prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where is the headquarter of the Radio Television of the country whose co-official language is the same as the one Politika is written in?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
List of territorial entities where English is an official language
The following is a list of countries and territories where English is an official language—that is, a language used in citizen interactions with government officials  As of 2020, there were 58 sovereign states and 28 non-sovereign entities where English was an official language  Many administrative divisions have declared English an official language at the local or regional level 
Most states where English is an official language are former territories of the British Empire  Exceptions include Rwanda and Burundi, which were formerly German and then Belgian colonies; Cameroon, where only part of national territory was under British mandate; and Liberia, the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which were American territories  English is the sole official language of the Commonwealth of Nations and of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)  English is one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, NAFTA, the African Union, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Caribbean Community, the Union of South American Nations, and many other international organisations  Although English is not de jure an official language at the national level in the United States, most states and territories within the United States have English as an official language, and only Puerto Rico uses a language other than English as a primary working language The United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, where the overwhelming majority of native English speakers reside, do not have English as an official language de jure, but English is considered their de facto official language because it dominates in these countries 

Sovereign states
Countries where English is a de jure official language
Countries where English is a predominant language conventionally spoken by both the government and main population, despite it having no de jure official status at national level
Countries where English is a de facto working language in government or education, but it is not recognized as de jure official, nor a primary language spoken by the main population
Non-sovereign entities
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de jure official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official, but not a primary language
Country subdivisions
In these country subdivisions, English has de jure official status, but English is not official in their respective countries at the national level 

See also
English-only movement
Anglo-America
Commonwealth of Nations
Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
British Overseas Territories
English-speaking world
List of countries by English-speaking population
List of languages by total number of speakers
British Empire

Footnotes
Passage 2:
Politika
Politika (Serbian Cyrillic: Политика, lit  'Politics') is a Serbian daily newspaper, published in Belgrade  Founded in 1904 by Vladislav F  Ribnikar, it is the oldest daily newspaper still in circulation in the Balkans 

Publishing and ownership
Politika is published by Politika novine i magazini (PNM), a joint venture between Politika a d  and East Media Group  The current director of PNM is Mira Glišić Simić PNM also publishes:

Sportski žurnal
Politikin Zabavnik
Svet kompjutera
Ilustrovana Politika
Bazar

Editorial history
Vladislav F  Ribnikar (1904–1915)
Miomir Milenović i Jovan Tanović (1915–1941)
Živorad Minović (1985–1991)
Aleksandar Prlja (1991–1994)
Boško Jakšić (1994)
Dragan Hadži Antić (1994–2000)
Vojin Partonić (2000–2001)
Milan Mišić (2001–2005)
Ljiljana Smajlović (2005–2008)
Radmilo Kljajić (2008)
Dragan Bujošević (2008–2013)
Ljiljana Smajlović (2013–2016)
Žarko Rakić (2016–2021)
Marko Albunović (since 2021)

History
Ever since its launch in January 1904, Politika was published daily, except for several periods:

Due to World War I, there were no issues from 14 November 1914 to 21 December 1914, and again from 23 September 1915 to 1 December 1919
Due to World War II, there were no issues from 6 April 1941 to 28 October 1944
In protest against government's intentions to turn Politika into a state-owned enterprise, a single issue was not published in the summer of 1992The launch issue had only four pages and a circulation of 2,450 copies, and its record high circulation was the 25 December 1973 issue (634,000 copies) 

Reporting during the Yugoslav Wars
In the run-up to and during the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav Wars, Politika was under the control of Slobodan Milošević and the League of Communists of Serbia and was used for political purposes  It was used to publish controversial things such as the "Vojko i Savle" article, as well as an information guide to show what was allegedly happening to the Serbs in other republics, together with the Radio Television of Serbia  It blamed the local Kosovo Albanians for sodomizing Đorđe Martinović, and published fabricated reader letters claiming that the Albanians were "raping hundreds of Serbian women"  Before and during the Croatian War of Independence, it published opinions on how "blood may shed again" in Croatia because of World War II, published claims on how the Vatican funded Croatia to break up Yugoslavia  At the end of the Battle of Vukovar, it ran the fabricated story of the Vukovar children massacre  The article was however retracted with a statement published the following day 
Passage 3:
List of territorial entities where German is an official language
The following is a list of the countries and territories where German is an official language (also known as the Germanosphere)  It includes countries that have German as (one of) their nationwide official language(s), as well as dependent territories with German as a co-official language 

German as an official language
German is the official language of six countries, all of which lie in central and western Europe  These countries (with the addition of South Tyrol of Italy) also form the Council for German Orthography and are referred to as the German Sprachraum (German language area)  Since 2004, Meetings of German-speaking countries have been held annually with six participants: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Switzerland:

Subdivisions of countries
While not official at the national level, German is a co-official language in subdivisions of the countries listed below  In each of these regions, German is an official language on the administrative level 

Other legal statuses
There are other political entities (countries as well as dependent entities) which acknowledge other legal statuses for the German language or one of its dialects  While these may cover minority rights, support of certain language facilities (schools, media, etc ), and the promotion of cultural protection/heritage, they do not encompass the establishment of German as an "official" language, i e , being required in public offices or administrative texts 
These countries include:

Brazil (German is a statewide cultural language in Espírito Santo and Rio Grande do Sul; Standard German official in 2 municipalities and non-standard German dialects official in 16 others)
Czech Republic (national minority language)
Denmark (minority language in Syddanmark, established with the Bonn-Copenhagen declarations, 1955)
Hungary (national minority language)
Namibia (national language; co-official language 1884–1990)
Poland (national minority language; also auxiliary language in 31 communes)
Romania (national minority language)
Russia (minority language in the Azovo German National District)
Slovakia (regional minority language)Although in France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as "regional languages" according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998, the French government has not yet ratified the treaty, and therefore those varieties have no official legal status Due to the German diaspora, other countries with sizable populations of (mostly bilingual) German L1 speakers include Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Canada, Chile, Paraguay, as well as the United States  However, in none of these countries does German or a German variety have any legal status 

International institutions
German is an official language of the following international institutions:

International sports associations:
European Handball Federation (EHF)
Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT)
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
Fédération Internationale de Luge de Course (FIL)
Fédération Internationale de Ski (FIS)
International Biathlon Union (IBU)
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)

Notes
See also
German language in the Basic Law
Passage 4:
Serbian language
Serbian (српски / srpski, pronounced [sr̩̂pskiː]) is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs  It is the official and national language of Serbia, one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina and co-official in Montenegro and Kosovo  It is a recognized minority language in Croatia, North Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic 
Standard Serbian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian (more specifically on the dialects of Šumadija-Vojvodina and Eastern Herzegovina), which is also the basis of standard Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin varieties and therefore the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Montenegrins was issued in 2017  The other dialect spoken by Serbs is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian 
Serbian is practically the only European standard language whose speakers are fully functionally digraphic, using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets  The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created it based on phonemic principles  The Latin alphabet used for Serbian (latinica) was designed by the Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in the 1830s based on the Czech system with a one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correlation between the Cyrillic and Latin orthographies, resulting in a parallel system 

Classification
Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language (Indo-European), of the South Slavic subgroup  Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian, Croatian, and Montenegrin  "An examination of all the major 'levels' of language shows that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system " It has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian, than with Slovene (Slovene is part of the Western South Slavic subgroup, but there are still significant differences in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation to the standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian, although it is closer to the Kajkavian and Chakavian dialects of Serbo-Croatian) 

Geographic distribution
Figures of speakers according to countries:

Serbia: 6,540,699 (official language)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1,086,027 (co-official language)
Germany: 568,240
Austria: 350,000
Montenegro: 265,890 (language in official use)
Switzerland: 186,000
United States: 172,874
Sweden: 120,000
Italy: 106,498
Kosovo: est  70 000–100 000 (co-official language)
Canada: 72,690
Australia: 55,114
Croatia: 52,879 (recognized minority language)
Slovenia: 38,964
North Macedonia: 24,773 (recognized minority language)
Romania: 22,518 (recognized minority language)

Status in Montenegro
Serbian was the official language of Montenegro until October 2007 when the new Constitution of Montenegro replaced the Constitution of 1992  Amid opposition from pro-Serbian parties, Montenegrin was made the sole official language of the country, and Serbian was given the status of a language in official use along with Bosnian, Albanian, and Croatian In the 2011 Montenegrin census, 42 88% declared Serbian to be their native language, while Montenegrin was declared by 36 97% of the population 

Differences between standard Serbian and standard Croatian and Bosnian
Writing system
Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic (ћирилица, ćirilica) and Latin script (latinica, латиница)  Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia, a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them  Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or the other  In general, the alphabets are used interchangeably; except in the legal sphere, where Cyrillic is required, there is no context where one alphabet or another predominates 
Although Serbian language authorities have recognized the official status of both scripts in contemporary Standard Serbian for more than half of a century now, due to historical reasons, the Cyrillic script was made the official script of Serbia's administration by the 2006 Constitution The Latin script continues to be used in official contexts, although the government has indicated its desire to phase out this practice due to national sentiment  The Ministry of Culture believes that Cyrillic is the "identity script" of the Serbian nation However, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means, leaving the choice of script as a matter of personal preference and to the free will in all aspects of life (publishing, media, trade and commerce, etc ), except in government paperwork production and in official written communication with state officials, which have to be in Cyrillic 

Usage
To most Serbians, the Latin script tends to imply a cosmopolitan or neutral attitude, while Cyrillic appeals to a more traditional or vintage sensibility In media, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia, predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink, predominantly use the Latin script  Newspapers can be found in both scripts 
In the public sphere, with logos, outdoor signage and retail packaging, the Latin script predominates, although both scripts are commonly seen  The Serbian government has encouraged increasing the use of Cyrillic in these contexts  Larger signs, especially those put up by the government, will often feature both alphabets; if the sign has English on it, then usually only Cyrillic is used for the Serbian text 
A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors the Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one Latin script has become more and more popular in Serbia, as it is easier to input on phones and computers 

Alphabetic order
The sort order of the ćirilica (ћирилица) alphabet:

Cyrillic order called Azbuka (азбука): А Б В Г Д Ђ Е Ж З И Ј К Л Љ М Н Њ О П Р С Т Ћ У Ф Х Ц Ч Џ ШThe sort order of the latinica (латиница) alphabet:

Latin order called Abeceda (абецеда): A B C Č Ć D Dž Đ E F G H I J K L Lj M N Nj O P R S Š T U V Z Ž

Grammar
Serbian is a highly inflected language, with grammatical morphology for nouns, pronouns and adjectives as well as verbs 

Nouns
Serbian nouns are classified into three declensional types, denoted largely by their nominative case endings as "-a" type, "-i" and "-e" type  Into each of these declensional types may fall nouns of any of three genders: masculine, feminine or neuter  Each noun may be inflected to represent the noun's grammatical case, of which Serbian has seven:

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative
Instrumental
LocativeNouns are further inflected to represent the noun's number, singular or plural 

Pronouns
Pronouns, when used, are inflected along the same case and number morphology as nouns  Serbian is a pro-drop language, meaning that pronouns may be omitted from a sentence when their meaning is easily inferred from the text  In cases where pronouns may be dropped, they may also be used to add emphasis  For example:

Adjectives
Adjectives in Serbian may be placed before or after the noun they modify, but must agree in number, gender and case with the modified noun 

Verbs
Serbian verbs are conjugated in four past forms—perfect, aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect—of which the last two have a very limited use (imperfect is still used in some dialects, but the majority of native Serbian speakers consider it archaic), one future tense (also known as the first future tense, as opposed to the second future tense or the future exact, which is considered a tense of the conditional mood by some contemporary linguists), and one present tense  These are the tenses of the indicative mood  Apart from the indicative mood, there is also the imperative mood  The conditional mood has two more tenses: the first conditional (commonly used in conditional clauses, both for possible and impossible conditional clauses) and the second conditional (without use in the spoken language—it should be used for impossible conditional clauses)  Serbian has active and passive voice 
As for the non-finite verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive, two adjectival participles (the active and the passive), and two adverbial participles (the present and the past) 

Vocabulary
Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to the Proto-Slavic language  There are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history  Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, English, Russian, German, Czech and French 

Serbian literature
Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje (Miroslav's Gospel) in 1186 and Dušanov zakonik (Dušan's Code) in 1349  Little secular medieval literature has been preserved, but what there is shows that it was in accord with its time; for example, the Serbian Alexandride, a book about Alexander the Great, and a translation of Tristan and Iseult into Serbian  Although not belonging to the literature proper, the corpus of Serbian literacy in the 14th and 15th centuries contains numerous legal, commercial and administrative texts with marked presence of Serbian vernacular juxtaposed on the matrix of Serbian Church Slavonic 
By the beginning of the 14th century the Serbo-Croatian language, which was so rigorously proscribed by earlier local laws, becomes the dominant language of the Republic of Ragusa  However, despite her wealthy citizens speaking the Serbo-Croatian dialect of Dubrovnik in their family circles, they sent their children to Florentine schools to become perfectly fluent in Italian  Since the beginning of the 13th century, the entire official correspondence of Dubrovnik with states in the hinterland was conducted in Serbian In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and for the next 400 years there was no opportunity for the creation of secular written literature  However, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being epic poetry  The epic poems were mainly written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s, a few centuries or even a millennium longer than by most other "epic folks"  Goethe and Jacob Grimm learned Serbian in order to read Serbian epic poetry in the original  By the end of the 18th century, the written literature had become estranged from the spoken language  In the second half of the 18th century, the new language appeared, called Slavonic-Serbian  This artificial idiom superseded the works of poets and historians like Gavrilo Stefanović Venclović, who wrote in essentially modern Serbian in the 1720s  These vernacular compositions have remained cloistered from the general public and received due attention only with the advent of modern literary historians and writers like Milorad Pavić  In the early 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić promoted the spoken language of the people as a literary norm 

Dialects
The dialects of Serbo-Croatian, regarded Serbian (traditionally spoken in Serbia), include:

Šumadija–Vojvodina (Ekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): central and northern Serbia
Eastern Herzegovinian (Ijekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): southwestern Serbia, western half of Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia
Kosovo–Resava (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): eastern central Serbia, central Kosovo
Smederevo–Vršac (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): east-central Serbia
Prizren–Timok (transitional Torlakian): southeastern Serbia, southern Kosovo
Zeta–Raška (Ijekavian, Old-Shtokavian): eastern half of Montenegro, southwestern Serbia

Dictionaries
Vuk Karadžić's Srpski rječnik, first published in 1818, is the earliest dictionary of modern literary Serbian  The Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (I–XXIII), published by the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts from 1880 to 1976, is the only general historical dictionary of Serbo-Croatian  Its first editor was Đuro Daničić, followed by Pero Budmani and the famous Vukovian Tomislav Maretić  The sources of this dictionary are, especially in the first volumes, mainly Štokavian  There are older, pre-standard dictionaries, such as the 1791 German–Serbian dictionary or 15th century Arabic-Persian-Greek-Serbian Conversation Textbook 

Standard dictionaries
Dictionary of Serbo-Croatian Literary and Vernacular Language (Rečnik srpskohrvatskog književnog i narodnog jezika) is the biggest dictionary of Serbian (and Serbo-Croatian as a whole) and still unfinished  Starting in 1959, 21 volumes were published as of 2020 and about 40 are expected by the time it is finished 
Dictionary of Serbo-Croatian Literary Language (Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika) in six volumes in 1967–1976, started as a common project of Matica srpska (published in Cyrillic) and Matica hrvatska (published in Latin)  Only the first three volumes were published by Matica hrvatska due to negative feedback from Croatian linguists 
Dictionary of the Serbian language (Rečnik srpskoga jezika; ISBN 978-86-7946-004-2) in one volume, published in 2007 by Matica srpska, which on more than 1500 pages in A4 format explains more than 85,000 entries 

Etymological dictionaries
The standard and the only completed etymological dictionary of Serbian is the "Skok", written by the Croatian linguist Petar Skok: Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika ("Etymological Dictionary of Croatian or Serbian")  I-IV  Zagreb 1971–1974 
There is also a new monumental Etimološki rečnik srpskog jezika (Etymological Dictionary of Serbian)  So far, two volumes have been published: I (with words on A-), and II (Ba-Bd) 
There are specialized etymological dictionaries for German, Italian, Croatian, Turkish, Greek, Hungarian, Russian, English and other loanwords (cf  chapter word origin) 

Dialectal dictionaries
Kosovsko-resavski dialect dictionaries:
Gliša Elezović, Rečnik kosovsko-metohiskog dijalekta I-II  1932/1935 
Prizren-Timok (Torlakian) dialect dictionaries:
Brana Mitrović, Rečnik leskovačkog govora  Leskovac 1984 
Nikola Živković, Rečnik pirotskog govora  Pirot, 1987 
Miodrag Marković, Rečnik crnorečkog govora I-II  1986/1993 
Jakša Dinić, Rečnik timočkog govora I-III 1988–1992 
Jakša Dinić, Timocki dijalekatski recnik, (Institut za srpski jezik, Monografije 4; ISBN 978-86-82873-17-4) Beograd 2008,
Momčilo Zlatanović, Rečnik govora južne Srbije  Vranje, 1998, 1–491 
East-Herzegovinian dialect dictionaries:
Milija Stanić, Uskočki rečnik I–II  Beograd 1990/1991 
Miloš Vujičić, Rečnik govora Prošćenja kod Mojkovca  Podgorica, 1995 
Srđan Musić, Romanizmi u severozapadnoj Boki Kotorskoj  1972 
Svetozar Gagović, Iz leksike Pive  Beograd 2004 
Zeta-Pešter dialect:
Rada Stijović, Iz leksike Vasojevića  1990 
Drago Ćupić – Željko Ćupić, Rečnik govora Zagarača  1997 
Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Crnoj Gori – jugoistočni dio Boke Kotorske  Cetinje – Titograd, 1981 
Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Budvi i Paštrovićima  Novi Sad 1997 
Others:
Rečnik srpskih govora Vojvodine  Novi Sad 
Mile Tomić, Rečnik radimskog govora – dijaspora, Rumunija  1989 

Sample text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Cyrillic script:
Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима  Она су обдарена разумом и свешћу и треба једни према другима да поступају у духу братства 
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Latin alphabet:
Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima  Ona su obdarena razumom i svešću i treba jedni prema drugima da postupaju u duhu bratstva 
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights  They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood 

See also
Passage 5:
Official Languages Act (Canada)
The Official Languages Act (French: Loi sur les langues officielles; colloquially the Act) is a Canadian law that came into force on September 9, 1969, which gives French and English equal status in the government of Canada  This makes them "official" languages, having preferred status in law over all other languages  Although the Official Languages Act is not the only piece of federal language law, it is the legislative keystone of Canada's official bilingualism  It was substantially amended in 1988  Both languages are equal in Canada's government and in all the services it controls, such as the courts 

