prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The rapper who owns Aspiro was inspired by what when writing Song Cry?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Walk It Talk It
"Walk It Talk It" is a song by American hip hop trio Migos featuring Canadian rapper Drake  The single was released on March 18, 2018  It was included on the trio's third studio album, Culture II (2018)  After the album's release, it debuted at number 18 and later peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 after its release as the third single  The song was produced by frequent collaborators OG Parker and Deko 

Background
The song is the sixth track on Migos' third studio album Culture II, which was released in January 2018  It has become one of the more popular songs on the album, being the third-highest charting of all the songs, following "Stir Fry", which peaked at number eight on the Hot 100, and "MotorSport", which reached number six  American pop star Britney Spears, used elements of the song in a remix of her hit-single "I'm a Slave 4 U" during her Piece of Me Tour 

Music video
The music video, directed by Daps and Quavo, debuted on Migos' official Vevo channel on March 18, 2018  The video features guest appearances from Jamie Foxx and labelmate Lil Yachty  In the video, the trio and Drake perform on a fictional dance-themed show called Culture Ride (inspired by Soul Train), with Jamie Foxx playing fictional host Ron Delirious (a pun of the late Soul Train host Don Cornelius)  In an interview conducted by Genius, Daps said that the whole video was shot on Beta Tape, which is why the highest quality is 480p on YouTube 

Lawsuit
In October 2018, the group was sued by rapper M O S, who claimed that the song is similar to his 2007 song "Walk It Like I Talk It"  The lawsuit was later dismissed 

Charts
Certifications
Release history
Passage 2:
Song Cry
"Song Cry" is a song by American rapper Jay-Z and produced by Just Blaze  It was released on April 16, 2002  It was the fourth and final single from his sixth studio album The Blueprint and also appears on the 2001 live album Jay-Z: Unplugged 
"Song Cry" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Male Rap Solo Performance but lost to "Hot in Herre" by Nelly  The song samples Bobby Glenn's "Sounds Like a Love Song" 

Background and content
In an interview with Bill Maher, Jay-Z stated that this song was actually inspired by three different relationships he had in the past, and he wrote about his different experiences all together in different verses 
The song is a slow and quiet melodic rap ballad in which Jay-Z laments the break-up of an earlier relationship due to his own neglect and infidelity  Admitting that he is too prideful to publicly display his emotions ("I can't see 'em coming down my eyes"), Jay-Z forces the song to "cry" instead  This allows Jay-Z to mourn the break-up free of any damage to his masculine image as a street hustler  This furthers the notion that emotional vulnerability is a sign of weakness, especially within the Black community, as Black men in particular suppress vulnerability "in order to survive "

Live performances
The live performance of "Song Cry" from Jay-Z's 2001 MTV Unplugged album features female vocalist Jaguar Wright singing a sample of "Sounds Like a Love Song" by Bobby Glenn, though Wright is not identified in the liner notes of the album During his 2006 Water for Life Tour, Jay-Z performed "Song Cry" at the Royal Albert Hall, the venue's first ever hip hop show  American actress Gwyneth Paltrow did the chorus The song was also included on the set-lists of his all-stadium tours On the Run Tour in 2014 and OTR II in 2018, both with co-headliner and wife Beyoncé 

Credits and personnel
The credits for "Song Cry" are adapted from the liner notes of The Blueprint 
Studio locationsMastered at Masterdisk, New York City, New York 
Mixed and recorded at Baseline Studios, New York City, New York PersonnelJay-Z – songwriting, vocals
Just Blaze – production, songwriting
Douglas Gibbs – songwriting
Ralph Johnson – songwriting
Young Guru – recording
Shane Woodley – recording assistant
Jason Goldstein – mixing
Tony Dawsey – masteringSamples"Song Cry" contains samples of "Sounds Like a Love Song", as performed by Bobby Glenn and written by Douglas Gibbs and Ralph Johnson 

Charts
See also
List of songs recorded by Jay-Z
Passage 3:
Toot It and Boot It
"Toot It and Boot It" is the debut single by American rapper YG featuring vocals and production from American singer Ty$ (Ty Dolla Sign), taken from the former's second mixtape The Real 4Fingaz (2010)  The song was officially released as on June 8, 2010 by Def Jam Recordings  The song peaked at number 67 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 12 on the US Hot Rap Songs chart  An official remix along with its music video was released, featuring additional appearances from fellow American rappers 50 Cent and Snoop Dogg  The song features samples of "Songs In the Wind" by The Association, part of their 1966 album Renaissance  The track was later sampled on "Young, Wild & Free" by Snoop Dogg and Wiz Khalifa ft  Bruno Mars 

Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Passage 4:
Drop (Rich Boy song)
"Drop" is a song by American rapper Rich Boy featuring Polow da Don  The song, produced by Cha-Lo, was released as a single on January 20, 2009, under Interscope Records The single charted on Billboard's Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles chart where it was peaked at #1 during the week of February 28, 2009 The song is also known for being widely used by other rappers to freestyle over, including Kid Cudi, Cassidy, Childish Gambino, Jay Rock, as well as Earl Sweatshirt of OFWGKTA 

Charts
Passage 5:
It's Good
"It's Good" is a song by American rapper Lil Wayne featuring fellow American rapper Jadakiss and Canadian rapper Drake  The fourteenth track off the former's Wayne's ninth studio album, Tha Carter IV  it was solicited to radio on September 13, 2011 as the album's fifth single 

Critical reception
Allmusic complimented "It's Good" and said it was a track to "marvel" at it also commented on the controversial lyrics by saying the track is "where a Jay-Z diss meets an Alan Parsons sample"  Chicago Tribune reviewed Lil Wayne's part of the song saying "Next to Drake (and Jadakiss), Wayne just sounds petty  It’s a telling role reversal: once Wayne used to hop on other rappers’ tracks and blow them away  Now his guests magnify his lack of engagement " Pitchfork complimented Drake's verses by saying "And it's Drake who provides the record's most impassioned verse about his mentor's 2010 prison stint for criminal gun possession: "Rikers Island on this flow, eight months for that pistol/ But at least they had some bad bitches workin' in that shit hole "

Controversy
"It's Good" gained considerable notice on various social networks because a portion of the song's lyrics performed by Lil Wayne in which he raps "I got your baby money / Kidnap your bitch, get that how much you love your lady money" which has been interpreted by various sources to be a response back at Jay-Z's verse on H A M  from Watch the Throne in which he raps "Really you got baby money     You ain't got my lady's money " Kanye West played the track for Wayne but his response was "I wouldn’t ask him about a Jay-Z line because he’s not Jay-Z " Lil Wayne further elaborated on the alleged attack by saying "I know there won’t be any repercussions behind what I did  I know for a fact music is about perception  You can’t do anything but perceive what you hear  I know that for a fact  So I can’t ever be upset about someone’s reaction  I’m not going to say I don’t know what would happen before I even say [something on record]  I do know what will happen  I’m aware of it  But it is what it is " Jadakiss has distanced himself from all conflict as well and commented that he isn't involved on any attack on any rap artist  Slant commented on the alleged attack by saying that the track "generated more buzz than any other track on Tha Carter IV, not because it's especially good, but because Wayne appears to take some shots at Jay-Z, referencing an ongoing feud about who makes more money and maybe threatening to kidnap and ransom Beyoncé ("Kidnap your bitch/Get that 'How much you love your lady?' money") 

Chart performance
Release history
Passage 6:
Big Girls Don't Cry (Lynn Anderson song)
"Big Girls Don't Cry" is a single by American country music artist Lynn Anderson  Released in July 1968, it was the first single from her album Big Girls Don't Cry  The song peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart  It also reached number 1 on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada The song should not be confused with the 1962 Four Seasons hit of the same name 

Chart performance
Passage 7:
O S T R 
Adam Andrzej Ostrowski (Polish pronunciation: [ˈadam ɔsˈtrɔfskʲi], born 15 May 1980 in Łódź, Poland), better known as O S T R , is a Polish rapper, musician, audio engineer and record producer, famous for his freestyle rap skills, ambitious lyrics and unique beats  He graduated from the Academy of Music in Łódź, violin class  He is one of the few Polish rappers who have received professional musical education  
He has collaborated with American rappers such as Evidence, El Da Sensei, Craig G, Keith Murray, Jeru The Damaja, Lil' Dap, Sadat X and Canadian producer Marco Polo 
He has also collaborated with many Polish artists, including jazz musicians Michał Urbaniak, Hades, SOFA, Fokus, DJ Deszczu Strugi, DonGURALesko, Vienio i Pelson, Fu, Pezet, Sistars and Slums Attack  He is a member of bands such as Tabasko, Skill Mega, Killing Skills, Beat Brothers and musical project POE  He is also a former member of Obóz TA and LWC  In 2013, he shared the position of art director of Męskie Granie festival with alternative rock vocalist Kasia Nosowska 

Discography
Studio albums
Collaborative albums
Live albums
Music videos
Movies
Z odzysku (2006, as himself)
Ziomek (2006, voice)
Passage 8:
I Guess I'll Have to Cry, Cry, Cry
"I Guess I'll Have to Cry, Cry, Cry" is a song written and performed by James Brown  Released as a single in 1968, it charted #15 R&B and #55 Pop This song is noted as the last single by Brown to give label credit to his vocal group, The Famous Flames  Although they technically stopped singing on Brown's singles in 1964, The Flames, Bobby Byrd, Bobby Bennett, and Lloyd Stallworth, were still together, touring as a live performance group with Brown, and Byrd continued to sing on record with him  In 1968, however, The Flames all left Brown, citing monetary differences, and although Byrd returned 18 months later, the other members never returned  All of Brown's King Records singles from this point on, starting with Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud, gave him sole label credit The Wailers recorded a reggae version of the song under the title "My Cup" on their 1970 album Soul Rebels 
Passage 9:
Kanye West
Ye ( YAY; born Kanye Omari West  KAHN-yay; June 8, 1977) is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, and fashion designer Born in Atlanta and raised in Chicago, West gained recognition as a producer for Roc-A-Fella Records in the early 2000s, producing singles for several artists and developing the "chipmunk soul" sampling style  Intent on pursuing a solo career as a rapper, he released his debut studio album, The College Dropout (2004), to critical and commercial success  He founded the record label GOOD Music later that year  West explored diverse musical elements like orchestras, synthesizers, and autotune on the albums Late Registration (2005), Graduation (2007), and 808s & Heartbreak (2008)  His fifth and sixth albums My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy (2010) and Yeezus (2013) were also met with critical and commercial success  West further diversified his musical styles on The Life of Pablo (2016) and Ye (2018) and explored Christian and gospel music on Jesus Is King (2019)  His tenth album Donda (2021) was released to continued commercial success but mixed critical reception  West's discography also includes the two full-length collaborative albums Watch the Throne (2011) with Jay-Z and Kids See Ghosts (2018) with Kid Cudi 
One of the world's best-selling music artists, with over 160 million records sold, West has won 24 Grammy Awards and 75 nominations, the joint tenth-most of all time, and the joint-most Grammy awards of any rapper along with Jay-Z  Among his other awards are the Billboard Artist Achievement Award, a joint-record three Brit Awards for Best International Male Solo Artist and the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award  Six of West's albums were included on Rolling Stone's 2020 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list with the same publication naming him one of the 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time  He holds the joint record (with Bob Dylan) for most albums (4) topping the annual Pazz & Jop critic poll  Time named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2005 and 2015  As a fashion designer, he has collaborated with Nike, Louis Vuitton, Gap, and A P C  on clothing and footwear and led the Yeezy collaboration with Adidas  He is also the founder and head of the creative content company Donda 
West's outspoken views have received significant media coverage; he has been a frequent source of controversy due to his conduct on social media and at awards shows and public settings, as well as his comments on the music and fashion industries, U S  politics, race, and slavery  His Christian faith, high-profile marriage to Kim Kardashian, and mental health have also been topics of media attention  In 2020, West launched an unsuccessful independent presidential campaign that primarily advocated for a consistent life ethic  In 2022, he was widely condemned and lost many sponsors and partnerships—including his collaborations with Adidas, Gap, and Balenciaga—after making a series of antisemitic statements  In November 2022, he announced his 2024 presidential campaign, appearing publicly with Nick Fuentes, a white supremacist  West later publicly praised Adolf Hitler, denied the Holocaust, and identified as a Nazi 

Early life
West was born on June 8, 1977, in Atlanta, Georgia  After his parents divorced when he was three years old, he moved with his mother to Chicago, Illinois  His father, Ray West, is a former Black Panther and was one of the first black photojournalists at The Atlanta Journal-Constitution  Ray later became a Christian counselor, and in 2006, opened the Good Water Store and Café in Lexington Park, Maryland, with startup capital from his son  West's mother, Donda C  West (née Williams), was a professor of English at Clark Atlanta University and the Chair of the English Department at Chicago State University before retiring to serve as his manager 
West was raised in a middle-class environment, attending Polaris School for Individual Education in suburban Oak Lawn, Illinois, after living in Chicago  At the age of 10, West moved with his mother to Nanjing, China, where she was teaching at Nanjing University as a Fulbright Scholar  According to his mother, West was the only foreigner in his class, but he settled in well and quickly picked up the language, although he has since forgotten most of it  When asked about his grades in high school, West replied, "I got A's and B's "West demonstrated an affinity for the arts at an early age; he began writing poetry when he was five years old  West started rapping in the third grade and began making musical compositions in the seventh grade, eventually selling them to other artists  West crossed paths with producer No I D , who became West's friend and mentor : 557  After graduating from high school, West received a scholarship to attend Chicago's American Academy of Art in 1997 and began taking painting classes  Shortly after, he transferred to Chicago State University to study English  At age 20, he dropped out to pursue his musical career  This greatly displeased his mother, who was also a professor at the university, although she would later accept the decision : 558

Musical career
1996–2002: Early work and Roc-A-Fella
West began his early production career in the mid-1990s, creating beats primarily for burgeoning local artists around his area  His first official production credits came at nineteen when he produced eight tracks on Down to Earth, the 1996 debut album of a Chicago rapper, Grav  In 1998, West was the first person signed to the management-production company Hip Hop Since 1978  For a time, West acted as a ghost producer for Deric "D-Dot" Angelettie  Because of his association with D-Dot, West was not able to release a solo album, so he formed the Go-Getters, a rap group composed of him, GLC, Timmy G, Really Doe, and Arrowstar  The Go-Getters released their first and only studio album World Record Holders in 1999  West spent much of the late 1990s producing records for several well-known artists and music groups  He produced the third track on Foxy Brown's second studio album Chyna Doll, which became the first hip-hop album by a female rapper to debut at the top of the U S  Billboard 200 chart 

In 2000, West began producing for artists on Roc-A-Fella  West is often credited with revitalizing Jay-Z's career with his contributions to Jay-Z's 2001 album The Blueprint, which Rolling Stone ranked among their list of greatest hip-hop albums  Serving as an in-house producer for Roc-A-Fella, West produced music for other artists on the label, including Beanie Sigel and Freeway  He also crafted hit songs for Ludacris, Alicia Keys, and Janet Jackson  Meanwhile, West struggled to attain a record deal as a rapper  Multiple record companies, including Capitol Records, denied or ignored him because he did not portray the gangsta image prominent in mainstream hip hop at the time : 556  Desperate to keep West from defecting to another label, then-label head Damon Dash reluctantly signed West to Roc-A-Fella : 556 A 2002 car accident, which shattered his jaw, inspired West; two weeks after being admitted to the hospital, he recorded "Through the Wire" at the Record Plant Studios with his jaw still wired shut  The song was first available on West's "Get Well Soon    " mixtape, released in December 2002  At the same time, West announced that he was working on an album called The College Dropout, whose overall theme was to "make your own decisions  Don't let society tell you, 'This is what you have to do '"

2003–2006: The College Dropout and Late Registration
West recorded the remainder of the album in Los Angeles while recovering from the car accident  It was leaked months before its release date, and West used the opportunity to remix, remaster, and revise the album before its release; West added new verses, string arrangements, gospel choirs, and improved drum programming  The album was postponed three times from its initial date in August 2003, and was eventually released in February 2004, reaching No  2 on the Billboard 200 as his debut single, "Through the Wire" peaked at No  15 while on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for five weeks  "Slow Jamz", his second single, featuring Twista and Jamie Foxx, became the three musicians' first No  1 hit  The College Dropout received near-universal critical acclaim, was voted the top album of the year by two major music publications, and has consistently been ranked among the great hip-hop works and debut albums by artists "Jesus Walks", the album's fourth single, reached the top 20 of the Billboard pop charts, despite industry executives' predictions that a song containing such blatant declarations of faith would never make it to the radio  The College Dropout was certified triple platinum in the US, and garnered West 10 Grammy nominations, including Album of the Year, and Best Rap Album (which it received)  During this period, West founded GOOD Music, a record label and management company that housed affiliate artists and producers, such as No I D  and John Legend, and produced singles for Brandy, Common, Legend, and Slum Village West invested $2 million and took over a year to make his second album  West was inspired by Roseland NYC Live, a 1998 live album by English trip hop group Portishead, produced with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, incorporating string arrangements into his hip-hop production  Though West had not been able to afford many live instruments around the time of his debut album, the money from his commercial success enabled him to hire a string orchestra for his second album Late Registration  West collaborated with American film score composer Jon Brion, who served as the album's co-executive producer for several tracks  Late Registration sold over 2 3 million units in the United States alone by the end of 2005 and was considered by industry observers as the only successful major album release of the fall season, which had been plagued by steadily declining CD sales When his song "Touch the Sky" failed to win Best Video at the 2006 MTV Europe Music Awards, West went onto the stage as the award was being presented to Justice and Simian for "We Are Your Friends" and argued that he should have won the award instead  Hundreds of news outlets worldwide criticized the outburst  On November 7, 2006, West apologized for this outburst publicly during his performance as support act for U2 for their Vertigo concert in Brisbane  He later spoofed the incident on the 33rd-season premiere of Saturday Night Live in September 2007 

2007–2009: Graduation, 808s & Heartbreak, and VMAs incident
West's third studio album, Graduation, garnered major publicity when its release date pitted West in a sales competition against rapper 50 Cent's Curtis  Upon their September 2007 releases, Graduation outsold Curtis by a large margin, debuting at number one on the U S  Billboard 200 chart and selling 957,000 copies in its first week  Graduation continued the string of critical and commercial successes by West, and the album's lead single, "Stronger", garnered his third number-one hit  "Stronger", which samples French house duo Daft Punk, has been accredited to not only encouraging other hip-hop artists to incorporate house and electronica elements into their music, but also for playing a part in the revival of disco and electro-infused music in the late 2000s  His mother's death in November 2007 and the end of his engagement to Alexis Phifer profoundly affected West, who set off for his 2008 Glow in the Dark Tour shortly thereafter 

Recorded mostly in Honolulu, Hawaii in three weeks, West announced his fourth album, 808s & Heartbreak, at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards, where he performed its lead single, "Love Lockdown"  Music audiences were taken aback by the uncharacteristic production style and the presence of Auto-Tune, which typified the pre-release response to the record  808s & Heartbreak was released by Island Def Jam in November 2008  Upon its release, the lead single "Love Lockdown" debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, while follow-up single "Heartless" debuted at number four  While it was criticized prior to release, 808s & Heartbreak is considered to have had a significant effect on hip-hop music, encouraging other rappers to take more creative risks with their productions While Taylor Swift was accepting her award for Best Female Video at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, West went on stage and grabbed the microphone from her to proclaim that Beyoncé deserved the award instead  He was subsequently removed from the remainder of the show for his actions  West was criticized by various celebrities for the outburst, and by President Barack Obama, who called West a "jackass"  The incident sparked a large influx of Internet photo memes  West subsequently apologized, including personally to Swift  However, in a November 2010 interview, he seemed to recant his past apologies, describing the act at the 2009 awards show as "selfless" 

2010–2012: My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, Watch the Throne, and Cruel Summer
Following the highly publicized incident, West took a brief break from music and threw himself into fashion, only to hole up in Hawaii for the next few months writing and recording his next album  Importing his favorite producers and artists to work on and inspire his recording, West kept engineers behind the boards 24 hours a day and slept only in increments  Noah Callahan-Bever, a writer for Complex, was present during the sessions and described the "communal" atmosphere as thus: "With the right songs and the right album, he can overcome any and all controversy, and we are here to contribute, challenge, and inspire " A variety of artists contributed to the project, including close friends Jay-Z, Kid Cudi and Pusha T, as well as off-the-wall collaborations, such as with Justin Vernon of Bon Iver 

