prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The city that Psycho Donuts is located in is in which county?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Saulkrasti Municipality
Saulkrasti Municipality (Latvian: Saulkrastu novads) is a municipality in Vidzeme, Latvia  The municipality was formed in 2009 by reorganization of Saulkrasti town with its countryside territory, with the administrative centre being Saulkrasti  In 2010 Saulkrasti parish was created from the countryside territory of Saulkrasti town  The population in 2020 was 6,735 During the 2021 Latvian administrative reform, the previous municipality was merged with Sēja Municipality 
The total area of Saulkrasti municipality is 46 8 km²  The administrative territory of Saulkrasti municipality is located on the coast of the Gulf of Riga, in the western part of Vidzeme  The territory of Saulkrasti municipality includes a coastal forest zone from the Lilaste River and the lake in the south to Zvejniekciems in the north  The administrative territory stretches for 17 kilometers  More than 6 thousand inhabitants are declared to live in the county  Along with the summer season, the population increases significantly, which is related to the beginning of the tourist season and the increase in the flow of horticultural cooperatives in the region  The distance from the center of Saulkrasti to Riga is 45 km, Limbaži - 47 km, Sigulda - 40 km, Salacgrīva - 58 km  The territory of the municipality is crossed by the international highway VIA Baltica  Four rivers flow through the county - Inčupe, Pēterupe, Ķīšupe and Aģe, which were symbolically depicted in the previous coat of arms of Saulkrasti Municipality as four silver bars 

Population
Twin towns — sister cities
Saulkrasti is twinned with:
 Gnesta, Sweden
 Neringa, Lithuania
 Odolanów, Poland
 Radashkovichy, Belarus

Images
See also
Administrative divisions of Latvia
Passage 2:
List of territorial entities where English is an official language
The following is a list of countries and territories where English is an official language—that is, a language used in citizen interactions with government officials  As of 2020, there were 58 sovereign states and 28 non-sovereign entities where English was an official language  Many administrative divisions have declared English an official language at the local or regional level 
Most states where English is an official language are former territories of the British Empire  Exceptions include Rwanda and Burundi, which were formerly German and then Belgian colonies; Cameroon, where only part of national territory was under British mandate; and Liberia, the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which were American territories  English is the sole official language of the Commonwealth of Nations and of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)  English is one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, NAFTA, the African Union, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Caribbean Community, the Union of South American Nations, and many other international organisations  Although English is not de jure an official language at the national level in the United States, most states and territories within the United States have English as an official language, and only Puerto Rico uses a language other than English as a primary working language The United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, where the overwhelming majority of native English speakers reside, do not have English as an official language de jure, but English is considered their de facto official language because it dominates in these countries 

Sovereign states
Countries where English is a de jure official language
Countries where English is a predominant language conventionally spoken by both the government and main population, despite it having no de jure official status at national level
Countries where English is a de facto working language in government or education, but it is not recognized as de jure official, nor a primary language spoken by the main population
Non-sovereign entities
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de jure official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official, but not a primary language
Country subdivisions
In these country subdivisions, English has de jure official status, but English is not official in their respective countries at the national level 

See also
English-only movement
Anglo-America
Commonwealth of Nations
Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
British Overseas Territories
English-speaking world
List of countries by English-speaking population
List of languages by total number of speakers
British Empire

Footnotes
Passage 3:
Psycho Donuts
Psycho Donuts is a donut shop in Campbell, California opened in March 2009  The theme of the shop is "craziness"; it specializes in unusual donut flavors and many of its donuts' names are puns on mental illnesses or other mental health conditions, and the store's decorations include a straitjacket and a padded cell  In 2016, a third location in Santa Clara, California was opened, which along with the second location in Downtown San Jose, has closed  In 2021 A pop up location in the Valley Fair mall was opened and it still currently operating 

Description
The shop was opened by Jordan Zweigoron and Kipp Berdianski in March 2009  Berdiansky left the partnership in late July, leaving Zweigoron as the sole owner  In 2014, Web Granger (1971–2019) became the owner of Psycho Donuts Psycho Donuts describes itself as a shop that "has taken donuts to the next demented level" and "has taken the neighborhood donut and put it on medication, and given it shock treatment"  Its products have unusual toppings such as pretzels and Froot Loops, and many of the donuts' names are puns on mental health conditions—for example, there are donuts called "Bipolar", "Manic Malt", and "Cereal Killer"—although several also have names unrelated to mental illness, such as "Donut Fries", "S'Mores", and "Crispy Critters"  Some refer to other serious medical conditions, such as "Massive Head Trauma"  The shop's decor also has a psychiatric institution theme: it includes a straitjacket and padded room, an eating area called "Group Therapy", and the staff wear lab coats or nurse uniforms  Zweigoron describes the store's atmosphere as that of a "fun mental institution" 

Controversy
The shop has attracted controversy since it was opened in March 2009  Mental health advocates have claimed that the theme of the shop is offensive and perpetuates stereotypes and stigmatization of mentally ill individuals  Organizations including the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI), California's Mental Health Services Oversight and Accountability Commission, and Silicon Valley Independent Living Center called on Psycho Donuts in early April to change the store's name and theme, claiming that negative portrayals of people with mental illnesses create "obstacles" for these people in daily life and can have psychological consequences  Brian Miller of NAMI pointed out that few physical illnesses are subject to the stigma that mental illnesses are, and that a "shop that made fun of cancer" would never be accepted  Author Pete Earley compared the shop's gimmick to the practice of "mak[ing] gay men and lesbians the butt of jokes, as well as blacks, other minorities, and persons who were callously labeled as 'retards, gimps and cripples'"  A city council meeting on April 7, 2009, included discussion on whether or not the shop should be forced to change its theme, and protests were held near the shop throughout April and May  Another protest was held on August 2 On the other hand, the store's owners and supporters have argued that the shop's theme has no malicious intentions and that the store is meant to be fun and unusual  The business also intended to use part of its profits to support the National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression, although the organization did not accept the donation  The store's owners and supporters argued that Psycho Donuts has a First Amendment right (specifically, the right to free speech) to choose the name of their business and products  Finally, some people have argued that mental health advocates should worry about larger issues instead of "going after" such a small business, and that the controversy over the store would cause people to "not take mental health issues seriously" In May 2009, a workshop on mental health issues was held in Campbell; people attending the workshop credited the Psycho Donut controversy with raising the visibility of mental health issues and prompting the workshop In late August that year Zweigoron, having become the sole owner of the shop, announced that he would remove the straitjacket and padded cell from the shop's interior, and changed the name of two donuts on the menu, "Bipolar" (changed to "Mood Swing") and "Massive Head Trauma" ("Headbanger") In June 2013, Psycho Donuts again attracted controversy with the Foie Bomb, a foie gras donut, which it gave away free on National Donut Day because of a California anti-animal cruelty law forbidding the sale of foie gras  Ron Levi, the head chef, came up with the idea together with Charlie Ayers, former head chef at Google 

Donut Showdown
In 2013, Psycho Donuts' head chef Ron Levi, assisted by Joe Cloutier, won first place in Food Network Canada's Donut Showdown 

See also
Heart Attack Grill
Passage 4:
Pettai, Karaikal
Pettai is a panchayat village and revenue village in Pondicherry Union Territory, India  Administratively, Pettai is under the Thirunallar Taluk (formerly Thirunallar Commune Panchayat) of Karaikal District, Pondicherry Union Territory  Pettai is situated on the banks of the Arasalar River, to the west of Karaikal town and south of Thirunallar 
In the 2011 census 3,208 people were recorded as living in Pettai village 


== Notes ==
Passage 5:
Campbell, California
Campbell  is a city in Santa Clara County, California, in the San Francisco Bay Area   As of the 2020 U S  Census, Campbell's population is 43,959  Campbell is home to the Pruneyard Shopping Center, a sprawling open-air retail complex which was involved in a famous U S  Supreme Court case that established the extent of the right to free speech in California Today, the Pruneyard Shopping Center is home to the South Bay offices of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 

History
Prior to the city
Prior to the founding of the neighborhood of Campbell, the land was occupied by the Ohlone, the Native American people of the Northern California coast 
About a third of present-day Campbell was part of the 1839 Alta California Rancho Rinconada de Los Gatos land grant  The northern extent of the grant land was along present-day Rincon Avenue, and across the North end of John D  Morgan Park in central Campbell 

Industrialization
The city was founded by Benjamin Campbell (1826–1907), after whom the city is named  Benjamin came to California in 1846 with his father, William M  Campbell I (1793–1885)  William started a sawmill in Saratoga, and surveyed the cities of San Jose and Santa Clara  In 1851, Benjamin bought 160 acres (0 65 km2) in southern Santa Clara Valley and cultivated hay and grain on it  This area later became Campbell's historical downtown core 
In 1878, Campbell sold his land for $5 an acre to a railroad company  By 1887, the first subdivision was recorded west of the railroad, from Campbell Avenue to the spot where the Water Tower Plaza now stands  He and his wife Mary (née Rucker) Campbell (1834–1913) founded the city which was first known as Campbell's Place, but would later become the town of Campbell In 1888, the Campbell School District was formed The area became the center for shipping fruit grown in the surrounding area, and within a short time, the drying grounds and canneries made Campbell an important rail center  By 1892, the Campbell Fruit Growers' Union became a well-known cooperative with its 17-acre (69,000 m2) drying yard  J C  Ainsley Packing Company, Hyde Cannery, and Payne Cannery were the main fruit packing companies In 1895, The Bank of Campbell was founded and the first newspaper, the Campbell Weekly Visitor, began publication Campbell was incorporated as a city in 1952  The city then grew rapidly as orchard lands disappeared, tract by tract  Today, Campbell is a suburban residential neighborhood in the southern part of the Santa Clara Valley 

Geography
Campbell is bordered on the east and north by San Jose, on the south by Los Gatos, and on the west by a small portion of Saratoga 
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 5 9 square miles (15 km2), of which 5 8 square miles (15 km2) is land and 0 1 square miles (0 26 km2) is water 
Of the total area, 1 49% is water, consisting of percolation ponds in Los Gatos Creek Park and in other locations; San Tomas Aquino Creek, which flows north on the west side of the city, is completely enclosed with fences and runs through concrete culverts; and Los Gatos Creek, which flows north-north-east on the east side of the city and has paths along both banks for hikers and joggers (locally called the "Perc Ponds")  Residents are able to reach Los Gatos by continuing on the creek trail  Downtown Campbell contains many local stores and shops, and every Sunday the downtown street close from 8am-1pm for a local farmers market 
State Route 17 runs roughly parallel to Los Gatos Creek on its eastern side; State Route 85 runs roughly east–west through Los Gatos just south of Campbell and cuts through the southwest corner of the city 

Demographics
2020
The 2020 United States Census reported that Campbell had a population of 43,959 

Racial Makeup
It was reported that 16,121 people live in households, with an average of 2 64 persons per house  84 1% were living in the same house 1 year ago  35 6% of households spoke a language other than English 
49 2% of the housing in occupied by the owner  The median value of owner occupied housing units was $1,156,000  The median gross rent was $2,323 

2010
The 2010 United States Census reported that Campbell had a population of 39,349 
The racial makeup of Campbell was 26,315 (66 9%) White, 7,247 (18 4%) Hispanic or Latino of any race, 6,320 (16 1%) Asian, 1,158 (2 9%) African American, 275 (0 7%) Native American, and 161 (0 4%) Pacific Islander  A remaining 2,713 (6 9%) identified as other races, and 2,407 (6 1%) from two or more races 
The Census reported that 39,148 people (99 5% of the population) lived in households, 79 (0 2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 122 (0 3%) were institutionalized 
There were 16,163 households, out of which 4,897 (30 3%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 7,133 (44 1%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,741 (10 8%) had a female householder with no husband present, 812 (5 0%) had a male householder with no wife present   There were 1,092 (6 8%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 138 (0 9%) same-sex married couples or partnerships  4,805 households (29 7%) were made up of individuals, and 1,328 (8 2%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 42   There were 9,686 families (59 9% of all households); the average family size was 3 05 
The population was spread out, with 8,271 people (21 0%) under the age of 18, 2,982 people (7 6%) aged 18 to 24, 12,834 people (32 6%) aged 25 to 44, 10,868 people (27 6%) aged 45 to 64, and 4,394 people (11 2%) who were 65 years of age or older   The median age was 38 3 years  For every 100 females, there were 96 2 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94 2 males 
There were 16,950 housing units at an average density of 2,879 7 per square mile (1,111 9/km2), of which 8,093 (50 1%) were owner-occupied, and 8,070 (49 9%) were occupied by renters  The homeowner vacancy rate was 1 8%; the rental vacancy rate was 4 6%   20,975 people (53 3% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 18,173 people (46 2%) lived in rental housing units 

2000
As of the census of 2000, there were 39,200 people, 15,920 households, and 9,122 families residing in the city   The population density was 6,802 8 inhabitants per square mile (2,626 6/km2)   There were 16,286 housing units at an average density of 2,905 0 per square mile (1,121 6/km2)   The racial makeup of the city was 72 78% White, 2 53% African American, 0 65% Native American, 14 16% Asian, 0 23% Pacific Islander, 4 87% from other races, and 4 77% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13 33% of the population 
28 0% of the households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42 6% were married couples living together, 10 1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42 7% were non-families  30 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 38 and the average family size was 3 02 
The city population was 21 6% under the age of 18, 7 6% from 18 to 24, 40 2% from 25 to 44, 20 9% from 45 to 64, and 9 7% who were 65 years of age or older   The median age was 35 years  For every 100 females, there were 98 6 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96 7 males 
About 48% of the adult population has at least one college-level degree  However, this has declined in recent years as a greater number of working-class immigrants move into the city 
The median income for a household in the city was $67,214, and the median income for a family was $78,663 (these figures had risen to $70,928 and $89,285 respectively as of a 2007 estimate)  Males had a median income of $52,454 versus $43,750 for females  The per capita income for the city was $34,441   About 3 2% of families and 4 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4 2% of those under age 18 and 8 3% of those age 65 or over 

Climate
Campbell has a Mediterranean climate, characterized by mild, wet winters and warm, dry summers 

Economy
8x8, Barracuda Networks, List Biological Laboratories, Move, ChargePoint, Hightail and ZURB are among the companies based in Campbell 

Top employers
According to the city's 2021 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:

Politics
At the county level, Campbell is located entirely within the 4th supervisorial district, represented on the Santa Clara County Board of Supervisors by Susan Ellenberg 
In the California State Legislature, Campbell is in the  15th Senate District, represented by Democrat Dave Cortese, and in the  23rd Assembly District, represented by Democrat Marc Berman In the United States House of Representatives, Campbell is in California's  16th congressional district, represented by Democrat Anna Eshoo The city is represented by the city council, which internally elects a mayor and vice-mayor every calendar year  In December 2020, Liz Gibbons and Paul Resnikoff were elected mayor and vice-mayor, respectively Campbell is strongly Democratic in presidential elections, with the last Republican to win the city being Ronald Reagan in 1984  
The city is policed by its own police force, the Campbell Police Department, which shares its building with the rest of city hall  It sponsors a Law Enforcement Exploring program 

Layout
Campbell is in the southwest portion of Santa Clara Valley  It is bisected by Highway 17 passing through eastern Campbell  Highway 85 is to its south  The historic downtown section sits just west of the railroad in the central area  The southwestern area of Campbell is known as the San Tomas neighborhood and varies somewhat from most of Campbell in the size of its lots and styles of housing  East–west running Hamilton Avenue is one of the northernmost roads in Campbell 
The largest park in Campbell is Los Gatos County Park near Highway 17, and the second largest is John D  Morgan Park 

Transportation
State Route 17
 State Route 85
 Interstate 280Campbell is served by several major roads,  including State Route 17, State Route 85, Interstate 280, and San Tomas Expressway (Santa Clara County Route G4)  Major local arterial roads include Winchester Boulevard and Bascom Avenue 
Public transport in Campbell is operated by the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority and includes several local and express bus lines that link the community to nearby towns, including Cupertino, Los Gatos, Palo Alto, San Jose, Santa Clara and Saratoga  Additionally, the town is served by three light rail stations on the Mountain View - Winchester line, including Hamilton Station, Downtown Campbell Station, and the line's terminus at Winchester Station  These stations were opened as part of the first phase of the Vasona Light Rail project; the line will be extended past Winchester to Vasona Junction in Los Gatos once funding is secured  That line is now served by buses The extension was the subject of a minor dispute with the Federal Railroad Administration over the sounding of train horns late at night  This dispute delayed the opening of most of the extension for two months before the grand opening on October 1, 2005 

Housing and businesses
There are few large shopping centers or business complexes in the city, as Campbell is primarily a suburban residential area   The Home Depot has a store within the city limits and is one of the city's largest employers 
Most residences are single-family homes, although there are some areas with condominiums, duplexes, and apartments  Single-family homes typically have one or two bathrooms and three or four bedrooms and are between 1,000 square feet (93 m2) and 1,600 square feet (150 m2) on lots typically measuring about 6,000 square feet (560 m2)   The vast majority were built in the 1950s through 1970s  There are pockets of older homes, mostly near downtown, often in demand for their architectural styles   There are also pockets of newer, much larger homes about 3,500 square feet (330 m2), mostly built in the 1990s on subdivided lots previously occupied by homes dating from the first half of the 20th century 
Campbell's downtown is located near where Campbell Avenue intersects with the railroad  The downtown has many shops, bars, and restaurants The oldest commercial building in the city was erected in 1920 for the Grower's Bank  The building was converted to a movie theater in 1938   In 1968, The Gaslighter Theater company purchased and refurbished the building with a small stage and bar  The Gaslighter produced melodramas and Vaudeville-style shows there until it closed in 2006  In 2013 the building was sold and underwent refurbishment to become a wine bar, tasting room, and restaurant As of October 2006, the median price of single-family homes and condos was $707,500, up 4 8% from the previous October, and averaging $472 per square foot ($5,080/m2) according to the San Jose Mercury News; the average single-family home price, excluding condos, was $645,000 in January, 2004 (according to the Santa Clara County Association of Realtors)   The price is based largely on the land value; the replacement cost for homes is about $150 to $200 per square foot ($1,600 to $2,200/m2) With the advent of the California housing crisis, property values have greatly increased; as of April 2018, the median home value was $1,453,300, according to Zillow Like many other cities in the Santa Clara Valley, Campbell was originally orchard land that was later developed into housing tracts 

Education
Campbell public schools belong to two districts, the Campbell Union School District and the Campbell Union High School District  Of these districts, the schools located within the city are Campbell School of Innovation (K-8), Capri Elementary, Rosemary Elementary, Village School, and Westmont High School  Forest Hill Elementary School's campus is partially located in Campbell as well  Westmont High School is home to one of the few enduring Future Farmers of America programs left in the San Francisco Bay Area 
Within the school districts, there are 19 Campbell elementary schools, 9 Campbell middle schools, 3 Campbell high schools and 28 Campbell preschool schools  There are also 13 private schools in Campbell 
Santa Clara County Library operates the Campbell Library, which is currently relocated to the Campbell Community Center while it's being renovated 

Points of interest
Landmarks
In the early 1990s, the Ainsley House a unique English Tudor-style house built in 1925, was moved from its original site at the corner of Hamilton and Bascom Avenues (the current site of eBay's headquarters) to the downtown quad and furnished with many of the Ainsley family's original furnishings   It has become the centerpiece for the Ainsley House and Campbell Historical Museum, which houses additional exhibits in the nearby old firehouse   The Ainsley House was built in the style of English country cottages for John Colpitts Ainsley, a canning pioneer in Santa Clara County, which was at the time known for its vast spreads of fruit orchards 

The Campbell Community Center is located on the northwest corner of Winchester and Campbell Avenues, in the building that used to be Campbell High School, the original school in the Campbell Union High School District  The Redwood Tree, which stands at the corner of Winchester Boulevard and Campbell Avenue was originally planted there on May 11, 1903, by then President Teddy Roosevelt  The city acquired the property on August 1, 1985, five years after the school shut down  The Heritage Theater, formerly the high school's auditorium, was reopened after renovations in 2004 as an entertainment and event venue  The Community Center holds classes, and portions are available to be rented for various events 

The Campbell Water Tower is a highly visible remnant of Campbell's "small town" past and located on the site of the original city water company and pumping plant near downtown 
Campbell used to be the home of the Winchester Drive-In Theater (now a business park) and is also home to a number of public parks that include John D  Morgan Park, Campbell Park, Edith Morley Park (the site of the city's community garden program), Jack Fischer Park, the Los Gatos Creek Trail Park, Orchard City Green, and Stojanovich Family Park  Joseph Gomes Park located at 217 Winchester Blvd  is the smallest park in Campbell 

The Dubcich farm located on West Campbell Ave  near John D  Morgan Park is Campbell's last remaining piece of agricultural property and connection to the city's agrarian origins  It is still intact with its original farm house dating back to the 1920s, barn, and fruit trees 

