prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the experimental satellite being forerunner to communication satellite of INSAT-4CR's manufacturer called?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Lockheed Martin A2100
The A2100 is a model of communications satellite spacecraft made by Lockheed Martin Space Systems  It is used as the foundation for telecommunications payloads in geosynchronous orbit, as well as GOES-R weather satellites and GPS Block IIIA satellites  Over 40 satellites use the A2100 bus 

History
The first satellite, AMC-1, was launched September 8, 1996, and has achieved 15-year on-orbit service life   Since 1996 there have been over 45 of the A2100 based satellites launched, with over 400 years of total on-orbit service 
Other A2100 spacecraft include JCSAT-13 and VINASAT-2, which were launched May, 2012 on an Ariane 5 rocket, as well as Arabsat-6A and Hellas Sat 4/SaudiGeoSat-1 of Saudi Arabia's Arabsat-6G program In 2002, Lockheed Martin Commercial Space Systems was given a Frost and Sullivan Satellite Reliability Award for excellence in the production of flexible and reliable communications satellites used in geosynchronous Earth orbit A2100 customers includes communications companies around the world, including Astra, Telesat, SKY Perfect JSAT Group and others 

Design
The Lockheed Martin A2100 geosynchronous spacecraft series is designed for a variety of telecommunications needs including Ka band broadband and broadcast services, fixed satellite services in C-band and Ku band payload configurations, high-power direct broadcast services using the Ku band frequency spectrum, and mobile satellite services using UHF, L-band and S-band payloads The A2100 satellite system was developed by the Astro Space team at its East Windsor, New Jersey facility, with team members delivering a flexible common bus with fewer components, lower spacecraft weight, and reduced customer delivery time The A2100 is being supplanted by the LM2100, an evolutionary upgrade with several new features  The military version is the LM2100 Combat Bus 

Propulsion system
The attitude control system includes reaction wheels, with momentum desaturation and main motor maneuver attitude control propulsion provided by small monopropellant hydrazine motors  This hydrazine supply is contained in a central propellant tank of 0 90 m diameter and up to 2 00 m length depending on the customer's requirements 
This tank's maximum length was later increased to 2 55 m 
The liquid apogee engine uses hydrazine fuel from the central tank along with nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer from two flanking tanks of 0 54 m diameter and up to 1 65 m long 
Orbit maintenance is performed by the small hydrazine motors and ion thrusters 
The maximum propellant supply (with the largest tanks at 95% fill factor) are 1368 kg of hydrazine fuel and 627 kg of nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer 
According to Moog-ISP, the A2100 platform uses its LEROS bipropellant Liquid Apogee Engine 

Satellite orders
A2100A
A2100AX
A2100AXS
A2100M (Military)
LM2100 (Modernized)
LM2100M (Modernized Military)
Cancelled orders
Passage 2:
Communications satellite
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunication signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth  Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications   Many communications satellites are in geostationary orbit 22,300 miles (35,900 km) above the equator, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore the satellite dish antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite  Others form satellite constellations in low Earth orbit, where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently 
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of sight and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth   The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points   Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies  To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use  This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference 

History
Origins
In October 1945, Arthur C  Clarke published an article titled "Extraterrestrial Relays" in the British magazine Wireless World  The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits to relay radio signals  Because of this, Arthur C  Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the concept of the communications satellite, and the term 'Clarke Belt' is employed as a description of the orbit 

The first artificial Earth satellite was Sputnik 1 which was put into orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957  It was developed by Mikhail Tikhonravov and Sergey Korolev, building on work by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky  Sputnik 1 was equipped with an on-board radio transmitter that worked on two frequencies of 20 005 and 40 002 MHz, or 7 and 15 meters wavelength  The satellite was not placed in orbit to send data from one point on Earth to another; the radio transmitter was meant to study the properties of radio wave distribution throughout the ionosphere   The launch of Sputnik 1 was a major step in the exploration of space and rocket development, and marks the beginning of the Space Age 

Early active and passive satellite experiments
There are two major classes of communications satellites, passive and active  Passive satellites only reflect the signal coming from the source, toward the direction of the receiver  With passive satellites, the reflected signal is not amplified at the satellite, and only a very small amount of the transmitted energy actually reaches the receiver   Since the satellite is so far above Earth, the radio signal is attenuated due to free-space path loss, so the signal received on Earth is very, very weak  Active satellites, on the other hand, amplify the received signal before retransmitting it to the receiver on the ground  Passive satellites were the first communications satellites, but are little used now 
Work that was begun in the field of electrical intelligence gathering at the United States Naval Research Laboratory in 1951 led to a project named Communication Moon Relay  Military planners had long shown considerable interest in secure and reliable communications lines as a tactical necessity, and the ultimate goal of this project was the creation of the longest communications circuit in human history, with the moon, Earth's natural satellite, acting as a passive relay  After achieving the first transoceanic communication between Washington, D C , and Hawaii on 23 January 1956, this system was publicly inaugurated and put into formal production in January 1960 

The first satellite purpose-built to actively relay communications was Project SCORE,  led by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and launched on 18 December 1958, which used a tape recorder to carry a stored voice message, as well as to receive, store, and retransmit messages  It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U S  President Dwight D  Eisenhower  The satellite also executed several realtime transmissions before the non-rechargeable batteries failed on 30 December 1958 after eight hours of actual operation The direct successor to SCORE was another ARPA-led project called Courier  Courier 1B was launched on 4 October 1960 to explore whether it would be possible to establish a global military communications network by using "delayed repeater" satellites, which receive and store information until commanded to rebroadcast them  After 17 days, a command system failure ended communications from the satellite NASA's satellite applications program launched the first artificial satellite used for passive relay communications in Echo 1 on 12 August 1960  Echo 1 was an aluminized balloon satellite acting as a passive reflector of microwave signals  Communication signals were bounced off the satellite from one point on Earth to another  This experiment sought to establish the feasibility of worldwide broadcasts of telephone, radio, and television signals 

