prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Why was Common Sense, by the same author as Rights of Man, an important work?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Wednesday Is Indigo Blue
Wednesday Is Indigo Blue: Discovering the Brain of Synesthesia is a 2009 non-fiction book written by Richard Cytowic and David Eagleman documenting the current scientific understanding of synesthesia, a perceptual condition where an experience of one sense (such as sight) causes an automatic and involuntary experience in another sense (such as hearing)  The afterword is written by Dimitri Nabokov, a synesthete, and the son of the well-known author and synesthete Vladimir Nabokov 

Synopsis
The introduction likens the "cross-talk" occurring in the brain producing synesthetic experiences to weather patterns in coastal regions where there are no barriers and all of the elements interact  Normally communication in the brain is like weather in the Rocky Mountain regions, where weather can be isolated in one spot independent of weather systems close by  Chapter 1, "What color is Tuesday?", describes some of the early and still common resistance to the existence and study of synesthesia, and explains the fundamental characteristics necessary to "diagnose" synesthesia  The authors advocate the usefulness of introspective reports as they can later be useful in developing third-party tests for such purposes  Form constants are introduced as part of a framework to study visual synesthetic concurrents (the involuntary response in another sense)  Chapter 2 builds on Chapter 1, discussing the types of synesthesia and the methods used to make a synesthesia diagnosis such as variations on stroop tests  The potential benefits of synesthesia are expanded on, including its correlation with eidetic memory and experience of a wider ranger of color  Chapter 3 discusses grapheme-color synesthesia in detail and describes the case of Solomon Shereshevsky 

Reception
In interviews related to the book Cytowic has discussed the evolutionary purpose synesthesia, whether it is an adaptive product of natural selection or is more like a kind of spandrel  In Cytowic's responses he has mentioned the relationship between synesthesia and creativity suggesting that because synesthesia is associated with creativity it is adaptive  In his interview with Jonah Lehrer he maintained that this is one of the reasons why its prevalence, estimated at one in twenty-three people, is so high  Cytowic also suggested synesthesia could be expressed in non-sensory parts of the brain (e g  memory, planning and moral reasoning) increasing creativity in related to those subjects as well  Conversely the increased communication could be expressed even more diffusely in the brain resulting in a generalized talent for connecting apparently unrelated topics In an interview with Seed Magazine Eagleman explained further that the genes responsible for the increased communication in synesthetes may also be present in non-synesthetes, but there would be additional difficulties researching this phenomenon as there would be no perceptual correlates allowing researches to identify such people  He added that he is researching spot thought to be related to Grapheme-color synesthesia on chromosome sixteen In her review of the book, New Scientist columnist Lize Else described Cytowic as a pioneer in synesthesia research  She used a phrase from the authors to explain the correlation between synesthesia and creativity, namely that synesthesia eases the process of making "metaphoric cross-connections" between different areas in the brain 

See also
List of people with synesthesia
Born on a Blue Day by Daniel Tammet
Passage 2:
Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine (born Thomas Pain; February 9, 1737 [O S  January 29, 1736]  – June 8, 1809) was an English-born American Founding Father, political activist, philosopher, political theorist, and revolutionary  He authored Common Sense (1776) and The American Crisis (1776–1783), two of the most influential pamphlets at the start of the American Revolution, and he helped to inspire the Patriots in 1776 to declare independence from Great Britain  His ideas reflected Enlightenment-era ideals of human rights Paine was born in Thetford, Norfolk and emigrated to the British American colonies in 1774 with the help of Benjamin Franklin, arriving just in time to participate in the American Revolution  Virtually every American Patriot read his 47-page pamphlet Common Sense, which catalyzed the call for independence from Great Britain  The American Crisis was a pro-independence pamphlet series  Paine lived in France for most of the 1790s, becoming deeply involved in the French Revolution  While in England, he wrote Rights of Man (1791), in part a defense of the French Revolution against its critics  His attacks on Anglo-Irish conservative writer Edmund Burke led to a trial and conviction in absentia in England in 1792 for the crime of seditious libel 
The British government of William Pitt the Younger was worried by the possibility that the French Revolution might spread to Britain and had begun suppressing works that espoused radical philosophies  Paine's work advocated the right of the people to overthrow their government and was therefore targeted with a writ for his arrest issued in early 1792  Paine fled to France in September, despite not being able to speak French, but he was quickly elected to the French National Convention  The Girondins regarded him as an ally; consequently, the Montagnards regarded him as an enemy, especially Maximilien Robespierre  In December 1793, he was arrested and was taken to Luxembourg Prison in Paris  While in prison, he continued to work on The Age of Reason (1793–1794)  James Monroe used his diplomatic connections to get Paine released in November 1794 
Paine became notorious because of his pamphlets and attacks on his former allies, who he felt had betrayed him  In The Age of Reason and other writings, he advocated Deism, promoted reason and freethought, and argued against religion in general and Christian doctrine in particular  In 1796, he published a bitter open letter to George Washington, whom he denounced as an incompetent general and a hypocrite  He published the pamphlet Agrarian Justice (1797), discussing the origins of property and introducing the concept of a guaranteed minimum income through a one-time inheritance tax on landowners  In 1802, he returned to the U S  He died on June 8, 1809, and only six people attended his funeral, as he had been ostracized for his ridicule of Christianity and his attacks on the nation's leaders 

Early life and education
Thomas Paine was born on January 29, 1736 (NS February 9, 1737),  the son of Joseph Pain, a tenant farmer and stay-maker, and Frances (née Cocke) Pain, in Thetford, Norfolk, England  Joseph was a Quaker and Frances an Anglican  Despite claims that Thomas changed the spelling of his family name upon his emigration to America in 1774, he was using "Paine" in 1769, while still in Lewes, Sussex 

He attended Thetford Grammar School (1744–1749), at a time when there was no compulsory education  At the age of 13, he was apprenticed to his father  Following his apprenticeship, aged 19, Paine enlisted and briefly served as a privateer, before returning to Britain in 1759  There, he became a master staymaker, establishing a shop in Sandwich, Kent On September 27, 1759, Paine married Mary Lambert  His business collapsed soon after  Mary became pregnant; and, after they moved to Margate, she went into early labour, in which she and their child died In July 1761, Paine returned to Thetford to work as a supernumerary officer  In December 1762, he became an Excise Officer in Grantham, Lincolnshire; in August 1764, he was transferred to Alford, also in Lincolnshire, at a salary of £50 per annum  On August 27, 1765, he was dismissed as an Excise Officer for "claiming to have inspected goods he did not inspect"  On July 31, 1766, he requested his reinstatement from the Board of Excise, which they granted the next day, upon vacancy  While awaiting that, he worked as a staymaker 

In 1767, he was appointed to a position in Grampound, Cornwall  Later he asked to leave this post to await a vacancy, and he became a school teacher in London On February 19, 1768, he was appointed to Lewes in Sussex, a town with a tradition of opposition to the monarchy and pro-republican sentiments since the revolutionary decades of the 17th century  Here he lived above the 15th-century Bull House, the tobacco shop of Samuel Ollive and Esther Ollive Paine first became involved in civic matters when he was based in Lewes  He appears in the Town Book as a member of the Court Leet, the governing body for the town  He was also a member of the parish vestry, an influential local Anglican church group whose responsibilities for parish business would include collecting taxes and tithes to distribute among the poor  On March 26, 1771, at age 34, Paine married Elizabeth Ollive, the daughter of his recently deceased landlord, whose business as a grocer and tobacconist he then entered into 

From 1772 to 1773, Paine joined excise officers asking Parliament for better pay and working conditions, publishing, in summer of 1772, The Case of the Officers of Excise, a 12-page article, and his first political work, spending the London winter distributing the 4,000 copies printed to the Parliament and others  In spring 1774, he was again dismissed from the excise service for being absent from his post without permission  The tobacco shop failed  On April 14, to avoid debtors' prison, he sold his household possessions to pay debts  He formally separated from his wife Elizabeth on June 4, 1774, and moved to London  In September, mathematician, Fellow of the Royal Society, and Commissioner of the Excise George Lewis Scott introduced him to Benjamin Franklin, who was there as a voice for colonial opposition to British colonial rule, especially as it related to the Stamp Act, and the Townshend Acts  He was publisher and editor of the largest American newspaper, The Pennsylvania Gazette and suggested emigration to Philadelphia  He handed out a letter of recommendation to Paine, who emigrated in October to the American colonies, arriving in Philadelphia on November 30, 1774 

In Pennsylvania Magazine
Paine barely survived the transatlantic voyage  The ship's water supplies were bad and typhoid fever killed five passengers  On arriving at Philadelphia, he was too sick to disembark  Benjamin Franklin's physician, there to welcome Paine to America, had him carried off ship; Paine took six weeks to recover  He became a citizen of Pennsylvania "by taking the oath of allegiance at a very early period"  In March 1775, he became editor of the Pennsylvania Magazine, a position he conducted with considerable ability Before Paine's arrival in America, sixteen magazines had been founded in the colonies and ultimately failed, each featuring substantial content and reprints from England  In late 1774, Philadelphia printer Robert Aitken announced his plan to create what he called an "American Magazine" with content derived from the colonies  Paine contributed two pieces to the magazine's inaugural issue dated January 1775, and Aitken hired Paine as the Magazine's editor one month later  Under Paine's leadership, the magazine's readership rapidly expanded, achieving a greater circulation in the colonies than any American magazine up until that point  While Aitken had conceived of the magazine as nonpolitical, Paine brought a strong political perspective to its content, writing in its first issue that "every heart and hand seem to be engaged in the interesting struggle for American Liberty "Paine wrote in the Pennsylvania Magazine that such a publication should become a "nursery of genius" for a nation that had "now outgrown the state of infancy," exercising and educating American minds, and shaping American morality  On March 8, 1775, the Pennsylvania Magazine published an unsigned abolitionist essay titled African Slavery in America  The essay is often attributed to Paine on the basis of a letter by Benjamin Rush, recalling Paine's claim of authorship to the essay  The essay attacked slavery as an "execrable commerce" and "outrage against Humanity and Justice "Consciously appealing to a broader and more working-class audience, Paine also used the magazine to discuss worker rights to production  This shift in the conceptualization of politics has been described as a part of "the 'modernization' of political consciousness," and the mobilization of ever greater sections of society into political life 

American Revolution
Common Sense (1776)
Paine has a claim to the title The Father of the American Revolution, which rests on his pamphlets, especially Common Sense, which crystallized sentiment for independence in 1776  It was published in Philadelphia on January 10, 1776, and signed anonymously "by an Englishman"  It was an immediate success, quickly spreading 100,000 copies in three months to the two million residents of the 13 colonies  During the course of the American Revolution, a total of about 500,000 copies were sold, including unauthorized editions  Paine's original title for the pamphlet was Plain Truth, but Paine's friend, pro-independence advocate Benjamin Rush, suggested Common Sense instead  Finding a printer who was daring enough to commit his print shop to the printing of Common Sense was not easy  At the advice of Rush, Paine commissioned Robert Bell to print his work The pamphlet came into circulation in January 1776, after the Revolution had started  It was passed around and often read aloud in taverns, contributing significantly to spreading the idea of republicanism, bolstering enthusiasm for separation from Britain, and encouraging recruitment for the Continental Army  Paine provided a new and convincing argument for independence by advocating a complete break with history  Common Sense is oriented to the future in a way that compels the reader to make an immediate choice  It offers a solution for Americans disgusted with and alarmed at the threat of tyranny Paine's attack on monarchy in Common Sense is essentially an attack on George III  Whereas colonial resentments were originally directed primarily against the king's ministers and Parliament, Paine laid the responsibility firmly at the king's door  Common Sense was the most widely read pamphlet of the American Revolution  It was a clarion call for unity against the corrupt British court, so as to realize America's providential role in providing an asylum for liberty  Written in a direct and lively style, it denounced the decaying despotisms of Europe and pilloried hereditary monarchy as an absurdity  At a time when many still hoped for reconciliation with Britain, Common Sense demonstrated to many the inevitability of separation Paine was not on the whole expressing original ideas in Common Sense, but rather employing rhetoric as a means to arouse resentment of the Crown  To achieve these ends, he pioneered a style of political writing suited to the democratic society he envisioned, with Common Sense serving as a primary example  Part of Paine's work was to render complex ideas intelligible to average readers of the day, with clear, concise writing unlike the formal, learned style favored by many of Paine's contemporaries  Scholars have put forward various explanations to account for its success, including the historic moment, Paine's easy-to-understand style, his democratic ethos, and his use of psychology and ideology Common Sense was immensely popular in disseminating to a very wide audience ideas that were already in common use among the elite who comprised Congress and the leadership cadre of the emerging nation, who rarely cited Paine's arguments in their public calls for independence  The pamphlet probably had little direct influence on the Continental Congress' decision to issue a Declaration of Independence, since that body was more concerned with how declaring independence would affect the war effort  One distinctive idea in Common Sense is Paine's beliefs regarding the peaceful nature of republics; his views were an early and strong conception of what scholars would come to call the democratic peace theory Loyalists vigorously attacked Common Sense; one attack, titled Plain Truth (1776), by Marylander James Chalmers, said Paine was a political quack and warned that without monarchy, the government would "degenerate into democracy"  Even some American revolutionaries objected to Common Sense; late in life John Adams called it a "crapulous mass"  Adams disagreed with the type of radical democracy promoted by Paine (that men who did not own property should still be allowed to vote and hold public office) and published Thoughts on Government in 1776 to advocate a more conservative approach to republicanism Sophia Rosenfeld argues that Paine was highly innovative in his use of the commonplace notion of "common sense"  He synthesized various philosophical and political uses of the term in a way that permanently impacted American political thought  He used two ideas from Scottish Common Sense Realism: that ordinary people can indeed make sound judgments on major political issues, and that there exists a body of popular wisdom that is readily apparent to anyone  Paine also used a notion of "common sense" favored by philosophes in the Continental Enlightenment  They held that common sense could refute the claims of traditional institutions  Thus, Paine used "common sense" as a weapon to de-legitimize the monarchy and overturn prevailing conventional wisdom  Rosenfeld concludes that the phenomenal appeal of his pamphlet resulted from his synthesis of popular and elite elements in the independence movement According to historian Robert Middlekauff, Common Sense became immensely popular mainly because Paine appealed to widespread convictions  Monarchy, he said, was preposterous and it had a heathenish origin  It was an institution of the devil  Paine pointed to the Old Testament, where almost all kings had seduced the Israelites to worship idols instead of God  Paine also denounced aristocracy, which together with monarchy were "two ancient tyrannies " They violated the laws of nature, human reason, and the "universal order of things," which began with God  That was, Middlekauff says, exactly what most Americans wanted to hear  He calls the Revolutionary generation "the children of the twice-born"  because in their childhood they had experienced the Great Awakening, which, for the first time, had tied Americans together, transcending denominational and ethnic boundaries and giving them a sense of patriotism 

Possible involvement in drafting the Declaration of Independence
While there is no historical record of Paine's involvement in drafting the Declaration of Independence, some scholars of Early American History have suspected Thomas Paine's involvement over the past two centuries   As noted by the Thomas Paine National Historical Association, multiple authors have hypothesized and written on the subject, including Moody (1872), Van der Weyde (1911), Lewis (1947), and more recently, Smith & Rickards (2007) In 2018, the Thomas Paine National Historical Association introduced an early draft of the Declaration that contained evidence of Paine's involvement based on an inscription of "T P " on the back of the document  During the early deliberations of the Committee of Five members chosen by Congress to draft the Declaration of Independence, John Adams made a hastily written manuscript copy of the original draft of the Declaration of Independence on June 24, 1776, known as the Sherman Copy  Adams made this copy shortly before preparing another neater, fair copy that is held in the Adams Family Papers collection at the Massachusetts Historical Society  The Sherman copy of the Declaration of Independence is one of several working drafts of the Declaration, made for Roger Sherman's review and approval before the Committee of Five submitted a finalized draft to Congress  The Sherman Copy of the Declaration of Independence contains an inscription on the back of the document that states: "A beginning perhaps-Original with Jefferson-Copied from Original with T P 's permission " According to the Thomas Paine National Historical Association, the individual referenced as "T P " in the inscription appears to be Thomas Paine The degree to which Paine was involved in formulating the text of the Declaration is unclear, as the original draft referenced in the Sherman Copy inscription is presumed lost or destroyed  However, John Adams' request for permission of "T P " to copy the original draft may suggest that Paine had a role either assisting Jefferson with organizing ideas within the Declaration, or contributing to the text of the original draft itself 

The American Crisis (1776)
In late 1776, Paine published The American Crisis pamphlet series to inspire the Americans in their battles against the British army  He juxtaposed the conflict between the good American devoted to civic virtue and the selfish provincial man  To inspire his soldiers, General George Washington had The American Crisis, first Crisis pamphlet, read aloud to them  It begins:

These are the times that try men's souls: The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman  Tyranny, like Hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph  What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly: it is dearness only that gives every thing its value  Heaven knows how to put a proper price upon its goods; and it would be strange indeed if so celestial an article as freedom should not be highly rated 

Foreign affairs
In 1777, Paine became secretary of the Congressional Committee on Foreign Affairs  The following year, he alluded to secret negotiation underway with France in his pamphlets  His enemies denounced his indiscretions  There was scandal; together with Paine's conflict with Robert Morris and Silas Deane it led to Paine's expulsion from the Committee in 1779 However, in 1781, he accompanied John Laurens on his mission to France  Eventually, after much pleading from Paine, New York State recognized his political services by presenting him with an estate at New Rochelle, New York and Paine received money from Pennsylvania and from Congress at Washington's suggestion  During the Revolutionary War, Paine served as an aide-de-camp to the important general, Nathanael Greene 

Silas Deane Affair
In what may have been an error, and perhaps even contributed to his resignation as the secretary to the Committee of Foreign Affairs, Paine was openly critical of Silas Deane, an American diplomat who had been appointed in March 1776 by the Congress to travel to France in secret  Deane's goal was to influence the French government to finance the colonists in their fight for independence  Paine largely saw Deane as a war profiteer who had little respect for principle, having been under the employ of Robert Morris, one of the primary financiers of the American Revolution and working with Pierre Beaumarchais, a French royal agent sent to the colonies by King Louis to investigate the Anglo-American conflict  Paine uncovered the financial connection between Morris, who was Superintendent for Finance of the Continental Congress, and Deane  Paine labeled Deane as unpatriotic, and demanded that there be a public investigation into Morris' financing of the Revolution, as he had contracted with his own company for around $500,000 Wealthy men, such as Robert Morris, John Jay and powerful merchant bankers, were leaders of the Continental Congress and defended holding public positions while at the same time profiting off their own personal financial dealings with governments  Amongst Paine's criticisms, he had written in the Pennsylvania Packet that France had "prefaced [their] alliance by an early and generous friendship," referring to aid that had been provided to American colonies prior to the recognition of the Franco-American treaties  This was alleged to be effectively an embarrassment to France, which potentially could have jeopardized the alliance  John Jay, the President of the Congress, who had been a fervent supporter of Deane, immediately spoke out against Paine's comments  The controversy eventually became public, and Paine was then denounced as unpatriotic for criticizing an American revolutionary  He was even physically assaulted twice in the street by Deane supporters  This much-added stress took a large toll on Paine, who was generally of a sensitive character and he resigned as secretary to the Committee of Foreign Affairs in 1779  Paine left the Committee without even having enough money to buy food for himself Much later, when Paine returned from his mission to France, Deane's corruption had become more widely acknowledged  Many, including Robert Morris, apologized to Paine and Paine's reputation in Philadelphia was restored 

"Public Good"
In 1780, Paine published a pamphlet entitled "Public Good," in which he made the case that territories west of the 13 colonies that had been part of the British Empire belonged after the Declaration of Independence to the American government, and did not belong to any of the 13 states or to any individual speculators  A royal charter of 1609 had granted to the Virginia Company land stretching to the Pacific Ocean  A small group of wealthy Virginia land speculators, including the Washington, Lee, and Randolph families, had taken advantage of this royal charter to survey and to claim title to huge swaths of land, including much land west of the 13 colonies  In "Public Good," Paine argued that these lands belonged to the American government as represented by the Continental Congress  This angered many of Paine's wealthy Virginia friends, including Richard Henry Lee of the powerful Lee family, who had been Paine's closest ally in Congress, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, all of whom had claims to huge wild tracts that Paine was advocating should be government owned  The view that Paine had advocated eventually prevailed when the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 was passed 
The animosity Paine felt as a result of the publication of "Public Good" fueled his decision to embark with Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens on a mission to travel to Paris to obtain funding for the American war effort 

Funding the Revolution
Paine accompanied Col  John Laurens to France and is credited with initiating the mission  It landed in France in March 1781 and returned to America in August with 2 5 million livres in silver, as part of a "present" of 6 million and a loan of 10 million  The meetings with the French king were most likely conducted in the company and under the influence of Benjamin Franklin  Upon returning to the United States with this highly welcomed cargo, Thomas Paine and probably Col  Laurens, "positively objected" that General Washington should propose that Congress remunerate him for his services, for fear of setting "a bad precedent and an improper mode"  Paine made influential acquaintances in Paris and helped organize the Bank of North America to raise money to supply the army  In 1785, he was given $3,000 by the U S  Congress in recognition of his service to the nation Henry Laurens (father of Col  John Laurens) had been the ambassador to the Netherlands, but he was captured by the British on his return trip there  When he was later exchanged for the prisoner Lord Cornwallis in late 1781, Paine proceeded to the Netherlands to continue the loan negotiations  There remains some question as to the relationship of Henry Laurens and Thomas Paine to Robert Morris as the Superintendent of Finance and his business associate Thomas Willing who became the first president of the Bank of North America in January 1782  They had accused Morris of profiteering in 1779 and Willing had voted against the Declaration of Independence  Although Morris did much to restore his reputation in 1780 and 1781, the credit for obtaining these critical loans to "organize" the Bank of North America for approval by Congress in December 1781 should go to Henry or John Laurens and Thomas Paine more than to Robert Morris 

Paine bought his only house in 1783 on the corner of Farnsworth Avenue and Church Streets in Bordentown City, New Jersey and he lived in it periodically until his death in 1809  This is the only place in the world where Paine purchased real estate  In 1785, Paine was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society In 1787, a bridge of Paine's design was built across the Schuylkill River at Philadelphia  At this time his work on single-arch iron bridges led him back to Paris, France  Because Paine had few friends when arriving in France aside from Lafayette and Jefferson, he continued to correspond heavily with Benjamin Franklin, a long time friend and mentor  Franklin provided letters of introduction for Paine to use to gain associates and contacts in France Later that year, Paine returned to London from Paris  He then released a pamphlet on August 20 called Prospects on the Rubicon: or, an investigation into the Causes and Consequences of the Politics to be Agitated at the Meeting of Parliament  Tensions between England and France were increasing, and this pamphlet urged the British Ministry to reconsider the consequences of war with France  Paine sought to turn the public opinion against the war to create better relations between the countries, avoid the taxes of war upon the citizens, and not engage in a war he believed would ruin both nations 

Rights of Man
Back in London by 1787, Paine would become engrossed in the French Revolution that began two years later, and decided to travel to France in 1790  Meanwhile, conservative intellectual Edmund Burke launched a counterrevolutionary blast against the French Revolution, entitled Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), which strongly appealed to the landed class, and sold 30,000 copies  Paine set out to refute it in his Rights of Man (1791)  He wrote it not as a quick pamphlet, but as a long, abstract political tract of 90,000 words which tore apart monarchies and traditional social institutions  On January 31, 1791, he gave the manuscript to publisher Joseph Johnson  A visit by government agents dissuaded Johnson, so Paine gave the book to publisher J  S  Jordan, then went to Paris, on William Blake's advice  He charged three good friends, William Godwin, Thomas Brand Hollis, and Thomas Holcroft, with handling publication details  The book appeared on March 13, 1791, and sold nearly a million copies  It was "eagerly read by reformers, Protestant dissenters, democrats, London craftsmen, and the skilled factory-hands of the new industrial north" 

