prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the spouse of the person who voices Jarvis in Iron Man?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Jamieson Price
Jamieson K  Price is an American actor, best known for his deep and booming voice in numerous anime and video games  He is known as the voice of the Count of Monte Cristo in Gankutsuou, Sojiro Sakura in Persona 5, Ovan in  hack//G U , and Galbalan, and Milton Grimm from Ever After High  Price also had a part in the 2000 movie The Patriot 

Biography
Price became interested in acting as a young child, starting from when he was in the fourth grade and later did theatre performances even during his adolescent and young adult years  In high school, Price got involved with dramatic interpretations-(focusing on poetry and prose reading) as well as voice competitions in his teens and became Virginia State Champion in his senior year of high school which later lead him to get into acting and voice acting by a close friend of his during the late 90s after graduate school  He eventually got a job in the voice acting business by Dorothy Fahn who is a friend of his wife Bethany who was very interested in his deep voice; aside from acting/voice acting, he has also done work for fight choreography as well as a theatrical technician 

Personal life
Price has been married to his wife Bethany Price since December 31, 1993, who works as a director, audition/stage coach, and an acting instructor  He has three children-(2 daughters and 1 son); Dane-(an actor and musician), Cynthia-(an actress and dancer), and Meghan-(a chiropractor)  Jamieson Price is also involved with a few podcasts, one of them being Crypto-Z 

Filmography
Anime
Animation
Films
Video games
Live action
Passage 2:
The Cleveland Show
The Cleveland Show is an American animated sitcom created by Seth MacFarlane, Richard Appel, and Mike Henry for the Fox Broadcasting Company  A spin-off of Family Guy, and the second television series in the franchise, the series centers on Cleveland Brown, his new wife Donna Tubbs-Brown, and their children Cleveland Brown Jr , Roberta Tubbs, and Rallo Tubbs  Similar to Family Guy, it exhibited much of its humor in the form of cutaway gags that often lampoon American culture, though it uses significantly fewer than Family Guy  Fox cancelled the series after 4 seasons  The animation was produced by Fox Television Animation 
The series was conceived by MacFarlane in 2007 after developing Family Guy and American Dad! for the Fox network  MacFarlane centered the show on Family Guy character Cleveland Brown and created new characters for Cleveland's family members  One preexisting character, Cleveland's son Cleveland Jr  (Junior), was redesigned as an obese, soft-spoken teen, as opposed to his depiction as a younger, hyperactive child with average body weight on Family Guy 
The series premiered on September 27, 2009, and ended on May 19, 2013, with a total of 88 episodes over the course of 4 seasons  The Cleveland Show was nominated for one Annie Award, one Primetime Emmy Award, and two Teen Choice Awards, but received mixed reviews from media critics  Nearly a year after the series' cancelation, Cleveland returned to Family Guy, accompanied by the rest of the Brown-Tubbs family, in the season 12 episode "He's Bla-ack!" during which his show was mercilessly mocked by his friends 

Production
Development
Seth MacFarlane initially conceived The Cleveland Show in 2007 while working on his other two animated series, Family Guy and American Dad! 

The Cleveland Show first appeared on the development slate at Fox in early 2008, under no official name for the pilot, after a report that Fox had purchased the series from creators  The pilot was named The Cleveland Show in May 2008, when it appeared on the primetime slate for the 2008–09 television season, although it wasn't officially on the network schedule  Shortly after a report that King of the Hill just ended, leaving air time for The Cleveland Show, the show was picked up for a full season after an additional nine episodes of the show were ordered  In May 2009, The Cleveland Show appeared on the primetime slate for the 2009–10 television season, for airing on Sunday nights at 8:30 pm On June 15, 2009, it was announced that The Cleveland Show would premiere on September 27, 2009 MacFarlane and Henry pitched a 22-minute to Fox which aired on September 27, 2009 but had been leaked on the internet in June 2009  Even before the pilot episode premiered, the show had already been renewed for a 22-episode second season  After the first season of the show aired, it was given the green light to start production  On June 10, 2010, less than three weeks into the first season's summer hiatus, it was announced that Fox was ordering a third season  A fourth season was announced on May 9, 2011, just a few days before the second season concluded 

Executive producers
Seth MacFarlane, Mike Henry and Richard Appel have served as executive producers on the series since the first season 

Voice cast
Mike Henry voices two of the show's main characters: Cleveland Brown and Rallo Tubbs  The voice of Cleveland was developed originally for Family Guy by Henry after being influenced by one of his best friends who had a very distinct regional accent  For the voice of Rallo, Henry stated that he created the voice over twenty years before; he had used it while making prank phone calls 
Sanaa Lathan voices Donna Tubbs, the wife of Cleveland, stepmother of Cleveland Brown Jr , and mother of Roberta and Rallo Tubbs  In developing the character, Lathan said that the producers "wanted her to be educated, but to have some edge " Prior to voicing Donna, Lathan had only one other voice credit in a relatively low-budget film entitled The Golden Blaze  In addition to the show, she also primarily worked as an actress in such films as Alien vs  Predator, Blade, Love & Basketball and The Family That Preys 
Reagan Gomez-Preston plays Roberta Tubbs, the stepdaughter of Cleveland  Gomez has stated that she uses her own voice to portray Roberta and that she herself gets mistaken for a fifteen-year-old over the phone "all the time " Before Gomez was cast as Roberta, Nia Long (who co-starred with Lathan in The Best Man franchise) provided the character's voice during the first thirteen episodes  According to Long, she was replaced because producers decided they wanted an actress with a younger-sounding voice, given that the character is a teenager Kevin Michael Richardson, a recurring guest voice on Family Guy and American Dad!, portrays Cleveland, Jr , as well as Cleveland's next-door neighbor Lester Krinklesac  In portraying Cleveland, Jr , Richardson drew inspiration from a character named Patrick that he had played on the NBC drama series ER who was mentally impaired and wore a football helmet  For Lester, Richardson stated in an interview that, being African American, he had "run into a few rednecks in [his] time", and decided to simply perform a stereotypical redneck impression for the voice of Lester Jason Sudeikis plays Holt Richter, one of Cleveland's drinking buddies with short stature, and Terry Kimple, one of Cleveland's longtime friends who now works with him at Waterman Cable  Sudeikis originally began as a recurring cast member, but starting with the episode "Harder, Better, Faster, Browner", he was promoted to a series regular 
Seth MacFarlane played Tim the Bear up until season 3 episode 10, which MacFarlane admits is a "Steve Martin impression [   ] a Wild and Crazy Guy impression"  Jess Harnell voices the character for the rest of the series from the next episode onward, as MacFarlane grew tired of voicing the character 
Other voices include that of Arianna Huffington as Tim's wife Arianna the Bear, Nat Faxon as Tim and Arianna's son Raymond the Bear, Jamie Kennedy as Roberta's boyfriend Gabriel Friedman, a k a  " Federline Jones", Will Forte as Principal Wally, Frances Callier as Evelyn "Cookie" Brown, Craig Robinson as LeVar "Freight Train" Brown and David Lynch as Gus the bartender 

Characters
Cleveland's newly introduced family includes his new wife, Donna Tubbs-Brown (voiced by Sanaa Lathan); Donna's daughter Roberta (originally voiced by Nia Long, but later voiced by Reagan Gomez-Preston); and Donna's son Rallo (voiced by Mike Henry)  Cleveland, Jr  underwent a complete redesign for the show, becoming sensitive and soft-spoken 

Episodes
Crossovers with other animated sitcoms
The Cleveland Show characters have appeared on other animated sitcoms and vice versa  The Cleveland Show crossovers have all involved two other animated programs  Both the other two animated programs were also created by Seth MacFarlane—Family Guy and American Dad!  There are also many brief cameos of characters from three other Fox animated shows, The Simpsons, Futurama, and King of the Hill 

Syndication and streaming
In July 2010, the Turner Broadcasting System picked up syndication rights, for their networks TBS and later, Adult Swim  The series first aired on Adult Swim in the United States on September 29, 2012  On July 14, 2018, Viacom later picked up the rights to the series and the series left Adult Swim and TBS on September 9, 2018  The series began airing on Comedy Central in the United States on October 8, 2018 until April 29, 2022 with ViacomCBS sister networks BET and VH1 airing the series starting on August 31, 2020 and September 14, 2020, respectively  The series is available for streaming on Hulu 
The series began airing on FXX on September 20, 2021 Internationally, The Cleveland Show is available to stream on Star on Disney+ 

Cancellation
On April 17, 2013, Fox dismissed increasing rumors that The Cleveland Show had been canceled, reporting rather that renewal of the series was undetermined as of that time  However, on May 13, 2013, in the New York Daily News, Fox Chairman of Entertainment Kevin Reilly confirmed the show's cancellation  Following the series cancellation, it was confirmed that Cleveland would be moving back to Quahog with the rest of the Brown-Tubbs family to rejoin the Family Guy cast 

Reception
Critical reception
The Cleveland Show initially received mixed reviews from critics  Review aggregator Metacritic gave the show a score of 57 out of 100  Tom Shales of The Washington Post spoke very negatively about both the show and MacFarlane himself, describing him as "no better than the dirty old man hanging around playgrounds with naughty pictures or risque jokes as lures"  Roberto Bianco of USA Today wrote a similarly negative review, suggesting that the easiest fix for its problem was "cancellation"  John McWhorter of The New Republic called it "a patronizing mess" and "basically Family Guy in blackface"  He added: "What isn't black in it is so shamelessly ripped off from Family Guy that it's hard to believe it's the product of creators who are usually so studiously 'post-' obvious stunts of the sort "Matt Rouse of TV Guide wrote, "The lamest, most unnecessary spin-off since Private Practice, Cleveland rests on the shoulders of the hopelessly bland title character"  However, Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette was more positive about the program, writing that although The Cleveland Show was "just as rude-crude" as Family Guy, it also had "more warmth" due to Cleveland being a more likable character than Peter Griffin  Owen also praised the character of Tim the Bear, stating that "Tim is by far the most amusing creation " Jonathan Storm of the Philadelphia Inquirer, also spoke positively, stating that "[Cleveland] sounds funnier, and he shows way more personality than we've seen in his many years on Family Guy  [   ] While it seems to be missing some of the over-the-top offensive bites we're used to on Family Guy, and Cleveland's new drinking buddies aren't quite as amusing as the Quagmire, Joe, and Peter combination - there's a lot to like here "

Nielsen ratings
Awards and nominations
Home media
Internationally The Cleveland Show is available to stream on Star on Disney + with all four seasons 
Passage 3:
Silly Sally
"Silly Sally" is a song by Iron Butterfly that was released as a single in 1971 after the departure of Doug Ingle  Mike Pinera and M  Jones wrote "Silly Sally" in an attempt to keep the band together  Though the usual B-side is "Stone Believer", it has also been issued with "Butterfly Bleu" (voice box solo) on the B-side  The single did not chart and in 1971 Iron Butterfly disbanded 

Track listing
Side one

"Silly Sally" (M  Pinera, M  Jones) – 2:12Side two

 "Stone Believer" (Doug Ingle, Ron Bushy, Lee Dorman) – 4:25

Personnel
Doug Ingle – organ and lead vocals on "Stone Believer"
Mike Pinera – guitar, lead vocals
Larry "Rhino" Reinhardt – guitar
Lee Dorman – bass, backing vocals
Ron Bushy – drums
Diane Adams – background vocals on "Silly Sally"
Passage 4:
Paul Bettany
Paul Bettany (born 27 May 1971) is a British actor  He is best known for his roles as J A R V I S  and Vision in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, and for starring in the Disney+ miniseries WandaVision (2021), for which he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie 
Bettany first gained popularity for appearing in the films Gangster No  1 (2000), A Knight's Tale (2001) and A Beautiful Mind (2001)  He was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for playing Stephen Maturin in the film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003)  Other films in which Bettany has appeared include Dogville (2003), Wimbledon (2004), The Da Vinci Code (2006), The Tourist (2010), Margin Call (2011), Legend (2015) and Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018)  He made his directorial debut with the film Shelter (2014), which he also wrote and co-produced 
In television and theatre, Bettany has portrayed Ian Campbell, 11th Duke of Argyll in the series A Very British Scandal and Andy Warhol in the play The Collaboration in the West End, which is set to transfer to Broadway 

Early life
Bettany was born on 27 May 1971 in London, to Anne (née Kettle), a stage singer, theatre teacher, and stage manager, and Thane Bettany, a dancer, actor, drama teacher and godfather to Sophie, Duchess of Edinburgh  Bettany was raised Roman Catholic, although his church attendance drifted after his confirmation  Bettany then experimented with other Christian denominations among which were Methodist and Church of England congregations with his father  Bettany is now an atheist  While his father taught at the all-girls boarding school Queenswood School, near Hatfield, Hertfordshire, the family lived on the school grounds When Bettany was 16, his brother Matthew died at age 8 after falling onto concrete from a tennis pavilion roof at Queenswood  Soon after, Bettany dropped out of school, left home, and became a street performer in London  He lived in a small flat and earned money by playing his guitar in the streets as a busker  His parents later divorced  After two years, he found a new job in a home for the elderly  After working there for a year, Bettany enrolled at the Drama Centre London  He had dyslexia prior to it being recognised as a learning difficulty 

Career
In 1990, at the age of 19, Bettany began a three-year course at the Drama Centre London in Chalk Farm  He made his stage debut in Stephen Daldry's acclaimed West End revival of An Inspector Calls at the Aldwych Theatre, playing the part of Eric Birling  He also appeared in the Royal Shakespeare Company's productions of Richard III, Romeo and Juliet, and Julius Caesar (for which he received a Charleson Award nomination)  When Bettany was 21, he appeared in a BBC production of Oliver Twist, playing Bill Sikes 
After appearing in the finale of Sean Bean's series Sharpe as William II of the Netherlands at the Battle of Waterloo, he made his film debut with a small part in Bent, a Holocaust drama which also featured Clive Owen, Jude Law, and Ian McKellen  He continued doing work in stage and television: these included Joe Penhall's Love and Understanding, which played at London's Bush Theatre and then ran in Connecticut  He had roles in the television productions Killer Net and Coming Home, during which he met and dated Emily Mortimer  His last stage work was in One More Wasted Year and Stranger's House at the Royal Court Theatre  He filmed several more movies, including his first leading role in Gangster No  1  The British Independent Film Awards nominated him for Best Actor, and the London Film Critics' Circle nominated him for British Newcomer of the Year Back in Hollywood, writer/director Brian Helgeland (L A  Confidential) was planning a new film called The Sin Eater (also known as The Order)  He was impressed by Bettany's audition tape, though Helgeland eventually decided to film A Knight's Tale instead  The studio executives were not impressed, but Helgeland was determined to cast him, even writing the part of Chaucer for him  A Knight's Tale would be Bettany's first big Hollywood production  He received critical acclaim for A Knight's Tale, including winning the London Film Critics Circle Award for Best British Supporting Actor  After the movie wrapped, Helgeland, determined that Hollywood should recognize Bettany's talent, showed the audition tape to many of his peers, including Ron Howard, who promptly cast Bettany in A Beautiful Mind alongside Russell Crowe and Jennifer Connelly  After A Beautiful Mind, Bettany was offered the role of serial killer Francis Dolarhyde in Red Dragon, opposite Edward Norton and Anthony Hopkins  He turned down the role due to his commitment to a role in Lars von Trier's Dogville Bettany's next major project saw him starring again alongside A Beautiful Mind costar Russell Crowe in Peter Weir's Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World  His portrayal of surgeon and naturalist Stephen Maturin brought him a BAFTA nomination, and he was named British Actor of the Year (London Film Critics' Circle), and Best Actor (Evening Standard) 
On 28 June 2004, Bettany and 13 other actors were included in the 2004 invitation to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences  Dogville and The Reckoning were released in limited cinemas in 2004  In September of that year, Bettany made his leading-man debut in Wimbledon, a romantic comedy with Kirsten Dunst  The film's cast would also introduce him to Jon Favreau, playing his manager, a relationship that would return when Favreau cast him as the voice of J A R V I S  in Iron Man  In mid-2005, Bettany filmed Firewall in Vancouver, Canada, a thriller also starring Harrison Ford and Virginia Madsen, which reunited him with Wimbledon director Richard Loncraine  He spent the autumn of 2005 filming The Da Vinci Code, based on Dan Brown's best-selling novel and starring Tom Hanks, Audrey Tautou and Ian McKellen  In the film, he played an Opus Dei monk named Silas 
In 2007, Bettany went to London to star in There For Me, written by his friends Dan Fredenburgh and Doraly Rosen  In 2008, he appeared in the New Line Cinema family fantasy Inkheart, playing the part of a fire-eater named Dustfinger  In 2009, he appeared as Charles Darwin in Creation, starring opposite his own wife Jennifer Connelly  In 2010, Bettany appeared alongside Johnny Depp and Angelina Jolie in The Tourist and portrayed the archangel Michael in Legion, a film depicting divine vengeance upon humanity  He starred in the films Priest and Margin Call, both released in 2011 
Bettany reprised his voice role as J A R V I S  in 2010's Iron Man 2, 2012's The Avengers, 2013's Iron Man 3, and Disneyland's Innoventions attraction  In 2014, Bettany starred alongside Johnny Depp and fellow British actor Rebecca Hall in the feature film Transcendence  He was once again paired with Depp in Mortdecai, a 2015 motion picture also starring Gwyneth Paltrow and Ewan McGregor  After voicing J A R V I S  for five years, Bettany made his first onscreen appearance in a Marvel Cinematic Universe film in the 2015 film Avengers: Age of Ultron, playing Vision  He reprised the role in the sequels Captain America: Civil War (2016) and Avengers: Infinity War (2018) Bettany portrayed Ted Kaczynski in the Discovery Channel television show, Manhunt: Unabomber  Bettany replaced Michael K  Williams in Solo: A Star Wars Story, after Williams was removed from the final film, as he was unable to return to set during the film's reshoots  Bettany was cast in his place, with the character being reworked from a motion-capture alien to a human  On 20 January 2018, it was reported that Bettany was nearing a deal to play Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh on the Netflix series The Crown, succeeding Matt Smith  Days later, on 25 January, it was reported by TVLine that Bettany was ultimately unable to sign on due to scheduling conflicts Bettany starred alongside Elizabeth Olsen in the Marvel television miniseries WandaVision, portraying a new version of his Marvel Cinematic Universe character, Vision, with Olsen portraying the titular Wanda  It premiered on Disney+ in January 2021, garnering praise from critics  Reviewing the series, Matt Purslow of IGN wrote Bettany "effortlessly takes to the comedic skits" and that he and Olsen "provide a fantastic amount of life, wit, and emotion"  For his performance, Bettany received nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie and Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film Bettany starred in the 2021 miniseries A Very British Scandal  He played artist Andy Warhol in a production of the play The Collaboration by Anthony McCarten at the Young Vic in London from February to April 2022  He is slated to reprise the role in a film adaptation of the play  Bettany is attached to portray businessman Alexander Nix in a film about the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal as well as co-write and star in the dramedy film Harvest Moon Bettany will reprise his role as Vision in the television series Vision Quest 

