prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the party that gained control of Congress in the midterm elections in 1946 take control of the government branch that determines the rules of the US House?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
CDC SCOPE
SCOPE (Supervisory Control of Program Execution) is a series of Control Data Corporation batch operating systems developed in the 1960s 

Variants
SCOPE for the CDC 3000 series
SCOPE for the CDC 6000 series
SCOPE and SCOPE-2 for the CDC 7600/Cyber-76

SCOPE for the CDC 3000 series
SCOPE for the CDC 6000 series
This operating system was based on the original Chippewa Operating System  In the early 1970s, it was renamed NOS/BE for the CDC Cyber machines  The SCOPE operating system is a file-oriented system using mass storage, random access devices  It was designed to make use of all capabilities of CDC 6000 computer systems and exploits fully the multiple-operating modes of all segments of the computer  Main tasks of SCOPE are controlling job execution, storage assignment, performing segment and overlay loading  Its features include comprehensive input/output functions and library maintenance routines  The operating system chronologically records all jobs run and any problems encountered  To aid debugging, dumps and memory maps are available 

Description
SCOPE is a multiprogramming operating system capable of running up to eight jobs, called control points, at one time  One control point is used for system functions : p 1-2  Later versions increased this limit to 15 
SCOPE runs on the 6x00's peripheral processors (PPs)  "A central processor (CP)… is completely within the power of every PP at all times " One PP, identified as PP0 runs the Monitor Program (MTR) "that oversees or controls all other activities " PP9 is assigned to control the system console typewriter and displays  The other PPs perform input/output functions as directed by MTR : p 1-1 A portion of the central processor's memory (called central memory, or CM) the Central Memory Resident (CMR) "is reserved for various system tables accessible by the PPs ”: p 1-2  Part of this CMR is a communications area for each PP  Each communications area contains an "input register" and an "output register", followed by a message buffer : p 1-1 When the computer is deadstarted, all PP's are loaded with system code from magnetic tape  PP0 will begin running the monitor code  The remaining PPs will loop reading their input registers waiting for requests from the monitor : p 1-1

Software
As of SCOPE 3 3 a number of programming language compilers and utilities were supported  Major languages were ALGOL, BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, and COMPASS (assembler)  Other languages were APT, CSSL 3 (Continuous System Simulation Language), JOVIAL, SIMSCRIPT, and SIMULA  Other software included IGS (Interactive Graphics System), PERT, and SORT/MERGE CDC systems were considered supercomputers, and customers were often large government agencies and research facilities  Most of these had specialized requirements, and often wrote their own software 

Competition
SCOPE was written by a programming team in Sunnyvale, California, about 2,000 miles from the CDC hardware division   It was considered by them a buggy and inefficient piece of software, though not much different than many operating systems of the era   At the CDC Arden Hills, Minnesota laboratories (where they referred to SCOPE as Sunnyvale's Collection Of Programming Errors) they had a competing operating system, MACE   This was the Mansfield And Cahlander Executive (from Greg Mansfield and Dave Cahlander, the authors of the system)   It had started as an engineering test executive, but eventually developed into a complete operating system — a modularized rewrite and enhancement of the original Chippewa Operating System (COS)   While never an official CDC product, a copy was freely given to any customer who asked for one   Many customers did, especially the more advanced ones (like University and research sites) 
When Control Data decided to write its next operating system Kronos, it considered both the current SCOPE system and the unofficial MACE alternative   They chose to abandon the SCOPE system and base Kronos on the MACE software   Eventually, Kronos was replaced by the new Network Operating System (NOS)   Though many smaller CDC customers continued to use the SCOPE system rather than Kronos   When NOS became the primary Control Data operating system, some customers running mainly batch operations were reluctant to switch to the NOS system, as they saw no benefit for their shop   So the SCOPE system was maintained, and renamed as NOS/BE (Batch Environment), primarily so that CDC Marketing could say that all mainframe customers were using the NOS operating system 

Current status
The computer emulation community has made repeated attempts to recover and preserve CDC software  It is now running under a CDC CYBER and 6000 series emulator 

See also
CDC Kronos
NOS
Passage 2:
Standing Rules of the United States Senate
The Standing Rules of the Senate are the parliamentary procedures adopted by the United States Senate that govern its procedure  The Senate's power to establish rules derives from Article One, Section 5 of the United States Constitution: "Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings    "
There are currently forty-five rules, with the latest revision adopted on January 24, 2013  The most recent addition of a new rule occurred in 2006, when The Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006 introduced a 44th rule on earmarks  The stricter rules are often waived by unanimous consent 

Outline of rules
Quorum
The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business  Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed to be present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise  Any senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present  In practice, senators almost always request quorum calls not to establish the presence of a quorum, but to temporarily delay proceedings without having to adjourn the session  Such a delay may serve one of many purposes; often, it allows Senate leaders to negotiate compromises off the floor or to allow senators time to come to the Senate floor to make speeches without having to constantly be present in the chamber while waiting for the opportunity  Once the need for a delay has ended, any senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call 

Debate
The Senate is presided over by the Presiding Officer, either the President of the Senate (the Vice President) or more often the President pro tempore (in special cases the Chief Justice presides)  During debates, senators may speak only if called upon by the Presiding Officer  The Presiding Officer is, however, required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak  Thus, the Presiding Officer has little control over the course of debate  Customarily, the majority leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates, even if another senator rises first  All speeches must be addressed to the Presiding Officer, using the words "Mr  President" or "Madam President"  Only the Presiding Officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person  In most cases, senators refer to each other not by name, but by state, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia" or "the junior senator from California" 
There are very few restrictions on the content of speeches, and there is no requirement that speeches be germane to the matter before the Senate 
The Senate Rules provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day (a legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends when it adjourns; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day)  The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please  Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits  In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute  In general, however, the right to unlimited debate is preserved 

Filibuster
The filibuster is an obstructionary tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely  A filibuster may entail, but does not actually require, long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments  The longest filibuster speech in the history of the Senate was delivered by Strom Thurmond, who spoke for over twenty-four hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957  The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture  In most cases, cloture requires the support of three-fifths of the Senate  Cloture is invoked very rarely, particularly because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority  If the Senate does invoke cloture, debate does not end immediately; instead, further debate is limited to thirty additional hours unless increased by another three-fifths vote 

Closed session
On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session  During a closed session, the chamber doors are closed and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or not essential to the session  Closed sessions are rare and are usually held only under certain circumstances in which the Senate is discussing sensitive subject matter, such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or discussions of Senate deliberations during impeachment trials  Any Senator has the right to call a closed session as long as the motion is seconded 

Voting
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote  In many cases, the Senate votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye!" (in favor of the motion) or "No!" (against the motion)  The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote  Any senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer's assessment and request a recorded vote  The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one-fifth of the senators present  In practice, however, senators second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy  When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; each senator responds when their name is called  Senators who miss the roll call may still cast a vote as long as the recorded vote remains open  The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer but must remain open for a minimum of fifteen minutes  If the vote is tied, the Vice President, if present, is entitled to a casting vote  If the Vice President is not present, however, the motion is resolved in the negative 

Committees
Tasks in the Senate are divided among sixteen standing committees, four select committees, four joint committees, and occasionally temporary committees  Senate rules establish the policy jurisdictions of each committee; for example, the Committee on Foreign Relations deals with all matters relating to foreign policy  Committees act, in effect, as "little legislatures", monitoring ongoing governmental operations, identifying issues suitable for legislative review, gathering and evaluating information, and recommending courses of action to their parent body in matters relating to their jurisdiction  Senate rules give committees significant gatekeeping authority over legislation that falls under their jurisdiction, with proposed bills submitted to the relevant committee, which can hold hearings, "mark up" bills, consolidate bills into a "clean bill", or ignore the bill altogether (there exist some workarounds for Senators to circumvent committees, but in general Senators work through the committee system) The size of each standing committee is established by Senate rules  The makeup of committees are established through inter-party negotiations before each new Congress, with the percentage of a party's representation within the Senate determining the percentage of seats it will have on each committee 

Reconciliation
Legislation affecting spending, revenues, and the federal debt limit is governed under a special rules process called "Reconciliation" that prohibits filibusters by limiting debate to twenty hours  Congress can pass up to three reconciliation bills per year, with each bill addressing one of the topics of reconciliation (revenue, spending, or the debt limit)  However, if Congress passes a reconciliation bill affecting more than one of those topics, it cannot pass another reconciliation bill later in the year affecting one of the topics addressed by the previous reconciliation bill  In practice, reconciliation bills have usually been passed once per year at most  Reconciliation cannot be used to enact or rescind discretionary spending (which is controlled through the annual appropriations process) or adjust Social Security spending, and is limited by the Byrd Rule, which allows senators to block provisions that are "extraneous" to spending, revenues, or the debt limit Reconciliation was created by the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, and significantly altered with the introduction of the Byrd Rule in 1985 (amended in 1990)  Originally infrequently used (it did not see first use until 1980) 

Nominations
Selected public positions in the United States are appointed by the president but require Senate approval  Senate rule XXXI governs the Senate process for considering the president's nominations 
For most positions the nomination is passed first to a Senate committee for review  Generally it is the Senate committee with jurisdiction over the topic or department related to the position to be filled A public hearing by the committee is possible  Historically about half of civilian appointees were approved without a hearing  After consideration, the committee can report a favorable recommendation, or an unfavorable recommendation, or it can report no recommendation  It can also fail to act  To simplify the process, and with the support of the committee, the Senate by unanimous consent might discharge a nomination from the committee without the committee having acted It is up to the leadership of the Senate to then place the nomination on the Senate calendar for a vote in executive session  Some nominations are passed by unanimous consent  The leadership may delay putting a nomination on the calendar, in which case it may not be acted upon 

Nomination Time Limit
Paragraph 6 of rule XXXI specifies that if final action has not been taken before Congress adjourns the nomination is returned to the President  By the same rule nominations are returned when the Senate goes into recess for more than 30 days  However, in modern practice some nominations may stay active over long recesses if the Senate holds pro forma sessions during recess or agrees to suspend the rule by unanimous consent  When a nomination is returned without action, the president may nominate a different person or re-nominate the same person 

Rules by number
There are currently forty-four Standing Rules of the Senate:
SR Rule I: Appointment of a Senator to the Chair
SR Rule II: Presentation of Credentials and Questions of Privilege
SR Rule III: Oaths
SR Rule IV: Commencement of Daily Sessions
SR Rule V: Suspension and Amendment of the Rules
SR Rule VI: Quorum – Absent Senators May Be Sent For
SR Rule VII: Morning Business
SR Rule VIII: Order of Business
SR Rule IX: Messages
SR Rule X: Special Orders
SR Rule XI: Papers – Withdrawal, Printing, Reading of, and Reference
SR Rule XII: Voting Procedure
SR Rule XIII: Reconsideration
SR Rule XIV: Joint Resolutions, and Preambles Thereto
SR Rule XV: Amendments and Resolutions
SR Rule XVI: Appropriations and Amendments to General Appropriation Bills
SR Rule XVII: Reference to Committees; Motions to Discharge; Reports of Committees; and Hearings Available
SR Rule XVIII: Business Continued from Session to Session
SR Rule XIX: Debate
SR Rule XX: Questions for Order
SR Rule XXI: Session with Closed Doors
SR Rule XXII: Precedence of Motions
SR Rule XXIII: Privilege of the Floor
SR Rule XXIV: Appointments of Committee
SR Rule XXV: Standing Committees
SR Rule XXVI: Committee Procedure
SR Rule XXVII: Committee Staff
SR Rule XXVIII: Conference Committees; Reports; Open Meetings
SR Rule XXIX: Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXX: Executive Session – Proceedings on Treaties
SR Rule XXXI: Executive Session – Proceedings on Nominations
SR Rule XXXII: The President Furnished with Copies of Record Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXXIII: Senate Chamber – Senate Wing of the Capitol
SR Rule XXXIV: Public Financial Disclosure
SR Rule XXXV: Gifts
SR Rule XXXVI: Outside Earned Income
SR Rule XXXVII: Conflict of Interest
SR Rule XXXVIII: Prohibition of Unofficial Office Accounts
SR Rule XXXIX: Foreign Travel
SR Rule XL: Franking Privilege and Radio and Television Studios
SR Rule XLI: Political Fund Activity; Definitions
SR Rule XLII: Employment Practices
SR Rule XLIII: Representation by Members
SR Rule XLIV: Congressionally Directed Spending and Related ItemsThe latest change was the introduction in 2006 of a 44th rule on earmarks, by the Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act 
Passage 3:
Festus Olabode Ola
Festus Olabode Ola (born 12 November 1956) was elected Senator for Ekiti Central constituency of Ekiti State, Nigeria, taking office on 30 June 2009  He is a member of the Action Congress (AC) party Ola obtained a Higher National Diploma in Accountancy in 1982 
He was employed in the Foreign Service (1983–2004) 
In the 2007 elections Adefemi Kila of the People's Democratic Party (PDP) was declared the winner for Ekiti Central  However, on 30 June 2009, the Court of Appeal quashed Kila's election and declared Bode Ola the lawful winner of the April 2007 poll  A deciding factor was that 19,000 of the ballots cast for Chief Kila had the same serial number 
Passage 4:
2018 Wisconsin gubernatorial election
The 2018 Wisconsin gubernatorial election took place on November 6, 2018   It occurred concurrently with a Senate election in the state, elections to the state's U S  House seats, and various other elections  Incumbent Republican Governor Scott Walker sought re-election to a third term, and was challenged by Democratic candidate and then-Superintendent of Public Instruction Tony Evers, as well as Libertarian Phil Anderson and independent Maggie Turnbull  Evers, along with his running mate Mandela Barnes, managed to defeat Walker and Lieutenant Governor Rebecca Kleefisch in a closely fought and widely watched race, ending unified Republican control of the state 
The result was considered "too close to call" on election night, with Walker and Evers being separated by a mere few hundred votes for much of the night as counties reported their results  Shortly after midnight on November 7, Milwaukee County reported around 46,000 late absentee ballots  From those late ballots, Evers received 38,674 votes, or 84% of the total, and Walker 7,181, giving Evers a narrow lead  The race was called for him shortly after Wisconsin was the only state in the 2018 gubernatorial election cycle to elect a Democratic governor while voting more Republican than the national average  With a margin of 1 1%, this election was also the second-closest race of the 2018 gubernatorial election cycle, behind only the election in Florida  Walker was one of two Republican incumbent governors to be defeated for re-election in 2018, the other being Bruce Rauner in neighboring Illinois, who had lost decisively to J B  Pritzker 

Republican primary
Governor
Candidates
Nominated
Scott Walker, incumbent governor

Eliminated in primary
Robert Meyer, businessman and candidate for mayor of Sun Prairie in 2007

Endorsements
Results
Lieutenant governor
Candidates
Nominated
Rebecca Kleefisch, incumbent lieutenant governor

Results
Democratic primary
Governor
The primary election for the Democratic nomination featured a crowded field of candidates  The race was ultimately won by Tony Evers with around 40% of the vote 

Candidates
Nominated
Tony Evers, Wisconsin state superintendent of public instruction

Eliminated in primary
Matt Flynn, former chair of the Democratic Party of Wisconsin, retired partner at Quarles & Brady and candidate for U S  Senate in 1986
Mike McCabe, former executive director of Wisconsin Democracy Campaign and candidate for the State Assembly in 1998
Mahlon Mitchell, president of the Professional Fire Fighters of Wisconsin and nominee for lieutenant governor in 2012
Josh Pade, lawyer
Kelda Roys, former state representative and candidate for WI-02 in 2012
Paul Soglin, Mayor of Madison and nominee for WI-02 in 1996
Kathleen Vinehout, state senator and candidate for governor in 2012

Withdrew
Mike Crute, liberal talk radio broadcaster (endorsed Mike McCabe)
Michele Doolan, businesswoman (endorsed Matt Flynn)
Andy Gronik, businessman (still on ballot; endorsed Kelda Roys)
Bob Harlow, candidate for CA-18 in 2016 (endorsed Matt Flynn)
Kurt Kober, businessman (running for lieutenant governor)
Jeff Rumbaugh, disability rights activist  (endorsed Mike McCabe)
Dana Wachs, state representative (still on ballot; endorsed Tony Evers)

Declined
Chris Abele, Milwaukee County Executive
Mark Bakken, businessman
Peter Barca, state representative and former U S  Representative
Tom Barrett, Mayor of Milwaukee, former U S  Representative and nominee for governor in 2010 and 2012 
John T  Chisholm, Milwaukee County District Attorney (endorsed Matt Flynn)
Kevin Conroy, president and CEO of Exact Sciences
Timothy Cullen, former state senator
Katherine Gehl, former president and CEO of Gehl Foods
Gordon Hintz, minority leader of the State Assembly
Brett Hulsey, former state representative and candidate for governor in 2014
Ron Kind, U S  Representative
James Kreuser, Kenosha County executive
Joe Parisi, Dane County executive
Mark Pocan, U S  representative
Jennifer Shilling, Democratic leader of the State Senate

Endorsements
Polling
An asterisk (*) denotes that a candidate withdrew before the primary but remains on the ballot 

Results
Lieutenant governor
Mandela Barnes, a former state representative from Milwaukee, defeated opponent Kurt Kober by a 2 to 1 margin for the nomination, becoming the first African American to be nominated by a major party for a Wisconsin gubernatorial ticket 

Candidates
Nominated
Mandela Barnes, former state representative, and candidate for state senate in 2016

Eliminated in primary
Kurt Kober, businessman

Results
Libertarian convention
Governor
Nominee
Phil Anderson, chairman of the Wisconsin Libertarian Party and Libertarian nominee for the U S  Senate in 2016

Endorsements
Lieutenant governor
Nominee
Patrick Baird, U S  Navy veteran

Green Party primary
Governor
Candidates
Nominated
Michael White

Withdrew
Nick De Leon, pastor (endorsed Matt Flynn)

Results
Lieutenant governor
Candidates
Nominated
Tiffany Anderson

Results
Independent candidates
Governor
Maggie Turnbull, astrobiologist

Lieutenant governor
Wil Losch, Turnbull's running mate

General election
Despite the fact that Scott Walker had won three prior races for governor in 2010, 2012, and 2014 by fairly comfortable margins, his bid for a third term was complicated by rising unpopularity due to his policies concerning public education and infrastructure  Walker also faced backlash for a deal his administration made with Taiwanese company Foxconn in 2017 to create jobs in the state in exchange for around $4 5 billion in taxpayer subsidies  In 2018, the deal resulted in around $90 million of funding for roads being diverted to a stretch of I-94 that was set to be near a future Foxconn plant from the rest of state  The poor condition of many roads around the state as well as the lack of work being done to redo them prompted a campaign where potholes were being labeled as “Scott”-holes Walker's approval ratings were hobbled further by the unpopularity of Republican U S  President Donald Trump in Wisconsin  Walker himself sounded the alarm on this several times in early 2018 after Democrats won two special elections to the Wisconsin State Senate in typically Republican districts and an election to the Wisconsin Supreme Court  In April 2018, Walker warned that Wisconsin was “at risk of a blue wave“ in November  The Walker campaign generally focused on promoting the popular parts of his record, such as a freeze on tuition at public universities and record low unemployment The result was expected to be close, with a record $93 million spent on the race by the two major campaigns and special interest groups from in and out of the state  In the end, Walker was ultimately defeated by Democrat Tony Evers, who garnered a slightly more than 1% margin of victory, as Democrats swept every statewide race up for election 

Predictions
Polling
Results
Evers won the election by a 1 09% margin 

Results by county
By congressional districts
Despite losing the state, Walker won 5 of the 8 congressional districts 

Aftermath
Despite the close result, Scott Walker was unable to request a recount due to a law he had signed himself two years prior, which requires the margin of difference to be within 1% 

Lame duck legislative session
Early in December 2018, a special legislative session was called by Walker to pass a series of bills to limit the powers of Governor-elect Evers, as well as incoming Democratic State attorney general Josh Kaul who had defeated incumbent Brad Schimel Other bills being considered included restrictions on early voting and the passage of Medicaid work requirements, which Walker had previously held off on due to the election  A similar law restricting early voting that was passed several years prior had been ruled as unconstitutional The bills were widely denounced by Democrats and others as a “power grab ” Congresswoman Gwen Moore described the move as a “coup” that “hijacked the voters’ will ”  Walker and other Republicans meanwhile argued that the bills were necessary ”checks on power” and that they did not actually strip any real powers from the executive  Lawsuits were filed by Evers and various labor unions almost immediately after Walker signed the bills into law 

See also
2018 Wisconsin elections
2018 United States gubernatorial elections
2018 United States elections

Notes
Passage 5:
1946 United States House of Representatives elections
The 1946 United States House of Representatives elections were elections for the United States House of Representatives to elect members to serve in the 80th United States Congress  They were held for the most part on November 5, 1946, while Maine held theirs on September 9  November 1946 was 19 months after President Harry S  Truman assumed office upon the death of Franklin D  Roosevelt 
While Democrats had controlled the House for 16 years since 1931 and Roosevelt had been elected to a record four terms in office, Truman did not garner the same support as the deceased president  The 1946 election resulted in Republicans picking up 55 seats to win majority control  Joseph Martin, Republican of Massachusetts, became Speaker of the House, exchanging places with Sam Rayburn, Democrat of Texas, who became the new Minority Leader  The Democratic defeat was the largest since they were trounced in the 1928 pro-Republican wave that brought Herbert Hoover to power  They also lost the Senate in the concurrent Senate elections 
The vote was largely seen as a referendum on Truman, whose approval rating had sunk to 32 percent over the president's controversial handling of a wave of post-war labor strikes, including a United Auto Workers strike against Ford and General Motors in 1945, a United Mine Workers strike starting in April 1946, and a national railroad worker strike that began in May  Further damage resulted from the back-and-forth over whether to end wartime price controls, unpopular with the American business constituency, to handle shortages, particularly in meat and other foodstuffs  While Truman's early months in the White House had been plagued with questions of "What would Roosevelt do if he were alive?" Republicans now began to joke "What would Truman do if he were alive?" and "To err is Truman " However, the Republican majority was short-lived, as Democrats regained control of the House two years later 