Summary of main features
The Act  provides, among other things,

that Canadians have the right to receive services from federal departments and from Crown corporations in both official languages;
that Canadians will be able to be heard before federal courts in the official language of their choice;
that Parliament will adopt laws and to publish regulations in both official languages, and that both versions will be of equal legal weight;
that English and French will have equal status of languages of work within the federal public service within geographically defined parts of the country that are designated bilingual (most notably in the National Capital Region, Montreal and New Brunswick), as well as in certain overseas government offices and in parts of the country where there is sufficient demand for services in both official languages  In remaining geographical areas, the language of work for federal public servants is French (in Quebec) and English (elsewhere);The Federal government has set in place regulations establishing linguistic categories (anglophone, francophone, bilingual) for some job functions within the public service  Departments and agencies of the federal government are required to fill these positions with individuals who are capable of serving the public in English, in French, or in both languages   Unilingual public servants are given incentives to learn the other official language, and the government provides language training and offers a "bilingualism bonus" 
Part VI of the Act mandates that English-speaking Canadians and French-speaking Canadians not be discriminated against based on ethnic origin or first language learned when it comes to employment opportunities and advancement The law also created the Commissioner of Official Languages, an officer of Parliament charged with receiving complaints from the public, undertaking inquiries, and making recommendations regarding the status of the two official languages 
Section 32 of the Official Languages Act authorizes the Governor in Council (i e , the federal cabinet) to issue regulations defining the geographic regions in which services will be offered by the federal government in the relevant minority language (English in Quebec and French elsewhere)   This provides a legal definition for the otherwise vague requirement that services be provided in the minority official languages wherever there is "significant demand " The definition used in the regulations is complex, but basically an area of the country is served in both languages if at least 5,000 persons in that area, or 5% of the local population (whichever is smaller), belongs to that province's English or French linguistic minority population   The regulations were first promulgated in 1991 

Political context
The Official Languages Act was one of the cornerstones of the government of Pierre Trudeau  The law was an attempt to implement some of the policy objectives outlined by the federally commissioned Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, which had been established in 1963 and since that time had been issuing periodic reports on the inequitable manner in which Canada's English-speaking and French-speaking populations were treated by the federal administration  At that time, only 9% of jobs within the federal public service were occupied by Francophones, even though French-speakers formed a quarter of the Canadian population  The proportion of jobs designated bilingual grew to 14% in 1978, and to 25% in 2004 One of the most important features of the 1969 act was to ensure that federal government services would be provided in both official languages, wherever population size warranted it 
Its principles were later incorporated into the Constitution of Canada, in Section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 
A new Official Languages Act was enacted in 1988 in order to achieve two objectives 
First, it was necessary to update the 1969 law to take into account the new language-related obligations that the federal government had undertaken under Sections 16-23 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which had been enacted in 1982  For example,  Section 20 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the right of the Canadian public to communicate in English and French with any central government office or with regional offices where there is "a significant demand for communication with and services from that office " Significant demand is not defined in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms  One of the purposes of the Official Languages Act of 1988 was to remedy this omission Second, the new law included provisions for the promotion by the government of Canada of Quebec's English-speaking minority and of the French-speaking minorities in the rest of the country  The programs that fall under the "promotion" umbrella are often designed to encourage each provincial government to offer services to its official-language minority community, and contain a mechanism for transferring funds to the provincial governments in order to finance a part of these programs  Under Canada's federal constitution, many important services, such as education and health, fall under provincial jurisdiction and are therefore off-limits to any direct federal spending  The transfer of federal funds, conditional upon the fulfilment by each provincial government of detailed conditions laid out in a funding agreement, is a constitutionally permitted method of dodging this jurisdictional constraint 
This would suggest that the Official Languages Act and Quebec's Charter of the French Language (also known as "Bill 101") are fundamentally at cross-purposes with each other  However, that perspective is not universally accepted  For example, former Liberal leader Michael Ignatieff has stated that "Bill 101 and the Official Languages Act are not in opposition, they are complementary "

Reactions
Provincial legislatures
In 1969, the law was adopted with all-party support in the House of Commons of Canada  Despite this, there was not universal support for the law  The premiers of the three Prairie provinces requested, early in 1969, that the Official Languages Bill be referred to the Supreme Court of Canada to determine its constitutionality  They maintained, along with JT Thorson, the former president of the Exchequer Court of Canada, that the bill was outside the powers of the Parliament of Canada  The reference to the court was never made, but the legal question was resolved in 1974, when the Supreme Court ruled, in Jones v  Attorney General of New Brunswick, that the subject matter of the bill was within federal jurisdiction 
In subsequent decades the response from provincial governments to the example set by the federal government has been mixed:

New Brunswick, which is home to Canada's second-largest French-speaking minority population, adopted the federal government policy and adopted its own Official Languages Act on April 18, 1969  The bilingual status of New Brunswick was strengthened in 1993 by the addition of section 16 1 to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 
Ontario, which is the home to Canada's largest French-speaking minority, opted instead to enact a law (the French Language Services Act) which provides for services of the provincial government to be made available in certain geographically designated regions, but which does not give the French language either a symbolic or an authoritative status as an equal "official" language of Ontario  However, the English and French versions of statutes and regulations that are enacted or made in both languages are equally authoritative 
Manitoba, which is home to Canada's third-largest French-speaking minority, refused to overturn its ban on the use of French in both the provincial legislature and its courts (which had been in effect since 1890), until it was forced to do so in 1985 by a ruling by the Supreme Court of Canada (Reference re Manitoba Language Rights) that the province was under a constitutional obligation to enact laws in French as well as in English 
Quebec, which is home to an English-speaking minority of over half a million, had traditionally been the only province which was generous in its treatment of its minority-language population, and for this reason had been cited by the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism as the model to be emulated by other provinces  But in the 1970s, the provincial legislature adopted two laws, the Official Language Act (also known as "Bill 22") and the Charter of the French Language (also known as "Bill 101"), reducing the access of Quebecers to English-language services, preventing immigrants and Francophones from enrolling their children in English schools, requiring that French be made the language of the workplace, and restricting the use of English on commercial signs 

Public reactions
Public support for bilingual services had dramatically increased between the mid-1960s and the end of the 1970s  There was no direct polling on the popularity of the Official Languages Act itself at the time, but poll data on related questions gives an indication of a significant shift in the attitudes of English-speaking Canadians  A 1965 poll showed that 17% of Canadians living outside Quebec favored the use of public funds to finance French-language schools  This proportion had risen to 77% by 1977 (albeit in response to a slightly different question about support for provincial governments offering services in French "where possible") Within Quebec, changes to the treatment of French-speakers within the federal public service were met with approval mixed with skepticism that this actually helped the unilingual French-speaking majority of Quebecers, who continued to be excluded from all federal jobs designated "bilingual", since by definition a "bilingual" job requires the use of English 
However, the changes found some opposition in English Canada  Toronto Telegram columnist Braithwaither sums up the position of the opponents of the bill like this: "We are not afraid of any aspect of the language bill, we simply regard it as unnecessary, politically-motivated, costly to implement, divisive, and, as it affects the non-English, non-French third of the population, wholly discriminatory "As per the bill, some positions in the public sector were designated as bilingual  At the implementation of the bill, if a bilingual position was held by a unilingual anglophone, this person was allowed to keep their position on the condition that they attempted to learn French, and all subsequent holders of this position must be bilingual  Under these circumstances, there were fears that, because of the higher rate of bilingualism among Francophones, people whose first official language is French would become overrepresented in the public sector  However, this has not become the case  The ratio of French first official language speakers to English first official language speakers in the public sector is almost the same as in the general population At any rate, the adoption of official bilingualism at the federal level did almost nothing to slow the rise of the sovereignist movement  The nationalist Parti Québécois made its first significant electoral breakthrough less than a year after the Official Languages Act was adopted, winning 23% of the vote in Quebec's 1970 provincial election and replacing the Union Nationale as the main electoral vehicle for Quebec nationalism  Six years later, the Parti Québécois came to power in the 1976 provincial election 

Failure to implement all provisions of the Official Languages Act
From time to time, the Official Languages Commissioner draws attention to the fact that federal agencies subject to the law are failing to live up to their legal obligations regarding official languages  In a report published in 2004 on the 35th anniversary of the Official Languages Act, Commissioner Dyane Adam noted that only 86% of posts designated "bilingual" in the federal public service were occupied by persons who had effectively mastered the two official languages  This nevertheless was an increase over the comparable figure of 1978, when only 70% of the incumbents in posts that had been designated "bilingual" were capable of speaking both languages at accepted levels 

Opinion polls
According to a poll conducted in 2002, 98% of Quebecers consider official bilingualism to be "very important" or "somewhat important"  This proportion drops to 76% in the Atlantic provinces, 72% in Ontario, 67% in the Prairie provinces, and 63% in British Columbia  Another poll, conducted in 2000, shows that more than half of Canadians outside Quebec believe that too much effort has gone into promoting bilingualism  By contrast, only 26% of Quebecers shared this view  A poll conducted in 2012 found that 63% of Canadians were in favour of bilingualism for all of Canada, a 9% increase since that same poll was last conducted in 2003 In 2016, another poll was conducted, showing increasing support for official bilingualism in every province  Among telephone respondents, 88% of Canadians said they "strongly support" or "somewhat support" the aims of the Official Languages Act: 91% in the Atlantic, 94% in Quebec, 87% in Ontario, 83% in the Prairies, 90% in Alberta and 84% in British Columbia  84% of telephone respondents also said they personally "strongly support" or "somewhat support" official bilingualism   The results were more mixed in the online portion of the poll, where 78% of respondents said they "strongly support" or "somewhat support" the aims of the Official Languages Act, and 73% said they personally "strongly support" or "somewhat support" official bilingualism  In another poll conducted on this topic in the same year, 67% of respondents across Canada answered "yes" to the question "Are you personally in favour of bilingualism for all of Canada?" while 31% said "no" 

Reform proposals
2021 OLA modernisation bill
In June 2021 the Government of Canada introduced a parliamentary bill to modernize the Official Languages Act in a changing and more digital society 

Bill C-13
In 2022, the Government of Canada tabled Bill C-13 which amends the Official Languages Act and other related legislation  As of June 15, 2023, Bill C-13 passed third reading in the Senate and is awaiting royal assent 

Including more languages
The Official Languages Act applies to English and French, but does not include formal protections any other languages spoken in Canada, Indigenous or otherwise  In a Winnipeg allocution during his first term, Pierre Elliott Trudeau said that French was selected as an official language mostly because of the important demographic weight within Canada  As such, if and when Ukrainian would represent the mother tongue of, say, 10% of the population, Trudeau assured the crowd that steps would be taken to make Ukrainian an official language of Canada as well More recently, Romeo Saganash, the NDP Member of Parliament for Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou from 2011 to 2019, proposed that every single indigenous languages still spoken today become an official language of Canada  Saganash also advocates for the right to speak indigenous languages in the House of Commons and the Senate 

See also
Official bilingualism in Canada
Official Bilingualism in the Public Service of Canada
Official Language Act (Quebec)
Charter of the French Language
Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism
Languages of Canada
Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages (includes list of commissioners 1970–present)

Notes
External links
Déjà Vu: 40 Years of Language and Laughter in Political Cartoons (Commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the Official Languages Act)
Canadian Department of Justice - Official Languages Act text
Analysis of section 41 of the act

Related link
List of Acts of Parliament of Canada
Passage 6:
The White Suit
The White Suit (Serbian: Belo odelo / Бело одело) is a 1999 Serbian language film directed by Lazar Ristovski  It was a co-production between the United Kingdom and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia  It was Yugoslavia's official Best Foreign Language Film submission at the 72nd Academy Awards, but did not manage to receive a nomination 

Cast
Lazar Ristovski - Savo / Vuko Tiodorovic
Radmila Shchogolyeva - Karmen
Dragan Nikolić - Makro
Bata Živojinović - Gospodin
Danilo Stojković - Svestenik
Bogdan Diklić - Masinovodja
Radoš Bajić - Vlasnik
Passage 7:
Swedish Sign Language
Swedish Sign Language (SSL; Svenskt teckenspråk) is the sign language used in Sweden  It is recognized by the Swedish government as the country's official sign language, and hearing parents of deaf individuals are entitled to access state-sponsored classes that facilitate their learning of SSL  There are fewer than 10,000 speakers, making the language officially endangered 

History
Swedish sign language first came into use in 1800  It does not stem from any other languages  In fact, this self-created language went on to influence Finnish Sign Language and Portuguese Sign Language  1809 marks the year of the first deaf school, Manillaskolan, in Sweden  It was not until 1981 that Swedish Sign Language was recognized as a national language of Sweden 

Handshapes
Many of the handshapes used in fingerspelling in Swedish Sign Language are similar to those in American Sign Language, even though the two languages are not related  For example, D is the same as B in ASL, G is the same as S in ASL, H is the same as F in ASL, I is the same in ASL, K is the same in ASL, M and N are very similar in ASL, O is the same in ASL, S is the same as C in ASL, and U, V & W are the same in ASL (but with a different palm orientation) 

Education and communication
Per the Education Act of 1998, deaf children are expected to be able to write in Swedish and English, in addition to expressing their thoughts in Swedish Sign Language  Thus, six state-run schools (one of which specializes in learning disabilities) have been established regionally for deaf children who cannot attend traditional comprehensive schools  Comprehensive and secondary schools in Sweden offer classes in addition to a one-year program to students to learn Swedish Sign Language as a third national language, as well as in hopes of becoming an interpreter  Interpreters are found in hospitals, and they also teach the language to the parents and siblings of deaf children  Sweden provides 240 hours of courses over four years to parents so that they may learn to communicate with their children  Additionally, weekly courses in the language are also available to the siblings of deaf children and the children of deaf parents 

Expanding the culture of the deaf
Since the recognition of Swedish Sign Language as a national language of Sweden, the Swedish government has made available to deaf individuals television shows and news broadcasts in sign language  Subtitles in sign language are also increasing  On November 29, 2001, the first Bible was translated into Swedish Sign Language  Furthermore, the Health and Medical Service Act (1982) guaranteed interpreters for deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals in working life, leisure, and club activities 

See also
Signed Swedish
Passage 8:
Southern Europe
Southern Europe is the southern region of Europe  It is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is marked by the Mediterranean Sea  Definitions of Southern Europe include some or all of these countries and regions: Albania, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Turkey (East Thrace), Gibraltar, Greece, Italy, Kosovo, Malta,  Monaco, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Portugal,  San Marino, Serbia, Slovenia, Southern France, Spain, and Vatican City (the Holy See) Southern Europe is focused on the three peninsulas located in the extreme south of the European continent  These are the Iberian Peninsula, the Apennine Peninsula, and the Balkan Peninsula  These three peninsulas are separated from the rest of Europe by towering mountain ranges, respectively by the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Balkan Mountains  The location of these peninsulas in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as their mountainous reliefs, provide them with very different types of climates (mainly subtropical Mediterranean) from the rest of the continent  So, the Sirocco hot wind that originates in the heart of the Sahara blows over Italy, going up to the interior of the Alpine arc (Po Valley)  The Alps prevent the Sirocco from spreading to the rest of Europe  And, conversely, the Alps and the Pyrenees protect the Italian and Iberian peninsulas from the rains and icy winds from the south of France such as the Mistral and the Tramontane  When the Mistral and the Tramontane are blowing, this provokes an "upwelling" phenomenon on the French coast  They push the surface waters out to sea and bring deeper, cooler waters up to the seaside  Consequently, the temperature of the waters of the French coasts are therefore very cool even in summer, and not representative of the rest of the Mediterranean 
This same kind of phenomenon takes place between the two slopes of the Balkan Mountain Range  These mountains have, moreover, been a serious handicap to population displacement, focusing southern Europe mainly on the Mediterranean world  The climate and cultures are therefore very specific 
Different methods can be used to define Southern Europe, including its political, economic, historical, and cultural attributes  Southern Europe can also be defined by its natural features — its geography, climate, and flora  Politically, nine of the Southern European countries form the EU Med Group  Southern Europe also loosely corresponds to the European part of the Mediterranean Basin 

Geography
Geographically, Southern Europe is the southern portion of the European continent  This definition is relative, although largely based on history, culture, climate, and flora, which is shared across the region  Southern Europe can be subdivided into three subregions:

Iberian Peninsula and the surrounding islands
Balearic Islands (Spain)
Iberian Peninsula
Andorra
French Cerdagne (France)
Gibraltar (United Kingdom)
Portugal (mainland)
Spain (mainland)
Pyrénées-Orientales (France)Italian geographic regionAlpes-Maritimes (France)
Apennine Peninsula
Central Italy
San Marino
South Italy
Vatican City (Holy See)
Corsica (France)
Gorizia (Italy)
Insular ItalySardinia
Sicily
Istria (peninsula)
Ankaran (Slovenia)
Istria County (Croatia)
Izola (Slovenia)
Koper (Slovenia)
Muggia (Italy)
Piran (Slovenia)
San Dorligo della Valle (Italy)
Malta
Monaco
Northern Italy
Northeast Italy
Northwest Italy
Ticino (Switzerland)
Trieste (Italy)Southeast Europe
Balkan Peninsula
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia (southern mainland)
East Thrace (Turkey)
Greece (mainland)
Kosovo
Montenegro
North Macedonia
Romania (Northern Dobruja)
Serbia (Central Serbia)
Slovenia (south-western part)
Croatia (northern mainland & offshore islands)
Cyprus
Greece (islands)
Moldova
Romania (inland part)
Slovenia (north-eastern part)
Serbia (Vojvodina)The major islands in Southern Europe generally include the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Crete, Cyprus, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as the island country of Malta 

Gallery
Climate
Southern Europe's most emblematic climate is the Mediterranean climate, influenced by the large subtropical semi-permanent centre of high atmospheric pressure found, not in the Mediterranean itself, but in the Atlantic Ocean, the Azores High  The Mediterranean climate covers Portugal, Spain, Italy, the southern coast of France, coastal Croatia, coastal Slovenia, southern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and Greece, as well as the Mediterranean islands  Those areas of Mediterranean climate present similar vegetations and landscapes throughout, including dry hills, small plains, pine forests and olive trees 
Cooler climates can be found in certain parts of Southern European countries, for example within the mountain ranges of Spain and Italy  Additionally, the north coast of Spain experiences a wetter Atlantic climate  In the highest regions of the Alps, which border Southern Europe, even ice cap climate can be found Some parts of Southern Europe have humid subtropical climates with warm and wet summers, unlike typical Mediterranean climates  This climate is mainly found in Italy and Croatia around the Adriatic Sea in cities such as Venice and Trieste, but also further north, near the Alpine foothills, in cities such as Como and Lugano 

Flora
Southern Europe's flora is mainly characterized by Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub, but also temperate broadleaf and mixed forests  The Mediterranean and Submediterranean climate regions in Europe are found in much of Southern Europe, mainly Portugal, Spain, Italy, Malta, Albania, Greece, Cyprus and all the mediterranean islands, but also in southeast France, the Balkan Mediterranean coast and part of Macedonia In the Mediterranean coastal areas, olive groves, maquis shrubland, and steppes are very common  At higher elevations, or latitudes, they are replaced by chestnut and (often coppiced) mixed forests 