Athletics
Campbell for many years had one of the most successful youth baseball programs in the country, reaching fourteen World Series from 1960 to 1987 
Campbell's youth baseball system dates to 1909, when Campbell High School formed its first team and won the Interurban Athletic Union championship  The community's first non-scholastic youth baseball organization was the Junior Hardball League, which began in 1947  In 1954, Campbell Little League and Campbell Pony League began operation, and Moreland Little League, which is located in west San Jose but historically has served many Campbell residents, started in 1959 
Moreland in 1962 became the only Northern California team to win a Little League World Series, with 6-foot-1, 210-pound (95 kg) Ted Campbell pitching a no-hitter in a 3–0 victory over Kankakee, Illinois, in the championship game  Campbell Little League reached the Little League World Series championship game in 1970, 1976, and 1979, becoming one of only two American leagues to go to the LLWS three times in one decade  In all, Campbell-system teams have won six youth baseball World Series and finished second five times  Ten future major leaguers played in the Campbell youth baseball system: Chris Codiroli, Don Hahn, George Tsamis, Steve Davis, Dan Gladden, Doug Capilla, Rich Troedson, Joe Ferguson, John Oldham, and Greg Gohr 
The Last Baseball Town, a book by Campbell resident Chuck Hildebrand that chronicles the city's baseball heritage, was published in May 2009 

Notable people
The following is a list of notable individuals who were born, raised, and/or residents in the City of Campbell 

Alan Aerts, world powerlifting champion, former owner (now retired) of Custom Vending Systems, and Campbell "Citizen of the Year" in 2005 and 2006
Dave Meltzer, wrestling journalist, historian and author
Sylvia Browne, psychic, spiritualist, author with her office in Campbell for many years 
Brett Dalton, actor, attended Westmont High School 
Lars Frederiksen, musician, of the bands Rancid, Lars Frederiksen & The Bastards and The Old Firm Casuals, raised in Campbell 
Claire Lobrovich, All-American Girls Professional Baseball League player, born and raised in Campbell
Evan Low, state assemblyman, former mayor and city councilman, one of the youngest Asian-American and openly gay politicians in the U S 
Passage 6:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory  Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria  The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located  The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government  Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs)  There are 774 local governments in Nigeria  Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government  The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation 

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria 

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives  It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list 

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature)  The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state 

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government  The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly 

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007)  The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control  Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press  ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3 
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999)  The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research  ISBN 978-181-238-9 
Rotimi T  Suberu (1994)  1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan  ISBN 978-2015-28-8 

External links
"New States of Nigeria"  Statoids 
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors 
Passage 7:
Tumaraa
Tumaraa is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The commune of Tumaraa is located on the island of Raiatea, in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, themselves part of the Society Islands  At the 2017 census it had a population of 3,721, making it the least populous commune on Raiatea Tumaraa consists of the following associated communes:

Fetuna
Tehurui
Tevaitoa
VaiaauThe administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Tevaitoa  The tallest mountain on Raiatea - Mont Temehani - is located within Tumaraa 
Passage 8:
Motru Coal Mine
Motru Coal Mine is an open-pit mining exploitation, one of the largest in Romania located in Motru, Gorj County  The legal entity managing the Motru mine is the National Company of Lignite Oltenia which was set up in 1997 The exploitation has two open pits Lupoaia, Roșiuța that produced 6 6 million tonnes of lignite in 2008  The mine has around 2,300 workers and is endowed with 13 bucket-wheel excavators, seven spreaders, two mixed machines and two deposits spreader  The total proven recoverable reserves of the mine amount to 108 million tonnes of lignite 
Passage 9:
Gmina Łowicz
Gmina Łowicz is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Łowicz County, Łódź Voivodeship, in central Poland  Its seat is the town of Łowicz, although the town is not part of the territory of the gmina 
The gmina covers an area of 133 38 square kilometres (51 5 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 7,444 

Villages
Gmina Łowicz contains the villages and settlements of Bocheń, Dąbkowice Dolne, Dąbkowice Górne, Guźnia, Jamno, Jastrzębia, Klewków, Małszyce, Mystkowice, Niedźwiada, Ostrów, Otolice, Parma, Pilaszków, Placencja, Popów, Strzelcew, Świące, Świeryż Drugi, Świeryż Pierwszy, Szczudłów, Urbańszczyzna, Wygoda, Zabostów Duży, Zabostów Mały, Zawady and Zielkowice 

Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Łowicz is bordered by the town of Łowicz and by the gminas of Bielawy, Chąśno, Domaniewice, Kocierzew Południowy, Łyszkowice, Nieborów and Zduny 
Passage 10:
Krasnovishersky District
Krasnovishersky District (Russian: Краснови́шерский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion) of Perm Krai, Russia; one of the thirty-three in the krai  Municipally, it is incorporated as Krasnovishersky Municipal District  It is located in the northeast of the krai, in the valley of the Vishera River, and borders with the Komi Republic in the north, Sverdlovsk Oblast in the east, Cherdynsky District in the west, Solikamsky District in the south, and with the territory of the town of krai significance of Alexandrovsk in the southeast  The area of the district is 15,375 square kilometers (5,936 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Krasnovishersk  Population:  22,554 (2010 Census); 27,871 (2002 Census); 30,827 (1989 Census)  The population of Krasnovishersk accounts for 71 4% of the district's total population 

Geography
The eastern part of the district is mostly mountainous, while the western part is mostly flat, with some hills with the height of about 190–220 meters (620–720 ft)  The highest point of Perm Krai, Mount Tulymsky Kamen, is located in the district  There are many rivers in the district, including the Vishera River with its tributaries the Yazva, the Vels, the Uls, and many others  The town of Krasnovishersk is located 320 kilometers (200 mi) from the city of Perm  Natural resources of the district include diamonds, gold, oil, natural gas, and others 
The climate is temperate continental  The average annual temperature is +0 1 °C (32 2 °F); annual precipitation is 550–700 millimeters (22–28 in)  Up to 87% of the district's territory is covered by forests  In the extreme northeast of the district the Vishera Nature Reserve is located 

History
The district was established on January 13, 1941  Until then, its territory was a part of Cherdynsky District  Krasnovishersk, the administrative center of the district, was granted town status on July 2, 1942 

Demographics
As of the 2002 Census, about 89 7% of district's population were Russians and 2 5% were the Komi people 

Economy
The industry of the district includes timber industry, pulp and paper mill, mining and food industry 

See also
Visherogorsk
Zagovorukha
Passage 11:
Cyprus Popular Bank
Cyprus Popular Bank (from 2006 to 2011 known as Marfin Popular Bank) was the second-largest banking group in Cyprus behind the Bank of Cyprus until it was 'shuttered' in March 2013 and split into two parts  The 'good' Cypriot part was merged into the Bank of Cyprus (including insured deposits under 100,000 Euro) and the 'bad' part or legacy entity holds all the overseas operations as well as uninsured deposits above 100,000 Euro, old shares and bonds  The uninsured depositors were subject to a bail-in and became the new shareholders of the legacy entity   As at May 2017, the legacy entity is one of the largest shareholders of Bank of Cyprus with 4 8% but does not hold a board seat  All the overseas operations, of the now defunct Cyprus Popular Bank, are also held by the legacy entity, until they are sold by the Special Administrator, at first Ms Andri Antoniadou, who ran the legacy entity for two years, from March 2013 until 3 March 2015  She tendered her resignation due to disagreements, with the Governor of the Central Bank of Cyprus and the Central Bank Board members, who amended the lawyers of the legacy entity, without consulting her  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou who is an expert in Treasury and risk management took over as Special Administrator of the legacy entity in April 2015 until December 2016  The legacy entity is pursuing legal action against former major shareholder Marfin Investment Group 
Its shares were listed on the Cyprus Stock Exchange and the Athens Stock Exchange  CPB had a network of more than 295 branches in Cyprus, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, the UK and Malta  The bank had applied to open a representative office in Beijing, People's Republic of China Trading on the island as Laiki Bank (Laiki being the Greek word for Popular), as of September 2012 it held a 16% share of the market in loans and a 14 4% share of deposits   The Bank made a series of large loans, many to Greek companies prior to and during their financial crisis  What followed has been described as "billions handed out in bad loans created a financial time-bomb"  After the bank collapsed, it was rescued by the Cypriot government, which took 84% ownership on 30 June 2012 and as of March 2013 it is being dismantled as part of the 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis 

History
In 1901, four leading citizens of Limassol—Agathoclis Francoudis, Ioannis Kyriakides, Christodoulos Sozos and Neoklis Ioannides—established the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to encourage saving among the workforce  More than two decades later, in 1924, the bank changed its name from the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to the Popular Bank of Limassol  The bank also became the first company in Cyprus to register as a public-traded company 
Then in 1967, the Popular Bank of Limassol changed its name to Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) to reflect the bank’s expansion beyond Limassol  Expansion beyond Limassol followed quickly, with the establishment of its first branches in Nicosia,  Famagusta (1969), and Paphos and Larnaca (1970)  Also in 1970, Midland Bank acquired 22% of the company's shares, making Midland a major shareholder in CPB  The next year CPB relocated its headquarters from Limassol to Nicosia 

1974 CPB established its first London branch 
1983 CPB acquired all the Cyprus operations of Grindlays Bank located in the area under government control 
1992 CPB opened the first branch of European Popular Bank in Athens  CPB owned 58% of the shares of the bank; other shareholders included HSBC (formerly Midland Bank) and Greek and Cypriot investors  CPB retained branches in Heraklion and Thessaloniki
1995 CPB opened its first representative offices in South Africa and in Toronto, Ontario, Canada 
1996 CPB opened its first representative offices in Australia 
1997 CPB opened its first representative offices in Serbia and in Russia ("Rosprombank")
1998 CPB establishes a representative office in New York  (NY State Banking Dept says State chartered) 
2000 The Cyprus Popular Bank Group changed its name to Laiki Group 
2001 The Laiki Group established a subsidiary in Australia with five branches 
2005 The Group established Laiki Bank (Guernsey), and purchased Bank Centrobank in Serbia 
2006 The Greek Marfin Investment Group acquired HSBC's shares in Laiki Bank, establishing a strong minority share position   Subsequently, the Marfin Investment Group through more acquisitions managed to take control of Laiki Bank, which it re-branded as Marfin Popular Bank   In Greece, the Marfin Group consolidated Egnatia, Laiki and Marfin to form Marfin Egnatia Bank, which is the 95%-owned Greek subsidiary of Marfin Popular Bank 
2007 The bank announced the planned takeover of 50 12% of the share capital of AS SBM Pank, a bank in Estonia MPB also acquired 99 2% of the shares of Marine Transport Bank Ukraine for US$156 million  This bank was founded in 1993 as Marine Trade Bank and changed its name to Marine Transport Bank in 1996  It has its headquarters in the Odesa region and has 86 branches 
Lastly, MPB acquired 43% of the share capital of Lombard Bank Malta for €48 million from Banca della Svizzera Italiana (BSI) of Lugano  CPB now holds c  49% of Lombard Bank Malta In 2007, the bank announced a multi-million financial deal to sponsor the football First Division in Cyprus until 2010 
2008 Marfin Popular Bank completed its acquisition of 50 4% of the shares of CJSC RPB Holding, parent company of the Rossisysky Promishlenny Bank (Rosprombank), for €83 million  The acquisition makes Marfin the first Greek or Cypriot bank to acquire control of a bank in Russia 
In 2010, they launched a new mobile banking and mobile trading service  In the same year, the company was selected as the bank of the year in Cyprus by the Banker 
2010 MPB sold 85% of Laiki Bank Australia to Bank of Beirut  The Australian bank received a new name, Beirut Hellenic Bank  At the time, the bank had a branch in Adelaide, four branches in Melbourne and five branches in Sydney 
2011 MPB sold the majority of its shareholding in its Estonian subsidiary and returned to its historic name of Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) 
In 2012 CPB converted its Greek subsidiary into a branch of the parent bank 
The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis resulted in financial difficulties at CPB  The Cypriot state recapitalized CPB on 30 June 2012 with the result that the government acquired 84% of the bank's equity  This increased the bank's core tier 1 capital ratio towards 9%, the level mandated by the European Banking Authority 
In early 2013 CPB renamed its Greek branches to CPB Bank and on 26 March the bank sold them to Piraeus Bank  Laiki was split into a good and bad bank, the good bank (Cyprus operations) merged with Bank of Cyprus and the bad bank is in the process of being sold and finally shuttered  The board and CEO were replaced on 27 March  The bad bank was being run by a Special Administrator Ms Andri Antoniadou who was acting CEO until 3 March 2015  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou took over as Special Administrator in April 2015 until December 2016 In 2018 European Court dismisses compensation claim in Cyprus 2013 deposit-grab 
Passage 12:
Oblasts of the Soviet Union
The oblasts of the Soviet Union were second-level administrative units of the Soviet Union, and first-level entities of the republics of the Soviet Union 

Terminology
Oblast is a Slavic term that exists in the Russian language  Russian was official in all republics 

By location
Baltic region
In the 1950s there were 10 oblasts in the three Baltic republics 

1953-04-28 Law on abolition of Pärnu, Tallinn and Tartu oblasts (Estonia) 
1953-04-25 Law on abolition of Riga, Daugavpils and Liepāja oblasts (Latvia) 
1953-05-28 Law on abolition of Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipėda and Šiauliai oblasts (Lithuania)

Transcaucasian region
In the 1950s there were 4 oblasts in the two Transcaucasian republics (only in Azerbaijan and Georgia) 

1953-04-23 Law on abolition of Baku and Ganja oblasts (Azerbaijan) 
1953-04-23 Law on abolition of Kutaisi and Tbilisi oblasts (Georgia)

List
See also
Oblasts of Russia
Oblasts of the Russian Empire
Oblast
Passage 13:
Moorea-Maiao
Moʻorea-Maiʻao is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The commune is in the administrative subdivision of the Windward Islands  At the 2017 census it had a population of 17,816 The commune of Moʻorea-Maiʻao is made up of the island of Moʻorea (133 km2/51 sq  miles; 17,463 inhabitants at the 2017 census) and the much smaller atoll of Maiʻao (8 8 km2/3 4 sq  miles; 353 inhabitants at the 2017 census), located 78 km (48 mi) southwest of Moʻorea 
Moʻorea-Maiʻao consists of the following associated communes:

The administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Afareaitu, on the island of Moʻorea 
Passage 14:
Taputapuatea
Taputapuatea is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The commune of Taputapuatea is located on the island of Raiatea, in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, themselves part of the Society Islands  At the 2017 census it had a population of 4,792  The commune was named after a large marae complex which was the religious center of eastern Polynesia for roughly 1000 years  The archaeological site of Taputapuatea marae is still today the most famous landmark of Raiatea, and it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2017 Taputapuatea consists of the following associated communes:

Avera
Opoa
PuohineThe administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Avera 
Passage 15:
Pak Tam Chung
Pak Tam Chung (Chinese: 北潭涌) is an area in the southern part of the Sai Kung Peninsula in the New Territories of Hong Kong  It is administratively under the Sai Kung District 

Features
Pak Tam Chung was described as consisting of six villages in 1911 with fewer than 405 inhabitants: Wong Yi Chau (黃宜洲), Pak Tam (北潭), Sheung Yiu (上窰), Tsak Yue Wu (鯽魚湖), Wong Keng Tei (黃麖地) and Tsam Chuk Wan  The six villages were all inhabited by Hakka people, with the exception of two hamlets in Pak Tam There is a visitor centre for nature education set up by the Hong Kong Government  Near the centre is a vehicle barrier leading to the restricted portion of Sai Kung East Country Park in Pak Tam Chung  For vehicles, only those with authorisation can enter the area and reach places like Hoi Ha, Pak Tam Au and High Island Reservoir 
There are a number of picnic and barbecue facilities within Pak Tam Chung, including a site designed for physically disabled visitors 
Po Leung Kuk owns a holiday camp site in Pak Tam Chung, the Po Leung Kuk Pak Tam Chung Camp (保良局北潭涌渡假營) 

See also
Sheung Yiu Folk Museum
Historic churches of Sai Kung Peninsula
Sai Kung Town
Tai Po District
Passage 16:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 17:
Federalism
Federalism is a combined and compound mode of government that combines a general government (the central or "federal" government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial, or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system, dividing the powers between the two  Federalism in the modern era was first adopted in the unions of states during the Old Swiss Confederacy Federalism differs from confederalism, in which the general level of government is subordinate to the regional level, and from devolution within a unitary state, in which the regional level of government is subordinate to the general level  It represents the central form in the pathway of regional integration or separation, bounded on the less integrated side by confederalism and on the more integrated side by devolution within a unitary state Examples of a federation or federal province or state include Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Iraq, Malaysia, Mexico, Micronesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States  Some characterize the European Union as the pioneering example of federalism in a multi-state setting, in a concept termed the "federal union of states" 

Overview
Etymology
The terms "federalism" and "confederalism" share a root in the Latin word foedus, meaning "treaty, pact or covenant"  Their common early meaning until the late eighteenth century was a simple league or inter-governmental relationship among sovereign states based on a treaty  They were therefore initially synonyms  It was in this sense that James Madison in Federalist No 39 had referred to the new US Constitution as "neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both" (i e  as constituting neither a single large unitary state nor a league/confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two)  In the course of the nineteenth century United States, the meaning of federalism would come to shift, strengthening to refer uniquely to the novel compound political form established at the Philadelphia Convention, while the meaning of confederalism would remain at a league of states 

Origin
In the narrow sense, federalism refers to the mode in which the body politic of a state is organized internally, and this is the meaning most often used in modern times  Political scientists, however, use it in a much broader sense, referring instead to a "multi-layer or pluralistic concept of social and political life "The first forms of federalism took place in ancient times, in the form of alliances between states  Some examples from the seventh to second century B C  were the Archaic League, the Aetolic League, the Peloponnesian League, and the Delian League  An early ancestor of federalism was the Achaean League in Hellenistic Greece  Unlike the Greek city states of Classical Greece, each of which insisted on keeping its complete independence, changing conditions in the Hellenistic period drove many city states to band together even at the cost of losing part of their sovereignty  Subsequent unions of states included the first and second Swiss Confederations (1291–1798 and 1815–48), the United Provinces of the Netherlands (1579–1795), the German Bund (1815–66), the first American union known as the Confederation of the United States of America (1781–89), and second American union formed as the United States of America (1789–1865) 

Political theory
Modern federalism is a political system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments  The term federalist describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context  Since the term federalization also describes distinctive political processes, its use as well depends on the context In political theory, two main types of federalization are recognized:

integrative, or aggregative federalization, designating various processes like: integration of non-federated political subjects by creating a new federation, accession of non-federated subjects into an existing federation, or transformation of a confederation into a federation
devolutive, or dis-aggregative federalization: transformation of a unitary state into a federation

Reasons for adoption
According to Daniel Ziblatt, there are four competing theoretical explanations in the academic literature for the adoption of federal systems:

Ideational theories, which hold that a greater ideological commitment to decentralist ideas in society makes federalism more likely to be adopted 
Cultural-historical theories, which hold that federal institutions are more likely to be adopted in societies with culturally or ethnically fragmented populations 
"Social contract" theories, which hold that federalism emerges as a bargain between a center and a periphery where the center is not powerful enough to dominate the periphery and the periphery is not powerful enough to secede from the center 
"Infrastructural power" theories, which hold that federalism is likely to emerge when the subunits of a potential federation already have highly developed infrastructures (e g  they are already constitutional, parliamentary, and administratively modernized states) Immanuel Kant noted that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils" so long as they possess an appropriate constitution which pits opposing factions against each other with a system of checks and balances  In particular individual states required a federation as a safeguard against the possibility of war Proponents for federal systems have historically argued that the power-sharing inherent in federal systems reduces both domestic security threats and foreign threats  Federalism allows states to be large and diverse, mitigating the risk of a tyrannical government through centralization of powers 

Examples
Many countries have implemented federal systems of government with varying degree of central and regional sovereignty  The federal government of these countries can be divided into minimalistic federations, consisting of only two sub-federal units or multi-regional, those that consist of three to dozens of regional governments  They can also be grouped based on their body polity type, such as emirate, provincial, republican or state federal systems  Another way to study federated countries is by categorizing them into those whose entire territory is federated as opposed to only part of its territory comprising the federal portion of the country  Some federal systems are national systems while others, like the European Union are supra national 
In general, two extremes of federalism can be distinguished: at one extreme, the strong federal state is almost completely unitary, with few powers reserved for local governments; while at the other extreme, the national government may be a federal state in name only, being a confederation in actuality  Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium or Bosnia and Herzegovina 
The governments of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, India, and Mexico, among others, are also organized along federalist principles 
In Canada, federalism typically implies opposition to sovereigntist movements (most commonly Quebec separatism)  In 1999, the Government of Canada established the Forum of Federations as an international network for exchange of best practices among federal and federalizing countries  Headquartered in Ottawa, the Forum of Federations partner governments include Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan and Switzerland 

