prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the symbol of the Saints from the headquarters location of Ten High's manufacturer called?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Sazerac
The Sazerac is a local variation of a cognac or whiskey cocktail originally from New Orleans, named for the Sazerac de Forge et Fils brand of cognac brandy that served as its original main ingredient  The drink is most traditionally a combination of
cognac or rye whiskey, absinthe, Peychaud's Bitters, and sugar, although bourbon whiskey is sometimes substituted for the rye and Herbsaint is sometimes substituted for the absinthe  Some claim it is the oldest known American cocktail, with origins in antebellum New Orleans, although drink historian David Wondrich is among those who dispute this, and American instances of published usage of the word cocktail to describe a mixture of spirits, bitters, and sugar can be traced to the dawn of the 19th century 

Characteristics
The defining feature of the Sazerac is its method of preparation, which commonly involves two chilled old-fashioned glasses  The first glass is swirled with a wash of absinthe for its flavor and strong scent  The second glass is used to combine the remaining ingredients, which are stirred with ice, then strained into the first glass  Various anisettes such as pastis, Pernod, or Herbsaint are common substitutes when absinthe is unavailable  In New Orleans, Herbsaint is most commonly used due to the absence of absinthe in the U S  market from 1912 until 2007 

History
Around 1850, Sewell T  Taylor sold his New Orleans bar, the Merchants Exchange Coffee House, to become an importer of spirits, and he began to import a brand of cognac named Sazerac-de-Forge et Fils  Meanwhile, Aaron Bird assumed proprietorship of the Merchants Exchange and changed its name to Sazerac Coffee House  On October 2, 2019, the Sazerac House opened to the public as a museum and immersive experience that shares the history of the New Orleans cocktail culture, including the Sazerac Legend has it that Bird began serving the "Sazerac Cocktail", made with Sazerac cognac imported by Taylor, and allegedly with bitters being made by the local apothecary, Antoine Amedie Peychaud  The Sazerac Coffee House subsequently changed hands several times, until around 1870 Thomas Handy became its proprietor  It is around this time that the primary ingredient changed from cognac to rye whiskey, due to the phylloxera epidemic in Europe that devastated the vineyards of France At some point before his death in 1889, Handy recorded the recipe for the cocktail, which made its first printed appearance in William T  "Cocktail Bill" Boothby's The World's Drinks and How to Mix Them (1908), although his recipe calls for Selner Bitters, not Peychaud's  After absinthe was banned in the United States in 1912, it was replaced by various anise-flavored liqueurs, most notably the locally produced Herbsaint, which first appeared in 1934 By the early 20th century, simple cocktails like the Sazerac had become rare, which eventually rekindled their popularity The creation of the Sazerac has also been credited to Antoine Amédée Peychaud, a Creole apothecary who emigrated to New Orleans from the West Indies and set up shop in the French Quarter in the early 19th century  He was known to dispense a proprietary mix of aromatic bitters from an old family recipe  
According to popular myth, he served his drink in the large end of an egg cup that was called a coquetier in French, and the Americanized mispronunciation resulted in the name cocktail  This belief was debunked when people discovered that the term "cocktail" as a type of drink first appeared in print at least as far back as 1803—and was defined in print in 1806 as, "a mixture of spirits of any kind, water, sugar and bitters, vulgarly called a bittered sling" 

Official cocktail of New Orleans
In March 2008, Louisiana state senator Edwin R  Murray (D-New Orleans) filed Senate Bill 6 designating the Sazerac as Louisiana's official state cocktail  The bill was defeated on April 8, 2008  After further debate, on June 23, 2008, the Louisiana Legislature agreed to proclaim the Sazerac as New Orleans' official cocktail In 2011, as a writer for the HBO TV series Treme, Anthony Bourdain penned a scene in which chef Janette Desautel (played by Kim Dickens) tosses one in the face of restaurant critic and food writer Alan Richman (appearing as himself)  Richman had angered many New Orleanians in 2006 with an article in the magazine GQ, in which he criticized New Orleans' food culture post-Hurricane Katrina  Despite reservations, he agreed to participate in the scene and called Sazerac "a good choice of weaponry, because it symbolizes the city", despite a running feud with Bourdain over, among other things, the review 

Similar cocktails
A cocktail named the Zazarack was included in the 1910 version of Jack's Manual, an early bartender's reference written by Jacob "Jack" Grohusko, the head bartender at Baracca's restaurant in New York  It is essentially the same cocktail as the Sazerac, but called for bourbon (and not rye) instead of cognac Later versions of the drink were spelled Zazarac and added rum, and are thought by some to be a variant of the Sazerac, although it might have originated completely independently of the more famous drink 

Brands
Sazerac is also a brand of rye whiskey produced by the Sazerac Company 

See also
List of cocktails
Old Fashioned
Passage 2:
Ten High
Ten High is a brand of American whiskey first introduced in the 1930s by Hiram Walker & Sons, now produced by the Barton Brands division of the Sazerac Company  The name Ten High refers to a barrel storage location at least ten ricks high, as barrels in the upper part of the aging warehouse mature faster  Although the brand name evoked this storage method, the manufacturer did not actually promise that the brand was from barrels aged in such locations 

History
The brand was originally produced by Hiram Walker & Sons (a company owned by Harry C  Hatch at the time) at a distillery in Peoria, Illinois, starting shortly after the end of Prohibition in 1933  It was a major brand (and the leading brand of Illinois-made bourbon) until the late 1960s when the American whiskey market went through a particularly difficult period  The Peoria distillery stopped distilling operations in 1973 and closed completely in 1981  After the Peoria distillery closed, production moved first to Heaven Hill and later to Barton, both based in Bardstown, Kentucky  The Sazerac Company acquired Barton, including the Ten High brand, in 2009 
From the early 1980s until the late 2000s, Ten High was a straight Bourbon whiskey  Starting in 2009, the brand switched to being labelled "Bourbon – a blend", a designation for a product that is 51 percent straight Bourbon, with the remainder neutral spirits 
Passage 3:
Billiken
The Billiken is a charm doll created by an American art teacher and illustrator, Florence Pretz of Kansas City, Missouri, who is said to have seen the mysterious figure in a dream  It is believed that Pretz found the name Billiken in Bliss Carman's 1896 poem "Mr  Moon: A Song Of The Little People"   In 1908, she obtained a design patent on the ornamental design of the Billiken, which she sold to the Billiken Company of Chicago   The Billiken was monkey-like with pointed ears, a mischievous smile and a tuft of hair on his pointed head  His arms were short and he was generally sitting with his legs stretched out in front of him  Billiken is known as "The God of Things as They Ought to Be" 
To buy a Billiken was said to give the purchaser luck, but to receive one as a gift would be better luck  The image was copyrighted and a trademark was put on the name  After a few years of popularity, the Billiken faded into obscurity  Although they are similar, the Billiken and the baby-like kewpie figures that debuted in the December 1909 Ladies' Home Journal are not the same 
Today, the Billiken is the official mascot of Saint Louis University and St  Louis University High School, both Jesuit institutions located in St  Louis  The Billiken is also the official mascot of the Royal Order of Jesters, an invitation only Shriner group affiliated with Freemasonry  The Billiken also became the namesake of Billiken Shokai, the Japanese toy & model manufacturing company (established 1976) 

History
The Billiken sprang from the height of the "Mind-Cure" craze in the United States at the start of the twentieth century   It represented the "no worry" ideal, and was a huge hit   Variations appeared, such as the "Teddy-Billiken Doll" and the Billycan/Billycant pair (to drive petty problems away)   The Billiken helped touch off the doll craze of the era At least two Billiken-themed songs were recorded, including "Billiken Rag" and the "Billiken Man Song " The latter was recorded by Blanche Ring The Billiken, as a good luck charm, appears multiple times in the Vivien Leigh and Robert Taylor movie Waterloo Bridge   It is employed as a device that both prompts recollections of the male lead, Robert Taylor, and that links several scenes within the movie as the plot unfolds  Wizard of Oz author L  Frank Baum kept a Billiken doll on his piano The Billiken made its Japanese debut in 1908  A statue was installed in the uppermost level of the original Tsutenkaku Tower as it was opened to the public in 1912  When the nearby Luna Park was closed in 1925, the tower's Billiken statue disappeared  In 1980, a replacement statue made its appearance in a new Tsutenkaku Tower that was built in 1956 

Sports mascot
In its heyday, the Billiken enjoyed worldwide celebrity   In the United States he became the athletic mascot of Saint Louis University, because the figure was said to resemble coach John R  Bender   The school's athletic teams remain the Billikens to this day  A bronze statue of the Billiken stands in front of the Chaifetz Arena on the Saint Louis University Campus   A junior version of the Billiken became the mascot of nearby St  Louis University High School; a stainless steel statue of the Junior Billiken stands adjacent to the Danis Fieldhouse, on the St  Louis University High School Campus  Bud Billiken was a youth-club mascot for The Chicago Defender, and was created in 1923, and is known more contemporarily as the inspiration for the yearly parade of the same name held shortly before the start of the school year 
The Billiken was the team nickname for several minor league professional baseball teams, including the Fort Wayne Billikens of the 1908–1910 Central League, the Montgomery Billikens of the 1910 Southern Association (a Class A league that ran from 1902–1935), the Bay City Billikens of the 1911 and 1912 Southern Michigan League (a league that dwelled in several classifications between 1906 and 1912), and the McLeansboro Billikens of the 1910 Kentucky–Illinois–Tennessee League ("KITTY League"), a Class D professional baseball league that ran from 1903 until 1955  McLeansboro is located in southern Illinois, 116 miles from St  Louis 

Alaska
In 1909, the Billiken began its appearance in souvenir shops of Alaska  In Nome, Alaska, an Inuit carver by the name Angokwazhuk copied a Billiken figurine in ivory brought to him by a merchant  Since that first appearance in Alaska, some Inuit carvers began to include the billiken in the collection of figurines they created  By the 1960s the Billiken was ubiquitous in larger Alaskan cities like Anchorage, and heavily touristed areas  Billikens were often carved from Alaskan ivory and were used in jewelry and knick-knacks  Often these souvenirs were accompanied by printed, romanticized Billiken lore  In Anchorage, the name was also adopted by merchants, as in the Billiken Drive-In movie theater 

Japan
Throughout Japan representations of the Billiken were enshrined  Pre-World War II statues of the Billiken could be found in Kobe city's Chinju Inari and Matsuo Inari shrines  Both of these statues were removed from display for many years at the onset of the war when foreign deities fell out of favor 
The most famous representation of the Billiken was in an amusement park, Luna Park, in the Shinsekai district of Osaka, Japan   In 1912, he was enshrined in the park as a symbol of Americana and there was revered as "The God of Things As They Ought to Be"  Popular Billiken souvenirs in the park included dolls and manjū  When the park closed in 1923, the wooden statue of the Billiken went missing 
A replica of the statue was placed in the second-generation Tsūtenkaku Tower in 1980  The Billiken was a star in Sakamoto Junji's 1996 comedy Billiken in which the statue is restored to the Tsutenkaku in an effort to revive the popularity of the tower and save Shinsekai The statue was a permanent fixture in the tower until September 2005 when it made its first departure and was taken, as an ambassador of sorts, to Shibuya's Tokyu Hands department store in Tokyo as a part of a fair to promote Naniwa (traditional Osaka) culture   As a part of the cultural exchange, a replica of the statue of Shibuya's most famous dog, Hachikō, was sent to Osaka 
In October 2008, the Billiken of Tsutenkaku took a journey all the way from Japan to its "home" city of St  Louis, Missouri where it was visited by students of St  Louis University, whose mascot is also the Billiken 
Due to wear (particularly to the soles of the feet), the dark, worn statue replica from 1980 was replaced in May 2012 with a new one  Presently he resides on the fifth floor observation deck and has become closely associated with the tower  Each year thousands of visitors place a coin in his donation box and rub the soles of his well-worn feet to make their wishes come true 
The Billiken also became the namesake of Billiken Shokai, the Japanese toy & model manufacturing company established in 1976 

Notes
See also
Billiken, an Argentine children's magazine named after the doll
Passage 4:
Taylorville, Alberta
Taylorville is an unincorporated community in Cardston County, Alberta, Canada  It is located on Highway 501 ten miles southeast of Cardston   The first school opened May 17, 1900 and then later served as a chapel for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) 

See also
List of provincial historic sites of Alberta
List of communities in Alberta
Passage 5:
Horton Park (Saint Paul, Minnesota)
Horton Park is a small arboretum in Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States   Known primarily for its variety of trees, Horton Park has become a symbol of the Saint Paul Midway community 

Horton Park
Founded in 1895 by James R  Horton, Horton Park was used for public hearings   It is now used as a popular location among local St Paul residents for picnics and general relaxation 
In 1952 Horton Park was voted "Park of the Year" by local newspaper the St  Paul Pioneer Press 
The original name of Horton Park was Long Park, due to its long tree branches 

External links
https://web archive org/web/20100908020937/http://www friendsoftheparks org/Parks/hortonpark htm
https://groups google com/group/hortonpark
Passage 6:
Schlage
Schlage ( SHLAYG) is an American lock manufacturer founded in 1920 by Walter Schlage  Schlage was headquartered in San Francisco from its inception until it relocated to Colorado Springs, Colorado in 1997  Schlage also produces high-security key and cylinder lines Primus, Everest, and Everest Primus XP  Schlage is one of the most popular brands of consumer and commercial locks in the United States 

History
The Schlage Manufacturing Company was founded by inventor Walter Schlage (d  1946) in 1920 with the help of three businessmen who each contributed $10 to become equal partners  Walter Schlage had already secured several patents dating back to 1909, when he patented a doorknob that would also complete an electrical circuit so that, for instance, the lights would turn on when the door was opened  However, Schlage's key invention was the bored cylindrical lock, which evolved through several iterations, including a 1917 filing for a mortise mechanism which locked when the knob was tilted; two filings in 1920 (in April for a lock requiring one hole and a surface rabbet rather than a complex mortise pocket and October for a mortise with the lock mechanism activated by a button coaxial to the knob)  This series would ultimately culminate in U S  Patent 1,674,841, filed in 1923, which was sold commercially as the Schlage "A" series lock  Schlage would later make a 1925 filing for a push button cylindrical lock fusing the two 1920 patents with the 1923 patent Schlage's first shop was at 229 Minna Street, and he moved to 461 Bush Street, where many of his key patents were developed  The first factory (in 1923) was at 49 Shotwell Street  Because the bored cylindrical lock had a decided ease of installation advantage over the contemporary mortise lock, demand for the Schlage-designed lock rose and the company would purchase land in Visitacion Valley in 1925, which would eventually become the company's Bayshore factory and administration complex  Eight buildings were eventually erected at the Bayshore complex, the first two of which (the Old Office and Plant 1) were dedicated in a ceremony on June 25, 1926 attended by dignitaries including Mayor James "Sunny Jim" Rolph Charles Kendrick took over as Chief Executive after making a sizable investment in the company, and served as Chief through his retirement in 1969  During World War II, Schlage Lock manufactured shell casings and bomb rail fuses  After the war, the company supplied lock hardware to the Pan Am Building (1964) and the Bank of America Headquarters (1969) skyscrapers  The company was also busy post-war acquiring smaller hardware manufacturers, including the California Lock Company, Peabody Company, LCN Closers, the Von Duprin Factory, and the General Lock Company (Pontiac, Michigan)  In 1974, the year the company was acquired by Ingersoll Rand, Schlage employed 1,600 and was the largest manufacturer in San Francisco  Schlage had just completed a move from the Old Office building to a three-story New Office located nearby, at the corner of Bayshore and Leland  Schlage remained an Ingersoll Rand subsidiary for nearly 40 years, until Schlage and other security hardware companies were spun off as part of Allegion, formed in December 2013 After 73 years of operation, the Schlage Lock Co  Bayshore factory was closed in 1999  To settle an environmental lawsuit, the 12 3-acre (5 0 ha) Bayshore factory site was transferred to Universal Paragon Corporation (UPC) from Ingersoll Rand in 2008  UPC owned an adjacent parcel on which it had intended to develop housing, but the groundwater had been contaminated by the Schlage Lock factory, and UPC filed suit seeking to make Ingersoll Rand responsible for cleanup  In May 2009, demolition began on the Schlage Bayshore site; though the original 1926 Spanish Colonial "Old Office", designed by local architect William Peyton Day will remain, the rest of the site is planned to become affordable, green housing 

Keyway types
Like many lock manufacturers, Schlage uses milled complex keyway shapes to mechanically prevent some non-OEM keys from entering or operating a lock  New keyway designs may be protected for a limited time by patent protection, which expires after a set number of years 
There is no law against duplicating the reverse, numbered or quad-key blanks, which are not patented and are not protected against third-party manufacturing As of 2008, Primus keys are no longer protected by patents; therefore, anyone is free to duplicate them  The Everest patents expired in 2014 

Primus/Primus XP
In addition to six cuts for standard locking mechanism, there are five side finger pins to operate the secondary sidebar lock  Primus keys will operate non-Primus locks within the same system  Primus blanks and keyways are slightly thinner to prevent the entry of non-Primus keys; however, even if a standard key is altered to allow entry, it will not operate Primus locks  This design was protected until 2007 under U S  Patent 4,756,177  The current generation Primus, called the Primus XP, is a slight modification to the original design and is protected until 2024 under U S  Patent 7,159,424  Schlage did not invent, nor do they hold the patents on, Primus or Primus XP  The design is licensed to Schlage by Bo Widen of Torshälla, Sweden, the inventor and patent holder 

Everest
This design features a patented under groove in the keyway design, and was legally protected against cloning by utility patents until 2014  Relevant patents are: U S  Patent 5,715,717 (December 2, 2016) and U S  Patent 5,809,816  Just like the classic series, Everest Primus keys can operate Everest non-Primus locks, but not the other way around  Everest Primus XP is an extension to Primus Everest and the XP design is protected until 2024 under U S  Patent 7,159,424  Schlage also offers an Everest 29 SL Cylinder, the only seven pin lock they make, along with their Everest 29 Family/Primus (6 pins)  Schlage did not invent, nor do they hold the patents on, the Everest keys, which were designed and patented by Bo Widen and licensed to Schlage 

Obverse
There are seven different keyways: C, CE, E, EF, F, FG, and G  There is also a special P keyway designed to accept any of the seven sectional keys and a special L key blank (35-101 L) designed to be accepted into all seven keyways  OEM L section blanks are made of stainless steel The older type, the common residential keyway, is known as 35-100C, which is a five-pin, C section 

Reverse (restricted)
This variation was a horizontal mirror image of obverse keyways, no longer offered in new key system, and not available with a Primus option 

Numbered or Paracentric (restricted)
This is a large family of keyways expressed as four numbers  Except for zeros, digits in the keyway designation cannot repeat; i e  3578, 1358 and 1200 are valid, but 1244 and 3300 are not  Primus cannot be implemented on this series  The digit 9 is not used  Each digit represents the presence of a notch in the keyway and a corresponding protrusion along the blade of the key  The odd digits 1, 3, 5, and 7 extend along the left side of the keyway as observed from the lock face from bottom to top  The even digits are likewise, on the right side  Generally, keyways are identified by four non-zero digits in ascending order  In a large master key system, keys with fewer than four protrusions can be used to enter more than one keyway  For example, key blank 1460 will fit lock cylinder 1246, 1346, 1467, etc 

Quad (restricted)
Expressed in four characters, such as WSTP, VTQP, etc  This is a very large family, available in Primus 

Key copying
At the 2013 DEF CON conference, MIT students David Lawrence and Eric Van Albert released a piece of code that allows anyone to create a 3D-printable software model of any Primus key  With just a flatbed scanner and their software tool, they were able to produce precise models that they uploaded to the 3D-printing services Shapeways and i Materialise, who mailed them working copies of the keys in materials ranging from nylon to titanium 

Nexia Home Intelligence
Nexia Home Intelligence is a home automation system that was launched by Schlage and Ingersoll Rand that allows users to remotely control and monitor home automation devices  A wireless network is created within the home and connects the wireless door lock to the internet  Using a smart-phone or a web-enabled computer, users can monitor and send commands to the Schlage Bridge, which communicates with Z-Wave enabled wireless locks, thermostats, lights, cameras, and other components within the home 
There is a monthly fee associated with the Nexia Home Intelligence service Nexia Home Intelligence is no longer maintained by Schlage  It remained with Ingersoll Rand during the IR-Allegion spin-off process  Ingersoll Rand solely maintains the Nexia platform 
One of its key features is "depth control" which senses if someone else is using your assigned PIN: it then enhances its security by proceeding to lock out that same PIN number  All Schlage products that were designed for the Nexia platform work with major smart home platforms  All security features such as "depth control" work under certain conditions such as "HomeKit" 
Passage 7:
Auguste Levêque
Auguste Levêque (1866 – 1921) was a Belgian painter influenced both by realism and symbolism  Levêque was also a sculptor, poet and art theoretician 
Levêque was born in Nivelles, Walloon Brabant  He studied under Jean-François Portaels at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, and received the Prix Godecharle for his painting Job in 1890 
Levêque was a member of the "Salon d'Art Idéaliste", formed by Jean Delville in Brussels in 1896, which is considered the Belgian equivalent to the Parisian Rose & Cross Salon  Other members of the group were  Léon Frédéric, Albert Ciamberlani, Constant Montald, Emile Motte, Victor Rousseau, Armand Point and Alexandre Séon  The Salon was abandoned in 1898  He died in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode 