Personal life
On 1 January 2003, Bettany married American actress Jennifer Connelly in Scotland; they met when they starred together in the 2001 film A Beautiful Mind  They did not become a couple until some time after filming, as both were in other relationships at the time  As a teenager, he had developed a crush on her after seeing her in the 1986 film Labyrinth  The September 11 attacks motivated him to act on his feelings for her, and after two days of attempting to contact her, he proposed, despite the fact that they were not yet in a relationship  Soon after their marriage, they moved to Brooklyn Heights after living in Tribeca  The couple have two children together  Bettany is stepfather to Connelly's son from a previous relationship Bettany is close friends with actor Johnny Depp  Text messages between Bettany and Depp from 2013 were used as evidence in 2020 during Depp's defamation trial against The Sun and in 2022 as part of Depp's defamation trial against his ex-wife, actress Amber Heard 

Acting credits
Film
Television
Theatre
Awards and nominations
Notes
Passage 5:
Puppy Dog Pals
Puppy Dog Pals  is an American computer-animated children's television series created by Harland Williams  The series debuted on Disney Junior in the United States on April 14, 2017 

Plot
Puppy Dog Pals is about Bingo and Rolly, two pug puppy brothers who have fun traveling around their neighborhood and the world when their owner Bob leaves home  They also have a kitty sister named Hissy and a robot dog named A R F  (Auto-Doggy Robotic Friend) 

Characters
Main
Bingo (voiced by Issac Ryan Brown in seasons 1–3; Elisha "EJ" Williams in season 4–5) — A blackish grayish pug with a blue lightning collar who is more mature than his twin brother Rolly  He is the leader of Rolly and himself  Bingo is always ready to go on missions with his brother to help someone in need  Issac Ryan Brown left the series after season 3 due to puberty  Starting with season 4, Elisha Williams took on the role 
Rolly (voiced by Sam Lavagnino in seasons 1–3; Gracen Newton in season 4–5) — A fawn pug with a red collar with a gold bone on it  While he isn't as smart as Bingo, he is still very silly  He is Bingo's twin birthday brother but Bingo is older than Rolly, as clarified in season 1  Rolly loves to chew on everything he can find and it's a bad habit  Sam Lavagnino left the series after season 3 due to puberty  Starting with season 4, Gracen Newton took on the role 
Bob (voiced by Harland Williams) — The owner of Bingo, Rolly, Hissy, Olivia and A R F  He works as an industrial designer/product designer a k a  an "inventor " In the season 2 premiere "A New Pup in Town," Bob modified the fence between his and Chloe's house, so that Keia can play with Bingo, Rolly and Hissy and they can all visit each other's homes without having to dig under the fence and made a new collar for Keia (since her old one fell off), which she wears during missions with Bingo and Rolly  He and Ana get married in the season 4 finale "Bob and Ana's Wedding" 
Hissy (voiced by Jessica DiCicco) — A cynical purple tabby cat wearing a bow, who cares for Bingo and Rolly like a big sister  In some episodes, she ends up going along with Bingo and Rolly on their missions  She, along with Cupcake, is the only one with unnatural fur color 
A R F  (fully known as Auto-Doggy Robotic Friend; voiced by Tom Kenny) — A robotic dog that Bob invented  He first appears in the episode "A R F " and was updated by Bob in "Go Dog Go " He always refers to himself in the third person in every episode with the exception of "Go Dog Go" and "How ARF Got His Voice Back "
Keia (voiced by Shiloh Nelson) — A new shiba inu puppy owned by Bob's next door neighbors, Chloe and her mother  Keia also becomes close friends with Bingo, Rolly and Hissy ever since she met them  She is also known for wearing a turquoise colored long-sleeved sweater and wearing a pink collar with a gold star on it  She first appeared in "A New Pup in Town " Her best friend is Lollie 
Lollie (voiced by Giselle Eisenberg) — A black and white cavalier king charles spaniel female puppy wearing a aquamarine collar whose back legs are paralyzed  She first appeared in “Adopt-A-Palooza”  Her best friend is Keia  She becomes Bingo and Rolly sister at the end of season 4 
Ana (voiced by Cree Summer) — Lollie's owner and Bob's love interest, later his wife  She runs Puppy Playcare and first appeared in "Adopt-a-Palooza "
Leo (voiced by Jack Stanton) – An orange tabby kitten wearing a lime green collar, who is Buster's brother and Darius pet kitten  He and Buster are Bingo and Rolly’s cousins, the latter being one of the mission students  He first appeared in "New Pals on the Block"
Buster (voiced by Bentley Lee Conger) – A brown boxer puppy wearing a fuchsia bandana, who is Leo's brother and Darius pet pup  He and Leo are Bingo and Rolly’s cousins, the former being one of the mission students  He first appeared in "New Pals on the Block" 
Roxy (voiced by Somali Rose) – A sussex spaniel pup, who is Nougat's sister and Grace's pet pup  She is also one of the mission students  She wears a purple collar with flower ponytails on her ears  She first appeared in "New Pals on the Block" 
Nougat (voiced by Amari McCoy) – A piglet, who is Roxy's sister and Grace's pet pig  She is also one of the mission students  She wears a yellow daffodil neck scarf and sometimes put on heart shape shades  She first appeared in "New Pals on the Block" 
Darius (voiced by Jayden Theophile) – Ana's nephew and owner of Buster and Leo, who loves science  His first appearance is in "New Pals on the Block", in which he is living with Bob and Ana while his parents are on a work trip 
Olivia — A blue fish who is the sister of Bingo, Rolly, Hissy, Lolly and A R F  She first appeared in "Fetch that Fish" 
Strawberry (communicates with squeaking noises) — A ladybug who, like Bingo, Rolly and Hissy, is a close friend of Keia's, so much so that Strawberry hangs around with Keia most of the time  Like Keia, she also made her debut in "A New Pup in Town " Keia has given the ladybug the name "Strawberry" because, as stated by Keia, she looks like a strawberry due to her red body with black spots 

Recurring
Cupcake (voiced by Jill Talley) — A bitter pink Maltese dog who likes to bully other animals, especially Bingo and Rolly  She becomes more of a friend after "The Fang Fairy "
Rufus (voiced by Leslie David Baker) — An oafish bulldog who is Cupcake's brother and minion  He has been known to chase Bingo and Rolly multiple times, but in "Haunted Howl-O-Ween," after Rolly removed Chloe's costume off him, he helped them return it 
Captain Dog (voiced by Patrick Warburton) — The star of the pup's favorite television show 
Frank Exposition (voiced by Leslie David Baker) — A man who is usually seen vacationing with his wife, Esther, during Bingo and Rolly's missions  In "A Pyramid Scheme," he gets tangled in ribbons, which leads to Bingo and Rolly mistaking him for a mummy 
Esther Exposition (voiced by Cheri Oteri) — Frank's wife  In episode "Hissy's Big Day", she is shown to have a pet iguana named Iggy 
Bulworth (voiced by Huey Lewis) — The junkyard dog 
Dallie (voiced by Tom Kenny) — A dalmatian who lives in the city's firehouse 
Tad (voiced by Sean Coyle) — A gopher who lives underground in his tunnels and hangs out with Bingo and Rolly  He speaks in gopher noises that Rolly can understand 
Jonathan (voiced by Jeff Bennett impersonating Don Knotts) — Bingo and Rolly's wisecracking seagull friend 
Whaley (voiced by Jessica DiCicco) — An Orca whale that Bingo and Rolly helped jump over the other side of the wall and later encountered her in ocean based missions 
Chloe (voiced by Emma Shannon) — A young girl who is Bob's neighbor  As of Season 2, Chloe and her mother are the owners of Keia, a new puppy who also becomes best friends with Bob's pets 
Chloe's Mom (voiced by Tara Strong) — Chloe's mom whose daughter is Bob's neighbor  As of Season 2, she and Chloe are the owners of Keia, a new puppy who also becomes best friends with Bob's pets 
Cagey (voiced by Jeff Bennett) — A guinea pig who is Bingo and Rolly’s friend; he initially appeared on the pet store window when they pass by and is later Chloe’s pet and Keia’s brother 
Jackie (voiced by Jill Talley) — An orange collie 
Bizzy (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) — A beaver who lives in the woods and likes to rap 
Rosetta (voiced by Tress MacNeille) — Bob and Bonnie's mom 
Strider the Sheepdog (voiced by Mo Collins) — A fast-talking sheep herding sheepdog who appears in the episodes "Counting Sheep" and "Rhapsody in Pug "
Santa Clause (voiced by Henry Winkler) — The one who gets help from Bingo and Rolly during the holidays and other missions 
Bonnie (voiced by Grey DeLisle) — Bob's sister, who is an archeologist 
Hedgie (voiced by Jack McBrayer) — A brown hedgehog who is the pups’ best friend and gives great advice 
Gilroy Pupkins (voiced by Gary Anthony Williams) – An Alaskan husky who Bingo and Rolly encounter in the park and play care 
Boss (voiced by Brandon James Cienfuegos) — A young guard dog 
Sydney (voiced by Kitana Turnbull) — Bulworth's niece 
Biscotti (voiced by Mo Collins) — A Christmas elf who asks Bingo and Rolly for help from the North Pole 
Cody (voiced by Duncan Joiner) — A pet beagle who is Bingo and Rolly's cousin from Chicago 
Auggie (voiced by Spencer Moss) — One of the young pups, who was introduced in the episode "The New Crew"  She is also Mo's sister 
Mo (voiced by Julian Edwards) — Another one of the young pups, who was introduced in the episode "The New Crew"  He is also Auggie's brother 
Cassie (voiced by Cree Summer) — Ana's mom and Darius grandma 
Grace (voiced by Rylee Alazraqui) — The new kid in town and the owner of Roxy and Nougat, who befriends Darius and lives right behind Bob and Ana’s house 
Willie (voiced by David Koechner, credited as Dave Koechner) — A interface robot, who takes care of the Doggy Jojo at Puppy Playcare 

Guest
Bob Uecker as Baseball Announcer
Yvette Nicole Brown as Daisy
Wendy McLendon-Covey as Mrs  Clause (Season 2–3)
Ernie Hudson as Buddy
Dennis Haysbert as Crash
Anna Camp as Donna
Stephen Tobolowsky as Chip
Jaime Camil as Heactor

Episodes
Broadcast
The series premiered on Disney Junior and Disney Channel in the United States on April 14, 2017, and on Disney Junior in Canada on April 23  Playtime with Puppy Dog Pals aired to advertise season 2 with the new puppy, Keia  On August 24, 2017, Disney Junior renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on October 12, 2018  On September 7, 2018, a third season was commissioned; it began airing on November 8, 2019  On October 30, 2019, a fourth season was commissioned after it was previously announced in June that the series was being cancelled after three seasons; it began airing on October 23, 2020, with new voice actors for Bingo (Elisha “EJ” Williams, replacing Issac Ryan Brown) and Rolly (Gracen Newton, replacing Sam Lavagnino)  On October 9, 2020, a fifth season was commissioned; it began airing on January 14, 2022 

Home media
Home media is distributed by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment 

Awards and nominations
Passage 6:
A Beautiful Mind (soundtrack)
A Beautiful Mind is the original soundtrack album, on the Decca Records label, of the 2001 film A Beautiful Mind starring Russell Crowe, Jennifer Connelly (who won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as "Alicia Nash"), Christopher Plummer and Paul Bettany  The original score and songs were composed and conducted by James Horner 
The album garnered nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score and the Academy Award for Best Original Score  Music critics felt that the musical score fit the film well, but believed it to be similar to several of Horner's previous films 

Development
Composer James Horner was a frequent collaborator with Ron Howard, the director of A Beautiful Mind  Horner desired to feature vocals reminiscent of being midway between a girl and woman, and wrote the score specifically for 15-year-old Welsh singer Charlotte Church  To convey "the beauty of mathematics", Horner decided to use the idea of a kaleidoscope, as its "patterns are always changing, and things move very quickly, but in moving so quickly, they create other patterns that move very slowly underneath"  He added that these changing patterns were conveyed with the piano and Church's voice 

Release and reception
Writing for Empire magazine, Danny Graydon gave the soundtrack four out of five stars  He thought the score contained elements of Horner's previous films Sneakers (1992) and Bicentennial Man (1999), but said "if you can forgive that, this is a clever, masterful and romantic score that captures a brilliant mind in conflict"  In the tracks "Creating Government Dynamics" and "Cracking The Russian Codes", Graydon opined that Church's "poignant vocals mix well with the frenetic piano and strings to represent Nash’s brilliance" and wished that her voice had been used more in the film Dan Goldwasser of Soundtrack net also found similarities to the score in Bicentennial Man, but thought Horner's work fit the film regardless, explaining "it effectively underscores the drama and romance, and even provides a few bits of tension for the action scene"  Goldwasser concluded that "while it all works well in the film, there is enough about this score that just seemed to  [sic] 'familiar' to make it stand out"  Contributing to National Public Radio, Andy Trudeau believed Church's particular voice adds a "human element  It's the sound that, I think, gives a sense of--the center of this character, if you will  I think it's the soul  And it's trying to be normal in a way, and underneath it it's trying to be crazy" Horner's score garnered nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score and the Academy Award for Best Original Score  It lost the Golden Globe to the film Moulin Rouge! and the Oscar to The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring 

Track listing
Adapted from:
Passage 7:
Barry Wesson
Barry Jarvis Wesson (born April 6, 1977) is an American former right-handed outfielder in Major League Baseball who played for the Houston Astros and Anaheim Angels 

Career
Barry Wesson was drafted by the Houston Astros in the 14th round of the amateur draft  Wesson signed on to play in the Astros organization  He spent 1995 mostly at the Rookie level, the lowest level in the minors  He then spent the following five years playing at the A level  It was not until 2001 that Wesson played most of the season in AA  On October 15, 2001, Wesson was granted free agency, only to be re-signed by the Astros less than a month later  In 2002, Wesson hit  293 in AAA, and it was decided he would be called up  In 20 at bats for the Astros, Wesson hit  200  That year Wesson was selected off waivers by the Anaheim Angels  In 2003, Wesson was again a call up, hitting  182 in 11 at-bats  After the 2004 season, he was granted free agency, and once again signed with the Astros  He spent the 2005 season in the minors  After the season, Wesson was granted free agency and retired 
At the time of his retirement, Wesson had a career batting average of  194 with one home runs in 31 at-bats  He had four runs batted in during this time  His lifetime fielding percentage was 1 000
In 2011 Barry played 33 games for the Rockland Boulders of the independent Can-Am League 
Passage 8:
Samuel L  Jackson
Samuel Leroy Jackson (born December 21, 1948) is an American actor and producer  One of the most widely recognized actors of his generation, the films in which he has appeared have collectively grossed over $27 billion worldwide, making him the second highest-grossing actor of all time  According to a more recent rating, he is the highest-grossing actor of all time  In 2022, he received the Academy Honorary Award as "a cultural icon whose dynamic work has resonated across genres and generations and audiences worldwide" Jackson made his professional theatre debut in Mother Courage and her Children in 1980 at The Public Theatre  From 1981 to 1983 he originated the role of Private Louis Henderson in A Soldier's Play off-Broadway  He also originated the role of Boy Willie in August Wilson's The Piano Lesson in 1987 at the Yale Repertory Theatre  He portrayed Martin Luther King Jr  in the Broadway play The Mountaintop (2011)  He returned to Broadway in the 2022 revival of The Piano Lesson playing Doaker Charles, for which he received a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play nomination Jackson's early film roles include Coming to America (1988), Juice (1992), True Romance (1993), Menace II Society (1993), and Fresh (1994)  His collaborations with Spike Lee led to greater prominence with films such as School Daze (1988), Do the Right Thing (1989), Mo' Better Blues (1990), Jungle Fever (1991), Oldboy (2013), and Chi-Raq (2015)  Jackson's breakout performance was as Jules Winnfield	in Quentin Tarantino's crime drama Pulp Fiction (1994) which earned him a BAFTA Award win and a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor  He further collaborated with Tarantino, acting in Jackie Brown (1997), Django Unchained (2012), and The Hateful Eight (2015) 
He also gained widespread recognition as the Jedi Mace Windu in the Star Wars prequel trilogy (1999–2005), and Nick Fury in 11 Marvel Cinematic Universe films, beginning with Iron Man (2008), as well as guest-starring in the ABC series Agents of S H I E L D   Jackson has provided his voice for Lucius Best / Frozone in the Pixar films The Incredibles (2004) and Incredibles 2 (2018)  He has also acted in a number of big-budget films, including Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995), A Time to Kill (1996), Unbreakable (2000), Shaft (2000) and its reboot (2019), XXX (2002), Coach Carter (2005), Snakes on a Plane (2006), Kingsman: The Secret Service (2014), Kong: Skull Island (2017), and Glass (2019) 

Early life
Samuel Leroy Jackson was born in Washington, D C , on December 21, 1948, the only child of Elizabeth Harriett (née Montgomery) and Roy Henry Jackson  He grew up in Chattanooga, Tennessee  His father lived away from the family in Kansas City, Missouri, and later died of alcoholism  Jackson met him only twice during his life  He was raised by his mother, a factory worker and later a supplies buyer for a mental institution; he was also raised by his maternal grandparents, Edgar and Pearl Montgomery, as well as extended family  According to DNA tests, Jackson partially descends from the Benga people of Gabon, and he became a naturalized citizen of Gabon in 2019  He attended several segregated schools and graduated from Riverside High School in Chattanooga  He played the French horn, piccolo, trumpet, and flute in the school orchestra  He developed a stutter during childhood and learned to "pretend to be other people who didn't stutter"  He still uses the word "motherfucker" to get through a speech block  He still has days where he stutters  Initially intent on pursuing a degree in marine biology, he attended Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia  After joining a local acting group to earn extra points in a class, he found an interest in acting and switched his major  Before graduating in 1972, he co-founded the Just Us Theatre After Martin Luther King Jr 's assassination in 1968, Jackson attended King's funeral in Atlanta as one of the ushers  He then travelled to Memphis, Tennessee, to join an equal rights protest march  In a 2005 Parade interview, he said, "I was angry about the assassination, but I wasn't shocked by it  I knew that change was going to take something different—not sit-ins, not peaceful coexistence " In 1969, Jackson and several other students held members of the Morehouse College board of trustees (including Martin Luther King Sr ) hostage on the campus, demanding reform in the school's curriculum and governance  The college eventually agreed to change its policy, but Jackson was charged with and eventually convicted of unlawful confinement, a second-degree felony  He was suspended for two years for his criminal record and his actions  He would later return to the college to earn a BA in drama in 1972  While he was suspended, he took a job as a social worker in Los Angeles  He decided to return to Atlanta, where he met with Stokely Carmichael, H  Rap Brown, and others active in the Black Power movement  He began to feel empowered with his involvement in the movement, especially when the group began buying guns  However, before he could become involved with any significant armed confrontations, his mother sent him to Los Angeles after the FBI warned her that he would die within a year if he remained with the group  In a 2018 interview with Vogue, he denied having been a member of the Black Panther Party 