More firsts and further experiments
Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications commercial satellite and marked the first transatlantic transmission of television signals  Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on 10 July 1962, in the first privately sponsored space launch Another passive relay experiment primarily intended for military communications purposes was Project West Ford, which was led by Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Laboratory  After an initial failure in 1961, a launch on 9 May 1963 dispersed 350 million copper needle dipoles to create a passive reflecting belt  Even though only about half of the dipoles properly separated from each other, the project was able to successfully experiment and communicate using frequencies in the SHF X band spectrum An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was the Hughes Aircraft Company's Syncom 2, launched on 26 July 1963  Syncom 2 was the first communications satellite in a geosynchronous orbit  It revolved around the earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still had north–south motion, special equipment was needed to track it  Its successor, Syncom 3, launched on 19 July 1964, was the first geostationary communications satellite  Syncom 3 obtained a geosynchronous orbit, without a north–south motion, making it appear from the ground as a stationary object in the sky A direct extension of the passive experiments of Project West Ford was the Lincoln Experimental Satellite program, also conducted by the Lincoln Laboratory on behalf of the United States Department of Defense  The LES-1 active communications satellite was launched on 11 February 1965 to explore the feasibility of active solid-state X band long-range military communications  A total of nine satellites were launched between 1965 and 1976 as part of this series 

International commercial satellite projects
In the United States, 1962 saw the creation of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) private corporation, which was subject to instruction by the US Government on matters of national policy  Over the next two years, international negotiations led to the Intelsat Agreements, which in turn led to the launch of Intelsat 1, also known as Early Bird, on 6 April 1965, and which was the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit  Subsequent Intelsat launches in the 1960s provided multi-destination service and video, audio, and data service to ships at sea (Intelsat 2 in 1966–67), and the completion of a fully global network with Intelsat 3 in 1969–70  By the 1980s, with significant expansions in commercial satellite capacity, Intelsat was on its way to become part of the competitive private telecommunications industry, and had started to get competition from the likes of PanAmSat in the United States, which, ironically, was then bought by its archrival in 2005 When Intelsat was launched, the United States was the only launch source outside of the Soviet Union, who did not participate in the Intelsat agreements  The Soviet Union launched its first communications satellite on 23 April 1965 as part of the Molniya program  This program was also unique at the time for its use of what then became known as the Molniya orbit, which describes a highly elliptical orbit, with two high apogees daily over the northern hemisphere  This orbit provides a long dwell time over Russian territory as well as over Canada at higher latitudes than geostationary orbits over the equator 

Satellite orbits
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital classifications are used to further specify orbital details  MEO and LEO are non-geostationary orbit (NGSO) 

Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is 22,236 miles (35,785 km) from Earth's surface  This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky   This is because the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth   The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in the sky the satellite appears 
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth  Orbital altitudes range from 2,000 to 36,000 kilometres (1,200 to 22,400 mi) above Earth 
The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth orbit (LEO), and is about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth beyond the visible horizon  Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so that one of these satellites will always be visible in the sky for transmission of communication signals   However, due to their closer distance to the Earth, LEO or MEO satellites can communicate to ground with reduced latency and at lower power than would be required from a geosynchronous orbit 

Low Earth orbit (LEO)
A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above the earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the sub-satellite point  In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly  So even for local applications, many satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity 
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal strength (signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is considerable)  Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost 
In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions 

Satellite constellation
A group of satellites working in concert is known as a satellite constellation  Two such constellations, intended to provide satellite phone and low-speed data services, primarily to remote areas, are the Iridium and Globalstar systems  The Iridium system has 66 satellites, which orbital inclination of 86 4° and inter-satellite links provide service availability over the entire surface of Earth  Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by SpaceX, that aims for global satellite Internet access coverage 
It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over another part   This will be the case with the CASCADE system of Canada's CASSIOPE communications satellite  Another system using this store and forward method is Orbcomm 

Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
A medium Earth orbit is a satellite in orbit somewhere between 2,000 and 35,786 kilometres (1,243 and 22,236 mi) above the earth's surface   MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality  MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 and 8 hours  MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites  A MEO satellite's longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network  One disadvantage is that a MEO satellite's distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, although these limitations are not as severe as those of a GEO satellite 
Like LEOs, these satellites do not maintain a stationary distance from the earth   This is in contrast to the geostationary orbit, where satellites are always 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) from the earth 
Typically the orbit of a medium earth orbit satellite is about 16,000 kilometres (10,000 mi) above earth  In various patterns, these satellites make the trip around earth in anywhere from 2 to 8 hours 

Examples of MEO
In 1962, the communications satellite, Telstar, was launched  It was a medium earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals  Although it was the first practical way to transmit signals over the horizon, its major drawback was soon realised  Because its orbital period of about 2 5 hours did not match the Earth's rotational period of 24 hours, continuous coverage was impossible  It was apparent that multiple MEOs needed to be used in order to provide continuous coverage 
In 2013, the first four of a constellation of 20 MEO satellites was launched  The O3b satellites provide broadband internet services, in particular to remote locations and maritime and in-flight use, and orbit at an altitude of 8,063 kilometres (5,010 mi)) 

Geostationary orbit (GEO)
To an observer on Earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky   This is because it revolves around the Earth at Earth's own angular velocity (one revolution per sidereal day, in an equatorial orbit) 
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion  This is relatively inexpensive 
In applications that require many ground antennas, such as DirecTV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit 

Examples of GEO
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on 19 August 1964, and used for communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics  Shortly after Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was launched on 6 April 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude  It was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean 
On 9 November 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, Anik A1, was launched by Telesat Canada, with the United States following suit with the launch of Westar 1 by Western Union on 13 April 1974 
On 30 May 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be three-axis stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-6 built for NASA 
After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE Americom, now SES) launched Satcom 1 in 1975   It was Satcom 1 that was instrumental in helping early cable TV channels such as WTBS (now TBS), HBO, CBN (now Freeform) and The Weather Channel become successful, because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local cable TV headends using the satellite   Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast television networks in the United States, like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute programming to their local affiliate stations   Satcom 1 was widely used because it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in America (24 transponders as opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in lower transponder-usage costs  Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher transponder numbers By 2000, Hughes Space and Communications (now Boeing Satellite Development Center) had built nearly 40 percent of the more than one hundred satellites in service worldwide  Other major satellite manufacturers include Space Systems/Loral, Orbital Sciences Corporation with the Star Bus series, Indian Space Research Organisation, Lockheed Martin (owns the former RCA Astro Electronics/GE Astro Space business), Northrop Grumman, Alcatel Space, now Thales Alenia Space, with the Spacebus series, and Astrium 