History
Early history
The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, dominating trade in the Mediterranean by the 8th century BC  Carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily and Sardinia (both regions in present day Italy), which created conflicts of interest with Etruria  Its colonies later reached the Western Mediterranean, such as Cádiz in Spain and most notably Carthage in North Africa, and even the Atlantic Ocean  The civilisation spread across the Mediterranean between 1500 BC and 300 BC The period known as classical antiquity began with the rise of the city-states of Ancient Greece  Greek influence reached its zenith under the expansive empire of Alexander the Great, spreading throughout Asia  The Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean Basin in a vast empire based on Roman law and Roman legions  It promoted trade, tolerance, and Greek culture  By 300 AD the Roman Empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire based in Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople  The attacks of the Goths led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, a date which traditionally marks the end of the classical period and the start of the Middle Ages  During the Middle Ages, the Eastern Roman Empire survived, though modern historians refer to this state as the Byzantine Empire  In Western Europe, Germanic peoples moved into positions of power in the remnants of the former Western Roman Empire and established kingdoms and empires of their own 
The period known as the Crusades, a series of religiously motivated military expeditions originally intended to bring the Levant back into Christian rule, began  Several Crusader states were founded in the eastern Mediterranean  These were all short-lived  The Crusaders would have a profound impact on many parts of Europe  Their sack of Constantinople in 1204 brought an abrupt end to the Byzantine Empire  Though it would later be re-established, it would never recover its former glory  The Crusaders would establish trade routes that would develop into the Silk Road and open the way for the merchant republics of Genoa and Venice to become major economic powers  The Reconquista, a related movement, worked to reconquer Iberia for Christendom  The late Middle Ages represented a period of upheaval in Europe  The epidemic known as the Black Death and an associated famine caused demographic catastrophe in Europe as the population plummeted  Dynastic struggles and wars of conquest kept many of the states of Europe at war for much of the period  In the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire, a Turkish state originating in Anatolia, encroached steadily on former Byzantine lands, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453 

Post-Middle Ages
Beginning roughly in the 12th century in Florence, and later spreading through Europe with the development of the printing press, a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology, with the Arabic texts and thought bringing about rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge  The Catholic reconquest of Portugal and Spain led to a series of oceanic explorations resulting in the Age of Discovery that established direct links with Africa, the Americas, and Asia  During this period, Iberian forces engaged in a worldwide struggle with Islamic societies; the battlefronts in this Ibero-Islamic World War stretched from the Mediterranean into the Indian Ocean, finally involving the islands of Southeast Asia  Eventually this ecumenical conflict ended when new players—England, Holland and France—replaced Spain and Portugal as the main agents of European imperialism in the mid-17th century 
European overseas expansion led to the rise of colonial empires, producing the Columbian Exchange  The combination of resource inflows from the New World and the Industrial Revolution of Great Britain, allowed a new economy based on manufacturing instead of subsistence agriculture  The period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars  Balkan nations began to regain independence from the Ottoman Empire  Italy unified into a nation state  The capture of Rome in 1870 ended the Papal temporal power 

20th and 21st century
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 was precipitated by the rise of nationalism in Southeastern Europe as the Great Powers took up sides  The Allies defeated the Central Powers in 1918  During the Paris Peace Conference the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, especially the Treaty of Versailles  The Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, and along with Mussolini's Italy sought to gain control of the continent by the Second World War 
Following the Allied victory in the Second World War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain  The countries in Eastern and Southeastern Europe were dominated by the Soviet Union and became communist states  The major non-communist Southern European countries joined a US-led military alliance (NATO) and formed the European Economic Community amongst themselves  The countries in the Soviet sphere of influence joined the military alliance known as the Warsaw Pact and the economic bloc called Comecon  Yugoslavia was neutral  The common attribute of the eastern countries is that all of them have experiences with socialism, but nevertheless, the beginning of the 1990s was just roughly the same  For some of them becoming independent was the major challenge, while others needed to face with poverty and deep dictatorship also Economically, parallel with the political changes, and the democratic transition, – as a rule of law states – the previous command economies were transformed via the legislation into market economies, and set up or renewed the major macroeconomic factors: budgetary rules, national audit, national currency, central bank  Generally, they shortly encountered the following problems: high inflation, high unemployment, low economic growth and high government debt  By 2000 these economies were stabilized, and sooner or later between 2004 and 2013 some of them joined the European Union, and Slovenia introduced the euro Italy became a major industrialized country again, due to its post-war economic miracle  The European Union (EU) involved the division of powers, with tax, health, and education handled by the nation states, while the EU had charge of market rules, competition, legal standards and environmentalism  The Soviet economic and political system collapsed, leading to the end of communism in the satellite countries in 1989, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself in 1991  European Union expanded to subsequently include many of the formerly communist European countries – Romania and Bulgaria (2007) and Croatia (2013) The Gotthard, a major and direct transport axis between Northern and Southern Europe, was completed in 2016 with the Gotthard Base Tunnel  The Gotthard inscribes itself in a long history of transit across the Alps, which saw them progressively changing from an obstacle to a corridor between the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea 

Demographics
Languages
Romance languages
The most widely spoken family of languages in Southern Europe are the Romance languages, the heirs of Latin, which have spread from the Italian peninsula, and are emblematic of Southwestern Europe  (See the Latin Arch ) By far the most common Romance languages in Southern Europe are Italian (spoken by over 50 million people in Italy, southern Switzerland, Malta, San Marino, and Vatican City) and Spanish, which is spoken by over 40 million people in Spain, Andorra and Gibraltar  Other common Romance languages include Portuguese (spoken in Portugal and Andorra), French (spoken in France, Monaco, and the Aosta Valley in Italy), Catalan (spoken in eastern Spain, Andorra, Southwestern France, and the Sardinian town of Alghero in Italy), Galician (spoken in northwestern Spain), Mirandese (spoken in northeast Portugal), and Occitan, which is spoken in the Val d'Aran in Catalonia, in the Occitan Valleys in Italy and in southern France 

Other languages
The Hellenic languages or Greek language are widely spoken in Greece and Cyprus  Additionally, other varieties of Greek are spoken in small communities in parts of other European countries English is used as a second language in parts of Southern Europe  As a primary language, however, English has only a small presence in Southern Europe, only in Gibraltar (alongside Spanish) and Malta (secondary to Maltese)  English is also widely spoken in Cyprus There are other language groupings in Southern Europe  Albanian is spoken in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Greece, Serbia, Croatia and Italy (particularly by the Arbëreshë people in Southern Italy), and Serbo-Croatian is spoken in Kosovo, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Italy (in Molise)  Slovenian is spoken in Slovenia, Italy (in Friuli-Venezia Giulia) and Croatia (in Istria) and Macedonian is spoken in North Macedonia  Maltese is a Semitic language that is the official language of Malta, descended from Siculo-Arabic, but written in the Latin script with heavy Latin and Italian influences  The Basque language is spoken in the Basque Country, a region in northern Spain and southwestern France  Turkish is a Turkic language that is spoken in Turkey, Cyprus, Kosovo, Greece, North Macedonia and Bosnia, and German is spoken in Italy, particularly in South Tyrol 

Religion
The predominant religion in Southern Europe is Christianity  Christianity spread throughout Southern Europe during the Roman Empire, and Christianity was adopted as the official religion of the Roman Empire in the year 380 AD  
Due to the historical break of the Church into the western half based in Rome and the eastern half based in Constantinople, different denominations of Christianity are prominent in different parts of Europe Christians in the western half of Southern Europe — e g , Portugal, Spain, Italy — are generally Roman Catholic  Christians in the eastern half of Southern Europe — e g , Greece, Serbia and North Macedonia — are generally Eastern Orthodox  Islam is widely practiced in Albania, Bosnia, Kosovo and Turkey and Northern Cyprus  Muslims are a significant minority in several countries of Southern Europe- e g , Greece, Italy, Spain  Judaism was practiced widely throughout the European continent within the Roman Empire from the 2nd century 

Other classifications
CIA World Factbook
In the CIA World Factbook, the description of each country includes information about "Location" under the heading "Geography", where the country is classified into a region  The following countries are included in their classification "Southern Europe":
Greece
Holy See (Vatican City)
Italy
Malta
San MarinoIn addition, Andorra, Gibraltar, Portugal and Spain are classified as "Southwestern Europe", while Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Turkey (the part west of the Bosporus) are described as located in "Southeastern Europe" 

EuroVoc
EuroVoc is a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, giving definitions of terms for official use  In the definition of "Southern Europe", the following countries are included:
Cyprus
Greece
Holy See
Italy
Malta
Portugal
San Marino
Spain
Turkey

UN geoscheme classification
The United Nations geoscheme is a system devised by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) which divides the countries of the world into regional and subregional groups, based on the M49 coding classification  The partition is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories In the UN geoscheme, the following countries are classified as Southern Europe:
Albania
Andorra
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Croatia
Greece
Holy See
Italy
Malta
Montenegro
North Macedonia
Portugal
San Marino
Serbia
Slovenia
Spainas well as the dependent territory:

Gibraltar

European Travel Commission classification
European Travel Commission divides the European region on the basis of Tourism Decision Metrics (TDM) model 
Countries which belong to the Southern/Mediterranean Europe in this classification are:Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, East Thrace (Turkey), Greece, Italy, Malta, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, and Spain 

See also
Central and Eastern Europe
Central Europe
Eastern Europe
EU Med Group
EuroVoc#Southern Europe
Mediterranean Basin
Northern Europe
Northwestern Europe
Southeast Europe
Western Europe

Notes
Passage 9:
Media in Pristina
The media in Pristina includes some of the most important newspapers, largest publishing houses and most prolific television studio  Pristina is the largest communications center of media in  Kosova  Almost all of the major media organizations in Kosova are based in Pristina The television industry developed in Pristina and is a significant employer in the city's economy  The four major broadcast networks, RTK, RTV21, KTV and Klan Kosova, are all headquartered in Pristina 
Radio Television of Kosova (RTK) is the only public broadcaster both in Pristina and in all of Kosova as well, who continues to be financed directly by the state  All of the daily newspapers in Pristina have a readership throughout Kosova An important event which affected the development of the media, is that in University of Pristina since 2005 is established the Journalism Faculty within the Faculty of Philology in which a large number of young people are registered Media in Pristina have followed all elections held in Kosova, especially a great impact was noted in Kosova local elections, 2013,where media dedicated most of their time in political debates, advertisements and political parties programs The freedom and pluralism of the media is guaranteed by the Constitution of Kosova  Censorship is forbidden, except in the cases of provocation of violence and discrimination  In according to organization Reporters without borders
in 2013 Kosova was ranked in the 85th place, after a year Kosova made progress and was ranked in the 80th place 

Newspapers
The first newspaper was "Rilindja" (Renaissance), which first came out on February 12, 1945 in Prizren, and was the first newspaper in Albanian inside Yugoslavia   It was initially printed in the State Printing Shop in Prizren during the issues 1 to 60  Since issue 61, it was printed in Pristina Regional Printing House of the People's Front of Yugoslavia In the beginning, it had only four pages, being published weekly until June 27, 1948  After that it began to be published twice a week, on Sundays and Thursdays  Then, from November 1958, it started out as a daily paper (except on Fridays)  By the year 1964, it appeared every day in a 20-page standard format, while on Saturdays and holidays in a 24-32 page format  On September 5, 1990, the Serbian government banned its publication  But with the entry of NATO forces, on June 12, 1999, it appeared again, but this time with additional pages and some of them in color It was undoubtedly one of the major sold newspapers in the Albanian sphere  Its maximum circulation was during New Year holidays, up to 234,000 copies  In 2002, the  newspaper premises were blocked by UNMIK administration, and was listed as property of Kosova Agency of Privatisation, shutting it down abruptly 
Nowadays  the two most popular newspapers are Koha Ditore and Kosova Sot  And in the absence of an official and impartial survey, both of them claim to be the most-read newspaper in Kosova  The newspapers use three systems of distribution, the most used system is Rilindja's system, but some newspapers, as Koha Ditore and Bota Sot, in their attempt to hide the correct information about readership, have developed their own systems of distribution 
Express
Bota Sot
Koha Ditore
Kosova Sot
Lajm
Epoka e re

Magazines
The first writings magazines in Kosova began in the early 40th and one of the first publications was Literary magazine of Albanians "Jeta e re"(The new life) was given in the newspaper "Rilindja"(Renaissance) on July 17, 1949 as one of the most influential magazines in the country  At that time there were many other magazines quite important, which with their work were known throughout the country 
Some of magazines were: The newspaper "Zani i rinisë" (The Journal of Pioneers)  which in 1946 was converted into Literary magazine for children "Pioneri" (Pioneers)   In 1946 magazine for cultural and social issue "Përparimi" (The Progress) which from 1955 comes as magazine for culture, Literary magazine "Jeta e re"(The New life), then health education magazine "Shëndeti" (The Health)  and some others as "Ndërtuesi" (The Builder), magazine for employees "Agimi" (The Sunrise), "Zora"-Women's Antifascist Front, "Bujku i ri"(The Young Farmer), whereas today most popular magazines are listed in this table:

Radio
Radio Pristina started transmission immediately after the World War II in Prizren 1945 (later to be transferred to Pristina) and it was founded by Parliament of Kosovo province  Radio transmitted in Albanian, Serbian and Turkish language  October 1999 OSCE transfers the resurrected public radio station Radio Pristina to RTK  It is re-launched as Radio Kosovo 
Radio Kosova is the first radio that transmitted news in English language, news edition called 'Live at Five' is still transmitted at 17:00 

Radio stations
Television
Television in Pristina has its beginnings on 26 November 1975, Radio Television of Pristina or RTP (Albanian: Radio Televizioni i Prishtinës, Serbian: Радио-телевизија Приштина, Radio-televizija Priština) was the first Albanian television channel in Kosova, and it was part of JRT and had its building in Kosova's capital Pristina (then a Yugoslav Autonomous Province)  Both radio and television transmitted in Albanian, Serbian and Turkish language  Television discontinued transmission on 10 June 1999 and was relocated to Central Serbia, later it was dissolved  After the Kosova war, material and buildings of Radio Television Pristina are under the administration of Radio Television of Kosova, and have been established two other television RTV21 and KTV  

List of TV stations
Cable and Internet
Internet coverage is widespread but it experiences frequent outages  As of December 2013, the number of internet subscribers was 156,408 or 52 65% household penetration rate   In an effort to harmonize existing audiovisual media legislation with EU directives, Kosova's Independent Media Commission (IMC) issued regulations on licensing fees, cable operators, and protection of minors  Expansion of cable operators increased media diversity by bringing local and national TV stations, as well as special cable stations, to the public The following are some of the main internet providers:

Online media
Context 3: Passage 1:
Everton F C 
Everton Football Club () is an English professional association football club based in Liverpool that competes in the Premier League, the top tier of English football  The club was a founder member of the Football League in 1888, and has, as of May 2023, competed in the top division for a record 120 seasons, having missed only four top-flight seasons (1930–31, 1951–52, 1952–53, and 1953–54)  Everton is the club with the second-longest continuous presence in English top-flight football, and ranks third in the all-time points rankings  The club has won nine league titles, five FA Cups, one European Cup Winners' Cup and nine Charity Shields 
Formed in 1878, Everton won their first League Championship during the 1890–91 season  After winning four more League championships and two FA Cups, the club experienced a post-Second World War lull until a revival in the 1960s  A period of sustained success came in the mid-1980s, when Everton won a further two League championships, one FA Cup, and the 1985 European Cup Winners' Cup  The club's most recent major trophy was the 1995 FA Cup 
The club's supporters are colloquially known as "Evertonians" or "Blues"  Everton's main rivals are Liverpool, whose home stadium at Anfield is just under one mile away from Everton's home at Goodison Park; the two clubs contest the Merseyside derby  Everton have been based at Goodison Park since 1892, having moved from their original home at Anfield following a disagreement over its rent  The club's home colours are royal blue shirts with white shorts and socks 

History
Everton was founded as St  Domingo's FC in 1878 so that members of the congregation of St Domingo Methodist New Connexion Chapel in Breckfield Road North, Everton, could play sport year round – cricket was played in summer  The club's first game was a 1–0 victory over Everton Church Club  The club was renamed Everton in November 1879 after the local area, as people outside the congregation wished to participate The club was a founding member of the Football League in 1888–89 and won its first League Championship title in the 1890–91 season  Everton won the FA Cup for the first time in 1906 and the League Championship again in 1914–15  The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 interrupted the football programme while Everton were reigning champions, which was something that would again occur in 1939 
It was not until 1927 that Everton's first sustained period of success began  In 1925 the club signed Dixie Dean from Tranmere Rovers  In 1927–28, Dean set the record for top-flight league goals in a single season with 60 goals in 39 league games, which is a record that still stands  He helped Everton win its third League Championship that season  However, Everton was relegated to the Second Division two years later during internal turmoil at the club  The club quickly rebounded and was promoted at the first attempt, while scoring a record number of goals in the Second Division  On return to the top flight in 1931–32, Everton wasted no time in reaffirming its status and won a fourth League Championship at the first opportunity  Everton also won its second FA Cup in 1933 with a 3–0 win against Manchester City in the final  The era ended in 1938–39 with a fifth League Championship The outbreak of the Second World War again saw the suspension of league football, and when official competition resumed in 1946, the Everton team had been split up and paled in comparison to the pre-war team  Everton was relegated for the second time in 1950–51 and did not earn promotion until 1953–54, when it finished as the runner-up in its third season in the Second Division  The club has been a top-flight presence ever since 
Everton's second successful era started when Harry Catterick was made manager in 1961  In 1962–63, his second season in charge, Everton won the League Championship  In 1966 the club won the FA Cup with a 3–2 win over Sheffield Wednesday  Everton again reached the final in 1968, but this time was unable to overcome West Bromwich Albion at Wembley  Two seasons later in 1969–70, Everton won the League Championship, finishing nine points clear of nearest rivals Leeds United  During this period, Everton was the first English club to achieve five consecutive years in European competitions – covering the seasons from 1961–62 to 1966–67 However, the success did not last; the team finished fourteenth, fifteenth, seventeenth and seventh in the following seasons  Harry Catterick retired, but his successors failed to win any silverware for the remainder of the 1970s despite finishing fourth in 1974–75 under manager Billy Bingham, third in 1977–78 and fourth the following season under manager Gordon Lee  Lee was sacked in 1981 Howard Kendall took over as manager and guided Everton to its most successful era  Domestically, Everton won the FA Cup in 1984 and two League Championships in 1984–85 and 1986–87  In Europe, the club won its first, and so far only, European trophy by securing the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1985  The European success came after first beating University College Dublin, Inter Bratislava and Fortuna Sittard  Then, Everton defeated German giants Bayern Munich 3–1 in the semi-finals, despite trailing at half time (in a match voted the greatest in Goodison Park history), and recorded the same scoreline over Austrian club Rapid Vienna in the final  Having won both the League and Cup Winners' Cup in 1985, Everton came very close to winning a treble, but lost to Manchester United in the FA Cup final  The following season, 1985–86, Everton was the runner-up to Liverpool in both the League and the FA Cup, but did recapture the League Championship in 1986–87 
After the Heysel Stadium disaster and the subsequent ban of all English clubs from continental football, Everton lost the chance to compete for more European trophies  A large proportion of the title-winning side was broken up following the ban  Kendall himself moved to Athletic Bilbao after the 1987 title triumph and was succeeded by assistant Colin Harvey  Harvey took Everton to the 1989 FA Cup final, but lost 3–2 after extra time to Liverpool 