Career
1972-1987: Early roles and theatre work
Jackson initially majored in marine biology at Morehouse College before switching to architecture  He later settled on drama after taking a public speaking class and appearing in a version of The Threepenny Opera  Jackson began acting on the stage, including Home and A Soldier's Play, which was the inspiration for the 1984 film, A Soldier's Story  He appeared in several television films, and made his feature film debut in the blaxploitation independent film Together for Days (1972)  After these initial roles, Jackson moved from Atlanta to New York City in 1976, and spent the next decade appearing in stage plays, including the premiers of The Piano Lesson and Two Trains Running at the Yale Repertory Theater  To supplement his income while auditioning, he worked at the Manhattan Plaza apartment complex as an overnight security guard   Jackson developed addictions to alcohol and cocaine, which prevented him from proceeding with the two plays to Broadway (actors Charles S  Dutton and Anthony Chisholm took his place) 

1988-1993: Rise to prominence
After a 1981 performance in the play A Soldier's Play, Jackson was introduced to director Spike Lee, who cast him for small roles in School Daze (1988) and Do the Right Thing (1989)  He also worked for three years as a stand-in for Bill Cosby on The Cosby Show  Throughout his early film career, mainly in minimal roles in films such as Coming to America (1988) and various television films, Jackson was mentored by Morgan Freeman Jackson played a minor role in the 1990 Martin Scorsese film Goodfellas, as real-life Mafia associate Stacks Edwards  Having overdosed on heroin several times, he switched to cocaine  His family entered him into a New York rehabilitation clinic  After he completed rehabilitation, he appeared in Jungle Fever as a crack cocaine addict  Jackson said that the role was cathartic, commenting, "It was a funny kind of thing  By the time I was out of rehab, about a week or so later I was on set and we were ready to start shooting " His performance was so acclaimed that the jury of 1991 Cannes Film Festival added a special "Supporting Actor" award just for him  Following this role, Jackson became involved with the comedy Strictly Business and dramas Juice and Patriot Games  He then moved on to two other comedies: National Lampoon's Loaded Weapon 1 (his first starring role) and Amos & Andrew  Jackson worked with the director Steven Spielberg in 1993's Jurassic Park 

1994-1998: Career breakthrough
After a turn as the criminal Big Don in 1993's True Romance—written by Quentin Tarantino and directed by Tony Scott—Tarantino asked Jackson to play Jules Winnfield in Pulp Fiction (1994)  Jackson was surprised to learn that the part had been specifically written for him: "To know that somebody had written something like Jules for me  I was overwhelmed, thankful, arrogant—this whole combination of things that you could be, knowing that somebody's going to give you an opportunity like that " Pulp Fiction, Jackson's thirtieth film, made him internationally recognized and he received praise from critics  Entertainment Weekly wrote: "As superb as Travolta, Willis, and Keitel are, the actor who reigns over Pulp Fiction is Samuel L  Jackson  He just about lights fires with his gremlin eyes and he transforms his speeches into hypnotic bebop soliloquies " For the Academy Awards, Miramax Films pushed for, and received, the Best Supporting Actor nomination for Jackson  He also received a Golden Globe nomination and won the BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Role After Pulp Fiction, Jackson received multiple scripts to review: "I could easily have made a career out of playing Jules over the years  Everybody's always sending me the script they think is the new Pulp Fiction " With a succession of poor-performing films such as Kiss of Death, The Great White Hype, and Losing Isaiah, Jackson began to receive poor reviews from critics who had praised his performance in Pulp Fiction  This ended with his involvement in the two box-office successes, Die Hard with a Vengeance, starring alongside Bruce Willis in the third installment of the Die Hard series; and A Time to Kill, where he played a father put on trial for killing two men who raped his daughter  For A Time to Kill, Jackson earned an NAACP Image for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture and a Golden Globe nomination for a Best Supporting Actor Quickly becoming a box office star, Jackson continued with three starring roles in 1997  In 187 he played a dedicated teacher striving to leave an impact on his students  He received an Independent Spirit award for Best First Feature alongside first-time writer/director Kasi Lemmons in the drama Eve's Bayou, for which he also served as executive producer  He worked again with Tarantino on Jackie Brown and received the Silver Bear for Best Actor at the Berlin Film Festival and a fourth Golden Globe nomination for his portrayal of the arms merchant Ordell Robbie  In 1998, he worked with established actors: Sharon Stone and Dustin Hoffman in Sphere; and Kevin Spacey in The Negotiator, playing a hostage negotiator who resorts to taking hostages himself when he is falsely accused of murder and embezzlement  In 1999, Jackson starred in the horror film Deep Blue Sea, and as Jedi Master Mace Windu in George Lucas' Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace  In an interview, Jackson claimed that he did not have a chance to read the script for the film and did not learn he was playing the character Mace Windu until he was fitted for his costume (though he later said that he was eager to accept any role, just for the chance to be a part of the Star Wars saga) 

1999-2007: Established actor
On June 13, 2000, Jackson was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7018 Hollywood Blvd  He began the next decade of his film career playing a Marine colonel put on trial in Rules of Engagement, co-starred with Bruce Willis for a third time in the supernatural thriller Unbreakable, and starred in the 2000 remake of the 1971 film Shaft  He reprised both of the latter roles in 2019, his Unbreakable character Mr  Glass in Glass and Shaft in another film titled Shaft  Jackson's sole film in 2001 was The Caveman's Valentine, a murder thriller directed by Lemmons in which he played a homeless musician  In 2002, he played a recovering alcoholic, attempting to keep custody of his kids while fighting a battle of wits (in Changing Lanes) with Ben Affleck's character  He returned for Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, seeing his minor supporting role develop into a major character  Mace Windu's purple lightsaber in the film was the result of Jackson's suggestion; he wanted to be sure that his character would stand out in a crowded battle scene  Jackson then acted as an NSA agent, alongside Vin Diesel in XXX, and as a kilt-wearing drug dealer in The 51st State  In 2003, Jackson again worked with John Travolta in Basic and then as a police sergeant alongside Colin Farrell in the television show remake SWAT A song within the soundtrack was named after him, entitled Sammy L  Jackson by Hot Action Cop  Jackson also appeared in HBO's documentary Unchained Memories, as a narrator along many other stars like Angela Bassett and Whoopi Goldberg 
Based on reviews gathered by Rotten Tomatoes, in 2004 Jackson starred in both his lowest and highest ranked films in his career  In the thriller Twisted, Jackson played a mentor to Ashley Judd  The film garnered a 2% approval rating on the website, with reviewers calling his performance "lackluster" and "wasted"  He then lent his voice to the computer-animated film The Incredibles as the superhero Frozone  The film received a 97% approval rating, and Jackson's performance earned him an Annie Award nomination for Best Voice Acting  He made a cameo in another Quentin Tarantino film, Kill Bill: Volume 2 In 2005, he starred in the sports drama Coach Carter, where he played a coach (based on the actual coach Ken Carter) dedicated to teaching his players that education is more important than basketball  Although the film received mixed reviews, Jackson's performance was praised despite the film's storyline  Bob Townsend of the Atlanta Journal-Constitution commended Jackson's performance, "He takes what could have been a cardboard cliché role and puts flesh on it with his flamboyant intelligence " Jackson also returned for two sequels: XXX: State of the Union, this time commanding Ice Cube, and the final Star Wars prequel film, Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith  His last film for 2005 was The Man alongside comedian Eugene Levy  On November 4, 2005, he was presented with the Hawaii International Film Festival Achievement in Acting Award On January 30, 2006, Jackson was honored with a hand and footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre; he is the seventh African American and 191st actor to be recognized in this manner  In an interview that year, he said that he chooses roles that are "exciting to watch" and have an "interesting character inside of a story", and that in his roles he wanted to "do things [he hasn't] done, things [he] saw as a kid and wanted to do and now [has] an opportunity to do"  He next starred opposite actress Julianne Moore in the box office bomb Freedomland, where he depicted a police detective attempting to help a mother find her abducted child while quelling a citywide race riot  Jackson's second film of the year, Snakes on a Plane, gained cult film status months before it was released based on its title and cast  Jackson's decision to star in the film was solely based on the title  To build anticipation for the film, he also cameoed in the 2006 music video "Snakes on a Plane (Bring It)" by Cobra Starship  On December 2, 2006, Jackson won the German Bambi Award for International Film, based on his many film contributions  In December 2006, Jackson starred in Home of the Brave, as a doctor returning home from the Iraq War 

On January 30, 2007, Jackson was featured as narrator in Bob Saget's direct-to-DVD Farce of the Penguins  The film was a spoof of the box office success March of the Penguins (which was narrated by Morgan Freeman)  Also in 2007, he portrayed a blues player who imprisons a young woman (Christina Ricci) addicted to sex in Black Snake Moan, and the horror film 1408, an adaptation of the Stephen King short story  Later the same year, Jackson portrayed an athlete who impersonates former boxing heavyweight Bob Satterfield in director Rod Lurie's drama, Resurrecting the Champ  In 2008, Jackson reprised his role of Mace Windu in the CGI film, Star Wars: The Clone Wars, followed by Lakeview Terrace where he played a racist cop who terrorizes an interracial couple  In November of the same year, he starred along with Bernie Mac and Isaac Hayes (who both died before the film's release) in Soul Men 

2008-2019: Career expansion
In 2008, he portrayed the villain in The Spirit, which was poorly received by critics and the box office  In 2009, he again worked with Quentin Tarantino when he narrated several scenes in the World War II film Inglourious Basterds In 2010, he starred in the drama Mother and Child and portrayed an interrogator who attempts to locate several nuclear weapons in the direct-to-video film Unthinkable  Alongside Dwayne Johnson, Jackson again portrayed a police officer in the opening scenes of the comedy The Other Guys  He also co-starred with Tommy Lee Jones for a film adaptation of The Sunset Limited 
Throughout Jackson's career, he has appeared in many films alongside mainstream rappers  These include Tupac Shakur (Juice), Queen Latifah (Juice/Sphere/Jungle Fever), Method Man (One Eight Seven), LL Cool J (Deep Blue Sea/S W A T ), Busta Rhymes (Shaft), Eve (xXx), Ice Cube (xXx: State of the Union), Xzibit (xXx: State of the Union), David Banner (Black Snake Moan), and 50 Cent (Home of the Brave)  Additionally, Jackson has appeared in five films with actor Bruce Willis (National Lampoon's Loaded Weapon 1, Pulp Fiction, Die Hard with a Vengeance, Unbreakable, and Glass) and the actors were slated to work together in Black Water Transit before both dropped out 

In 2002, Jackson gave his consent for Marvel Comics to design their "Ultimate" version of the character Nick Fury after his likeness  In the 2008 film Iron Man, he made a cameo as the character in a post-credit scene  In February 2009, Jackson signed on to a nine-picture deal with Marvel Studios which would see him appear as the character in Iron Man 2, Thor, Captain America: The First Avenger, and The Avengers, as well as any other subsequent film they would produce  He reprised the role in Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) and Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015)  In February 2015, Jackson stated that he only has two movies left on his Marvel contract following Age of Ultron  In 2018 and 2019, Jackson made cameo appearances as Fury in the Avengers sequels Infinity War and Endgame, and starred as a younger, de-aged Fury in Captain Marvel alongside Brie Larson 
Among his more recent film roles, Jackson appeared in Quentin Tarantino's Django Unchained, which was released December 25, 2012, Tarantino's The Hateful Eight, which was released in 70mm on December 25, 2015, and Jordan Vogt-Roberts' Kong: Skull Island, which was released on March 10, 2017  In 2019, Jackson reprised his Unbreakable role as Mr  Glass in the film Glass, and his Shaft role in Shaft, both sequels to his 2000 films  Also in 2019, he appeared in the Brie Larson film Unicorn Store, and had a prominent role as Fury in the Marvel film Spider-Man: Far From Home  Additionally, he reprised his role as Fury in a cameo appearance on the ABC television series Agents of S H I E L D  in 2013 and the season finale in 2014 

2020-present: Return to theatre
In 2020, he appeared in the television documentary series Enslaved  He also appeared in the 2021 movie Spiral: From the Book of Saw alongside Chris Rock  After an eleven-year absence from the stage Jackson returned to Broadway as Doaker Charles in a revival of August Wilson's The Piano Lesson opposite John David Washington and Danielle Brooks  The 2022 production was directed by Jackson's wife LaTanya Richardson Jackson  For his performance he received a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play nomination 

Upcoming projects
He is set to produce a live-action film adaptation of Afro Samurai, and will play the role of Sho'nuff in a remake of The Last Dragon  He is set to reprise his MCU role as Nick Fury in the upcoming Disney+ series Secret Invasion, and in The Marvels, the sequel to Captain Marvel 

Other appearances
He's known for his extensive voice roles including Whiplash in Turbo (2013), the title character of the anime series Afro Samurai (2007), and Frank Tenpenny in the video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (2004)  He also narrated the acclaimed documentary I Am Not Your Negro (2016) 
In addition to films, Jackson also appeared in several television shows, a video game, music videos, as well as audiobooks  Jackson had a small part in the Public Enemy music video for "911 Is a Joke"  Jackson voiced several television show characters, including the lead role in the anime series, Afro Samurai, in addition to a recurring part as the voice of Gin Rummy in several episodes of the animated series The Boondocks  He was in the Pilot for Ghostwriter  He guest-starred as himself in an episode of the BBC/HBO sitcom Extras  He voiced the main antagonist, Officer Frank Tenpenny, in the video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas  Jackson also hosted a variety of awards shows  He has hosted the MTV Movie Awards (1998), the ESPYs (1999, 2001, 2002, and 2009), and the Spike TV Video Game Awards (2005, 2006, 2007, and 2012)  In November 2006, he provided the voice of God for The Bible Experience, the New Testament audiobook version of the Bible  He was given the lead role because producers believed his deep, authoritative voice would best fit the role  He also recorded the Audible com audiobook of Go the Fuck to Sleep  For the Atlanta Falcons' 2010 season, Jackson portrayed Rev  Sultan in the Falcons "Rise Up" commercial 
He also appeared in the Capital One cash-back credit card commercials  Jackson too appeared in a Sky Broadband Shield commercial, Sky UK's broadband service as Nick Fury to promote Captain America: The Winter Soldier  He also played Nick Fury in an ad for the video game Marvel Snap  Jackson released a song about social justice with KRS-One, Sticky Fingaz, Mad Lion & Talib Kweli about violence in America called "I Can't Breathe" which were the last words said by Eric Garner 

Box-office performance
Throughout the 1990s, A C  Neilson E C I , a box office–tracking company, determined that Jackson appeared in more films than any other actor who grossed $1 7 billion domestically  By 2011, the films that featured Jackson as a leading actor or supporting co-star had grossed a total of $2 81 to $4 91 billion at the North American box office  This placed him as the seventh-highest-grossing lead actor and the second-highest-grossing actor, behind only voice actor Frank Welker  The 2009 edition of The Guinness World Records, which uses a different calculation to determine film grosses, stated that Jackson is the world's highest-grossing actor, with $7 42 billion generated across 68 films  Subsequently, as of 2022, according to data crunched by the Golden Globes, this total has ballooned out to more than $27 billion grossed across 152 movies, locking him in as the highest-grossing actor, and second-highest grossing person in film in general behind Stan Lee, who was primarily known for his cameo work 

Audiobooks
2011: Adam Mansbach: Go the Fuck to Sleep, publisher: BRILLIANCE CORP, ISBN 978-1-4558-4165-3
2014: Chester Himes: A Rage in Harlem, publisher: BRILLIANCE CORP, ISBN 978-1-4915-1908-0

Personal life
In 1980, Jackson married actress and producer LaTanya Richardson, whom he met while attending Morehouse College  The couple have a daughter named Zoe (born 1982)  In 2009, they started their own charity to help support education  Jackson has said that he watches his own films in cinemas: "Even during my theater years, I wished I could watch the plays I was in—while I was in them! I dig watching myself work " He also enjoys collecting the action figures of the characters he portrays in his films, including Jules Winnfield, Shaft, Mace Windu, and Frozone Jackson is bald but enjoys wearing wigs in his films  He said about his decision to shave his head, "I keep ending up on those 'bald is beautiful' lists  It's cool  You know, when I started losing my hair, it was during the era when everybody had lots of hair  All of a sudden, I felt this big hole in the middle of my afro  I couldn't face having a comb over so I had to quickly figure what the haircut for me was " His first bald role was in The Great White Hype  He usually gets to pick his own hairstyles for each character he portrays  He poked fun at his baldness the first time he appeared bald on The Tonight Show, explaining that he had to shave his head for one role, but then kept receiving more and more bald roles and had to keep shaving his head so that wigs could be made for him  He joked that "the only way [he's] gonna have time to grow [his] hair back is if [he's] not working"  He is noted for often wearing a Kangol hat in public Jackson has a clause in his contracts that allows him to play golf during film shoots  He has played in the Gary Player Invitational charity golf tournament to assist Gary Player in raising funds for children in South Africa  He is a keen basketball fan, supporting the Toronto Raptors and the Harlem Globetrotters  He has supported English football team Liverpool FC since appearing in The 51st State, which was shot in Liverpool, and also supports Irish football team Bohemian FC 