My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, West's fifth studio album, was released in November 2010 to widespread acclaim from critics, many of whom considered it his best work and said it solidified his comeback  In stark contrast to his previous effort, which featured a minimalist sound, Dark Fantasy adopts a maximalist philosophy and deals with themes of celebrity and excess  The record included the international hit "All of the Lights", and Billboard hits "Power", "Monster", and "Runaway", the latter of which accompanied a 35-minute film of the same name directed by and starring West  During this time, West initiated the free music program GOOD Fridays through his website, offering a free download of previously unreleased songs each Friday, a portion of which were included on the album  This promotion ran from August to December 2010  Dark Fantasy went on to go platinum in the United States, but its omission as a contender for Album of the Year at the 54th Grammy Awards was viewed as a "snub" by several media outlets 2011 saw West embark on a festival tour to commemorate the release of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy performing and headlining numerous festivals including; SWU Music & Arts, Austin City Limits, Oya Festival, Flow Festival, Live Music Festival,
The Big Chill, Essence Music Festival, Lollapalooza and Coachella which was described by The Hollywood Reporter as "one of greatest hip-hop sets of all time", West released the collaborative album Watch the Throne with Jay-Z in August 2011  By employing a sales strategy that released the album digitally weeks before its physical counterpart, Watch the Throne became one of the few major label albums in the Internet age to avoid a leak  "Niggas in Paris" became the record's highest-charting single, peaking at number five on the Billboard Hot 100  The co-headlining Watch the Throne Tour kicked off in October 2011 and concluded in June 2012  In 2012, West released the compilation album Cruel Summer, a collection of tracks by artists from West's record label GOOD Music 

2013–2015: Yeezus and the Yeezus Tour
Sessions for West's sixth solo effort begin to take shape in early 2013 in his own personal loft's living room at a Paris hotel  Determined to "undermine the commercial", he once again brought together close collaborators and attempted to incorporate Chicago drill, dancehall, acid house, and industrial music  Primarily inspired by architecture, West's perfectionist tendencies led him to contact producer Rick Rubin fifteen days shy of its due date to strip down the record's sound in favor of a more minimalist approach  Initial promotion of his sixth album included worldwide video projections of the album's music and live television performances  Yeezus, West's sixth album, was released June 18, 2013, to rave reviews from critics  It became his sixth consecutive number one debut, but also marked his lowest solo opening week sales 

In September 2013, West announced he would be headlining his first solo tour in five years, to support Yeezus, with fellow American rapper Kendrick Lamar accompanying him as a supporting act  The tour was met with rave reviews from critics  Rolling Stone described it as "crazily entertaining, hugely ambitious, emotionally affecting (really!) and, most importantly, totally bonkers"  Writing for Forbes, Zack O'Malley Greenburg praised West for "taking risks that few pop stars, if any, are willing to take in today's hyper-exposed world of pop", describing the show as "overwrought and uncomfortable at times, but [it] excels at challenging norms and provoking thought in a way that just isn't common for mainstream musical acts of late"  West subsequently released a number of singles featuring Paul McCartney, including "Only One" and "FourFiveSeconds", also featuring Rihanna In November 2013, West stated that he was beginning work on his next studio album, hoping to release it by mid-2014, with production by Rick Rubin and Q-Tip  Having initially announced a new album entitled Yeezus II slated for a 2014 release, West announced in March 2015 that the album would instead be tentatively called So Help Me God  In May 2015, West was awarded an honorary doctorate by the School of the Art Institute of Chicago for his contributions to music, fashion, and popular culture  The next month, West headlined at the Glastonbury Festival in the UK, despite a petition signed by almost 135,000 people against his appearance  Another petition aimed to block West from headlining the 2015 Pan American Games, garnering 50,000 supporters 

2016–2017: The Life of Pablo and tour cancellation
West announced in January 2016 that SWISH would be released on February 11, and later that month, released new songs "Real Friends" and a snippet of "No More Parties in LA" with Kendrick Lamar  On January 26, 2016, West revealed he had renamed the album from SWISH to Waves  In the weeks leading up to the album's release, West became embroiled in several Twitter controversies  Several days ahead of its release, West again changed the title, this time to The Life of Pablo  On February 11, West premiered the album at Madison Square Garden as part of the presentation of his Yeezy Season 3 clothing line  Following the preview, West announced that he would be modifying the tracklist once more before its release to the public  He released the album exclusively on Tidal on February 14, 2016, following a performance on SNL  Following its release, West continued to tinker with mixes of several tracks, describing the work as "a living breathing changing creative expression" and proclaiming the end of the album as a dominant release form  Despite West's earlier comments, in addition to Tidal, the album was released through several other competing services starting in April 

In February 2016, West stated on Twitter that he was planning to release another album in the summer of 2016, tentatively called Turbo Grafx 16 in reference to the 1990s video game console of the same name  In June 2016, West released the collaborative lead single "Champions" off the GOOD Music album Cruel Winter, which has yet to be released  Later that month, West released a controversial video for "Famous", which depicted wax figures of several celebrities (including West, Kardashian, Taylor Swift, businessman and then-presidential candidate Donald Trump, comedian Bill Cosby, and former president George W  Bush) sleeping nude in a shared bed In August 2016, West embarked on the Saint Pablo Tour in support of The Life of Pablo  The performances featured a mobile stage suspended from the ceiling  West postponed several dates in October following the Paris robbery of several of his wife's effects  On November 21, 2016, West cancelled the remaining 21 dates on the Saint Pablo Tour, following a week of no-shows, curtailed concerts and rants about politics  He was later admitted for psychiatric observation at UCLA Medical Center  He stayed hospitalized over the Thanksgiving weekend because of a temporary psychosis stemming from sleep deprivation and extreme dehydration  Following this episode West took an 11-month break from posting on Twitter and the public in general 

2017–2019: Ye and the Wyoming Sessions
It was reported in May 2017 that West was recording new music in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, with a wide range of collaborators  In April 2018, West announced plans to write a philosophy book entitled Break the Simulation, later clarifying that he was sharing the book "in real time" on Twitter and began posting content that was likened to "life coaching"  Later that month, he also announced two new albums, a solo album and self-titled collaboration with Kid Cudi under the name Kids See Ghosts, both of which would be released in June  Additionally, he revealed he would produce upcoming albums by GOOD Music label-mates Pusha T and Teyana Taylor, as well as Nas  Shortly thereafter, West released the non-album singles "Lift Yourself", a "strange, gibberish track" featuring nonsensical lyrics, and "Ye vs  the People", in which he and T I  discussed West's controversial support of Donald Trump Pusha T's Daytona, "the first project out of Wyoming", was released in May to critical acclaim, although the album's artwork—a photograph of deceased singer Whitney Houston's bathroom that West paid $85,000 to license—attracted some controversy  The following week, West released his eighth studio album, Ye  West has suggested that he scrapped the original recordings of the album and re-recorded it within a month  The week after, West released a collaborative album with Kid Cudi, titled Kids See Ghosts, named after their group of the same name  West also completed production work on Nas' Nasir and Teyana Taylor's K T S E , which were released in June 2018 In September, West announced his ninth studio album Yandhi to be released by the end of the month and a collaborative album with fellow Chicagoan rapper Chance the Rapper titled Good Ass Job  That same month, West announced that he would be changing his stage name to "Ye"  Yandhi was originally set for release in September 2018 but was postponed multiple times  In January 2019, West pulled out of headlining that year's Coachella festival after negotiations broke down due to discord regarding stage design  In July, it was reported that songs from West's unreleased album Yandhi were leaked online  The following month, Kim Kardashian announced that West's next album would be titled Jesus Is King, effectively scrapping Yandhi  By October, the entire unfinished album was available for a short time on streaming services Spotify and Tidal 

2019–present: Jesus Is King, Donda, and Donda 2
On January 6, 2019, West started his weekly "Sunday Service" orchestration which includes soul variations of both West's and others' songs attended by multiple celebrities including the Kardashians, Charlie Wilson, and Kid Cudi  West previewed a new song, "Water" at his "Sunday Service" orchestration performance at Coachella 2019, which was later revealed to feature on his upcoming album Jesus Is King; West released the album on October 25, 2019  It became the first to ever top the Billboard 200, Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, Top Rap Albums, Top Christian Albums and Top Gospel Albums at the same time  On December 25, 2019, West and Sunday Service released Jesus Is Born, containing 19 songs including several re-workings of older West songs West released a single titled "Wash Us in the Blood" on June 30, 2020, featuring fellow American rapper and singer Travis Scott, along with the music video, which was set to serve as the lead single from his tenth studio album Donda  However, in September 2020, West stated that he would not be releasing any further music until he is "done with [his] contract with Sony and Universal"  On October 16, he released the single "Nah Nah Nah"  West held several listening parties at Mercedes-Benz Stadium for his upcoming album Donda in the summer of 2021, where he had taken up temporary residence in one of the stadium's locker rooms, converting it into a recording studio to finish the recording  After multiple delays, Donda was released on August 29, 2021  West claimed the album was released early without his approval and alleged that Universal had altered the tracklist  He released a delux edition of Donda, including five new songs, to streaming services on November 14, 2021  On November 20, days after ending their long-running feud, West and rapper Drake confirmed that they would stage the "Free Larry Hoover" benefit concert on December 9 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum On January 5, 2022, West was announced as one of the 2022 headliners of Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival  Later that month on January 15, West released the first single for his upcoming album Donda 2, "Eazy" featuring The Game, to be executive produced by American rapper Future  West hosted a listening event for the album at LoanDepot Park in Miami, Florida, on February 22  In April, shortly before Coachella, West pulled out as headlining act, then proceeded to pull out of headlining Rolling Loud  West and The Game performed the single on July 22, marking West's first performance in five months following the low profile he had been keeping since Donda 2 remained unfinished  A day later, despite cancelling as headliner, he appeared at Rolling Loud during Lil Durk's set In December 2022, after weeks of controversial antisemitic statements, West released a new song "Someday We'll All Be Free" on his Instagram 

Musical style
West's musical career is defined by frequent stylistic shifts and different musical approaches  In the subsequent years since his debut, West has both musically and lyrically taken an increasingly experimental approach to crafting progressive hip hop music while maintaining accessible pop sensibilities  Ed Ledsham of PopMatters said that "West's melding of multiple genres into the hip-hop fold is a complex act that challenges the dominant white notions of what constitutes true 'art' music " West's rhymes have been described as funny, provocative and articulate, capable of seamlessly segueing from shrewd commentary to comical braggadocio to introspective sensitivity  West imparts that he strives to speak in an inclusive manner so groups from different racial and gender backgrounds can comprehend his lyrics, saying he desired to sound "just as ill as Jadakiss and just as understandable as Will Smith"  Early in his career, West pioneered a style of hip-hop production dubbed "chipmunk-soul", a sampling technique involving the manipulation of tempo in order to chop and stretch pitched-up samples from vintage soul songs On his debut studio album, The College Dropout (2004), West formed the constitutive elements of his style, described as intricate hip-hop beats, topical subject matter, and clumsy rapping laced with inventive wordplay  The record saw West diverge from the then-dominant gangster persona in hip hop in favor of more diverse, topical lyrical subjects, including higher education, materialism, self-consciousness, minimum-wage labor, institutional prejudice, class struggle, family, sexuality, his struggles in the music industry, and middle-class upbringing  Over time, West has explored a variety of music genres, encompassing and taking inspiration from chamber pop on his second studio album, Late Registration (2005), arena rock and europop on his third album, Graduation (2007), synth-driven electropop on his fourth album, 808s & Heartbreak (2008), acid-house, drill, industrial rap and trap on Yeezus (2013), gospel and Christian rap on The Life of Pablo (2016), Jesus is King (2019) and Donda (2021), and psychedelic music on Kids See Ghosts (2018) 

Other ventures
Fashion
Early in his career, West made clear his interest in fashion and desire to work in the clothing design industry  He launched his own clothing line in spring 2006, and developed it over the following four years before the line was ultimately cancelled in 2009  In January 2007, West's first sneaker collaboration was released, a special-edition Bapesta from A Bathing Ape  In 2009, West collaborated with Nike to release his own shoe, the Air Yeezys, becoming the first non-athlete to be given a shoe deal with the company  In January 2009, he introduced his first shoe line designed for Louis Vuitton during Paris Fashion Week  The line was released in summer 2009  West has additionally designed shoewear for Italian shoemaker Giuseppe Zanotti In fall 2009, West moved to Rome, where he interned at Italian fashion brand Fendi, giving ideas for the men's collection  In March 2011, West collaborated with M/M Paris for a series of silk scarves featuring artwork from My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy  In October 2011, West premiered his women's fashion label at Paris Fashion Week  His debut fashion show received mixed-to-negative reviews  In March 2012, West premiered a second fashion line at Paris Fashion Week  Critics deemed the sophomore effort "much improved" compared to his first show On December 3, 2013, Adidas officially confirmed a new shoe collaboration deal with West  After months of anticipation and rumors, West confirmed the release of the Adidas Yeezy Boosts  In 2015, West unveiled a Yeezy clothing line, premiering in collaboration with Adidas early that year  In June 2016, Adidas announced a new long-term contract with Kanye West that extended the Yeezy line to a number of stores, planning to sell sports performance products like basketball, football, and soccer, although Adidas terminated the partnership with West in October 2022 due to his antisemitic remarks  In May 2021, West signed a 10-year deal linking Yeezy with GAP, however, in September 2022, West announced that he was ending the deal 

Business ventures
West founded the record label and production company GOOD Music in 2004, in conjunction with Sony BMG, shortly after releasing his debut album, The College Dropout  West, alongside then-unknown Ohio singer John Legend and fellow Chicago rapper Common were the label's inaugural artists  The label houses artists including West, Big Sean, Pusha T, Teyana Taylor, Yasiin Bey / Mos Def, D'banj and John Legend, and producers including Hudson Mohawke, Q-Tip, Travis Scott, No I D , Jeff Bhasker, and S1  GOOD Music has released ten albums certified gold or higher by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)  In November 2015, West appointed Pusha T the new president of GOOD Music In August 2008, West revealed plans to open 10 Fatburger restaurants in the Chicago area; the first was set to open in September 2008 in Orland Park  The second followed in January 2009, while a third location is yet to be revealed, although the process is being finalized  His company, KW Foods LLC, bought the rights to the chain in Chicago  Ultimately, in 2009, only two locations actually opened  In February 2011, West shut down the Fatburger located in Orland Park In January 2012, West announced his establishment of the creative content company Donda, named after his late mother  In his announcement, West proclaimed that the company would "pick up where Steve Jobs left off"; Donda would operate as a "design company" with a goal to "make products and experiences that people want and can afford"  In stating Donda's creative philosophy, West articulated the need to "put creatives in a room together with like minds" in order to "simplify and aesthetically improve everything we see, taste, touch, and feel " West is notoriously secretive about the company's operations, maintaining neither an official website nor a social media presence  Contemporary critics have noted the consistent minimalistic aesthetic exhibited throughout Donda creative projects West expressed interest in starting an architecture firm in May 2013, saying "I want to do product, I am a product person, not just clothing but water bottle design, architecture     I make music but I shouldn't be limited to one place of creativity" and then later in November 2013, delivering a manifesto on his architectural goals during a visit to Harvard Graduate School of Design  In May 2018, West announced he was starting an architecture firm called Yeezy Home, which will act as an arm of his already successful Yeezy fashion label  In June 2018, the first Yeezy Home collaboration was announced by designer Jalil Peraza, teasing an affordable concrete prefabricated home as part of a social housing project In March 2015, it was announced that West is a co-owner, with various other music artists, in the music streaming service Tidal  The service specialises in lossless audio and high definition music videos  Jay-Z acquired the parent company of Tidal, Aspiro, in the first quarter of 2015  Sixteen artist stakeholders including Jay-Z, Rihanna, Beyoncé, Madonna, Chris Martin, Nicki Minaj co-own Tidal, with the majority owning a 3% equity stake  In October 2022, in direct response to bans he received on Twitter and Instagram stemming from his antisemitic comments, West reached an agreement in principle to acquire the alt-tech social network Parler for an undisclosed amount  Parler and West mutually agreed to terminate the proposed deal in mid-November 

Philanthropy
West, alongside his mother, founded the Kanye West Foundation in Chicago in 2003, tasked with a mission to battle dropout and illiteracy rates, while partnering with community organizations to provide underprivileged youth access to music education  In 2007, West and the Foundation partnered with Strong American Schools as part of their "Ed in '08" campaign  As spokesman for the campaign, West appeared in a series of PSAs for the organization, and hosted an inaugural benefit concert in August of that year  In 2008, following the death of West's mother, the foundation was rechristened The Dr  Donda West Foundation  The foundation ceased operations in 2011  In 2013, Kanye West and friend Rhymefest founded Donda's House, Inc , a program aimed at helping at-risk Chicago youth West has contributed to hurricane relief in 2005 by participating in a Hurricane Katrina benefit concert after the storm had ravaged black communities in New Orleans and in 2012 when he performed at a Hurricane Sandy benefit concert  In January 2019, West donated $10 million towards the completion of the Roden Crater by American artist James Turrell  In June 2020, in the wake of the murder of George Floyd and the following protests, he donated $2 million between the family of Floyd and other victims of police brutality, Ahmaud Arbery and Breonna Taylor  The donation funded legal fees for Arbery and Taylor's families, as well as establishing a 529 plan to fully cover college tuition for Floyd's daughter 

Acting and filmmaking
West made cameo appearances as himself in the films State Property 2 (2005) and The Love Guru (2008), and in an episode of the television show Entourage in 2007  West provided the voice for "Kenny West", a rapper, in the animated sitcom The Cleveland Show  In 2009, he starred in the Spike Jonze-directed short film We Were Once a Fairytale (2009), playing himself acting belligerently while drunk in a nightclub  West wrote, directed, and starred in the musical short film Runaway (2010), which heavily features music from My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy  The film depicts a relationship between a man, played by West, and a half-woman, half-phoenix creature In 2012, West wrote and directed another short film, titled Cruel Summer, which premiered at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival in a custom pyramid-shaped screening pavilion featuring seven screens constructed for the film  The film was inspired by the compilation album of the same name  West made a cameo appearance in the comedy Anchorman 2: The Legend Continues (2013) as a MTV News representative in the film's fight scene  In September 2018, West announced starting of film production company named Half Beast, LLC  A documentary shot over 21 years featuring footage of West's early days in Chicago through the death of his mother to his presidential run was announced to debut in 2021  Titled Jeen-Yuhs, it was acquired by Netflix for $30 million 

Politics
2020 presidential campaign
On July 4, 2020, West announced on Twitter that he would be running in the 2020 presidential election  On July 7, West was interviewed by Forbes about his presidential run, where he announced that his running mate would be Wyoming preacher Michelle Tidball, and that he would run as an independent under the "Birthday Party", explaining his decision of why he chose the name, saying, "Because when we win, it's everybody's 'birthday' " West also said he no longer supported Trump because he "hid in [a] bunker" during the COVID-19 pandemic  Continuing, he said, "You know? Obama's special  Trump's special  We say Kanye West is special  America needs special people that lead  Bill Clinton? Special  Joe Biden's not special "Various political pundits speculated that West's presidential run was a publicity stunt to promote his latest music releases  On July 15, 2020, official paperwork was filed with the Federal Election Commission for West, under the "BDY" Party affiliation amid claims that he was preparing to drop out  West held his first rally that weekend, on July 19  West aligned himself with the philosophy of a consistent life ethic, a tenet of Christian democracy  His platform advocated for the creation of a culture of life, endorsing environmental stewardship, supporting the arts, buttressing faith-based organizations, restoring school prayer, providing for a strong national defense, and "America First" diplomacy  In July 2020, West told Forbes that he is ignorant on issues such as taxes and foreign policy West conceded on Twitter on November 4, 2020  He received 66,365 votes in the 12 states he had ballot access in, receiving an average of 0 32%  Reported write-in votes gave West an additional 3,931 votes across 5 states  In addition, the Roque De La Fuente / Kanye West ticket won 60,160 votes in California (0 34%)  According to Reuters, on January 4, 2021, a Kanye West-linked publicist pressured a Georgia election worker to confess to bogus charges of election tampering to assist Trump's claims of election interference  In December 2021, The Daily Beast reported that West's presidential campaign received millions of dollars in services from a secret network of Republican operatives, payments to which the committee did not report  According to campaign finance experts, this was done to conceal a connection 