Everton was a founding member of the Premier League in 1992, but struggled to find the right manager  Howard Kendall had returned in 1990, but could not repeat his previous success  His successor, Mike Walker, was statistically the least successful Everton manager to date  When former Everton player Joe Royle took over in 1994, the club's form started to improve; his first game in charge was a 2–0 victory over derby rivals Liverpool  Royle dragged Everton clear of relegation and led the club to the FA Cup for the fifth time in its history by defeating Manchester United 1–0 in the final  The cup triumph was also Everton's passport to the Cup Winners' Cup, its first European campaign in the post-Heysel era  Progress under Royle continued in 1995–96 as the team climbed to sixth place in the Premiership  A fifteenth-place finish the following season saw Royle resign towards the end of the campaign, and he was temporarily replaced by club captain Dave Watson 
Howard Kendall was appointed Everton manager for the third time in 1997, but the appointment proved unsuccessful as Everton finished seventeenth in the Premiership  The club only avoided relegation due to its superior goal difference over Bolton Wanderers  Former Rangers manager Walter Smith then took over from Kendall in the summer of 1998, but only managed three successive finishes in the bottom half of the table  The Everton board finally ran out of patience with Smith, and he was sacked in March 2002 after an FA Cup exit at Middlesbrough and with Everton in real danger of relegation  His replacement, David Moyes, guided Everton to a safe finish in fifteenth place In 2002–03 Everton finished seventh, which was its highest finish since 1996  It was under Moyes' management that Wayne Rooney broke into the first team before being sold to Manchester United for a club record fee of £28 million in the summer of 2004  A fourth-place finish in 2004–05 ensured that Everton qualified for the UEFA Champions League qualifying round  The team failed to make it through to the Champions League group stage and was then eliminated from the UEFA Cup  Everton qualified for the 2007–08 and 2008–09 UEFA Cup competitions, and was the runner-up in the 2009 FA Cup final  During this period, Moyes broke the club record for highest transfer fee paid on four occasions: signing James Beattie for £6 million in January 2005, Andy Johnson for £8 6 million in summer 2006, Yakubu for £11 25 million in summer 2007, and Marouane Fellaini for £15 million in September 2008 At the end of the 2012–13 season, Moyes left his position at Everton to take over at Manchester United, bringing in staff from Everton to join him in July (assistant manager Steve Round, goalkeeping coach Chris Woods and coach Jimmy Lumsden), with Everton players Phil Neville and Marouane Fellaini also leaving for United, the former joining the coaching staff  Moyes was replaced by Roberto Martínez, who led Everton to 5th place in the Premier League in his first season while amassing the club's best points tally in 27 years with 72  The following season, Martínez led Everton to the last 16 of the 2014-15 UEFA Europa League, where it was defeated by Dynamo Kyiv, whilst domestically finishing 11th in the Premier League  Everton reached the semi-finals of both the League Cup and the FA Cup in 2015–16, but was defeated in both  After a poor run of form in the Premier League, Martínez was sacked following the penultimate game of the season, with Everton lying in 12th place Martínez was replaced in the summer of 2016 by Ronald Koeman, who left Southampton to sign a three-year contract with Everton  In his first season at the club, he qualified for the Europa League, but a poor start to the 2017–18 season left Everton in the relegation zone after nine games, and Koeman was sacked on 23 October following a 5–2 home defeat to Arsenal  Sam Allardyce was appointed Everton manager in November 2017, but he resigned at the end of the season amid fan discontent at his style of play Marco Silva was named Everton manager in May 2018  In November that year, the club was banned from signing academy football players from its youth clubs for two years  Silva led Everton to finish 8th in his first season in charge, but after a poor start to the following season which left the team in the relegation zone on 14 points, he was sacked on 5 December 2019  His last league match was a 5–2 loss to Liverpool at Anfield  Former player and first-team coach Duncan Ferguson stepped in as caretaker manager for the next three games before his replacement, Carlo Ancelotti; Ferguson stayed as assistant manager Ancelotti left the club in June 2021 to rejoin former club Real Madrid as manager, having led the club to a 10th place finish in his only full season at the club  Former Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez was appointed as his replacement, subsequently becoming only the second person to manage both Liverpool and Everton  He was dismissed in January 2022 following 9 losses in his last 13 games in charge at the club, and was replaced by former Chelsea boss Frank Lampard  Lampard was later also dismissed in January 2023 after extremely poor performance  Everton narrowly escaped relegation with a 1–0 win over Bournemouth in their last game of the 2022–23 Premier League 

Colours
Everton's traditional home colours are royal blue shirts, white shorts and white socks  However, during the first decades of its history, Everton had several different kit colours  The team originally played in white and then blue and white stripes, but as new players arriving at the club wore its old team's shirts during matches, confusion soon ensued  It was decided that the shirts would be dyed black, both to save on expenses and to instill a more professional look  However, the kit appeared morbid, so a scarlet sash was added  When the club moved to Goodison Park in 1892, the colours were salmon pink and dark blue striped shirts with dark blue shorts  The club later switched to ruby shirts with blue trim and dark blue shorts  Royal blue jerseys with white shorts were first used in the 1901–02 season  The club played in sky blue in 1906; however, the fans protested, and the colour reverted to royal blue  Occasionally, Everton have played in lighter shades than royal blue (such as in 1930–31 and 1997–98)  The home kit today is royal blue shirts with white shorts and socks  The club may also wear all blue to avoid any colour clashes 
Everton's traditional away colours were white shirts with black shorts, but from 1968 amber shirts and royal blue shorts became common  Various editions appeared throughout the 1970s and 1980s  Black, white, grey, and yellow away shirts have also been used 

Crest
At the end of the 1937–38 season, Everton secretary Theo Kelly, who later became the club's first manager, wanted to design a club necktie  It was agreed that the colour be blue, and Kelly was given the task of designing a crest to be featured on the necktie  He worked on it for four months until deciding on a reproduction of Everton Lock-Up, which stands in the heart of the Everton district  The Lock-Up has been linked with the Everton area since its construction in 1787  It was originally used as a bridewell to incarcerate mainly drunks and minor criminals and it still stands on Everton Brow  The Lock-Up was accompanied by two laurel wreaths on either side and, according to the College of Arms in London, Kelly chose to include the laurels as they were the sign of winners  The crest was accompanied by the club motto, "Nil satis nisi optimum", meaning "Nothing but the best is good enough"  The ties were first worn by Kelly and the Everton chairman, Mr  E  Green, on the first day of the 1938–39 season The club rarely incorporated a badge of any description on its shirts  An interwoven "EFC" design was adopted between 1922 and 1930 before the club reverted to plain royal blue shirts until 1972 when bold "EFC" lettering was added  The crest designed by Kelly was first used on the team's shirts in 1978 and has remained there ever since, while undergoing gradual change to become the version used today 
In May 2013, the club launched a new crest to improve the reproducibility of the design in print and broadcast media, particularly on a small scale  Critics suggested that it was external pressure from sports manufacturer Nike, Inc  that evoked the redesign as the number of colours had been reduced and the radial effect was removed, which made the kit more cost efficient to reproduce  The redesign was poorly received by supporters, with a poll on an Everton fan site registering a 91% negative response to the crest  A protest petition reached over 22,000 signatures before the club offered an apology and announced a new crest would be created for the 2014–15 season with an emphasis on fan consultation  Shortly afterwards, the Head of Marketing left the club  The latest crest was revealed by the club on 3 October 2013  After a consultation process with the supporters, three new crests were shortlisted  In the final vote, the new crest was chosen by almost 80% of the supporters that took part and began being used in July 2014 

Nickname
Everton's most widely recognised nickname is "The Toffees" or "The Toffeemen", which came about after Everton had moved to Goodison  There are several explanations for how this name came to be adopted with the best known being that there was a business in Everton village, between Everton Brow and Brow Side, named Mother Noblett's, which was a toffee shop that sold sweets including the Everton Mint  It was also located opposite the lock-up on which Everton's club crest is based  The Toffee Lady tradition, in which a girl walks around the perimeter of the pitch before the start of a game tossing free Everton Mints into the crowd, symbolises the connection  Another possible reason is that there was a house named Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House in nearby Village Street, Everton, run by Ma Bushell  The toffee house was located near the Queen's Head hotel in which early club meetings took place Everton has had many other nicknames over the years  When the black kit was worn, the team was nicknamed "The Black Watch" after the famous army regiment  Since going blue in 1901, the team has been given the simple nickname "The Blues"  Everton's attractive style of play led to Steve Bloomer calling the team "scientific" in 1928, which is thought to have inspired the nickname "The School of Science"  The battling 1995 FA Cup winning side was known collectively as "The Dogs of War"  In 2002, when David Moyes arrived as manager, he proclaimed Everton "The People's Club", which has been adopted as a semi-official club nickname 

Stadium
Everton originally played in the southeast corner of Stanley Park  The first official match took place in 1879  In 1882, a man named J  Cruitt donated land at Priory Road which became the club's home  In 1884 Everton became tenants at Anfield, which was owned by John Orrell, a land owner who was a friend of Everton F C  member John Houlding  Orrell lent Anfield to the club in exchange for a small rent  Houlding purchased the land from Orrell in 1885 and effectively became Everton's landlord by charging the club rent, which increased from £100 to £240 a year by 1888 – and was still rising until Everton left the ground in 1892  The club regarded the increase in rent as unacceptable  A further dispute between Houlding and the club's committee led to Houlding attempting to gain full control of the club by registering the company, "Everton F C  and Athletic Grounds Ltd"  Everton left Anfield for a new ground, Goodison Park, where the club has played ever since  Houlding attempted to take over Everton's name, colours, fixtures and league position, but was denied by The Football Association  Instead, Houlding formed a new club, Liverpool F C Goodison Park, the first major football stadium to be built in England, was opened in 1892  Goodison Park has staged more top-flight football games than any other ground in the United Kingdom and was the only English club ground to host a semi-final at the 1966 FIFA World Cup  It was also the first English ground to have under-soil heating and the first to have two tiers on all sides  The church grounds of St Luke the Evangelist are adjacent to the corner of the Main Stand and the Howard Kendall Gwladys Street End On match days, in a tradition going back to 1962, players walk out to the tune "Johnny Todd", played in the arrangement used when it was the theme song for Z-Cars  It is a traditional Liverpool children's song collected in 1890 by Frank Kidson and tells the story of a sailor betrayed by his lover while away at sea  On two occasions in 1994, the club walked out to different songs  In August 1994, the club played 2 Unlimited's song "Get Ready For This"  A month later, the club used a reworking of the Creedence Clearwater Revival classic "Bad Moon Rising"  Both songs were met with complete disapproval by Everton fans 

Training facilities
From 1966 to 2007, Everton trained at Bellefield in the West Derby area of Liverpool  The club moved to the Finch Farm training complex in Halewood in 2007  The training ground houses both the Everton first team and the youth academy 

Everton Stadium
There have been indications since 1996 that Everton will move to a new stadium  The original plan was for a new 60,000-seat stadium, but in 2000 a proposal was submitted to build a 55,000-seat stadium as part of the King's Dock regeneration  This proposal was unsuccessful as Everton failed to generate the £30 million needed for a half stake in the stadium project, and the city council rejected the proposal in 2003  Late in 2004, driven by the Liverpool Council and the Northwest Development Corporation, the club entered talks with Liverpool F C  about sharing a proposed stadium on Stanley Park  However, negotiations broke down as Everton failed to raise 50% of the costs  On 11 January 2005, Liverpool announced that ground-sharing was not a possibility and proceeded to plan its own Stanley Park Stadium Following a unanimous approval by Liverpool City Council to grant planning permission in July 2021, work by contractors, Laing O'Rourke, began on the new stadium on 10 August 2021  The first phase involved infilling the dock with 500,000 cubic metres of sea-dredged sand, and so 2,500 vertical concrete piles have been inserted  Its capacity will be 52,888  It is due to open for the start of the 2024–25 season, replacing Goodison Park at an estimated cost of £760 million 

Supporters and rivalries
Everton has a large fanbase, with the eighth-highest average attendance in the Premier League in the 2008–09 season  The majority of Everton's matchday support comes from the North West of England, primarily Merseyside, Cheshire, West Lancashire and parts of Western Greater Manchester along with many fans who travel from North Wales, Ireland, and Scotland  Within the city of Liverpool, support for Everton and city rivals Liverpool is not determined by geographical basis with supporters mixed across the city  Everton also has many supporters' clubs worldwide in places such as North America, Singapore, Indonesia, Lebanon, Malaysia, Thailand, India, and Australia  Paul McCartney is an Everton supporter  The official supporters club is FOREVERTON, and there are also several fanzines including When Skies are Grey and Speke from the Harbour, which are sold around Goodison Park on match days 

Everton regularly take large numbers away from home both domestically and in European fixtures  The club implements a loyalty points scheme offering the first opportunity to purchase away tickets to season ticket holders who have attended the most away matches  Everton often sell out the full allocation in away grounds, and tickets sell particularly well for North West England away matches  In October 2009, Everton took 7,000 travelling fans to Benfica, which was its largest ever away crowd in Europe since the 1985 European Cup Winners' Cup Final 
Everton's biggest rivalry is with neighbours Liverpool, against whom the club contests the Merseyside derby  The rivalry stems from an internal dispute between Everton officials and the owners of Anfield, which was then Everton's home ground  The dispute resulted in Everton moving to Goodison Park and the subsequent formation of Liverpool F C  in 1892  Following these events, a fierce rivalry has existed between Everton and Liverpool, albeit one that is generally perceived as more respectful than many other derbies in English football  This was illustrated by a chain of red and blue scarves that were linked between the gates of both grounds across Stanley Park as a tribute to the Liverpool fans killed in the Hillsborough disaster  The derby is usually a sellout fixture and has been known as the "friendly derby" because both sets of fans can often be seen side by side dressed in red and blue inside both Anfield and Goodison Park  Recently, on the field, matches have tended to be extremely stormy affairs; the derby has had more red cards than any other fixture in Premier League history 

Coaching staff
As of 30 January 2023First team

Under-21s and Under-18s

Players
As of 7 July 2023

First-team squad
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules  Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality 

Out on loan
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules  Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality 

Reserves and Academy
Notable former players
See also List of Everton F C  international players 

Everton Giants
The following players are considered "Giants" for their great contributions to Everton  A panel appointed by the club established the inaugural list in 2000 and a new inductee is announced every season 

Player of the Season
Winners of the club's end of season award

Greatest ever teamAt the start of the 2003–04 season, as part of the club's official celebration of its 125th anniversary, supporters cast votes to determine the greatest ever Everton team 
 Neville Southall (1981–97)
 Gary Stevens (1982–89)
 Brian Labone (1958–71)
 Kevin Ratcliffe (1980–91)
 Ray Wilson (1964–69)
 Trevor Steven (1983–90)
 Alan Ball (1966–71)
 Peter Reid (1982–89)
 Kevin Sheedy (1982–92)
 Dixie Dean (1925–37)
 Graeme Sharp (1980–91)English Football Hall of Fame membersA number of Everton players have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame:

Football League 100 LegendsThe Football League 100 Legends is a list of "100 legendary football players" produced by the Football League in 1998 to celebrate the 100th season of League football 

Honours and achievements
Domestic
League

First Division / Premier League (level 1)
Champions (9): 1890–91, 1914–15, 1927–28, 1931–32, 1938–39, 1962–63, 1969–70, 1984–85, 1986–87
Runners-up (7): 1889–90, 1894–95, 1901–02, 1904–05, 1908–09, 1911–12, 1985–86Second Division / Championship (level 2)
Champions: 1930–31
Runners-up: 1953–54Cup

FA Cup
Winners (5): 1905–06, 1932–33, 1965–66, 1983–84, 1994–95
Runners-up (8): 1892–93, 1896–97, 1906–07, 1967–68, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1988–89, 2008–09Football League Cup
Runners-up (2): 1976–77, 1983–84FA Charity Shield
Winners (9): 1928, 1932, 1963, 1970, 1984, 1985, 1986 (shared), 1987, 1995Full Members' Cup
Runners-up: 1988–89, 1990–91Football League Super Cup
Runners-up: 1985–86

European
European Cup Winners' Cup
Winners: 1984–85

Doubles
1984–85: League and European Cup Winners' Cup

European competitions
Overall record
As of 22 May 2022

Ownership and finance
Everton F C  is a limited company with the board of directors holding a majority of the shares  The club's most recent accounts, from May 2014, show a net total debt of £28 1 million, with a turnover of £120 5 million and a profit of £28 2 million  The club's overdraft with Barclays Bank is secured against the Premier League's "Basic Award Fund", which is a guaranteed sum given to clubs for competing in the Premier League  Everton agreed to a long-term loan of £30 million with Bear Stearns and Prudential plc in 2002 for a duration of 25 years  The loan was a consolidation of debts at the time as well as a source of capital for new player acquisitions  Goodison Park is secured as collateral  On 27 February 2016, it was announced that Farhad Moshiri would buy a 49 9% stake in the club 
Figures taken from 2013 to 2014 accounts 

Shirt sponsors and manufacturers
Since the 2020–21 season, the club's primary shirt sponsor has been Cazoo, after the club announced the early termination of the previous deal with SportPesa in February 2020  The sponsorship does not extend to the club's women's team, who for the first time are able to sign their own shirt sponsor  Previous sponsors include SportPesa (2017–20), Chang Beer (2004–17) Hafnia (1979–85), NEC (1985–95), Danka (1995–97), one2one (1997–2002) and Kejian (2002–04)  For the 2008–09 season, Everton sold junior replica jerseys without the current name or logo of its main sponsor Chang beer, which followed a recommendation from the Portman Group that alcoholic brand names be removed from kits sold to children Everton's current kit manufacturers – since the 2020–21 season – are Hummel, after a previous deal with Umbro was terminated early by the club  Umbro have been the club's kit manufacturer four times (1974–83, 1986–2000, 2004–09, and 2014–20)  Other previous manufacturing firms are Le Coq Sportif (1983–86, 2009–12), Puma (2000–04) and Nike (2012–14) The club currently has two 'megastores': one located near Goodison Park on Walton Lane named 'Everton One' and one located in the Liverpool One shopping complex named 'Everton Two', which gives the second store the address 'Everton Two, Liverpool One' 

Managers
The club's current manager is Sean Dyche  There have also been four caretaker managers, and before 1939 the team was selected by either the club secretary or by committee  The club's longest-serving manager has been Harry Catterick, who was in charge of the team from 1961 to 1973 for 594 first team matches  The Everton manager to win the most domestic and international trophies is Howard Kendall, who won two First Division championships, the 1984 FA Cup, the 1985 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, and three FA Charity Shields 

