prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Between which years did war with the person for whom Pyrrhic victory is named occur?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Gino Bartali
Gino Bartali,  (Italian pronunciation: [ˈdʒiːno ˈbartali]; 18 July 1914 – 5 May 2000), nicknamed Gino the Pious and (in Italy) Ginettaccio, was a champion road cyclist  He was the most renowned Italian cyclist before the Second World War, having won the Giro d'Italia twice, in 1936 and 1937, and the Tour de France in 1938  After the war, he added one more victory in each event: the Giro d'Italia in 1946 and the Tour de France in 1948  His second and last Tour de France victory in 1948 gave him the largest gap between victories in the race In September 2013, 13 years after his death, Bartali was recognised as a "Righteous Among the Nations" by Yad Vashem for his efforts to aid Jews during World War II 

Early life and amateur career
Gino Bartali was born in Ponte a Ema, Florence, Italy, the third son of four children of a smallholder, Torello Bartali  He was powerfully built, with a broad nose and a boxer's face  He earned pocket money by selling raffia to makers of covers for wine bottles  He began work in a bicycle shop when he was 13  He started racing at 13, became a promising amateur and turned professional in 1935 when he was 21  He was Italian champion the next year  On 14 November 1940, Bartali married Adriana Bani in Florence  The wedding was celebrated by Cardinal Dalla Costa and was blessed by Pope Pius XII, to whom Bartali donated a bicycle 

Professional career
Bartali won a stage of the 1935 Giro d'Italia and was King of the Mountains, the first of seven times he won the title in the Giro  He was 20  In 1936, before he turned 22, he won the Giro and the Giro di Lombardia, although his season was marred when his brother, Giulio, died in a racing accident on 14 June  Bartali came close to giving up cycling 
He was persuaded to return and in 1937 won the Giro again  His reputation outside Italy was that he was yet another Italian who could not ride well outside his country  There was some truth in the claim  The writer Tim Hilton said: "Bartali was essentially an Italian cyclist, a champion who rode within sight of his own people, and was uneasy when the Tour de France travelled north of Paris  He never disputed the northern classics "Stung by the claim, he rode the Tour de France in 1937  He got off to a bad start, losing more than eight minutes by the third stage and more than ten by the Ballon d'Alsace, a mountain in the Vosges  There he came back to life and led by 1m 14s over the rest and by enough over the leaders that he took the leader's jersey that night in Grenoble  But that was the end of his race  He and two helpers, Jules Rossi and Francesco Camusso, were riding across a wooden bridge over the river Colau when Rossi skidded  Bartali rode into a parapet and fell into the river 
Roger Lapébie wrote: "In the valley that leads to Briançon, I saw the accident to the maillot jaune, Bartali  The narrow and bumpy road ran along the foot of a rock  Suddenly Rossi, who was leading, took a bend badly, braked and his back wheel hit the parapet of a bridge  Bartali, who was beside Rossi, couldn't get clear and I saw him fall over the bridge and into the little river three metres below " Camusso pulled him out  Bartali was cut to his arm and knee and had trouble breathing because of a blow to the chest  He rode on to the end of the day, often pushed by his helpers  He finished 10 minutes behind the rest but kept his lead 
He got through the Alps, by then having lost his jersey, and retired in Marseille  In one account, before he dropped out, he notified the organiser, Henri Desgrange, who said: "You are the first rider to come to see me before dropping out  You're a good man [un brave garçon], Gino  We'll see each other again next year and you'll win " However, Bartali later claimed that the Italian Cycling Federation forced him to withdraw, perhaps because of his political opposition to Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime  “When the doctor didn’t want me to race, ‘they’ made me race; when I should have withdrawn, they made me continue; when, after the four difficult stages, I was getting better, they sent me home,” he said 

He did return in 1938 and overcame the teamwork of the Belgians, the cold and rain and a puncture on the Col de l'Iseran  He won the hardest stage, from Digne to Briançon, by more than five minutes  The radio commentator Georges Briquet, after he had seen the crowds of Italians greeting Bartali with green-white-red flags said: "These people had found a superman  Outside Bartali's hotel at Aix-les-Bains, an Italian general was shouting 'Don't touch him – he's a god '" A public subscription was started in his name in Italy, and Benito Mussolini was among the contributors 
The approaching war led Italy not to send a team in 1939 

Bartali won the Giro d'Italia twice before the war – in 1936 and 1937 – and once after it (1946)  He won classics such as Milan–San Remo, the Giro di Lombardia and the Züri-Metzgete  His most famous victory was the 1948 Tour de France 

1948: Second Tour
Bartali returned to the Tour in 1948 to find that many riders he had known had died in the war and that there were as many more who had started racing since he stopped (see below for Bartali's war record)  He was so worried that he spent an evening memorising two dozen riders he did not know  The Tour started in a rainstorm and Bartali found he could identify nobody because the whole field was wearing waterproofs  He took his chance and found he was with Briek Schotte  The two finished together at Trouville, and Bartali took the yellow jersey It was during that Tour that the leader of the Italian Communist Party, Palmiro Togliatti, was shot in the neck by a sniper as he was leaving the parliament building  The writer Bernard Chambaz said:

History and myth united, and a miracle if you like because that evening Bartali got a phone call at his hotel  In a bad mood, dubious, he didn't want to answer  But someone whispered that it was Alcide de Gasperi, his old friend from Catholic Action, now parliamentary president, who told him that Palmiro Togliatti, secretary-general of the communist party, had been shot at and had survived by a miracle  The situation in the peninsula was very tense amid the ravages of the Cold War  Italy needed Bartali to do what he best knew how to do, to win stages 

The communists occupied factories and radio and television stations, and angry rows in parliament came close to blows  A revolt was looming  Then Bartali won three stages in a row and led the Tour by 14 minutes  An obituary says:

Just as it seemed the communists would stage a full-scale revolt, a deputy ran into the chamber shouting 'Bartali's won the Tour de France!' All differences were at once forgotten as the feuding politicians applauded and congratulated each other on a cause for such national pride  That day, with immaculate timing, Togliatti awoke from his coma on his hospital bed, inquired how the Tour was going and recommended calm  All over the country political animosities were for the time being swept aside by the celebrations and a looming crisis was averted 

The former prime minister, Giulio Andreotti said: "To say that civil war was averted by a Tour de France victory is surely excessive  But it is undeniable that on that 14th of July of 1948, day of the attack on Togliatti, Bartali contributed to easing the tensions "

1950: Tour de France
Gino Bartali had a row during the 1950 Tour de France with the French rider Jean Robic  Newspapers made much of it, and the atmosphere was tense  Robic got clear of Bartali on the col d'Aubisque in the Pyrenees  Bartali made up ground over the Tourmalet, took the descent to Sainte-Marie-de-Campan and started up the col d'Aspin  There he caught Robic and the two rode together  The two rubbed shoulders and they fell 
Bartali said French fans by the road were so angry, accusing him of sabotaging Robic's chances, that they punched him and that one threatened him with a knife  Bartali remounted and won the stage  Fiorenzo Magni, leading the Italian 'B' team, the Cadetti, took the yellow jersey  The pair and their teams had barely returned to their hotel when Bartali said he was going home and so, he said, were the two Italian teams The organisers, Jacques Goddet and Félix Lévitan, went to his hotel, the Hôtel de France, in Lourdes, to dissuade him  Bartali, a cigarette in his mouth, said, "I have no intention of risking my life to a madman " The truth of what happened may never be known: Louison Bobet, who saw the incident on the mountain, said: "I'm pretty sure that in the time it took me to pass him, Bartali wasn't struck, and I think he mistook as blows what was an attempt to get him back in the saddle  A hunt started for the knifeman but all spectators could remember was that a man who had been slicing salami still had his knife in his hand when he went to help "It then emerged that the Italian teams had been withdrawn by the Italian cycling association  Italian fans grew so angry that a stage due to cross the border to San Remo stopped just short of the Italian border instead, at Menton The affair escalated to the national level when the French foreign minister, Robert Schuman, apologised to his Italian counterpart for what seemed to be no more than a man interrupted in the making of a sandwich  René de Latour said:

To say that Magni was sore is putting it very mildly indeed  When he spoke to men he could trust, he would say: 'Gino knows what his little game is  He is too clever to ignore the facts that he will be lucky to win this Tour, and he prefers a foreign team win rather than see one of our team succeed, especially me  It was bad enough for him with Coppi winning last year 

Rescues and Resistance role during World War II
Bartali earned respect for his work in helping Jews who were being persecuted by the Nazis during the time of the Italian Social Republic  He appears as a character in the 1978 novel, The Assisi Underground: The Priest who Rescued Jews, and in the 1985 American television film adaptation, both based on the real-life account by Father Rufino Niccacci 
It emerged in December 2010 that Bartali had hidden a Jewish family in his cellar and, according to one of the survivors, saved their lives in doing so Bartali used his fame to carry messages and documents to the Italian Resistance  Bartali cycled from Florence through Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche, many times traveling as far afield as Assisi, all the while wearing the racing jersey emblazoned with his name 
Neither the Fascist police nor the German troops risked discontent by arresting him 
Giorgio Nissim, a Jewish accountant from Pisa, was a member of DELASEM, founded by the Union of the Israelitic Communities to help Jewish Italians escape persecution  The network in Tuscany was discovered in autumn 1943 and all Jewish members except Nissim sent to concentration camps  With the help of the Archbishops of Genoa Pietro Boetto and Florence Elia Dalla Costa, the Franciscan Friars of Assisi and others, Nissim reorganized DELASEM in Tuscany and helped 800 survive 
Nissim died in 2000  His sons found from his diaries that Bartali had used his fame to help  Nissim and the Oblati Friars of Lucca forged documents and needed photographs of those they were helping  Bartali used to leave Florence in the morning, pretending to train, ride to Assisi where many Jews were hiding in the Franciscan convents, collect their photographs and ride back to Nissim  At Assisi Bartali was in direct contact with Rufino Niccacci  Bartali also used his position to learn about raids on safehouses 
Bartali was eventually taken to Villa Triste in Florence  The SD and the Italian RSS official Mario Carità questioned Bartali, threatening his life  In spite of any threats, Bartali did not reveal what he had done  Even after the war he never boasted his merits; he used to say: "The good is done, but it is not said  And certain medals hang on the soul, not on the jacket "Bartali continued working with the Assisi Network  In 1943, he led Jewish refugees towards the Swiss Alps himself  He cycled, pulling a wagon with a secret compartment, telling patrols it was just part of his training  Bartali told his son Andrea only that "One does these things and then that's that" In June 2012, a book about Bartali's wartime activities, Road To Valor by Aili and Andres McConnon, was published In 2013, Yad Vashem awarded Gino Bartali the honour Righteous Among the Nations  He is a central figure in the 2014 documentary My Italian Secret: The Forgotten Heroes  In 2007, the script for a movie based on Bartali during World War II, called Lion Man of Tuscany was on the Black List, a survey of the "most liked" un-produced scripts in Hollywood In 2017, research by Michele Sarfatti questioned Bartali's efforts to save Jewish lives, referring to the very limited sources and contradicting that Bartali would have described this in his diaries  In 2021, Marco and Stefano Pivato corroborated this stance by Sarfatti, calling the whole story 'invented' ('una storia inventata')  In 2021, an interview with Sergio Della Pergola, an Israeli-Italian academic who was involved in Yad Vashem’s investigation of Bartali’s role during the war, was published in the Corriere della Sera  Outlining some of the evidence regarding Bartali’s efforts during the war, he disagreed with the argument put forth by Sarfatti and Marco and Stefano Pivato  He was quoted as saying: “To question whether Gino Bartali risked his life to save Jews is like denying that the Earth is round ”

Riding style and legacy
Bartali was a good climber and a pioneer of derailleur gears  His style was unusual: he rarely danced on the pedals and often stayed in the saddle throughout a 15 km climb  When others attacked, he stayed in the saddle but changed up a gear, to a sprocket three teeth smaller He rode smoothly on mountains but every now and then freewheeled, always with his right foot lowered with his weight on it  Then a second or two later he would start pedalling again Bartali's feat of winning three consecutive mountain stages (13, 14 and 15) in the 1948 Tour de France has never been equalled  It is one of the most astonishing accomplishments in the history of road cycling  It would be 50 years before anyone again won three consecutive stages, when Italian cyclist Mario Cipollini did so in the early (flat) stages of the 1999 Tour de France, winning four consecutive sprint finishes in stages 4, 5, 6 and 7 

Rivalry with Coppi
Bartali's rivalry with Fausto Coppi divided Italy  Bartali, a conservative, was venerated in the rural, agrarian south, while Coppi, more worldly, secular, innovative in diet and training, was a hero of the industrial north 
The lives of each came together on 7 January 1940 when Eberrardo Pavesi, head of the Legnano team, took on Coppi to ride for Bartali  Bartali thought Coppi was "as thin as a mutton bone", but accepted  Their rivalry started when Coppi, the helper, won the Giro and Bartali, the star, marshalled the two men's team to chase him  By the 1948 world championship at Valkenburg, both climbed off rather than help the other win  The Italian cycling association said: "They have forgotten to honour the Italian prestige they represent  Thinking only of their personal rivalry, they abandoned the race, to the approbation of all sportsmen " They were suspended for two months The thaw partly broke when the pair shared a drink bottle during the climb of the Col d'Izoard in the 1952 Tour but the two men fell out over who had offered it  "I did," Bartali insisted  "He never gave me anything " Their rivalry was the subject of intense coverage and resulted in many epic races 
When professional cycle racing resumed in 1946 after World War II, Bartali narrowly beat Coppi in that year's Giro, while Coppi won Milan–San Remo  Bartali won the Tour de Suisse twice, another Milan–San Remo, and the 1948 Tour de France – a full ten years after his last victory  Coppi took victories in the 1947 Giro d'Italia, the Giro di Lombardia and the Grand Prix des Nations 
Despite the rivalry, perhaps heightened by Coppi's victory in the 1949 Giro, Bartali supported Coppi's bid in the 1949 Tour de France  The two Italian teammates destroyed the race as a contest in a mountainous Alpine stage over the Col de Vars and Col d'Izoard  When Coppi had a puncture on the Izoard, Bartali waited for him, then Bartali did the same and Coppi waited  On the final climb to Briançon, Coppi allowed Bartali to win (on his 35th birthday) and take the yellow jersey  But Coppi assumed the maillot jaune the following day after Bartali had a puncture with 40 km of the stage still to race  Coppi retained the lead to Paris, while Bartali took second place 
The 1950 Tour de France saw him lead the Italian team again, with Coppi electing not to contest the race, but having been threatened by frenzied fans, the entire Italian team resigned from the race 
Bartali always suspected that Coppi took drugs  On the hairpins of the Col di Bracco, during a stage of the 1946 Giro from Genoa to Montecatini Terme, Coppi drank from a glass phial and threw it into the verge  Bartali drove back after the race and found it  He said:

With the meticulous care of a detective collecting evidence for fingerprinting I picked it up, dropped it into a white envelope and put it carefully in my pocket  The next day I rushed round to my personal doctor and asked him to send the phial to a lab for analysis  Disappointment: no drug, no magic potion  It was nothing more than an ordinary tonic, made in France, that I could have bought without a prescription 

I realised that I should have to try to outsmart him and I devised my own investigation system  The first thing was to make sure I always stayed at the same hotel for a race and to have the room next to his so I could mount surveillance  I would watch him leave with his mates, then I would tiptoe into the room which ten seconds earlier had been his headquarters  I would rush to the waste bin and the bedside table, go through the bottles, flasks, phials, tubes, cartons, boxes, suppositories – I swept up everything  I had become so expert in interpreting all these pharmaceuticals that I could predict how Fausto would behave during the course of the stage  I would work out, according to the traces of the product I found, how and when he would attack me 

Personal life
Bartali grew up in a religious family in Tuscany, and his belief earned him the nickname "Gino the Pious"  He prayed before meals and resented when teammates swore  In contrast, Coppi grew up in Piedmont in the north and was not religious at all  Bartali was proud that Pope John XXIII had asked him to teach him to ride a bicycle  He made no secret that he supported the Catholic-leaning Christian Democratic Party but his personality ensured that he was forgiven by the rival communists  Tim Hilton wrote: "Bartali was a genuinely religious man, making his devotions public and, in return, becoming the Vatican's favourite sportsman – he was personally blessed by three popes  He would set up shrines in his hotel bedrooms when he rode the Giro and the Tour de France, and, on some mountains, children from summer camps sang canticles as he pedalled past, a priest conducting their infant worship "Bartali was frequently pessimistic  One of his customary phrases was "Everything's wrong; we'll have to start all over again " The best the historian Pierre Chany could say of him was that while he often boasted of what he had done on mountains when nobody was there to see him, he had the grace never to tell the story differently 
Bartali lived at 173 via Chiantigiana, Florence in a home full of souvenirs  His wife died in 2014 aged 94 

Later life and death
Bartali stopped racing when he was 40, after being injured in a road accident  By then he had lost much of his money  His wealth was "uncertain", said René de Latour Bartali had a heart bypass operation and then died of a heart attack in May 2000, having received the last rites 10 days earlier  He left behind his wife, Adriana, two sons and a daughter  The prime minister, Giuliano Amato, sent condolences  Romano Prodi, president of the European Commission, called him "a symbol of the most noble sportsmanship " The Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI) called for two days of mourning and silence was observed before sports events 

Career achievements
Major results
Sources:

Grand Tour results timeline
Sources:

Monuments results timeline
Sources:

See also
Legends of Italian sport - Walk of Fame
69500 Ginobartali, asteroid
Cycling records
Yellow jersey statistics
Pink jersey statistics
List of Grand Tour general classification winners
List of Tour de France general classification winners
List of Tour de France secondary classification winners
List of Giro d'Italia general classification winners
Individuals and groups assisting Jews during the Holocaust
List of Righteous Among the Nations by country
History of the Jews in Italy
List of Italians
Passage 2:
Tiberius Coruncanius
Tiberius Coruncanius (died 241 BC) was a consul of the Roman Republic in 280 BC  As a military commander in that year and the following, he was known for the battles against Pyrrhus of Epirus that led to the expression "Pyrrhic victory"  He was the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, and possibly the first teacher of Roman law to offer public instruction 

Biography
Coruncanius, of plebeian descent, is believed to have hailed from Tusculum He was first elected consul in 280 BC with Publius Valerius Laevinus, and led an expedition into Etruria against the Etruscan cities   When Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Italia, and defeated the Roman legions of Laevinus at the Battle of Heraclea, Tiberius' legions were recalled to Rome to bolster the defense of Roman territory 
In 254 BC or 253 BC, he was the first plebeian elected Pontifex Maximus, or chief priest of the Roman Republic, which position had been previously monopolized by patricians  He died in 241 BC and was succeeded by Lucius Caecilius Metellus, another plebeian 