2024 presidential campaign
West has stated his intentions to run for president again in the 2024 presidential election  In November 2019, he said at an event, "When I run for president in 2024, we would've created so many jobs that I'm not going to run, I'm going to walk " He was met with laughter from the audience  On October 24, 2020, while running for president, West told Joe Rogan on his podcast that he would be open to running for Governor of California  On May 19, 2021, Fox News reported that it had obtained a letter concerning an RFAI (Request for further information) from the Federal Election Commission regarding an exploratory presidential committee  West's representatives stated, "Kanye West has not decided whether to become a candidate for president in the 2024 election, and the activity of the Kanye 2020 committee that prompted this RFAI is strictly exploratory " West said he approached former president Donald Trump and asked him if he would be interested in being his running mate  On subsequent interviews, merchandise, and in songs lyrics, West would repeatedly insinuate that he will indeed run  On November 20, 2022, Kanye announced his intention to run in 2024 

Views
West has been an outspoken and controversial celebrity throughout his career, receiving criticism from the mainstream media, industry colleagues and entertainers, and three U S  presidents  In a 2005 speech, West criticized both the media and the government's racial disparities in their response to Hurricane Katrina, stating on live television that "George Bush doesn't care about black people"  West has voiced his opposition to abortion in 2013, citing his belief in the Sixth Commandment, and in 2022 deemed abortion "genocide and population control" of black people  He has stated that the 400-year enslavement of Africans "sounds like a choice", before elaborating that his comment was in reference to mental enslavement and argued for free thought  He later apologized for the comment In late 2022, West made a series of antisemitic statements, resulting in the termination of his collaborations, sponsorships, and partnerships with Vogue, CAA, Balenciaga, Gap, and Adidas  West was widely condemned after appearing at a dinner hosted by Donald Trump at Mar-a-Lago beside Nick Fuentes, a white nationalist  In a subsequent December appearance on Alex Jones's InfoWars, West praised Adolf Hitler, denied the Holocaust, and identified as a Nazi  Following the interview, West's Twitter account was terminated after he posted an image depicting a swastika entangled within a Star of David  The School of the Art Institute of Chicago later rescinded West's honorary degree  According to a 2023 report published by the Anti-Defamation League, West's antisemitic rhetoric has caused several instances of hate-speech vandalism, harassment, and violence across the United States 

Personal life
West's net worth was as high as $1 8 billion in 2021  In October 2022, Forbes estimated his net worth to have dropped to $400 million in large part due to Adidas's termination of their partnership following a series of public antisemitic statements  In August 2021, West applied to have his legal name changed from "Kanye Omari West" to "Ye," with no middle or last name; he cited "personal reasons" for the change  The request was granted in October  West had alluded to wishing to change his name since 2018 and had used Ye as a nickname for several years prior, stating in a 2018 interview that "ye" () was the most commonly used word in the Bible: "In the Bible it means 'you'  So, I'm you  I'm us  It's us  It went from being Kanye, which means the only one, to just Ye "

Relationships and family
Kim Kardashian
In April 2012, West began dating reality television star Kim Kardashian, with whom he had already been long-time friends  West and Kardashian became engaged in October 2013, and married at Fort di Belvedere in Florence in May 2014  Their private ceremony was subject to widespread mainstream coverage, with which West took issue  The couple's high-profile status and respective careers have resulted in their relationship becoming subject to heavy media coverage; The New York Times referred to their marriage as "a historic blizzard of celebrity" West and Kardashian have four children: North West (born June 2013), Saint West (born December 2015), Chicago West (born via surrogate in January 2018), and Psalm West (born via surrogate in May 2019)  In July 2020, during a presidential campaign rally of his, West revealed that he had previously considered abortion during Kardashian's first pregnancy but has since taken anti-abortion views  In April 2015, West and Kardashian traveled to Jerusalem to have North baptized in the Armenian Apostolic Church at the Cathedral of St  James In September 2018, West announced that he would be permanently moving back to Chicago to establish his Yeezy company headquarters there  This did not actually occur, and West instead went on to purchase two ranches near Cody, Wyoming, where he recorded his eighth solo studio album, Ye  Kardashian resides with their children in a home that the now-divorced couple owns in California, whereas West moved into a home across the street to continue to be near their children  In fall 2021, West began the process of selling his Wyoming ranch In July 2020, West acknowledged the possibility of Kardashian ending their marriage due to his adoption of anti-abortion views  Later that month, West wrote on Twitter that he had been attempting to divorce Kardashian  He also wrote that the Kardashian family was attempting "to lock [him] up"  In January 2021, CNN reported that the couple were discussing divorce  A month later, Kardashian filed for divorce, with the couple citing "irreconcilable differences", agreeing to joint custody of their children, and declining spousal support from each other  The divorce settlement was finalized in November 2022, and West was ordered to pay $200,000 in monthly child support and be responsible for half of the children's medical, educational, and security expenses 

Other relationships
West began an on-and-off relationship with the designer Alexis Phifer in 2002, and they became engaged in August 2006  They ended their 18-month engagement in 2008  Phifer stated that the pair had split amicably and remained friends  West dated model Amber Rose from 2008 until mid-2010  In an interview following their split, West stated that he had to take "30 showers" before committing to his next relationship with Kim Kardashian  In response, Rose stated that she had been "bullied" and "slut-shamed" by West throughout their relationship In January 2022, actress Julia Fox confirmed in an Interview essay that she was dating West  West continued to say that he wanted his "family back" and publicly lashed out at Kardashian's new boyfriend, comedian Pete Davidson  His treatment of Davidson and Kardashian has been described by commentators as harassment and abusive; the 64th Annual Grammy Awards dropped him as a performer in response to his "concerning online behavior"  Less than two months after confirming their relationship, Fox said that she and West had split up but remained on good terms  She later said that she dated West purely to "give people something to talk about" during the COVID-19 pandemic and to "get him off Kim's case" In January 2023, it was reported that West had informally married Australian architect Bianca Censori, who works for West's Yeezy brand, in a private ceremony in Beverly Hills  The ceremony had no legal standing; the couple did not file for a marriage license  In response to West's subsequent trips to Australia to visit Censori's family, Australian Minister for Education Jason Clare commented that West may be denied a visa due to his recent antisemitic remarks  The Executive Council of Australian Jewry and the Anti-Defamation Commission further argued against granting West entry 

Legal problems
In December 2006, Robert "Evel" Knievel sued the rapper for trademark infringement of his name and likeness in West's video for "Touch the Sky"  Knievel took issue with the "vulgar and offensive" and "sexually charged video" in which West takes on the persona of "Evel Kanyevel" that Knievel claimed damaged his reputation  The suit sought monetary damages and an injunction to stop distribution of the video  West's attorneys argued that the music video amounted to satire and therefore was covered under the First Amendment  Days before his death in November 2007, Knievel amicably settled the suit after being paid a visit by West, saying, "I thought he was a wonderful guy and quite a gentleman "In 2014, after an altercation with a paparazzo at the Los Angeles Airport, West was sentenced to serve two years' probation for a misdemeanor battery conviction, and was required to attend 24 anger management sessions, perform 250 hours of community service, and pay restitution to the photographer  A separate civil lawsuit brought by the paparazzo was settled in 2015, a week before it was due for trial  According to TMZ, an appeal to have West's conviction expunged from his criminal record was granted by a judge in 2016 

Religious beliefs
After the success of his song "Jesus Walks" from the album The College Dropout, West was questioned on his beliefs and said, "I will say that I'm spiritual  I have accepted Jesus as my Savior  And I will say that I fall short every day " In a 2008 interview with The Fader, West stated that "I'm like a vessel, and God has chosen me to be the voice and the connector"  In a 2009 interview with online magazine Bossip, West stated that he believed in God, but at the time felt that he "would never go into a religion"  In 2014, West referred to himself as a Christian during one of his concerts  Kim Kardashian stated in September 2019: "He has had an amazing evolution of being born again and being saved by Christ " In October 2019, West said with respect to his past, "When I was trying to serve multiple gods it drove me crazy" in reference to the "god of ego, god of money, god of pride, the god of fame", and that "I didn't even know what it meant to be saved" and that now "I love Jesus Christ  I love Christianity "

Politics
In September 2012, West donated $1,000 to Barack Obama's re-election campaign, and in August 2015 he donated $2,700 to Hillary Clinton's 2016 campaign  He also donated $15,000 to the Democratic National Committee in October 2014  In December 2016, West met with President-elect Donald Trump to discuss bullying, supporting teachers, modernizing curriculums, and violence in Chicago  West subsequently stated he would have voted for Trump had he voted  In February 2017, however, West deleted all his tweets about Trump in purported dislike of the new president's policies, particularly the travel ban  West reiterated his support for Donald Trump in April 2018  In October 2018, West donated to progressive Chicago mayoral candidate Amara Enyia 

Mental health
On November 19, 2016, West abruptly ended a concert before being committed at the recommendation of authorities to the UCLA Medical Center with hallucinations and paranoia  While the episode was first described as one of "temporary psychosis" caused by dehydration and sleep deprivation, West's mental state was abnormal enough for his 21 cancelled concerts to be covered by his insurance policy  He was reportedly paranoid and depressed throughout the hospitalization, but remained formally undiagnosed  Some have speculated that the Paris robbery of his wife may have triggered the paranoia  On November 30, West was released from the hospital In his song "FML" and his featured verse on Vic Mensa's song "U Mad", he refers to using the antidepressant medication Lexapro, and in his unreleased song "I Feel Like That", he mentions feeling many common symptoms of depression and anxiety  In a 2018 interview, West said that he had become addicted to opioids when they were prescribed to him after liposuction  The addiction may have contributed to his nervous breakdown in 2016  West said that he often has suicidal ideation  West was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 2016, though his diagnosis was not made public until his 2018 album Ye  He told President Donald Trump that it was a misdiagnosis  He had reportedly accepted the diagnosis again by 2019, but again suggested that it had been a misdiagnosis in 2022  In December 2022, he suggested that he may be autistic 

Musical impact
West is among the most critically acclaimed popular music artists of the 21st century, earning praise from music critics, industry peers, and cultural figures  In 2014, NME named him the third most influential artist in music  Billboard senior editor Alex Gale declared West "absolutely one of the best, and you could make the argument for the best artist of the 21st century " Sharing similar sentiments, Dave Bry of Complex Magazine called West the twenty-first century's "most important artist of any art form, of any genre " The Atlantic writer David Samuels commented, "Kanye's power resides in his wild creativity and expressiveness, his mastery of form, and his deep and uncompromising attachment to a self-made aesthetic that he expresses through means that are entirely of the moment: rap music, digital downloads, fashion, Twitter, blogs, live streaming video " Joe Muggs of The Guardian argued that "there is nobody else who can sell as many records as West does [   ] while remaining so resolutely experimental and capable of stirring things up culturally and politically "Rolling Stone credited West with transforming hip-hop's mainstream, "establishing a style of introspective yet glossy rap" while deeming him "a producer who created a signature sound and then abandoned it to his imitators, a flashy, free-spending sybarite with insightful things to say about college, culture, and economics, an egomaniac with more than enough artistic firepower to back it up " Writing for Highsnobiety, Shahzaib Hussain stated that West's first three albums "cemented his role as a progressive rap progenitor"  AllMusic editor Jason Birchmeier described West as "[shattering] certain stereotypes about rappers, becoming a superstar on his own terms without adapting his appearance, his rhetoric, or his music to fit any one musical mold"  Lawrence Burney of Noisey has credited West with the commercial decline of the gangsta rap genre that once dominated mainstream hip-hop  The release of his third studio album has been described as a turning point in the music industry, and is considered to have helped pave the way for new rappers who did not follow the hardcore-gangster mold to find wider mainstream acceptance Hip-hop artists like Drake, Nicki Minaj, Travis Scott, Lil Uzi Vert, and Chance the Rapper have acknowledged being influenced by West  Several other artists and music groups of various genres have named West as an influence on their work 

Awards and achievements
West is the fourth-highest certified artist in the US by digital singles (69 million)  He had the most RIAA digital song certifications by a male artist in the 2000s (19), and was the fourth best-selling digital songs artist of the 2000s in the US  In Spotify's first ten years from 2008 to 2018, West was the sixth most streamed artist, and the fourth fastest artist to reach one billion streams  West has the joint-most consecutive studio album to debut at number one on the Billboard 200 (9)  He ranked third on Billboard's 2000s decade-end list of top producers and has topped the annual Pazz & Jop critics' poll the joint-most times (four albums) with Bob Dylan West has been nominated for 75 Grammys, out of which he has won 24  He has been the most nominated act at five ceremonies, and has received the fourth-most wins overall in the 2000s  In 2008, West became the first solo artist to have his first three albums receive nominations for Album of the Year  West has won a Webby Award for Artist of the Year, an Accessories Council Excellence Award for being a stylemaker, International Man of the Year at the GQ Awards, a Clio Award for The Life of Pablo Album Experience, and an honour by The Recording Academy  West is one of eight acts to have won the Billboard Artist Achievement Award  In 2015, he became the third rap act to win the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award West's first six solo studio albums were included on Rolling Stone's 2020 list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time  Entertainment Weekly named The College Dropout the best album of the 2000s, Complex named Graduation the best album released between 2002 and 2012, 808s & Heartbreak was named by Rolling Stone as one of the 40 most groundbreaking albums of all time, The A V  Club named My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy the best album of the 2010s, Yeezus was the most critically acclaimed album of 2013 according to Metacritic, and The Life of Pablo was the first album to top the Billboard 200, go platinum in the US, and go gold in the UK, via streaming alone 

Discography
Studio albums

The College Dropout (2004)
Late Registration (2005)
Graduation (2007)
808s & Heartbreak (2008)
My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy (2010)
Yeezus (2013)
The Life of Pablo (2016)
Ye (2018)
Jesus Is King (2019)
Donda (2021)Collaborative albums

Watch the Throne (2011) (with Jay-Z)
Kids See Ghosts (2018) (with Kid Cudi, as Kids See Ghosts)Compilation albums

Cruel Summer (2012) (with GOOD Music)Demo albums

Donda 2 (2022)

Videography
The College Dropout Video Anthology (2004)
Late Orchestration (2006)
VH1 Storytellers (2010)
Runaway (2010)
Jesus Is King (2019)
Jeen-Yuhs (2022)

Tours
Headlining tours
School Spirit Tour (2004)
Touch the Sky Tour (2005–2006)
Glow in the Dark Tour (2008)
Watch the Throne Tour (with Jay-Z) (2011–2012)
The Yeezus Tour (2013–2014)
Saint Pablo Tour (2016)

Supporting tours
Truth Tour (with Usher) (2004)
Vertigo Tour (with U2) (2005–2006)
A Bigger Bang (with The Rolling Stones) (2006)

Books
Raising Kanye: Life Lessons from the Mother of a Hip-Hop Superstar (2007)
Thank You and You're Welcome (2009)
Through the Wire: Lyrics & Illuminations (2009)
Glow in the Dark (2009)

See also
Album era
Black conservatism in the United States
List of people with bipolar disorder
List of Christian hip hop artists

Notes
Passage 10:
Crying in the Rain
"Crying in the Rain" is a song composed by Carole King with lyrics by Howard Greenfield, originally recorded by American duo the Everly Brothers  The single peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 in 1962 The song was the only collaboration between songwriters Greenfield and King, both of whom worked for Aldon Music at the time of the song's composition  On a whim, two Aldon songwriting partnerships decided to switch partners for a day – Gerry Goffin (who normally worked with King) partnered with Greenfield's frequent writing partner, Jack Keller, leaving King and Greenfield to pair up for the day  Despite the commercial success of their collaboration, King and Greenfield never wrote another song together 

Track listing
Charts
Tammy Wynette version
In 1981, "Crying in the Rain" was notably covered by American country artist Tammy Wynette  It became a major hit after being released as a single that year 
Wynette's version was produced by Chips Moman at the Moman Recording Studio in Las Vegas, Nevada  The recording session also included nine additional tracks that would appear on Wynette's 1981 studio album The song was released as a single in July 1981  It reached number 18 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart that same year  "Crying in the Rain" became Wynette's third single to reach the country songs top 20 in the 1980s decade  The song was issued on Wynette's twenty-second studio album, You Brought Me Back (1981)  Additionally, "Crying in the Rain" peaked at number 11 on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada around the same time  It was her highest-charting solo song on the RPM survey since 1979 

Track listing
7-inch singleA  "Crying in the Rain" – 3:12
B  "Bring My Baby Back to Me" – 3:25

Charts
A-ha version
In 1989, Norwegian band A-ha covered the song  It was the first single taken from their fourth studio album, East of the Sun, West of the Moon (1990)  Following its success, A-ha became closer to the Everly Brothers, who had originally recorded the song  The band members were presented a set of guitars by the Everly Brothers that A-ha continues to use 

Commercial performance
"Crying in the Rain" was A-ha's last single to reach the top 40 on a Billboard chart in the United States to date, peaking at number 26 on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart during the week ending April 6, 1991  It was more popular in other countries, topping the charts in the band's native Norway, and peaking at number 13 in the UK Singles Chart  It was the 32nd most successful song of the year 2010 in Romanian Top 100, although it peaked outside the Top 20 

Music video
The video was directed by Steve Barron  The theme of the video is a robbery gone wrong  It is actually the second version of this video  The first version did not feature any of the scenes of Morten Harket singing alone  The video was filmed entirely with a specific technique of mobile cameras, and it was filmed in Big Timber, Montana  Academy Award nominated actor John Hawkes (actor) had a small role as a robber in the music video for  Crying in the Rain by A-ha in 1990 

Track listings
UK CD single"Crying in the Rain" (LP version) – 4:25
"(Seemingly) Nonstop July" – 2:55
"Cry Wolf" (LP version) – 4:05UK 7-inch singleA  "Crying in the Rain" (LP version) – 4:25
B  "(Seemingly) Nonstop July" – 2:55UK 12-inch singleA  "Crying in the Rain" (LP version) – 4:25
B1  "(Seemingly) Nonstop July" – 2:55
B2  "Cry Wolf" (LP version) – 4:05

Charts
Other cover versions
"Crying in the Rain" has been covered by many other artists  In 1969, The Sweet Inspirations recorded a rendition which reached number 38 on the US R&B chart  It was their second Everly Brothers cover hit, having charted two years earlier with "Let It Be Me "
In 1972, Penny DeHaven in duet with Del Reeves released a Country version on a single only (number 54 on the Billboard country chart) In 1976, American-Canadian trio Cotton, Lloyd and Christian released the song on a single (with "One More River" on the B-side)  "Crying in the Rain" was also included on the trio's second studio album, Number Two 
Nick Lowe and Dave Edmunds released a version of the song on their 1980 EP, Nick Lowe & Dave Edmunds Sing The Everly Brothers In 1994, Art Garfunkel had a Canadian Pop and AC hit with the song 
Context 2: Passage 1:
ISO 3166-2:JP
ISO 3166-2:JP is the entry for Japan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g  provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Japan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 47 prefectures 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is JP, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Japan  The second part is two digits (01–47), which is the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS X 0401 code of the prefecture  The codes are assigned roughly from north to south 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 

See also
Administrative divisions of Japan
FIPS region codes of Japan

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: JP
Districts of Japan, Statoids com
Passage 2:
ISO 3166-2:IN
ISO 3166-2:IN is the entry for India in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for India, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 28 states and 8 union territories 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is IN, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code for India  The second part is two letters, currently used in vehicle registration plates with some exceptions 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 

Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of India
FIPS region codes of India
Passage 3:
ISO 3166-2:DM
ISO 3166-2:DM is the entry for Dominica in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Dominica, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 10 parishes 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is DM, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Dominica  The second part is two digits (02–11) 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Dominica
FIPS region codes of Dominica

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: DM
Parishes of Dominica, Statoids com
Passage 4:
ISO 3166-2:BY
ISO 3166-2:BY is the entry for Belarus in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Belarus, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 6 oblasts and 1 city  The city Minsk is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the oblasts 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is BY, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Belarus  The second part is two letters 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:

(be): Belarusian — Romanization system: BGN/PCGN 1979, UN X/6 2012
(ru): Russian — Romanization system: BGN/PCGN 1947, GOST 1983 = UN V/18 1987Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

See also
Subdivisions of Belarus
FIPS region codes of Belarus

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BY
Regions of Belarus, Statoids com
Passage 5:
ISO 3166-2:JM
ISO 3166-2:JM is the entry for Jamaica in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Jamaica, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 14 parishes 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is JM, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Jamaica  The second part is two digits (01–14)  The codes are assigned in the 
counter-clockwise direction starting from Kingston Parish 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