Undeterred by the government campaign to discredit him, Paine issued his Rights of Man, Part the Second, Combining Principle and Practice in February 1792  Detailing a representative government with enumerated social programs to remedy the numbing poverty of commoners through progressive tax measures, Paine went much farther than such contemporaries as James Burgh, Robert Potter, John Scott, John Sinclair or Adam Smith  Radically reduced in price to ensure unprecedented circulation, it was sensational in its impact and gave birth to reform societies  An indictment for seditious libel followed, for both publisher and author, while government agents followed Paine and instigated mobs, hate meetings, and burnings in effigy  A fierce pamphlet war also resulted, in which Paine was defended and assailed in dozens of works  The authorities aimed, with ultimate success, to chase Paine out of Great Britain  He was then tried in absentia and found guilty, although never executed  The French translation of Rights of Man, Part II was published in April 1792  The translator, François Lanthenas, eliminated the dedication to Lafayette, as he believed Paine thought too highly of Lafayette, who was seen as a royalist sympathizer at the time 

In summer of 1792, he answered the sedition and libel charges thus: "If, to expose the fraud and imposition of monarchy     to promote universal peace, civilization, and commerce, and to break the chains of political superstition, and raise degraded man to his proper rank; if these things be libellous     let the name of libeller be engraved on my tomb "Paine was an enthusiastic supporter of the French Revolution, and was granted honorary French citizenship alongside prominent contemporaries such as Alexander Hamilton, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin and others  Paine's honorary citizenship was in recognition of the publishing of his Rights of Man, Part II and the sensation it created within France  Despite his inability to speak French, he was elected to the National Convention, representing the district of Pas-de-Calais Several weeks after his election to the National Convention, Paine was selected as one of nine deputies to be part of the Convention's Constitutional Committee, who were charged to draft a suitable constitution for the French Republic  He subsequentially participated in the Constitutional Committee in drafting the Girondin constitutional project  He voted for the French Republic, but argued against the execution of Louis XVI, saying the monarch should instead be exiled to the United States: firstly, because of the way royalist France had come to the aid of the American Revolution; and secondly, because of a moral objection to capital punishment in general and to revenge killings in particular  However, Paine's speech in defense of Louis XVI was interrupted by Jean-Paul Marat, who claimed that as a Quaker, Paine's religious beliefs ran counter to inflicting capital punishment and thus he should be ineligible to vote  Marat interrupted a second time, stating that the translator was deceiving the convention by distorting the meanings of Paine's words, prompting Paine to provide a copy of the speech as proof that he was being correctly translated Regarded as an ally of the Girondins, he was seen with increasing disfavor by the Montagnards, who were now in power; and in particular by Maximilien Robespierre  A decree was passed at the end of 1793 excluding foreigners from their places in the Convention (Anacharsis Cloots was also deprived of his place)  Paine was arrested and imprisoned in December 1793 Paine wrote the second part of Rights of Man on a desk in Thomas 'Clio' Rickman's house, with whom he was staying in 1792 before he fled to France  This desk is currently on display in the People's History Museum in Manchester 

The Age of Reason
Paine was arrested in France on December 28, 1793  Joel Barlow was unsuccessful in securing Paine's release by circulating a petition among American residents in Paris  Sixteen American citizens were allowed to plead for Paine's release to the Convention, yet President Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier of the Committee of General Security refused to acknowledge Paine's American citizenship, stating he was an Englishman and a citizen of a country at war with France Paine himself protested and claimed that he was a citizen of the U S , which was an ally of Revolutionary France, rather than of Great Britain, which was by that time at war with France  However, Gouverneur Morris, the American minister to France, did not press his claim, and Paine later wrote that Morris had connived at his imprisonment  Paine narrowly escaped execution  A chalk mark was supposed to be left by the gaoler on the door of a cell to denote that the prisoner inside was due to be removed for execution  In Paine's case, the mark had accidentally been made on the inside of his door rather than the outside; this was due to the fact that the door of Paine's cell had been left open whilst the gaoler was making his rounds that day, since Paine had been receiving official visitors  But for this quirk of fate, Paine would have been executed the following morning  He kept his head and survived the few vital days needed to be spared by the fall of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794) Paine was released in November 1794 largely because of the work of the new American Minister to France, James Monroe, who successfully argued the case for Paine's American citizenship  In July 1795, he was re-admitted into the Convention, as were other surviving Girondins  Paine was one of only three députés to oppose the adoption of the new 1795 constitution because it eliminated universal suffrage, which had been proclaimed by the Montagnard Constitution of 1793 In 1796, a bridge he designed was erected over the mouth of the Wear River at Sunderland, Tyne and Wear, England  This bridge, the Sunderland arch, was after the same design as his Schuylkill River Bridge in Philadelphia and it became the prototype for many subsequent voussoir arches made in iron and steel In addition to receiving a British patent for the single-span iron bridge, Paine developed a smokeless candle and worked with inventor John Fitch in developing steam engines 
In 1797, Paine lived in Paris with Nicholas Bonneville and his wife  As well as Bonneville's other controversial guests, Paine aroused the suspicions of authorities  Bonneville hid the Royalist Antoine Joseph Barruel-Beauvert at his home  Beauvert had been outlawed following the coup of 18 Fructidor on September 4, 1797  Paine believed that the United States under President John Adams had betrayed revolutionary France  Bonneville was then briefly jailed and his presses were confiscated, which meant financial ruin In 1800, still under police surveillance, Bonneville took refuge with his father in Evreux  Paine stayed on with him, helping Bonneville with the burden of translating the "Covenant Sea"  The same year, Paine purportedly had a meeting with Napoleon  Napoleon claimed he slept with a copy of Rights of Man under his pillow and went so far as to say to Paine that "a statue of gold should be erected to you in every city in the universe"  Paine discussed with Napoleon how best to invade England  In December 1797, he wrote two essays, one of which was pointedly named Observations on the Construction and Operation of Navies with a Plan for an Invasion of England and the Final Overthrow of the English Government, in which he promoted the idea to finance 1,000 gunboats to carry a French invading army across the English Channel  In 1804, Paine returned to the subject, writing To the People of England on the Invasion of England advocating the idea  However, upon noting Napoleon's progress towards dictatorship, he condemned him as "the completest charlatan that ever existed"  Paine remained in France until 1802, returning to the United States only at President Jefferson's invitation 

Criticism of George Washington
Upset that U S  President George Washington, a friend since the Revolutionary War, did nothing during Paine's imprisonment in France, Paine believed Washington had betrayed him and conspired with Robespierre  While staying with Monroe, Paine planned to send Washington a letter of grievance on the president's birthday  Monroe stopped the letter from being sent, and after Paine's criticism of the Jay Treaty, which was supported by Washington, Monroe suggested that Paine live elsewhere Paine then sent a stinging letter to George Washington, in which he described him as an incompetent commander and a vain and ungrateful person  Having received no response, Paine contacted his longtime publisher Benjamin Bache, the Jeffersonian democrat, to publish his Letter to George Washington of 1796 in which he derided Washington's reputation by describing him as a treacherous man who was unworthy of his fame as a military and political hero  Paine wrote that "the world will be puzzled to decide whether you are an apostate or an impostor; whether you have abandoned good principles or whether you ever had any"  He declared that without France's aid Washington could not have succeeded in the American Revolution and had "but little share in the glory of the final event"  He also commented on Washington's character, saying that Washington had no sympathetic feelings and was a hypocrite 

Later years
In 1802 or 1803, Paine left France for the United States, also paying the passage for Bonneville's wife Marguerite Brazier and the couple's three sons, Benjamin, Louis and Thomas Bonneville, to whom Paine was godfather  Paine returned to the United States in the early stages of the Second Great Awakening and a time of great political partisanship  The Age of Reason gave ample excuse for the religiously devout to dislike him, while the Federalists attacked him for his ideas of government stated in Common Sense, for his association with the French Revolution, and for his friendship with President Jefferson  Also still fresh in the minds of the public was his Letter to Washington, published six years before his return  This was compounded when his right to vote was denied in New Rochelle on the grounds that Gouverneur Morris did not recognize him as an American and Washington had not aided him Brazier took care of Paine at the end of his life and buried him after his death  In his will, Paine left the bulk of his estate to Marguerite, including 100 acres (40 5 ha) of his farm so she could maintain and educate Benjamin and his brother Thomas  In 1814, the fall of Napoleon finally allowed Bonneville to rejoin his wife in the United States where he remained for four years before returning to Paris to open a bookshop 

Death
On the morning of June 8, 1809, Paine died, aged 72, at 59 Grove Street in Greenwich Village, New York City  Although the original building no longer exists, the present building has a plaque noting that Paine died at this location After his death, Paine's body was brought to New Rochelle, but the Quakers would not allow it to be buried in their graveyard as per his last will, so his remains were buried under a walnut tree on his farm  In 1819, English agrarian radical journalist William Cobbett, who in 1793 had published a hostile continuation of Francis Oldys (George Chalmer)'s The Life of Thomas Paine, dug up his bones and transported them back to England with the intention to give Paine a heroic reburial on his native soil, but this never came to pass  The bones were still among Cobbett's effects when he died over fifteen years later, but were later lost  There is no confirmed story about what happened to them after that, although various people have claimed throughout the years to own parts of Paine's remains, such as his skull and right hand At the time of his death, most American newspapers reprinted the obituary notice from the New York Evening Post that was in turn quoting from The American Citizen, which read in part: "He had lived long, did some good, and much harm"  Only six mourners came to his funeral, two of whom were black, most likely freedmen  Months later appeared a hostile biography by James Cheetham, who had admired him since the latter's days as a young radical in Manchester, and who had been friends with Paine for a short time before the two fell out  Many years later the writer and orator Robert G  Ingersoll wrote:

Thomas Paine had passed the legendary limit of life  One by one most of his old friends and acquaintances had deserted him  Maligned on every side, execrated, shunned and abhorred – his virtues denounced as vices – his services forgotten – his character blackened, he preserved the poise and balance of his soul  He was a victim of the people, but his convictions remained unshaken  He was still a soldier in the army of freedom, and still tried to enlighten and civilize those who were impatiently waiting for his death  Even those who loved their enemies hated him, their friend — the friend of the whole world – with all their hearts  On the 8th of June 1809, death came – Death, almost his only friend  At his funeral no pomp, no pageantry, no civic procession, no military display  In a carriage, a woman and her son who had lived on the bounty of the dead – on horseback, a Quaker, the humanity of whose heart dominated the creed of his head – and, following on foot, two negroes filled with gratitude — constituted the funeral cortege of Thomas Paine 

Ideas
Biographer Eric Foner identifies a utopian thread in Paine's thought, writing: "Through this new language he communicated a new vision – a utopian image of an egalitarian, republican society" Paine's utopianism combined civic republicanism, belief in the inevitability of scientific and social progress and commitment to free markets and liberty generally  The multiple sources of Paine's political theory all pointed to a society based on the common good and individualism  Paine expressed a redemptive futurism or political messianism  Writing that his generation "would appear to the future as the Adam of a new world", Paine exemplified British utopianism Later, his encounters with the Indigenous peoples of the Americas made a deep impression  The ability of the Iroquois to live in harmony with nature while achieving a democratic decision-making process helped him refine his thinking on how to organize society 

Slavery
According to Christopher Hitchens, Paine was a strong critic of slavery and declared himself to be an abolitionist  As secretary to the Pennsylvania legislature, he helped draft legislation to outlaw Patriot involvement in the international slave trade  Paine's statement, "Man has no property in man", although used by him in Rights of Man to deny the right of any generation to bind future ones, has also been interpreted as an argument against slavery  In the book, Paine also describes his mission, among other things, as to "break the chains of slavery and oppression" On March 8, 1775, one month after Paine became the editor of The Pennsylvania Magazine, the magazine published an anonymous article titled "African Slavery in America," the first prominent piece in the colonies proposing the emancipation of African-American slaves and the abolition of slavery  Paine is often credited with writing the piece, on the basis of later testimony by Benjamin Rush, cosigner of the Declaration of Independence During the American Revolutionary War, the British implemented several policies which allowed fugitive slaves fleeing from American enslavers to find refuge within British lines  Writing in response to these policies, Paine wrote in Common Sense that Britain "hath stirred up the Indians and the Negroes to destroy us"  Paine, together with Joel Barlow, unsuccessfully tried to convince President Thomas Jefferson to not import the institution of slavery to the territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase, suggesting he rather settle it with free Black families and German immigrants 

State funded social programs
In his Rights of Man, Part Second, Paine advocated a comprehensive program of state support for the population to ensure the welfare of society, including state subsidy for poor people, state-financed universal public education, and state-sponsored prenatal care and postnatal care, including state subsidies to families at childbirth  Recognizing that a person's "labor ought to be over" before old age, Paine also called for a state pension to all workers starting at age 50, which would be doubled at age 60 

Agrarian Justice
His last pamphlet, Agrarian Justice, published in the winter of 1795, opposed agrarian law and agrarian monopoly and further developed his ideas in the Rights of Man about how land ownership separated the majority of people from their rightful, natural inheritance and means of independent survival  The U S  Social Security Administration recognizes Agrarian Justice as the first American proposal for an old-age pension and basic income or citizen's dividend  Per Agrarian Justice:

In advocating the case of the persons thus dispossessed, it is a right, and not a charity     [Government must] create a national fund, out of which there shall be paid to every person, when arrived at the age of twenty-one years, the sum of fifteen pounds sterling, as a compensation in part, for the loss of his or her natural inheritance, by the introduction of the system of landed property  And also, the sum of ten pounds per annum, during life, to every person now living, of the age of fifty years, and to all others as they shall arrive at that age 
In this pamphlet he argued "All accumulation of personal property, beyond what a man's own hands produce, is derived to him by living in society; and he owes on every principle of justice, of gratitude, and of civilization, a part of that accumulation back again to society from whence the whole came" In 2011, £10 and £15 would be worth about £800 and £1,200 ($1,200 and $2,000) when adjusted for inflation Lamb argues that Paine's analysis of property rights marks a distinct contribution to political theory  His theory of property defends a libertarian concern with private ownership that shows an egalitarian commitment  Paine's new justification of property sets him apart from previous theorists such as Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf and John Locke  Lamb says it demonstrates Paine's commitment to foundational liberal values of individual freedom and moral equality  In response to Paine's "Agrarian Justice", Thomas Spence wrote "The Rights of Infants" wherein Spence argues that Paine's plan was not beneficial to impoverished people because landlords would just keep raising land prices, further enriching themselves rather than giving the commonwealth an equal chance 

Religious views
Before his arrest and imprisonment in France, knowing that he would probably be arrested and executed, following in the tradition of early 18th-century British Deism Paine wrote the first part of The Age of Reason (1793–1794)  Paine's religious views as expressed in The Age of Reason caused quite a stir in religious society, effectively splitting the religious groups into two major factions: those who wanted church disestablishment, and the Christians who wanted Christianity to continue having a strong social influence About his own religious beliefs, Paine wrote in The Age of Reason:

I believe in one God, and no more; and I hope for happiness beyond this life 
I do not believe in the creed professed by the Jewish church, by the Roman church, by the Greek church, by the Turkish church, by the Protestant church, nor by any church that I know of  My own mind is my own church  All national institutions of churches, whether Jewish, Christian or Turkish, appear to me no other than human inventions, set up to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolize power and profit 
Whenever we read the obscene stories, the voluptuous debaucheries, the cruel and tortuous executions, the unrelenting vindictiveness with which more than half the Bible is filled, it would be more consistent that we call it the word of a demon than the word of God  It is a history of wickedness that has served to corrupt and brutalize mankind; and, for my part, I sincerely detest it, as I detest everything that is cruel 
Though there is no definitive evidence Paine himself was a Freemason, upon his return to America from France he penned "An Essay on the Origin of Free-Masonry" (1803–1805) about Freemasonry being derived from the religion of the ancient Druids  Marguerite de Bonneville published the essay in 1810 after Paine's death, but she chose to omit certain passages from it that were critical of Christianity, most of which were restored in an 1818 printing  In the essay, Paine stated that "the Christian religion is a parody on the worship of the Sun, in which they put a man whom they call Christ, in the place of the Sun, and pay him the same adoration which was originally paid to the Sun " Paine also had a negative attitude toward Judaism  While never describing himself as a Deist, he openly advocated Deism in his writings, and called Deism "the only true religion":The opinions I have advanced     are the effect of the most clear and long-established conviction that the Bible and the Testament are impositions upon the world, that the fall of man, the account of Jesus Christ being the Son of God, and of his dying to appease the wrath of God, and of salvation, by that strange means, are all fabulous inventions, dishonorable to the wisdom and power of the Almighty; that the only true religion is Deism, by which I then meant, and mean now, the belief of one God, and an imitation of his moral character, or the practice of what are called moral virtues – and that it was upon this only (so far as religion is concerned) that I rested all my hopes of happiness hereafter  So say I now – and so help me God 

Legacy
Historian Jack P  Greene stated:

In a fundamental sense, we are today all Paine's children  It was not the British defeat at Yorktown, but Paine and the new American conception of political society he did so much to popularize in Europe that turned the world upside down 

Harvey J  Kaye wrote that through Paine, through his pamphlets and catchphrases such as "The sun never shined on a cause of greater worth," "We have it in our power to begin the world over again," and "These are the times that try men's souls" did more than move Americans to declare their independence:

[H]e also imbued the nation they were founding with democratic impulse and aspiration and exceptional – indeed, world-historic – purpose and promise  For 230 years Americans have drawn ideas, inspiration, and encouragement from Paine and his work 
John Stevenson argues that in the early 1790s, numerous radical political societies were formed throughout England and Wales in which Paine's writings provided "a boost to the self-confidence of those seeking to participate in politics for the first time " In its immediate effects, Gary Kates argues, "Paine's vision unified Philadelphia merchants, British artisans, French peasants, Dutch reformers, and radical intellectuals from Boston to Berlin in one great movement "

His writings in the long term inspired philosophic and working-class radicals in Britain and United States  Liberals, libertarians, left-libertarians, feminists, democratic socialists, social democrats, anarchists, free thinkers and progressives often claim him as an intellectual ancestor  Paine's critique of institutionalized religion and advocacy of rational thinking influenced many British freethinkers in the 19th and 20th centuries, such as William Cobbett, George Holyoake, Charles Bradlaugh, Christopher Hitchens and Bertrand Russell The quote "Lead, follow, or get out of the way" is widely but incorrectly attributed to Paine  It can be found nowhere in his published works 

Abraham Lincoln
In 1835, when he was 26 years old, Abraham Lincoln wrote a defense of Paine's deism  A political associate, Samuel Hill, burned the manuscript to save Lincoln's political career  Historian Roy Basler, the editor of Lincoln's papers, said Paine had a strong influence on Lincoln's style:

No other writer of the eighteenth century, with the exception of Jefferson, parallels more closely the temper or gist of Lincoln's later thought  In style, Paine above all others affords the variety of eloquence which, chastened and adapted to Lincoln's own mood, is revealed in Lincoln's formal writings 

Thomas Edison
The inventor Thomas Edison said:

I have always regarded Paine as one of the greatest of all Americans  Never have we had a sounder intelligence in this republic     It was my good fortune to encounter Thomas Paine's works in my boyhood    it was, indeed, a revelation to me to read that great thinker's views on political and theological subjects  Paine educated me, then, about many matters of which I had never before thought  I remember, very vividly, the flash of enlightenment that shone from Paine's writings, and I recall thinking, at that time, 'What a pity these works are not today the schoolbooks for all children!' My interest in Paine was not satisfied by my first reading of his works  I went back to them time and again, just as I have done since my boyhood days 

South America
In 1811, Venezuelan translator Manuel Garcia de Sena published a book in Philadelphia that consisted mostly of Spanish translations of several of Paine's most important works  The book also included translations of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, the U S  Constitution and the constitutions of five U S  states It subsequently circulated widely in South America and through it Uruguayan national hero José Gervasio Artigas became familiar with and embraced Paine's ideas  In turn, many of Artigas's writings drew directly from Paine's, including the Instructions of 1813, which Uruguayans consider to be one of their country's most important constitutional documents, and was one of the earliest writings to articulate a principled basis for an identity independent of Buenos Aires 

Memorials
The first and longest-standing memorial to Paine is the carved and inscribed 12-foot marble column in New Rochelle, New York, organized and funded by publisher, educator and reformer Gilbert Vale (1791–1866) and raised in 1839 by the American sculptor and architect John Frazee, the Thomas Paine Monument (see image below) New Rochelle is also the original site of Thomas Paine's Cottage, which along with a 320-acre (130 ha) farm were presented to Paine in 1784 by act of the New York State Legislature for his services in the American Revolution  The same site is the home of the Thomas Paine Memorial Museum 

In the 20th century, Joseph Lewis, longtime president of the Freethinkers of America and an ardent Paine admirer, was instrumental in having larger-than-life-sized statues of Paine erected in each of the three countries with which the revolutionary writer was associated  The first, created by Mount Rushmore sculptor Gutzon Borglum, was erected in the Parc Montsouris, Paris, just before World War II began but not formally dedicated until 1948  It depicts Paine standing before the French National Convention to plead for the life of King Louis XVI  The second, sculpted in 1950 by Georg J  Lober, was erected near Paine's one-time home in Morristown, New Jersey  It shows a seated Paine using a drum-head as a makeshift table  The third, sculpted by Sir Charles Wheeler, President of the Royal Academy, was erected in 1964 in Paine's birthplace, Thetford, England  With a quill pen in his right hand and an inverted copy of The Rights of Man in his left, it occupies a prominent spot on King Street  Thomas Paine was ranked No  34 in the 100 Greatest Britons 2002 extensive Nationwide poll conducted by the BBC 

In popular culture
The 1982 French-Italian film That Night in Varennes is about a fictional meeting of Casanova, Chevalier de Seingalt (played by Italian actor Marcello Mastroianni), Nicolas Edmé Restif de la Bretonne, Countess Sophie de la Borde and Thomas Paine (played by American actor Harvey Keitel) as they ride in a carriage a few hours behind the carriage carrying the King and Queen of France, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, on their attempt to escape from revolutionary France in 1791 
In 1987, Richard Thomas appeared on stage in Philadelphia and Washington, DC, in the one-man play Citizen Tom Paine, playing Paine "like a star-spangled tiger, ferocious about freedom and ready to savage anyone who stands in his way," in a staging of Howard Fast's play in the bicentennial year of the United States Constitution 
Jack Shepherd's 1989 stage play In Lambeth dramatized a visit by Thomas Paine to the Lambeth home of William and Catherine Blake in 1789 
In 1995, the English folk singer Graham Moore released a song called Tom Paine's Bones on an album of the same name  The song has since been covered by a number of other artists, including Dick Gaughan, Grace Petrie and Trials of Cato 
In 2005, Trevor Griffiths published These are the Times: A Life of Thomas Paine, originally written as a screenplay for Richard Attenborough Productions  Although the film was not made, the play was broadcast as a two-part drama on BBC Radio 4 in 2008, with a repeat in 2012  In 2009, Griffiths adapted the screenplay for a production entitled A New World at Shakespeare's Globe theatre on London's South Bank 
In 2009, Paine's life was dramatized in the play Thomas Paine Citizen of the World, produced for the "Tom Paine 200 Celebrations" festival
Paine is referenced in "The Schuyler Sisters", a song from the 2015 musical Hamilton 

See also
Notes
Passage 3:
Rights of Man
Rights of Man (1791), a book by Thomas Paine, including 31 articles, posits that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard the natural rights of its people  Using these points as a base it defends the French Revolution against Edmund Burke's attack in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) It was published in two parts in March 1791 and February 1792 