Notable paintings
Job
Les Dentelles d'airain
Panthéra et Vipérena
Mater dolorosa
Circé
Dante
Parque
Repos
Ouvriers tragiques
Triomphe de la Mort
Moisson future
Hymne d'Amour
Repos de Diane
Combat de Centaures
Portrait d'Edmond Picard (I)
Portrait d'Edmond Picard (II)

Notable sculptures
Fin de Sodome
Triomphe de la Vigne
Combat d'amazones
Vision païenne
Passage 8:
Fort Vancouver High School
Fort Vancouver High School, known as FVHS and Fort Vancouver High School Center for International Studies, is a public high school located in Vancouver, Washington  It is named after Fort Vancouver, an early trading outpost (now restored and located near the banks of the Columbia River, a few miles from where the school is located)   The FVHS symbol is the Trapper, in reference to the fur trade in the early 19th century by such groups as Hudson's Bay Company voyageurs 

History
Originally named Vancouver High School, the institution opened in 1888  Classes were first held in the basement of Central School  During 1905–1913, classes were held in the old Franklin School building, then from 1913–1970 in its own building at West 26th street and Main Street (what is now the corner of Main Street and Fourth Plain Boulevard)  The first graduating class was in June 1891, when 12 students (9 girls and 3 boys) received their diplomas  By 1912, 276 students had received diplomas from the high school, before the permanent Vancouver High School was even opened for the 1912–1913 school year 
The Vancouver School District decided to change the name of the school in 1956 when a second high school, Hudson's Bay, was built just east of the main downtown area, near Clark College  In the fall of 1970, the campus of Fort Vancouver High School was relocated to its present location in a new building at 5700 E  18th Street  In 1972, against much public protest, the original classical three-story brick high school building was demolished  In the late 1990s, most of the original interior of the present high school building was gutted, reconfigured and rebuilt 

Sports
Fort Vancouver participates in the Greater St  Helens 3A league and is a member of the Washington Interscholastic Athletics Association (WIAA) 

State championships
Baseball: 1990
Boys Basketball: 1938
Boys Track: 1956

Current
Fort Vancouver High School has 86 teachers serving a little more than 1500 students  Students at Fort Vancouver have diverse backgrounds and economic status  16 8% of the students are in Fort Vancouver's ELL (English Language Learning) program and 11 9% are in Special Education   Approximately one-third of Fort Vancouver's students speak a language other than English when at home   Fort Vancouver High School is the only high school in Vancouver School District with an ELL (English Language Learning) program 

Magnets
Fort Vancouver High School is home to several of the Vancouver School District's "magnet" programs  The Legal, Medical, Culinary Arts, Industrial Arts, and ELL magnets draw students to FVHS for specialized education programs 
The legal magnet is no longer in function at FVHS  Although, their Mock Trial program has for the past 22 years, been the district champion, moving on to the state, and on several occasions, the national level  In the 2012 district competition, they came in first place  The FVHS Legal Magnet is also one of two public high schools in the nation to have a functioning courtroom facility on its campus  The court room is no longer used for actual judicial proceedings from the Washington State Court of Appeals and the Clark County Student Traffic Court 
The Medical Magnet, founded also in 1992, strives to give students an in-depth knowledge of the medical field  Many students who enroll in the program go on to college to pursue degrees in the medical field  The medical magnet leads the students of the FVHS Red Cross Club in organizing blood drives and humanitarian aid projects 
The Culinary Arts Program at FVHS, founded in 1972, is the oldest magnet at FVHS  Students in this program gain a comprehensive knowledge of the hospitality industry as well as the experience of cooking during their class time  Many will intern at the cafes in the VSD headquarters 
The Industrial Arts Magnet provides students with an introduction to the skills necessary for a successful career in the manual trades  Students also gain knowledge of the artistic and practical side of welding and machine technologies 
The ELL program at FVHS is the only one of its kind in the district  Students from diverse backgrounds come together here to learn a common language and culture, to become better acclimated with America  Fort Vancouver has students from all over the world speaking practically every language and it is here in the ELL Magnet that a melting pot of world cultures comes together so that students can learn from one another  Starting 2016, the school has renamed the program as Center For International Studies   The school is a member of the Asia Society's International Studies Schools Network, a consortium of schools throughout the U S  that are committed to developing global competence 

Other programs
Students at Fort Vancouver High School can also be involved in Running Start, which allows students to receive both college and high school credits while attending Clark College  Students may also take advantage of vocational programs offered through Clark College  Additionally, some classes at FVHS offer credit through the WSU-Vancouver campus 

Notable alumni
Al Fagaly - 1928, Golden Age cartoonist (There Oughta be a Law! comic strip, Archie, Super Duck)
Travis Claridge - NFL, Atlanta Falcons
Steve Dils - 1974, NFL quarterback
Brian Hunter (outfielder) - MLB, Houston Astros
Jim Moeller - 1973, Washington State House of Representatives
Craig Pridemore - 1979, Washington State Senate
Eric Michael Cole - 1994, actor
Lisa Spangler - 2015, Mixed Martial Arts Fighter
Passage 9:
Boiron
Boiron (French pronunciation: ​[bwaʁɔ̃]) is a manufacturer of homeopathic products, headquartered in France and with an operating presence in 59 countries worldwide  It is the largest manufacturer of homeopathic products in the world  In 2004, it employed a workforce of 2,779 and had a turnover of € 313 million  It is currently a member of the CAC Small stock index 
In June 2005, the firm acquired Dolisos Laboratories, then the world's second largest manufacturer of homeopathic preparations Products of Boiron include mono- (Hahnemanian) preparations and poly-, which Boiron refer to as "Proprietary drugs" Homeopathy is a pseudoscience with no evidence of effectiveness for stated claims or plausible mechanism of medicinal effect, and several class action lawsuits have been filed on behalf of consumers claiming that Boiron's homeopathic products, including Children's Coldcalm and Oscillococcinum, are useless and Boiron's marketing of these products is deceptive 

Controversies
Samuele Riva
Samuele Riva, an Italian blogger, wrote an article about the implausibility of homeopathy, including images of Boiron's products  The company sent a letter to the Internet provider of the blog, but the result was a backlash in favor of freedom of speech 

Lawsuits
The non-profit educational organizations Center for Inquiry (CFI) and the associated Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) have petitioned the U S  Food and Drug Administration (FDA), criticizing Boiron for misleading labeling and advertising of Oscillococcinum  "One petition complains that Boiron’s packaging for Oscillococcinum lists the alleged active ingredient – duck liver and heart – in Latin only  Another petition complains that Boiron’s web ad for this product implies that it has received FDA approval " Ronald Lindsay, CFI and CSI president and chief executive officer, contends, "If Boiron is going to sell snake oil, the least they can do is use English on their labels ”A class action against Boiron, filed in 2011 on behalf of "all California residents who purchased Oscillo at any time within the past four years", charged that Boiron "falsely advertises that Oscillo has the ability to cure the flu because it contains an active ingredient it claims is proven to get rid of flu symptoms in 48 hours " The lawsuit also stated that the listed active ingredient in Oscillococcinum (Oscillo) "is actually Muscovy Duck Liver and Heart     and has no known medicinal quality " A settlement was reached, with Boiron denying any wrongdoing  As part of the settlement, Boiron agreed to make specific changes to its marketing, including adding to their packaging notices like "These ‘Uses’ have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration" and "C, K, CK, and X are homeopathic dilutions "While the sector is in crisis following the cessation of reimbursement of homeopathic preparations by social security decided by the Minister of Health Agnès Buzyn, the Boiron group announced that its factory at Montrichard, in Loir-et-Cher had failed to find a buyer  Consequently, the site, which employed approximately 80 people, closed on December 31, 2021 
Passage 10:
Aerotech Consumer Aerospace
Aerotech Consumer Aerospace, established in 1982, is a company that supplies motors, kits, and components for mid and high-power rocketry 
The company's headquarters are located in Cedar City, Utah and its products are sold mainly through US and international dealers   They specialize in APCP used in low-, mid-, and high-power rocket motors as well as supplying rocket kits designed around their motors 
Aerotech produces single use and reloadable motors in the mid-power range (D - G impulse)   They also produce high power rocket motor reloads, ranging from H to O impulse   High power reloads require proper certification from the National Association of Rocketry or Tripoli Rocketry Association   Until 2017, all reloads required the use of Aerotech, Rouse-Tech, or Dr  Rocket reload casings   A recent cross-use certification agreement permits the use of 98mm Aerotech reloads in CTI (Cesaroni Technology Incorporated) hardware 
Corpulent Stump is the most powerful non commercial rocket ever launched on an Aerotech motor in the United Kingdom 

External links
Official site
Passage 11:
Fleur-de-lis
The fleur-de-lis, also spelled fleur-de-lys (plural fleurs-de-lis or fleurs-de-lys), is a common heraldic charge in the shape of a lily (in French, fleur and lis mean 'flower' and 'lily' respectively)  Most notably, the fleur-de-lis is depicted on the traditional coat of arms of France that was used from the High Middle Ages until the French Revolution in 1792, and then again in brief periods in the 19th century  This design still represents France and the House of Bourbon in the form of marshalling in e g  the arms of Spain, Quebec and Canada 
Other European nations have also employed the symbol  The fleur-de-lis became "at one and the same time, religious, political, dynastic, artistic, emblematic, and symbolic," especially in French heraldry  The Virgin Mary and Saint Joseph are among saints often depicted with a lily 
The fleur-de-lis is represented in Unicode at U+269C ⚜  in the Miscellaneous Symbols block 

Origin
The fleur-de-lis is widely thought to be a stylized version of the species Iris pseudacorus, or Iris florentina  However, the lily (genus Lilium, family Liliaceae) and the iris (family Iridaceae) are two different plants, phylogenetically and taxonomically unrelated  Lily (in Italian: giglio) is the name usually associated with the stylized flower in the Florentine heraldic devices 
Decorative ornaments that resemble the fleur-de-lis have appeared in artwork from the earliest human civilizations  According to Pierre-Augustin Boissier de Sauvages, an 18th-century French naturalist and lexicographer:
The old fleurs-de-lis, especially the ones found in our first kings' sceptres, have a lot less in common with ordinary lilies than the flowers called flambas [in Occitan], or irises, from which the name of our own fleur-de-lis may derive  What gives some colour of truth to this hypothesis that we already put forth, is the fact that the French or Franks, before entering Gaul itself, lived for a long time around the river named Lys in the Flanders  Nowadays, this river is still bordered with an exceptional number of irises —as many plants grow for centuries in the same places—: these irises have yellow flowers, which is not a typical feature of lilies but fleurs-de-lis  It was thus understandable that our kings, having to choose a symbolic image for what later became a coat of arms, set their minds on the iris, a flower that was common around their homes, and is also as beautiful as it was remarkable  They called it, in short, the fleur-de-lis, instead of the flower of the river of lis  This flower, or iris, looks like our fleur-de-lis not just because of its yellow colour but also because of its shape: of the six petals, or leaves, that it has, three of them are alternatively straight and meet at their tops  The other three on the opposite, bend down so that the middle one seems to make one with the stalk and only the two ones facing out from left and right can clearly be seen, which is again similar with our fleurs-de-lis, that is to say exclusively the one from the river Luts whose white petals bend down too when the flower blooms 

The heraldist François Velde is known to have expressed the same opinion:
However, a hypothesis ventured in the 17th c  sounds very plausible to me  One species of wild iris, the Iris pseudacorus, yellow flag in English, is yellow and grows in marshes (cf  the azure field, for water)  Its name in German is Lieschblume (also gelbe Schwertlilie), but Liesch was also spelled Lies and Leys in the Middle Ages  It is easy to imagine that, in Northern France, the Lieschblume would have been called 'fleur-de-lis'  This would explain the name and the formal origin of the design, as a stylized yellow flag  There is a fanciful legend about Clovis which links the yellow flag explicitly with the French coat of arms 
Sauvages' hypothesis seems to be supported by the archaic English spelling fleur-de-luce and by the Luts's variant name Lits 

Alternative derivations
Another (debated) hypothesis is that the symbol derives from the angon or sting,  a typical Frankish throwing spear  The medieval Bec de Corban, a bladed and hooked polearm, bears similarities to the symbol as well  
A possibly derived symbol of Frankish royalty was the bee, of similar shape, as found in the burial of Childric I, whose royal see of power over the Salian Franks was based over the valley of the Lys Other imaginative explanations include the shape having been developed from the image of a dove descending, which is the symbol of the Holy Ghost 

Ancient usages
It has consistently been used as a royal emblem, though different cultures have interpreted its meaning in varying ways  Gaulish coins show the first Western designs which look similar to modern fleurs-de-lis  In the East it was found on the gold helmet of a Scythian king uncovered at the Ak-Burun kurgan and conserved in Saint Petersburg's Hermitage Museum 

Heraldic use
France
While the fleur-de-lis has appeared on countless European coats of arms and flags over the centuries, it is particularly associated with the French monarchy in a historical context and continues to appear in the arms of the king of Spain (from the French House of Bourbon), the grand duke of Luxembourg, and members of the House of Bourbon  It remains an enduring symbol of France which appears on French postage stamps, although it has never been adopted officially by any of the French republics  According to French historian Georges Duby, the three petals represent the three medieval social estates: the commoners, the nobility, and the clergy Although the origin of the fleur-de-lis is unclear, it has retained an association with French nobility  It is widely used in French city emblems as in the coat of arms of the city of Lille, Saint-Denis, Brest, Clermont-Ferrand, Boulogne-Billancourt, and Calais  Some cities that had been particularly faithful to the French Crown were awarded a heraldic augmentation of two or three fleurs-de-lis on the chief of their coat of arms; such cities include Paris, Lyon, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Reims, Le Havre, Angers, Le Mans, Aix-en-Provence, Tours, Limoges, Amiens, Orléans, Rouen, Argenteuil, Poitiers, Chartres, and Laon, among others  The fleur-de-lis was the symbol of Île-de-France, the core of the French kingdom  It has appeared on the coat-of-arms of other historical provinces of France including Burgundy, Anjou, Picardy, Berry, Orléanais, Bourbonnais, Maine, Touraine, Artois, Dauphiné, Saintonge, and the County of La Marche  Many of the current French departments use the symbol on their coats-of-arms to express this heritage 

The graphic evolution of crita to fleur-de-lis was accompanied by textual allegory  By the late 13th century, an allegorical poem by Guillaume de Nangis (d  1300), written at Joyenval Abbey in Chambourcy, relates how the golden lilies on an azure ground were miraculously substituted for the crescents on Clovis' shield, a projection into the past of contemporary images of heraldry The fleur-de-lis' symbolic origins with French monarchs may stem from the baptismal lily used in the crowning of King Clovis I  The French monarchy may have adopted the Fleur-de-lis for its royal coat of arms as a symbol of purity to commemorate the conversion of Clovis I, and a reminder of the Fleur-de-lis ampulla that held the oil used to anoint the king  So, the fleur-de-lis stood as a symbol of the king's divinely approved right to rule  The thus "anointed" kings of France later maintained that their authority was directly from God  A legend enhances the mystique of royalty by informing us that a vial of oil—the Holy Ampulla—descended from Heaven to anoint and sanctify Clovis as King, descending directly on Clovis or perhaps brought by a dove to Saint Remigius  One version explains that an angel descended with the Fleur-de-lis ampulla to anoint the king  Another story tells of Clovis putting a flower in his helmet just before his victory at the Battle of Vouillé  Through this propagandist connection to Clovis, the fleur-de-lis has been taken in retrospect to symbolize all the Christian Frankish kings, most notably Charlemagne In the 14th-century French writers asserted that the monarchy of France, which developed from the Kingdom of the West Franks, could trace its heritage back to the divine gift of royal arms received by Clovis  This story has remained popular, even though modern scholarship has established that the fleur-de-lis was a religious symbol before it was a true heraldic symbol  Along with true lilies, it was associated with the Virgin Mary, and in the 12th century Louis VI and Louis VII (House of Capet) started to use the emblem, on sceptres for example, so connecting their rulership with this symbol of saintliness and divine right  Louis VII ordered the use of fleur-de-lis clothing in his son Philip's coronation in 1179, while the first visual evidence of clearly heraldic use dates from 1211: a seal showing the future Louis VIII and his shield strewn with the "flowers"  Until the late 14th century the French royal coat of arms was Azure semé-de-lis Or (a blue shield "sown" (semé) with a scattering of small golden fleurs-de-lis), but Charles V of France changed the design from an all-over scattering to a group of three in about 1376  These two coats are known in heraldic terminology as France Ancient and France Modern, respectively 

In the reign of King Louis IX (St  Louis) the three petals of the flower were said to represent faith, wisdom and chivalry, and to be a sign of divine favour bestowed on France  During the next century, the 14th, the tradition of Trinity symbolism was established in France, and then spread elsewhere In 1328, King Edward III of England inherited a claim to the crown of France, and in about 1340 he quartered France Ancient with the arms of Plantagenet, as "arms of pretence"    After the kings of France adopted France Modern, the kings of England adopted the new design as quarterings from about 1411  The monarchs of England (and later of Great Britain) continued to quarter the French arms until 1801, when George III abandoned his formal claim to the French throne King Charles VII ennobled Joan of Arc's family on 29 December 1429 with an inheritable symbolic denomination  The Chamber of Accounts in France registered the family's designation to nobility on 20 January 1430  The grant permitted the family to change their surname to du Lys 

France Moderne
France moderne remained the French royal standard, and with a white background was the French national flag until the French Revolution, when it was replaced by the tricolor of modern-day France  The fleur-de-lis was restored to the French flag in 1814, but replaced once again after the revolution against Charles X of France in 1830  In a very strange turn of events after the end of the Second French Empire, where a flag apparently influenced the course of history, Henri, comte de Chambord, was offered the throne as King of France, but he agreed only if France gave up the tricolor and brought back the white flag with fleurs-de-lis  His condition was rejected and France became a republic 

Other contries
In Brazil, the city of Joinville has three fleurs-de-lis surmounted with a label of three points on its flag and coat of arms  Due to the city is named after François d'Orléans, Prince of Joinville, son of King Louis-Philippe I of France, who married Princess Francisca of Brazil in 1843 
The fleur-de-lis appears on the coat of Guadeloupe, an overseas département of France in the Caribbean, Saint Barthélemy, an overseas collectivity of France, and French Guiana  The overseas department of Réunion in the Indian Ocean uses the same feature  It appears on the coat of Port Louis, the capital of Mauritius which was named in honour of King Louis XV  On the coat of arms of Saint Lucia it represents the French heritage of the country 
In Ukraine, the Foreign Intelligence Service used the emblem with the coat of arms of Ukraine in conjunction with four golden fleurs-de-lis, along with the motto "Omnia, Vincit, Veritas" 

Municipal coats-of-arms
Fleurs-de-lis feature prominently in the Crown Jewels of England and Scotland  In English heraldry, they are used in many different ways, and can be the cadency mark of the sixth son  Additionally, it features in a large number of royal arms of the House of Plantagenet, from the 13th century onwards to the early Tudors (Elizabeth of York and the de la Pole family) The tressure flory–counterflory (flowered border) has been a prominent part of the design of the Scottish royal arms and Royal Standard since James I of Scotland 

In Italy, fleurs-de-lis have been used for some papal crowns and coats of arms, the Farnese Dukes of Parma, and by some doges of Venice The fleur-de-lis was also the symbol of the House of Kotromanić, a ruling house in medieval Bosnia allegedly in recognition of the Capetian House of Anjou, where the flower is thought of as a Lilium bosniacum  Today, fleur-de-lis is a national symbol of Bosniaks Other countries include Spain in recognition of rulers from the House of Bourbon  Coins minted in 14th-century Romania, from the region that was the Principality of Moldova at the time, ruled by Petru I Mușat, carry the fleur-de-lis symbol As a dynastic emblem it has also been very widely used: not only by noble families but also, for example, by the Fuggers, a medieval banking family 
Three fleurs-de-lis appeared in the personal coat of arms of Grandmaster Alof de Wignacourt who ruled the Malta between 1601 and 1622  His nephew Adrien de Wignacourt, who was Grandmaster himself from 1690 to 1697, also had a similar coat of arms with three fleurs-de-lis 
The heraldic fleur-de-lis is still widespread: among the numerous cities which use it as a symbol are some whose names echo the word 'lily', for example, Liljendal, Finland, and Lelystad, Netherlands  This is called canting arms in heraldic terminology  Other European examples of municipal coats-of-arms bearing the fleur-de-lis include Lincoln in England, Morcín in Spain, Wiesbaden and Darmstadt in Germany, Skierniewice in Poland and Jurbarkas in Lithuania  The Swiss municipality of Schlieren and the Estonian municipality of Jõelähtme also have a fleur-de-lis on their coats In Malta, the town of Santa Venera has three red fleurs-de-lis on its flag and coat of arms  These are derived from an arch which was part of the Wignacourt Aqueduct that had three sculpted fleurs-de-lis on top, as they were the heraldic symbols of Alof de Wignacourt, the Grand Master who financed its building  Another suburb which developed around the area became known as Fleur-de-Lys, and it also features a red fleur-de-lis on its flag and coat of arms 