Overall results
Source: Election Statistics - Office of the Clerk

Special elections
In these special elections, the winner was seated during 1946 or before January 3, 1947; ordered by election date, then by district 

Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Non-voting delegates
Alaska Territory
See also
1946 United States elections
1946 United States Senate elections
1946 California's 12th congressional district election (the Richard Nixon-Jerry Voorhis race)
79th United States Congress
80th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 6:
Sulaiman Mohammed Nazif
Sulaiman Mohammed Nazif (born 14 April 1970) is a Nigerian politician, who represented the Bauchi North constituency of Bauchi State, Nigeria, in the Senate of Nigeria  He took office on 29 May 2007  He was elected on the Action Congress (AC) platform Nazif attended the Federal Polytechnic Staff School, Bauchi (1981–1983), the Nigerian Military School (1983–1988) and Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, graduating in 1990 as an Engineer 
After taking his seat in the Senate, he was appointed to committees on Women and Youth, Water Resources, Solid Minerals, Local & Foreign Debts, Land Transport (Vice Chairman), Drugs and Narcotics, Anti Corruption and Communications 
He was also appointed the Publicity Secretary of the Northern Senators Forum He was nominated to go to the U S  to witness the inauguration of President Barack Obama  However, when he arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport he was told his visa was not in order and was not allowed to enter the country 
In a mid-term evaluation of Senators in May 2009, ThisDay said that he had not sponsored any bill but co-sponsored some bills, including the Nigerian Railway Corporation (Repeal and Reenactment) Bill 2008  He co-sponsored fifteen motions and made brilliant contributions to debates in plenary Nazif was a contender to become governor of Bauchi State in the 28 April 2011 elections, running on the All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP) platform  He came fourth with 102,093 votes, losing to the incumbent Governor Isa Yuguda, who won 771,503 votes 

Incomplete project controversy
In January 2022, WikkiTimes reported on several incomplete constituency projects from Nazif's term in office, specifically two nonexistent skills acquisition centres that cost over ₦41 million in public funds  One "centre" was entirely on paper with no evidence of any construction while the other "centre" was simply an abandoned building that had never been utilized  The investigation also found that the contract awarding process did not follow legally required procedures and the companies given the construction contracts did not have any physical or recent presence  Nazif did not respond to requests for comment 
Passage 7:
2014 United States Senate elections
The 2014 United States Senate elections were held on November 4, 2014  A total of 36 seats in the 100-member U S  Senate were contested  Thirty-three Class 2 seats were contested for regular six-year terms to be served from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2021, and three Class 3 seats were contested in special elections due to Senate vacancies  The elections marked 100 years of direct elections of U S  senators  Going into the elections, 21 of the contested seats were held by the Democratic Party, while 15 were held by the Republican Party 
The Republicans regained the majority of the Senate in the 114th Congress, which started in January 2015; the Republicans had not controlled the Senate since January 2007  They needed a net gain of at least six seats to obtain a majority and were projected by polls to do so  On election night, they held all of their seats and gained nine Democratic-held seats  Republicans defeated five Democratic incumbents: Mark Begich of Alaska lost to Dan Sullivan, Mark Pryor of Arkansas lost to Tom Cotton, Mark Udall of Colorado lost to Cory Gardner, Mary Landrieu of Louisiana lost to Bill Cassidy, and Kay Hagan of North Carolina lost to Thom Tillis  Republicans also picked up another four open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia  Democrats did not pick up any Republican-held seats, but they did hold an open seat in Michigan 
This was the second consecutive election held in a president's sixth year where control of the Senate changed hands, the first being in 2006  This was also the first time that the Democrats lost control of the Senate in a sixth-year midterm since 1918  With a total net gain of nine seats, the Republicans made the largest Senate gain by any party since 1980  This is also the first election since 1980 in which more than two incumbent Democratic Senators were defeated by their Republican challengers  Days after the election, the United States Election Project estimated that 36 4% of eligible voters voted, 4% lower than the 2010 elections, and possibly the lowest turnout rate since the 1942 election As of 2022, this remains the last time that a Republican has won a U S  Senate election in Colorado  This is the most recent Senate elections where any Republican flipped an open Democratic-held seat  This is also the most recent election where the party winning control of the Senate won the popular vote  It also remains the last time that the president's party has suffered a net loss of Senate seats in a midterm 

Partisan composition
For a majority, Republicans needed at least 51 seats  Democrats could have retained a majority with 48 seats (assuming the two Independents continued to caucus with them) because the Democratic Vice President Joe Biden would become the tie-breaker  From 1915 to 2013, control of the U S  Senate flipped in 10 of 50 cycles, or 20% of the time  Republicans had lost ground in the 2012 elections, leading to an internal fight among the Republican leadership over the best strategies and tactics for the 2014 Senate races  By December 2013, eight of the twelve incumbent Republicans running for re-election saw Tea Party challenges  However, Republican incumbents won every primary challenge  Although Democrats saw some opportunities for pickups, the combination of Democratic retirements and numerous Democratic seats up for election in swing states and red states gave Republicans hopes of taking control of the Senate  7 of the 21 states with Democratic seats up for election in 2014 had voted for Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election compared to just 1 state with a Republican senator that voted for Barack Obama  Democrats also faced the lower voter turnout that accompanies mid-term elections Poll aggregation website FiveThirtyEight gave the Republican Party a 60% chance of taking control of the Senate as of September 28  Another poll aggregation website, RealClearPolitics, gave the Republican Party a net gain of 7 seats  Due to the closeness of several races, it was initially believed that Senate control might not be decided on election night  Both Louisiana and Georgia were seen as competitive, and both states require a run-off election if no candidate takes a majority of the vote 
Two independent candidates (in Kansas and South Dakota) refused to commit to caucusing with either party  In the final months of the race, polls showed them with viable chances of winning, leading some analysts to speculate on the possibility of an "Independent caucus" that could also include Maine Senator Angus King and possibly Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders  However, no Independent won a Senate race in 2014, and King and Sanders continue to caucus with the Democratic Party following the 2014 election 
By midnight ET, most major networks projected that the Republicans would take control of the Senate  The party held all three competitive Republican-held seats (Kentucky, Kansas, and Georgia), and defeated incumbent Democrats in North Carolina, Colorado, and Arkansas  Combined with the pick-ups of open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia, the Republicans made a net gain of 7 seats before the end of the night  Republicans defeated three incumbent Democrats, a task the party had not accomplished since the 1980 election  Five of the seven confirmed pickups were in states that voted for Mitt Romney in 2012, but two of the seats that Republicans won represent states that voted for Barack Obama in 2012 (Colorado and Iowa)  Of the three races that were not called by the end of election night, Alaska and Virginia were still too close to call, while Louisiana held a December 6 run-off election  Virginia declared Democrat Mark Warner the winner of his race by a narrow margin over Republican Ed Gillespie on November 7, and Alaska declared Dan Sullivan the winner against Democratic incumbent Mark Begich a week later, on November 12  Republican Bill Cassidy defeated Democratic incumbent Mary Landrieu in the Louisiana runoff on December 6 

Election spending
Altogether, at least $3 67 billion was spent by candidates, parties, committees and outside groups in the 2014 election  Spending on the 2014 Senate elections by outside groups (i e , organizations other than a candidate's campaign, such as super PACs and "dark money" nonprofit groups) more than doubled from 2010  In the 10 competitive races for which data was available, outside groups accounted for 47% of spending, candidates accounted for 41% of spending, and parties accounted for 12% of spending  The Senate race with the most outside spending was in North Carolina, at $80 million, a new record The top outside spenders in the 11 most competitive Senate races were the following:

On the Republican side, the National Republican Senatorial Committee, Crossroads GPS, U S  Chamber of Commerce, Ending Spending Action Fund, Freedom Partners Action Fund, American Crossroads, and the NRA Political Victory Fund 
On the Democratic side, the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, Senate Majority PAC, and NextGen Climate Action Committee 

Results summary
The Republican Party made a net gain of nine U S  Senate seats in the 2014 elections Going into the elections, there were 53 Democratic, 45 Republican and 2 independent senators (both of whom caucus with the Democrats)  In all, there were 36 elections: 33 senators were up for election this year as class 2 senators, and 3 faced special elections (all from Class 3)  Of all these seats, 21 were held by Democrats and 15 were held by Republicans 

Colored shading indicates party with largest share of that row 

Source: Clerk of the U S  House of Representatives

Change in composition
Before the elections
After the elections
Gains and losses
Retirements
Four Democrats and two Republicans retired instead of seeking re-election 

Resignations
One Republican resigned four years into his six-year term 

Nomination withdrawn
One Democrat was originally to seek election for a full 6-year term in office but withdrew 

Defeats
Five Democrats sought re-election but lost in the general election 

Race summaries
Special elections during the preceding Congress
In these special elections, the winners were elected during 2014 and seated before January 3, 2015 — except that one was seated on January 3, 2015, the effective date of the predecessor's resignation 

Elections leading to the next Congress
In these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning January 3, 2015; ordered by state 
All of the elections involved the Class 2 seats 

Closest races
In seven races the margin of victory was under 10% 

Final pre-election predictions
Predicted probability of Republican takeover
Several websites used poll aggregation and psephology to estimate the probability that the Republican Party would gain enough seats to take control of the Senate 

Predictions
Republicans needed to win at least six in order to gain a majority of 51 seats and Democrats needed to win at least seven in order to hold a majority of 50 seats (including the two independents who currently caucus with the Democrats) and the tie-breaking vote of Vice President Joe Biden 

Alabama
Three-term incumbent Republican Jeff Sessions had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Sessions sought re-election  Democrat Victor Sanchez Williams ran against Sessions as a write-in candidate  Sessions won with 97 3 percent of the vote against assorted write-in candidates 

Alaska
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Begich had been first elected with 48% of the vote in 2008, defeating six-term Senator Ted Stevens by 3,953 votes (a margin of 1 25%)  Begich was 52 years old in 2014 and was seeking re-election to a second term  Stevens, who would have been almost 91 years old at the time of the election, had already filed for a rematch back in 2009, but was killed in a plane crash the following year 
Republican Lieutenant Governor Mead Treadwell, 2010 nominee Joe Miller, State Natural Resources Commissioner Daniel S  Sullivan, and Air Force veteran John Jaramillo ran for the GOP nomination  In the August 19 primary, Sullivan won the Republican nomination with 40% and defeated Begich in the general election 

Arkansas
Two-term incumbent Democrat Mark Pryor had been re-elected with 80% of the vote without Republican opposition in 2008  Pryor was running for a third term Freshman Representative Tom Cotton of Arkansas's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee  In the general election, Cotton defeated Pryor 

Colorado
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Udall had been elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  Udall was running for re-election Congressman Cory Gardner of Colorado's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee; his late entry into the race caused numerous Republicans to withdraw their candidacies  Gaylon Kent was the Libertarian Party nominee  Unity Party of America founder and National Chairman Bill Hammons was the Unity Party nominee 

Delaware
Democrat Chris Coons won in the 2010 United States Senate special election in Delaware caused by Joe Biden's election as Vice President, winning by a 57% to 41% margin  Coons sought re-election  His Republican opponent was engineer Kevin Wade, whom Coons went on to defeat in the general election 

Georgia
Two-term incumbent Republican Saxby Chambliss had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008 in a runoff election with former state Representative Jim Martin; Georgia requires run-off elections when no Senate candidate wins over 50% of the vote  Chambliss did not seek a third term Political activist Derrick Grayson, Representatives Jack Kingston of Georgia's 1st congressional district, Paul Broun of Georgia's 10th congressional district, and Phil Gingrey of Georgia's 11th congressional district all declared their candidacy for the Republican nomination, as did former Secretary of State Karen Handel  In the May 20 primary, no candidate received a majority of votes, so the top two candidates faced each other in a runoff; Perdue narrowly won against Kingston in the runoff primary election on July 22 with 50 9% of the vote Michelle Nunn, CEO of Points of Light and the daughter of former U S  Senator Sam Nunn, won the Democratic nomination  Other declared Democratic candidates included former State Senator Steen Miles, psychiatrist Branko Radulovacki, and former US Army Ranger Todd Robinson  Amanda Swafford, a former Flowery Branch, Georgia, city councilwoman, received the Libertarian Party of Georgia nomination 

Hawaii (special)
Daniel Inouye, the second longest serving United States Senator in U S  history, died on December 17, 2012, after respiratory complications  Hawaii law allows the Governor of Hawaii, to appoint an interim Senator "who serves until the next regularly-scheduled general election, chosen from a list of three prospective appointees that the prior incumbent's political party submits"  Governor Neil Abercrombie did so, selecting Lieutenant Governor Brian Schatz to fill the Senate seat  Inouye had been re-elected in 2010 with 72% of the vote  Schatz was challenged in the Democratic primary by Congresswoman Colleen Hanabusa of Hawaii's 1st congressional district, who Inouye had hoped would be his successor  Schatz defeated Hanabusa in the primary with 48 5% to 47 8% Campbell Cavasso, former State Representative and nominee for the U S  Senate in 2004 and 2010, was the Republican nominee 

Idaho
One-term incumbent Republican Jim Risch had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Risch sought a second term Boise attorney Nels Mitchell was the Democratic nominee 

Illinois
Three-term incumbent and Senate Majority Whip Democrat Dick Durbin had been re-elected with 68% of the vote in 2008  Durbin ran for a fourth term State Senator Jim Oberweis was the Republican nominee  He defeated primary challenger Doug Truax with 56% of the vote 

Iowa
Five-term incumbent Democrat Tom Harkin had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Harkin announced on January 26, 2013, that he would not seek a sixth term  Congressman Bruce Braley was the Democratic nominee State Senator Joni Ernst was the Republican nominee Doug Butzier, who was the Libertarian Party's nominee, died in a plane crash on October 13, 2014, but still appeared on the ballot 

Kansas
Three-term incumbent Republican Pat Roberts had been re-elected with 60% of the vote in 2008  Roberts sought a fourth term  He faced a primary challenge from radiologist Milton Wolf, a conservative Tea Party supporter  Roberts defeated Wolf in the Republican primary by 48% to 41%  Shawnee County District Attorney Chad Taylor won the Democratic nomination  Randall Batson from Wichita was on the general election ballot as a Libertarian  Also, Greg Orman qualified for the ballot as an independent On September 3, Taylor announced he was dropping out of the election, leading to speculation that Democrats would support Orman's candidacy  On September 18, the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Taylor's name had to be removed from the ballot 

Kentucky
Five-term Republican incumbent and Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell had been re-elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  McConnell sought re-election to a sixth term  McConnell defeated businessman Matt Bevin in the Republican primary on May 20 Kentucky Secretary of State Alison Lundergan Grimes, with support from much of Kentucky's Democratic leadership, won the Democratic primary  Actress Ashley Judd publicly claimed to be considering a run for the Democratic nomination, but ultimately decided against it Ed Marksberry pursued an independent bid after dropping out of the Democratic field in September 2013 

Louisiana
Three-term incumbent Democrat Mary Landrieu had been re-elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Landrieu ran for a fourth term Louisiana uses a unique jungle primary system that eschews primaries in favor of run-off elections between the top two candidates; this run-off can be avoided if the winning candidate receives over 50% of the vote  Democrats Wayne Ables, Vallian Senegal, and William Waymire ran against Landrieu in the election, as did Republicans Bill Cassidy (representative of Louisiana's 6th congressional district), Thomas Clements (small business owner), and retired Air Force Colonel Rob Maness  Electrical Engineer Brannon McMorris ran as a Libertarian Because Republican candidate Maness took almost 14% of the votes in the primary, there was a runoff election on December 6, 2014, between Landrieu (42%) and Cassidy (41%)  Cassidy won the runoff with 56% of the vote 

Maine
Three-term incumbent Republican Susan Collins was seeking a fourth term  Shenna Bellows, former executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Maine, was the Democratic nominee 

Massachusetts
Five-term incumbent and 2004 Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry had been re-elected with 66% of the vote in 2008  Kerry resigned in early 2013 to become U S  Secretary of State  Governor Deval Patrick appointed Democrat Mo Cowan to the seat  Democratic Congressman Ed Markey beat Republican Gabriel E  Gomez in the June 25, 2013 special election by a 55% to 45% margin  Markey had served the remainder of Kerry's term before running for re-election to a first full term in 2014  Hopkinton Town Selectman Brian Herr was the Republican nominee 

Michigan
Six-term incumbent Senator and Chairman of the Armed Services Committee Democrat Carl Levin, the longest-serving senator in Michigan's history, had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Levin announced on March 7, 2013, that he would not seek re-election 
Three term Democratic Representative Gary Peters of MI-14 was the Democratic nominee  He defeated Republican former Secretary of State Terri Lynn Land who was unopposed for the Republican nomination 

Minnesota
One-term incumbent Democrat Al Franken unseated one-term Republican Norm Coleman by 312 votes in a contested three-way race with 42% of the vote in 2008; the third candidate in the race, former Senator Dean Barkley of the Independence Party of Minnesota, won 15% of the vote  Franken sought re-election  State Representative Jim Abeler, St  Louis County Commissioner Chris Dahlberg, co-CEO of Lazard Middle Market Mike McFadden, bison farmer and former hair salon owner Monti Moreno, state Senator Julianne Ortman, and U S  Navy reservist Phillip Parrish ran for the Republican nomination  McFadden won the Republican primary and was the Republican nominee in the general election Hannah Nicollet of the Independence Party of Minnesota also ran 

Mississippi
Six-term incumbent Republican Thad Cochran, re-elected with 62% of the vote in 2008, ran for re-election  Cochran was the last incumbent Senator to declare his plans, leading to widespread speculation that he might announce his retirement Tea Party candidate Chris McDaniel, a conservative Mississippi state senator, ran against Cochran in the Republican primary  Neither McDaniel nor Cochran was able to get 50% of the vote in the first round of the primary, so a runoff election was held June 24  Cochran won the runoff election by 51% to 49%, with the help of Democratic voters eligible to vote in the state's open primaries who chose Cochran as their preferred Republican  McDaniel filed a lawsuit to challenge the results of the run-off, but the challenge was rejected on appeal by the Supreme Court of Mississippi Former Congressman Travis Childers was the Democratic nominee 

Montana
Six-term incumbent Democrat Max Baucus, the longest-serving senator in Montana's history, had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Baucus announced on April 23, 2013, that he would retire in 2014, rather than seek re-election to a seventh term  Baucus was appointed as the United States Ambassador to China, leading him to resign from the Senate in February 2014 Following Baucus's confirmation as ambassador, Governor Steve Bullock appointed the Lieutenant Governor John Walsh to fill the vacant senate seat  Former Lieutenant Governor John Bohlinger was defeated by Walsh in the Democratic primary  Amid controversy over alleged plagiarism in a 2007 research paper, Walsh pulled out of the race  The Montana Democratic Party held a special nominating convention on August 16 to choose a replacement for Walsh  First-term State Representative Amanda Curtis won the nomination, thereby becoming the new Democratic nominee Congressman Steve Daines won the Republican nomination over state Representative Champ Edmunds of Missoula and David Leaser of Kalispell 

Nebraska
One-term incumbent Republican Mike Johanns had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  He did not seek a second term  Term limited Republican Governor Dave Heineman considered running for the Republican nomination, but ultimately decided not to do so  Former state Treasurer Shane Osborn, attorney Bart McLeay, banker Sid Dinsdale, and Midland University President Ben Sasse ran for the Republican nomination  In the May 13 primary, Sasse won the Republican nomination 
Trial lawyer David Domina was the Democratic nominee 

New Hampshire
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeanne Shaheen had been elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Shaheen ran for re-election  Shaheen defeated Republican nominee Scott Brown, who had represented neighboring Massachusetts in the Senate from 2010 to 2013 

New Jersey
Incumbent Democrat Frank Lautenberg had been re-elected with 56% of the vote in 2008  After announcing he would not seek re-election, Lautenberg died in June 2013, aged 89, after a long period of ill health Newark Mayor Cory Booker, a Democrat, defeated Republican nominee Steve Lonegan by 55%-to-45% in a 2013 special election to replace interim Republican appointee Jeffrey Chiesa  Booker ran for re-election to a full term in 2014  1978 and 1982 Republican candidate and political operative Jeff Bell was the Republican nominee 

New Mexico
One-term incumbent Democrat Tom Udall had been elected with 61% of the vote in 2008  Former Doña Ana County Republican Party Chairman David Clements and former New Mexico Republican Party Chairman Allen Weh sought the Republican nomination  Weh won the June 3 primary but lost to Udall in the general election 

North Carolina
One-term incumbent Democrat Kay Hagan had been elected with 53% of the vote against incumbent Republican Elizabeth Dole in 2008  Hagan was seeking re-election State House Speaker Thom Tillis was the Republican nominee  Sean Haugh won the Libertarian nomination 

Oklahoma
There were 2 elections in Oklahoma, due to the resignation of Tom Coburn 

Oklahoma (regular)
Three-term incumbent Republican Jim Inhofe had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008  Inhofe sought re-election  Matt Silverstein, an insurance agency owner, ran for the Democratic nomination 

Oklahoma (special)
Two-term incumbent Republican Tom Coburn had been re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2010, and was not scheduled to be up for election again until 2016  However, Coburn announced his intention to resign at the end of the 113th Congress  A special election to fill his seat took place in November 2014, concurrent with the other Senate elections  Congressman James Lankford was the Republican nominee  State Senator Connie Johnson was the Democratic nominee 

Oregon
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeff Merkley was narrowly elected with 49% of the vote in 2008  Merkley was running for a second term  State representative Jason Conger, attorney Tim Crawley, IT consultant Mark Callahan, neurosurgeon Dr  Monica Wehby, and former Linn County Republican Chair Jo Rae Perkins all ran for the Republican nomination, with Wehby ultimately winning the nomination in the May 20 primary 

Rhode Island
Three-term incumbent Democrat Jack Reed had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Reed defeated Republican nominee Mark Zaccaria in the 2014 election 