Europe vs  the United States
In Europe, "federalist" is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels  The Union of European Federalists advocates for this development within the European Union, ultimately leading to the United States of Europe  Although there are medieval and early modern examples of European states which used confederal and federal systems, contemporary European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill's speech in Zürich in 1946 In the United States, federalism originally referred to belief in a stronger central government  When the U S  Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while "Anti-Federalists" wanted a weaker central government  This is very different from the modern usage of "federalism" in Europe and the United States  The distinction stems from the fact that "federalism" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state  The U S  Constitution was written as a replacement for the Articles of Confederation, under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government 
In contrast, Europe has a greater history of unitary states than North America, thus European "federalism" argues for a weaker central government, relative to a unitary state  The modern American usage of the word is much closer to the European sense  As the power of the U S  federal government has increased, some people have perceived a much more unitary state than they believe the Founding Fathers intended  Most people politically advocating "federalism" in the United States argue in favor of limiting the powers of the federal government, especially the judiciary (see Federalist Society, New Federalism) 
The contemporary concept of federalism came about with the creation of an entirely new system of government that provided for democratic representation at two governing levels simultaneously, which was implemented in the US Constitution  In the United States implementation of federalism, a bicameral general government, consisting of a chamber of popular representation proportional to population (the House of Representatives), and a chamber of equal State-based representation consisting of two delegates per State (the Senate), was overlaid upon the pre-existing regional governments of the thirteen independent States  With each level of government allocated a defined sphere of powers, under a written constitution and the rule of law (that is, subject to the independent third-party arbitration of a supreme court in competence disputes), the two levels were thus brought into a coordinate relationship for the first time 
In 1946, Kenneth Wheare observed that the two levels of government in the US were "co-equally supreme"  In this, he echoed the perspective of American founding father James Madison who saw the several States as forming "distinct and independent portions of the supremacy" in relation to the general government 

Constitutional structure
Division of powers
In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution  Almost every country allows some degree of regional self-government, but in federations the right to self-government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched  Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence 
In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers  Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition  Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871  The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states  The Constitution of some countries, like Canada and India, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial/state governments are retained by the federal government  Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility  Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of Union competence or shared between the Union and the Member States as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent States 

Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find 'symmetric federalism'  Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do  This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions  In Spain, the Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians, spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the "historical communities" such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country  They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities (called also the "coffee for everyone" arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history  However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federation, but a system of asymmetric devolved government within a unitary state 
It is common that during the historical evolution of a federation there is a gradual movement of power from the component states to the centre, as the federal government acquires additional powers, sometimes to deal with unforeseen circumstances  The acquisition of new powers by a federal government may occur through formal constitutional amendment or simply through a broadening of the interpretation of a government's existing constitutional powers given by the courts 
Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities  Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities  Each state is divided into municipalities (municípios) with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government  Each municipality has a "little constitution", called "organic law" (lei orgânica)  Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full-autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities (municipio libre, "free municipality") is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions  Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states  However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly 
Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood) in themselves  For example, James Madison (author of the US Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No  39 that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both  In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national   " This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent  This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people 

Bicameralism
The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states  One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions  Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole  A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population 
Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913, or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in the Council of the European Union  The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats 

Intergovernmental relations
In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government  A First Ministers conference of the prime minister and the provincial premiers is the de facto highest political forum in the land, although it is not mentioned in the constitution 

Constitutional change
Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution  As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent  An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect  In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons  In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority 
Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state  The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent  In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states  Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces  The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system 

Other technical terms
Fiscal federalism – the relative financial positions and the financial relations between the levels of government in a federal system 
Formal federalism (or 'constitutional federalism') – the delineation of powers is specified in a written constitution, which may or may not correspond to the actual operation of the system in practice 
Executive federalism refers in the English-speaking tradition to the intergovernmental relationships between the executive branches of the levels of government in a federal system and in the continental European tradition to the way constituent units 'execute' or administer laws made centrally 
Gleichschaltung – the conversion from a federal governance to either a completely unitary or more unitary one, the term was borrowed from the German for conversion from alternating to direct current  During the Nazi era the traditional German states were mostly left intact in the formal sense, but their constitutional rights and sovereignty were eroded and ultimately ended and replaced with the Gau system  Gleichschaltung also has a broader sense referring to political consolidation in general 
defederalize – to remove from federal government, such as taking a responsibility from a national level government and giving it to states or provinces

In relation to conflict
It has been argued that federalism and other forms of territorial autonomy are a useful way to structure political systems in order to prevent violence among different groups within countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level  Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto-states  Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms that encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries Federalism is sometimes viewed in the context of international negotiation as "the best system for integrating diverse nations, ethnic groups, or combatant parties, all of whom may have cause to fear control by an overly powerful center " However, those skeptical of federal prescriptions sometimes believe that increased regional autonomy can lead to secession or dissolution of the nation  In Syria, for example, federalization proposals have failed in part because "Syrians fear that these borders could turn out to be the same as the ones that the fighting parties have currently carved out "

See also
Notes and references
Sources
External links

P -J  Proudhon (1863), The Principle of Federation 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Con-Test
Con-Test is the fifth album by FM, a progressive rock band from Toronto, Canada, released in 1985 

Background
In 1983, former group member Nash the Slash proposed a future double bill tour with FM, as the two artists seemed to share a common audience  FM's best known previous album was Black Noise which he made with them in 1977   But they had not yet found a replacement for Ben Mink who had replaced Nash in 1977, and then left the group in 1983   Nash resolved the problem by rejoining the band, although work on a new album, even in its demo phase, did not begin until May 1984   Con-Test has the same band line-up as Black Noise 
FM's former record company, Passport Records, ceased operations in 1984   Nash had been signed to Quality Records as a solo artist in 1983, and was about to release his solo album American Band-ages, which the proposed double bill tour was to promote   He was able to use his association with Quality to get FM signed to the label as well 
The double bill concept was retained, with Nash playing a solo set as the opening act for most FM concerts from 1983 to 1989 
Former group member Ben Mink also appears on the album, albeit as a guitarist 

Title and artwork
The album was titled Con-Test after the group ran a contest to come up with something that "FM" might stand for, and its cover art featured fine print listing several hundred submissions including Fluent Monkeys, Flunk Math, Floyd Meddle, Fashion Magazine, Free Money, Forgiven Mistake, Facing Mecca, False Mammaries, and so on   (One intriguing entry is "Framed Mulroney" which would appear to reference the scandals surrounding then-Prime Minister Brian Mulroney; however, these incidents did not occur until years later )
Despite the absence of pictorial graphics, the cover art was credited to surrealist painter Robert Vanderhorst, who has frequently collaborated with Nash the Slash on multi-media presentations from 1978 to the 2000s 

Releases
The album was initially available on Quality Records in 1985 (catalogue number SV-2138), but the label ceased operations in 1986, after more than 35 years of business   They had been Canada's biggest domestic label in the 1950s and 1960s 
MCA Records picked up the reissue rights for Con-Test, as well as Nash's American Band-ages in 1986, but the abrupt change in record labels led to a near-absence of promotion for both records 
Duke Street Records would release FM's next album, Tonight on vinyl and CD   This was FM's first CD release   The CD edition included five bonus tracks taken from Con-Test (tracks 1 to 4, and 6)   This acquisition of the rights to Con-Test led to a CD edition of the full album on Duke Street in 1987, but Duke Street did not reissue it on vinyl 

Track listing
All tracks composed by Cameron Hawkins, Martin Deller, and Nash the Slash—except where noted  All tracks arranged by FM and Michael Waite 

Side one"Just Like You" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash, Waite) – 4:05
"We Hold On" – 4:35
"All of the Dreams" – 4:05
"Until the Night Is Over" – 3:50
"The Only Way to Win" – 3:46Side two"Why Don't You Take It" – 4:10
"Distant Early Warning" – 4:08
"Friends and Neighbours" – 4:33
"Stop!" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash, Waite) – 5:00

Personnel
Nash the Slash – lead and background vocals, electric mandolin, electric violin, harmonica
Cameron Hawkins – lead and background vocals, synthesizers, bass guitar
Martin Deller – drums, electronic percussion

Guests
Ben Mink – electric guitars
Rob Yale – Fairlight C M I 
Glen Johansen and David Moses – background vocals on "Distant Early Warning"

Technical credits
Produced by Michael Waite for Eye to Ear Productions
Bed tracks recorded at Manta Sound, engineered by John Naslin assisted by Ron Searls and Mark Baldi
Overdubs recorded at Metal Works, engineered by Glen Johansen assisted by Noel Golden
Mixed at Manta Sound, engineered by John Naslin assisted by Mark Baldi and Mike Duncan
Mastered by Bob Ludwig at Masterdisk, New York City
Robert Vanderhorst – cover art

Singles
"Just Like You" – 1985 (Canadian chart #38)
"All of the Dreams" – 1986 (Canadian chart #86)
"Why Don't You Take It" / "Just Like You" – MCA 52840, 1986 (issued with cover, Canadian chart #90)The latter record was also issued as a 12-inch single on MCA 23634 with alternate versions:

"Why Don't You Take It (Flight Mix)" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash) – total 6:27
"Intro (Taxi)" – 0:50
"The Tune (Take Off)" – 5:37
"Just Like You (Fun Mix)" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash, Waite) – 7:06

Demo recordings
Demo versions of four songs for Con-Test appeared on FM's Lost in Space CD on Cut-throat Records in 2001, recorded at Cut-throat Studios in May 1984   Cut-throat is Nash's own record company and studio   These include a cover version of "It's My Life", a song by The Animals from 1965, that did not make it to the album 
In the liner notes, Nash the Slash heavily criticizes the production of the Con-Test versions, preferring the demos   He states that he reluctantly took over the lead vocals from Hawkins on "Friends and Neighbours" between the demo and Con-Test versions, at the insistence of the producer (Waite), and characterizes the LP version of this song as "bastardized" 
"The Only Way to Win" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash) – 3:05
"Friends and Neighbours" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash) – 4:03
"It's My Life" (Roger Atkins, Carl D'Errico) – 3:20
"Why Don't You Take It" (Hawkins, Deller, Slash) – 4:42
Passage 2:
National Car Test
The National Car Test (Irish: An tSeirbhís Náisiúnta Tástála Carranna; abbreviated NCT) is a roadworthiness test, which all cars in Ireland must undergo  Following a tender process, the Road Safety Authority awarded the National Car Testing Service contract for the operation of the vehicle inspection service in the Republic of Ireland to Applus 

History
The National Car Test (the NCT) was introduced in 2000, since then all cars four years and older must undergo an NCT  The NCT due date is calculated by reference to the date of first registration of the car, with tests due every two years for cars younger than 10 years  Annual Testing was introduced in June 2011 and is now a legal requirement for vehicles that present for their 10th anniversary test and each subsequent test  Vehicles can be inspected up to 90 days in advance of the anniversary of the registration date  The waiting lists have proven to be long, with even the 'priority list' taking in excess of a month 

Procedure
The NCT is available in 47 centres around the Republic of Ireland  and it tests various aspects of cars for safety, including tyres, brakes and shock absorbers  It also tests the exhaust fumes for compliance with EU emissions standards  Other safety features, such as the spare tyre, seat belts and lights are also checked 
As of 2012, the fee for the NCT is €55 for a full test, and €28 for a re-test that requires testing equipment (e g  emission levels, aiming of headlights, etc )  Re-tests that do not require the use of test equipment (such as obscured registration plate, faulty windscreen wiper, etc ) are free of charge  However, if a confirmed appointment is cancelled with less than five working days' notice (Mon  - Fri , not including the day of the test or the day you contact NCTS), or failure to show up for the test, a €22 00 surcharge will be applied when the car is next brought in for testing  A similar surcharge of €11 50 will apply in the case of a re-test 
Upon successful completion of the test a valid NCT certificate is issued and this must be displayed on the front windscreen of the vehicle 
A driver without a valid NCT on their car will incur three penalty points and a fine of €60, if paid within the first 28 days, and €90 if paid within the following 28 days  Thereafter, if the fine is not paid, a court appearance becomes mandatory and if convicted, five penalty points and a fine will be imposed by the court  This system was introduced on December 8, 2014, where previously all offenders were immediately faced with a mandatory court appearance and five penalty points upon conviction, in addition to a fine  Enforcement is the responsibility of the Garda Síochána  Local authorities can (in theory) refuse to issue a tax disc to a vehicle not having an NCT certificate and insurance companies could (in theory) declare cover for an untested (or failed) vehicle invalid 
There are exemptions for certain categories of vehicles such as vintage cars (registered before 1980) and vehicles based permanently on some offshore Islands 
NCTS centres are run by Applus Car Testing Services, who are independent of the motor industry 
If applicants cannot get an NCT appointment within 28 days of applying for it, the test is undertaken free of charge  This is assuming that the applicant:

Has not declined another appointment more than twice at a centre of their choosing 
Has not previously accepted a booking outside of the 4 week period 

Statistics
In August 2017 the Irish Sunday Independent reported that the best performing car in 2016 tests was the Nissan Juke and the worst the Hyundai Trajet  The same article revealed the existence of a data visualisation of 2016 NCT results 

Similar tests
In Northern Ireland, motor vehicles are subject to the MOT test, which is the standard in the United Kingdom 

See also
Vehicle inspection (general overview of roadworthiness tests around the world)
MOT test (UK)
Shaken (Japan)
Warrant of Fitness (New Zealand)
Passage 3:
MCA Records
MCA Records was an American record label owned by MCA Inc , which later became part of Universal Music Group 

Pre-history
MCA Inc , a talent agency and television production company, entered the recorded music business in 1962 with the purchase of the New York-based US Decca Records (established in 1934), including Coral Records and Brunswick Records  MCA was forced to exit the talent agency business in order to complete the merger  As American Decca owned Universal Pictures, MCA assumed full ownership of Universal and made it into a top film studio, producing several hits  In 1966, MCA formed Uni Records and in 1967, purchased Kapp Records which was placed under Uni Records management 

History
The early years
In 1937, the owner of Decca, Edward R  Lewis, chose to split off the UK Decca company from the US company (keeping his US Decca holdings), fearing the financial damage that would arise for UK Companies if the emerging hostilities of Nazi Germany should lead to war – correctly foreseeing World War II  Lewis sold the remainder of his US Decca holdings when war did break out   US-based Decca Records kept the rights to the Decca name in North and South America and parts of Asia including Japan  UK Decca owned the rights to the Decca name in the rest of the world  After the war, British Decca formed a new US subsidiary, London Records 
During this time, American Decca issued records outside North America on the Brunswick and Coral labels  In 1962, MCA acquired American Decca and became a wholly owned subsidiary  In 1967, Brunswick and Coral were replaced by the MCA label, which was used to release US Decca and Kapp label material outside North America  Initial activity as MCA Records was based in London and MCA Records UK was formally launched on February 16, 1968  Among the early artists on the MCA label, around 1971, were groups Wishbone Ash, Osibisa, Stackridge and Budgie, and solo artists Tony Christie, Mick Greenwood and Roy Young Early MCA UK releases were distributed by Decca, but moved to EMI in 1974  As the US division of MCA Records was not established until 1972, the earliest UK MCA Records material was released in the US on either Kapp or Decca  MCA UK also issued American Brunswick material on the MCA label until 1972, two years after MCA lost control of Brunswick, after which American Brunswick material was issued in the UK on the revived Brunswick label  Uni label material was issued on the Uni label worldwide 

MCA Records formation in Canada and the United States
In 1970, MCA reorganized its Canadian record company Compo Company Ltd  into MCA Records (Canada)  In April 1970, former Warner Bros  Records president Mike Maitland joined MCA and initially served as Decca's general manager  Maitland was unsuccessful in his attempt to consolidate Warner Bros  Records with co-owned Atlantic Records which led to his departure from Warner 
In April 1971, Maitland supervised the consolidation of the New York-based Decca and Kapp labels plus the California-based Uni label into MCA Records based in Universal City, California, with Maitland serving as president  The three labels maintained their identities for a short time, but were retired in favor of the MCA label in 1973  "Drift Away" by Dobie Gray became the final Decca pop label release in the U S in 1973  Beginning the same year, the catalogs of Decca, Uni and Kapp were reissued in the US on the MCA label under the supervision of veteran Decca producer Milt Gabler 

Early success
The first MCA Records release in the US was former Uni artist Elton John's "Crocodile Rock" single in 1972, which appeared on a plain black and white label  
Immediately following this, the US MCA label used a black with curved rainbow design until the late 1970s  This design was directly inspired by the US Decca label of the 1960s 
In December 1972, Neil Diamond, another Uni artist, reached  superstar status with his first MCA release, the live multi-platinum Hot August Night  Elton John's double album Goodbye Yellow Brick Road was released in October 1973 and was number one on the US Billboard 200 albums chart for eight straight weeks  The management of former Decca artists the Who had formed their own label Track Records in the UK, but were still under contract with MCA for US distribution  The Who's double album Quadrophenia was  released by Track/MCA also in October 1973  Quadrophenia peaked at number 2 as it was held back from the number 1 slot by Goodbye Yellow Brick Road 
Other successful artists on MCA, after the consolidation, included former Kapp artist Cher, and Uni artist Olivia Newton-John  MCA released the highly successful soundtrack album to the 1973 film The Sting  The soundtrack music was arranged and conducted by Marvin Hamlisch and won an Academy Award for Best Original Score (MCA issued many other soundtracks to films from Universal, along with some non-Universal films) 
One of the most successful MCA artists in this era was the rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd, who would become one of the most popular in the Southern rock genre  The group was discovered by Al Kooper and initially released on his "Sounds of the South" label imprint of MCA  The song "Free Bird" became one of the most popular songs of all time on album-oriented rock radio stations  On Second Helping, the group recorded a song about their relationship with the label called, "Workin' for MCA"  Street Survivors was released in October 1977, just prior to a tragic plane crash in which members of the group were either killed or severely injured  The original Street Survivors cover had a picture of the band members surrounded by flames, but this was quickly substituted for a design without flames  Though a latter version of the group enjoyed success, Lynyrd Skynyrd's streak of hits ended after the crash  Eventually, three Lynyrd Skynyrd albums reached the double platinum sales level and at least two others reached platinum or gold levels 
During the 1970s and 1980s, MCA profited from reissuing classic early rock and roll recordings made by artists who recorded for the numerous labels absorbed by MCA  One notable example was the 1954 Decca recording "Rock Around the Clock" by Bill Haley & His Comets, which was featured as the lead track of MCA's No  1-charting American Graffiti soundtrack album, and as a single returned to the American top 40 that year, 20 years after it was recorded 

Expansion and struggles
In 1977, MCA president Sidney Sheinberg set up the Infinity Records division, based in New York City with Ron Alexenberg as CEO  Alexenberg had been with the Epic division of CBS Records, now Sony Music Entertainment  The intention was to give MCA a stronger presence on the East Coast  The only big hit the Infinity label had was "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)" by Rupert Holmes, a #1 single at the end of 1979  Infinity also had some success with Hot Chocolate, Spyro Gyra, New England and TKO  But MCA pulled the plug on Infinity after it failed to sell most of the 1 million advance copies of an album featuring Pope John Paul II in October 1979  Infinity was fully absorbed by the parent company in 1980 
In 1979, Bob Siner replaced Maitland as MCA Records president  Shortly afterwards, MCA acquired ABC Records along with its subsidiaries Paramount, Dunhill, Impulse!, Westminster, and Dot  ABC had acquired the Paramount and Dot labels when they purchased Gulf+Western's record labels and Famous Music Corp  Thus, MCA now controlled material once owned by Paramount Pictures, the music released by Paramount's record labels, and the pre-1950 films by Paramount as well 
Also included in this deal were recordings controlled by ABC, including albums by Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers which were originally released by Shelter Records  Petty was furious about the reassignment of his contract and refused to record for MCA  This led to a series of lawsuits, which resulted in his bankruptcy in 1980  Petty and other ABC/Shelter artists eventually had their contracts transferred to the Backstreet Records label, which was distributed by MCA  ABC Records' independent distributors sued ABC and MCA for $1 3 million in damages for being stuck with unsold ABC recordings they could not return to MCA  The better selling ABC Records catalog albums were reissued on the MCA label MCA distribution in Europe and Asia moved to CBS in 1979, while releases in the 1980s were self-distributed, or through WEA  Distribution moved to  BMG during the 1990s 

The 1980s
The combined effects of the Infinity Records failure, the purchase of ABC, rising vinyl costs and a major slump in record sales produced tremendous losses for the company between 1979 and 1982  It was not until the mid-1980s that the record labels returned to significant profitability  In late 1980, MCA received negative publicity when it attempted to raise the list price of new releases by top selling artists from $8 98 to $9 98  This policy, known as "superstar pricing", ultimately failed  The Xanadu soundtrack album and Gaucho, by former ABC act Steely Dan, were the first releases with the higher list price  Backstreet artist Tom Petty succeeded in his campaign to force MCA to drop prices back to $8 98 for the release of his album Hard Promises, in May 1981 MCA had a distribution deal with the independent label Unicorn Records, which in turn signed an agreement with another rising independent label, SST Records to manufacture and distribute Black Flag's first album Damaged  Reportedly, MCA executive Al Bergman heard an advance copy of the album and refused to let MCA Distributing Inc  handle it, claiming that it was "an anti-parent record " The members of Black Flag found themselves covering the MCA Distributing logo on the first 25,000 copies with a sticker reading "As a parent    I found it an anti-parent record " SST Records partner Joe Carducci later claimed that Bergman's comments were actually a red herring for MCA to cut ties with Unicorn, which had not produced any successful releases; the fact that MCA would, not soon afterward, directly commission a new recording of "TV Party" from Black Flag and SST Records for the  Repo Man soundtrack seems to bear this out  Unicorn would later go out of business after going bankrupt, partially the result of a lawsuit between themselves and Black Flag 