Jackson campaigned during the 2008 Democratic Primary for Barack Obama in Texarkana, Texas  He said, "Barack Obama represents everything I was told I could be growing up  I am a child of segregation  When I grew up and people told me I could be president, I knew it was a lie  But now we have a representative    the American Dream is a reality  Anyone can grow up to be a president " He also said, "I voted for Barack because he was black  That's why other folks vote for other people—because they look like them " In December 2012, he compared his Django Unchained character, a villainous house slave who sides with his white oppressors, to black conservative Justice Clarence Thomas and said that the character had "the same moral compass as Clarence Thomas does"  Following the Supreme Court's decision to overturn Roe v  Wade in June 2022, he again criticized Thomas, referring to him as "Uncle Clarence" and asking how Clarence—who is married to white attorney Ginni Thomas—feels about overturning Loving v Virginia, a Supreme Court ruling which allowed interracial marriages In June 2013, Jackson launched a joint campaign with Prizeo in an effort to raise money to fight Alzheimer's disease  As part of the campaign, he recited various fan-written monologues and a popular scene from the AMC series Breaking Bad  In August 2013, he started following a vegan diet for health reasons, explaining that he is "just trying to live forever"  He attributed his 40 lb (18 kg) weight loss to the diet  He had largely abandoned the diet by March 2017, but still praised and recommended it  He launched a campaign called "One for the Boys", which teaches men about testicular cancer and urges them to "get themselves checked out" He was granted Gabonese citizenship in 2019 after the results of a DNA test claimed to link him to the country's Benga ethnic group  In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Jackson encouraged people to wear face masks as part of California's "Your Actions Save Lives" campaign  Along with Dwayne Johnson, he also encouraged those who had recovered from COVID-19 to donate their blood to help others fighting the virus  He additionally appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! to read a satirical book, Stay the Fuck at Home, which spread awareness of social distancing 

Filmography
Awards and honors
Over his career, Jackson has received various awards for his performances on film  At the 44th Cannes Film Festival he received the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor for his performance in Spike Lee's Jungle Fever (1991)  He received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and the Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead for his performance in Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction (1994)  He also received Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for the performance as well  At the 48th Berlin International Film Festival, he received Silver Bear for Best Actor for his leading performance in Tarantino's Jackie Brown (1997)  In 2021, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences named Jackson as one of its Academy Honorary Award recipients as "A cultural icon whose dynamic work has resonated across genres and generations and audiences worldwide " At the 12th Annual Governors Awards, friend and actor Denzel Washington presented Jackson with his Oscar 

Notes
Passage 9:
Zach McGowan
Zach McGowan (born May 5, 1980) is an American film, television and voice actor  He is known for his roles in television series Agents of S H I E L D  as Anton Ivanov/The Superior, Shameless,
Black Sails, and The 100  Other highlights include parts in the films Terminator Salvation, The Hunt for Eagle One, and the sequel The Hunt for Eagle One: Crash Point  He guest-starred in the television series Numbers, CSI: Miami, and Cold Case, with voice-over work for the Scream Awards, Animal Planet and the video games Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Future Soldier, Resident Evil: Operation Raccoon City, and Iron Man 

Early life
McGowan was raised in New York  He attended Ethical Culture Fieldston School from kindergarten through senior year in high school, where he was the captain of the football and ice hockey teams and a member of the drama and theater societies  He graduated in 2002 from Carleton College  He is a 2nd-generation Irish-American Jew 

Career
In mid-2011, McGowan joined the cast of the Showtime dramedy Shameless, as Jody, first as a guest star (Season 2) and then as a series regular (Season 3)  Season two premiered January 8, 2012  He said that modeling for art students helped him for the role and now "nudity is just part of the job" In July 2013, McGowan joined the cast of the Universal Pictures feature film Dracula Untold, playing Shkelgim, a mysterious Romani In January 2014, McGowan joined the cast of the Starz dramatic adventure TV series Black Sails, playing a fictionalized version of the real-life 18th-century English pirate Charles Vane  The role called for an English actor, so McGowan, an American, affected an accent  Casting directors found out later that McGowan was faking but were impressed with his performance and chose him for the role In July 2016, McGowan joined the cast of The CW science fiction TV series The 100, playing King Roan of the Ice Nation, after having previously played the role as a guest star In January 2017, McGowan joined the cast of the ABC TV series Agents of S H I E L D , playing villain The Superior In March 2018, McGowan joined the cast of L A 's Finest, a TV series based on the Bad Boys franchise, alongside Jessica Alba and Gabrielle Union 

Personal life
McGowan is not related to Rose McGowan He married Emily Johnson on September 27, 2008, in the Santa Barbara mountains 

Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Context 2: Passage 1:
Tycho Brahe Prize
The Tycho Brahe Prize is awarded by the European Astronomical Society  Inaugurated in 2008, the prize is awarded annually in recognition of the pioneering development or exploitation of European astronomical instrumentation, or major discoveries based largely on such instruments 

Tycho Brahe Prize laureates
The following persons have received the Tycho Brahe Prize:

See also
List of astronomy awards
Prizes named after people
Passage 2:
Booktrust Teenage Prize
The Booktrust Teenage Prize was an annual award given to young adult literature published in the UK  The prize was administered by Book Trust, an independent charity which promotes books and reading  The Booktrust Teenage Prize was last awarded in 2010 and is no longer running 

Honorees
Passage 3:
Adam Smith Prize
The Adam Smith Prizes are prizes currently awarded for the best overall examination performance and best dissertation in Part IIB of the Economics Tripos (the graduation examination for economics undergraduates) at the University of Cambridge  The prize - named after Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith - was originally established in 1891 and awarded triennially for the best submitted essay on a subject of the writer's choice 

List of past recipients
1894 Arthur Lyon Bowley
1897 Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence
1900 Sydney Chapman
1903 Arthur Cecil Pigou
1906 Ernest Alfred Benians
1909 John Maynard Keynes
1929 R  F  Kahn
1930 Ruth Cohen
1932 K  S  Isles
1933 B  P  Adarkar
1935 W  B  Reddaway
1936 D  G  Champernowne
1954 Amartya Sen
1956 Manmohan Singh
1974 Martin Osborne
1987 Richard J  Parkin
2000 Saugato Datta and Richard Fearon
2004 James Benford
2006 Mark Shields
2007 Stefanie Stantcheva
2008 Thomas Mckendrick and Shivam Patel
2009 Praneet Shah
2011 Ossie Akushie and Shafi Anwar
2013 Inna Grinis and Ivan Kuznetsov
2014 James Walker
2015 Ben Andrews and Jonathon Hazell
2016 Isar Bhattacharjee and Toni Oki
2017 Joel Flynn and Joseph Lee
2018 Tireni Ajilore, George Nikolakoudis, Laurence O’Brien and Sajan Shah
2019 Vlastimil Rasocha and Kuishuai Yi
2020 Neal Patel, David Lee, Liam Grant, Andrew Koh and Michael Bennett
2021 Valerie Chuang, Matthew Chen and Jack Golden

See also
List of economics awards
Passage 4:
Berwick Prize
The Berwick Prize and Senior Berwick Prize are two prizes of the London Mathematical Society awarded in alternating years in memory of William Edward Hodgson Berwick, a previous Vice-President of the LMS  Berwick left some money to be given to the society to establish two prizes  His widow Daisy May Berwick gave the society the money and the society established the prizes, with the first Senior Berwick Prize being presented in 1946 and the first Junior Berwick Prize the following year  The prizes are awarded "in recognition of an outstanding piece of mathematical research     published by the Society" in the eight years before the year of the award The Berwick Prize was known as the Junior Berwick Prize up to 1999, and was given its current name for the 2001 award 

Senior Berwick Prize winners
Source:

Berwick Prize winners
Source:

See also
Whitehead Prize
Senior Whitehead Prize
Shephard Prize
Fröhlich Prize
Naylor Prize and Lectureship
Pólya Prize (LMS)
De Morgan Medal
List of mathematics awards 
Passage 5:
Lilienfeld Prize
The Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society, to remember Julius Edgar Lilienfeld, has been awarded annually, since 1989  (It was not awarded in 2002)  The purpose of the Prize is to recognize outstanding contributions to physics 

Recipients
Source: American Physical Society

External links
J  E  Lilienfeld Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics APS

See also
List of physics awards
Passage 6:
List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Swedish: Nobelpriset i kemi) is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry  It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, who died in 1896   These prizes are awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine  As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences  The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 1901 to Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, of the Netherlands  Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years  In 1901, van 't Hoff received 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007   The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death At least 25 laureates have received the Nobel Prize for contributions in the field of organic chemistry, more than any other field of chemistry  Two Nobel Prize laureates in Chemistry, Germans Richard Kuhn (1938) and Adolf Butenandt (1939), were not allowed by their government to accept the prize  They would later receive a medal and diploma, but not the money  Frederick Sanger is one out of three laureates to be awarded the Nobel Prize twice in the same subject, in 1958 and 1980  John Bardeen, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 and 1972, and Karl Barry Sharpless, who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2001 and 2022, are the others  Two others have won Nobel Prizes twice, one in chemistry and one in another subject: Maria Skłodowska-Curie (physics in 1903, chemistry in 1911) and Linus Pauling (chemistry in 1954, peace in 1962)  As of 2022, the prize has been awarded to 189 individuals, including eight women (Maria Skłodowska-Curie being the first to be awarded in 1911) There have been eight years for which the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was not awarded (1916, 1917, 1919, 1924, 1933, 1940–42)  There were also nine years for which the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was delayed for one year  The Prize was not awarded in 1914, as the Nobel Committee for Chemistry  decided that none of that year's nominations met the necessary criteria, but was awarded to Theodore William Richards in 1915 and counted as the 1914 prize  This precedent was followed for the 1918 prize awarded to Fritz Haber in 1919, the 1920 prize awarded to Walther Nernst in 1921, the 1921 prize awarded to Frederick Soddy in 1922, the 1925 prize awarded to Richard Zsigmondy in 1926, the 1927 prize awarded to Heinrich Otto Wieland in 1928, the 1938 prize awarded to Richard Kuhn in 1939, the 1943 prize awarded to George de Hevesy in 1944, and the 1944 prize awarded to Otto Hahn in 1945 In 2020, Ioannidis et al  reported that half of the Nobel Prizes for science awarded between 1995 and 2017 were clustered in just a few disciplines within their broader fields  Atomic physics, particle physics, cell biology, and neuroscience dominated the two subjects outside chemistry, while molecular chemistry was the chief prize-winning discipline in its domain  Molecular chemists won 5 3% of all science Nobel Prizes during this period 

Laureates
See also
Timeline of chemistry
Passage 7:
Karl Jaspers Prize
The Karl Jaspers Prize or Karl-Jaspers-Preis is a German philosophy award named after Karl Jaspers and awarded by the city of Heidelberg and the University of Heidelberg  It was first awarded in 1983 "for a scientific work of international significance supported by philosophical spirit"  The Karl Jaspers Prize was initially endowed with 5,000 euros, though since 2013 this has increased to €25,000  Next to the Friedrich Nietzsche Prize it is one of the highest awards in Germany awarded exclusively for philosophical achievements 

Award winners
Passage 8:
British Empire
The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states  It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries  
At its height in the 19th and early 20th century, it was the largest empire in history and, for a century, was the foremost global power  By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 per cent of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35 5 million km2 (13 7 million sq mi), 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area  As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread  At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories  Today, numerous nations across the world trace their contemporary statehood to the end of British rule, including the United States, India, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates and Israel 
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires  Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia  A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial power in North America  Britain became the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 
The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783  British attention then turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific  After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings  It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory in Southeast Asia   The  "Scramble for Africa" and "Great Game" also ensued  The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica (Latin for "British Peace")  Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America  Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were formally reclassified as Dominions in the 1920s  By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead  Military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire  The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources  Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power 
In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan  Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped accelerate the decline of the empire  India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire  The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the transfer of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire, though fourteen overseas territories that are remnants of the empire remain under British sovereignty  After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states  Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain a common monarch, currently King Charles III 

Origins (1497–1583)
The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms  In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead an expedition to discover a northwest passage to Asia via the North Atlantic  Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, and made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland  He believed he had reached Asia, and there was no attempt to found a colony  Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but did not return; it is unknown what happened to his ships No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century  In the meantime, Henry VIII's 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared "that this realm of England is an Empire"  The Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies  In 1562, Elizabeth I encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of establishing an Atlantic slave trade  This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World  At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term "British Empire") were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire  By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the Ulster Plantation, in 16th century Ireland by settling English Protestants in Ulster  England had already colonised part of the country following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169  Several people who helped establish the Ulster Plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country Men 

English overseas possessions (1583–1707)
In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration  That year, Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic  In 1583, he embarked on a second attempt  On this occasion, he formally claimed the harbour of the island of Newfoundland, although no settlers were left behind  Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England and was succeeded by his half-brother, Walter Raleigh, who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584  Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present-day North Carolina, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail In 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Spain  Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies  The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of joint-stock companies, most notably the East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade  This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as the "First British Empire" 

Americas, Africa and the slave trade
England's early efforts at colonisation in the Americas met with mixed success  An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits  Colonies on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) rapidly folded  The first permanent English settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown by Captain John Smith, and managed by the Virginia Company; the Crown took direct control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia  Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company's flagship, while attempts to settle Newfoundland were largely unsuccessful  In 1620, Plymouth was founded as a haven by Puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims  Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive for many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous trans-Atlantic voyage: Maryland was established by English Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists  England's North American holdings were further expanded by the annexation of the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, following the capture of New Amsterdam, which was renamed New York  Although less financially successful than colonies in the Caribbean, these territories had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of English emigrants, who preferred their temperate climates The British West Indies initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies  Settlements were successfully established in St  Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628), but struggled until the "Sugar Revolution" transformed the Caribbean economy in the mid-17th century  Large sugarcane plantations were first established in the 1640s on Barbados, with assistance from Dutch merchants and Sephardic Jews fleeing Portuguese Brazil  At first, sugar was grown primarily using white indentured labour, but rising costs soon led English traders to embrace the use of imported African slaves  The enormous wealth generated by slave-produced sugar made Barbados the most successful colony in the Americas, and one of the most densely populated places in the world  This boom led to the spread of sugar cultivation across the Caribbean, financed the development of non-plantation colonies in North America, and accelerated the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, particularly the triangular trade of slaves, sugar and provisions between Africa, the West Indies and Europe To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies  This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces—a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars—which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch  In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas 
In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert's Land, which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada  Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France Two years later, the Royal African Company was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean  The company would transport more slaves across the Atlantic than any other, and significantly grew England's share of the trade, from 33 per cent in 1673 to 74 per cent in 1683  The removal of this monopoly between 1688 and 1712 allowed independent British slave traders to thrive, leading to a rapid escalation in the number of slaves transported  British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3 5 million Africans—until the abolition of the trade by Parliament in 1807 (see § Abolition of slavery)  To facilitate the shipment of slaves, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island, Accra and Bunce Island  In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 per cent in 1650 to around 80 per cent in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 per cent to 40 per cent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies)  The transatlantic slave trade played a pervasive role in British economic life, and became a major economic mainstay for western port cities  Ships registered in Bristol, Liverpool and London were responsible for the bulk of British slave trading  For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven 

Rivalry with other European empires
At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively  The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade network, India  There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other  Although England eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia  Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England  A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the Nine Years' War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget to the costly land war in Europe  The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philip V of Spain, a grandson of the King of France, raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe  In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted for thirteen years 

Scottish attempt to expand overseas
In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a charter to the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama  Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada, and affected by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later  The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland: a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise  The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the Kingdom of Scotland of the merits of turning the personal union with England into a political and economic one under the Kingdom of Great Britain established by the Acts of Union 1707 

"First" British Empire (1707–1783)
The 18th century saw the newly united Great Britain rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage  Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire continued the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714 and was concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht  Philip V of Spain renounced his and his descendants' claim to the French throne, and Spain lost its empire in Europe  The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia, and from Spain Gibraltar and Menorca  Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean  Spain ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento (permission to sell African slaves in Spanish America) to Britain  With the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739, Spanish privateers attacked British merchant shipping along the Triangle Trade routes  In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the 1750 Treaty of Madrid Britain lost its slave-trading rights in Latin America In the East Indies, British and Dutch merchants continued to compete in spices and textiles  With textiles becoming the larger trade, by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch  During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, as the English East India Company and its French counterpart, struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire  The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India  France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India  In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the Presidency Armies, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys, led by British officers  The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers The signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 had important consequences for the future of the British Empire  In North America, France's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land, and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain  Spain ceded Florida to Britain  Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful maritime power 

Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies
During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent  This was summarised at the time by the colonists' slogan "No taxation without representation", a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen  The American Revolution began with a rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government  In response, Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775  The following year, in 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence proclaiming the colonies' sovereignty from the British Empire as the new United States of America  The entry of French and Spanish forces into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms  American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783 The loss of such a large portion of British America, at the time Britain's most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the "first" and "second" empires, in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa  Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal  The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000 defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following independence  The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia, felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax, so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784  The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English speaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy  The United States Congress declared war, the War of 1812, and invaded Canadian territory  In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States 

Rise of the "Second" British Empire (1783–1815)
Exploration of the Pacific
Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year  Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to Australia  The coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch in 1606, but there was no attempt to colonise it  In 1770 James Cook charted the eastern coast while on a scientific voyage, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales  In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788  Unusually, Australia was claimed through proclamation  Indigenous Australians were considered too uncivilised to require treaties, and colonisation brought disease and violence that together with the deliberate dispossession of land and culture were devastating to these peoples  Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to Tasmania until 1853 and to Western Australia until 1868  The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold, mainly because of the Victorian gold rush, making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world During his voyage, Cook visited New Zealand, known to Europeans due to the 1642 voyage of the Dutch explorer, Abel Tasman  Cook claimed both the North and the South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively  Initially, interaction between the indigenous Maori population and European settlers was limited to the trading of goods  European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with many trading stations being established, especially in the North  In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand  On 6 February 1840, Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which is considered to be New Zealand's founding document, despite differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text being the cause of ongoing dispute The British also expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific  Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area, culminating in the Nootka Crisis in 1789  Both sides mobilised for war, but when France refused to support Spain it was forced to back down, leading to the Nootka Convention  The outcome was a humiliation for Spain, which practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast  This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island  On land, expeditions sought to discover a river route to the Pacific for the extension of the North American fur trade  Alexander Mackenzie of the North West Company led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year a later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande, reaching the ocean near present-day Bella Coola  This preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by twelve years  Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, John Finlay, founded the first permanent European settlement in British Columbia, Fort St  John  The North West Company sought further exploration and backed expeditions by David Thompson, starting in 1797, and later by Simon Fraser  These pushed into the wilderness territories of the Rocky Mountains and Interior Plateau to the Strait of Georgia on the Pacific Coast, expanding British North America westward 