South Carolina
There were 2 elections in South Carolina, due to the resignation of Jim DeMint 

South Carolina (regular)
Two-term Republican Lindsey Graham had been re-elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Graham won the Republican nomination over a field that included state senator Lee Bright  State Senator Brad Hutto won the Democratic nomination 

South Carolina (special)
Jim DeMint had been elected to a second term in 2010, but resigned from the Senate in January 2013 to become president of The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank  Governor Nikki Haley appointed Congressman Tim Scott as DeMint's replacement  Scott, an African-American, was the Republican nominee to serve out the remainder of DeMint's term  Scott is the first African-American Republican since shortly after Reconstruction to represent a Southern state  Richland County Councilwoman Joyce Dickerson won the Democratic nomination 

South Dakota
Three-term incumbent Democrat Tim Johnson had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Johnson announced on March 26, 2013, that he would not run for re-election  Former Congressional aide Rick Weiland was the Democratic nominee Among Republicans, former two-term Governor Mike Rounds announced his candidacy for the GOP nomination on November 29, 2012  Rounds won the Republican nomination over state senator Larry Rhoden, state representative Stace Nelson, and physician Annette Bosworth Former Republican U S  Senator Larry Pressler and Republican State Senator Gordon Howie ran as independents  Pressler did not commit to caucusing with either party, while Howie said he would caucus with the Senate Republicans 

Tennessee
Two-term incumbent Republican Lamar Alexander had been re-elected with 65% of the vote in 2008  Alexander sought re-election to a third term  On August 7, 2014, Alexander won the Republican nomination over six challengers, including State Representative Joe Carr On November 4, 2014, Alexander faced Democratic nominee Gordon Ball, Libertarian Party nominee Joshua James, Constitution Party nominee Joe Wilmothm, and independent Danny Page also ran in the general election 

Texas
Two-term incumbent Republican John Cornyn, the Senate Minority Whip, had been re-elected with 55% of the vote in 2008  Cornyn sought re-election, and won the 2014 Republican primary with 59% of the vote  David Alameel, a dentist, and Kesha Rogers, a volunteer for The Lyndon LaRouche Policy Institute, faced each other in a run-off election for the Democratic nomination  Alameel won the run-off and was the Democratic nominee 

Virginia
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Warner had been elected with 65% of the vote in 2008; he sought re-election  Ed Gillespie, former RNC Chairman and presidential adviser, ran for the Republican nomination  Robert Sarvis, the Libertarian nominee for Governor in 2013, also ran 

West Virginia
Five-term incumbent Democrat Jay Rockefeller had been re-elected with 64% of the vote in 2008  He announced on January 11, 2013, that he would not seek re-election to a sixth term  Secretary of State Natalie Tennant won the Democratic nomination On November 26, 2012, Republican Congresswoman Shelley Moore Capito announced her plans to run for the seat, in hopes of becoming the first Republican Senator elected from West Virginia since 1956  Moore Capito won the Republican nomination and the general election, the first woman to serve as United States Senator from West Virginia 

Wyoming
Three-term incumbent Republican Mike Enzi had been re-elected with 76% of the vote in 2008  Enzi sought re-election  Liz Cheney, daughter of former Vice President Dick Cheney, briefly entered the race for the Republican nomination, but dropped her bid in January 2014  On August 19, Enzi won the Republican primary election with 82% of the vote, and Democrat Charlie Hardy, a former Catholic priest, won his party's primary election with 48% of the vote 

See also
2014 United States elections
2014 United States gubernatorial elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
113th United States Congress
114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 8:
115th United States Congress
The 115th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States of America federal government, composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives  It met in Washington, D C , from January 3, 2017, to January 3, 2019, during the final weeks of Barack Obama's presidency and the first two years of Donald Trump's presidency  The seats in the House were apportioned based on the 2010 United States census The Republican Party retained their majority in both the House and the Senate, and, with inauguration of Donald Trump on January 20, 2017, attained an overall federal government trifecta for the first time since the 109th Congress in 2005 
Several political scientists described the legislative accomplishments of this Congress as modest, considering that both Congress and the presidency were under unified Republican Party control  According to a contemporary study, "House and Senate GOP majorities struggled to legislate: GOP fissures and the president frequently undermined the Republican agenda  Most notably, clashes within and between the two parties (for example, on healthcare issues) strained old ways of doing business "

Major events
January 5, 2017: House of Representatives condemned United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334 
January 6, 2017: Joint session counted and certified the electoral votes of the 2016 presidential election 
January 11–12, 2017: Senate, in an all-night session, took first steps to repeal the Affordable Care Act, (ACA)  The final vote was 51 to 48 to approve a budget resolution to allow "broad swaths of the Affordable Care Act to be repealed through a process known as budget reconciliation "
January 20, 2017: Donald Trump became 45th President of the United States
February 7, 2017: Vice President Mike Pence cast the tie-breaking vote to confirm Betsy DeVos as Secretary of Education  This was the first time in United States history that a cabinet confirmation was tied in the Senate and required a tie-breaking vote 
February 28, 2017: President Trump addressed a joint session of Congress 
April 6, 2017: Senate invoked the "nuclear option" to weaken Supreme Court filibusters  Nominee Neil Gorsuch was then confirmed the next day 
June 14, 2017: Majority Whip Steve Scalise and several staffers were shot during the Congressional baseball shooting  They were practicing for the annual Congressional Baseball Game 
September 1, 2017: The Parliamentarian of the United States Senate decreed that the Senate had until the end of the month to pass ACA repeal via the reconciliation process, or the option would no longer be viable 
October 24 – December 14, 2017: 2017 United States political sexual scandals from the "Me too" movement:
Allegations that Democratic Congressman Ruben Kihuen sexually harassed a campaign staffer led some in congressional leadership to call for his resignation  Kihuen later announced he would not seek another term in office 
Democratic senator Al Franken announced he would resign "in the coming weeks" after photographs were made public suggesting that he sexually assaulted (groped) a Los Angeles-based radio personality during a USO tour in Iraq in 2006  He was also accused by multiple female constituents of groping at various Minnesota fair appearances that he attended 
Three members of Congress either resigned or announced their impending resignations  (See "Changes in membership")
Allegations that President Donald Trump previously raped and sexually harassed at least nineteen women, one girl, and Miss Teen USA contestants resulted in calls by members of Congress for him to resign 
Allegations that Republican Alabama Senate candidate Roy Moore previously raped and sexually harassed at least eight women and one girl contributed to his defeat by Democrat Doug Jones in a special Senate election to replace Attorney General Jeff Sessions 
Allegations that House member Blake Farenthold sexually harassed a former staffer resulted in the commencement of an investigation by the House Ethics Committee and his announcement he would not seek re-election in 2018  He subsequently resigned on April 6, 2018 
January 20–22, 2018: United States federal government shutdown of January 2018
January 30, 2018: 2018 State of the Union Address
February 9, 2018: United States federal government funding gap
October 6, 2018: Senate confirms Brett Kavanaugh's nomination to the U S  Supreme Court 
November 28, 2018: Senate discharges from committee and calendars S J Res  54, bill that ends US intervention in the Yemeni Civil War 
December 22, 2018 – January 25, 2019: 2018–19 United States federal government shutdown

Major legislation
Enacted
January 31, 2017: GAO Access and Oversight Act of 2017, Pub L  115-3
February 28, 2017: Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act, Pub L  115-6
February 28, 2017: INSPIRE Women Act, Pub L  115-7
March 28, 2017: Vietnam War Veterans Recognition Act of 2017, Pub L  115-15
April 18, 2017: Weather Research and Forecasting Innovation Act of 2017, Pub L  115-25
May 5, 2017: Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2017, H R  244, Pub  L  115–31 (text) (PDF)
August 2, 2017: Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, H R  3364, Pub  L  115–44 (text) (PDF)
November 2, 2017: Strengthening State and Local Cyber Crime Fighting Act of 2017, Pub L  115-76
December 12, 2017: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2018, H R  2810, Pub  L  115–91 (text) (PDF)
December 22, 2017: Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, H R  1, Pub  L  115–97 (text) (PDF)
February 9, 2018: Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018, H R  1892, Pub  L  115–123 (text) (PDF)
February 14, 2018: Protecting Young Victims from Sexual Abuse and Safe Sport Authorization Act of 2017, Pub L  115-126
March 16, 2018: Taiwan Travel Act, H R  535, Pub  L  115–135 (text) (PDF)
March 23, 2018: Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2018 (including the CLOUD Act), H R  1625, Pub  L  115–141 (text) (PDF)
April 11, 2018: Stop Enabling Sex Traffickers Act, H R  1865, Pub  L  115–164 (text) (PDF)
May 9, 2018: Justice for Uncompensated Survivors Today (JUST) Act, Pub L  115-171
May 24, 2018: Economic Growth, Regulatory Relief and Consumer Protection Act, S  2155, Pub  L  115–174 (text) (PDF)
May 30, 2018: Trickett Wendler, Frank Mongiello, Jordan McLinn, and Matthew Bellina Right to Try Act of 2017, S  204, Pub  L  115–176 (text) (PDF)
August 13, 2018: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, H R  5515, Pub  L  115–232 (text) (PDF)
October 5, 2018: FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018, H R  302, Pub  L  115–254 (text) (PDF)
October 9, 2018: Marrakesh Treaty Implementation Act, Pub L  115-261
October 11, 2018: Music Modernization Act, H R  1551, Pub  L  115–264 (text) (PDF)
October 23, 2018: America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018, S  3021, Pub  L  115–270 (text) (PDF)
October 24, 2018: SUPPORT for Patients and Communities Act, H R  6, Pub  L  115–271 (text) (PDF)
November 16, 2018: Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency Act, H R  3359, Pub  L  115–278 (text) (PDF)
December 7, 2018: Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornography Victim Assistance Act of 2018, Pub L  115-299
December 11, 2018: Iraq and Syria Genocide Relief and Accountability Act of 2018, Pub L  115-300
December 20, 2018: Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018, H R  2, Pub  L  115–334 (text) (PDF)
December 21, 2018: National Quantum Initiative Act, Pub L  115-368
December 21, 2018: FIRST STEP Act, S  756, Pub  L  115–391 (text) (PDF)
January 14, 2019: Foundations for Evidence-Based Policymaking Act of 2018, Pub L  115-435
January 14, 2019: Elie Wiesel Genocide and Atrocities Prevention Act of 2018, Pub L  115-441

Proposed
May 4, 2017: American Health Care Act (H R  1628), passed House May 4, 2017
June 8, 2017: Financial CHOICE Act (H R  10), passed House June 8, 2017

Party summary
Resignations and new members are discussed in the "Changes in membership" section, below 

Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Section contents: Senate: Majority (R), Minority (D) • House: Majority (R),  Minority (D)

Senate
President: Joe Biden (D), until January 20, 2017
Mike Pence (R), from January 20, 2017
President pro tempore: Orrin Hatch (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Mitch McConnell
Majority Whip: John Cornyn
Republican Conference Chairman: John Thune
Republican Conference Vice Chairman: Roy Blunt
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Cory Gardner
Policy Committee Chairman: John Barrasso

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Chuck Schumer
Minority Whip: Dick Durbin
Assistant Minority Leader: Patty Murray
Chief Deputy Whip: Jeff Merkley
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Chuck Schumer
Policy Committee Chairwoman: Debbie Stabenow
Democratic Caucus Vice Chairs: Mark Warner and Elizabeth Warren
Democratic Caucus Secretary: Tammy Baldwin
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Chris Van Hollen
Policy Committee Vice Chairman: Joe Manchin
Steering Committee Chairwoman: Amy Klobuchar
Outreach Chair: Bernie Sanders

House of Representatives
Speaker: Paul Ryan (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Kevin McCarthy
Majority Whip: Steve Scalise
Republican Conference Chairman: Cathy McMorris Rodgers
Republican Conference Vice-Chairman: Doug Collins
Republican Conference Secretary: Jason T  Smith
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Steve Stivers
Policy Committee Chairman: Luke Messer

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Nancy Pelosi
Minority Whip: Steny Hoyer
Assistant Minority Leader: Jim Clyburn
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Joseph Crowley
Democratic Caucus Vice-Chairwoman: Linda Sánchez
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Ben Ray Luján
Steering and Policy Committee Co-Chairs: Rosa DeLauro and Eric Swalwell
Policy and Communications Chairmen: Cheri Bustos, David Cicilline, and Hakeem Jeffries

Demographics
Note: Demographics are accurate as of the commencement of the 115th Congress on January 3, 2017 
The average age of members of the House of Representatives during the 115th Congress was 57 8 years, while the average age of U S  senators was 61 8 years 
The most common occupation of senators prior to being elected to their posts was law, followed by public service/politics and business  In the House of Representatives, business was the dominant prior occupation, followed by public service/politics and law  In the 115th Congress, 94 1% of House members and 100% of senators had attained a bachelor's degree or a higher degree; this was a historically high level of education for a United States Congress  In addition, 167 members of the House and 55 members of the Senate had law degrees  Only 18 members of Congress had no college education Ethnic minorities in the 115th Congress consisted of 52 African American members, 45 Hispanic or Latino members, 18 Asian-American or Pacific Islander members, and two members of Native American ancestry  Women comprised 20 1% of the membership in the 115th Congress, which had 109 women and 326 men  This represented an increase of 21 women from the 114th Congress Seven openly LGBT members served in the 115th Congress  Tammy Baldwin, Jared Polis, Sean Patrick Maloney, Mark Takano, David Cicilline, and Mark Pocan are openly gay, while Kyrsten Sinema is openly bisexual The majority of the 115th Congress was religiously affiliated, with 90 7% identifying as Christians  Approximately half of the Christians were Protestant  Other religious faiths of congressmembers in the 115th Congress included Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism 

Members
Senate
The numbers refer to their Senate classes  All of the class 3 seats were contested in the November 2016 elections  Class 1 terms end with this Congress, requiring re-election in 2018; Class 2 began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 2020; and Class 3 began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 2022 

House of Representatives
All 435 seats were filled by the regular elections on November 8, 2016, or subsequent special elections thereafter 

Caucuses
Changes in membership
Senate
House of Representatives
Committees
Section contents: Senate, House, Joint

Senate
House of Representatives
Joint
Employees and legislative agency directors
Senate
Chaplain: Barry C  Black (Seventh-day Adventist)
Curator: Melinda Smith
Historian: Betty Koed
Librarian: Leona I  Faust
Parliamentarian: Elizabeth MacDonough
Secretary: Julie E  Adams
Sergeant at Arms: Frank J  Larkin, until April 16, 2018
Michael C  Stenger, starting April 16, 2018
Secretary for the Majority: Laura Dove
Secretary for the Minority: Gary B  Myrick

House of Representatives
Chaplain: Patrick J  Conroy (Roman Catholic)
Chief Administrative Officer: Phil Kiko
Clerk: Karen L  Haas
Historian: Matthew Wasniewski
Inspector General: Theresa M  Grafenstine then Michael Ptasienski
Parliamentarian: Thomas J  Wickham Jr 
Reading Clerks: Susan Cole and Joseph Novotny
Sergeant at Arms: Paul D  Irving

Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Stephen T  Ayers, until November 25, 2018
Christine A  Merdon (acting), starting November 25, 2018
Attending Physician of the United States Congress: Brian P  Monahan
Comptroller General of the United States: Eugene Louis Dodaro
Director of the Congressional Budget Office: Keith Hall
Librarian of Congress: Carla Diane Hayden
Public Printer of the United States: Jim Bradley

See also
Elections
2016 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
2016 United States presidential election
2016 United States Senate elections
2016 United States House of Representatives elections
2018 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
2018 United States Senate elections
2018 United States House of Representatives elections

Membership lists
List of new members of the 115th United States Congress

Notes
Context 2: Passage 1:
Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos
Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos (19 July 1871 – 25 May 1935) was a Dominican political figure  He served as provisional president of the Dominican Republic between 1922 and 1924 during the U S  military occupation 

Early life
Juan Bautista Vicini was born on 19 July 1871 to Italian immigrant Juan Bautista Vicini Cánepa (born Giovanni Battista Vicini) and his concubine María Burgos Brito  His father arrived to the Dominican Republic during the boom in the sugar industry which he took advantage of to create a respectable operation within a relatively short amount of time  According to the Dutch author H  Hoetink in his book El Pueblo Dominicano, 1850–1900, his father owned two sugar plantations by 1882 and by 1893 was the owner of the sugar mill "Angelina"  His friendly relationship with General Ulises Heureaux (Lilís) helped him consolidate a respectable fortune  Vicini inherited his father's business and was able to become a successful businessman mainly by part of his strict European education  Vicini was fluent in Spanish, Italian, English and French at a very young age 
Juan Bautista Vicini never married and had no wife during his presidency 

Political career
The Dominican Republic had been occupied by American Troops since 1916 and after the approval of the Hughes-Peynado plan Vicini was a candidate for the position of provisional President of the Dominican Republic  He was elected President in 1922 and his main goal was to facilitate the evacuation of the United States troops that were present in the Dominican Republic  The day after he was elected, Vicini named the five men who would make up his cabinet  They were as follows:

José del Carmen Ariza, Secretary of Internal Affairs
Cayetano Armando Rodríquez, Secretary of Justice and Instruction
Eladio Sánchez, Secretary of Promotion and Communications
Manuel Sanabia, Secretary of Health and Charity
Pedro Pérez, Secretary of Agriculture and ImmigrationWith these steps, Vicini assured the removal of the North American forces in a peaceful manner  Despite its good intentions, Vicini's regime was plagued and pressured by the tight grip of the Hughes-Peynado plan and by the American forces that were still in the country  Even so, he set up the cleanest elections that the Dominican Republic had ever seen in which Horacio Vásquez won on 15 March 1924 against Francisco J  Peynado 
When Vicini left the presidency after the elections, he went back to his sugar business and abandoned politics for the remainder of his life  At the time of his death on 25 May 1935 Juan Bautista Vicini left his relatives one of the largest sugar enterprises in the Caribbean, which is still operating as of 2010 
Passage 2:
Plymouth Notch Cemetery
The Plymouth Notch Cemetery in Plymouth Notch, Vermont, is noted as the burial place for 30th President of the United States Calvin Coolidge, as well as his wife Grace, children (Calvin Coolidge, Jr  1908–1924, John Coolidge 1906–2000), and other members of the Coolidge family Other notable burials include Howard E  Armstrong, who served as Secretary of State of Vermont from 1949 to 1965, and abolitionist Achsa W  Sprague 
Passage 3:
Ceredig
Ceredig ap Cunedda (died 453), was king of Ceredigion in Wales He may have been born c  420 in the Brythonic kingdom of Manaw Gododdin (modern Lothian in Scotland), centred on the Firth of Forth in the area known as Yr Hen Ogledd 
Little is known of him  One of the sons of Cunedda, grandfather of Saint David, according to Nennius' Historia Brittonum, he arrived in what is now modern Wales from Gododdin with his father's family when they were invited to help ward off Irish invaders  As a reward for his bravery, his father gave him the southernmost part of the territories in north-west Wales reconquered from the Irish  The realm is traditionally supposed to have been called Ceredigion after him, which led to the name of modern Ceredigion, one of the principal areas of Wales 
He married Meleri, one of the many daughters of King Brychan Brycheiniog of Brycheiniog (now Brecknockshire)  Amongst their children was a daughter named Ina who is thought to be the Saint Ina to whom St Ina's Church in Llanina near New Quay, Ceredigion is dedicated 

Footnotes
Passage 4:
Niels Henrik Abel
Niels Henrik Abel ( AH-bəl, Norwegian: [ˌnɪls ˈhɛ̀nːɾɪk ˈɑ̀ːbl̩]; 5 August 1802 – 6 April 1829) was a Norwegian mathematician who made pioneering contributions in a variety of fields   His most famous single result is the first complete proof demonstrating the impossibility of solving the general quintic equation in radicals  This question was one of the outstanding open problems of his day, and had been unresolved for over 250 years  He was also an innovator in the field of elliptic functions, discoverer of Abelian functions  He made his discoveries while living in poverty and died at the age of 26 from tuberculosis  He and his contemporary Évariste Galois (who also died young at 20) developed the branch of mathematics now known as group theory  
Most of his work was done in six or seven years of his working life  Regarding Abel, the French mathematician Charles Hermite said: "Abel has left mathematicians enough to keep them busy for five hundred years " Another French mathematician, Adrien-Marie Legendre, said: "What a head the young Norwegian has!"The Abel Prize in mathematics, originally proposed in 1899 to complement the Nobel Prizes (but first awarded in 2003), is named in his honour 

Life
Early life
Niels Henrik Abel was born prematurely in 
Nedstrand, Norway, as the second child of the pastor Søren Georg Abel and Anne Marie Simonsen  When Niels Henrik Abel was born, the family was living at a rectory on Finnøy  Much suggests that Niels Henrik was born in the neighboring parish, as his parents were guests of the bailiff in Nedstrand in July / August of his year of birth Niels Henrik Abel's father, Søren Georg Abel, had a degree in theology and philosophy and served as pastor at Finnøy  Søren's father, Niels's grandfather, Hans Mathias Abel, was also a pastor, at Gjerstad Church near the town of Risør  Søren had spent his childhood at Gjerstad, and had also served as chaplain there; and after his father's death in 1804, Søren was appointed pastor at Gjerstad and the family moved there  The Abel family originated in Schleswig and came to Norway in the 17th century 

Anne Marie Simonsen was from Risør; her father, Niels Henrik Saxild Simonsen, was a tradesman and merchant ship-owner, and said to be the richest person in Risør  Anne Marie had grown up with two stepmothers, in relatively luxurious surroundings  At Gjerstad rectory, she enjoyed arranging balls and social gatherings  Much suggests she was early on an alcoholic and took little interest in the upbringing of the children  Niels Henrik and his brothers were given their schooling by their father, with handwritten books to read  An addition table in a book of mathematics reads: 1+0=0 