Recovery, further expansion and MCA Music Entertainment Group
Irving Azoff became the head of MCA Records in 1983  Azoff is known as an experienced music industry veteran who received credit amongst MCA management and staff for saving the company from bankruptcy 
In 1983, rock musician Frank Zappa negotiated a distribution agreement for his Barking Pumpkin label with MCA  As the records were being manufactured, a woman in the quality control department objected to the lyrics of Zappa's album Thing-Fish  After this MCA cancelled the Zappa contract  At about the same time, Zappa publicly argued with members of the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) over censorship and warning stickers for albums with potentially offensive content  The experience with MCA prompted Zappa to create a satirical "WARNING/GUARANTEE" sticker of his own  Thing-Fish was released with Zappa's sticker in December 1984 under a new agreement with Capitol/EMI  Despite the conflict with Zappa, MCA later became the biggest label to oppose the PMRC and the use of warning stickers  In October 1985, Azoff said "Never will you find a sticker on one of our records "In the 1980s, MCA became commonly known as "Music Cemetery of America" due to a huge surplus of unprofitable records sitting unsold in MCA warehouses  A number of MCA associates, including Azoff and Zappa, disparaged the company in this way Starting in 1984, William Knoedelseder wrote a series of articles for the Los Angeles Times about the connections between organized crime and MCA  Knoedelseder told the story of mobster Sal Pisello and the corrupt deals he arranged with MCA for the liquidation sales of unsold cut-out recordings that had been deleted from the MCA catalog  The story was later adapted into the book Stiffed: A True Story of MCA, the Music Business, and the Mafia, which was published in 1993 
The Chess Records catalog was acquired from the remnants of Sugar Hill Records in 1985  Motown Records was bought in 1988  In the late 1980s, MCA formed Mechanic Records as a sub-label for releasing heavy metal music  Bands signed to Mechanic included Voivod, Dream Theater, Bang Tango, and Trixter  Another sub-label, called The Futurist Label, was created to release progressive rock and death metal albums MCA created a new holding company in 1989 called MCA Music Entertainment Group, headed by Al Teller, former President of United Artists Records, and Co-Chairman of Turf Classics, a concert production company, run by Producer Richard Flanzer  The same year the MCA Inc  parent company was purchased by the Matsushita group 
Azoff resigned from MCA in 1989 to form his own record label, Giant Records, now defunct   Richard Palmese was named president of MCA Records after Azoff in 1990 

The 1990s
GRP Records and Geffen Records were acquired in 1990  Unlike most of MCA's previous acquisitions, GRP (which began managing MCA's jazz holdings) and Geffen (which became a second mainstream subsidiary) labels kept their identities  MCA sold Motown Records to PolyGram in 1993 

Universal Music Group
In 1995, Seagram Company Ltd  acquired 80% of MCA   In November of that year, Teller was fired and replaced by former Warner Music Group head Doug Morris  Palmese left MCA a week later  Afterwards, Jay Boberg was named as the new president of MCA  On December 9, 1996, the new owners dropped the MCA name; the company became Universal Studios, Inc  and its music division, MCA Music Entertainment Group, was renamed Universal Music Group (UMG), headed by Morris 
In 1997, MCA Records adopted a new logo that featured the parent company's former full name  Many younger people had been unaware of what MCA had stood for in the past, hence the new logo  In conjunction with the new logo, the first MCA Records website was launched 
On May 21, 1998, Seagram acquired PolyGram (owner of British Decca) from Philips and merged it with Universal Music Group  Unlike several labels under PolyGram and UMG, who faced closure and job cuts of employees, MCA was the only label that was not affected by the merger  When Seagram's drinks business was bought by France-based Pernod Ricard, its media holdings (including Universal) were sold to Vivendi which became Vivendi Universal which was later renamed back to Vivendi SA after selling most of the entertainment division (which included Universal Pictures) to General Electric  Morris continued to head the combined company, still called Universal Music Group 

MCA label phaseout
On January 16, 2003, Jay Boberg resigned from his position as president of MCA Records  Boberg's resignation arrived in the wake of slumping sales at MCA, which had seen the label's overall album market share decline to just 2 61% in 2002, down from 9% the previous year  His demise was hastened by the relative commercial failure of Shaggy's Lucky Day, released in October 2002, which MCA hoped would sell well enough to turn around their declining fortunes  Richard Nichols, manager of The Roots, felt that MCA had been attempting to spend lots of money on different projects, and subsequently many acts on MCA were "underfinanced" by the label, leading to poor sales  Rob Hitt of Midtown (who was signed to MCA through Drive-Thru Records) stated that MCA had lost a substantial amount of money that year from investing in several unsuccessful bands Management of the label was subsequently handed over to the Interscope Geffen A&M umbrella label and Jimmy Iovine, although UMG chairman Doug Morris promised that MCA would continue to operate as a "full-service, free standing label"  Craig Lambert, previously the vice president of the label, was named as the interim head of MCA, with a successor expected to be chosen within a few months  Following Boberg's resignation, it was rumoured that MCA could possibly be merged into Universal Records, something which would have given the latter, New York City-based label a stronger presence in the West Coast of the United States On May 20, 2003, insider sources at Universal reporting to Billboard revealed that the MCA label was to be absorbed by sister UMG label Geffen Records by the end of the year  The reported reason behind the MCA brand phaseout was due to declining sales, as well as the MCA brand becoming "tarnished" by "a history of acquisitions and mergers"  On June 9, 2003, MCA laid off 75 of their staff, equivalent to a third of their personnel, although no employees from Geffen were let go  Geffen's president, Jordan Schur, was named president of the newly merged entity, which continued under the Geffen branding  In the subsequent months, the MCA name was phased out entirely  The last album to be released under the MCA Records branding was Twisted Method's Escape from Cape Coma, which was released on July 15, 2003 Today Universal Music Enterprises manages MCA's rock, pop, and urban back catalogues (including those from ABC Records and Famous Music Group) in conjunction with Geffen – UME and Geffen have re-released various albums from MCA in the years since, as well as several compilations  Its country music label MCA Nashville Records is still in operation, and is one of the only businesses using the MCA trademark as of 2016 along with MCA Records France (imprint of Universal Music France)  MCA's jazz catalogue is managed by Verve Records (through the Impulse! and GRP imprints, depending on whether the recording was acquired from ABC or not), while its classical music catalogue is managed by Deutsche Grammophon  MCA's musical theatre catalogue is managed by Decca Records on its Decca Broadway imprint 

Logos
Labels
MCA Records recording artists
Passage 4:
Ace Fu Records
Ace Fu Records is an independent record label founded in 1998 by Eric Speck  It is located in Williamsburg, Brooklyn  The label went on indefinite hiatus in 2007 

Roster
Acid Mothers Temple
Annuals
An Albatross
Aqui
The Dears
Devotchka
Ex Models
Illinois
Kaiser Chiefs
Man Man
Michael Leviton
Oneida
Officer May
Parts & Labor
Pinback
Priestess
Runner and the Thermodynamics
Secret Machines
The Sucka MCs
Ted Leo
Tunng

See also
List of record labels

External links
Official site
Passage 5:
EmArcy Records
EmArcy Records is a jazz record label founded in 1954 by the American Mercury Records  The name is a phonetic spelling of "MRC", the initials for Mercury Record Company During the 1950s and 1960s, musicians such as Max Roach, Clifford Brown, Cannonball Adderley, Dinah Washington, and Sarah Vaughan recorded for EmArcy Today, it is a European jazz label owned by Universal Music Group  The catalogue is managed by the Island Records subsidiary 

Discography
Mono 12" LP series (1954–c



ground_truth: Santa Clara County

Santa Clara County, California

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did Burroughs Corporation merge to form a new corporation?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Deanwood
Deanwood is a neighborhood in Northeast Washington, D C , bounded by Eastern Avenue to the northeast, Kenilworth Avenue to the northwest, Division Avenue to the southeast, and Nannie Helen Burroughs Avenue to the south 
One of Northeast's oldest neighborhoods, Deanwood's relatively low-density, small wood-frame and brick homes, and dense tree cover give it a small-town character that is unique in the District of Columbia  Much of its housing stock dates from the early 20th century  Several well-known African-American architects, including William Sidney Pittman and Howard D  Woodson, and many skilled local craftsmen designed and built many of its homes  The neighborhood was once home to Nannie Helen Burroughs, an early civil rights leader and the founder of the National Training School for Women and Girls, an independent boarding school for African-American girls founded in 1909 and located on 50th Street, NE  Marvin Gaye (1939–1984) was also born and raised in this neighborhood  From 1921 to 1940, Deanwood was also home to Suburban Gardens (50th and Hayes NE), a black-owned amusement park that served thousands of African-American residents during a time of racial segregation 
It is served by the Deanwood Metro station on the Orange Line 
The neighborhood is featured prominently in crime author Jim Beane's short story "Jeanette "

Schools
Integrated Design Electronics Academy
The Monroe School
Houston Elementary School
Aiton Elementary School
The Fishing School
H D  Woodson Senior High School

Churches
Beulah Baptist Church, of Deanwood Heights, DC

Libraries
Deanwood Neighborhood Library

Public transportation
Metro stations

Deanwood
Benning Road
Minnesota AvenueMajor bus routes

X-2 Minnesota Avenue to Lafayette Square
X-9 Express Capitol Heights to Metro Center
W-4 Deanwood to Anacostia

External links
Three Things About Deanwood
Passage 2:
William Amey
William Amey VC MM (5 March 1881 – 28 May 1940) was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces 
Amey was 37 years old, and a lance-corporal in the 1/8th Battalion, The Royal Warwickshire Regiment, British Army during the First World War when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC 
On 4 November 1918 at Landrecies, France, when many hostile machine-gun nests were missed by the leading troops owing to fog, Lance-Corporal Amey led his section against a machine-gun nest under heavy fire and drove the garrison into a neighbouring farm, finally capturing 50 prisoners and several machine-guns  Later, single-handed and under heavy fire he attacked a machine-gun post in a farmhouse, killed two of the garrison and drove the remainder into a cellar until assistance arrived  Subsequently, he rushed a strongly held post, capturing 20 more prisoners Amey later achieved the rank of corporal, and was demobilised in 1919  He is buried at Leamington Cemetery, Brunswick Street, Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, England  His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers Museum (Royal Warwickshire), in St John's House, Warwick, England 
Passage 3:
Mego Corporation
The Mego Corporation is an American toy company that in its original iteration was first founded in 1954   Originally known as a purveyor of dime store toys, in 1971 the company shifted direction and became famous for producing licensed action figures (including the long-running "World's Greatest Super Heroes" line), celebrity dolls, and the Micronauts toy line  For a time in the 1970s, their line of 8-inch-scale action figures with interchangeable bodies became the industry standard 
In 1982 Mego filed for bankruptcy, and by 1983, the Mego Corporation ceased to exist; today, Mego action figures and playsets can be highly prized collectibles, with some fetching hundreds, or even in some cases, thousands of dollars (depending on rarity) in the collectibles market In July 2018, the newly-reformed Mego Corporation announced they would be producing a limited run of their classic style clothed dolls in their traditional 1/9 scale, as well as some 1/5 figures sold exclusively through Target  These dolls, which include recreations of action figures released in the 1970s, began seeing release later in the year 

Corporate history
Mego was founded in 1954 by D  David Abrams and Madeline Abrams  The company thrived in the 1950s and early 1960s as an importer of dime store toys until the rising cost of newspaper advertising forced Mego to change its business model  In 1971, the Abrams's son Martin, a recent business school graduate, was named company president 
Under Martin Abrams's direction, the company shifted its production to dolls with interchangeable bodies  Generic bodies could be mass-produced and different dolls created by interposing different heads and costumes on them 
In 1972 Mego secured the licenses to create toys for both National Periodical Publications (DC Comics) and Marvel Comics  The popularity of this line of 8" dolls—dubbed "The World's Greatest Super Heroes"—created the standard action-figure scale for the 1970s 
Mego began to purchase the license rights of motion pictures, television programs, and comic books, eventually producing doll lines for Planet of the Apes, Star Trek, and the Wizard of Oz  Mego also obtained licenses from Edgar Rice Burroughs for his creations, such as Tarzan 
Beginning in 1974 Mego released the Planet of the Apes action-figures, the first such toys sold as film tie-ins  1975 saw the release of figures from Star Trek: The Original Series, which was steadily gaining fandom in syndication  The Planet of the Apes and Star Trek figures proved popular and inspired the rise of action figure series based on popular culture franchises During this period, Mego was known for the lavish parties the company threw at the annual New York American International Toy Fair  In 1975, Mego launched its Wizard of Oz film dolls with a gala whose special guests were every surviving member of the film's main cast  Mego's party at the Waldorf-Astoria with Sonny and Cher introducing their dolls drew a thousand people  Both dolls were formally unveiled on The Mike Douglas Show  The Cher doll was the number-1-selling doll in 1976, helping to make Mego the sixth-ranked American toy manufacturer, based on retail sales In 1976, Martin Abrams hashed out a deal with the Japanese toy manufacturer Takara to bring their popular lucite 3" fully articulated Microman figures to the United States under the name "Micronauts "  While Marty was in Japan, Fox's lawyer Mark Peders dropped by the office to show stills from the upcoming motion picture Star Wars, but no one in the office could sign the deal, so Peders visited Kenner in the same building and Kenner president Bernie Loomis was in the office and signed the deal   This decision seemed of little consequence to Mego at first, because the Micronauts figures initially sold well, earning the company more than $30 million at their peak  On the other hand, the Star Wars film was extremely popular and competitor Kenner Products sold substantial numbers of Star Wars action figures Following Star Wars' huge cultural impact, and Kenner's great success with its action figure line, Mego negotiated licenses for the manufacturing rights to a host of science fiction motion pictures and television shows, including Moonraker, Buck Rogers in the 25th Century, The Black Hole, and Star Trek: The Motion Picture  Although these lines of Mego dolls were of much higher quality than Kenner's 12" Star Wars figures, none were as successful  The widespread success of Kenner's Star Wars 3-3/4" toy line soon made the newer, smaller size the industry standard, shifting sales away from the 8" standard popularized by Mego 
In the late 1970s, Mego was earning about $100 million in sales  Around this time, Mego began shifting their focus toward electronic toys like the 2-XL toy robot and the Fabulous Fred hand-held game player, but sales were not commensurate with the company's investment, and Mego went deeply into debt  Other problems included a rat infestation in Mego's warehouse and a lawsuit from Kenner over illegal appropriation of trade secrets related to the manufacture of their stretch figures  In the fiscal years 1980 and 1981, Mego reported combined losses of $40 million  In fiscal year 1982, the company reported losses of between $18 and $20 million In February 1982 the remaining staff was let go and the Mego offices were closed  On June 14, 1982, Mego filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy; the company officially went under in 1983 In 1986, Martin Abrams co-founded Abrams Gentile Entertainment (AGE), in order to retain and manage Mego's licensing contracts, rights and deals  In October 1995 AGE attempted to reclaim the Mego trademark  In March 2002, they abandoned the effort  In early 2009, Martin Abrams announced that AGE had reclaimed the rights to the name Mego Mego Corporation is headquartered in Great Neck, NY, with manufacturing facilities in China and Mexico  In July 2018, Mego Corporation premiered an exclusive line
with Target stores of their classic 8 inch clothed action figures as well as several 14 inch DC Superheroes figures at San Diego Comic Con with Joe Namath on hand to autograph his own 14 inch action figure   The Target exclusive featured three waves of figures hitting Target stores in August, October, and November   These figures were limited to 10,000 of each character 
Starting in 2019, Mego has continued to work with Target and other major retailers like Wal-Mart to bring the classic Star Trek, monsters, celebrities, and superheroes back to store shelves and on-line   Mego created action figures from the iconic Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan movie, giving fans of that 1982 classic the Mego figures they expected to see back then   Mego has also expanded distribution internationally, working with distributors in other countries to bring the magic of Mego to the rest of the world as well 
In 2020 Mego launched new waves of action figures and products with the help of Dr  Mego (Paul Clarke) to a wide audience via Target Corporation stores around the United States; Marty Abrams is greeting old and new fans at comic-cons and conventions nationwide 

Products history
Fighting Yank
A toy similar to GI Joe; so similar, in fact, that Hasbro was able to show that the toy's body had been copied directly from authentic GI Joe tooling  Hasbro threatened a lawsuit and Mego discontinued the product 

Broadway Joe Namath
An action doll based on New York Jets quarterback Joe Namath  The 1970s toyline included Broadway Joe in New York Jets football uniform, plus additional fashions sold separately 

Action Jackson
One of Mego's first toys under Martin Adams was an original character, Action Jackson, meant to compete with Hasbro's popular G I  Joe line  Heavily promoted on television commercials and in newspaper advertisements, the Action Jackson line included dolls, vehicles, and playsets  It was a big seller on its 1971 launch, but soon faded in popularity and was discontinued after 1974  The body design was reused for 8-inch licensed dolls 

Dinah Mite
A fashion doll produced as a female counterpart to Action Jackson  The doll was not a success, but the body design was reused for 8-inch licensed female dolls 

World's Greatest Super Heroes!
Beginning in 1972, Mego released the first comprehensive line of DC Comics and Marvel Comics superhero and villain dolls, coining the term "World's Greatest Super Heroes!" (WGSH) as an umbrella title for all the dolls released in this line  To start the line, Mego produced Batman, Robin, Aquaman, and Superman dolls  (For the South African market, a local radio play hero, Jet Jungle, was included in the series ) The earliest dolls were released in a solid box, but these boxes were often damaged by shoppers who wanted to see the figure inside  The design was quickly changed to a "window" style box  The WGSH line was offered from 1972 until 1983 

Fashion dolls
Mego marketed various fashion doll lines designed to compete with Mattel's popular Barbie line  The company's first attempt was the 1973 "Maddie Mod" line, which included an extensive wardrobe and Maddie's boyfriend "Richie," was not a success  Next, Mego created "Dinah-Mite," a poseable eight-inch (203 mm) scale Barbie-like doll with a boyfriend named Don  Other fashion dolls included "Beautiful Lainie," a 19" doll that danced back and forth from the hips; and Candi, a line that included "Coppertone Candi," a "tanning" doll co-branded with Coppertone sunscreen 

TV and movie dolls
The popularity of the 1974 releases of the Planet of the Apes and Star Trek: The Original Series lines led Mego to produce a variety of licensed figures based on films and TV shows, including The Flintstones, Happy Days, Laverne & Shirley, Our Gang, Starsky & Hutch, The Waltons, and Wizard of Oz 

Mego introduced a Lynda Carter Wonder Woman doll line in 1977  The first edition of the Wonder Woman dolls and accessories included:

Wonder Woman (factory-painted bustier top with cloth star-spangled bottoms, bracelets, golden lasso, tiara, and red boots), as well as a Diana Prince Navy Yeoman outfit, featuring black glasses and black high-heeled shoes
Nubia, Wonder Woman's super-foe
Queen Hippolyta, Wonder Woman's mother
Major Steve Trevor, Wonder Woman's best friend and bossMego added 121⁄2" dolls from the Superman movie in 1978, which included Superman, Jor-El, Lex Luthor, and General Zod 
In the early 1980s Mego produced dolls and vehicles for the popular TV shows CHiPs, Dallas, Dukes of Hazzard, and The Greatest American Hero  The Dukes of Hazzard dolls sold well, but Mego failed with its CHiPs and Dallas dolls 

Comic Action Heroes!
Always thinking of ways to reduce costs of production, in 1975 Mego released a smaller plastic line of action toys called Comic Action Heroes! that had the costumes molded onto the figure (and later adopted by Star Wars and Super Powers lines), thus eliminating the extra cost of creating the suits  The line featured Batman, Robin, The Joker, and The Penguin, as well as other DC Comics characters, and Marvel characters such as Spider-Man, Captain America, and the Hulk  Later, in 1979, Mego re-released the line under the new name Pocket Super Heroes 

Celebrity dolls
In 1976, Mego launched a highly successful 12½-inch celebrity doll line  The first dolls were Sonny and Cher, with famed fashion designer Bob Mackie designing an extensive wardrobe for Cher  Farrah Fawcett, Jaclyn Smith, Diana Ross, Suzanne Somers, Captain and Tennille, and Kiss celebrity dolls followed in 1977 and 1978 

Micronauts
From 1976 to 1980 Mego produced a licensed line of Takara's Microman figures under the name Micronauts  The 3-3/4" toy line's popularity led Marvel Comics to launch a Micronauts comic book in 1979, which ran until 1986 

2-XL robot
In 1978, Martin Abrams purchased inventor Michael J  Freeman's toy robot, the 2-XL, which was introduced to the public and became a success  The toy was sold in different countries and was voiced in seven languages, including English  2-XL was a revolutionary idea, combining toys and education  A lot of games were also developed for the toy  By 1981, the 2-XL's popularity had waned, and it was later discontinued  However, the 2-XL robot was upgraded and reintroduced in the early 1990s by Tiger Electronics, a US based toy company  The programs for this version were also voiced by Freeman and sold worldwide The 2-XL was part of Mego's electronic games line, which included the handheld devices Mini-Vid and Fabulous Fred 