Records and statistics
Neville Southall holds the record for the most Everton appearances with 751 first-team matches between 1981 and 1997  The late centre half and former captain Brian Labone comes in second with 534 matches  The longest serving player is goalkeeper Ted Sagar, who played for 23 years between 1929 and 1953  This tenure covered both sides of the Second World War and included a total of 495 appearances  Southall also previously held the record for the most league clean sheets during a season with 15  However, this record was beaten during the 2008–09 season by American goalkeeper Tim Howard, who ended the season with 17 clean sheets  The club's top goalscorer, with 383 goals in all competitions, is Dixie Dean; the second-highest goalscorer is Graeme Sharp with 159  Dean still holds the English national record of most goals in a season with 60 The record attendance for an Everton home match is 78,299 against Liverpool on 18 September 1948  Remarkably, there was only one injury at this game, which occurred when Tom Fleetwood was hit on the head by a coin thrown from the crowd whilst he marched around the perimeter and played the cornet with St Edward's Orphanage Band  Goodison Park, like all major English football grounds since the recommendations of the Taylor Report were implemented, is now an all-seater and only holds just under 40,000, meaning it is unlikely that this attendance record will ever be broken at Goodison  Everton's record transfer paid was to Swansea City for the Icelandic midfielder Gylfi Sigurðsson for a sum of £45m in 2017  The sale of Romelu Lukaku to Manchester United was for an initial sum of £75m, a record fee between two English clubs and the largest sum Everton has received for a player 
Everton holds the record for the most seasons in England's top tier (Division One/Premier League), with 119 seasons out of 123, as of completion of the 2021-22 season (the club played in Division 2 in 1930–31 and from 1951 to 1954)  It is one of six teams to have played in every season of the Premier League since its inception in August 1992 – the others being Arsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool, Manchester United, and Tottenham Hotspur  Everton against Aston Villa is the most played fixture in England's top flight  As of the 2012–13 season, the two founding members of the Football League have played a record 196 league games 

Everton's community department
Everton's community department, Everton in the Community (EitC), is a charity that provides sports and other social activities for the local community including for people with disabilities  EitC represents the club in the European Multisport Club Association 

Relationships with other clubs
Everton is connected to many other sports clubs and organisations  It has links with Irish football academy Ballyoulster United in Celbridge, the Canadian Ontario Soccer Association, and the Thai Football Association (where there is a competition named the Chang-Everton Cup, competed for by local schoolboys)  The club also has a football academy in the Cypriot city of Limassol and a partnership agreement with American club Pittsburgh Riverhounds Everton has links with Chilean team Everton de Viña del Mar, who were named after the club  On 4 August 2010, the two Evertons played each other in a friendly match at Goodison Park named the "Copa Hermandad" to mark the centenary of the Chilean team  The occasion was organised by the Ruleteros Society, which was founded to promote connections between the two clubs  Other Everton clubs also exist in Colonia in Uruguay, La Plata and Río Cuarto in Argentina, Elk Grove in the U S  state of California, and Cork in Ireland  There was also a team named Everton in Trinidad and Tobago  There was an Everton club in Auckland, New Zealand from 1907 to 1915 named because of the first FA Cup win The club owned and operated a professional basketball team by the name of the Everton Tigers, who competed in the top-tier British Basketball League  The team was launched in the summer of 2007 as part of the club's Community programme and played its home games at the Greenbank Sports Academy in Liverpool's Mossley Hill suburb  The team was an amalgam of the Toxteth Tigers community youth programme, which started in 1968  The team quickly became one of the most successful in the league by winning the BBL Cup in 2009 and the play-offs in 2010  However, Everton withdrew funding before the 2010–11 season and the team was re-launched as the Mersey Tigers 

In popular culture
Film and TV
Ken Loach's 1969 television film The Golden Vision combined improvised drama with documentary footage to tell the story of a group of Everton fans for whom the main purpose of life—following the team—is interrupted by such inconveniences as work and weddings  Everton forward Alex Young, whose nickname was also the title of the film, appeared as himself Paul Greengrass's 1997 television film The Fix dramatised the true story of a match-fixing scandal in which the club's newest player Tony Kay (played by Jason Isaacs) is implicated in having helped to throw a match between his previous club Sheffield Wednesday and Ipswich Town  The majority of the story is set during Everton's 1962–63 League Championship winning season, with then-manager Harry Catterick played by Colin Welland In the 2015 Rocky film Creed, Goodison Park serves as the venue of the climactic fight scene  Footage of the stadium and crowd during a home game against West Bromwich Albion was used for the scene  Liverpool-born boxing champion Tony Bellew, a lifelong Everton fan, plays Creed's opponent and wore the Everton badge on his training gear and shorts 

Music
The club entered the UK singles chart on four occasions under different titles during the 1980s and 1990s, when many clubs each released a song to mark reaching the FA Cup Final  "The Boys in Blue", released in 1984, peaked at No  82  The following year, the club scored its biggest hit when "Here We Go" peaked at No  14  In 1986, Everton released "Everybody's Cheering the Blues", which reached No  83  "All Together Now", a reworking of a song by Liverpool band The Farm, was released for the 1995 FA Cup final and reached No  27  By the time the club reached the 2009 FA Cup final, the tradition had largely been abandoned by all clubs and no song was released 

See also
Notes
Passage 2:
1914 FA Cup Final
The 1914 FA Cup final was a football match between Burnley and Liverpool on 25 April 1914 at Crystal Palace, London  It was the final match of the 1913–14 FA Cup, the 43rd season of the country's primary cup competition, the Football Association Challenge Cup, better known as the FA Cup



ground_truth: Pristina

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who started the foundation that developed the Free Software Directory?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Sodipodi
Sodipodi was an open-source vector graphics editor, discontinued in 2004  It is the predecessor to Inkscape 

Development
Sodipodi started as a fork of Gill, a vector-graphics program written by Raph Levien  The main author was Lauris Kaplinski, and several other people contributed to the project  The project is no longer under active development, having been succeeded by Inkscape, a 2003 fork of Sodipodi  Sodipodi means "mish mash" or "hodgepodge" in Estonian child-speak The primary design goal of Sodipodi was to produce a usable vector graphics editor, and a drawing tool for artists  Although it used SVG as its native file format (including some extensions to hold metadata), it was not intended to be a full implementation of the SVG standard  Sodipodi imports and exports plain SVG data, and can also export raster graphics in PNG format  The user interface of Sodipodi is a Controlled Single Document Interface (CSDI) similar to GIMP 
Sodipodi was developed for Linux and Microsoft Windows  The last version was 0 34, released on 11 February 2004  Released under the GNU General Public License, Sodipodi is free software 

Derivatives
Sodipodi started a collection of SVG clip art containing symbols and flags from around the world  This work helped inspire the Open Clip Art Library Inkscape started as a fork of Sodipodi, founded in 2003 by a group of Sodipodi developers with different goals, including redesigning the interface and closer compliance with the SVG standard 

See also
Comparison of vector graphics editors
Passage 2:
Jonas Öberg
Jonas Öberg (born 22 November 1977 in Norrköping, Sweden) is a free and open-source software activist, describing himself as an instigator in the world of free, having worked with the Free Software Foundation Europe, GNU Project, FSCONS, Creative Commons and the Shuttleworth Foundation  He started to develop software in 1991 and installed his first Linux operating system in 1993 after which he eventually joined as a webmaster for the GNU Project  In the late 1990s, he spent some time at the MIT AI Labs where he met with Richard Stallman and others from the Free Software Foundation, joining them for The Bazaar conference in New York  Since 2002, he has been on the award committee for the Free Software Foundation's Free Software Awards 
In 2001, he was a founding member of the Free Software Foundation Europe and took up a role as vice president on 22 November 2001 when former vice president Loïc Dachary took a step back to focus on GNU SavannahHaving worked with Creative Commons for several years, including running a course of fundraising at the Peer to Peer University, he became the first Regional Coordinator for Europe in 2011  His work for the organisation eventually led him to a position as a Fellow of the Shuttleworth Foundation where his work focus on creating tools and prototypes for the embedding of metadata for licensing and attribution requirements in digital works  His company Commons Machinery was featured as one of the 12 winners of Tech All Stars 2014, a competition of the European Commission's and Neelie Kroes's Digital Agenda 

Personal life
He has a 19th-century wooden house in the North of Sweden which he is continuously renovating and lives outside of Stockholm in Gnesta, Sweden  He married Julia Velkova, a media researcher and member of Internet Society Bulgaria, at the Ice hotel in Sweden on 8 March 2013 
Passage 3:
Pygame
Pygame is a cross-platform set of Python modules designed for writing video games  It includes computer graphics and sound libraries designed to be used with the Python programming language 

History
Pygame was originally written by Pete Shinners to replace PySDL after its development stalled  It has been a community project since 2000 and is released under the free software GNU Lesser General Public License (which "provides for Pygame to be distributed with open source and commercial software") 

Development of Version 2
Pygame version 2 was planned as "Pygame Reloaded" in 2009, but development and maintenance of Pygame completely stopped until the end of 2016 with version 1 9 1  After the release of version 1 9 5 in March 2019, development of a new version 2 is active on the roadmap Pygame 2 0 released on 28 October, 2020, on Pygame's 20th birthday 

Features
Pygame uses the Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL) library, with the intention of allowing real-time computer game development without the low-level mechanics of the C programming language and its derivatives  This is based on the assumption that the most expensive functions inside games can be abstracted from the game logic, making it possible to use a high-level programming language, such as Python, to structure the game Other features that SDL does have include vector math, collision detection, 2D sprite scene graph management, MIDI support, camera, pixel-array manipulation, transformations, filtering, advanced freetype font support, and drawing Applications using Pygame can run on Android phones and tablets with the use of Pygame Subset for Android (pgs4a)  Sound, vibration, keyboard, and accelerometer are supported on Android 

Community
There is a regular competition, called PyWeek, to write games using Python (and usually but not necessarily, Pygame)  The community has created many tutorials for Pygame 

Notable games using Pygame
Frets on Fire
Dangerous High School Girls in Trouble
Save the Date, IndieCade 2013 Finalist
Drawn Down Abyss

See also
Cocos2d
Panda3D
Pyglet

Notes
Passage 4:
MeshLab
MeshLab is a 3D mesh processing software system that is oriented to the management and processing of unstructured large meshes and provides a set of tools for editing, cleaning, healing, inspecting, rendering, and converting these kinds of meshes  MeshLab is free and open-source software, subject to the requirements of the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2 or later, and is used as both a complete package and a library powering other software  It is well known in the more technical fields of 3D development and data handling 

Overview
MeshLab is developed by the ISTI - CNR research center; initially MeshLab was created as a course assignment at the University of Pisa in late 2005  It is a general-purpose system aimed at the processing of the typical not-so-small unstructured 3D models that arise in the 3D scanning pipeline 
The automatic mesh cleaning filters includes removal of duplicated, unreferenced vertices, non-manifold edges, vertices, and null faces  Remeshing tools support high quality simplification based on quadric error measure, various kinds of subdivision surfaces, and two surface reconstruction algorithms from point clouds based on the ball-pivoting technique and on the Poisson surface reconstruction approach  For the removal of noise, usually present in acquired surfaces, MeshLab supports various kinds of smoothing filters and tools for curvature analysis and visualization 
It includes a tool for the registration of multiple range maps based on the iterative closest point algorithm  MeshLab also includes an interactive direct paint-on-mesh system that allows users to interactively change the color of a mesh, to define selections and to directly smooth out noise and small features 
MeshLab is available for most platforms, including Linux, Mac OS X, Windows and, with reduced functionality, on Android and iOS and even as a pure client-side JavaScript application called MeshLabJS  The system supports input/output in the following formats: PLY, STL, OFF, OBJ, 3DS, VRML 2 0, X3D and COLLADA  MeshLab can also import point clouds reconstructed using Photosynth 
MeshLab is used in various academic and research contexts, like microbiology, cultural heritage, surface reconstruction, paleontology, for rapid prototyping in orthopedic surgery, in orthodontics, and desktop manufacturing 

Additional images
See also
Geometry processing
3D scanner
List of free and open-source software packages
Passage 5:
BlueSpice MediaWiki
BlueSpice is free wiki software based on the MediaWiki engine and licensed with the GNU General Public License  It is especially developed for businesses as an enterprise wiki distribution for MediaWiki and used in over 150 countries 
The freely available version BlueSpice free is considered one of the most popular wiki computer programs for knowledge management in companies 

History
The German company Hallo Welt! has been working on the development of an open source wiki based on MediaWiki since 2007  The origins of the later BlueSpice software go back to an initiative by the IBM CTO Gunter Dueck, who initiated an internal company wiki for IBM Germany in 2007 under the name "bluepedia"  The model for the bluepedia project was Wikipedia and accordingly the platform was based on MediaWiki  However, in daily operation, additional requirements arose for the software used  This led to the founding of a company that would develop and provide the missing functions in the future 
In 2011, Hallo Welt! decided to publish their wiki as free and open-source software  The stable version of BlueSpice for MediaWiki was released July 4, 2011 : 28  From this point on, a free download has been available at SourceForge  A key feature of the software was the provision of a WYSIWYG editor, which at the time was based on the TinyMCE editor In Autumn 2013, Hallo Welt! released the completely reworked version BlueSpice 2  According to the BlueSpice developers this release aims for opening up BlueSpice for freelance developers in the global MediaWiki community and multiple language versions In 2014, BlueSpice for MediaWiki became a project of Translatewiki net  In January 2015 the developers announced that they will change to a subscription model 

Functionality and techology
BlueSpice is written in the PHP programming language and uses MySQL, Apache/IIS, Tomcat  BlueSpice is released in a free edition and two paid editions  The free edition adds more than 50 extensions to a MediaWiki, mainly in the areas of:

Editing: A version of the MediaWiki VisualEditor is delivered, which, unlike the original, contains additional functions, such as an easier procedure for uploading documents or inserting dynamic content  The creation of new pages is supported by page templates 
Search and navigation: An extended search (Elasticsearch) offers improved search functionalities, like faceted search  The search results can further be sorted or filtered by category, namespace, author, semantic data, data type etc  Any files attached are also searched  It also provides common features like autocomplete and search as you type 
Administration: Convenient management of users, namespaces, groups, rights and settings 

Licensing and distribution
All extensions of the BlueSpice distributions are under open source licenses  The functions written by Hallo Welt! are published under the license GPLv3 The free version is made available for download as a classic server installation in a tarball or as a Docker image, with BlueSpice free having the widest distribution via the official Docker version (with more than 1 million pulls in three years) 

Versions
See also
MediaWiki
Comparison of wiki software
Passage 6:
Free Software Directory
The Free Software Directory (FSD) is a project of the Free Software Foundation (FSF)   It catalogs free software that runs under free operating systems—particularly GNU and Linux  The cataloged projects are often able to run in several other operating systems  The project was formerly co-run by UNESCO 
Unlike some other directories that focus on free software, Free Software Directory staff verify the licenses of software listed in the directory 

Coverage growth and usages
FSD has been used as a source for assessing the share of free software, for example finding in September 2002 an amount of "1550 entries, of which 1363 (87 9%) used the GPL license, 103 (6 6%) used the LGPL license, 32 (2 0%) used a BSD or BSD-like license, 29 (1 9%) used the Artistic license, 5 (0 3%) used the MIT license"  By September 2009, the Directory listed 6,000 packages whose number grew up to 6,500 in October 2011, when the newly updated directory was launched  All listed packages are "free for any computer user to download, run and share  Each entry is individually checked and tested     so users know that any program they come across in the directory will be truly free software     with free documentation and without proprietary software requirements" Several scientific publications review or refer to the directory  It has been remarked that the Directory "only includes software that runs on free operating systems  The FSF/UNESCO Free Software Directory is also a collaborative project, offering a web interface for users to enter and update entries" 
Among the critical issues of the previous version, it has been pointed out that while "available software is described using a variety of textual metadata, including the components upon which a particular piece of software depends", "unfortunately, those dependencies are only listed by name, and locating and retrieving them is left to the user" 
On the other hand, the accuracy of the directory review on licenses is acknowledged 
The code review from the directory's editorial board is suitable for obtaining statistics on subsets of free software packages reliably clustered by license In September 2011, the Free Software Directory was re-implemented as a wiki, using MediaWiki and the Semantic MediaWiki extension, to allow users to directly add to and modify its contents 
Semantic MediaWiki provides the directory with semantic web technologies by adding "advanced search and presentation capabilities, structured to be useful for reading by both humans and data-mining programs" The new edition of the directory has been described as designed to ease and support with semantics the discovery and harvesting of information on free software programs  "An extensive and flexible category system, plus over 40,000 keywords and more than 40 different fields of information, enhance both simple and advanced searching" A recent snapshot of the taxonomy of the projects reviewed and accepted in the directory is the following:

See also
Passage 7:
GNU/Linux naming controversy
Within the free software and the open-source software communities there is controversy over whether to refer to computer operating systems that use a combination of GNU software and the Linux kernel as "GNU/Linux" or "Linux" systems Proponents of the term Linux argue that it is far more commonly used by the public and media and that it serves as a generic term for systems that combine that kernel with software from multiple other sources, while proponents of the term GNU/Linux note that GNU alone would be just as good a name for GNU variants which combine the GNU operating system software with software from other sources The term GNU/Linux is promoted by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) and its founder Richard Stallman  Their reasoning is that the GNU project was the main contributor for not only many of the operating system components used in the subsequent development of modern "Linux" systems, but also the associated free software philosophy  Several distributions of operating systems containing the Linux kernel use the name that the FSF prefers, such as Debian, Trisquel and Parabola GNU/Linux-libre  Others claim that GNU/Linux is a useful name to make a distinction between those and Linux distributions such as Android and Alpine Linux 

History
In 1983, Richard Stallman, founder of the Free Software Foundation, set forth plans of a complete Unix-like operating system, called GNU, composed entirely of free software  In September of that year, Stallman published a manifesto in Dr  Dobb's Journal detailing his new project publicly, outlining his vision of free software  Software development work began in January 1984  By 1991, the GNU mid-level portions of the operating system were almost complete, and the upper level could be supplied by the X Window System, but the lower level (kernel, device drivers, system-level utilities and daemons) was still mostly lacking 
The kernel officially developed by GNU was called GNU Hurd  The Hurd followed an ambitious microkernel design, which proved unexpectedly difficult to implement early on  However, in 1991, Linus Torvalds independently released the first version of the Linux kernel  Early Linux developers ported GNU code, including the GNU C Compiler, to run on Linux, while the free software community adopted the use of the Linux kernel as the missing kernel for the GNU operating system  This work filled the remaining gaps in providing a completely free operating system Over the next few years, several suggestions arose for naming operating systems using the Linux kernel and GNU components  In 1992, the Yggdrasil Linux distribution adopted the name "Linux/GNU/X"  In Usenet and mailing-list discussions, one can find usages of "GNU/Linux" as early as 1992, and of "GNU+Linux" as early as 1993  The Debian project, which was at one time sponsored by the Free Software Foundation, switched to calling its product "Debian GNU/Linux" in early 1994 
This change followed a request by Richard Stallman (who initially proposed "LiGNUx," but suggested "GNU/Linux" instead after hearing complaints about the awkwardness of the former term)  GNU's June 1994 Bulletin described "Linux" as a "free Unix system for 386 machines" (with "many of the utilities and libraries" from GNU), but the January 1995 Bulletin switched to the term "GNU/Linux" instead Stallman's and the FSF's efforts to include "GNU" in the name started around 1994, but were reportedly mostly via private communications (such as the above-mentioned request to Debian) until 1996  In May 1996, Stallman released Emacs 19 31 with the Autoconf system target "linux" changed to "lignux" (shortly thereafter changed to "linux-gnu" in emacs 19 32), and included an essay "Linux and the GNU system" suggesting that people use the terms "Linux-based GNU system" (or "GNU/Linux system" or "Lignux" for short)  He later used "GNU/Linux" exclusively, and the essay was superseded by Stallman's 1997 essay, "Linux and the GNU System" 

