extensions, Windows 98 can take advantage of several Windows 2000 Active Directory features 

Improvements to the system and built-in utilities
Performance improvements
Windows 95 introduced the 32-bit, protected-mode cache driver VCACHE (replacing SMARTDrv) to cache the most recently accessed information from the hard drive in memory, divided into chunks  However, the cache parameters needed manual tuning as it degraded performance by consuming too much memory and not releasing it quickly enough, forcing paging to occur far too early  The Windows 98 VCACHE cache size management for disk and network access, CD-ROM access and paging is more dynamic compared to Windows 95, resulting in no tuning being required for cache parameters  On the FAT32 file system, Windows 98 has a performance feature called MapCache that can run applications from the disk cache itself if the code pages of executable files are aligned/mapped on 4K boundaries, instead of copying them to virtual memory  This results in more memory being available to run applications, and lesser usage of the swap file 
Windows 98 registry handling is more robust than Windows 95 to avoid corruption and there are several enhancements to eliminate limitations and improve registry performance  The Windows 95 registry key size limitation of 64 KB is gone  The registry uses less memory and has better caching Disk Defragmenter has been improved to rearrange program files that are frequently used to a hard disk region optimized for program start  However, as with Windows 95, the message "Drive contents changed    restarting " still exists in this version (i e  if the contents of the hard drive changed, then the entire drive is then rescanned and then progress resumed where it had left off)  If it gets stuck on the same area too many times, it will ask the user if it should keep trying or give up  The version of Disk Defragmenter from Windows Me does not have this problem and will function on Windows 98 or Windows 95 if the user simply copies it over Windows 98 also supports a Fast Shutdown feature that initiates shutdown without uninitializing device drivers  However, this can cause Windows 98 to hang instead of shutting down the computer if a buggy driver is active, so Microsoft supplied instructions for disabling the feature  Windows 98 supports write-behind caching for removable disk drives  A utility for converting FAT16 partitions to FAT32 without formatting the partition is also included 

Other system tools
A number of improvements are made to various other system tools and accessories in Windows 98  Microsoft Backup supports differential backup and SCSI tape devices in Windows 98  Disk Cleanup, a new tool, enables users to clear their disks of unnecessary files  Cleanup locations are extensible through Disk Cleanup handlers  Disk Cleanup can be automated for regular silent cleanups Scanreg (DOS) and ScanRegW are Registry Checker tools used to back up, restore or optimize the Windows registry  ScanRegW tests the registry's integrity and saves a backup copy each time Windows successfully boots  The maximum number of copies could be customized by the user through "scanreg ini" file  The restoration of a registry that causes Windows to fail to boot can only be done from DOS mode using ScanReg System Configuration Utility is a new system utility used to disable programs and services that are not required to run the computer  A Maintenance Wizard is included that schedules and automates ScanDisk, Disk Defragmenter and Disk Cleanup  Windows Script Host, with VBScript and JScript engines is built-in and upgradeable to version 5 6  System File Checker checks installed versions of system files to ensure they were the same version as the one installed with Windows 98 or newer  Corrupt or older versions are replaced by the correct versions  This tool was introduced to resolve the DLL hell issue and was replaced in Windows Me by System File Protection 
Windows 98 Setup simplifies installation, reducing the bulk of user input required  The Windows 98 Startup Disk contains generic, real-mode ATAPI and SCSI CD-ROM drivers that can be used instead in the event that the specific driver for a CD-ROM is unavailable The system could be updated using Windows Update  A utility to automatically notify the user of critical updates was later released Windows 98 includes an improved version of the Dr  Watson utility that collects and lists comprehensive information such as running tasks, startup programs with their command line switches, system patches, kernel driver, user drivers, DOS drivers and 16-bit modules  With Dr  Watson loaded in the system tray, whenever a software fault occurs (general protection fault, hang, etc ), Dr  Watson will intercept it and indicate what software crashed and its cause Windows Report Tool takes a snapshot of system configuration and lets users submit a manual problem report along with system information to technicians  It has e-mail confirmation for submitted reports 

Accessories
Windows 98 includes Microsoft Magnifier, Accessibility Wizard and Microsoft Active Accessibility 1 1 API (upgradeable to MSAA 2 0 ) A new HTML Help system with 15 Troubleshooting Wizards was introduced to replace WinHelp 
Users can configure the font in Notepad  Microsoft Paint supports GIF transparency  HyperTerminal supports a TCP/IP connection method, which allows it to be used as a Telnet client  Imaging for Windows is updated  System Monitor—used to track the performance of hardware and software—supports output to a log file 