Military dolls
In 1976, Mego began producing a small collection of World War II-themed military dolls marketed in France, Italy (under the Polistil name), Germany, Australia, and the United Kingdom under different names  Most of these products were branded under the "Lion Rock" name, Mego's manufacturing arm  These dolls were released in United States the early 1980s as "Johnny Action" or "Combat Man " Using the 6-inch (150 mm) format, they were produced after the 12-inch (300 mm) G I  Joe dolls had lost their popularity and before the revival of the G I  Joe line in 3-¾" format; they were also intended to compete with Spain's Madelman line of soldier dolls  The 6-inch (150 mm) combat line was not a success 

Eagle Force
One of Mego's final large product lines was Eagle Force, a 2+3⁄4-inch-high (70 mm) die-cast action figure toy line co-designed by Paul Kirchner and marketed in 1981-1982  Produced during Ronald Reagan's first term as president, the Eagle Force toy line was marketed as a counter-terrorist task force, to send the message that the United States wasn't going to be "pushed around" anymore 
The line was similar to Hasbro's G I  Joe: A Real American Hero dolls 

Reissued Marx playsets
Mego acquired the moulds of World War II soldiers, vehicles and landscape terrain from Louis Marx and Company, reissuing their Battleground (1980) and Navarone (1981) playsets  Mego also reissued a Prehistoric Dinosaur, Fort Apache and Galaxy Command playsets 

Toys and games manufactured by Mego
"Mego Melt"
Several different (but not all) plastic dolls made by Mego have suffered from "Mego Melt" (also known as "Mego Molt"), a term coined by toy collectors to describe the material deteriorating over time  The plastic used for the doll's torso reacts with the rubberized plastic used for the arms and legs  The result is a melting of the torso at those joining points: shoulder, underarm, hips, and buttocks  Even when stored carefully, this melting often results in the costumes becoming stuck to the dolls  Excessive heat from storage in hot attics or garages exacerbates this problem  The dolls' hair and eyelashes are prone to similar deterioration when exposed to high temperatures 

In popular culture
From 1996–2011, Mego's 8-inch (200 mm) dolls, particularly the superhero line, found new life in Twisted ToyFare Theater (originally called "Twisted Mego Theatre"), a humorous photo comic strip appearing in ToyFare, a monthly magazine published by Wizard Entertainment  ToyFare staff posed and took photos depicting the dolls in bizarre situations, with added dialogue balloons  The series was well known in comic book and collectors' circles for its distinctive, off-the-wall sense of humor  The popular strips were later published separately in their own collections 
Mego dolls as well as similarly styled figures are used in sexually perverted adult oriented situations in the Cartoon Network/Adult Swim program Robot Chicken  The show, which debuted in February 2005, is directly based on Twisted ToyFare Theater and features three of its writers 

See also
Hasbro
Kenner Products
Mattel
Trendmasters
Passage 4:
David Ferguson Hunter
David Ferguson Hunter VC (28 November 1891 – 14 February 1965) was a Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces 
Hunter was 26 years old, and a corporal in the 1/5th Battalion, The Highland Light Infantry, British Army during the First World War when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC on 23 October 1918 On 16/17 September 1918 at Moeuvres, France, Corporal Hunter was detailed to take on an advanced post which was established in shell holes close to the enemy  There was no opportunity for reconnoitring adjacent ground, and the following afternoon Corporal Hunter found that the enemy had established posts all round him, isolating his command  He determined to hold out and despite being exceedingly short of food and water this NCO managed to maintain his position for over 48 hours until a counter-attack relieved him  He repelled frequent enemy attacks and also barrage from our attacks, which came right across his post 
He was subsequently promoted to the rank of sergeant on 23 October 1918  He died 14 February 1965
On 12 August 2004, his previously unmarked grave in Dunfermline Cemetery was marked by a memorial stone in a ceremony 

Freemasonry
He was initiated into Freemasonry in Lodge Union, No  250, (Dunfermline, Scotland) on 3 January, Passed on 6 February and Raised 3 May 1919 

The Medal
His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Museum of The Royal Highland Fusiliers, Glasgow, Scotland 
Passage 5:
John Burroughs Medal
The John Burroughs Medal, named for nature writer John Burroughs (1837–1921), is awarded each year in April by the John Burroughs Association to the author of a book that the association has judged to be distinguished in the field of natural history  Only twice has the award been given to a work of fiction 

List of recipients of the John Burroughs Medal
1926 - William Beebe, Pheasants of the World
1927 - Ernest Thompson Seton, Lives of Game Animals
1928 - John Russell McCarthy, Nature Poems
1929 - Frank M  Chapman, Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America (published 1906)
1930 - Archibald Rutledge, Peace in the Heart
1931 - no award
1932 - Frederick S  Dellenbaugh, A Canyon Voyage: A Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition, ISBN 0-8165-0880-1
1933 - Oliver P  Medsker, Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter (set)
1934 - W W  Christman, Wild Pasture Pine
1935 - no award
1936 - Charles Crawford Gorst, Recordings of Bird Calls
1937 - no award
1938 - Robert Cushman Murphy, Oceanic Birds of South America
1939 - T  Gilbert Pearson, Adventures in Bird Protection
1940 - Arthur Cleveland Bent, Life Histories of North American Birds (18 title series, United States Government Printing Office)
1941 - Louis J  Halle, Jr , Birds Against Men
1942 - Edward A  Armstrong, Birds of the Grey Wind
1943 - Edwin Way Teale, Near Horizons: The Story of an Insect Garden
1944 - no award
1945 - Rutherford Platt, This Green World ISBN 0-396-09188-1
1946 - Florence Page Jaques and Francis Lee Jaques (illustrator), Snowshoe Country, ISBN 0-87351-236-7
1947 - no award
1948 - Theodora Stanwell-Fletcher, Driftwood Valley, ISBN 0-87071-524-0
1949 - Helen G  Cruickshank, Flight Into Sunshine: Bird Experiences in Florida
1950 - Roger Tory Peterson, Birds Over America, ISBN 0-396-08269-6
1951 - no award
1952 - Rachel Carson, The Sea Around Us, ISBN 0-451-61873-4
1953 - Gilbert Klingel, The Bay, ISBN 0-8018-2536-9
1954 - Joseph Wood Krutch, The Desert Year, ISBN 0-8165-0923-9
1955 - Wallace Byron Grange and Olaus J  Murie (illustrator), Those of the Forest, ISBN 1-55971-083-7
1956 - Guy Murchie, Song of the Sky
1957 - Archie Fairly Carr, The Windward Road: Adventures of a Naturalist on Remote Caribbean Shores, ISBN 0-8130-0639-2
1958 - Robert Porter Allen, On the Trail of the Vanishing Birds
1959 - no award
1960 - John Kieran, A Natural History of New York City, ISBN 0-8232-1086-3
1961 - Loren Eiseley, The Firmament of Time, ISBN 0-8032-6739-8
1962 - George Miksch Sutton, Iceland Summer: Adventures of a Bird Painter, ISBN 0-8061-0491-0
1963 - Adolph Murie, A Naturalist in Alaska, ISBN 0-8165-1168-3
1964 - John Hay, The Great Beach: A Naturalist Explores the Frontier Between Land and Sea on the Outer Reaches of Cape Cod, ISBN 0-345-02255-6
1965 - Paul Brooks, Roadless Area, ISBN 0-345-25276-4
1966 - Louis Darling, The Gull's Way, ISBN 0-688-21366-9
1967 - Charlton Ogburn, Jr , The Winter Beach, ISBN 0-688-09418-X
1968 - Hal Borland, Hill Country Harvest
1969 - Louise de Kiriline Lawrence, The Lovely and the Wild, ISBN 0-920474-43-8
1970 - Victor B  Scheffer, The Year of the Whale
1971 - John K  Terres, From Laurel Hill to Siler's Bog, ISBN 0-8078-4426-8
1972 - Robert S  Arbib, The Lord's Woods: The Passing of an American Woodland, ISBN 0-393-08639-9
1973 - Elizabeth Barlow, The Forests and Wetlands of New York City
1974 - Sigurd F  Olson, Wilderness Days, ISBN 0-394-47155-5
1975 - no award
1976 - Ann Haymond Zwinger, Run, River, Run, ISBN 0-06-014824-1
1977 - Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac, ISBN 0-915024-15-2
1978 - Ruth Kirk, The American Southwest Desert, ISBN 0-395-17209-8
1979 - Barry Lopez, Of Wolves and Men, ISBN 0-7432-4936-4
1980 - no award
1981 - Mary Durant and Michael Harwood, On the Road with John James Audubon, ISBN 0-396-07740-4
1982 - Peter Matthiessen, Sand Rivers, ISBN 0-906053-22-6
1983 - Alexander F  Skutch, A Naturalist on a Tropical Farm, ISBN 0-520-03802-9
1984 - David Rains Wallace, The Klamath Knot: Explorations of Myth and Evolution, ISBN 0-520-23659-9
1985 - Mark Owens and Delia Owens, Cry of the Kalahari, ISBN 0-395-64780-0
1986 - Gary Paul Nabhan, Gathering the Desert, ISBN 0-8165-0935-2
1987 - Robert Michael Pyle, Wintergreen: Rambles in a Ravaged Land, ISBN 0-684-18321-8
1988 - Tom Horton and Charles R  Hazard (illustrator), Bay Country, ISBN 0-8018-3525-9
1989 - Lawrence Kilham, On Watching Birds, ISBN 0-930031-14-8
1990 - John McPhee, The Control of Nature, ISBN 0-374-12890-1
1991 - Richard Nelson, The Island Within, ISBN 0-86547-404-4
1992 - Kenneth S  Norris, Dolphin Days: The Life and Times of the Spinner Dolphin, ISBN 0-393-02945-X
1993 - Vincent Dethier, Crickets and Katydids, Concerts and Solos, ISBN 0-674-17577-8
1994 - David G  Campbell, The Crystal Desert: Summers in Antarctica, ISBN 0-436-20049-X
1995 - Craig Packer, Into Africa, ISBN 0-226-64429-4
1996 - Bill Green, Water, Ice and Stone:Science and Memory on the Antarctic Lakes, ISBN 0-517-58759-9
1997 - David Quammen, The Song Of The Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction, ISBN 0-684-80083-7
1998 - John Alcock, In a Desert Garden:Love and Death Among the Insects, ISBN 0-8165-1970-6
1999 - Jan DeBlieu, Wind: How the Flow of Air Has Shaped Life, Myth, and the Land, ISBN 0-395-78033-0
2000 - Bernd Heinrich, Mind Of the Raven, ISBN 0-06-017447-1
2001 - David M  Carroll, Swampwalker's Journal, ISBN 0-395-64725-8
2002 - Ken Lamberton, Wilderness and Razor Wire, ISBN 1-56279-116-8
2003 - Carl Safina, Eye of the Albatross: Visions of Hope and Survival, ISBN 0-8050-6228-9
2004 - Ted Levin, Liquid Land: A Journey Through The Florida Everglades, ISBN 0-8203-2512-0
2005 - Robin Wall Kimmerer, Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses, ISBN 0-87071-499-6
2006 - Donald Kroodsma, The Singing Life of Birds, ISBN 0-618-40568-2
2007 - Ellen Meloy, Eating Stone: Imagination And The Loss Of The Wild, ISBN 0-375-42216-1
2008 - Julia Whitty, The Fragile Edge: Diving and Other Adventures in the South Pacific, ISBN 0-618-19716-8
2009 - Franklin Burroughs, Confluence: Merrymeeting Bay, ISBN 0-88448-282-0
2010 - Michael Welland, Sand: The Never-Ending Story, ISBN 0-520-26597-1
2011 - Elisabeth Tova Bailey, The Sound of a Wild Snail Eating, ISBN 978-1565126060
2012 - Edward (Ted) Hoagland, Sex and the River Styx, ISBN 978-1603583374
2013 - Thor Hanson, Feathers: The Evolution of a Natural Miracle, ISBN 978-0465028788
2014 - Kathleen Jamie, Sightlines, ISBN 978-0956308665
2015 - Sherry Simpson, Dominion of Bears, ISBN 978-0700619351
2016 - Sharman Apt Russell, Diary of a Citizen Scientist, ISBN 978-0870717529 
2017 - Brian Doyle, Martin Marten, ISBN 978-1250045201 
2018 - David George Haskell, The Songs of Trees, ISBN 978-0525427520; a special John Burroughs Medal was given for Lifetime Achievement in Nature Poetry to Pattiann Rogers
2020 - Marilyn Sigman, Entangled: People and Ecological Change in Alaska's Kachemak Bay, ISBN 978-1602233485
Passage 6:
Australia Day
Australia Day is the official national day of Australia  Observed annually on 26 January, it marks the 1788 landing of the First Fleet, and raising of the Union Flag by Arthur Phillip, at Sydney Cove in New South Wales  In present-day Australia, celebrations aim to reflect the diverse society and landscape of the nation and are marked by community and family events, reflections on Australian history, official community awards and citizenship ceremonies welcoming new members of the Australian community The meaning and significance of Australia Day has evolved and been contested over time, and not all states historically celebrated the same date as their date of historical significance  The date of 26 January 1788 marks the proclamation of British sovereignty over the eastern seaboard of Australia  Records of celebrations on 26 January date back to 1808, with the first official celebration of the formation of New South Wales held in 1818  It was not until 1935 that all Australian states and territories adopted use of the term "Australia Day" to mark the date of the 1788 landing of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove, and not until 1994 that 26 January was consistently marked by a public holiday on that day by all states and territories  Historically, the date was also variously named Anniversary Day, Foundation Day and ANA Day In contemporary Australia, the holiday is marked by the presentation of the Australian of the Year Awards on Australia Day Eve, announcement of the Australia Day Honours list and addresses from the Governor-General and Prime Minister  It is an official public holiday in every state and territory  With community festivals, concerts and citizenship ceremonies, the day is celebrated in large and small communities and cities around the nation  Australia Day has become the biggest annual civic event in Australia Indigenous Australian events are now included  However, since at least 1938, the date of Australia Day has also been marked by some Indigenous Australians and supporters mourning what is seen as the invasion of the land – which they had occupied for millennia – by the British and the start of colonisation, protesting its celebration as a national holiday  Invasion Day, Survival Day, or Day of Mourning is observed by many as a counter-observance on 26 January, with calls for the date of Australia Day to be changed or the holiday to be abolished entirely  Support for changing the date is a minority position; however, polls indicate some support, particularly among Australians under age 30 

History
Arrival of the First Fleet: 1788
On 13 May 1787 a fleet of 11 ships, which came to be known as the First Fleet, was sent by the British Admiralty from England to New Holland  Under the command of Naval Captain Arthur Phillip, the fleet sought to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay on the coast of New South Wales, which had been explored and claimed by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770  The settlement was seen as necessary because of the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America  The Fleet arrived between 18 and 20 January 1788, but it was immediately apparent that Botany Bay was unsuitable 
On 21 January, Phillip and a few officers travelled to Port Jackson, 12 kilometres (7 5 mi) to the north, to see if it would be a better location for a settlement  They stayed there until 23 January; Phillip named the site of their landing Sydney Cove, after the Home Secretary, Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney  They also made contact with the local Aboriginal people 
They returned to Botany Bay on the evening of 23 January, when Phillip gave orders to move the fleet to Sydney Cove the next morning, 24 January  That day, there was a huge gale blowing, making it impossible to leave Botany Bay, so they decided to wait till the next day, 25 January  However, during 24 January, they spotted the ships Astrolabe and Boussole, flying the French flag, at the entrance to Botany Bay; they were having as much trouble getting into the bay as the First Fleet was having getting out On 25 January the gale was still blowing; the fleet tried to leave Botany Bay, but only HMS Supply made it out, carrying Arthur Phillip, Philip Gidley King, some marines and about 40 convicts; they anchored in Sydney Cove in the afternoon  Meanwhile, back at Botany Bay, Captain John Hunter of HMS Sirius made contact with the French ships, and he and the commander, Captain de Clonard, exchanged greetings  Clonard informed Hunter that the fleet commander was Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse  Sirius successfully cleared Botany Bay, but the other ships were in great difficulty  Charlotte was blown dangerously close to rocks, Friendship and Prince of Wales became entangled, both ships losing booms or sails, Charlotte and Friendship collided, and Lady Penrhyn nearly ran aground  Despite these difficulties, all the remaining ships finally managed to clear Botany Bay and sail to Sydney Cove on 26 January  The last ship anchored there at about 3 pm 
 
So it was on 26 January that a landing was made at Sydney Cove and clearing of the ground for an encampment immediately began  Then, according to Phillip's account: In the evening of the 26th the colours were displayed on shore, and the Governor, with several of his principal officers and others, assembled round the flag-staff, drank the king's health, and success to the settlement, with all that display of form which on such occasions is esteemed propitious, because it enlivens the spirits, and fills the imagination with pleasing presages 
The formal establishment of the Colony of New South Wales did not however occur on 26 January as is commonly assumed  It did not occur until 7 February 1788, when the formal proclamation of the colony and of Arthur Phillip's governorship were read out  The vesting of all land in the reigning monarch King George III also dates from 7 February 1788 

1788–1838
Although there was no official recognition of the colony's anniversary, with the New South Wales Almanacks of 1806 and 1808 placing no special significance on 26 January, by 1808 the date was being used by the colony's immigrants, especially the emancipated convicts, to "celebrate their love of the land they lived in" with "drinking and merriment"  The 1808 celebrations followed this pattern, beginning at sunset on 25 January and lasting into the night, the chief toast of the occasion being Major George Johnston  Johnston had the honour of being the first officer ashore from the First Fleet, having been carried from the landing boat on the back of convict James Ruse  Despite suffering the ill-effects of a fall from his gig on the way home to Annandale, Johnston led the officers of the New South Wales Corps in arresting Governor William Bligh on the following day, 26 January 1808, in what became known as the "Rum Rebellion" 
Almanacs started mentioning "First Landing Day" or "Foundation Day" and successful immigrants started holding anniversary dinners  In 1817 The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser reported on one of these unofficial gatherings at the home of Isaac Nichols:

On Monday the 27th ult  a dinner party met at the house of Mr  Isaac Nichols, for the purpose of celebrating the Anniversary of the Institution of this Colony under Governor Philip, which took place on 26 Jan  1788, but this year happening upon a Sunday, the commemoration dinner was reserved for the day following   The party assembled were select, and about 40 in number  At 5 in the afternoon dinner was on the table, and a more agreeable entertainment could not have been anticipated  After dinner a number of loyal toasts were drank, and a number of festive songs given; and about 10 the company parted, well gratified with the pleasures that the meeting had afforded 
1818 was the 30th anniversary of the founding of the colony, and Governor Lachlan Macquarie chose to acknowledge the day with the first official celebration  The governor declared that the day would be a holiday for all government workers, granting each an extra allowance of "one pound [450 grams] of fresh meat", and ordered a 30-gun salute at Dawes Point – one for each year that the colony had existed  This began a tradition that was retained by the Governors that were to follow 

Foundation Day, as it was known at the time, continued to be officially celebrated in New South Wales, and in doing so became connected with sporting events  One of these became a tradition that is still continued today: in 1837 the first running of what would become the Australia Day regatta was held on Sydney Harbour  Five races were held for different classes of boats, from first class sailing vessels to watermen's skiffs, and people viewed the festivities from both onshore and from the decks of boats on the harbour, including the steamboat Australian and the Francis Freeling—the latter running aground during the festivities and having to be refloated the next day  Happy with the success of the regatta, the organisers resolved to make it an annual event  However, some of the celebrations had gained an air of elitism, with the "United Australians" dinner being limited to those born in Australia  In describing the dinner, the Sydney Herald justified the decision, saying:

The parties who associated themselves under the title of "United Australians" have been censured for adopting a principle of exclusiveness  It is not fair so to censure them  If they invited emigrants to join them they would give offence to another class of persons – while if they invited all they would be subject to the presence of persons with whom they might not wish to associate  That was a good reason  The "Australians" had a perfect right to dine together if they wished it, and no one has a right to complain 
The following year, 1838, was the 50th anniversary of the founding of the colony, and as part of the celebrations Australia's first public holiday was declared  The regatta was held for a second time, and people crowded the foreshores to view the events, or joined the five steamers (Maitland, Experiment, Australia, Rapid, and the miniature steamer Firefly) to view the proceedings from the water  At midday 50 guns were fired from Dawes' Battery as the Royal Standard was raised, and in the evening rockets and other fireworks lit the sky  The dinner was a smaller affair than the previous year, with only 40 in attendance compared to the 160 from 1837, and the anniversary as a whole was described as a "day for everyone" 