Molniya orbit
Geostationary satellites must operate above the equator and therefore appear lower on the horizon as the receiver gets farther from the equator  This will cause problems for extreme northerly latitudes, affecting connectivity and causing multipath interference (caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground antenna) 
Thus, for areas close to the North (and South) Pole, a geostationary satellite may appear below the horizon  Therefore, Molniya orbit satellites have been launched, mainly in Russia, to alleviate this problem 
Molniya orbits can be an appealing alternative in such cases  The Molniya orbit is highly inclined, guaranteeing good elevation over selected positions during the northern portion of the orbit  (Elevation is the extent of the satellite's position above the horizon  Thus, a satellite at the horizon has zero elevation and a satellite directly overhead has elevation of 90 degrees )
The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprint moves only slightly  Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation over the targeted region for six to nine hours every second revolution  In this way a constellation of three Molniya satellites (plus in-orbit spares) can provide uninterrupted coverage 
The first satellite of the Molniya series was launched on 23 April 1965 and was used for experimental transmission of TV signals from a Moscow uplink station to downlink stations located in Siberia and the Russian Far East, in Norilsk, Khabarovsk, Magadan and Vladivostok  In November 1967 Soviet engineers created a unique system of national TV network of satellite television, called Orbita, that was based on Molniya satellites 

Polar orbit
In the United States, the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) was established in 1994 to consolidate the polar satellite operations of
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)  NPOESS manages a number of satellites for various purposes; for example, METSAT for meteorological satellite, EUMETSAT for the European branch of the program, and METOP for meteorological operations 
These orbits are sun synchronous, meaning that they cross the equator at the same local time each day  For example, the satellites in the NPOESS (civilian) orbit will cross the equator, going from south to north, at times 1:30 P M , 5:30 P M , and 9:30 P M 

Beyond geostationary orbit
There are plans and initiatives to bring dedicated communications satellite beyond geostationary orbits 
NASA proposed LunaNet as a data network aiming to provide a „Lunar Internet for cis-lunar spacecraft and Installations 
The Moonlight Initiative is an equivalent ESA project that is stated to be compatible and providing navigational services for the lunar surface  Both programmes are satellite constellstions of several satellites in various orbits around the Moon 
Other orbits are also planned to be used  Positions in the Earth-Moon-Libration points are also proposed for communication satellites covering the Moon alike communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit cover the Earth  Also, dedicated communication satellites in orbits around Mars supporting different missions on surface and other orbits are considered, such as the Mars Telecommunications Orbiter 

Structure
Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems:

Communication Payload, normally composed of transponders, antennas, and switching systems
Engines used to bring the satellite to its desired orbit
A station keeping tracking and stabilization subsystem used to keep the satellite in the right orbit, with its antennas pointed in the right direction, and its power system pointed towards the sun
Power subsystem, used to power the Satellite systems, normally composed of solar cells, and batteries that maintain power during solar eclipse
Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground control stations  The ground control Earth stations monitor the satellite performance and control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided by the satellite  Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission  This is typically known as link budgeting and a network simulator can be used to arrive at the exact value 

Frequency allocation for satellite systems
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international coordination and planning  This is carried out under the auspices of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 
To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions:

Region 1: Europe, Africa, the Middle East, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia
Region 2: North and South America and Greenland
Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia, and the southwest PacificWithin these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given service may be allocated different frequency bands in different regions  Some of the services provided by satellites are:

Fixed satellite service (FSS)
Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)
Mobile-satellite service
Radionavigation-satellite service
Meteorological-satellite service

Applications
Telephony
The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony  The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from land line telephones to an earth station, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite   The downlink follows an analogous path   Improvements in submarine communications cables through the use of fiber-optics caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century 
Satellite communications are still used in many applications today  Remote islands such as Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Diego Garcia, and Easter Island, where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones  There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to non existent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, and Australia  Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of Antarctica and Greenland  Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a backup for hospitals, military, and recreation  Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones Satellite phone systems can be accomplished by a number of means  On a large scale, often there will be a local telephone system in an isolated area with a link to the telephone system in a main land area  There are also services that will patch a radio signal to a telephone system  In this example, almost any type of satellite can be used  Satellite phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-Earth-orbit satellites  Calls are then forwarded to a satellite teleport connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network  

Television
As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats   Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio: Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS) 
The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous  Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same linear polarization as FSS-class satellites  Examples of these are the Astra, Eutelsat, and Hotbird spacecraft in orbit over the European continent  Because of this, the terms FSS and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in Europe 
Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of the Ku band  They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, live shots, and backhauls), as well as being used for distance learning by schools and universities, business television (BTV), Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications  FSS satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends 
Free-to-air satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the Ku band  The Intelsat Americas 5, Galaxy 10R and AMC 3 satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their Ku band transponders 
The American Dish Network DBS service has also recently used FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's "must-carry" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels 
A direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter)  Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave Ku band  DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV, DISH Network and Orby TV in the United States, Bell Satellite TV and Shaw Direct in Canada, Freesat and Sky in the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand and DSTV in South Africa 
Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2 5 m) in diameter for Ku band, and 12 feet (3 6 m) or larger for C band)   They use linear polarization for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to circular polarization used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice  FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of TVRO (Television Receive Only) receivers and dishes  It was also used in its Ku band form for the now-defunct Primestar satellite TV service 
Some satellites have been launched that have transponders in the Ka band, such as DirecTV's SPACEWAY-1 satellite, and Anik F2  NASA and ISRO have also launched experimental satellites carrying Ka band beacons recently Some manufacturers have also introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television  Using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no matter where or how the vehicle (on which the antenna is mounted) is situated   These mobile satellite antennas are popular with some recreational vehicle owners   Such mobile DBS antennas are also used by JetBlue Airways for DirecTV (supplied by LiveTV, a subsidiary of JetBlue), which passengers can view on-board on LCD screens mounted in the seats 

Radio broadcasting
Satellite radio offers audio broadcast services in some countries, notably the United States  Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere 
A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals 

Amateur radio
Amateur radio operators have access to amateur satellites, which have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio traffic  Most such satellites operate as spaceborne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped with UHF or VHF radio equipment and highly directional antennas such as Yagis or dish antennas  Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time  Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using the X 25 or similar protocols 

Internet access
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections  This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access a broadband connection, or require high availability of services 

Military
Communications satellites are used for military communications applications, such as Global Command and Control Systems  Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are the MILSTAR, the DSCS, and the FLTSATCOM of the United States, NATO satellites, United Kingdom satellites (for instance Skynet), and satellites of the former Soviet Union  India has launched its first Military Communication satellite GSAT-7, its transponders operate in UHF, F, C and Ku band bands  Typically military satellites operate in the UHF, SHF (also known as X-band) or EHF (also known as Ka band) frequency bands 