See also
Subdivisions of Jamaica
FIPS region codes of Jamaica

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: JM
Parishes of Jamaica, Statoids com
Passage 6:
ISO 3166-2:AD
ISO 3166-2:AD is the entry for Andorra in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Andorra, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 7 parishes 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is AD, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Andorra  The second part is two digits:

02–06: parishes created before 1978 except Andorra la Vella
07–08: Andorra la Vella and Escaldes-Engordany (Escaldes-Engordany split from Andorra la Vella in 1978)

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

See also
Subdivisions of Andorra
FIPS region codes of Andorra
Neighbouring countries: ES, FR 

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: AD
Parishes of Andorra, Statoids com
Passage 7:
ISO 3166-2:BN
ISO 3166-2:BN is the entry for Brunei in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Brunei, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 4 districts 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is BN, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Brunei  The second part is two letters 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of Brunei
FIPS region codes of Brunei

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BN
Districts of Brunei Darussalam, Statoids com
Passage 8:
ISO 3166-2:GR
ISO 3166-2:GR is the entry for Greece in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Greece, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two categories of subdivisions:

13 administrative regions
1 self-governed partThe departments (also called prefectures) were abolished in 2011, and were replaced approximately by regional units  The regional units were deleted from the entry in 2016 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is GR, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Greece  The second part is either of the following:

one letter (A–M): administrative regions
two digits: self-governed part

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Administrative regions
Notes

Self-governed part
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

Codes changed in Newsletter II-1
Codes removed on 15 November 2016
See also
Subdivisions of Greece
FIPS region codes of Greece
NUTS codes of Greece

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: GR
Departments of Greece, Statoids com
Passage 9:
ISO 3166-2:BE
ISO 3166-2:BE is the entry for Belgium in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g  provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Belgium, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:

3 regions
10 provincesEach code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is BE, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Belgium  The second part is three letters  For the provinces, the first letter indicates the region where the province is in:

V: Flemish Region (Dutch: Vlaams Gewest)
W: Walloon Region (French: Région wallonne)

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:

(fr): French
(nl): DutchClick on the button in the header to sort each column 

Regions
Notes

Provinces
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of Belgium
FIPS region codes of Belgium
NUTS codes of Belgium

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BE
Provinces of Belgium, Statoids com
Passage 10:
ISO 3166-2:BT
ISO 3166-2:BT is the entry for Bhutan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Bhutan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 20 districts 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is BT, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Bhutan  The second part is two digits, except Gasa and Trashi Yangtse, which use two letters instead  The first digit indicates the zone where the district is in:

1: Western
2: Central (Gasa is also in this zone)
3: Southern
4: Eastern (Trashi Yangtse is also in this zone)

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of Bhutan
FIPS region codes of Bhutan

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BT
Districts of Bhutan, Statoids com
Passage 11:
ISO 3166-2:CH
ISO 3166-2:CH is the entry for Switzerland in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
The abbreviation is derived from Latin name for Switzerland, Confoederatio Helvetica ("Helvetic Confederation") 
Currently for Switzerland, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 26 cantons 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is CH, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Switzerland  The second part is two letters, currently used in vehicle registration plates 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:

(de): German
(fr): French
(it): Italian
(rm): RomanshClick on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Switzerland
FIPS region codes of Switzerland
NUTS codes of Switzerland
Comparison of ISO, FIPS, and NUTS codes of the cantons of Switzerland

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: CH
Cantons of Switzerland, Statoids com
Passage 12:
ISO 3166-2:HU
ISO 3166-2:HU is the entry for Hungary in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Hungary, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 capital city, 19 counties, and 23 cities with county rights  The capital of the country Budapest has special status equal to the counties, while the cities with county rights, often called urban counties, have extended powers but are technically not independent of the counties 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is HU, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Hungary  The second part is two letters 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Hungary
FIPS region codes of Hungary
NUTS codes of Hungary

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: HU
Counties of Hungary, Statoids com
Passage 13:
ISO 3166-2:AI
ISO 3166-2:AI is the entry for Anguilla in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently no ISO 3166-2 codes are defined in the entry for Anguilla 
Anguilla is officially assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code AI 

See also
Subdivisions of Anguilla

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: AI
Districts of Anguilla, Statoids com
Passage 14:
ISO 3166-2:GN
ISO 3166-2:GN is the entry for Guinea in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Guinea, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:

7 administrative regions and 1 governorate
33 prefecturesThe governorate Conakry is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the administrative regions 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is GN, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Guinea  The second part is either of the following:

one letter: administrative regions and governorate
two letters: prefectures

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Administrative regions and governorate
Prefectures
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Guinea
FIPS region codes of Guinea
Passage 15:
ISO 3166-2:GA
ISO 3166-2:GA is the entry for Gabon in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Gabon, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 9 provinces 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is GA, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Gabon  The second part is a digit (1–9) 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

See also
Subdivisions of Gabon
FIPS region codes of Gabon

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: GA
Provinces of Gabon, Statoids com
Passage 16:
ISO 3166-2:KM
ISO 3166-2:KM is the entry for the Comoros in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for the Comoros, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 3 islands 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is KM, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of the Comoros  The second part is a letter 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages  The Shikomor language does not have a single ISO 639 code 

(ar): Arabic using two romanization systems
(fr): French
(—): ShikomorClick on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

See also
Subdivisions of the Comoros
FIPS region codes of the Comoros

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: KM
Autonomous Islands of Comoros, Statoids com
Passage 17:
Cape Verde
Cape Verde ( (listen)) or Cabo Verde ( (listen), ; Portuguese: [ˈkaβu ˈveɾðɨ]), officially the Republic of Cabo Verde, is an archipelago and island country in the central Atlantic Ocean, consisting of ten volcanic islands with a combined land area of about 4,033 square kilometres (1,557 sq mi)  These islands lie between 600 and 850 kilometres (320 and 460 nautical miles) west of Cap-Vert, the westernmost point of continental Africa  The Cape Verde islands form part of the Macaronesia ecoregion, along with the Azores, the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Savage Isles 
The Cape Verde archipelago was uninhabited until the 15th century, when Portuguese explorers discovered and colonized the islands, thus establishing the first European settlement in the tropics  Because the Cape Verde islands were located in a convenient location to play a role in the Atlantic slave trade, Cape Verde became economically prosperous during the 16th and 17th centuries, attracting merchants, privateers, and pirates  It declined economically in the 19th century after the suppression of the Atlantic slave trade, and many of its inhabitants emigrated during that period  However, Cape Verde gradually recovered economically by becoming an important commercial center and useful stopover point along major shipping routes  Cape Verde became independent in 1975 
Since the early 1990s, Cape Verde has been a stable representative democracy and has remained one of the most developed and democratic countries in Africa  Lacking natural resources, its developing economy is mostly service-oriented, with a growing focus on tourism and foreign investment  Its population of around 483,628 (as of the 2021 Census) is mostly of mixed African and a minor European heritage, and predominantly Roman Catholic, reflecting the legacy of Portuguese rule  A sizeable Cape Verdean diaspora community exists across the world, especially in the United States and Portugal, considerably outnumbering the inhabitants on the islands  Cape Verde is a member state of the African Union 
Cape Verde's official language is Portuguese   It is the language of instruction and government  It is also used in newspapers, television, and radio  The recognized national language is Cape Verdean Creole, which is spoken by the vast majority of the population 
As of the 2021 census the most populated islands were Santiago, where the capital Praia is located (269,370), São Vincente (74,016), Santo Antão (36,632), Fogo (33,519) and Sal (33,347)  The largest cities are Praia (137,868), Mindelo (69,013), Espargos (24,500) and Assomada (21,297) 

Etymology
The country is named after the Cap-Vert peninsula, on the Senegalese coast  The name Cap-Vert, in turn, comes from the Portuguese language Cabo Verde ('green cape'), the name that Portuguese explorers gave the cape in 1444, a few years before they came across the islands 
On 24 October 2013, the country's delegation to the United Nations informed it that other countries should no longer use Cape Verde or any other translations of Cabo Verde as part of its official name: all countries should use Republic of Cabo Verde as the country's official name  Speakers of English have used the name Cape Verde for the archipelago and, since independence in 1975, for the country  In 2013, the Cape Verdean government determined that it would thenceforth use the Portuguese name Cabo Verde for official purposes, including at the United Nations, even when speaking or writing in English 

History
The archipelago of modern-day Cape Verde was formed approximately 40–50 million years ago during the Eocene era 
Before the arrival of Europeans, the Cape Verde Islands were uninhabited  They were discovered by Genoese and Portuguese navigators around 1456  According to Portuguese official records, the first discoveries were made by Genoa-born António de Noli, who was afterwards appointed governor of Cape Verde by the Portuguese king Afonso V  Other navigators mentioned as contributing to discoveries on the Cape Verde archipelago are Diogo Dias, Diogo Afonso, Venetian Alvise Cadamosto, and Diogo Gomes (who had accompanied António de Noli on his voyage of discovery, and who claimed to have been the first to land on the Cape Verdean island of Santiago, and the first to name that island) 
In 1462, Portuguese settlers arrived at Santiago and founded a settlement they called Ribeira Grande  Today it is called Cidade Velha ("Old City"), to distinguish it from a town of the same name on a different Cape Verdean island (Ribeira Grande on the island of Santo Antão)  The original Ribeira Grande was the first permanent European settlement in the tropics 
In the 16th century, the archipelago prospered from the Atlantic slave trade  Pirates occasionally attacked the Portuguese settlements  Francis Drake, an English privateer, twice sacked the (then) capital Ribeira Grande in 1585 when it was a part of the Iberian Union  After a French attack in 1712, the town declined in importance relative to nearby Praia, which became the capital in 1770 The decline in the slave trade in the 19th century resulted in an economic crisis  Cape Verde's early prosperity slowly vanished  However, the islands' position astride mid-Atlantic shipping lanes made Cape Verde an ideal location for re-supplying ships  Because of its excellent harbour, the city of Mindelo, located on the island of São Vicente, became an important commercial centre during the 19th century  Diplomat Edmund Roberts visited Cape Verde in 1832  Cape Verde was the first stop of Charles Darwin's voyage with HMS Beagle in 1832 
With few natural resources and inadequate sustainable investment from the Portuguese, the citizens grew increasingly discontented with the colonial masters, who refused to provide the local authorities with more autonomy  In 1951, Portugal changed Cape Verde's status from a colony to an overseas province in an attempt to blunt growing nationalism In 1956, Amílcar Cabral and a group of fellow Cape Verdeans and Guineans organized (in Portuguese Guinea) the clandestine African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC)  It demanded improvement in economic, social and political conditions in Cape Verde and Portuguese Guinea and formed the basis of the two nations' independence movement  Moving its headquarters to Conakry, Guinea in 1960, the PAIGC began an armed rebellion against Portugal in 1961  Acts of sabotage eventually grew into a war in Portuguese Guinea that pitted 10,000 Soviet Bloc-supported PAIGC soldiers against 35,000 Portuguese and African troops By 1972, the PAIGC controlled much of Portuguese Guinea despite the presence of the Portuguese troops, but the organization did not attempt to disrupt Portuguese control in Cape Verde  Portuguese Guinea declared independence in 1973 and was granted de jure independence in 1974  A budding independence movement – originally led by Amílcar Cabral, assassinated in 1973 – passed on to his half-brother Luís Cabral and culminated in independence for the archipelago in 1975 

Independence (1975)
Following the April 1974 revolution in Portugal, the PAIGC became an active political movement in Cape Verde  In December 1974, the PAIGC and Portugal signed an agreement providing for a transitional government composed of Portuguese and Cape Verdeans  On 30 June 1975, Cape Verdeans elected a National Assembly which received the instruments of independence from Portugal on 5 July 1975  In the late 1970s and 1980s, most African countries prohibited South African Airways from overflights but Cape Verde allowed them and became a centre of activity for the airline's flights to Europe and the United States 
Immediately following the November 1980 coup in Guinea-Bissau, relations between Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau became strained  Cape Verde abandoned its hope for unity with Guinea-Bissau and formed the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV)  Problems have since been resolved and relations between the countries are good  The PAICV and its predecessor established a one-party system and ruled Cape Verde from independence until 1990 Responding to growing pressure for pluralistic democracy, the PAICV called an emergency congress in February 1990 to discuss proposed constitutional changes to end one-party rule  Opposition groups came together to form the Movement for Democracy (MpD) in Praia in April 1990  Together, they campaigned for the right to contest the presidential election scheduled for December 1990 
The one-party state was abolished on 28 September 1990, and the first multi-party elections were held in January 1991  The MpD won a majority of the seats in the National Assembly, and MpD presidential candidate António Mascarenhas Monteiro defeated the PAICV's candidate with 73 5% of the votes  Legislative elections in December 1995 increased the MpD majority in the National Assembly  The party won 50 of the National Assembly's 72 seats 
A February 1996 presidential election returned President Monteiro to office  Legislative elections in January 2001 returned power to the PAICV, with the PAICV holding 40 of the National Assembly seats, MpD 30, and Party for Democratic Convergence (PCD) and Labour and Solidarity Party (PTS) 1 each  In February 2001, the PAICV-supported presidential candidate Pedro Pires defeated former MpD leader Carlos Veiga by only 13 votes  
President Pedro Pires was narrowly re-elected in 2006 elections President Jorge Carlos Fonseca led the country since 2011 Cape Verde presidential election and he was re-elected in the 2016 election  He was supported by the Movement for Democracy Party  MpD also won in the 2016 parliamentary elections, taking back parliamentary majority after 15 year-rule of African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV)  In April 2021, the ruling center-right Movement for Democracy (MpD) of Prime Minister Ulisses Correia e Silva won the parliamentary election On 26 August 2021, Cape Verde became the 150th country to ratify the 2005 Convention and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions In October 2021, opposition candidate and former prime minister, Jose Maria Neves of PAICV, won Cape Verde's presidential election  On 9 November 2021, Jose Maria Neves was sworn in as the new President of Cape Verde 

Government and politics
Cape Verde is a stable semi-presidential representative democratic republic  It was 2020 the most democratic nation in Africa, ranking 2023 as 45th in the world, according to the electoral democracy score of the V-Dem Democracy indices The constitution – adopted in 1980 and revised in 1992, 1995 and 1999 – defines the basic principles of its government  The president is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term The prime minister is the head of government and proposes other ministers and secretaries of state  The prime minister is nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the president  Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote for five-year terms  In 2016, three parties held seats in the National Assembly – MpD (36), PAICV (25), and the Cape Verdean Independent Democratic Union (UCID) (3) The two main political parties are PAICV and MpD Movement for Democracy (MpD) ousted the ruling African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) for the first time in 15 years in the 2016 parliamentary election, at which time its leader, Ulisses Correia e Silva, became prime minister  Jorge Carlos Almeida Fonseca was elected president in August 2011 and re-elected in October 2016  He is also supported by the MpD In November 2021, Cape Verde opened its first embassy in Nigeria 

International recognition
Cape Verde is often praised as an example among African nations for its stability and developmental growth despite its lack of natural resources  In 2013 then United States President Barack Obama said Cape Verde is "a real success story"  Among other achievements, it has been recognized with the following assessments:

Foreign relations
Cape Verde follows a policy of nonalignment and seeks cooperative relations with all friendly states  Angola, Brazil, China, Libya, Cuba, France, Guinea-Bissau, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Russia, Luxembourg, and the United States maintain embassies in Praia  Cape Verde maintains a vigorously active foreign policy, especially in Africa Cape Verde is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language 
Cape Verde has bilateral relations with some Lusophone nations and holds membership in a number of international organizations  It also participates in most international conferences on economic and political issues  Since 2007, Cape Verde has a special partnership status with the EU, under the Cotonou Agreement, and might apply for special membership, in particular because the Cape Verdean escudo, the country's currency, is indexed to the euro  In 2011 Cape Verde ratified the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court  In 2017 Cape Verde signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons 

Judiciary
The judicial system consists of a Supreme Court of Justice – whose members are appointed by the president, the National Assembly, and the Board of the Judiciary – and regional courts  Separate courts hear civil, constitutional, and criminal cases  Appeals are to the Supreme Court 

Military
The military of Cape Verde consists of the National Guard and the Coast Guard; 0 7% of the country's GDP was spent on the military in 2005 
Having fought their only battles in the war for independence against Portugal between 1974 and 1975, the efforts of the Cape Verdean armed forces have turned to combating international drug trafficking  In 2007, together with the Cape Verdean Police, they carried out Operation Flying Launch (Operacão Lancha Voadora), a successful operation to put an end to a drug trafficking group which smuggled cocaine from Colombia to the Netherlands and Germany using the country as a reorder point  The operation took more than three years, being a secret operation during the first two years, and ended in 2010  In 2016, Cape Verdean Armed Forces were involved in the Monte Tchota massacre, a green-on-green incident that resulted in 11 deaths Although located in Africa and being black Africans, Cape Verde has always had close relations with Europe  Because of this, some scholars argue that Cape Verde may be eligible to join the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and NATO 

Geography
The Cape Verde archipelago is in the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 570 kilometres (350 mi) off the western coast of the African continent, near Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania as well as part of the Macaronesia ecoregion  It lies between latitudes 14° and 18°N, and longitudes 22° and 26°W 
The country is a horseshoe-shaped cluster of ten islands (nine inhabited) and eight islets, that constitute an area of 4033 km2 (1557 sq mi) The islands are spatially divided into two groups:

The Barlavento Islands (windward islands): Santo Antão, São Vicente, Santa Luzia, São Nicolau, Sal, Boa Vista; and
The Sotavento Islands (leeward): Maio, Santiago, Fogo, Brava The largest island, both in size and population, is Santiago, which hosts the nation's capital, Praia, the principal urban agglomeration in the archipelago Three of the Cape Verde islands, Sal, Boa Vista, and Maio, are fairly flat, sandy, and dry; the others are generally rockier with more vegetation 

Physical geography and geology
Geologically, the islands, covering a combined area of slightly over 4,033 square kilometres (1,557 square miles), are principally composed of igneous rocks, with volcanic structures and pyroclastic debris comprising the majority of the archipelago's total volume  The volcanic and plutonic rocks are distinctly basic; the archipelago is a soda-alkaline petrographic province, with a petrologic succession similar to that found in other Macaronesian islands 
Magnetic anomalies identified in the vicinity of the archipelago indicate that the structures forming the islands date back 125–150 million years: the islands themselves date from 8 million (in the west) to 20 million years (in the east)  The oldest exposed rocks occurred on Maio and the northern peninsula of Santiago and are 128–131 million-year-old pillow lavas  The first stage of volcanism in the islands began in the early Miocene, and reached its peak at the end of this period when the islands reached their maximum sizes  Historical volcanism (within human settlement) has been restricted to the island of Fogo The islands lie on a bathymetric swell known as the Cape Verde Rise  The Rise is one of the largest protuberances in the world's oceans, rising 2 2 kilometres (1 4 miles) in a semi-circular region of 1200 km2 (460 sq mi), associated with a rise of the geoid Pico do Fogo, the largest active volcano in the region, erupted in 2014  It has an eight-kilometre-diameter (five-mile) caldera, the rim of which is at an elevation of 1,600 metres (5,249 feet) and an interior cone that rises to 2,829 metres (9,281 feet) above sea level  The caldera resulted from subsidence, following the partial evacuation (eruption) of the magma chamber, along a cylindrical column from within the magma chamber (at a depth of 8 kilometres (5 miles)) 
Extensive salt flats are found on Sal and Maio  On Santiago, Santo Antão, and São Nicolau, arid slopes give way in places to sugarcane fields or banana plantations spread along the base of towering mountains  Ocean cliffs have been formed by catastrophic debris landslides 