Albania
In Albania, fleur-de-lys (alb: Lulja e Zambakut) has been always associated with the Noble House of Topia  After the Ottoman invasion of Albania, the symbol was removed by the Toptani family, a branch of the Topia Family 

Belarus
The Belarusian Scouting and Guiding organization that, while preserving the traditions of the past, uses a fleur-de-lis as a symbol 

Bosnia and Herzegovina
The golden lily is a traditional symbol of the Bosniak people  The coat of arms of the medieval Kingdom of Bosnia contained six fleurs-de-lis, understood as the native Bosnian or Golden Lily, Lilium bosniacum  This emblem was revived in 1992 as a national symbol of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and was the flag of Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1992 to 1998  The state insignia were changed in 1999  The former flag of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina contains a fleur-de-lis alongside the Croatian chequy  Fleurs also appear in the flags and arms of many cantons, municipalities, cities and towns  It is still used as official insignia of the Bosniak Regiment of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Canada
The Royal Banner of France or "Bourbon Flag"  symbolizing royal France, was the most commonly used flag in New France  The  "Bourbon Flag" has three gold fleur-de-lis on a dark blue field arranged two and one  The fleur-de-lys was also seen on New France's currency often referred to as "card money"  The white Royal Banner of France was used by the military of New France and was seen on naval vessels and forts of New France  After the fall of New France to the British Empire the fleur-de-lys remained visible on churches and remained part of French cultural symbolism  There are many French-speaking Canadians for whom the fleur-de-lis remains a symbol of their French cultural identity  Québécois, Franco-Ontarians, Franco-Ténois and Franco-Albertans, feature the fleur-de-lis prominently on their flags 
The Fleur-de-lys, as a traditional Royal symbol in Canada, has been incorporated into many national symbols, provincial symbols and
municipal symbols, The Canadian Red Ensign that served as the nautical flag and civil ensign for Canada from 1892 to 1965 and later as an informal flag of Canada before 1965 featured the traditional number of three golden fleur-de-lys on a blue background  The Arms of Canada throughout its variations has used fleur-de-lys, beginning in 1921 and subsequent various has featuring the blue "Bourbon Flag" in two locations within arms  The Canadian Royal cypher and the Arms of Canada feature St Edward's Crown that displays five cross pattée and four fleur-de-lys   The fleur-de-lis is featured on the flag of Quebec, known as the Fleurdelisé, as well as the flags of the cities of Montreal, Sherbrooke and Trois-Rivières 

Italy
In Italy, the fleur de lis - called giglio bottonato (it) - is mainly known from the crest of the city of Florence  In the Florentine fleurs-de-lis  the stamens are always posed between the petals  Originally argent (silver or white) on gules (red) background, the emblem became the standard of the imperial party in Florence (parte ghibellina), causing the town government, which maintained a staunch Guelph stance, being strongly opposed to the imperial pretensions on city states, to reverse the color pattern to the final gules lily on argent background  This heraldic charge is often known as the Florentine lily to distinguish it from the conventional (stamen-not-shown) design  As an emblem of the city, it is therefore found in icons of Zenobius, its first bishop, and associated with Florence's patron Saint John the Baptist in the Florentine fiorino  Several towns subjugated by Florence or founded within the territory of the Florentine Republic adopted a variation of the Florentine lily in their crests, often without the stamens 

Lithuania
The design of the arms of Jurbarkas is believed to originate from the arms of the Sapieha house, a Lithuanian noble family which was responsible for Jurbarkas receiving city rights and a coat of arms in 1611 The three fleurs-de-lis design on the Jurbarkas coat of arms was abolished during the final years of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but officially restored in 1993 after the independence of present-day Lithuania was re-established  Before restoration, several variant designs, such as using one over two fleurs-de-lis, had been restored and abolished  The original two over one version was briefly readopted in 1970 during the Soviet occupation, but abolished that same year 

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, a fleur-de-lis has appeared in the official arms of the Norroy King of Arms for hundreds of years  A silver fleur-de-lis on a blue background is the arms of the Barons Digby In English and Canadian heraldry the fleur-de-lis is the cadence mark of a sixth son It can also be found on the arms of the Scottish clan Chiefs of both Carruthers; Gules two engrailed chevrons between three fleur-d-lis Or and the Brouns/Browns: Gules a chevron between three fleur d-lis Or 

United States
Fleurs-de-lis crossed the Atlantic along with Europeans going to the New World, especially with French settlers  Their presence on North American flags and coats of arms usually recalls the involvement of French settlers in New France of the town or region concerned, and in some cases the persisting presence there of a population descended from such settlers 

In the US, the fleur-de-lis symbols tend to be along or near the Mississippi and Missouri rivers  These are areas of strong French colonial empire settlement  Some of the places that have it in their flag or seal are the cities of Baton Rouge, Detroit, Lafayette, Louisville, Mobile, New Orleans, Ocean Springs and St  Louis  On 9 July 2008, Louisiana governor Bobby Jindal signed a bill into law making the fleur-de-lis an official symbol of the state  Following Hurricane Katrina on 29 August 2005, the fleur-de-lis has been widely used in New Orleans and throughout Louisiana, as a symbol of grassroots support for New Orleans' recovery  The coat of arms of St  Augustine, Florida has a fleur-de-lis on the first quarter, due to its connection with Huguenots  Several counties have flags and seals based on pre-1801 British royal arms also includes fleur-de-lis symbols  They are King George County, Virginia and Prince George's County, Somerset County, Kent County, and Montgomery County in Maryland 
It has also become the symbol for the identity of the Cajuns and Louisiana Creole people, and their French heritage 

Military
Fleurs-de-lis are featured in military healdry  E g , in the United States, the New Jersey Army National Guard unit 112th Field Artillery (Self Propelled)—part of the much larger 42nd Infantry Division Mechanized—which has it in the upper left side of their distinctive unit insignia; the U S  Army's 2nd Cavalry Regiment, 319th Airborne Field Artillery Regiment, 62nd Medical Brigade, 256th Infantry Brigade Combat Team; and the Corps of Cadets at Louisiana State University   The U S  Air Force's Special Operations Weather Beret Flash also used a fleurs-de-lis in its design, carried over from its Vietnam War era Commando Weatherman Beret Flash  It is also featured by the Israeli Intelligence Corps, and the First World War Canadian Expeditionary Force  In the British Army, the fleur-de-lis was the cap badge of the Manchester Regiment from 1922 until 1958, and also its successor, the King's Regiment up to its amalgamation in 2006  It commemorates the capture of French regimental colours by their predecessors, the 63rd Regiment of Foot, during the Invasion of Martinique in 1759  It is also the formation sign of the 2nd (Independent) Armored Brigade of the Indian Army, known as the 7th Indian Cavalry Brigade in First World War, which received the emblem for its actions in France 

In religion and art
In the Middle Ages, the symbols of lily and fleur-de-lis overlapped considerably in Christian religious art  The historian Michel Pastoureau says that until about 1300 they were found in depictions of Jesus, but gradually they took on Marian symbolism and were associated with the Song of Solomon's "lily among thorns" (lilium inter spinas), understood as a reference to Mary  Other scripture and religious literature in which the lily symbolizes purity and chastity also helped establish the flower as an iconographic attribute of the Virgin  It was also believed that the fleur-de-lis represented the Holy Trinity In medieval England, from the mid-12th century, a noblewoman's seal often showed the lady with a fleur-de-lis, drawing on the Marian connotations of "female virtue and spirituality"  Images of Mary holding the flower first appeared in the 11th century on coins issued by cathedrals dedicated to her, and next on the seals of cathedral chapters, starting with Notre Dame de Paris in 1146  A standard portrayal was of Mary carrying the flower in her right hand, just as she is shown in that church's Virgin of Paris statue (with lily), and in the centre of the stained glass rose window (with fleur-de-lis sceptre) above its main entrance  The flowers may be "simple fleurons, sometimes garden lilies, sometimes genuine heraldic fleurs-de-lis"  As attributes of the Madonna, they are often seen in pictures of the Annunciation, notably in those of Sandro Botticelli and Filippo Lippi  Lippi also uses both flowers in other related contexts: for instance, in his Madonna in the Forest 
The three petals of the heraldic design reflect a widespread association with the Holy Trinity, with the band on the bottom symbolizing Mary  The tradition says that without Mary you can not understand the Trinity since it was she who bore the Son  A tradition going back to 14th century France added onto the earlier belief that they also represented faith, wisdom and chivalry  Alternatively, the cord can be seen as representing the one Divine Substance (godhood) of the three Persons, which binds Them together 
"Flower of light" symbolism has sometimes been understood from the archaic variant fleur-de-luce (see Latin lux, luc- = "light"), but the Oxford English Dictionary suggests this arose from the spelling, not from the etymology 

Sports
The fleur-de-lis is used by a number of sports teams, especially when it echoes a local flag  This is true with the teams from Quebec (Nordiques (ex-NHL), Montreal Expos (ex-MLB) and CF Montréal (MLS)), the teams of New Orleans, Louisiana (Saints (NFL), Pelicans (NBA), and Zephyrs (PCL)), the Serie A team Fiorentina, the Bundesliga side SV Darmstadt 98 (also known as Die Lilien – The Lilies), the Rugby league team Wakefield Trinity Wildcats, the NPSL team Detroit City FC Marc-André Fleury, a Canadian ice hockey goaltender, has a fleur-de-lis logo on his mask  The UFC Welterweight Champion from 2006 to 2013, Georges St-Pierre, has a tattoo of the fleur-de-lis on his right calf  The IT University of Copenhagen's soccer team ITU F C  has it in their logo  France uses the symbol in the official emblem on the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup 

Education
The emblem appears in coats of arms and logos for universities (like Washington University in St  Louis, Saint Louis University in Spain, University of Lincoln in England and University of Louisiana at Lafayette) and schools such as in Hilton College (South Africa), Adamson University and St  Paul's University in the Philippines  The Lady Knights of the University of Arkansas at Monticello have also adopted the fleur de lis as one of the symbols associated with their coat of arms  The flag of Lincolnshire, adopted in 2005, has a fleur-de-lis for the city of Lincoln  It is one of the symbols of the American sororities Kappa Kappa Gamma and Theta Phi Alpha, the American fraternities Alpha Epsilon Pi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon and Sigma Alpha Mu, as well as the international co-ed service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega  It is also used by the high school and college fraternity Scouts Royale Brotherhood of the Philippines 

Scouting
The fleur-de-lis is the main element in the logo of most Scouting organizations  The symbol was first used by Sir Robert Baden-Powell as an arm-badge for soldiers who qualified as scouts (reconnaissance specialists) in the 5th Dragoon Guards, which he commanded at the end of the 19th century; it was later used in cavalry regiments throughout the British Army until 1921  In 1907, Baden-Powell made brass fleur-de-lis badges for the boys attending his first experimental "Boy Scout" camp at Brownsea Island  In his seminal book Scouting for Boys, Baden-Powell referred to the motif as "the arrowhead which shows the North on a map or a compass" and continued; "It is the Badge of the Scout because it points in the right direction and upward    The three points remind you of the three points of the Scout Promise", being duty to God and country, helping others, and keeping the Scout Law  The World Scout Emblem of the World Organization of the Scout Movement has elements which are used by most national Scout organizations  The stars stand for truth and knowledge, the encircling rope for unity, and its reef knot or square knot, service 

Organizations
Fleurs-de-lis appear on military insignia and the logos of many organisations  During the 20th century the symbol was adopted by various Scouting organisations worldwide for their badges  Architects and designers use it alone and as a repeated motif in a wide range of contexts, from ironwork to bookbinding, especially where a French context is implied 

Healdic feature in architecture
In building and architecture, the fleur-de-lis is often placed on top of iron fence posts, as a pointed defence against intruders  It may ornament any tip, point or post with a decorative flourish, for instance, on finials, the arms of a cross, or the point of a gable  The fleur-de-lis can be incorporated in friezes or cornices, although the distinctions between fleur-de-lis, fleuron, and other stylized flowers are not always clear, or can be used as a motif in an all-over tiled pattern, perhaps on a floor 
It may appear in a building for heraldic reasons, as in some English churches where the design paid a compliment to a local lord who used the flower on his coat of arms  Elsewhere the effect seems purely visual, like the crenellations on the 14th-century Muslim Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan 
It can also be seen on the doors of the 16th-century Hindu Padmanabhaswamy Temple 

Derived non-heraldic usage
Some modern usage of the fleur-de-lis reflects "the continuing presence of heraldry in everyday life", often intentionally, but also when users are not aware that they are "prolonging the life of centuries-old insignia and emblems" 

The symbol may be used in less traditional ways  After Hurricane Katrina many New Orleanians of varying ages and backgrounds were tattooed with "one of its cultural emblems" as a "memorial" of the storm, according to a researcher at Tulane University  The US Navy Blue Angels have named a looping flight demonstration manoeuvre after the flower as well, and there are even two surgical procedures called "after the fleur "
American automobile manufacturer Chevrolet takes its name from the racing driver Louis Chevrolet, who was born in Switzerland   But, because the Chevrolet name is French, the manufacturer has used the fleur-de-lis emblems on their cars, most notably the Corvette, but also as a small detail in the badges and emblems on the front of a variety of full-size Chevys from the 1950s, and 1960s   The fleur-de-lis has also been featured more prominently in the emblems of the Caprice sedan A fleur-de-lis also appears in some of the logos of local Louisiana media, such as WGNO-TV and WVUE-TV, the local ABC-affiliated and Fox-affiliated television stations in New Orleans respectively 
The fleur-de-lis is one of the objects to drop during the New Year's Eve celebrations in New Orleans, which was broadcast for the first time during Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve '17 with Ryan Seacrest 
New Orleans sludge metal band Crowbar use it as a logo  It's appeared on every album cover since Lifesblood for the Downtrodden and is sometimes incorporated into the artwork (on The Serpent Only Lies as a snake and on Sever the Wicked Hand as a sword's hilt)  The Fleur-de-lis is also used decoratively on fire apparatus 

Compass rose
The symbol is also often used on a compass rose to mark the north direction, a tradition started by the Portuguese cartographer Jorge de Aguiar in his chart of 1492 

Slave branding
In Mauritius, slaves were branded with a fleur-de-lis, when being punished for escaping or stealing food In France, some categories of outlaws were branded with a fleur de lys iron rod as a punishment for crimes involving a banishment sentence  In 1724, the punishment evolved in a system of letters brandings relative to the crime  The fleur de lys became an exclusive punishment for slaves in the colonies 
The fleur-de-lis (or flower de Luce) could be branded on slaves as punishment for certain offenses in French Louisiana   For instance, the Louisiana Code Noir (1724) stated:

XXXII  The runaway slave, who shall continue to be so for one month from the day of his being denounced to the officers of justice, shall have his ears cut off, and shall be branded with the flower de luce on the shoulder: and on a second offence of the same nature, persisted in during one month from the day of his being denounced, he shall be hamstrung, and be marked with the flower de luce on the other shoulder  On the third offence, he shall suffer death" 
The Code Noir was an arrangement of controls received in Louisiana in 1724 from other French settlements around the globe, intended to represent the state's slave populace  Those guidelines included marking slaves with the fleur-de-lis as discipline for fleeing 

In fiction
The symbol has featured in modern fiction on historical and mystical themes, as in the bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code and other books discussing the Priory of Sion  It recurs in French literature, where examples well known in English translation include Fleur-de-Lys de Gondelaurier, a character in The Hunchback of Notre Dame by Victor Hugo, and the mention in Dumas's The Three Musketeers of the old custom of branding a criminal with the sign (fleurdeliser)  During the reign of Elizabeth I of England, known as the Elizabethan era, it was a standard name for an iris, a usage which lasted for centuries, but occasionally refers to lilies or other flowers  It also appeared in the novel A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole on a sign composed by the protagonist 

In John Steinbeck's East of Eden, Cathy Ames ("Kate") wears a gold watch with a fleur-de-lis pin around her neck A variation on the symbol has also been used in the Star Wars franchise to represent the planet of Naboo  The fleur de lis is also used as the heraldic emblem for the Kingdom of Temeria in Andrzej Sapkowski's fantasy novel series The Witcher 
The fleur de lis has also been used in the TV series The Originals, in which it is used to represent the Mikaelson family, the first vampires in the world  The symbol's representation of unity and its usage in New Orleans where the show is set, are used to represent the vow three of the Mikaelson siblings made to each other that they remain together, always and forever 
The fleur de lis is displayed in Champion, a cavalry unit that appears in Heroes of Might and Magic V: Tribes of the East, and is also a symbol adopted by the Sisters of Battle, a faction in Warhammer 40,000  A heavily stylized fleur de lis symbol can also be recognized as the symbol of the ICA in the Hitman series of video games The Pokémon villain Lysandre; whose debut game was Pokémon X and Y is known in Japan as フラダリ (Furadari); a romanised name for the fleur-de-lis  Relevant is that Pokémon X and Y are inspired by France  Many locations and landmarks across Kalos have real-world inspirations, including Prism Tower (Eiffel Tower), the Lumiose Art Museum (the Louvre) and the stones outside Geosenge Town (Carnac stones) This symbol is also used as the icon for the fictional street gang "Third Street Saints" in the Saints Row series 
The symbol is also seen in the video games Gangstar: New Orleans and Persona 5, on Yusuke Kitagawa's shirt 

See also
Cross fleury
Floral emblem
Armorial of France
The Golden Lily (disambiguation)
Iris florentina
Iris pseudacorus
Jessant-de-lys
Lilium
Palmette
Prince of Wales's feathers
Shamrock
Scottish thistle
Tree of LifeUse of the lily in coinage and coat-of-arms in the Land of Israel/PalestineAcre, Israel, where the Hospitaller refectory contains two early depictions of the French fleur-de-lis
Hasmonean coinage, coins minted during Hasmonean rule, sometimes depicting a lily
Yehud coinage, Achaemenid period coinage often depicting a lily

Explanatory notes
Context 2: Passage 1:
List of actors nominated for two Academy Awards in the same year
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences has had occurrences of actors nominated for two different Academy Awards in acting categories in a single year, with the first instance in 1938 
Provided that they receive enough votes from the Academy in both categories to earn a nomination, there are no restrictions on male actors being nominated for both Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor or actresses being nominated for both Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress in any given year  The only two rules with regard to multiple nominations is that an actor or actress cannot receive multiple nominations for different performances in the same category (one nomination must be for a lead role and the other must be for a supporting role), and they cannot receive multiple nominations for the same performance  The second rule was introduced in 1944 after Barry Fitzgerald received a Best Actor nomination and a Best Supporting Actor nomination for his performance in Going My Way As of 2022, 12 actors and actresses have been nominated for two different Academy Awards in the same year  The first was Fay Bainter, who received nominations for her performances in White Banners and Jezebel at the 11th Academy Awards  The most recent occurrence was the 92nd Academy Awards when Scarlett Johansson received (her first ever) nominations for Marriage Story and Jojo Rabbit  Seven of these actors and actresses received an Academy Award in one of the categories they were nominated in, but none have won two Academy Awards in the same year  Five did not receive an Academy Award in either category: Sigourney Weaver (nominations for Gorillas in the Mist and Working Girl), Emma Thompson (nominations for The Remains of the Day and In the Name of the Father), Julianne Moore (nominations for Far from Heaven and The Hours), Cate Blanchett (nominations for Elizabeth: The Golden Age and I'm Not There) and Johansson  Thompson is notable for not only her dual nominations, but also for being the only person to win Academy Awards for both acting and writing   In 1993, the only time to date, two actors were nominated in two categories each in a single year: Holly Hunter (for The Piano and The Firm) and Thompson (for The Remains of the Day and In the Name of the Father) 

Nominees
See also
List of actors nominated for Academy Awards for non-English performances
Passage 2:
François Bégaudeau
François Bégaudeau (French pronunciation: ​[fʁɑ̃swa beɡodo]; born 27 April 1971) is a French writer, journalist, and actor  He is best known for co-writing and starring in Entre les murs (2008), a film based on his 2006 novel of the same name  The film won the Palme d'Or at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Foreign Language Film in 2009 

Early life
He was born in Luçon, Vendée, France and was a member of the 1990s punk rock group Zabriskie Point  After receiving his degree in Literature, he taught high school in Dreux and in an inner city middle school in Paris 

Career
Bégaudeau published his first novel, Jouer juste in 2003  In 2005, he published Dans la diagonale and Un démocrate, Mick Jagger 1960-1969, a fictionalized account of the life of Mick Jagger  In 2006, his third novel entitled Entre les murs earned him the Prix France Culture/Télérama Bégaudeau works as a movie critic for the French version of Playboy, having previously worked for the Cahiers du cinéma  He was also a regular contributor for several French magazines, including Inculte, Transfuge and So Foot  Since 2006, he has been a columnist for La Matinale and Le Cercle on Canal+ television He worked on the screenplay for Entre les murs (2008), a film based on his 2006 novel of the same name, in collaboration with the film's director Laurent Cantet  Bégaudeau also starred as the lead in the film, which went on to win the Palme d'Or at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival  The film also earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Foreign Language Film in 2009, though it ultimately lost to Japan's Departures  The English-language version of Entre les murs was published in April 2009 by Seven Stories Press under the title The Class 