Background
Paine was a very strong supporter of the French Revolution that began in 1789; he visited France the following year  Many British thinkers supported it, including Richard Price, who initiated the Revolution Controversy with his sermon and pamphlet drawing favourable parallels between the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the French Revolution  Conservative intellectual Edmund Burke responded with a counter-revolutionary attack entitled Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), which strongly appealed to the landed class and sold 30,000 copies  Paine's Rights of Man was printed by Joseph Johnson for publication on 21 February 1791, then withdrawn for fear of prosecution  J  S  Jordan stepped in and published it on 16 March  The 90,000-word book appeared on 13 March, three weeks later than scheduled  It sold as many as one million copies and was "eagerly read by reformers, Protestant dissenters, democrats, London craftsman, and the skilled factory-hands of the new industrial north" 

Arguments
Paine argues that the interests of the monarch and his people are united, and insists that the French Revolution should be understood as one which attacks the despotic principles of the French monarchy, not the king himself, and he takes the Bastille, the main prison in Paris, to symbolise the despotism that had been overthrown Human rights originate in Nature; thus, rights cannot be granted via political charter, because that implies that rights are legally revocable, hence, would be privileges:

    It is a perversion of terms to say that a charter gives rights  It operates by a contrary effect—that of taking rights away  Rights are inherently in all the inhabitants; but charters, by annulling those rights, in the majority, leave the right, by exclusion, in the hands of a few     They     consequently are instruments of injustice     The fact, therefore, must be that the individuals, themselves, each, in his own personal and sovereign right, entered into a contract with each other to produce a government: and this is the only mode in which governments have a right to arise, and the only principle on which they have a right to exist 
Government's sole purpose is safeguarding the individual and his/her inherent, inalienable rights; each societal institution that does not benefit the nation is illegitimate—especially monarchy and aristocracy  The book's acumen derives from the Age of Enlightenment and has been linked to the Second Treatise of Government, by John Locke (even though Paine himself claimed to have never read this work) The fuller development of this position seems to have been worked out one night in France after an evening spent with Thomas Jefferson, and possibly Lafayette, discussing a pamphlet by the Philadelphia conservative James Wilson on the proposed federal constitution 

Reformation of the English government
Rights of Man concludes in proposing practical reformations of English government such as a written constitution composed by a national assembly, in the American mould; the elimination of aristocratic titles, because democracy is incompatible with primogeniture, which leads to the despotism of the family; a national budget without allotted military and war expenses; lower taxes for the poor, and subsidised education for them; and a progressive income tax weighted against wealthy estates to prevent the re-emergence of a hereditary aristocracy 

Aristocracy
Principally, Rights of Man opposes the idea of hereditary government—the belief that dictatorial government is necessary, because of man's corrupt, essential nature  Although other late-18th-century writers such as James Murray and Major John Cartwright criticized the outsized role played by the aristocracy in the government, Paine was arguably the first to advocate the eradication of titles and hereditary government  In Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Edmund Burke says that true social stability arises if the nation's poor majority are governed by a minority of wealthy aristocrats, and that lawful inheritance of power (wealth, religious, governing) ensured the propriety of political power being the exclusive domain of the nation's élite social class—the nobility 
Rights of Man denounces Burke's assertion of the nobility's inherent hereditary wisdom; countering the implication that a nation has not a right to form a Government for governing itself  Paine refutes Burke's definition of Government as "a contrivance of human wisdom"  Instead, Paine argues that Government is a contrivance of man, and it follows that hereditary succession and hereditary rights to govern cannot compose a Government—because the wisdom to govern cannot be inherited 

Heredity
Edmund Burke's counter-revolutionary Reflections on the French Revolution delineates the legitimacy of aristocratic government to the 1688 Parliamentary resolution declaring William and Mary of Orange—and their heirs—to be the true rulers of England  Paine puts forward two arguments against this view  Firstly, he argues that "Every age and generation must be as free to act for itself in all cases as the age and generations which preceded it " Secondly, Paine counters that the institution of monarchy should not be historically traced from 1688, but from 1066, when William of Normandy forcibly imposed his Norman rule upon Englishmen 
Thomas Paine's intellectual influence is perceptible in the two great political revolutions of the eighteenth century  He dedicated Rights of Man to George Washington and to the Marquis de Lafayette, acknowledging the importance of the American and the French revolutions in his formulating the principles of modern democratic governance 
Thus, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen) can be encapsulated so: (1) Men are born, and always continue, free and equal in respect of their rights  Civil distinctions, therefore, can be founded only on public utility; (2) The end of all political associations is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man; and these rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance of oppression; and (3) The nation is essentially the source of all sovereignty; neither can any individual, nor any body of men, be entitled to any authority, which is not expressly derived from it 
These capsulations are akin to the self-evident truths concept that the U S  Declaration of Independence expresses 

Welfare
In the closing chapters of Rights of Man, Paine addresses the condition of the poor and outlines a detailed social welfare proposal predicated upon the redirection of government expenditures  From the onset, Paine asserts all citizens have an inherent claim to welfare   Unlike such writers as James Burgh who sought to limit assistance to the better behaved segments of the poor, Paine declares welfare is not charity, but an irrevocable right   Paine's understanding of welfare seemingly follows his idea of political government   He notes, "Man did not enter into society to become worse than he was before, nor to have fewer rights than he had before, but to have those rights better secured"    In congruence with his previous works, Paine emphasizes the compatibility between individual rights and societal wellbeing   He fervently contends that crippling poverty undermines the rights of an individual, and consequently the legitimacy of government   Not surprisingly then, Paine staunchly opposed and criticizes the English Poor Laws in place at the time, claiming the laws are highly ineffective and primitive in nature  Paine critiques the societal conditions promulgated by the Poor Laws saying, "When in countries that are called civilized, we see age going to the workhouse and youth to the gallows, something must be wrong with the system of government"  He argues for their complete abolition, and in their place the enactment of a welfare program that assists the young, old, and struggling individuals   Paine's welfare proposal is pillared by education and tax reform; the latter was to be accomplished through progressive taxes on property   Paine contends the poor population consists mostly of children and the elderly, who are unable to participate in the workforce  In addition to the elderly and children, Paine also concedes that there are still some others rendered poor from the economic burden of tax and children   In accordance with his belief that charity as a natural right, Paine presumes only republican or democratic regimes can effectively carry out successful welfare programs   Though Paine does not directly condone or promote up-rise against the British monarchy, and utilizes rather subdued rhetoric in comparison to his other controversial works, revolutionary currents run beneath the surface of the text 
An implication that arises from Paine's social welfare reformation is cost   Paine observes, at the time of his writing, England's rough population to be about 7 million people   He also supposes that around one-fifth of the population is poor   The number of poor then, according to Paine's estimations, would total around 1,400,000 people, in need of support   Paine contended the remedy for financing such a large welfare endeavor would be to cut military expenditures of the state and redirect the funds towards the people of the state   Paine argued that since the age of revolution rendered a new era of peace, the government no longer need devote so many resources toward monarchical wars  Instead, Paine suggests, the surplus of tax revenue could be reintegrated back into society with the formation of a welfare program   He also estimates that near £4 million, out of £17 million in total tax revenues from customs and excise duties, could be salvaged from the government's expenditure and redirected and redistributed to the people of the nation   Paine questions, "Is it, then, better that the lives of one hundred and forty thousand aged persons be rendered comfortable, or that a million a year of public money be expended on any one individual, and him often of the most worthless or insignificant character?"  Paine concludes that by his model £3,640,000 will be remitted to the poor  Paine's allotments for the poor and elderly were far more generous than contemporary payments from the poor rates 

Youth and education
Education is a foundational cornerstone of Paine's welfare plan   Paine claims, "A nation under a well-regulated government, should permit none to remain uninstructed"   Paine largely focuses on educating the youth population   He contends that, educating children will ultimately compel the betterment of society holistically   Paine insists a proactive social welfare system that educates the country's youth, will act as a preventive measure, and engender greater knowledge amongst the population   He explains that poor children and young people are typically deprived of equal access to education   Poor children coming from poor families are often forced to seek apprenticeships and work, and are thus subsequently robbed of the ability to pursue education  Poverty then, becomes cyclical in nature and undoubtedly increases with time   Lack of education amongst the young population, Paine asserts, will also lead to increased violence and crime   To combat this problem, Paine proposes a remission of taxes to poor families; £4 a year for every child under the age of 14, granting the parents of the children send them to school  For 630,000 children, Paine estimates the cost to be £2,520,000   Paine states, "By adopting this method, not only the poverty of the parents will be relieved, but ignorance will be banished from the rising generation, and the number of poor will hereafter become less, because their abilities, by the aid of education, will be greater"  Paine's advocacy for education among the poor was novel not only in 1792, but in 1807 when Davies Giddy criticized Samuel Whitbread's bill for the establishment of parish schools  In the same vein, Paine also suggest women should receive maternity benefits immediately after the birth of a child 

Elderly
Paramount to Paine's welfare plan, is care of the elderly population   Paine divides age into two classes; the first he calls "the approach of age" class and the second "old age" class   Those classified as being in the "approach of age" group are over fifty years of age yet under 60 years of age, while "old age" commences at the age of sixty years old   Paine notes that though individuals in the approach of age class retain their mental faculties, the decline of their physical health limits their ability to work, which consequently affects their earnings   Those of old age, Paine declares, are fully incapable of laborious work and are ultimately driven to work themselves to death in current society   Paine resolves to pay approach of age persons the sum of £6 per annum out of the surplus taxes, and to pay old age persons £10 per annum   Figuring there will be 70,000 persons in the approach of age class and 70,000 persons in the old age class, Paine estimates the expense to be 1,120,000 

Proposal conditions
In tandem with redirecting government expenditures, Paine suggests the development of what some may call a "workhouse", or place of employment for poor people   Paine's describes the workhouse as being a building, or buildings, with the capability of holding a minimum of 6,000 people  In these buildings, operating businesses would indiscriminately accept applications, so that every city citizen could find employment   In order for Paine's plan to be carried out effectively, he cites some conditions that must be met   He resolves that each person seeking employment from these workhouses must stay in the program for a minimum of three months; however, during their residency all employees shall receive wholesome meals, warm lodgings, receive a proportional stipend for the work they've completed, and may work as long or as little as they deem appropriate   The asylum, Paine declares, would assist any persons in temporary distress and would serve around 24,000 people a year  To finance the development of this project, Paine suggest using the revenue from the state's coal tax  Paine states that at the time he is writing, the tax revenue is used to support the Duke of Richmond   Paine ultimately finds this particular deplorable, and calls for the reallocation of coal tax funds back to the people Paine concludes his section on welfare by listing the eight central tenets of his welfare proposal, or what he calls the "enumerating particulars", which are as follows:

Abolish 2 million poor rates 
Provision for 252,000 poor families 
Education for 1,030,000 children 
Comfortable provision for 140,000 aged persons 
Donation of 20 shillings each for 50,000 births 
Donation of 20 shillings each for 20,000 marriages 
Allowance of £20,000 for the funeral expenses of deceased travelers far from home 
Employment at all times for the casual poor in cities 

Analysis and public impact
According to Mark Philp, "In many respects Rights of Man is a disordered mix of narrative, principled argument, and rhetorical appeal—betraying the composite materials Paine used and the speed with which it was composed "It was quickly reprinted and widely circulated, with copies being read aloud in inns and coffee houses, so that by May some 50,000 copies were said to be in circulation  Of the 300 or more pamphlets which the revolution controversy spawned, Rights of Man was the first to seriously damage Burke's case and to restore credit to the French both in Britain and America The publication of Rights of Man caused a furore in England; Paine was tried in absentia, and convicted of seditious libel against the Crown, but was unavailable for hanging, being in France and never returning to England  (Sir Archibald Macdonald, 1st Baronet served as the prosecutor )
Thomas Paine was not the only advocate of the rights of man or the only author of a work titled Rights of Man  The working-class radical, Thomas Spence, is among the first, in England, to use the phrase as a title  His 1775 lecture, usually titled The Rights of Man, and his later The Rights of Infants, offer a proto-geoist take on political philosophy mirroring Paine's work Agrarian Justice   Paine's acquaintance Mary Wollstonecraft, whom he met via their common publisher, wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Men as one of the first responses to Burke's attack on Richard Price  Her work was in print in December 1790, and was well reviewed  She extended the arguments in the book for which she is best remembered, the 1792 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 

See also
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen – a fundamental document of the French Revolution, adopted in 1789
Social contract
Thomas Muir (political reformer)
Context 2: Passage 1:
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands  Australia is the largest country by area in Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country  Australia is the oldest, flattest, and driest inhabited continent, with the least fertile soils  It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates, with deserts in the centre, tropical rainforests in the north-east, tropical savannas in the north, and mountain ranges in the south-east 
The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving from south-east Asia approximately 65,000 years ago, during the last ice age  Arriving by sea, they settled the continent and had formed approximately 250 distinct language groups by the time of European settlement, maintaining some of the longest known continuing artistic and religious traditions in the world  Australia's written history commenced with the European maritime exploration of Australia  The Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon was the first known European to reach Australia, in 1606  In 1770, the British explorer James Cook mapped and claimed the east coast of Australia for Great Britain, and the First Fleet of British ships arrived at Sydney in 1788 to establish the penal colony of New South Wales  The European population grew in subsequent decades, and by the end of the 1850s gold rush, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and an additional five self-governing British colonies established  Democratic parliaments were gradually established through the 19th century, culminating with a vote for the federation of the six colonies and foundation of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901  This began a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and culminating in the Australia Act 1986 Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy, comprising six states and ten territories  Australia's population of nearly 27 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard  Canberra is the nation's capital, while its most populous city and financial centre is Sydney  The next four largest cities are Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide  It is ethnically diverse and multicultural, the product of large-scale immigration, with almost half of the population having at least one parent born overseas  Australia's abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade relations are crucial to the country's economy, which generates its income from various sources including services, mining exports, banking, manufacturing, agriculture and international education  Australia ranks amongst the highest in the world for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights Australia has a highly developed market economy and one of the highest per capita incomes globally  Australia is a regional power, and has the world's thirteenth-highest military expenditure  It is a member of international groupings including the United Nations; the G20; the OECD; the World Trade Organization; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; the Pacific Islands Forum; the Pacific Community the Commonwealth of Nations; and the defence/security organisations ANZUS, AUKUS, and the Five Eyes  It is a major non-NATO ally of the United States 

Etymology
The name Australia (pronounced  in Australian English) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis ("southern land"), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times  Several sixteenth century cartographers used the word Australia on maps, but not to identify modern Australia  When Europeans began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, the name Terra Australis was naturally applied to the new territories Until the early 19th century, Australia was best known as New Holland, a name first applied by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1644 (as Nieuw-Holland) and subsequently anglicised  Terra Australis still saw occasional usage, such as in scientific texts  The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who said it was "more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the Earth"  The first time that Australia appears to have been officially used was in April 1817, when Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledged the receipt of Flinders' charts of Australia from Lord Bathurst  In December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted  In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially by that name  The first official published use of the new name came with the publication in 1830 of The Australia Directory by the Hydrographic Office Colloquial names for Australia include "Oz" and "the Land Down Under" (usually shortened to just "Down Under")  Other epithets include "the Great Southern Land", "the Lucky Country", "the Sunburnt Country", and "the Wide Brown Land"  The latter two both derive from Dorothea Mackellar's 1908 poem "My Country" 

History
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous Australians comprise two groups: the Aboriginal peoples of the Australian mainland (and surrounding islands including Tasmania), and the Torres Strait Islanders, who are a distinct Melanesian people  Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia  It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians  The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is recognised as the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia  The oldest human remains found are the Lake Mungo remains, which have been dated to around 41,000 years ago Aboriginal Australian culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth  At the time of first European contact, Aboriginal Australians were complex hunter-gatherers with diverse economies and societies and about 250 different language groups  Recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 750,000 could have been sustained  Aboriginal Australians have an oral culture with spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime The Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands around 4000 years ago  Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas 

European exploration and colonisation
The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically for trade by Makassan fishermen from what is now Indonesia  The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch  The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon  He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February 1606 at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York  Later that year, Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through and navigated the Torres Strait Islands  The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent "New Holland" during the 17th century, and although no attempt at settlement was made, a number of shipwrecks left men either stranded or, as in the case of the Batavia in 1629, marooned for mutiny and murder, thus becoming the first Europeans to permanently inhabit the continent  In 1770, Captain James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named "New South Wales" and claimed for Great Britain Following the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the First Fleet, under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales  A camp was set up and the Union Flag raised at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, on 26 January 1788, a date which later became Australia's national day  Most early convicts were transported for petty crimes and assigned as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (non-convict immigrants)  While the majority of convicts settled into colonial society once emancipated, convict rebellions and uprisings were also staged, but invariably suppressed under martial law  The 1808 Rum Rebellion, the only successful armed takeover of government in Australia, instigated a two-year period of military rule  The following decade, social and economic reforms initiated by Governor Lachlan Macquarie saw New South Wales transition from a penal colony to a civil society The indigenous population declined for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease  Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers 

Colonial expansion
The British continued to push into other areas of the continent in the early 19th century, initially along the coast  In 1803, a settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania), and in 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, opening the interior to European settlement  The British claim extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major Edmund Lockyer established a settlement on King George Sound (modern-day Albany)  The Swan River Colony (present-day Perth) was established in 1829, evolving into the largest Australian colony by area, Western Australia  In accordance with population growth, separate colonies were carved from New South Wales: Tasmania in 1825, South Australia in 1836, New Zealand in 1841, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859  South Australia was founded as a "free province" — it was never a penal colony  Western Australia was also founded "free" but later accepted transported convicts, the last of which arrived in 1868, decades after transportation had ceased to the other colonies In 1823, a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales was established, together with a new Supreme Court, thus limiting the powers of colonial governors  Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, thus becoming elective democracies managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire  The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs and defence In the mid-19th century, explorers such as Burke and Wills went further inland to determine its agricultural potential and answer scientific questions  A series of gold rushes beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from China, North America and continental Europe, as well as outbreaks of bushranging and civil unrest; the latter peaked in 1854 when Ballarat miners launched the Eureka Rebellion against gold license fees From 1886, Australian colonial governments began introducing policies resulting in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities (referred to as the Stolen Generations) 

Federation to the World Wars
On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, constitutional conventions and referendums, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia as a nation and the entering into force of the Australian Constitution After the 1907 Imperial Conference, Australia and several other self-governing British settler colonies were given the status of self-governing "dominions" within the British Empire  Australia was one of the founding members of the League of Nations in 1920, and subsequently of the United Nations in 1945  Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom  Australia adopted it in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra  Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed  The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911  Australia became the colonial ruler of the Territory of Papua (which had initially been annexed by Queensland in 1883) in 1902 and of the Territory of New Guinea (formerly German New Guinea) in 1920  The two were unified as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975 
In 1914, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the First World War, and took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front  Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded  Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli in 1915 as the nation's "baptism of fire" — its first major military action, with the anniversary of the landing at Anzac Cove commemorated each year on Anzac Day From 1939 to 1945, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the Second World War  Australia's armed forces fought in the Pacific, European and Mediterranean and Middle East theatres  The shock of Britain's defeat in Asia in 1942, followed soon after by the bombing of Darwin and other Japanese attacks on Australian soil, led to a widespread belief in Australia that a Japanese invasion was imminent, and a shift from the United Kingdom to the United States as Australia's principal ally and security partner  Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the United States, under the ANZUS treaty 

Post-war and contemporary eras
In the decades following World War II, Australia enjoyed significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development  Using the slogan "populate or perish", the nation encouraged a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with such immigrants referred to as "New Australians" A member of the Western Bloc during the Cold War, Australia participated in the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency during the 1950s and the Vietnam War from 1962 to 1972  During this time, tensions over communist influence in society led to unsuccessful attempts by the Menzies Government to ban the Communist Party of Australia, and a bitter splitting of the Labor Party in 1955 As a result of a 1967 referendum, the Federal Government received a mandate to implement policies to benefit Aboriginal people, and all Indigenous Australians were included in the Census  Traditional ownership of land ("native title") was recognised in law for the first time when the High Court of Australia held in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) that the legal doctrine of terra nullius ("land belonging to no one") did not apply to Australia at the time of European settlement Following the final abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia  The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with other Pacific Rim nations  While the Australia Act 1986 severed the remaining vestigial constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom, a 1999 referendum resulted in 55% of voters rejecting a proposal to abolish the Monarchy of Australia and become a republic Following the September 11 attacks on the United States, Australia joined the United States in fighting the Afghanistan War from 2001 to 2021 and the Iraq War from 2003 to 2009  The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation's largest trading partner by a large margin During the COVID-19 pandemic which commenced in Australia in 2020, several of Australia's largest cities were locked down for extended periods of time, and free movement across state borders was restricted in an attempt to slow the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus 

Geography
General characteristics
Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand  The world's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area, Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent" and is sometimes considered the world's largest island  Australia has 34,218 km (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands), and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi)  This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory Mainland Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44° South, and longitudes 112° and 154° East  Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and desert in the centre  The desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land  Australia is the driest inhabited continent; its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm  The population density is 3 4 inhabitants per square kilometre, although the large majority of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline  The population density exceeds 19,500 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne 
The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 km (1,200 mi)  Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith, is located in Western Australia  At 2,228 m (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland  Even taller are Mawson Peak (at 2,745 m (9,006 ft)), on the remote Australian external territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3,492 m (11,457 ft) and 3,355 m (11,007 ft) respectively Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range, which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales and much of Victoria  The name is not strictly accurate, because parts of the range consist of low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than 1,600 m (5,200 ft) in height  The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland and shrubland  These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the Mitchell Grass Downs and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland  The northernmost point of the mainland is the tropical Cape York Peninsula 
The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Country—with their tropical climate—include forest, woodland, wetland, grassland, rainforest and desert  At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, and below that the Pilbara  The Victoria Plains tropical savanna lies south of the Kimberley and Arnhem Land savannas, forming a transition between the coastal savannas and the interior deserts  At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia  Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock), the famous sandstone monolith, and the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast  The Western Australian mulga shrublands lie between the interior deserts and Mediterranean-climate Southwest Australia 

Geology
Lying on the Indo-Australian Plate, the mainland of Australia is the lowest and most primordial landmass on Earth with a relatively stable geological history  The landmass includes virtually all known rock types and from all geological time periods spanning over 3 8 billion years of the Earth's history  The Pilbara Craton is one of only two pristine Archaean 3 6–2 7 Ga (billion years ago) crusts identified on the Earth Having been part of all major supercontinents, the Australian continent began to form after the breakup of Gondwana in the Permian, with the separation of the continental landmass from the African continent and Indian subcontinent  It separated from Antarctica over a prolonged period beginning in the Permian and continuing through to the Cretaceous  When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland  Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the mainland of Australia  The Australian continent is moving toward Eurasia at the rate of 6 to 7 centimetres a year The Australian mainland's continental crust, excluding the thinned margins, has an average thickness of 38 km, with a range in thickness from 24 km to 59 km  Australia's geology can be divided into several main sections, showcasing that the continent grew from west to east: the Archaean cratonic shields found mostly in the west, Proterozoic fold belts in the centre and Phanerozoic sedimentary basins, metamorphic and igneous rocks in the east The Australian mainland and Tasmania are situated in the middle of the tectonic plate and have no active volcanoes, but due to passing over the East Australia hotspot, recent volcanism has occurred during the Holocene, in the Newer Volcanics Province of western Victoria and southeastern South Australia  Volcanism also occurs in the island of New Guinea (considered geologically as part of the Australian continent), and in the Australian external territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands  Seismic activity in the Australian mainland and Tasmania is also low, with the greatest number of fatalities having occurred in the 1989 Newcastle earthquake 