1839–1935
Prior to 1888, 26 January was very much a New South Wales affair, as each of the colonies had its own commemoration for its founding  In Tasmania, Regatta Day occurred initially in December to mark the anniversary of the landing of Abel Tasman  South Australia celebrated Proclamation Day on 28 December  Western Australia had its own Foundation Day (now Western Australia Day) on 1 June The decision to mark the occasion of the First Fleet’s arrival in 1788 at Sydney Cove and Captain Arthur Phillip’s proclamation of British sovereignty over the eastern continent on 26 January was first made outside NSW by the Australian Natives' Association (ANA), a group of white "native-born" middle-class men formed in Victoria in 1871  They dubbed the day "ANA Day" In 1888, all colonial capitals except Adelaide celebrated "Anniversary Day"  In 1910, South Australia adopted 26 January as "Foundation Day", to replace another holiday known as Accession Day, which had been held on 22 January to mark the accession to the throne of King Edward VII, who died in May 1910 The first Australia Day was established in response to Australia's involvement in World War I  In 1915, Ellen "Ellie" Wharton Kirke MBE, née Clements, mother of four servicemen, thought up the idea of a national day, with the specific aim of raising funds for wounded soldiers, and the term was coined to stir up patriotic feelings  In 1915 a committee to celebrate Australia Day was formed, and the date chosen was 30 July, on which many fund-raising efforts were run to support the war effort  It was also held in July in subsequent years of World War I: on 28 July 1916, 27 July 1917, and 26 July 1918 The idea of a national day to be celebrated on 26 January was slow to catch on, partly because of competition with Anzac Day  Victoria adopted 26 January as Australia Day in 1931, and by 1935, all states of Australia were celebrating 26 January as Australia Day (although it was still known as Anniversary Day in New South Wales)  The name "Foundation Day" persisted in local usage 

1936–1960s
The 150th anniversary of British settlement in Australia in 1938 was widely celebrated  Preparations began in 1936 with the formation of a Celebrations Council  In that year, New South Wales was the only state to abandon the traditional long weekend, and the annual Anniversary Day public holiday was held on the anniversary day – Wednesday 26 January The Commonwealth and state governments agreed to unify the celebrations on 26 January as "Australia Day" in 1946, although the public holiday was instead taken on the Monday closest to the anniversary The Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948 came into effect on 26 January 1949, creating Australian citizenship for the first time  Previously, the government-approved residents of Australia had only been "British nationals"; now they had both Australian and British nationality Historian Ken Inglis wrote in 1967 that Australia Day was not celebrated publicly in Canberra at that time 

1988: Bicentenary
In 1988, the celebration of 200 years since the arrival of the First Fleet was organised on a large scale as the Australian Bicentenary, with many significant events taking place in all major cities  Over 2 5 million people attended the event in Sydney  These included street parties, concerts, including performances on the steps and forecourt of the Sydney Opera House and at many other public venues, art and literary competitions, historic re-enactments, and the opening of the Powerhouse Museum at its new location  A re-enactment of the arrival of the First Fleet took place in Sydney Harbour, with ships that had sailed from Portsmouth a year earlier taking part 

Contemporary celebrations
The various celebrations and civic ceremonies such as citizenship ceremonies, the Australian of the Year awards and the Australia Day Honours (introduced in 1975) only started to be performed on Australia Day from around the 1950s onwards Since 1988, participation in Australia Day has increased, and in 1994 all states and territories began to celebrate a unified public holiday on 26 January – regardless of the day of the week –  for the first time  Previously, some states had celebrated the public holiday on a Monday or Friday to ensure a long weekend  Research conducted in 2007 reported that 28% of Australians polled attended an organised Australia Day event and a further 26% celebrated with family and friends  This reflected the results of an earlier research project where 66% of respondents anticipated that they would actively celebrate Australia Day 2005 Outdoor concerts, community barbecues, sports competitions, festivals and fireworks are some of the many events held in communities across Australia  These official events are presented by the National Australia Day Council, an official council or committee in each state and territory, and local committees In Sydney, the harbour is a focus and boat races are held, such as a ferry race and the tall ships race  In Adelaide, the key celebrations are "Australia Day in the City" which is a parade, concert and fireworks display held in Elder Park, with a new outdoor art installation in 2019 designed to acknowledge, remember and recognise Aboriginal people who have contributed to the community  Featuring the People's March and the Voyages Concert, Melbourne's events focus strongly on the celebration of multiculturalism  In Perth, for many years until 2022, the Skyworks were the largest single event presented each Australia Day Citizenship ceremonies are also commonly held, with Australia Day now the largest occasion for the acquisition of Australian citizenship  On 26 January 2011, more than 300 citizenship ceremonies took place and around 13,000 people from 143 countries took Australian citizenship  In recent years many citizenship ceremonies have included an affirmation by existing citizens  Research conducted in 2007 reported that 78 6% of respondents thought that citizenship ceremonies were an important feature of the day  In September 2019, the Morrison government amended the Australian Citizenship Ceremonies Code to require local councils to hold a citizenship ceremony on Australia Day The official Australia Day Ambassador Program supports celebrations in communities across the nation by facilitating the participation of high-achieving Australians in local community celebrations  In 2011, 385 ambassadors participated in 384 local community celebrations  The Order of Australia awards are also a feature of the day  The Australia Day Achievement Medallion is awarded to citizens by local governments based on excellence in both government and non-government organisations  The governor-general and prime minister both address the nation  On the eve of Australia Day each year, the Prime Minister announces the winner of the Australian of the Year award, presented to an Australian citizen who has shown a "significant contribution to the Australian community and nation" and is an "inspirational role model for the Australian community"  Subcategories of the award include Young Australian of the Year and Senior Australian of the Year, and an award for Australia's Local Hero 
Research in 2009 indicated that Australians reflect on history and future fairly equally on Australia Day  Of those polled, 43% agreed that history is the most important thing to think about on Australia Day and 41% said they look towards "our future", while 13% thought it was important to "think about the present at this time" and 3% were unsure  Despite the date reflecting the arrival of the First Fleet, contemporary celebrations are not particularly historical in their theme  There are no large-scale re-enactments and the national leader's participation is focused largely on events such as the Australian of the Year Awards announcement and Citizenship Ceremonies Possibly reflecting a shift in Australians' understanding of the place of Indigenous Australians in their national identity, Newspoll research in November 2009 reported that ninety percent of Australians polled believed "it was important to recognise Australia's indigenous people and culture" as part of Australia Day celebrations  A similar proportion (89%) agreed that "it is important to recognise the cultural diversity of the nation"  Despite the strong attendance at Australia Day events and a positive disposition towards the recognition of Indigenous Australians, the date of the celebrations remains a source of challenge and national discussion 

Debate
Some Australians regard Australia Day as a symbol of the adverse impacts of British settlement on Australia's Indigenous peoples  In 1888, prior to the first centennial anniversary of the First Fleet landing on 26 January 1788, New South Wales premier Henry Parkes was asked about inclusion of Aboriginal people in the celebrations  He replied: "And remind them that we have robbed them?"The celebrations in 1938 were accompanied by an Aboriginal Day of Mourning  A large gathering of Aboriginal people in Sydney in 1988 led an "Invasion Day" commemoration marking the loss of Indigenous culture  Some Indigenous figures and others continue to label Australia Day as "Invasion Day", and protests occur almost every year, sometimes at Australia Day events  Thousands of people participate in protest marches in capital cities on Australia Day; estimates for the 2018 protest in Melbourne range into tens of thousands The anniversary is also termed by some as "Survival Day" and marked by events such as the Survival Day concert, first held in Sydney in 1992, celebrating the fact that the Indigenous people and culture have survived despite colonisation and discrimination  In 2016, National Indigenous Television chose the name "Survival Day" as its preferred choice on the basis that it acknowledges the mixed nature of the day, saying that the term "recognises the invasion", but does not allow that to frame the entire story of the Aboriginal people In response, official celebrations have tried to include Indigenous people, holding ceremonies such as the Woggan-ma-gule ceremony, held in Sydney, which honours the past and celebrates the present Several major employers, both public and private, including the Australian Public Service, permit employees to work on Australia Day and take another day off 

Polling
Polling by Essential Media since 2015 suggests that the number of people celebrating Australia Day is declining, indicating a shift in attitudes  In 2019, 40% celebrated the day; in 2020, 34%, and in 2021 it was down to 29% of over 1000 people surveyed  In 2021, 53% said that they were treating the day as just a public holiday A poll commissioned in December 2020 by the conservative think tank Institute of Public Affairs (IPA) was published in January 2021, showing that support for changing the date had remained a minority position  In January 2021, an Essential poll reported that 53% supported a separate day to recognise Indigenous Australians; however only 18% of these thought that it should replace Australia Day  A poll by Ipsos for The Age / The Sydney Morning Herald reported in January 2021 that 28% were in support of changing the date, 24% were neutral and 48% did not support changing the date  49% believed that the date would change within the next decade and 41% believed that selecting a new date would improve the lives of Indigenous Australians  Results were split by demographic factors, with age being a significant factor  47% of people aged 18–24 supported changing the date, compared to only 19% among those aged 55 years or older  Individuals who voted for the Greens were most likely to support the date change at 67%, followed by Labor voters at 31% and Coalition voters at 23% The 2022 IPA poll found 65% were opposed to changing the date, including 47% of 18–24 year olds, with 15% of the general population and 25% of 18–24 year olds in favour of changing it 

See also
Culture of Australia
Australian nationalism
Reconciliation in Australia

Notes
Passage 7:
Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997
The Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997 (Act No  33 of 1997) is an act of the Parliament of South Africa that abolished judicial corporal punishment  It followed the Constitutional Court's 1995 decision in the case of S v Williams and Others that caning of juveniles was unconstitutional  Although the ruling in S v Williams was limited to the corporal punishment of males under the age of 21, Justice Langa mentioned in dicta that there was a consensus that corporal punishment of adults was also unconstitutional The act contains two substantive sections  The first provides that "any law which authorises corporal punishment by a court of law, including a court of traditional leaders," is repealed to the extent that it authorises such a punishment  The second makes specific textual amendments various statutes, including the Black Administration Act, the Magistrates' Courts Act and the Criminal Procedure Act, to remove references to corporal punishment 
Passage 8:
Robert Smallwood
Robert F  Smallwood is an American writer, technologist, magazine publisher, and podcast host   A prolific writer and speaker on information technology topics, he has published 10 books, and over 100 articles in trade journals and given more than 60 conference presentations  He was a chapter founder and president for AIIM International and was elected to its international Board of Directors in 1997, and the Board's Executive Committee in 1998  In 2014 he founded the Institute for Information Governance; in 2018 he co-founded "Information Governance World" magazine, and in 2020 he founded the Certified Information Governance Officers Association 

Personal
Smallwood was born in 1959 in Davenport, Iowa   He grew up in nearby Bettendorf, where he was an academic,  athletic, and musical standout, earning All-State Honors in Band (as a drummer), and Cross Country  He broke the freshman, sophomore, and varsity track records in the 2-mile run, indoors and outdoors, running 9:32 5, and in the 3000 meters, 8:48 8  He was also part of record-breaking 2-mile and 4 mile relay teams  In 1977 he earned his varsity letter in cross country as a freshman at University of Northern Iowa 
After attending the University of Massachusetts Boston on a scholarly exchange program he graduated from the University of Northern Iowa in 1982 with honors and degrees in Business Management and Psychology  In 2000, Smallwood completed work on his Master of Business Administration degree at Loyola University New Orleans 
Smallwood moved to New Orleans where he worked for Burroughs Corporation (later Unisys after a merger with Sperry) implementing mainframe computer and document management systems for commercial banks and the Federal Reserve Bank branch in New Orleans   Later he worked for Wang Laboratories where he implemented some of the first commercially available document imaging systems, and law firm software 
In 1988 he published a paper, "Implementing Document Imaging in Financial Services Applications" internally for Wang   In 1991 he became an independent IT consultant and in 1995 he merged with and co-founded IMERGE Consulting  In 2014, he founded the Institute for Information Governance, and published the world's first textbook on Information Governance through Wiley & Sons  The second edition was released in 2020 

The Five People You Meet in Hell: Surviving Katrina
Smallwood's first book, The Five People You Meet in Hell: Surviving Katrina, was published in 2005  The book is Smallwood's account of his experience during the storm and in its aftermath  It was the first personal account of the disaster to be published   "One of the "five people" was Smallwood's friend and neighbor Harry Anderson, the comic actor who starred in Night Court, a popular 1980's sitcom In 2006, Smallwood embarked on a 21-city book tour and interviews on C-SPAN (BookTV), BBC Radio, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, ABCNews com and other major media outlets   The book was optioned for film in November, 2013, by Safier Entertainment under the working title, A Season in Hell The title was borrowed from the extended poem of the same name by French writer Arthur Rimbaud 

Other publications
2005 "Brando, Tennessee & Me " - his first play
2007 "Prisoners of Katrina"
2009 "Jackson Squared" - his first novel

Information governance publications
In 2008, Smallwood published his first nonfiction technology book, "Taming the Email Tiger" In 2012, Wiley & Sons published Smallwood's 'WikiLeaks prevention guide' entitled, "Safeguarding Critical E-Documents: Implementing a Program for Securing Confidential Information Assets" and in 2013, in collaboration with nine subject matter experts (SME), "Managing Electronic Records: Methods, Best Practices, and Technologies " A third book in the Wiley CIO series "Information Governance: Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices" was released in April 2014, and the second edition in January, 2020  That book is being used to guide corporate IG programs, and to teach information governance to graduate students at University of Oxford, Haaga-Helia University of Applied Sciences in Helsinki, Finland, San Jose State and other major universities  In April 2016 Smallwood published, "Information Governance for Executives: Fundamentals and Strategies, and in 2018, "Information Governance for Healthcare Professionals," was published by HIMSS and Taylor & Francis (under CRC imprint)  Also in 2018, Smallwood founded "Information Governance World" magazine, the first magazine dedicated to coverage of Information Governance  In 2020, "Information Governance" 2nd Edition was published by Wiley 

Black & White Ball - Hurricane Katrina fundraiser
As the executive director of the Louisiana Writers' Foundation, Smallwood was responsible for organizing a "Black & White Ball" at the Hotel Monteleone on the 40th anniversary of Truman Capote's famous New York event  The event was held to raise donations for writers struggling to return to post-Katrina New Orleans, in conjunction with Habitat for Humanity   Honorees included noted Romanian writer and New Orleans resident Andrei Codrescu, Louisiana Poet Laureate Brenda Marie Osbey, and poet Dave Brinks   News anchor Angela Hill emceed the festivities 
Passage 9:
John William Sayer
Lance Corporal John William Sayer  (12 April 1879 – 18 April 1918) was a British Army soldier and an English recipient of the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces 
He was 38 years old, and a Lance Corporal in the 8th Battalion, The Queen's (Royal West Surrey Regiment), British Army during the
First World War when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC 
On 21 March 1918 at Le Verguier, France, Lance Corporal Sayer held the flank of a small isolated post for two hours  Owing to mist the enemy approached from both sides to within 30 yards before being discovered, but the lance corporal, on his own initiative without assistance, beat off a succession of attacks, inflicting heavy losses  During the whole time he was exposed to heavy fire but his contempt of danger and skill in the use of his fire-arms enabled the post to hold out until nearly all the garrison had been killed and he himself wounded and captured  He died as a result of wounds four weeks later 
Passage 10:
Unisys
Unisys Corporation is an American multinational information technology (IT) services and consulting company founded in 1986 and headquartered in Blue Bell, Pennsylvania  The company provides digital workplace, cloud applications & infrastructure, enterprise computing and business process services 

History
Founding
Unisys was formed in 1986 through the merger of mainframe corporations Sperry and Burroughs, with Burroughs buying Sperry for $4 8 billion  The name was chosen from over 31,000 submissions in an internal competition when Christian Machen submitted the word "Unisys" which was composed of parts of the words united, information and systems The merger was the largest in the computer industry at the time and made Unisys the second largest computer company with annual revenue of $10 5 billion  Michael Blumenthal became CEO and Chairman  Soon after the merger, the market for proprietary mainframe-class systems—the mainstream product of Unisys and its competitors such as IBM—began a long-term decline that continues, at a lesser rate, today  In response, Unisys made the strategic decision to shift into high-end servers (e g , 32-bit processor Windows Servers), as well as information technology (IT) services such as systems integration, outsourcing, and related technical services, while holding onto the profitable revenue stream from maintaining its installed base of proprietary mainframe hardware and applications In 1988, the company acquired Convergent Technologies, makers of CTOS In 1990, Blumenthal resigned  James Unruh (formerly of Memorex and Honeywell) became the new CEO and Chairman after Blumenthal's departure and continued in that role until 1997, when Larry Weinbach of Arthur Andersen became the new CEO 

Product development and CEO changes
Joseph McGrath served as CEO and President from January 2005, until September, 2008  On October 7, 2008, J  Edward Coleman replaced J  McGrath as CEO and was named Chairman of the board as well  On November 10, 2008, the company was removed from the S&P 500 index as the market capitalization of the company had fallen below the S&P 500 minimum of $4 billion In 2010, Unisys sold its Medicare processing Health Information Management service to Molina Healthcare for $135 million On October 6, 2014, after six years as CEO and chairman, Unisys announced that Coleman was stepping down effective December 1, 2014 On January 1, 2015, Unisys officially named Peter Altabef as its new president and CEO, replacing Edward Coleman  Paul Weaver, who was formerly Lead Independent Director, was named Chairman 

2020–present time
In February 2020, SAIC announced plans to acquire Unisys Federal, the company’s federal defense contracting operation, for $1 2 billion  The company’s federal customer list included over a dozen military and civilian agencies   As part of the acquisition, Unisys has a licensing agreement with SAIC to continue providing its software to federal clients In June 2020, Australia’s Home Affairs’ biometric identification system, built in part through partnership with Unisys, was launched In June 2021, the company announced the acquisition of Unify Square  Unify Square provides software and services which help enterprises manage collaboration and communication platforms like Zoom and Microsoft Teams  In November, Mobinergy, a mobile device management software company, was acquired; and in December, Unisys acquired CompuGain, an Amazon Web Services Advanced Consulting Partner In July 2021, Unisys partnered with Vodafone to help the company boost its IT services  The two launched “Vodafone Digital Factory,” and Unisys helped Vodafone clients with technologies like AI, virtual and augmented reality, and blockchain In May 2022, the company joined the Plug and Play Enterprise Tech program  This allowed Unisys to source and partner with technology startups to access and use early-stage emerging technology 

Recognition and awards
In 2018, 2019, and 2020, Unisys was named an overall market segment leader in the NelsonHall Evaluation & Assessment Tool Vendor Evaluation for Advanced Digital Workplace Services 
NelsonHall: 2021 NEAT Assessment, Leader, Cognitive and Self-Healing IT Infrastructure Services
In August 2020, Unisys Corporation reported that for the third straight year, NelsonHall has listed the organization as the regional market sector leader in the Evaluation & Assessment Tool (NEAT) Vendor Analysis report for Advanced Digital Workplace Services 
Avasant: 2021 RadarView – Digital Workplace Services
NelsonHall: 2022 NEAT Assessment, Leader, End-to-end Cloud Infrastructure Services
Everest Group: 2022 PEAK Matrix - Cloud Services, Major Contender - North America and EuropeIn 2022, the company was named a Forbes’ America’s Best Employers For Women and a Leader in Advanced Digital Workplace Services Assessment 

Products and services
Unisys offers outsourcing managed services, systems integration and consulting services, application management and device management software, high end server technology, maintenance and support services, and cybersecurity services In line with larger trends in the information technology industry, an increasing amount of Unisys revenue comes from services rather than equipment sales; in 2014, the ratio was 86% for services, up from 65% in 1997  The company maintains a portfolio of over 1,500 U S  and non-U S  patents In 2014, Unisys phased out its CMOS processors, completing the migration of its ClearPath mainframes to Intel x86 chips, allowing clients to run the company's OS 2200 and MCP operating systems alongside more recent Windows and Linux workloads on Intel-based systems that support cloud and virtualization  The company announced its new ClearPath Dorado 8380 and 8390 systems in May, 2015  These new systems allowed the company to transition its ClearPath server families from proprietary CMOS processor technology to a software-based fabric architecture running on Intel processors Unisys operates data centers around the world 
Digital Workplace Services (DWS)In March 2022, Vision-Box awarded Unisys two digital workplace solutions contracts to help build automated “SmartGates,” electronic security gates, at New Zealand’s Auckland International Airport and Australia’s 10 international airports Cloud, Applications, and Infrastructure (CA & I)California State University used Unisys’ CloudForte and Managed Security Services to integrate its hybrid-cloud environment 
After acquiring Compugain, Unisys furthered its cloud capabilities, including hybrid cloud and cloud optimization, agile cloud migration, cloud-native capabilities, and data governance 
Cybersecurity
In November 2020, Unisys updated its Stealth platform to include visualization and dashboard tools to make it easier for an organization to track security in real-time  The new version made it possible for cybersecurity teams to see relationships between all network endpoints, including multiple clouds and edge computing platforms Enterprise Computing (ECS)Unisys was the first to develop a server architecture that supported four operating environments to run simultaneously on the same computer system in a single virtualized partition 
In 2013, Unisys won a $650 million Enterprise Computing Center Support contract to support the computer systems used by the Internal Revenue Service 
Business Processes (BPS)Unisys launched their business process consulting service in 2004  This service called Business Blueprints helped developers create high level models of their own software 
The company partners with Rubicon Technologies to deliver business process solutions 

Partnerships
Unisys’ company partnerships include the following:

VMware
Oracle
British Telecom
Dell Technologies
Amazon Web Services (AWS) MSP Partner and an AWS Government Competency
Microsoft Azure Expert MSP partner and a Microsoft Gold Partner
Global managed services partner to ServiceNow
Google Cloud Partner Advantage Program as a Google Cloud and Google Workspace Resell Partner