Composition of operating systems
Modern free software and open-source software operating systems are composed of software by many different authors, including the Linux kernel developers, the GNU project, and other vendors such as those behind the X Window System  Desktop- and server-based distributions use GNU components such as the GNU C Library (glibc), GNU Core Utilities (coreutils), and the Bash shell 
In a 2002 analysis of the source code for Red Hat Linux 7 1, a typical Linux distribution, the total size of the packages from the GNU project was found to be much larger than the Linux kernel  Later, a 2011 analysis of the Ubuntu distribution's "Natty" release main repository found that 8% to 13% of it consisted of GNU components (the range depending on whether GNOME is considered part of GNU), while only 6% is taken by the Linux kernel (9% when including its direct dependencies)  Determining exactly what constitutes the "operating system" per se is a matter of continuing debate On the other hand, some embedded systems, such as handheld devices and smartphones (like Google's Android), residential gateways (routers), and Voice over IP devices, are engineered with space efficiency in mind and use a Linux kernel with few or no components of GNU, due to perceived issues surrounding bloat, and impeded performance  A system running μClinux is likely to substitute uClibc for glibc, and BusyBox for coreutils  Google's Linux-based Android operating system does not use any GNU components or libraries, using Google's own BSD-based Bionic C library in place of glibc  The FSF agrees that "GNU/Linux" is not an appropriate name for these systems There are also systems that use a GNU userspace and/or C library on top of a non-Linux kernel, for example Debian GNU/Hurd (GNU userland on the GNU kernel) or Debian GNU/kFreeBSD (which uses the GNU coreutils and C library with the kernel from FreeBSD) 

Opinions
GNU/Linux
The FSF justifies the name "GNU/Linux" primarily on the grounds that the GNU project was specifically developing a complete system, of which they argue that the Linux kernel filled one of the final gaps; the large number of GNU components and GNU source code used in such systems is a secondary argument:

 So if you were going to pick a name for the system based on who wrote the programs in the system, the most appropriate single choice would be GNU  But we don't think that is the right way to consider the question  The GNU Project was not, is not, a project to develop specific software packages  [   ] Many people have made major contributions to the free software in the system, and they all deserve credit  But the reason it is an integrated system—and not just a collection of useful programs—is because the GNU Project set out to make it one  We made a list of the programs needed to make a complete free system, and we systematically wrote, or found people to write, everything on the list 

Other arguments include that the name "GNU/Linux" recognizes the role that the free-software movement played in building modern free and open source software communities, that the GNU project played a larger role in developing packages and software for GNU/Linux or Linux distributions, and that using the word "Linux" to refer to the Linux kernel, the operating system and entire distributions of software leads to confusion on the differences about the three  Because of this confusion, legal threats and public relations campaigns apparently directed against the kernel, such as those launched by the SCO Group or the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution (AdTI), have been misinterpreted by many commentators who assume that the whole operating system is being targeted  SCO and the AdTI have even been accused of deliberately exploiting this confusion Regarding suggestions that renaming efforts stem from egotism or personal pique, Stallman has responded that his interest is not in giving credit to himself but to the GNU Project: "Some people think that it's because I want my ego to be fed  Of course, I'm not asking you to call it 'Stallmanix' "  In response to another common suggestion that many people have contributed to the system and that a short name cannot credit all of them, the FSF has argued that this cannot justify calling the system "Linux", since they believe that the GNU project's contribution was ultimately greater than that of the Linux kernel in these related systems In 2010, Stallman stated that naming is not simply a matter of giving equal mention to the GNU Project, saying that because the system is more widely referred as "Linux", people tend to "think it's all Linux, that it was all started by Mr  Torvalds in 1991, and they think it all comes from his vision of life, and that's the really bad problem "Ariadne Conill, developer and security chair of Alpine Linux, has stated that in her opinion GNU/Linux is the correct name when referring to Linux distributions that are based on glibc and GNU coreutils, such as Debian and Fedora Linux  This can be contrasted to other Linux distributions which are based on bionic (Android) and musl (Alpine) 

Linux
Proponents of naming the operating systems "Linux" state that "Linux" is used far more often than "GNU/Linux" Eric S  Raymond writes (in the "Linux" entry of the Jargon File):

Some people object that the name "Linux" should be used to refer only to the kernel, not the entire operating system  This claim is a proxy for an underlying territorial dispute; people who insist on the term GNU/Linux want the FSF to get most of the credit for Linux because [Stallman] and friends wrote many of its user-level tools  Neither this theory nor the term GNU/Linux has gained more than minority acceptance 

When Linus Torvalds was asked in the documentary Revolution OS whether the name "GNU/Linux" was justified, he replied:

Well, I think it's justified, but it's justified if you actually make a GNU distribution of Linux     the same way that I think that "Red Hat Linux" is fine, or "SUSE Linux" or "Debian Linux", because if you actually make your own distribution of Linux, you get to name the thing, but calling Linux in general "GNU Linux" I think is just ridiculous 
An earlier comment by Torvalds on the naming controversy was:

 Umm, this discussion has gone on quite long enough, thank you very much  It doesn't really matter what people call Linux, as long as credit is given where credit is due (on both sides)  Personally, I'll very much continue to call it "Linux",    
The GNU people tried calling it GNU/Linux, and that's ok   It's certainly no worse a name than "Linux Pro" or "Red Hat Linux" or
"Slackware Linux"    
Lignux is just a punny name—I think Linux/GNU or GNU/Linux is a bit more "professional"    

The name "GNU/Linux," particularly when using Stallman's preferred pronunciation, has been criticized for its perceived clumsiness and verbosity, a factor that Torvalds has cited as the downfall of operating systems such as 386BSD The Linux Journal speculated that Stallman's advocacy of the combined name stems from frustration that "Linus got the glory for what [Stallman] wanted to do "Others have suggested that, regardless of the merits, Stallman's persistence in what sometimes seems a lost cause makes him and GNU look bad  For example, Larry McVoy (author of BitKeeper, once used to manage Linux kernel development) opined that "claiming credit only makes one look foolish and greedy" Many users and vendors who prefer the name "Linux," such as Jim Gettys, one of the original developers of the X Window System, point to the inclusion of non-GNU, non-kernel tools, such as KDE, LibreOffice, and Firefox, in end-user operating systems based on the Linux kernel:

 There are lots of people on this bus; I don't hear a clamor of support that GNU is more essential than many of the other components; can't take a wheel away, and end up with a functional vehicle, or an engine, or the seats  I recommend you be happy we have a bus 

See also
Alternative terms for free software
GNU variants
List of GNU packages
History of free software
Passage 8:
Metalogix Software
Metalogix Software is an independent software vendor, founded in 2001 in Vancouver, British Columbia and was acquired by Quest Software, Inc  in July 2018  Metalogix develops, sells, and provides support for content infrastructure software for Microsoft SharePoint, Microsoft Exchange and Microsoft Office 365 platforms 
Metalogix sells an array of products for managing content infrastructure  The company's primary product is Content Matrix, which migrates content between SharePoint versions 
Metalogix is part of Quest Software, Inc  having been acquired in July 2018 

See also
Axceler, a company acquired by Metalogix in 2013 
Passage 9:
XWiki
XWiki is a free wiki software platform written in Java with a design emphasis on extensibility  XWiki is an enterprise wiki  It includes WYSIWYG editing, OpenDocument based document import/export, semantic annotations and tagging, and advanced permissions management As an application wiki, XWiki allows for the storing of structured data and the execution of server side script within the wiki interface  Scripting languages including Velocity, Apache Groovy, Python, Ruby and PHP can be written directly into wiki pages using wiki macros  User created data structures can be defined in wiki documents and instances of those structures can be attached to wiki documents, stored in a database, and queried using either Hibernate query language or XWiki's own query language XWiki org's extension wiki  is home to XWiki extensions ranging from code snippets which can be pasted into wiki pages to loadable core modules  Many of XWiki's features are provided by extensions which are bundled with it The wikitext is rendered using the XWiki Rendering Engine which extends WikiModel  and Doxia systems, allowing it to parse Confluence, JSPWiki, Creole, MediaWiki, and TWiki syntaxes as well as XWiki's own syntax  XWiki pages are written by default using the WYSIWYG editor and rendered with XWiki syntax to format text, create tables, create links, display images, etc 

Development
XWiki code is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License and hosted on GitHub where everyone is free to fork the source code and develop changes in their own repository  The content included in the XWiki wiki is licensed under a Creative Commons attribution license so that it can be redistributed as long as it references XWiki; derivatives can be re-licensed entirely  While most of the active developers are funded by commercial support company XWiki SAS, XWiki SAS maintains a strict boundary between itself and the XWiki free software project  All decisions about the direction of the XWiki software project are made by consensus of the committers must go through the developers' mailing list 

Open source projects
XWiki relies heavily on other open source projects to work  They include:

Groovy: for advanced scripting requirements
Hibernate: relational database storage
Lucene: to index all the content of a wiki and its attachments and allow the search within their content 
Velocity: a template language

History
XWiki was originally written by Ludovic Dubost who founded XPertNet SARL later to become XWiki SAS, and it was first released in January 2004 under the GNU General Public License  The "X" in the name comes from "eXtensible Wiki" (when you pronounce it, it sounds as 'X') 
The first version of the Wiki Farm xwiki com was released in April 2004  In addition the open source project was hosted on SourceForge and the first commit there was done on the 15th of December 2003 
In 2006, the license was changed to the GNU Lesser General Public License to give the developer community greater flexibility, Apache Maven developer Vincent Massol became the lead developer and XWiki won the Lutece d'Or award for best open source software developed for the enterprise 
After 6 beta versions and 5 release candidates, XWiki 1 0 was released on May 22, 2007 bringing new features such as stand-alone installer and semantic tagging  2007 also brought the introduction of XWiki Watch for allowing teams to collaboratively follow RSS feeds 

Features
Structured content and inline scripting, which allows building  wiki applications
User rights management (by wiki / space / page, using groups, etc   )
PDF export
Full-text search
Version control
Import office documents into wiki syntax through OpenOffice
Various protocols for accessing the wiki (WebDAV, REST, XML-RPC)
Content and site design Export and Import
Plugins, API, Programming   
More features on the official website XWiki is also an application wiki that allows the creation of objects and classes within the wiki  This way, forms can be developed in a very short time span and be reused to enter data on the wiki following a specific template  This means that end users can be presented with a page on which the layout is already drawn, where they can directly fill in the fields needed 

See also
Comparison of wiki software
Passage 10:
EtherApe
EtherApe is a packet sniffer/network traffic monitoring tool, developed for Unix  EtherApe is free, open source software developed under the GNU General Public License 

Functionality
Network traffic is displayed using a graphical interface  Each node represents a specific host  Links represent connections to hosts  Nodes and links are color-coded to represent different protocols forming the various types of traffic on the network  Individual nodes and their connecting links grow and shrink in size with increases and decreases in network traffic 

History
Originally authored by Juan Toledo, the first version of EtherApe (version 0 0 1) was released on February 18, 2000  In a 2006 survey, Insecure org named EtherApe number 43 on its list of the "Top 100 Network Security Tools" 

Features
Some of the features listed about EtherApe include (the following list refers to version 0 9 20 of EtherApe):

graphical network traffic display
color-coded node and links for most used protocols
optional background image
traffic may be viewed on one's own network, end to end (IP) or port to port (TCP)
a variety of frame and packet types are supported
data view can be manipulated using a network filter
clicking a node or link provides additional information regarding including protocol and traffic information
summary protocol and node table
can read traffic from a file or an actual network
handles traffic on Ethernet, WLAN, VLAN plus several other media and encapsulation types
supports both IPv4 and IPv6
XML export of node, link and traffic statistics
"central node ring" mode 
"column" mode 
optional name resolving using c-ares library
packet capture and display run on different processes

Security
EtherApe requires root privileges to capture packets (but not to replay captured files)  Starting with release 0 9 15 capturing is delegated to a separate process, while the main interface can run with lower privileges, significantly reducing the risk associated with capturing packets from untrusted sources (e g  Internet) 

See also
Comparison of packet analyzers
tcpdump, a packet analyzer
Ngrep, a tool that can match regular expressions within the network packet payloads
netsniff-ng, a free Linux networking toolkit
Wireshark, a GUI based alternative to tcpdump
dsniff, a packet sniffer and set of traffic analysis tools
Passage 11:
Intellectual property
Intellectual property (IP) is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect  There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others  The best-known types are patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets  The modern concept of intellectual property developed in England in the 17th and 18th centuries  The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in most of the world's legal systems Supporters of intellectual property laws often describe their main purpose as encouraging the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods  To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to certain information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time  Supporters argue that because IP laws allow people to protect their original ideas and prevent unauthorized copying, creators derive greater individual economic benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and thus have more economic incentives to create them in the first place  Advocates of IP believe that these economic incentives and legal protections stimulate innovation and contribute to technological progress of certain kinds The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods  Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can in theory "consume" an intellectual good without its being depleted  Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from appropriation problems: Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but producers of information or literature can usually do little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price  Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law 

History
The Statute of Monopolies (1624) and the British Statute of Anne (1710) are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property 
"Literary property" was the term predominantly used in the British legal debates of the 1760s and 1770s over the extent to which authors and publishers of works also had rights deriving from the common law of property (Millar v Taylor (1769), Hinton v Donaldson (1773), Donaldson v Becket (1774))  The first known use of the term intellectual property dates to this time, when a piece published in the Monthly Review in 1769 used the phrase  The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays The German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (Schutz des geistigen Eigentums) to the confederation  When the administrative secretariats established by the Paris Convention (1883) and the Berne Convention (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property 
The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960 and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) by treaty as an agency of the United Nations  According to legal scholar Mark Lemley, it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention), and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the Bayh–Dole Act in 1980 
The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) for monopoly privileges  Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal right obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention  demonstrating the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine 
The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al  v  Brown, in which Justice Charles L  Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own     as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears " The statement that "discoveries are     property" goes back earlier  Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years " In Europe, French author A  Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846 
Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation  Historically, therefore, legal protection was granted only when necessary to encourage invention, and it was limited in time and scope  This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and improvement The concept's origin can potentially be traced back further  Jewish law includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist—notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century  In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury" According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift"  Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development  Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries " Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients’ access to medicines, Internet users’ access to information, farmers’ access to seeds, programmers’ access to source codes or students’ access to scientific articles  However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its objective to have a “one-fits-all” protection law on Intellectual Property has been viewed with controversies regarding differences in the development level of countries  Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive agreement reached by the world 

Rights
Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets  There are also more specialized or derived varieties of sui generis exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called mask work rights in the US), supplementary protection certificates for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them), and database rights (in European law)  The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and geographical indications 

Patents
A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention  An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process, and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there needs to be an industrial applicability : 17  To enrich the body of knowledge and to stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public 

Copyright
A copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time  Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works"  Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed 

Industrial design rights
An industrial design right (sometimes called "design right" or design patent) protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian  An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value  An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft  Generally speaking, it is what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods 

Plant varieties
Plant breeders' rights or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new variety of a plant  The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered 

Trademarks
A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression that distinguishes a particular trader's products or services from similar products or services of other traders 

Trade dress
Trade dress is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers 

Trade secrets
A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers  There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e g , Formula of its soft drinks is a trade secret for Coca-Cola )

Motivation and justification
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers  To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time  Because they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation  The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods  Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible – an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted  Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation – while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price  Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work  Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection"  "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better  The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions"  This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric  Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the America Invents Act, stress international harmonization  Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of commodification derived from this possibility  The issue still remains open in legal scholarship 

Financial incentive
These exclusive rights allow intellectual property owners to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated research and development costs  In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "The Congress shall have power 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries '" ”Some commentators, such as David Levine and Michele Boldrin, dispute this justification In 2013 the United States Patent & Trademark Office approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the U S  economy is more than US $5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people  The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union  In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in pension-led funding and other types of business finance  However, in 2013, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently" 

Economic growth
The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth  The WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook gives two reasons for intellectual property laws:

One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations  The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development 
The Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally" Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets  "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72% more value added (price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries" A joint research project of the WIPO and the United Nations University measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth "

Morality
According to Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author"  Although the relationship between intellectual property and human rights is complex, there are moral arguments for intellectual property 
The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories  Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual  Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation  Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:

Natural Rights/Justice Argument: this argument is based on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and products which are produced by their body  Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust  Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind, it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas  Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create  They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create  Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production 
Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument: according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not  Innovation and invention in 19th century America has been attributed to the development of the patent system  By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility  The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of intellectual works"  Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas  Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility 
"Personality" Argument: this argument is based on a quote from Hegel: "Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own"  European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality"  Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered  Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality Lysander Spooner (1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases" Writer Ayn Rand argued in her book Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue  The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property  To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act 

Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement
Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action 
As of 2011, trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global trade  During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, IP has been a consideration in punishment of the aggressor through trade sanctions, has been proposed as a method to prevent future wars of aggression involving nuclear weapons, and has caused concern about stifling innovation by keeping patent information secret 

Patent infringement
Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder, i e  from the patent owner  The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection is defined in the claims of the granted patent  There is safe harbor in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research  This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or to gather data to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug  In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e g , in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea) 

Copyright infringement
Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a work, or to make derivative works, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator  It is often called "piracy"  In the United States, while copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright  Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder  The ACTA trade agreement, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement  There are limitations and exceptions to copyright, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement  Examples of such doctrines are the fair use and fair dealing doctrine 

Trademark infringement
Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party  In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement  Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law 

Trade secret misappropriation
Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available  In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the Uniform Trade Secrets Act  The United States also has federal law in the form of the Economic Espionage Act of 1996 (18 U S C  §§ 1831–1839), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime  This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity  The first, 18 U S C  § 1831(a), criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers  The second, 18 U S C  § 1832, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes  (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses ) In Commonwealth common law jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an equitable right rather than a property right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States 

Criticisms
The term "intellectual property"
Criticism of the term intellectual property ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like property and rights in fashions that contradict practice and law  Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations, and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc Free Software Foundation founder Richard Stallman argues that, although the term intellectual property is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion"  He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights"  Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term  He argues that, "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of 'intellectual property' "Similarly, economists Boldrin and Levine prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which, they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights  They further argued that "stronger patents do little or nothing to encourage innovation", mainly explained by its tendency to create market monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology transfer On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers  Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and case law to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge  He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time" Law professor, writer and political activist Lawrence Lessig, along with many other copyleft and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile)  They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original)  Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is no natural scarcity of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original  Stephan Kinsella has objected to intellectual property on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas Entrepreneur and politician Rickard Falkvinge and hacker Alexandre Oliva have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect Newspeak to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and DRM 