Impact
He was the first who publicly professed law (publice professus est), known to be both eloquent and full of knowledge  Like Socrates, he left no writings 
His public legal instruction had the effect of creating a class of legally skilled non-priests (jurisprudentes), a sort of consultancy  After Coruncanius' death, instruction gradually became more formal, with the introduction of books on law beyond the then scant official Roman legal texts It is possible that as the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, Coruncanius allowed members of the public and students of the law of Ancient Rome to attend his consultations tasked with giving legal advice to citizens  These consultations were probably held outside the College of Pontiffs, and thus accessible to all those interested  As such, he became the first teacher of Roman law (how students of law learned their material earlier is unknown) 
Passage 3:
Battle of Bassano
The Battle of Bassano was fought on 8 September 1796, during the French Revolutionary Wars, in the territory of the Republic of Venice, between a French army under Napoleon Bonaparte and Austrian forces led by Count Dagobert von Wurmser  The engagement occurred during the second Austrian attempt to raise the siege of Mantua  It was a French victory; however, it was the last battle in Napoleon's perfect military career as two months later he would be defeated at the Second Battle of Bassano, ending his victorious streak  The Austrians abandoned their artillery and baggage, losing supplies, cannons, and battle standards to the French 

Background
Austrian plans
The first relief of Mantua failed at the battles of Lonato and Castiglione in early August  The defeat caused Wurmser to retreat north up the Adige River valley  Meanwhile, the French reinvested the Austrian garrison of Mantua 
Ordered by Emperor Francis II to relieve Mantua at once, Feldmarschall Wurmser and his new chief-of-staff Feldmarschal-Leutnant (FML) Franz von Lauer drew up a strategy  Leaving FML Paul Davidovich and 13,700 soldiers to defend Trento and the approaches to the County of Tyrol, Wurmser directed two divisions east then south down the Brenta valley  When he joined the large division of Johann Mészáros at Bassano, he would have 20,000 men  From Bassano, Wurmser would move on Mantua, while Davidovich probed the enemy defenses from the north, looking for a favorable opportunity to support his superior  Lauer predicted that the French, having suffered recent losses, would be unable to react in time  Unknown to the Austrians, the French government desired that General Bonaparte cross the Alps to join the army of General Jean Moreau in southern Germany 

Forces
See Bassano 1796 Campaign Order of Battle for a list of French and Austrian army units 

Geography
In 1796, there were only three practicable routes between Trento and the Po River basin  The first route lay west of Lake Garda  The second route was the road down the Adige valley east of Lake Garda and north of Verona  The third route went east through Levico Terme and Borgo Valsugana, then followed the Brenta River valley (Valsugana) southward to Bassano del Grappa  An army that held both Trento and Bassano could move troops and supplies between the two places free from French interference 

Operations
Bonaparte posted General of Division Claude Vaubois with 10,000 men on the west side of Lake Garda  General of Division André Masséna defended the Adige River valley with 13,000 troops and General of Division Pierre Augereau covered Verona with 10,000 more  General of Division Charles Kilmaine maintained the blockade of Mantua with General of Division Jean Sahuguet's division of 8,000 soldiers and held a 2,000 man reserve at Verona  Another source gave Vaubois 11,000, Massena 13,000, Augereau 9,000, Sahuguet 10,000, and Kilmaine 3,500 soldiers After Castiglione, Bonaparte had rearranged his intelligence gathering: the French representative in Venice, Lallement, was sent money to pay for spies to check out the areas between Venice and Trent  and Bonaparte's station chief, Angelo Pico, based at Peschiera, sent his men forward into the Tyrol  More importantly, his spy Francesco Toli had penetrated Austrian headquarters and forewarned Bonaparte that Wurmser had left Davidovich at Trento  So, Bonaparte struck first, sending Masséna and Augereau north toward Trento  Meanwhile, Vaubois advanced past Lake Idro to Riva at the north end of Lake Garda  Vaubois and Masséna converged on Rovereto on the Adige  At the Battle of Rovereto on 4 September, the French routed Davidovich's outnumbered troops, inflicting 3,000 casualties at a cost of 750 killed and wounded Finding that Wurmser had moved toward Bassano, Bonaparte abandoned the plan to link with Moreau  Leaving Vaubois to observe the fleeing Austrians in the upper Adige valley, the French army commander decided to take a bold but risky course of action  Cutting loose from his supply line, he ordered Augereau, followed by Masséna, to the east into the Brenta valley  On 7 September, Augereau's 8,200 soldiers overwhelmed the 2,800 to 4,000 Austrians of Wurmser's rear guard at Primolano (6 km north of Cismon del Grappa), capturing 1,500 men and their commander Oberstleutnant Alois von Gavasini  The victorious French then followed the valley as it turned south toward Bassano 

Battle
Bassano
Despite being surprised by the French rapid advance, Wurmser had gathered up 20,000 men the day before the collision took place 
On 8 September, 20,000 French soldiers fell upon Wurmser from the north  First, they attacked the 3,800-man Austrian rearguard under FML Peter Quasdanovich and General-Major (GM) Adam Bajalics  Bonaparte sent Masséna down the west bank of the Brenta and Augereau down the east bank  Overwhelmed by repeated attacks and pursued by Colonel Joachim Murat's cavalry, the rearguard collapsed and Bajalics was captured  Wurmser deployed one brigade on the west bank, a second brigade on the east bank, and a third in Bassano  Colonel Jean Lannes led a successful charge which broke the Austrian lines and burst into the town  Quasdanovich later assumed command over the defeated Austrians who retreated east, but 3,500 soldiers of FML Karl Sebottendorf's division fell back to the south with their army commander 
The French suffered 400 killed, wounded, and missing  Wurmser lost 600 killed and wounded  Between 2,000 and 6,000 Austrians, eight colors and 30 artillery pieces were captured  The vigorous French pursuit also seized a bridging train plus 200 limbers and ammunition wagons 

Race for Mantua
Wurmser unexpectedly headed west toward Mantua and joined the division of Mészáros at Vicenza  Immediately, Bonaparte sent his two divisions after the Austrians, hoping to cut them off  Masséna advanced southwest from Vicenza while Augereau moved south to Padua to close the Austrian escape route to the east  General-Major Peter Ott distinguished himself by leading Wurmser's vanguard in the race for Mantua  A French battalion holding Legnago abandoned its post, allowing the Austrians passage across the Adige  Wurmser left 1,600 men to hold the city and continued his march  On 11 September, Masséna intercepted the Austrians at Cerea with two brigades weakened by straggling  Ott held on until Wurmser arrived with the main body, driving the French back with 1,200 casualties  Bonaparte ordered Sahuguet to take up blocking positions at Castel d'Ario and at Governolo where the Mincio River flowed into the Po River  The next day, the Austrian field marshal, assisted by a local guide, crossed a bridge that Sahuguet failed to destroy and led 10,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry to Mantua After capturing the detachment at Legnago on 13 September, Bonaparte appeared before Mantua  On 15 September, Wurmser awaited the French on the east bank of the Mincio River in line of battle, with his right flank on the San Giorgio suburb and his left on La Favorita Palace  The Austrian left wing under Ott held off Sahuguet's attacks all day  But the Austrian line gave way before the attacks of Masséna on the center and General of Brigade Louis André Bon (leading Augereau's division) on the right  The French succeeded in capturing the San Giorgio suburb and driving the Austrians into Mantua  During this fight, 2,500 Austrians became casualties and 11 cannon and 3 colors were captured  The French lost 1,500 killed and wounded, plus nine guns captured 

Results
Mantua's garrison was swollen to nearly 30,000 men  But, within six weeks, 4,000 Austrians died of wounds or disease in the crowded fortress  One historian notes that,

The second attempt to relieve Mantua had therefore come to a rather sorry conclusion for the Austrians  Their army commander had managed to get himself shut inside the very place he was trying to liberate, losing more than 11,000 men in the process  The French had failed to make the link between their armies in Italy and Germany, and Bonaparte was, in a sense, back to square one, still faced with the problem of reducing Mantua, which now had a much more powerful garrison 

Footnotes
Passage 4:
Battle of the Slaak
The naval Battle of the Slaak (12 and 13 September 1631) was a Dutch victory during the Eighty Years' War  The Dutch prevented the Spanish army from dividing the Dutch United Provinces in two 

Background
In reaction to an overland Dutch attempt to capture Dunkirk earlier in the year, Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain, governing the Southern Netherlands for Philip IV of Spain, ordered a Spanish army transported on a fleet of barges to attempt to occupy the islands of Goeree and Overflakee by surprise   In particular, the Spanish wished to overpower the large fortresses on either side of the Volkerak Strait   The fortress on the continental side had special propaganda value, as it was a newly founded town named Willemstad after William the Silent; more importantly, Spanish occupation would have allowed a blockade of the Dutch main naval port Hellevoetsluis located to the direct north of Overflakee on the island of Voorne; and the isolation of the province of Zealand from its confederate provinces 

The battle
A Spanish fleet of ninety vessels and 5,500 men under the direction of Don Francisco de Moncada, Marquis of Aytona, but in fact commanded by Count Jan van Nassau Siegen, a catholic cousin of the Calvinist Dutch House of Orange, mostly consisting of small transports, departed from Antwerp 
The project could not be kept a secret however and a Dutch task force of fifty ships, also largely consisting of small rivercraft but containing some larger flyboats, under Zealandic Vice-Admiral Marinus Hollare, intercepted the fleet in the Eastern Scheldt  Seeing their intended route blocked, the Spanish first tried to capture the more southern island of Tholen instead, to show something for their efforts, but this attempt was thwarted by a regiment of two thousand English and Scots mercenaries under the command of Colonel Thomas Morgan from the continental fortress of Steenbergen who marched at low tide through the shallow sea to the island, arriving just in time to deter a landing  Van Nassau in his desperation then took the bold decision to attempt to sneak past the Dutch fleet during the night and so achieve the original goal after all 
The Spanish movement however was noticed despite a fog; despite their small number the Dutch first allowed the enemy fleet to pass completely before cutting them off  Once this was achieved the Dutch suddenly attacked the Spanish from behind in the Slaak of Volkerak channel and were routed  Hundreds drowned as they tried to escape the ships and those that did escape were captured by the waiting Dutch and English troops ashore  Over 4,000 troops and seamen were captured along with the majority of ships  Van Nassau himself and two ships accompanying him managed to escape to Antwerp; it is not exactly known how many others escaped, perhaps as much as a third of his fleet 

Aftermath
The Admiralty of Amsterdam suggested throwing all prisoners into the sea — until that time the officially prescribed method for the Dutch to dispense with enemy combatants captured at sea — to deter further attempts, but stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange forbade this  One of the captains distinguishing himself was the later Lieutenant-Admiral Johan Evertsen, his brother the later Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Evertsen de Oude also participated  The defeat was one out of a series of setbacks for the Habsburg policy in the Thirty Years War waged the same time in the larger German theatre; it influenced a decision in 1632 to reach a peace settlement between the Habsburgs and the Republic — the peace talks were unsuccessful however 

Notes
Bibliography
Dupuy, Trevor and Rachel Dupuy (1986)   The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B C  to the Present  New York: Harper and Row 
Hoeven, Marco van der, ed  (1997)  Exercise of Arms: Warfare in the Netherlands, 1568-1648  Brill 
Leathes, Samuel, et al , ed  (1902)  The Cambridge Modern History  Volume Four: The Thirty Years War  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 

External links
 Media related to Battle of the Slaak at Wikimedia Commons
Passage 5:
Mansell Richard James
Captain Mansell Richard James  (18 June 1893 – c  2 June 1919) was a Canadian-born World War I flying ace credited with 11 confirmed aerial victories  He disappeared after setting a postwar aviation record for prize money, and was the object of repeated searches throughout the years 

War service
James was living in Watford, Ontario when he enlisted in the Royal Flying Corps, and was commissioned as a temporary second lieutenant on 22 September 1917  After the completion of his training, he was posted to No  45 Squadron in Italy on 12 February 1918 as a Sopwith Camel pilot  On 3 June 1918, he scored his first aerial triumph, destroying an enemy Albatros D V over Feltre  Four days later, he destroyed two Albatros D IIIs, one over San Marino and the other over Colicella  His next two victories over Albatros D Vs that he destroyed east of Feltre on 20 July made him an ace On 5 August 1918, he destroyed the only reconnaissance plane of his career, an AEG  The next day, he sent down two Albatros D Vs over Segusino and destroyed a third  On the last day of August, he rounded out his victory string by destroying two Albatros D Vs near Arsiero On 23 September 1918, Lieutenant James was promoted to temporary captain, and in November 1918 was awarded Distinguished Flying Cross, with the following citation: 

"An excellent scout pilot who has at all times shown great skill, courage and determination in attacking enemy machines  During a short period of time he has destroyed nine enemy aeroplanes" On 6 May 1919, James surrendered his commission in the Royal Air Force upon being transferred to the unemployed list  He shipped out to the United States 

Disappearance
Final flight
On 28 May 1919 James flew what was reputedly the first Sopwith Camel in the United States, from Atlantic City, New Jersey to Boston, Massachusetts  He was competing for a $1,000 prize offered by The Boston Globe for fastest flight between the two cities  At 115 miles per hour despite headwinds, he was much faster than a prior competitor's 90 mph gait  After landing at a field eight miles north of Boston, James departed again at 6 PM, supposedly for a stop at Mitchel Field on Long Island en route to Atlantic City, both of which are southwest of Boston  He buzzed frightened spectators watching his takeoff It was Captain James' intent to follow railroad tracks from Boston on his return flight  He apparently guided on the wrong set of railroad tracks, as he later landed at Tyringham, Massachusetts, (near Lee), about 100 air miles west of Boston, to have his aircraft serviced  On 29 May, he was reportedly seen at 11:30 AM at an altitude of about 5,000 feet over Connecticut after departing Lee, Massachusetts; he apparently had a sound engine at that sighting and was headed southeast A more reliable report tells a somewhat different story  On the morning of 2 June 1919, he took off from Tyringham toward the south, then turned west, away from Boston  He drew a crowd of spectators for his departure because the local populace was not used to aircraft  Because of his direction of flight, they thought he might be returning to the field he departed, but he did not reappear 

Search efforts
Various search efforts were attempted in the years that followed James' disappearance  On 4 June 1919 it was reported that an aeroplane with its engine running had been heard near Millerton, New York  On 5 August 1919, a berry picker in a ravine on Mount Riga outside Millerton, New York found aircraft wreckage which was speculated to be James'  In December 1925 a hunting party had found some apparent wreckage in the remote woods near Tyringham but did not think much of it at the time and only in the weeks after returning did they realize the significance and mounted an unsuccessful search to relocate it  James's uncle had posted a reward for the recovery of his nephew's remains shortly after the disappearance which was still being offered at the time  On 19 May 1927, U  S  Coast Guard Boat 290 found an aircraft wing floating in Fort Pond Bay, Long Island Sound  Captain James's brother, E  D  James, wrote a letter requesting a description of the wing, hoping to identify it  There was another report that his plane might have gone down in a river at Poughkeepsie, New York, but nothing was found  Despite extensive searches for him spurred partially by rewards offered, no sign of James has ever been found  The aircraft debris that had been found was never positively identified as being from James' plane 

See also
Flying aces
No  45 Squadron RAF
List of people who disappeared
List of World War I aces credited with 11–14 victories
Passage 6:
Pyrrhic victory
A Pyrrhic victory ( (listen) PIRR-ik) is a victory that inflicts such a devastating toll on the victor that it is tantamount to defeat  Such a victory negates any true sense of achievement or damages long-term progress  
The phrase originates from a quote from Pyrrhus of Epirus, whose triumph against the Romans in the Battle of Asculum in 279 BC destroyed much of his forces, forcing the end of his campaign 

Etymology
A "Pyrrhic victory" is named after King Pyrrhus of Epirus, whose army suffered irreplaceable casualties in defeating the Romans at the Battle of Heraclea in 280 BC and the Battle of Asculum in 279 BC, during the Pyrrhic War  After the latter battle, Plutarch relates in a report by Dionysius:

The armies separated; and, it is said, Pyrrhus replied to one that gave him joy of his victory that one other such victory would utterly undo him  For he had lost a great part of the forces he brought with him, and almost all his particular friends and principal commanders; there were no others there to make recruits, and he found the confederates in Italy backward  On the other hand, as from a fountain continually flowing out of the city, the Roman camp was quickly and plentifully filled up with fresh men, not at all abating in courage for the loss they sustained, but even from their very anger gaining new force and resolution to go on with the war 
In both Epirote victories, the Romans suffered greater casualties, but they had a much larger pool of replacements, so the casualties had less impact on the Roman war effort than the losses of King Pyrrhus 
The report is often quoted as:

Ne ego si iterum eodem modo vicero, sine ullo milite Epirum revertar 
If I achieve such a victory again, I shall return to Epirus without any soldier 
or

If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined 

Examples
War
This list comprises examples of battles that ended in a Pyrrhic victory  It is not intended to be complete but to illustrate the concept 