Climate
The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia  These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year  Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical, predominantly summer-rainfall (monsoon)  The south-west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate  The south-east ranges from oceanic (Tasmania and coastal Victoria) to humid subtropical (upper half of New South Wales), with the highlands featuring alpine and subpolar oceanic climates  The interior is arid to semi-arid Driven by climate change, average temperatures have risen more than 1°C since 1960  Associated changes in rainfall patterns and climate extremes exacerbate existing issues such as drought and bushfires  2019 was Australia's warmest recorded year, and the 2019–2020 bushfire season was the country's worst on record  Australia's greenhouse gas emissions per capita are among the highest in the world Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought  Throughout much of the continent, major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in the early 2010s after the 2000s Australian drought 

Biodiversity
Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, the continent includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests  Fungi typify that diversity—an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5% have been described—occur in Australia  Because of the continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique  About 85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic  Australia has at least 755 species of reptile, more than any other country in the world  Besides Antarctica, Australia is the only continent that developed without feline species  Feral cats may have been introduced in the 17th century by Dutch shipwrecks, and later in the 18th century by European settlers  They are now considered a major factor in the decline and extinction of many vulnerable and endangered native species  Seafaring immigrants from Asia are believed to have brought the dingo to Australia sometime after the end of the last ice age—perhaps 4000 years ago—and Aboriginal people helped disperse them across the continent as pets, contributing to the demise of thylacines on the mainland  Australia is also one of 17 megadiverse countries Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts  Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra  Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world  The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE  Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement, including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced animal, chromistan, fungal and plant species  All these factors have led to Australia's having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world  The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species  Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention, and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established  Australia was ranked 21st out of 178 countries in the world on the 2018 Environmental Performance Index  There are more than 1,800 animals and plants on Australia's threatened species list, including more than 500 animals Paleontologists discovered a fossil site of a prehistoric rainforest in McGraths Flat, in South Australia, that presents evidence that this now arid desert and dry shrubland/grassland was once home to an abundance of life 

Government and politics
Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy  The country has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system under its constitution, which is one of the world's oldest, since Federation in 1901  It is also one of the world's oldest federations, in which power is divided between the federal and state and territorial governments  The Australian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United Kingdom (a fused executive, constitutional monarchy and strong party discipline) and the United States (federalism, a written constitution and strong bicameralism with an elected upper house), along with distinctive indigenous features The federal government is separated into three branches:
Legislature: the bicameral Parliament, comprising the monarch (represented by the governor-general), the Senate, and the House of Representatives;
Executive: the Federal Executive Council, which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet, comprising the prime minister and other ministers of state appointed by the governor-general on the advice of Parliament;Judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the governor-general on advice of ParliamentCharles III reigns as King of Australia and is represented in Australia by the governor-general at the federal level and by the governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers  Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the prime minister and the Federal Executive Council  The governor-general, however, does have reserve powers which, in some situations, may be exercised outside the prime minister's request  These powers are held by convention and their scope is unclear  The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975 
In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory)  The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 151 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats  Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which, along with the Senate and most state upper houses, combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote  Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction, as is enrolment  The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister  In cases where no party has majority support, the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament  Due to the relatively unique position of Australia operating as a Westminster parliamentary democracy with an elected upper house, the system has sometimes been referred to as having a "Washminster mutation", or as a semi-parliamentary system There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition, which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party  The Liberal National Party and the Country Liberal Party are merged state branches in Queensland and the Northern Territory that function as separate parties at a federal level  Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left  Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses  The Australian Greens are often considered the "third force" in politics, being the third largest party by both vote and membership The most recent federal election was held on 21 May 2022 and resulted in the Australian Labor Party, led by Anthony Albanese, being elected to government 

States and territories
Australia has six states — New South Wales (NSW), Queensland (QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria (VIC) and Western Australia (WA) — and three mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), the Northern Territory (NT), and the Jervis Bay Territory (JBT)  In most respects, the ACT and NT function as states, except that the Commonwealth Parliament has the power to modify or repeal any legislation passed by the territory parliaments Under the constitution, the states essentially have plenary legislative power to legislate on any subject, whereas the Commonwealth (federal) Parliament may legislate only within the subject areas enumerated under section 51  For example, state parliaments have the power to legislate with respect to education, criminal law and state police, health, transport, and local government, but the Commonwealth Parliament does not have any specific power to legislate in these areas  However, Commonwealth laws prevail over state laws to the extent of the inconsistency Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament — unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states  The states are sovereign entities, although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution  The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council  The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister  The King is represented in each state by a governor; and in the Northern Territory, the administrator  In the Commonwealth, the King's representative is the governor-general The Commonwealth Parliament also directly administers the external territories of Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, and the claimed region of Australian Antarctic Territory, as well as the internal Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales  The external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the monarch  In 2015, the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government, integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council  Macquarie Island is part of Tasmania, and Lord Howe Island of New South Wales 

Foreign relations
Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a focus on relationships within the Asia-Pacific region and a continued close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact and its status as a major non-NATO ally of that country  A regional power, Australia is a member of regional and cultural groupings including the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community and the Commonwealth of Nations, and is a participant in the ASEAN+6 mechanism and the East Asia Summit 
Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the AUKUS security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with the United States, India and Japan; the Five Power Defence Arrangements with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the Reciprocal Access defence and security agreement with Japan 

Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation  It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO)  In recent decades, Australia has entered into the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership multilateral free trade agreements as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the United States, China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand Australia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two countries under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement and free trade under the Closer Economic Relations agreement  The most favourably viewed countries by the Australian people in 2021 include New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States and South Korea  A founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism, and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance  Australia ranked fourth in the Center for Global Development's 2021 Commitment to Development Index 

Military
Australia's armed forces — the Australian Defence Force (ADF) — comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 81,214 personnel (including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists) as of November 2015  The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General, who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government  In a diarchy, the Chief of the Defence Force serves as co-chairman of the Defence Committee, conjointly with the Secretary of Defence, in the command and control of the Australian Defence Organisation In the 2016–2017 budget, defence spending comprised 2% of GDP, representing the world's 12th largest defence budget  Australia has been involved in United Nations and regional peacekeeping, disaster relief, as well as armed conflicts from the First World War onwards 

Economy
Australia's high-income mixed-market economy is rich in natural resources  It is the world's thirteenth-largest by nominal terms, and the 18th-largest by PPP  As of 2021, it has the second-highest amount of wealth per adult, after Luxembourg, and has the thirteenth-highest financial assets per capita  Australia has a labour force of some 13 5 million, with an unemployment rate of 3 5% as of June 2022  According to the Australian Council of Social Service, the poverty rate of Australia exceeds 13 6% of the population, encompassing 3 2 million  It also estimated that there were 774,000 (17 7%) children under the age of 15 living in relative poverty  The Australian dollar is the national currency, which is also shared with three Island states in the Pacific: Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu Australian government debt, about $963 billion, exceeds 45 1% of the country's total GDP, and is the world's eighth-highest  Australia had the second-highest level of household debt in the world in 2020, after Switzerland  Its house prices are among the highest in the world, especially in the large urban areas  The large service sector accounts for about 71 2% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (25 3%), while the agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up only 3 6% of total GDP  Australia is the world's 21st-largest exporter and 24th-largest importer  China is Australia's largest trading partner by a wide margin, accounting for roughly 40% of the country's exports and 17 6% of its imports  Other major export markets include Japan, the United States, and South Korea Australia has high levels of competitiveness and economic freedom, and is ranked eighth in the Human Development Index  As of 2022, it is ranked twelfth in the Index of Economic Freedom and nineteenth in the Global Competitiveness Report  It attracted 9 5 million international tourists in 2019, and was ranked thirteenth among the countries of Asia-Pacific in 2019 for inbound tourism  The 2021 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Australia seventh-highest in the world out of 117 countries  Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $45 7 billion 

Energy
In 2003, Australia's energy sources were coal (58 4%), hydropower (19 1%), natural gas (13 5%), liquid/gas fossil fuel-switching plants (5 4%), oil (2 9%), and other renewable resources like wind power, solar energy, and bioenergy (0 7%)  During the 21st century, Australia has been trending to generate more energy using renewable resources and less energy using fossil fuels  In 2020, Australia used coal for 62% of all energy (3 6% increase compared to 2013), wind power for 9 9% (9 5% increase), natural gas for 9 9% (3 6% decrease), solar power for 9 9% (9 8% increase), hydropower for 6 4% (12 7% decrease), bioenergy for 1 4% (1 2% increase), and other sources like oil and waste coal mine gas for 0 5% In August 2009, Australia's government set a goal to achieve 20% of all energy in the country from renewable sources by 2020  They achieved this goal, as renewable resources accounted for 27 7% of Australia's energy in 2020 

Science and technology
In 2019, Australia spent A$35 6 billion on research and development, allocating about 1 79% of GDP  A recent study by Accenture for the Tech Council shows that the Australian tech sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people  The country's most recognized and important sector of this type is mining, where Australia continues to have the highest penetration of technologies, especially drones, autonomous and remote-controlled vehicles and mine management software  In addition, recent startup ecosystems in Sydney and Melbourne are already valued at $34 billion combined  Australia consistently has ranked high in the Global Innovation Index (GII)  In 2022, Australia ranked 25th out of the 132 economies featured in the GII 2022, down from being 22nd in 2019 With only 0 3% of the world's population, Australia contributed 4 1% of the world's published research in 2020, making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world  CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities  Its most notable contributions include the invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy, the essential components of Wi-Fi technology, and the development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote Australia is a key player in supporting space exploration  Facilities such as the Square Kilometre Array and Australia Telescope Compact Array radio telescopes, telescopes such as the Siding Spring Observatory, and ground stations such as the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex are of great assistance in deep space exploration missions, primarily by NASA 

Demographics
Australia has an average population density of 3 5 persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world  The population is heavily concentrated on the east coast, and in particular in the south-eastern region between South East Queensland to the north-east and Adelaide to the south-west
Context 3: Passage 1:
Félix Enríquez Alcalá
Félix Enríquez Alcalá (sometimes credited as Felix Alcala) (born March 7, 1951, in Bakersfield, California) is an Argentinean-American film and television director 

Career
Alcalá's first major breakthrough came in 1991 when he was hired by Lynn Marie Latham and Bernard Lechowick to direct an episode of ABC's short lived drama series Homefront  Since then he has guest directed on a vast number of series including CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, ER, Dollhouse and House  In 1997, Alcalá made his theatrical film directing debut with the film Fire Down Below starring Steven Seagal 
In 2007, Alcalá was nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for directing the Battlestar Galactica episode Exodus, Part II

Selected directing credits
Passage 2:
Larry Alcala
Lauro "Larry" Zarate Alcala (August 18, 1926 – June 24, 2002) was a well-known editorial cartoonist and illustrator in the Philippines  In 2018, he was posthumously conferred the National Artist for Visual Arts title and the Grand Collar of the Order of National Artists (Order ng Pambansang Alagad ng Sining) 

Biography
He was born on August 18, 1926, to Ernesto Alcala and Elpidia Zarate in Daraga, Albay  Through a scholarship from Manila Times granted by the publisher Ramón Roces, he obtained a degree of Bachelor of Fine Arts in Painting at the University of the Philippines (UP) in 1950  He became a professor at the same university from 1951 to 1981  He also received the Australian Cultural Award accompanied by a travel study grant in 1975 He started his cartooning career in 1946 while still attending school  After World War II, he created his very first comic strip, Islaw Palitaw, which was printed on the pages of the Filipino weekly magazine Liwayway  In 1947, he created the comic strip Kalabog en Bosyo, using Taglish as the medium of communication of his characters 
He pioneered animated cartoons for television commercials of products such as Darigold Milk in 1957 and Caltex in 1965  His campaign for the advancement of illustration and commercial art in the Philippines resulted to the establishment of the Visual Communication Department at the UP College of Fine Arts In 1997, the Philippine Board on Books for Young People (PBBY) granted him the title Dean of Filipino Cartoonists, an achievement award for his lifetime dedication to the art of capturing humor in the character and everyday life in the Philippines  In 1991, he promoted the formation of a group of young children's book illustrators called Ang Ilustrador ng Kabataan (Ang INK) All in all, he made over 500 cartoon characters, twenty comic strips, six movies, two murals, and 15,000 published pages in his 56 years of professional cartooning career  He believed in the far-reaching role of cartoons in education and value formation 

Death
Alcala died at the age of 75 on June 24, 2002, due to heart failure on Monday night at the Riverside Medical Centre, Bacolod City, central Philippines  His remains will lie in state at the Rolling Hills Memorial Chapel in the Visayas 

His Cartoons
His most popular cartoon series was Slice of Life, which is a reflection of the many unique aspects of everyday life in the Philippines  He captured the interest of his weekend patrons by giving them the task of looking for his image cleverly concealed within the weekend cartoon  He did the same with his other comic strip Kalabog en Bosyo  His cartoons had been tapped in advertising campaigns, such as corporate calendars, print ads, promotional T-shirts and in San Miguel Beer cans In 1988, his Slice of Life received the Best in Humor award and was also cited for helping to keep alive the Filipino's ability to laugh at himself, through the lively marriage of art and humor, and through commentaries that are at once critical and compassionate, evoking laughter and reflection Slice of Life appeared on the pages of the Weekend Magazine 

Mang Ambo
Mang Ambo is the personification of the Filipino according to Larry Alcala  Mang Ambo, the character, is an incorrigible cock-eyed innocent, possessing a small town charm amidst urban sophistication  Through Mang Ambo and the other characters of a fictional place called Barrio Bulabog, Alcala exposed the follies and foibles of Philippine society in general and of cosmopolitan life in particular  In this cartoon strip's characters, he also affirmed the Filipino's peculiar coping mechanism of laughing at himself in the face of adversity but still absorbing life's vicissitudes with resilience  Mang Ambo made its debut in 1960 as a full-page feature in the Weekly Graphic  The cartoon series later became the first Alcala comic strip to be compiled in book form 

Kalabog en Bosyo
Alcala's most enduring comic strip was Kalabog en Bosyo that first appeared on the pages of Pilipino Komiks in 1947  It eventually became the longest running cartoon series created by a Filipino Decades before Slice of Life, Alcala was already doing cameo roles in his Kalabog en Bosyo comic strips, but instead of portraying himself with a moustach, spectacles and side burns, he rendered himself in a crew-cut, younger and about 100-pounds thinner profile An onomatopoeic Tagalog word, the name of the character, Kalabog, refers to the thud sound produced after the impact of a falling object finally reaching solid ground  In Kalabog en Bosyo, Alcala pioneered in the blending of Tagalog and English or Taglish as the medium of communication among his characters  The comic misadventures of the two bungling detectives namely Kalabog and Bosyo had been transposed into films by Sampaguita Pictures in 1957, starring the Filipino actors-comedians, Dolphy and Panchito Alba 

Summary of published works
The following is a summary of Alcala's published works:
International Cartoons, Athens, Greece (1980)
Salon of Cartoons, Montreal, Canada (1980)
Laugh and Live, Life Today (1981–2002)
Slice of Life, Weekend (1980–1986), Sunday Tribune (1986–1987), Sunday Times (1987–1995), Philstar (1995–2002)
Bing Bam Bung, Pilipino Funny Komiks (1978–1989)
Asiong Aksaya, Daily Express, Tagalog Klasiks (1976–1984)
Mod-Caps, Mod Magazine (1974–2002)
Snickerteens, TSS Magazine (1973–1984)
Smolbateribols, Darna Komiks (1972–1984)
Siopawman, Daily Express (1972–1983, 2002)
Kalambogesyons, Pinoy Komiks (1966–1972)
Congressman Kalog, Aliwan Komiks (1966–1972)
Barrio Pogspak, Holiday Komiks (1966–1972)
Project 13, Pioneer Komiks (1966–1972)
Loverboy, Redondo Komiks (1964–1969)
Cartoon Feature, Asia Magazine (1963)
Mang Ambo, Weekly Graphic (1963–1965), Weekly Nation (1965–1972) Manila Standard (1993–1998)
This Business of Living, Weekly Graphic (1951–1965), Weekly Nation (1965–1972)
Best Cartoons from Abroad, New York, US (1955–1956)
Tipin, Hiwaga Komiks (1951–1965)
Kalabog en Bosyo, Pilipino Komiks (1949–1983), Manila Times (1984–1995)
Islaw Palitaw (1946–1948)
A Cover for Asiaweek Magazine, February 10, 1984
Mga Salawikain ni Lolo Brigido, Pambata Magazine
A Cartoon Mural for the Philippine Village Hotel
A Mural for the Philippine Commission on Audit
Contributions for Duty Free
Contributions for Jollibee restaurant
Caricatures and Cartoons, Private collections
Cover designs, brochures and catalogs, University of the Philippines
San Miguel Corporation Calendar, 1983
SPIC Cartoonists Exhibit on Wheels, 1967 Society of Philippine Illustrators and Cartoonists (SPIC)
Asiong Aksaya TV show, Energy Conservation Movement of the Philippines, 1977

Contributions to Philippine education
The following are Alcala's contributions to education in the Philippines:
Introduced the first college degree course on Commercial Design in the Philippines, 1953
Introduced the first 8 mm film production of animated cartoons in Visual Communications course, 1972
Chairman Department of Visual Communications, University of the Philippines, 1978–1981
Professor, College of Fine Arts, University of the Philippines, 1976–1979
Associate Professor, College of Fine Arts, University of the Philippines, 1971–1976
Assistant Professor, College of Fine Arts, University of the Philippines, 1962–1970
Instructor, College of Fine Arts, University of the Philippines, 1951–1962

Cartoon exhibitions
The following are exhibitions of Alcala's cartoons:
1999 Larry Alcala & Friends: Cartoons and Caricatures Show, The Westin Philippine Plaza (now Sofitel Philippine Plaza), CCP Complex, Roxas Boulevard,
1998 Larry Alcala, Life and Times of a Cartoonist, Museo Pambata Foundation, Inc 
1998 Cartoon Festival, Seoul, Korea
1995 Asian Cartoonist Exhibition and Symposium, Japan
1995 Slices of Larry's Art, SM Megamall Art Center & Liongoren Art Gallery
1993 Cartoons, Solo exhibit, San Jose & San Francisco, California, U S A 
1991 Cartoons, Group exhibit, Japan
1990 ASEAN Cartoonist Exhibit, Tokyo, Japan
1989 Cartoon Exhibit, China
1988 Slices of Life Part 2, Art Association of Bacolod Gallery
1987 Slices of Life Here and Abroad, Hyatt Regency Manila
1987 Cartoons, Group exhibit, Hiroshima, Japan
1986 Cartoons, Solo exhibit, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia
1985 Cartoons, Group exhibit, Chicago, San Francisco & Los Angeles, U S A 
1984 1st Asian Cartoonist Conference, Hiroshima, Japan
1984 Larry Alcala's First One-Man Exhibition, Heritage Art Center
1982 SKP Exhibit in Australia

Professional and journalistic achievements
The following is an enumeration of Alcala's professional and journalistic accomplishments:
Art Director, Weekly Nation, 1965–1972
Editorial Cartoonist and Illustrator, Weekly Graphic, 1961–1964
TV Art Consultant, Citizens Award for Television (CCMM) 1971–1972
TV Animated Cartoon Commercial for Darigold Milk, 1969
Art Consultant, U P  Public Affairs TV, Channel 13, 1963–1964
Design artist, Mobil Philippines, 1961–1962
Supervising Animator, Universal Animated Productions, 1959–1960
Movie Consultant, Kalabog and Bosyo, 1986
Movie Consultant, Asiong Aksaya, GP Productions, 1977
Movie Consultant, Kalabog and Bosyo, Sampaguita Pictures, 1957
Movie Consultant, Tipin, Sampaguita Pictures, 1956
Scriptwriter, Dos por Dos, Channel 2, 1974
Advertising Artist, Pan Pacific Advertising, 1948–1949

Clubs and organizations
Alcala had been affiliated with the following clubs and organizations:
Adviser, Samahang Kartunista ng Pilipinas (SKP), 1989–2002
President, Samahang Kartunista ng Pilipinas (SKP), 1979– 1989
President, Art Directors Club of the Philippines, 1963–1964
Vice President, Society of Philippine Illustrators and Cartoonists (SPIC) 1962–1963

Awards, citations and recognitions
He received recognition from the following entities:
U P  College of Fine Arts
The Board of Directors of the U P  Alumni Association,
The Office of the Mayor of the City of Manila, Philippines
The Philippine Board on Books for Young People (PBBY)
The Archdiocese of Manila Catholic Press Awards
The Citizens' Council for Mass Media 1970 CAM Awards
The Komiks Operation Brotherhood, Inc  (Komopeb) (Life Achievement Award)
Samahan ng mga Manunulat, Artist, at Patnugot at mga Manggagawa sa Komiks
SPIC-NPC Annual Art Awards
The Society of Philippine Illustrators and Cartoonists
The Society of Philippine Illustrators and Cartoonists (3rd SPIC Annual Art Awards)
The Galleria Bernice L
The U P  College of Fine Arts Alumni Foundation, Inc 
The University of the Philippines Alumni Association
The Philippine Council of Industrial Editors
The United Artists and Core Corporation, the Philippine Tuberculosis Society, Inc 
Operation Smile
The Bureau of Land Transportation
The Safety Organization of the Philippines, Inc 
The Veterans Memorial Medical Center Diabetes Association
The University of St  La Salle, Bacolod City
The Positive Artists Group (Pamana award)
The U P  College of Fine Arts
The University of the Philippines (Service Award, 25 years of service)
Caltex and D O S T
Philips -Boy Scouts of the Philippines, Parol Festïval 1986
The National Manpower and Youth Council Office of Vocational Preparation
The Department of Laboratories Veterans Memorial Medical Center
NAFC, DECS, DENR, DA
The Gawad CCP Para sa Telebisyon sa Taong 1988
St  Patrick Commercial Appreciation Award
The National Environmental Protection Council Awards
The City of Bacolod
Caltex-DECS-DOST Science Art Contest
Passage 3:
Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy
Al-Ameen Educational Society was started in the year 1966 to meet the needs of education in the city of Bangalore and of the minority Muslim community  Mumtaz Ahmed Khan is the founder of al-Ameen Educational Society  Number of social workers supported him to start and establish around 20 branches of Al-Ameen Educational Society and 200 institutions throughout India 

History
Mumtaz Ahmed Khan is the founder of Al-Ameen Educational Society  At the age of 31, in 1966 Khan founded the Al-Ameen Movement  He had decided to name it The Bangalore Educational Society  He was advised against this by his friend Khader Hussein who suggested Al-Ameen Educational Society as a reference to the title given to Prophet Muhammad which meant The Trustworthy  Hussein later became the principle of Saboo Siddiq Polytechnic, Bombay 
Abbasiya Begum, a female member of the Karnataka Legislative Council was elected the first chairperson of this society A number of social workers supported him for starting and establishing around 20 branches of Al-Ameen Educational Society and 200 institutions throughout India 

Structure
Activities
Planning Commission of India member Syeda Saiyidain Hameed was awarded Al-Ameen All India Community Leadership Award - 2006 by the Secretary, Chairman and Vice Chairman on 23 January 2007 