Data collection
Near-ground in situ environmental monitoring equipment (such as weather stations, weather buoys, and radiosondes), may use satellites for one-way data transmission or two-way telemetry and telecontrol  It may be based on a secondary payload of a weather satellite (as in the case of GOES and METEOSAT and others in the Argos system) or in dedicated satellites (such as SCD)  The data rate is typically much lower than in satellite Internet access 

See also
Passage 3:
INSAT-4CR
INSAT-4CR was a communications satellite operated by ISRO as part of the Indian National Satellite System  Launched in September 2007, it replaced the INSAT-4C satellite which had been lost in a launch failure the previous year  The satellite was initially stationed in geostationary orbit at a longitude of 74 degrees east, with expected operational life of at least ten years, however this may have been reduced by the underperformance of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle which placed it into orbit  INSAT-4CR is planned to be replaced by GSAT-31, which was launched on February 6, 2019 

Spacecraft
INSAT-4CR was constructed by ISRO, and is based around the I-2K satellite bus  A 2,168-kilogram (4,780 lb) spacecraft, it is equipped with twelve Ku band transponders operating at a frequency of 36 MHz, with 140 Watt travelling wave tube amplifiers  The satellite has an effective isotropic radiated power of 51 5 dBW  An additional Ku band signal is used as a beacon for tracking 
INSAT-4CR operated in a geostationary orbit at a longitudes of 74° East and  48° East, providing communications to India  Broadcasting capacity on INSAT-4CR was allocated to Airtel Digital TV and Sun Direct DTH  At launch, the satellite was carrying 1,218 kilograms (2,685 lb) of fuel, for raising itself into geostationary orbit, and subsequently operating there for a planned twelve years  Increased expenditure of fuel reaching geostationary orbit, due to launch underperformance, may have resulted in a loss of up to five years of operational life 

Launch
INSAT-4CR was launched on 2 September 2007 by the fifth flight of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV-F04  The launch occurred at 12:51 UTC on 2 September 2007  The third stage of the carrier rocket underperformed, resulting in the satellite being placed into a lower than planned orbit 
As a result of the underperformance during its launch, INSAT-4CR had to expend maneuvering and station keeping propellant to raise its orbit by more than had originally been planned  It was subsequently reported by Indian news agencies that ISRO had lost track of the satellite's orbit, and could not locate the spacecraft until NASA identified it several days later, however, ISRO denied these claims  As a result of these failures, the operational lifetime of the satellite was reportedly decreased by up to five years 

End of life and replacement
Towards the end of its service life INSAT-4CR was relocated from 74°E to 48°E slot on 10 February 2017 where it stayed until being retired and placed into graveyard orbit on 24 November 2020  Services of INSAT-4CR were handed over to GSAT-31 
Passage 4:
NOAA-4
NOAA-4, also known as ITOS-G was a weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)  It was part of a series of satellites called ITOS, or improved TIROS  NOAA-4 was launched on a Delta rocket on November 15, 1974  The launch carried two other satellites: AMSAT-OSCAR 7 and Intasat  It remained operational for 1463 days until it was deactivated by NOAA on November 18, 1978 
Passage 5:
FedSat
FedSat (Australia's 'Federation Satellite'; sometimes FedSat 1; COSPAR 2002-056B, SATCAT 27598) was an Australian scientific research satellite launched from Tanegashima Space Center, Japan by a NASDA H-IIA launch vehicle  on 14 December 2002 (NASDA is now merged with JAXA)  The satellite was developed by the Cooperative Research Centre for Satellite Systems, a cooperative made up of several universities, commercial organisations and government bodies  The ground station was at the Institute for Telecommunications Research, part of the University of South Australia, near Adelaide  Since 2005 it was operated by the Australian Department of Defence 

Payloads
The satellite had six payloads, as given below:

Communications Payload: A collection of three components (UHF transponder, Ka-band transponder and base-band processor) used to perform several experiments in satellite communications 
High Performance Computing Experiment: A reconfigurable computer based on a Xilinx XQR4062 FPGA, the first of its kind to be used in space 
GPS Payload: A Global Positioning System receiver built by NASA  Conceived especially for ionospheric studies between GPS constellation levels and FedSat orbit 
NewMag Payload: A magnetometer built by the University of Newcastle, Australia, used to take measurements of the Earth's magnetic field near its poles 
Star Camera: An experimental star camera built by the University of Stellenbosch, used to determine the position of the satellite in space by analysing images of surrounding stars 
Compact Disk: A nickel "master" disk "cultural time capsule" with tracks including Paul Kelly's performance of the song he co-wrote with Kev Carmody, "From Little Things, Big Things Grow", and recorded statements from several hundred Australian school children about how they imagined a future Australia and its place in the Asia-Pacific The satellite platform, comprising the structural/thermal components, power system, attitude control system, onboard computer and groundlink, was originally developed in the United Kingdom by Space Innovations Limited  It was later completed along with integration of payloads in Canberra, Australia 

Declared Dead
The spacecraft's battery failed in May 2007 and the mission has been terminated, after lasting 18 months longer than expected 
Passage 6:
SICRAL 1B
SICRAL 1B is a military communications satellite built by Thales Alenia Space for Italian Armed Forces  It is a dual-use spacecraft: Telespazio will use some of the satellite's transmission capacity and some will be used by the Italian defense ministry and NATO  The spacecraft is based on the Italsat 3000 bus and includes one EHF/Ka band, three UHF-band and five active SHF-band transponders  It is designed to be operable for 13 years 

Construction
Thales Alenia Space was the prime contractor for development and construction of the SICRAL 1B satellite 

Launch
On April 20, 2009 Sea Launch used a Zenit-3SL to carry SICRAL 1B into a geosynchronous transfer orbit  Liftoff from the Ocean Odyssey launch platform took place at 08:16 GMT 
Passage 7:
ATS-6
ATS-6 (Applications Technology Satellite-6)  was a NASA experimental satellite, built by Fairchild Space and Electronics Division It has been called the world's first educational satellite as well as world's first experimental Direct Broadcast Satellite as part of the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment between NASA and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)  It was launched May 30, 1974, and decommissioned July 1979  At the time of launch, it was the most powerful telecommunication satellite in orbit  ATS-6 carried no fewer than 23 different experiments, and introduced several breakthroughs  It was the first 3-axis stabilized spacecraft in geostationary orbit  It was also the first to use experimentally with some success electric propulsion in geostationary orbit  It also carried several particle physics experiments, including the first heavy ion detector in geostationary orbit 
During its five-year life, ATS-6 transmitted connection programming to various countries, including India, the United States and other regions  The vehicle also conducted air traffic control tests, was used to practice satellite-assisted search and rescue techniques, carried an experimental radiometer subsequently carried as a standard instrument aboard weather satellites, and pioneered direct broadcast TV 
ATS-6 was a precursor to many technologies still in use today on geostationary spacecraft: large deployable antenna, 3-axis attitude control with slewing capabilities, antenna pointing through RF sensing, electric propulsion, meteorological radiometer in geostationary orbit, and direct to home broadcasting  It is also possible that ATS-6 was a forerunner of the large ELINT satellites such as Mentor 