Wars with France
Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations  It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win  French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy, which won a decisive victory over a French Imperial Navy-Spanish Navy fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805  Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810  France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815  Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands, Malta (which it had occupied in 1798), Mauritius, St Lucia, the Seychelles, and Tobago; Spain ceded Trinidad; the Netherlands ceded Guyana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony, while the Danish ceded Heligoland  Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France; Menorca to Spain; Danish West Indies to Denmark and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands 

Abolition of slavery
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, goods produced by slavery became less important to the British economy  Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions  With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire  In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony was designated an official British colony for freed slaves  Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline  The Slavery Abolition Act, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844)  Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of "apprenticeship"  Facing further opposition from abolitionists, the apprenticeship system was abolished in 1838  The British government compensated slave-owners 

Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)
Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's "imperial century" by some historians, around 10 million sq mi (26 million km2) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire  Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia  Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica, and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation"  Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been described by some historians as an "Informal Empire" 

British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire  By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the All Red Line 

East India Company rule and the British Raj in India
The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia
Context 3: Passage 1:
Tarnów Voivodeship
Tarnów Voivodeship (Polish: województwo tarnowskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in years 1975–1998, superseded by a much larger Lesser Poland Voivodeship  Its capital city was Tarnów  Located in southeastern part of the country, its area was 4,151 km2  (which was 1 3% of the total area of Poland)  In 1975 the population was 577,900, in 1998 it grew to 700,800 
Tarnów (121 494)
Dębica (49 107)
Bochnia (29 887)
Brzesko (17 859)
Dąbrowa Tarnowska (11 178)

See also
Voivodeships of Poland
Passage 2:
Guyana
Guyana ( (listen) or  (listen)), officially the Co‑operative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern mainland of South America  Guyana is an indigenous word which means "Land of Many Waters"  The capital city is Georgetown  Guyana is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, Brazil to the south and southwest, Venezuela to the west, and Suriname to the east  With 215,000 km2 (83,000 sq mi), Guyana is the third-smallest sovereign state by area in mainland South America after Uruguay and Suriname, and is the second-least populous sovereign state in South America after Suriname; it is also one of the least densely populated countries on Earth  It has a wide variety of natural habitats and a very high biodiversity 
The region known as "the Guianas" consists of the large shield landmass north of the Amazon River and east of the Orinoco River known as the "land of many waters"  Nine indigenous tribes reside in Guyana: the Wai Wai, Macushi, Patamona, Lokono, Kalina, Wapishana, Pemon, Akawaio and Warao  Historically dominated by the Lokono and Kalina tribes, Guyana was colonised by the Dutch before coming under British control in the late 18th century  It was governed as British Guiana, with a mostly plantation-style economy until the 1950s  It gained independence in 1966, and officially became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970  The legacy of British rule is reflected in the country's political administration and diverse population, which includes Indian, African, Indigenous, Chinese, Portuguese, other European, and various multiracial groups  In 2017, 41% of the population of Guyana lived below the poverty line Guyana is the only South American nation in which English is the official language  However, the majority of the population speak Guyanese Creole, an English-based creole language, as a first language  Guyana is part of the Anglophone Caribbean  It is part of the mainland Caribbean region maintaining strong cultural, historical, and political ties with other Caribbean countries as well as serving as the headquarters for the Caribbean Community (CARICOM)  In 2008, the country joined the Union of South American Nations as a founding member 
Guyana's economy has been undergoing a transformation since the discovery of crude oil in 2015 and commercial drilling in 2019, being one of the few economies to grow despite the pandemic in 2020 at 49% GDP growth through the year, making it, by some accounts, currently the world's fastest-growing economy  Due to Guyana's small population and as much as 11 billion barrels in oil reserves, the country is on course to become one of the largest per capita oil producers in the world by 2030  The discovery of over 11 billion barrels of oil reserves off the coast of Guyana in the last five years is the largest addition to global oil reserves in the last 50 years  Guyana is now ranked as having the fourth-highest GDP per capita in the Americas after the United States, Canada, and The Bahamas, and has been one of the countries with the most improvement in Human Development Index ranking since 2015 

Etymology
The name "Guyana" derives from Guiana, an earlier name for a larger region that included the areas now called Guyana (British Guiana), Suriname (Dutch Guiana), French Guiana, the Guayana Region in Venezuela (Spanish Guyana), and Amapá in Brazil (Portuguese Guiana)  According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the name "Guyana" comes from an indigenous Amerindian language and means "land of many waters"  The word Co‑operative in the official name refers to co-operative socialism 

History
Before colonisation
Nine indigenous tribes reside in Guyana: the Wai Wai; Macushi; Patamona; Lokono; Kalina; Wapishana; Pemon; Akawaio; and Warao Historically, the Lokono and Kalina tribes dominated Guyana 

Colonial period
Although Christopher Columbus was the first European to sight Guyana during his third voyage (in 1498), and Sir Walter Raleigh wrote an account in 1596, the Dutch were the first Europeans to establish colonies: Pomeroon (1581), Essequibo (1616), Berbice (1627), and Demerara (1752)  After the British assumed control in 1796, the Dutch formally ceded the area in 1814 In 1831, the united colonies of Demerara-Essequibo and separate colony of Berbice together became a single British colony known as British Guiana 

Since its independence in 1824, Venezuela has claimed the area of land to the west of the Essequibo River  Simón Bolívar wrote to the British government warning against the Berbice and Demerara settlers settling on land which the Venezuelans, as assumed heirs of Spanish claims on the area dating to the 16th century, claimed was theirs  In 1899, an international tribunal ruled that the land belonged to Great Britain  The British territorial claim stemmed from Dutch involvement and colonisation of the area also dating to the 16th century, which was ceded to the British 

Independence
Guyana achieved independence from the United Kingdom as a dominion on 26 May 1966 and became a republic on 23 February 1970, remaining a member of the Commonwealth  Shortly after independence, Venezuela began to take diplomatic, economic and military action against Guyana in order to enforce its territorial claim to the Guayana Esequiba  The US State Department and the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), along with the British government, also played a strong role in influencing political control in Guyana during this time  The American government supported Forbes Burnham during the early years of independence because Cheddi Jagan was identified as a Marxist  They provided secret financial support and political campaign advice to Burnham's People's National Congress, to the detriment of the Jagan-led People's Progressive Party, which was mostly supported by Guyanese of Indian background Guyana was elected twice as member of the UN Security Council in 1975–76 and later 1982–83 
In 1978, a total of 918 people died at the Jonestown mass murder-suicide led by cult leader Jim Jones In May 2008, President Bharrat Jagdeo was a signatory to the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations  The Guyanese government officially ratified the treaty in 2010 In March 2020, President David A  Granger narrowly lost the snap elections, following Granger's government loss of a vote of no confidence back in 2018  Granger refused to accept the results, but eventually five months later, Irfaan Ali of the People's Progressive Party/Civic was sworn in as the new president because of allegations of fraud and irregularities 

Geography
The territory controlled by Guyana lies between latitudes 1° and 9°N, and longitudes 56° and 62°W; it is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries 
The country can be divided into five natural regions: a narrow and fertile marshy plain along the Atlantic coast (low coastal plain) where most of the population lives; a white sand belt further inland (hilly sand and clay region), containing most of Guyana's mineral deposits; the dense rain forests (Forested Highland Region) in the southern part of the country; the drier savannah areas in the south-west; and the smallest interior lowlands (interior savannah) consisting mostly of mountains that gradually rise to the Brazilian border 
Some of Guyana's highest mountains are Mount Ayanganna (2,042 m or 6,699 ft), Monte Caburaí (1,465 m or 4,806 ft) and Mount Roraima (2,772 m or 9,094 ft – the highest mountain in Guyana) on the Brazil-Guyana-Venezuela tripoint border, part of the Pakaraima range  Mount Roraima and Guyana's table-top mountains (tepuis) are said to have been the inspiration for Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's 1912 novel The Lost World  There are also many volcanic escarpments and waterfalls, including Kaieteur Falls which is believed to be the largest single-drop waterfall in the world by volume  North of the Rupununi River lies the Rupununi savannah, south of which lie the Kanuku Mountains 
The four longest rivers are the Essequibo at 1,010 km (628 mi) long, the Courentyne River at 724 km (450 mi), the Berbice at 595 km (370 mi), and the Demerara at 346 km (215 mi)  The Courentyne river forms the border with Suriname  At the mouth of the Essequibo are several large islands, including the 145 km (90 mi) wide Shell Beach along the northwest coast, which is also a major breeding area for sea turtles (mainly leatherbacks) and other wildlife 
The climate is tropical and generally hot and humid, though moderated by northeast trade winds along the coast  There are two rainy seasons, the first from May to mid-August, the second from mid-November to mid-January 
Guyana has one of the largest unspoiled rainforests in South America, some parts of which are almost inaccessible by humans  The rich natural history of Guyana was described by early explorers Sir Walter Raleigh and Charles Waterton and later by naturalists Sir David Attenborough and Gerald Durrell  In 2008, the BBC broadcast a three-part programme called Lost Land of the Jaguar which highlighted the huge diversity of wildlife, including undiscovered species and rare species such as the giant otter and harpy eagle 
In 2012, Guyana received a $45 million reward from Norway for its rainforest protection efforts  This stems from a 2009 agreement between the nations for a total of $250 million for protecting and maintaining the natural habitat  Thus far, the country has received $115 million of the total grant 

Biodiversity and conservation
Guyana is home to more than 900 species of birds; 225 species of mammals; 880 species of reptiles and more than 6,500 different species of plants  Among these wildlife categories the most notably famous are the Arapaima, which is the world's largest scaled freshwater fish; the giant anteater, the largest anteater; the giant otter, the world's largest and rarest river otter; and the cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola) 

The following habitats have been categorised for Guyana: coastal, marine, littoral, estuarine palustrine, mangrove, riverine, lacustrine, swamp, savanna, white sand forest, brown sand forest, montane, cloud forest, moist lowland and dry evergreen scrub forests (NBAP, 1999)  About 14 areas of biological interest have been identified as possible hotspots for a National Protected Area System 
More than 80% of Guyana is still covered by forests, which also contain the world's rarest orchids, ranging from dry evergreen and seasonal forests to montane and lowland evergreen rain forests  These forests are home to more than a thousand species of trees  Guyana's tropical climate, unique geology, and relatively undisturbed ecosystems support extensive areas of species-rich rain forests and natural habitats with high levels of endemism  There are about 8000 species of plants in Guyana, half of which are found nowhere else 
Guyana has one of the highest levels of biodiversity in the world  With 1,168 vertebrate species and 814 bird species, it boasts one of the richest mammalian fauna assemblages of any comparably sized area in the world  Guyana is home to six ecoregions: Guayanan Highlands moist forests, Guianan moist forests, Orinoco Delta swamp forests, Tepuis, Guianan savanna, and Guianan mangroves  The Guiana Shield region is little known and extremely rich biologically  Unlike other areas of South America, over 70% of the natural habitat remains pristine  Guyana ranks third in the world with a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9 58/10 The rich natural history of British Guiana was described by early explorers Sir Walter Raleigh and Charles Waterton and later by naturalists Sir David Attenborough and Gerald Durrell 
Southern Guyana is host to some of the most pristine expanses of evergreen forests in the northern part of South America  Most of the forests found are tall, evergreen hill-land and lower montane forests, with large expanses of flooded forest along major rivers  Thanks to the very low human population density of the area, most of these forests are still intact  The Smithsonian Institution has identified nearly 2,700 species of plants from this region, representing 239 distinct families, and there are certainly additional species still to be recorded  The diversity of plants supports diverse animal life, recently documented by a biological survey organised by Conservation International  The reportedly clean, unpolluted waters of the Essequibo watershed support a remarkable diversity of fish and aquatic invertebrates, and are home to giant otters, capybaras, and several species of caimans 
On land, large mammals, such as jaguars, tapirs, bush dogs, giant anteaters, and saki monkeys are still common  Over 800 species of birds have been reported from the region, and the reptile and amphibian faunas are similarly rich 
In February 2004, the Government of Guyana issued a title to more than 4,000 km2 (1×10^6 acres) of land in the Konashen Indigenous District as the Kanashen Community-Owned Conservation Area, managed by the Wai Wai, and the world's largest community-owned conservation Area  The Iwokrama International Centre for Rain Forest Conservation and Development was also created for the protection and sustainable use of the Iwokrama forest area  Since 2009, Guyana and Norway have collaborated to promote green development in Guyana while keeping deforestation at low levels

Economy
The main economic activities in Guyana are agriculture (rice and Demerara sugar), bauxite and gold mining, timber, seafood, minerals, crude oil and natural gas 
The discovery of major crude oil reserves off the Atlantic coast has since made a large impact on Guyana's GDP since drilling began in 2019  GDP grew sharply (43%) through the COVID-19 pandemic year of 2020, and is anticipated to continue at a high level in 2021 (estimated at 20%)  The non-oil sectors contracted as public health measures were in place to control the virus spread; the growth of GDP rests on the oil sector for these two years Preservation of Guyana's pristine forests has been a key component for receiving international aid through REDD programs 

Summary
GDP: US$4 121 billion ($5,252 per capita, 2019 est )
GDP growth rate: 86 7% (2020)
Inflation: 12 3%
Unemployment: 21 5% (2017)
Arable land: 2%
Labour force: 324,943 (2019)
Agricultural produce: sugar, rice, vegetable oils, beef, pork, poultry, dairy products, fish, shrimp
Industrial production: bauxite, sugar, rice milling, timber, textiles, gold mining
Exports: US$1 439 billion; Canada 24 9%, US 16 5%, Panama 9 6%, UK 7 7%, Jamaica 5 1%, Trinidad and Tobago 5% (2017)
Imports: US$1 626 billion; Trinidad and Tobago 27 5%, US 26 5%, China 8 9%, Suriname 6 1% (2017)

History
The earliest residents of Guyana, the Amerindians of various tribes, employed a variety of agricultural practices for subsistence living but also had extensive networks of trade, dealing in items such as blow pipes, curare, cassava graters, and other essentials  These trade networks were important even at the time of the earliest European contact, and Dutch traders were inclined to gift the local peoples in order to maintain successful settlements After the initial rush to find gold in the New World waned, the Dutch found the climate to be suitable for growing sugar cane, converting large tracts of the Guyanese coast into plantations and supplying with labour from the Atlantic slave trade  The country and economy were run by a small European planter elite which continued on when the colonies of the territory were merged and the land was given over to the British Empire in 1814  Upon emancipation in 1838, almost all of the former slaves abandoned the plantations, and Indians were brought to the country under indenture contracts from 1838 until the end of the system in 1917 The production of balatá (natural latex) was once a big business in Guyana  Most of the balata bleeding in Guyana took place in the foothills of the Kanuku Mountains in the Rupununi savannah  Early exploitation also took place in the North West District, but most of the trees in the area were destroyed by illicit bleeding methods that involved cutting down the trees rather than making incisions in them  Uses of balatá included the making of cricket balls, temporary dental fillings, and the crafting of figurines and other decorative items (particularly by the Macushi people) 
When the country gained independence from British rule, a policy of nationalisation was enacted by Forbes Burnham to address the inequities that were established by plantation-based colonial rule  All large scale industries such as foreign-owned bauxite mining (Reynolds Metals and Rio Tinto's Alcan) and sugar (GuySuCo) operations were taken over by the government  However, the economy under nationalisation was plagued by problems; political instability leading to an exodus of skilled labour, inexperienced management, aging infrastructure  Poor international market conditions also expanded the country's debt The Guyanese economy rebounded slightly and exhibited moderate economic growth after 1999, due to expansion in the agricultural and mining sectors, a more favourable atmosphere for business initiatives, a more realistic exchange rate, fairly low inflation, and the continued support of international organisations  Guyana held huge amounts of debt which have been written off through various international agencies  In 2003 Guyana qualified for US$329 million of debt relief, in addition to the US$256 million from the original World Bank plan for assisting heavily indebted poor countries in 1999  The Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative in 2006/7 wrote off about US$611 million of Guyana's debt by the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank  In 2006, Japan finalised its bilateral debt cancellation agreement, in 2007, US$15 million was written off by China and in 2008, Venezuela cancelled US$12 5 million In 2008, the economy witnessed a 3% increase in growth amid the global economic crisis; it grew 5 4% in 2011 and 3 7% in 2012  IMF projected economic growth to be 53% in 2020 following the completion of the first off-shore oil project  Actual growth in GDP in 2020 was 43%; reports in April 2021 anticipate 20% growth for 2021 

Tax policy
The government initiated a major overhaul of the tax code in early 2007  A Value Added Tax (VAT) replaced six different taxes  Prior to the implementation of the VAT, it had been relatively easy to evade sales tax, and many businesses were in violation of tax code  Many businesses opposed VAT introduction because of the extra paperwork required; however, the Government has remained firm on the VAT  Replacing several taxes with one flat tax rate, it will also be easier for government auditors to spot embezzlement  This was prevalent under the former PPP/C government who authorised the VAT to be equal to 50% of the value of the good 

Organizations
Major private sector organisations include the Private Sector Commission (PSC) and the Georgetown Chamber of Commerce & Industry (GCCI);

Demographics
The chief majority (about 90%) of Guyana's 744,000 population lives along a narrow coastal strip which ranges from a width of 16 to 64 km (10 to 40 mi) inland and which makes up approximately only 10% of the nation's total land area The present population of Guyana is racially and ethnically heterogeneous, with ethnic groups originating from India, Africa, Europe and China, as well as indigenous or aboriginal peoples  Despite their diverse ethnic backgrounds, these groups share two common languages: English and Guyanese English Creole 
The largest ethnic group is the Indo-Guyanese (also known as East Indians), the descendants of indentured labourers from India who make up 43 5% of the population, according to the 2002 census  They are followed by the Afro-Guyanese, the descendants of enslaved people imported from Africa, who constitute 30 2%  The Guyanese of mixed heritage make up 16 7%, while the indigenous peoples (known locally as Amerindians) make up 9 1%  The indigenous groups include the Arawaks, the Wai Wai, the Caribs, the Akawaio, the Arecuna, the Patamona, the Wapixana, the Macushi, and the Warao  The two largest groups, the Indo-Guyanese and Afro-Guyanese, have experienced some racial tension The Afro-Guyanese population mainly descend from West African ethnicities such as the Ashanti from Ghana, the Yoruba from Southwest Nigeria, the Ibo from South-Eastern Nigeria, and the Mandingo from Senegal 
Most Indo-Guyanese are descended from indentured labourers who migrated from North India, especially the Bhojpur and Awadh regions of the Hindi Belt in the present day states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand  A significant minority of Indo-Guyanese are also descended from indentured migrants who came from the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh; these South Indian descendants are the plurality ancestry in the East Berbice-Corentyne region 