Cathedral School and Royal Frederick University
With Norwegian independence and the first election held in Norway, in 1814, Søren Abel was elected as a representative to the Storting  Meetings of the Storting were held until 1866 in the main hall of the Cathedral School in Christiania (now known as Oslo)  Almost certainly, this is how he came into contact with the school, and he decided that his eldest son, Hans Mathias, should start there the following year  However, when the time for his departure approached, Hans was so saddened and depressed over having to leave home that his father did not dare send him away  He decided to send Niels instead In 1815, Niels Abel entered the Cathedral School at the age of 13  His elder brother Hans joined him there a year later  They shared rooms and had classes together  Hans got better grades than Niels; however, a new mathematics teacher, Bernt Michael Holmboe, was appointed in 1818  He gave the students mathematical tasks to do at home  He saw Niels Henrik's talent in mathematics, and encouraged him to study the subject to an advanced level  He even gave Niels private lessons after school 
In 1818, Søren Abel had a public theological argument with the theologian Stener Johannes Stenersen regarding his catechism from 1806  The argument was well covered in the press  Søren was given the nickname "Abel Treating" (Norwegian: "Abel Spandabel")  Niels' reaction to the quarrel was said to have been "excessive gaiety"  At the same time, Søren also almost faced impeachment after insulting Carsten Anker, the host of the Norwegian Constituent Assembly; and in September 1818 he returned to Gjerstad with his political career in ruins  He began drinking heavily and died only two years later, in 1820, aged 48 
Bernt Michael Holmboe supported Niels Henrik Abel with a scholarship to remain at the school and raised money from his friends to enable him to study at the Royal Frederick University 
When Abel entered the university in 1821, he was already the most knowledgeable mathematician in Norway  Holmboe had nothing more he could teach him and Abel had studied all the latest mathematical literature in the university library  During that time, Abel started working on the quintic equation in radicals  Mathematicians had been looking for a solution to this problem for over 250 years  In 1821, Abel thought he had found the solution  The two professors of mathematics in Christiania, Søren Rasmussen and Christopher Hansteen, found no errors in Abel's formulas, and sent the work on to the leading mathematician in the Nordic countries, Carl Ferdinand Degen in Copenhagen  He too found no faults but still doubted that the solution, which so many outstanding mathematicians had sought for so long, could really have been found by an unknown student in far-off Christiania  Degen noted, however, Abel's unusually sharp mind, and believed that such a talented young man should not waste his abilities on such a "sterile object" as the fifth degree equation, but rather on elliptic functions and transcendence; for then, wrote Degen, he would "discover Magellanian thoroughfares to large portions of a vast analytical ocean"  Degen asked Abel to give a numerical example of his method  While trying to provide an example, Abel found a mistake in his paper  This led to a discovery in 1823 that a solution to a fifth- or higher-degree equation was impossible Abel graduated in 1822  His performance was exceptionally high in mathematics and average in other matters 

Career
After he graduated, professors from university supported Abel financially, and Professor Christopher Hansteen let him live in a room in the attic of his home  Abel would later view Ms  Hansteen as his second mother  While living here, Abel helped his younger brother, Peder Abel, through examen artium  He also helped his sister Elisabeth to find work in the town 
In early 1823, Niels Abel published his first article in "Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne", Norway's first scientific journal, which had been co-founded by Professor Hansteen  Abel published several articles, but the journal soon realized that this was not material for the common reader  In 1823, Abel also wrote a paper in French  It was "a general representation of the possibility to integrate all differential formulas" (Norwegian: en alminnelig Fremstilling af Muligheten at integrere alle mulige Differential-Formler)  He applied for funds at the university to publish it  However, the work was lost while being reviewed, never to be found thereafter 

In mid-1823, Professor Rasmussen gave Abel a gift of 100 speciedaler so he could travel to Copenhagen and visit Ferdinand Degen and other mathematicians there  While in Copenhagen, Abel did some work on Fermat's Last Theorem  Abel's uncle, Peder Mandrup Tuxen, lived at the naval base in Christianshavn, Copenhagen, and at a ball there Niels Abel met Christine Kemp, his future fiancée  In 1824, Christine moved to Son, Norway to work as a governess and the couple got engaged over Christmas After returning from Copenhagen, Abel applied for a government scholarship in order to visit top mathematicians in Germany and France, but he was instead granted 200 speciedaler yearly for two years, to stay in Christiania and study German and French  In the next two years, he was promised a scholarship of 600 speciedaler yearly and he would then be permitted to travel abroad  While studying these languages, Abel published his first notable work in 1824, Mémoire sur les équations algébriques où on démontre l'impossibilité de la résolution de l'équation générale du cinquième degré (Memoir on algebraic equations, in which the impossibility of solving the general equation of the fifth degree is proven)  By 1823, Abel had at last proved the impossibility of solving the quintic equation in radicals (now referred to as the Abel–Ruffini theorem)  However, this paper was in an abstruse and difficult form, in part because he had restricted himself to only six pages in order to save money on printing  A more detailed proof was published in 1826 in the first volume of Crelle's Journal 

In 1825, Abel wrote a personal letter to King Carl Johan of Norway/Sweden requesting permission to travel abroad  He was granted this permission, and in September 1825 he left Christiania together with four friends from university (Christian P B Boeck, Balthazar M  Keilhau, Nicolay B  Møller and Otto Tank)  These four friends of Abel were traveling to Berlin and to the Alps to study geology  Abel wanted to follow them to Copenhagen and from there make his way to Göttingen  The terms for his scholarship stipulated that he was to visit Gauss in Göttingen and then continue to Paris  However, when he got as far as Copenhagen, he changed his plans  He wanted to follow his friends to Berlin instead, intending to visit Göttingen and Paris afterwards On the way, he visited the astronomer Heinrich Christian Schumacher in Altona, now a district of Hamburg  He then spent four months in Berlin, where he became well acquainted with August Leopold Crelle, who was then about to publish his mathematical journal, Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik  This project was warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the success of the venture  Abel contributed seven articles to it in its first year 
From Berlin Abel also followed his friends to the Alps  He went to Leipzig and Freiberg to visit Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich Naumann and his brother the mathematician August Naumann  In Freiberg Abel did research in the theory of functions, particularly, elliptic, hyperelliptic, and a new class now known as abelian functions 
From Freiberg they went on to Dresden, Prague, Vienna, Trieste, Venice, Verona, Bolzano, Innsbruck, Luzern and Basel  From July 1826 Abel traveled on his own from Basel to Paris  Abel had sent most of his work to Berlin to be published in Crelle's Journal, but he had saved what he regarded as his most important work for the French Academy of Sciences, a theorem on addition of algebraic differentials  With the help of a painter, Johan Gørbitz, he found an apartment in Paris and continued his work on the theorem  He finished in October 1826 and submitted it to the academy  It was to be reviewed by Augustin-Louis Cauchy  Abel's work was scarcely known in Paris, and his modesty restrained him from proclaiming his research  The theorem was put aside and forgotten until his death 
Abel's limited finances finally compelled him to abandon his tour in January 1827  He returned to Berlin, and was offered a position as editor of Crelle's Journal, but opted out  By May 1827 he was back in Norway  His tour abroad was viewed as a failure  He had not visited Gauss in Göttingen and he had not published anything in Paris  His scholarship was therefore not renewed and he had to take up a private loan in Norges Bank of 200 spesidaler  He never repaid this loan  He also started tutoring  He continued to send most of his work to Crelle's Journal  But in mid-1828 he published, in rivalry with Carl Jacobi, an important work on elliptic functions in Astronomische Nachrichten in Altona 

Death
While in Paris, Abel contracted tuberculosis  At Christmas 1828, he traveled by sled to Froland, Norway, to visit his fiancée  He became seriously ill on the journey  Although a temporary improvement allowed the couple to enjoy the holiday together, he died relatively soon after on 6 April 1829, just two days before a letter arrived from August Crelle telling Abel that Crelle had secured him an appointment as a professor at the University of Berlin 

Contributions to mathematics
Abel showed that there is no general algebraic solution for the roots of a quintic equation, or any general polynomial equation of degree greater than four, in terms of explicit algebraic operations with the Abel-Ruffini theorem  To do this, he invented (independently of Galois) a branch of mathematics known as group theory,  which is invaluable not only in many areas of mathematics, but for much of physics as well  Abel sent a paper on the unsolvability of the quintic equation to Carl Friedrich Gauss, who proceeded to discard without a glance what he believed to be the worthless work of a crank As a 16-year-old, Abel gave a rigorous proof of the binomial theorem valid for all numbers, extending Euler's result which had held only for rationals  Abel wrote a fundamental work on the theory of elliptic integrals, containing the foundations of the theory of elliptic functions 
While travelling to Paris he published a paper revealing the double periodicity of elliptic functions, which Adrien-Marie Legendre later described to Augustin-Louis Cauchy as "a monument more lasting than bronze" (borrowing a famous sentence by the Roman poet Horatius)  The paper was, however, misplaced by Cauchy While abroad Abel had sent most of his work to Berlin to be published in the Crelle's Journal, but he had saved what he regarded as his most important work for the French Academy of Sciences, a theorem on addition of algebraic differentials  The theorem was put aside and forgotten until his death  While in Freiberg, Abel did research in the theory of functions, particularly, elliptic, hyperelliptic, and a new class now known as abelian functions 
In 1823 Abel wrote a paper titled "a general representation of the possibility to integrate all differential formulas" (Norwegian: en alminnelig Fremstilling af Muligheten at integrere alle mulige Differential-Formler)  He applied for funds at the university to publish it  However the work was lost, while being reviewed, never to be found thereafter Abel said famously of Carl Friedrich Gauss's writing style, "He is like the fox, who effaces his tracks in the sand with his tail " Gauss replied to him by saying, "No self-respecting architect leaves the scaffolding in place after completing his building "

Legacy
Under Abel's guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis began to be cleared, new fields were entered upon and the study of functions so advanced as to provide mathematicians with numerous ramifications along which progress could be made  His works, the greater part of which originally appeared in Crelle's Journal, were edited by Bernt Michael Holmboe and published in 1839 by the Norwegian government, and a more complete edition by Ludwig Sylow and Sophus Lie was published in 1881  The adjective "abelian", derived from his name, has become so commonplace in mathematical writing that it is conventionally spelled with a lower-case initial "a" (e g , abelian group, abelian category, and abelian variety) 
On 6 April 1929, four Norwegian stamps were issued for the centenary of Abel's death  His portrait appears on the 500-kroner banknote (version V) issued during 1978–1985  On 5 June 2002, four Norwegian stamps were issued in honour of Abel two months before the bicentenary of his birth  There is also a 20-kroner coin issued by Norway in his honour  A statue of Abel stands in Oslo, and crater Abel on the Moon was named after him  In 2002, the Abel Prize was established in his memory 
Mathematician Felix Klein wrote about Abel:

But I would not like to part from this ideal type of researcher, such as has seldom appeared in the history of mathematics, without evoking a figure from another sphere who, in spite of his totally different field, still seems related  Thus, although Abel shared with many mathematicians a complete lack of musical talent, I will not sound absurd if I compare his kind of productivity and his personality with Mozart's  Thus one might erect a monument to this divinely inspired mathematician like the one to Mozart in Vienna: simple and unassuming he stands there listening, while graceful angels float about, playfully bringing him inspiration from another world 
Instead, I must mention the very different type of memorial that was in fact erected to Abel in Christiania and which must greatly disappoint anyone familiar with his nature  On a towering, steep block of granite a youthful athlete of the Byronic type steps over two greyish sacrificial victims, his direction toward the heavens  If needed be, one might take the hero to be a symbol of the human spirit, but one ponders the deeper significance of the two monsters in vain  Are they the conquered quintic equations or elliptic functions? Or the sorrows and cares of his everyday life? The pedestal of the monument bears, in immense letters, the inscription ABEL 

See also
List of things named after Niels Henrik Abel
Évariste Galois

Notes
Passage 5:
NASCAR Speedway Division
The NASCAR Speedway Division was a short-lived series brought forth in 1952 by NASCAR president and founder Bill France Sr  The series consisted of open-wheel race cars competing with stock engines  The idea of the series was to draw from the popularity of other open-wheel racing events such as the Indianapolis 500 

History
1952 season
The first Speedway Division race was held at Darlington Raceway and was won by Buck Baker with a Cadillac engine  The series' second race was held at Martinsville Speedway on May 25, with only 17 entries  The pole at Martinsville was won by Bill Miller in an "Olds 88 Special"  Tex Keene, driving a car with a stock Mercury engine came from 16th place to win the race  A total of seven races were run in 1952 with Buck Baker becoming the series champion 

1953 season
In 1953, Speedway Division events were paired with those in the Sportsman Division   Three races were held with few entries before the series was quietly discontinued   The final series champion was Pete Allen 

Statistics
Race wins
Championships
Passage 6:
Richard Fink
Richard Harold Fink (born May 31, 1951) is an American businessman and academic  He is the former executive vice president of Koch Industries, the second largest privately held company in the U S 

Education and academic career
Fink received a B A  in economics from Rutgers University, an M A  in economics from the University of California, Los Angeles, and a Ph D  in economics from New York University  Between 1980 and 1986, Fink was on the economics faculty at George Mason University, where he was the founder and director of the Center for Market Processes, which later became the Mercatus Center  Under his leadership, during the 1980s, George Mason was a center of Austrian Economics 

Relationship with Charles Koch
In the late '70s, Richard Fink met Charles Koch to discuss founding a research center devoted to teaching Austrian economics thought at Rutgers  Fink met with Koch in Wichita and planned what became the Mercatus Center in 1999 

Koch Industries
Fink served as an executive vice president of Koch Industries, Inc  He was also chairman and CEO of Koch Companies Public Sector, LLC, which provides legal and government and public affairs services to Koch Industries and its affiliate  He was on the board of directors of Koch Industries Inc , Georgia-Pacific and Flint Hills Resources, LLC 

Koch Family Foundations
Fink was a member of the boards of directors and President of the Charles G  Koch Charitable Foundation and the Claude R  Lambe Charitable Foundation  He was also on the board of the Fred C  and Mary R  Koch Foundation 

Board memberships
Fink served on the board of trustees of the Democratic Leadership Council Fink co-founded Citizens for a Sound Economy, where he served as president, and co-founded the Citizens for a Sound Economy Foundation, which is now the Americans for Prosperity Foundation  
He also sat on the board of the Institute for Humane Studies, and the Mercatus Center at George Mason University  He previously served on the Consumer Advisory Council of the Federal Reserve Board and the Commission on Privatization 
Fink was a member of the boards of directors of the Charles Koch Foundation, the Claude R  Lambe Charitable Foundation, the Fred C  and Mary R  Koch Foundation, the Institute for Humane Studies, the Market-Based Management Institute, and Americans for Prosperity Foundation 
Passage 7:
Isabel Martínez de Perón
Isabel Martínez de Perón (Spanish pronunciation: [isaˈβel maɾˈtines ðe peˈɾon], born María Estela Martínez Cartas, 4 February 1931), also known as Isabelita, is an Argentine politician who served as President of Argentina from 1974 to 1976  She was one of the first female republican heads of state in the world, and the first woman to serve as president of a country 
Isabel Perón was the third wife of President Juan Perón  During her husband's third term as president from 1973 to 1974, she served as both Vice President and First Lady of Argentina  Following her husband's death in office in 1974, she served as President for almost two years before the military took over the government with the 1976 coup  Perón was then placed under house arrest for five years before she was exiled to Spain in 1981 In 2007 an Argentine judge ordered Perón's arrest over the forced disappearance of an activist in February 1976, on the grounds that the disappearance was authorized by her signing of decrees allowing Argentina's armed forces to take action against "subversives"  She was arrested near her home in Spain on 12 January 2007  Spanish courts subsequently refused her extradition to Argentina Since the death of Carlos Menem on 14 February 2021, Perón is the oldest living former Argentine president 

Early life and career
María Estela Martínez Cartas was born in La Rioja, Argentina, daughter of María Josefa Cartas Olguín and Carmelo Martínez  She dropped out of school after the fifth grade  In the early 1950s she became a nightclub dancer adopting the name Isabel, the saint's name (the Spanish form of that of Saint Elizabeth of Portugal) that she had chosen as a confirmation name 

Juan Perón
She met her future husband during his exile in Panama  Juan Domingo Perón, who was 35 years her senior, was attracted by her beauty and believed she could provide him with the female companionship he had been lacking since the death of his beloved second wife Eva Perón (Evita) in 1952  Perón brought Isabel with him when he moved to Madrid, Spain, in 1960  Authorities did not approve of Perón's cohabitation with a young woman to whom he was not married, so on 15 November 1961 the former president reluctantly married for a third time 

Early political career
As Perón resumed an active role in Argentine politics from exile, Isabel acted as a go-between from Spain to Argentina  Having been deposed in a coup in 1955, Perón was forbidden from returning to Argentina, so his new wife was appointed to travel in his stead  The CGT leader José Alonso became one of her main advisers in Perón's dispute against Steelworkers' leader Augusto Vandor's Popular Union faction during mid-term elections in 1965; Alonso and Vandor were both later assassinated in as-yet unexplained circumstances 

José López Rega
Isabel met José López Rega, who was a former policeman with an interest in occultism and fortune-telling, during a visit to Argentina in 1965  She was interested in occult matters (and as president reportedly employed astrological divination to determine national policy), so the two quickly became friends  Under pressure from Isabel, Perón appointed López as his personal secretary; López later founded the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A), a death squad accused of perpetrating 1,500 crimes in the 1970s 

Rise to power
Dr  Héctor Cámpora was nominated by Perón's Justicialist Party to run in the March 1973 presidential elections on the FREJULI ticket (a Peronist-led alliance)  Cámpora won, but it was generally understood that Juan Perón held the real power; a popular phrase at the time was "Cámpora al gobierno, Perón al poder" (Cámpora in government, Perón in power)  Later that year, Perón returned to Argentina, and Cámpora resigned to allow Perón to run for president  He chose Isabel as his nominee for the Vice Presidency to mollify feuding Peronist factions, as these could agree on no other running mate  His return from exile was marked by a growing rift between the right and left wings of the Peronist movement; while Cámpora represented the left wing, López Rega represented the right wing  The latter was, moreover, supported by the CGT labor federation leadership and Isabel herself, and this faction became known by the left as the entorno ('entourage') due to the inner circle status Perón afforded them  Juan Perón had long been inimical to the left, but cultivated their support while he was in exile  His sympathies ended, however, after the assassination of CGT leader José Ignacio Rucci by the leftist Montoneros in September Perón's victory in a snap election called by Congress in September 1973 was always considered likely, and he won with 62% of the vote  He began his third term on 12 October, with Isabel as Vice President  Perón was by then in precarious health, however; a CIA cable at the time described him as alternating between a lucid state and that of senile dependency  Isabel had to take over as Acting President on several occasions during his tenure 

Presidency
Juan Perón suffered a series of heart attacks on 28 June 1974; Isabel was summoned home from a European trade mission and secretly sworn in as acting president the next day  Juan Perón died on 1 July 1974, less than a year after his third election to office  As vice-president his widow formally ascended to the presidency, thus becoming the first woman in the world to hold the title of "President", although she was not the first woman to lead a country  She was popularly known as La Presidente Although she lacked Evita Perón's charisma, the grieving widow at first attracted support from the nation  She pledged to uphold the social market economy policies embodied in the 1973 "Social Pact" as well her husband's long-held orthodox Peronism and economic nationalism; her first significant economic policy decisions were the enactment of a new, pro-labor employment contract law and the granting to YPF a monopoly over filling stations  Even leftist groups, having fallen out with Juan Perón in previous months, publicly offered support to her  However she cancelled meetings with various constituent and political groups, and the sympathy resulting from her husband's death soon dissipated  Her government purged most leftists from university posts and the administration, and (as her husband and other Argentine presidents had done) used Federal intervention powers to unseat leftist governors  Following a string of political murders and a break by the Montoneros with the government, on 30 September Perón signed the Anti-Terrorism Law  This was the first in a series of measures which eroded constitutional rights, ostensibly for the sake of combating leftist violence Another source of contention between her and the voters was the increasing impression that José López Rega, the Minister of Social Welfare, set the agenda for a broad swath of Perón's policies, vetting nearly all domestic and foreign policy  His public behaviour – which included bizarre actions such as silently mouthing her words as she spoke – began to cost the president much-needed support among the Argentine public  Known to have fascist sympathies, López Rega was also notably corrupt and used his position to secure business partnerships with (ODESSA network principal) Otto Skorzeny, (Libyan leader) Muammar Gaddafi, and (the Italian Fascist) Licio Gelli (to whose P-2 lodge López Rega belonged) López Rega's greatest influence upon Isabel Perón's presidency came through his recently formed Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A)  A right-wing paramilitary force, between late 1973 and late 1974 the Triple A had already carried out nearly 300 murders, including that of Professor Silvio Frondizi (brother of former President Arturo Frondizi), Congressman Rodolfo Ortega Peña, activist Father Carlos Mugica, Buenos Aires Province Assistant Police Chief Julio Troxler, former Córdoba Vice-Governor Atilio López and former Chilean Army head Carlos Prats  Other prominent public servants, such as UCR Senator Hipólito Solari Yrigoyen, and left-wing University of Buenos Aires President Rodolfo Puiggrós, narrowly survived Triple A attacks; Puiggrós was then removed from his post Atrocities were also being committed by left-wing extremists  Organized in 1968, the anarchist Montoneros murdered former head of state Pedro Aramburu, popular CGT union Secretary General José Ignacio Rucci, construction workers' union leader Rogelio Coria, former Interior Minister Arturo Mor Roig and U S  Consul John Egan, among other murders and kidnappings  Throughout 1974, the rise of a new and nearly-as-violent Trotskyite group, the ERP, added to the cycle of violence  Having gained notoriety after the murder of FIAT executive Oberdan Sallustro, the ERP began the year with a violent assault on the Azul barracks  It murdered, among others, a criminal court judge, Jorge Quiroga; the writer Jordán Bruno Genta; and the publisher of La Plata's centrist El Día, David Kraiselburd  The kidnapping of Esso executive Victor Samuelson, freed for a ransom of US$12 million, ignited what would become a rash of such crimes  However, the government and paramilitaries used this environment to target and murder many legitimate opponents of the regime, as listed above Following the murder of Buenos Aires Police Chief Alberto Villar (one of López Rega's closest collaborators in the Triple A) and his wife, as well as amid increasing activity by the ERP in the Province of Tucumán, Perón was persuaded to declare a state of siege on 6 November (suspending, among other rights, habeas corpus)  Censorship also increased markedly, culminating in the closure by decree of one of the leading news dailies in Latin America (Crónica) and several other publications, as well as the banning of Argentine television figures such as talk show host Mirtha Legrand and comedian Tato Bores Operation Independence began in Tucumán on 5 February 1975  This military campaign, though successful from a military standpoint, gained notoriety for its brutality; in addition to going after insurgents, it attacked elected officials, magistrates, University of Tucumán faculty, and even secondary school teachers The government turned on the labor movement, the mainstay of Peronism for the better part of a quarter-century, classifying it as "subversive" and subject to reprisals  The November 1974 election of a left-wing union shop steward at a Villa Constitución steel mill and its disapproval by steelworkers' leader Lorenzo Miguel (a leading figure in the paramount CGT), resulted in a brutal 20 March 1975 police assault on the facility  The raid, executed jointly with Triple A heavies, led to the "disappearances" of many of the 300 workers arrested 