Institutions
Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy
Al-Ameen College of Law
Al-Ameen Arts, Science and Commerce Degree College
Al-Ameen College of Education
Al-Ameen Institute of Management Studies
Al-Ameen Institute of Information Sciences
Al-Ameen Pre University College
Al-Ameen Primary & High School
Passage 4:
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (Philippines)
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) in the Philippines is one of three components of the National Service Training Program, the civic education and defense preparedness program for Filipino college students  ROTC aims to provide military education and training for students to mobilize them for national defense preparedness  Its specific objectives include preparation of college students for service in the Armed Forces of the Philippines in the event of an emergency and their training to become reservists and potential commissioned officers of the AFP 
Graduates of the ROTC advance program serve in all branches of the Armed Forces of the Philippines  In 2008, ROTC graduates of the officer candidate schools of the various services constituted roughly 75% of the AFP officer corps  The ROTC grants qualified student-cadets scholarship benefits through a merit-based incentive program in return for an obligation of military service in the reserve force, or active duty in the AFP if given the opportunity, after graduation 
ROTC student-cadets attend college like other students, but also receive basic military training and officer training from the branch of service that handles their school's ROTC unit  The students participate in regular ROTC instruction during the school year (one school year for Basic ROTC student-cadets and three school years for Advance ROTC cadet-officers), and extended training activities during the summer, such as the ROTC Summer Camp Training (RSCT) and the Advance ROTC Academic Phase Training (ARAPT) 
ROTC units in colleges and universities are organized through the Department of Military Science and Tactics (DMST) which is under joint supervision by the school administration and the Department of National Defense  These ROTC units are in turn managed by active duty officers of the AFP and the reservist organization representatives of the major services, the Philippine Army Reserve Command of the Philippine Army, the Philippine Navy Reserve Command of the Philippine Navy and the Philippine Air Force Reserve Command of the Philippine Air Force 

Nomenclature
Commonwealth Act No  1, the National Defense Act of 1935, referred to the ROTC as the "Reserve Officers Training Corps", whereas Republic Act No  7077, the Citizen Armed Forces of the Philippines Reservist Act of 1991, referred to the ROTC as the "Reserve Officers' Training Corps", ascribing the possessive form to the word "officers"  
Republic Act No  9163, the National Service Training Program Act of 2001 likewise uses the same possessive form as RA 7077 

History
ROTC in the Philippines began in 1912 when the Philippine Constabulary commenced with military instruction at the University of the Philippines  The university's Board of Regents then made representations to the United States Department of War through the Governor-General and received the services of a United States Army officer who took on the duties of a professor of Military Science  Through this arrangement, the first official ROTC unit in the Philippines was established in the University of the Philippines on July 3, 1922 In 1921, National University became the first private college in the Philippines to have an ROTC unit   Later in the same year, Ateneo de Manila University, Liceo de Manila, and Colegio de San Juan de Letran soon followed suit and organized their own respective ROTC units  In 1936, the Office of the Superintendent for ROTC Units under the Philippine Army was activated to supervise all ROTC units in the country 

National Defense Act of 1935
President Manuel L  Quezon issued Executive Order No  207 in 1939 in order to implement the National Defense Act of 1935, otherwise known as Commonwealth Act No  1, the embodiment of the national defense plan formulated by General Douglas MacArthur for the Philippine Commonwealth  This executive order made ROTC obligatory at all colleges and universities with a total enrollment of 100 students and greater  This measure was made in order to help fill out the reserve force requirement of 400,000 men by 1946 and especially for junior reserve officers 

World War II
At the onset of World War II in 1941, thirty-three colleges and universities in the Philippines had organized ROTC units, the cadets and officers of which would see action for the first time  Elements from different ROTC units in Metro Manila took part in the Battle of Bataan  ROTC cadets of Silliman University in the Visayas made up 45% of the strength of the 75th Infantry Regiment of the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE)  Various ROTC units joined volunteers from the Philippine Military Academy to form the Hunters ROTC guerrilla group, which took part in the resistance movement during the Japanese occupation after the last American and Filipino forces had surrendered 

Post-World War II
On September 13, 1946, the Philippine Army Headquarters reactivated the pre-war ROTC units  The Philippine Army became the Armed Forces of the Philippines on December 23, 1950, at which time the Philippines was divided into four military areas and ROTC units operating within these areas fell under the supervision of their respective Area Commanders  On February 8, 1967, President Ferdinand Marcos rescinded Executive Order No  207 of 1939, promulgating Executive Order No  59 in its place  This executive order made ROTC mandatory at all colleges, universities, and other institutions with an enrollment of 250 male students and greater  President Marcos also issued Presidential Decree No  1706, otherwise known as the "National Service Law", on August 8, 1980  It made national service obligatory for all Filipino citizens and specified three categories of national service: civic welfare service, law enforcement service, and military service 

Republic Act 7077
Republic Act 7077, otherwise known as the "Citizen Armed Forces of the Philippines Reservist Act", was enacted by the 8th Congress of the Philippines on June 27, 1991  The Reservist Act provided for the organization, training, and utilization of reservists, referred to in the Act as "Citizen Soldiers"  The primary pool of manpower for the reservist organization is graduates of the ROTC basic and advanced courses 

Controversy
A period of discontent over ROTC's conduct and the corruption that often plagued its individual units had long been fermenting prior to 2000  Filipino student websites often contain short essays regarding the alleged pointlessness of the program  Student groups would occasionally include ROTC in their roster of grievances, whereas lawmakers would introduce resolutions intended to abolish ROTC Into this national mood of resentment fell a tragedy that would have a significant impact on the Philippine ROTC program  Mark Welson Chua, a student of the University of Santo Tomas and a member of the UST ROTC unit, was found dead, his body floating in the Pasig River on March 18, 2001  Prior to his death, he and another student had reported an account of alleged corruption within the UST ROTC unit to the school's student publication  The National Bureau of Investigation would later conclude that members of the UST ROTC unit were responsible for Chua's death  One of the suspects would be sentenced to death three years later The incident set off an explosion of anti-ROTC sentiment as student associations, school administrators and other cause-oriented groups focused on protests and parliamentary approaches to the matter  The Congress of the Philippines took up the legal challenge; generating no less than seventeen bills and resolutions in both houses of Congress, in response to the clamor  Many of the bills mentioned Mark Chua in the text, acknowledging his death as the catalyst for reform 

Republic Act 9163
Republic Act 9163, otherwise known as the "National Service Training Program (NSTP) Act of 2001", was Congress' answer to the clamor for change in the ROTC program  It was promulgated by the 12th Congress of the Philippines on January 23, 2002  Under the NSTP Program, both male and female college students of any baccalaureate degree course or technical vocational course in public or private educational institutions are obliged to undergo one of three program components, one of which is ROTC, for an academic period of two semesters  However, ROTC as a pre-requisite for graduation was rescinded 

Impact on Philippine society
The ROTC program of the Philippines was for many decades a compelling aspect affecting the lives of male youths whom many despises it and even question it as to its relevance in pursuing a college education  It was also a significant contributor to the corruption and abuses within the ranks of the subject as expose by Mark Welson Chua before being murdered by his fellow ROTC Officers  But unbeknownst to the public, the ROTC program has undergone numerous unacknowledged name changes, like in the 1960s through the mid-1970s it was called "Philippine Military Training" or PMT, and then from the late 1970s up to the early 1990s it was called "Citizen Military Training" or CMT, also advance training did not begin until the mid-1970s when cadets who desired to be cadet officers underwent what was called "Cadet Officers Candidate Course" or COCC 

Armed Forces of the Philippines
As of 2008, ROTC graduates of the various services constituted roughly 75% of the AFP officer corps; the rest come from the ranks of the Philippine Military Academy  Among the more prominent graduates of the Philippine ROTC program are Gen  Alfredo M  Santos, Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines from 1962 to 1965 and the first four-star general of the AFP, Gen  Rigoberto J  Atienza, 9th Chief of Staff of the AFP and for whom Camp Atienza in Quezon City is named, and Gen  Romeo C  Espino, the longest-serving AFP Chief of Staff who served from January 15, 1972, to August 16, 1981  Gen  Santos was a civil engineering graduate of Mapua Institute of Technology and was the Corp Commander of the Mapua Institute of Technology Reserve Officers' Training Corps; Gen  Atienza, a civil engineering graduate of the University of the Philippines, and Gen  Espino an agriculture graduate of University of the Philippines Los Baños  Another notable ROTC graduate was Gen  Fabian C  Ver, AFP Chief of Staff under Ferdinand Marcos and director general of the National Intelligence and Security Authority 

Post-2001 ROTC
At present, ROTC is no longer a mandatory program for college students, but an optional program component of the NSTP  The ROTC program accepts both male and female cadets  According to the latest available data, there has been a significant reduction in the number of students enrolling in ROTC  From more than 800,000 enrolled cadets during the 1999-2000 school year, ROTC enrollment has dropped to 150,000 as of 2011  During the first quarter of 2011, 500 colleges and universities were participating in the ROTC program  This is a sharp decline from the 2,000 schools offering ROTC before the National Service Training Program was enforced According to the Commission on Higher Education, the ROTC component of NSTP has produced 1,435,000 graduates over a ten-year period from 2002 to 2012  In comparison, the CWTS and LTS components of NSTP has produced 8,614,000 and 538,700 graduates respectively 

Proposals for and against mandatory implementation
In 2006, Alfredo Lim sponsored Senate Bill 2224 and Representative Eduardo Gullas sponsored House Bill 5460, seeking to make ROTC again mandatory  In June 2013, Department of National Defense Secretary Voltaire Gazmin aired a proposal to make ROTC once again mandatory for college students, a move ardently being protested by progressive youth groups such as Anakbayan  There have also been reports of schools offering merchant marine courses that want to retain the ROTC program as mandatory, arguing that maritime companies prefer mariners with ROTC training Members of the House of Representatives of the 16th Congress of the Philippines have filed at least six house bills related to the ROTC program  Congressmen Francis Abaya, Rodolfo Biazon, Erico Aumentado, Sherwin Gatchalian and Manny Pacquiao have proposed reinstating the mandatory nature of ROTC training, while Kabataan Party-list representative Terry Ridon has proposed the outright abolishment of the program 
In February 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte approved the proposal to revive the mandatory nature of ROTC training for senior high school students in both public and private schools  Duterte certified the proposal as urgent and forwarded it to the Congress of the Philippines - House of Representatives (Lower House) and Senate (Upper House)  On May 21, 2019, the Lower House passed their version of the proposed law  Some camps have criticized Duterte's inclination on this issue for admitting in a speech in 2016 that he himself did not finish his supposed ROTC service during his university days,  and two years later, expounded that he even falsified medical documents to be able to do so After the 2022 presidential elections, Vice President-elect Sara Duterte stated that she wants mandatory ROTC training under priority legislation  In July, Senators Francis Tolentino and Robin Padilla announced support for a bill by Senator Ronald Dela Rosa that would introduce mandatory ROTC for students in grades 11 and 12, with a voluntary advanced ROTC program available for the first two years of higher education  President Bongbong Marcos stated in his first State of the Nation address, also in July, that reinstituting the ROTC as a mandatory component of senior high school programs in all public and private tertiary-level educational institutions is one of his priority bills  
Groups such as the Student Christian Movement of the Philippines denounced Marcos, Jr  for prioritizing the reinstitution of mandatory Reserve Officers' Training Corps as was said in his 2022 State of the Nation Address, saying that it will teach students blind obedience and make them vulnerable to abuses 

Notable Philippine ROTC units
The University of the Philippines Diliman ROTC Unit
University of Santo Tomas Golden Corps of Cadets
Mapúa Institute of Technology ROTC Unit
FEATI University ROTC Unit
Ateneo de Manila University ROTC Unit 131st Department of Air Science and Tactics

See also
Conscription in the Philippines
Student Regiment (Indonesia)
Reserve Officer Training Unit (Malaysia)
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (South Korea)
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (Taiwan)
University Regiments (Australia)
Officers' Training Corps (United Kingdom)
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (United States)
Passage 5:
Helmut Schmidt University
The Helmut Schmidt University (German: Helmut-Schmidt-Universität), located in Hamburg, Germany, is a German military educational establishment that was founded in 1973 at the initiative of the then-Federal Minister of Defence, Helmut Schmidt  Originally known as the "University of the Bundeswehr Hamburg" (Universität der Bundeswehr), its complete official name today is "Helmut-Schmidt-Universität/Universität der Bundeswehr Hamburg"  Teaching first started in Autumn of 1973  It is one of two universities that were established by the Bundeswehr to train and educate its future and existing officers 
In general, it is accessible only to officers and officer candidates of the Bundeswehr, hence its original name  However, since it started teaching, there have been cooperation agreements with allied countries, on the basis of which a handful of selected officers from these states have been able to study in Hamburg 
Since 2002 there has been a small number of civilian students at the university  A prerequisite for studying as a civilian at the Helmut Schmidt University is a business scholarship  These scholarships are usually awarded by foundations with close relationships to industry – thus, these students are at least indirectly being supported by their future employer, usually large companies  As of 2022 tuition costs are currently 2941 euros (humanities), 4403 euros (economics) or 3423 euros (engineering) per academic term Academic degrees and titles obtained at HSU are equivalent to those awarded by state universities and are equally valid, since the courses comply with the requirements of Hamburg's higher education legislation  The university is authorised to confer habilitations and doctoral degrees 

History
Chronology of establishment
On 11 June 1970, the Federal Minister of Defense at the time, Helmut Schmidt, for whom the university was later named and who later would become chancellor of Germany, published a decree that a university be established for the purpose of schooling certain members of the German Federal Armed Forces 
On 17 May 1971 the decree, passed a year earlier by Schmidt, was appraised The German Federal Armed Forces agreed 29 June 1972 to collaborate with Schmidt's ideas for the university  The agreement was finalised 3 October 1972 and legally concluded 
The first classes of students began schooling on 1 October 1973 and the first graduate left the university on 30 September 1976 

Presidents
Since the beginning of the university in 1973, there have been eight presidents of the institution, including the current president, Wilfried Seidel, who has been in office since 2010 

Renaming
It was in the December 2003 that the University of the German Federal Armed Forces Hamburg was rechristened "Helmut Schmidt University / University of the German Federal Armed Forces Hamburg" to honour the man who passed the decree for the university's establishment  The idea of a university is his brainchild  Schmidt was present at the ceremony and was awarded an honorary degree 

Organisation and courses
At the Helmut Schmidt University there is a specific organizational structure, in addition to the division between the areas of teaching and administration that is common to all universities, there is a military side, to accommodate the HSU's dual function as an educational establishment and a military authority for the students 

Academic division
The academic division takes care of teaching and research, to which end it maintains 4 faculties  The number of departments was designed so as to allow for intensive study through teaching in small groups, and for the pursuing of research at the same time 

Faculty of Electrical Engineering: 13 professorships
Electrical Engineering
Parts of Industrial Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering: 7 departments, 19 professorships
Mechanical Engineering
Computational Science and Engineering
Parts of Industrial Engineering
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences: 9 departments, 28 professorships
Educational Sciences
History
Psychology
Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences: 19 departments, 40 professorships
Business Administration
Economics
Political Science
Parts of Industrial Engineering
Notes:The course Industrial Engineering is not assigned to any one faculty, due to its mixed nature, but the Faculty of Electrical Engineering has taken the leading role in teaching it  The exam board consists of members of the 3 participating faculties in equal number 
The "ISA-Modul", with ISA standing for "Interdisziplinäre Studienanteile" (Interdisciplinary parts of study) is not assigned to a particular faculty  Its classes take place in all faculties  All ISA courses are coordinated by a research associate, who liaises with the teaching staff of the 4 faculties 

Student Body Regiment
The student body of the university is organised in the Student Body Regiment (German: "Studierendenbereich", short: StudBer, lit : "student area")  The regiment is commanded by an officer of the rank of colonel or captain at Sea (NATO Rank Code OF-5)  Apart from headquarters staff, they oversee 3 battalions (German: "Studierendenfachbereiche", short: StudFBer, lit : "student subject area")  These are commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel or Commander (NATO Rank Code OF-4)  To ensure parity between the branches, A battalion is usually commanded by a member of the navy (German: Marine), B battalion by a member of the air force (German: Luftwaffe) and C battalion by a member of the army (German: Heer)  They usually also hold the title of Senior Branch Officer (i e  Senior Naval/Air Force/Army Officer on Campus) 

A Battalion: Engineering
B Battalion: Educational Sciences, History, Psychology
C Battalion: Political and Economic SciencesEach battalion consists of several companies (German: "Studierendenfachbereichsgruppen", short: StudFBerGrp, lit : "student subject area groups"), commandend by an army or air force captain or a naval lieutenant (NATO Rank Code OF-2)  In the course of the reforms of army training and the correspondingly higher student numbers in 2007 and 2008, further company commanders were added for the period 2007–2011 and again in 2019  A battalion currently has 5 companies, B battalion has 8 companies and C battalion has 9  Each company has between 100 and 150 student officers and cadets  Apart from the administrative management of the soldiers, the Student Body Regiment undertakes the military training and advanced education of their personnel, in order to hone individual common core skills 

Studying
The academic year at the HSU usually begins on 1 October  The officers and officer candidates are generally posted to the university a week before that date  An orientation week takes place first, during which the students may settle into their accommodation and receive an introduction to studying at the HSU from the more advanced students 
In contrast to the semester format usually practised in Germany, a year at the HSU is divided into 3 terms (trimesters) which means that it consists not of a winter and summer semester, but of autumn, winter and spring terms, 3 blocks of 3 months each  There are no classes in the summer quarter (1 July – 30 September)  This period may be used for performing required periods of practical training and internships, and for holidays 
Exams are taken at the end of every term, and test the material that was studied in that term  In a few cases, exams at the end of a term may concern the material of more than one term  For the purpose of revision, one or two weeks in mid-December, late March and late June may be devoid of classes 
Due to the short length of revision time and the fact that all the exams are "en bloc", resits are greatly feared by the students, particularly the engineering students  Resit exams occur during the exam block of the next term, and in this way a "bow wave" of an ever-increasing number of exams to take can accumulate, which may be very difficult to remain on top of 
The standard period of study for the master's degree (the standard degree) is 4 years  A Bachelor's degree can be obtained in 3 years  The maximum period of study is 4 years, which means that one's Master's thesis must be submitted on 30 September of the 4th year of study at the latest  The study period may only be extended over 4 years with the permission of the Personnel Office of the Bundeswehr, and even then, one requires a certificate from the university stating that the student is likely to successfully complete his or her studies in the near future 
After completion of one's studies, that is after one has submitted one's final dissertation, the officer will return to a post in the army or the fleet relatively quickly, according to availability of vacant posts, the officer's leave entitlement and course plans 
The award of the study diplomas always occurs in mid-October in a formal ceremony  As part of the graduation ceremony, the Böttcher-Preis, founded by the Hamburg businessman Johann Max Böttcher, is awarded to the highest-performing students of each year 
Some alumni officers will return to their alma mater as researchers or doctoral students 

Facilities
The maintains some central facilities  These include the computer centre, the language centre, the media centre, and the Centre for Technology-Assisted Education (Zentrum für technologiegestützte Bildung: ZTB)  A further facility is the library of the HSU  According to the library ranking list "Bibliotheksindex" (BIX), it has been amongst the best libraries in Germany for years  The library primarily exists to support the teaching and research of the HSU, but is also accessible to the general public



ground_truth: crystallized the rebellious demand for independence from Great Britain

Great Britain

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What administrative territorial entity is the owner of Ciudad Deportiva located?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Australia is highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018  Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age  In 2018 the average age of the Australian population was 38 8 years  In 2015, 2 15% of the Australian population lived overseas, one of the lowest proportions worldwide 

Ancestry and immigration
Between 1788 and the Second World War, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century  In the decades immediately following the Second World War, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades  Since the end of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia has pursued an official policy of multiculturalism, and there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century Today, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major Western nations  160,323 permanent immigrants were admitted to Australia in 2018–2019 (excluding refugees), whilst there was a net population gain of 239,600 people from all permanent and temporary immigration in that year  The majority of immigrants are skilled, but the immigration program includes categories for family members and refugees  In 2020, the largest foreign-born populations were those born in England (3 8%), India (2 8%), Mainland China (2 5%), New Zealand (2 2%), the Philippines (1 2%) and Vietnam (1 1%) The Australian Bureau of Statistics does not collect data on race, but asks each Australian resident to nominate up to two ancestries each census  These ancestry responses are classified into broad standardised ancestry groups  At the 2021 census, the number of ancestry responses within each standardised group as a proportion of the total population was as follows: 57 2% European (including 46% North-West European and 11 2% Southern and Eastern European), 33 8% Oceanian, 17 4% Asian (including 6 5% Southern and Central Asian, 6 4% North-East Asian, and 4 5% South-East Asian), 3 2% North African and Middle Eastern, 1 4% Peoples of the Americas, and 1 3% Sub-Saharan African  At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:

At the 2021 census, 3 8% of the Australian population identified as being Indigenous — Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders 

Language
Although English is not the official language of Australia in law, it is the de facto official and national language  Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon, and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling  General Australian serves as the standard dialect At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population  The next most common languages spoken at home were Mandarin (2 7%), Arabic (1 4%), Vietnamese (1 3%), Cantonese (1 2%) and Punjabi (0 9%) Over 250 Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact  The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered  The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians  NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages The Australian sign language known as Auslan was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census 

Religion
Australia has no state religion; Section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the federal government from making any law to establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion At the 2021 Census, 38 9% of the population identified as having "no religion", up from 15 5% in 2001  The largest religion is Christianity (43 9% of the population)  The largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church (20% of the population) and the Anglican Church of Australia (9 8%)  Multicultural immigration since the Second World War has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3 2%), Hinduism (2 7%), Buddhism (2 4%), Sikhism (0 8%), and Judaism (0 4%) In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions  In Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation  The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land 

Health
Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females), is the fifth-highest in the world  It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world, while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7 8% of the total mortality and disease  Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7 6%, with obesity third at 7 5%  Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults; 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese Australia spent around 9 91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021  It introduced universal health care in 1975  Known as Medicare, it is now nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently at 2%  The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice During the COVID-19 pandemic Australia had one of the most restrictive quarantine policies, resulting in one of the lowest death rates worldwide 

Education
School attendance, or registration for home schooling, is compulsory throughout Australia  Education is the responsibility of the individual states and territories so the rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16  In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003  However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that Tasmania has a literacy and numeracy rate of only 50% Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level  The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university  There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople  About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries  30 9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world Australia has the highest ratio of international students per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019  Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26 7% of the student bodies of Australian universities  International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas  Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed over $28 billion to the economy in 2016–17 

Culture
The country is home to a diversity of cultures, a result of its history of immigration  Prior to 1850, Australia was dominated by Indigenous cultures  Since then, Australian culture has primarily been a Western culture, strongly influenced by Anglo-Celtic settlers  Other influences include Australian Aboriginal culture, the traditions brought to the country by waves of immigration from around the world, and the culture of the United States  The cultural divergence and evolution that has occurred over the centuries since European settlement has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture 

Arts
Australia has over 100,000 Aboriginal rock art sites, and traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, "the last great art movement of the 20th century" according to critic Robert Hughes; its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye  Early colonial artists showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land  The impressionistic works of Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts and other members of the 19th-century Heidelberg School—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to nationalist sentiments in the lead-up to Federation  While the school remained influential into the 1900s, modernists such as Margaret Preston, and, later, Sidney Nolan, explored new artistic trends  The landscape remained central to the work of Aboriginal watercolourist Albert Namatjira, as well as Fred Williams, Brett Whiteley and other post-war artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the figurative and the abstract Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous oral traditions, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older  In the 19th-century, Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson captured the experience of the bush using a distinctive Australian vocabulary  Their works are still popular; Paterson's bush poem "Waltzing Matilda" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem  Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia's most prestigious literary prize, awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life  Its first recipient, Patrick White, went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973  Australian Booker Prize winners include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan  Australian public intellectuals have also written seminal works in their respective fields, including feminist Germaine Greer and philosopher Peter Singer Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government's Australia Council  There is a symphony orchestra in each state, and a national opera company, Opera Australia, well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland  At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers  Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies  Each state has a publicly funded theatre company 