Climate
Cape Verde's climate is milder than that of the African mainland because the surrounding sea moderates temperatures on the islands and cold Atlantic currents produce an arid atmosphere around the archipelago  Conversely, the islands do not receive the upwelling (cold streams) that affect the West African coast, so the air temperature is cooler than in Senegal, but the sea is warmer  Due to the relief of some islands, such as Santiago with its steep mountains, the islands can have orographically induced precipitation, allowing rich woods and luxuriant vegetation to grow where the humid air condenses soaking the plants, rocks, soil, logs, moss, etc  On the higher islands and somewhat wetter islands, exclusively in mountainous areas, like Santo Antão island, the climate is suitable for the development of dry monsoon forests, and laurel forests  Average temperatures range from 22 °C (72 °F) in February to 27 °C (80 6 °F) in September  Cape Verde is part of the Sahelian arid belt, with nothing like the rainfall levels of nearby West Africa  It rains irregularly between August and October, with frequent brief heavy downpours  A desert is usually defined as terrain that receives less than 250 mm (9 8 in) of annual rainfall  Sal's total of 145 mm (5 7 in) confirms this classification  Most of the year's rain falls in September Sal, Boa Vista, and Maio have a flat landscape and arid climate, whilst the other islands are generally rockier and have more vegetation  Because of the infrequent occurrence of rainfall, where not mountainous, the landscape is so arid that less than two percent of it is arable  The archipelago can be divided into four broad ecological zones – arid, semiarid, subhumid and humid, according to altitude and average annual rainfall ranging from less than 100 millimetres (3 9 inches) in the arid areas of the coast as in the Deserto de Viana (67 millimetres (2 6 inches) in Sal Rei) to more than 1,000 millimetres (39 inches) in the humid mountain  Most rainfall precipitation is due to condensation of the ocean mist 

In some islands, like Santiago, the wetter climate of the interior and the eastern coast contrasts with the drier one on the south/southwest coast  Praia, on the southeast coast, is the largest city on the island and the largest city and capital of the country 
While most of Cape Verde receives little precipitation throughout the year, the northeastern slopes of high mountains see significant rainfall due to orographic lift, especially in areas far from the sea  In some such areas this precipitation is sufficient to support a rainforest habitat, albeit one significantly affected by the islands' human presence  These umbria areas are identified as cool and moist  Cape Verde lies in the Cape Verde Islands dry forests ecoregion Western Hemisphere-bound hurricanes often have their early beginnings near the Cape Verde Islands  These are referred to as Cape Verde-type hurricanes  These hurricanes can become very intense as they cross warm Atlantic waters away from Cape Verde  The average hurricane season has about two Cape Verde-type hurricanes, which are usually the largest and most intense storms of the season because they often have plenty of warm open ocean over which to develop before encountering land  The five largest Atlantic tropical cyclones on record have been Cape Verde-type hurricanes  Most of the longest-lived tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin are Cape Verde hurricanes As of 2015, the islands themselves have only been struck by hurricanes twice in recorded history (since 1851): once in 1892, and again in 2015 by Hurricane Fred, the easternmost hurricane ever to form in the Atlantic 

Climate Change
According to the president of Nauru, in 2011 Cape Verde was ranked the eighth most endangered nation due to flooding from climate change  In 2023 UN Secretary-General António Guterres arrived in Cabo Verde to raise concerns about climate change  He said that the country is on the frontlines of the existential crisis generated by climate disruptions and that world leaders need to take action to address the climate crisis  Cabo Verde is a leader in renewable energy in sub-Saharan Africa  Currently, 20% of its energy comes from renewable sources, and the goal is to increase that to 50% by 2030  In 2023, Portugal signed an agreement to forgive €140 million of Cape Verde's debt in exchange for the country investing in environmental projects  This agreement is one of the first debt-for-nature swap in Africa 

Biodiversity
Cape Verde's isolation has resulted in the islands having several endemic species, particularly birds and reptiles, many of which are endangered by human development  Endemic birds include Alexander's swift (Apus alexandri), Bourne's heron (Ardea purpurea bournei), the Raso lark (Alauda razae), the Cape Verde warbler (Acrocephalus brevipennis), and the Iago sparrow (Passer iagoensis)  The islands are also an important breeding area for seabirds including the Cape Verde shearwater  Reptiles include the Cape Verde giant gecko (Tarentola gigas) 

Administrative divisions
Cape Verde is divided into 22 municipalities (concelhos) and subdivided into 32 parishes (freguesias), based on the religious parishes that existed during the colonial period:

Economy
Cape Verde's notable economic growth and improvement in living conditions despite a lack of natural resources have garnered international recognition, with other countries and international organizations often providing development aid  Since 2007, the UN has classified it as a developing nation rather than a least developed country 
Cape Verde has few natural resources  Only five of the ten main islands (Santiago, Santo Antão, São Nicolau, Fogo, and Brava) normally support significant agricultural production, and over 90% of all food consumed in Cape Verde is imported  Mineral resources include salt, pozzolana (a volcanic rock used in cement production), and limestone  Its small number of wineries making Portuguese-style wines have traditionally focused on the domestic market, but have recently met with some international acclaim  Several wine tours of Cape Verde's various microclimates began to be offered in spring 2010 
The economy of Cape Verde is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for more than 70% of GDP  Although nearly 35% of the population lives in rural areas, agriculture and fishing contribute only about 9% of GDP  Light manufacturing accounts for most of the remainder  Fish and shellfish are plentiful, and small quantities are exported  Cape Verde has cold storage and freezing facilities and fish processing plants in Mindelo, Praia, and on Sal  Expatriate Cape Verdeans contribute an amount estimated at 20% of GDP to the domestic economy through remittances 
Despite having few natural resources and being semi-desert, the country boasts the highest living standards in the region and has attracted thousands of immigrants of different nationalities 
Since 1991, the government has pursued market-oriented economic policies, including an open welcome to foreign investors and a far-reaching privatization programme  It established as top development priorities the promotion of a market economy and the private sector; the development of tourism, light manufacturing industries, and fisheries; and the development of transport, communications, and energy facilities  From 1994 to 2000 about $407 million in foreign investments were made or planned, of which 58% were in tourism, 17% in industry, 4% in infrastructure, and 21% in fisheries and services In 2011, on four islands a wind farm was built that supplies about 30% of the electricity of the country 
As host to the ECOWAS Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, inaugurated in 2010, Cape Verde plans to lead by example by becoming entirely reliant on renewable energy sources by 2025  This policy is consistent with the plethora of documents adopted in 2015 paving the way to more sustainable development, including Cape Verde's Transformational Agenda to 2030, its National Renewable Energy Plan and its Low Carbon and Climate-resilient Development Strategy  Two years later, these were followed by a Strategic Plan for Sustainable Development, 2017–2021 Between 2000 and 2009, real GDP increased on average by over seven percent a year, well above the average for Sub-Saharan countries and faster than most small island economies in the region  Strong economic performance was bolstered by one of the fastest growing tourism industries in the world, as well as by substantial capital inflows that allowed Cape Verde to build up national currency reserves to the current 3 5 months of imports  Unemployment has been falling rapidly, and the country is on track to achieve most of the UN Millennium Development Goals – including halving its 1990 poverty level 
In 2007, Cape Verde joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) and in 2008 the country graduated from Least Developed Country (LDC) to Middle Income Country (MIC) status 
Cape Verde has significant cooperation with Portugal at every level of the economy, which has led it to link its currency first to the Portuguese escudo and, in 1999, to the euro  On 23 June 2008 Cape Verde became the 153rd member of the WTO In early January 2018, the government announced that the minimum wage would be raised to 13,000 CVE (US$140 or EUR 130) per month, from 11,000 CVE, which was effective in mid-January 2018 

Development
The European Commission's total allocation for the period of 2008–2013 foreseen for Cape Verde to address "poverty reduction, in particular in rural and peri-urban areas where women are heading the households, as well as good governance" amounts to €54 1 million 

Tourism
Cape Verde's strategic location at the crossroads of mid-Atlantic air and sea lanes has been enhanced by significant improvements at Mindelo's harbour (Porto Grande) and at Sal's and Praia's international airports  A new international airport was opened in Boa Vista in December 2007 and on the island of São Vicente, the newest international airport (Cesária Évora Airport) in Cape Verde was opened in late 2009  Ship repair facilities at Mindelo were opened in 1983 The major ports are Mindelo and Praia, but all other islands have smaller port facilities  In addition to the international airport on Sal, airports have been built on all of the inhabited islands  All but the airports on Brava and Santo Antão enjoy scheduled air service  The archipelago has 3,050 km (1,895 mi) of roads, of which 1,010 km (628 mi) are paved, most using cobblestone The country's future economic prospects depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, the encouragement of tourism, remittances, outsourcing labour to neighbouring African countries, and the momentum of the government's development programme 

Demographics
The official Census recorded that Cape Verde had a population of 512,096 in 2013  A large proportion (236,000) of Cape Verdeans live on the main island, Santiago Cape Verdeans are descendants of Africans (free or slaves) and Europeans of various origins  There are also Cape Verdeans who have Jewish ancestors from North Africa, mainly on the islands of Boa Vista, Santiago and Santo Antão  A large part of Cape Verdeans emigrated abroad, mainly to the United States, Portugal and France, so that there are more Cape Verdeans residing abroad than at home 
Unlike countries on the African continent, there are no tribes in Cape Verde  On the other hand, the country's historical trajectory included, from the beginning, a process of social class formation  At this moment, the absence of a "bourgeoisie" can be seen, but the existence of several types of "petty bourgeoisie", numerically significant  The majority of the population is, however, made up of the peasantry and some working class 

Languages
Cape Verde's official language is Portuguese  It is the language of instruction and government  It is also used in newspapers, television, and radio 
Cape Verdean Creole (Kriolu) is used colloquially throughout Cape Verde and is the mother tongue of virtually all Cape Verdeans  The national constitution calls for measures to give it parity with Portuguese  There is a substantial body of literature in Creole, especially in the Santiago Creole and the São Vicente Creole  Kriolu has been gaining prestige since the nation's independence from Portugal 
The differences between the forms of the language within the islands have been a major obstacle in the way of standardization of the language  Some people have advocated the development of two standards: a North (Barlavento) standard, centred on the São Vicente Creole, and a South (Sotavento) standard, centred on the Santiago Creole  Manuel Veiga, Ph D , a linguist and Minister of Culture of Cape Verde, is the premier proponent of Kriolu's officialization and standardization 

Religion
The vast majority of Cape Verdeans are Christian; reflecting centuries of Portuguese rule, Roman Catholics make up the single largest religious community, at just under 80 percent, as of 2010 (slightly down from 85 percent of the population in 2007)  Most other religious groups are Protestant, with the evangelical Church of the Nazarene forming the second largest community; other sizeable denominations are the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Assemblies of God, the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints  Islam is the largest minority religion  Judaism had a historical presence during the colonial era  Atheists constitute less than 1 percent of the population  Many Cape Verdeans syncretize Christianity with indigenous African beliefs and customs 

Emigration and immigration
Almost twice as many Cape Verdeans live abroad (nearly one million) than in the country itself  The islands have a long history of emigration and Cape Verdeans are highly dispersed worldwide, from Macau to Haiti and Argentina to Sweden  The diaspora may be much larger than official statistics indicate, as, until independence in 1975, Cape Verdean immigrants had Portuguese passports 
The majority of Cape Verdeans live in the United States and Western Europe, with the former hosting the largest overseas population at 500,000  Most Cape Verdeans in the U S  are concentrated in New England, particularly the cities of Providence, New Bedford, and Boston; Brockton, has the largest community of any American city (18,832) Cape Verdeans have been migrating to Massachusetts since the 1840s, but most of the current population arrived in the 1970s  They are now one of the top ten immigrant groups in Boston, and the largest hailing from Africa  The first wave of Cape Verdean immigrants came to Massachusetts to work in the whaling industry  When whaling declined, they moved into maritime jobs, seasonal agricultural work (like picking cranberries) , and factory work  The second wave of Cape Verdean immigrants arrived after Cape Verde gained independence in 1975  They also found work in factories, but as manufacturing plants closed down, they moved into the service industry in the 1990's  Cape Verdean immigrants have also developed a vibrant small business sector, including restaurants, groceries, real estate and insurance offices, and other enterprises  Cape Verdean immigrants in the U S  have a long history of enlistment in the U S  military, with a presence in every major conflict from the Revolutionary War to the Vietnam War Due to centuries of colonial ties, the second largest number of Cape Verdeans live in Portugal (150,000), with sizable communities in the former Portuguese colonies of Angola (45,000) and São Tomé and Príncipe (25,000)  Major populations exist in countries with cultural and linguistic similarities, such as Spain (65,500), France (25,000), Senegal (25,000), and Italy (20,000)  Other large communities live in the United Kingdom (35,500), the Netherlands (20,000, of which 15,000 are concentrated in Rotterdam), and Luxembourg and Scandinavia (7,000)  Outside the U S  and Europe, the biggest Cape Verdean populations are in Mexico (5,000) and Argentina (8,000) 
Over the years, Cape Verde has increasingly become a net recipient of migrants, due to its relatively high per capita income, political and social stability, and civil freedom  Chinese make up a sizeable and important segment of the foreign population, while nearby West African countries account for most immigration  In the 21st century, a few thousand Europeans and Latin Americans have settled in the country, mostly professionals, entrepreneurs, and retirees  Over 22,000 foreign-born residents are naturalized, hailing from over 90 countries 
The Cape Verdean diaspora experience is reflected in many artistic and cultural expressions, most famously the song Sodade by Cesária Évora 

Health
The infant mortality rate among Cape Verdean children between 0 and 5 years old is 15 per 1,000 live births according to the latest (2017) data from the National Statistics Bureau, while the maternal mortality rate is 42 deaths per 100,000 live births  The HIV-AIDS prevalence rate among Cape Verdeans between 15 and 49 years old is 0 8% According to the latest data (2017) from the National Statistics Bureau, life expectancy at birth in Cape Verde is 76 2 years; that is, 72 2 years for males and 80 2 years for females  There are six hospitals in the Cape Verde archipelago: two central hospitals (one in the capital city of Praia and one in Mindelo, São Vicente) and four regional hospitals (one in Santa Catarina (northern Santiago region), one on São Antão, one on Fogo, and one on Sal)  In addition, there are 28 health centers, 35 sanitation centers, and a variety of private clinics located throughout the archipelago 
Cape Verde's population is among the healthiest in Africa  Since its independence, it has greatly improved its health indicators  Besides having been promoted to the group of "medium development" countries in 2007, leaving the least developed countries category (becoming the second country to do so), as of 2020 it was the 11th best ranked country in Africa in its Human Development Index 
The total expenditure on health was 7 1% of GDP (2015) 

Education
Although the Cape Verdean educational system is similar to the Portuguese system, over the years the local universities have been increasingly adopting the American educational system; for instance, all ten existing universities in the country offer four-year bachelor's degree programs as opposed to five-year bachelor's degree programs that existed before 2010  Cape Verde has the second best educational system in Africa, after South Africa 
Primary school education in Cape Verde is mandatory and free for children between the ages of six and fourteen years In 2011, the net enrolment ratio for primary school was 85%  Approximately 90% of the total population over 15 years of age is literate, and roughly 25% of the population holds a college degree; a significant number of these college graduates hold doctorate degrees in different academic fields  Textbooks have been made available to 90 percent of school children, and 98 percent of the teachers have attended in-service teacher training  Although most children have access to education, some problems remain  For example, there is insufficient spending on school materials, lunches, and books As of October 2016, there were 69 secondary schools throughout the archipelago (including 19 private secondary schools) and at least 10 universities in the country, which are based on the two islands of Santiago and São Vicente 

In 2015, 23% of the Cape Verdean population had either attended or graduated from secondary schools 
When it came to higher education, 9% of Cape Verdean men and 8% of Cape Verdean women held a bachelor's degree or had attended universities  The overall college education rate (i e , college graduates and undergraduate students) in Cape Verde is about 24%, of the local college-age population 
The total expenditure on education was 5 6% of GDP (2010) 
The mean years of schooling of adults over 25 years is 12 
These trends were held in 2017  Cape Verde stands out in West Africa for the quality and inclusiveness of its higher education system  As of 2017, one in four young people attended university and one-third of students opted for fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics  Women made up one-third of students but two-thirds of graduates in 2018 

Science and technology
In 2011, Cape Verde devoted just 0 07% of its GDP to research and development, among the lowest rates in West Africa  The Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Culture plan to strengthen the research and academic sectors by emphasizing greater mobility, through exchange programmes and international cooperation agreements  As part of this strategy, Cape Verde is participating in the Ibero-American academic mobility programme that expects to mobilize 200,000 academics between 2015 and 2020  Cape Verde was ranked 89th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 Cape Verde counted 25 researchers in 2011, a researcher density of 51 per million inhabitants  The world average was 1,083 per million in 2013  All 25 researchers were working in the government sector in 2011 and one in three were women (36%)  There was no research being conducted in either medical or agricultural sciences  Of the eight engineers involved in research and development, one was a woman  Three of the five researchers working in natural sciences were women, as were three of the six social scientists and two of the five researchers from the humanities In 2015, the government announced a project to build a technology park for business, research, and development  As of late 2020, the project, now named TechPark Cabo Verde, is slated for completion in June 2022  The project is funded by both the African Development Bank and the government of Cape Verde  The goal of the endeavour, according to Cape Verde Minister of Finance Olavo Correia, is "to attract large international companies to set up shop [in order] to help local companies and start-ups become more competitive" Cape Verde has a high rate of internet penetration and a growing mobile phone market  The government has invested in improving ICT infrastructure and has created a number of initiatives to promote the development of the digital economy  The digital economy has the potential to create jobs, boost economic growth, and improve the quality of life for people in Cape Verde 

Crime
Theft and burglary are common in Cape Verde, especially in crowded environments such as marketplaces, festivals, and celebrations  Often the perpetrators of these crimes are gangs of street children  Murders are concentrated in the major population centres of Praia and Mindelo 

Culture
The culture of Cape Verde is characterized by a mixture of African and European elements  This is not a sum of two cultures living side by side, but a new culture resulting from an exchange that began in the 15th century 
Cape Verdean social and cultural patterns are unique  Football games and church activities are typical sources of social interaction and entertainment  The traditional walk around the praça (town square) to meet friends is practised regularly in Cape Verde towns 

Media
In towns with electricity, television is available on three channels; one state-owned (RTC – TCV) and three foreign-owned: RTI Cabo Verde launched by the Portuguese-based RTI in 2005; Record Cabo Verde, launched by the Brazilian-based Rede Record on 31 March 2007; and as of 2016, TV CPLP  Premium channels available include the Cape Verdean versions of Boom TV and Zap Cabo Verde, two channels owned by Brazil's Record  Other premium channels are available in Cape Verde, especially satellite network channels which are common in hotels and villas, though availability is otherwise limited  One such channel is RDP África, the African version of the Portuguese radio station RDP 
As of early 2023, about 99% of the Cape Verdean population own an active cellular phone, 70% have access to the Internet, 11% own a landline telephone, and 2% subscribe to local cable TV  In 2003, Cape Verde had 71,700 main line telephones with an additional 53,300 cellular phones in use throughout the country 
In 2004, there were seven radio stations, six independent and one state-owned  The media is operated by the Cape-Verdean News Agency (secondarily as Inforpress)  Nationwide radio stations include RCV, RCV+, Radio Kriola, and the religious station Radio Nova  Local radio stations include Rádio Praia, the first radio station in Cape Verde; Praia FM, the first FM station in the nation; Rádio Barlavento, Rádio Clube do Mindelo and Radio Morabeza in Mindelo 

Music
The Cape Verdean people are known for their musicality, well expressed by popular manifestations such as the Carnival of Mindelo  Cape Verde music incorporates "African, Portuguese and Brazilian influences " Cape Verde's quintessential national music is the morna, a melancholy and lyrical song form typically sung in Cape Verdean Creole  The most popular music genre after morna is the coladeira, followed by funaná and batuque music  Cesária Évora was the best-known Cape Verdean singer in the world, known as the "barefoot diva," because she liked to perform barefooted on stage  She was also referred to as "The Queen of Morna" as opposed to her uncle Bana, who was referred to as "King of Morna"  The international success of Cesária Évora has made other Cape Verdean artists, or descendants of Cape Verdeans born in Portugal, gain more space in the music market  Examples of this are singers Sara Tavares, Lura and Mayra Andrade 
Another great exponent of traditional music from Cape Verde was Antonio Vicente Lopes, better known as Travadinha, and Ildo Lobo, who died in 2004  The House of Culture in the center of the city of Praia is called Ildo Lobo House of Culture, in his honour 
There are also well-known artists born to Cape Verdean parents who excelled themselves in the international music scene  Amongst these artists are jazz pianist Horace Silver, Duke Ellington's saxophonist Paul Gonsalves, Teófilo Chantre, Paul Pena, the Tavares brothers and singer Lura 