Stacking the State Intelligence Secretariat (SIDE) with Fascists loyal to him, Lopez Rega hastened unprecedented intrigue, culminating in the kidnapping of Jorge and Juan Born, prominent local executives who paid US$60 million for their release (a world record at the time)  Using contacts from among the Montoneros' many double agents, the agency kept the Born brothers in a known SIDE safehouse for nine months until their June 1975 release without public suspicion of SIDE involvement, a successful false flag operation that led to others (albeit less ambitious ones) in the following months López Rega, meanwhile, arranged the dismissal of many of the most competent policy makers Perón had inherited from her husband's brief presidency; by May 1975, both Economy Minister José Ber Gelbard and Central Bank President Alfredo Gómez Morales had been replaced with right-wing López Rega loyalists Isabel Perón initially maintained the Social Pact inherited from her husband, and succeeded in enhancing it with reforms such as the enactment in December 1974 of payroll taxes to strengthen the Public Retirement System  Yielding to pressure from labor she ignored the incomes policy aspect of the Social Pact, however, and while the economy remained otherwise stable, a price/wage spiral ensued with inflation rising from a low of 12% a year at the height of the Social Pact in May 1974 to 80% a year later The Social Pact also faced growing opposition by employers, particularly after conservative members of the General Economic Council (CGE) split from the conciliatory CGE in March 1975 to form the more combative APEGE; this group would later adopt the tactic of staging recurring lockouts against the administration Faced with record trade and budget deficits, the new Economy Minister, Celestino Rodrigo, proceeded to apply economic shock therapy in June  These measures doubled rates and fares and ordered a surprise halving of the peso's value, which, by forcing those who could to stampede towards the U S  dollar, destroyed the fragile financial balance that had been maintained to that point  Consumer prices doubled between May and August 1975 alone, and though sharp, mandatory wage hikes had been negotiated between the government, labor and employers, the resulting shock (known as the Rodrigazo) ignited protest across Argentina, including a two-day general strike by the CGT (the first ever against a Peronist administration)  Following protests in front of his offices, the now hated José López Rega was hastily appointed Ambassador to Spain and boarded a flight into exile 

Fall from power
López Rega left the country on 19 July  Shortly afterward, Perón dismissed her protégés in the Economy Ministry, Celestino Rodrigo, and in the Armed Forces High Command, General Alberto Numa Laplane, whom she replaced in August with General Jorge Videla, a quiet career officer with an uneventful military record  The president's appointment of a pragmatic economist, Peronist wheelhorse Antonio Cafiero and her 13 September announcement of a leave of absence relieved ample sectors of society, from labor unions to business  Designating Senate President Ítalo Lúder, a moderately conservative Peronist, in her stead, it was widely hoped that her leave would become permanent; but, it was not to be Limited largely to the murder of security forces and public figures during 1974, political violence escalated during 1975 to include soft targets in the population at large as Trotskyist ERP and fascist Triple A extremists began taking to midnight lightning strikes against each other and civilian targets such as banks, buses, yachts, parking lots, and restaurants  Over 700 people died from political violence during Mrs  Perón's first 15 months in office, of which more than half were subversives and most of the remainder were security forces; by March 1976, civilians comprised fully half of the 1,358 deaths attributable to this conflict The Montoneros, moreover, began a series of audacious attacks on military installations, including August dynamiting of the nearly finished destroyer Santísima Trinidad near the port of La Plata and the Operation Primicia, a terrorist attack on a military base in Formosa Province on 5 October  Anxious to placate the exasperated public, the military, hard-line labor leaders (particularly the steelworkers' Lorenzo Miguel), and most other Peronists, on 6 October she and Lúder signed new measures giving blanket immunity for the Armed Forces that they may (in her words) "annihilate subversive elements throughout the country" – in effect a nationwide extension of the state of siege that had been imposed in Tucumán  The measure won her just enough support to return from "sick leave" and on 17 October (on Peronists' historically central Loyalty Day), Perón appeared at the balcony of the Casa Rosada, back at her post Her health remained fragile, however, and a gallbladder affliction forced her to take a second, shorter leave of absence in November  Interior Minister Ángel Robledo's proposal that elections (scheduled for March 1977) should instead be held in November 1976 was approved by the president during this leave, bringing renewed hope that an increasingly rumored coup d'état could yet be averted Anxiety over inflation, meanwhile, continued to dominate daily life  Monthly inflation did slow from the (then-record) 35% logged in July - but remained at 10–15% monthly between September and January 1976  A sudden fall in business investment had by then sent the economy into a sharp recession, however  GDP growth had already slowed from a 6 8% rate in the fourth quarter of 1974 to 1 4% in the second quarter; following the Rodrigazo crisis, the economy shrank 4 4% by the first quarter of 1976, with fixed investment falling by one sixth and auto production by a third The mid-year recession had significantly curbed the growth in imports; but because exports continued to fall, the trade deficit reached a record billion dollars in 1975, nearly depleting foreign exchange reserves  The government's 1975 budget had been derailed by the crisis and by earlier commitments to cancel its then still-modest foreign debt, something which even so cost Argentina US$2 5 billion that year, alone  The resulting budget deficits (over US$5 billion, in 1975) and a series of lockouts in the agricultural and commercial sectors began to reassert pressure on prices after November, leading to hoarding and shortages The appointment of Brigadier General Héctor Fautario, a loyalist of Perón, to the branch's high command, fueled broader support in the Air Force for action against her administration, and on 18 December, General Jesús Capellini attempted a coup d'état by seizing the Morón Airport and Air Base  The military joint chiefs, however, who obtained Fautario's dismissal, stayed the mutiny's hand, secretly concluding that the timing was premature  Partly in response, the nearly defeated ERP on 23 December besieged the important Monte Chingolo Armory, which claimed the lives of six military personnel and 85 guerrilla members; this defeat marked the end of the ERP's violent campaign Allegations had surfaced in August that Perón had embezzled large sums from the Cruzada de Solidaridad ('Solidarity Crusade'), a government-run charity, into her personal accounts in Spain  A congressional investigation launched in November over the charity fund embezzlement allegations had meanwhile dissipated her remaining support in Congress, prompting the departure of the second-largest party in the FREJULI alliance, the centrist MID, and dividing the Peronist caucus into "Vericalist" and "Rebel" factions  Her administration was dealt further political blows from within her own party by a break in December with the Governor of Buenos Aires Victorio Calabró, who declared that "we won't make it [to the next elections]" and with the resignation in January 1976 of Interior Minister Ángel Robledo, her chief legislative and military point man 

Isabel Perón granted ever more significant policy concessions to the largely conservative military in the early months of 1976, from security matters to economic  Economy Minister Antonio Cafiero, supported by labor, was dismissed in February, and his replacement, Eugenio Mondelli, announced further shock therapy measures similar to the previous year's Rodrigazo – the Mondelazo  These measures included steep hikes in utility rates and a new devaluation of the already shredded peso, causing prices to more than double over the next three months (inflation reached a new record of over 700% by April) and leading a new wave of strikes and business lockouts The UCR initiated impeachment proceedings against the President in February with the support of the "Rebel" Peronist faction in Congress  Near defeat though still active, the Montoneros detonated a bomb at Army headquarters on 15 March, killing one and injuring 29 people  The head of the CGE, Julio Broner, left Argentina with his family, altogether; CGT Secretary General Casildo Herreras followed suit, announcing from exile that he had "erased" himself  The leader of the opposition UCR Ricardo Balbín, while making efforts to form a multi-party congressional crisis committee, held a private meeting in February with Army Chief of Staff Videla and told him, "If you're planning to stage a coup, do so as soon as possible – expect no applause from us, but no obstacles either "The media were by then openly counting down the days to the expected coup d'état, and several newspapers published editorials calling for Perón's overthrow  Even as the joint chiefs professed loyalty to La Presidente, the Armed Forces High Command had already given final approval to a coup, code-named 'Operation Aries', when the president returned from her leave of absence in October 1975 After working late into the evening of 23 March 1976, in the hope of averting a renewed business lockout, Perón celebrated her executive assistant's birthday with staff  Alerted to suspicious military exercises, she boarded the presidential helicopter shortly after midnight  It did not fly her to the Quinta de Olivos presidential residence but to an Air Force base in nearby Jorge Newbery International Airport, where she was formally deposed and arrested 

Detention and exile
The majority of Peronist officials in the national, provincial, and municipal governments were promptly arrested, brutally beaten, starved, tortured, and interrogated by military police  Many "disappeared" permanently during the subsequent Dirty War, including numerous right-wing Peronists  Isabel Perón herself remained under house arrest in Villa La Angostura and other secluded locations for five years, and was eventually sent into exile in Spain in July 1981  She continued to serve as official head of her husband's Justicialist Party until her resignation in February 1985, nearly a decade after her fall from power  Though there were some who desired her return and wished for her return to power, she refused to stand for election to the presidency when elections were ultimately called in 1983  She lived in Madrid, maintained close links with Francisco Franco's family, and sometimes went to Marbella  She sold Perón's Puerta de Hierro estate in 2001, and relocated to a townhouse in the western suburb of Villafranca del Castillo 

Following the restoration of democracy in Argentina, she was pardoned from charges of corruption during her presidency and returned in December 1983 as a guest of honor at President Raúl Alfonsín's inauguration, and in May 1984 to participate in policy talks arranged by Alfonsín and opposition leaders  Still nominally head of Juan Perón's Justicialist Party, she played a constructive role in the talks, supporting cooperation between the restive CGT labor union (her party's political base) and Alfonsín  The talks concluded with a weak agreement, and she resigned from her post as titular head of the party  She returned to Argentina in 1988 to resolve probate disputes concerning the Perón estate, then resumed residence in Spain under a very low profile 

Arrest in Spain
A judge in Mendoza, Argentina in November 2006 demanded testimony from Isabel Perón, along with other Peronist ministers of her government, in a case involving forced disappearances during her presidency; on 12 January 2007, she was arrested by police in Madrid  She was charged by the Argentine authorities with the disappearance of Héctor Aldo Fagetti Gallego on 25 February 1976, and for crimes related to her issuance of 6 October 1975 decree calling the Armed Forces to "annihilate subversive elements " The Nunca Más ("Never Again") report released in 1984 by the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons recorded 600 disappearances and 500 assassinations under the Peronist governments from 1973 to 1976, and it is acknowledged that the Triple A alone murdered some 600 people The 2006 capture in Spain of Triple A death-squad overseer Rodolfo Almirón, who had also been in charge of López Rega's and Isabel Perón's personal security, shed further light on the extent of Triple A involvement in the early stages of the Dirty War  Isabel Perón's extradition to Argentina was refused by Spain on 28 March 2008  Spain's National Court ruled twice that the charges against her did not constitute crimes against humanity, adding that the statute of limitations on the charges expired after 20 years The Supreme Court of Justice of Argentina unanimously dismissed on 21 June 2017 the petitions to interrogate Isabel Perón either as a witness or as a defendant 

See also
National Reorganization Process

Notes
Passage 8:
Territorial evolution of the United States
The United States of America was formed after thirteen British colonies in North America declared independence from the British Empire on July 4, 1776  In the Lee Resolution, passed by the Second Continental Congress two days prior, the colonies resolved that they were free and independent states  The union was formalized in the Articles of Confederation, which came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states  Their independence was recognized by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which concluded the American Revolutionary War  This effectively doubled the size of the colonies, now able to stretch west past the Proclamation Line to the Mississippi River  This land was organized into territories and then states, though there remained some conflict with the sea-to-sea grants claimed by some of the original colonies  In time, these grants were ceded to the federal government 
The first great expansion of the country came with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, which doubled the country's territory, although the southeastern border with Spanish Florida was the subject of much dispute until it and Spanish claims to the Oregon Country were ceded to the US in 1821  The Oregon Country gave the United States access to the Pacific Ocean, though it was shared for a time with the United Kingdom  The annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845 led directly to the Mexican–American War, after which the victorious United States obtained the northern half of Mexico's territory, including what was quickly made the state of California  However, as the development of the country moved west, the question of slavery became more important, with vigorous debate over whether the new territories would allow slavery and events such as the Missouri Compromise and Bleeding Kansas  This came to a head in 1860 and 1861, when the governments of the southern states proclaimed their secession from the country and formed the Confederate States of America  The American Civil War led to the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865 and the eventual readmission of the states to the United States Congress  The cultural endeavor and pursuit of manifest destiny provided a strong impetus for westward expansion in the 19th century 
The country began expanding beyond North America in 1856 with the passage of the Guano Islands Act, causing many small and uninhabited, but economically important, islands in the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea to be claimed  Most of these claims were eventually abandoned, largely due to competing claims from other countries  The Pacific expansion culminated in the annexation of Hawaii in 1898, after the overthrow of its government five years previously  Alaska, the last major acquisition in North America, was purchased from Russia in 1867 
Support for the independence of Cuba from the Spanish Empire, and the sinking of the USS Maine, led to the Spanish–American War in 1898, in which the United States gained Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, and occupied Cuba for several years  American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the Second Samoan Civil War  The United States purchased the U S  Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917  Guam and Puerto Rico remain territories; the Philippines became independent in 1946, after being a major theater of World War II  Following the war, many islands were entrusted to the U S  by the United Nations, and while the Northern Mariana Islands remain a U S  territory, the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau emerged from the trust territory as independent nations  The last major international change was the acquisition in 1904, and return to Panama in 1979, of the Panama Canal Zone, an unincorporated US territory which controlled the Panama Canal  The final cession of formal control over the region was made to Panama in 1999 
States have generally retained their initial borders once established  Only four states (Maine, Kentucky, Vermont, and West Virginia) have been created from land claimed by another state; all of the other states were created from territories or from acquisitions  Four states (Louisiana, Missouri, Nevada, and Pennsylvania) have expanded by acquiring additional federal territory after their initial admission to the Union  In 1912, Arizona was the last state established in the contiguous United States, commonly called the "lower 48"  In 1959, Hawaii was the 50th and most recent state admitted 

Legend for maps
Key to map colors

1776–1784 (American Revolution)
1784–1803 (Organization of territory)
1803–1818 (Purchase of Louisiana)
1819–1845 (Northwest expansion)
1845–1860 (Southwest expansion)
1860–1865 (Civil War)
1866–1897 (Reconstruction and western statehood)
1898–1945 (Pacific and Caribbean expansion)
1946–present (Decolonization)
Bancos along the Rio Grande
The Banco Convention of 1905 between the United States and Mexico allowed, in the event of sudden changes in the course of the Rio Grande (as by flooding), for the border to be altered to follow the new course   The sudden changes often created bancos (land surrounded by bends in the river that became segregated from either country by a cutoff, often due to rapid accretion or avulsion of the alluvial channel), especially in the Lower Rio Grande Valley  When these bancos are created, the International Boundary and Water Commission investigates if land previously belonging to the United States or Mexico is to be considered on the other side of the border  In all cases of these adjustments along the Rio Grande under the 1905 convention, which occurred on 37 different dates from 1910 to 1976, the transferred land was minuscule (ranging from one to 646 acres) and uninhabited 

See also
Geography of the United States
Territories of the United States
Historic regions of the United States
American frontier
List of U S  state partition proposals
List of U S  states by date of admission to the Union
Movements for the annexation of Canada to the United States
National Atlas of the United States
Ostend Manifesto (annexation of Cuba)
List of territorial claims and designations in Colorado
Territorial evolution of Arizona
Territorial evolution of California
Territorial evolution of Idaho
Territorial evolution of Montana
Territorial evolution of Nevada
Territorial evolution of New Mexico
Territorial evolution of North Dakota
Territorial evolution of Oregon
Territorial evolution of South Dakota
Territorial evolution of Utah
Territorial evolution of Washington
Territorial evolution of Wyoming
Territories of the United States on stamps
List of U S –Native American treaties, which indicates tribal land cessions

Notes
Passage 9:
Carmen Ionesco
Carmen Ionesco (birth name Carmen Ionescu; born July 28, 1951 in Bucharest, Romania) is a retired discus thrower and shot putter, who competed for Romania and Canada at the Summer Olympics 
She represented Romania in her first Olympic appearance, at Munich in 1972  Following her emigration to Canada, Ionesco competed for Canada at two Commonwealth Games (1978 and 1982), the 1979 Pan American Games, and the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles 
Her younger sister Florența competed for Romania in the 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics 

Achievements
Passage 10:
Independence Day (United States)
Independence Day, known colloquially as the Fourth of July, is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the Declaration of Independence, which was ratified by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, establishing the United States of America 
The Founding Father delegates of the Second Continental Congress declared that the Thirteen Colonies were no longer subject (and subordinate) to the monarch of Britain, King George III, and were now united, free, and independent states  The Congress voted to approve independence by passing the Lee Resolution on July 2 and adopted the Declaration of Independence two days later, on July 4 Independence Day is commonly associated with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball games, family reunions, political speeches, and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States  Independence Day is the national day of the United States 

Background
During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the thirteen colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain's rule  After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author  
While Jefferson consulted extensively with the other four members of the Committee of Five, he largely wrote the Declaration of Independence in isolation over 17 days between June 11, 1776, and June 28, 1776, from the second floor he was renting in a three-story private home at 700 Market Street in Philadelphia, now known as the Declaration House, and within walking distance of Independence Hall 
Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, removing Jefferson's vigorous denunciation of King George III for importing the slave trade, finally approving it two days later on July 4  A day earlier, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail:The second day of July 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America  I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival  It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty  It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forever more 
Adams's prediction was off by two days  From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much-publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day  Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed By a remarkable coincidence, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, the only two signatories of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as presidents of the United States, both died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration  Although not a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected president, also died on July 4, 1831, making him the third President who died on the anniversary of independence  The only U S  president to have been born on Independence Day was Calvin Coolidge, who was born on July 4, 1872 

Observance
In 1777, thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, Rhode Island  An article in the July 18, 1777, issue of The Virginia Gazette noted a celebration in Philadelphia in a manner a modern American would find familiar: an official dinner for the Continental Congress, toasts, 13-gun salutes, speeches, prayers, music, parades, troop reviews, and fireworks  Ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting 
In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a double ration of rum for his soldiers and an artillery salute (feu de joie)  Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, France 
In 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday  The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5 
In 1781, the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration 
In 1783, Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration with a challenging music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter entitled The Psalm of Joy  The town claims it to be the first public July 4 event, as it was carefully documented by the Moravian Church, and there are no government records of any earlier celebrations 
In 1870, the U S  Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees 
In 1938, Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday 

Customs
Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays  Per 5 U S C  § 6103, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day   While the legal holiday remains on July 4, if that date happens to be on a Saturday or Sunday, then federal government employees will instead take the day off on the adjacent Friday or Monday, respectively Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with family members or friends  Decorations (e g , streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag  Parades are often held in the morning, before family get-togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, sporting venues, fairgrounds, public shorelines, or town squares The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece  In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks  They were lit at nightfall to usher in the celebration  The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels  These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded  The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries and is still practiced in some New England towns Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs, such as "The Star-Spangled Banner" (the American national anthem); "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean"; "God Bless America"; "America the Beautiful"; "My Country, 'Tis of Thee"; "This Land Is Your Land"; "Stars and Stripes Forever"; "Yankee Doodle"; "Dixie" in southern states; "Lift Every Voice and Sing"; and occasionally, but has nominally fallen out of favor, Hail Columbia  Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812 

Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show  Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed  In addition, local and regional conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed; for example, the global supply chain crisis following the COVID-19 pandemic forced cancellations of shows  Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns  On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union," is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base New York City has the largest fireworks display in the country sponsored by Macy's, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded in 2009  It generally holds displays in the East River  Other major displays are in Seattle on Lake Union; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in Philadelphia over the Philadelphia Museum of Art; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D C During the annual Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan, hosts one of the largest fireworks displays in North America, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario's celebration of Canada Day The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three-day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips 