Miscellaneous improvements
Telephony API (TAPI) 2 1
DCOM version 1 2
Ability to list fonts by similarity determined using PANOSE information 
Tools to automate setup, such as Batch 98 and INFInst exe, support error-checking, gathering information automatically to create an INF file directly from a machine's registry, customizing IE4, shell and desktop settings and adding custom drivers 
Several other Resource Kit tools are included on the Windows 98 CD 
Windows 98 has new system event sounds for Low Battery Alarm and Critical Battery Alarm 
Windows 98 also introduced new and updated system sounds  The new startup sound for Windows 98 was composed by Microsoft sound engineer Ken Kato, who considered it to be a "tough act to follow" 
Windows 98 shipped with Flash Player and Shockwave Player preinstalled 

Windows 98 Second Edition
Windows 98 Second Edition (often shortened to Windows 98 SE and sometimes to Win98 SE) is an updated version of Windows 98 released on May 5, 1999, nine months before the release of Windows 2000  It includes many bug fixes, improved WDM audio and modem support, improved USB support, the replacement of Internet Explorer 4 0 with Internet Explorer 5 0, Web Folders (WebDAV namespace extension for Windows Explorer), and related shell updates  Also included is basic OHCI-compliant FireWire DV camcorder support (MSDV class driver) and SBP-2 support for mass storage class devices  Wake-On-LAN reenables suspended networked computers due to network activity, and Internet Connection Sharing allows multiple networked client computers to share an Internet connection via a single host computer Other features in the update include DirectX 6 1 which introduced major improvements to DirectSound and the introduction of DirectMusic, improvements to Asynchronous Transfer Mode support (IP/ATM, PPP/ATM and WinSock 2/ATM support), Windows Media Player 6 1 replacing the older Media Player, Microsoft NetMeeting 3 0, MDAC 2 1 and WMI  A memory overflow issue was resolved in which earlier versions of Windows 98 would crash most systems if left running for 49 7 days (equal to 232 milliseconds)  Windows 98 SE could be obtained as retail upgrade and full version packages, as well as OEM and a Second Edition Updates Disc for existing Windows 98 users  USB audio device class support is present from Windows 98 SE onwards  Windows 98 Second Edition improved WDM support in general for all devices, and it introduced support for WDM for modems (and therefore USB modems and virtual COM ports)  However, Microsoft driver support for both USB printers and USB mass-storage device class is not available for Windows 98 

Removed features
Windows 98 Second Edition did not ship with the WinG API or RealPlayer 4 0, unlike the original release of Windows 98, due to both of these having been superseded by DirectX and Windows Media Player, respectively 

Upgradeability
Several components of both Windows 98 and Windows 98 Second Edition can be updated to newer versions  These include:

Internet Explorer 6 SP1 and Outlook Express 6 SP1
Windows Media Format Runtime and Windows Media Player 9 Series on Windows 98 Second Edition (Windows Media Player 7 1 on Windows 98 original release)
Windows Media Encoder 7 1 and Windows Media 8 Encoding Utility
DirectX 9 0c (the latest compatible runtime is from October 2007 )
MSN Messenger 7 0
Significant features from newer Microsoft operating systems can be installed on Windows 98  Chief among them are  NET Framework versions 1 0, 1 1 and 2 0, the Visual C++ 2005 runtime, Windows Installer 2 0, the GDI+ redistributable library, Remote Desktop Connection client 5 2 and the Text Services Framework 
Several other components such as MSXML 3 0 SP7, Microsoft Agent 2 0, NetMeeting 3 01, MSAA 2 0, ActiveSync 3 8, WSH 5 6, Microsoft Data Access Components 2 81 SP1, WMI 1 5 and Speech API 4 0 
Office XP is the last version of Microsoft Office that is compatible with Windows 98 
Although Windows 98 does not fully support Unicode, certain Unicode applications can run if the Microsoft Layer for Unicode is installed 

System requirements
The two major versions of Windows 98 have minimum requirements needed to be run 

Users can bypass processor requirement checks with the undocumented /NM setup switch  This allows installation on computers with processors as old as the Intel 80386 