Battle of Asculum (279 BC), Pyrrhus of Epirus and Italian allies against the Roman Republic: the Romans, though suffering twice as many casualties, could easily replenish their ranks  Pyrrhus lost most of his commanders and a great part of the forces he had brought to Italy, and he withdrew to Sicily 
Battle of Avarayr (451), Vardan Mamikonian and Christian Armenian rebels against the Sassanid Empire: the Persians were victorious but the battle proved to be a strategic victory for Armenians, as Avarayr paved the way to the Nvarsak Treaty (484 AD), which assured Armenian autonomy and religious freedom 
Siege of Szigetvár (1566), Ottoman–Habsburg wars: although the Ottomans won the siege, it can be seen as a Pyrrhic victory because of the heavy Ottoman casualties, the death of Sultan Suleiman, and the resulting delay to the Ottoman push for Vienna that year which suspended Ottoman expansion in Europe 
Siege of Ostend (1601–1604), Eighty Years' War: for three years the Spanish attempted to capture this port from Dutch and English defenders, even as the Dutch expanded their territory further east – including capturing the port of Sluis to replace Ostend before surrendering  The vast cost and casualties of the siege were compounded by Spain's subsequent campaign to recapture the Dutch gains, which achieved little, and by 1607 Spain was bankrupt  The resultant Twelve Years' Truce effectively made the Dutch Republic an independent state 
Battle of Malplaquet (1709), War of the Spanish Succession: the battle was an Allied victory because Marlborough's army kept possession of the battlefield, but it had suffered double the French casualties and could not pursue  The French army withdrew in good order and relatively intact, and it remained a potent threat to further Allied operations 
Battle of Gangwana (1741) fought between 1,000 strong Rathore cavalry of Jodhpur and combined armies of Mughal Empire, and Jaipur Numbering 100,000 with hundreds of cannons and artillery at Gangwana the Jaipur emerged victorious but with heavy losses of 12,000 and thousands other wounded
Battle of Bunker Hill (1775), American Revolutionary War: after mounting three assaults on the colonial forces, the British won control of the Boston peninsula in the early stages of the war, but the engagement cost them many more casualties than the Americans had incurred (including a large number of officers) and led them to adopt more cautious methods, which helped American rebel forces; the political repercussions increased colonial support for independence 
Battle of Guilford Court House (1781), American Revolutionary War: in this short battle, the outnumbered British force defeated an American army; the British lost a considerable number of men, and their drive to conquer the southern colonies changed course 
Battle of Chancellorsville (1863), American Civil War: General Robert E  Lee split his army in the face of Hooker's larger Union force; the audacious strategy allowed the Confederate army to win the day against a numerically superior foe  However, 20% of Lee's army was injured or killed, including General Stonewall Jackson, and his losses were difficult to replace  Lee's weakened army went on the offensive, but less than two months later was defeated and forced to retreat after the Battle of Gettysburg 
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands (1942), World War II, Solomon Islands Campaign: Japanese and Allied naval forces met during the struggle for Guadalcanal and nearby islands  After an exchange of carrier air attacks, U S  surface ships retreated with one carrier sunk and another severely damaged  The Japanese carrier forces achieved a tactical victory, as none of their ships were sunk, but the heavy loss of irreplaceable veteran aircrews was to the strategic advantage of the Allies  Japanese ground forces on Guadalcanal had also just lost the Battle for Henderson Field and were in no position to take advantage of the new situation 
Battle of Chosin Reservoir (1950), Korean War: the Chinese army attempted to encircle and destroy the UN forces but in a 17-day battle in freezing weather, the UN forces inflicted crippling losses on the Chinese while making a fighting withdrawal  The Chinese occupied northeast Korea but they did not recover until the spring, and the UN maintained a foothold in Korea 
Second Battle of Quảng Trị (1972), Vietnam War: The army of the Republic of Vietnam, with the support of ground artillery, ship gunboats, and bombers, attacked the ancient citadel of Quảng Trị  Although the citadel was recaptured after 81 days and nights, the ARVN army was weakened and after only 2 years, the Republic of Vietnam collapsed and the communists unified the North and South 
Battle of Vukovar (1991), Croatian War of Independence: the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) laid siege to the city of Vukovar, held by the Croatian National Guard and civilian volunteers  After 87 days, the ruined city fell to the JNA  Although the city was besieged from all sides, it exhausted the Yugoslav army and Serbian paramilitaries that had about twenty times more soldiers and complete armoured and artillery superiority, and they had twice as many losses  It was a turning point in the Croatian War of Independence 

Politics, sports and law
The term is used as an analogy in business, politics and sport to describe struggles that end up ruining the victor  Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr commented on the necessity of coercion in preserving the course of justice by warning,

Moral reason must learn how to make coercion its ally without running the risk of a Pyrrhic victory in which the ally exploits and negates the triumph 
In Beauharnais v  Illinois, a 1952 U S  Supreme Court decision involving a charge proscribing group libel, Associate Justice Black alluded to Pyrrhus in his dissent,

If minority groups hail this holding as their victory, they might consider the possible relevancy of this ancient remark: "Another such victory and I am undone" 

See also
Passage 7:
Battle of María
The Battle of María (15 June 1809) saw a small Spanish army led by Joaquín Blake y Joyes face an Imperial French corps under Louis Gabriel Suchet 

Background
The Spanish campaign in early 1809 started with the Battle of Uclés 

Battle
After an inconclusive contest earlier in the day, Suchet's cavalry made a decisive charge that resulted in a French victory  Though the Spanish right wing was crushed, the rest of Blake's army got away in fairly good order after abandoning most of its artillery  María de Huerva is located 17 kilometres (10 6 mi) southwest of Zaragoza, Spain  The action occurred during the Peninsular War which was part of the larger struggle known as the Napoleonic Wars 

Aftermath
The Spanish campaign in early 1809 proceeded with the French advance in Catalonia in the Battle of Belchite 

Notes
Passage 8:
Battle of Höchst
The Battle of Höchst (20 June 1622) was fought between a Catholic League army led by Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly and a Protestant army commanded by Christian the Younger, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, close to the town of Höchst, today a suburb of the city of Frankfurt am Main  The result was a one-sided Catholic League victory  The action occurred during the Thirty Years' War 

Background
In April 1622, Tilly had lost the Battle of Mingolsheim to Ernst von Mansfeld  In early May, however, Tilly won a decisive engagement with Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Baden-Durlach at the Battle of Wimpfen, which dispersed or killed approximately 3/4 of Georg Friederich's army, leaving only Christian of Brunswick and Ernst von Mansfeld to command in the coming battle  Meanwhile, even though Tilly had lost the army of Gonzalo de Córdoba, who had left, Tilly was more than compensated by the troops of General Tommaso Caracciolo and the count of Anholt, Johann Jakob 
Christian wanted to use the situation for a crucial strike against the Catholic League  With 12,000 infantrymen, nearly 5,000 cavalrymen, and three guns he moved from Westphalia along the Weser River shoreline, and through Hesse towards the Main River to unite his troops with armies of Mansfeld and Baden-Durlach, at Darmstadt  Continuing their mission of blocking a rendezvous between Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, the Catholic forces reached the river at Höchst on 20 June to find Christian's army already crossing the river 

Battle
On 15 June, Christian reached the territory of the Archbishopric of Mainz at Oberursel  He sent Colonel Dodo zu Innhausen und Knyphausen with an advance guard of 1,500 men against Höchst to take the town in a coup de main and to safeguard the Main crossing point  However, the Höchst municipal troops successfully defended the town against Knyphausen's initial assault  On the 16th Knyphausen's troops finally stormed and plundered Höchst 
Two days later the Protestants started building a pontoon bridge across the Main  Meanwhile, Christian moved with his troops towards Höchst and destroyed the villages of Oberusel, Eschborn, and Sulzbach  At the same time the Catholic troops approached in forced marches from Würzburg with 20,000 infantrymen, 6,000 cavalrymen, and 18 guns  On 19 June, they arrived at the Nidda River between Nied and Sossenheim late at night When the bridge was completed in the morning of 20 June, Christian's baggage started to cross the river  Tilly planned to force Christian's troops back to the Höchst walls and the Main, isolating the two thousand troops in Sossenheim  Hence, Christian ordered his troops to withdraw over the pontoon bridge towards Kelsterbach, but under the Catholic artillery fire the withdrawal turned into a headlong flight  The bridge broke after only 3,000 men had crossed and many of Christian's soldiers and horses drowned in the Main By the time Höchst castle was captured at around 10 p m , Christian had already lost a third of his army and was forced to retreat  Mansfeld lost an additional 2,000 troops acting as rearguard at Mannheim  Christian's entire baggage train and guns became Catholic loot  While the League troops lost only 100 soldiers, nearly 2,000 of Christian's soldiers died  However, Christian succeeded in escaping with 3,000 cavalrymen, 8,000 infantrymen, and his war chest, eventually uniting with Mansfeld's army  More recent investigations, however, showed that Christian had lost most of his booty 

Aftermath
Tilly claimed a strategic victory because his army had far fewer losses, despite the fact that Christian of Brunswick had achieved his operational goal of uniting his army with Mansfeld's  As a result of the battle, however, his troops were severely demoralised and had also lost most of their equipment, making them more of a liability than a reinforcement Höchst was the decisive battle of the 1622 campaign and signalled the end for "Winter King" Frederick V  
Shortly after the battle, the combined Protestant forces, now numbering 26,000 strong, positioned themselves on the western bank of the Rhine and ceased to resist the invasion of the Palatinate 
Frederick cancelled their contract and they were then hired by the Dutch Republic to lift the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom  On their way there, they were intercepted by Córdoba's troops in the Battle of Fleurus on 29 August and strategically defeated him despite suffering greater losses 
Heidelberg came under siege and despite an 11-week resistance, fell on 15 September 
With this news, the token English forces under Sir Horace Vere evacuated Mannheim, which fell on 2 November, and moved to the fortress of Frankenthal, which served as a final outpost for Protestant resistance in this area  It fell the following year  Duke Maximillian now controlled half of the Lower Palatinate and installed Heinrich von Metternich as governor 

Illustrations of the battle
The Swiss engraver Merian depicted the battle and the bridging of the Main in an engraving  Another contemporary engraving of an unknown artist shows the battle in a large panorama   Neither of these artists had been an eye witness of the event 
Passage 9:
Lloyd Andrews Hamilton
First Lieutenant Lloyd Andrews Hamilton (13 June 1894 – 24 August 1918) was a World War I flying ace credited with ten aerial victories  During five months of 1918 he became an ace with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and then again with the United States Air Service (USAS)  Hamilton Air Force Base is named after him 

Early life
Lloyd Andrews Hamilton was born in Troy, New York, the only child of Methodist minister Reverend John A  Hamilton and his wife Jennie Andrews Hamilton  He was a bright scholar who took his Baccalaureate Degree magnum cum laude from Syracuse University in 1916 and was a member of the Psi Upsilon fraternity  He initiated post-graduate studies at Harvard Business School in September 1916  When America entered World War I, he enlisted in the USAS, on 28 April and in May he reported to Plattsburgh, New York, for officer training 

Aviation service
Hamilton shipped out to England in late 1917 where he trained in early 1918 in an Avro 504, perhaps at RFC Bramham Moor which was then renamed RAF Tadcaster, near Bramham cum Oglethorpe in Yorkshire  Hamilton was temporarily posted as a first lieutenant to United Kingdom No  3 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps, on 2 March 1918 He first scored as a combat pilot on 11 April 1918, flying the Sopwith Camel against his first German opponent, an LVG C VI observation aircraft  The next day he made his second aerial kill; his third a week later  On 20 April he was flying at the tail end of 'C' flight when his commander Richard Raymond-Barker was attacked and killed by Manfred von Richthofen, known as the Red Baron  From far away Hamilton saw Richthofen shoot down a second aviator (who crashed but lived), then Hamilton was near enough to engage a blue Fokker Dr I triplane, expending more than 300 rounds at it after which it went into a dive and spin, but Hamilton's own maneuvers prevented him from seeing what happened to it  Hamilton returned to base and claimed a kill but it was never confirmed—all of Richthofen's flight had returned safe from the engagement  On 3 June 1918, Hamilton became an ace, scoring his fifth confirmed victory Hamilton was assigned to the USAS 17th Aero Squadron to help them complete their training  When they moved into combat, he was one of their Flight Commanders  In his service he downed three enemy aircraft and two observation balloons, becoming a double ace—once flying under RFC command and once again for USAS  His first USAS victory on 7 August was during an offensive patrol; the squadron was flying high at 16,000 feet (5,000 m) when they noticed eight Fokker D VIIs well below them over Armentières  The 17th squadron dove to attack and Hamilton downed an enemy aircraft after firing 200 rounds On Hamilton's final mission he was paired with Lt  Jesse F  Campbell to bomb and strafe transports along the Bapaume–Cambrai road, to strafe enemy troops in retreat and to attack an observation balloon that had been spotted to the north  After dropping their bombs on a small building and transports, Campbell and Hamilton turned to bust the balloon  Hamilton sprayed the balloon with machine gun rounds, and its German observer officer was seen to jump from the basket as the balloon exploded in flame  Hamilton was then killed by defensive fire from ground forces 

Legacy
Hamilton scored five victories each in 3 Squadron RAF and in the 17th Aero Squadron  He shared some of his victories teamed with such other aces as Douglas John Bell, William Tipton, Adrian Franklyn, Will Hubbard, and Robert Miles Todd Hamilton's body was laid to rest at Pittsfield Cemetery in Pittsfield, Massachusetts  His father mentioned Hamilton in Sunday sermons for many years after the war In July 1932, the new military airfield at Novato, California was named Hamilton Field in tribute  In April 1934, a plaque was emplaced to commemorate him 

Honors and awards
Distinguished Service Cross (DSC)
The Distinguished Service Cross is presented to Lloyd A  Hamilton, First Lieutenant (Air Service), U S  Army, for extraordinary heroism in action at Varssenaere, Belgium, August 13, 1918  Leading a low bombing attack on a German aerodrome, 30 miles behind the line, Lieutenant Hamilton destroyed the hangars on the north side of the aerodrome and then attacked a row of enemy machines, flying as low as 20 feet from the ground despite intense machine-gun fire, and setting fire to three of the German planes  He then turned and fired bursts through the windows of the chateau in which the German pilots were quartered, 26 of whom were afterwards reported killed  General Orders No  20, W D , 1919 Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC)
On 13 August 1918, Lt  Hamilton led his flight on a special mission against Varssenaere aerodrome  He dropped four bombs from 200 feet on some aeroplane hangars, making two direct hits and causing a large amount of damage  He then machine gunned the German officers' billets and made four circuits of the aerodrome, shooting up various targets  On the first circuit, he destroyed one EA on the ground which burst into flames when he shot it up  On the third circuit he repeated this performance, setting afire another Fokker biplane  His dash and skill very materially helped in the success of the operation  In addition this officer destroyed a Fokker biplane over Armentières on 7 August 1918  On 12 July he brought down two EA in flames and on two other occasions has driven down out of control enemy machines  He is an excellent patrol leader 

See also
List of World War I flying aces from the United States
Passage 10:
Siege of Genoa (1800)
The siege of Genoa (6 April – 4 June 1800) saw Austria besiege and capture the city of Genoa from France during the War of the Second Coalition  However, the battle was ultimately a successful diversion conducted by André Masséna's forces that allowed Napoleon to win the subsequent Battle of Marengo  In the end, around 30,000 of Genoa's 160,000 inhabitants had died of starvation and disease in the course of the siege 

Background
After Massena's victory in the Second Battle of Zurich, the alliance between Russia and Austria ended  Though this did not end the war, Napoleon soon came back from Egypt and proclaimed himself First Consul, greatly improving French chances of victory  However, the consul needed time to move his troops into Italy, so he ordered Masséna to hold Nice and Genoa at all costs until he arrived 

Beginning
Initially, the French had about 60,000 soldiers, but this number was reduced to about 36,000 fighting men due to a typhus epidemic that had also taken the lives of two of Masséna's predecessors, generals Jean-Étienne Championnet and Jean-Antoine Marbot  The Austrian commander, Michael von Melas, had around 120,000 soldiers available in Italy  After the first engagements, despite the bravery of French soldiers under Louis-Gabriel Suchet and Jean-de-Dieu Soult, Genoa was soon cut off from any outside help  By 6 April, the French were surrounded not only by land, but also by sea where a strong British squadron had just taken up positions  Nevertheless, French morale remained high and Masséna was determined to hold on 

Siege
Though Genoa was defended both by nature and by strong fortifications, Massénaa planned a more offensive strategy  On 7 April, he ordered an attack on Monte Ratti, which resulted in the Austrians being thrown out of the Apennines and the French capturing about 1,500 prisoners, including General-Major Konstantin Ghilian Karl d'Aspré  Two days later, Masséna began a desperate operation to unite with the rest of the French forces commanded by Suchet  Although Massena was cut off with only 1,200 soldiers against 10,000 Austrians, he endured their attacks and, with the help of Soult, captured another 4,000 prisoners  After this battle, the French finally shut themselves in the city  Other desperately fought battles soon followed, especially those for Fort Quezzi and Fort Richelieu, inflicting further heavy casualties on the Austrians  French forces then captured Mount Creto, forcing the Austrians to halt all further actions 
In the meantime, Bonaparte was marching with the Army of the Reserve not to the relief of Genoa, but to Milan, where he spent six days  By the end of May, plague had spread throughout Genoa and the civilian population was in revolt  Negotiations for the exchange of prisoners began in early June, but the citizens and some of the garrison clamoured for capitulation  Unknown to Masséna, the Austrian general Peter Ott had been ordered to raise the siege because Bonaparte had crossed Great St  Bernard Pass and was now threatening the main Austrian army  Describing the situation at Genoa, Ott requested and received permission to continue the siege  On 4 June, Masséna's negotiator finally agreed to evacuate the French army from Genoa  However, "if the word capitulation was mentioned or written", Masséna threatened to end all negotiations Two days later, a few of the French left the city by sea, but the bulk of Masséna's starving and exhausted troops marched out of the city with all their equipment and followed the road along the coast toward France, ending one of the most remarkable sieges in modern military history  The siege was an astonishing demonstration of tenacity, ingenuity, courage, and daring that garnered additional laurels for Masséna and placed him in a category previously reserved for Bonaparte alone 

Aftermath
The gruelling siege of some sixty days had ended but it played an important role in Napoleon's strategy  By forcing the Austrians to deploy vast forces against himself at Genoa, Masséna made it possible for Bonaparte to cross the Great St Bernard Pass, surprise the Austrians, and ultimately defeat General Melas's army at Marengo before sufficient reinforcements could be transferred from the siege site  Less than three weeks after the evacuation, Bonaparte wrote to Masséna, "I am not able to give you a greater mark of the confidence I have in you than by giving you command of the first army of the Republic [Army of Italy] " The Austrians also recognized the significance of Masséna's defense; the Austrian chief of staff declared firmly, "You won the battle, not in front of Alessandria but in front of Genoa "

Notes


== Citations ==
Passage 11:
Earl Frederick Crabb
Lieutenant (later Major) Earl Frederick Crabb (March 27, 1899 – October 18, 1986) was a World War I flying ace credited with six aerial victories  After World War I, he was an aviation pioneer and bush pilot  He returned to military aviation during World War II  He flew as a commercial pilot until he was 72 years old 

World War I
Crabb served in 92 Squadron under the command of fellow ace and future Air Marshal Arthur Coningham  Crabbe flew a Royal Aircraft Factory SE 5a to score all six of his victories  They took place between 22 July and 29 October 1918  Crabbe downed five German Fokker D VII fighters and a DFW reconnaissance plane; the latter kill was shared with fellow ace Thomas Stanley Horry and another pilot Crabb was awarded a Distinguished Flying Cross on 8 February 1919 