Works
Jouer juste, Éditions Verticales, 2003
Dans la diagonale, Éditions Verticales, 2005
Un démocrate : Mick Jagger 1960-1969, Naïve Records, 2005
Entre les murs, Éditions Verticales, 2006
Collaboration for Débuter dans l'enseignement : Témoignages d'enseignants, conseils d'experts, ESF, 2006
Collaboration  for Devenirs du roman, Naïve Records, 2007
Collaboration for Une année en France : Réferendum/banlieues/CPE, Gallimard, 2007
Fin de l'histoire, Éditions Verticales, 2007
Vers la Douceur, Éditions Verticales, 2009
Histoire de ta bêtise, Éditions Fayard/Pauvert, 2019
Notre Joie, Éditions Fayard/Pauvert, 2021
Passage 3:
List of actors with two or more Academy Awards in acting categories
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences has given Academy Awards to actors and actresses for their performances in films since its inception  Throughout the history of the Academy Awards, there have been actors and actresses who have received multiple Academy Awards for Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actor, or Best Supporting Actress  The only restriction is that actors cannot receive multiple nominations for the same performance  This rule was implemented after Barry Fitzgerald received a Best Actor and a Best Supporting Actor nomination for his performance in Going My Way As of 2021, 44 actors and actresses have received two or more Academy Awards in acting categories  Katharine Hepburn leads the way with four (all Best Actress)  Six have won exactly three acting Academy Awards:  Daniel Day-Lewis (three Best Actor awards), Frances McDormand (three Best Actress awards), Meryl Streep (two Best Actress awards and one Best Supporting Actress award), Jack Nicholson (two Best Actor awards and one Best Supporting Actor award), Ingrid Bergman (two Best Actress awards and one Best Supporting Actress award), and Walter Brennan (three Best Supporting Actor awards)  Brennan became the first to receive three or more Academy Awards (winning the third for a 1940 film), followed by Hepburn (1968), Bergman (1974), Nicholson (1997), Streep (2011), Day-Lewis (2012), and, most recently, McDormand (2020)  Of the seven, only Nicholson, Streep, McDormand, and Day-Lewis are still living 
While there is no restriction on a performer winning the Best Actor/Actress and Best Supporting Actor/Actress awards in the same year for two roles in two movies, this has yet to happen—although there have been occasions where performers have been nominated for both in the same year 

List
† = deceased

See also
List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories
List of actors nominated for Academy Awards for foreign language performances
List of Academy Award records
Passage 4:
Charlie Wilson's War (film)
Charlie Wilson's War is a 2007 American biographical comedy-drama film based on the story of U S  Congressman Charlie Wilson and CIA operative Gust Avrakotos, whose efforts led to Operation Cyclone, a program to organize and support the Afghan mujahideen during the Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989) 
The film was directed by Mike Nichols (his final film) and written by Aaron Sorkin, who adapted George Crile III's 2003 book Charlie Wilson's War: The Extraordinary Story of the Largest Covert Operation in History  It stars Tom Hanks, Julia Roberts, and Philip Seymour Hoffman, with Amy Adams and Ned Beatty in supporting roles  It earned five nominations at the 65th Golden Globe Awards, including Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, and Hoffman earned a Best Supporting Actor nomination at the 80th Academy Awards 

Plot
In 1980, Congressman Charlie Wilson is more interested in partying than legislating, frequently throwing huge galas and staffing his congressional office with attractive young women  His social life eventually brings about a federal investigation into allegations of his cocaine use, conducted by federal prosecutor Rudy Giuliani as part of a larger investigation into congressional misconduct  The investigation results in no charge against Wilson 
A friend and romantic interest, Joanne Herring, encourages Charlie to do more to help the Afghan people, and persuades him to visit the Pakistani leadership  The Pakistanis complain about the inadequate support of the U S  to oppose the Soviet Union, and they insist that Wilson visit a major Pakistan-based Afghan refugee camp  The Congressman is deeply moved by their misery and determination to fight, but is frustrated by the regional CIA personnel's insistence on a low key approach against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan  Wilson returns home to lead an effort to substantially increase funding to the mujahideen 
As part of this effort, Charlie befriends maverick CIA operative Gust Avrakotos and his understaffed Afghanistan group to find a better strategy, especially including a means to counter the Soviets' formidable Mil Mi-24 Hind helicopter gunship  This group was composed in part of members of the CIA's Special Activities Division, including a young paramilitary officer named Michael Vickers  As a result, Charlie's deft political bargaining for the necessary funding and Avrakotos' careful planning using those resources, such as supplying the guerrillas with FIM-92 Stinger missile launchers, turns the Soviet occupation into a deadly quagmire with their heavy fighting vehicles being destroyed at a crippling rate  Charlie enlists the support of Israel and Egypt for Soviet weapons and consumables, and Pakistan for distribution of arms   The CIA's anti-communism budget evolves from $5 million to over $500 million (with the same amount matched by Saudi Arabia), startling several congressmen  This effort by Charlie ultimately evolves into a major portion of the U S  foreign policy known as the Reagan Doctrine, under which the U S  expanded assistance beyond just the mujahideen and began also supporting other anti-communist resistance movements around the world  Charlie states that senior Pentagon official Michael Pillsbury persuaded President Ronald Reagan to provide the Stingers to the Afghans 
Gust vehemently advises Charlie to seek support for post-Soviet occupation Afghanistan, referencing the "zen master's" story of the lost horse  He also emphasizes that rehabilitating schools in the country will help educate young children before they are influenced by the "crazies"  Charlie attempts to appeal this with the government but finds no enthusiasm for even the modest measures he proposes  In the end, Charlie receives a major commendation for his support of the U S  clandestine services, but his pride is tempered by his fears of the blowback his secret efforts could yield in the future and the implications of U S  disengagement from Afghanistan 

Cast
Release and reception
Box office
The film was originally set for release on December 25, 2007; but on November 30, the timetable was moved back to December 21  In its opening weekend, the film grossed $9 6 million in 2,575 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking No  4 at the box office  It grossed a total of $119 million worldwide—$66 7 million in the United States and Canada and $52 3 million in other territories 

Critical reaction
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 82% based on 205 reviews, with an average rating of 7 00/10  The site's critical consensus reads, "Charlie Wilson's War manages to entertain and inform audiences, thanks to its witty script and talented cast of power players " Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 67 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale 

Governmental criticism and praise
Some Reagan Era officials, including former Under Secretary of Defense Fred Ikle, have criticized some elements of the film  The Washington Times reported claims that the film wrongly promotes the notion that the CIA-led operation funded Osama bin Laden and ultimately produced the September 11 attacks; however, other Reagan-era officials have been more supportive of the film   Michael Johns, the former foreign policy analyst at The Heritage Foundation and White House speechwriter to President George H  W  Bush, praised the film as "the first mass-appeal effort to reflect the most important lesson of America's Cold War victory: that the Reagan-led effort to support freedom fighters resisting Soviet oppression led successfully to the first major military defeat of the Soviet Union    Sending the Red Army packing from Afghanistan proved one of the single most important contributing factors in one of history's most profoundly positive and important developments "

Russian reception
In February 2008, it was revealed that the film would not release in Russian theaters  The rights for the film were bought by Universal Pictures International (UPI) Russia  It was speculated that the film would not appear because of a certain point of view that depicted the Soviet Union unfavorably  UPI Russia head Yevgeny Beginin denied that, saying, "We simply decided that the film would not make a profit " Reaction from Russian bloggers was also negative  One wrote: "The whole film shows Russians, or rather Soviets, as brutal killers "

Historical accuracy
Mujahideen support
While the film depicts Wilson as an immediate advocate for supplying the mujahideen with Stinger missiles, a former Reagan administration official recalls that he and Wilson, while advocates for the mujahideen, were actually initially "lukewarm" on the idea of supplying these missiles  Their opinion changed when they discovered that rebels were successful in downing Soviet gunships with them  As such, they were actually not supplied until 1987, during the second Reagan term, and their provision was advocated mostly by Reagan defense officials and influential conservatives 

Happy ending
According to Melissa Roddy, a Los Angeles film maker with inside information from the production, the film's happy ending where Wilson receives an award came about because Tom Hanks did not feel comfortable with an original draft which ended on a scene featuring the September 11 attacks   Citing the original screenplay, which was very different from the final product, in Reel Power: Hollywood Cinema and American Supremacy Matthew Alford wrote that the film gave up "the chance to produce what at least had the potential to be the Dr  Strangelove of our generation" 

Academic research
The book and the film based on it are mostly rated negatively in terms of historical accuracy 

Charlie Wilson’s War (2007) is amusing but has only an intermittent connection with historical reality 
George Crile's magnificent book Charlie Wilson's War, and the movie that was made from it, is an excellent account, but it is told from the perspective of one Texas congressman and tends to distort his importance 
George Crile's Charlie Wilson's War has been made into a film, and features the same degree of fantasy and escapism as Rambo III, which was also set in the Soviet-Afghan War 

Aftermath
The film depicts the concern expressed by Charlie and Gust that Afghanistan was being neglected in the 1990s, following the Soviet withdrawal  In one of the film's final scenes, Gust dampens Charlie's enthusiasm over the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, saying "I'm about to give you an NIE (National Intelligence Estimate) that shows the crazies are rolling into Kandahar "  As he says this, the sound of jet airliners soar overhead, a premonition of the coming 9/11 attacks 

George Crile III, author of the book on which the film is based, wrote that the mujahideen's victory in Afghanistan ultimately opened a power vacuum for bin Laden: By the end of 1993, in Afghanistan itself there were no roads, no schools, just a destroyed country—and the United States was washing its hands of any responsibility  It was in this vacuum that the Taliban and Osama bin Laden would emerge as the dominant players  It is ironic that a man who had almost nothing to do with the victory over the Red Army, Osama bin Laden, would come to personify the power of the jihad 
In 2008, Canadian journalist Arthur Kent sued the makers of the film, claiming that they had used material he produced in the 1980s without obtaining the proper authorization  On September 19, 2008, Kent announced that he had reached a settlement with the film's producers and distributors, and that he was "very pleased" with the terms of the settlement, which remain confidential 

Awards and nominations
Home media
The film was released on DVD April 22, 2008, while a HD DVD/DVD combo was also made available
Passage 5:
Heureux Anniversaire
Heureux Anniversaire (also known as Happy Anniversary) is a 1962 French short comedy film directed by Pierre Étaix  It won an Oscar in 1963 for Best Short Subject 

Cast
Robert Blome
Pierre Étaix
Lucien Frégis
Laurence Lignières
Georges Loriot
Ican Paillaud
Nono Zammit
Passage 6:
Beyond the Hills
Beyond the Hills (Romanian: După dealuri) is a 2012 Romanian drama film directed by Cristian Mungiu, starring Cristina Flutur and Cosmina Stratan  The narrative follows two young women at an Eastern Orthodox convent in Romania 

Plot
Two Romanian orphaned young women, Voichița and Alina, visit a Romanian Orthodox convent during Lent, where Voichița tells Alina the altar includes an icon that grants wishes  Alina had been working in Germany, and the two girls were previously roommates at a children's home and had shared a physical relationship  The monastery is led by a 30-year-old Priest who speaks ill of declining faith in Western Europe, citing same-sex marriage, and forbids anyone outside of the faith from entering  He inquires about Alina to Voichița, who tells him Alina irregularly attends church and does not go to confession  They urge Alina to begin confessing  Alina hopes to sleep with Voichița, but Voichița tells her they must be cautious given it is Lent 
Some time later after Alina has left the convent, Voichița retrieves her, but Voichița tells Alina she is now a nun, that she has chosen to be with God so she will never be alone, and her love of Alina is different from before  They return to the convent, but Alina asks Voichița that they escape together  After Voichița refuses, Alina attempts to jump down a well, but is restrained by the nuns and taken to the hospital  There, doctors restrain Alina to prevent her self-harm, after which they send her back to the convent to assist with recovery  There, the nuns read to Alina about sin  Alina begins a Black Fast, but when the Priest learns of this when Alina is not at the table, they see Alina is attempting to enter the altar to make a wish to the icon  The Priest admits the icon exists, but says entering the altar is a severe sin, and tells the nuns the Devil is in Alina and the convent 
Alina remains tied down to a board with chains and towels  The nuns witness a worsening in her condition and take her back to the hospital  There, the hospital staff find Alina is dead on arrival, and observe the wounds on her wrists and ankles from the restraints  The staff tells the nuns this constitutes homicide and threatens to call the police and media  An officer investigates the convent  Seeing the board Alina was tied to, the officer interprets it as a cross  The officer also says forcible restraint leading to death is a homicide  The Priest denies criminal intent, saying the restraints were to prevent self-harm, and invoking the analogy of a parent's right to force children to take medicine, though the officer replies Alina was not a child and the Priest was not her guardian  The nuns also cite Alina's strength as mysterious, but Voichița says Alina studied martial arts  The police take the Priest and the nuns who tied up Alina away, with Voichița choosing to go with them 

Cast
Cosmina Stratan as Voichița
Cristina Flutur as Alina
Valeriu Andriuță as Priest
Dana Tapalagă as Mother superior
Cătălina Harabagiu as Antonia
Gina Țandură as nun Iustina
Vica Agache as nun Elisabeta
Nora Covali as Nun Pahomia
Dionisie Vitcu as Mr  Valerică

Production
The screenplay was inspired by two novels by the writer Tatiana Niculescu Bran, documenting the Tanacu exorcism, in which a young member of a monastery in Moldavia died in 2005 after an exorcism ritual  Mungiu was inspired to make the film after seeing the stage version in New York while promoting 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days The film production was made through the director's company, Mobra Films  It also received production support from Belgium and France  It received €273,100  from Romania's National Centre for Cinema and €400,000 from Eurimages  Filming took place from November 2011 to February 2012 

Release
The film premiered in the main competition at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival, where it was screened on 19 May  At Cannes, Mungiu won the award for Best Screenplay, while Cristina Flutur and Cosmina Stratan shared the award for Best Actress  It was selected as the Romanian entry for the Best Foreign Language Oscar at the 85th Academy Awards,  making the January shortlist  The film also won the Golden Ástor for Best Film at the 2012 Mar del Plata International Film Festival 

Critical response
Dan Fainaru of Screen Daily wrote from Cannes: "Spare, unadorned and strikingly shot, Cristian Mungiu's film is an unusual rendering of a Romanian exorcism case and is bound to split both audience and critical opinions, some considering it a major achievement and others blaming it for overlong pretentious sensationalism  But it will certainly not pass unnoticed "Sight & Sound film magazine listed the film at #8 on its list of best films of 2012 

See also
Romanian New Wave
List of submissions to the 85th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Romanian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
List of lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender-related films of 2012
Passage 7:
78th Academy Awards
The 78th Academy Awards presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), took place on March 5, 2006, at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles beginning at 5:00 p m  PST / 8:00 p m  EST  The ceremony was scheduled one week later than usual to avoid a clash with the 2006 Winter Olympics  During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 24 categories honoring films released in 2005  The ceremony, televised in the United States by ABC, was produced by Gil Cates and directed by Louis J  Horvitz  Actor Jon Stewart hosted the show for the first time  Two weeks earlier in a ceremony at The Beverly Hilton in Beverly Hills, California held on February 18, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Rachel McAdams Crash won three awards, including Best Picture  Other winners included Brokeback Mountain, King Kong, and Memoirs of a Geisha with three awards and Capote, The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, The Constant Gardener, Hustle & Flow, March of the Penguins, The Moon and the Son: An Imagined Conversation, A Note of Triumph: The Golden Age of Norman Corwin, Six Shooter, Syriana, Tsotsi, Walk the Line, and Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit with one  The telecast garnered nearly 39 million viewers in the United States 

Winners and nominees
The nominees for the 78th Academy Awards were announced on January 31, 2006, at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in the Academy's Beverly Hills headquarters by Sid Ganis, president of the Academy, and actress Mira Sorvino  Brokeback Mountain earned the most nominations with eight total; Crash, Good Night, and Good Luck, and Memoirs of a Geisha tied for second with six nominations each  All five Best Picture nominees received corresponding Best Director nominations (the fourth occurrence in Oscar history since the Best Picture nominees roster was limited to five films) The winners were announced during the awards ceremony on March 5, 2006  Several notable achievements by multiple individuals and films occurred during the ceremony  Crash was the first Best Picture winner since 1976's Rocky to win only three Oscars  Best Director winner Ang Lee became the first non-Caucasian winner of that category  For this first time since the 34th ceremony held in 1962, all four acting winners were first-time nominees  At age 20, Keira Knightley was the second-youngest Best Actress nominee for her performance as Elizabeth Bennet in Pride & Prejudice  Best Supporting Actor winner George Clooney was the fifth person to receive acting, directing, and screenwriting nominations in the same year and the first person to achieve this feat for two different films  By virtue of his nominations for both Memoirs of a Geisha and Munich, composer John Williams earned a total of 45 nominations tying him with Alfred Newman as the second most nominated individual in Oscar history  "It's Hard out Here for a Pimp" became the second rap song to win Best Original Song and the first such song to be performed at an Oscars ceremony 

Awards
Winners are listed first, highlighted in boldface, and indicated with a double dagger (‡) 

Academy Honorary Award
Robert Altman — In recognition of a career that has repeatedly reinvented the art form and inspired filmmakers and audiences alike 

Films with multiple nominations and awards
Presenters and performers
The following individuals presented awards or performed musical numbers 

Presenters
Performers
Ceremony information
Despite the negative reception from the preceding year's ceremony, the Academy rehired Gilbert Cates to oversee production of the awards gala  However, in an article published in The New York Times, it was stated that 2005 host Chris Rock would not return to host the show  According to a statement released by his publicist, "He didn't want to do it in perpetuity, He'd like to do it again down the road " Furthermore, many media outlets speculated that several AMPAS members felt uncomfortable with Rock's disparaging comments about Colin Farrell, Jude Law, and Tobey Maguire  Initially, Cates sought actor and veteran Oscar host Billy Crystal to host the ceremony again  However, Crystal declined the offer citing his commitment to his one-man comedy show 700 Sundays In January 2006, Cates announced that actor, comedian, and talk show host Jon Stewart, who had previously hosted two consecutive Grammy Awards ceremonies in 2001 and 2002, was chosen as host of the 2006 telecast  Cates explained the decision to hire him saying, "My wife and I watch him every night  Jon is the epitome of a perfect host — smart, engaging, irreverent and funny " In a statement, Stewart expressed that he was honored to be selected to emcee the program, jokingly adding, "Although, as an avid watcher of the Oscars, I can't help but be a little disappointed with the choice  It appears to be another sad attempt to smoke out Billy Crystal "Several other people and companies participated in the production of the ceremony  Bill Conti served as musical supervisor for the telecast  Media firm The Ant Farm produced a thirty-second trailer promoting the broadcast featuring clips highlighting past Oscar winners to the tune of the song "Our Lives" by The Calling  Previous Oscar hosts such as Whoopi Goldberg and Steve Martin, and actors Mel Gibson, George Clooney, Halle Berry appeared in an opening comedic sketch  Actor Tom Hanks participated in a pre-taped comedic sketch lampooning Oscar speeches  Stephen Colbert (host of The Colbert Report, the sister program of Stewart's The Daily Show) narrated two different mock attack ads lampooning both the intense campaigning and lobbying during Oscar season put forth by film studios and political advertising during elections  Violinist Itzhak Perlman performed excerpts from the five nominees for Best Original Score 

Box office performance of nominated films
When the nominations were announced on January 31, the field of major nominees favored independent, low-budget films over blockbusters  The combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees when the Oscars were announced was $186 million with an average gross of $37 3 million per film  Crash was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $53 4 million in domestic box office receipts  The film was followed by Brokeback Mountain ($51 7 million), Munich ($40 8 million), Good Night and Good Luck ($25 2 million), and finally Capote ($15 4 million) Of the top 50 grossing movies of the year, 35 nominations went to 13 films on the list  Only  Walk the Line (19th), Cinderella Man (41st), Wallace and Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit (45th), and Crash (48th) were nominated for Best Picture, Best Animated Feature, or any of the directing, acting, or screenwriting  The other top 50 box office hits that earned nominations were Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith (1st), Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2nd), The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe (3rd), War of the Worlds (4th), King Kong (5th), Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (7th), Batman Begins (8th), March of the Penguins, (26th), and Memoirs of a Geisha (47th) 

Critical reviews
Some media outlets received the broadcast positively  St  Louis Post-Dispatch television critic Gail Pennington praised Stewart's performance as host writing that he "did the Oscars proud Sunday night, turning in a four-star hosting performance that unfortunately made the rest of the show seem sluggish by comparison " Film critic Roger Ebert said that Stewart was "on target, topical and funny," and added, "He was as relaxed, amusing and at home as Johnny Carson " Columnist Ray Richmond of The Hollywood Reporter commented, "He seemed at times nervous and self-conscious, but on the whole, Stewart delivered with just the right balance of reverence and smugness "Others media publications were more critical of the show  Television critic Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette wrote that Stewart was more "amusing than funny"  He added, "Many of his jokes fell flat with the stars in the Kodak Theatre, and his tendency to bow down before celebrities quickly grew tiresome " Tom Shales from The Washington Post commented, "It's hard to believe that professional entertainers could have put together a show less entertaining than this year's Oscars, hosted with a smug humorlessness by comic Jon Stewart, a sad and pale shadow of great hosts gone by " Moreover, he derided the "piles and piles and miles and miles of clips from films present and past" writing that it "squandered the visual luster" of the ceremony  Associated Press television critic Frazier Moore remarked, "Stewart, usually a very funny guy, displayed a lack of beginner's luck as first-time host   His usually impeccable blend of puckishness and self-effacement fell flat in the service of Oscar " He also criticized the decision to play music over the winner's acceptance speeches calling it "distracting and obnoxious "