Dance
Cape Verdean traditional dance is a mix of West and Central African influences  The most popular dance style in Cape Verde is called “Funana” which originated on the island of Santiago and is danced in pairs with fast hip movements and a lively rhythm  Another popular dance style is “Coladeira” which is a slower dance style that originated on the island of Sao Vicente  “Batuque” is another traditional Cape Verdean dance style that originated on the island of Santiago and involves a lot of hip movement and percussion  “Morna” is another popular Cape Verdean dance style that originated on the island of Boa Vista and has a slow tempo with a melancholic melody  Zouk and Kizomba are newer popular dance style in Cape Verde that originated in other countries 

Literature
Cape Verdean literature is one of the richest of Lusophone Africa  Famous poets include Paulino Vieira, Manuel de Novas, Sergio Frusoni, Eugénio Tavares, and B  Léza, and famous authors include Baltasar Lopes da Silva, António Aurélio Gonçalves, Manuel Lopes, Orlanda Amarílis, Henrique Teixeira de Sousa, Arménio Vieira, Kaoberdiano Dambará, Dr  Azágua, and Germano Almeida  The first novel written by a woman from Cabo Verde was A Louca de Serrano by Dina Salústio; its translation, as The Madwoman of Serrano, was the first translation of any Cabo Verdean novel to English 

Cinema
The Carnival and the island of São Vicente are portrayed in the 2015 feature documentary Tchindas, nominated at the 12th Africa Movie Academy Awards 

Cuisine
The Cape Verde diet is mostly based on fish and staple foods like corn and rice  Vegetables available during most of the year are potatoes, onions, tomatoes, manioc, cabbage, kale, and dried beans  Fruits such as bananas and papayas are available year-round, while others like mangoes and avocados are seasonal A popular dish served in Cape Verde is cachupa, a slow-cooked stew of corn (hominy), beans, and fish or meat  A common appetizer is the pastel, a pastry shell filled with fish or meat which is then fried 

Sports
The country's most successful sports team is the Cape Verde national basketball team, which won the bronze medal at the FIBA Africa Championship 2007, after beating Egypt in its last game  The country's most well-known player is Walter Tavares, who plays for Real Madrid of Spain 
Cape Verde is famous for wave sailing (a type of windsurfing) and kiteboarding  Josh Angulo, a Hawaiian and 2009 PWA Wave World Champion, has done much to promote the archipelago as a windsurfing destination  Mitu Monteiro, a local kitesurfer, was the 2008 Kite Surfing World Champion in the wave discipline 
The Cape Verde national football team, nicknamed the Tubarões Azuis (Blue Sharks), is the national team of Cape Verde and is controlled by the Cape Verdean Football Federation  The team has played at three Africa Cup of Nations, in 2013, 2015, and 2021 The country has competed at every Summer Olympics since 1996  In 2016, Gracelino Barbosa became the first Cape Verdean to win a medal at the Paralympic Games 

Transport
Ports
There are four international ports: Mindelo, Praia, Palmeira and Sal Rei  Mindelo on São Vicente is the main port for cruise ships and the terminus for the ferry service to Santo Antão  Praia on Santiago is the main hub for local ferry services to other islands  Palmeira on Sal supplies fuel for the main airport on the island, Amílcar Cabral International Airport, and is important for the hotel construction taking place on the island  Porto Novo on Santo Antão is the only source for imports and exports of produce from the island as well as passenger traffic since the closure of the airstrip at Ponta do Sol 
There are smaller harbours, essentially single jetties at Tarrafal on São Nicolau, Sal Rei on Boa Vista, Vila do Maio (Porto Inglês) on Maio, São Filipe on Fogo and Furna on Brava  These act as terminals for the inter-island ferry services, which carry both freight and passengers  The pier at Santa Maria on Sal used by both fishing and dive boats has been rehabilitated 

Airports
There were seven operational airports as of 2014 – four international and three domestic  Two others were non-operational, one on Brava and the other on Santo Antão closed for safety reasons 
Due to its geographical location, Cape Verde is often flown over by transatlantic airliners  It is part of the conventional air traffic route from Europe to South America, which goes from southern Portugal via the Canary Islands and Cape Verde to northern Brazil 

International airports
Amílcar Cabral International Airport, Sal Island
Nelson Mandela International Airport, Santiago Island
Aristides Pereira International Airport, Boa Vista Island
Cesária Évora Airport, São Vicente Island

Aerial drones
Small unmanned flying drones able to carry up to 5kg were being used experimentally for tasks such as delivering medicines between the islands in 2021 

See also
Outline of Cape Verde
Index of Cape Verde–related articles
Islands of Macaronesia
Azores
Madeira
Passage 18:
ISO 3166-2:CV
ISO 3166-2:CV is the entry for Cabo Verde in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Cabo Verde, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:

2 geographical regions (i e , the Barlavento Islands and the Sotavento Islands)
22 municipalitiesEach code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is CV, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Cabo Verde  The second part is either of the following:

one letter: geographical regions
two letters: municipalities

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Geographical regions
Municipalities
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
Subdivisions of Cape Verde
FIPS region codes of Cape Verde

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: CV
Counties of Cape Verde, Statoids com
Passage 19:
ISO 3166-2:AL
ISO 3166-2:AL is the entry for Albania in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e g , provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1 
Currently for Albania, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 12 counties 
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen  The first part is AL, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Albania  The second part is two digits 
The codes for the counties are assigned in Albanian alphabetical order, except Dibër, whose code is assigned based on its capital, Peshkopi 

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency  
Subdivision names are sorted in Albanian alphabetical order: a-c, ç, d, dh, e, ë, f-g, gj, h-l, ll, m-n, nj, o-r, rr, s, sh, t, th, u-x, xh, y-z, zh 
Click on the button in the header to sort each column 

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998  ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013 

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

District codes
Before 27 November 2015, codes for the 36 districts of Albania were included   The code for Kolonjë (AL-ER) was assigned based on its capital, Ersekë 

See also
Subdivisions of Albania
FIPS region codes of Albania

External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: AL
Counties of Albania, Statoids com
Context 3: Passage 1:
James Chadwick
Sir James Chadwick,  (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was a British physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932  In 1941, he wrote the final draft of the MAUD Report, which inspired the U S  government to begin serious atom bomb research efforts  He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II  He was knighted in Britain in 1945 for his achievements in physics 
Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford (known as the "father of nuclear physics")  At Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913  The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851  He elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, and not discrete lines as had been thought  Still in Germany when World War I broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp 
After the war, Chadwick followed Rutherford to the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, where Chadwick earned his Doctor of Philosophy degree under Rutherford's supervision from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, in June 1921  He was Rutherford's assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory for over a decade at a time when it was one of the world's foremost centres for the study of physics, attracting students like John Cockcroft, Norman Feather, and Mark Oliphant  Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass  He anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer  Chadwick left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1935 to become a professor of physics at the University of Liverpool, where he overhauled an antiquated laboratory and, by installing a cyclotron, made it an important centre for the study of nuclear physics 
During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build an atom bomb, while his Manchester lab and environs were harassed by Luftwaffe bombing  When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he became part of the British Mission, and worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory and in Washington, D C  He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R  Groves, Jr  For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test  After this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, he became the Master of Gonville and Caius College in 1948  He retired in 1959 

Education and early life
James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph Chadwick, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant  He was named James after his paternal grandfather  In 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents  He went to Bollington Cross Primary School, and was offered a scholarship to Manchester Grammar School, which his family had to turn down as they could not afford the small fees that still had to be paid  Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester, rejoining his parents there  He now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert; a sister had died in infancy  At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908  He meant to study mathematics, but enrolled in physics by mistake  Like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles (6 4 km) to the university and back each day  At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics  The physics department was headed by Ernest Rutherford, who assigned research projects to final-year students, and he instructed Chadwick to devise a means of comparing the amount of radioactive energy of two different sources  The idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 gram (0 035 oz) of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie  Rutherford's suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, and eventually devised the required method  The results became Chadwick's first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912  He graduated with first class honours in 1911 Having devised a means of measuring gamma radiation, Chadwick proceeded to measure the absorption of gamma rays by various gases and liquids  This time the resulting paper was published under his name alone  He was awarded his Master of Science (MSc) degree in 1912, and was appointed a Beyer Fellow  The following year he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, which allowed him to study and research at a university in continental Europe  He elected to go to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin in 1913, to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, which provided more accuracy than the earlier photographic techniques, he was able to demonstrate that beta radiation did not produce discrete lines, as has been previously thought, but rather a continuous spectrum with peaks in certain regions  On a visit to Geiger's laboratory, Albert Einstein told Chadwick that: "I can explain either of these things, but I can't explain them both at the same time " The continuous spectrum would remain an unexplained phenomenon for many years Chadwick was still in Germany at the start of the First World War, and was interned in the Ruhleben internment camp near Berlin, where he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables and conduct scientific experiments using improvised materials such as radioactive toothpaste  With the help of Charles Drummond Ellis, he worked on the ionisation of phosphorus, and the photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine  He was released after the Armistice with Germany came into effect in November 1918, and returned to his parents' home in Manchester, where he wrote up his findings over the previous four years for the 1851 Exhibition commissioners Rutherford gave Chadwick a part-time teaching position at Manchester, allowing him to continue research  He looked at the nuclear charge of platinum, silver, and copper, and experimentally found that this was the same as the atomic number within an error of less than 1 5 per cent  In April 1919, Rutherford became director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and Chadwick joined him there a few months later  Chadwick was awarded a Clerk-Maxwell studentship in 1920, and enrolled as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) student at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge  The first half of his thesis was his work with atomic numbers  In the second, he looked at the forces inside the nucleus  His degree was awarded in June 1921  In November, he became a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College 

Researcher
Cambridge
Chadwick's Clerk-Maxwell studentship expired in 1923, and he was succeeded by the Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitza  The Chairman of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Sir William McCormick arranged for Chadwick to become Rutherford's assistant director of research  In this role, Chadwick helped Rutherford select PhD students  Over the next few years these would include John Cockcroft, Norman Feather and Mark Oliphant, who would become firm friends with Chadwick  As many students had no idea what they wanted to research, Rutherford and Chadwick would suggest topics  Chadwick edited all the papers produced by the laboratory 

In 1925, Chadwick met Aileen Stewart-Brown, the daughter of a Liverpool stockbroker  The two were married in August 1925, with Kapitza as Best Man  The couple had twin daughters, Joanna and Judith, who were born in February 1927 In his research, Chadwick continued to probe the nucleus  In 1925, the concept of spin had allowed physicists to explain the Zeeman effect, but it also created unexplained anomalies  At the time it was believed that the nucleus consisted of protons and electrons, so nitrogen's nucleus, for example, with a mass number of 14, was assumed to contain 14 protons and 7 electrons  This gave it the right mass and charge, but the wrong spin At a conference at Cambridge on beta particles and gamma rays in 1928, Chadwick met Geiger again  Geiger had brought with him a new model of his Geiger counter, which had been improved by his post-doctoral student Walther Müller  Chadwick had not used one since the war, and the new Geiger–Müller counter was potentially a major improvement over the scintillation techniques then in use at Cambridge, which relied on the human eye for observation  The major drawback with it was that it detected alpha, beta and gamma radiation, and radium, which the Cavendish laboratory normally used in its experiments, emitted all three, and was therefore unsuitable for what Chadwick had in mind  However, polonium is an alpha emitter, and Lise Meitner sent Chadwick about 2 millicuries (about 0 5 μg) from Germany In Germany, Walther Bothe and his student Herbert Becker had used polonium to bombard beryllium with alpha particles, producing an unusual form of radiation  Chadwick had his Australian 1851 Exhibition scholar, Hugh Webster, duplicate their results  To Chadwick, this was evidence of something that he and Rutherford had been hypothesising for years: the neutron, a theoretical nuclear particle with no electric charge  Then in January 1932, Feather drew Chadwick's attention to another surprising result  Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie had succeeded in knocking protons from paraffin wax using polonium and beryllium as a source for what they thought was gamma radiation  Rutherford and Chadwick disagreed; protons were too heavy for that  But neutrons would need only a small amount of energy to achieve the same effect  In Rome, Ettore Majorana came to the same conclusion: the Joliot-Curies had discovered the neutron but did not know it 

Chadwick dropped all his other responsibilities to concentrate on proving the existence of the neutron, assisted by Feather and frequently working late at night  He devised a simple apparatus that consisted of a cylinder containing a polonium source and beryllium target  The resulting radiation could then be directed at a material such as paraffin wax; the displaced particles, which were protons, would go into a small ionisation chamber where they could be detected with an oscilloscope 
In February 1932, after only about two weeks of experimentation with neutrons, Chadwick sent a letter to Nature titled "Possible Existence of a Neutron"  He communicated his findings in detail in an article sent to Proceedings of the Royal Society A titled "The Existence of a Neutron" in May  His discovery of the neutron was a milestone in understanding the nucleus  Reading Chadwick's paper, Robert Bacher and Edward Condon realised that anomalies in the then-current theory, like the spin of nitrogen, would be resolved if the neutron has a spin of 1/2 and that a nitrogen nucleus consisted of seven protons and seven neutrons The theoretical physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg considered whether the neutron could be a fundamental nuclear particle like the proton and electron, rather than a proton–electron pair   Heisenberg showed that the neutron was best described as a new nuclear particle, but its exact nature remained unclear   In his 1933 Bakerian Lecture, Chadwick estimated that a neutron had a mass of about 1 0067 u  Since a proton and an electron had a combined mass of 1 0078 u, this implied the neutron as a proton–electron composite had a binding energy of about 2 MeV, which sounded reasonable, although it was hard to understand how a particle with so little binding energy could be stable   Estimating such a small mass difference required challenging precise measurements, however, and several conflicting results were obtained in 1933–4   By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a large value for the mass of a neutron, but Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California produced a small one   Then Maurice Goldhaber, a refugee from Nazi Germany and a graduate student at the Cavendish Laboratory, suggested to Chadwick that deuterons could be photodisintegrated by the 2 6 MeV gamma rays of 208Tl (then known as thorium C"):

An accurate value for the mass of the neutron could be determined from this process  Chadwick and Goldhaber tried this and found that it worked   They measured the kinetic energy of the proton produced as 1 05 MeV, leaving the mass of the neutron as the unknown in the equation   Chadwick and Goldhaber calculated that it was either 1 0084 or 1 0090 atomic units, depending on the values used for the masses of the proton and deuteron   (The modern accepted value for the mass of the neutron is 1 00866 u ) The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron pair For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick was awarded the Hughes Medal by the Royal Society in 1932, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935, the Copley Medal in 1950 and the Franklin Medal in 1951  His discovery of the neutron made it possible to produce elements heavier than uranium in the laboratory by the capture of slow neutrons followed by beta decay  Unlike the positively charged alpha particles, which are repelled by the electrical forces present in the nuclei of other atoms, neutrons do not need to overcome any Coulomb barrier, and can therefore penetrate and enter the nuclei of even the heaviest elements such as uranium  This inspired Enrico Fermi to investigate the nuclear reactions brought about by collisions of nuclei with slow neutrons, work for which Fermi would receive the Nobel Prize in 1938 Wolfgang Pauli proposed another kind of particle on 4 December 1930 in order to explain the continuous spectrum of beta radiation that Chadwick had reported in 1914  Since not all of the energy of beta radiation could be accounted for, the law of conservation of energy appeared to be violated, but Pauli argued that this could be redressed if another, undiscovered, particle was involved  Pauli also called this particle a neutron, but it was clearly not the same particle as Chadwick's neutron  Fermi renamed it the neutrino, Italian for "little neutron"  In 1934, Fermi proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino   The neutrino could account for the missing energy, but a particle with little mass and no electric charge was difficult to observe  Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth, so the chances of detecting them were slim  Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan would confirm the neutrino on 14 June 1956 by placing a detector within a large antineutrino flux from a nearby nuclear reactor 

Liverpool
With the onset of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom, the government became more parsimonious with funding for science  At the same time, Lawrence's recent invention, the cyclotron, promised to revolutionise experimental nuclear physics, and Chadwick felt that the Cavendish laboratory would fall behind unless it also acquired one  He therefore chafed under Rutherford, who clung to the belief that good nuclear physics could still be done without large, expensive equipment, and turned down the request for a cyclotron 

Chadwick was himself a critic of Big Science in general, and Lawrence in particular, whose approach he considered careless and focused on technology at the expense of science  When Lawrence postulated the existence of a new and hitherto unknown particle that he claimed was a possible source of limitless energy at the Solvay Conference in 1933, Chadwick responded that the results were more likely attributable to contamination of the equipment  While Lawrence rechecked his results at Berkeley only to find that Chadwick was correct, Rutherford and Oliphant conducted an investigation at the Cavendish that found that deuterium fuses to form helium-3, thereby causing the effect that Lawrence had observed  This was another major discovery, but the Oliphant-Rutherford particle accelerator was an expensive state-of-the-art piece of equipment In March 1935, Chadwick received an offer of the Lyon Jones Chair of physics at the University of Liverpool, in his wife's home town, to succeed Lionel Wilberforce  The laboratory was so antiquated that it still ran on direct current electricity, but Chadwick seized the opportunity, assuming the chair on 1 October 1935  The university's prestige was soon bolstered by Chadwick's Nobel Prize, which was announced in November 1935  His medal was sold at auction in 2014 for $329,000 Chadwick set about acquiring a cyclotron for Liverpool  He started by spending £700 to refurbish the antiquated laboratories at Liverpool, so some components could be made in-house  He was able to persuade the university to provide £2,000 and obtained a grant for another £2,000 from the Royal Society  To build his cyclotron, Chadwick brought in two young experts, Bernard Kinsey and Harold Walke, who had worked with Lawrence at the University of California  A local cable manufacturer donated the copper conductor for the coils  The cyclotron's 50-ton magnet was manufactured in Trafford Park by Metropolitan-Vickers, which also made the vacuum chamber  The cyclotron was completely installed and running in July 1939  The total cost of £5,184 was more than Chadwick had received from the University and the Royal Society, so Chadwick paid the rest from his 159,917 kr (£8,243) Nobel Prize money At Liverpool the Medicine and Science faculties worked together closely  Chadwick was automatically a committee member of both faculties, and in 1938 he was appointed to a commission headed by Lord Derby to investigate the arrangements for cancer treatment in Liverpool  Chadwick anticipated that neutrons and radioactive isotopes produced with the 37-inch cyclotron could be used to study biochemical processes, and might become a weapon in the fight against cancer 

Second World War
Tube Alloys and the MAUD Report
In Germany, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons, and noted that barium, a lighter element, was among the products produced  Hitherto, only the same or heavier elements had been produced by the process  In January 1939, Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch astounded the physics community with a paper that explained this result  They theorised that uranium atoms bombarded with neutrons can break into two roughly equal fragments, a process they called fission  They calculated that this would result in the release of about 200 MeV, implying an energy release orders of magnitude greater than chemical reactions, and Frisch confirmed their theory experimentally  It was soon noted by Hahn that if neutrons were released during fission, then a chain reaction was possible  French scientists, Pierre Joliot, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, soon verified that more than one neutron was indeed emitted per fission  In a paper co-authored with the American physicist John Wheeler, Bohr theorised that fission was more likely to occur in the uranium-235 isotope, which made up only 0 7 percent of natural uranium 

Chadwick did not believe that there was any likelihood of another war with Germany in 1939, and took his family for a holiday on a remote lake in northern Sweden  The news of the outbreak of the Second World War therefore came as a shock  Determined not to spend another war in an internment camp, Chadwick made his way to Stockholm as fast as he could, but when he arrived there with his family, he found that all air traffic between Stockholm and London had been suspended  They made their way back to England on a tramp steamer  When he reached Liverpool, Chadwick found Joseph Rotblat, a Polish post-doctoral fellow who had come to work with the cyclotron, was now destitute, as he was cut off from funds from Poland  Chadwick promptly hired Rotblat as a lecturer, despite his poor grasp of English In October 1939, Chadwick received a letter from Sir Edward Appleton, the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, asking for his opinion on the feasibility of an atom bomb  Chadwick responded cautiously  He did not dismiss the possibility, but carefully went over the many theoretical and practical difficulties involved  Chadwick decided to investigate the properties of uranium oxide further with Rotblat  In March 1940, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham re-examined the theoretical issues involved in a paper that became known as the Frisch–Peierls memorandum  Instead of looking at unenriched uranium oxide, they considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium-235, and found that not only could a chain reaction occur, but that it might require as little as 1 kilogram (2 2 lb) of uranium-235, and unleash the energy of tons of dynamite 