Largest cities
Languages
English is the official language of Guyana and is used for education, government, media, and services  The vast majority of the population speaks Guyanese Creole, an English-based creole with slight African, Indian, and Amerindian influences, as their native tongue Indigenous Cariban languages (Akawaio, Wai-Wai, and Macushi) are spoken by a small minority of Amerindians 
Guyanese Hindustani is spoken by the older generation of the Indo-Guyanese community, but younger Guyanese use English or Guyanese Creole 

Religion
Religious groups
Religious sect groups
In 2012 the population was 63% Christian, 25% Hindu, 7% Muslim 
Religion is an important aspect of identity in Guyana and reflects the various external influences of colonialism and immigrant groups  Christianity was considered the prestigious religion, transmitting European culture and representing upward mobility in the colonial society  Missionaries and churches built schools, and until nationalisation in the 1970s, nearly all schools were denominational  When Indians were brought to the country as indentured labour, Hinduism and Islam gained prominence, but for some decades neither were acknowledged for legal marriage Some traditional African and Amerindian folk beliefs remain alongside the dominant religions 

Health
Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 69 5 years as of 2020 The PAHO/ WHO Global Health Report 2014 (using statistics of 2012) ranked the country as having the highest suicide rate in the world, with a mortality rate of 44 2 per 100,000 inhabitants  According to 2011 estimates from the WHO, HIV prevalence is 1 2% of the teen/adult population (ages 15–49) 

Education
Education in Guyana was primarily introduced and operated by missionising Christian denominations  The wealthy planter elite often sent their children for education abroad in England, but as schools improved in Guyana, they also modelled after the former British education system  Primary education became compulsory in 1876, although the need for children to assist in agricultural labour kept many children from schooling  In the 1960s, the government took over control of all schools in the country  Fees were removed, new schools were opened in rural areas, and the University of Guyana was established so students no longer were required to go abroad for tertiary education Guyana's literacy was one of the highest in the Caribbean, by estimated literacy rate of 96 per cent in 1990  In a 2014 UNESCO estimate, literacy is 96 7 in the 15–24 year old age group  However, the functional literacy may be only as high as 70% Students are expected to take the NGSA (National Grade Six Assessment) for entrance into high school in grade 7  They take the CXC at the end of high school  Schools have introduced the CAPE exams which all other Caribbean countries have introduced



ground_truth: Jennifer Connelly

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who gives out the award named after the person who argued that colonies were redundant?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  The company's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826) From its base in India, the company had been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to Qing China since the 1730s  This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by China in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China  In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement, and other Treaty Ports including Shanghai During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the company  A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired  The company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion in 1857, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline  The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides  The following year the British government dissolved the company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India  India became the empire's most valuable possession, "the Jewel in the Crown", and was the most important source of Britain's strength A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died  The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule  Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect 

Rivalry with Russia
During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar dynasty and Qing dynasty  This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the "Great Game"  As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India  In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan, but the First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain When Russia invaded the Ottoman Balkans in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East led Britain and France to enter the war in support of the Ottoman Empire and invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities  The ensuing Crimean War (1854–1856), which involved new techniques of modern warfare, was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica and was a resounding defeat for Russia  The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan  For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente  The destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy by the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 limited its threat to the British 

Cape to Cairo
The Dutch East India Company had founded the Dutch Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies  Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the Flanders Campaign  British immigration to the Cape Colony began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own—mostly short-lived—independent republics, during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s  In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the Sotho people and the Zulu Kingdom  Eventually, the Boers established two republics that had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852–1877; 1881–1902) and the Orange Free State (1854–1902)  In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899–1902) In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III, linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean  Initially the Canal was opposed by the British; but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the "jugular vein of the Empire"  In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44 per cent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £400 million in 2021)  Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage  Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882   Although Britain controlled the Khedivate of Egypt into the 20th century, it was officially a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and not part of the British Empire   The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position, but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the Canal officially neutral territory With competitive French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the "Scramble for Africa" by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims  The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan  A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896 and rebuffed an attempted French invasion at Fashoda in 1898  Sudan was nominally made an Anglo-Egyptian condominium, but a British colony in reality British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Southern Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo" railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich south of the continent  During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed territories named after him, Rhodesia 

Changing status of the white colonies
The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report, which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in armed rebellions in 1837  This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada  Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies  With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament, the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception of international relations  Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901  The term "dominion status" was officially introduced at the 1907 Imperial Conference The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule  Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852  Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone, who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament  Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation, many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire  A second Home Rule bill was defeated for similar reasons  A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising 

World wars (1914–1945)
By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation"  Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war  Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy, Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively 

First World War
Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War  Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa  In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and German Samoa respectively  Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement  This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca, who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support  Over 2 5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions, as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies  The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right  The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day  Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light  The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1 8 million sq mi (4 7 million km2) and 13 million new subjects  The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates  Britain gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of Cameroon and Togoland, and Tanganyika  The Dominions themselves acquired mandates of their own: the Union of South Africa gained South West Africa (modern-day Namibia), Australia gained New Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa  Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions 

Inter-war period
The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy  Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Anglo-Japanese Alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States  This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s as militaristic governments took hold in Germany and Japan helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations  The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British economy In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led the MPs of Sinn Féin, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats in the 1918 British general election, to establish an independent parliament in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared  The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration  The Irish War of Independence ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown  Northern Ireland, consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom 

A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy the demand for independence  Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar conspiracy ensured that war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts  This led to tension, particularly in the Punjab region, where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre  In Britain, public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion  The non-cooperation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War, was granted formal independence, though it continued to be a British client state until 1954  British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1936, under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone  In return, Egypt was assisted in joining the League of Nations  Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932  In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arabs and increasing numbers of Jews  The Balfour Declaration, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power  This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936  As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference  Britain's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne  After pressure from the Irish Free State and South Africa, the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration of 1926, declaring the Dominions to be "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another" within a "British Commonwealth of Nations"  This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster  The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control, they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent  Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933, suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression  In 1937 the Irish Free State introduced a republican constitution renaming itself Ireland 

Second World War
Britain's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa  All soon declared war on Germany  While Britain continued to regard Ireland as still within the British Commonwealth, Ireland chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war After the Fall of France in June 1940, Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the German invasion of Greece on 7 April 1941  British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D  Roosevelt for military aid from the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war  In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter, which included the statement that "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected  This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany and Italy, or the peoples colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements For Churchill, the entry of the United States into the war was the "greatest joy"  He felt that Britain was now assured of victory, but failed to recognise that the "many disasters, immeasurable costs and tribulations [which he knew] lay ahead" in December 1941 would have permanent consequences for the future of the empire  The manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power, including, particularly, the Fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar  The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United States and, ultimately, the 1951 ANZUS Pact  The war weakened the empire in other ways: undermining Britain's control of politics in India, inflicting long-term economic damage, and irrevocably changing geopolitics by pushing the Soviet Union and the United States to the centre of the global stage 

Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997)
Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War, the effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad  Much of Europe, a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance of global power  Britain was left essentially bankrupt, with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a US$4 33 billion loan from the United States, the last installment of which was repaid in 2006  At the same time, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations  The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union  In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism  In practice, American anti-communism prevailed over anti-imperialism, and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check  At first, British politicians believed it would be possible to maintain Britain's role as a world power at the head of a re-imagined Commonwealth, but by 1960 they were forced to recognise that there was an irresistible "wind of change" blowing  Their priorities changed to maintaining an extensive zone of British influence and ensuring that stable, non-Communist governments were established in former colonies  In this context, while other European powers such as France and Portugal waged costly and unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact, Britain generally adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies, although violence occurred in Malaya, Kenya and Palestine  Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to 5 million, 3 million of whom were in Hong Kong 

Initial disengagement
The pro-decolonisation Labour government, elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee, moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire: Indian independence  India's two major political parties—the Indian National Congress (led by Mahatma Gandhi) and the Muslim League (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah)—had been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed as to how it should be implemented  Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by the Hindu majority, desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim-majority regions  Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than 30 June 1948  When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947  The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan  Millions of Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives  Burma, which had been administered as part of British India until 1937, and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948  India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join The British Mandate in Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the British with a similar problem to that of India  The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state  Frustrated by the intractability of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve  The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state  It was immediately followed by the outbreak of a civil war between the Arabs and Jews of Palestine, and British forces withdrew amid the fighting  The British Mandate for Palestine officially terminated at midnight on 15 May 1948 as the State of Israel declared independence and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War broke out, during which the territory of the former Mandate was partitioned between Israel and the surrounding Arab states  Amid the fighting, British forces continued to withdraw from Israel, with the last British troops departing from Haifa on 30 June 1948 Following the surrender of Japan in the Second World War, anti-Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British, who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a source of rubber and tin  The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malaysian Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would be granted  The Malayan Emergency, as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but by 1957, Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth  In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia, but in 1965 Chinese-majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations and became an independent city-state  Brunei, which had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to join the union 

Suez and its aftermath
In the 1951 general election, the Conservative Party returned to power in Britain under the leadership of Winston Churchill  Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India  Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952, and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self-determination by 1955, with independence to follow  Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956 In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal  The response of Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal  Eden infuriated US President Dwight D  Eisenhower by his lack of consultation, and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion  Another of Eisenhower's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side  Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency  Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives, UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and Eden resigned The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain's decline on the world stage and its end as a first-rate power, demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not the full support, of the United States  The events at Suez wounded British national pride, leading one Member of Parliament (MP) to describe it as "Britain's Waterloo" and another to suggest that the country had become an "American satellite"  Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain's political leaders after Suez where they "went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing", from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982 While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken, it did not collapse  Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in Oman (1957), Jordan (1958) and Kuwait (1961), though on these occasions with American approval, as the new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States  Although Britain granted Kuwait independence in 1961, it continued to maintain a military presence in the Middle East for another decade  On 16 January 1968, a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British Armed Forces troops would be withdrawn from major military bases East of Suez, which included the ones in the Middle East, and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971, instead of 1975 as earlier planned  By that time over 50,000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East, including 30,000 in Singapore  The British granted independence to the Maldives in 1965 but continued to station a garrison there until 1976, withdrew from Aden in 1967, and granted independence to Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates in 1971 

Wind of change
Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town, South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of "the wind of change blowing through this continent"  Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly  To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s—Sudan, the Gold Coast and Malaya—were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s  Owing to the rapid pace of decolonisation during this period, the cabinet post of Secretary of State for the Colonies was abolished in 1966, along with the Colonial Office, which merged with the Commonwealth Relations Office to form the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (now the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office) in October 1968 Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for self-governing Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968  British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process  Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau uprising, in which tens of thousands of suspected rebels were interned by the colonial government in detention camps  Throughout the 1960s, the British government took a "No independence until majority rule" policy towards decolonising the empire, leading the white minority government of Southern Rhodesia to enact the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain, resulting in a civil war that lasted until the British-mediated Lancaster House Agreement of 1979  The agreement saw the British Empire temporarily re-establish the Colony of Southern Rhodesia from 1979 to 1980 as a transitionary government to a majority-rule Republic of Zimbabwe  This was the last British possession in Africa  
In Cyprus, a guerrilla war waged by the Greek Cypriot organisation EOKA against British rule, was ended in 1959 by the London and Zürich Agreements, which resulted in Cyprus being granted independence in 1960  The UK retained the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia as sovereign base areas  The Mediterranean colony of Malta was amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of Malta, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain Most of the UK's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members  Jamaica attained independence in 1962, as did Trinidad and Tobago  Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands, including the Bahamas, in the 1970s and 1980s, but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence  The British Virgin Islands, The Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain, while Guyana achieved independence in 1966  Britain's last colony on the American mainland, British Honduras, became a self-governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achieving full independence in 1981  A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved British Overseas Territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980  Vanuatu's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French-speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France  Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu became Commonwealth realms 

End of empire
By 1981, aside from a scattering of islands and outposts, the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete  In 1982, Britain's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a long-standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire  Britain's successful military response to retake the Falkland Islands during the ensuing Falklands War contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain's status as a world power The 1980s saw Canada, Australia, and New Zealand sever their final constitutional links with Britain  Although granted legislative independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931, vestigial constitutional links had remained in place  The British Parliament retained the power to amend key Canadian constitutional statutes, meaning that effectively an act of the British Parliament was required to make certain changes to the Canadian Constitution  The British Parliament had the power to pass laws extending to Canada at Canadian request  Although no longer able to pass any laws that would apply as Australian Commonwealth law, the British Parliament retained the power to legislate for the individual Australian states  With regard to New Zealand, the British Parliament retained the power to pass legislation applying to New Zealand with the New Zealand Parliament's consent  In 1982, the last legal link between Canada and Britain was severed by the Canada Act 1982, which was passed by the British parliament, formally patriating the Canadian Constitution  The act ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution  Similarly, the Australia Act 1986 (effective 3 March 1986) severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states, while New Zealand's Constitution Act 1986 (effective 1 January 1987) reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain On 1 January 1984, Brunei, Britain's last remaining Asian protectorate, was granted independence  Independence had been delayed due to the opposition of the Sultan, who had preferred British protection In September 1982 the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese Communist government, on the future of Britain's last major and most populous overseas territory, Hong Kong  Under the terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1860 Convention of Peking, Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula had been respectively ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the majority of the colony consisted of the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99-year lease in 1898, due to expire in 1997  Thatcher, seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by China  A deal was reached in 1984—under the terms of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China  The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many, including King Charles III, then Prince of Wales, who was in attendance, "the end of Empire", though many British territories that are remnants of the empire still remain 

Legacy
Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles  In 1983, the British Nationality Act 1981 renamed the existing Crown Colonies as "British Dependent Territories", and in 2002 they were renamed the British Overseas Territories  Most former British colonies and protectorates are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2 2 billion people  The United Kingdom and 14 other countries, all collectively known as the Commonwealth realms, voluntarily continue to share the same person—King Charles III—as their respective head of state  These 15 nations are distinct and equal legal entities: the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that rose from the British Empire  The empire established the use of the English language in regions around the world  Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about 1 5 billion as a first, second or foreign language  Individual and team sports developed in Britain, particularly football, cricket, lawn tennis, and golf were exported  British missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread Protestantism (including Anglicanism) to all continents  The British Empire provided refuge for religiously persecuted continental Europeans for hundreds of years 

Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas  The British Empire was responsible for large migrations of peoples  Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler colonist populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland  Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities, and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe  Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland  Millions of people moved to and from British colonies, with large numbers of Overseas Indian people emigrating to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Overseas Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean  The demographics of the United Kingdom itself were changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies In the 19th century, innovation in Britain led to revolutionary changes in manufacturing, the development of factory systems, and the growth of transportation by railway and steamship  British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire  The British choice of system of measurement, the imperial system, continues to be used in some countries in various ways  The convention of driving on the left-hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire The Westminster system of parliamentary democracy has served as the template for the governments for many former colonies, and English common law for legal systems  International commercial contracts are often based on English common law  The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for twelve former colonies Historians' approaches to understanding the British Empire are diverse and evolving  Two key sites of debate over recent decades have been the impact of post-colonial studies, which seek to critically re-evaluate the history of imperialism, and the continued relevance of historians Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, whose work greatly influenced imperial historiography during the 1950s and 1960s  In addition, differing assessments of the empire's legacy remain relevant to debates over recent history and politics, such as the Anglo-American invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as Britain's role and identity in the contemporary world Historians such as Caroline Elkins have argued against perceptions of the British Empire as a primarily liberalising and modernising enterprise, criticising its widespread use of violence and emergency laws to maintain power  Common criticisms of the empire include the use of detention camps in its colonies, massacres of indigenous peoples, and famine-response policies  Some scholars, including Amartya Sen, assert that British policies worsened the famines in India that killed millions during British rule  Conversely, historians such as Niall Ferguson say that the economic and institutional development the British Empire brought resulted in a net benefit to its colonies  Other historians treat its legacy as varied and ambiguous  Public attitudes towards the empire within Britain remain somewhat positive 

See also
Notes
Context 3:  The A-level system, inherited from the British era, is offered only in a few schools 
Infrastructure challenges impact access to education, especially students in the hinterland  A World Bank assessment showed roughly 50% of teachers were "untrained, operated with inadequate teaching materials, and served children of parents with low levels of adult literacy" 

Government
Politics
The politics of Guyana takes place in a framework of a Parliamentary representative democratic republic, in which the President of Guyana is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system  Executive power is exercised by the President and the Government  Legislative power is vested in both the President and the National Assembly of Guyana  Historically, politics are a source of tension in the country, and violent riots have often broken out during elections  During the 1970s and 1980s, the political landscape was dominated by the People's National Congress In 1992, the first constitutional elections were overseen by former United States President Jimmy Carter, and the People's Progressive Party led the country until 2015  The two parties are principally organised along ethnic lines and as a result often clash on issues related to the allocation of resources  In the General Elections held on 28 November 2011, the People's Progressive Party (PPP) retained a majority, and their presidential candidate Donald Ramotar was elected as president On 11 May 2015, early general elections were held  A coalition of the A Partnership for National Unity-Alliance for Change (APNU-AFC) parties won 33 of the 65 seats in the National Assembly  On 16 May 2015, retired army general David A  Granger became the eighth President of Guyana  However, on 21 December 2018, a vote of confidence was called for, regarding terms under which the government granted a franchise for offshore oil exploration  Legislator Charrandass Persaud defected from the coalition and the vote failed, requiring new elections  The governing coalition litigated this result for the entire 90 days allowed for new elections  New elections were held on March 2, 2020, and results were declared on August 3, 2020, with the People's Progressive Party/Civic as the winner  Mohamed Irfaan Ali became the ninth President of Guyana 

Public procurement
Public procurement in Guyana is overseen by the Public Procurement Commission, appointed under the Public Procurement Commission Act 2003  Due to lengthy delay in identifying and agreeing commission members, the commission was not appointed until 2016 