Media
The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era  After World War I, Hollywood monopolised the industry, and by the 1960s Australian film production had effectively ceased  With the benefit of government support, the Australian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, many exploring themes of national identity, such as Wake in Fright and Gallipoli, while Crocodile Dundee and the Ozploitation movement's Mad Max series became international blockbusters  In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7 7% share of the local box office in 2015  The AACTAs are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable Academy Award winners from Australia include Geoffrey Rush, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations  Each major city has at least one daily newspaper, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review  In 2020, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 25th on a list of 180 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (33rd) and United States (44th)  This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia; most print media are under the control of News Corporation and Nine Entertainment Co 

Cuisine
Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker  The first settlers introduced British and Irish cuisine to the continent  This influence is seen in the enduring popularity of several British dishes such as fish and chips, and in quintessential Australian dishes such as the Australian meat pie, which is related to the British steak pie  Post-war immigration transformed Australian cuisine  For instance, Southern European migrants helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture which gave rise to Australian coffee drinks such as the flat white, while East Asian migration led to dishes such as the Cantonese-influenced dim sim and Chiko Roll, as well as a distinct Australian Chinese cuisine  Sausage sizzles, pavlovas, lamingtons, meat pies, Vegemite and Anzac biscuits are regarded as iconic Australian foods Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of wine  Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country  The nation also ranks highly in beer consumption, with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries  Australia is also known for its cafe and coffee culture in urban centres 

Sport and recreation
Cricket and football are the predominant sports in Australia during the summer and winter months, respectively  Australia is unique in that it has professional leagues for four football codes  Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s, Australian rules football is the most popular code in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, where rugby league holds sway, followed by rugby union  Soccer, while ranked fourth in popularity and resources, has the highest overall participation rates  Cricket is popular across all borders and has been regarded by many Australians as the national sport  The Australian national cricket team competed against England in the first Test match (1877) and the first One Day International (1971), and against New Zealand in the first Twenty20 International (2004), winning all three games  It has also participated in every edition of the Cricket World Cup, winning the tournament a record five times Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era, and has hosted the Games twice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney  It is also set to host the 2032 Games in Brisbane  Australia has also participated in every Commonwealth Games, hosting the event in 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and 2018  As well as being a regular FIFA World Cup participant, Australia has won the OFC Nations Cup four times and the AFC Asian Cup once—the only country to have won championships in two different FIFA confederations Other major international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennis grand slam tournament and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix  The annual Melbourne Cup horse race and the Sydney to Hobart yacht race also attract intense interest  Australia is also notable for water-based sports, such as swimming and surfing  The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia, and the volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons  Snow sports take place primarily in the Australian Alps and Tasmania 

See also
Outline of Australia
Index of Australia-related articles

Notes
Passage 2:
Ciudad del Niño metro station
Ciudad del Niño is an underground metro station on the Line 2 of the Santiago Metro, in Santiago, Chile  It is named for the former Ciudad del Niño Presidente Juan Antonio Ríos  The station was opened on 21 December 1978 as part of the extension of the line from Franklin to Lo Ovalle 
Passage 3:
Ciudad Deportiva (Nuevo Laredo)
The Ciudad Deportiva (Sports City) is a sports complex  in Nuevo Laredo, Mexico  It is home to the Tecolotes de Nuevo Laredo Mexican Baseball League team and the Toros de Nuevo Laredo Mexican professional basketball team from the Liga Nacional de Baloncesto Profesional  The Ciudad Deportiva's Estadio Nuevo Laredo (baseball park) can seat up to 12,000 fans at a baseball game and the Nuevo Laredo Multidisciplinary Gymnasium can seat 4,000 fans at a basketball game 

Phase II
Phase II of this project will include a new soccer stadium within Mexican Primera Division standards for a possible expansion of one of its teams to Nuevo Laredo  Part of Phase II has already been completed which includes an indoor stadium with a capacity of 4,000 fans that allows fans to enjoy basketball, volleyball, and gymnastics among other sports 

Gallery
Passage 4:
1969 Mexican Grand Prix
The 1969 Gran Premio de Mexico (Mexican Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held at the Ciudad Deportiva Magdalena Mixhuca, Mexico City on October 19, 1969, two weeks after the United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen  It was race 11 of 11 in both the 1969 World Championship of Drivers and the 1969 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers  The 65-lap race was won by McLaren driver Denny Hulme after he started from fourth position  Jacky Ickx finished second for the Brabham team and his teammate Jack Brabham came in third 

Report
Entry
A total of 17 F1 cars were entered for this event, the last of the season  Team Lotus had had mixed fortunes at Watkins Glen, although Jochen Rindt had won the race, his teammate Graham Hill had broken both legs in an accident  At this event, Lotus decided not to replace him  However they did run a second car, a Lotus 63 developmental car with four wheel drive for John Miles, as Mario Andretti was busy winning the Dan Gurney 200 at Pacific Raceways, USA The rest of the field was unchanged, with only one Ferrari 312 entered by NART for local hero, Pedro Rodríguez 

Qualifying
The Motor Racing Developments Ltd team proved to be very fast in Mexico, as they dominated qualifying in their Brabham-Cosworth BT26A  Jack Brabham secured pole position, for the team, averaging a speed of 96 087 mph  Next fastest was his teammate, Jacky Ickx  The 1969 World Champion, Jackie Stewart was third fastest in his Matra-Cosworth MS80, who shared the second row with the McLaren-Cosworth M7A of Denny Hulme  A pair of Lotus 49s were on row three, with Jo Siffert ahead of Jochen Rindt 

Race
The race was held over 65 laps, however, for the second consecutive race, Bruce McLaren failed to make the start  Of the 16 remaining cars, Jackie Stewart made the best start, with the Brabhams of Jacky Ickx and Jack Brabham in pursuit, Jochen Rindt fourth, and Denny Hulme close behind  By the end of the second lap, led, while Ickx was putting pressure on Stewart  By lap six, Ickx was through, into the lead, and Hulme past Brabham to take third  Hulme overtook Stewart on the next lap, and set about chasing down Ickx   On lap 10, Hulme's McLaren was ahead  Meanwhile, Stewart’s Matra had dropped behind Brabham, and this is how the top four remained throughout the remainder of the race  Rindt ran fifth early on in the race, but bent his suspension on a curb, leading to his retirement, so fifth went to Jean-Pierre Beltoise, with Jackie Oliver finishing sixth in the BRM P139, two laps adrift Hulme won in a time of 1hr 54min 5 3sec, an average speed of 99 618 mph (160 320 km/h)  Hulme finished just 2 56 seconds ahead of Ickx 

Qualifying
Qualifying classification
Race
Classification
Championship standings after the race

Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings  Only the best 5 results from the first 6 rounds and the best 4 results from the last 5 rounds counted towards the Championship  Numbers without parentheses are Championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored 
Passage 5:
Tumaraa
Tumaraa is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The commune of Tumaraa is located on the island of Raiatea, in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, themselves part of the Society Islands  At the 2017 census it had a population of 3,721, making it the least populous commune on Raiatea Tumaraa consists of the following associated communes:

Fetuna
Tehurui
Tevaitoa
VaiaauThe administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Tevaitoa  The tallest mountain on Raiatea - Mont Temehani - is located within Tumaraa 
Passage 6:
Buenos Aires Argentina Temple
The Buenos Aires Argentina Temple is the 39th operating temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), located in Ciudad Evita, near Buenos Aires, Argentina 

History
LDS Church leaders announced plans to build a temple in Buenos Aires in April 1980   Three years later, ground was broken and the site was dedicated by Bruce R  McConkie   After the building's completion an open house was held from December 17–24, 1985   Because of the location, visitors traveling from the airport to downtown Buenos Aires drive right past the temple 
Thomas S  Monson presided over the temple dedication on January 17, 1986  The Buenos Aires Argentina Temple has a total of 17,683 square feet (1,642 8 m2), four ordinance rooms, and three sealing rooms 
The temple closed for a renovation and expansion that added two smaller wings to the temple, set at angles to the existing structure  The renovated temple was rededicated September 9, 2012 by Henry B  Eyring, First Counselor in the church's First Presidency  It reopened September 11, 2012 In 2020, the Buenos Aires Argentina Temple was temporarily closed temporarily during the year in response to the coronavirus pandemic 

See also
Comparison of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints by geographic region
Temple architecture (Latter-day Saints)
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Argentina
Passage 7:
Ofu Airport
Ofu Airport (IATA: OFU, ICAO: NSAS, FAA LID: Z08) is a public airport located one mile (2 km) southeast of the village of Ofu on the island of Ofu in American Samoa, an unincorporated territory of the United States  This airport is publicly owned by Government of American Samoa The Ofu runway was driven as part of the Google Street View project; users looking at Street View imagery at this location will get a view from the runway as opposed to the road which was apparently under construction when the photos were taken 

History
Originally constructed in 1974, the airport runway was moved to its current location in 1986 

Facilities and aircraft
Ofu Airport covers an area of 18 acres (7 3 ha) and has one paved runway (8/26) measuring 2,000 x 60 ft (610 x 18 m) For 12-month period ending December 30, 2004, the airport had 1,944 aircraft operations, an average of 5 per day, 100% of which were air taxi flights 

Airlines and destinations
Passage 8:
Sportivo Italiano
Club Sportivo Italiano is an Argentine football club located in Ciudad Evita, La Matanza Partido, Greater Buenos Aires  The team currently plays in the Primera B Metropolitana, the third division of the Argentine football league system 
The club was founded on May 7, 1955, by Italian immigrants who lived in Florida neighbourhood (part of Vicente López Partido in the Greater Buenos Aires)  The club was originally named "Associazione del Calcio Italiano in Argentina"  In 1978 the institution merged with Sociedad Italiana and changed its name to "Club Deportivo Italiano"  The club's last name change occurred in 2000, when it became known under its current denomination "Club Sportivo Italiano" 
The team mainly appeared in the 2nd and third division of Argentine football, although in the 1986–87 played its only season in the Argentine top flight  Despite finishing bottom of the league and being relegated, this was its highest league finish ever 

Players
Current squad
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules  Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality 

Notable managers
Ramón Cabrero (1985–87)

Honours
Primera B (3): 1986, 1995–96, 2008–09
Primera C (3): 1962, 1974, 2013–14
Primera D (1): 1960

External links

Official Website
Mundo Azzurro
Dep Italiano
Passage 9:
Juan Carlos Espinoza Mercado
Juan Carlos Espinoza Mercado (born 23 July 1987, in Machala) is an Ecuadorian professional football player who has played for Ecuadorian club Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Loja and in 2010 he joined Peruvian club Juan Aurich 

International career
Identity case
In January 2013, he was called into the 2013 South American Youth Championship for the Peruvian U20 team  He played in four games under the name of Max Barrios Prado before it was reported that he had used false documentation that implied that the player was 17 years old  The Civil Registry of Ecuador released documentation showing that the player was 25 years old and married  He was withdrawn from the competition 
The rumours were initially reported by someone who claimed to be a friend of 'Maradona', the former player of Palma de Huacho and apparent father of 'Max Barrios'  The person claimed Maradona told him that the U20 player was from "Colombia or Ecuador" and that 'Maradona' is not the player's father Jaime Villavicencio, President of Universitaria de Loja club confirmed that the player in the U20 competition is the same person as the one who played for Universitaria de Loja  The Peruvian club Juan Aurich have passed information on to their lawyers as the player signed a contract with Juan Aurich using false documentation 
Passage 10:
Nuevo Laredo Municipality
The Municipality of Nuevo Laredo is located in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas  Its municipal seat is Nuevo Laredo  The municipality contains more than 60 localities which the most important ones are Nuevo Laredo, El Campanario y Oradel, and Álvarez, the last two being suburbs of the city of Nuevo Laredo  By population, the municipality is the third largest in the state of Tamaulipas (behind Reynosa and Matamoros respectively)  The Nuevo Laredo municipality is the northernmost in Tamaulipas, lying at the extreme northwestern tip of its narrow strip of land along the Río Grande  The city of Nuevo Laredo contains approximately 97 5% of the total population of the municipality 

Geography
Nuevo Laredo is located in the Northern tip of Tamaulipas on the west end of the Rio Grande Plains  Rio Grande is the only source that supplies its citizens with water  El Coyote Creek supplies Nuevo Laredo's only natural lake El Laguito (The Small Lake)   The area consists of a few hills and flat land covered with grass, oak, cacti, and mesquite 

Climate
Nuevo Laredo features a semiarid climate  Nuevo Laredo's weather is influenced by its proximity to the Chihuahuan Desert to the west, by the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains to the south and west, and by the Gulf of Mexico to the east   Much of the moisture from the Pacific is blocked by the Sierra Madre Oriental   Therefore, most of the moisture derives from the Gulf of Mexico   Its geographic location causes Nuevo Laredo's weather to range from long periods of heat to sudden violent storms in a short period of time  Nuevo Laredo is cold for Tamaulipas standards during winter, the average daytime highs are around 66 °F (19 C) and overnight lows around 43 °F (6 C); although it is rare for snow to fall in Nuevo Laredo, there was actually snow on the ground for a few hours on the morning of Christmas Day 2004 
Nuevo Laredo experiences an average high temperature of about 99 °F (37 C), and an average low of about 75 °F (24 C) during summer, and 20 inches (510 mm) of rain per year  As Laredo sometimes undergoes  drought, a water conservation ordinance was implemented in 2003 

Government
Nuevo Laredo is governed by an elected Cabildo, which is composed of the Presidente Municipal (Municipal President or Mayor), two Síndicos,  and twenty Regidores  The PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) is in control of the city government  The Mayor is in charge of the municipal administration  The Síndicos supervise the municipal budget and expenditures, and the Regidores are elected by the party 

Public safety
Public safety is provided by three municipal departments: (1) municipal police (Dirección de Seguridad Ciudadana), (2) traffic control (Dirección de Seguridad Vial), and (3) the emergency services department (Dirección de Protección Civil, Bomberos y Desastres) 

Towns and villages
The largest localities (cities, towns, and villages) are:

Populated places
See also
Municipalities of Tamaulipas
Nuevo Laredo (City)
Tamaulipas
Passage 11:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory  Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria  The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located  The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government  Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs)  There are 774 local governments in Nigeria  Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government  The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation 

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria 

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives  It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list 

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature)  The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state 

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government  The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly 

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007)  The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control  Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press  ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3 
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999)  The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research  ISBN 978-181-238-9 
Rotimi T  Suberu (1994)  1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan  ISBN 978-2015-28-8 

External links
"New States of Nigeria"  Statoids 
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors 
Passage 12:
Pangi Territory
Pangi Territory is an administrative area in Maniema Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo  The  headquarters is the town of Pangi 
The Elila River flows through Pangi territory, entering the Lualaba River to the west 
The territory is divided into the Babene chiefdom and the Beia, Ikama, Wakabango and Wasongola sectors 
Most of the territory is inhabited by the Lega people, as are the adjoining Mwenga and Shabunda territories 
As of 1972 there were still a few Pygmies living among the Baziri tribe of Lega people 
Before independence the territory had 97,380 inhabitants of whom 35,518 were in urban and mining agglomerations 
Passage 13:
Estadio Unión Tarma
Estadio Unión Tarma is a multi-use stadium in Tarma, Peru  It is currently used mostly for football matches and is the home stadium of Asociación Deportiva Tarma of the Liga 1 Peru  The stadium holds 9,000 spectators 

External links
Stadium information
Context 3: 

Research focus
In Mechanical Engineering, one of the areas of research is in automotive engineering  7 professorships work on projects in this area, including:
Acoustics,
Propulsion,
Computer-aided engineering,
Chassis,
Production engineering, and
Simulators 
For example, a hybrid drive unit is being researched for industrial trucks in cooperation with industry 
In Electrical Engineering, one of the areas of research is telecommunications, which includes: 
Audio coding,
Wireless transmission systems, and
Video recognition systems 
In educational sciences, the focus is on the areas of professional and organizational education, adult education and history  The establishment of a uniform German Qualifications Framework in the context of the European Qualifications Framework may be traced back in no small part to the work of the professor for professional and organizational education in the working group of the Federal Ministry for Education and Research, through expert advice and support 
In economic and management sciences, the emphasis is on logistics, business administration and economics, and political science  Gender topics have also been researched for years 

Student life
Campus and accommodation
The HSU is designed as a campus university, and its campus in the Wandsbek district consists of 3 parts  Studying activities take place on the premises of the former Douaumont barracks on the Holstenhofweg in Hamburg-Jenfeld  The university administration is located here, as well as all departments and faculties, lecture theatres and laboratories and central facilities; it also contains sports facilities, the canteen and the management of the Student Division  Students of Engineering are accommodated here in 10 quite modern-looking residential buildings  South of the BAB 24, on the premised of the former Hanseatic barracks in the Stoltenstraße in Horn, is the accommodation for students of humanities and social sciences, and economics, and the medical facility  A third residence, rapidly constructed, is located since 2007 on the Jenfelder Allee and will be used until 2010  In addition, from 2007 to 2010, flats will be rented on the private market, in order to absorb the overload of students, which is due to the unusually well-attended years of 2007 and 2008  In the private flats, 2 to 3 students will be accommodated together  In principle, every student receives a single room with area of 14 to 20 m2 (151 to 215 sq ft), mostly with en-suite bathroom and toilet  During the time of higher than usual student numbers however, there will inevitably be some instances where 2 students share a larger room  Residents may cook in the shared kitchens, where the social life between studies and the Hamburg night life will take place  Due to structural changes in military training, several external residences had to be acquired including the former Lettow-Vorbeck Barracks, which is now used by the Federal Police (Bundespolizei)  Another facility frequented by students and staff is the casino, the officer's club of the HSU (not a gambling establishment), located opposite the campus 

Financing
Whilst studying, the soldiers are paid according to their rank and length of service, sometimes including a residence allowance and a family allowance  They pay a fixed fee for their accommodation, which is waived if the student takes up a private residence 

Leisure activities and nightlife
Due to the quite strict study plan, compared with public universities, it is often not easy for students to pursue leisure activities  In the course of the years, however, many different clubs and societies have been formed, to enable leisure activities without clashing with study obligations 
One large event in the academic year is the "TAF ("Trimesteranfangsfeier" or "Start of term ceremony")  This takes place annually to greet the new students  It is organized by the members of the "Studentischer Konvent" and enjoys widespread popularity  The Studentischer Konvent is the students' representation at the HSU  The offers first-term students a possibility to get to know each other, and more advanced students the possibility to swap tales from their holidays 
Further events are organized in the faculties  These include:

"WI-Party" (last weekend of October, organized by the senior year of engineering students, with about 900 guests the largest closed event at the HSU)
"Päd-Party" (mid- to late June, an open-air party in the Douaumont area, the home of the engineering students, organized by Education Sciences students)

Conditions of enrollment
There are several conditions of enrollment which are strictly observed at the university 
In general, studying at the HSU entails a mandatory service of 12 years as an officer in the Bundeswehr  Since 2008, that time has been increased to 13 years, in response to changes in the education caused by the introduction of the Bachelor/Master system  To join the officer corps, a 3-day selection process must be successfully completed at the officer candidates selection centre in Köln-Porz at the Mudra barracks  Depending on which service branch and which specialty one chooses, one will complete the requisite military training with that unit, before being posted to the university and completing the academic education there, which is a part of the training for becoming an officer 
The educational requirement for attending the HSU is a general higher education entrance qualification that is recognized by the law on higher education of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg 

Military aspects of student life
Prior to their studies, soldiers must train at one of the three respective Officer Training school: for the Army in Dresden /('OSH'), for the Air Force in Fürstenfeldbruck ('OSLw') and for the Navy in Flensburg ('MSM') 
During their stay at the HSU, military personnel are required to complete certain standard procedures every year  These include:

6/12 km marches on foot with 15 kg backpack
German Sports Badge
Basic Fitness Tests
NBC Training
First Aid Training
Small Arms TrainingOn occasion:

political education
Training courses (such as MOUT etc )
Military ceremonies (such as changing of Commandants etc )

See also
Education in Hamburg
List of universities in Germany
University of the German Federal Armed Forces
Bundeswehr University Munich
Passage 6:
North Dakota School for the Deaf
The North Dakota School for the Deaf (NDSD) is a state-funded residential school located in Devils Lake, North Dakota that provides services to meet the educational needs of children who are deaf and hard of hearing  NDSD is under the direction, control, and management of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction  The current superintendent of the school is Dr  Connie Hovendick 

History
Before the Dakota Territory was divided, deaf children living in the part of the territory now known as North Dakota had to do without an education or attend the school in Sioux Falls, South Dakota  Because of poor roads, great distances, meager railroads, and general financial inability, few of the North Dakota children could attend the South Dakota School for the Deaf  In the fall of 1889 Anson R  Spear, a deaf man from Minneapolis, Minnesota, came to North Dakota to establish a school for the deaf  Mr  Spear's political backers, Senator Swanston and Representative McCormick, introduced a bill in the Legislature for the immediate establishment for the proposed school in Devils Lake  The bill passed March 15, 1890, over the veto of Governor John Miller The citizens of Devils Lake furnished free for two years a wooden building located at the corner of Third Avenue and Fifth Street  Mr  Spear was appointed superintendent on August 1, 1890, and the first term began September 10, 1890  The first student to be enrolled was 10-year-old Mabel Alice Newton  By the end of the first school year, 23 children were enrolled  The combined method of communication - use of signs, hand alphabet, and oral method - was used to teach the students  In January 1891, money was appropriated by the State Legislature for a permanent building 
The Great Northern Railway donated an 18-acre (73,000 m2) tract of land one mile (1 6 km) north of the heart of Devils Lake for the permanent site of NDSD, and construction of the first building "Old Main" began on May 30, 1892  "Old Main" was designed by Olof Hanson, a rising Deaf architect from Faribault, Minnesota 
The school previously had an in-house high school  In the late 1930s it had 140 students, its peak enrollment  The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), first passed in the 1970s, started a trend of deaf students enrolling at local public schools as well as in specialized programs in the larger towns around the state  The average enrollment in the 1980s was 97 students  By the 1990s the average enrollment was down to 48  The last graduating class was in 2004, and in 2012 it ended direct high school operations  In 2019 the school had 18 students 

Campus
It includes dormitory facilities  The Blackhurst Dormitory and the cafeteria serve the students 

Operations
NDSD directly teaches grades K-8 while it sends students in grades 9-12 to Devils Lake High School, operated by Devils Lake Public Schools 

Athletics
In the past, NDSD fielded teams in baseball, football, basketball, track and field, etc  Back then, the school had a large enough student population to have enough athletes to compete with various small towns in the area  Due to the reduction in the number of students through mainstream school placement, the school entered into co-op athletic agreements with a couple towns - one was with Crary, although the school now has a co-op agreement with the Devils Lake public schools  In the past, the nickname for the school's teams has always been the Bulldogs; the school's team colors have also always been green and white 

Boys' Sports
Football (with Devils Lake High School)
Basketball (began in 1914)
Track
Girls' Sports
Basketball
Track

Newsletter
The Banner, the official newsletter of NDSD, was first published in 1891  Clara Halvorson, the first teacher employed at the school, is credited with naming the Banner  The purpose of the newsletter was to keep parents informed on what happened at the school, publish pupils’ school work, and to provide publishing experience to students  The Banner is still published today 

Superintendents
Past Superintendents of the North Dakota School for the Deaf include:
Anson R  Spear
Dwight F  Bangs
J  W  Blattner
Frank Read
W  C  McClure
Burton W  Driggs
Arthur P  Buchanan
Carl F  Smith
Allen J  Hayek
Gary L  Holman
Alan J  Mealka
Jaime D  Galloway
Rocklyn Cofer
Roger Riefer
Carmen Grove Suminski
Dennis J  Fogelson
Connie Hovendick