Limitations
The original release of Windows 98 may fail to boot on computers with a processor faster than 2 1 GHz  Windows 98 is only designed to handle up to 512 MB of RAM without changes  The maximum amount of RAM the operating system is designed to use is up to 1 GB of RAM  Systems with more than 1 5 GB of RAM may continuously reboot during startup  Both Windows 98 and Windows 98 Second Edition have problems running on hard drives of capacities larger than 32 GB in systems with certain Phoenix BIOS configurations  A software update fixed this shortcoming 

Support lifecycle
All computers running Windows NT 4 0 Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, and Windows 98 can be directly upgraded to Windows XP Professional  Support for Windows 98 under Microsoft's consumer product life cycle policy was originally planned to end on June 30, 2003, however, in December 2002, Microsoft extended the support window to January 16, 2004  This date would then be extended again to June 30, 2006 on January 13, 2004 up to a final end of support date of July 11, 2006, citing support volumes in emerging markets as the reason for the extension Retail availability for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and later became completely unavailable from Microsoft in any form (through MSDN or otherwise) due to the terms of Java-related settlements Microsoft made with Sun Microsystems The Windows Update website continued to be available after Windows 98's end of support date, however, in 2011, Microsoft retired the Windows Update v4 website and removed the updates for Windows 98 and Windows 98 SE from its servers 

Reception
Windows 98 was released to generally favorable reviews, with praise directed to its improved graphical user interface and customizability, ease of use,: 30–31  and the degree to which it addressed complaints that users and critics had with Windows 95  Michael Sweet of Smart Computing characterized it as heavily integrating features of the Internet browser, and found file and folder navigation easier : 30–31  Ed Bott of PC Computing lauded the bug fixes, easier troubleshooting, and support for hardware advances such as DVD players and USB  However, he also found that the operating system crashed only slightly less frequently, and criticized the high upgrade price and system requirements  He rated it four stars out of five 

Sales
Windows 98 sold 530,000 licenses in its first four days of availability, overtaking Windows 95's 510,000  It later sold a total of 580,000 and 350,000 licenses in the first and second months of availability, respectively In the first year of its release, Windows 98 sold a total of 15 million licenses – 2 million more than its predecessor  However, International Data Corporation estimated that of the roughly 89 million shipped computers in the desktop market, the operating system had a market share of 17 2 percent, compared to Windows 95's 57 4 percent  Meanwhile, the two operating systems continued to observe a trend whereby Windows 98 improved in sales performance, whereas Windows 95 dwindled  After a legal dispute and subsequent settlement with Sun Microsystems over the former's Java Virtual Machine, Microsoft ceased distributing the operating system on December 15, 2003, and IDC estimated that a total of 58 million copies were installed worldwide by then 
Passage 5:
Susanne Klatten
Susanne Hanna Ursula Klatten (née Quandt, born 28 April 1962) is a German billionaire heiress, the daughter of Herbert and Johanna Quandt  As of January 2022, her net worth was estimated at US$23 4 billion, and the richest woman in Germany and the 50th richest person in the world according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index 

Education
Klatten was born in Bad Homburg, West Germany  After gaining a degree in business finance, she worked for the advertising agency Young & Rubicam in Frankfurt from 1981 to 1983  This was followed by a course in marketing and management at the University of Buckingham, and an MBA from IMD Business School in Lausanne specialising in advertising She gained further business experience in London with Dresdner Bank, the Munich branch of management consultants McKinsey and the bank Bankhaus Reuschel & Co 
She has often worked under the name Susanne Kant 

Investments
On her father's death she inherited his 50 1% stake in pharmaceutical and chemicals manufacturer Altana  She sits on Altana's supervisory board and helped transform it into a world-class corporation in the German DAX list of 30 top companies  In 2006 Altana AG sold its pharmaceutical activities to Nycomed for €4 5 billion, leaving only its speciality chemicals business  The €4 5 billion was distributed to shareholders as a dividend  Altana maintained its stock exchange listing and Klatten remained its majority shareholder  
In 2009, she bought almost all shares she did not already own in Altana  Altana and SKion, which are both wholly owned by Susanne Klatten, are shareholder of Landa Digital Printing with together 46% since 2018  Landa Digital Printing is a company of the Israeli entrepreneur and inventor Benny Landa in the field of digital printing and nanotechnology Her father also left her a 12 50% stake in BMW, but following the death of her mother in 2015, her stake in BMW is now 19 2%  She was appointed to the supervisory board of BMW with her brother Stefan Quandt in 1997 
German graphite maker SGL Carbon said on 16 March 2009 that Klatten owns options to raise her stake in SGL from 8% to almost a quarter of the shares but no more than that 