Between the wars
Crabb remained in aviation after war's end  He barnstormed  He flew air mail from Boston and New York to Detroit during the 1920s  In the early 1930s, he was the first pilot hired by the U S  Forest Service in Maine 

World War II and beyond
Crabb returned to duty for World War II as a major, joining the U S  Army Air Corps and serving in Training Command  After his discharge in 1945, he returned to his civilian flying job  He retired as Chief Pilot with the Forest Service at age 65, circa 1964  He continued to fly as a commercial pilot until about 1971 
Passage 12:
Hieronymus of Cardia
Hieronymus of Cardia (Greek: Ἱερώνυμος ὁ Καρδιανός, 354?–250 BC) was a Greek general and historian from Cardia in Thrace, and a contemporary of Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) 
After the death of Alexander he followed the fortunes of his friend and fellow-countryman Eumenes  He was wounded and taken prisoner by Antigonus, who pardoned him and appointed him superintendent of the asphalt beds in the Dead Sea  He was treated with equal friendliness by Antigonus's son Demetrius, who made him polemarch of Thespiae, and by Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court he died at the purported age of 104 
He wrote a history of the Diadochi and their descendants, encompassing the period from the death of Alexander to the war with Pyrrhus (323–272 BC), which is one of the chief authorities used by Diodorus Siculus (xviii –xx ) and also by Plutarch in his life of Pyrrhus 
He made use of official papers and was careful in his investigation of facts  The simplicity of his style seemingly rendered his work unpopular to people of his time, but modern historians believe it was very good  In the last part of his work he made a praiseworthy attempt to acquaint the Greeks with the character and early history of the Romans  He is reproached by Pausanias (i  9  8) with unfairness towards all rulers with the exception of Antigonus Gonatas 
Like the even more famous lost history of Alexander by Ptolemy I of Egypt, no significant amount of his work survived the end of the ancient world  He is among the authors whose fragments were collected in Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Müller's Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum (II pp  450–61), and in Felix Jacoby's Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (= FGrHist 154) 
Passage 13:
Battle of Szikszó
The third and largest Battle of Szikszó was fought in October 1588 between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire as part of the Ottoman–Hungarian wars  The Hungarian forces were fewer in number, but were victorious over the Ottomans   This unexpected victory was even mentioned by Emperor Rudolf decades after the battle  It was one of the most important Hungarian victories in the post-Mohács period 

Events
In 1588, Pasha Sina of Buda marched with his soldiers towards Szikszó, which belonged to Hungary and refused to pay taxes to Porta   On October 8, Ottoman soldiers were already in the market town and looting when the border fort's rescue army led by Captain Sigismund Rákóczi from Eger arrived   In contrast to the Ottoman army of 11,000 the Hungarian-German army could have been 2,400–2,500   Despite the superiority, the latter still won   More than two thousand Ottomans and about 400–500 Hungarians and Germans were dead in the clash   In the wake of this incident, the Habsburg court in Prague suspended the payment of a “fair gift” of 30,000 gold a year, fixed in the Drinapolis peace, in response to which Porta threatened war 

Prelude
In 1588, Szikszó already owed 1,000 gold tax, so Sinan  Pasha of Buda organized a punitive tax collect campaign   The six thousand cavalry and the same number of infantry were led by Kara Ali Beg, the commander of Fehérvár, against Putnok and then, after he could not take it, set off in the direction of Szikszó 

The battle
On the afternoon of October 8, the Pasha arrived under the city and immediately began the siege of the church fortress, which was protected by armed citizens   After two hours of siege, however, he was forced to retreat, because the rescue teams led by Major Sigismund Rákóczi from Eger arrived around 5 o'clock 
With 2,000 Hungarian warriors and 500 German warriors   Kara Ali set fire to the church and the houses around it, then retreated to the Hernád-Velvet triangle, where he arranged his army   He arranged the riders on the right wing and the Janissaries on the left wing, setting up his four cannons in the middle 
Rákóczi's army was led in the middle by István Drugeth Homonnai, chief of Zemplén, the most famous knight of Upper Hungary, the black shield horsemen attacked the left wing, while the German riflemen collided with the Janissaries 
Kara Ali was seriously injured at the very beginning of the battle, so the command was taken over by Mustafa Szécsény, who also fell shortly afterwards   At that time the Janissaries broke through the army of the attacking Hungarian armies, István Drugeth was captured, and Rákóczi was already considering retreating, when the Hungarian left wing rushed to the aid of the Germans, and thus managed to repel the Janissaries 
The order of war was completely disintegrated, and the struggle against man dragged on into the late night   By this time, the third Turkish chief, Bajazid basa, the leader of the Janissaries, had also fallen   Heling, the captain of the Germans, also fell   By 11, the Turkish armies ran away   The cavalry chased them to Sajó, and he also managed to free his Homons 
1,700 Turkish and hundreds of Hungarian and German soldiers died in the battle 

Aftermath
The common grave where the dead were buried has since been called Törökhalom 
With this victory, Sigismund Rákóczi became famous, Emperor Rudolf, even decades after the battle, mentioned the brilliant triumph, which was especially valuable because of the difference in the numbers of the two armies 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Ekulu River
The River Ekulu is a 25-kilometre (16 mi) long river and the largest body of water in the city of Enugu in Enugu State, southeastern Nigeria, and it originates in the same city as well 
Passage 2:
Plankton
Plankton are the diverse collection of organisms found in water (or air) that are unable to propel themselves against a current (or wind)  The individual organisms constituting plankton are called plankters  In the ocean, they provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms, such as bivalves, fish, and baleen whales 
Marine plankton include bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries  Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found in lakes and rivers  Mostly plankton just drift where currents take them, though some, like jellyfish, swim slowly but not fast enough to generally gain control from the influence of currents 
Although plankton are usually thought of as inhabiting water, there are also airborne versions that live part of their lives drifting in the atmosphere  These aeroplankton include plant spores, pollen and wind-scattered seeds  They may also include microorganisms swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms and oceanic plankton swept into the air by sea spray 
Though many planktonic species are microscopic in size, plankton includes organisms over a wide range of sizes, including large organisms such as jellyfish  This is because plankton are defined by their ecological niche and level of motility rather than by any phylogenetic or taxonomic classification  The "plankton" category differentiates these organisms from those that float on the water's surface, called neuston, those that can swim against a current, called nekton, and those that live on the deep sea floor, called benthos 

Terminology
The name plankton was coined by German marine biologist Victor Hensen in 1887 from shortening the word halyplankton from Greek ᾰ̔́λς háls "sea" and πλανάω planáō to  "drift" or "wander" : 1  While some forms are capable of independent movement and can swim hundreds of meters vertically in a single day (a behavior called diel vertical migration), their horizontal position is primarily determined by the surrounding water movement, and plankton typically flow with ocean currents  This is in contrast to nekton organisms, such as fish, squid and marine mammals, which can swim against the ambient flow and control their position in the environment 
Within the plankton, holoplankton spend their entire life cycle as plankton (e g  most algae, copepods, salps, and some jellyfish)  By contrast, meroplankton are only planktic for part of their lives (usually the larval stage), and then graduate to either a nektic (swimming) or benthic (sea floor) existence  Examples of meroplankton include the larvae of sea urchins, starfish, crustaceans, marine worms, and most fish The amount and distribution of plankton depends on available nutrients, the state of water and a large amount of other plankton The study of plankton is termed planktology and a planktonic individual is referred to as a plankter  The adjective planktonic is widely used in both the scientific and popular literature, and is a generally accepted term  However, from the standpoint of prescriptive grammar, the less-commonly used planktic is more strictly the correct adjective  When deriving English words from their Greek or Latin roots, the gender-specific ending (in this case, "-on" which indicates the word is neuter) is normally dropped, using only the root of the word in the derivation 

Trophic groups
Plankton are primarily divided into broad functional (or trophic level) groups:   

Phytoplankton (from Greek phyton, or plant), are autotrophic prokaryotic or eukaryotic algae that live near the water surface where there is sufficient light to support photosynthesis  Among the more important groups are the diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and coccolithophores 
Zooplankton (from Greek zoon, or animal), are small protozoans or metazoans (e g  crustaceans and other animals) that feed on other plankton  Some of the eggs and larvae of larger nektonic animals, such as fish, crustaceans, and annelids, are included here 
Mycoplankton include fungi and fungus-like organisms, which, like bacterioplankton, are also significant in remineralisation and nutrient cycling 
Bacterioplankton include bacteria and archaea, which play an important role in remineralising organic material down the water column (note that prokaryotic phytoplankton are also bacterioplankton) 
Virioplankton are viruses  Viruses are more abundant in the plankton than bacteria and archaea, though much smaller 

Mixoplankton
Mixotrophs  Plankton have traditionally been categorized as producer, consumer and recycler groups, but some plankton are able to benefit from more than just one trophic level  In this mixed trophic strategy—known as mixotrophy—organisms act as both producers and consumers, either at the same time or switching between modes of nutrition in response to ambient conditions  This makes it possible to use photosynthesis for growth when nutrients and light are abundant, but switching to eat phytoplankton, zooplankton or each other when growing conditions are poor  Mixotrophs are divided into two groups; constitutive mixotrophs, CMs, which are able to perform photosynthesis on their own, and non-constitutive mixotrophs, NCMs, which use phagocytosis to engulf phototrophic prey that are either kept alive inside the host cell which benefit from its photosynthesis, or they digest their prey except for the plastids which continues to perform photosynthesis (kleptoplasty) Recognition of the importance of mixotrophy as an ecological strategy is increasing, as well as the wider role this may play in marine biogeochemistry  Studies have shown that mixotrophs are much more important for the marine ecology than previously assumed, and comprise more than half of all microscopic plankton  Their presence act as a buffer that prevents the collapse of ecosystems during times with little to no light 

Size groups
Plankton are also often described in terms of size  Usually the following divisions are used: 
However, some of these terms may be used with very different boundaries, especially on the larger end  The existence and importance of nano- and even smaller plankton was only discovered during the 1980s, but they are thought to make up the largest proportion of all plankton in number and diversity 
The microplankton and smaller groups are microorganisms and operate at low Reynolds numbers, where the viscosity of water is more important than its mass or inertia 

Habitat groups
Marine plankton
Marine plankton includes marine bacteria and archaea, algae, protozoa and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries 

Freshwater plankton
Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found inland in the freshwaters of lakes and rivers 

Aeroplankton
Aeroplankton are tiny lifeforms that float and drift in the air, carried by the current of the wind; they are the atmospheric analogue to oceanic plankton  Most of the living things that make up aeroplankton are very small to microscopic in size, and many can be difficult to identify because of their tiny size  Scientists can collect them for study in traps and sweep nets from aircraft, kites or balloons  Aeroplankton is made up of numerous microbes, including viruses, about 1000 different species of bacteria, around 40,000 varieties of fungi, and hundreds of species of protists, algae, mosses and liverworts that live some part of their life cycle as aeroplankton, often as spores, pollen, and wind-scattered seeds  Additionally, peripatetic microorganisms are swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms, and an even larger amount of airborne marine microorganisms are propelled high into the atmosphere in sea spray  Aeroplankton deposits hundreds of millions of airborne viruses and tens of millions of bacteria every day on every square meter around the planet 
The sea surface microlayer, compared to the sub-surface waters, contains elevated concentration of bacteria and viruses  These materials can be transferred from the sea-surface to the atmosphere in the form of wind-generated aqueous aerosols due to their high vapour tension and a process known as volatilisation  When airborne, these microbes can be transported long distances to coastal regions  If they hit land they can have an effect on animal, vegetation and human health  Marine aerosols that contain viruses can travel hundreds of kilometers from their source and remain in liquid form as long as the humidity is high enough (over 70%)  These aerosols are able to remain suspended in the atmosphere for about 31 days  Evidence suggests that bacteria can remain viable after being transported inland through aerosols  Some reached as far as 200 meters at 30 meters above sea level  The process which transfers this material to the atmosphere causes further enrichment in both bacteria and viruses in comparison to either the SML or sub-surface waters (up to three orders of magnitude in some locations) 

Geoplankton
Many animals live in terrestrial environments by thriving in transient often microscopic bodies of water and moisture, these include rotifers and gastrotrichs which lay resilient eggs capable of surviving years in dry environments, and some of which can go dormant themselves  Nematodes are usually microscopic with this lifestyle  Water bears, despite only having lifespans of a few months, famously can enter suspended animation during dry or hostile conditions and survive for decades  This allows them to be ubiquitous in terrestrial environments despite needing water to grow and reproduce  Many microscopic crustacean groups like copepods and amphipods (of which sandhoppers are members) and seed shrimp are known to go dormant when dry and live in transient bodies of water too

Other groups
Gelatinous zooplankton
Gelatinous zooplankton are fragile animals that live in the water column in the ocean  Their delicate bodies have no hard parts and are easily damaged or destroyed  Gelatinous zooplankton are often transparent  All jellyfish are gelatinous zooplankton, but not all gelatinous zooplankton are jellyfish  The most commonly encountered organisms include ctenophores, medusae, salps, and Chaetognatha in coastal waters  However, almost all marine phyla, including Annelida, Mollusca and Arthropoda, contain gelatinous species, but many of those odd species live in the open ocean and the deep sea and are less available to the casual ocean observer 

Ichthyoplankton
Ichthyoplankton are the eggs and larvae of fish  They are mostly found in the sunlit zone of the water column, less than 200 metres deep, which is sometimes called the epipelagic or photic zone  Ichthyoplankton are planktonic, meaning they cannot swim effectively under their own power, but must drift with the ocean currents  Fish eggs cannot swim at all, and are unambiguously planktonic  Early stage larvae swim poorly, but later stage larvae swim better and cease to be planktonic as they grow into juveniles  Fish larvae are part of the zooplankton that eat smaller plankton, while fish eggs carry their own food supply  Both eggs and larvae are themselves eaten by larger animals  Fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into the open water column  Fish eggs typically have a diameter of about 1 millimetre (0 039 in)  The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae  They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens  The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis) to become juveniles  During this transition larvae must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae  In time fish larvae become able to swim against currents, at which point they cease to be plankton and become juvenile fish 

Holoplankton
Holoplankton are organisms that are planktic for their entire life cycle  Holoplankton can be contrasted with meroplankton, which are planktic organisms that spend part of their life cycle in the benthic zone  Examples of holoplankton include some diatoms, radiolarians, some dinoflagellates, foraminifera, amphipods, krill, copepods, and salps, as well as some gastropod mollusk species  Holoplankton dwell in the pelagic zone as opposed to the benthic zone  Holoplankton include both phytoplankton and zooplankton and vary in size  The most common plankton are protists 

Meroplankton
Meroplankton are a wide variety of aquatic organisms which have both planktonic and benthic stages in their life cycles  Much of the meroplankton consists of larval stages of larger organism  Meroplankton can be contrasted with holoplankton, which are planktonic organisms that stay in the pelagic zone as plankton throughout their entire life cycle  After a period of time in the plankton, many meroplankton graduate to the nekton or adopt a benthic (often sessile) lifestyle on the seafloor  The larval stages of benthic invertebrates make up a significant proportion of planktonic communities  The planktonic larval stage is particularly crucial to many benthic invertebrate in order to disperse their young  Depending on the particular species and the environmental conditions, larval or juvenile-stage meroplankton may remain in the pelagic zone for durations ranging from hour to months 

Pseudoplankton
Pseudoplankton are organisms that attach themselves to planktonic organisms or other floating objects, such as drifting wood, buoyant shells of organisms such as Spirula, or man-made flotsam  Examples include goose barnacles and the bryozoan Jellyella  By themselves these animals cannot float, which contrasts them with true planktonic organisms, such as Velella and the Portuguese Man o' War, which are buoyant  Pseudoplankton are often found in the guts of filtering zooplankters 

Tychoplankton
Tychoplankton are organisms, such as free-living or attached benthic organisms and other non-planktonic organisms, that are carried into the plankton through a disturbance of their benthic habitat, or by winds and currents  This can occur by direct turbulence or by disruption of the substrate and subsequent entrainment in the water column  Tychoplankton are, therefore, a primary subdivision for sorting planktonic organisms by duration of lifecycle spent in the plankton, as neither their entire lives nor particular reproductive portions are confined to planktonic existence  Tychoplankton are sometimes called accidental plankton 

Mineralized plankton
Some planktons are protected with mineralized shells or tests 

Distribution
Apart from aeroplankton, plankton inhabits oceans, seas, lakes and ponds  Local abundance varies horizontally, vertically and seasonally  The primary cause of this variability is the availability of light  All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy (but see chemosynthesis), confining primary production to surface waters, and to geographical regions and seasons having abundant light 
A secondary variable is nutrient availability  Although large areas of the tropical and sub-tropical oceans have abundant light, they experience relatively low primary production because they offer limited nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate and silicate  This results from large-scale ocean circulation and water column stratification  In such regions, primary production usually occurs at greater depth, although at a reduced level (because of reduced light) 
Despite significant macronutrient concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called HNLC regions)  The micronutrient iron is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of phytoplankton algal blooms  Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface  Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive, arid land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e g , the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where trade winds bring dust from the Sahara Desert in north Africa) 
While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column  At depths where no primary production occurs, zooplankton and bacterioplankton instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above  This flux of sinking material, so-called marine snow, can be especially high following the termination of spring blooms 
The local distribution of plankton can be affected by wind-driven Langmuir circulation and the biological effects of this physical process 

Ecological significance
Food chain
Aside from representing the bottom few levels of a food chain that supports commercially important fisheries, plankton ecosystems play a role in the biogeochemical cycles of many important chemical elements, including the ocean's carbon cycle  Fish larvae mainly eat zooplankton, which in turn eat phytoplankton

Carbon cycle
Primarily by grazing on phytoplankton, zooplankton provide carbon to the planktic foodweb, either respiring it to provide metabolic energy, or upon death as biomass or detritus  Organic material tends to be denser than seawater, so it sinks into open ocean ecosystems away from the coastlines, transporting carbon along with it  This process, called the biological pump, is one reason that oceans constitute the largest carbon sink on Earth  However, it has been shown to be influenced by increments of temperature  In 2019, a study indicated that at ongoing rates of seawater acidification, Antarctic phytoplanktons could become smaller and less effective at storing carbon before the end of the century It might be possible to increase the ocean's uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) generated through human activities by increasing plankton production through iron fertilization – introducing amounts of iron into the ocean  However, this technique may not be practical at a large scale  Ocean oxygen depletion and resultant methane production (caused by the excess production remineralising at depth) is one potential drawback 