A special subcommittee of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW), known as the MAUD Committee, was created to investigate the matter further  It was chaired by Sir George Thomson and its original membership included Chadwick, along with Mark Oliphant, John Cockcroft and Philip Moon  While other teams investigated uranium enrichment techniques, Chadwick's team at Liverpool concentrated on determining the nuclear cross section of uranium-235  By April 1941, it had been experimentally confirmed that the critical mass of uranium-235 might be 8 kilograms (18 lb) or less  His research into such matters was complicated by all-but-incessant Luftwaffe bombings of the environs of his Liverpool lab; the windows were blown out so often that they were replaced by cardboard In July 1941, Chadwick was chosen to write the final draft of the MAUD Report, which, when presented by Vannevar Bush to President Franklin D  Roosevelt in October 1941, inspired the U S  government to pour millions of dollars into the pursuit of an atom bomb  When George B  Pegram and Harold Urey visited Britain to see how the project, now known as Tube Alloys, was going, Chadwick was able to tell them: "I wish I could tell you that the bomb is not going to work, but I am 90 per cent sure that it will "In a recent book about the Bomb project, Graham Farmelo wrote that "Chadwick did more than any other scientist to give Churchill the Bomb      Chadwick was tested almost to the breaking point " So worried that he could not sleep, Chadwick resorted to sleeping pills, which he continued to take for most of his remaining years  Chadwick later said that he realised that "a nuclear bomb was not only possible—it was inevitable  Sooner or later these ideas could not be peculiar to us  Everybody would think about them before long, and some country would put them into action"  Sir Hermann Bondi suggested that it was fortunate that Chadwick, not Rutherford, was the doyen of UK physics at the time, as the latter's prestige might otherwise have overpowered Chadwick's interest in "looking forward" to the Bomb's prospects 

Manhattan Project
Owing to the danger from aerial bombardment, the Chadwicks sent their twins to Canada as part of a government evacuation scheme  Chadwick was reluctant to move Tube Alloys there, believing that the United Kingdom was a better location for the isotope separation plant  The enormous scope of the effort became more apparent in 1942: even a pilot separation plant would cost over £1 million and strain Britain's resources, to say nothing of a full-scale plant, which was estimated to cost somewhere in the vicinity of £25 million  It would have to be built in America  At the same time that the British became convinced that a joint project was necessary, the progress of the American Manhattan Project was such that British cooperation seemed less essential, although the Americans were still eager to utilise Chadwick's talents The matter of cooperation had to be taken up at the highest level  In September 1943, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and President Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which reinstated cooperation between Britain, the United States and Canada  Chadwick, Oliphant, Peierls and Simon were summoned to the United States by the director of Tube Alloys, Sir Wallace Akers, to work with the Manhattan Project  The Quebec Agreement established a new Combined Policy Committee to direct the joint project  The Americans disliked Akers, so Chadwick was appointed technical advisor to the Combined Policy Committee, and the head of the British Mission Leaving Rotblat in charge in Liverpool, Chadwick began a tour of the Manhattan Project facilities in November 1943, except for the Hanford Site where plutonium was produced, which he was not allowed to see  He became the only man apart from Groves and his second in command to have access to all the American research and production facilities for the uranium bomb  Observing the work on the K-25 gaseous diffusion facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Chadwick realised how wrong he had been about building the plant in wartime Britain



ground_truth: three different relationships he had in the past

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where is the country with ISO code ISO 3166-2:CV located?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  The enormous structure could never have been concealed from the Luftwaffe  In early 1944, he moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico, with his wife and their twins, who now spoke with Canadian accents  For security reasons, he was given the cover name of James Chaffee 

Chadwick accepted that the Americans did not need British help, but that it could still be useful in bringing the project to an early and successful conclusion  Working closely with the director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R  Groves, Jr , he attempted to do everything he could to support the effort  He also endeavoured to place British scientists in as many parts of the project as possible in order to facilitate a post-war British nuclear weapons project to which Chadwick was committed  Requests from Groves via Chadwick for particular scientists tended to be met with an immediate rejection by the company, ministry or university currently employing them, only to be overcome by the overriding priority accorded to Tube Alloys  As a result, the British team was critical to the Project's success Although he had more knowledge of the project than anyone else from Britain, Chadwick had no access to the Hanford site  Lord Portal was offered a tour of Hanford in 1946  "This was the only plant to which Chadwick had been denied access in wartime, and now he asked Groves if he could accompany Portal  Groves replied that he could, but if he did then 'Portal will not see very much' " For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  He considered this to be a recognition of the work of the whole Tube Alloys project By early 1945, Chadwick was spending most of his time in Washington, D C , and his family relocated from Los Alamos to a house on Washington's Dupont Circle in April 1945  He was present at the meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 4 July when Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson gave Britain's agreement to use the atom bomb against Japan, and at the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July, when the first atom bomb was detonated  Inside its pit was a polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator, a development of the technique that Chadwick had used to discover the neutron over a decade before  William L  Laurence, The New York Times reporter attached to the Manhattan Project, wrote that "never before in history had any man lived to see his own discovery materialize itself with such telling effect on the destiny of man "

Later life
Shortly after the war ended, Chadwick was appointed to the Advisory Committee on Atomic Energy (ACAE)  He was also appointed as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  He clashed with fellow ACAE member Patrick Blackett, who disagreed with Chadwick's conviction that Britain needed to acquire its own nuclear weapons; but it was Chadwick's position that was ultimately adopted  He returned to Britain in 1946, to find a country still beset by wartime rationing and shortages At this time, Sir James Mountford, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Liverpool, wrote in his diary "he had never seen a man 'so physically, mentally and spiritually tired" as Chadwick, for he "had plumbed such depths of moral decision as more fortunate men are never called upon even to peer into     [and suffered]     almost insupportable agonies of responsibility arising from his scientific work' "In 1948, Chadwick accepted an offer to become the Master of Gonville and Caius College  The job was prestigious but ill-defined; the Master was the titular head of the College, but authority actually resided in a council of 13 fellows, of whom one was the Master  As Master, Chadwick strove to improve the academic reputation of the college  He increased the number of research fellowships from 31 to 49, and sought to bring talent into the college  This involved controversial decisions, such as hiring in 1951 the Chinese biochemist Tien-chin Tsao and the Hungarian-born economist Peter Bauer  In what became known as the Peasants' Revolt, fellows led by Patrick Hadley voted an old friend of Chadwick's off the council and replaced him with Bauer  More friends of Chadwick's were removed over the following years, and he retired in November 1958  It was during his mastership that Francis Crick, a PhD student at Gonville and Caius College, and James Watson discovered the structure of DNA Over the years, Chadwick received many honours, including the Medal for Merit from the United States, and the Pour le Mérite from Germany  He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1927  He became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1946 and an International member of the American Philosophical Society in 1948  He was made a Companion of Honour in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1970 for "services to science", and went to Buckingham Palace for the investiture ceremony  He became more frail, and seldom left his flat, although he travelled to Liverpool for celebrations of his eightieth birthday   A lifelong atheist, he saw no reason to adopt religious faith in later life  He died in his sleep on 24 July 1974 His papers are held at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge, and are accessible to the public  The Chadwick Laboratory at the University of Liverpool is named after him, as is its Sir James Chadwick Chair of Experimental Physics, which was named after him in 1991 as part of celebrations of the centenary of his birth  A crater on the moon is also named after him  The James Chadwick Building, which houses part of the School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, University of Manchester is named in his honour  He was described by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority official historian Lorna Arnold as "a physicist, a scientist-diplomat, and a good, wise, and humane man "

Notes
Passage 2:
Neutron temperature
The neutron detection temperature, also called the neutron energy, indicates a free neutron's kinetic energy, usually given in electron volts  The term temperature is used, since hot, thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium with a certain temperature  The neutron energy distribution is then adapted to the Maxwell distribution known for thermal motion  Qualitatively, the higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the free neutrons  The momentum and wavelength of the neutron are related through the de Broglie relation  The large wavelength of slow neutrons allows for the large cross section 

Neutron energy distribution ranges
But different ranges with different names are observed in other sources The following is a detailed classification:

Thermal
A thermal neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy of about 0 025 eV (about 4 0×10−21 J or 2 4 MJ/kg, hence a speed of 2 19 km/s), which is the energy corresponding to the most probable speed at a temperature of 290 K (17 °C or 62 °F), the mode of the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for this temperature, Epeak = 1/2 k T 
After a number of collisions with nuclei (scattering) in a medium (neutron moderator) at this temperature, those neutrons which are not absorbed reach about this energy level 
Thermal neutrons have a different and sometimes much larger effective neutron absorption cross-section for a given nuclide than fast neutrons, and can therefore often be absorbed more easily by an atomic nucleus, creating a heavier, often unstable isotope of the chemical element as a result  This event is called neutron activation 

EpithermalNeutrons of energy greater than thermal
Greater than 0 025 eV

CadmiumNeutrons which are strongly absorbed by cadmium
Less than 0 5 eV 

EpicadmiumNeutrons which are not strongly absorbed by cadmium
Greater than 0 5 eV 

Cold (slow) neutronsNeutrons of lower (much lower) energy than thermal neutrons 
Less than 5 meV 
Cold (slow) neutrons are subclassified into cold (CN), very cold (VCN), and ultra-cold (UCN) neutrons, each having particular characteristics in terms of their optical interactions with matter  As the wavelength is made (chosen to be) longer,  lower values of the momentum exchange become accessible  Therefore, it is possible to study larger scales and slower dynamics  Gravity also plays a very significant role in the case of UCN  Nevertheless, UCN reflect at all angles of incidence  This is because their momentum is comparable to the optical potential of materials  This effect is used to store them in bottles and study their fundamental properties e g  lifetime, neutron electrical-dipole moment etc    The main limitations of the use of slow neutrons is the low flux and the lack of efficient optical devices (in the case of CN and VCN)  Efficient neutron optical components are being developed and optimized to remedy this lack 

ResonanceRefers to neutrons which are strongly susceptible to non-fission capture by U-238 
1 eV to 300 eV

IntermediateNeutrons that are between slow and fast
Few hundred eV to 0 5 MeV 

Fast
A fast neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy level close to 1 MeV (100 TJ/kg), hence a speed of 14,000 km/s or higher  They are named fast neutrons to distinguish them from lower-energy thermal neutrons, and high-energy neutrons produced in cosmic showers or accelerators Fast neutrons are produced by nuclear processes:

Nuclear fission produces neutrons with a mean energy of 2 MeV (200 TJ/kg, i e  20,000 km/s), which qualifies as "fast"  However the range of neutrons from fission follows a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution from 0 to about 14 MeV in the center of momentum frame of the disintegration, and the mode of the energy is only 0 75 MeV, meaning that fewer than half of fission neutrons qualify as "fast" even by the 1 MeV criterion 
Spontaneous fission is a mode of radioactive decay for some heavy nuclides  Examples include plutonium-240 and californium-252 
Nuclear fusion: deuterium–tritium fusion produces neutrons of 14 1 MeV (1400 TJ/kg, i e  52,000 km/s, 17 3% of the speed of light) that can easily fission uranium-238 and other non-fissile actinides 
Neutron emission occurs in situations in which a nucleus contains enough excess neutrons that the separation energy of one or more neutrons becomes negative (i e  excess neutrons "drip" out of the nucleus)  Unstable nuclei of this sort will often decay in less than one second Fast neutrons are usually undesirable in a steady-state nuclear reactor because most fissile fuel has a higher reaction rate with thermal neutrons  Fast neutrons can be rapidly changed into thermal neutrons via a process called moderation  This is done through numerous collisions with (in general) slower-moving and thus lower-temperature particles like atomic nuclei and other neutrons  These collisions will generally speed up the other particle and slow down the neutron and scatter it  Ideally, a room temperature neutron moderator is used for this process  In reactors, heavy water, light water, or graphite are typically used to moderate neutrons 

UltrafastRelativistic
Greater than 20 MeV

Other classifications
Pile

Neutrons of all energies present in nuclear reactors
0 001 eV to 15 MeV Ultracold

Neutrons with sufficiently low energy to be reflected and trapped
Upper bound of 335 neV

Fast-neutron reactor and thermal-neutron reactor compared
Most fission reactors are thermal-neutron reactors that use a neutron moderator to slow down ("thermalize") the neutrons produced by nuclear fission  Moderation substantially increases the fission cross section for fissile nuclei such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239  In addition, uranium-238 has a much lower capture cross section for thermal neutrons, allowing more neutrons to cause fission of fissile nuclei and propagate the chain reaction, rather than being captured by 238U  The combination of these effects allows light water reactors to use low-enriched uranium  Heavy water reactors and graphite-moderated reactors can even use natural uranium as these moderators have much lower neutron capture cross sections than light water An increase in fuel temperature also raises uranium-238's thermal neutron absorption by Doppler broadening, providing negative feedback to help control the reactor  When the coolant is a liquid that also contributes to moderation and absorption (light water or heavy water), boiling of the coolant will reduce the moderator density, which can provide positive or negative feedback (a positive or negative void coefficient), depending on whether the reactor is under- or over-moderated 
Intermediate-energy neutrons have poorer fission/capture ratios than either fast or thermal neutrons for most fuels  An exception is the uranium-233 of the thorium cycle, which has a good fission/capture ratio at all neutron energies 
Fast-neutron reactors use unmoderated fast neutrons to sustain the reaction, and require the fuel to contain a higher concentration of fissile material relative to fertile material (uranium-238)  However, fast neutrons have a better fission/capture ratio for many nuclides, and each fast fission releases a larger number of neutrons, so a fast breeder reactor can potentially "breed" more fissile fuel than it consumes 
Fast reactor control cannot depend solely on Doppler broadening or on negative void coefficient from a moderator  However, thermal expansion of the fuel itself can provide quick negative feedback  Perennially expected to be the wave of the future, fast reactor development has been nearly dormant with only a handful of reactors built in the decades since the Chernobyl accident due to low prices in the uranium market, although there is now a revival with several Asian countries planning to complete larger prototype fast reactors in the next few years 

See also
Passage 3:
Discovery of the neutron
The discovery of the neutron and its properties was central to the extraordinary developments in atomic physics in the first half of the 20th century  Early in the century, Ernest Rutherford developed a crude model of the atom,: 188  based on the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden  In this model, atoms had their mass and positive electric charge concentrated in a very small nucleus  By 1920, isotopes of chemical elements had been discovered, the atomic masses had been determined to be (approximately) integer multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom, and the atomic number had been identified as the charge on the nucleus : §1 1 2  Throughout the 1920s, the nucleus was viewed as composed of combinations of protons and electrons, the two elementary particles known at the time, but that model presented several experimental and theoretical contradictions : 298 The essential nature of the atomic nucleus was established with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 and the determination that it was a new elementary particle, distinct from the proton : 55 The uncharged neutron was immediately exploited as a new means to probe nuclear structure, leading to such discoveries as the creation of new radioactive elements by neutron irradiation (1934) and the fission of uranium atoms by neutrons (1938)  The discovery of fission led to the creation of both nuclear power and nuclear weapons by the end of World War II  Both the proton and the neutron were presumed to be elementary particles until the 1960s, when they were determined to be composite particles built from quarks 

Discovery of radioactivity
At the start of the 20th century, the vigorous debate as to the existence of atoms had not yet been resolved  Philosophers such as Ernst Mach and Wilhelm Ostwald denied that atoms were real, viewing them as a convenient mathematical construct, while scientists such as Arnold Sommerfeld and Ludwig Boltzmann saw that physical theories required the existence of atoms : 13–14 Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel, while working with phosphorescent materials   In 1898, Ernest Rutherford at Cavendish Laboratory distinguished two types of radioactivity, alpha rays and beta rays, which differed in their ability to penetrate, or travel into, ordinary objects or gases  Two years later, Paul Villard discovered gamma rays, which possessed even more penetrating power : 8–9  These radiations were soon identified with known particles:  beta rays were shown to be electrons by Walter Kaufmann in 1902; alpha rays were shown to be helium ions by Rutherford and Thomas Royds in 1907; and gamma rays were shown to be electromagnetic radiation, that is, a form of light, by Rutherford and Edward Andrade in 1914 : 61–62, 87  These radiations had also been identified as emanating from atoms, hence they provided clues to processes occurring within atoms   Conversely, the radiations were also recognized as tools that could be exploited in scattering experiments to probe the interior of atoms : 112–115

The gold foil experiment and the discovery of the atomic nucleus
At the University of Manchester between 1908 and 1913, Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden in a series of experiments to determine what happens when alpha particles scatter from metal foil  Now called the Rutherford gold foil experiment, or the Geiger–Marsden experiment, these measurements made the extraordinary discovery that although most alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil experienced little deflection, a few scattered to a high angle  The scattering indicated that some of the alpha particles ricocheted back from a small, but dense, component inside the atoms  Based on these measurements, by 1911 it was apparent to Rutherford that the atom consisted of a small, massive nucleus with positive charge surrounded by a much larger cloud of negatively charged electrons  The concentrated atomic mass was required to provide the observed deflection of the alpha particles, and Rutherford developed a mathematical model that accounted for the scattering The Rutherford model was very influential, motivating the Bohr model for electrons orbiting the nucleus in 1913 and eventually leading to quantum mechanics by the mid-1920s 

Discovery of isotopes
Concurrent with the work of Rutherford, Geiger, and Marsden, the radiochemist Frederick Soddy at the University of Glasgow was studying chemistry related problems on radioactive materials  Soddy had worked with Rutherford on radioactivity at McGill University  By 1910, about 40 different radioactive elements, referred to as radioelements, had been identified between uranium and lead, although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements  Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently found in 1913 that an element undergoing alpha decay will produce an element two places to the left in the periodic system and an element undergoing beta decay will produce an element one place to the right in the periodic system   Also, those radioelements that reside in the same places in the periodic system are chemically identical   Soddy called these chemically identical elements  isotopes : 3–5  For his study of radioactivity and the discovery of isotopes, Soddy was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 

Building from work by J  J  Thomson on the deflection of positively charged atoms by electric and magnetic fields, Francis Aston built the first mass spectrograph at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919  His aim, which he easily achieved, was to separate the two isotopes of neon, 20Ne and 22Ne  Aston discovered that the masses of all the particles are whole numbers (the whole number rule): that is, the masses of all the isotopes are whole number multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom  In these measurements, Aston arbitrarily computed his masses relative to oxygen-16, which he took to have a mass of exactly 16  (Today the atomic mass unit (amu) is relative to carbon-12 ) Ironically, the one exception to this rule was hydrogen itself, which had a mass value of 1 008  The excess mass was small, but well outside the limits of experimental uncertainty  Aston and others quickly realized that the discrepancy is due to the binding energy of atoms, that is, the mass of a number of hydrogen atoms bound into a single atom must be less than the sum of the masses of the separate hydrogen atoms   Aston's work on isotopes won him the 1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole number rule  Noting Aston's recent discovery of nuclear binding energy, in 1920 Arthur Eddington suggested that stars may obtain their energy by fusing hydrogen (protons) into helium and that the heavier elements may form in stars 

Atomic number and Moseley's law
Rutherford and others had noted the disparity between the mass of an atom, computed in atomic mass units, and the approximate charge required on the nucleus for the Rutherford model to work  The required charge of the atomic nucleus was usually about half its atomic mass : 82 Antonius van den Broek boldly hypothesized that the required charge, denoted by Z, was not half of the atomic weight for elements, but instead was exactly equal to the element's ordinal position in the periodic table : 228  At that time, the positions of the elements in the periodic table were not known to have any physical significance   If the elements were ordered based on increasing atomic mass, however, periodicity in chemical properties was exhibited   Exceptions to this periodicity were apparent, however, such as cobalt and nickel : 180 At the University of Manchester in 1913 Henry Moseley discussed the new Bohr model of the atom with the visiting Bohr  The model accounted for the electromagnetic emission spectrum from the hydrogen atom, and Moseley and Bohr wondered if the electromagnetic emission spectra of heavier elements such as cobalt and nickel would follow their ordering by weight, or by their position in the periodic table : 346  In 1913–1914 Moseley tested the question experimentally by using X-ray diffraction techniques  He found that the most intense short-wavelength line in the X-ray spectrum of a particular element, known as the K-alpha line, was related to the element's position in the periodic table, that is, its atomic number, Z  Indeed, Moseley introduced this nomenclature : §1 1 2  Moseley found that the frequencies of the radiation were related in a simple way to the atomic number of the elements for a large number of elements : 5 : 181 Within a year it was noted that the equation for the relation, now called Moseley's law, could be explained in terms of the 1913 Bohr model, with reasonable extra assumptions about atomic structure in other elements : 87  Moseley's result, by Bohr's later account, not only established atomic number as a measurable experimental quantity, but gave it a physical meaning as the positive charge on the atomic nucleus  The elements could be ordered in the periodic system in order of atomic number, rather than atomic weight : 127  The result tied together the organization of the periodic table, the Bohr model for the atom,: 56  and Rutherford's model for alpha scattering from nuclei  It was cited by Rutherford, Bohr, and others as a critical advance in understanding the nature of the atomic nucleus Further research in atomic physics was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I  Moseley was killed in 1915 at the Battle of Gallipoli,: 182  while Rutherford's student James Chadwick was interned in Germany for the duration of the war, 1914–1918  In Berlin, Lise Meitner's and Otto Hahn's research work on determining the radioactive decay chains of radium and uranium by precise chemical separation was interrupted : §4  Meitner spent much of the war working as a radiologist and medical X-ray technician near the Austrian front, while Hahn, a chemist, worked on research in poison gas warfare : 61–62, 68