Quandt family activities during WWII
The Hanns Joachim Friedrichs Award winning documentary film The Silence of the Quandts by the German public broadcaster ARD described in October 2007 the role of the Quandt family businesses during the Second World War  The family's Nazi past was not well known, but the documentary film revealed this to a wide audience and confronted the Quandts about the use of slave labourers in the family's factories during World War II  As a result, five days after the showing, four family members announced, on behalf of the entire Quandt family, their intention to fund a research project in which a historian would examine the family's activities during Adolf Hitler's dictatorship  The independent 1,200-page study researched and compiled by Bonn historian, Joachim Scholtyseck, that was released in 2011 concluded: "The Quandts were linked inseparably with the crimes of the Nazis"  As of 2008, no compensation, apology or even memorial at the site of one of their factories, have been permitted  BMW was not implicated in the report 

Personal life
Police prevented an attempt to kidnap her and her mother Johanna Quandt in 1978 Susanne met Jan Klatten while she was doing an internship with BMW in Regensburg, where he worked as an engineer  It is reported that during this time, she called herself Kant and did not tell him who she was until they were sure about each other, but Klatten himself denies the story  They married in 1990 in Kitzbühel and live in Munich  They have three children  The couple separated in 2018  She has been a member of the University Council of the Technical University of Munich since 2005  In 2007 she was awarded the Bayerischer Verdienstorden, the Bavarian Order of Merit  She is one of the biggest donors of the centre-right political party, the Christian Democratic Union In 2007 Klatten was blackmailed by Helg "Russak" Sgarbi, a 44-year-old Swiss national who threatened to release materials depicting the two having an affair  Sgarbi, who was charged with similar blackmail schemes against multiple women, was arrested in January 2009 and brought to court in Germany, where he was sentenced to six years in jail  His accomplice, the Italian hotel owner Ernano Barretta who allegedly filmed Sgarbi and Klatten with hidden cameras, was also arrested and was sentenced in 2012 to seven years in prison 

See also
List of female billionaires
Passage 6:
List of countries by steel production
This article summarizes the world steel production by country 
In 2020, total world crude steel production was 1877 5 million tonnes (Mt)   The biggest steel producing country is currently China, which accounted for 57% of world steel production in 2020  In 2020, China became the first country to produce over one billion tons of steel  In 2008, 2009, 2015 and 2016 output fell in the majority of steel-producing countries as a result of the global recession  In 2010 and 2017, it started to rise again  Crude steel production contracted in all regions in 2019 except in Asia and the Middle East 

List of countries by steel production
This is a list of countries by steel production in 1967, 1980, 1990, 2000 and from 2007 to 2021, based on data provided by the World Steel Association  All countries with annual production of crude steel at least 2 million metric tons 

Exports
net: exports - imports

Imports
Net: imports − exports

See also
Steel industry
Global steel industry trends
List of steel producers
List of countries by iron ore production



ground_truth: ease of use and enhanced support for Plug and Play

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Mehmet Hayri Tarhan's birthplace is the capital of what municipality?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  And I, Agnolo di Tura     buried my five children with my own hands  And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city  There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death  And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world 

Economic
It has been suggested that the plague, like some others in history, disproportionately affected the poorest people, who were already in generally worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens   Nevertheless, with such a large overall population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a labour shortage  On the other hand, in the quarter century after the Black Death in England, it is clear many labourers, artisans and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, did suffer a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation  Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants 

Environmental
A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation  This may have led to the Little Ice Age 

Persecutions
Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death  Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", lepers and Romani, blaming them for the crisis  Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe 
Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks  Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness There were many attacks against Jewish communities  In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered  In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated  By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed  During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great 

Social
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy and led to the Renaissance  Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife  It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century  The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy  The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an influx of Greek scholars following the fall of the Byzantine Empire  As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom  To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the workings of Europe were run by the Catholic Church and the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of fiefs and city-states  The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled Cairo's population, partly owing to the numerous plague epidemics, was in the early 18th century half of what it was in 1347  The populations of some Italian cities, notably Florence, did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century  The demographic decline due to the pandemic had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30–40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400  Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall  The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably destabilised feudalism The word "quarantine" has its roots in this period, though the concept of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older  In the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas  The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty" 