Oxygen production
Phytoplankton absorb energy from the Sun and nutrients from the water to produce their own nourishment or energy  In the process of photosynthesis, phytoplankton release molecular oxygen (O2) into the water as a waste byproduct  It is estimated that about 50% of the world's oxygen is produced via phytoplankton photosynthesis  The rest is produced via photosynthesis on land by plants  Furthermore, phytoplankton photosynthesis has controlled the atmospheric CO2/O2 balance since the early Precambrian Eon 

Absorption efficiency
The absorption efficiency (AE) of plankton is the proportion of food absorbed by the plankton that determines how available the consumed organic materials are in meeting the required physiological demands  Depending on the feeding rate and prey composition, variations in absorption efficiency may lead to variations in fecal pellet production, and thus regulates how much organic material is recycled back to the marine environment  Low feeding rates typically lead to high absorption efficiency and small, dense pellets, while high feeding rates typically lead to low absorption efficiency and larger pellets with more organic content  Another contributing factor to dissolved organic matter (DOM) release is respiration rate  Physical factors such as oxygen availability, pH, and light conditions may affect overall oxygen consumption and how much carbon is loss from zooplankton in the form of respired CO2  The relative sizes of zooplankton and prey also mediate how much carbon is released via sloppy feeding  Smaller prey are ingested whole, whereas larger prey may be fed on more “sloppily”, that is more biomatter is released through inefficient consumption  There is also evidence that diet composition can impact nutrient release, with carnivorous diets releasing more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium than omnivorous diets 

Biomass variability
The growth of phytoplankton populations is dependent on light levels and nutrient availability  The chief factor limiting growth varies from region to region in the world's oceans  On a broad scale, growth of phytoplankton in the oligotrophic tropical and subtropical gyres is generally limited by nutrient supply, while light often limits phytoplankton growth in subarctic gyres  Environmental variability at multiple scales influences the nutrient and light available for phytoplankton, and as these organisms form the base of the marine food web, this variability in phytoplankton growth influences higher trophic levels  For example, at interannual scales phytoplankton levels temporarily plummet during El Niño periods, influencing populations of zooplankton, fishes, sea birds, and marine mammals 
The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research  Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important impacts on future phytoplankton productivity  Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of zooplankton grazing may be significant 

Plankton diversity
Some of the diversity found in plankton

Planktonic Relationships
Fish & plankton
Zooplankton are the initial prey item for almost all fish larvae as they switch from their yolk sacs to external feeding  Fish rely on the density and distribution of zooplankton to match that of new larvae, which can otherwise starve  Natural factors (e g , current variations, temperature changes) and man-made factors (e g  river dams, ocean acidification, rising temperatures) can strongly affect zooplankton, which can in turn strongly affect larval survival, and therefore breeding success 
It's been shown that plankton can be patchy in marine environments where there aren't significant fish populations and additionally, where fish are abundant, zooplankton dynamics are influenced by the fish predation rate in their environment  Depending on the predation rate, they could express regular or chaotic behavior A negative effect that fish larvae can have on planktonic algal blooms is that the larvae will prolong the blooming event by diminishing available zooplankton numbers; this in turn permits excessive phytoplankton growth allowing the bloom to flourish  The importance of both phytoplankton and zooplankton is also well-recognized in extensive and semi-intensive pond fish farming  Plankton population-based pond management strategies for fish rearing have been practiced by traditional fish farmers for decades, illustrating the importance of plankton even in man-made environments 
Whales & plankton
Of all animal fecal matter, it is whale feces that is the 'trophy' in terms of increasing nutrient availability  Phytoplankton are the powerhouse of open ocean primary production and they can acquire many nutrients from whale feces  In the marine food web, phytoplankton are at the base of the food web and are consumed by zooplankton & krill, which are preyed upon by larger and larger marine organisms, including whales, so it can be said that whale poop fuels the entire food web 

Humans & plankton
Plankton have many direct and indirect effects on humans 
Around 70% of the oxygen in the atmosphere is produced in the oceans from phytoplankton performing photosynthesis, meaning that the majority of the oxygen available for us and other organisms that respire aerobically is produced by plankton Plankton also make up the base of the marine food web, providing food for all the trophic levels above  Recent studies have analyzed the marine food web to see if the system runs on a top-down or bottom-up approach  Essentially, this research is focused on understanding whether changes in the food web are driven by nutrients at the bottom of the food web or predators at the top  The general conclusion is that the bottom-up approach seemed to be more predictive of food web behavior  This indicates that plankton have more sway in determining the success of the primary consumer species that prey on them than do the secondary consumers that prey on the primary consumers 
In some cases, plankton act as an intermediate host for deadly parasites in humans  One such case is that of cholera, an infection caused by several strains of Vibrio cholerae  These species have been shown to have a symbiotic relationship with chitinous zooplankton species like copepods  These bacteria benefit not only from the food provided by the chiton from the zooplankton, but also from the protection from acidic environments  Once the copepods have been ingested by a human host, the chitinous exterior protects the bacteria from the stomach acids in the stomach and proceed to the intestines  Once there, the bacteria bind with the surface of the small intestine and the host will start developing symptoms, including extreme diarrhea, within five days 

See also
Aeroplankton
Gelatinous zooplankton
Ichthyoplankton
Nekton
Paradox of the plankton
Seston
Veliger
Passage 3:
Athlete (band)
Athlete were an English indie rock band formed in Deptford, London, comprising Joel Pott (lead vocals and guitar), Carey Willetts (bass and backing vocals), Stephen Roberts (drums and backing vocals), Tim Wanstall (keyboards) 
The band had a brief period of high-profile domestic success in which their debut album Vehicles & Animals (2003) was a platinum seller in 2005 and Mercury Music Prize nomination  It was followed up by Tourist (2005) which reached No  1 and sold over 500,000 copies allowing this album to also go platinum  Athlete's subsequent two albums, Beyond the Neighbourhood (2007) and Black Swan (2009), saw the band exploring different styles, influenced by the works of artists such as Nick Cave & the Bad Seeds 
The band has been on hiatus since anniversary tours in 2012 and 2013  Joel Pott has been working since then as songwriter and producer for other artists  Carey Willets released a solo album in 2012, called Stickers and has another project called "Boxes"  Stephen Roberts and Tim Wanstall have been working on production with other bands  In 2011, Stephen Roberts stated that they set aside plans for a fifth record, have no plans to make a new album, and are exploring different careers  Since then, they have been relatively quiet 

History
Debut releases and development (2000–2002)
Friends since the age of fourteen, Athlete took their wide ranging influences such as Grandaddy and The Flaming Lips and started jamming and practising in the basement of The Bear, a pub which was converted into a church and sandwich bar, on Deptford High Street in 1999  They began recording there, before sending demos out 
Signing with Regal Recordings, the band released their first single "Westside" in February 2002, which was a hit, garnering airplay on BBC Radio 1 and paving the way for another single, "You Got the Style" which cracked the Top 40 in June  Parlophone took notice and promptly signed the musicians, who entered the studio with producer Victor Van Vugt (Nick Cave & the Bad Seeds, Beth Orton) in late 2002 to record their first studio LP 

Commercial success, but mixed critical reception (2003–2006)
The band came to prominence in 2003 with their debut album, Vehicles and Animals, producing popular singles such as "You Got the Style" and "El Salvador"  The album earned a Mercury Music Prize nomination and went on to sell over 250,000 copies  They played their first live session on UK radio on the Dermot O'Leary Show on BBC Radio 2  Following the release of the album in April 2003, the summer of that year was a particularly fruitful time  Shortly after Glastonbury and T in The Park festivals, the band were nominated for the Mercury Award  After nomination, the album went from silver (60,000 sales) to gold (100,000) in the space of two weeks  "I think there's an underdog waiting to be discovered by the Mercury every year," said Steve  "And that year it was us " "By the time we played V at the end of the summer it seemed like everybody there knew the record,' said Joel Pott, 'There was 20,000 people, all singing along '
Their second album, Tourist, reached Number One in the UK Album Charts in its first week, following the huge success of single "Wires"  The song was written about Pott's newborn baby who was rushed to intensive care after a premature birth, and in 2006 it won them the Ivor Novello Award for "Best Contemporary Song"  In the UK charts, the band has frequently been frustrated by singles just missing out on top 40 placings, due to inconsistent support by music television channels and radio stations   For instance, certain songs, such as "Wires" and "Half Light", were played up to 10 times a day on larger UK radio stations, yet other singles such as "Westside" and "Tourist" received little radio play 
Tourist had a mixed critical reception, with some suggesting that Athlete had failed to sustain the unique style of their previous album, while others saw the new album as a logical progression from their old sound  Allmusic wrote that "Its art direction is a winning tribute to the striking cover art of Britpop past, but musically, Tourist settles for complacent " The supporting tour took place between 2005 and mid-2006 

Development with subsequent releases (2007–2009)
On 10 June 2007, it was announced that the title of their third album would be Beyond the Neighbourhood  The album was recorded by the band themselves in their own studio, and mixed by Ben Allen and Michael Brauer, who had worked on Tourist  Released on 3 September 2007, Beyond the Neighbourhood was a self-produced collection of low-key songs, viewed as a disappointment by some, and an interesting sidestep by others  Jonny Pilcher contributed additional guitar on 7 tracks  Pilcher then played live with the band on the subsequent tour  It entered at No  5 on the UK album chart  Singles included Beach Boys-influenced "Hurricane", charting disappointingly at number 31, also "Tokyo" which missed the Top 100 (number 198) and "The Outsiders EP", which did not chart at all 
They embarked on tours of the UK in late 2007 and early 2008 in support of the album  They also played during the 2008 TT motorcycle racing festival on the Isle of Man Black Swan is the fourth studio album produced by the band  Athlete recorded this album while temporarily unsigned  American producer Tom Rothrock collaborated with the group long distance after hearing only a few acoustic demos  In April they announced a 29 date tour of the UK to promote their new album  The tour took place throughout June and July  On 2 June 2009 it was announced that the band had parted ways with Parlophone Records and signed up with Fiction Records, who released "Black Swan" on 24 August 2009  The first single from the album "Superhuman Touch" was released on 17 August 2009, entering the UK charts at No  74, climbing to No  71 a week later  On 12 June 2009, Athlete released the song "Summer Sun" as a free download for email-subscribers  The song is not included in the track listing confirmed by band member Carey Willetts, and is likely to be considered as a b-side from the upcoming album  The first single to be released in America is "The Getaway"  On 9 November 2009, Athlete released "Black Swan Song" as a single 

Compilation releases, touring and split (2010–2013)
Singles 1–10 was the first compilation album released by the band  Many of the bands big hits, including "El Salvador" and "Wires" appear on this album  The selection of tracks spans the past 10 years  There is one previously unreleased song on the album entitled "Back Track " After the release Athlete completed a tour of Britain, Europe and North America from March till December 2010, performing the hits from the non-bonus edition  The band toured in July across Britain, and in August headlined Union Chapel, and also took the stage at Bingley Music Live and Brownstock Festival in 3 and 4 September 2011 In 2011 the band toured some of their biggest songs, but in a "stripped back" fashion  The idea was that the band took some of their songs and reworked them completely to be played in an acoustic style  The tour came around after the band played a small gig at London's Canary Wharf  After the gig was highly successful, they announced the tour which included 18 dates across the U K with two dates at London's Union Chapel  The second of which was recorded for a live album "Live at Union Chapel" released early in 2012  The album has 12 songs including the singles "Wires" and "Half Light" and includes the band talking to the audience between songs  This was Athlete's fourth live EP after two iTunes Festival EPs and the "Tokyo EP" recorded at Camden Koko 
In a September 2011 interview, keyboardist Tim Wanstall said "it's been every two years (releasing an album) on the odd numbers since 2003 so this is the first year to break that cycle  Actually we're all exploring individual paths at the moment so the if/how/when of another album is a pretty open book " In 2012 the band performed at several festivals including Hop Farm Festival, Shindig Festival and Lakefest  In May 2013, the band embarked on Vehicles & Animals 10th Anniversary Tour, with dates at Bristol Academy, Cambridge Junction and Shepherd's Bush Empire Since this tour, the band became dormant and later split  Pott turned to songwriting and production duties for other artists, forging working relationship with George Ezra, co-writing and producing his first two studio albums: Wanted on Voyage (2014) and Staying at Tamara's (2018), as well as co-writing Shura's debut effort Nothing's Real (2016)  He referred to his time in the band in the past tense in a 2015 interview with M Magazine  Stephen Roberts and Tim Wanstall have been working on production with other bands  Carey Willets released his first solo album in 2012, called Stickers, while also working on production and on a project called "Boxes" 

Discography
Studio albumsVehicles & Animals (2003)
Tourist (2005)
Beyond the Neighbourhood (2007)
Black Swan (2009)

Members
Joel Pott – lead vocals and guitar
Carey Willetts – bass and backing vocals
Stephen Roberts – drums and backing vocals
Tim Wanstall – keyboards and backing vocals
Passage 4:
Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations
The Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations (BAAA) is the governing body for the sport of athletics in the Bahamas



ground_truth: 323–272 BC

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the body of water by the area where Athlete was formed?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:   Current president is Rosamunde Carey   She was elected on 28 November 2015 for the period 2015-2018  She becomes the first woman elected to the position

History
Prior to 1952, there was already a Bahamas Athletic Association   BAAA was founded on 6 May 1952 as Bahamas Amateur Athletic Association and was affiliated to the IAAF the same year   First president was Alfred Frances Adderley   Early in the new millennium the federation’s name was changed to The Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations   A detailed report on the history of BAAA was given on Facebook 

Affiliations
BAAA is the national member federation for the Bahamas in the following international organisations:

World Athletics
North American, Central American and Caribbean Athletic Association (NACAC)
Association of Panamerican Athletics (APA)
Central American and Caribbean Athletic Confederation (CACAC)Moreover, it is part of the following national organisations:

Bahamas Olympic Committee (BOC)

National records
BAAA maintains the Bahamian records in athletics 
Passage 5:
Dead Horse Bay
Dead Horse Bay is a small body of water off Barren Island, between the Gerritsen Inlet and Rockaway Inlet in the New York City borough of Brooklyn 

History
From the nineteenth century to the twentieth century, the area has been used in a variety of ways, including manufacturing fertilizer from the remains of dead animals, producing fish oil from the menhaden caught in the bay, and more recently a landfill for the disposal of New York City’s garbage  Periodic clogging by carcasses from the adjacent glue factory with 200 foot chimney gave the bay its name  A millstone used to grind horse bones can still be found along the Millstone trail In 1926, much of the salt marsh surrounding Dead Horse Bay and the rest of Barren Island were pumped with sand from Jamaica Bay  This raised the land to 16 feet above the high tide mark and connected the islands to each other, and the mainland of Brooklyn, in order to create Floyd Bennett Field as New York City's first municipal airport  The entire area, including the historic airfield, is now managed by the National Park Service as part of the Jamaica Bay Unit of the Gateway National Recreation Area 

In the 1950s, urban planner Robert Moses attempted to expand the now-peninsula to the west using garbage covered by topsoil, but the layer of soil eroded, and garbage can be seen on the coast during low tide  This coast contains many exposed broken glass bottles and other non-biodegradable material In August 2020, the National Park Service announced that Dead Horse Bay would be closed indefinitely because of the presence of radiological contamination  The NPS said at the time that the cleanup could last several years  The contamination was identified as having come from two deck markers, a type of Radium-226 or Strontium-90 based radioluminescent device used by the US military, though the risk of radiological exposure was considered low 

Current use
School groups are taken to Dead Horse Bay on a regular basis to walk the Millstone trail, seine for a variety of fishes, and learn about the natural and cultural history of the area  Its shores are also a popular sport fishing spot, and home to a marina operating in Deep Creek as a National Park Service concession  Today one can find a large array of glass bottles and pieces of broken glass on the beach, along with old shoes and construction materials, many from the landfill which is now leaking  It is a popular place for artists and crafters to collect strange decorative materials 
Passage 6:
Silver Lake (Madison, New Hampshire)
Silver Lake is a 969-acre (3 92 km2) water body located in Carroll County in eastern New Hampshire, United States, in the town of Madison  The village of Silver Lake within Madison lies at the north end of the lake  Water from Silver Lake flows via the West Branch, through the Ossipee Pine Barrens to Ossipee Lake and ultimately to the Saco River in Maine 
Much of the lake's perimeter is forested, but there are numerous swimming spots  Popular beaches include "the foot" of the lake, "Nichols Beach", and "the head of the lake " It was the summer home of E  E  Cummings whose father had built two houses on the lake's eastern shore and later purchased the nearby Joy Farm where Cummings' spent most of his summers as well as his final days 
The lake is classified as a cold- and warmwater fishery, with observed species including rainbow trout, lake trout, lake whitefish, smallmouth bass, chain pickerel, and horned pout 

See also
List of lakes in New Hampshire
Passage 7:
Contoocook Lake
Contoocook Lake ( (listen)) is a 344-acre (1 4 km2) water body located in Cheshire County in southwestern New Hampshire, United States, in the towns of Jaffrey and Rindge  The lake, along with Pool Pond, forms the headwaters of the Contoocook River, which flows north to the Merrimack River in Penacook, New Hampshire 
The lake is classified as a warmwater fishery, with observed species including largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white perch, yellow perch, black crappie, bluegill, pumpkinseed, chain pickerel, and brown bullhead 

See also
List of lakes in New Hampshire
Passage 8:
Secchi disk
The Secchi disk (or Secchi disc), as created in 1865 by Angelo Secchi, is a plain white, circular disk 30 cm (12 in) in diameter used to measure water transparency or turbidity in bodies of water  The disc is mounted on a pole or line and lowered slowly down in the water  The depth at which the disk is no longer visible is taken as a measure of the transparency of the water  This measure is known as the Secchi depth and is related to water turbidity  Since its invention, the disk has also been used in a modified, smaller 20 cm (8 in) diameter, black-and-white design to measure freshwater transparency 
Similar disks, with a black-and-yellow pattern, are used as fiducial markers on vehicles in crash tests, crash-test dummies, and other kinetic experiments 

History
The original Secchi disk was a plain white disk and was used in the Mediterranean Sea  Today, a plain white, 30 cm (12 in) diameter Secchi disk remains the standard design used in marine studies  In 1899 George C  Whipple modified the original all-white Secchi disk to "   a disc about 8 inches in diameter, divided into quadrants painted alternately black and white like the target of a level-rod   "  This modified black-and-white Secchi disk is the standard disk now used in limnology (freshwater) investigations 