Ratings and reception
The American telecast on ABC drew in an average of 38 94 million people over its length, which was an 8% decrease from the previous year's ceremony  Additionally, the show earned lower Nielsen ratings compared to the previous ceremony with 23 0% of households watching over a 35 share  Furthermore, it garnered a lower 18–49 demo rating with a 13 9 rating among viewers in that demographic In July 2006, the ceremony presentation received nine nominations at the 58th Primetime Emmys  The following month, the ceremony won four of those nominations for Outstanding Art Direction (Roy Christopher and Jeff Richman), Outstanding Directing for a Variety, Music, or Comedy Program (Louis J  Horvitz), Outstanding Main Title Design (Renato Grgic, Alen Petkovic, Kristijan Petrovic, and Jon Teschner), and Outstanding Sound Mixing For A Variety, Music, or Animation Series or Special (Patrick Baltzell, Robert Douglass, Edward J  Greene, Jamie Santos, and Tom Vicari) 

In Memoriam
The annual In Memoriam tribute was presented by actor George Clooney  The montage featured an excerpt of the theme from Now, Voyager composed by Max Steiner 

See also
12th Screen Actors Guild Awards
26th Golden Raspberry Awards
48th Grammy Awards
58th Primetime Emmy Awards
59th British Academy Film Awards
60th Tony Awards
63rd Golden Globe Awards
List of submissions to the 78th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film

Notes
a^ : Walt Disney has the most Oscar nominations for any individual with 64 
b^ : Best Foreign Language Film nominee Paradise Now was initially nominated as a submission from Palestine  However, following protests from pro-Israeli groups in the United States, the Academy decided to designate it as a submission from the Palestinian Authority, a move that was decried by the film's director Hany Abu-Assad  During the awards ceremony, the film was eventually announced by presenter Will Smith as a submission from the Palestinian territories 
Passage 8:
Fiddler on the Roof
Fiddler on the Roof is a musical with music by Jerry Bock, lyrics by Sheldon Harnick, and book by Joseph Stein, set in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia in or around 1905  It is based on Tevye and his Daughters (or Tevye the Dairyman) and other tales by Sholem Aleichem  The story centers on Tevye, a milkman in the village of Anatevka, who attempts to maintain his Jewish religious and cultural traditions as outside influences encroach upon his family's lives  He must cope with the strong-willed actions of his three older daughters who wish to marry for love; their choices of husbands are successively less palatable for Tevye  An edict of the tsar eventually evicts the Jews from their village 
The original Broadway production of the show, which opened in 1964, had the first musical theatre run in history to surpass 3,000 performances  Fiddler held the record for the longest-running Broadway musical for almost 10 years until Grease surpassed its run  The production was extraordinarily profitable and highly acclaimed  It won nine Tony Awards, including best musical, score, book, direction and choreography  It spawned five Broadway revivals and a highly successful 1971 film adaptation and has enjoyed enduring international popularity  It has also been a popular choice for school and community productions 

Background
Fiddler on the Roof is based on Tevye (or Tevye the Dairyman) and his Daughters, a series of stories by Sholem Aleichem that he wrote in Yiddish between 1894 and 1914 about Jewish life in a village in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia at the turn of the 20th century  The stories are based on Aleichem's own upbringing near modern-day Kyiv (fictionalized as Yehupetz)  It is also influenced by Life is with People, by Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog  Aleichem wrote a dramatic adaptation of the stories that he left unfinished at his death, but which was produced in Yiddish in 1919 by the Yiddish Art Theater and made into a film in the 1930s  In the late 1950s, a musical based on the stories, called Tevye and his Daughters, was produced off-Broadway by Arnold Perl  Rodgers and Hammerstein and then Mike Todd briefly considered bringing this musical to Broadway but dropped the idea 

Investors and some in the media worried that Fiddler on the Roof might be considered "too Jewish" to attract mainstream audiences  Other critics considered that it was too culturally sanitized, "middlebrow" and superficial; Philip Roth, writing in The New Yorker, called it shtetl kitsch  For example, it portrays the local Russian officer as sympathetic, instead of brutal and cruel, as Sholom Aleichem had described him  Aleichem's stories ended with Tevye alone, his wife dead and his daughters scattered; at the end of Fiddler, the family members are alive, and most are emigrating together to America  The show found the right balance for its time, even if not entirely authentic, to become "one of the first popular post-Holocaust depictions of the vanished world of Eastern European Jewry"  Harold Prince replaced the original producer Fred Coe and brought in director/choreographer Jerome Robbins  The writers and Robbins considered naming the musical Tevye, before landing on a title suggested by various paintings by Marc Chagall (Green Violinist (1924),  Le Mort (1924), The Fiddler (1912)) that also inspired the original set design  Contrary to popular belief, the "title of the musical does not refer to any specific painting" During rehearsals, one of the stars, Jewish actor Zero Mostel, feuded with Robbins, whom he held in contempt, because Robbins had testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee and hid his Jewish heritage from the public  Other cast members also had run-ins with Robbins, who reportedly "abused the cast, drove the designers crazy [and] strained the good nature of Hal Prince" 

Synopsis
Act I
Tevye, a poor Jewish milkman with five daughters, explains the customs of the Jews in the Russian shtetl of Anatevka in 1905, where their lives are as precarious as the perch of a fiddler on a roof ("Tradition")  At Tevye's home, everyone is busy preparing for the Sabbath meal  His sharp-tongued wife, Golde, orders their daughters, Tzeitel, Hodel, Chava, Shprintze and Bielke, about their tasks  Yente, the village matchmaker, arrives to tell Golde that Lazar Wolf, the wealthy butcher, a widower older than Tevye, wants to wed Tzeitel, the eldest daughter  The next two daughters, Hodel and Chava, are excited about Yente's visit, but Tzeitel illustrates how it could have bad results ("Matchmaker, Matchmaker")  A girl from a poor family must take whatever husband Yente brings, but Tzeitel wants to marry her childhood friend, Motel the tailor 
Tevye is delivering milk, pulling the cart himself, as his horse is lame  He asks God: Whom would it hurt "If I Were a Rich Man"?  The bookseller tells Tevye news from the outside world of pogroms and expulsions  A stranger, Perchik, hears their conversation and scolds them for doing nothing more than talk  The men dismiss Perchik as a radical, but Tevye invites him home for the Sabbath meal and offers him food and a room in exchange for tutoring his two youngest daughters  Golde tells Tevye to meet Lazar after the Sabbath but does not tell him why, knowing that Tevye does not like Lazar



ground_truth: fleur - de-lis

Fleur-de-lis

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prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What other recognition did the Oscar winner for Best Actor in 2006 receive?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Tzeitel is afraid that Yente will find her a husband before Motel asks Tevye for her hand  But Motel resists: he is afraid of Tevye's temper, and tradition says that a matchmaker arranges marriages  Motel is also very poor and is saving up to buy a sewing machine before he approaches Tevye, to show that he can support a wife  The family gathers for the "Sabbath Prayer" 
After the Sabbath, Tevye meets Lazar for a drink at the village inn, assuming mistakenly that Lazar wants to buy his cow  Once the misunderstanding is cleared up, Tevye agrees to let Lazar marry Tzeitel – with a rich butcher, his daughter will never want for anything  All join in the celebration of Lazar's good fortune; even the Russian youths at the inn join in the celebration and show off their dancing skills ("To Life")  Outside the inn, Tevye happens upon the Russian Constable, who has jurisdiction over the Jews in the town  The Constable warns him that there is going to be a "little unofficial demonstration" in the coming weeks (a euphemism for a minor pogrom)  The Constable has sympathy for the Jewish community but is powerless to prevent the violence 
The next morning, after Perchik's lessons with the younger sisters, Tevye's second daughter Hodel mocks Perchik's Marxist interpretation of a Bible story  He, in turn, criticizes her for hanging on to the old traditions of Judaism, noting that the world is changing  To illustrate this, he dances with her, defying the prohibition against opposite sexes dancing together  The two begin to fall in love  Later, a hungover Tevye announces that he has agreed that Tzeitel will marry Lazar Wolf  Golde is overjoyed, but Tzeitel is devastated and begs Tevye not to force her  Motel arrives and tells Tevye that he is the perfect match for Tzeitel and that he and Tzeitel gave each other a pledge to marry  He promises that Tzeitel will not starve as his wife  Tevye is stunned and outraged at this breach of tradition, but impressed at the timid tailor's display of backbone  After some soul-searching ("Tevye's Monologue"), Tevye agrees to let them marry, but he worries about how to break the news to Golde  An overjoyed Motel celebrates with Tzeitel ("Miracle of Miracles") 
In bed with Golde, Tevye pretends to be waking from a nightmare  Golde offers to interpret his dream, and Tevye "describes" it ("Tevye's Dream")  Golde's grandmother Tzeitel returns from the grave to bless the marriage of her namesake, but to Motel, not to Lazar Wolf  Lazar's formidable late wife, Fruma-Sarah ("frum" is a Yiddish word for a devout Jew), rises from her grave to warn, in graphic terms, of severe retribution if Tzeitel marries Lazar  The superstitious Golde is terrified, and she quickly counsels that Tzeitel must marry Motel  While returning from town, Tevye's third daughter, the bookish Chava, is teased and intimidated by some gentile youths  One, Fyedka, protects her, dismissing the others  He offers Chava the loan of a book, and a secret relationship begins 
The wedding day of Tzeitel and Motel arrives, and all the Jews join the ceremony ("Sunrise, Sunset") and the celebration ("The Wedding Dance")  Lazar gives a fine gift, but an argument arises with Tevye over the broken agreement  Perchik ends the tiff by breaking another tradition: he crosses the barrier between the men and women to dance with Tevye's daughter Hodel  The celebration ends abruptly when a group of Russians rides into the village to perform the "demonstration"   They disrupt the party, damaging the wedding gifts and wounding Perchik, who attempts to fight back, and wreak more destruction in the village  Tevye instructs his family to clean up the mess 

Act II
Months later, Perchik tells Hodel he must return to Kyiv to work for the revolution  He proposes marriage, admitting that he loves her, and says that he will send for her  She agrees ("Now I Have Everything")  They tell Tevye that they are engaged, and he is appalled that they are flouting tradition by making their own match, especially as Perchik is leaving  When he forbids the marriage, Perchik and Hodel inform him that they do not seek his permission, only his blessing  After more soul searching, Tevye relents – the world is changing, and he must change with it ("Tevye's Rebuttal")  He informs the young couple that he gives them his blessing and his permission 
Tevye explains these events to an astonished Golde  "Love", he says, "it's the new style " Tevye asks Golde, despite their own arranged marriage, "Do You Love Me?" After dismissing Tevye's question as foolish, she eventually admits that, after 25 years of living and struggling together and raising five daughters, she does  Meanwhile, Yente tells Tzeitel that she saw Chava with Fyedka   News spreads quickly in Anatevka that Perchik has been arrested and exiled to Siberia ("The Rumor/I Just Heard"), and Hodel is determined to join him there  At the railway station, she explains to her father that her home is with her beloved, wherever he may be, although she will always love her family ("Far From the Home I Love") 
Time passes  Motel has purchased a used sewing machine, and he and Tzeitel have had a baby  Chava finally gathers the courage to ask Tevye to allow her marriage to Fyedka  Again Tevye reaches deep into his soul, but marriage outside the Jewish faith is a line he will not cross  He forbids Chava to speak to Fyedka again  When Golde brings news that Chava has eloped with Fyedka, Tevye wonders where he went wrong ("Chavaleh Sequence")  Chava returns and tries to reason with him, but he refuses to speak to her and tells the rest of the family to consider her dead  Meanwhile, rumors are spreading of the Russians expelling Jews from their villages  While the villagers are gathered, the Constable arrives to tell everyone that they have three days to pack up and leave the town  In shock, they reminisce about "Anatevka" and how hard it will be to leave what has been their home for so long 
As the Jews leave Anatevka, Chava and Fyedka stop to tell her family that they are also leaving for Kraków, unwilling to remain among the people who could do such things to others  Tevye still will not talk to her, but when Tzeitel says goodbye to Chava, Tevye prompts her to add "God be with you "  Motel and Tzeitel go to Poland as well but will join the rest of the family when they have saved up enough money  As Tevye, Golde and their two youngest daughters leave the village for America, the fiddler begins to play  Tevye beckons with a nod, and the fiddler follows them out of the village 

Musical numbers
Principal characters
All of the characters are Jewish, except as noted:
Tevye, a poor milkman with five daughters  A firm supporter of the traditions of his faith, he finds many of his convictions tested by the actions of his three oldest daughters 
Golde, Tevye's sharp-tongued wife 
Tzeitel, their oldest daughter, about nineteen  She loves her childhood friend Motel and marries him, even though he's poor, begging her father not to force her to marry Lazar Wolf 
Hodel, their daughter, about seventeen  Intelligent and spirited, she falls in love with Perchik and later joins him in Siberia 
Chava, their daughter, about fifteen  A shy and bookish girl, who falls in love with Fyedka 
Motel Kamzoil, a poor but hardworking tailor who loves, and later marries, Tzeitel 
Perchik, a student revolutionary who comes to Anatevka and falls in love with Hodel  He leaves for Kyiv, is arrested and exiled to Siberia 
Fyedka, a young Christian  He shares Chava's passion for reading and is outraged by the Russians' treatment of the Jews 
Lazar Wolf, the wealthy village butcher  Widower of Fruma-Sarah  Attempts to arrange a marriage for himself to Tzeitel 
Yente, the gossipy village matchmaker who matches Tzeitel and Lazar 
Grandma Tzeitel, Golde's dead grandmother, who rises from the grave in Tevye's "nightmare" 
Fruma-Sarah, Lazar Wolf's dead wife, who also rises from the grave in the "nightmare" 
Rabbi, the wise village leader 
Constable, the head of the local Russian police, a Christian 

Casts
Notable replacements
Broadway (1964–72)Tevye: Luther Adler, Herschel Bernardi, Harry Goz, Paul Lipson
Golde: Maria Karnilova, Peg Murray, Martha Schlamme, Dolores Wilson
Tzeitel: Rosalind Harris, Joanna Merlin, Bette Midler
Lazar Wolf: Paul LipsonBroadway revival (2004–06)Tevye: Harvey Fierstein
Golde: Andrea Martin, Rosie O'Donnell
Yente: Barbara BarrieBroadway revival (2015–16)Golde: Judy Kuhn

Productions
Original productions
Following its tryout at Detroit's Fisher Theatre in July and August 1964, then Washington in August to September, the original Broadway production opened on September 22, 1964, at the Imperial Theatre, transferred in 1967 to the Majestic Theatre and in 1970 to the Broadway Theatre, and ran for a record-setting total of 3,242 performances  The production was directed and choreographed by Jerome Robbins – his last original Broadway staging  The set, designed in the style of Marc Chagall's paintings, was by Boris Aronson  A colorful logo for the production, also inspired by Chagall's work, was designed by Tom Morrow  Chagall reportedly did not like the musical The cast included Zero Mostel as Tevye the milkman, Maria Karnilova as his wife Golde (both won a Tony for their performances), Beatrice Arthur as Yente the matchmaker, Austin Pendleton as Motel, Bert Convy as Perchik the student revolutionary, Gino Conforti as the fiddler, and Julia Migenes as Hodel  Mostel ad-libbed increasingly as the run went on, "which drove the authors up the wall"  Joanna Merlin originated the role of Tzeitel, which was later assumed by Bette Midler during the original run  Carol Sawyer was Fruma Sarah, Adrienne Barbeau took a turn as Hodel, and Pia Zadora played the youngest daughter, Bielke  Both Peg Murray and Dolores Wilson made extended appearances as Golde, while other stage actors who have played Tevye include Herschel Bernardi, Theodore Bikel and Harry Goz (in the original Broadway run), and Leonard Nimoy  Mostel's understudy in the original production, Paul Lipson, went on to appear as Tevye in more performances than any other actor (until Chaim Topol), clocking over 2,000 performances in the role in the original run and several revivals  Florence Stanley took over the role of Yente nine months into the run  The production earned $1,574 for every dollar invested in it  It was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, book, direction and choreography, and acting awards for Mostel and Karnilova The original London West End production opened on February 16, 1967, at Her Majesty's Theatre and played for 2,030 performances  It starred Topol as Tevye, a role he had previously played in Tel Aviv, and Miriam Karlin as Golde  Alfie Bass, Lex Goudsmit and Barry Martin eventually took over as Tevye  Topol later played Tevye in the 1971 film adaptation, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award, and in several revivals over the next four decades  The show was revived in London for short seasons in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre and in 1994 at the London Palladium 

Broadway revivals
The first Broadway revival opened on December 28, 1976, and ran for 176 performances at the Winter Garden Theatre  Zero Mostel starred as Tevye  Robbins directed and choreographed  A second Broadway revival opened on July 9, 1981, and played for a limited run (53 performances) at Lincoln Center's New York State Theater  It starred Herschel Bernardi as Tevye and Karnilova as Golde  Other cast members included Liz Larsen, Fyvush Finkel, Lawrence Leritz and Paul Lipson  Robbins directed and choreographed  The third Broadway revival opened on November 18, 1990, and ran for 241 performances at the George Gershwin Theatre  Topol starred as Tevye, and Marcia Lewis was Golde  Robbins' production was reproduced by Ruth Mitchell and choreographer Sammy Dallas Bayes  The production won the Tony Award for Best Revival 
A fourth Broadway revival opened on February 26, 2004, and ran for 36 previews and 781 performances at the Minskoff Theatre  Alfred Molina, and later Harvey Fierstein, starred as Tevye, and Randy Graff, and later Andrea Martin and Rosie O'Donnell, was Golde  Barbara Barrie and later Nancy Opel played Yente, Laura Michelle Kelly played Hodel and Lea Michele played Sprintze   It was directed by David Leveaux  This production replaced Yente's song "The Rumor" with a song for Yente and two other women called "Topsy-Turvy"   The production was nominated for six Tonys but did not win any  In June 2014, to celebrate the show's 50th anniversary, a gala celebration and reunion was held at the Town Hall in New York City to benefit National Yiddish Theatre Folksbiene, with appearances by many of the cast members of the various Broadway productions and the 1971 film, as well as Sheldon Harnick, Chita Rivera, Karen Ziemba, Joshua Bell, Jerry Zaks and others The fifth Broadway revival began previews on November 20 and opened on December 20, 2015, at the Broadway Theatre, with concept and choreography based on the original by Robbins  Bartlett Sher directed, and Hofesh Shechter choreographed  The cast starred Danny Burstein as Tevye, with Jessica Hecht as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Tzeitel, Adam Kantor as Motel, Ben Rappaport as Perchik, Samantha Massell as Hodel and Melanie Moore as Chava  Judy Kuhn replaced Hecht as Golde on November 22, 2016, for the last five weeks of the run  Designers include Michael Yeargan (sets), Catherine Zuber (costumes) and Donald Holder (lighting)  Initial reviews were mostly positive, finding Burstein and the show touching  The production was nominated for three Tony Awards but won none  It closed on December 31, 2016, after 463 performances  The U S /Canadian tour of the Sher-directed production began in 2018 and was interrupted in March 2020 by the COVID-19 pandemic; it resumed in 2021 and continued into 2023  The role of Tevye has been played by Yehezkel Lazarov into 2022, Danny Arnold then assumed the role for several months, and the last months are being played by Jonathan Hashmonay 

London revivals
Fiddler was first revived in London in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre (a four-month season starring Topol) and again in 1994 at the London Palladium for two months and then on tour, again starring Topol, and directed and choreographed by Sammy Dallas Bayes, recreating the Robbins production After a two-month tryout at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England, a London revival opened on May 19, 2007, at the Savoy Theatre starring Henry Goodman as Tevye, Beverley Klein as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Hodel, Damian Humbley as Perchik and Victor McGuire as Lazar Wolf  The production was directed by Lindsay Posner  Robbins' choreography was recreated by Sammy Dallas Bayes (who did the same for the 1990 Broadway revival), with additional choreography by Kate Flatt A revival played at the Menier Chocolate Factory from November 23, 2018, until March 9, 2019, directed by Trevor Nunn and starring Andy Nyman as Tevye and Judy Kuhn as Golde  The production transferred to the Playhouse Theatre in the West End on March 21, 2019, with an official opening on March 27  Replacement players included Maria Friedman as Golde and Anita Dobson as Yente  The run closed on November 2, 2019 

Other UK productions
A 2003 national tour played for seven months, with a radical design, directed by Julian Woolford and choreographed by Chris Hocking  The production's minimalist set and costumes were monochromatic, and Fruma-Sarah was represented by a 12-foot puppet  This production was revived in 2008 starring Joe McGann The show toured the UK again in 2013 and 2014 starring Paul Michael Glaser as Tevye with direction and choreography by Craig Revel Horwood A revival played at Chichester Festival Theatre from July 10 to September 2, 2017, directed by Daniel Evans and starring Omid Djalili as Tevye and Tracy-Ann Oberman as Golde 