Recurrences
Second plague pandemic
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries  According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671  (Note that some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data ) The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–63; 1374; 1400; 1438–39; 1456–57; 1464–66; 1481–85; 1500–03; 1518–31; 1544–48; 1563–66; 1573–88; 1596–99; 1602–11; 1623–40; 1644–54; and 1664–67  Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century)  The historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s  However, other sources suggest that the Second pandemic did indeed reach Sub-Saharan Africa According to historian Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31 " In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1 7 million people in Italy  More than 1 25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world  Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850  Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions  Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa  Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42  Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s  Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century  Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800  Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died 

Third plague pandemic
The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone  The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney  This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908 

Modern-day
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine  It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat  One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995  A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014  In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions 

See also
Black Death in England
Black Death in medieval culture
Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Flagellant
Globalization and disease
List of epidemics
Second plague pandemic
Timeline of plague
Passage 3:
Saint-Laurent-des-Bâtons
Saint-Laurent-des-Bâtons (French pronunciation: ​[sɛ̃ loʁɑ̃ de batɔ̃]; Occitan: Sent Laurenç deus Bastons) is a former commune in the Dordogne department in southwestern France  On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune Sainte-Alvère-Saint-Laurent Les Bâtons, which merged into the new commune Val de Louyre et Caudeau on 1 January 2017 

Population
See also
Communes of the Dordogne department
Passage 4:
Bâton à feu
The Bâton à feu, or Baston à feu (French for "Fire stick"), is a type of hand cannon developed in the 14th century in Western Europe  This weapon type corresponds to the portable artillery of the second half of 14th century The Bâton à feu at the Musée de l'Armée in Paris has an hexagonal cross-section, and looks like a steel tube  It weighs 1 04 kg, and has a length of 18 cm  Its caliber is 2 cm 

In order to facilitate handling, the metal piece was placed at the end of a wooden pole  The powder was ignited through a small hole at the top, with a red-hot steel stick 

See also
Hand cannon


== Notes ==
Passage 5:
Consequences of the Black Death
The Black Death peaked in Europe between 1348 and 1350, with an estimated third of the continent's population ultimately succumbing to the disease  Often simply referred to as "The Plague", the Black Death had both immediate and long-term effects on human population across the world as one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, including a series of biological, social, economic, political and religious upheavals that had profound effects on the course of world history, especially European history  Symptoms of the Bubonic Plague included painful and enlarged or swollen lymph nodes, headaches, chills, fatigue, vomiting, and fevers, and within 3 to 5 days, 80% of the victims would be dead  Historians estimate that it reduced the total world population from 475 million to between 350 and 375 million  In most parts of Europe, it took nearly 80 years for population sizes to recover, and in some areas, it took more than 150 years From the perspective of many of the survivors, the effect of the plague may have been ultimately favourable, as the massive reduction of the workforce meant their labor was suddenly in higher demand  R  H  Hilton has argued that the English peasants who survived found their situation to be much improved  For many Europeans, the 15th century was a golden age of prosperity and new opportunities  The land was plentiful, wages were high and serfdom had all but disappeared  A century later, as population growth resumed, the lower classes once again faced deprivation and famine 

Death toll
Figures for the death toll vary widely by area and from source to source, and estimates are frequently revised as historical research brings new discoveries to light  Most scholars estimate that the Black Death killed up to 75 million people in the 14th century, at a time when the entire world population was still less than 500 million  Even where the historical record is considered reliable, only rough estimates of the total number of deaths from the plague are possible 