Clients
Clients include Bank ABC, Hershey, the Bank of China, Somos, Henkel, Flowserve, The Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), MASkargo (the cargo division of Malaysia Airlines), Nutreco,  California State University (CSU), Air India, RAMS Home Loans, and the Georgia Technology Authority Unisys systems are used for many industrial and government purposes, including banking, check processing, income tax processing, airline passenger reservations, biometric identification, newspaper content management, and shipping port management, as well as providing weather data services 

Projects
Additional projects include the following:

Consumerization of IT
A study sponsored by Unisys and conducted by IDC revealed the gap between the activities and expectations of the new generation of "iWorkers" and the ability of organizations to support their needs  The results showed that organizations continue to work with standardized command and control IT models of the past and are not able to profit from the widespread use of newer networked technologies 

Cloud 20/20
Cloud 20/20 is an annual technical paper contest for tertiary students from India in October 2009  The contest allows students to explore the possibilities and complexities of cloud computing in areas such as automation, virtualization, application development, security, consumerization of IT and airports  The contest has drawn participation from universities across India, with over 570 institutes taking part in 2009 and more than a thousand in 2010  The contest culminates in an event where five finalists present their papers before a panel of judges that comprise academicians and technologists  Prizes include the latest technology gadgets, internship projects and career opportunities with Unisys 

People and Culture
Unisys earned a score of 100% on the 2021 Disability Equality Index  The company was recognized as a “Best Place to Work for Disability Inclusion ” The Disability Equality Index is a joint initiative of Disability:IN and the American Association of People with Disabilities  It is a “comprehensive benchmarking tool to measure disability workplace inclusion ”In November 2021, Unisys launched its UGrow program to help its employees grow internally  The program makes different courses available; each one focuses on skills needed by Unisys employees  Company employees also have access to Unisys University, which offers free certifications for over 100 different skills   A few examples include courses focused on management and team leadership skills, communication skills, and culture courses  The courses are organized around Unisys’ core business functions 

Supplier Diversity Program
Unisys has a supplier diversity program, which is a program that “encourages using companies owned by either minorities, veterans, women, or historically underutilized companies as suppliers ”

Carbon Footprint Reduction
In 2006, Unisys committed to reducing its carbon footprint by 75% by 2026  It achieved this five years early in 2021  A year later, the company announced a new goal of net zero carbon emissions by 2030  The company also participates in the Carbon Disclosure Project and UN Global Compact 

Controversies
In 1987, Unisys was sued with Rockwell Shuttle Operations Company for $5 2 million by two former employees of the Unisys Corporation, one a subcontractor responsible for the computer programs for the space shuttle  The suit filed by Sylvia Robins, a former Unisys engineer, and Ria Solomon, who worked for Robins, charges that the two were forced from their jobs and harassed after complaining about safety violations and inflated costs 
Unisys overcharged the U S  government and in 1998 was found guilty of failure to supply adequate equipment  In 1998, Unisys Corporation agreed to pay the government $2 25 million to settle allegations that it supplied refurbished, rather than new, computer materials to several federal agencies in violation of the terms of its contract  Unisys admitted to supplying re-worked or refurbished computer components to various civilian and military agencies in the early 1990s, when the contract required the company to provide new equipment  The market price for the refurbished material was less than the price for new material which the government paid 
In 1998, Unisys was found guilty of price inflation and government contract fraud, with the company settling to avoid further prosecution  Lockheed Martin and Unisys paid the government $3 15 million to settle allegations that Unisys inflated the prices of spare parts sold to the U S  Department of Commerce for its NEXRAD Doppler Radar System, in violation of the False Claims Act, 31 U S C  § 3729, et seq  "[T]he settlement resolves allegations that Unisys knew that prices it paid Concurrent Computer Corporation for the spare parts were inflated when it passed on those prices to the government  Unisys had obtained price discounts from Concurrent on other items Unisys was purchasing from Concurrent at Unisys' own expense in exchange for agreeing to pay Concurrent the inflated prices" In October 2005, the Washington Post reported that the company had allegedly overbilled on the $1-to-3-billion Transportation Security Administration contract for almost 171,000 hours of labor and overtime at up to the maximum rate of $131 13 per hour, including 24,983 hours not allowed by the contract  Unisys denied wrongdoing In 2006, the Washington Post reported that the FBI was investigating Unisys for alleged cybersecurity lapses under the company's contract with the United States Department of Homeland Security  A number of security lapses supposedly occurred during the contract, including incidents in which data was transmitted to Chinese servers  Unisys denies all charges and said it has documentation disproving the allegations In 2007, Unisys was found guilty of misrepresentation of retiree benefits  A federal judge in Pennsylvania ordered Unisys Corp  to reinstate within 60 days free lifetime retiree medical benefits to 12 former employees who were employed by a Unisys predecessor, the Burroughs Corporation  The judge ruled that Unisys "misrepresented the cost and duration of retiree medical benefits" at a time "trial plaintiffs were making retirement decisions" and while it was advising them about the benefits the company would provide during retirement 
Also in 2007, Unisys was found guilty of willful trademark infringement in Visible Systems v  Unisys (Trademark Infringement)  Computer company Visible Systems prevailed over Unisys Corp  in a trademark infringement lawsuit filed in Massachusetts federal court  In November 2007, the court entered an injunction and final judgment ordering Unisys to discontinue its use of the "Visible" trademark, upholding the jury's award to Visible Systems of $250,000 in damages, and awarding an additional $17,555 in interest  Visible Systems claimed Unisys wrongfully used the name "Visible" in marketing its software and services  The jury found the infringement by Unisys was willful  Visible Systems appealed the final judgment, believing the court wrongly excluded the issues of bad faith and disgorgement of an estimated $17 billion in unjust profits from the consideration of the jury 
In 2010, Unisys Hungary terminated the local Workers' Union representative Gabor Pinter's employment contract with immediate effect for raising concerns on the company's practice about the overtime payments and the non-respect of the health regulations in its local Shared Services Center  According to the verdict of the Labour Court of Budapest, Unisys' act was illegal and the Company must reimburse all damages of the Workers' Union representative 

See also
Context 3:  1958)
Passage 6:
Santa Monica, California
Santa Monica (Spanish for 'Saint Monica'; Spanish: Santa Mónica) is a city in Los Angeles County, situated along Santa Monica Bay on California's South Coast  Santa Monica's 2020 U S  Census population was 93,076  Santa Monica is a popular resort town, owing to its climate, beaches, and hospitality industry  It has a diverse economy, hosting headquarters of companies such as Hulu, Universal Music Group, Lionsgate Films, and The Recording Academy 
Santa Monica traces its history to Rancho San Vicente y Santa Mónica, granted in 1839 to the Sepúlveda family of California  The rancho was later sold to John P  Jones and Robert Baker, who in 1875, along with his Californio heiress wife Arcadia Bandini de Stearns Baker, founded Santa Monica, which incorporated as a city in 1886  The city developed into a seaside resort during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the creation of tourist attractions such as Palisades Park, the Santa Monica Pier, Ocean Park, and the Hotel Casa del Mar 

History
Indigenous
The Tongva are Indigenous to the Santa Monica area  The village of Comicranga was established in the Santa Monica area  One of the village's notable residents was Victoria Reid, who was the daughter of the chief of the village  During the Spanish period, she was taken to Mission San Gabriel from her parents at the age of six 

Spanish era
The first non-indigenous group to set foot in the area was the party of explorer Gaspar de Portolá, which camped near the present-day intersection of Barrington and Ohio Avenues on August 3, 1769 
There are two different accounts of how the city's name came to be  One says it was named in honor of the feast day of Saint Monica (mother of Saint Augustine), but her feast day is May 4  Another version says it was named by Juan Crespí on account of a pair of springs, the Kuruvungna Springs, that were reminiscent of the tears Saint Monica shed over her son's early impiety 

Mexican era
In 1839, Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado granted Rancho San Vicente y Santa Mónica to Francisco Sepúlveda II, of the Sepúlveda family of California  As the definitions of the rancho grant were not precise, the Sepúlveda family came into conflict with the neighboring Rancho Boca de Santa Mónica, owned by Ysidro Reyes and Francisco Márquez  A small Californio community grew up on Rancho San Vicente y Santa Mónica, made up primarily of vaqueros working on the rancho and their families 

Post-conquest era
After the American conquest of California, Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which gave Mexicans and Californios living in state certain unalienable rights  U S  government sovereignty in California began on February 2, 1848 
In the 1870s, the Los Angeles and Independence Railroad connected Santa Monica with Los Angeles, and a wharf out into the bay  The first town hall was an 1873 brick building, later a beer hall, and now part of the Santa Monica Hostel  By 1885, the town's first hotel was the Santa Monica Hotel Amusement piers became popular in the first decades of the 20th century and the extensive Pacific Electric Railway brought people to the city's beaches from across the Greater Los Angeles Area 
Around the start of the 20th century, a growing population of Asian Americans lived in and around Santa Monica and Venice  A Japanese fishing village was near the Long Wharf while small numbers of Chinese lived or worked in Santa Monica and Venice  The two ethnic minorities were often viewed differently by White Americans, who were often well-disposed toward the Japanese but condescending to the Chinese  The Japanese village fishermen were an integral economic part of the Santa Monica Bay community 
Donald Wills Douglas Sr  built a plant in 1922 at Clover Field (Santa Monica Airport) for the Douglas Aircraft Company  In 1924, four Douglas-built planes took off from Clover Field to attempt the first aerial circumnavigation of the world  Two planes returned after covering 27,553 miles (44,342 km) in 175 days, and were greeted on their return September 23, 1924, by a crowd of 200,000  The Douglas Company (later McDonnell Douglas) kept facilities in the city until the 1970s The Great Depression hit Santa Monica deeply  One report gives citywide employment in 1933 of just 1,000  Hotels and office building owners went bankrupt  In the 1930s, corruption infected Santa Monica (along with neighboring Los Angeles)  The federal Works Project Administration helped build several buildings, most notably City Hall  The main Post Office and Barnum Hall (Santa Monica High School auditorium) were also among other WPA projects 

Modern era
Douglas's business grew with the onset of World War II, employing as many as 44,000 people in 1943  To defend against air attack, set designers from the Warner Brothers Studios prepared elaborate camouflage that disguised the factory and airfield  The RAND Corporation began as a project of the Douglas Company in 1945, and spun off into an independent think tank on May 14, 1948  RAND acquired a 15-acre (61,000 m2) campus across the street from the Civic Center and is still there today 
The completion of the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in 1958 eliminated Belmar, the first African American community in the city, and the Santa Monica Freeway in 1966 decimated the Pico neighborhood that had been a leading African American enclave on the Westside 
Beach volleyball is believed to have been developed by Duke Kahanamoku in Santa Monica during the 1920s Santa Monica has two hospitals: Saint John's Health Center and Santa Monica-UCLA Medical Center  Its cemetery is Woodlawn Memorial 
Santa Monica has several local newspapers including Santa Monica Daily Press, Santa Monica Mirror, and Santa Monica Star 

Geography
Santa Monica rests on a mostly flat slope that angles down toward Ocean Avenue and toward the south  High bluffs separate the north side of the city from the beaches  Santa Monica borders the L A  neighborhoods of Pacific Palisades to the north and Venice to the south  To the west, Santa Monica has a 3-mile coastline fronting Santa Monica Bay, and to the east of the city are the L A  communities of West Los Angeles and Brentwood 

Climate
Santa Monica has a coastal Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb)  It enjoys an average of 310 days of sunshine a year  It is in USDA plant hardiness zone 11a  Because of its location, nestled on the vast and open Santa Monica Bay, morning fog is a common phenomenon in May, June, July and early August (caused by ocean temperature variations and currents)  Like other inhabitants of the greater Los Angeles area, residents have a particular terminology for this phenomenon: the "May Gray", the "June Gloom" and even "Fogust"  Overcast skies are common on June mornings, but usually the strong sun burns the fog off by noon  In the late winter/early summer, daily fog is a phenomenon too  It happens suddenly and it may last some hours or past sunset time  Nonetheless, it will sometimes stay cloudy and cool all day during June, even as other parts of the Los Angeles area enjoy sunny skies and warmer temperatures  At times, the sun can be shining east of 20th Street while the beach area is overcast  As a general rule, the beach temperature is from 5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit (3 to 6 degrees Celsius) cooler than it is inland during summer days, and 5 to 10 degrees warmer during winter nights 
It is also in September that the highest temperatures tend to be reached  It is winter, however, when the hot, dry winds of the Santa Anas are most common  In contrast, temperatures exceeding 10 degrees below average are rare 

The rainy season is from late October through late March  Winter storms usually approach from the northwest and pass quickly through the Southland  There is very little rain during the rest of the year  Yearly rainfall totals are unpredictable as rainy years are occasionally followed by droughts  There has never been any snow or frost, but there has been hail 
Santa Monica usually enjoys cool breezes blowing in from the ocean, which tend to keep the air fresh and clean  Therefore, smog is less of a problem for Santa Monica than elsewhere around Los Angeles  However, from September through November, the Santa Ana winds sometimes blow from the east, bringing smoggy and hot inland air to the beaches 
The hottest temperature ever reported in Santa Monica was 100 °F (38 °C) on November 1, 1966, while the lowest is 33 °F (1 °C) on March 1, 1945, and again on March 21, 1952  The highest minimum temperature is 72 °F (22 °C) on October 24, 2007, and the lowest maximum temperature is 51 °F (11 °C) on 4 dates in February 2001 and again March 10, 2006  The snowiest months on record are January 1954 and March 1955, both with trace amounts  They are the only months to ever report snowfall  Many months have reported no rainfall at all  Conversely, the wettest month on record is January 1995 with a total of 17 82 inches (453 mm) of rainfall  The wettest year on record is 1998, with a total of 25 4 inches (650 mm) of rainfall; the driest is 1989, with a total of 4 04 inches (103 mm) of rainfall 

Environment
The city first proposed its Sustainable City Plan in 1992 and in 1994, was one of the first cities in the nation to formally adopt a comprehensive sustainability plan, setting waste reduction and water conservation policies for both public and private sector through its Office of Sustainability and the Environment  Eighty-two percent of the city's public works vehicles run on alternative fuels, including most of the municipal bus system, making it among the largest such fleets in the country  Santa Monica fleet vehicles and buses source their natural gas from Redeem, a Southern California-based supplier of renewable and sustainable natural gas obtained from non-fracked methane biogas generated from organic landfill waste Santa Monica adopted a Community Energy Independence Initiative, with a goal of achieving complete energy independence by 2020 (vs  California's already ambitious 33% renewables goal)  The city exceeded that aspiration when, in February 2019, it switched over to electricity from the Clean Power Alliance, with a citywide default of 100% renewably sourced energy   That same year, the Santa Monica City Council adopted a Climate Action and Adaptation Plan aimed at achieving an 80% cut in carbon emissions by 2030, and reaching community-wide carbon neutrality by 2050 or sooner 
An urban runoff facility (SMURFF), the first of its kind in the US, catches and treats 3 5 million US gallons (13,000 m3) of water each week that would otherwise flow into the bay via storm-drains and sells it back to end-users within the city for reuse as gray-water, while bioswales throughout the city allow rainwater to percolate into and replenish the groundwater  The groundwater supply plays an important role in the city's Sustainable Water Master Plan, whereby Santa Monica has set a goal of attaining 100% water independence by 2020  The city has numerous programs designed to promote water conservation among residents, including a rebate for those who convert lawns to drought-tolerant gardens that require less water 
Santa Monica has also instituted a green building-code whereby merely constructing to code automatically renders a building equivalent to the US Green Building Council's LEED Silver standards  The city's Main Library is one of many LEED certified or LEED equivalent buildings in the city  It is built over a 200,000 gallon cistern that collects filtered stormwater from the roof  The water is used for landscape irrigation 
Since 2009, Santa Monica has been developing the Zero Waste Strategic Operations Plan by which the city will set a goal of diverting at least 95% of all waste away from landfills, and toward recycling and composting, by 2030  The plan includes a food waste composting program, which diverts 3 million pounds of restaurant food waste away from landfills annually  As of 2013, 77% of all solid waste produced citywide is diverted from landfills Environmentally focused initiatives include curbside recycling, curbside composting bins (in addition to trash, yard-waste, and recycle bins), farmers' markets, community gardens, garden-share, an urban forest initiative, a hazardous materials home-collection service, and a green business certification As in other coastal beach communities, coastal erosion due to coastal infrastructure and high human usage is an increasing challenge, and will become worse due to sea level rise  Starting in 2016, local environmental groups began dune and beach restoration projects 

Demographics
2020
The  2020 United States Census reported Santa Monica had a population of 93,076  This corresponds to density of 11,067 3 people per square mile  The racial makeup of Santa Monica was 63,383 (68 1%) white, 8,602 (9 2%)  Asian, 3,776 (4 1%) Black or African American, 539 (0 6%) American Indian and Alaska Native, 123 (0 1%) Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 5,347 (5 7%) some other race, and 11,306 (12 1%) people were of two or more races Including all responses for people of two or more races, 73,996 (79 5%) were white alone or in combination with one or more other races, 11,864 (12 7%) were Asian alone or in combination with one or more other races, 5,459 (5 9%) were Black or African American alone or in combination, 1,877 (2 0%) were American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in combination, 415 (0 4%) were Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander alone or in combination, and 11,619 (12 5%) were some other race alone or in combination with one or more other races 13,544 (14 6%) were  Hispanic or  Latino of any race  Of those, 2,729 (2 9% of the total population) were white alone, 153 (0 2%) were Black or African American alone, 410 (0 4%) were American Indian and Alaska Native alone, 136 (0 1%) were Asian alone, 14 (0 0%) were Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone, 4,542 (4 9%) were some other race alone, and 5,560 (6 0%) were two or more races The census reported that Santa Monica had 52,389 housing units  Of those, 47,438 (90 5%) were occupied  12,856 (27 1%) of the occupied units were owner-occupied and 34,582 (72 9%) were renter-occupied  Of the vacant units, 2,540 (4 8% of total) were for rent, 230 (0 4%) were rented but not occupied, 183 (0 3%) were for sale only, 205 (0 4%) were sold but not occupied, 693 (1 3%) were for seasonal, recreational, or occasional use, and 1,100 (2 1%) were otherwise vacant  94 8% of households had a computer between 2017 and 2021, and 91 0% had broadband internet access 

2010
The 2010 United States Census reported Santa Monica had a population of 89,736  The population density was 10,662 6 inhabitants per square mile (4,116 9/km2)  The racial makeup of Santa Monica was 69,663 (77 6%) White (70 1% Non-Hispanic White), 3,526 (3 9%) African American, 338 (0 4%) Native American, 8,053 (9 0%) Asian, 124 (0 1%) Pacific Islander, 4,047 (4 5%) from other races, and 3,985 (4 4%) from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11,716 persons (13 1%), with Mexican Americans, Spanish Americans, and Argentine Americans making up 64 2%, 6 4%, and 4 7% of the Hispanic population respectively The Census reported 87,610 people (97 6% of the population) lived in households, 1,299 (1 4%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 827 (0 9%) were institutionalized 
There were 46,917 households, out of which 7,835 (16 7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,092 (27 9%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,510 (7 5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,327 (2 8%) had a male householder with no wife present  There were 2,867 (6 1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 416 (0 9%) same-sex married couples or partnerships  22,716 households (48 4%) were made up of individuals, and 5,551 (11 8%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 1 87  There were 17,929 families (38 2% of all households); the average family size was 2 79 
The population was spread out, with 12,580 people (14 0%) under the age of 18, 6,442 people (7 2%) aged 18 to 24, 32,552 people (36 3%) aged 25 to 44, 24,746 people (27 6%) aged 45 to 64, and 13,416 people (15 0%) who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 40 4 years  For every 100 females, there were 93 2 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91 2 males 
There were 50,912 housing units at an average density of 6,049 5 per square mile (2,335 7/km2), of which 13,315 (28 4%) were owner-occupied, and 33,602 (71 6%) were occupied by renters  The homeowner vacancy rate was 1 1%; the rental vacancy rate was 5 1%  30,067 people (33 5% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 57,543 people (64 1%) lived in rental housing units 
According to the 2010 United States Census, Santa Monica had a median household income of $73,649, with 11 2% of the population living below the federal poverty line 

2000
As of the census of 2000, there were 84,084 people, 44,497 households, and 16,775 families in the city  The population density was 10,178 7 inhabitants per square mile (3,930 0 inhabitants/km2)  There were 47,863 housing units at an average density of 5,794 0 per square mile (2,237 1/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 78 29% White, 7



ground_truth: 1986

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the explorer reach the headquarters location of the group Con-Test's record label is part of?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 25% Asian, 3 78% African American, 0 47% Native American, 0 10% Pacific Islander, 5 97% from other races, and 4 13% from two or more races  13 44% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race 
There were 44,497 households, out of which 15 8% had children under the age of 18, 27 5% were married couples living together, 7 5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 62 3% were non-families  51 2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 1 83 and the average family size was 2 80 
The city of Santa Monica is consistently among the most educated cities in the United States, with 23 8 percent of all residents holding graduate degrees The population was diverse in age, with 14 6% under 18, 6 1% from 18 to 24, 40 1% from 25 to 44, 24 8% from 45 to 64, and 14 4% 65 years or older  The median age was 39 years  For every 100 females, there were 93 0 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91 3 males 
According to a 2009 estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $71,095, and the median income for a family was $109,410  Males had a median income of $55,689 versus $42,948 for females  The per capita income for the city was $42,874  10 4% of the population and 5 4% of families were below the poverty line  Out of the total population, 9 9% of those under the age of 18 and 10 2% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line 