Notable alumni / past students
John L  Clarke - wood carver
Phyllis Frelich - actress
Michael J  Olson - archivist & actor
Passage 7:
Tiberius Coruncanius
Tiberius Coruncanius (died 241 BC) was a consul of the Roman Republic in 280 BC  As a military commander in that year and the following, he was known for the battles against Pyrrhus of Epirus that led to the expression "Pyrrhic victory"  He was the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, and possibly the first teacher of Roman law to offer public instruction 

Biography
Coruncanius, of plebeian descent, is believed to have hailed from Tusculum He was first elected consul in 280 BC with Publius Valerius Laevinus, and led an expedition into Etruria against the Etruscan cities   When Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Italia, and defeated the Roman legions of Laevinus at the Battle of Heraclea, Tiberius' legions were recalled to Rome to bolster the defense of Roman territory 
In 254 BC or 253 BC, he was the first plebeian elected Pontifex Maximus, or chief priest of the Roman Republic, which position had been previously monopolized by patricians  He died in 241 BC and was succeeded by Lucius Caecilius Metellus, another plebeian 

Impact
He was the first who publicly professed law (publice professus est), known to be both eloquent and full of knowledge  Like Socrates, he left no writings 
His public legal instruction had the effect of creating a class of legally skilled non-priests (jurisprudentes), a sort of consultancy  After Coruncanius' death, instruction gradually became more formal, with the introduction of books on law beyond the then scant official Roman legal texts It is possible that as the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, Coruncanius allowed members of the public and students of the law of Ancient Rome to attend his consultations tasked with giving legal advice to citizens  These consultations were probably held outside the College of Pontiffs, and thus accessible to all those interested  As such, he became the first teacher of Roman law (how students of law learned their material earlier is unknown) 
Passage 8:
Grace Fernald
Grace Maxwell Fernald (November 29, 1879 – January 16, 1950) was an educational psychologist and influential figure in early twentieth century literacy education  Fernald established "the first clinic for remedial instruction in 1921 at the University of California, Los Angeles"  Tracing tactile learning tendencies back to Quintilian, Séguin, and Montessori, Fernald's kinesthetic spelling and reading method prompted struggling students to trace words  Years of research culminated in 1943 with her classic work, Remedial Techniques in Basic School Subjects  The popular kinesthetic method anchors modern instruction in the areas of special education and remedial reading  Kinesthetic learning is also included as one of Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences  Fernald's notion of incorporating the physical with the auditory, verbal, and visual elements of reading instruction, now known as "VAKT", multimodal learning, or multisensory imagery, continues to guide educators today 

Early years and education
Grace Maxwell Fernald was born on November 29, 1879 in Clyde, Ohio  Following a youth spent in New York and New Jersey, Fernald graduated from high school and then attended college at Mount Holyoke and Bryn Mawr  In 1907 she received her doctorate in psychology from the University of Chicago  By 1911 Fernald had accepted a position at UCLA  She eventually became head of the Psychology Department and Laboratory at the State Normal School  It was at the UCLA clinic where her research into the reading and writing processes gained fame 

Early research of the Fernald method
The 1921 Journal of Educational Research contains Fernald's foundational study of four boys who learn to spell and read by her kinesthetic method  This method influenced other researchers working at the same time in the field of reading difficulties  Notable examples include Samuel Orton and Anna Gillingham  The article in the Journal of Educational Research, "The Effect of Kinaesthetic Factors in the Development of Word Recognition in the Case of Non-Readers", outlines five phases of the kinesthetic method  With an emphasis on student choice, focal words are generated by the students during the first stage  Each word is introduced by the teacher who writes it on the chalkboard  The student repeats the word while tracing it on the board  When the student is confident that he knows the word, he attempts to write it while saying each syllable  Successful word study is followed by phase two where sentences are created in a similar fashion  The third step incorporates a student-selected book where words from specific paragraphs are isolated for reading  In the fourth phase, the student is asked to read whole phrases from the paragraphs  Finally, the student is encouraged to do silent reading on his own for the fifth phase  After some time all four boys successfully learned to read well enough to perform at grade level  Follow-ups with the participants reflected the maintenance of reading levels and for some avid readers, additional leaps in reading proficiency  Though not asserting widespread generalizability, Fernald and Keller enumerate several findings  One conclusion of interest today describes each student learning by analogy, demonstrating the "ability to pronounce new words if they resemble words he has already learned " This is a compensatory strategy currently used 
Warren's 1977 dissertation study with children exhibiting mild forms of reading problems demonstrated 147% and 77% superior word recognition and comprehension respectively by Fernald tracing compared to Orton-Gillingham phonics, although O-G was 10% more effective in word decoding 

Career summary
On the eve of Fernald's retirement from the UCLA clinic, Time magazine (July 12, 1948) highlights the story of one boy's reading adventure in Fernald's clinic  The title of the article, "Reading by Touch" aptly reflects the Fernald method  Stepping down after 27 years, Fernald sums up the theory behind her "kinesthetic method" with the explanation that "reading difficulties occur most frequently in people who lack the ability to summon up a mental picture of the way a word looks"  Her only requirements for entrance into the clinic program were for students to have average intelligence and for parents to continue with the clinic as long as necessary  According to Time, remediation required from "two months to two years" for the students to reach their grade level reading equivalent  Though the article includes some criticism of the Fernald method, in the end it is a positive portrayal of a committed educator   A clinic at UCLA bears her name to this day   Critics typically do not follow the tracing directions with fidelity, such making small changes such as orally spelling the individual letters in the word rather than saying/blending the sounds of the word   Strict adherence to the steps is required for the process to be "Fernald," and any changes interfere with the development of automatic mastery  The Fernald tracing approach to spelling, traditionally speaking, is not oral spelling at all; it is creating the mental visualization of the word for the purpose of correct written spelling and proofing  Oral spelling for students experiencing problems creates interference with acquiring correct visualization 

A child's view of Fernald's method
A more powerful account of the influence of the kinesthetic method practiced in Fernald's clinic is presented by the International Reading Association’s Special Interest Group in the history of reading  In the spring 1998 edition of the History of Reading News a former student of Fernald's kinesthetic method recalls his experiences in the clinic setting  He describes a typical session with one of the student teachers where there was even finger painting  The student, now an esteemed doctor, researcher, and chair of psychiatry at a major New York hospital, wonders about the "life changes for some of the other boys as a result of her help and ministrations " He admits that he "still uses aspects of the Fernald method to this day "

A parent's view of Fernald's method
An additional article written by the mother of the same former student was also included in the 1998 edition of the History of Reading News  Though not as detailed, the passage reminds educators that their work impacts not only the student, but the entire family  The parents contacted Grace Fernald in an effort to support their intelligent second-grade son who was struggling in school  The mother even recounts a visit to Fernald's home  Grace Fernald, the caring teacher, comes alive through these two touching accounts of one boy's success story 

Influence on education
Upon Fernald's passing in 1950, her peers praised the tremendous impact of her UCLA clinic endeavors  "Grace Fernald developed and directed the clinical school  The children and adults helped by study and treatment in this clinic and the teachers and psychologists observing and learning in the clinic school run into the thousands "The Fernald Center for Early Care and Education at UCLA is named in her honor 
Fernald's Remedial Techniques in Basic School Subjects was favourably reviewed by J Bald in The Times Educational Supplement, 9 7 1982  The book contains valuable techniques for teaching grammar, arithmetic and foreign languages  It remains one of the most important collections of case study research in its field (the case studies were omitted from the reprinted edition) 
Passage 9:
Alexander Military Law Academy
Alexander Military Law Academy (Russian: Александровская военно-юридическая академия) (1867–1917) was an educational institution in Russian Empire that provided military law education for officers of Russian Army and Fleet   It was established in 1867 and named after his founder, Emperor Alexander II of Russia in 1908  The Academy was situated in St  Petersburg by 96 Moika Embankment, along with many other institutions of military education 
Since 1878 it was reformed into a 3-year higher educational institution, with admittance to any of the three classes, depending on prior education of the admitted  Since 1880 officers from Serbian and Bulgarian Armies were admitted  About 1,000 officers graduated from the academy, as well as a small number or civil officials (which were admitted until 1882) 

Academy History
In 1866, by Auditor School, the two-year officers’ courses were established  In 1867, the courses were transformed into a Military Law Academy 
Since 1908, it received the name of Alexander in honour of Alexander the IIIrd  Officers of all types of military service in the rank up to the captain, who served in the ranks for at least 4 years, were admitted to the academy  Graduates received the right to occupy positions in the military judicial department  Since 1880, Serbian and Bulgarian officers also have studied at the academy  Totally, about 1,000 military lawyers graduated from Academy  It was closed in December 1917 after the unsuccessful Junker mutiny  It was located in Saint Petersburg on the Moika embankment, 96 

External links
Alexander Academy (in Russian)
Passage 10:
Brothers of Christian Instruction
The Brothers of Christian Instruction (Latin: Institutum Fratrum Instructionis Christianae de Ploërmel, F I C P ), commonly known as the La Mennais Brothers, is a Catholic educational organization founded in 1819 by Gabriel Deshayes and Jean-Marie de la Mennais for the instruction of youth  Their aim remains that of their Founder: "to educate the young and to make Jesus Christ better known and better loved" The brothers are bound by the simple vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience 

History
On June 16, 1819, Gabriel Deshayes, pastor at Auray and vicar general of Vannes, and Jean-Marie de Lamennais, vicar of Saint-Brieuc, two Catholic priests in France, established the Daughters of Providence and the Brothers of Christian Instruction 
The first brothers took their novitiates with the Christian Brothers, whose rule was to a large extent adopted  The organization dedicated itself to promoting education among the working class in France and, eventually, across the world  The motherhouse was established at Ploërmel in November 1824  In 1876, the Brothers of Gascony, founded by Bishop de la Croix d’Azolette, then Archbishop of Auch, and in 1880, the Brothers of Sainte-Marie de Tinchebray, founded by Father Charles-Augustin Duguey, subsumed themselves within the Brothers of Ploërmel The Brothers received canonical approval by Pope Leo XIII on March 13, 1891 From the motherhouse at Ploërmel, the brothers founded sites in England, Africa, Asia, North America, and Oceania  In 1886 the first brothers arrived in Montreal and were shortly afterwards introduced into the United States  To escape the effects of a 1901 French law curtailing certain kinds of religious schooling, the motherhouse was transferred to Taunton, England  In 1903, following through on the strict secularism of the 1901 law, the French government dissolved the brotherhood's French presence and confiscated its properties  At the same time, they established a presence in Bulgaria, Turkey, and Egypt The Brothers of Christian Instruction grew, extending their mission to the Philippines and Spain, and expanding it in the United Kingdom  In 2015, 1,300 members of the Brothers of Christian Instruction were spread across 25 countries 

Institutions
Collège Jean de la Mennais
St  Francis Xavier's College (Liverpool)
St  John Fisher Ibanda Secondary School
St Mary's Independent School, Southampton
St  Mary's International School
Walsh University
Institution Saint-Louis de Gonzague in Delmas, Haiti
St  Charles Lwanga Secondary School, Kasasa in Masaka, Uganda
St  Henry's College Kitovu in Masaka, Uganda
St  Mary's College, Kisubi in Wakiso, Uganda
St  Mary's Duluti Secondary School, Arusha
Seiko Gakuin Junior and Senior High School

See also
Pell Wall Hall
Cheswardine
Consecrated life
Passage 11:
United States Society for Education through Art
The United States Society for Education through Art (USSEA) is an American national association whose members work in curriculum development, teaching and research related to art education and cultural differences, and who share interests in art educational content and strategies which promote tolerance and appreciation of the arts of non-mainstream cultural peoples  The mission of the society is to promote greater understanding and respect for learners from all ethnic, minority, and socio-cultural backgrounds through research, art curricula, instruction, and practices that are inclusive and culturally sensitive The society provides a platform for networking and a resource base for art educators nationally and internationally, who seek to work collaboratively on projects of interest to multicultural or cross-cultural communities and students, publishes instructional resources for classroom teachers, encourages and sponsors cross-cultural research, and facilitates international and intra-national professional relationships through online sites, symposia, conferences, and publications Each year, USSEA honors one national and one international art educator, each of whom has demonstrated exemplary teaching, service, or research in the area of multicultural or cross-cultural art education with the Ziegfeld Art Education award  The Journal of Cultural Research in Art Education is a publication of USSEA that is made available to all members of the art educational profession  Through the website, members may access suggestions and recommendations for appropriate multi-culturally oriented K-12 art lessons, and receive up-to-date news and information about USSEA initiatives, programs and opportunities  Additionally, exhibitions of children's art from countries around the world are presented at national conferences of art educators and through an online gallery of children's art, which is organized by topical themes and maintained on the USSEA website 

History
USSEA was founded in 1977 as an affiliate of the International Society for Education Through Art (InSEA) and the National Art Education Association (NAEA)  The goals of USSEA reflect, on a national level, the goals of its international parent organization InSEA, which in turn, was inspired by the spirit of postwar hope and optimism of its parent affiliate UNESCO  In a paper describing the early history of InSEA, the motivational energy and overarching goals of UNESCO and InSEA are explained 
"The world had just come through a terrible and protracted war, one initiated by false philosophies working on ignorance through massive control of free speech  The impulse in 1945, to try to ensure that it did not happen again, and that people should understand each other better through education and all forms of cultural and scientific exchanges, the passionate emphasis on truth, justice, peace and the importance of the individual – these impulses were irresistible "These sentiments, which gave root to InSEA in 1954, are also guiding principles of USSEA  Art educator Kenneth Marantz was instrumental in establishing the United States organization and served as its first president  Other founding members who served as officers included Maryl Fletcher De Jong, Larry Kantner, Eugenia Oole, Helen Patton, and Tom Sletterhaugh 

Sponsored Activities
As a means of disseminating shared ideas about the importance of teaching art to increasingly diverse populations and to develop research agenda for determining effective practices of multicultural art education, USSEA began sponsored conferences and symposia  Fourteen such events were held between 1977 and 2010  The topics addressed included "Limits and Extents of International Research in Art Education" (1977), "Art Education: The Pacific Basin" (1982), "International Aspects of Teaching Aesthetics and Critical Skills" (1987), "Indigenous People, Art, and Place: Interactions of Culture and Environment in Contemporary Life" (1994) and "Crossing Cultural, Artistic, and Cyber Borders" (2000), and "Youth and Community Development: How the Arts Serve Economically Impoverished Communities" (2010)  The 1991 USSEA Symposium, "Beyond the Traditional in Art: Facing a Pluralistic Society," resulted in the publication of working papers and research agenda that helped focus cultural art educational research and practices during the late 20th and early 21st century Since 1986, USSEA has presented two annual awards in the name of Edwin Ziegfeld, founding president of InSEA (1954–1960) and NAEA (1947–1951), to honor an American art educator and a foreign art educator who have made distinguished leadership contributions to international art education  These awards are presented to the recipients during a USSEA Awards banquet held during the annual NAEA conference The first issue of the USSEA publication The Journal of Multicultural and Cross-cultural Research in Art Education was issued in 1983 with Larry Kantner as senior editor  In 2001, the title of the journal was changed to the Journal of Cultural Research in Art Education (JCRAE)  Articles published in JCRAE focus on social/cultural research relevant for art education, including cultural foundations of art education, cross-cultural and multicultural research in art education, and cultural aspects of art in education  These areas may be interpreted in a broad sense to include arts administration, art therapy, community arts organizations, and other disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches relevant to art education  Articles considered for publication may feature theoretical research and research in which qualitative and/or quantitative methods as well as other formats and strategies are employed  In addition to the publication of a journal, USSEA sponsors monographs and sponsors or endorses books that address issues of interest and concern to art educators 



ground_truth: Tamaulipas

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did military instruction start at the place where Larry Alcala was educated?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: As a result of the publication of a method to circumvent copy protection measures employed by Acornsoft titles, a High Court injunction against Computing Publications - publisher of Personal Computer World - was granted to Acorn Computers "requiring all copies of the January 1984 issue of PCW to be withdrawn from sale", with the article concerned being regarded as inciting readers to "duplicate computer programs"  This injunction was subsequently lifted as a consequence of an out-of-court settlement between the parties involving a damages payment of £65,000 plus costs to Acorn "to meet Acorn's expenses in developing a new locking device"  The article's author, Guy Kewney, and the magazine's editor, Jane Bird, argued that printing a software routine showing how to save Acornsoft cassette software to disk was a service to the magazine's readers  The cost of printing the magazine issue concerned was estimated at £100,000 Acornsoft became a subsidiary within Acorn Computer Group, distinct from Acorn Computers who were responsible for the development of Acorn's microcomputer systems, but Acornsoft ceased to operate as a separate company upon the departure of David Johnson-Davies in January 1986  Past this date, Acorn Computers used the Acornsoft name on office software it released in the VIEW family for the BBC Master series  In 1986 Superior Software was granted a licence to publish some Acornsoft games and re-released many, individually and as compilations such as the Play It Again Sam and Acornsoft Hits series  By agreement, the Acornsoft name was also used on the packaging of some of the subsequent Superior games  Superior chose not to take on Acornsoft's text adventure games, most of which were released in updated versions by Topologika along with some sequels from the same authors 
In 1997, Acorn sought to revive the Acornsoft brand for new software releases, such as upgrades to RISC OS, programming tools, a new Web browser, multitasking movie playback (using Acorn Replay), and Java for RISC OS  A stated objective was to demonstrate that a "wide range of innovative software at competitive prices" was available for RISC OS, with support also being potentially offered to third-party software producers  Acornsoft products themselves would be supported by marketing, including advertising, and the provision of press review samples 

Branding
Acornsoft titles extended their consistent branding to the software's loading screens 

Select titles
Acheton – A text adventure
Arcadians – A Galaxian clone
Aviator – A Spitfire flight simulator  With aliens   
Black Box & Gambit - 2 board game type games which were the winning entries of a 'design a game' competition on ITV's The Saturday Show  Black Box was a licensed version of the Waddingtons game of the same name developed by Ben Finn who would go on to co-write Sibelius  Gambit was created by the Oliver Twins and their first commercially released game
Bouncer – A Q*Bert clone
Business Games – An educational package
Carousel – A Carnival clone
Castle of Riddles – A text adventure
Countdown to Doom – A text adventure; first in a trilogy (although sequels Return to Doom and Last Days of Doom were not published by Acornsoft)
Crazy Tracer – An Amidar clone
Creative Graphics – A series of graphical demonstrations of the BBC Micro's visual capabilities, with user editable code
Drogna – Strategy game based on a section of the BBC TV game show The Adventure Game
Elite – A 3D space battle and trading game
Firebug – A platform and ladders game
Free Fall – Survival game set in an out of control space station
Gateway to Karos – A text adventure
Graphs and Charts – Graphical mathematical modelling
Hopper – A Frogger clone
JCB Digger – A scrolling 2D dig-em-up
Kingdom of Hamil – A text adventure
Labyrinth – A 2D maze based shoot-em-up
Magic Mushrooms – A platform and ladders game with built-in level editor
Meteor Mission – A Lunar Rescue clone
Meteors – An Asteroids clone
Missile Base – A Missile Command clone
Monsters – A Space Panic clone
Philosopher's Quest – A text adventure
Planetoid – A Defender clone originally released as Defender
Revs – A Formula Three racing car simulation
Rocket Raid – A Scramble clone
Snapper – A Pac-Man clone
Sphinx Adventure – A text adventure
Starship Command – A 2D space battle game
Super Invaders – A Space Invaders clone
Volcano – A game in which you rescue people from the other side of an active volcano with a helicopter

Acornsoft Games range
Including all arcade, text adventure and board games  All games were compatible with the BBC Micro Model B  Games followed by Model A & B were compatible with both machines  Games followed by Electron were also released separately for the Acorn Electron  Games are listed by their catalogue numbers which are roughly the order of release of the BBC versions 

G01 Philosopher's Quest (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G02 Defender (BBC 1982) deleted for legal reasons and later re-released as Planetoid
G02 Aviator (BBC 1983) released with G26-G28 but re-used the deleted Defender's number
G03 Monsters (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G04 Snapper (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G05 Rocket Raid (BBC 1982)
G06 Arcade Action (BBC Model A & B 1982) 4 games: Invaders, Breakout, Dodgems and Snake
G07 Sphinx Adventure (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G08 Cube Master (BBC 1982)
G09 JCB Digger (BBC 1983)
G10 Chess (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G11 Maze (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G12 Sliding-Block Puzzles (BBC 1982)
G13 Meteors (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G14 Arcadians (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G15 Planetoid (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G16 Super Invaders (BBC 1982)
G17 Castle of Riddles (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G18 Missile Base (BBC 1982)
G19 Countdown to Doom (BBC 1982, Electron ROM Cartridge 1984)
G20 Draughts & Reversi (BBC Model A & B 1983, Electron 1983)
G21 Snooker (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G22 Starship Command (BBC 1983, Electron 1983)
G23 Hopper (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G24 Carousel (BBC 1983)
G25 Kingdom of Hamil (BBC 1983)
G26 Crazy Tracer (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G27 Drogna (BBC 1983)
G28 Free Fall (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G29 Meteor Mission (BBC 1984)
G30 Gateway to Karos (BBC 1983)
G31 Boxer (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G32 Tetrapod (BBC 1984)
G33 Volcano (BBC 1984)
G34 Black Box & Gambit (BBC 1984)
G35 Bouncer (BBC 1984)
G36 The Seventh Star (BBC 1984)
G37 Acheton (BBC 1984)
G38 Elite (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G39 Firebug (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G40 Quondam (BBC 1984)
G41 Labyrinth (BBC 1984)
G42 Go (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G43 Revs (BBC 1985)
G44 Revs 4 Tracks (BBC 1985) extra tracks for the main game
G45 Elite original BBC Micro 6502 Second Processor version
G46 Magic Mushrooms (BBC 1985, Electron 1985)
G47 Elite enhanced (BBC 1986) incl  6502 Second Processor and Master 128 versionsThere are also a number of completed but unreleased games that have found their way into the public domain such as Crazy Balloon, Hellforce and Bandit that date from around 1983 

Acornsoft Education range
Acornsoft produced a wide range of educational titles aimed at many different age groups 

E01 Algebraic Manipulation (BBC Model A & B 198?)
E02 Peeko-Computer (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984)
E03 Business Games (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984) 2 games: Stokmark and Telemark
E04 Tree of Knowledge (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
E05 Word Hunt (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
E06 Word Sequencing (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984)
E07 Sentence Sequencing (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
E08 Number Balance (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
E09 Missing Signs (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984)
E?? Speed and Light (BBC 198?)
E?? Density and Circuit (BBC 198?)
E12 Chemical Analysis (BBC 198?)
E13 Chemical Simulations (BBC 198?)
E14 Chemical Structures (BBC 198?)
E15 Jars (BBC 198?)
E16 Temperature Control Simulation (BBC 1983)
E17 The Examiner (BBC 198?)
E18 Spooky Manor (BBC 198?)
E19
E20
E21
E22 Talkback (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
E23 Workshop (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
E24 ABC (BBC 1984)Acornsoft also published and distributed a range of educational software developed by ASK (Applied Systems Knowledge) that were widely used in schools running BBC Micros  These included Podd (find out which actions a red blobby character can perform (e g  jump, smile, dance), Squeeze (a two player strategy game of squeezing shapes onto a board) and Cranky (solve maths problems to repair a living calculator)  These titles were part of the Acornsoft catalogue but used a different code (XBE?? – all other Acornsoft titles began with S so the Education range on BBC Micro cassettes would be SBE??)  They ran on both the BBC Micro Model B and Acorn Electron 
The Ivan Berg Software range was also mainly educational but had its own distinct code (XBX??)  This included the 6 Grandmaster Quizzes (Theatre, Crime & Detection, Music, History, Science Fiction and Royal), relationship aids "  I Do" Your Guide to a Happy Marriage and The Dating Game and GCE/CSE revision guides (Mathematics, Biology and English) 
Acornsoft also distributed other ranges of educational programs developed by companies such as ICL, Good Housekeeping and Bourne but they are not considered part of the official catalogue 