Europe
Europe suffered an especially- significant death toll from the plague  Modern estimates range between roughly one third and one half of the total European population in the five-year period of 1347 to 1351 died during which the most severely-affected areas may have lost up to 80% of the population  Contemporary chronicler Jean Froissart estimated the toll to be one-third, which modern scholars consider less an accurate assessment than an allusion to the Book of Revelation meant to suggest the scope of the plague  Deaths were not evenly distributed across Europe, and some areas were affected very little, but others were all but entirely depopulated The Black Death hit the culture of towns and cities disproportionately hard although rural areas, where most of the population lived at the time, were also significantly affected  Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quarters made disease transmission easier  Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas, and rats, and subject to diseases caused by malnutrition and poor hygiene  The population of the city of Florence was reduced from 110,000 to 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351  In the cities of Hamburg and Bremen, 60–70% of the inhabitants died  In Provence, Dauphiné, and Normandy, historians observe a decrease of 60% of fiscal hearths  In some regions, two thirds of the population was annihilated  In the town of Givry, in the Bourgogne region of France, the local friar, who used to note 28–29 funerals a year, recorded 649 deaths in 1348, half of them in September  About half the population of Perpignan died over the course of several months (only two of the eight physicians survived the plague)  Over 60% of Norway's population died between 1348 and 1350  London may have lost two thirds of its population during the 1348–49 outbreak; England as a whole may have lost 70% of its population, which declined from 7 million before the plague to 2 million in 1400 Some places, including the Kingdom of Poland, parts of Hungary, the Brabant region, Hainaut, and Limbourg (in modern Belgium), as well as Santiago de Compostela, were unaffected for unknown reasons  Some historians have assumed that the presence of resistant blood groups in the local population helped them resist infection, but the regions were touched by the second plague outbreak in 1360–1363 (the "little mortality") and later during the numerous resurgences of the plague (in 1366–1369, 1374–75, 1400, 1407 etc )  Other areas escaping the plague were isolated in mountainous regions such as the Pyrenees 
All social classes were affected, but the lower classes, living together in unhealthy places, were most vulnerable  Alfonso XI of Castile and Joan of Navarre (daughter of Louis X le Hutin and Margaret of Burgundy) were the only European monarchs to die of the plague, but Peter IV of Aragon lost his wife, his daughter and a niece in six months  Joan of England, daughter of Edward III, died in Bordeaux on her way to Castile to marry Alfonso's son Pedro  The Byzantine Emperor lost his son, while in the Kingdom of France, Bonne of Luxembourg, the wife of the future John II of France, died of the plague 

Asia
Estimates of the demographic effect of the plague in Asia are based on population figures during the time and estimates of the disease's toll on population centers  The most severe outbreak of plague, in the Chinese province of Hubei in 1334, claimed up to 80% of the population  China had several epidemics and famines from 1200 to the 1350s and its population decreased from an estimated 125 million to 65 million in the late 14th century The precise demographic effect of the disease in the Middle East is very difficult to calculate  Mortality was particularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Gaza and Syria  Many rural people fled, leaving their fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated  Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths  The 1348 outbreak in Gaza left an estimated 10,000 people dead, and Aleppo recorded a death rate of 500 per day during the same year  In Damascus, at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day, with overall mortality estimated at between 25 and 38 percent  Syria had lost a total of 400,000 people when the epidemic subsided, in March 1349  In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe, scholars such as John Fields of Trinity College, Dublin, believe the mortality rate in the Middle East to have been less than one third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas 

Social, environmental, and economic effects
Because 14th-century healers were at a loss to explain the cause of the Black Death, many Europeans gave supernatural forces, earthquakes, malicious conspiracies and other things as possible reasons for the plague's emergence  No one in the 14th century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people began to believe that only God's anger could produce such horrific displays of suffering and death  Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer and poet of the era, questioned whether it was sent by God for their correction, or if it came through the influence of the heavenly bodies  Christians accused Jews of poisoning public water supplies and alleged that Jews were making an effort to ruin European civilization  The spreading of those rumours led to the complete destruction of entire Jewish towns  In February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg  In August that year, the Jewish communities of Mainz and Cologne were murdered Where government authorities were concerned, most monarchs instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain and outlawed large-scale fishing  At best, those proved mostly unenforceable; at worst, they contributed to a continental downward spiral  The hardest-hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad from France because of the prohibition and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labour  Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by pirates or looters to be sold on the black market  Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war, used up much of their treasury which exacerbated inflation  In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War  Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns, made Europe in the mid-14th century ripe for tragedy 
The historian Walter Scheidel contends that waves of plague following the initial outbreak of the Black Death had a levelling effect, which changed the ratio of land to labour by reducing the value of the former and boosting that of the latter, which lowered economic inequality by making landowners and employers less well-off and improved the lot of the workers: "the observed improvement in living standards of the laboring population was rooted in the suffering and premature death of tens of millions over the course of several generations"  The levelling effect was reversed by a "demographic recovery that resulted in renewed population pressure"  On the other hand, in the quarter-century after the Black Death, many labourers, artisans, and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, suffer a reduction in real incomes in England from rampant inflation  In 1357, a third of property in London was unused because of a severe outbreak in 1348–49  However, for reasons still debated, population levels declined after the Black Death's first outbreak until around 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470 and so the initial Black Death event on its own does not entirely provide a satisfactory explanation to that extended period of decline in prosperity  See medieval demography for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in living standards took longer to evolve 