Secchi depth
The Secchi depth is reached when the reflectance equals the intensity of light backscattered from the water  1 7 divided into this depth in metres yields an  attenuation coefficient (also called an extinction coefficient), for the available light averaged over the Secchi disk depth  While used as a variable, the extinction coefficient is also used as a variable for turbidity  The light attenuation coefficient, k, can then be used in a form of the Beer–Lambert law,

  
    
      
        
          
            
              I
              
                z
              
            
            
              I
              
                0
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          e
          
            −
            k
            z
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {I_{z} \over I_{0}}=e^{-kz}}
  to estimate Iz, the intensity of light at depth z from I0, the intensity of light at the ocean surface The Secchi disk readings do not provide an exact measure of transparency, as there can be errors because of the sun's glare on the water, or one person may see the disk at one depth, but another person with better eyesight may see it at a greater depth  However, it is an inexpensive and straightforward method of measuring water clarity  Because of the potential for variation between users, methods should be standardized as much as possible 
A Secchi disk measurement should always be taken off the shady side of a boat or dock between 9:00 and 15:00  The period for best results is between 10:00 and 14:00  The same observer should take Secchi depth measurements, in the same manner, every time  One can approach the measurement by lowering the disk beyond a point of disappearance, then raising it and lowering it slightly to set the Secchi depth  Another method is to record the depth at which the disk disappears, lower it another few feet, then record the depth at which the disk reappears as it is slowly brought up  The Secchi depth is taken as the average of the two values Secchi disk measurements do not indicate how attenuation changes with depth or particular wavelengths of light  Submarine photometers can operate at depths of 150 m (492 ft) and can record visible, ultraviolet, and infrared parts of the spectrum  Turbidimeters and Transmissometers have their own light sources and can measure transparency with scientific accuracy 

Applications
Secchi disk measurements have been an integral component of Minnesota's and Wisconsin's lake water quality assessment programs for some time; lake residents make periodic measurements and submit their readings to state and local agencies  The aggregated longitudinal data are used to reveal general trends in water quality  Similarly, the Indiana Clean Lakes Program trains and relies on volunteers to monitor turbidity in over 80 Indiana lakes using Secchi disks, and uses data submitted by volunteers to monitor lake quality in the state In 2013, a team of marine scientists established the global citizen science Secchi Disk program for seafarers to study marine phytoplankton  This ongoing citizen science Secchi Disk study combines the traditional plain white, 30  cm diameter marine Secchi Disk with mobile technology to upload Secchi depth data collected from the sea to a central database  The study's first scientific results were published in 2017  The Secchi Disk study was begun in response to a controversial scientific report that suggested the phytoplankton that influences water transparency had declined by 40% in the oceans between the years 1950 and 2008 

See also
Forel-Ule scale
Siemens star
Trophic state index
Water quality
Passage 9:
Powwow Pond
Powwow Pond is a 348-acre (1 41 km2) water body in Rockingham County in southeastern New Hampshire, United States  It is classified as an artificial impoundment  The outlet of the pond is located in the town of East Kingston, but most of the lake lies in the town of Kingston  The Powwow River, the outlet of the pond, flows to the Merrimack River in Amesbury, Massachusetts  
The lake is classified as a warmwater fishery, with observed species including smallmouth and largemouth bass, chain pickerel, horned pout, and black crappie 

See also
List of lakes in New Hampshire
Passage 10:
Sea of Sardinia
The Sea of Sardinia is a body of water in the Mediterranean Sea between the Spanish archipelago of Balearic Islands and the Italian island of Sardinia 
The deepest point is at some 3,000 m, some 150 km north-west to the island of Menorca 

Recognition
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin  It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia 

See also
Balearic Sea


== Notes ==
Passage 11:
Deptford
Deptford is an area on the south bank of the River Thames in southeast London, within the London Borough of Lewisham  It is named after a ford of the River Ravensbourne  From the mid 16th century to the late 19th it was home to Deptford Dockyard, the first of the Royal Dockyards  This was a major shipbuilding dock and attracted Peter the Great to come and study shipbuilding  Deptford and the docks are associated with the knighting of Sir Francis Drake by Queen Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind, the legend of Sir Walter Raleigh laying down his cape for Elizabeth, Captain James Cook's third voyage aboard HMS Resolution, and the mysterious apparent murder of Christopher Marlowe in a house along Deptford Strand Though Deptford began as two small communities, one at the ford, and the other a fishing village on the Thames, Deptford's history and population has been mainly associated with the docks established by Henry VIII  The two communities grew together and flourished during the period when the docks were the main administrative centre of the Royal Navy, and some grand houses like Sayes Court, home to diarist John Evelyn, and Stone House on Lewisham Way, were erected  The area declined as first the Royal Navy moved out, and then the commercial docks themselves declined until the last dock, Convoys Wharf, closed in 2000 
A Metropolitan Borough of Deptford existed from 1900 until 1965, when the area became part of the newly created London Borough of Lewisham 

History
Deptford took its name from a ford across the Ravensbourne (near what is now Deptford Bridge DLR station) along the route of the Celtic trackway which was later paved by the Romans and developed into the medieval Watling Street  The modern name is a corruption of "deep ford" Deptford was part of the pilgrimage route from London to Canterbury used by the pilgrims in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and is mentioned in the prologue to "The Reeve's Tale"  The ford developed into first a wooden then a stone bridge, and in 1497 saw the Battle of Deptford Bridge, in which rebels from Cornwall, led by Michael An Gof, marched on London protesting against punitive taxes, but were soundly beaten by the King's forces 

A second settlement, Deptford Strand, developed as a modest fishing village on the Thames until Henry VIII used that site for a royal dock repairing, building and supplying ships, after which it grew in size and importance, shipbuilding remaining in operation until March 1869 

Trinity House, the organisation concerned with the safety of navigation around the British Isles, was formed in Deptford in 1514, with its first Master being Thomas Spert, captain of the Mary Rose  It moved to Stepney in 1618  The name "Trinity House" derives from the church of Holy Trinity and St Clement, which adjoined the dockyard Originally separated by market gardens and fields, the two areas merged over the years, with the docks becoming an important part of the Elizabethan exploration  Queen Elizabeth I visited the royal dockyard on 4 April 1581 to knight the adventurer Francis Drake  As well as for exploration, Deptford was important for trade – the Honourable East India Company had a yard in Deptford from 1607 until late in the 17th century, later (1825) taken over by the General Steam Navigation Company  It was also connected with the slave trade, John Hawkins using it as a base for his operations, and Olaudah Equiano, the slave who became an important part of the abolition of the slave trade, was sold from one ship's captain to another in Deptford around 1760 Diarist John Evelyn lived in Deptford at Sayes Court, the manor house of Deptford, from 1652 after he had married the daughter of the owner of the house, Sir Richard Browne  After the Restoration, Evelyn obtained a 99-year lease of the house and grounds, and laid out meticulously planned gardens in the French style, of hedges and parterres  In its grounds was a cottage at one time rented by master woodcarver Grinling Gibbons  After Evelyn had moved to Surrey in 1694, Peter the Great, the Russian tsar, studied shipbuilding for three months in 1698 while staying at Sayes Court  Evelyn was angered at the antics of the tsar, who got drunk with his friends who, using a wheelbarrow with Peter in it, rammed their way through a "fine holly hedge"  Sayes Court was demolished in 1728-9 and a workhouse built on its site  Part of the estates around Sayes Court were purchased in 1742 for the building of the Navy Victualling Yard, which was renamed the Royal Victoria Victualling Yard in 1858 after a visit by Queen Victoria  This massive facility included warehouses, a bakery, a cattleyard/abattoir and sugar stores, and closed in 1961  All that remains is the name of Sayes Court Park, accessed from Sayes Court Street off Evelyn Street, not far from Deptford High Street  The Pepys Estate, opened on 13 July 1966, is on the former grounds of the Victualling Yard 

The Docks had been gradually declining from the 18th century; the larger ships being built found the Thames difficult to navigate, and Deptford was under competition from the new docks at Plymouth, Portsmouth and Chatham  When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815 the need for a Docks to build and repair warships declined; the Docks shifted from shipbuilding to concentrate on victualling at the Royal Victoria Victualling Yard, and the Royal Dock closed in 1869  From 1871 until 1913 the shipyard site was the City of London Corporation's Foreign Cattle Market, to which live animals were brought by cattle boat from four continents and from whence came about half of London's meat supply 

The yard was taken over by the War Office in 1914, and was an Army Supply Reserve Depot in the First and Second World Wars  The site lay unused until being purchased by Convoys (newsprint importers) in 1984, and eventually came into the ownership of News International  In the mid-1990s, although significant investment was made on the site, it became uneconomic to continue using it as a freight wharf  In 2008 Hutchison Whampoa bought the 16ha site from News International with plans for a £700m 3,500-home development scheme  The Grade II listed Olympia Warehouse will be refurbished as part of the redevelopment of the site Deptford experienced economic decline in the 20th century with the closing of the docks, and the damage caused by the bombing during the Blitz in the Second World War – a V-2 rocket destroyed a Woolworths store in New Cross Gate, killing 160 people  High unemployment caused some of the population to move away as the riverside industries closed down in the late 1960s and early 1970s  The local council have developed plans with private companies to regenerate the riverside area, and the town centre 

Governance
The Manor of Deptford or West Greenwich was bestowed by William the Conqueror upon Gilbert de Magminot or Maminot, bishop of Lisieux, one of the eight barons associated with John de Fiennes for the defence of Dover Castle  Maminot held the head of his barony at Deptford and according to John Lyon writing in 1814, he built himself a castle, or castellated mansion at Deptford  The location of the building is not known, but ancient foundations found on the brow of Broomfield,  near the Mast Dock and adjacent to Sayes Court may be the remains of the building 

Deptford was mostly located in the Blackheath Hundred of the county of Kent, with the Hatcham part in the Brixton Hundred of Surrey In 1730 was divided into the two parishes of St Nicholas and St Paul  It was also referred to as West Greenwich, with the modern town of Greenwich being referred to as East Greenwich until this use declined in the 19th century  The whole of Deptford came within the Metropolitan Police District in 1830 and was included in the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1855 
It was transferred to the County of London in 1889  Originally under the governance of the ancient parishes of St Paul and St Nicholas, in 1900, a Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was formed out of the southern parish of St Paul, with St Nicholas and the area around the Royal Dockyard coming under the governance of the Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich Under the London Government Act 1963, the Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was absorbed in 1965 into the newly created London Borough of Lewisham, with the Deptford St Nicholas area becoming part of the Royal Borough of Greenwich, with both these new boroughs now forming part of the new Greater London body  In 1994 the bulk of the northern part, including the former Royal Dockyard area, was transferred to Lewisham, an adjustment of about 40 hectares (99 acres), leaving only the north eastern area, around St Nicholas's church, in Greenwich 
Deptford is split between two electoral wards - Evelyn in the north and part of New Cross to the south  Following public consultation, the Local Government Boundary Commission for England recommended in June 2020 that the Deptford wards (Evelyn and New Cross) should be unified and renamed Deptford 

Geography
Deptford borders the areas of Brockley and Lewisham to the south, New Cross to the west and Rotherhithe to the north west; the Ravensbourne river divides it from Greenwich to the east, and the Thames separates the area from the Isle of Dogs to the north east; it is contained within the London SE8 post code area  The area referred to as North Deptford is the only part of the London Borough of Lewisham to front the Thames and is sandwiched between Rotherhithe and Greenwich  Much of this riverside estate is populated by the former Naval Dockyards, now known as Convoys Wharf, the Pepys Estate and some southern fringes of the old Surrey Commercial Docks 
The name Deptford – anciently written Depeford meaning "deep ford" — is derived from the place where the road from London to Dover, the ancient Watling Street (now the A2), crosses the River Ravensbourne at the site of what became Deptford Bridge at Deptford Broadway  The Ravensbourne crosses under the A2 at roughly the same spot as the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) crosses over; and at the point where it becomes tidal, just after Lewisham College, it is known as Deptford Creek, and flows into the River Thames at Greenwich Reach 

Demography
Deptford's population has been mainly associated with the docks since the establishment of the Royal Docks by Henry VIII, though there has also been some market gardening and potteries  When the docks were thriving as the main administrative centre of the British Navy, so the area prospered, and fine houses were built for the administrative staff and the skilled shipbuilders, and a few grand houses like Sayes Court and Stone House on Lewisham Way were erected There was a start of a demographic shift downwards when the Royal Navy pulled out of Deptford, and the docks moved into storage and freight  The downward shift continued into the 20th century as the local population's dependency on the docks continued: as the docks themselves declined, so did the economic fortune of the inhabitants until the last dock, Convoys Wharf, closed in 2000 In common with neighbouring areas of South East London, immigrants from the Caribbean settled in Deptford in the 1950s and 1960s Deptford's northern section nearest the old docks contains areas of council housing, with some concentrations of people experiencing the forms of deprivation typically associated with the poverty of Inner London  Northern Deptford near the Thames, along with neighbouring New Cross, has been touted as "the new Shoreditch" by some journalists and estate agents paying attention to a trendy arts and music scene that is popular with students and artists  To the south where Deptford rolls into the suburban spread of Brockley, the previously multi-occupancy Victorian houses are being gentrified by young city workers and urban professionals  Deptford has a growing Vietnamese community reflected in the number of restaurants in the area 
Deptford contains a number of student populations, including those of Goldsmiths College, the University of Greenwich, Bellerbys College and Laban Dance Centre  Goldsmiths College's hall of residence, Rachel McMillan, in Creek Road was sold in 2001 for £79 million, and was subsequently demolished and replaced with the McMillan Student Village which opened in 2003 and provides accommodation for approximately 970 students of the University of Greenwich, Trinity Laban and Bellerbys colleges 

Economy
Deptford's economic history has been strongly connected to the Dockyard - when the Dockyard was thriving, so Deptford thrived; with the docks now all closed, Deptford has declined economically  However, areas of Deptford are being gradually re-developed and gentrified - and the local council has plans to regenerate the riverside and the town centre  A large former industrial site by the Thames called Convoys Wharf is scheduled for redeveloping into mixed use buildings  This will involve the construction of around 3,500 new homes and an extension of the town centre northwards towards the river The site of a former foundry (established in 1881 by J  Stone & Co in Arklow Road) which closed in 1969 is being redeveloped for commercial and residential use Much of the area along Creek Road, close to Greenwich, has also been redeveloped, with the demolition of the old Deptford Power Station and Rose Bruford College buildings  Aragon Tower on the Pepys Estate was sold by Lewisham Borough to fund regeneration plans for the estate; the award-winning refurbishment into privately owned accommodation was featured in the BBC One documentary, "The Tower" Deptford Market, a street market in Deptford High Street sells a range of goods, and is considered one of London's liveliest street markets  In February 2005, the High Street was described as "the capital's most diverse and vibrant high street" by Yellow Pages business directory, using a unique mathematical formula 

Culture
The Albany Theatre, a community arts centre with a tradition of "radical community arts and music" including holding 15 "Rock Against Racism" concerts, has its roots in a charity established in 1894 to improve the social life of Deptford's deprived community  The original building, the Albany Institute, was opened in 1899 on Creek Road, changing its name in the 1960s to the Albany Empire  It was burnt down in 1978, but rebuilt on Douglas Way, with Prince Charles laying the foundation stone, and Diana, Princess of Wales opening it in 1982 Deptford Cinema is a volunteer run, not-for-profit, community cinema, art gallery, and occasional music venue, open since late 2014 and located at 39 Deptford Broadway  At the time of opening it was the borough of Lewisham's only functioning cinema Creekside, a regeneration area beside Deptford Creek, is used for educational and artistic purposes, such as the Laban Dance Centre, which was designed by Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron, and opened in February 2003; and the Art in Perpetuity Trust (APT) gallery and studio space  A record label, Deptford Fun City Records was set up by Miles Copeland III, brother of Stewart Copeland, in the late 1970s as an outlet for Deptford bands such as Alternative TV and Squeeze The area has several pubs, including the Dog & Bell which has a reputation for serving a range of cask ales; and The Bird's Nest which has live music, film and art performances from local bands and artists  The town hall of the former Metropolitan Borough of Deptford, built in 1905 with decorative sculpture by Henry Poole, lies just outside Deptford, on the New Cross Road in New Cross  It was purchased by Goldsmiths College in 2000 There are several green spaces in the area, the largest being Brookmill Park, Deptford Park, Ferranti Park, Pepys Park and Sayes Court Park  In 1884 William John Evelyn, a descendant of John Evelyn, sold ground then being used as market gardens in Deptford, to the London County Council for less than its market value, as well as paying toward the cost of its purchase  It was officially opened to the public as Deptford Park on 7 June 1897  In 1886, he dedicated an acre and a half of the Sayes Court recreation ground in perpetuity to the public and a permanent provision was made for the Evelyn estate to cover the expense of maintenance and caretaking, this was opened on 20 July 1886 

Transport
Deptford is served by National Rail and Docklands Light Railway services  The National Rail service is operated by Southeastern and Thameslink on the suburban Greenwich Line at Deptford railway station, the oldest passenger only railway station in London  Deptford station was redeveloped during 2011 and 2012  The works included the demolition of the original 1836 station building and its replacement by a new station to the west in the former station yard  Deptford's DLR station is at Deptford Bridge on the DLR's Lewisham branch There are two main road routes through Deptford: the A200 which runs along Evelyn Street and Creek Road, and the A2 which runs along New Cross Road, and is the modern version of the Celtic trackway which was later paved by the Romans and developed into the medieval Watling Street  The A20 marks the southern boundary of the area, along Lewisham Way and Loampit Vale Since June 2016, Deptford has been on the cycling route of the London Quietway route Q1 that starts in Greenwich and ends near Waterloo Bridge in central London  A second Quietway route, Q14, between Waterloo and Thamesmead, passes through Deptford's riverfront 

Education
There are five primary schools in the area  There are no local secondary schools directly in Deptford, however there are two secondary schools near the border between New Cross and Deptford: Deptford Green, regarded by Ofsted as "needing improvement", and Addey and Stanhope, regarded by Ofsted as "good"  A branch of the further education college, Lewisham College incorporating Southwark College (known as LeSoCo), is located on Deptford Church Street; the college was regarded as "inadequate" in the 2014 Ofsted inspection 