Crime
In 2006, crime in Santa Monica affected 4 41% of the population, slightly lower than the national average crime rate that year of 4 48%  The majority of this was property crime, which affected 3 74% of Santa Monica's population in 2006; this was higher than the rates for Los Angeles County (2 76%) and California (3 17%), but lower than the national average (3 91%)  These per-capita crime rates are computed based on Santa Monica's full-time population of about 85,000  However, the Santa Monica Police Department has suggested the actual per-capita crime rate is much lower, as tourists, workers, and beachgoers can increase the city's daytime population to between 250,000 and 450,000 people Hate crime has typically been minimal in Santa Monica, with only one reported incident in 2007  The city experienced a spike of anti-Islamic hate crime in 2001 after the September 11 attacks, but hate crime levels returned to their minimal 2000 levels by 2002 
Gang activityThe Pico neighborhood of Santa Monica (south of the Santa Monica Freeway) experiences some gang activity  The city estimates there are about 50 gang members based in Santa Monica, although some community organizers dispute this claim  Gang activity has been prevalent for decades in the Pico neighborhood 
In October 1998, alleged Culver City 13 gang member Omar Sevilla of Culver City was killed  A couple of hours after the shooting of Sevilla, German tourist Horst Fietze was killed  Several days later Juan Martin Campos, a Santa Monica city employee, was shot and killed  Police believe this was a retaliatory killing in response to Sevilla's killing  Less than 24 hours later, Javier Cruz was wounded in a drive-by shooting outside his home on 17th and Michigan In 1998, there was a double homicide in the Westside Clothing store on Lincoln Boulevard  During the incident, Culver City gang members David "Puppet" Robles and Jesse "Psycho" Garcia entered the store masked and began opening fire, killing Anthony and Michael Juarez  Police say the incident was in retaliation for a shooting committed by the Santa Monica 13 gang days before the Juarez brothers were shot down 

Homeless population
In 2022, there were 826 homeless individuals in Santa Monica 

Economy
Santa Monica is home to the headquarters of many notable businesses, such as Beachbody, Fatburger, Hulu, Illumination, Otter Media, Lionsgate, Macerich, Miramax, CBS Media Ventures, the RAND Corporation, Saban Capital Group, The Recording Academy (which presents the annual Grammy Awards), TOMS Shoes, and Universal Music Group  Atlantic Aviation is at the Santa Monica Airport  The National Public Radio member station KCRW is on the Santa Monica College campus  VCA Animal Hospitals is just outside the eastern city limit A number of game development studios are based in Santa Monica, making it a major location for the industry  These include:

Activision Blizzard (which includes Activision)
Cloud Imperium Games (Creators of Star Citizen)
Naughty Dog (Creators of Crash Bandicoot (1996–1999), Jak & Daxter, Uncharted and The Last of Us franchises)
PUBG Corporation (North American station, developed Miramar map in PUBG)
Riot Games, the creator of League of Legends, is just outside the eastern city limit 
TreyarchRecently, Santa Monica has emerged as the center of the Los Angeles region called Silicon Beach, and serves as the home of hundreds of venture capital funded startup companies 
Former Santa Monica businesses include Douglas Aircraft (now merged with Boeing), GeoCities (which in December 1996 was headquartered on the third floor of 1918 Main Street in Santa Monica), Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and MySpace (now headquartered in Beverly Hills) 

Top employers
According to the city's 2022 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top employers in the city were:

Arts and culture
The Santa Monica Looff Hippodrome (carousel) is a National Historic Landmark  It sits on the Santa Monica Pier, which was built in 1909  The La Monica Ballroom on the pier was once the largest ballroom in the US and the source for many New Year's Eve national network broadcasts 
The Santa Monica Civic Auditorium was an important music venue for several decades and hosted the Academy Awards in the 1960s  McCabe's Guitar Shop is a leading acoustic performance space as well as retail outlet  The Santa Monica Playhouse is a popular theater in the city 
Bergamot Station is a city-owned art gallery compound that includes the Santa Monica Museum of Art  The city is also home to the California Heritage Museum and the Angels Attic dollhouse and toy museum 

The New West Symphony is the resident orchestra of Barnum Hall  They are also resident orchestra of the Oxnard Performing Arts Center and the Thousand Oaks Civic Arts Plaza 
Santa Monica hosts the annual Santa Monica Film Festival The city's oldest movie theater is the Majestic  Opened in 1912 and also known as the Mayfair Theatre, it has been closed since the 1994 Northridge earthquake  The Aero Theater (now operated by the American Cinematheque) and Criterion Theater were built in the 1930s and still show movies 
Notable restaurants have included Madame Wu's Garden, Batterfish, Stout Burgers and Beers, and The Misfit 

Shopping districts
Santa Monica has three main shopping districts: Montana Avenue on the north side, the Downtown District in the city's core, and Main Street on the south end  Each has its own unique feel and personality  Montana Avenue is a stretch of luxury boutique stores, restaurants, and small offices that generally features more upscale shopping  The Main Street district offers an eclectic mix of clothing, restaurants, and other specialty retail 
The Downtown District is the home of the Third Street Promenade, a major outdoor pedestrian-only shopping district that stretches for three blocks between Wilshire Blvd  and Broadway  Third Street is closed to vehicles for those three blocks to allow people to stroll, congregate, shop and enjoy street performers 
The Santa Monica Place, featuring Bloomingdale's and Nordstrom in a three-level outdoor environment, is at the Promenade's southern end  After a period of redevelopment, the mall reopened in the fall of 2010 as a modern shopping, entertainment and dining complex with more outdoor space 

Public library system
The Santa Monica Public Library consists of a Main Library in the downtown area, plus four neighborhood branches: Fairview, Montana Avenue, Ocean Park, and Pico Boulevard 

Sports
The men's and women's marathon ran through parts of Santa Monica during the 1984 Summer Olympics  The Santa Monica Track Club has many prominent track athletes, including many Olympic gold medalists  Santa Monica is the home to Southern California Aquatics, which was founded by Olympic swimmer Clay Evans and Bonnie Adair  Santa Monica is also home to the Santa Monica Rugby Club, a semi-professional team that competes in the Pacific Rugby Premiership, the highest-level rugby union club competition in the United States 
During the 2028 Summer Olympics, Santa Monica will host beach volleyball and surfing 

Parks and recreation
Palisades Park stretches out along the crumbling bluffs overlooking the Pacific and is a favorite walking area to view the ocean  It includes public art, a totem pole, camera obscura, benches, picnic areas, pétanque courts, and restrooms 
Tongva Park occupies 6 acres between Ocean Avenue and Main Street, just south of Colorado Avenue  The park includes an overlook, amphitheater, playground, garden, fountains, picnic areas, and restrooms 
The Santa Monica Stairs, a long, steep staircase that leads from north of San Vicente down into Santa Monica Canyon, is a popular spot for outdoor workouts  Some area residents have complained that the stairs have become too popular, and attract too many exercisers to the wealthy neighborhood of multimillion-dollar properties Ishihara Park opened to the public in 2017 and acts as a buffer between the Los Angeles Metro Rail and the surrounding residential community 

Government
Local government
Santa Monica is governed by the Santa Monica City Council, a Council-Manager governing body with seven members elected at-large  The mayor is Gleam Davis, and the Mayor Pro Tempore is Lana Negrete  The other five council members are Phil Brock, Christine Parra, Oscar de la Torre, Jesse Zwick and Caroline Torosis 

Representation
In the California State Legislature, Santa Monica is in the  26th Senate District, represented by Democrat María Elena Durazo, and in the  50th Assembly District, represented by Democrat Eloise Reyes In the United States House of Representatives, Santa Monica is in California's  36th congressional district, represented by Democrat Ted Lieu 

Education
Public schools
The Santa Monica–Malibu Unified School District provides public education at the elementary and secondary levels  In addition to the traditional model of early education school houses, SMASH (Santa Monica Alternative School House) is "a K–8 public school of choice with team teachers and multi-aged classrooms"  The district maintains eight elementary schools, three middle schools, and three high schools in Santa Monica 

Private schools
Private schools in the city include Crossroads School and Saint Monica Catholic High School 
Asahi Gakuen, a weekend Japanese supplementary school system, operates its Santa Monica campus (サンタモニカ校･高等部 Santamonika-kō kōtōbu) at Webster Middle in the Sawtelle neighborhood of Los Angeles  All high school classes in the Asahi Gakuen system are held at the Santa Monica campus 

Post-secondary
Santa Monica College is a community college founded in 1929  Many SMC graduates transfer to the University of California system  It occupies 35 acres (14 hectares) and enrolls 30,000 students annually  The Frederick S  Pardee RAND Graduate School, associated with the RAND Corporation, is the U S 's largest producer of public policy PhDs  The Art Institute of California – Los Angeles is also in Santa Monica near the Santa Monica Airport 
Universities and colleges within a 22-mile (35 km) radius from Santa Monica include Santa Monica College, Antioch University Los Angeles, Loyola Marymount University, Mount St  Mary's University, Pepperdine University, California State University, Northridge, California State University, Los Angeles, UCLA, USC, West Los Angeles College, California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Occidental College (Oxy), Los Angeles City College, Los Angeles Southwest College, Los Angeles Valley College, and Emperor's College of Traditional Oriental Medicine 

Infrastructure
Transportation
Bicycles
Santa Monica has a bike action plan and launched a bicycle sharing system in November 2015  The city is traversed by the Marvin Braude Bike Trail  Santa Monica has received the Bicycle Friendly Community Award (Bronze in 2009, Silver in 2013) by the League of American Bicyclists  Local bicycle advocacy organizations include Santa Monica Spoke, a local chapter of the Los Angeles County Bicycle Coalition  Santa Monica is thought to be one of the leaders for bicycle infrastructure and programming in Los Angeles County although cycling infrastructure in Los Angeles County in general remains very poor compared to other major cities The city implemented a 5-year and 20-year Bike Action Plan with a goal of attaining 14 to 35% bicycle transportation mode share by 2030 through the installation of enhanced bicycle infrastructure throughout the city   In 2023, Santa Monica scored near the 90th percentile of cities surveyed in the PeopleForBikes City Ratings, which measures the quality of a city’s bike network In terms of number of bicycle accidents, Santa Monica ranks as one of the worst (#2) out of 102 California cities with population 50,000–100,000, a ranking consistent with the city's composite ranking 
In 2007 and 2008, local police cracked down on Santa Monica Critical Mass rides that had become controversial, putting a damper on the tradition 

Highways
The Santa Monica Freeway (Interstate 10) begins in Santa Monica near the Pacific Ocean and heads east  The Santa Monica Freeway between Santa Monica and downtown Los Angeles has the distinction of being one of the busiest highways in all of North America  After traversing the Greater Los Angeles area, I-10 crosses seven more states, terminating at Jacksonville, Florida  In Santa Monica, there is a road sign designating this route as the Christopher Columbus Transcontinental Highway  State Route 2 (Santa Monica Boulevard) begins in Santa Monica, barely grazing State Route 1 at Lincoln Boulevard, and continues northeast across Los Angeles County, through the Angeles National Forest, crossing the San Gabriel Mountains as the Angeles Crest Highway, ending in Wrightwood  Santa Monica is also the western terminus of Historic U S  Route 66  Close to the eastern boundary of Santa Monica, Sepulveda Boulevard reaches from Long Beach at the south, to the northern end of the San Fernando Valley  Just east of Santa Monica is Interstate 405, the San Diego Freeway, a major north–south route in Los Angeles and Orange counties 

Motorized vehicles
Santa Monica has purchased the first ZeroTruck all-electric medium-duty truck  The vehicle will be equipped with a Scelzi utility body, it is based on the Isuzu N series chassis, a UQM PowerPhase 100 advanced electric motor and is the only US built electric truck offered for sale in the United States in 2009 

Bus
The city of Santa Monica runs its own bus service, the Big Blue Bus, which also serves much of West Los Angeles and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)  A Big Blue Bus was featured prominently in the action movie Speed 
The city of Santa Monica is also served by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority's (Metro) bus lines  Metro also complements Big Blue service, as when Big Blue routes are not operational overnight, Metro buses make many Big Blue Bus stops, in addition to MTA stops 

Light rail
Design and construction on the 6 6-mile extension (10 6 km) of the Expo Line from Culver City to Santa Monica started in September 2011, with service beginning on May 20, 2016  Santa Monica Metro stations include Downtown Santa Monica, 17th Street/SMC, and 26th Street/Bergamot  Travel time between Downtown Santa Monica station and 7th Street/Metro Center station in Downtown Los Angeles is approximately 46 minutes, while the travel time between the downtown Santa Monica station and the terminal Atlantic station in East Los Angeles is approximately 1 hour and 9 minutes 
Historical aspects of the Expo line route are noteworthy  It uses the former Los Angeles region's electric interurban Pacific Electric Railway's right-of-way that ran from the Exposition Park area of Los Angeles to Santa Monica  This route was called the Santa Monica Air Line and provided electric-powered freight and passenger service between Los Angeles and Santa Monica beginning in the 1920s  Passenger service was discontinued in 1953, but diesel-powered freight deliveries to warehouses along the route continued until March 11, 1988  The abandonment of the line spurred future transportation considerations and concerns within the community, and the entire right-of-way was purchased from Southern Pacific by Los Angeles Metropolitan Transportation Authority  The line was built in 1875 as the steam-powered Los Angeles and Independence Railroad to bring mining ore to ships in Santa Monica harbor and as a passenger excursion train to the beach 

Airport and ports
The city owns and operates a general aviation airport, Santa Monica Airport, which has been the site of several important aviation achievements  Commercial flights are available for residents at LAX, a few miles south of Santa Monica 
Like other cities in Los Angeles County, Santa Monica is dependent upon the Port of Long Beach and the Port of Los Angeles for international ship cargo  In the 1890s, Santa Monica was once in competition with Wilmington, California, and San Pedro for recognition as the "Port of Los Angeles" (see History of Santa Monica, California) 

Other
Since the mid-1980s, various proposals have been made to extend the Purple Line subway to Santa Monica under Wilshire Boulevard  There are no current plans to complete the "subway to the sea," an estimated $5 billion project In August 2018, Santa Monica issued permits to Bird, Lime, Lyft, and Jump Bikes to operate dockless scooter-sharing systems in the city  As of April 2023, Lyft, Spin, Veo, and Wheels are licensed to provide micro-mobility transportation in city 

Emergency services
Two major hospitals are within the Santa Monica city limits, UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica and Saint John's Health Center  Four fire stations provide medical and fire response, staffed with six Paramedic Engines, a Truck company, a Hazardous Materials team and an Urban Search & Rescue team  Santa Monica Fire Department has its own Dispatch Center  Ambulance transportation is provided by McCormick Ambulance Services Law enforcement services are provided by the Santa Monica Police Department
The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Simms/Mann Health and Wellness Center in Santa Monica  The Department's West Area Health Office is in the Simms/Mann Center 

Internet services
Santa Monica has a municipal wireless network which provides several free city Wi-Fi hotspots distributed around the city 

In popular culture
Film and television
Hundreds of moving pictures have been shot or set in part in Santa Monica 

Films
One of the oldest exterior shots in Santa Monica is Buster Keaton's Spite Marriage (1929) which shows much of 2nd Street  The comedy It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963) included several scenes shot in Santa Monica, including those along the California Incline, which led to the movie's treasure spot, "The Big W"  The Sylvester Stallone film Rocky III (1982) shows Rocky Balboa and Apollo Creed training to fight Clubber Lang by running on the Santa Monica Beach, and Stallone's Demolition Man (1993) includes Santa Monica settings  In Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985), the theft of Pee-wee's bike occurs on the Third Street Promenade  Henry Jaglom's indie Someone to Love (1987), the last film in which Orson Welles appeared, takes place in Santa Monica's venerable Mayfair Theatre  Heathers (1988) used Santa Monica's John Adams Middle School for many exterior shots  The Truth About Cats & Dogs (1996) is set entirely in Santa Monica, particularly the Palisades Park area, and features a radio station that resembles KCRW at Santa Monica College  17 Again (2009) was shot at Samohi  Other films that show significant exterior shots of Santa Monica include Fletch (1985), Species (1995), Get Shorty (1995), and Ocean's Eleven (2001)  Richard Rossi's biopic Aimee Semple McPherson opens and closes at the beach in Santa Monica  Iron Man features the Santa Monica pier and surrounding communities as Tony Stark tests his experimental flight suit 
The documentary Dogtown and Z-Boys (2001) and the related dramatic film Lords of Dogtown (2005) are both about the influential skateboarding culture of Santa Monica's Ocean Park neighborhood in the 1970s 
Santa Monica (and in particular the Santa Monica Airport) was featured in Roland Emmerich's disaster film 2012 (2009)  A magnitude 10 9 earthquake destroys the airport and the surrounding area as a group of survivors escape in a personal plane  The Santa Monica Pier and the whole city sinks into the Pacific Ocean after the earthquake 

Television
A number of television series have been set in Santa Monica, including Baywatch, Goliath, Pacific Blue (1996-2000), Private Practice (2007-2013), and Three's Company (1977-1984)  The Santa Monica pier is shown in the main theme of CBS series NCIS: Los Angeles  In Buffy the Vampire Slayer, the main exterior set of the town of Sunnydale that includes the infamous "sun sign", was in Santa Monica in a lot on Olympic Boulevard 

Literature
Horace McCoy's 1935 novel They Shoot Horses, Don't They? is set at a dance marathon held in a ballroom on the Santa Monica Pier 
Raymond Chandler's most famous character, private detective Philip Marlowe, frequently has a portion of his adventures in a place called "Bay City", which is modeled on Depression-era Santa Monica  In Marlowe's world, Bay City is "a wide-open town", where gambling and other crimes thrive due to a massively corrupt and ineffective police force 
Tennessee Williams lived (while working at MGM Studios) in a hotel on Ocean Avenue in the 1940s  At that location he wrote the play The Glass Menagerie (that premiered in 1944)  His short story "The Mattress by the Tomato Patch" (1954) is set near Santa Monica Beach and mentions the clock visible in much of the city, high up on The Broadway Building, on Broadway near Second Street 

Music
Notable locationsThe band Linkin Park is named in homage to Santa Monica's Lincoln Park (now called Christine Emerson Reed Park) 
The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences is based in Santa Monica on Olympic Boulevard 
Universal Music Group is based in Santa Monica  Several of its labels, such as A&M Records, Aftermath Entertainment (started by Dr  Dre), G-Unit Records (created by 50 Cent & Sha Money XL), Geffen Records, Interscope (started by Jimmy Iovine), and Shady Records, are based in Santa Monica, CA 

Works
The folk Australian duo Angus and Julia Stone has a single titled "Santa Monica Dream" on its album Down the Way 
The ska/reggae band Bedouin Soundclash has a song called "Santa Monica" 
The band Everclear released a song titled "Santa Monica" in 1995, which became their first mainstream hit 
The British singer-songwriter Noel Harrison released a song and album titled Santa Monica Pier (1968) 
In 1948, bandleader Kay Kyser released a 78 record of the novelty song "When Veronica Plays the Harmonica (Down at the Pier in Santa Monica)" 
One of the few songs musical satirist Tom Lehrer has recorded since the 1970s is a tribute to the holidays of the Jewish calendar called "I'm Spending Hanukkah in Santa Monica" 
Richard Rossi released a song called "Santa Monica," celebrating the Santa Monica Pier, on his album Seasons of My Heart 
The band Savage Garden released a song titled "Santa Monica" from its album Savage Garden (1997) 
The modern rock band Theory of a Deadman's song "Santa Monica" is a first-person account of a girl leaving her significant other to start a new life in Santa Monica 
French Rapper Moha La Squale released the song "Santa Monica" in 2019 

Notable people
Sister cities
Mazatlán, Mexico
 Hamm, Germany
 Fujinomiya, Japan

See also
2013 Santa Monica shootings
Aragon Ballroom (Ocean Park, Santa Monica, California)
Arcadia Bandini de Stearns Baker, co-founder and benefactress of Santa Monica
List of cities and towns in California
List of City of Santa Monica Designated Historic Landmarks
List of people from Santa Monica, California
List of public art in Santa Monica, California
Muscle Beach
Passage 7:
The Right Stuff Records
The Right Stuff Records is an American reissue record label that was part of EMI, which is now owned by Universal Music Group and is based out of Santa Monica, California 
The label primarily released classic rock and R&B repertoire which included greatest hits collections, anthologies, boxed sets and compilations  The Right Stuff's repertoire was sourced from the various labels owned by EMI Records and also leased-in labels such as Dick Griffey's SOLAR (the Sound of Los Angeles Records), the post-1976 Philadelphia International Records, Hi Records, Tabu Records and Salsoul Records  The label also owned Leon Russell and Denny Cordell's Shelter Records and the New  York-based Laurie Records  The label also created many joint venture projects with outside brands such as Harley-Davidson, Hot Rod Magazine, Shape Magazine, and others  The label was started by former EMI and Capitol Records executive Tom Cartwright 

Selected artists on reissues



ground_truth: August 3, 1769