Peasantry
The great population loss brought favorable results to the surviving peasants in England and the rest of Western Europe  There was increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already-weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings  Seigneurialism never recovered  Land was plentiful, wages high, and serfdom had all but disappeared  It was possible to move about and rise higher in life  Younger sons and women especially benefited  As population growth resumed, however, peasants again faced deprivation and famine In Eastern Europe, by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasantry more tightly to the land than ever before through serfdom 
Furthermore, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices; more food for the average peasant; and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in the coming century  Since the plague left vast areas of farmland untended, they were made available for pasture and put more meat on the market  The consumption of meat and dairy products went up, as did the export of beef and butter from the Low Countries, Scandinavia and northern Germany  However, the upper class often attempted to stop the changes, initially in Western Europe and more forcefully and successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting sumptuary laws  They regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) could wear so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher-class member with their increased wealth  Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more with increasing value  In England, the Statute of Labourers 1351 was enforced, which stated that no peasant could ask for more wages than in 1346  That was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired  Such a law was one of the causes of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England 
The rapid development of the use was probably one of the consequences of the Black Death during which many landowning nobles died and left their realty to their widows and minor orphans 

Urban workers
In the wake of the drastic population decline brought on by the plague, wages shot up, and labourers could move to new localities in response to wage offers  Local and royal authorities in Western Europe instituted wage controls  The government controls sought to freeze wages at the old levels before the Black Death  Within England, for example, the Ordinance of Labourers, enacted in 1349, and the Statute of Labourers, enacted in 1351, restricted both wage increases and the relocation of workers  If workers attempted to leave their current post, employers were given the right to have them imprisoned  The statute was poorly enforced in most areas, and farm wages in England on average doubled between 1350 and 1450, but they were then static until the late 19th century Cohn, comparing numerous countries, argues that the laws were not designed primarily to freeze wages  Instead, he says that the energetic local and royal measures to control labour and artisans' prices were responses to elite fears of the greed and the possible new powers of the lesser classes that had gained new freedom  Cohn continues that the laws reflected the anxiety that followed the Black Death's new horrors of mass mortality and destruction and from elite anxiety about manifestations, such as the flagellant movement and the persecution of Jews, Catalans (in Sicily) and beggars 

Labour-saving adaptations
The Black Death encouraged innovation of labour-saving technologies, leading to higher productivity  There was also a shift from grain farming to animal husbandry  Grain farming was very labor-intensive, but animal husbandry needed only a shepherd and a few dogs and pastureland By 1200, virtually all of the Mediterranean basin and most of northern Germany had been deforested and cultivated  Indigenous flora and fauna were replaced by domestic grasses and animals, and domestic woodlands were lost  With depopulation, the process was reversed  Much of the primeval vegetation returned, and abandoned fields and pastures were reforested 

Changing land-contracts and end of serfdom
Plague brought an eventual end of serfdom in Western Europe  The manorial system was already in trouble, but the Black Death assured its demise throughout much of Western and Central Europe by 1500  Severe depopulation and migration of the village to cities caused an acute shortage of agricultural labourers  Many villages were abandoned  In England, more than 1300 villages were deserted between 1350 and 1500  Wages of labourers were high, but the rise in nominal wages after the Black Death was swamped by inflation and so real wages fell Labour was in such a short supply that landlords were forced to give better terms of tenure  That resulted in much lower rents in Western Europe  By 1500, a new form of tenure called copyhold became prevalent in Europe  In copyhold, both a landlord and peasant made their best business deal, whereby the peasant got use of the land and the landlord got a fixed annual payment, and both possessed a copy of the tenure agreement  Serfdom did not end everywhere and lingered in parts of Western Europe and was introduced to Eastern Europe only after the Black Death There was also a change in inheritance law  Before the plague, only sons, especially the eldest son, inherited the ancestral property  After the Plague, all sons and daughters started to inherit property 