Alternative terms
In civil law jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as intellectual rights, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included moral rights and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold  Use of the term intellectual rights has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term intellectual property has increased 
Alternative terms monopolies on information and intellectual monopoly have emerged among those who argue against the "property" or "intellect" or "rights" assumptions, notably Richard Stallman  The backronyms intellectual protectionism and intellectual poverty, whose initials are also IP, have also found supporters, especially among those who have used the backronym digital restrictions management The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an intellectual monopoly privilege (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen and Thomas Alured Faunce 

Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws
Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the free culture movement, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of pharmaceutical patents), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses, and argue that ever-expansive monopolies in the form of copyright extensions, software patents, and business method patents harm the public interest  More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that patent thickets are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like nanotechnology Petra Moser has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:

Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation  On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation 
In support of that argument, Jörg Baten, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing – which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent-owners – encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition 
Peter Drahos notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources  When authority is granted to the few over resources on which the many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many  This has consequences for both political and economic freedom within a society ": 13 The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between respecting  and implementing current intellectual property systems and other human rights  In 2001 the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human rights laws  According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so, they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits  In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself" Ethical problems are most pertinent when socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection  While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug  "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations" : 1108–9 Libertarians have differing views on intellectual property  Stephan Kinsella, an anarcho-capitalist on the right-wing of libertarianism, argues against intellectual property because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates artificial scarcity and infringes on the right to own tangible property  Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:

[I]magine the time when men lived in caves  One bright guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops  To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it  They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins  But the first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses  It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e g , land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea  Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights 
Thomas Jefferson once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on 13 August 1813:

If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it  Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it  He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine, receives light without darkening me 
In 2005 the Royal Society of Arts launched the Adelphi Charter, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law Another aspect of current U S  Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship  Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against cultural appropriation of indigenous knowledge, for which a collective IP regime is needed Intellectual property law has been criticized as not recognizing new forms of art such as the remix culture, whose participants often commit what technically constitutes violations of such laws, creation works such as anime music videos and others, or are otherwise subject to unnecessary burdens and limitations which prevent them from fully expressing themselves : 70

Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws
Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope 
As scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies  Patents have been granted for living organisms, and in the United States, certain living organisms have been patentable for over a century The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions in the United States and in Europe  With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in orphan works (copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)  In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual property rights  In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor  Additionally Congress's awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property  These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority The growth of the Internet, and particularly distributed search engines like Kazaa and Gnutella, have represented a challenge for copyright policy  The Recording Industry Association of America, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against copyright infringement, which the industry calls "piracy"  The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company Napster, and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright  The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based digital rights management tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works  Laws such as the Digital Millennium Copyright Act have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital rights management systems  Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the Copyright Directive  Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the Conditional Access Directive of 1998 (98/84/EEC)  This can hinder legal uses, affecting public domain works, limitations and exceptions to copyright, or uses allowed by the copyright holder  Some copyleft licenses, like the GNU GPL 3, are designed to counter this  Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions, such as when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program, or for accessibility reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal 
In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states  Pursuant to TRIPs, any sign which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark 

Use in corporate tax avoidance
Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and tax avoidance  IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) tools, which the OECD estimates costs $100–240 billion in lost annual tax revenues In 2017–2018, both the U S  and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the OECD BEPS Project timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above, and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes:

U S  Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes 
EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than the U S  TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT The departure of the U S  and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or capital allowance BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles)   In contrast, the OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a legal and a GAAP accounting concept 

Gender gap in intellectual property
Women have historically been underrepresented in the creation and ownership of intellectual property covered by intellectual property rights  According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, women composed only 16 5% of patent holders even as recently as 2020  This disparity is the result of several factors including systemic bias, sexism and discrimination within the intellectual property space, underrepresentation within STEM, and barriers to access of necessary finance and knowledge in order to obtain intellectual property rights, among other reasons 

See also
Copyfraud
Defensive publication
Freedom of information
Information policy
Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property
New product development
Sweat of the brow
Passage 12:
InfraRecorder
InfraRecorder is an open-source CD and DVD writing program for Microsoft Windows  First started by Christian Kindahl in the Google Summer of Code 2006, InfraRecorder uses the cdrtools software library to perform the actual burning 
Since 0 46, InfraRecorder is released under the terms of the GNU General Public License 3 and is free software  In November 2007, CNET rated InfraRecorder the best free alternative to commercial DVD burning software InfraRecorder is included on the VALO-CD, a collection of open source software for Windows 

Functionality
InfraRecorder supports disk rewriting and dual-layer DVDs  InfraRecorder can also burn a disc from an ISO image file  This program is completely portable on the Windows operating system 
As of version 0 40, InfraRecorder offers features similar to most CD- and DVD-authoring software, including the creation and burning of data and audio disc images, the ability to work with rewritable and multisession discs, and the ability to extract WAV and ISO image files from discs  One can also use the LAME MP3 encoder to save Audio CD tracks 
InfraRecorder is available in a version that will run natively on 64-bit versions of Windows; however, this version doesn't include an Ogg Vorbis decoder or libsnd library due to compilation difficulties with MinGW on the 64-bit Windows platform 

See also
List of optical disc authoring software
List of ISO image software
Passage 13:
CDex
CDex is a free software package for Digital Audio Extraction from Audio CD (a so-called CD ripper) and audio format conversion for Microsoft Windows  It converts CDDA tracks from a CD to standard computer sound files, such as WAV, MP3, or Ogg Vorbis  CDex was previously released as free software under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL);  however, although the website claims that this is still the case, no source code has been released since 2005  It was originally written by Albert L  Faber, and is developed and maintained by Georgy Berdyshev  Recent versions of the software may be compromised and a security threat 

Features
CDex is able to convert CD audio into several formats including WAV, Vorbis, MP3 (using the LAME encoder), VQF, Musepack, APE, and many others  As of version 1 70b2 FLAC encoding is native, but for version 1 51 FLAC and other codecs can be used by using an external encoder  It supports CD-Text to allow ripped tracks, with reduced user effort, to have the names of songs, artists and albums  It can also automatically identify (most) inserted audio CDs and look up the metadata by means of an online database (freedb) for automatic tagging, naming and sorting of ripped files  It also includes cdparanoia for robust CD reading  CDex is considered to be very configurable and relatively easy to use 

History
In 2000, at the start of the beta phase for version 1 30, CDex was turned into a free software project (cdexos: CDex Open Source) and hosted on SourceForge net 
In January 2006, the CDex homepage requested a new project manager and developer, implying that Albert L  Faber had abandoned development of CDex   On 5 June 2006, CDex 1 70 Beta 1 was released via the SourceForge net website (ascribed to Georgy Berdyshev)  It was the first official update to the program in almost three years, with CDex 1 70 Beta 2 following soon after on 23 June 2006  In 2008 Berdyshev was joined by Ariane Gomes as project developers  On 18 November 2009 CDex 1 70 Beta 4 was released  CDex 1 70 Final was released on 29 June 2014 featuring a Unicode and Multibyte version 
On 30 June 2007, just one day after the release of the GPLv3, the license of CDex was updated  However, the last version for which source code was made available is 1 70 Beta 2, and the SourceForge project appears to have been shut down in July 2015, shortly after the release of version 1 79 
From version 1 76 the installer includes the adware OpenCandy 
In November 2017 version 1 96 was released  It is not clear who is the current code maintainer, and no contact details are provided  Four further versions were released by March 2018 
The default Remote Server database in CDEx, Freedb, became inaccessible by June 2020   The gnudb org site at location gnudb gnudb org (on HTTP port 80) using proxy gnudb org works as a replacement for the inactive default Remote Server database 

Potential risk
The recent reincarnation of CDex has seen a number of sponsored programs being automatically selected during installation with little information about their nature  Scan results suggest there may be a substantial risk to any system these are installed on along with the source code no longer being publicly accessible, preventing independent code review 
This project should be considered as exploited by the new maintainer and should not be trusted  This project should not be trusted or installed on your machine  As the new maintainer has taken over new releases have been pushed out showing activity, the support links are broken, the ticketing system does not exist and is a broken link, there are no contact details or method to interact with the developer and the installer is installing adware without any notifications  The new maintainer has exploited the strong reputation and work of the project and turned it into mechanism to profit  Updates are being made to the application, including the installer with hidden software being installed 
Later versions apparently also add artifacts to ends of certain tracks that are ripped by the program   Rolling back to an earlier version of the program eliminates this issue 



ground_truth: Richard Stallman

rms

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When was the last time Peter Till's sports team beat the winner of the 1894-95 FA Cup?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Both teams were appearing in their first final Both teams entered the competition in the first round  Burnley's matches ranged from comfortable victories to close affairs  They beat Bolton Wanderers 3–0 in the third round, but beat Sheffield United 1–0 in a replay of their semi-final which finished 0–0  Liverpool matches were generally close affairs, two of their five ties went to a replay  Apart from a 5–1 victory in their third round replay against West Ham United, their biggest margin of victory was by two goals 
Watched by a crowd of 72,778, including King George V, who became the first reigning monarch to attend a FA Cup Final and to present the trophy to the winners, the first half was goalless  Burnley opened the scoring the 57th minute, when ex-Evertonian Bert Freeman scored  Liverpool could not find an equaliser in the remaining minutes and Burnley won the match 1–0 to win their first and to date only FA Cup 
The match was the last FA Cup Final to be played at Crystal Palace 

Match
Details
Passage 3:
Singapore FA Cup
The Singapore FA Cup, (also known as the Singapore Pools FA Cup for sponsorship reasons), is an annual football competition in Singapore Initially held for clubs from the S League from 1996-1998, the Football Association of Singapore decided to change format of the cup to allow only teams from National Football League to take part in the knock out competition from 1999,
so that the S League clubs can focus on Singapore Cup, competition created in 1998 After the Singapore Cup and earlier League Cup, Singapore FA Cup is the next major cup competition in Singapore  For a number of years, the FA Cup was solely restricted to NFL clubs  In 2006, S League clubs were once again allowed in the competition, but were only permitted to field their developmental Prime League teams  The team matchups were drawn out of a hat against one another for the initial 2006 and 2007 seasons, before being seeded into two groups since 2008 

Results
Note: 
Tampines Rovers SC is a separate entity from Tampines Rovers 
SAFSA is a separate entity from Singapore Armed Forces 
Police SA is a separate entity from Home United (formerly Police FC) 
Passage 4:
Peter Till
Peter Till (born 7 September 1985) is an English former professional footballer who played as a winger 
He has played in the Football League for Scunthorpe United, Boston United, Leyton Orient, Grimsby Town, Chesterfield and Walsall  Till started his career with the Birmingham City youth system before making his first-team debut in 2005  He was loaned to Scunthorpe United, Boston United, Leyton Orient and Grimsby Town, whom he joined permanently in 2007  Till made an appearance at Wembley Stadium in the 2008 Football League Trophy Final and was loaned to Chesterfield in 2009  He was released after making over 80 appearances for Grimsby and subsequently joined hometown club Walsall  Being released after one season with the club, he joined York City of the Conference Premier in 2010  Till signed for Fleetwood Town a year later and won the Conference Premier title in his one season with the club 

Playing career
Birmingham City
Till was born in Walsall, West Midlands  He came through the Birmingham City youth system after joining the club as a schoolboy and he signed a two-year professional contract on 4 July 2005  He was included in the matchday first-team squad on a few occasions during the 2004–05 season, with Academy manager Stewart Hall commenting "When he has trained and worked with the first team he has looked very good and he has had an excellent season in the reserves and looked a real threat"  He made his debut as an 85th minute substitute in a 2–0 victory over League One team Scunthorpe United in the League Cup on 20 September 2005  Till was loaned to Scunthorpe United for a month on 5 October 2005 after being brought to their attention in the game weeks earlier, with manager Brian Laws commenting "I've watched him twice more since our game and I've liked what I've seen"  His debut came two days later in a 2–0 victory over Tranmere Rovers  The loan deal was extended until January 2006 after Till impressed Laws  He returned to Birmingham on 9 January 2006, having made only 10 appearances for Scunthorpe due to injury and illness Till was loaned out again on 13 January 2006, joining League Two club Boston United  He made his debut a day later in a 1–0 victory at Chester City and his only goal came in a 3–1 victory over Bury on 21 January 2006  On 31 January 2006, the loan was extended until the end of the 2005–06 season and he finished his spell at the club with 16 appearances and one goal  Till joined League One club Leyton Orient on a one-month loan on 6 October 2006  His debut came the following day, making the starting line-up in a 0–0 draw with Chesterfield and he picked up an injury on his final appearance, a 3–1 defeat to Bristol City in the Football League Trophy on 1 November 2006  Orient opted not to extend Till's loan and his period at the club ended on 4 November 2006 with five appearances to his name 

Grimsby Town
Having failed to establish himself at Birmingham, Till joined Grimsby Town of League Two on an initial one-month loan on 23 November 2006  Tony Butcher of Cod Almighty described him as an "instant hit with wonderful wingery" on his debut in a 2–0 victory over Accrington Stanley on 25 November 2006  After impressing manager Alan Buckley during his loan at Blundell Park, Grimsby agreed a deal with Birmingham and offered Till a permanent contract  He eventually joined Grimsby on a two-and-a-half-year contract on 5 January 2007, having already made seven appearances for the team during the 2006–07 season  His first appearance following his permanent transfer was a 2–0 defeat to Chester on 9 January 2007  Till received the first yellow card of his career in a 1–0 defeat to Swindon Town on 17 March 2007 and he finished the season with 22 appearances His first appearance of the 2007–08 season came in a 1–1 draw with Notts County on 11 August 2007 and his first goal came in a 4–1 victory over Huddersfield Town in the Football League Trophy on 4 September 2007  He played six games and scored two goals in Grimsby's Football League Trophy run in the 2007–08 season, which saw Grimsby reach the final  Till started the game as Grimsby were beaten 2–0 by Milton Keynes Dons (MK Dons) at Wembley Stadium on 30 March 2008  He finished the season with 44 appearances and four goals Till started the 2008–09 season by playing in a 0–0 draw with Rochdale on 9 August 2008 and he scored in the local derby against League Two rivals Lincoln City at Sincil Bank in a 1–1 draw on 30 August  Till joined fellow League Two club Chesterfield on a one-month loan on 15 January 2009, having made 21 appearances and scored two goals for Grimsby up to that point during the season  He made his debut in a 3–1 victory at Chester on 17 January 2009 and in February the loan was extended until the end of the season after impressing manager Lee Richardson  Grimsby released him on 30 April 2009 and in retrospect he commented "It has been a wake-up call if I am honest  I have realised that I can't coast if I want to get to where I want to be  I have to give 110 per cent every day, not just in games"  Till finished the loan at Chesterfield with 16 appearances 

Walsall
Till signed for League One club Walsall on a free transfer on a one-year contract on 23 July 2009 following a successful trial with the club  He commented "To be at my hometown club gives me an extra incentive to do well"  His debut came in a 1–0 victory at Brighton & Hove Albion on 8 August 2009, in which he was substituted in the 88th minute  Till suffered a hamstring injury in September 2009, which allowed midfielder Mark Bradley to get a run in the team  After returning to fitness he made his comeback as a 74th-minute substitute in a 1–0 defeat at MK Dons on 10 October 2009 and started on his next appearance, which was a 2–1 defeat at Colchester United on 24 October  He picked up a minor injury in a 1–1 draw with Charlton Athletic on 2 February 2010 and he was able to feature in the next game, a 0–0 draw with Bristol Rovers  During Walsall's 2–1 victory at Leeds United on 16 February 2010 he picked up a hamstring injury and he returned to the team after entering a 2–0 defeat at Leyton Orient on 13 March as a 77th-minute substitute  He finished an injury-hit 2009–10 season with 30 appearances for Walsall before the club released him on 10 May 2010 

York City
Till signed a one-year contract with Conference Premier club York City on 29 June 2010 and following the move he said "I spoke to a number of clubs but this felt right  The gaffer made me feel really wanted so that was a key decision in coming"  He made his debut in the opening game of the 2010–11 season as a 38th-minute substitute for Levi Mackin in a 2–1 defeat to Kidderminster Harriers on 14 August 2010  His first goal for York came in his next appearance after he scored the equaliser in a 2–2 draw at Bath City on 21 August 2010 after entering the game as a 74th-minute substitute  Till made his first start in a 3–0 victory against Altrincham on 28 August 2010 and he was substituted in the 82nd minute  He scored his first home goal with the opener as York beat Rushden & Diamonds 2–0 on 4 September 2010  He finished the season with 45 appearances and four goals 

Fleetwood Town
Till agreed on 25 May 2011 to sign for Conference Premier rivals Fleetwood Town on a two-year contract after the expiration of his York contract  Due to a knee injury, he had to wait until 12 November 2011 to make his Fleetwood debut, when he entered their 2–0 FA Cup first round victory over League One team Wycombe Wanderers as a substitute in stoppage time  Till finished the season with 22 appearances and one goal as Fleetwood won the Conference Premier title and thus promotion to League Two, before being released by the club after having his contract cancelled by mutual consent on 3 July 2012 

Tamworth
Till signed for Conference Premier club Tamworth on 19 July 2012  He made a scoring debut for Tamworth in the opening game of the 2012–13 season with the first goal of a 3–2 victory away at Hyde on 11 August 2012  He finished the season with 34 appearances and one goal 

Solihull Moors
Till signed for Solihull Moors of the Conference North on 6 June 2013 

Leamington
He signed for Solihull's Conference North rivals Leamington on 22 January 2014 

Later career
Till joined newly promoted Northern Premier League Premier Division club Halesowen Town on 12 June 2014  He made five appearances before signing for Halesowen's divisional rivals Stourbridge on 8 September 2014  He stepped down a division when signing for Northern Premier League Division One South club Stafford Rangers during January 2015  In July 2016, he left Rangers due to college commitments He then spent the 2016–17 season with Chasetown, another Northern Premier League Division One South club, before signing for Midland League Premier Division Walsall Wood  Till rejoined Darren Byfield as player-assistant manager at Alvechurch in 2019, but left in October to return to Walsall Wood 

Style of play
Till plays as a winger on the left or right sides and his play has been described as "tricky"  He has described himself as an old-fashioned winger, saying "I am very quick, very fit  I like to get at the full-back – an old-fashioned winger type, if you like  I like to cause the full-back problems and get my crosses in and link up with our full-back as well"  Walsall manager Chris Hutchings described him as "an attacking wide-man with pace who is not afraid to take people on" in 2009  Till is also able to play as a striker 

Personal life
His father Peter, Sr  is a former professional boxer 

Career statistics
As of match played 26 August 2015

Honours
Fleetwood Town

Conference Premier: 2011–12
Passage 5:
Second City derby
In English football, the Second City derby or Birmingham derby, is the local derby between the two major clubs in the city of Birmingham – Aston Villa and Birmingham City, first contested in 1879  Villa play at Villa Park while Birmingham play at St Andrew's, the two grounds separated by roughly 2 4 miles (3 9 km)  It is known as the Second City Derby based on Birmingham being referred to as the second city of the United Kingdom  The two clubs are generally regarded as each other's most fierce rivals  In addition both sides have affiliated women's sides, Aston Villa W F C  and Birmingham City W F C 