Celebration gallery
Notable celebrations
Held since 1785, the Bristol Fourth of July Parade in Bristol, Rhode Island, is the oldest continuous Independence Day celebration in the United States 
Since 1868, Seward, Nebraska, has held a celebration on the same town square  In 1979 Seward was designated "America's Official Fourth of July City-Small Town USA" by resolution of Congress  Seward has also been proclaimed "Nebraska's Official Fourth of July City" by Governor J  James Exon in proclamation  Seward is a town of 6,000 but swells to 40,000+ during the July 4 celebrations 
Since 1912, the Rebild Society, a Danish-American friendship organization, has held a July 4 weekend festival that serves as a homecoming for Danish-Americans in the Rebild Hills of Denmark 
Since 1959, the International Freedom Festival is jointly held in Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario, during the last week of June each year as a mutual celebration of Independence Day and Canada Day (July 1)  It culminates in a large fireworks display over the Detroit River 
The famous Macy's fireworks display usually held over the East River in New York City has been televised nationwide on NBC, and locally on WNBC-TV since 1976  In 2009, the fireworks display was returned to the Hudson River for the first time since 2000 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Henry Hudson's exploration of that river 
The Boston Pops Orchestra has hosted a music and fireworks show over the Charles River Esplanade called the "Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular" annually since 1974  Cannons are traditionally fired during the 1812 Overture  The event was broadcast nationally from 1991 until 2002 on A&E, and since 2002 by CBS and its Boston station WBZ-TV  WBZ/1030 and WBZ-TV broadcast the entire event locally, and from 2002 through 2012, CBS broadcast the final hour of the concert nationally in primetime  The national broadcast was put on hiatus beginning in 2013, which Pops executive producer David G  Mugar believed was the result of decreasing viewership caused by NBC's encore presentation of the Macy's fireworks  The national broadcast was revived for 2016, and expanded to two hours  In 2017, Bloomberg Television took over coverage duty, with WHDH carrying local coverage beginning in 2018 
On the Capitol lawn in Washington, D C , A Capitol Fourth, a free concert broadcast live by PBS, NPR and the American Forces Network, precedes the fireworks and attracts over half a million people annually 

Other countries
The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate the day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U S  territory and the United States officially recognized  Philippine Independence 
July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962  In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day 
Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States 

See also
Federal holidays in the United States
Juneteenth
List of occasions known by their dates

Notes
Passage 11:
David Gardiner Tyler
David Gardiner Tyler (July 12, 1846 – September 5, 1927), was a U S  Democratic Party politician and the ninth child and fourth son of John Tyler, the tenth President of the United States 
Although born in New York, he went to school in Virginia and fought in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War  After attending college in Germany and Virginia, he became a lawyer  He later served in the Virginia State Senate, as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia's second congressional district, and as a Virginia Circuit Court judge 

Early life
Tyler was born in East Hampton, New York and was the first child born to former President John Tyler and his second wife, Julia Gardiner Tyler  He was named after his late maternal grandfather, David Gardiner  As a child, he attended private schools in Charles City County, Virginia 
In 1862, he entered present-day Washington and Lee University, where he was a member of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity, but dropped out the following year to fight in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War   He was present at the surrender of Robert E  Lee at Appomattox Court House in 1865   Following the war, he and his brother, John Alexander Tyler, traveled to Germany, and attended school in the Grand Duchy of Baden  He returned to the United States, and graduated from the Washington and Lee School of Law in 1869 

Career
From 1870 to 1884, Tyler practiced law in Richmond, Virginia, before accepting an appointment as Director of the state lunatic asylum in Williamsburg, Virginia, serving until 1887  From 1891 to 1892, he served in the Virginia State Senate, and on the Board of Visitors of the College of William and Mary Tyler was elected to the United States House of Representatives from the state's 2nd District, serving from 1893 to 1897  He was defeated for renomination in 1896, and returned to private law practice until his reelection to the state senate, where he served from 1900 to 1904  From 1904 until his death in 1927, he served as a state circuit court judge 

Elections
1892; Tyler was elected to the U S  House of Representatives defeating Independent Republicans P C  Garrigan and John F  Deyendorf, H S  Collier, and Independent George Edwin Bowden, winning 55 61% of the vote 
1894; Tyler was re-elected defeating Republican Thomas R  Borland and Independent T J  Edwards, winning 56 27% of the vote 

Personal life
Tyler was married to the former Mary Morris Jones (1865–1931)  Together, they were the parents of five children, four of whom survived to adulthood:
Mary Lyon Tyler (1895–1975), who married George Peterkin Gamble (1899–1986) 
Margaret Gardiner Tyler (1897–1981), who married Stephen F  Chadwick (1894–1975), grandson of Stephen F  Chadwick, the 5th Governor of Oregon 
David Gardiner Tyler Jr  (1899–1993), who married Anne Morton Shelton (1900–1977) 
James Alfred Jones Tyler (1902–1972), who married Katherine Thomason (1909–1967) 
John Tyler (1905–1907), who died young He died at Sherwood Forest Plantation and is buried at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond 
Passage 12:
Karen Tandy
Karen Pomerantz Tandy is an American attorney and law enforcement official who served as the 9th Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration from 2003 to 2007  She was nominated by President George W  Bush and confirmed by the U S  Senate on July 31, 2003  She was the first female head of the DEA 

Early life and education
Tandy is a native of Fort Worth, Texas and graduated from L  D  Bell High School in Hurst, Texas  She earned a bachelor's degree from Texas Tech University and a Juris Doctor from the Texas Tech University School of Law 

Career
On October 22, 2007, she announced her retirement from the DEA, and took a position with Motorola  Tandy then became senior vice president of public affairs and communications where she served as Motorola's top public policy spokesperson on issues related to global telecom policy, trade, regulation, spectrum allocation, and country relations Since June 2016, she has served as vice chair of the Homeland Security Advisory Council  In March 2021, after Secretary of Homeland Security Alejandro Mayorkas dismissed all 32 members of the advisory council, Tandy was one of only three senior-level members to remain in their positions 
Passage 13:
Immokolee
Immokolee (also known as the Dorothy Binney Palmer House) is a historic home in Fort Pierce, Florida  It is located at 8431 Immokolee Road  On July 29, 1994, it was added to the U S  National Register of Historic Places 
The name "Immokolee" derives from a Seminole dialect word meaning "our home" or "my home place "The Mission Revival house was constructed in 1931 by local builder Franklind Tyler from a design provided by owner Dorothy Binney Palmer  The house was restored after Palmer's death in 1985 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Gino Bartali
Gino Bartali,  (Italian pronunciation: [ˈdʒiːno ˈbartali]; 18 July 1914 – 5 May 2000), nicknamed Gino the Pious and (in Italy) Ginettaccio, was a champion road cyclist  He was the most renowned Italian cyclist before the Second World War, having won the Giro d'Italia twice, in 1936 and 1937, and the Tour de France in 1938  After the war, he added one more victory in each event: the Giro d'Italia in 1946 and the Tour de France in 1948  His second and last Tour de France victory in 1948 gave him the largest gap between victories in the race In September 2013, 13 years after his death, Bartali was recognised as a "Righteous Among the Nations" by Yad Vashem for his efforts to aid Jews during World War II 

Early life and amateur career
Gino Bartali was born in Ponte a Ema, Florence, Italy, the third son of four children of a smallholder, Torello Bartali  He was powerfully built, with a broad nose and a boxer's face  He earned pocket money by selling raffia to makers of covers for wine bottles  He began work in a bicycle shop when he was 13  He started racing at 13, became a promising amateur and turned professional in 1935 when he was 21  He was Italian champion the next year  On 14 November 1940, Bartali married Adriana Bani in Florence  The wedding was celebrated by Cardinal Dalla Costa and was blessed by Pope Pius XII, to whom Bartali donated a bicycle 

Professional career
Bartali won a stage of the 1935 Giro d'Italia and was King of the Mountains, the first of seven times he won the title in the Giro  He was 20  In 1936, before he turned 22, he won the Giro and the Giro di Lombardia, although his season was marred when his brother, Giulio, died in a racing accident on 14 June  Bartali came close to giving up cycling 
He was persuaded to return and in 1937 won the Giro again  His reputation outside Italy was that he was yet another Italian who could not ride well outside his country  There was some truth in the claim  The writer Tim Hilton said: "Bartali was essentially an Italian cyclist, a champion who rode within sight of his own people, and was uneasy when the Tour de France travelled north of Paris  He never disputed the northern classics "Stung by the claim, he rode the Tour de France in 1937  He got off to a bad start, losing more than eight minutes by the third stage and more than ten by the Ballon d'Alsace, a mountain in the Vosges  There he came back to life and led by 1m 14s over the rest and by enough over the leaders that he took the leader's jersey that night in Grenoble  But that was the end of his race  He and two helpers, Jules Rossi and Francesco Camusso, were riding across a wooden bridge over the river Colau when Rossi skidded  Bartali rode into a parapet and fell into the river 
Roger Lapébie wrote: "In the valley that leads to Briançon, I saw the accident to the maillot jaune, Bartali  The narrow and bumpy road ran along the foot of a rock  Suddenly Rossi, who was leading, took a bend badly, braked and his back wheel hit the parapet of a bridge  Bartali, who was beside Rossi, couldn't get clear and I saw him fall over the bridge and into the little river three metres below " Camusso pulled him out  Bartali was cut to his arm and knee and had trouble breathing because of a blow to the chest  He rode on to the end of the day, often pushed by his helpers  He finished 10 minutes behind the rest but kept his lead 
He got through the Alps, by then having lost his jersey, and retired in Marseille  In one account, before he dropped out, he notified the organiser, Henri Desgrange, who said: "You are the first rider to come to see me before dropping out  You're a good man [un brave garçon], Gino  We'll see each other again next year and you'll win " However, Bartali later claimed that the Italian Cycling Federation forced him to withdraw, perhaps because of his political opposition to Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime  “When the doctor didn’t want me to race, ‘they’ made me race; when I should have withdrawn, they made me continue; when, after the four difficult stages, I was getting better, they sent me home,” he said 

He did return in 1938 and overcame the teamwork of the Belgians, the cold and rain and a puncture on the Col de l'Iseran  He won the hardest stage, from Digne to Briançon, by more than five minutes  The radio commentator Georges Briquet, after he had seen the crowds of Italians greeting Bartali with green-white-red flags said: "These people had found a superman  Outside Bartali's hotel at Aix-les-Bains, an Italian general was shouting 'Don't touch him – he's a god '" A public subscription was started in his name in Italy, and Benito Mussolini was among the contributors 
The approaching war led Italy not to send a team in 1939 

Bartali won the Giro d'Italia twice before the war – in 1936 and 1937 – and once after it (1946)  He won classics such as Milan–San Remo, the Giro di Lombardia and the Züri-Metzgete  His most famous victory was the 1948 Tour de France 

1948: Second Tour
Bartali returned to the Tour in 1948 to find that many riders he had known had died in the war and that there were as many more who had started racing since he stopped (see below for Bartali's war record)  He was so worried that he spent an evening memorising two dozen riders he did not know  The Tour started in a rainstorm and Bartali found he could identify nobody because the whole field was wearing waterproofs  He took his chance and found he was with Briek Schotte  The two finished together at Trouville, and Bartali took the yellow jersey It was during that Tour that the leader of the Italian Communist Party, Palmiro Togliatti, was shot in the neck by a sniper as he was leaving the parliament building  The writer Bernard Chambaz said:

History and myth united, and a miracle if you like because that evening Bartali got a phone call at his hotel  In a bad mood, dubious, he didn't want to answer  But someone whispered that it was Alcide de Gasperi, his old friend from Catholic Action, now parliamentary president, who told him that Palmiro Togliatti, secretary-general of the communist party, had been shot at and had survived by a miracle  The situation in the peninsula was very tense amid the ravages of the Cold War  Italy needed Bartali to do what he best knew how to do, to win stages 

The communists occupied factories and radio and television stations, and angry rows in parliament came close to blows  A revolt was looming  Then Bartali won three stages in a row and led the Tour by 14 minutes  An obituary says:

Just as it seemed the communists would stage a full-scale revolt, a deputy ran into the chamber shouting 'Bartali's won the Tour de France!' All differences were at once forgotten as the feuding politicians applauded and congratulated each other on a cause for such national pride  That day, with immaculate timing, Togliatti awoke from his coma on his hospital bed, inquired how the Tour was going and recommended calm  All over the country political animosities were for the time being swept aside by the celebrations and a looming crisis was averted 

The former prime minister, Giulio Andreotti said: "To say that civil war was averted by a Tour de France victory is surely excessive  But it is undeniable that on that 14th of July of 1948, day of the attack on Togliatti, Bartali contributed to easing the tensions "

1950: Tour de France
Gino Bartali had a row during the 1950 Tour de France with the French rider Jean Robic  Newspapers made much of it, and the atmosphere was tense  Robic got clear of Bartali on the col d'Aubisque in the Pyrenees  Bartali made up ground over the Tourmalet, took the descent to Sainte-Marie-de-Campan and started up the col d'Aspin  There he caught Robic and the two rode together  The two rubbed shoulders and they fell 
Bartali said French fans by the road were so angry, accusing him of sabotaging Robic's chances, that they punched him and that one threatened him with a knife  Bartali remounted and won the stage  Fiorenzo Magni, leading the Italian 'B' team, the Cadetti, took the yellow jersey  The pair and their teams had barely returned to their hotel when Bartali said he was going home and so, he said, were the two Italian teams The organisers, Jacques Goddet and Félix Lévitan, went to his hotel, the Hôtel de France, in Lourdes, to dissuade him  Bartali, a cigarette in his mouth, said, "I have no intention of risking my life to a madman " The truth of what happened may never be known: Louison Bobet, who saw the incident on the mountain, said: "I'm pretty sure that in the time it took me to pass him, Bartali wasn't struck, and I think he mistook as blows what was an attempt to get him back in the saddle  A hunt started for the knifeman but all spectators could remember was that a man who had been slicing salami still had his knife in his hand when he went to help "It then emerged that the Italian teams had been withdrawn by the Italian cycling association  Italian fans grew so angry that a stage due to cross the border to San Remo stopped just short of the Italian border instead, at Menton The affair escalated to the national level when the French foreign minister, Robert Schuman, apologised to his Italian counterpart for what seemed to be no more than a man interrupted in the making of a sandwich  René de Latour said:

To say that Magni was sore is putting it very mildly indeed  When he spoke to men he could trust, he would say: 'Gino knows what his little game is  He is too clever to ignore the facts that he will be lucky to win this Tour, and he prefers a foreign team win rather than see one of our team succeed, especially me  It was bad enough for him with Coppi winning last year 

Rescues and Resistance role during World War II
Bartali earned respect for his work in helping Jews who were being persecuted by the Nazis during the time of the Italian Social Republic  He appears as a character in the 1978 novel, The Assisi Underground: The Priest who Rescued Jews, and in the 1985 American television film adaptation, both based on the real-life account by Father Rufino Niccacci 
It emerged in December 2010 that Bartali had hidden a Jewish family in his cellar and, according to one of the survivors, saved their lives in doing so Bartali used his fame to carry messages and documents to the Italian Resistance  Bartali cycled from Florence through Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche, many times traveling as far afield as Assisi, all the while wearing the racing jersey emblazoned with his name 
Neither the Fascist police nor the German troops risked discontent by arresting him 
Giorgio Nissim, a Jewish accountant from Pisa, was a member of DELASEM, founded by the Union of the Israelitic Communities to help Jewish Italians escape persecution  The network in Tuscany was discovered in autumn 1943 and all Jewish members except Nissim sent to concentration camps  With the help of the Archbishops of Genoa Pietro Boetto and Florence Elia Dalla Costa, the Franciscan Friars of Assisi and others, Nissim reorganized DELASEM in Tuscany and helped 800 survive 
Nissim died in 2000  His sons found from his diaries that Bartali had used his fame to help  Nissim and the Oblati Friars of Lucca forged documents and needed photographs of those they were helping  Bartali used to leave Florence in the morning, pretending to train, ride to Assisi where many Jews were hiding in the Franciscan convents, collect their photographs and ride back to Nissim  At Assisi Bartali was in direct contact with Rufino Niccacci  Bartali also used his position to learn about raids on safehouses 
Bartali was eventually taken to Villa Triste in Florence  The SD and the Italian RSS official Mario Carità questioned Bartali, threatening his life  In spite of any threats, Bartali did not reveal what he had done  Even after the war he never boasted his merits; he used to say: "The good is done, but it is not said  And certain medals hang on the soul, not on the jacket "Bartali continued working with the Assisi Network  In 1943, he led Jewish refugees towards the Swiss Alps himself  He cycled, pulling a wagon with a secret compartment, telling patrols it was just part of his training  Bartali told his son Andrea only that "One does these things and then that's that" In June 2012, a book about Bartali's wartime activities, Road To Valor by Aili and Andres McConnon, was published In 2013, Yad Vashem awarded Gino Bartali the honour Righteous Among the Nations  He is a central figure in the 2014 documentary My Italian Secret: The Forgotten Heroes  In 2007, the script for a movie based on Bartali during World War II, called Lion Man of Tuscany was on the Black List, a survey of the "most liked" un-produced scripts in Hollywood In 2017, research by Michele Sarfatti questioned Bartali's efforts to save Jewish lives, referring to the very limited sources and contradicting that Bartali would have described this in his diaries  In 2021, Marco and Stefano Pivato corroborated this stance by Sarfatti, calling the whole story 'invented' ('una storia inventata')  In 2021, an interview with Sergio Della Pergola, an Israeli-Italian academic who was involved in Yad Vashem’s investigation of Bartali’s role during the war, was published in the Corriere della Sera  Outlining some of the evidence regarding Bartali’s efforts during the war, he disagreed with the argument put forth by Sarfatti and Marco and Stefano Pivato  He was quoted as saying: “To question whether Gino Bartali risked his life to save Jews is like denying that the Earth is round ”

Riding style and legacy
Bartali was a good climber and a pioneer of derailleur gears  His style was unusual: he rarely danced on the pedals and often stayed in the saddle throughout a 15 km climb  When others attacked, he stayed in the saddle but changed up a gear, to a sprocket three teeth smaller He rode smoothly on mountains but every now and then freewheeled, always with his right foot lowered with his weight on it  Then a second or two later he would start pedalling again Bartali's feat of winning three consecutive mountain stages (13, 14 and 15) in the 1948 Tour de France has never been equalled  It is one of the most astonishing accomplishments in the history of road cycling  It would be 50 years before anyone again won three consecutive stages, when Italian cyclist Mario Cipollini did so in the early (flat) stages of the 1999 Tour de France, winning four consecutive sprint finishes in stages 4, 5, 6 and 7 

Rivalry with Coppi
Bartali's rivalry with Fausto Coppi divided Italy  Bartali, a conservative, was venerated in the rural, agrarian south, while Coppi, more worldly, secular, innovative in diet and training, was a hero of the industrial north 
The lives of each came together on 7 January 1940 when Eberrardo Pavesi, head of the Legnano team, took on Coppi to ride for Bartali  Bartali thought Coppi was "as thin as a mutton bone", but accepted  Their rivalry started when Coppi, the helper, won the Giro and Bartali, the star, marshalled the two men's team to chase him  By the 1948 world championship at Valkenburg, both climbed off rather than help the other win  The Italian cycling association said: "They have forgotten to honour the Italian prestige they represent  Thinking only of their personal rivalry, they abandoned the race, to the approbation of all sportsmen " They were suspended for two months The thaw partly broke when the pair shared a drink bottle during the climb of the Col d'Izoard in the 1952 Tour but the two men fell out over who had offered it  "I did," Bartali insisted  "He never gave me anything " Their rivalry was the subject of intense coverage and resulted in many epic races 
When professional cycle racing resumed in 1946 after World War II, Bartali narrowly beat Coppi in that year's Giro, while Coppi won Milan–San Remo  Bartali won the Tour de Suisse twice, another Milan–San Remo, and the 1948 Tour de France – a full ten years after his last victory  Coppi took victories in the 1947 Giro d'Italia, the Giro di Lombardia and the Grand Prix des Nations 
Despite the rivalry, perhaps heightened by Coppi's victory in the 1949 Giro, Bartali supported Coppi's bid in the 1949 Tour de France  The two Italian teammates destroyed the race as a contest in a mountainous Alpine stage over the Col de Vars and Col d'Izoard  When Coppi had a puncture on the Izoard, Bartali waited for him, then Bartali did the same and Coppi waited  On the final climb to Briançon, Coppi allowed Bartali to win (on his 35th birthday) and take the yellow jersey  But Coppi assumed the maillot jaune the following day after Bartali had a puncture with 40 km of the stage still to race  Coppi retained the lead to Paris, while Bartali took second place 
The 1950 Tour de France saw him lead the Italian team again, with Coppi electing not to contest the race, but having been threatened by frenzied fans, the entire Italian team resigned from the race 
Bartali always suspected that Coppi took drugs  On the hairpins of the Col di Bracco, during a stage of the 1946 Giro from Genoa to Montecatini Terme, Coppi drank from a glass phial and threw it into the verge  Bartali drove back after the race and found it  He said:

With the meticulous care of a detective collecting evidence for fingerprinting I picked it up, dropped it into a white envelope and put it carefully in my pocket  The next day I rushed round to my personal doctor and asked him to send the phial to a lab for analysis  Disappointment: no drug, no magic potion  It was nothing more than an ordinary tonic, made in France, that I could have bought without a prescription 

I realised that I should have to try to outsmart him and I devised my own investigation system  The first thing was to make sure I always stayed at the same hotel for a race and to have the room next to his so I could mount surveillance  I would watch him leave with his mates, then I would tiptoe into the room which ten seconds earlier had been his headquarters  I would rush to the waste bin and the bedside table, go through the bottles, flasks, phials, tubes, cartons, boxes, suppositories – I swept up everything  I had become so expert in interpreting all these pharmaceuticals that I could predict how Fausto would behave during the course of the stage  I would work out, according to the traces of the product I found, how and when he would attack me 

Personal life
Bartali grew up in a religious family in Tuscany, and his belief earned him the nickname "Gino the Pious"  He prayed before meals and resented when teammates swore  In contrast, Coppi grew up in Piedmont in the north and was not religious at all  Bartali was proud that Pope John XXIII had asked him to teach him to ride a bicycle  He made no secret that he supported the Catholic-leaning Christian Democratic Party but his personality ensured that he was forgiven by the rival communists  Tim Hilton wrote: "Bartali was a genuinely religious man, making his devotions public and, in return, becoming the Vatican's favourite sportsman – he was personally blessed by three popes  He would set up shrines in his hotel bedrooms when he rode the Giro and the Tour de France, and, on some mountains, children from summer camps sang canticles as he pedalled past, a priest conducting their infant worship "Bartali was frequently pessimistic  One of his customary phrases was "Everything's wrong; we'll have to start all over again " The best the historian Pierre Chany could say of him was that while he often boasted of what he had done on mountains when nobody was there to see him, he had the grace never to tell the story differently 
Bartali lived at 173 via Chiantigiana, Florence in a home full of souvenirs  His wife died in 2014 aged 94 