Launch
ATS-6 was launched on May 30, 1974, by a Titan III-C launch vehicle  The spacecraft was inserted directly in the geosynchronous orbit  This reduced the on-board fuel requirements to less than 40 kilograms (88 lb) (for a total mass at launch of nearly 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb))  The highly accurate orbit insertion further lowered the amount of fuel required for final positioning to 9 kilograms (20 lb)  This enabled a life extension from the original 2 year to 5 years, even accounting for the premature failure of the electric propulsion subsystem (the station-keeping fuel requirement being around 1 6 kilograms per year (3 5 lb/a)) 

Structure, power subsystem and antenna
One of the major innovations of ATS-6 was an in-flight deployable antenna of more than 9 metres (30 ft) in diameter  The antenna reflector was furled during launch under the launch vehicle fairing, and was deployed in orbit much like an umbrella  The antenna reflector was built from 48 aluminum ribs, supporting a metallized Dacron mesh  The antenna feeds (in C, S, L, UHF and VHF bands) were placed on the spacecraft body, facing the antenna reflector, and linked to the antenna and the solar panels masts by a carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) truss  The solar panels were rigidly mounted on two deployable masts  They were of hemi-cylinder shape, thus providing a relatively constant power (595 W beginning of life)  Electric power was supplied during eclipses by two Nickel cadmium batteries of 15-A·h capacity, powering a regulated 30 5-V bus  The satellite dimensions in orbit were 15 8-metre (52 ft) width by 8 2-metre (27 ft) height 
This deployable antenna parabola was designed and developed by Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (LMSC), now Lockheed Martin, under subcontract to Fairchild Aerospace, after several years of small study contracts at LMSC   The program manager at LMSC was GKC (Colin) Campbell   The deployment of the reflector was initiated by pyrotechnically operated SQUIB cable cutters   Deployment time was on the order of 2 5 seconds producing 3,400 newton-metres (2,500 lb⋅ft) of torque at the spacecraft interface   The reflector surface was designed for optimal operation at S-Band frequencies  It weighed 83 kilograms (182 lb) at launch and stowed into a toroidal volume (doughnut shaped) approximately 1 8 metres (6 ft) in diameter and 250 millimetres (10 in) thick   Three models were fabricated, the STM or structural test model, the F reflector and the G reflector   The STM was destroyed by Fairchild shortly after the program was finished and the F model was launched with the spacecraft in 1972   The G model sat unprotected in the Farchild parking lot for several years before it was donated to the Smithsonian   Bill Wade, the assistant program manager and test manager on the program supported The Smithsonian in the restoration by providing a complete set of drawings and specifications and visited the Silver Hill facility to provide technical guidance At the time of launch it was the largest parabolic surface launched into orbit 

Three-axis stabilisation
ATS-6 has been the first geostationary satellite with three-axis stabilization and pointing , This subsystem was capable of a highly accurate pointing (better than 0 1° through the inertial measurement units, down to 0 002° by using a radio-frequency interferometer )  Furthermore, the satellite was able to follow low earth orbit satellites through slewing, by tracking the low earth-orbit satellite through an S-band RF sensing  The system was also able to perform orbitography of the tracked satellite, and was a precursor to the operational system TDRSS 
This highly advanced (for the time) pointing subsystem used earth and sun sensors, a star tracker pointed to the pole star, Polaris, and three inertial sensors  The sensor measurements were fed to two digital computers (nominal and redundant), as well to a back-up analog computer  It was also possible to orient the satellite by using radio-frequency sensors   Actuators were three momentum wheels, and hot gas (hydrazine mono-propellant) thrusters  One of the momentum wheels having failed in July 1975, an alternative scheme was developed, allowing station-keeping with the two remaining wheels and thrusters 

Electric propulsion
ATS-6 was equipped with two electric thrusters based on the acceleration of cesium ions, that were to be used for North-South Station Keeping  This subsystem development followed earlier failed attempts on the previous ATS spacecraft  Each of the thrusters had a mass of 16 kilograms (35 lb), used 150 W of electric power, and produced a thrust of 4 newton-metres (3 0 lbf⋅ft), with a specific impulse of 2500s  The on-board supply of cesium would have been sufficient for 4400 hours of thrust  Unfortunately, both thrusters failed prematurely, one after 1 hour of operation, one after 95 hours  However, some of the experiments objectives could be met, such as the measurement of the effective thrust, the absence of any interference with the radio-frequency payloads (from 150 MHz to 6 GHz), no cesium redeposition on the critical parts of the payload (such as the radiometer), and the correct neutralisation of the spacecraft versus its environment 

Payload
Radiometer
A radiometer was on board ATS-6, mounted on the earth-facing panel  This instrument was (for the time) of very high resolution  It operated on two channels: infra-red (10 5 to 12 5 µm) and visible light (0 55 to 0 75 µm)  Images taken with the radiometer covered the whole earth disk, with a resolution of 1,200 lines of 2,400 pixels each (11-kilometre (6 8 mi) square pixel in infra-red, and 5 5-kilometre (3 4 mi) square in visible light)  The IR detector was passively cooled at 115K, and the visible light detector maintained at 300K  A complete image of earth's disk was transmitted to ground every 25 minutes  Several hundreds images were taken and transmitted, until a mechanical component of the radiometer failed, two and a half months after launch 