Acornsoft Business range
Acornsoft produced a range of office software for home and business use 

B01 Desk Diary (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
B02 Forecast (BBC 198?)
B03 VIEW (BBC 198?, Electron ROM cartridge 1984)
B04 VIEW Printer Drivers (BBC 198?)
B05 Personal Money Management (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
B06 Database (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
B07 ViewSheet (BBC 1984, Electron ROM cartridge 1984)
B08 Invoicing (BBC 1984)
B09 Mailing (BBC 1984)
B10 Accounts Receivable (BBC 1984)
B11 Stock Control (BBC 1984)
B12 Order Processing (BBC 1984)
B13 Accounts Payable (BBC 1984)
B14 Purchasing (BBC 1984)
B15 Hi-View (BBC 19??)
B26 P-System (BBC with 6502 Second Processor)The series continues but mainly with add-on products for the VIEW word processor such as ViewIndex (an automatic index generator) and ViewSpell (spell-checker) as well as newer versions 
View Professional (1987) was a combined wordprocessor, spreadsheet and database similar to PipeDream on the Z88 Although primarily a programming language suite, Acornsoft released its P-System product featuring UCSD Pascal and Fortran 77 compilers as part of its business range  Developed by TDI for Acornsoft, the product required a 6502 second processor and disc system, preferably with two drives  Despite the £299 price, various tools including an assembler and linker were omitted from the product, these being made available in a separate Advanced Development Toolkit from TDI 

Acornsoft Languages range
Acorn systems came with a version of the BBC BASIC programming language as standard but Acornsoft also produced a wide range of other languages that could be loaded in by cassette or disc or in some cases, supplied in ROM form 

L01 FORTH (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
L02 LISP (BBC 1982, Electron 1983, Electron ROM cartridge 1984)
L03 BCPL (BBC 1983)
L04 Microtext (BBC 1983)
L05 6502 Development System (BBC 1985)
L06 Logo (BBC 1983, Electron ROM cartridge 1985)
L07 Turtle Graphics (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
L08 S-Pascal (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
L09 LISP Demonstrations (BBC 1984)
L10 BCPL Calculations Package (BBC 198?)
L11
L12 BCPL Stand Alone Generator (BBC 1983)
L13 FORTH – ROM version (BBC 1984)
L14 LISP – ROM version (BBC 1982)
L15
L16
L17 PROLOG Micro (BBC 1985)
L18 ISO-Pascal (BBC 1984, Electron ROM cartridge 1985)
L19 COMAL (BBC 1984) 
L20
L21
L22 BASIC Editor (BBC 1985)
L23 Termulator (BBC 1987)
L24 ISO-Pascal Stand Alone Generator (BBC 198?)The relative performance of some of Acornsoft's languages was evaluated using a benchmark based on the Takeuchi function, Tak by former Acornsoft managing director, David Johnson-Davies, noting that "it is difficult to imagine a language that performs badly on Tak being much use for anything", illustrating a diversity amongst these language implementations in terms of readability, speed and generated code size  A follow-up article expanded the comparison to other language implementations such as Oxford Pascal, Z80 versions of BBC BASIC, Turbo Pascal and Small-C 

Acornsoft Graphics range and more
The graphics range was used to demonstrate the graphical power of the Acorn computers but only three titles were made available  The X?? code was then used for other types of software 

X01 Creative Graphics (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
X02 Graphs & Charts (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
X03 Picture Maker (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
X04 Shirley Conran's Magic Garden (BBC 1983)
X05 Collector's Catalogue (BBC 198?)
X06 Membership Manager (BBC 198?)
X07 One To Nine (BBC 198?)
X08 Hooked on Numbers (BBC 1983)
X09
X10 Complete Cocktail Maker (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
X11 Paul Daniels' Magic Show (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
X12 100 Programs for the BBC Micro (BBC 198?)
X13 Linkword French (BBC 1984)
X14 Linkword Italian (BBC 1984)
X15 Linkword Spanish (BBC 1984)
X16 Linkword German (BBC 1984)
X17 Watch Your Weight (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
X18 Me & My Micro (Electron 1984)The range took on various themes including Creative Sound (X26) 
Passage 9:
Lessons (Star Trek: The Next Generation)
"Lessons" is the 19th episode of the sixth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation and was originally aired in the United States on April 5, 1993, in broadcast syndication 
Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise-D  In this episode, Captain Picard's (Patrick Stewart) shared love of music with Lt  Commander Nella Daren (Wendy Hughes) leads to romance, resulting in conflicting emotions on his part  After incorrectly believing that she has died, he realizes that he is incapable of carrying out a relationship with someone under his command 
The episode was directed by Robert Wiemer, the episode was written by Ron Wilkerson and Jean Louise Matthias, with some uncredited revisions by René Echevarria  Stand-ins were used to perform the pieces by Picard and Daren, which required the use of close-up camera angles by the director  The episode was received warmly by critics reviewing it after the end of the series, who praised the performances of Hughes and Stewart 

Plot
Picard is curious when he finds that the stellar cartography department has shut down several systems on the Enterprise, and visits the section to discover what is going on  He meets the head of the department, Lt  Commander Nella Daren, who makes an impression on him  It is a meeting memorable enough to later discuss with Dr  Beverly Crusher (Gates McFadden)  At a musical recital by Lt  Commander Data (Brent Spiner), Picard is surprised to see Daren again, playing the piano  The two discuss music, and later meet in Picard's quarters and participate in a duet  Daren plays a portable piano and Picard performs on his Ressikan flute 
The two begin to meet more often; including in a Jefferies tube, which Daren claims has the best acoustics on the ship  In this private setting, their attraction for one another is expressed in a kiss  The moment of intimacy is fleeting, however  When they enter a turbolift, and are joined by another crewmember, Picard resumes the professional demeanour of Captain  The Enterprise is diverted from its mission, when it is directed to investigate a report of firestorms at a Federation outpost  While in transit, Picard consults Counsellor Troi (Marina Sirtis) about pursuing a relationship with Daren  Picard then goes to Daren to apologize and to explain   He recounts the experience  shown in the episode "The Inner Light" in which he had a wife and family, became a grandfather, grew old, and learned to play the flute   The experience imparted to Picard a deep appreciation for music, and he is pleased to have someone to share it with 
Daren speaks to Commander Riker (Jonathan Frakes) requesting a transfer for another crew member to stellar cartography  Riker says he will consider the request  Afterwards, he speaks with Picard, explaining that Picard and Daren's relationship makes the decision complicated  After determining from Riker that Daren's request is not unusual or taking advantages, Picard assures Riker that he will support any decision he makes  Later at dinner, Picard relates to Daren his talk with Riker, saying that they need to be careful about anyone else misunderstanding their relationship 
The Enterprise arrives at the Federation outpost to find that firestorms are heading toward the facility  Daren suggests a means of deflecting the storms, but the equipment requires trained personnel on the ground to operate it  Daren is assigned to the surface team, along with a number of other crewmembers  The outpost is evacuated during the dangerous mission, leaving only the Enterprise away team on surface  The firestorms overwhelm the position that Daren's team occupies before they can be retrieved  Believing Daren to be dead, Picard sits contemplating his decision in his quarters  He then hears that survivors are being transported aboard, and heads to the transporter room  Daren is not among the initial group of survivors, but is later transported to the ship  Eight members of the team have died 
Afterwards, Picard and Daren discuss their relationship  They conclude that it cannot continue, as Picard could not bear to put her in further danger  They discuss giving up their Starfleet careers to be together  Daren knows that Picard, although still cherishing the family life he experienced as Kamin, has nonetheless chosen duty, career, and loneliness  They both know that Daren must transfer off the Enterprise  They kiss once more, and Daren makes Picard promise not to give up music 

Production
Ron Wilkerson and Jean Louise Matthias received story credits for the episodes "Imaginary Friend" and "Schisms", but for each episode the writing of the teleplay from the initial story idea had been assigned to a staff writer due to time constraints  Co-executive producer Jeri Taylor then allowed the pair to write the teleplay for "Lessons", their first for Star Trek  René Echevarria did some minor uncredited re-writes to the final version of the script as staff-writer Brannon Braga wished to avoid working on "Lessons" after recently working on another love story related script for the episode "Aquiel"  Writer and producer Michael Piller likened "Lessons" to the 1945 Noël Coward film Brief Encounter 

The production crew sought to give Picard a romantic peer and equal in Daren, and were pleased with the actors' performances  Director Robert Wiemer said that "we had really turned-on performances     if we'd had only moderate performances it would have fallen flat"  However, as neither Stewart nor Hughes could play their instruments, it required a number of camera techniques to be used in order to disguise the musicians playing just off screen  Husband and wife duo Natalie and Bryce Martin played the piano and tin whistle respectively to portray Daren and Picard's abilities  Bryce had played his instrument to represent Picard's Ressikan flute since it first appeared in "The Inner Light"  However, while Stewart did the majority of his flute fingering, he was doubled in several scenes by Noel Webb and John Mayham  Webb also doubled for Brent Spiner early in the episode when Data was playing Frédéric Chopin's trio in G minor  A variety of pieces are played throughout the episode, including Frère Jacques, Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata No  14 and Johann Sebastian Bach's Third Brandenburg Concerto  The "Flute song" by Jay Chattaway, which originally appeared in "The Inner Light", reappears in this episode The firestorm itself was created by Dan Curry and Ronald B  Moore by pouring liquid nitrogen onto black velvet and then blowing it with an air hose  The effect was then enhanced by digital effects and was digitally inserted into the background of the exterior standing set (usually referred to by cast and crew as "planet hell")  "Lessons" was the first appearance of the stellar cartography on board the Enterprise, but the set would be completely replaced for its reappearance in the movie Star Trek Generations 

Reception and home media
James Van Hise and Hal Schuster wrote in their 1995 book, The Complete Next Generation, that they thought the relationship between Picard and Daren was believable, and that the story itself was very effective  They thought that the loneliness Picard feels at the end of the episode was part of an ongoing story which would culminate in the subplot about Picard's loneliness in Star Trek Generations Several reviewers re-watched Star Trek: The Next Generation after the end of the series  Keith DeCandido watched the episode for Tor com, and described the performance of Wendy Hughes as "magnificent" and "never not wonderful"  However, he commented that whenever a double was not used to play the piano, it was obvious that Hughes wasn't playing  Overall, he appreciated the script and thought that the ending was not contrived; however, he would have preferred for the episodic structure of The Next Generation to have been changed a little to allow for the romance to be portrayed as a subplot over several episodes  He gave the episode a score of nine out of ten, saying "this is one of TNG's best romances and an absolute joy " DeCandido subsequently named "Lessons" as one of the best episodes of season six, which he said was the best season of the series Zack Handlen, who reviewed "Lessons" for The A V  Club, thought that the episode works because of Patrick Stewart and that the episode was well-handled  He gave "Lessons" a score of B+, saying that he "wasn't hugely sold on Daren, but when Picard makes a special point of explaining the flute's significance to her, it helps solidify the connection between them "In 2012, Forbes placed "Lessons" in an alternative top ten episodes from TNG The episode was first released on VHS cassette on August 4, 1998  The episode was later included on the Star Trek: The Next Generation season six DVD box set, released in the United States on December 3, 2002, and on Blu-ray on June 24, 2014 

Science education
In 2010, Wired noted this episode of Star Trek as one that could be used to teach real-world science, especially astronomy  The real-world counterpart to the Star Trek stellar cartography can be called uranography 

Notes
Passage 10:
Le Mauricien
Le Mauricien is a French-language newspaper, based and distributed in Mauritius  The newspaper, founded in 1908, is released daily and is one of the most read in Mauritius  The publishers, Le Mauricien Ltd , also publish Week-End, Week-End Scope and Turf Magazine  It is an independent newspaper 

History
Le Mauricien was founded in 1908 and celebrated its hundredth anniversary in 2008  Some former editors include Raoul Rivet, André Masson, Lindsay Rivière among others  The editor and director was Raoul Rivet from 1922 to 1957 Le Mauricien adopted the offset press in 1978 and subsequently experienced changes namely by growing from four pages to the current forty-eight page daily edition  Its price has evolved as well  In 1978, the newspaper's office was set on fire which and was later deemed as a criminal act  Le Mauricien adopted a "midi" format known as the Berliner format in 2010  The pages increased to 48 and this becomes similar to leading papers elsewhere like Le Figaro (France), The Guardian (UK)  In 2012, Le Mauricien upgraded its website and aligned it with other papers where readers could send comments to published articles 
The Compact Tabloid Format
As from July 2014, Le Mauricien has adopted the compact tabloid format close to The Times of the UK   The pages have been reduced to 40 while the midi format was repealed   Compared to an older version of the same paper, the paper size is reduced by 55%   This adds to a new era in news publishing 

General information
Le Mauricien headquarters is located on 8 rue St Georges, Port Louis  The current director is Jacques Rivet and deputy director is Bernard Delaître 

See also
List of newspapers in Mauritius
Passage 11:
Someone in the Dark
Someone in the Dark is a collection of fantasy and horror short stories by author August Derleth  It was released in 1941 and was the second book published by Arkham House   1,115 copies were printed, priced at $2 00  In Thirty Years of Arkham House, Derleth implied that this title had sold out by the end of 1944 
However, more than twenty years later, in 1967, Derleth listed Someone in the Dark in an Arkham House bulletin with this announcement: "We have acquired a small stock of this title, Derleth's first collection of macabre tales, published in 1941  They will be sold at $5 00 the copy to patrons interested in acquiring the book   "
Derleth was being disingenuous in suggesting these 'unearthed' copies were the 1941 edition   The additional 300 copies were printed in offset by Hunter Publishing Co  in Winston-Salem in 1965, the reprint probably authorized by Derleth himself   (In The Arkham House Companion, Sheldon Jaffery quotes a letter that seems to indicate this)  The 1965 reprint are a quarter-inch higher than the originals, and are bound with headbands (not present in the 1941 first editions) 
The 1965 edition is scarce  While it is not generally considered an official Arkham House publication, it is considered an essential acquisition for Arkham House completists 
A paperback reprint was issued by Jove Books in 1978 

Contents
Someone in the Dark contains the following tales:

"When the Night and House "
"Glory Hand"
"Compliments of Spectro"
"A Gift for Uncle Herman"
"McGovern's Obsession"
"Three Gentlemen in Black"
"Muggridge's Aunt"
"Bramwell's Guardian"
"Joliper's Gift"
"Altimer's Amulet"
"The Shuttered House"
"The Sheraton Mirror"
"The Wind from the River"
"The Telephone in the Library"
"The Panelled Room"
"The Return of Hastur"
"The Sandwin Compact"

Reception
E  F  Bleiler noted that "the local, regionalistic American stories are best, while those in imitation of Lovecraft are weakest"  New York Times reviewer Louise Maunsell Field gave the collection a relatively favorable review, saying that "The stories are for the most part well told, and lovers of tales of the occult will find the volume entertaining and congenial, although it has little of either sensitivity or beauty " Thrilling Wonder Stories commented that "Mr  Derleth writes quietly and with restraint, in beautifully measured sentences that stick to the essentials of the story he has to tell  His very restraint sometimes plays a trick on him -- and makes his writing appear at time to lack fire" 
Passage 12:
Death Comes as the End
Death Comes as the End is a historical mystery novel by Agatha Christie, first published in the US by Dodd, Mead and Company in October 1944 and in the UK by the Collins Crime Club in March of the following year  The US Edition retailed at $2 00 and the UK edition at seven shillings and sixpence (7/6) It is the only one of Christie's novels not to be set in the 20th century, and - unusually for her - also features no European characters  Instead, the novel is set in Thebes in 2000 BC, a setting for which Christie gained an appreciation whilst working with her archaeologist husband, Sir Max Mallowan, in the Middle East  The novel is notable for its very high number of deaths and is comparable to And Then There Were None from this standpoint  It is also the first full-length novel combining historical fiction and the whodunit/detective story, a genre which would later come to be called the historical whodunit The suggestion to base the story in ancient Egypt came from noted Egyptologist and family friend Stephen Glanville  He also assisted Christie with details of daily household life in Egypt 4000 years ago  In addition he made forceful suggestions to Christie to change the ending of the book  This she did but regretted the fact afterwards, feeling that her (unpublished) ending was better  The novel is based on real letters translated by egyptologist Battiscombe Gunn, from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom period, written by a man called Heqanakhte to his family, complaining about their behaviour and treatment of his concubine It is one of only four Christie novels to have not received an adaptation of any kind, the others being Destination Unknown, Passenger to Frankfurt and Postern of Fate 
Christie uses a theme for her chapter titles, as she did for many of her novels, in this case the Egyptian agricultural calendar 

Plot introduction
The quiet lives of an Egyptian family are disturbed when the father, Imhotep, returns from the north with his new concubine, Nofret, who begins to sow discontent amongst them  Once the deaths begin, fears are aroused of a curse upon the house, but is the killer closer to home?

Plot summary
The novel is primarily written from the perspective of Renisenb, a young widow reacquainting herself with her family when her father Imhotep, a successful but pompous and short-sighted mortuary priest, brings a new "wife", Nofret, into their lives  Nofret soon disrupts and antagonises Imhotep's sons - Yahmose, Sobek and Ipy - as well as their wives  Renisenb realises the housekeeper Henet, while feigning devotion, is full of hatred  She confronts Henet near the end of the story, who in a fit of pique admits she hates Renisenb and hated Renisenb's long-deceased mother 
After Imhotep is called away, Satipy and Kait, the elder sons' wives, try to bully Nofret with tricks, but the plan backfires when Nofret appeals to Imhotep and he threatens to disown his sons and their families upon his return  Suddenly everyone has a motive to kill Nofret and when she is found dead at the foot of a cliff, an accident seems unlikely, although no one will acknowledge anything else 
Next, Satipy falls to her death in terror from the same cliff while walking with Yahmose  Renisenb, and others, wonder if it was Nofret's vengeful spirit that she was looking at over Yahmose's shoulder moments before her death  This theory gathers force when Yahmose and Sobek drink poisoned wine  Sobek dies, but Yahmose lingers on, having drunk less of the wine  A slave boy who says he saw Nofret's ghost poisoning the wine dies of poison shortly afterwards 
The handsome scribe Kameni has fallen in love with Renisenb, and eventually asks her to marry him  Unsure whether she loves him or her father's advisor Hori, whom she has known since she was a child, she leaves the choice effectively in her father's hands and becomes engaged to Kameni  She realises, however, that his relationship with Nofret was closer than she had supposed, and that jealousy may have influenced Nofret's bitter hatred towards the family  Hori and Esa, the elderly mother of Imhotep (a clever woman who although almost completely blind sees things clearer than most others - especially her son) begin to investigate the possibility of a human murderer  Ipy, himself a likely suspect, starts to boast about his new, better position with his father; he plots to get rid of housekeeper Henet and tells her so  The next morning, Ipy is found dead in the lake, drowned 
The field of suspects has been further narrowed  Esa attempts to flush out the murderer by dropping a hint about the death of Satipy, but is herself murdered by means of poisoned unguent, despite the presence of a food taster  Henet - who knows the murderer's identity and is momentarily powerful amid the chaos - is smothered by the linens used to wrap the ever-increasing number of victims 
On the same cliff path where Nofret and Satipy died, Renisenb, apparently summoned by Hori, hears footsteps behind her and turns to see Yahmose  She then sees the look of murderous hatred in her brother's eyes that Satipy saw before she was killed  As Renisenb is about to be killed, however, Hori slays Yahmose with an arrow and saves her  Hori explains to Renisenb that Satipy was not looking in fear at anything beyond Yahmose — she was looking straight at him  He had consumed a non-lethal dose of poison and pretended to recuperate while committing murders, both to make himself chief heir and to indulge his newfound love of violence  Renisenb's final choice is whom to marry: Kameni, a lively husband not unlike her first, or Hori, an older and more enigmatic figure  She makes her choice and falls into Hori's arms 

Characters in Death Comes as the End
Imhotep, a mortuary priest
Nofret, Imhotep's concubine from the north
Esa, Imhotep's mother
Yahmose, Imhotep's eldest son
Satipy, Yahmose's wife
Ipy, Imhotep's youngest son
Renisenb, Imhotep's daughter
Sobek, Imhotep's second son
Kait, Sobek's wife
Henet, obsequious family retainer, poor relation of Ashayet, Imhotep's deceased wife
Hori, the family's scribe
Kameni, a scribe from the North
Teti, Renisenb's daughter
Khay, Renisenb's late husband

Literary significance and reception
Maurice Willson Disher said in The Times Literary Supplement of 28 April 1945 that, "When a specialist acquires unerring skill there is a temptation to find tasks that are exceptionally difficult  The scenes of Death Comes as the End are laid out in Ancient Egypt  They are painted delicately  The household of the priest, who is depicted not as a sacred personage, but as a humdrum landowner, makes an instant appeal because its members are human  But while the author's skill can cause a stir over the death of an old woman some thousands of years ago, that length of time lessens curiosity concerning why or how she (and others) died "Maurice Richardson, a self-proclaimed admirer of Christie, wrote in the 8 April 1945 issue of The Observer, "One of the best weeks of the war for crime fiction  First, of course, the new Agatha Christie; Death Comes as the End  And it really is startlingly new, with its ancient Egyptian setting in the country household of a mortuary priest who overstrains his already tense family by bringing home an ultra-tough live in concubine from Memphis  Result:  a series of murders  With her special archaeological equipment, Mrs Christie makes you feel just as much at home on the Nile in 1945 B C  as if she were bombarding you with false clues in a chintz-covered drawing room in Leamington Spa  But she has not merely changed scenes; her reconstruction is vivid and she works really hard at her characters  My already insensate admiration for her leaps even higher "In 1990 the novel was included in Crime Writers' Associations' The Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time list     
Robert Barnard: "Hercule Poirot's Christmas, transported to Egypt, ca 2000 B C  Done with tact, yet the result is somehow skeletal - one realises how much the average Christie depends on trappings: clothes, furniture, the paraphernalia of bourgeois living  The culprit in this one is revealed less by detection than by a process of elimination "

Publication history
1944, US, Dodd & Mead, October 1944, hardback (First US edition), 223 pp
1945, UK, The Crime Club Collins, March 1945, hardback (First UK edition), 160 pp
1947, Pocket Books (New York), Paperback, (Pocket number 465), 179 pp
1953, Penguin Books, Paperback, (Penguin number 926), 188 pp
1960, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 191 pp
1957, Pan Books, Paperback, 221 pp
1975, Ulverscroft Large-print Edition, Hardcover, 334 pp

Planned Adaptation
A BBC adaptation of the novel was announced in August 2016, as part of a sequence of Christie productions  Gwyneth Hughes was announced as the adaptation's writer in December 2018, with broadcast planned for 2019  However, no further news on the adaptation was subsequently revealed 
Passage 13:
Constantion Bădescu
Constantion Bădescu (July 16, 1892, Mihăești, Vâlcea County – September 10, 1962, Bucharest) was a Romanian brigadier-general during World War II   
Bădescu was born in Mihăești, Vâlcea County in 1892 
He served as commanding officer, 1st Dorobanți Infantry Regiment in 1941, but was called into reserve the following year   He retired in 1943, but was recalled in 1944 and served as commanding officer, 11th Brigade   In 1945, he first served as general officer commanding the 11th Division (12 January–18 February), then commanding officer 11th Brigade, and finally general officer commanding 11th Division again (13 March–12 May) 
He retired in 1947, and died in Bucharest in 1962 

Awards
Order of the Star of Romania, Officer rank (8 June 1940)
Order of Michael the Brave, 3rd class (4 August 1945)



ground_truth: 1912