Later life and death
Bartali stopped racing when he was 40, after being injured in a road accident  By then he had lost much of his money  His wealth was "uncertain", said René de Latour Bartali had a heart bypass operation and then died of a heart attack in May 2000, having received the last rites 10 days earlier  He left behind his wife, Adriana, two sons and a daughter  The prime minister, Giuliano Amato, sent condolences  Romano Prodi, president of the European Commission, called him "a symbol of the most noble sportsmanship " The Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI) called for two days of mourning and silence was observed before sports events 

Career achievements
Major results
Sources:

Grand Tour results timeline
Sources:

Monuments results timeline
Sources:

See also
Legends of Italian sport - Walk of Fame
69500 Ginobartali, asteroid
Cycling records
Yellow jersey statistics
Pink jersey statistics
List of Grand Tour general classification winners
List of Tour de France general classification winners
List of Tour de France secondary classification winners
List of Giro d'Italia general classification winners
Individuals and groups assisting Jews during the Holocaust
List of Righteous Among the Nations by country
History of the Jews in Italy
List of Italians
Passage 2:
Tiberius Coruncanius
Tiberius Coruncanius (died 241 BC) was a consul of the Roman Republic in 280 BC  As a military commander in that year and the following, he was known for the battles against Pyrrhus of Epirus that led to the expression "Pyrrhic victory"  He was the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, and possibly the first teacher of Roman law to offer public instruction 

Biography
Coruncanius, of plebeian descent, is believed to have hailed from Tusculum He was first elected consul in 280 BC with Publius Valerius Laevinus, and led an expedition into Etruria against the Etruscan cities   When Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Italia, and defeated the Roman legions of Laevinus at the Battle of Heraclea, Tiberius' legions were recalled to Rome to bolster the defense of Roman territory 
In 254 BC or 253 BC, he was the first plebeian elected Pontifex Maximus, or chief priest of the Roman Republic, which position had been previously monopolized by patricians  He died in 241 BC and was succeeded by Lucius Caecilius Metellus, another plebeian 

Impact
He was the first who publicly professed law (publice professus est), known to be both eloquent and full of knowledge  Like Socrates, he left no writings 
His public legal instruction had the effect of creating a class of legally skilled non-priests (jurisprudentes), a sort of consultancy  After Coruncanius' death, instruction gradually became more formal, with the introduction of books on law beyond the then scant official Roman legal texts It is possible that as the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, Coruncanius allowed members of the public and students of the law of Ancient Rome to attend his consultations tasked with giving legal advice to citizens



ground_truth: January 2015

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where was the president born on the fourth of July born?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  These consultations were probably held outside the College of Pontiffs, and thus accessible to all those interested  As such, he became the first teacher of Roman law (how students of law learned their material earlier is unknown) 
Passage 3:
Battle of Bassano
The Battle of Bassano was fought on 8 September 1796, during the French Revolutionary Wars, in the territory of the Republic of Venice, between a French army under Napoleon Bonaparte and Austrian forces led by Count Dagobert von Wurmser  The engagement occurred during the second Austrian attempt to raise the siege of Mantua  It was a French victory; however, it was the last battle in Napoleon's perfect military career as two months later he would be defeated at the Second Battle of Bassano, ending his victorious streak  The Austrians abandoned their artillery and baggage, losing supplies, cannons, and battle standards to the French 

Background
Austrian plans
The first relief of Mantua failed at the battles of Lonato and Castiglione in early August  The defeat caused Wurmser to retreat north up the Adige River valley  Meanwhile, the French reinvested the Austrian garrison of Mantua 
Ordered by Emperor Francis II to relieve Mantua at once, Feldmarschall Wurmser and his new chief-of-staff Feldmarschal-Leutnant (FML) Franz von Lauer drew up a strategy  Leaving FML Paul Davidovich and 13,700 soldiers to defend Trento and the approaches to the County of Tyrol, Wurmser directed two divisions east then south down the Brenta valley  When he joined the large division of Johann Mészáros at Bassano, he would have 20,000 men  From Bassano, Wurmser would move on Mantua, while Davidovich probed the enemy defenses from the north, looking for a favorable opportunity to support his superior  Lauer predicted that the French, having suffered recent losses, would be unable to react in time  Unknown to the Austrians, the French government desired that General Bonaparte cross the Alps to join the army of General Jean Moreau in southern Germany 

Forces
See Bassano 1796 Campaign Order of Battle for a list of French and Austrian army units 

Geography
In 1796, there were only three practicable routes between Trento and the Po River basin  The first route lay west of Lake Garda  The second route was the road down the Adige valley east of Lake Garda and north of Verona  The third route went east through Levico Terme and Borgo Valsugana, then followed the Brenta River valley (Valsugana) southward to Bassano del Grappa  An army that held both Trento and Bassano could move troops and supplies between the two places free from French interference 

Operations
Bonaparte posted General of Division Claude Vaubois with 10,000 men on the west side of Lake Garda  General of Division André Masséna defended the Adige River valley with 13,000 troops and General of Division Pierre Augereau covered Verona with 10,000 more  General of Division Charles Kilmaine maintained the blockade of Mantua with General of Division Jean Sahuguet's division of 8,000 soldiers and held a 2,000 man reserve at Verona  Another source gave Vaubois 11,000, Massena 13,000, Augereau 9,000, Sahuguet 10,000, and Kilmaine 3,500 soldiers After Castiglione, Bonaparte had rearranged his intelligence gathering: the French representative in Venice, Lallement, was sent money to pay for spies to check out the areas between Venice and Trent  and Bonaparte's station chief, Angelo Pico, based at Peschiera, sent his men forward into the Tyrol  More importantly, his spy Francesco Toli had penetrated Austrian headquarters and forewarned Bonaparte that Wurmser had left Davidovich at Trento  So, Bonaparte struck first, sending Masséna and Augereau north toward Trento  Meanwhile, Vaubois advanced past Lake Idro to Riva at the north end of Lake Garda  Vaubois and Masséna converged on Rovereto on the Adige  At the Battle of Rovereto on 4 September, the French routed Davidovich's outnumbered troops, inflicting 3,000 casualties at a cost of 750 killed and wounded Finding that Wurmser had moved toward Bassano, Bonaparte abandoned the plan to link with Moreau  Leaving Vaubois to observe the fleeing Austrians in the upper Adige valley, the French army commander decided to take a bold but risky course of action  Cutting loose from his supply line, he ordered Augereau, followed by Masséna, to the east into the Brenta valley  On 7 September, Augereau's 8,200 soldiers overwhelmed the 2,800 to 4,000 Austrians of Wurmser's rear guard at Primolano (6 km north of Cismon del Grappa), capturing 1,500 men and their commander Oberstleutnant Alois von Gavasini  The victorious French then followed the valley as it turned south toward Bassano 

Battle
Bassano
Despite being surprised by the French rapid advance, Wurmser had gathered up 20,000 men the day before the collision took place 
On 8 September, 20,000 French soldiers fell upon Wurmser from the north  First, they attacked the 3,800-man Austrian rearguard under FML Peter Quasdanovich and General-Major (GM) Adam Bajalics  Bonaparte sent Masséna down the west bank of the Brenta and Augereau down the east bank  Overwhelmed by repeated attacks and pursued by Colonel Joachim Murat's cavalry, the rearguard collapsed and Bajalics was captured  Wurmser deployed one brigade on the west bank, a second brigade on the east bank, and a third in Bassano  Colonel Jean Lannes led a successful charge which broke the Austrian lines and burst into the town  Quasdanovich later assumed command over the defeated Austrians who retreated east, but 3,500 soldiers of FML Karl Sebottendorf's division fell back to the south with their army commander 
The French suffered 400 killed, wounded, and missing  Wurmser lost 600 killed and wounded  Between 2,000 and 6,000 Austrians, eight colors and 30 artillery pieces were captured  The vigorous French pursuit also seized a bridging train plus 200 limbers and ammunition wagons 

Race for Mantua
Wurmser unexpectedly headed west toward Mantua and joined the division of Mészáros at Vicenza  Immediately, Bonaparte sent his two divisions after the Austrians, hoping to cut them off  Masséna advanced southwest from Vicenza while Augereau moved south to Padua to close the Austrian escape route to the east  General-Major Peter Ott distinguished himself by leading Wurmser's vanguard in the race for Mantua  A French battalion holding Legnago abandoned its post, allowing the Austrians passage across the Adige  Wurmser left 1,600 men to hold the city and continued his march  On 11 September, Masséna intercepted the Austrians at Cerea with two brigades weakened by straggling  Ott held on until Wurmser arrived with the main body, driving the French back with 1,200 casualties  Bonaparte ordered Sahuguet to take up blocking positions at Castel d'Ario and at Governolo where the Mincio River flowed into the Po River  The next day, the Austrian field marshal, assisted by a local guide, crossed a bridge that Sahuguet failed to destroy and led 10,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry to Mantua After capturing the detachment at Legnago on 13 September, Bonaparte appeared before Mantua  On 15 September, Wurmser awaited the French on the east bank of the Mincio River in line of battle, with his right flank on the San Giorgio suburb and his left on La Favorita Palace  The Austrian left wing under Ott held off Sahuguet's attacks all day  But the Austrian line gave way before the attacks of Masséna on the center and General of Brigade Louis André Bon (leading Augereau's division) on the right  The French succeeded in capturing the San Giorgio suburb and driving the Austrians into Mantua  During this fight, 2,500 Austrians became casualties and 11 cannon and 3 colors were captured  The French lost 1,500 killed and wounded, plus nine guns captured 

Results
Mantua's garrison was swollen to nearly 30,000 men  But, within six weeks, 4,000 Austrians died of wounds or disease in the crowded fortress  One historian notes that,

The second attempt to relieve Mantua had therefore come to a rather sorry conclusion for the Austrians  Their army commander had managed to get himself shut inside the very place he was trying to liberate, losing more than 11,000 men in the process  The French had failed to make the link between their armies in Italy and Germany, and Bonaparte was, in a sense, back to square one, still faced with the problem of reducing Mantua, which now had a much more powerful garrison 

Footnotes
Passage 4:
Battle of the Slaak
The naval Battle of the Slaak (12 and 13 September 1631) was a Dutch victory during the Eighty Years' War  The Dutch prevented the Spanish army from dividing the Dutch United Provinces in two 

Background
In reaction to an overland Dutch attempt to capture Dunkirk earlier in the year, Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain, governing the Southern Netherlands for Philip IV of Spain, ordered a Spanish army transported on a fleet of barges to attempt to occupy the islands of Goeree and Overflakee by surprise   In particular, the Spanish wished to overpower the large fortresses on either side of the Volkerak Strait   The fortress on the continental side had special propaganda value, as it was a newly founded town named Willemstad after William the Silent; more importantly, Spanish occupation would have allowed a blockade of the Dutch main naval port Hellevoetsluis located to the direct north of Overflakee on the island of Voorne; and the isolation of the province of Zealand from its confederate provinces 

The battle
A Spanish fleet of ninety vessels and 5,500 men under the direction of Don Francisco de Moncada, Marquis of Aytona, but in fact commanded by Count Jan van Nassau Siegen, a catholic cousin of the Calvinist Dutch House of Orange, mostly consisting of small transports, departed from Antwerp 
The project could not be kept a secret however and a Dutch task force of fifty ships, also largely consisting of small rivercraft but containing some larger flyboats, under Zealandic Vice-Admiral Marinus Hollare, intercepted the fleet in the Eastern Scheldt  Seeing their intended route blocked, the Spanish first tried to capture the more southern island of Tholen instead, to show something for their efforts, but this attempt was thwarted by a regiment of two thousand English and Scots mercenaries under the command of Colonel Thomas Morgan from the continental fortress of Steenbergen who marched at low tide through the shallow sea to the island, arriving just in time to deter a landing  Van Nassau in his desperation then took the bold decision to attempt to sneak past the Dutch fleet during the night and so achieve the original goal after all 
The Spanish movement however was noticed despite a fog; despite their small number the Dutch first allowed the enemy fleet to pass completely before cutting them off  Once this was achieved the Dutch suddenly attacked the Spanish from behind in the Slaak of Volkerak channel and were routed  Hundreds drowned as they tried to escape the ships and those that did escape were captured by the waiting Dutch and English troops ashore  Over 4,000 troops and seamen were captured along with the majority of ships  Van Nassau himself and two ships accompanying him managed to escape to Antwerp; it is not exactly known how many others escaped, perhaps as much as a third of his fleet 

Aftermath
The Admiralty of Amsterdam suggested throwing all prisoners into the sea — until that time the officially prescribed method for the Dutch to dispense with enemy combatants captured at sea — to deter further attempts, but stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange forbade this  One of the captains distinguishing himself was the later Lieutenant-Admiral Johan Evertsen, his brother the later Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Evertsen de Oude also participated  The defeat was one out of a series of setbacks for the Habsburg policy in the Thirty Years War waged the same time in the larger German theatre; it influenced a decision in 1632 to reach a peace settlement between the Habsburgs and the Republic — the peace talks were unsuccessful however 

Notes
Bibliography
Dupuy, Trevor and Rachel Dupuy (1986)   The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B C  to the Present  New York: Harper and Row 
Hoeven, Marco van der, ed  (1997)  Exercise of Arms: Warfare in the Netherlands, 1568-1648  Brill 
Leathes, Samuel, et al , ed  (1902)  The Cambridge Modern History  Volume Four: The Thirty Years War  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 

External links
 Media related to Battle of the Slaak at Wikimedia Commons
Passage 5:
Mansell Richard James
Captain Mansell Richard James  (18 June 1893 – c  2 June 1919) was a Canadian-born World War I flying ace credited with 11 confirmed aerial victories  He disappeared after setting a postwar aviation record for prize money, and was the object of repeated searches throughout the years 

War service
James was living in Watford, Ontario when he enlisted in the Royal Flying Corps, and was commissioned as a temporary second lieutenant on 22 September 1917  After the completion of his training, he was posted to No  45 Squadron in Italy on 12 February 1918 as a Sopwith Camel pilot  On 3 June 1918, he scored his first aerial triumph, destroying an enemy Albatros D V over Feltre  Four days later, he destroyed two Albatros D IIIs, one over San Marino and the other over Colicella  His next two victories over Albatros D Vs that he destroyed east of Feltre on 20 July made him an ace On 5 August 1918, he destroyed the only reconnaissance plane of his career, an AEG  The next day, he sent down two Albatros D Vs over Segusino and destroyed a third  On the last day of August, he rounded out his victory string by destroying two Albatros D Vs near Arsiero On 23 September 1918, Lieutenant James was promoted to temporary captain, and in November 1918 was awarded Distinguished Flying Cross, with the following citation: 

"An excellent scout pilot who has at all times shown great skill, courage and determination in attacking enemy machines  During a short period of time he has destroyed nine enemy aeroplanes" On 6 May 1919, James surrendered his commission in the Royal Air Force upon being transferred to the unemployed list  He shipped out to the United States 

Disappearance
Final flight
On 28 May 1919 James flew what was reputedly the first Sopwith Camel in the United States, from Atlantic City, New Jersey to Boston, Massachusetts  He was competing for a $1,000 prize offered by The Boston Globe for fastest flight between the two cities  At 115 miles per hour despite headwinds, he was much faster than a prior competitor's 90 mph gait  After landing at a field eight miles north of Boston, James departed again at 6 PM, supposedly for a stop at Mitchel Field on Long Island en route to Atlantic City, both of which are southwest of Boston  He buzzed frightened spectators watching his takeoff It was Captain James' intent to follow railroad tracks from Boston on his return flight  He apparently guided on the wrong set of railroad tracks, as he later landed at Tyringham, Massachusetts, (near Lee), about 100 air miles west of Boston, to have his aircraft serviced  On 29 May, he was reportedly seen at 11:30 AM at an altitude of about 5,000 feet over Connecticut after departing Lee, Massachusetts; he apparently had a sound engine at that sighting and was headed southeast A more reliable report tells a somewhat different story  On the morning of 2 June 1919, he took off from Tyringham toward the south, then turned west, away from Boston  He drew a crowd of spectators for his departure because the local populace was not used to aircraft  Because of his direction of flight, they thought he might be returning to the field he departed, but he did not reappear 

Search efforts
Various search efforts were attempted in the years that followed James' disappearance  On 4 June 1919 it was reported that an aeroplane with its engine running had been heard near Millerton, New York  On 5 August 1919, a berry picker in a ravine on Mount Riga outside Millerton, New York found aircraft wreckage which was speculated to be James'  In December 1925 a hunting party had found some apparent wreckage in the remote woods near Tyringham but did not think much of it at the time and only in the weeks after returning did they realize the significance and mounted an unsuccessful search to relocate it  James's uncle had posted a reward for the recovery of his nephew's remains shortly after the disappearance which was still being offered at the time  On 19 May 1927, U  S  Coast Guard Boat 290 found an aircraft wing floating in Fort Pond Bay, Long Island Sound  Captain James's brother, E  D  James, wrote a letter requesting a description of the wing, hoping to identify it  There was another report that his plane might have gone down in a river at Poughkeepsie, New York, but nothing was found  Despite extensive searches for him spurred partially by rewards offered, no sign of James has ever been found  The aircraft debris that had been found was never positively identified as being from James' plane 

See also
Flying aces
No  45 Squadron RAF
List of people who disappeared
List of World War I aces credited with 11–14 victories
Passage 6:
Pyrrhic victory
A Pyrrhic victory ( (listen) PIRR-ik) is a victory that inflicts such a devastating toll on the victor that it is tantamount to defeat  Such a victory negates any true sense of achievement or damages long-term progress  
The phrase originates from a quote from Pyrrhus of Epirus, whose triumph against the Romans in the Battle of Asculum in 279 BC destroyed much of his forces, forcing the end of his campaign 

Etymology
A "Pyrrhic victory" is named after King Pyrrhus of Epirus, whose army suffered irreplaceable casualties in defeating the Romans at the Battle of Heraclea in 280 BC and the Battle of Asculum in 279 BC, during the Pyrrhic War  After the latter battle, Plutarch relates in a report by Dionysius:

The armies separated; and, it is said, Pyrrhus replied to one that gave him joy of his victory that one other such victory would utterly undo him  For he had lost a great part of the forces he brought with him, and almost all his particular friends and principal commanders; there were no others there to make recruits, and he found the confederates in Italy backward  On the other hand, as from a fountain continually flowing out of the city, the Roman camp was quickly and plentifully filled up with fresh men, not at all abating in courage for the loss they sustained, but even from their very anger gaining new force and resolution to go on with the war 
In both Epirote victories, the Romans suffered greater casualties, but they had a much larger pool of replacements, so the casualties had less impact on the Roman war effort than the losses of King Pyrrhus 
The report is often quoted as:

Ne ego si iterum eodem modo vicero, sine ullo milite Epirum revertar 
If I achieve such a victory again, I shall return to Epirus without any soldier 
or

If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined 

Examples
War
This list comprises examples of battles that ended in a Pyrrhic victory  It is not intended to be complete but to illustrate the concept 

Battle of Asculum (279 BC), Pyrrhus of Epirus and Italian allies against the Roman Republic: the Romans, though suffering twice as many casualties, could easily replenish their ranks  Pyrrhus lost most of his commanders and a great part of the forces he had brought to Italy, and he withdrew to Sicily 
Battle of Avarayr (451), Vardan Mamikonian and Christian Armenian rebels against the Sassanid Empire: the Persians were victorious but the battle proved to be a strategic victory for Armenians, as Avarayr paved the way to the Nvarsak Treaty (484 AD), which assured Armenian autonomy and religious freedom 
Siege of Szigetvár (1566), Ottoman–Habsburg wars: although the Ottomans won the siege, it can be seen as a Pyrrhic victory because of the heavy Ottoman casualties, the death of Sultan Suleiman, and the resulting delay to the Ottoman push for Vienna that year which suspended Ottoman expansion in Europe 
Siege of Ostend (1601–1604), Eighty Years' War: for three years the Spanish attempted to capture this port from Dutch and English defenders, even as the Dutch expanded their territory further east – including capturing the port of Sluis to replace Ostend before surrendering  The vast cost and casualties of the siege were compounded by Spain's subsequent campaign to recapture the Dutch gains, which achieved little, and by 1607 Spain was bankrupt  The resultant Twelve Years' Truce effectively made the Dutch Republic an independent state 
Battle of Malplaquet (1709), War of the Spanish Succession: the battle was an Allied victory because Marlborough's army kept possession of the battlefield, but it had suffered double the French casualties and could not pursue  The French army withdrew in good order and relatively intact, and it remained a potent threat to further Allied operations 
Battle of Gangwana (1741) fought between 1,000 strong Rathore cavalry of Jodhpur and combined armies of Mughal Empire, and Jaipur Numbering 100,000 with hundreds of cannons and artillery at Gangwana the Jaipur emerged victorious but with heavy losses of 12,000 and thousands other wounded
Battle of Bunker Hill (1775), American Revolutionary War: after mounting three assaults on the colonial forces, the British won control of the Boston peninsula in the early stages of the war, but the engagement cost them many more casualties than the Americans had incurred (including a large number of officers) and led them to adopt more cautious methods, which helped American rebel forces; the political repercussions increased colonial support for independence 
Battle of Guilford Court House (1781), American Revolutionary War: in this short battle, the outnumbered British force defeated an American army; the British lost a considerable number of men, and their drive to conquer the southern colonies changed course 
Battle of Chancellorsville (1863), American Civil War: General Robert E  Lee split his army in the face of Hooker's larger Union force; the audacious strategy allowed the Confederate army to win the day against a numerically superior foe  However, 20% of Lee's army was injured or killed, including General Stonewall Jackson, and his losses were difficult to replace  Lee's weakened army went on the offensive, but less than two months later was defeated and forced to retreat after the Battle of Gettysburg 
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands (1942), World War II, Solomon Islands Campaign: Japanese and Allied naval forces met during the struggle for Guadalcanal and nearby islands  After an exchange of carrier air attacks, U S  surface ships retreated with one carrier sunk and another severely damaged  The Japanese carrier forces achieved a tactical victory, as none of their ships were sunk, but the heavy loss of irreplaceable veteran aircrews was to the strategic advantage of the Allies  Japanese ground forces on Guadalcanal had also just lost the Battle for Henderson Field and were in no position to take advantage of the new situation 
Battle of Chosin Reservoir (1950), Korean War: the Chinese army attempted to encircle and destroy the UN forces but in a 17-day battle in freezing weather, the UN forces inflicted crippling losses on the Chinese while making a fighting withdrawal  The Chinese occupied northeast Korea but they did not recover until the spring, and the UN maintained a foothold in Korea 
Second Battle of Quảng Trị (1972), Vietnam War: The army of the Republic of Vietnam, with the support of ground artillery, ship gunboats, and bombers, attacked the ancient citadel of Quảng Trị  Although the citadel was recaptured after 81 days and nights, the ARVN army was weakened and after only 2 years, the Republic of Vietnam collapsed and the communists unified the North and South 
Battle of Vukovar (1991), Croatian War of Independence: the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) laid siege to the city of Vukovar, held by the Croatian National Guard and civilian volunteers  After 87 days, the ruined city fell to the JNA  Although the city was besieged from all sides, it exhausted the Yugoslav army and Serbian paramilitaries that had about twenty times more soldiers and complete armoured and artillery superiority, and they had twice as many losses  It was a turning point in the Croatian War of Independence 