Military
The Guyana Defence Force (GDF) is the military service of Guyana 

Human rights
Homosexual acts, as well as anal and oral sex, are illegal in Guyana  It is currently the only country in South America that prohibits such acts  Engaging in such acts can warrant life imprisonment, though the prohibition is not enforced  These laws can be difficult to alter, as Guyana's Constitution protects laws inherited from the British Empire from constitutional review  However, cross-dressing has been legal since 2018, when a ban was struck down by Guyana's court of last resort, the Caribbean Court of Justice  President David A  Granger (2015–2020) expressed support for these efforts 

Administrative divisions
Regions and Neighbourhood Councils
Guyana is divided into 10 regions:The regions are divided into 27 neighbourhood councils 

Natural regions 
Guyana is divided into four (4) natural regions  These are:

Low Coastal Plain
Hilly Sand and Clay
Highland Region
Interior Savannahs

International and regional relations
Boundary disputes
Guyana is in border disputes with both Suriname, which claims the area east of the left bank of the Corentyne River and the New River in southwestern Suriname, and Venezuela which claims the land west of the Essequibo River, once the Dutch colony of Essequibo as part of Venezuela's Guayana Essequiba  The maritime component of the territorial dispute with Suriname was arbitrated by the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea, and a ruling was announced on 21 September 2007  The ruling concerning the Caribbean Sea north of both nations found both parties violated treaty obligations and declined to order any compensation to either party When the British surveyed British Guiana in 1840, they included the entire Cuyuni River basin within the colony  Venezuela did not agree with this as it claimed all lands west of the Essequibo River  In 1898, at Venezuela's request, an international arbitration tribunal was convened, and in 1899 the tribunal issued an award giving about 94% of the disputed territory to British Guiana  The arbitration was concluded, settled and accepted into International law by both Venezuela and the UK  Venezuela brought up again the settled claim, during the 1960s cold war period, and during Guyana's Independence period  This issue is now governed by the Treaty of Geneva of 1966, which was signed by the Governments of Guyana, the United Kingdom and Venezuela, and Venezuela continues to claim Guayana Esequiba  Venezuela calls this region "Zona en Reclamación" (Reclamation Zone) and Venezuelan maps of the national territory routinely include it, drawing it in with dashed lines 

Specific small disputed areas involving Guyana are Ankoko Island with Venezuela; Corentyne River with Suriname; and Tigri Area or New River Triangle with Suriname  In 1967 a Surinamese survey team was found in the New River Triangle and was forcibly removed  In August 1969 a patrol of the Guyana Defence Force found a survey camp and a partially completed airstrip inside the triangle, and documented evidence of the Surinamese intention to occupy the entire disputed area  After an exchange of gunfire, the Surinamese were driven from the triangle 

The Organisation of American States (OAS)
Guyana entered the Organisation of American States in 1991 

Indigenous Leaders Summits of America (ILSA)
With Guyana having many groups of indigenous persons and given the geographical location of the country, the contributions of the Guyanese to the OAS respecting indigenous people may be significant The position of the OAS respecting indigenous persons developed over the years  "The "OAS has supported and participated in the organisation of Indigenous Leaders Summits of Americas (ILSA)"The Draft American Declaration of the Rights of the Indigenous Persons appears to be a working document

Agreements which affect financial relationships
The Double Taxation Relief (CARICOM) Treaty 1994
At a CARICOM Meeting, representatives of Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana respectively signed The Double Taxation Relief (CARICOM) Treaty 1994 on 19 August 1994 This treaty covered taxes, residence, tax jurisdictions, capital gains, business profits, interest, dividends, royalties and other areas 

FATCA
On 30 June 2014, Guyana signed a Model 1 agreement with the United States of America in relation to the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA) 
This Model 1 agreement includes a reference to the Tax Information Exchange Agreement (Clause 3) which was signed on 22 July 1992 in Georgetown, Guyana intending to exchange Tax information on an automatic basis 

Infrastructure and telecommunications
Transport
There are a total of 187 km (116 mi) of railway, all dedicated to ore transport  There are 7,969 km (4,952 mi) of highway, of which 591 km (367 mi) are paved  Navigable waterways extend 1,077 km (669 mi), including the Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo rivers 
There are ports at Georgetown, Port Kaituma, and New Amsterdam  There are two international airports (Cheddi Jagan International Airport, Timehri and Eugene F  Correira International Airport (formerly Ogle Airport); along with about 90 airstrips, nine of which have paved runways  Guyana, Suriname and the Falkland Islands are the only three regions in South America that drive on the left 

Electricity
The electricity sector in Guyana is dominated by Guyana Power and Light (GPL), the state-owned vertically integrated utility  Although the country has a large potential for hydroelectric and bagasse-fuelled power generation, most of its 226 MW of installed capacity correspond to diesel-engine driven generators Several initiatives are in place to improve energy access in the hinterland 

Culture
Guyana's culture is very similar to that of the English-speaking Caribbean, and has historically been tied to the English-speaking Caribbean as part of the British Empire when it became a possession in the nineteenth century 
The current Guyanese culture began to develop when immigrants (some of them forced, others voluntary) adapted and converged with the dominant British culture  Slavery eradicated much of the distinction between differing African cultures as they were supplanted by British culture, which encouraged the adoption of Christianity and the values of British colonists; this laid the foundations of today's Afro-Guyanese culture  Arriving later and under somewhat more favourable circumstances, Indian immigrants were subjected to less assimilation, and they preserved more aspects of Indian culture, such as religion, cuisine, music, festivals, and clothing Guyana's geographical location, its sparsely populated rain-forest regions, and its substantial Amerindian population differentiate it from English-speaking Caribbean countries  Its blend of the two dominant cultures, Indo-Guyanese and Afro-Guyanese, gives it similarities to Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname, and distinguishes it from other parts of the Americas  Guyana shares similar interests with the islands in the West Indies, such as food, festive events, music, sports, etc 
Events include Mashramani (Mash), Phagwah (Holi), and Deepavali (Diwali) 

Landmarks
St George's Anglican Cathedral: A historic Anglican Cathedral made of wood 
Demerara Harbour Bridge: The world's fourth-longest floating bridge 
Berbice Bridge: The world's sixth-longest floating bridge 
Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Building: Houses the headquarters of the largest and most powerful economic union in the Caribbean 
Providence Stadium: Situated on Providence on the east bank of the Demerara River and built in time for the ICC World Cup 2007, it is the largest sports stadium in the country  It is also near the Providence Mall, forming a major spot for leisure in Guyana 
Arthur Chung Conference Centre: Presented as a gift from the People's Republic of China to the Government of Guyana  It is the only one of its kind in the country 
Stabroek Market: A large cast-iron colonial structure that looked like a statue was located next to the Demerara River 
Georgetown City Hall: A beautiful wooden structure also from the colonial era 
Takutu River Bridge: A bridge across the Takutu River, connecting Lethem in Guyana to Bonfim in Brazil 
Umana Yana: An Amerindian benab, that is a national monument built in 1972, for a meeting of the Foreign Ministers of the Non-Aligned nations (It was rebuilt in 2016) 
Shell Beach: Approximately 140 km long beach  In some parts beach consists of pure shells, very high biological diversity  Important nesting site for 8 species of sea turtles 
Parliament Building of Guyana: Parliament Building currently houses the seat of the National Assembly of the Government of Guyana  Located in Stabroek, facing Brickdam and bordered by Hadfield Street, High Street, and Cornhill Street

Sports
The major sports in Guyana are cricket (Guyana is part of the West Indies cricket team for international cricket purposes), basketball, football and volleyball  Minor sports include softball cricket (beach cricket), field hockey, netball, rounders, lawn tennis, table tennis, boxing, squash, rugby, horse racing and a few others 
Guyana played host to international cricket matches as part of the 2007 Cricket World Cup (CWC 2007)  The new 15,000-seat Providence Stadium, also referred to as Guyana National Stadium, was built in time for the World Cup and was ready for the beginning of play on 28 March  At the first international game of CWC 2007 at the stadium, Lasith Malinga of the Sri Lankan team took four wickets in four consecutive deliveries Guyana's national basketball team has traditionally been one of the top contenders at the CaribeBasket, the top international basketball tournament for countries in the Caribbean 
For international football purposes, Guyana is part of CONCACAF  The highest league in their club system is the GFF Elite League  Guyana's national football team has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup; however, they qualified for the Caribbean Cup in 1991, finishing fourth, and 2007  In 2019, they qualified for the CONCACAF Gold Cup for the first time, after finishing seventh in the qualifiers  They finished third in Group D, having lost two matches and drawn one 
Guyana also has five courses for horse racing 

Guyana featured a beach volleyball team at the 2019 South American Beach Games 

See also
Index of Guyana-related articles
Outline of Guyana
Petroleum industry in Guyana
Tourism in Guyana

Explanatory notes
Passage 3:
Opuwo
Opuwo is the capital of the Kunene Region in north-western Namibia  The town is situated about 720 km north-northwest from the capital Windhoek, and has a population of 20,000  It is the commercial hub of the Kunene Region 

Economy and infrastructure
Opuwo is situated at the intersection of the C41 and C43  There is a small airfield in town, Opuwo Airport Putuavanga Senior Secondary School in town is among the best government schools in Kunene Region  There is also the Opuwo Primary School with 39 teachers and 1,200 learners There are the following organizations and offices in the town: Opuwo Police Station, Opuwo District Hospital, Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Civic Affairs / Regional Civic Registration Office / Kunene Region) and Opuwo Department of Works  There is a Christian church 

Politics
Opuwo is governed by a town council that has seven seats 

Electoral History
History
Etymology
The name Opuwo was given by the commissioner of Ondangwa, Hugo Hahn, who came in search of land to build an office  Upon his arrival, he asked local headmen to give him land where he could build an office  The headmen gave him a small plot, and when the headmen tried to give him more land, Mr  Hahn responded saying "Opuwo (it’s enough for me)  I don’t want any more land"  That is how Opuwo got its name  The local residents of Opuwo called it Otjihinamaparero at the time, and some still call it that Hugo Hahn called the land "Ohopoho Otjitopora", which means "they see the bore hole and their water comes out"   The name Otjihinamaparero was changed to Opuwo in 1974 due to orthographic reform 

Colonial administration
The first office to be established in the Kaokoland area was the colonial administrator in Swartbooisdrift on the banks of the Kunene River  This was the administrative centre of the area from 1925 to 1939  Afterwards, administrative control of the area shifted to Ohopoho, later called Opuwo 
The police station in Swartbooisdrift was run by Sergeant Herbert, and his aim was to receive the Angola Boers who had trekked to Angola out of refusal to accept the British government in South Africa  Sergeant Basson took over the office at Swartbooisdrift, and excavated Opuwo's first bore hole  Basson had the nickname “Katjiriamakaja” (a person who eats tobacco) 

Culture
The Opuwo Town Council hosts the annual Opuwo Trade Fair, which was launched in 2012  The festival combines a modern business exhibition with cultural performances, live shows and entertainment  Opuwo Trade Fair takes place in the month of May 
Passage 4:
Effiakuma
Effiakuma is a residential town in the Western region of Ghana  It is about 10 kilometres from Takoradi the regional capital  It was built in the early 1960s by the then president of the country Kwame Nkrumah  There are about three general plans for the buildings in the town  The houses were built by the State Housing Cooperation  Effiakuma is the forty-seventh most populous in Ghana, in terms of population, with a population of 35,094 people  On the outskirts of the town is the Effiakuma Zongo 
In March 2011 many Mossi Muslims who fled the conflict in Ivory Coast took refuge in the town 

Boundary
The town is bounded to the west and North by Takoradi, to the east by Effia, to the south by Anaji 
Passage 5:
Port Said Governorate
Port Said Governorate (Arabic: محافظة بورسعيد, romanized: Muḩāfaz̧at Būr Sa'īd) is one of the Canal Zone governorates of Egypt  It is located in the northeastern part of the country, on the Mediterranean Sea at the northern gate of the Suez Canal, making it the second most important harbor in Egypt  Its capital is the city of Port Said, and it is the home of the Suez Canal Authority historical administrative building and the Lighthouse of Port Said 
Port Said Governorate is wholly urban, with 98 2% of the area populated  Most of the districts of the Governorate lie on the African side of the Suez Canal, although Port Fuad lies on the Asian side 

Geography
In 2015 a huge natural gas reserve was discovered off the coast of Port Said and was described as "the largest ever found in the Mediterranean Sea"  Egypt now has one of the largest areas of natural gas and Italian company, ENI has been contracted to work on the natural gas liquefaction for Egypt  It was welcome news as Egypt has long suffered an energy crisis The New Suez Canal project launched in 2015 included dredging of the East Port Said Canal 

Port Said East
Located on the Sinai side of the canal, Port Said East is a development project that contains the Suez Canal Container Terminal, which opened in 2004 In November 2015, president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi publicly launched a new harbour development project at East Port Said A side canal at Port Said East was opened in 2016 

Municipal divisions
According to the Port Said Governorate website, it is divided into the following municipal divisions for administrative purposes  El Sharq, El Arab, Port Fuad, El Manakh, El Dawahy, El Zohur, West (El Gharb), South (El Ganoub) Divisions of the governorate, at the 2006 census, included Mubarak East (the zone east of the new channel), Port Fuad 2 (the southern half of Fuad Island), Ganoub 2 (the southern part of South district), El Manasrah (now El Gharb), and a police department covering the docks  The total estimated population as of January 2023 was 789,241 

Demographics
The total population was estimated at the end of 2016 to be 684,303  With an urbanization rate of 100%, the Port Said Governorate is one of the most urbanized in the country, along with Cairo and Suez  The governorate is treated as one urban agglomeration by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 

Social unrest
In February 2012, more than 70 people died in the Port Said Stadium Riot after a football match  Social unrest in early 2013 continued for at least two weeks  While protesting on March 5, 2013, protesters set fire to the governorate's headquarters and several people were injured In October 2016, some Egyptians protested rent increases 

Industrial zones in Port Said
According to the Egyptian Governing Authority for Investment and Free Zones (GAFI), in affiliation with the Ministry of Investment and International Cooperation, the following industrial zones are located in this governorate:
The industrial zone C 1
The industrial zone C 6
The industrial zone C 11
The Northwest Bortex
The industrial zone south of Port Said (Al Reswah)

New urban community industrial zone
East Port Said

Economy
To promote trade, during his presidency, Anwar Sadat declared it a duty-free zone  Port Said Governorate is a major transit point for trade, importing and exporting millions of tons of goods each year  Tourism is also promoted for the region 

Important sites
There are several museums in this area  For cultural tourism one may want to visit the Port Said National Museum of Antiquities which opened in 1987 and is located at the confluence of the Suez Canal waters and the Mediterranean Sea  It houses about 9,000 artifacts from all eras, ranging from the Pharaonic, Greek, Roman, and modern eras, as well as Coptic and Islamic eras The Military Museum of Port Said, established in 1964, commemorates the 1956 the tripartite aggression on the city  It features armory and military artifacts, equipment used in the wars fought between 1956 - 1967 and in 1973  El Nasr Museum of Modern Art in Port Said opened on December 25, 1995 and includes artwork by Egyptian artists in various branches of Fine Art The Statue de Lesseps, honoring Ferdinand de Lesseps, the developer of the Suez and Panama Canals, has its base at the entrance to the Suez Canal, along Palestine Street, where passing ships come from all over the world  This makes it a favorite with tourists  Nearby, is the Suez Canal Authority building built on the banks of Port Said at the start of the project The lighthouse and jetties at Port Said, located at the northern terminus of the Suez canal, and completed in 1869, were built of concrete of Teil lime and Port Said sand  The lighthouse is a monolith 180 feet high  In the construction 120,000 tons of Teil hydraulic lime were used  It was an important engineering feat involving 25,000 blocks, each weighing twenty-five tons Tall al Faramah, also called Pelusium, is of Ecclesiastical and archeological importance  It is an archeological, prehistoric site with ruins and a Byzantine church In 2004, the marine sector of Egypt had 3,013 fishermen who were categorized in the recreational fishing sector, fishing in and around the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea  "Recreational fishing is widely practised along the Mediterranean Coast", where Port Said is located Tel Tennis is an island (also called Tinnis or Thenessus) located 7 km (4 3 mi) southwest of Port Said on Lake Manzala and can be reached from Port Said by boat One can find historic churches in Port Said Governorate  There is a Roman Church, established in 1926, a Melkite Greek Catholic Church called Saint Elias Greek Catholic Church, and an old French Cathedral 

See also
Governorates of Egypt
Passage 6:
Ché OVNI
Ché OVNI is a 1968 Argentine science-fiction musical comedy film directed by Aníbal Uset and starring Juan Carlos Altavista, Javier Portales, Jorge Sobral, and Marcela López Rey 

Background
Ché OVNI was only the second space film to be made in Argentina, after El Satelite Chiflado (The Crazy Satellite)  The film is about alien invaders who abduct a tango-singer



ground_truth: University of Cambridge

Cambridge

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the capital of the country it is about?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  OVNI means "UFO"; a newspaper article from the Cine Herald, July 17, 1968, depicted a cartoon Martian landing in the capital of Spain" a part of the promotion to the film 

Plot
An alien envoy arrives on Earth to kidnap a porteño tango singer and she is taken to planet where there is no live  She and other aliens of the planet wish to feel love again and the computers inform her that she is well-suited to trying to accomplish this, and results in a series of tango performances  The aliens fall in love with the tango singer Jorge (Jorge Sobral) 

Principal cast
Juan Carlos Altavista as Juan
Javier Portales as Professor
Jorge Sobral as Jorge
Marcela López Rey as Cósmica
Erika Wallner as Rubia
Perla Caron as Amarilla
Zelmar Gueño as Pierre

Reception
Shot on locations in London, Paris, Madrid and Buenos Aires, the film was considered "one of the most thunderous commercial failures" in Argentine film  
However, Augusto R  Giustozzi said that Jorge Sobral "excelled" in his role 
Passage 7:
Tebicuary River
The Tebicuary River (Spanish: Río Tebicuary), a tributary of Paraguay River is a river in Paraguay  Located in the southwestern part of that country,  it flows eastwards discharging to Paraguay River about 45 km south of Formosa and 30 km north of Pilar 
The San Rafael National Park in the river's upper basin 

See also
List of rivers of Paraguay
Passage 8:
EgyptAir Flight 763
EgyptAir Flight 763 was an international non-scheduled passenger flight from Cairo, Egypt, to Aden, South Yemen  On 19 March 1972, the flight was a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-32 registered in Yugoslavia as YU-AHR and operated by the newly renamed EgyptAir  It crashed into the Shamsan Mountains on approach to Aden, killing all 30 people on board 