History
The clubs first met on 27 September 1879, when Birmingham City were called Small Heath Alliance  The game, on a pitch at Small Heath's Muntz Street ground described by the Villa players as "only suitable for pot-holing", finished 1–0 – recorded as "one goal and a disputed goal to nil" – to the home side  Villa won the first competitive game between the clubs, in the Second Round of the FA Cup at Wellington Road in 1887, by four goals to nil, and their first league encounter, in the First Division in the 1894–95 season, 2–1 The two teams have engaged in several hotly contested matches  In the 1925 league game at Villa Park, with the home side 3–0 ahead with eleven minutes to go, Blues scored three times in a dramatic final spell to draw the match  The following year, Aston Villa made headlines with the signing of Tom 'Pongo' Waring, and his first appearance was for the reserves against Birmingham City's reserves, which famously drew a crowd of 23,000  Waring scored three times in the match The most significant clash was the final of the 1963 League Cup, which was staged not long after Aston Villa had beaten Birmingham City 4–0 in the league  Blues won 3–1 on aggregate over the two-legged final to claim their first major domestic honour During the late 1970s to early 1980s both Villa and Blues met regularly in the First Division and both teams had some memorable successes in the fixture  In 1980–81 Villa did the double over Blues and went on to win the First Division title  Blues scored a memorable 3–0 victory at St Andrew's in the first meeting following Villa's European Cup triumph in 1982  Both teams promptly went into decline  Blues racked up a 3–0 win in a relegation battle at Villa Park in March 1986 but were relegated at the end of that season  Villa would be demoted the following campaign  The next time Villa met Blues in a league fixture at Villa Park again was in the Second Division and saw a 2–0 Blues victory  The reverse fixture at St Andrew's was a 2–1 Villa victory with both goals coming from Garry Thompson  The two sides would only meet again in the 1980s in cup competitions  Villa won 7–0 on aggregate when they clashed twice in the 1988–89 League Cup  The same season Villa also won a Full Members Cup clash 6–0 

The Premier League Era
Following the creation of the Premier League, Aston Villa and Birmingham City met twice in the second round of the 1993–94 League Cup  Villa won both matches 1–0  The game at St Andrew's was settled by a Kevin Richardson goal after his keeper Mark Bosnich had saved a penalty from John Frain to keep the game at 0–0  The second leg at Villa Park was notable for a winning goal from Villa's Dean Saunders and a red card for Blues' Paul Tait  Villa went on to win the trophy 
Blues' promotion to the Premier League in 2002 saw fans eagerly anticipating the first league derbies in 15 years  Blues won both derbies 3–0 and 2–0, respectively  Both matches saw goalkeeping errors by Villa goalkeeper Peter Enckelman, including a goal scored directly from an Olof Mellberg throw-in  Violence between both sets of fans occurred before both matches as evening kick-off times had allowed fans to get drunk over the course of the day  In March 2003, during the game at Villa Park, two Villa players were sent off, Dion Dublin for a head-butt on Blues' Robbie Savage and Joey Guðjónsson for a reckless two-footed tackle on Matthew Upson  Trouble also took place following the game on Witton Lane outside Villa Park, where missiles were hurled at police who were attempting to keep both sets of fans apart 
The 2003–04 Premiership season saw games ending in 0–0 and 2–2 draws  The 2–2 draw saw Blues recover a two-goal deficit thanks to a 90th-minute equaliser from Stern John  Both games were lunchtime kick-offs to avoid drunken behaviour, which was achieved although the games lost none of their passionate edge  The following season Blues got back to winning ways, with 2–1 victory at Villa Park just before Christmas and 2–0 at home in March, Villa keeper Thomas Sørensen making mistakes in both matches, though it's debatable if his errors directly affected the respective results  In the 2005–06 Premiership Season, Villa finally beat Blues in the Premiership, thanks to a Kevin Phillips goal  This was followed up by another Villa victory on 16 April 2006, Easter Sunday, with Aston Villa winning 3–1 thanks to two goals from Milan Baroš and a bicycle kick from Gary Cahill  Blues were relegated in 2006 but subsequently promoted in 2007 
In November 2007, Villa won their third consecutive derby match with a 2–1 victory at St Andrew's  Former Villa defender Liam Ridgewell scored an own goal to put Villa 1–0 up, Blues equalised through Mikael Forssell only for Gabriel Agbonlahor to clinch it with a late header for Villa, having cleared off his own line seconds before  Violent clashes took place outside the ground after the game in which over 20 police officers were hurt  The derby on 20 April 2008 between the two sides ended in a 5–1 win for Aston Villa at Villa Park, the biggest winning margin for either side in a league match for 40 years 
Villa continued their winning ways in the derby, when they won both of the meetings between the clubs in the 2009–10 Premier League season  The first took place on 13 September 2009 at St Andrew's, and ended 1–0 to Aston Villa, with Agbonlahor scoring the winner in the 85th minute, once again there was trouble with 14 arrests  Villa then went on to beat Blues 1–0 at Villa Park thanks to a disputed penalty from James Milner in the 82nd minute  This was the 3rd time in 4 derbies that Villa had scored the winning goal in the final 10 minutes of the game  Villa also possess the record of six straight wins from 1987 to 1993, including five cup matches  This record was then achieved in the Premier League after Villa beat Blues 1–0 on 25 April 2010, setting a record of six straight league wins from 2005 to 2010  The record was finally ended at the next derby match on 31 October 2010, which resulted in a 0–0 draw at Villa Park  The return match at St Andrew's also ended in a draw, with it finishing 1–1 
In those games in October and December 2010 where Aston Villa played Birmingham City, at Villa Park (Premier League, 31 October) and St Andrew's (League Cup, 1 December, which was the first mid-week game between the two sides since 2003) violence between the two sets of supporters and hooligan firms occurred, with many fans being arrested  In the first game, there were scenes of violence outside Villa Park and there were a small amount of arrests including a Birmingham City club chef  In the second of the two games (and larger scale violence) after Blues had beaten Villa 2–1, Blues supporters came onto the pitch and confronted the visiting Villa fans, this resulted in flares, ripped out seats and other missiles being hurled by Villa fans into the Blues supporters, there were also flash points before and after the game including the attack on a Blues supporters pub by Villa hooligans, the events were described as a "warzone" by a supporter who attended the game  Birmingham City were later fined £40,000 by the Football Association for failing to control their fans On 10 April 2011, an episode of Police Academy UK, a TV show aired on BBC Three which documents overseas police officers' introduction to British crime and policing, was set in Birmingham and covered the violence that occurred at the game between Birmingham City and Aston Villa on 1 December 2010 On 17 June 2011, Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish swapped Blues for Villa in a move that shocked the football world  The reaction from both sets of supporters was one of anger  Blues supporters were angry at McLeish, who guided them to only their second ever major trophy win in February 2011, for betraying them to join bitter rivals Villa, and Villa fans were unhappy with the appointment of a manager that had got Blues relegated twice in four seasons, and was perceived to play a negative style of football; that he came from Blues only served to rub salt into the wound of the board making such an unambitious and negative appointment  Several hundred Villa supporters protested at Villa Park when it emerged that Villa owner Randy Lerner has begun talks with McLeish  McLeish received death threats from followers of both teams following his appointment as Aston Villa manager  This controversial move only increased tension and hostility between the players, supporters and owners of both clubs even more as Blues directors threatened legal action against Villa for allegedly "tapping up" McLeish, who resigned as Blues manager on 12 June 2011, while he was still under contract at Birmingham City  McLeish's appointment marked the first time in history that a manager had moved directly from Birmingham City to Aston Villa  On 14 May 2012, one day after the 2011–12 Premier League season ended, McLeish was sacked as Villa manager after a massively disappointing one season in charge 

The EFL Championship Era
After being relegated in 2011, Birmingham are still yet to gain promotion back to the top flight of English football  However, since Alex McLeish was sacked as Villa manager, Villa's poor form continued  Despite several manager changes over the next few years, after several close calls they were finally relegated at the end of the 2015/16 season  Earlier on in the 2015/16 season, the two teams were drawn to play each other in the third round of the League Cup  Aston Villa ran out 1–0 winners thanks to a goal from Rudy Gestede  
In the 2016–17 season the two teams faced off in the second tier of English football for the first time since 1987  The first game at St Andrew's ended in a 1–1 draw  Villa won the second match 1–0 with a 69th-minute goal scored by Agbonlahor  The two sides faced each other again in the league during the 2017/18 season, producing a dismal 0–0 draw at St  Andrews marred by Birmingham fans throwing clappers at the Villa players all throughout the game, before Villa emphatically fortified their second city superiority with a 2–0 victory in front of 41,232 spectators at Villa Park  Some fans believed this game to be a coming of age for lifelong Villa fan and local Jack Grealish, who produced a match-winning man-of-the-match display  
The teams next met on 25 November in one of the most exciting derby games in recent times, Villa ran out 4-2 winners after goals from Jonathan Kodjia, Jack Grealish, a Tammy Abraham penalty and Alan Hutton who ran half the length of the pitch to score, Pedersen and Lukas Jutkiewicz scored for Birmingham On 10 March 2019, a Birmingham City fan invaded the pitch during the reverse fixture at St  Andrew's and assaulted Aston Villa captain Jack Grealish on the pitch by punching him from behind in the head, which was labelled as "disgraceful and cowardly" by supporters of both teams  The man was arrested and charged by West Midlands Police  St Andrew's' security was criticised as a result  The game ended in an ironic twist with a 1–0 win for Aston Villa with Grealish scoring the winning goal  At the end of the same season, Villa were promoted as they won ten in a row including that game  Since then, this fiercely contested fixture hasn't been played between the two rivals 

Women's Sides
Birmingham City W F C  were founded in 1968, whilst Aston Villa W F C  were founded in 1973 as Solihull F C , and took on their current Aston Villa guise in 1996  During the 2000-01 and 2001-02 seasons both teams competed in the second tier FA Women's Premier League North  Birmingham were then promoted to the Women's Premier League National with Villa joining them for one season in 2003-04 before being relegated  Then followed 18 years of the teams being in different divisions, Birmingham being in the top tier and Villa elsewhere, until the 2020–21 Women's Super League season when Villa were promoted up to join Blues  In the first ever WSL match between the two sides Birmingham beat Villa 1–0 at an empty Villa Park (due to restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom), while the Birmingham's home match which was also played behind closed doors at Damson Park, Solihull was a 1–1 draw  In the 2021–22 season, Aston Villa won 1–0 at St  Andrew's  Birmingham returned the favour and won 1–0 at Villa Park on 8 May 2022, the final day of the season, as they were relegated to the FA Women's Championship As of the 2021–22 Birmingham currently play at St Andrew's, home of the men's team, having played at Redditch Utd, Stratford Town and Solihull Moors in the 21st century  Villa play at Walsall's Bescot Stadium, having moved from Boldmere St Michaels - although important games such as the Second City Derby will often take place at Villa Park 

Statistics and records
As of the end of the 2010–11 season, there have been 120 meetings in major competition between the two teams since the first FA Cup meeting in 1887, of which Aston Villa have won 52 and Birmingham City 38  The most goals in one game were scored in a league game on 7 July 1895, in the First Division, as Small Heath lost to Aston Villa 7–3  The biggest winning margin was 6–0 to Aston Villa on 9 November 1988, in a Full Members Cup fixture  The last Birmingham City league victory over Aston Villa was on 20 March 2005, when Blues won 2–0 at St Andrew's  Villa won six encounters in a row, most recently on 25 April 2010 (2005–2010)  The two teams drew for the first time in over six years in the next match (the first of three in the 2010–11 season), with the match finishing 0–0 (the other Premier League match of the season also finished as a draw)  The second match of the season resulted in the first Blues win since 2005, as they beat Villa 2–1 in the 2010–11 League Cup Quarter Final on 1 December 2010 

All-time results
Cup matches
Women's matches
Summary of results
Stats correct as of 10 March 2019 

Records
Firsts
First competitive meeting: Aston Villa 4–0 Small Heath Alliance (FA Cup), 5 November 1887 
First league meeting: Aston Villa 2–1 Small Heath, 1 September 1894 
First away victory for Aston Villa: Small Heath 1–4 Aston Villa, 26 October 1895 
First away victory for Birmingham City: Aston Villa 1–3 Birmingham, 20 January 1906 

Results
Highest scoring game: Aston Villa 7–3 Small Heath, 7 September 1895 
Largest winning margin (Aston Villa): 6 goals – 6–0, 9 November 1988 
Largest winning margin (Birmingham City): 4 goals – 4–0, 21 September 1968 

Players
Most goals in a match (Aston Villa):
Most goals in a match (Birmingham City):

Trends
Most games won in a row (Aston Villa): 6, 16 October 2005 to 25 April 2010 
Most games won in a row (Birmingham City): 5, 3 April 1976 – 25 February 1978 
Most games without defeat (Aston Villa): 14, 16 October 2005 – on going
Most games without defeat (Birmingham City): 6, 8 March 1933 – 23 November 1935 and 16 September 2002 – 20 March 2005 
Most drawn games in a row: 4, 10 December 1949 – 21 September 1955 
Whenever the clubs have met in the Premier League the result has always been the same during that particular season: 2002/2003– 2 Blues wins, 2003/2004– 2 draws, 2004/2005– 2 Blues wins, 2005/2006– 2 Villa Wins, 2007/2008– 2 Villa wins, 2009/2010– 2 Villa wins, 2010/11- 2 draws 

Top scorers
The following is a list of the top goal scorers for each team in the fixture  Only players who have scored 4 or more goals feature 

Crossing the divide
Players
Unlike, for example, the Old Firm derby, there is no shortage of players who have appeared for both clubs  Villa legend Harry Hampton transferred to Blues after the First World War and helped the club to the Second Division title  The last established first-team player to make this move was Des Bremner in 1984, though there had been loan signings and movement of youth players during this period  The most recent permanent transfer from Aston Villa to Birmingham City was that of Gary Gardner in Summer 2019, his brother Craig was the previous player to move from Villa to Birmingham in 2010  The last player to move directly in the other direction was Spanish Winger Jota in the same transfer window 
Notable players who have been transferred directly between the clubs are listed below 

Aston Villa to Birmingham City
Notes
The players listed above made a direct transfer from Villa to Blues  In addition, there are several players who have "crossed the divide" but done so via another league club 
European Cup winner Dennis Mortimer – regarded by Villa fans as one of their greatest ever players – also played for Birmingham City in the 1986/7 season 
Kevin Phillips played for Villa in the 2005/06 season before moving to Blues in 2008 via West Bromwich Albion 

Birmingham City to Aston Villa
Notes
The players listed above made a direct transfer from Blues to Villa  In addition, there are several high-profile players who have "crossed the divide" but done so via another league club  Notable examples include former England international Emile Heskey and European Cup winner Peter Withe 
Chris Sutton was released by Birmingham City at the end of the 2005–06 season  His next club was Aston Villa, for whom he signed for in October 2006 
Scott Sinclair has played on loan at both clubs  He was on loan at Birmingham City while he was playing for Chelsea during the 2008–09 season and he was on loan at Aston Villa during the 2014–15 season before signing permanently from Manchester City 

Managers
Former Aston Villa Manager Ron Saunders, who managed Villa to League Cup success in 1975 and again in 1977 before taking the club to its first Championship success for 70 years in 1981, also moved across to Birmingham City following his resignation in 1982 
Alex McLeish's appointment as Aston Villa manager in June 2011 after resigning from Birmingham City five days before was the first time in history a manager has moved from Birmingham City to Aston Villa  The move shocked the football world and increased tension between the two clubs even more Former Birmingham City Manager Steve Bruce was appointed Villa manager in 2016 

Aston Villa to Birmingham City
Birmingham City to Aston Villa
Chairmen
Doug Ellis was a director of Birmingham City in the late 1960s before becoming part of a consortium which took over at Aston Villa in 1968 

See also
Aston Villa Hardcore (hooligan firm)
Birmingham Zulu Warriors (hooligan firm)
List of Aston Villa F C  seasons
List of Birmingham City F C  seasons
List of Aston Villa F C  records and statistics
List of Birmingham City F C  records and statistics
Passage 6:
1894–95 FA Cup
The 1894–95 FA Cup was the 24th season of the world's oldest association football competition, the Football Association Challenge Cup (more usually known as the FA Cup)  The cup was won by Aston Villa, who defeated West Bromwich Albion 1–0 in the final of the competition, played at Crystal Palace in London  This was Villa's second victory in the FA Cup 
The Trophy was stolen from a display in the shop window of W  Shillcock (a football fitter) in Newton Row, Birmingham, after the Final and never recovered despite a £10 reward  According to the Police, it was taken sometime between 21:30 on Wednesday 11 September and 7:30 the following morning, along with cash from a drawer  The cup was replaced by a copy of the original, made by Howard Vaughton, the former Aston Villa player and England international, who had opened a silversmith's business after his retirement from the game 
Matches were scheduled to be played at the stadium of the team named first on the date specified for each round, which was always a Saturday  If scores were level after 90 minutes had been played, a replay would take place at the stadium of the second-named team later the same week  If the replayed match was drawn further replays would be held at neutral venues until a winner was determined  If scores were level after 90 minutes had been played in a replay, a 30-minute period of extra time would be played 

Calendar
The format of the FA Cup for the season had a preliminary round, four qualifying rounds, three proper rounds, and the semi-finals and final 

First round proper
The first round proper contained sixteen ties between 32 teams  The 16 First Division sides were given a bye to this round, as were Notts County, Darwen, Bury, Newcastle United, Newton Heath and Woolwich Arsenal from the Second Division  The other Second Division sides were entered into the first round qualifying, with the exceptions of Burton Swifts, who started in the second round qualifying, and Manchester City, who played no part in the season's competition  Of the qualifying League sides, only Burton Wanderers and Leicester Fosse qualified to the FA Cup proper  Eight non-league sides also qualified 
The matches were played on Saturday, 2 February 1895  One match was drawn, with the replay taking place in the following midweek fixture  The Barnsley St Peter's – Liverpool game was voided following a dispute over extra time being played   The match was replayed nine days later, resulting in a 4–0 win to Liverpool 

Second round proper
The eight Second Round matches were scheduled for Saturday, 16 February 1895  There were two replays, played in the following midweek fixture 

Third round proper
The four Third Round matches were scheduled for Saturday, 2 March 1895  There were no replays 

Semi-finals
The semi-final matches were both played on Saturday, 16 March 1895  Aston Villa and West Bromwich Albion went on to meet in the final at Crystal Palace 

Final
The Final was contested by Aston Villa and West Bromwich Albion at Crystal Palace  Aston Villa won 1–0, with Bob Chatt being credited with scoring the fastest goal in FA Cup Final history, scored after just 30 seconds  Devey found Hodgetts, whose cross was laid off by Athersmith to Chatt, whose half volley took a deflection 

Match details
See also
FA Cup Final Results 1872-



ground_truth: 1 December 2010