Persecutions
Renewed religious fervor and fanaticism came in the wake of the Black Death  Some Europeans targeted "groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims" lepers and Romani, who were thought to have caused the crisis 
Differences in cultural and lifestyle practices also led to persecution  As the plague swept across Europe in the mid-14th century and annihilating more than half the population, Jews were taken as scapegoats, in part because better hygiene among Jewish communities and isolation in the ghettos meant that Jews were less affected  Accusations spread that Jews had caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells  Mobs attacked Jewish settlements across Europe; by 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred 
According to Joseph P  Byrne, women also faced persecution during the Black Death  Muslim women in Cairo became scapegoats when the plague struck  Byrne writes that in 1438, the sultan of Cairo was informed by his religious lawyers, that the arrival of the plague was "Allah's punishment for the sin of fornication" and that in accordance with that theory, a law was set in place stating that women were not allowed to make public appearances, as "they may tempt men into sin"  Byrne describes that law as being lifted only when "the wealthy complained that their female servants could not shop for food" 

Religion
The Black Death hit the monasteries very hard because of their proximity with the sick who sought refuge there  That left a severe shortage of clergy after the epidemic cycle  Eventually, the losses were replaced by hastily-trained and inexperienced clergy members, many of whom knew little of the rigours of their predecessors  New colleges were opened at established universities, and the training process was sped up  The shortage of priests opened new opportunities for laywomen to assume more extensive and more important service roles in the local parish 

Flagellants practiced self-flogging (whipping of oneself) to atone for sins  The movement became popular after the Black Death  It may be that the flagellants' later involvement in hedonism was an effort to accelerate, to absorb God's wrath and to shorten the time with which others suffered  More likely, the focus of attention and popularity of their cause contributed to a sense that the world itself was ending and that their individual actions were of no consequence 
Reformers rarely pointed to failures on the part of the Church in dealing with the catastrophe 

Cultural effects
The Black Death had profound effects on art and literature  After 1350, European culture in general turned very morbid  The general mood was one of pessimism, and contemporary art turned dark with representations of death  The widespread image of the "dance of death" showed death (a skeleton) choosing victims at random  Many of the most graphic depictions come from writers such as Boccaccio and Petrarch  Peire Lunel de Montech, writing about 1348 in the lyric style long out of fashion, composed the following sorrowful sirventes "Meravilhar no·s devo pas las gens" during the height of the plague in Toulouse:

They died by the hundreds, both day and night, and all were thrown in    ditches and covered with earth  And as soon as those ditches were filled, more were dug  And I, Agnolo di Tura    buried my five children with my own hands     And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world 
Boccaccio wrote:

How many valiant men, how many fair ladies, breakfast with their kinfolk and the same night supped with their ancestors in the next world! The condition of the people was pitiable to behold  They sickened by the thousands daily, and died unattended and without help  Many died in the open street, others dying in their houses, made it known by the stench of their rotting bodies  Consecrated churchyards did not suffice for the burial of the vast multitude of bodies, which were heaped by the hundreds in vast trenches, like goods in a ship's hold and covered with a little earth 

Medicine
Although the Black Death highlighted the shortcomings of medical science in the Middle Ages, it also led to positive changes in the field of medicine  As described by David Herlihy in The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, more emphasis was placed on "anatomical investigations" after the Black Death  The way that individuals studied the human body notably changed and became a process that dealt more directly with the human body in varied states of sickness and health  Furthermore, the importance of surgeons became more evident A theory put forth by Stephen O'Brien is that the Black Death is likely responsible by natural selection for the high frequency of the CCR5-Δ32 genetic defect in people of European descent  The gene affects T cell function and provides protection against HIV, smallpox and possibly plague, but for the last, no explanation exists on how it would do that  However, that is now challenged since the CCR5-Δ32 gene has been found to be just as common in Bronze Age tissue samples 

Architecture
The Black Death also inspired European architecture to move in two different directions: (1) a revival of Greco-Roman styles, and (2) a further elaboration of the Gothic style  Late medieval churches had impressive structures centred on verticality in which one's eye is drawn up towards the high ceiling  The basic Gothic style was revamped with elaborate decoration in the late medieval period  Sculptors in Italian city-states emulated the work of their Roman forefathers, and sculptors in Northern Europe, no doubt inspired by the devastation they had witnessed, gave way to a heightened expression of emotion and an emphasis on individual differences  A tough realism came forth in architecture as in literature  Images of intense sorrow, decaying corpses and individuals with faults as well as virtues emerged  North of the Alps, painting reached a pinnacle of precise realism with Early Dutch painting by artists such as Jan van Eyck (c  1390 – 1441)  The natural world was reproduced in those works with meticulous detail whose realism was not unlike photography 

See also
Economic consequences of population decline
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic



ground_truth: Malko Tarnovo Municipality