Rutherford atom
In 1920 Rutherford gave a Bakerian lecture at the Royal Society entitled the "Nuclear Constitution of Atoms", a summary of recent experiments on atomic nuclei and conclusions as to the structure of atomic nuclei : 23 : 5  By 1920, the existence of electrons within the atomic nucleus was widely assumed   It was assumed the nucleus consisted of hydrogen nuclei in number equal to the atomic mass   But since each hydrogen nucleus had charge +1, the nucleus required a smaller number of "internal electrons" each of charge −1 to give the nucleus its correct total charge  The mass of protons is about 1800 times greater than that of electrons, so the mass of the electrons is incidental in this computation : 230–231   Such a model was consistent with the scattering of alpha particles from heavy nuclei, as well as the charge and mass of the many isotopes that had been identified   There were other motivations for the proton–electron model   As noted by Rutherford at the time, "We have strong reason for believing that the nuclei of atoms contain electrons as well as positively charged bodies



ground_truth: central Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the person who provided evidence to suggest the existence of the neutron a participant of?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:   ",: 376–377  namely, it was known that beta radiation was electrons emitted from the nucleus : 21 : 5–6 In that lecture, Rutherford conjectured the existence of new particles   The alpha particle was known to be very stable, and it was assumed to retain its identity within the nucleus   The alpha particle was presumed to consist of four protons and two closely bound electrons to give it +2 charge and mass 4   In a 1919 paper, Rutherford had reported the apparent discovery of a new doubly charged particle of mass 3, denoted the X++, interpreted to consist of three protons and a closely bound electron   This result suggested to Rutherford the likely existence of two new particles: one of two protons with a closely bound electron, and another of one proton and a closely bound electron  The X++ particle was later determined to have mass 4 and to be just a low-energy alpha particle : 25  Nevertheless, Rutherford had conjectured the existence of the deuteron, a +1 charge particle of mass 2, and the neutron, a neutral particle of mass 1 : 396   The former is the nucleus of deuterium, discovered in 1931 by Harold Urey  The mass of the hypothetical neutral particle would be little different from that of the proton  Rutherford determined that such a zero-charge particle would be difficult to detect by available techniques : 396 About the time of Rutherford's lecture, other publications appeared with similar suggestions of a proton–electron composite in the nucleus, and in 1921 William Harkins, an American chemist, named the uncharged particle the neutron : 6  About that same time the word proton was adopted for the hydrogen nucleus   Neutron was apparently constructed from the Latin root for neutral and the Greek ending -on (by imitation of electron and proton)  References to the word neutron in connection with the atom can be found in the literature as early as 1899, however : 398 Rutherford and Chadwick immediately began an experimental program at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to search for the neutron : 27 : 398   The experiments continued throughout the 1920s without success Rutherford's conjecture and the hypothetical "neutron" were not widely accepted   In his 1931 monograph on the Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and Radioactivity, George Gamow, then at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen, did not mention the neutron   At the time of their 1932 measurements in Paris that would lead to the discovery of the neutron, Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot were unaware of the conjecture 

Problems of the nuclear electrons hypothesis
Throughout the 1920s, physicists assumed that the atomic nucleus was composed of protons and "nuclear electrons" : 29–32  Under this hypothesis, the nitrogen-14 (14N) nucleus would be composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons, so that it would have a net charge of +7 elementary charge units and a mass of 14 atomic mass units  This nucleus would also be orbited by another 7 electrons, termed "external electrons" by Rutherford,: 375  to complete the 14N atom  However problems with the hypothesis soon became apparent 
Ralph Kronig pointed out in 1926 that the observed hyperfine structure of atomic spectra was inconsistent with the proton–electron hypothesis  This structure is caused by the influence of the nucleus on the dynamics of orbiting electrons  The magnetic moments of supposed "nuclear electrons" should produce hyperfine spectral line splittings similar to the Zeeman effect, but no such effects were observed : 199   It seemed that the magnetic moment of the electron vanished when it was within the nucleus : 299 While on a visit to Utrecht University in 1928, Kronig learned of a surprising aspect of the rotational spectrum of N2+  The precision measurement made by Leonard Ornstein, the director of Utrecht's Physical Laboratory, showed that the spin of nitrogen nucleus must be equal to one  However, if the nitrogen-14 (14N) nucleus was composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons, an odd number of spin-1/2 particles, then the resultant nuclear spin should be half-integer  Kronig therefore suggested that perhaps "protons and  electrons do not retain their identity to the extent they do outside the nucleus" : 299–301 : 117 Observations of the rotational energy levels of diatomic molecules using Raman spectroscopy by Franco Rasetti in 1929 were inconsistent with the statistics expected from the proton–electron hypothesis  Rasetti obtained band spectra for H2 and N2 molecules   While the lines for both diatomic molecules showed alternation in intensity between light and dark, the pattern of alternation for H2 is opposite to that of the N2  After carefully analyzing these experimental results, German physicists Walter Heitler and Gerhard Herzberg showed that the hydrogen nuclei obey Fermi statistics and the nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics  However, a then unpublished result of Eugene Wigner showed that a composite system with an odd number of spin-1/2 particles must obey Fermi statistics; a system with an even number of spin-1/2 particle obeys Bose statistics  If the nitrogen nucleus had 21 particles, it should obey Fermi statistics, contrary to fact  Thus, Heitler and Herzberg concluded: "the electron in the nucleus     loses its ability to determine the statistics of the nucleus ": 117–118 The Klein paradox, discovered by Oskar Klein in 1928, presented further quantum mechanical objections to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus   Derived from the Dirac equation, this clear and precise paradox suggested that an  electron approaching a high potential barrier has a high probability of passing through the barrier by a pair creation process   Apparently, an electron could not be confined within a nucleus by any potential well  The meaning of this paradox was intensely debated at the time : 199–200 By about 1930 it was generally recognized that it was difficult to reconcile the proton–electron model for nuclei with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics : 199 : 299  This relation, Δx⋅Δp ≥ 1⁄2ħ, implies that an electron confined to a region the size of an atomic nucleus typically has a kinetic energy of about 40 MeV,: 299  which is larger than the observed energy of beta particles emitted from the nucleus  Such energy is also much larger than the binding energy of nucleons,: 89  which Aston and others had shown to be less than 9 MeV per nucleon : 511 In 1927, Charles Ellis and W  Wooster at the Cavendish Laboratory measured the energies of β-decay electrons   They found that the distribution of energies from any particular radioactive nuclei was broad and continuous, a result that contrasted notably with the distinct energy values observed in alpha and gamma decay  Further, the continuous energy distribution seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved by this "nuclear electrons" process   Indeed, in 1929 Bohr proposed to modify the law of energy conservation to account for the continuous energy distribution  The proposal earned the support of Werner Heisenberg  Such considerations were apparently reasonable, inasmuch as the laws of quantum mechanics had so recently overturned the laws of classical mechanics 
While all these considerations did not "prove" an electron could not exist in the nucleus, they were confusing and challenging for physicists to interpret   Many theories were invented to explain how the above arguments could be wrong : 4–5  In his 1931 monograph, Gamow summarized all these contradictions, marking the statements regarding electrons in the nucleus with warning symbols : 23

Discovery of the neutron
In 1930, Walther Bothe and his collaborator Herbert Becker in Giessen, Germany found that if the energetic alpha particles emitted from polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically beryllium (94Be), boron (115B), or lithium (73Li), an unusually penetrating radiation was produced  Beryllium produced the most intense radiation   Polonium is highly radioactive, producing energetic alpha radiation, and it was commonly used for scattering experiments at the time : 99–110  Alpha radiation can be influenced by an electric field, because it is composed of charged particles   The observed penetrating radiation was not influenced by an electric field, however, so it was thought to be gamma radiation  The radiation was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were difficult to interpret 

Two years later Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot in Paris showed that if this unknown radiation fell on paraffin wax, or any other hydrogen-containing compound, it ejected protons of very high energy (5 MeV)  This observation was not in itself inconsistent with the assumed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but that interpretation (Compton scattering) had a logical problem   From energy and momentum considerations, a gamma ray would have to have impossibly high energy (50 MeV) to scatter a massive proton : §1 3 1  In Rome, the young physicist Ettore Majorana declared that the manner in which the new radiation interacted with
protons required a new neutral particle On hearing of the Paris results, neither Rutherford nor James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory believed the gamma ray hypothesis  Assisted by Norman Feather, Chadwick quickly performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable  The previous year, Chadwick, J E R  Constable, and E C  Pollard had already conducted experiments on disintegrating light elements using alpha radiation from polonium  They had also developed more accurate and efficient methods for detecting, counting, and recording the ejected protons  Chadwick repeated the creation of the radiation using beryllium to absorb the alpha particles: 9Be + 4He (α) →  12C + 1n  Following the Paris experiment, he aimed the radiation at paraffin wax, a hydrocarbon high in hydrogen content, hence offering a target dense with protons  As in the Paris experiment, the radiation energetically scattered some of the protons  Chadwick measured the range of these protons, and also measured how the new radiation impacted the atoms of various gases  He found that the new radiation consisted of not gamma rays, but uncharged particles with about the same mass as the proton  These particles were neutrons  Chadwick won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for this discovery The year 1932 was later referred to as the "annus mirabilis" for nuclear physics in the Cavendish Laboratory, with discoveries of the neutron, artificial nuclear disintegration by the Cockcroft–Walton particle accelerator, and the positron 

Proton–neutron model of the nucleus
Given the problems of the proton–electron model, it was quickly accepted that the atomic nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, although the precise nature of the neutron was initially unclear  Within months after the discovery of the neutron, Werner Heisenberg and Dmitri Ivanenko had proposed proton–neutron models for the nucleus  Heisenberg's landmark papers approached the description of protons and neutrons in the nucleus through quantum mechanics  While Heisenberg's theory for protons and neutrons in the nucleus was a "major step toward understanding the nucleus as a quantum mechanical system," he still assumed the presence of nuclear electrons  In particular, Heisenberg assumed the neutron was a proton–electron composite, for which there is no quantum mechanical explanation  Heisenberg had no explanation for how lightweight electrons could be bound within the nucleus  Heisenberg introduced the first theory of nuclear exchange forces that bind the nucleons  He considered protons and neutrons to be different quantum states of the same particle, i e , nucleons distinguished by the value of their nuclear isospin quantum numbers 
The proton–neutron model explained the puzzle of dinitrogen  When 14N was proposed to consist of 3 pairs each of protons and neutrons, with an additional unpaired neutron and proton each contributing a spin of 1⁄2 ħ in the same direction for a total spin of 1 ħ, the model became viable  Soon, neutrons were used to naturally explain spin differences in many different nuclides in the same way 
If the proton–neutron model for the nucleus resolved many issues, it highlighted the problem of explaining the origins of beta radiation  No existing theory could account for how electrons, or positrons, could emanate from the nucleus  In 1934, Enrico Fermi published his classic paper describing the process of beta decay, in which the neutron decays to a proton by creating an electron and a (as yet undiscovered) neutrino  The paper employed the analogy that photons, or electromagnetic radiation, were similarly created and destroyed in atomic processes  Ivanenko had suggested a similar analogy in 1932  Fermi's theory requires the neutron to be a spin-1⁄2 particle  The theory preserved the principle of conservation of energy, which had been thrown into question by the continuous energy distribution of beta particles  The basic theory for beta decay proposed by Fermi was the first to show how particles could be created and destroyed  It established a general, basic theory for the interaction of particles by weak or strong forces  While this influential paper has stood the test of time, the ideas within it were so new that when it was first submitted to the journal Nature in 1933 it was rejected as being too speculative 

The nature of the neutron
The question of whether the neutron was a composite particle of a proton and an electron persisted for a few years after its discovery  In 1932 Harrie Massey explored a model for a composite neutron to account for its great penetrating power through matter and its electrical neutrality, for example  The issue was a legacy of the prevailing view from the 1920s that the only elementary particles were the proton and electron 
The nature of the neutron was a primary topic of discussion at the 7th Solvay Conference held in October 1933, attended by Heisenberg, Niels Bohr, Lise Meitner, Ernest Lawrence, Fermi, Chadwick, and others  As posed by Chadwick in his Bakerian Lecture in 1933, the primary question was the mass of the neutron relative to the proton  If the neutron's mass was less than the combined masses of a proton and an electron (1 0078 u), then the neutron could be a proton-electron composite because of the mass defect from the nuclear binding energy  If greater than the combined masses, then the neutron was elementary like the proton  The question was challenging to answer because the electron's mass is only 0 05% of the proton's, hence exceptionally precise measurements were required 
The difficulty of making the measurement is illustrated by the wide-ranging values for the mass of the neutron obtained from 1932 to 1934  The accepted value today is 1 00866 u  In Chadwick's 1932 paper reporting on the discovery, he estimated the mass of the neutron to be between 1 005 u and 1 008 u  By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a high value of 1 012 u, while Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California measured the small value 1 0006 u using their new cyclotron In 1935 Chadwick and his doctoral student Maurice Goldhaber resolved the issue by reporting the first accurate measurement of the mass of the neutron  They used the 2 6 MeV gamma rays of Thallium-208 (208Tl) (then known as thorium C") to photodisintegrate the deuteron 
In this reaction, the resulting proton and neutron have about equal kinetic energy, since their masses are about equal   The kinetic energy of the resulting proton could be measured (0 24 MeV), and therefore the deuteron's binding energy could be determined (2 6 MeV − 2(0 24 MeV) = 2 1 MeV, or 0 0023 u)  The neutron's mass could then be determined by the simple mass balance

where md,p,n refer to the deuteron, proton, or neutron mass, and "b e " is the binding energy  The masses of the deuteron and proton were known; Chadwick and Goldhaber used values 2 0142 u and 1 0081 u, respectively   They found that the neutron's mass was slightly greater than the mass of the proton 1 0084 u or 1 0090 u, depending on the precise value used for the deuteron mass  The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron composite, and the neutron was therefore identified as an elementary particle   Chadwick and Goldhaber predicted that a free neutron would be able to decay into a proton, electron, and neutrino (beta decay) 

Neutron physics in the 1930s
Soon after the discovery of the neutron, indirect evidence suggested the neutron had an unexpected non-zero value for its magnetic moment  Attempts to measure the neutron's magnetic moment originated with the discovery by Otto Stern in 1933 in Hamburg that the proton had an anomalously large magnetic moment  By 1934 groups led by Stern, now in Pittsburgh, and I  I  Rabi in New York had independently deduced that the magnetic moment of the neutron was negative and unexpectedly large by measuring the magnetic moments of the proton and deuteron  Values for the magnetic moment of the neutron were also determined by Robert Bacher (1933) at Ann Arbor and I Y  Tamm and S A  Altshuler (1934) in the Soviet Union from studies of the hyperfine structure of atomic spectra  By the late 1930s accurate values for the magnetic moment of the neutron had been deduced by the Rabi group using measurements employing newly developed nuclear magnetic resonance techniques  The large value for the proton's magnetic moment and the inferred negative value for the neutron's magnetic moment were unexpected and raised many questions 

The discovery of the neutron immediately gave scientists a new tool for probing the properties of atomic nuclei  Alpha particles had been used over the previous decades in scattering experiments, but such particles, which are helium nuclei, have +2 charge  This charge makes it difficult for alpha particles to overcome the Coulomb repulsive force and interact directly with the nuclei of atoms  Since neutrons have no electric charge, they do not have to overcome this force to interact with nuclei  Almost coincident with their discovery, neutrons were used by Norman Feather, Chadwick's colleague and protege, in scattering experiments with nitrogen  Feather was able to show that neutrons interacting with nitrogen nuclei scattered to protons or induced nitrogen to disintegrate to form boron with the emission of an alpha particle  Feather was therefore the first to show that neutrons produce nuclear disintegrations 
In Rome, Enrico Fermi and his team bombarded heavier elements with neutrons and found the products to be radioactive  By 1934 they had used neutrons to induce radioactivity in 22 different elements, many of these elements of high atomic number  Noticing that other experiments with neutrons at his laboratory seemed to work better on a wooden table than a marble table, Fermi suspected that the protons of the wood were slowing the neutrons and so increasing the chance for the neutron to interact with nuclei  Fermi therefore passed neutrons through paraffin wax to slow them and found that the radioactivity of some bombarded elements increased by a factor of tens to hundreds  The cross section for interaction with nuclei is much larger for slow neutrons than for fast neutrons  In 1938 Fermi received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons" 

In Berlin, the collaboration of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, together with their assistant Fritz Strassmann, furthered the research begun by Fermi and his team when they bombarded uranium with neutrons  Between 1934 and 1938, Hahn, Meitner, and Strassmann found a great number of radioactive transmutation products from these experiments, all of which they regarded as transuranic  Transuranic nuclides are those that have an atomic number greater than uranium (92), formed by neutron absorption; such nuclides are not naturally occurring  In July 1938, Meitner was forced to escape antisemitic persecution in Nazi Germany after the Anschluss, and she was able to secure a new position in Sweden  The decisive experiment on 16–17 December 1938 (using a chemical process called "radium–barium–mesothorium fractionation") produced puzzling results: what they had understood to be three isotopes of radium were instead consistently behaving as barium  Radium (atomic number 88) and barium (atomic number 56) are in the same chemical group   By January 1939 Hahn had concluded that what they had thought were transuranic nuclides were instead much lighter nuclides, such as barium, lanthanum, cerium and light platinoids  Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch immediately and correctly interpreted these observations as resulting from nuclear fission, a term coined by Frisch Hahn and his collaborators had detected the splitting of uranium nuclei, made unstable by neutron absorption, into lighter elements  Meitner and Frisch also showed that the fission of each uranium atom would release about 200 MeV of energy  The discovery of fission electrified the global community of atomic physicists and the public   In their second publication on nuclear fission, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process  Frédéric Joliot and his team proved this phenomenon to be a chain reaction in March 1939  In 1945 Hahn received the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei "

After 1939
The discovery of nuclear fission at the end of 1938 marked a shift in the centers of nuclear research from Europe to the United States  Large numbers of scientists were migrating to the United States to escape the troubles and antisemitism in Europe and the looming war: 407–410  (See Jewish scientists and the Manhattan Project)  The new centers of nuclear research were the universities in the United States, particularly Columbia University in New York and the University of Chicago where Enrico Fermi had relocated, and a secret research facility at Los Alamos, New Mexico, established in 1942, the new home of the Manhattan project  This wartime project was focussed on the construction of nuclear weapons, exploiting the enormous energy released by the fission of uranium or plutonium through neutron-based chain reactions 
The discoveries of the neutron and positron in 1932 were the start of the discoveries of many new particles   Muons were discovered in 1936   Pions and kaons were discovered in 1947, while lambda particles were discovered in 1950   Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a large number of particles called hadrons were discovered   A classification scheme for organizing all these particles, proposed independently by Murray Gell-Mann and
George Zweig in 1964, became known as the quark model  By this model, particles such as the proton and neutron were not elementary, but composed of various configurations of a small number of other truly elementary particles called partons or quarks  The quark model received experimental verification beginning in the late 1960s and finally provided an explanation for the neutron's anomalous magnetic moment 

Videos
Ernest Rutherford summarizes the state of nuclear physics in 1935  (7 min , Nobelprize org)
Hans Bethe discusses Chadwick and Goldhaber's work on deuteron disintegration  (2 min , Web of Stories)

Explanatory notes



ground_truth: Manhattan Project