Landmarks
Deptford railway station is one of the oldest suburban stations in the world, being built (c 1836-38) as part of the first suburban service (the London and Greenwich Railway), between London Bridge and Greenwich  Close to Deptford Creek is a Deptford pumping station, a Victorian pumping station built in 1864, part of the massive London sewerage system designed by civil engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette The former Deptford Power Station, in use from 1891 to 1983, originated as a pioneering plant designed by Sebastian de Ferranti, which when built was the largest station in the world In 2008, Lewisham Council granted permission for the last remnants of the Deptford Ragged School known as The Princess Louise Institute to be demolished and replaced by flats Albury Street (previously Union Street) contains a fine row of early urban houses largely dating from 1705 to 1717 which were once popular with naval captains and shipwrights Tanners Hill in the St John's or New Deptford area to the south of New Cross Road, is part of an Area of Archaeological Priority due to the longevity of settlement and early industry, and contains a set of commercial buildings from numbers 21 to 31 which are survivors from a row of 31 which were built in the 1750s on the site of cottages dating from the 17th century These timber-frame buildings have a Grade II listing from English Heritage and are home to established businesses such as bicycle maker Witcomb Cycles  Of Deptford's two important houses, Sayes Court no longer exists, but the Stone House in St Johns, built around 1772 by the architect George Gibson the Younger, and described by Pevsner as "the one individual house of interest in this area", still stands by Lewisham Way Deptford's Albany Theatre has a history stretching back over 100 years and is a prominent feature of the South-East London arts scene 

Churches
St Nicholas' Church, the original parish church, dates back to the 14th century but the current building is 17th century  The entrance to the churchyard features a set of skull-and-bones on top of the posts  A plaque on the north wall commemorates playwright Christopher Marlowe, who was stabbed to death by Ingram Frizer in a nearby house, and buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard on 1 June 1593  Frizer was pardoned for the killing on the grounds that he acted in self-defence There is also St  Luke's, another historic circular church, dating from 1870  It is the daughter church of the parish of St Nicholas' 
In the 18th century St  Paul's, Deptford (1712–1730) was built, acclaimed by the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England as one of the finest Baroque churches in the country  John Betjeman is attributed as referring to the church as "a pearl at the heart of Deptford"  It was designed by the architect Thomas Archer, who was a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren, as part of the Commission for Building Fifty New Churches with the intention of instilling pride in Britain, and encouraging people to stay in London rather than emigrate to the New World Adjacent to the church yard is Albury Street, which contains some fine 18th-century houses which were popular with sea captains and shipbuilders 

Deptford Dockyard
Deptford Dockyard was established in 1513 by Henry VIII as the first Royal Dockyard, building vessels for the Royal Navy, and was at one time known as the King's Yard  It was shut down from 1830 to 1844 before being closed as a dockyard in 1869, and is currently known as Convoys Wharf  From 1871 until the First World War it was the City of London Corporation's Foreign Cattle Market  In 1912, The Times reported that over 4 million head of live cattle, and sheep, had been landed From 1932 until 2008 the site was owned by News International, which used it to import newsprint and other paper products from Finland until early 2000  It is now owned by Hutchison Whampoa Limited and is subject to a planning application to convert it into residential units, though it has safeguarded wharf status Other notable shipyards in Deptford were, Charles Lungley's Dockyard and the General Steam Navigation Company's yards at Deptford Green and Dudman's Dock, also sometimes referred to as Deadmans Dock at Deptford Wharf 

Murder of Christopher Marlowe
The Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe was killed during an alleged drunken brawl in Eleanor Bull's house in Deptford Strand in May 1593  Various versions of Marlowe's death were current at the time  Francis Meres says Marlowe was "stabbed to death by a bawdy serving-man, a rival of his in his lewd love" as punishment for his "epicurism and atheism"  In 1917, in the Dictionary of National Biography, Sir Sidney Lee wrote that Marlowe was killed in a drunken fight  Some modern theories posit that he was assassinated  It is commonly assumed that the fight took place in a Deptford tavern The scholar Leslie Hotson discovered in 1925 the coroner's report on Marlowe's death in the Public Record Office which gave fuller details  Marlowe had spent all day in a house owned by the widow Eleanor Bull, along with three men, Ingram Frizer, Nicholas Skeres and Robert Poley  Witnesses testified that Frizer and Marlowe had earlier argued over the bill, exchanging "divers malicious words " Later, while Frizer was sitting at a table between the other two and Marlowe was lying behind him on a couch, Marlowe snatched Frizer's dagger and began attacking him  In the ensuing struggle, according to the coroner's report, Marlowe was accidentally stabbed above the right eye, killing him instantly  The jury concluded that Frizer acted in self-defence, and within a month he was pardoned  Marlowe was buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard of St Nicholas, Deptford, on 1 June 1593 

Notable people
Among people associated with Deptford are Christopher Marlowe, who was killed at Deptford Strand; diarist John Evelyn (1620–1706), who lived at Sayes Court, and had Peter the Great (1672–1725) as a guest for about three months in 1698; Sir Francis Drake, who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind in Deptford Docks; and Emperor Norton (Joshua Abraham Norton), the San Francisco eccentric and self-proclaimed "Emperor of the United States", who was born in Deptford in 1818 Other people who have lived in Deptford range from the first governor of the East India Company and ambassador to the court of Russia, Thomas Smythe, whose magnificent house was destroyed by fire in 1618; to early members of the Chartist movement, John Gast and George Julian Harney; and the Cleveleys, John Cleveley the Elder and his sons John and Robert, a family of marine artists who also worked as tradesmen in the Dockyard  Another artist born in Deptford is Henry Courtney Selous, who is known for The Opening of The Great Exhibition, painted in 1851 Members of rock groups Squeeze and Dire Straits lived on the Crossfield Estate in Deptford in the late 1970s, along with Mark Perry, founder of the punk fanzine Sniffin Glue and punk rock band Alternative TV  The DJ and music journalist Danny Baker lived near the Crossfield Estate, where he was born and brought up Children's author Robin Jarvis wrote two trilogies of books: The Deptford Mice (and a couple of spin off books called The Deptford Mouselets series) and The Deptford Histories, set in and around Deptford and featuring many of its landmarks 
Passage 12:
Wapizagonke Lake
The Wapizagonke Lake is one of the bodies of water located the sector "Lac-Wapizagonke", in the city of Shawinigan, in the La Mauricie National Park, in the region of Mauricie, in Quebec, in Canada 

Geography
With a length of 9 2 kilometers, the Wapizagonke lake is located near the west boundary of La Mauricie National Park in northern Shawinigan  Surrounded by mountains, this lake is a narrow shape and length is in the north-south axis  It drains through its southern end into the Shawinigan River, which flows eastward and then south to empty into the Saint-Maurice River 
Major lakes feeding the Wapizagonke Lake watershed are: Reid, Houle, Jodon, Anticagamac and Avalon 

Toponymy
The lake appears on the cards in 1852 under the name "Lake Pisagunk"  Forestry workers identified him rather as the "lake Mistagance"  Wapizagonke appear on the map in 1925 and is a variation of Ouapitagone in Montagnais, which meant according to Father Joseph-Étienne Guinard (1864-1965): "kind of very rare duck species"  In Abenaki, the lake is named Wawibizagak and means "surrounded by the bush"  Certain visitors named the lake under two names: "Island Lake" and "Lake Croche" 

See also
Shawinigan River
Shawinigan
Passage 13:
Walker Pond
Walker Pond is a body of water in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, situated off Route 49 on the way to Wells State Park 

History
The pond took its name from settler Rachael "Walker" Smith, a local resident who raised twelve Italian children there   (The house, since demolished, was called the Perez Walker House in memory of Nathaniel Walker's grandson, a prominent townsman ) In 1894, the town of Sturbridge voted to rename the pond Tantousque Lake, from an Indian word meaning "located between two breast-shaped hills "  The traditional Indian name did not, however, stick 

Fishing
According to a 1980 survey, the pond contains largemouth bass, chain pickerel, yellow perch, white perch, bluegill, pumpkinseed, brown bullhead, white suckers, and golden and bridled shiners  It is a popular place for ice fishing 
Passage 14:
John Meyers (swimmer)
John Meyers (June 28, 1880 – February 1975) was an American freestyle swimmer and water polo player who competed in the 1904 Summer Olympics in St  Louis, Missouri   In the 1904 Olympics he won a bronze medal as a member of the Missouri Athletic Club water polo team  He also competed in one-mile freestyle, but did not finish the competition 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Tycho Brahe Prize
The Tycho Brahe Prize is awarded by the European Astronomical Society  Inaugurated in 2008, the prize is awarded annually in recognition of the pioneering development or exploitation of European astronomical instrumentation, or major discoveries based largely on such instruments 

Tycho Brahe Prize laureates
The following persons have received the Tycho Brahe Prize:

See also
List of astronomy awards
Prizes named after people
Passage 2:
Booktrust Teenage Prize
The Booktrust Teenage Prize was an annual award given to young adult literature published in the UK  The prize was administered by Book Trust, an independent charity which promotes books and reading  The Booktrust Teenage Prize was last awarded in 2010 and is no longer running 

Honorees
Passage 3:
Adam Smith Prize
The Adam Smith Prizes are prizes currently awarded for the best overall examination performance and best dissertation in Part IIB of the Economics Tripos (the graduation examination for economics undergraduates) at the University of Cambridge  The prize - named after Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith - was originally established in 1891 and awarded triennially for the best submitted essay on a subject of the writer's choice 

List of past recipients
1894 Arthur Lyon Bowley
1897 Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence
1900 Sydney Chapman
1903 Arthur Cecil Pigou
1906 Ernest Alfred Benians
1909 John Maynard Keynes
1929 R  F  Kahn
1930 Ruth Cohen
1932 K  S  Isles
1933 B  P  Adarkar
1935 W  B  Reddaway
1936 D  G  Champernowne
1954 Amartya Sen
1956 Manmohan Singh
1974 Martin Osborne
1987 Richard J  Parkin
2000 Saugato Datta and Richard Fearon
2004 James Benford
2006 Mark Shields
2007 Stefanie Stantcheva
2008 Thomas Mckendrick and Shivam Patel
2009 Praneet Shah
2011 Ossie Akushie and Shafi Anwar
2013 Inna Grinis and Ivan Kuznetsov
2014 James Walker
2015 Ben Andrews and Jonathon Hazell
2016 Isar Bhattacharjee and Toni Oki
2017 Joel Flynn and Joseph Lee
2018 Tireni Ajilore, George Nikolakoudis, Laurence O’Brien and Sajan Shah
2019 Vlastimil Rasocha and Kuishuai Yi
2020 Neal Patel, David Lee, Liam Grant, Andrew Koh and Michael Bennett
2021 Valerie Chuang, Matthew Chen and Jack Golden

See also
List of economics awards
Passage 4:
Berwick Prize
The Berwick Prize and Senior Berwick Prize are two prizes of the London Mathematical Society awarded in alternating years in memory of William Edward Hodgson Berwick, a previous Vice-President of the LMS  Berwick left some money to be given to the society to establish two prizes  His widow Daisy May Berwick gave the society the money and the society established the prizes, with the first Senior Berwick Prize being presented in 1946 and the first Junior Berwick Prize the following year  The prizes are awarded "in recognition of an outstanding piece of mathematical research     published by the Society" in the eight years before the year of the award The Berwick Prize was known as the Junior Berwick Prize up to 1999, and was given its current name for the 2001 award 

Senior Berwick Prize winners
Source:

Berwick Prize winners
Source:

See also
Whitehead Prize
Senior Whitehead Prize
Shephard Prize
Fröhlich Prize
Naylor Prize and Lectureship
Pólya Prize (LMS)
De Morgan Medal
List of mathematics awards 
Passage 5:
Lilienfeld Prize
The Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society, to remember Julius Edgar Lilienfeld, has been awarded annually, since 1989  (It was not awarded in 2002)  The purpose of the Prize is to recognize outstanding contributions to physics 

Recipients
Source: American Physical Society

External links
J  E  Lilienfeld Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics APS

See also
List of physics awards
Passage 6:
List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Swedish: Nobelpriset i kemi) is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry  It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, who died in 1896   These prizes are awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine  As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences  The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 1901 to Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, of the Netherlands  Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years  In 1901, van 't Hoff received 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007   The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death At least 25 laureates have received the Nobel Prize for contributions in the field of organic chemistry, more than any other field of chemistry  Two Nobel Prize laureates in Chemistry, Germans Richard Kuhn (1938) and Adolf Butenandt (1939), were not allowed by their government to accept the prize  They would later receive a medal and diploma, but not the money  Frederick Sanger is one out of three laureates to be awarded the Nobel Prize twice in the same subject, in 1958 and 1980  John Bardeen, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 and 1972, and Karl Barry Sharpless, who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2001 and 2022, are the others  Two others have won Nobel Prizes twice, one in chemistry and one in another subject: Maria Skłodowska-Curie (physics in 1903, chemistry in 1911) and Linus Pauling (chemistry in 1954, peace in 1962)  As of 2022, the prize has been awarded to 189 individuals, including eight women (Maria Skłodowska-Curie being the first to be awarded in 1911) There have been eight years for which the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was not awarded (1916, 1917, 1919, 1924, 1933, 1940–42)  There were also nine years for which the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was delayed for one year  The Prize was not awarded in 1914, as the Nobel Committee for Chemistry  decided that none of that year's nominations met the necessary criteria, but was awarded to Theodore William Richards in 1915 and counted as the 1914 prize  This precedent was followed for the 1918 prize awarded to Fritz Haber in 1919, the 1920 prize awarded to Walther Nernst in 1921, the 1921 prize awarded to Frederick Soddy in 1922, the 1925 prize awarded to Richard Zsigmondy in 1926, the 1927 prize awarded to Heinrich Otto Wieland in 1928, the 1938 prize awarded to Richard Kuhn in 1939, the 1943 prize awarded to George de Hevesy in 1944, and the 1944 prize awarded to Otto Hahn in 1945 In 2020, Ioannidis et al  reported that half of the Nobel Prizes for science awarded between 1995 and 2017 were clustered in just a few disciplines within their broader fields  Atomic physics, particle physics, cell biology, and neuroscience dominated the two subjects outside chemistry, while molecular chemistry was the chief prize-winning discipline in its domain  Molecular chemists won 5 3% of all science Nobel Prizes during this period 

Laureates
See also
Timeline of chemistry
Passage 7:
Karl Jaspers Prize
The Karl Jaspers Prize or Karl-Jaspers-Preis is a German philosophy award named after Karl Jaspers and awarded by the city of Heidelberg and the University of Heidelberg  It was first awarded in 1983 "for a scientific work of international significance supported by philosophical spirit"  The Karl Jaspers Prize was initially endowed with 5,000 euros, though since 2013 this has increased to €25,000  Next to the Friedrich Nietzsche Prize it is one of the highest awards in Germany awarded exclusively for philosophical achievements 

Award winners
Passage 8:
British Empire
The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states  It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries  
At its height in the 19th and early 20th century, it was the largest empire in history and, for a century, was the foremost global power  By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 per cent of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35 5 million km2 (13 7 million sq mi), 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area  As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread  At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories  Today, numerous nations across the world trace their contemporary statehood to the end of British rule, including the United States, India, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates and Israel 
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires  Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia  A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial power in North America  Britain became the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 
The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783  British attention then turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific  After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings  It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory in Southeast Asia   The  "Scramble for Africa" and "Great Game" also ensued  The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica (Latin for "British Peace")  Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America  Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were formally reclassified as Dominions in the 1920s  By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead  Military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire  The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources  Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power 
In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan  Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped accelerate the decline of the empire  India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire  The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the transfer of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire, though fourteen overseas territories that are remnants of the empire remain under British sovereignty  After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states  Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain a common monarch, currently King Charles III 

Origins (1497–1583)
The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms  In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead an expedition to discover a northwest passage to Asia via the North Atlantic  Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, and made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland  He believed he had reached Asia, and there was no attempt to found a colony  Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but did not return; it is unknown what happened to his ships No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century  In the meantime, Henry VIII's 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared "that this realm of England is an Empire"  The Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies  In 1562, Elizabeth I encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of establishing an Atlantic slave trade  This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World  At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term "British Empire") were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire  By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the Ulster Plantation, in 16th century Ireland by settling English Protestants in Ulster  England had already colonised part of the country following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169  Several people who helped establish the Ulster Plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country Men 

English overseas possessions (1583–1707)
In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration  That year, Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic  In 1583, he embarked on a second attempt  On this occasion, he formally claimed the harbour of the island of Newfoundland, although no settlers were left behind  Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England and was succeeded by his half-brother, Walter Raleigh, who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584  Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present-day North Carolina, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail In 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Spain  Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies  The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of joint-stock companies, most notably the East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade  This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as the "First British Empire" 

Americas, Africa and the slave trade
England's early efforts at colonisation in the Americas met with mixed success  An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits  Colonies on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) rapidly folded  The first permanent English settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown by Captain John Smith, and managed by the Virginia Company; the Crown took direct control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia  Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company's flagship, while attempts to settle Newfoundland were largely unsuccessful  In 1620, Plymouth was founded as a haven by Puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims  Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive for many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous trans-Atlantic voyage: Maryland was established by English Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists  England's North American holdings were further expanded by the annexation of the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, following the capture of New Amsterdam, which was renamed New York  Although less financially successful than colonies in the Caribbean, these territories had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of English emigrants, who preferred their temperate climates The British West Indies initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies  Settlements were successfully established in St  Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628), but struggled until the "Sugar Revolution" transformed the Caribbean economy in the mid-17th century  Large sugarcane plantations were first established in the 1640s on Barbados, with assistance from Dutch merchants and Sephardic Jews fleeing Portuguese Brazil  At first, sugar was grown primarily using white indentured labour, but rising costs soon led English traders to embrace the use of imported African slaves  The enormous wealth generated by slave-produced sugar made Barbados the most successful colony in the Americas, and one of the most densely populated places in the world  This boom led to the spread of sugar cultivation across the Caribbean, financed the development of non-plantation colonies in North America, and accelerated the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, particularly the triangular trade of slaves, sugar and provisions between Africa, the West Indies and Europe To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies  This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces—a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars—which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch  In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas 
In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert's Land, which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada  Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France Two years later, the Royal African Company was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean  The company would transport more slaves across the Atlantic than any other, and significantly grew England's share of the trade, from 33 per cent in 1673 to 74 per cent in 1683  The removal of this monopoly between 1688 and 1712 allowed independent British slave traders to thrive, leading to a rapid escalation in the number of slaves transported  British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3 5 million Africans—until the abolition of the trade by Parliament in 1807 (see § Abolition of slavery)  To facilitate the shipment of slaves, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island, Accra and Bunce Island  In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 per cent in 1650 to around 80 per cent in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 per cent to 40 per cent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies)  The transatlantic slave trade played a pervasive role in British economic life, and became a major economic mainstay for western port cities  Ships registered in Bristol, Liverpool and London were responsible for the bulk of British slave trading  For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven 