Telecommunication experiments
The main mission of ATS-6 was to demonstrate the feasibility of direct-to-home (DTH) television broadcasting  To this end, in addition to the high-gain antenna, the spacecraft payload was able to receive in any of the VHF, C, S and L-bands, and to transmit in S-band (2 GHz) through a 20-W solid state transmitter, in L-band (1650 MHz) at 40W, in UHF (860 MHz) at 80W (which was used for the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)), and with a TWTA-based transmitter of 20 W in C-band (4 GHz)  The antenna produced two spots on earth of 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi) each, in which the TV broadcast could be received with 3 metres (9 8 ft) diameter antennas  This payload was first used over the United States for tele-education and tele-medicine experiments, from August 1974 to May 1975 as part of the HET, or Health, Education, Telecommunications experiment developed jointly by NASA and the US Department of Health, Education, & Welfare (now DHHS)  The spacecraft was then moved over the geo-stationary arc from 94 °W to 35 °E, in collaboration with the Indian Space Agency (ISRO), who had deployed in India more than 2500 receive ground stations  The move of the satellite from 94 degrees West to 35 degrees East, a journey of 12,800 kilometres (8,000 mi), was actioned from the ground station at Rosman North Carolina  This relocation involved 2 rocket burns of the onboard rocket motor  The 2nd burn lasting 5 hours 37 minutes and 17 seconds  The longest burn ever done by a chemical rocket in space at that time  A tele-education programme was started – Satellite Instructional Television Experiment or SITE – and run for one year  During the experiment, a receive station was offered by the Indian Government to Arthur C  Clarke, who was living in Sri Lanka  This experiment was highly successful, and encouraged ISRO to start building an operational program, with the Indian spacecraft  INSAT IB (launched 1983)  After the SITE experiment, the satellite was brought back over the United States, and served notably as a data-relay and tracking satellite for low-orbit spacecraft such as Nimbus 6, and for the Apollo-Soyuz flight 

Particle physics experiments
Several particle physics experiments were on board ATS-6  The most significant measured low energy protons (from 25 keV to 3 6 MeV), as well as detected heavy ions (up to 6 MeV)  This latter experiment allowed to detect the first heavy ions (Z > 6) with an energy  E > 4 MeV, in geostationary orbit 

Propagation experiments
Finally, ATS-6 embarked several radio beacons, which allowed to measure electromagnetic propagation properties of the atmosphere at 13, 18, 20 and 30 GHz 

Decommissioning
By June 30, 1979, only one of the four ATS-6 station keeping thrusters was working, and was showing signs of unreliability  This thruster was used to move ATS-6 out of geostationary orbit to an orbit several hundred kilometers higher  This was to vacate the geostationary slot for the next satellite 

See also
1974 in spaceflight
Applications Technology Satellite
Passage 8:
Optus
Singtel Optus Pty Limited (commonly referred to as Optus) is an Australian telecommunications company headquartered in Macquarie Park, a suburb in the Northern Sydney region of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia  It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Singaporean telecommunications company Singtel  
Optus is the second-largest wireless carrier in Australia, with over 10 million subscribers as of 2022, and it's mobile network covers 98 5% of the Australian population 

History
AUSSAT and deregulation (1981–1990)
Optus can trace its beginnings back to the formation of the Government-owned AUSSAT Pty Limited in 1981  In 1982, Aussat selected the Hughes 376 for their initial satellites, with the first, AUSSAT A1, launched in August 1985  AUSSAT satellites were used for both military and civilian satellite communications, and delivering television services to remote outback communities 

With Aussat operating at a loss and with moves to deregulate telecommunications in Australia, the government decided to sell Aussat, coupled with a telecommunications licence  The licence was sold to Optus Communications – a consortium including:
logistics firm Mayne Nickless (24 99%);
UK telecommunications company Cable & Wireless (24 50%);
US telecommunications company BellSouth (24 50%);
AIDC Limited (10 00%);
insurance and investment company AMP (10 00%); and
insurance and investment company National Mutual (6 02%) The new telecommunications company was designed to provide competition to then government owned telecommunications company Telecom Australia, now known as Telstra 

Founding of Optus (1991–present)
Optus gained the second general carrier licence in January 1991 After privatisation, AUSSAT became Optus and its first offering to the general public was to offer long-distance calls at cheaper rates than that of its competitor Telstra  The long-distance calling rates on offer were initially available by consumers dialing 1 before the area code and phone number  Following this, a ballot process was conducted by then regulator AUSTEL, with customers choosing their default long-distance carrier  Customers who made no choice or did not respond to the mailout campaign automatically remained as a Telstra long-distance customer  Customers who remained with Telstra could dial the override code of 1456 before the area code and phone number to manually select Optus as the carrier for that single call  Since 1 July 1998, consumers have the choice of preselecting their preferred long-distance carrier or dialling the override code before dialling a telephone number 
The group began by building an interstate fibre optic cable and a series of exchanges between Optus' interstate network and Telstra's local network  It also laid fibre optics into major office buildings and industrial areas, and focused on high bandwidth local, (interstate) long distance, and interstate calls for business  In its early years, Optus was only able to offer local and long-distance calls to residential customers through Telstra's local phone network  Telstra would carry residential to residential calls to Optus' exchanges, and then the calls would be switched to Optus' long-distance fibre optic network 
Optus was the main sponsor of the 1997 ARL season 

2022 cyberattack
Around 22 September 2022, Optus systems sustained a significant cyberattack that resulted in a major data breach of both current and former customers' personal information, including customers’ names, dates of birth, phone numbers and email addresses, with a smaller subset of customers having their street addresses, driving licence details and passport numbers leaked  Optus CEO Kelly Bayer Rosmarin urged customers to exercise "heightened awareness" regarding transactions with their Optus and other accounts  Rosmarin emphasised that passwords were not compromised  The CEO said that the "worst-case scenario" regarding the number of customers whose data had been leaked was 9 8 million customers, but believes the actual number to be far lower On 24 September 2022, Australian news outlets The Age and The Sydney Morning Herald reported that Optus was investigating the authenticity of a ransom demand of US$1 million made on a hacking forum  The demand gave Optus one week to pay the ransom in cryptocurrency else the data will be sold for US$300,000 to whoever else wants it On 6 October, the Australian Federal Police announced the arrest of a 19-year-old man who had allegedly threatened 93 Optus customers by saying that he would use their information leaked in the attack to commit financial crimes, unless they paid AUD $2,000 In response to the cyberattack, the Australian federal government announced emergency regulation on 6 October, in the form of a 12-month amendment to the Telecommunications Regulations 2021 to "enable telecommunications companies to temporarily share approved government identifier information with regulated financial services entities "On 11 October, the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner launched an investigation, the aim of which is to explore the company's handling of customers' data 

Corporate affairs
Chief Executive Officer
Kelly Bayer Rosmarin commenced as CEO of Optus and Consumer Australia on 1 April 2020 
A senior executive, Kelly joined Optus as Deputy CEO on 1 March 2019 following a variety of executive roles including Group Executive, Institutional Banking and Markets at the Commonwealth Bank of Australia 