Aircraft
The aircraft involved was a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-32  It was built in 1970 as construction number 47503 with manufacturer's serial number 587 and registered as YU-AHR 

Accident
On 19 March 1972 EgyptAir Flight 763 was on a flight from Cairo International Airport in Egypt to Aden International Airport in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen), via Jeddah, Saudi Arabia  The aircraft was chartered from the Yugoslav airline Inex Adria with 21 passengers and 9 crew members on board  Flight 763 was on a visual approach to land on runway 08 into Aden International Airport when the aircraft struck Jebel Shamsan, the highest peak of Aden Crater, an extinct volcano, located 7 kilometres (3 8 nmi) from the airport  On impact the aircraft burned, killing all on board  At the time of the accident, it was the deadliest to have occurred in South Yemen  As of November 2011, it remains the deadliest civil aviation accident and the second deadliest aviation accident to have occurred in Yemen 
Passage 9:
Where Dead Voices Gather
Where Dead Voices Gather is a book by Nick Tosches  It is, in part, a biography of Emmett Miller, one of the last minstrel singers  Just as importantly, it depicts Tosches' search for information about Miller, about whom he initially wrote in his book Country: The Twisted Roots of Rock and Roll  It is also a study of minstrelsy and its connection to American folk music, country music, the blues and ultimately, rock and roll  In that way, it is a companion volume to his other books of music journalism, Country and Unsung Heroes of Rock N' Roll 
Passage 10:
Domburg
Domburg is a seaside resort on the North Sea, on the northwest coast of Walcheren in the Dutch province of Zeeland  It is a part of the municipality of Veere, and lies about 11 km northwest of the city of Middelburg, the provincial capital 

Demographics
In 2010, the town of Domburg had 1,490 inhabitants, up from 1,251 in 2001  The built-up area of the town was 0 78 km2, and contained 881 residences 

History
The area of Domburg has been inhabited since at least 4,000 BCE  In 1647 after heavy storms on the beach of Domburg a sanctuary was discovered with around 40 stones with Latin inscriptions and carvings of several gods, among them of Neptune (sea) and Mercury (trade), but the majority of a local female deity: Nehalennia who appears to have protected both trade and shipping  According to the inscriptions the stones were erected by tradesmen and captains to fulfil their vows after a safe journey, mentioning explicitly on one stone a merchant of pottery doing business with Britain 
From a later period (starting 650 AD) many coins have been found on the beach including Anglo-Saxon sceattas  The settlement on the exact present day location of Domburg however originates from a circular earthen citadel that was discovered according to expectations by archaeologists in 1991 and which was dated to around 875 AD a period shortly after recorded raids by Danes 

In the following centuries there would be considerable activity by monks, not in the least because of salt works and the reclamation of land by which the island of Walcheren was formed  Near Domburg the mediaeval castle of Westhove, now a family hostel, used to be a stronghold of the abbot of the Abbey of Middelburg 
The town of Domburg, actually more a village, surprisingly received a city charter at the early date of 1223  Probably because the counts of Holland had to seek refuge on the island in some neighbourly quarrel  Until the 19th century the town did not change much in its agricultural and (some) fishing character, although tourism started in the 17th century with cityfolk from Middelburg who would enjoy a Sunday trip to the area in summer because of its coast and woodlands and merry inns  Wealth from both West- and East Indian trade also enabled many merchants from Middelburg and Flushing to build manorhouses with lavish gardens in the area, but only a few have survived 
The lordship of Domburg used to belong to the dukes of Burgundy when they were counts of both Holland and Zeeland  For financial reasons they sold Domburg to a lesser branch of their family from which it eventually ended up in the hands of private individuals and passing through the hands of more than one family until lordship rights were completely abolished in 1848  Mostly they were rich merchants from Zeeland cities who returned from India after having served as the director of trade in for example Bengalen 
For a long time Domburg consisted of two jurisdictions: Domburg-Binnen (the town and coast) and Domburg-Buiten (the country side)  In 1816 they were united into a single municipality, into which the village of Oostkapelle was merged in 1966  At the end of the last century all the smaller towns of Walcheren were joined to form the municipality of Veere 
Starting 1834 Domburg became a seaside resort offering a bathing cure and facilities  A small Badpaviljoen was built shortly after on top of the dunes, which was replaced by a larger one in 1888 which offered space for gentleman playing billiards and ladies drinking tea, a concert room, a seaview veranda and more of such amenities that beach life requires 
Most important for its development was however the arrival of a railway station at Flushing and a connecting steamship service with England  A considerable British influence in these years was responsible for Domburg establishing the second golf-course in the Netherlands, although it never expanded over a friendly nine holes 
Like in so many seaside resorts at the end of the 19th century a flock of European royalty landed at Domburg for a few years when the resort was fashionable only to move along again a few years later  The Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Pommern regularly arrived in the town by private-charter train on Stoomtram Walcheren  Instrumental however in the mythology of the place and the mentioned fashion was the very successful doctor Johann Georg Mezger who achieved international fame for his scientific approach of physiotherapy and for being the founding father of Swedish massage 
Domburg is perhaps best known for its hosting of a group of artists of which Piet Mondriaan or Mondrian is the best known  His Pier and Ocean paintings was inspired by the same location where James Abbott McNeill Whistler painted the Domburg sea with its characteristic piers which do not cater for the happy crowd but are meant to break waves that may damage the dunes and thus the existence of the place  This lead Domburg to be a testing ground for Leiden's De Stijl movement 
(For references to literature see Dutch language page)

The statistical area "Domburg", which also can include the surrounding countryside, has a population of around 1650 

Items of local interest
Once the location of shrine dedicated to Nehalennia 
Formerly the western terminus of Stoomtram Walcheren which ran to Koudekerke, Middelburg and Vlissingen 

Pictures
Passage 11:
Yanggakdo
Yanggakdo, or Yanggak Island is a small island in the Taedong River, located about two kilometers to the south-east of the centre of the North Korean capital city Pyongyang  It is connected to the northern and southern side of Pyongyang by the Yanggak Bridge, which spans the island and separates it into a northeastern and southwestern part  The name means "Rams horn island" and is said to be derived from its shape 
On its northeastern end the 170 metres (560 ft) tall Yanggakdo International Hotel is located, the second tallest building in North Korea 
Adjacent to the hotel's southern side, there was originally a 9,000 square metre nine-hole golf course which as of 2011 had been demolished to make space for a new Chinese-funded health complex to be built Also on the northeastern part of Yanggak Island, the Pyongyang International Cinema Hall can be found, which hosts the opening and closing ceremonies of the Pyongyang International Film Festival 
The island's southwestern part houses the Yanggakdo Stadium, which is a multi-purpose stadium that holds 30,000 people and was opened in 1989 
Passage 12:
Abdul Fattah Ismail
Abd al-Fattah Ismail Ali Al-Jawfi (Arabic: عبد الفتاح إسماعيل علي الجوفي, romanized: ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ Ismāʿīl; 28 July 1939 – 13 January 1986) was the Marxist de facto leader of People's Democratic Republic of Yemen from 1969 to 1980  He served as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Council (head of state) and founder, chief ideologue and first leader of the Yemeni Socialist Party from 21 December 1978 to 21 April 1980  He died under mysterious circumstances during the 1986 South Yemen Civil War, where no body was found 

Biography
Born in July 1934 in the Hugariah district, Taiz of North Yemen, he was educated in Aden, where he subsequently worked in an oil refinery from 1956 to 1959 as an apprentice  As a co-founder of the Arab Nationalist Movement in South Yemen, he contributed to the formation of a number of Movement cells before he was arrested by the British authorities in Aden for political incitement of workers 
In 1961 he became a school teacher in one of the Aden districts, and at the same time continuing political activity  He was a co-founder of the National Front for the Liberation of South Yemen (NLF)  After the NLF started the 14 October 1963 Revolution for the liberation of South Yemen from British colonial rule, Ismail became a full-time socialist revolutionary, whereby he undertook the leadership of the NLF underground military wing (fedayeen) in Aden, as well as political activity 
He was elected to the NLF executive in the first, second and third NLF congresses, 1965–67  After South Yemen gained independence in 1967 he was appointed Minister of Culture and Yemeni Unity  In the fourth NLF congress, he was instrumental in determining the progressive line of the revolution  But in March 1968 he was arrested by the right wing of the NLF and went into exile, where he drafted the program for Accomplishing National Democratic Liberation, a leftist manifesto  He undertook a leading role in the consolidation of left wing of NLF which subsequently regained power in the 22 June 1969 "Correction Step "
Subsequent to the "Correction Step" Ismail was elected Secretary General of the NLF Central Committee, thus making him the country's de facto leader   He was also elected a member of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Council  In 1970 he was elected Chairman of Presidium  He undertook a leading role in the dialogue between NLF and other left parties in south Yemen leading to the formation of the Yemeni Socialist Party (YSP)  He was elected Secretary General of the YSP at the first party congress in October 1978  Ideologically, he is considered to have favored the Soviet model of socialist development (as opposed to Maoist alternatives)  In October 1979, Ismail secured the 1979 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the USSR  Similar treaties with East Germany and Ethiopia followed in 1981, following Ismail's resignation from office  In 1980 he resigned from all his posts for allegedly health reasons and was succeeded by Ali Nasir Muhammad  However, Ismail was appointed president of the party before he went to Moscow for medical treatment, until 1985, when he returned in the face of a mounting crisis between Muhammad and his opponents in the YSP 
In October 1985 he was elected to the YSP Politburo and as a Secretary of the Central Committee, but the crisis had erupted on January 13, 1986, into a violent struggle in Aden between Ali Nasir's supporters and Ismail's supporters (See South Yemen Civil War)  Fighting lasted for more than a month and resulted in thousands of casualties, Ali Nasir's ouster, and Ismail's mysterious disappearance  He was allegedly killed when naval forces loyal to Ali Nasir shelled his home in Aden 
Passage 13:
Tony Dale
Anthony William Dale, known as Tony Dale (born 1969) is a public servant from suburban Cedar Park, Texas, who is a Republican former member of the Texas House of Representatives from District 136 First elected in 2012, Dale was reelected to successive two-year terms in 2014 and 2016   House District 136 consists of the Williamson County portion of Austin, the City of Cedar Park, the City of Leander, North Austin MUD #1 (Rattan Creek), Block House Creek MUD, Brushy Creek MUD, Fern Bluff MUD and a small portion of Round Rock 

Background
Dale received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Political Science from Ohio State University at Columbus in central Ohio  While at Ohio State, he was active in partisan politics and for a time was President of the Ohio State University College Republican Club and the state co-chairman of the Ohio College Republican Federation   He also worked at the Ohio Republican Party for four years as a college intern 
Dale is a US Army veteran and active member of the Texas State Guard   His military decorations include the Army Commendation Medal with Oak Leaf Cluster, Army Achievement Medal, National Defense Service Ribbon, Army Service Ribbon, Texas Outstanding Service Medal, Texas Adjutant General's Individual Award, Texas State Guard Service Medal, Texas Cold War Service Medal, Texas Humanitarian Relief Ribbon, Commanding General's Individual Award (second award), Texas Faithful Service Medal, Texas State Guard Commendation Medal, Texas State Guard Achievement Medal, Texas State Guard Officer Professional Education Ribbon, State Guard Association of the United States Professional Development Medal, State Guard Association of the United States Meritorious Unit Award, Basic Parachutist Badge, Master Military Emergency Management Specialist Badge and Expert Marksman Badge and The Noble Patron of Armor Award  Dale is a charter member of the Hunter-Morris Memorial American Legion Post 911 in Cedar Park  Mrs  Dale was the 2014-2015 post commander  He is a Colonel in the Texas State Guard where he serves as the Operations and Plans Officer at Headquarters, Camp Mabry  In 2021 he was inducted into the Ohio State University Army ROTC Society Hall of Fame 
The former owner of a consulting company, Dale is a member of the Cedar Park Chamber of Commerce  
In 2020, Mary Lopez Dale was appointed by Governor Greg Abbott as a member of the Texas Veterans Commission  She is the past Chair of the Williamson County United Way  The Dales have been married over 30 years and they have two daughters  One is graduate of Leander ISD schools and the other attends school at LISD  They attend St  Vincent de Paul Roman Catholic Church in Austin 

Political life
From 2002 until 2009 Dale served as a precinct chairman for the Williamson County Republican Party   He also served in the capacity of election clerk and election judge From 2009 to 2012, Dale was a member of the Cedar Park City Council and for a year served as the mayor pro tem  Earlier, he was the secretary and later vice chairman of the Cedar Park Planning and Zoning Commission  As a member of the board of the Williamson County Conservation Foundation, he pushed for local control over federal regulations  He served too on the Cedar Park Charter Review Committee In 2014 Dale was unopposed in the Republican Primary   In the November 4, 2014 Dale received 20,862 (54 2 percent) and out paced his closest opponent by 13 1 percent  Democratic nominee John Bucy of Austin received 15,821 (41 1 percent) and Libertarian nominee Justin Billiot of Cedar Park received 1,811 (4 7 percent) In the 84th Legislative Session (2015-2016) Dale served on the house committees of (1) Homeland Security and Public Safety, (2) Energy Resources and (3) Local and Consent Calendar Committee   In the 85th Legislative Session (2017-2018) Dale served on (1) Environmental Regulation Committee and (2) Vice Chairman of the Juvenile Justice & Family Issues Committee and (3) House Select Committee on Cybersecurity  He was appointed as a member of the House Working Group to reform the Child Protective Service   He is a member of the House Working Group developing internal House policies on sexual harassment   He is the Chairman of the House Energy Caucus   In the 85th legislative session Dale served as Deputy Floor Leader for the Republican Caucus   He is on the board of directors of the Texas Conservative Coalition 
The Cedar Park Chamber of Commerce named Dale the 2017 Citizen of the Year   In 2018 Cedar Park Mayor Matt Powell presented Dale with the city's highest civilian honor by bestowing upon him a key to the city  In 2017, 2016, 2015 and 2013 the Hill Country News reader poll voted Dale the "Best Elected Official"  The Texas Conservative Coalition, a bipartisan group of legislators, named him a "Courageous Conservative" following the 83rd, 84th and 85th regular sessions  After the 84th session the Texas Right To Life rated him a 100%   The Combined Law Enforcement Associations of Texas (CLEAT) named him Freshman of the Year in 2013 " Following the 84th legislative session in 2015 the Combined Law Enforcement Associations of Texas named him, "Best of the House"  In 2015 he was elected to the Board of Directors of the Texas Conservative Coalition  In 2013 and 2015 the Texas Association of Business named him a "Champion For Free Enterprise"  The Texas Alliance for Life PAC endorsed his reelection in 2015/2016   In 2015 the Texas Conservative Roundtable named him an "Effective Conservative" 
Prior to the 2011 Egyptian Revolution he traveled to Amman, Jordan to train pro-democracy Egyptians on grassroots campaign tactics  This training was conducted on behalf of the International Republican Institute 

Legislative positions
During the 84th Regular Legislative Session (2015) Dale filed legislation to award the Texas Purple Heart Medal to the Fort Hood shooting victims of terrorist Nidal Hasan on 11/5/2009 (HB115)   He also filed legislation to require the use of E-Verify by all state agencies and public universities (HB183) and require the use of E-Verify by state contractors and subcontractors (HB889)   Dale filed HB861 to facilitate the prosecution of adults who solicit minors online for illicit sexual purposes His 2015 84th legislative session accomplishments also include: HB939 – Allows homeowners in HOAs to install standby generators  HB1446 – Allows sexual assault victims and stalking victims to get reimbursed by the crime victims fund    HB 1447 – streamlines protective orders for victims of sexual abuse, assault, stalking and trafficking   HB2604- Reduces red tape for police officers applying for a concealed handgun license (CHL)  HB4030 – Requires a complete background check prior to starting work as a private security licensee 
In the 84th session he also jointly authored of co-authored the following successful legislation: HB114 – Restricts the use of Capital Appreciation Bonds  HB505 – Removes limits on the number of dual-credit courses high school students may take  HB1286 – Enhanced penalties for injury to a child, elderly individual or disable person  HB1293 – Allows stalking victims to have confidentiality in court proceedings  HB1783 – Requires schools to reports crimes to police and not coerce employees to not report crimes  HB2339 – Allows customers to carry alcoholic beverages throughout all areas inside stadiums and arenas 
During the 85th session (2017) Dale authored legislation to target the teachers having inappropriate relationships with students   He authored additional child protection measures such as HB 1810 that allows for the prosecution of criminals possessing and publishing lewd visual images of children   He also passed legislation targeting online predators who blackmail individuals online using intimate images and videos   This crime known as 'sextortion" is a growing concern as reported by the National Center For Missing and Exploited Children"   The Speaker of the House appointed Dale to the House Working Group on Child Protective Service Reform   In that capacity Dale worked on legislation to transform and improve Texas' challenged child welfare system 

Interest group ratings
The Texas Association of Business scored him 93 percent for the 83rd session  The National Rifle Association scored Dale 92 percent following the 83rd session  Following the 84th session Texas Right to Life noted his score of 100%   Americans for Prosperity named him a Lone Star Leader with an A rating  Dale was in the top 24 most conservative House Members on Rice University Professor Mark Jones' 2017 Liberal-Conservative Ranking and Score of Texas House of Representatives 

Third term election in 2016
Dale won his third term in the House in the general election held on November 8, 2016  With 41,643 votes (55 percent), he defeated the Democrat Paul R  Gordon, who polled 34,077 (45 percent) 

2018 general election
Dale lost his bid for a fourth term in the general election held on November 6, 2018  He was unseated by the Democrat John Bucy III, who had lost the 2014 election to Dale: 41,485 votes (53 3) to 34,031 (43 8 percent)  The Libertarian Party choice, Zack Parks, held another 2,253 (2 9 percent) 
Passage 14:
Yavca
Yavca  is a  village in Toroslar district of Mersin Province, Turkey,  where the capital city of Toroslar district is actually a part of Greater Mersin  The village is in Toros Mountains at 37°01′N 34°23′E and the distance to Mersin city center is about 45 kilometres (28 mi) The population of Yavca was 279  as of 2012   The main economic activity of the village is agriculture 
Passage 15:
Puğkaracadağ
Puğkaracadağ is a village in Akdeniz district of Mersin Province, Turkey, where the capital city of Akdeniz district is actually a part of Greater Mersin  The village is situated on the north of Çukurova motorway  The creek Deliçay is to the west  The village's distance to Mersin is about 20 kilometres (12 mi)  The population of the village was 687 as of 2012 



ground_truth: Aden