Rivalry with other European empires
At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively  The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade network, India  There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other  Although England eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia  Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England  A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the Nine Years' War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget to the costly land war in Europe  The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philip V of Spain, a grandson of the King of France, raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe  In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted for thirteen years 

Scottish attempt to expand overseas
In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a charter to the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama  Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada, and affected by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later  The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland: a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise  The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the Kingdom of Scotland of the merits of turning the personal union with England into a political and economic one under the Kingdom of Great Britain established by the Acts of Union 1707 

"First" British Empire (1707–1783)
The 18th century saw the newly united Great Britain rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage  Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire continued the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714 and was concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht  Philip V of Spain renounced his and his descendants' claim to the French throne, and Spain lost its empire in Europe  The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia, and from Spain Gibraltar and Menorca  Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean  Spain ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento (permission to sell African slaves in Spanish America) to Britain  With the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739, Spanish privateers attacked British merchant shipping along the Triangle Trade routes  In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the 1750 Treaty of Madrid Britain lost its slave-trading rights in Latin America In the East Indies, British and Dutch merchants continued to compete in spices and textiles  With textiles becoming the larger trade, by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch  During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, as the English East India Company and its French counterpart, struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire  The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India  France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India  In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the Presidency Armies, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys, led by British officers  The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers The signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 had important consequences for the future of the British Empire  In North America, France's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land, and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain  Spain ceded Florida to Britain  Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful maritime power 

Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies
During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent  This was summarised at the time by the colonists' slogan "No taxation without representation", a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen  The American Revolution began with a rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government  In response, Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775  The following year, in 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence proclaiming the colonies' sovereignty from the British Empire as the new United States of America  The entry of French and Spanish forces into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms  American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783 The loss of such a large portion of British America, at the time Britain's most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the "first" and "second" empires, in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa  Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal  The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000 defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following independence  The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia, felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax, so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784  The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English speaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy  The United States Congress declared war, the War of 1812, and invaded Canadian territory  In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States 

Rise of the "Second" British Empire (1783–1815)
Exploration of the Pacific
Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year  Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to Australia  The coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch in 1606, but there was no attempt to colonise it  In 1770 James Cook charted the eastern coast while on a scientific voyage, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales  In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788  Unusually, Australia was claimed through proclamation  Indigenous Australians were considered too uncivilised to require treaties, and colonisation brought disease and violence that together with the deliberate dispossession of land and culture were devastating to these peoples  Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to Tasmania until 1853 and to Western Australia until 1868  The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold, mainly because of the Victorian gold rush, making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world During his voyage, Cook visited New Zealand, known to Europeans due to the 1642 voyage of the Dutch explorer, Abel Tasman  Cook claimed both the North and the South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively  Initially, interaction between the indigenous Maori population and European settlers was limited to the trading of goods  European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with many trading stations being established, especially in the North  In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand  On 6 February 1840, Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which is considered to be New Zealand's founding document, despite differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text being the cause of ongoing dispute The British also expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific  Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area, culminating in the Nootka Crisis in 1789  Both sides mobilised for war, but when France refused to support Spain it was forced to back down, leading to the Nootka Convention  The outcome was a humiliation for Spain, which practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast  This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island  On land, expeditions sought to discover a river route to the Pacific for the extension of the North American fur trade  Alexander Mackenzie of the North West Company led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year a later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande, reaching the ocean near present-day Bella Coola  This preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by twelve years  Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, John Finlay, founded the first permanent European settlement in British Columbia, Fort St  John  The North West Company sought further exploration and backed expeditions by David Thompson, starting in 1797, and later by Simon Fraser  These pushed into the wilderness territories of the Rocky Mountains and Interior Plateau to the Strait of Georgia on the Pacific Coast, expanding British North America westward 

Wars with France
Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations  It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win  French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy, which won a decisive victory over a French Imperial Navy-Spanish Navy fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805  Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810  France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815  Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands, Malta (which it had occupied in 1798), Mauritius, St Lucia, the Seychelles, and Tobago; Spain ceded Trinidad; the Netherlands ceded Guyana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony, while the Danish ceded Heligoland  Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France; Menorca to Spain; Danish West Indies to Denmark and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands 

Abolition of slavery
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, goods produced by slavery became less important to the British economy  Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions  With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire  In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony was designated an official British colony for freed slaves  Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline  The Slavery Abolition Act, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844)  Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of "apprenticeship"  Facing further opposition from abolitionists, the apprenticeship system was abolished in 1838  The British government compensated slave-owners 

Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)
Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's "imperial century" by some historians, around 10 million sq mi (26 million km2) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire  Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia  Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica, and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation"  Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been described by some historians as an "Informal Empire" 

British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire  By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the All Red Line 

East India Company rule and the British Raj in India
The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia



ground_truth: River Thames

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who gives out the award named after the person who argued that colonies were redundant?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  The company's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826) From its base in India, the company had been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to Qing China since the 1730s  This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by China in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China  In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement, and other Treaty Ports including Shanghai During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the company  A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired  The company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion in 1857, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline  The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides  The following year the British government dissolved the company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India  India became the empire's most valuable possession, "the Jewel in the Crown", and was the most important source of Britain's strength A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died  The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule  Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect 

Rivalry with Russia
During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar dynasty and Qing dynasty  This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the "Great Game"  As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India  In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan, but the First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain When Russia invaded the Ottoman Balkans in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East led Britain and France to enter the war in support of the Ottoman Empire and invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities  The ensuing Crimean War (1854–1856), which involved new techniques of modern warfare, was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica and was a resounding defeat for Russia  The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan  For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente  The destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy by the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 limited its threat to the British 

Cape to Cairo
The Dutch East India Company had founded the Dutch Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies  Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the Flanders Campaign  British immigration to the Cape Colony began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own—mostly short-lived—independent republics, during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s  In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the Sotho people and the Zulu Kingdom  Eventually, the Boers established two republics that had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852–1877; 1881–1902) and the Orange Free State (1854–1902)  In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899–1902) In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III, linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean  Initially the Canal was opposed by the British; but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the "jugular vein of the Empire"  In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44 per cent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £400 million in 2021)  Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage  Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882   Although Britain controlled the Khedivate of Egypt into the 20th century, it was officially a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and not part of the British Empire   The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position, but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the Canal officially neutral territory With competitive French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the "Scramble for Africa" by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims  The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan  A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896 and rebuffed an attempted French invasion at Fashoda in 1898  Sudan was nominally made an Anglo-Egyptian condominium, but a British colony in reality British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Southern Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo" railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich south of the continent  During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed territories named after him, Rhodesia 

Changing status of the white colonies
The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report, which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in armed rebellions in 1837  This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada  Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies  With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament, the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception of international relations  Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901  The term "dominion status" was officially introduced at the 1907 Imperial Conference The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule  Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852  Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone, who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament  Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation, many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire  A second Home Rule bill was defeated for similar reasons  A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising 

World wars (1914–1945)
By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation"  Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war  Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy, Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively 

First World War
Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War  Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa  In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and German Samoa respectively  Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement  This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca, who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support  Over 2 5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions, as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies  The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right  The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day  Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light  The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1 8 million sq mi (4 7 million km2) and 13 million new subjects  The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates  Britain gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of Cameroon and Togoland, and Tanganyika  The Dominions themselves acquired mandates of their own: the Union of South Africa gained South West Africa (modern-day Namibia), Australia gained New Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa  Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions 

Inter-war period
The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy  Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Anglo-Japanese Alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States  This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s as militaristic governments took hold in Germany and Japan helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations  The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British economy In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led the MPs of Sinn Féin, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats in the 1918 British general election, to establish an independent parliament in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared  The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration  The Irish War of Independence ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown  Northern Ireland, consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom 

A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy the demand for independence  Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar conspiracy ensured that war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts  This led to tension, particularly in the Punjab region, where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre  In Britain, public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion  The non-cooperation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War, was granted formal independence, though it continued to be a British client state until 1954  British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1936, under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone  In return, Egypt was assisted in joining the League of Nations  Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932  In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arabs and increasing numbers of Jews  The Balfour Declaration, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power  This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936  As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference  Britain's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne  After pressure from the Irish Free State and South Africa, the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration of 1926, declaring the Dominions to be "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another" within a "British Commonwealth of Nations"  This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster  The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control, they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent  Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933, suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression  In 1937 the Irish Free State introduced a republican constitution renaming itself Ireland 

Second World War
Britain's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa  All soon declared war on Germany  While Britain continued to regard Ireland as still within the British Commonwealth, Ireland chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war After the Fall of France in June 1940, Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the German invasion of Greece on 7 April 1941  British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D  Roosevelt for military aid from the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war  In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter, which included the statement that "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected  This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany and Italy, or the peoples colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements For Churchill, the entry of the United States into the war was the "greatest joy"  He felt that Britain was now assured of victory, but failed to recognise that the "many disasters, immeasurable costs and tribulations [which he knew] lay ahead" in December 1941 would have permanent consequences for the future of the empire  The manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power, including, particularly, the Fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar  The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United States and, ultimately, the 1951 ANZUS Pact  The war weakened the empire in other ways: undermining Britain's control of politics in India, inflicting long-term economic damage, and irrevocably changing geopolitics by pushing the Soviet Union and the United States to the centre of the global stage 

Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997)
Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War, the effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad  Much of Europe, a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance of global power  Britain was left essentially bankrupt, with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a US$4 33 billion loan from the United States, the last installment of which was repaid in 2006  At the same time, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations  The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union  In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism  In practice, American anti-communism prevailed over anti-imperialism, and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check  At first, British politicians believed it would be possible to maintain Britain's role as a world power at the head of a re-imagined Commonwealth, but by 1960 they were forced to recognise that there was an irresistible "wind of change" blowing  Their priorities changed to maintaining an extensive zone of British influence and ensuring that stable, non-Communist governments were established in former colonies  In this context, while other European powers such as France and Portugal waged costly and unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact, Britain generally adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies, although violence occurred in Malaya, Kenya and Palestine  Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to 5 million, 3 million of whom were in Hong Kong 

Initial disengagement
The pro-decolonisation Labour government, elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee, moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire: Indian independence  India's two major political parties—the Indian National Congress (led by Mahatma Gandhi) and the Muslim League (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah)—had been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed as to how it should be implemented  Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by the Hindu majority, desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim-majority regions  Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than 30 June 1948  When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947  The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan  Millions of Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives  Burma, which had been administered as part of British India until 1937, and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948  India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join The British Mandate in Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the British with a similar problem to that of India  The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state  Frustrated by the intractability of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve  The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state  It was immediately followed by the outbreak of a civil war between the Arabs and Jews of Palestine, and British forces withdrew amid the fighting  The British Mandate for Palestine officially terminated at midnight on 15 May 1948 as the State of Israel declared independence and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War broke out, during which the territory of the former Mandate was partitioned between Israel and the surrounding Arab states  Amid the fighting, British forces continued to withdraw from Israel, with the last British troops departing from Haifa on 30 June 1948 Following the surrender of Japan in the Second World War, anti-Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British, who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a source of rubber and tin  The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malaysian Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would be granted  The Malayan Emergency, as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but by 1957, Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth  In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia, but in 1965 Chinese-majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations and became an independent city-state  Brunei, which had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to join the union 

Suez and its aftermath
In the 1951 general election, the Conservative Party returned to power in Britain under the leadership of Winston Churchill  Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India  Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952, and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self-determination by 1955, with independence to follow  Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956 In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal  The response of Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal  Eden infuriated US President Dwight D  Eisenhower by his lack of consultation, and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion  Another of Eisenhower's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side  Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency  Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives, UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and Eden resigned The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain's decline on the world stage and its end as a first-rate power, demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not the full support, of the United States  The events at Suez wounded British national pride, leading one Member of Parliament (MP) to describe it as "Britain's Waterloo" and another to suggest that the country had become an "American satellite"  Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain's political leaders after Suez where they "went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing", from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982 While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken, it did not collapse  Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in Oman (1957), Jordan (1958) and Kuwait (1961), though on these occasions with American approval, as the new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States  Although Britain granted Kuwait independence in 1961, it continued to maintain a military presence in the Middle East for another decade  On 16 January 1968, a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British Armed Forces troops would be withdrawn from major military bases East of Suez, which included the ones in the Middle East, and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971, instead of 1975 as earlier planned  By that time over 50,000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East, including 30,000 in Singapore  The British granted independence to the Maldives in 1965 but continued to station a garrison there until 1976, withdrew from Aden in 1967, and granted independence to Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates in 1971 

Wind of change
Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town, South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of "the wind of change blowing through this continent"  Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly  To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s—Sudan, the Gold Coast and Malaya—were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s  Owing to the rapid pace of decolonisation during this period, the cabinet post of Secretary of State for the Colonies was abolished in 1966, along with the Colonial Office, which merged with the Commonwealth Relations Office to form the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (now the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office) in October 1968 Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for self-governing Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968  British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process  Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau uprising, in which tens of thousands of suspected rebels were interned by the colonial government in detention camps  Throughout the 1960s, the British government took a "No independence until majority rule" policy towards decolonising the empire, leading the white minority government of Southern Rhodesia to enact the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain, resulting in a civil war that lasted until the British-mediated Lancaster House Agreement of 1979  The agreement saw the British Empire temporarily re-establish the Colony of Southern Rhodesia from 1979 to 1980 as a transitionary government to a majority-rule Republic of Zimbabwe  This was the last British possession in Africa  
In Cyprus, a guerrilla war waged by the Greek Cypriot organisation EOKA against British rule, was ended in 1959 by the London and Zürich Agreements, which resulted in Cyprus being granted independence in 1960  The UK retained the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia as sovereign base areas  The Mediterranean colony of Malta was amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of Malta, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain Most of the UK's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members  Jamaica attained independence in 1962, as did Trinidad and Tobago  Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands, including the Bahamas, in the 1970s and 1980s, but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence  The British Virgin Islands, The Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain, while Guyana achieved independence in 1966  Britain's last colony on the American mainland, British Honduras, became a self-governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achieving full independence in 1981  A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved British Overseas Territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980  Vanuatu's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French-speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France  Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu became Commonwealth realms 

End of empire
By 1981, aside from a scattering of islands and outposts, the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete  In 1982, Britain's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a long-standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire  Britain's successful military response to retake the Falkland Islands during the ensuing Falklands War contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain's status as a world power The 1980s saw Canada, Australia, and New Zealand sever their final constitutional links with Britain  Although granted legislative independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931, vestigial constitutional links had remained in place  The British Parliament retained the power to amend key Canadian constitutional statutes, meaning that effectively an act of the British Parliament was required to make certain changes to the Canadian Constitution  The British Parliament had the power to pass laws extending to Canada at Canadian request  Although no longer able to pass any laws that would apply as Australian Commonwealth law, the British Parliament retained the power to legislate for the individual Australian states  With regard to New Zealand, the British Parliament retained the power to pass legislation applying to New Zealand with the New Zealand Parliament's consent  In 1982, the last legal link between Canada and Britain was severed by the Canada Act 1982, which was passed by the British parliament, formally patriating the Canadian Constitution  The act ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution  Similarly, the Australia Act 1986 (effective 3 March 1986) severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states, while New Zealand's Constitution Act 1986 (effective 1 January 1987) reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain On 1 January 1984, Brunei, Britain's last remaining Asian protectorate, was granted independence  Independence had been delayed due to the opposition of the Sultan, who had preferred British protection In September 1982 the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese Communist government, on the future of Britain's last major and most populous overseas territory, Hong Kong  Under the terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1860 Convention of Peking, Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula had been respectively ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the majority of the colony consisted of the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99-year lease in 1898, due to expire in 1997  Thatcher, seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by China  A deal was reached in 1984—under the terms of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China  The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many, including King Charles III, then Prince of Wales, who was in attendance, "the end of Empire", though many British territories that are remnants of the empire still remain 

Legacy
Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles  In 1983, the British Nationality Act 1981 renamed the existing Crown Colonies as "British Dependent Territories", and in 2002 they were renamed the British Overseas Territories  Most former British colonies and protectorates are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2 2 billion people  The United Kingdom and 14 other countries, all collectively known as the Commonwealth realms, voluntarily continue to share the same person—King Charles III—as their respective head of state  These 15 nations are distinct and equal legal entities: the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that rose from the British Empire  The empire established the use of the English language in regions around the world  Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about 1 5 billion as a first, second or foreign language  Individual and team sports developed in Britain, particularly football, cricket, lawn tennis, and golf were exported  British missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread Protestantism (including Anglicanism) to all continents  The British Empire provided refuge for religiously persecuted continental Europeans for hundreds of years 

Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas  The British Empire was responsible for large migrations of peoples  Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler colonist populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland  Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities, and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe  Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland  Millions of people moved to and from British colonies, with large numbers of Overseas Indian people emigrating to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Overseas Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean  The demographics of the United Kingdom itself were changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies In the 19th century, innovation in Britain led to revolutionary changes in manufacturing, the development of factory systems, and the growth of transportation by railway and steamship  British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire  The British choice of system of measurement, the imperial system, continues to be used in some countries in various ways  The convention of driving on the left-hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire The Westminster system of parliamentary democracy has served as the template for the governments for many former colonies, and English common law for legal systems  International commercial contracts are often based on English common law  The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for twelve former colonies Historians' approaches to understanding the British Empire are diverse and evolving  Two key sites of debate over recent decades have been the impact of post-colonial studies, which seek to critically re-evaluate the history of imperialism, and the continued relevance of historians Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, whose work greatly influenced imperial historiography during the 1950s and 1960s  In addition, differing assessments of the empire's legacy remain relevant to debates over recent history and politics, such as the Anglo-American invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as Britain's role and identity in the contemporary world Historians such as Caroline Elkins have argued against perceptions of the British Empire as a primarily liberalising and modernising enterprise, criticising its widespread use of violence and emergency laws to maintain power  Common criticisms of the empire include the use of detention camps in its colonies, massacres of indigenous peoples, and famine-response policies  Some scholars, including Amartya Sen, assert that British policies worsened the famines in India that killed millions during British rule  Conversely, historians such as Niall Ferguson say that the economic and institutional development the British Empire brought resulted in a net benefit to its colonies  Other historians treat its legacy as varied and ambiguous  Public attitudes towards the empire within Britain remain somewhat positive 

See also
Notes



ground_truth: University of Cambridge

Cambridge