The hybrid fibre-coax rollout
These practices meant that Optus was the largest customer of Telstra  To become competitive Optus would need to lay its own local phone network  To provide a killer application for this, the Australian Federal government sold subscription television licences  Optus, as well as the Seven Network, businessman Kerry Stokes and American cable company Cablevision, formed the Optus Vision consortium  News Corporation and Telstra created the rival Foxtel consortium 
Telstra's local phone network did not have the capability to deliver Foxtel pay television to consumers in the early 1990s, so Telstra identified a need to create a broadband network to support this new product 
As Telstra and Optus could not agree on terms for a joint broadband cable roll out, they laid two competing cable networks, in addition to Telstra's existing copper network, at a combined cost estimated of over A$6bn 
Whilst Telstra focused on creating a broadband network specifically for broadcast, Optus designed their cable network to provide telephony services in addition to broadcast television 
Optus is no longer a customer of Telstra's after deciding to move the funding used to lease Telstra's copper network into constructing their hybrid fibre-coaxial network, the first in Australia 

Takeovers
Cable and Wireless with 24 5% stakeholder bought out Bell South's equal 24 5% shareholding in July 1997  The company returned to profitability in 1998 and changed its name to Cable and Wireless Optus Pty Limited  Government relaxation of foreign ownership restrictions paved the way for the company to be floated - with Cable and Wireless increasing its holding to 52 5%) - and listed on the Australian Stock Exchange on 17 November 1998 During 2001, Singtel launched a takeover bid for Cable and Wireless Optus which was ultimately successful and the company became known as Singtel Optus Pty Limited 
In May 2004, Optus announced a $226 8 million bid for UEComm  The takeover was approved in July and completed in August In July 2005, Optus announced it would acquire Alphawest Ltd  for A$25 9 million  The buyout was completed in November 2005 and Alphawest is now an operating division of Optus Business 
On 12 January 2006, Optus acquired the remaining 74 15% of Virgin Mobile Australia for U$22 6 m, giving it 100% ownership 

OptusNet
Optus Communications offered its first business-focused internet products in 1998 under the OptusNet product family, offering in-house developed dial-up and high-speed services  Optus purchased one of Australia's pioneer ISPs, Microplex, in 1998 to provide consumer dial-up internet services  Separate to this, under the Optus Vision brand, a cable broadband arm began as a joint venture with U S  cable and content provider Excite@Home and was known as Optus@Home from its introduction in 1999 until it was renamed in 2002  ADSL services were offered from February 2004  ADSL2+ services were provided from December 2005 

OPEL Networks
In June 2007, joint venture subsidiary OPEL Networks was awarded government funding towards the cost of building a regional broadband network  Optus was to be contracted to build the network on behalf of OPEL In April 2008, after a change of the Federal Government from the Liberal Party of Australia coalition to the Australian Labor Party, the new government terminated the funding agreement and the project was halted, with its functions to be replaced by the National Broadband Network 

Terria
Optus is part of a consortium – now known as Terria – that in July 2006 announced their intention to make a combined bid to build the proposed National Broadband Network 

Products and services
Optus's Customer Solutions and Services (CS&S) organisation is responsible for providing support to Optus Business customers  CS&S works with Optus' subsidiary Alphawest to support information technology services across Optus' large business, corporate and government client base 
Retail services are sold to customers via phone, internet or through retail outlets, especially franchise chains such as Optus World, Network Communications, Strathfield, Telechoice, and Allphones 
Key Optus products and services include:

Voice
Residential and Commercial POTS for local and long-distance telephony
Commercial VoIP and VoDSL
Intelligent Network applications, such as free call, 1300 and Interactive voice response services

Wireless
GSM/GPRS utilising 900 MHz/1800 MHz covering 98 5% of the population
3G/HSPA provided by 2100 MHz for large regional centres and metropolitan and 900 MHz for regional as well as metropolitan coverage  The dual frequencies covers 98 5% (98 8% with the use of an external antenna) of the population
4G/LTE provided by 700 / 1800 / 2100 / 2300 / 2600 MHz Covering 95 9% of the Australian population (As of July 2017) 
5G provided by 2300 MHz and 3500 MHz
Satellite Telephony covering all of Australia 

Internet access
NBN Internet (via Cable, FTTB, FTTC, FTTN, FTTP, Fixed wireless and Satellite)
Residential Dial-Up Internet in all states
Residential Broadband Internet (via cable and DSL) in all states (except the Northern Territory) 
Commercial and wholesale internet access
Secure Gateway services for Federal Government departments
NBN WIRELESS - not continued for new connects

Television
Optus Television service provided in Sydney, Melbourne & Brisbane, including Foxtel Digital

Subsidiaries
A number of notable wholly owned subsidiaries operate as part of the Singtel Optus group  These are:

Information Technology & Network Services
Alphawest
Uecomm
Mobile Telephony
SIMplus
Virgin Mobile AustraliaUntil 20 January 2013, Optus sold mobile services under the brand name Boost Mobile Optus also has a 50% stake in the now defunct OPEL Networks Other wholly owned subsidiaries of note no longer have a significant active role as individual entities  These are as follows:
Reef Networks was formed in 1999 to provide an optical fibre link between Brisbane and Cairns in Queensland  Optus gained exclusive access to this link in 2001, ahead of acquiring the organisation in 2005 XYZed was established by Optus in 2000 to provide wholesale business-grade DSL services under an individual brand, but today provides a collection of products only as part of the Optus Wholesale & Satellite division  XYZed established a network of DSLAMs inside Telstra telephone exchanges, utilising Unconditioned Local Loop services to reach end users 

Infrastructure
Optus' fully owned network infrastructure consists of the following:

Network backbone
ExtraTerrestrial Fibre Optic Network
Cairns to Brisbane
Brisbane to Sydney (fully diverse over two physically separate paths)
Sydney to Melbourne (fully diverse over two physically separate paths, one via Canberra, one via the coast)
Melbourne to Adelaide
Adelaide to Perth
SDH Digital Microwave
Hobart to Launceston
Satellite
Fleet of geostationary satellites (See Optus fleet of satellites)
International Earth Stations in Sydney and Perth
National Earth Stations in Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, Hobart and Darwin
Regional exchanges in Sydney (Rosebery), Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra, Adelaide and Perth 
Telehousing Data Centres in Melbourne and Sydney