Australian productions
The original Australian production opened on June 16, 1967, at Her Majesty's Theatre in Sydney  It starred Hayes Gordon as Tevye and Brigid Lenihan as Golde  The production ran for two years  The first professional revival tour was staged by the Australian Opera in 1984 with Gordon again playing Tevye  A young Anthony Warlow played Fyedka In 1998, 2005, 2006 and 2007, Topol recreated his role as Tevye in Australian productions, with seasons in Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth, Wellington and Auckland  The musical was again revived in Melbourne and Sydney in 2015–2016 with Anthony Warlow as Tevye, Sigrid Thornton as Golde and Lior as Motel 

Other notable North American productions
Topol in 'Fiddler on the Roof': The Farewell Tour opened on January 20, 2009, in Wilmington, Delaware  Topol left the tour in November 2009 due to torn muscles  He was replaced by Harvey Fierstein and Theodore Bikel  The cast included Mary Stout, Susan Cella, Bill Nolte, Erik Liberman, Rena Strober, and Stephen Lee Anderson National Yiddish Theatre Folksbiene mounted a Yiddish adaptation, Fidler Afn Dakh, at the Museum of Jewish Heritage in New York City, under the direction of Joel Grey, with a translation by Shraga Friedman that was first used in a 1965 Israeli production  The cast included Jackie Hoffman as Yente, Steven Skybell as Tevye, Daniel Kahn as Pertshik, Stephanie Lynne Mason as Hodel and Raquel Nobile as Shprintze  Previews began on July 4, and opening night was July 15, 2018  The production played through the end of that year  It then transferred to Stage 42, an off-Broadway theatre, with Skybell, Hoffman, Mason and Nobile reprising their roles  Previews began February 11, with opening night on February 21, 2019  Musical staging was by Staś Kmieć (based on the original choreography by Robbins), with set design by Beowulf Boritt, costumes by Ann Hould-Ward, sound by Dan Moses Schreier and lighting by Peter Kaczorowski  The production closed on January 5, 2020  It won the 2019 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical 

International and amateur productions
The musical was an international hit, with early productions playing throughout Europe, in South America, Africa and Australia; 100 different productions were mounted in the former West Germany in the first three decades after the musical's premiere, and within five years after the collapse of the Berlin Wall, 23 productions were staged in the former East Germany; and it was the longest-running musical ever seen in Tokyo  According to BroadwayWorld, the musical has been staged "in every metropolitan city in the world from Paris to Beijing "A Hebrew language staging was produced in Tel Aviv by the Israeli impresario Giora Godik in the 1960s  This version was so successful that in 1965 Godik produced a Yiddish version translated by Shraga Friedman  A 2008 Hebrew-language production ran at the Cameri Theatre in Tel Aviv for more than six years  It was directed by Rabbi Moshe Kepten, choreographed by Dennis Courtney and starred Natan Datner Un violon sur le toît was produced in French at Paris's théâtre Marigny from November 1969 to May 1970, resuming from September to January 1971 (a total of 292 performances) with Ivan Rebroff as Tevye and Maria Murano as Golde  Another adaptation was produced in 2005 at the théâtre Comédia in Paris with Franck Vincent as Tevye and Isabelle Ferron as Golde  The Stratford Shakespeare Festival produced the musical from April to October 2013 at the Festival Theatre directed and choreographed by Donna Feore  It starred Scott Wentworth as Tevye  An Italian version, Il violinista sul tetto, with lyrics sung in Yiddish and the orchestra on stage also serving as chorus, was given a touring production in 2004, with Moni Ovadia as Tevye and director; it opened at Teatro Municipale Valli in Reggio Emilia The musical receives about 500 amateur productions a year in the US alone 

Film adaptations and recordings
A film version was released by United Artists in 1971, directed and produced by Norman Jewison, and Stein adapted his own book for the screenplay  Chaim Topol starred  The film received mostly positive reviews from film critics and became the highest-grossing film of 1971  Fiddler received eight Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Jewison, Best Actor in a Leading Role for Topol, and Best Actor in a Supporting Role for Leonard Frey (as Motel; in the original Broadway production, Frey was the rabbi's son)  It won three, including best score/adaptation for arranger-conductor John Williams In the film version, the character of Yente is reduced, and Perchik's song to Hodel "Now I Have Everything" is cut and replaced by a scene in Kyiv  The "Chagall color palette" of the original Broadway production was exchanged for a grittier, more realistic depiction of the village of Anatevka Theatre historian John Kenrick wrote that the original Broadway cast album released by RCA Victor in 1964, "shimmers – an essential recording in any show lover's collection", praising the cast  The remastered CD includes two recordings not on the original album, the bottle dance from the wedding scene and "Rumor" performed by Beatrice Arthur  In 2020, the recording was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant"  Kenrick writes that while the original Broadway cast version is the clear first choice among recordings of this musical, he also likes the Columbia Records studio cast album with Bernardi as Tevye; the film soundtrack, although he feels that the pace drags a bit; and some of the numerous foreign versions, including the Israeli, German and Japanese casts Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and producers Dan Jinks and Aaron Harnick are planning a new film adaptation of the musical, with Thomas Kail directing and co-producing, and Steven Levenson penning the screenplay 

Cultural influence
The musical's popularity has led to numerous references in popular media and elsewhere  A documentary film about the musical's history and legacy, Fiddler: A Miracle of Miracles, was released in 2019 

Parodies
Parodies relating to the show have included Antenna on the Roof (Mad magazine #156, January 1973), which speculated about the lives of Tevye's descendants living in an assimilated 1970s suburban America  In the film Mrs  Doubtfire (1993), Robin Williams parodies "Matchmaker"  In a 1994 Animaniacs parody, Pigeon on the Roof, the Goodfeathers decide to marry their girlfriends; song parodies include "Scorsese" ("Tradition"), "Egg Hatcher" ("Matchmaker") and others  In 2001, the H  P  Lovecraft Historical Society published a musical theatre and album parody called A Shoggoth on the Roof, which sets music from Fiddler to a story based on the works of H  P  Lovecraft  Spanish comedian and TV-host Jose Mota parodied "If I Were a Rich Man" with the song "Si no fuera rico" ("If I weren't a rich man") during his 2008 New Year's Eve special References to the musical on television have included a 2005 episode of Gilmore Girls titled "Jews and Chinese Food", involving a production of the musical  A skit by The Electric Company about a village fiddler with a fear of heights, so he is deemed "Fiddler on the Chair"   In the Family Guy episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein" (2003), William Shatner is depicted as playing Tevye in a scene from Fiddler   The second episode of Muppets Tonight, in 1996, featured Garth Brooks doing a piece of "If I were a Rich Man" in which he kicks several chickens off the roof   "The Rosie Show", a 1996 episode of The Nanny, parodied the dream scene, when Mr  Sheffield fakes a dream to convince Fran not to be a regular on a TV show   A 2011 episode of NBC's Community, entitled "Competitive Wine Tasting", included a parody titled Fiddla, Please! with an all-black cast dressed in Fiddler on the Roof costumes, singing "It's Hard to Be Jewish in Russia, Yo"  Chabad org kicked off their 2008 "To Life" telethon with a pastiche of the fiddle solo and bottle dance from the musical Broadway references have included Spamalot, where a "Grail dance" sends up the "bottle dance" in Fiddler's wedding scene  In 2001, Chicago's Improv Olympic produced a well-received parody, "The Roof Is on Fiddler", that used most of the original book of the musical but replaced the songs with 1980s pop songs   The original Broadway cast of the musical Avenue Q and the Broadway 2004 revival cast of Fiddler on the Roof collaborated for a Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS benefit and produced an approximately 10-minute-long show, "Avenue Jew", that incorporated characters from both shows, including puppets 

Covers
Songs from the musical have been covered by notable artists  For example, in 1964, jazz saxophonist Cannonball Adderley recorded the album Fiddler on the Roof, which featured jazz arrangements of eight songs from the musical  In a retrospective review AllMusic awarded the album 4 stars, stating, "Cannonball plays near his peak; this is certainly the finest album by this particular sextet"  That same year, Eydie Gormé released a single of "Matchmaker", and jazz guitarist Wes Montgomery recorded the same tune for his album Movin' Wes In 1999, Knitting Factory Records released Knitting on the Roof, a compilation CD featuring covers of Fiddler songs by indie and experimental bands such as the Residents, Negativland, and the Magnetic Fields  Indie rock band Bright Eyes recorded an adaptation of "Sunrise, Sunset" on their 2000 album Fevers and Mirrors   Allmusic gave the album a favorable review, and the online music magazine Pitchfork Media ranked it at number 170 on their list of top 200 albums of the 2000s   In 2005, Melbourne punk band Yidcore released a reworking of the entire show called Fiddling on Ya Roof Gwen Stefani and Eve covered "If I Were a Rich Man" as "Rich Girl" for Stefani's 2004 debut solo album Love  Angel  Music  Baby  in 2004   The song was inspired by the 1993 British Louchie Lou & Michie One ragga version of the same name  Stefani's version reached #7 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it remained for over six months  It was certified gold by the RIAA and nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration   It was also covered in 2008 and 2009 by the Capitol Steps, poking fun at Illinois politics, especially then-Governor Rod Blagojevich   The Santa Clara Vanguard Drum and Bugle Corps performs the "Bottle Dance" from Fiddler as a "recurring trademark", including at the Drum Corps International World Championships 

Other
The song "Sunrise, Sunset" is often played at weddings, and in 2011 Sheldon Harnick wrote two versions of the song, suitable for same-sex weddings, with minor word changes  For example, for male couples, changes include "When did they grow to be so handsome" In 2015 a displaced persons camp southwest of Kyiv named Anatevka was built by Chabad Rabbi Moshe Azman to house the Jews fleeing the 2014 Russian invasion of Ukraine 

Awards
Fiddler's original Broadway production in 1964 was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, and book, and Robbins won for best direction and choreography   Mostel and Karnilova won as best leading actor and best featured actress  In 1972, the show won a special Tony on becoming the longest-running musical in Broadway history 
Its revivals have also been honored   At the 1981 Tony Awards, Bernardi was nominated as best actor   Ten years later, the 1991 revival won for best revival, and Topol was nominated as best actor   The 2004 revival was nominated for six Tony Awards and three Drama Desk Awards but won none   The 2007 West End revival was nominated for Olivier Awards for best revival, and Goodman was nominated as best actor  The 2019 West End revival won the Olivier Award for best revival, and it received a further 7 nominations 

Notes
Passage 9:
45 Years
45 Years is a 2015 British romantic drama film directed and written by Andrew Haigh  The film is based on the short story "In Another Country" by David Constantine  The film premiered in the main competition section of the 65th Berlin International Film Festival  Charlotte Rampling won the Silver Bear for Best Actress and Tom Courtenay won the Silver Bear for Best Actor  At the 88th Academy Awards, Rampling received a nomination for Best Actress in a Leading Role It was selected to be screened in the Special Presentations section of the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival and also screened at the 2015 Telluride Festival  It was released in the United Kingdom on 28 August 2015  The film was released in the United States by Sundance Selects on 23 December 2015 

Plot
Five years after retirees Kate and Geoff Mercer had to cancel their 40th wedding anniversary because of his heart bypass surgery, the comfortably-off, childless Norfolk couple are preparing to celebrate their 45th anniversary with dozens of friends at the Assembly House in Norwich  Their morning is somewhat disturbed when Geoff opens a letter telling him that the body of Katya, his German lover in the early 1960s, has become visible in a melting glacier where she fell into a crevasse on their hike in Switzerland over five decades ago 
Kate has been told about Katya previously by Geoff and seems initially unconcerned by his controlled disquiet  Geoff tells Kate that he and Katya had pretended to be married in order to be able to share a room in the more puritanical early 1960s  Because of this, the Swiss authorities consider him to be Katya's next of kin 
As the days pass and preparations for the party continue, Geoff continues to be moody and starts smoking again  One night, Geoff climbs into the attic to look at his memorabilia of Katya and only reluctantly shows a picture of her to an angrily insistent Kate  Kate notices that Katya appears to look much like Kate did when she was young, with similar dark hair 
While Geoff is out at a reunion luncheon at his former workplace, Kate climbs the ladder to the attic  She finds Geoff's scrapbook filled with memorabilia from his time with Katya, including pressed violets from their last hike  She finds a carousel slide projector, loaded with images of Switzerland and Katya, next to a makeshift screen to view them  Kate is shocked to see slides showing that Katya was pregnant at the time of her death 
Kate also takes up smoking again and, upon learning of his visit to the local travel agency to inquire about trips to Switzerland, confronts Geoff about his recent behavior related to Katya, without revealing what she saw in the attic  She says that she now believes that many of their decisions as a couple were influenced by Katya  Geoff promises that their marriage will "start again", which the next morning he marks by serving her tea in bed and making breakfast for her  They attend their anniversary party in the historic Grand Hall  Geoff delivers a tearful speech in which he professes his love for Kate 
The first dance is announced, accompanied by the same first song from their wedding, "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes" by The Platters  As Geoff and Kate slow dance, she becomes increasingly awkward and rigid, while he becomes silly and playful  As the song ends, Geoff raises their hands together in the air as the party guests cheer, but Kate yanks her arm down  Geoff, apparently oblivious, dances away  Kate stands alone amid the mass of people on the dance floor 

Cast
Charlotte Rampling as Kate Mercer
Tom Courtenay as Geoff Mercer
Geraldine James as Lena
Dolly Wells as Sally
David Sibley as George
Sam Alexander as Chris the Postman
Richard Cunningham as Mr  Watkins
Kevin Matadeen as the Waiter
Hannah Chalmers as the Travel Agent
Max Rudd as the Maître d'

Production
Filming lasted over 6 weeks and concluded in May 2014 

Reception
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 97% based on 213 reviews, with an average rating of 8 6/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "45 Years offers richly thought-provoking rewards for fans of adult cinema – and a mesmerizing acting showcase for leads Charlotte Rampling and Tom Courtenay " On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 94 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "universal acclaim "Mark Kermode described the film as a "subtle examination of the persistence of the past and the fragile (in)stability of the present" in The Observer, arguing that the lead performances "turn an apparently everyday story of a marriage in quiet crisis into something rather extraordinary " He concludes the review by observing "Like the final shot of The Long Good Friday, which lingers upon Bob Hoskins’s face as he revisits the events that brought him to this sorry pass, 45 Years shows us the past materialising in the expressions of those trapped in the present, staring into an uncertain future "

Accolades



ground_truth: nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor

Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In what year did Margaret Knox's spouse pass away?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Miller Township, Knox County, Ohio
Miller Township is one of the twenty-two townships of Knox County, Ohio, United States   The 2010 census found 1,006 people in the township 

Geography
Located in the southern part of the county, it borders the following townships:

Clinton Township - north
Pleasant Township - northeast
Morgan Township - east
Burlington Township, Licking County - south
Bennington Township, Licking County - southwest corner
Milford Township - west
Liberty Township - northwest cornerNo municipalities are located in Miller Township 

Name and history
Miller Township was named for James Miller, a pioneer settler who gave elections officials five and one half gallons of whiskey to secure the honor   It is the only Miller Township statewide Miller Township was originally built up chiefly by settlers from Vermont and Rhode Island 

Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1  Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it  There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election  Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees 
Passage 2:
Margaret McWade
Margaret McWade (born Margaret May Fish; September 3, 1871 –  April 1, 1956) was an American stage and film actress  She began her career in vaudeville in the early 1890s  Her most memorable role was as one of The Pixilated Sisters, a comedic stage act with actress Margaret Seddon  Later in 1936, they reprised their roles in the movie Mr  Deeds Goes to Town 

Biography
Margaret May Fish was born September 3, 1871, in Chicago, Illinois, the eldest of three daughters  A number of short biographies state that Fish was born in 1872; however, the 1900 U S  Census reports her birth in 1871 

Career
During her early career, Margaret May Fish went by the stage name Margaret May  In the late 1890s, while performing in vaudeville, she met fellow actress Margaret Seddon  The two actresses teamed to create a stage act known as The Pixillated Sisters  The act proved to be a hit for the duo  Years later, they would reprise The Pixilated Sisters in the 1936 movie Mr  Deeds Goes to Town 
On September 4, 1897, Margaret married actor Edward McWade  Margaret and her husband appeared in a number of stage performances together in Boston and New York before their marriage  Their earliest stage appearance together was in March 1892 in Boston  They were cast as supporting characters in County Fair at the Whitney Opera House  Until late 1919, Margaret continued to use her stage name Margaret May Margaret McWade made her screen debut in the 1914 silent film The Drama of Heyville, starring Marc McDermott and directed by Ashley Miller  She was under contract to the Edison Film Company and was later picked up by the Vitagraph Film Company  She acted in a total of 59 films from 1914 to 1954 Between films, she was a prolific stage actress, touring the U S  with various theatrical companies  Margaret also toured in theater shows with her husband Edward, several which he wrote  In April 1901, Edward McWade wrote and produced the play Winchester at the American Theater in New York  The play was based upon an event during the Civil War  Edward McWade wrote a supporting role for his wife  In 1902, he wrote the play The Land of Mystery, a romantic drama in which Margaret also had a role In 1922, Margaret was cast in the movie The Blot, produced and directed by Lois Weber  The Blot is considered by many critics to be Weber's greatest film  McWade played Mrs  Griggs, and she is described in reviews as the, "old mother hubbard, shouldering most of the burden for the penny pinching family " The movie received critical acclaim, which paved the way for more acting roles  McWade most often was described as playing the mother, aunt, older sister, spinster, and later in her career, the grandmother  In the Louisiana newspaper Monroe Morning World on June 5, 1938, she is described physically as "the one with the angular face and black hair" In 1935, producers approached both McWade and Seddon and asked them to reprise their roles as The Pixilated Sisters for the 1936 movie Mr  Deeds Goes to Town, starring Gary Cooper and directed by Frank Capra  In the film, the two actresses play sisters who believe that Cooper's character is "pixilated"  Reprising these characters set off a brief firestorm of stage and film performances for the duo  In The Corsicana Daily Sun, McWade is quoted regarding having played the Pixilated Sisters in the movie: "it's a one chance in a million, like something out of a book  It's not hard to understand  It wasn't we who clicked individually or even collectively  It was a grand part  If you recall, we turned the tide by our testimony in favor of Gary Cooper at an insanity hearing  He was a beloved character, and by helping him we helped ourselves "The two actresses teamed for a variety of films throughout the late 1930s and into the 1940s, often playing spinster sisters in comedic roles written for them, such as One Man's Bonus  After 1936, they often were billed in newspapers and posters as those "beloved Pixilated Sisters" 

Later years and death
Two years after performing in her last movie, Margaret McWade died on April 1, 1956, in Los Angeles at the age of 83  She was buried in her hometown of Chicago, Illinois in Rosehill Cemetery 

Stage performances
1892: The County Fair  The Whitney Opera House; Boston, MA; ** Edward McWade in production 
1893: Comic Stage Sketches  Boston, MA; **Edward McWade in production 
1901: Winchester  The American Theater, New York; Written by Edward McWade 
1902: The Land of Mystery  New York Theater Company; New York; Written by husband Edward McWade 
1912: Robert A  Hudson Theater; San Francisco, CA; New York Stage Production Company 
1925: The Painted Lady The William Fox Players  Touring theatrical show  Bar Harbor Maine 

Partial filmography
Passage 3:
Peggy Wehmeyer
Margaret "Peggy" Wehmeyer is an American journalist and op-ed writer contributing to The New York Times, Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, and The Dallas Morning News  She also served for seven years as the religion correspondent on the ABC News television network, before becoming the host and managing editor of The World Vision Report Wehmeyer was born in Oklahoma City and was raised mostly in Barbados and Texas  An ethnic German Jew, she is religiously Christian   She is a graduate of the University of Texas in Austin  As a young woman, Wehmeyer worked and studied at Dallas Theological Seminary  In 1994, she was hired by ABC News, with the strong support of Peter Jennings, to become the first full-time religion correspondent on a national news network where she served for seven years   20/20 and Good Morning America also aired her stories  Prior to her job at ABC, she worked at WFAA-TV in Dallas on the station's religion beat In 2002, she left ABC to become the host and managing editor of the World Vision Report, a public radio broadcast funded by the World Vision charitable organization  As host of The World Vision Report, Peggy reported on global stories about justice and poverty  She has received multiple awards including two Cine Golden Eagle Awards, the Columbus International Film and Video Festival Award and a New York Festivals award 

Personal life
Wehmeyer has two adult daughters, Hannah Woods Buchannan (Assoc  Pastor, HPUMC) and Lauren Woods Meyer (Federal Public Defender)  Her marriage to Mark Woods lasted until his death in 2008 
Passage 4:
Thundering Caravans
Thundering Caravans is a 1952 American Western film directed by Harry Keller and starring Allan Lane, Mona Knox and Eddy Waller The film's art direction was by Frank Hotaling 