Politics, sports and law
The term is used as an analogy in business, politics and sport to describe struggles that end up ruining the victor  Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr commented on the necessity of coercion in preserving the course of justice by warning,

Moral reason must learn how to make coercion its ally without running the risk of a Pyrrhic victory in which the ally exploits and negates the triumph 
In Beauharnais v  Illinois, a 1952 U S  Supreme Court decision involving a charge proscribing group libel, Associate Justice Black alluded to Pyrrhus in his dissent,

If minority groups hail this holding as their victory, they might consider the possible relevancy of this ancient remark: "Another such victory and I am undone" 

See also
Passage 7:
Battle of María
The Battle of María (15 June 1809) saw a small Spanish army led by Joaquín Blake y Joyes face an Imperial French corps under Louis Gabriel Suchet 

Background
The Spanish campaign in early 1809 started with the Battle of Uclés 

Battle
After an inconclusive contest earlier in the day, Suchet's cavalry made a decisive charge that resulted in a French victory



ground_truth: Plymouth Notch

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Between which years did war with the person for whom Pyrrhic victory is named occur?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Though the Spanish right wing was crushed, the rest of Blake's army got away in fairly good order after abandoning most of its artillery  María de Huerva is located 17 kilometres (10 6 mi) southwest of Zaragoza, Spain  The action occurred during the Peninsular War which was part of the larger struggle known as the Napoleonic Wars 

Aftermath
The Spanish campaign in early 1809 proceeded with the French advance in Catalonia in the Battle of Belchite 

Notes
Passage 8:
Battle of Höchst
The Battle of Höchst (20 June 1622) was fought between a Catholic League army led by Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly and a Protestant army commanded by Christian the Younger, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, close to the town of Höchst, today a suburb of the city of Frankfurt am Main  The result was a one-sided Catholic League victory  The action occurred during the Thirty Years' War 

Background
In April 1622, Tilly had lost the Battle of Mingolsheim to Ernst von Mansfeld  In early May, however, Tilly won a decisive engagement with Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Baden-Durlach at the Battle of Wimpfen, which dispersed or killed approximately 3/4 of Georg Friederich's army, leaving only Christian of Brunswick and Ernst von Mansfeld to command in the coming battle  Meanwhile, even though Tilly had lost the army of Gonzalo de Córdoba, who had left, Tilly was more than compensated by the troops of General Tommaso Caracciolo and the count of Anholt, Johann Jakob 
Christian wanted to use the situation for a crucial strike against the Catholic League  With 12,000 infantrymen, nearly 5,000 cavalrymen, and three guns he moved from Westphalia along the Weser River shoreline, and through Hesse towards the Main River to unite his troops with armies of Mansfeld and Baden-Durlach, at Darmstadt  Continuing their mission of blocking a rendezvous between Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, the Catholic forces reached the river at Höchst on 20 June to find Christian's army already crossing the river 

Battle
On 15 June, Christian reached the territory of the Archbishopric of Mainz at Oberursel  He sent Colonel Dodo zu Innhausen und Knyphausen with an advance guard of 1,500 men against Höchst to take the town in a coup de main and to safeguard the Main crossing point  However, the Höchst municipal troops successfully defended the town against Knyphausen's initial assault  On the 16th Knyphausen's troops finally stormed and plundered Höchst 
Two days later the Protestants started building a pontoon bridge across the Main  Meanwhile, Christian moved with his troops towards Höchst and destroyed the villages of Oberusel, Eschborn, and Sulzbach  At the same time the Catholic troops approached in forced marches from Würzburg with 20,000 infantrymen, 6,000 cavalrymen, and 18 guns  On 19 June, they arrived at the Nidda River between Nied and Sossenheim late at night When the bridge was completed in the morning of 20 June, Christian's baggage started to cross the river  Tilly planned to force Christian's troops back to the Höchst walls and the Main, isolating the two thousand troops in Sossenheim  Hence, Christian ordered his troops to withdraw over the pontoon bridge towards Kelsterbach, but under the Catholic artillery fire the withdrawal turned into a headlong flight  The bridge broke after only 3,000 men had crossed and many of Christian's soldiers and horses drowned in the Main By the time Höchst castle was captured at around 10 p m , Christian had already lost a third of his army and was forced to retreat  Mansfeld lost an additional 2,000 troops acting as rearguard at Mannheim  Christian's entire baggage train and guns became Catholic loot  While the League troops lost only 100 soldiers, nearly 2,000 of Christian's soldiers died  However, Christian succeeded in escaping with 3,000 cavalrymen, 8,000 infantrymen, and his war chest, eventually uniting with Mansfeld's army  More recent investigations, however, showed that Christian had lost most of his booty 

Aftermath
Tilly claimed a strategic victory because his army had far fewer losses, despite the fact that Christian of Brunswick had achieved his operational goal of uniting his army with Mansfeld's  As a result of the battle, however, his troops were severely demoralised and had also lost most of their equipment, making them more of a liability than a reinforcement Höchst was the decisive battle of the 1622 campaign and signalled the end for "Winter King" Frederick V  
Shortly after the battle, the combined Protestant forces, now numbering 26,000 strong, positioned themselves on the western bank of the Rhine and ceased to resist the invasion of the Palatinate 
Frederick cancelled their contract and they were then hired by the Dutch Republic to lift the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom  On their way there, they were intercepted by Córdoba's troops in the Battle of Fleurus on 29 August and strategically defeated him despite suffering greater losses 
Heidelberg came under siege and despite an 11-week resistance, fell on 15 September 
With this news, the token English forces under Sir Horace Vere evacuated Mannheim, which fell on 2 November, and moved to the fortress of Frankenthal, which served as a final outpost for Protestant resistance in this area  It fell the following year  Duke Maximillian now controlled half of the Lower Palatinate and installed Heinrich von Metternich as governor 

Illustrations of the battle
The Swiss engraver Merian depicted the battle and the bridging of the Main in an engraving  Another contemporary engraving of an unknown artist shows the battle in a large panorama   Neither of these artists had been an eye witness of the event 
Passage 9:
Lloyd Andrews Hamilton
First Lieutenant Lloyd Andrews Hamilton (13 June 1894 – 24 August 1918) was a World War I flying ace credited with ten aerial victories  During five months of 1918 he became an ace with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and then again with the United States Air Service (USAS)  Hamilton Air Force Base is named after him 

Early life
Lloyd Andrews Hamilton was born in Troy, New York, the only child of Methodist minister Reverend John A  Hamilton and his wife Jennie Andrews Hamilton  He was a bright scholar who took his Baccalaureate Degree magnum cum laude from Syracuse University in 1916 and was a member of the Psi Upsilon fraternity  He initiated post-graduate studies at Harvard Business School in September 1916  When America entered World War I, he enlisted in the USAS, on 28 April and in May he reported to Plattsburgh, New York, for officer training 

Aviation service
Hamilton shipped out to England in late 1917 where he trained in early 1918 in an Avro 504, perhaps at RFC Bramham Moor which was then renamed RAF Tadcaster, near Bramham cum Oglethorpe in Yorkshire  Hamilton was temporarily posted as a first lieutenant to United Kingdom No  3 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps, on 2 March 1918 He first scored as a combat pilot on 11 April 1918, flying the Sopwith Camel against his first German opponent, an LVG C VI observation aircraft  The next day he made his second aerial kill; his third a week later  On 20 April he was flying at the tail end of 'C' flight when his commander Richard Raymond-Barker was attacked and killed by Manfred von Richthofen, known as the Red Baron  From far away Hamilton saw Richthofen shoot down a second aviator (who crashed but lived), then Hamilton was near enough to engage a blue Fokker Dr I triplane, expending more than 300 rounds at it after which it went into a dive and spin, but Hamilton's own maneuvers prevented him from seeing what happened to it  Hamilton returned to base and claimed a kill but it was never confirmed—all of Richthofen's flight had returned safe from the engagement  On 3 June 1918, Hamilton became an ace, scoring his fifth confirmed victory Hamilton was assigned to the USAS 17th Aero Squadron to help them complete their training  When they moved into combat, he was one of their Flight Commanders  In his service he downed three enemy aircraft and two observation balloons, becoming a double ace—once flying under RFC command and once again for USAS  His first USAS victory on 7 August was during an offensive patrol; the squadron was flying high at 16,000 feet (5,000 m) when they noticed eight Fokker D VIIs well below them over Armentières  The 17th squadron dove to attack and Hamilton downed an enemy aircraft after firing 200 rounds On Hamilton's final mission he was paired with Lt  Jesse F  Campbell to bomb and strafe transports along the Bapaume–Cambrai road, to strafe enemy troops in retreat and to attack an observation balloon that had been spotted to the north  After dropping their bombs on a small building and transports, Campbell and Hamilton turned to bust the balloon  Hamilton sprayed the balloon with machine gun rounds, and its German observer officer was seen to jump from the basket as the balloon exploded in flame  Hamilton was then killed by defensive fire from ground forces 

Legacy
Hamilton scored five victories each in 3 Squadron RAF and in the 17th Aero Squadron  He shared some of his victories teamed with such other aces as Douglas John Bell, William Tipton, Adrian Franklyn, Will Hubbard, and Robert Miles Todd Hamilton's body was laid to rest at Pittsfield Cemetery in Pittsfield, Massachusetts  His father mentioned Hamilton in Sunday sermons for many years after the war In July 1932, the new military airfield at Novato, California was named Hamilton Field in tribute  In April 1934, a plaque was emplaced to commemorate him 

Honors and awards
Distinguished Service Cross (DSC)
The Distinguished Service Cross is presented to Lloyd A  Hamilton, First Lieutenant (Air Service), U S  Army, for extraordinary heroism in action at Varssenaere, Belgium, August 13, 1918  Leading a low bombing attack on a German aerodrome, 30 miles behind the line, Lieutenant Hamilton destroyed the hangars on the north side of the aerodrome and then attacked a row of enemy machines, flying as low as 20 feet from the ground despite intense machine-gun fire, and setting fire to three of the German planes  He then turned and fired bursts through the windows of the chateau in which the German pilots were quartered, 26 of whom were afterwards reported killed  General Orders No  20, W D , 1919 Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC)
On 13 August 1918, Lt  Hamilton led his flight on a special mission against Varssenaere aerodrome  He dropped four bombs from 200 feet on some aeroplane hangars, making two direct hits and causing a large amount of damage  He then machine gunned the German officers' billets and made four circuits of the aerodrome, shooting up various targets  On the first circuit, he destroyed one EA on the ground which burst into flames when he shot it up  On the third circuit he repeated this performance, setting afire another Fokker biplane  His dash and skill very materially helped in the success of the operation  In addition this officer destroyed a Fokker biplane over Armentières on 7 August 1918  On 12 July he brought down two EA in flames and on two other occasions has driven down out of control enemy machines  He is an excellent patrol leader 

See also
List of World War I flying aces from the United States
Passage 10:
Siege of Genoa (1800)
The siege of Genoa (6 April – 4 June 1800) saw Austria besiege and capture the city of Genoa from France during the War of the Second Coalition  However, the battle was ultimately a successful diversion conducted by André Masséna's forces that allowed Napoleon to win the subsequent Battle of Marengo  In the end, around 30,000 of Genoa's 160,000 inhabitants had died of starvation and disease in the course of the siege 

Background
After Massena's victory in the Second Battle of Zurich, the alliance between Russia and Austria ended  Though this did not end the war, Napoleon soon came back from Egypt and proclaimed himself First Consul, greatly improving French chances of victory  However, the consul needed time to move his troops into Italy, so he ordered Masséna to hold Nice and Genoa at all costs until he arrived 

Beginning
Initially, the French had about 60,000 soldiers, but this number was reduced to about 36,000 fighting men due to a typhus epidemic that had also taken the lives of two of Masséna's predecessors, generals Jean-Étienne Championnet and Jean-Antoine Marbot  The Austrian commander, Michael von Melas, had around 120,000 soldiers available in Italy  After the first engagements, despite the bravery of French soldiers under Louis-Gabriel Suchet and Jean-de-Dieu Soult, Genoa was soon cut off from any outside help  By 6 April, the French were surrounded not only by land, but also by sea where a strong British squadron had just taken up positions  Nevertheless, French morale remained high and Masséna was determined to hold on 

Siege
Though Genoa was defended both by nature and by strong fortifications, Massénaa planned a more offensive strategy  On 7 April, he ordered an attack on Monte Ratti, which resulted in the Austrians being thrown out of the Apennines and the French capturing about 1,500 prisoners, including General-Major Konstantin Ghilian Karl d'Aspré  Two days later, Masséna began a desperate operation to unite with the rest of the French forces commanded by Suchet  Although Massena was cut off with only 1,200 soldiers against 10,000 Austrians, he endured their attacks and, with the help of Soult, captured another 4,000 prisoners  After this battle, the French finally shut themselves in the city  Other desperately fought battles soon followed, especially those for Fort Quezzi and Fort Richelieu, inflicting further heavy casualties on the Austrians  French forces then captured Mount Creto, forcing the Austrians to halt all further actions 
In the meantime, Bonaparte was marching with the Army of the Reserve not to the relief of Genoa, but to Milan, where he spent six days  By the end of May, plague had spread throughout Genoa and the civilian population was in revolt  Negotiations for the exchange of prisoners began in early June, but the citizens and some of the garrison clamoured for capitulation  Unknown to Masséna, the Austrian general Peter Ott had been ordered to raise the siege because Bonaparte had crossed Great St  Bernard Pass and was now threatening the main Austrian army  Describing the situation at Genoa, Ott requested and received permission to continue the siege  On 4 June, Masséna's negotiator finally agreed to evacuate the French army from Genoa  However, "if the word capitulation was mentioned or written", Masséna threatened to end all negotiations Two days later, a few of the French left the city by sea, but the bulk of Masséna's starving and exhausted troops marched out of the city with all their equipment and followed the road along the coast toward France, ending one of the most remarkable sieges in modern military history  The siege was an astonishing demonstration of tenacity, ingenuity, courage, and daring that garnered additional laurels for Masséna and placed him in a category previously reserved for Bonaparte alone 

Aftermath
The gruelling siege of some sixty days had ended but it played an important role in Napoleon's strategy  By forcing the Austrians to deploy vast forces against himself at Genoa, Masséna made it possible for Bonaparte to cross the Great St Bernard Pass, surprise the Austrians, and ultimately defeat General Melas's army at Marengo before sufficient reinforcements could be transferred from the siege site  Less than three weeks after the evacuation, Bonaparte wrote to Masséna, "I am not able to give you a greater mark of the confidence I have in you than by giving you command of the first army of the Republic [Army of Italy] " The Austrians also recognized the significance of Masséna's defense; the Austrian chief of staff declared firmly, "You won the battle, not in front of Alessandria but in front of Genoa "

Notes


== Citations ==
Passage 11:
Earl Frederick Crabb
Lieutenant (later Major) Earl Frederick Crabb (March 27, 1899 – October 18, 1986) was a World War I flying ace credited with six aerial victories  After World War I, he was an aviation pioneer and bush pilot  He returned to military aviation during World War II  He flew as a commercial pilot until he was 72 years old 

World War I
Crabb served in 92 Squadron under the command of fellow ace and future Air Marshal Arthur Coningham  Crabbe flew a Royal Aircraft Factory SE 5a to score all six of his victories  They took place between 22 July and 29 October 1918  Crabbe downed five German Fokker D VII fighters and a DFW reconnaissance plane; the latter kill was shared with fellow ace Thomas Stanley Horry and another pilot Crabb was awarded a Distinguished Flying Cross on 8 February 1919 

Between the wars
Crabb remained in aviation after war's end  He barnstormed  He flew air mail from Boston and New York to Detroit during the 1920s  In the early 1930s, he was the first pilot hired by the U S  Forest Service in Maine 

World War II and beyond
Crabb returned to duty for World War II as a major, joining the U S  Army Air Corps and serving in Training Command  After his discharge in 1945, he returned to his civilian flying job  He retired as Chief Pilot with the Forest Service at age 65, circa 1964  He continued to fly as a commercial pilot until about 1971 
Passage 12:
Hieronymus of Cardia
Hieronymus of Cardia (Greek: Ἱερώνυμος ὁ Καρδιανός, 354?–250 BC) was a Greek general and historian from Cardia in Thrace, and a contemporary of Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) 
After the death of Alexander he followed the fortunes of his friend and fellow-countryman Eumenes  He was wounded and taken prisoner by Antigonus, who pardoned him and appointed him superintendent of the asphalt beds in the Dead Sea  He was treated with equal friendliness by Antigonus's son Demetrius, who made him polemarch of Thespiae, and by Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court he died at the purported age of 104 
He wrote a history of the Diadochi and their descendants, encompassing the period from the death of Alexander to the war with Pyrrhus (323–272 BC), which is one of the chief authorities used by Diodorus Siculus (xviii –xx ) and also by Plutarch in his life of Pyrrhus 
He made use of official papers and was careful in his investigation of facts  The simplicity of his style seemingly rendered his work unpopular to people of his time, but modern historians believe it was very good  In the last part of his work he made a praiseworthy attempt to acquaint the Greeks with the character and early history of the Romans  He is reproached by Pausanias (i  9  8) with unfairness towards all rulers with the exception of Antigonus Gonatas 
Like the even more famous lost history of Alexander by Ptolemy I of Egypt, no significant amount of his work survived the end of the ancient world  He is among the authors whose fragments were collected in Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Müller's Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum (II pp  450–61), and in Felix Jacoby's Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (= FGrHist 154) 
Passage 13:
Battle of Szikszó
The third and largest Battle of Szikszó was fought in October 1588 between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire as part of the Ottoman–Hungarian wars  The Hungarian forces were fewer in number, but were victorious over the Ottomans   This unexpected victory was even mentioned by Emperor Rudolf decades after the battle  It was one of the most important Hungarian victories in the post-Mohács period 

Events
In 1588, Pasha Sina of Buda marched with his soldiers towards Szikszó, which belonged to Hungary and refused to pay taxes to Porta   On October 8, Ottoman soldiers were already in the market town and looting when the border fort's rescue army led by Captain Sigismund Rákóczi from Eger arrived   In contrast to the Ottoman army of 11,000 the Hungarian-German army could have been 2,400–2,500   Despite the superiority, the latter still won   More than two thousand Ottomans and about 400–500 Hungarians and Germans were dead in the clash   In the wake of this incident, the Habsburg court in Prague suspended the payment of a “fair gift” of 30,000 gold a year, fixed in the Drinapolis peace, in response to which Porta threatened war 

Prelude
In 1588, Szikszó already owed 1,000 gold tax, so Sinan  Pasha of Buda organized a punitive tax collect campaign   The six thousand cavalry and the same number of infantry were led by Kara Ali Beg, the commander of Fehérvár, against Putnok and then, after he could not take it, set off in the direction of Szikszó 

The battle
On the afternoon of October 8, the Pasha arrived under the city and immediately began the siege of the church fortress, which was protected by armed citizens   After two hours of siege, however, he was forced to retreat, because the rescue teams led by Major Sigismund Rákóczi from Eger arrived around 5 o'clock 
With 2,000 Hungarian warriors and 500 German warriors   Kara Ali set fire to the church and the houses around it, then retreated to the Hernád-Velvet triangle, where he arranged his army   He arranged the riders on the right wing and the Janissaries on the left wing, setting up his four cannons in the middle 
Rákóczi's army was led in the middle by István Drugeth Homonnai, chief of Zemplén, the most famous knight of Upper Hungary, the black shield horsemen attacked the left wing, while the German riflemen collided with the Janissaries 
Kara Ali was seriously injured at the very beginning of the battle, so the command was taken over by Mustafa Szécsény, who also fell shortly afterwards   At that time the Janissaries broke through the army of the attacking Hungarian armies, István Drugeth was captured, and Rákóczi was already considering retreating, when the Hungarian left wing rushed to the aid of the Germans, and thus managed to repel the Janissaries 
The order of war was completely disintegrated, and the struggle against man dragged on into the late night   By this time, the third Turkish chief, Bajazid basa, the leader of the Janissaries, had also fallen   Heling, the captain of the Germans, also fell   By 11, the Turkish armies ran away   The cavalry chased them to Sajó, and he also managed to free his Homons 
1,700 Turkish and hundreds of Hungarian and German soldiers died in the battle 

Aftermath
The common grave where the dead were buried has since been called Törökhalom 
With this victory, Sigismund Rákóczi became famous, Emperor Rudolf, even decades after the battle, mentioned the brilliant triumph, which was especially valuable because of the difference in the numbers of the two armies 



ground_truth: 323–272 BC