Plot
Cast
Allan Lane as Marshal Rocky Lane
Black Jack as Black Jack
Eddy Waller as Sheriff Nugget Clark
Mona Knox as Alice Scott
Roy Barcroft as Ed Brill
Isabel Randolph as Deborah Cranston
Richard Crane as Deputy Dan Reed
William Henry as Bert Cranston
Edward Clark as Printer Tom
Pierre Watkin as Head Marshal
Stanley Andrews as Henry Scott
Boyd 'Red' Morgan as Henchman Joe
Fred Aldrich as Townsman
Art Dillard as Henchman
Roy Engel as Frank
Marshall Reed as Wounded Driver
Tex Terry as Rogers
Dale Van Sickel as Cave Henchman
Passage 5:
Margaret Knox
Margaret Knox (née Stewart; 1547 – after 1612) was a Scottish noblewoman and the second wife of Scottish reformer John Knox, whom she married when she was 17 years old and he 54  The marriage caused consternation from Mary, Queen of Scots, as the couple had married without having obtained royal consent 

Family
Margaret Stewart was born in 1547, the daughter of Andrew Stewart, 2nd Lord Ochiltree, and Agnes Cunningham  The family was staunchly Protestant, and also related to the Scottish royal family and the Hamiltons  Margaret had three sisters and four brothers, including James Stewart, Earl of Arran 

Marriages and children
On 26 March 1564, she married her first husband, John Knox, leader of the Scottish Reformation, and a close friend of her father  His first wife, Marjorie Bowes, had died in December 1560, leaving him with two small sons, Nathaniel and Eleazer  The marriage was strongly criticised by Queen Mary, as they had married without having first obtained her consent  Margaret, as the Queen's relative, was required to ask the monarch for permission to marry 
The couple made their home on Edinburgh's Royal Mile, and together they had three daughters:
Martha Knox (1565–1592), married Alexander Fairlie, by whom she had issue 
Margaret Knox (b 1567), married Zachary Pont, by whom she had issue 
Elizabeth Knox (1570- January 1622), married in 1594, John Welsh, minister of Ayr, by whom she had issue Margaret served as Knox's secretary, and later, when he became ill, his nurse  Following Knox's death in November 1572, the General Assembly, at the suggestion of the Regent, Morton, allowed Margaret to receive, for the year succeeding her husband's death, his pension of 500 merks In January 1574, she married her second husband, Sir Andrew Ker of Faldonside  He had been part of the conspiracy of Protestant nobles, led in March 1566 by Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven, who had stabbed to death Queen Mary's Italian secretary, David Rizzio in the presence of the Queen, who was almost six months pregnant at the time  It was Ker who had held his pistol at Mary's side, while she was constrained to watch Rizzio's killing Together they had a number of children, one of which was named John Ker, minister of Salt Preston On 8 April 1574, a Charter of Alienation confirmed Ker's provision for Margaret, in her widowhood, of the liferent of a third of ancestral lands in Haddingtonshire  Kerr died on 19 December 1599, and she did not remarry 
Margaret died sometime after 1612 
Passage 6:
Blue Chip Conference
The Blue Chip Conference is a high school athletic conference in southwestern Indiana, United States  The conference's members are small A or AA high schools located in Daviess, Dubois, Gibson, Knox, and Martin counties  The BCC was founded in 1968, with Barr-Reeve, Bloomfield, Loogootee, North Daviess, North Knox, South Knox, and Springs Valley  Barr-Reeve had to wait until 1969 to be released from the Patoka Valley Conference to play in the league, and Loogootee also had to wait until 1970 to leave the Southwestern Indiana Conference  The conference grew to 11 schools in the mid-1970s, but for the most part has stabilized at nine schools since then with the only exception being the 6 year period between the addition of Wood Memorial in 2000 and loss of Forest Park in 2006 where the count was at 10 

Member schools
North Knox is a member of the Southwest Football Conference for football 
North Knox played in the Western Indiana Conference 1977-81, then played independently from 1981 to 1986 before rejoining the BCC 
Shoals played concurrently in the BCC and SWIAC from 1977 to 1979 

Former members
Bloomfield played concurrently in the BCC and SWIAC for its entire BCC duration 

Membership timeline
Conference championships
Football
Football was discontinued as a conference sport after the 1977-78 school year  Mitchell and Springs Valley would move to the Patoka Lake Conference one year later, and North Daviess would be an independent until joining the Southwest Seven Conference 

Boys basketball
Champions before 1993-94 season unverified 

Girls basketball
Champions before 2000-01 season unverified 

State titles
Barr-Reeve Vikings (3)
2013 Volleyball (A)
2015 Boys Basketball (A)
2018 Girls Volleyball (A)
2020 Girls Volleyball (AA)
2021 Boys Basketball (A)

Loogootee Lions (2)
2012 Boys Basketball (A)
2020 Girls Basketball (A)

North Knox Warriors (0)
Northeast Dubois Jeeps (0)
Shoals Jug Rox (0)
South Knox Spartans (0)
Vincennes Rivet Patriots (0)
1A Girls Basketball (2011)

Washington Catholic Cardinals (0)
Wood Memorial Trojans (1)
2017 Girls Basketball (A)

Runner-Up Titles, and State Finals Appearances
Barr-Reeve Vikings
1998 Boys Baseball   (A)
1998 Girls Volleyball(A)
2001 Girls Volleyball(A)
2002 Boys Basketball (A)
2007 Boys Basketball (A)
2008 Girls Volleyball(A)
2009 Girls Volleyball(A)
2010 Boys Basketball (A)
2014 Boys Basketball (A)
2015 Girls Basketball (A)
2016 Boys Cross Country - Single Class
2018 Girls Cross Country - Single Class
2019 Boys Basketball (A)

Wood Memorial Trojans
2007 Girls Basketball (A)

Loogootee Lions
2005 Boys Basketball  (A)
1975 Boys Basketball  (Pre-Class)
1970 Boys Basketball (Pre-Class)
2012 Girls Volleyball (A)
2007 Girls Volleyball (A)
2006 Girls Volleyball (A)
2005 Girls Volleyball (A)
2000 Girls Volleyball (A)
2021 Girls Basketball (A)
2020 Girls Volleyball (A)

Vincennes Rivet Patriots
2009 Girls Basketball (A)
2009 Boys Baseball (A)
2010 Girls Basketball (A)
2013 Boys Baseball (A)
2018 Girls Basketball (A)
2019 Girls Basketball (A)

Washington Catholic Cardinals
2005 Girls Basketball (A)

Former Member State Titles
Forest Park Rangers (3)
2001 Softball (A)
2005 Boys Basketball (2A)
2006 Boys Basketball (2A)

Neighboring Conferences
Pocket Athletic Conference
Patoka Lake Conference
Passage 7:
Monroe City, Indiana
Monroe City is a town in Harrison Township, Knox County, Indiana, United States  The population was 545 at the 2010 census 
Monroe City was named for one of its founders, Monroe Alton 

Geography
Monroe City is located at 38°36′57″N 87°21′19″W (38 615891, -87 355232) According to the 2010 census, Monroe City has a total area of 0 27 square miles (0 70 km2), all land 

Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 545 people, 217 households, and 153 families living in the town  The population density was 2,018 5 inhabitants per square mile (779 3/km2)  There were 238 housing units at an average density of 881 5 per square mile (340 3/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 98 7% White, 0 6% African American, 0 2% Native American, and 0 6% from other races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 7% of the population 
There were 217 households, of which 37 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53 0% were married couples living together, 14 3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3 2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29 5% were non-families  29 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 51 and the average family size was 3 08 
The median age in the town was 32 8 years  28 8% of residents were under the age of 18; 8 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29% were from 25 to 44; 20 7% were from 45 to 64; and 13 2% were 65 years of age or older  The gender makeup of the town was 47 3% male and 52 7% female 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 548 people, 231 households, and 157 families living in the town  The population density was 2,039 4 inhabitants per square mile (787 4/km2)  There were 259 housing units at an average density of 963 9 per square mile (372 2/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 99 27% White, 0 18% African American, and 0 55% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 36% of the population 
There were 231 households, out of which 32 9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53 7% were married couples living together, 11 3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32 0% were non-families  31 2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 36 and the average family size was 2 94 
In the town, the population was spread out, with 24 6% under the age of 18, 8 4% from 18 to 24, 26 8% from 25 to 44, 22 6% from 45 to 64, and 17 5% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 39 years  For every 100 females, there were 93 6 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90 3 males 
The median income for a household in the town was $32,788, and the median income for a family was $43,125  Males had a median income of $31,364 versus $18,269 for females  The per capita income for the town was $15,579  About 7 2% of families and 7 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9 0% of those under age 18 and 2 0% of those age 65 or over 
Passage 8:
Margaret Blair Young
Margaret Blair Young (born 1955) is an American author, filmmaker, and writing instructor who taught for thirty years at Brigham Young University 

Biography
Young's published work includes the novels House Without Walls (1991), Salvador (1992), and Heresies of Nature (2002) and the short story collections Elegies and Love Songs (1992) (which won an Association of Mormon Letters award) and Love Chains (1997)  She also co-authored a trilogy of historical novels about Black Mormon pioneers titled Standing on the Promises with Darius Gray   The trilogy, published between 2000 and 2003, was republished in revised and expanded form in 2012 and 2013 Young scripted and helped direct a 2005 television documentary based on the life of Jane Elizabeth Manning James, "Jane Manning James: Your Sister in the Gospel "  The 20-minute documentary has been shown at This Is The Place Heritage Park in Salt Lake City, Utah, the 2005 annual conference of the Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research (FAIR), and on public television (PBS)   Documentary filmmaker Scott Freebairn produced and directed the film   More recently, Young served as the project director for the Utah chapter of the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society's film The Wisdom of our Years   In 2008, Young and Gray completed a long documentary titled Nobody Knows: The Untold Story of Black Mormons, which has been shown on PBS stations, in film festivals, and on the Documentary Channel   Her award-winning play, I Am Jane, also about Black Mormon pioneer Jane Manning James, has been produced throughout the country  Young has also authored encyclopedia articles on Blacks in the western United States, and has served as president of the Association for Mormon Letters  In 2014 she received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Whitney Awards and the Smith-Pettit Foundation Award for Outstanding Contribution to Mormon Letters Young’s recent efforts have been directed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where she and her team are working to launch the film industry, which disappeared amidst the chaos of war and corruption in the 1990s   She has teamed up with Tshoper Kabambi, Deborah Basa, and Ephraim Faith on film initiatives   They work with Bimpa Production in Kinshasa, which is producing a film that Young has scripted and that Tshoper Kabambi is directing   Young is also working on literacy and educational projects, and is teaching students at various schools throughout the DR-Congo how to create their own books, given the relative lack of books in the Congo   In Lodja, DR-Congo, she works with Professor Abbé On'okundji Okavu Ekanga, author of Les Entrailles du Porc-épic: Une nouvelle éthique pour l’Afrique   Mr  Okundji returned to his home village in the Congo to help it recover from the Congo war of 1998-2004 
Young is married to English professor Bruce Wilson Young (1950- )  Bruce is a BYU, Columbia and Harvard graduate who has written multiple essays and the book Family Life in the Age of Shakespeare   They are the parents of four children, including vocal performer and music instructor Kaila Lifferth and writer Robbie Blair 

See also
LDS fiction
Passage 9:
Butler Township, Knox County, Ohio
Butler Township is one of the twenty-two townships of Knox County, Ohio, United States   The 2010 census found 1,171 people in the township 

Geography
Located in the eastern part of the county, it borders the following townships:

Union Township - north
Tiverton Township, Coshocton County - northeast corner
Newcastle Township, Coshocton County - east
Perry Township, Coshocton County - southeast corner
Jackson Township - south
Clay Township - southwest corner
Harrison Township - west
Howard Township - northwest cornerNo municipalities are located in Butler Township 

Name and history
Butler Township was organized in 1825 It is one of six Butler Townships statewide 

Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1  Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it  There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election  Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees 
Passage 10:
The Education of Shelby Knox
The Education of Shelby Knox is 2005 documentary film that tells the coming-of-age story of public speaker and feminist Shelby Knox, a teenager who joins a campaign for comprehensive sex education in the high schools of Lubbock, Texas  TEOSK was an official selection of the Sundance Film Festival in 2005 and aired on PBS’ P O V  series that same year  It was directed and produced by Marion Lipschutz and Rose Rosenblatt 

Overview
Lubbock has some of the highest teen pregnancy and STD rates in the nation, the "solution" to which is a strict abstinence-only sex education curriculum in the public schools and a conservative preacher who urges kids to pledge abstinence until marriage 
Shelby Knox is a deeply religious Southern Baptist teenager who joins the Lubbock Youth Commission, a group of high school students representing a youth voice in city government  When the teens confront Lubbock's sexual health crisis and campaign for comprehensive sex education, Knox throws herself into the battle with missionary fervor, struggling to reconcile her newfound political beliefs with her conservative religious views  When the campaign broadens to include a fight for a gay-straight alliance, Knox must confront her family and pastor in this coming-of-age story 

Awards
The Education of Shelby Knox has received a number of awards:

2005 Sundance Film Festival (Excellence in Cinematography, Documentary Category)
2005 SXSW Film Festival (Audience Award)
2005 Sonoma Valley Film Festival (Jury Prize)
2005 Miami Gay & Lesbian Film Festival (Jury Prize, Best Documentary)
2005 Full Frame Documentary Film Festival (Emerging Pictures Audience Award)
Council on Foundations (2005 Henry Hampton Award for Excellence in Film & Digital Media)
2005 Fresno Reel Pride Film Festival (Audience Award, Best Feature)
2006 The Index on Censorship's Freedom of Expression Film Award (Nominee)

Shelby Knox in the News
The Dixie Chicks' 2006 album Taking the Long Way features a track titled "Lubbock or Leave It", which is based on The Education of Shelby Knox  When the song came out, the group's member Emily Robison told the press: "We'd seen a documentary called The Education of Shelby Knox, which was about a girl     trying to get Lubbock to teach sex education in the schools  Lubbock has one of the highest rates of teen pregnancy and STDs in the U S , so it really showed what happens when you keep that information away from people " Lead singer Natalie Maines, who is from Lubbock, subsequently spoke (during a 2006 episode of VH1 Storytellers) about watching the film and drawing from her own experiences of living there to write the song 
In the 2013 documentary How to Lose Your Virginity, scenes from The Education of Shelby Knox are featured alongside interviews with Shelby Knox As of June 2011, Shelby Knox is living in New York City and serving as the Director of Organizing, Women's Rights for Change org 
Passage 11:
Warren, Kentucky
Warren is an unincorporated community and coal town in Knox County, Kentucky, United States  It was also known as Cumberland Station 
Passage 12:
Enoch Arden law
The Enoch Arden law is a legal precedent in the United States that grants a divorce or a legal exemption so that a person can remarry, if his or her spouse has been absent without explanation for a certain number of years, typically seven 
After seven years the missing spouse can be declared legally dead 
The "Enoch Arden doctrine" is named after Tennyson's 1864 melodrama Enoch Arden 
Passage 13:
Presbyterianism
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism that broke from the Roman Catholic Church  Presbyterian churches derive their name from the presbyterian form of church government by representative assemblies of elders  Many Reformed churches are organised this way, but the word Presbyterian, when capitalized, is often applied to churches that trace their roots to the Church of Scotland or to English Dissenter groups that formed during the English Civil War Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ  Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain  In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, and the Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America, mostly by Scots and Scotch-Irish immigrants  The Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism  Local congregations of churches which use Presbyterian polity are governed by sessions made up of representatives of the congregation (elders), a conciliar approach as with other levels of decision-making (presbytery, synod, and general assembly)  There are roughly 75 million Presbyterians in the world The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Reformation of the 16th century, the example of John Calvin's Republic of Geneva being particularly influential  Most Reformed churches that trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government  In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, including the World Council of Churches  Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches  Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, and Methodists  Presbyterians in the United States came largely from Scottish immigrants, Scots-Irish immigrants, and also from New England communities that had originally been Congregational but changed because of an agreed-upon Plan of Union of 1801 for frontier areas 

Presbyterian identity
Early history
Presbyterian tradition, particularly that of the Church of Scotland, traces its early roots to the Christian Church founded by Saint Columba, through the 6th-century Hiberno-Scottish mission  Tracing their apostolic origin to Saint John, the Culdees practised Christian monasticism, a key feature of Celtic Christianity in the region, with a presbyter exercising "authority within the institution, while the different monastic institutions were independent of one another " The Church in Scotland kept the Christian feast of Easter at a date different from the See of Rome and its monks used a unique style of tonsure  The Synod of Whitby in 664, however, ended these distinctions as it ruled "that Easter would be celebrated according to the Roman date, not the Celtic date " Although Roman influence came to dominate the Church in Scotland, certain Celtic influences remained in the Scottish Church, such as "the singing of metrical psalms, many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes", which later became a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship" 

Development
Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation  As the Catholic Church resisted the Reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church and bore different denominations  
Presbyterianism was especially influenced by the French theologian John Calvin, who is credited with the development of Reformed theology, and the work of John Knox, a Scottish Catholic Priest who studied with Calvin in Geneva and brought back Reformed teachings to Scotland  An important influence on the formation of presbyterianism in Britain also came from John a Lasco - a Polish reformer, the founder of a Stranger's Church in London, based on the Geneva models The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland  In August 1560, the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom  In December 1560, the First Book of Discipline was published, outlining important doctrinal issues but also establishing regulations for church government, including the creation of ten ecclesiastical districts with appointed superintendents which later became known as presbyteries In time, the Scots Confession would be supplanted by the Westminster Confession of Faith, and the larger and shorter catechisms, which were formulated by the Westminster Assembly between 1643 and 1649 

Characteristics
Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organisation (or "church order") and worship; often using a "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order  The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism  Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups  Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the Westminster Confession of Faith, which historically serves as an important confessional document – second only to the Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardisation and translation of the Bible – in Presbyterian churches 
Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, tempered with the belief that no human action can affect salvation 
Continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of the church, often referred to as "subordinate standards" 
When the women with Eliza Thompson gathered to pray at a Presbyterian church in Hillsboro, Ohio, this became the birthplace of the highly influential Woman's Temperance Crusade  Presbyterian evangelist Billy Sunday also persuaded many thousands who drank to turn to Christ instead – wanting Christ now and no more alcohol 

Government
Presbyterian government is by councils (still known as courts in some countries, as boards in others) of elders  Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local congregation  Teaching elders (pastors or ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments  Pastors or ministers are called by individual congregations  A congregation issues a call for the pastor or minister's service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery  The pastor or minister is a teaching elder, and Moderator of the Session, but is not usually a member of the congregation; instead, this person is a member of the Presbytery of which the given church is a member 
Ruling elders are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for the nurture and leadership of the congregation  Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations)  This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court"  These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to the full congregation  Since the 20th century, most denominations allow women to be teaching or ruling elders 
Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities  These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations  The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists  This congregation / presbytery / synod / general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the Church of Scotland or the Presbyterian Church (U S A ); some bodies, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually the step skipped is the Synod  The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993 Presbyterian governance is practiced by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches 

Doctrine
Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition  This has two implications  The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith," which have some level of authoritative status  However this is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter  While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as a whole  It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to confessionalism  The manner of subscription, or the degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, is a practical matter  That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard 
Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the Westminster Confession of Faith as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to the Larger and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction  Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible  These documents are Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation  The Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting the historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read 
The Westminster Confession is "The principal subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland" but "with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith" (V)  This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and the struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e g  William Robertson Smith)  Some Presbyterian Churches, such as the Free Church of Scotland, have no such "conscience clause" 
The Presbyterian Church (U S A ) has adopted the Book of Confessions, which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the Westminster Standards  These other documents include ancient creedal statements (the Nicene Creed, the Apostles' Creed), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the Scots Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism, the Second Helvetic Confession), and 20th century documents (The Theological Declaration of Barmen, Confession of 1967 and A Brief Statement of Faith) 
The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document Living Faith (1984) and retains it as a subordinate standard of the denomination  It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to original Bible text 
Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland 
John Gresham Machen, the prominent Presbyterian theologian and Professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary between 1906 and 1929, led a revolt against modernist doctrine in his Christianity and Liberalism (1923) that critiqued theological modernism  He argued that modernism and liberal theology was a false religion, a pretender that cloaks itself in Christian language – "Liberalism"  This religion is a marriage of naturalism, humanism, secularism, and sentimentalism all rolled into one 

Worship and sacraments
Worship
Presbyterian denominations that trace their heritage to the British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the Directory of Public Worship, developed by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s  This directory documented Reformed worship practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British Puritans, initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox  It was enacted as law by the Scottish Parliament, and became one of the foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere 

Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the Regulative principle of worship, which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing hymnody, instrumental accompaniment, and ceremonial vestments into worship  However, there is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style  Although there are set services for the Lord's Day in keeping with first-day Sabbatarianism, one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of Lutheranism or more of Anglicanism (especially where Scottish tradition is esteemed), or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by many American Presbyterians)  Most Presbyterian churches follow the traditional liturgical year and observe the traditional holidays, holy seasons, such as Advent, Christmas, Ash Wednesday, Holy Week, Easter, Pentecost, etc  They also make use of the appropriate seasonal liturgical colors, etc  Many incorporate ancient liturgical prayers and responses into the communion services and follow a daily, seasonal, and festival lectionary  Other Presbyterians, however, such as the Reformed Presbyterians, would practice a cappella exclusive psalmody, as well as eschew the celebration of holy days 

Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging church movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black Geneva gown to such vestments as the alb and chasuble, but also cassock and surplice (typically a full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old Gallican Rite), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past 

Sacraments
Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two sacraments:

Baptism, in which they baptize infants, as well as unbaptized adults by the Aspersion (sprinkling) or Affusion (pouring) method in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, rather than the Immersion method 
The Lord's Supper (also known as Communion), in which Presbyterians believe in the Real Presence of Christ (pneumatic presence) in the spiritual sense, in the bread and wine through the Holy Spirit, as opposed to being locally present as in transubstantiation or consubstantiation 

Architecture
Some early Presbyterians, which were influenced by the puritan movement, were careful to distinguish between the "church," which referred to the members, and the "meeting house," which was the building in which the church met  Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches " Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support the worship of God  The decor in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship  Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain  No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house  The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building  But these were not the standard characteristics of the mainline Presbyterians  These were more of the wave of Presbyterians that were influenced by the Puritans 
In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur  Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago, Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City, Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pennsylvania, St Stephen Presbyterian in Fort Worth, Texas, and many others 
Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a Roman Catholic church  Instead, there is a "communion table," usually on the same level as the congregation, and sometimes elevated similar to an altar, however surrounded by the chancel  There may be a rail between the communion table and the chancel behind it, which may contain a more decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir stalls, lectern and clergy area  The altar is called the communion table, and the altar area is called the chancel by Presbyterians  In Presbyterian, and in Reformed churches, there may be an altar cross, either on the communion table or on a table in the chancel  By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the Westminster/Celtic cross, Presbyterians emphasize the resurrection and that Christ is not continually dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity  Quite a few Presbyterian church buildings are decorated with a cross, that has a circle around the center, or Celtic cross  This not only emphasizes the resurrection, but also acknowledges historical aspects of Presbyterianism  A baptismal font will be located either at the entrance or near the chancel area  Presbyterian architecture generally makes significant use of symbolism  One may also find decorative and ornate stained glass windows depicting scenes from the Bible  Some Presbyterian churches will also have ornate statues of Christ or graven scenes from the Last Supper located behind the chancel  St  Giles' Cathedral in Scotland has a crucifix next to an ornate elevated communion table that hangs alongside  The image of Christ is more of a faint image, with a more modern design 

By region
Europe
Scotland
John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and urged his countrymen to reform the Church in line with Calvinist doctrines  After a period of religious convulsion and political conflict culminating in a victory for the Protestant party at the Siege of Leith the authority of the Catholic Church was abolished in favour of Reformation by the legislation of the Scottish Reformation Parliament in 1560  The Church was eventually organised by Andrew Melville along Presbyterian lines to become the national Church of Scotland  King James VI and I moved the Church of Scotland towards an episcopal form of government, and in 1637, James' successor, Charles I and William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted to force the Church of Scotland to use the Book of Common Prayer  What resulted was an armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the Solemn League and Covenant  The Covenanters would serve as the government of Scotland for nearly a decade, and would also send military support to the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War  Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Charles II, despite the initial support that he received from the Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of government on the church 

However, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Church of Scotland was unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed the Church of Scotland's form of government  However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church  In 1733, a group of ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland  Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of the established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland 
There are now eight Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today  These are, in order of size: the Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland, the United Free Church of Scotland, the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing), the Associated Presbyterian Church, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and the International Presbyterian Church  Combined, they have over 1500 congregations in Scotland 
Within Scotland the term 'kirk' is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church  Informally, the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland  Some of the values and ideals espoused in Scottish Presbyterian denominations can be reflected in this reference in a book from Norman Drummond, chaplain to the Queen in Scotland Chart of splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches

England
In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1592  Thomas Cartwright is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England  Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge University condemning the episcopal hierarchy of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his emigration abroad  Between 1645 and 1648, a series of ordinances of the Long Parliament established Presbyterianism as the polity of the Church of England  Presbyterian government was established in London and Lancashire and in a few other places in England, although Presbyterian hostility to the execution of Charles I and the establishment of the republican Commonwealth of England meant that Parliament never enforced the Presbyterian system in England  The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in Non-Conformity, outside of the established church  In 1719 a major split, the Salter's Hall controversy, occurred; with the majority siding with nontrinitarian views  Thomas Bradbury published several sermons bearing on the controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the reproaches cast on the dissenting ministers who subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity " By the 18th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become Unitarian in doctrine 
A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants to England in the 19th century and later  Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876  Some, such as Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London) and Swallow Street (London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at Crown Court, and St Columba's, Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London  There is also a congregation in the heart of London's financial district called London City Presbyterian Church that is affiliated with the Free Church of Scotland 
In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form the United Reformed Church (URC)  Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire), Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney Meeting House URC) – these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century  The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former Congregationalist Churches  Two former Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's, Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St Columba's, Oxford (founded as a chaplaincy by the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the Church of Scotland 
In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the International Presbyterian Church planted by evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer of the L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s, and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales founded in the North of England in the late 1980s 

Wales
In Wales, Presbyterianism is represented by the Presbyterian Church of Wales, which was originally composed largely of Calvinistic Methodists who accepted Calvinist theology rather than the Arminianism of the Wesleyan Methodists  They broke off from the Church of England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers  They were originally known as the Calvinist Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it became alternatively known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales 

Ireland
Presbyterianism (Irish: Preispitéireachas, Ulster Scots: Prisbytairinism) is the largest Protestant denomination in Northern Ireland and the second largest on the island of Ireland (after the Anglican Church of Ireland), and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, also James I of Ireland and England  An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the Boyne in 1690  The Presbytery of Ulster was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church  Presbyterians, along with Roman Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century  Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland, the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church 

France
There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in central Paris: The Scots Kirk, which is English-speaking, and is attended by many nationalities  It maintains close links with the Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as with the Reformed Church of France 

Italy
The Waldensian Evangelical Church (Chiesa Evangelica Valdese, CEV) is an Italian Protestant denomination 
The church was founded in the 12th century, and centuries later, after the Protestant Reformation, it adhered to Calvinist theology and became the Italian branch of the Presbyterian churches  As such, the church is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches 

North America
Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in the larger Presbyterian family  Some later rejoined only to separate again  In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split Ps" 

United States
Presbyterianism first officially arrived in Colonial America in 1644 with the establishment of Christ's First Presbyterian Church in Hempstead, New York  The Church was organized by the Rev  Richard Denton 
In 1703 the first Presbytery in Philadelphia was established  In time, the presbytery would be joined by two more to form a synod (1717) and would eventually evolve into the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in 1789  The nation's largest Presbyterian denomination, the Presbyterian Church (U S A ) – PC (USA) – can trace its heritage back to the original PCUSA, as can the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA), the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC), the Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC), and the Evangelical Covenant Order of Presbyterians (ECO) 
Other Presbyterian bodies in the United States include the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America (RPCNA), the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP), the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States (RPCUS), the Reformed Presbyterian Church General Assembly, the Reformed Presbyterian Church – Hanover Presbytery, the Covenant Presbyterian Church, the Presbyterian Reformed Church, the Westminster Presbyterian Church in the United States, the Korean American Presbyterian Church, and the Free Presbyterian Church of North America 
The territory within about a 50-mile (80 km) radius of Charlotte, North Carolina, is historically the greatest concentration of Presbyterianism in the Southern United States, while an almost identical geographic area around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, contains probably the largest number of Presbyterians in the entire nation 
The PC (USA), beginning with its predecessor bodies, has, in common with other so-called "mainline" Protestant denominations, experienced a significant decline in members in recent years  Some estimates have placed that loss at nearly half in the last forty years Presbyterian influence, especially through Princeton theology, can be traced in modern Evangelicalism  Balmer says that:

Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is a quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism  Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans – even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped the various manifestations of evangelicalism: fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement, and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism 
In the late 1800s, Presbyterian missionaries established a presence in what is now northern New Mexico  This provided an alternative to the Catholicism, which was brought to the area by the Spanish Conquistadors and had remained unchanged  The area experienced a "mini" reformation, in that many converts were made to Presbyterianism, prompting persecution  In some cases, the converts left towns and villages to establish their own neighboring villages  The arrival of the United States to the area prompted the Catholic church to modernize and make efforts at winning the converts back, many of which did return  However, there are still stalwart Presbyterians and Presbyterian churches in the area 
Historically, along with Lutherans and Episcopalians, Presbyterians tend to be considerably wealthier and are better educated (having more graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in United States; a group known as White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs), they are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business, law, and politics 

Canada
In Canada, the largest Presbyterian denomination – and indeed the largest Protestant denomination – was the Presbyterian Church in Canada, formed in 1875 with the merger of four regional groups  In 1925, the United Church of Canada was formed by the majority of Presbyterians combining with the Methodist Church, Canada, and the Congregational Union of Canada  A sizable minority of Canadian Presbyterians, primarily in southern Ontario but also throughout the entire nation, withdrew, and reconstituted themselves as a non-concurring continuing Presbyterian body  They regained use of the original name in 1939 

Latin America
Presbyterianism arrived in Latin America in the 19th century 

Mexico
The biggest Presbyterian church is the National Presbyterian Church in Mexico (Iglesia Nacional Presbiteriana de México), which has around 2,500,000 members and associates and 3000 congregations, but there are other small denominations like the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church in Mexico which was founded in 1875 by the Associate Reformed Church in North America  The Independent Presbyterian Church, the Presbyterian Reformed Church in Mexico, and the National Conservative Presbyterian Church in Mexico are existing churches in the Reformed tradition 

Brazil
In Brazil, the Presbyterian Church of Brazil (Igreja Presbiteriana do Brasil) totals approximately 1,011,300 members; other Presbyterian churches (Independents, United, Conservatives, Renovated, etc ) in this nation have around 350,000 members  The Renewed Presbyterian Church in Brazil was influenced by the charismatic movement and has about 131 000 members as of 2011  The Conservative Presbyterian Church in Brazil was founded in 1940 and has eight presbyteries  The Fundamentalist Presbyterian church in Brazil was influenced by Carl McIntire and the US Bible Presbyterian Church and has around 1 800 members  The Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil was founded in 1903 by Rev  Eduardo Carlos Pereira, has 500 congregations and 75 000 members  The United Presbyterian Church of Brazil has around 4 000 members  There are also ethnic Korean Presbyterian churches in the country  The Evangelical Reformed Churches in Brazil has Dutch origin  The Reformed Churches in Brazil were recently founded by the Canadian Reformed Churches with the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated) 
Congregational churches present in the country are also part of the Calvinistic tradition in Latin America 

Other Latin American states
There are probably more than four million members of Presbyterian churches in all of Latin America  Presbyterian churches are also present in Peru, Bolivia, Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Colombia, Chile, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Argentina, Honduras and others, but with few members  The Presbyterian Church in Belize has 17 churches and church plants and there is a Reformed Seminary founded in 2004  Some Latin Americans in North America are active in the Presbyterian Cursillo Movement 

Africa
Presbyterianism arrived in Africa in the 19th century through the work of Scottish missionaries and founded churches such as St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, Malawi  The church has grown extensively and now has a presence in at least 23 countries in the region African Presbyterian churches often incorporate diaconal ministries, including social services, emergency relief, and the operation of mission hospitals  A number of partnerships exist between presbyteries in Africa and the PC(USA), including specific connections with Lesotho, Cameroon, Malawi, South Africa, Ghana and Zambia  For example, the Lackawanna Presbytery, located in Northeastern Pennsylvania, has a partnership with a presbytery in Ghana  Also the Southminster Presbyterian Church, located near Pittsburgh, has partnerships with churches in Malawi and Kenya  The Presbyterian Church of Nigeria, western Africa is also healthy and strong in mostly the southern states of this nation, strong density in the south-eastern states of this country  Beginning from Cross River state, the nearby coastal states, Rivers state, Lagos state to Ebonyi and Abia States  Hope Waddel's missionary expedition in the mid 19th century, and later Mary Slessor's stay in this coastal regions of the then British colony has brought about the beginning and the flourishing of this church in these areas 

Kenya
The Presbyterian Church of East Africa, based in Kenya, is particularly strong, with 500 clergy and 4 million members 

Malawi
The Reformed Presbyterian Church in Malawi has 150 congregations and 17 000–20 000 members  It was a mission of the Free Presbyterian church of Scotland  The Restored Reformed Church works with RPCM  Evangelical Presbyterian Church in Malawi is an existing small church  Part of the Presbyterian Church in Malawi and Zambia is known as CCAP, Church of Central Africa-Presbyterian  Often the churches there have one main congregation and a number of prayer houses develop  Education, health ministries, and worship and spiritual development are important 

Southern Africa
Southern Africa is a major base of Reformed and Presbyterian Churches 

Northern Africa
The Presbyterian Church of South Sudan and Sudan, founded in 1902 by American missionaries in Malakal, was deprived of foreign pastors since 1962 by decision of the Sudanese government but it continued to grow  It is now the 3rd largest Christian church in Sudan with 1,000,000 members, now shared between Sudan and South Sudan 
The Presbyterian Evangelical Church of Sudan was founded in the north of the country and in Khartoum by the same American missionaries in the late 19th century but left under the guidance of Egyptian evangelical pastors of Coptic origin In addition, there are a number of Presbyterian Churches in north Africa, the most known is the Nile Synod in Egypt and a recently founded synod for Sudan 

Asia
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Council of the Church of Christ in China (CCC) is a uniting church formed by Presbyterians and Congregationalists, which inherited the Reformed tradition  HKCCCC is also the only mainline Reformed church in Hong Kong 
Cumberland Presbyterian Church Yao Dao Secondary School is a Presbyterian school in Yuen Long, New Territories  The Cumberland Presbyterian Church also have a church on the island of Cheung Chau  There are also Korean Christians resident in Hong Kong who are Presbyterians 

South Korea
Presbyterian Churches are the biggest and by far the most influential Protestant denominations in South Korea, with close to 20,000 churches affiliated with the two largest Presbyterian denominations in the country  In South Korea there are 9 million Presbyterians, forming the majority of the 15 million Korean Protestants  In South Korea there are 100 different Presbyterian denominations Most of the Korean Presbyterian denominations share the same name in Korean, 대한예수교장로회 (literally means the Presbyterian Church of Korea or PCK), tracing its roots to the United Presbyterian Assembly before its long history of disputes and schisms  The Presbyterian schism began with the controversy in relation to the Japanese shrine worship enforced during the Japanese colonial period and the establishment of a minor division (Koryu-pa, 고려파, later The Koshin Presbyterian Church in Korea, Koshin 고신) in 1952  And in 1953 the second schism happened when the theological orientation of the Chosun Seminary (later Hanshin University) founded in 1947 could not be tolerated in the PCK and another minor group (The Presbyterian Church in the Republic of Korea, Kijang, 기장) was separated  The last major schism had to do with the issue of whether the PCK should join the WCC  The controversy divided the PCK into two denominations, The Presbyterian Church of Korea (Tonghap, 통합) and The General Assembly of Presbyterian Church in Korea (Hapdong, 합동) in 1959  All major seminaries associated with each denomination claim heritage from the Pyung Yang Theological Seminary, therefore, not only Presbyterian University and Theological Seminary and Chongsin University which are related to PCK but also Hanshin University of PROK all celebrated the 100th class in 2007, 100 years from the first graduates of Pyung Yang Theological Seminary Korean Presbyterian denominations are active in evangelism and many of its missionaries are being sent overseas, being the second biggest missionary sender in the world after the United States  GMS, the missionary body of the "Hapdong" General Assembly of Presbyterian Churches of Korea, is the single largest Presbyterian missionary organization in Korea 
In addition there are many Korean-American Presbyterians in the United States, either with their own church sites or sharing space in pre-existing churches as is the case in Australia, New Zealand and even Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia with Korean immigration 
The Korean Presbyterian Church started through the mission of the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the Australian Presbyterian theological tradition is central to the United States  But after independence, the 'Presbyterian Church in Korea (KoRyuPa)' advocated a Dutch Reformed position  In the 21st century, a new General Assembly of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church of Korea (Founder  Ha Seung-moo) in 2012 declared itself an authentic historical succession of Scottish Presbyterian John Knox 

Taiwan
The Presbyterian Church in Taiwan (PCT) is by far the largest Protestant denomination in Taiwan, with some 238,372 members as of 2009 (including a majority of the island's aborigines)  English Presbyterian Missionary James Laidlaw Maxwell established the first Presbyterian church in Tainan in 1865  His colleague George Leslie Mackay, of the Canadian Presbyterian Mission, was active in Tamsui and north Taiwan from 1872 to 1901; he founded the island's first university and hospital, and created a written script for Taiwanese Minnan  The English and Canadian missions joined as the PCT in 1912  One of the few churches permitted to operate in Taiwan through the era of Japanese rule (1895–1945), the PCT experienced rapid growth during the era of Kuomintang-imposed martial law (1949–1987), in part due to its support for democracy, human rights, and Taiwan independence  Former ROC president Lee Teng-hui (in office 1988–2000) was a Presbyterian 

India
In the mainly Christian Indian state of Mizoram, Presbyterianism is the largest of all Christian denominations  It was brought there by missionaries from Wales in 1897  Prior to Mizoram, Welsh Presbyterians started venturing into the northeast India through the Khasi Hills (now in the state of Meghalaya in India) and established Presbyterian churches all over the Khasi Hills from the 1840s onwards  Hence, there is a strong presence of Presbyterians in Shillong (the present capital of Meghalaya) and the areas adjoining it  The Welsh missionaries built their first church in Sohra (aka Cherrapunji) in 1846  The Presbyterian church in India was integrated in 1970 into the United Church of Northern India (originally formed in 1924)  It is the largest Presbyterian denomination in India 

Oceania
Australia
In Australia, Presbyterianism is the fourth largest denomination of Christianity, with nearly 600,000 Australians claiming to be Presbyterian in the 2006 Commonwealth Census  Presbyterian churches were founded in each colony, some with links to the Church of Scotland and others to the Free Church  There were also congregations originating from United Presbyterian Church of Scotland as well as a number founded by John Dunmore Lang  Most of these bodies merged between 1859 and 1870, and in 1901 formed a federal union called the Presbyterian Church of Australia but retaining their state assemblies  The Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia representing the Free Church of Scotland tradition, and congregations in Victoria of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, originally from Ireland, are the other existing denominations dating from colonial times 
In 1977, two-thirds of the Presbyterian Church of Australia, along with most of the Congregational Union of Australia and all the Methodist Church of Australasia, combined to form the Uniting Church in Australia  The third who did not unite had various reasons for so acting, often cultural attachment but often conservative theological or social views  The permission for the ordination of women given in 1974 was rescinded in 1991 without affecting the two or three existing woman ministers  The approval of women elders given in the 1960s has been rescinded in all states except New South Wales, which has the largest membership  The theology of the church is now generally conservative and Reformed  A number of small Presbyterian denominations have arisen since the 1950s through migration or schism 

New Zealand
In New Zealand, Presbyterian is the dominant denomination in Otago and Southland due largely to the rich Scottish and to a lesser extent Ulster-Scots heritage in the region  The area around Christchurch, Canterbury, is dominated philosophically by the Anglican denomination 
Originally there were two branches of Presbyterianism in New Zealand, the northern Presbyterian church which existed in the North Island and the parts of the South Island north of the Waitaki River, and the Synod of Otago and Southland, founded by Free Church settlers in southern South Island  The two churches merged in 1901, forming what is now the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand 
In addition to the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand, there is also a more conservative Presbyterian church called Grace Presbyterian Church of New Zealand  Many of its members left the largely liberal PCANZ because they were seeking a more conservative church  It has 17 churches throughout New Zealand 

Vanuatu
The Presbyterian Church in Vanuatu is the largest denomination in the country, with approximately one-third of the population of Vanuatu members of the church  The PCV was taken to Vanuatu by missionaries from Scotland  The PCV (Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu) is headed by a moderator with offices in Port Vila  The PCV is particularly strong in the provinces of Tafea, Shefa, and Malampa  The Province of Sanma is mainly Presbyterian with a strong Roman Catholic minority in the Francophone areas of the province  There are some Presbyterian people, but no organised Presbyterian churches in Penama and Torba, both of which are traditionally Anglican  Vanuatu is the only country in the South Pacific with a significant Presbyterian heritage and membership  The PCV is a founding member of the Vanuatu Christian Council (VCC)  The PCV runs many primary schools and Onesua secondary school  The church is strong in the rural villages 

See also
Celtic cross
English Presbyterianism
Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy
Ghost Ranch
Puritan's Pit
Presbyterian confessions of faith
Religion in Scotland
Category:Presbyterian universities and colleges
Category:Presbyterians

Churches
List of Christian denominations#Presbyterianism
List of Presbyterian churches
St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh (Church of Scotland) – famous among Presbyterians worldwide for John Knox's success in preaching there
Passage 14:
Knox United Church (Saskatoon)
Knox United Church is a designated municipal heritage building at 838 Spadina Crescent East, in the Central Business District, of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada The congregation was established as part of the Saskatoon Presbyterian Field Mission in 1885 after the North-West Rebellion  Meetings were held in homes, the Old Stone Schoolhouse, the Methodist Church and even the railway roundhouse until a wood church holding 160 was constructed near the river Architects Brown and Vallance of Montreal designed the present-day church in the Collegiate Gothic style  Construction started in 1912 and was completed in 1914  The two-storey building is made of dark red brick walls, features stained-glass windows, and has seating 1,200  The acoustic qualities of the church have made it a regular venue for various social and cultural events, including chamber music performances 
The Institute for stained glass in Canada has documented the stained glass at Knox United Church



ground_truth: 1572