Customer access network
Hybrid fibre-coaxial (HFC) network in Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne, providing consumer fixed telephony, cable internet and cable television services 
CBD optical fibre rings in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, Canberra and Wollongong, providing direct access for corporate and government services 
DSLAMs in certain Telstra local telephone exchanges in all states  Originally only providing business-grade DSL services, newer installations also provide consumer DSL and POTS telephony OptusNet also provides Cable internet  In August 2010, OptusNet released an upgrade of its HFC network to the DOCSIS 3 0 standard, which enabled customers to access a maximum theoretical downstream bandwidth of 100 Megabits  OptusNet is also one of the few ISPs in Australia to currently provide ADSL2+ via its own DSLAMs, which it also resells to other ISPs 

Mobile network
Mobile network equipment is from Nortel, Nokia and Huawei and antennas are sourced from Andrews, RFS, Argus and Kathrein The Optus network operates on the following bandwidth frequencies across Australia:

3G UMTS 900/2100 MHz
4G LTE 700 / 1800 / 2100 / 2300 / 2600 MHz network which has been in progressive rollout since 2012  VoLTE is currently being rolled out across Australia  For now, VoLTE is only available in CBD and metro areas in Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, Perth and Canberra on selected devices purchased on postpaid contracts  Until VoLTE has been fully rolled out, voice calling is still reliant on the 3G network (and formerly the 2G network until it was terminated) 
5G NR 3500 MHz rollout started in October 2019The 2G GSM 900/1800 MHz network was terminated on 3 April 2017 in Western Australia and Northern Territory  2G GSM was completely terminated on 1 August 2017 when 2G was disconnected in Victoria, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Queensland, Tasmania and South Australia  To remain connected, a device that is capable of running 3G at 900 MHz is now required after 2G was completely disconnected across Australia 

Partly owned infrastructure
Part-owned network infrastructure includes:

3G mobile network, a joint venture with Vodafone Australia
Southern Cross Cable, a fully diverse submarine optical fibre link across the Pacific Ocean between Sydney, New South Wales and California in the United States  The Singtel group owns a 40% interest in Southern Cross Cables Limited  This interest was originally owned by Singtel Optus Pty Limited, before ownership was transferred to parent company Singtel during the March 2006 - June 2006 quarter 

Advertising and sponsorship
Between 1994 and 2005 Optus had the naming rights to the Carlton football clubs original home ground in Princes Park  It was called Optus Oval until the ground was retired by the AFL in 2005  
In 2016, Optus signed a 10-year partnership agreement with the Australian Olympic Committee to be the official partner of the Australian Olympic Team and the Australian Paralympic Team until 2026 In 2017, Optus won naming rights to Perth Stadium where it would be known as Optus Stadium  Optus and the Government of Western Australia agreed to a 10-year naming right worth approximately A$50 million Optus also has a long-term partnership with the Adelaide Crows in the AFL  Optus has been a partner of the Collingwood Magpies in the AFL Women's since 2018 Optus is the current major sponsor for the No  25 Walkinshaw Andretti United Holden ZB Commodore driven by Chaz Mostert

Outsourcing
Since 2005, Optus has outsourced some customer service functions to Concentrix and 247 ai, with the outsourcer providing 800 staff operating offshore in India, supplementing Optus' 3,000-plus onshore call centre staff  Some functions have also been supplemented in the Philippines  Optus also uses 24/7 Inc  for telephone & chat based offshore support 
In October 2006, Optus announced that it would outsource 100 contracting jobs to another Singtel subsidiary, IT company NCS, in Singapore 

Achievement and Rewards
See also
4G Australia
Internet in Australia
National Broadband Network
Telecommunications in Australia
Passage 9:
TDRS-6
TDRS-6, known before launch as TDRS-F, is an American communications satellite, of first generation, which is operated by NASA as part of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System  It was constructed by TRW, and is based on a custom satellite bus which was used for all seven first generation TDRS satellites 

History
TDRS-F was deployed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-54 mission in 1993  Endeavour was launched from Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center, at 13:59:30 UTC on 13 January 1993  TDRS-F was deployed from Endeavour around six hours after launch, and was raised to geosynchronous orbit by means of an Inertial Upper Stage 

Deployment
The two-stage solid-propellent Inertial Upper Stage made two burns  The first stage burn occurred shortly after deployment from Endeavour, and placed the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO)  At 02:26 UTC on 14 January 1993, it reached apogee, and the second stage fired, placing TDRS-F into geosynchronous orbit  At this point, it received its operational designation, TDRS-6 

Operation
In 1994, it was placed at a longitude 46 0° West of the Greenwich Meridian, to serve as an on-orbit spare  In 1996, it was moved to 47 0° West, where it remained until 2005, when it was repositioned to 174 0° West, where, as of August 2009, it was used to provide communications with spacecraft in Earth orbit, such as the International Space Station (ISS) and spacecraft bringing astronauts to the ISS 

See also
List of TDRS satellites
Passage 10:
Hans K  Ziegler
Hans K  Ziegler (March 1, 1911, Munich, Germany – December 11, 1999 Colts Neck Township, New Jersey, United States) was a pioneer in the field of communication satellites and the use of photovoltaic solar cells as a power source for satellites 

Life
Hans Ziegler was born in Munich, Germany  There, he studied at the Technische Hochschule, which is today the Technische Universität München (TUM), and began his career as Wissenschaftlicher Assistant (Scientific Assistant)  Following that, he was a researcher in German industry for ten years  During the Second World War, he worked for the company Rosental Selb in Bavaria on high tension porcelain 
In 1947, he came to the US with Wernher von Braun under Operation Paperclip, by means of which the USA gained Nazi engineers and scientists  He went to the US Army Signal Corps' Laboratories in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and became a US citizen in 1954 
Ziegler's work in the US was very influential in the development of military electronics, especially in the electronics for the early phases of the US space program  During the thirty years he worked as an engineer in the field of electronics and electrical engineering in the research and development department of the U S  Army in Fort Monmouth, N J  (from 1947 to 1976), he held the top position of Chief Scientist for 12 years  In Fort Monmouth, he worked as a Scientific Consultant, Assistant Director of Research, Director of the Astro-Electronics Division and Chief Scientist (1959)  After the Army was restructured, he became Deputy for Science and Chief Scientist of the US Army Electronics Command in 1963 and Director of the US Army Electronics Technology & Devices Laboratory from 1971 until his retirement 
In May 1954, after examining the solar cells of Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson at Bell Laboratories, Ziegler wrote, "Future development [of the silicon solar cell] may well render it into an important source of electrical power [as] the roofs of all our buildings in cities and towns equipped with solar [cells] would be sufficient to produce this country's entire demand for electrical power "Referring to silicon solar cells, he said to the head of the U  S  Signal Corps, General James O'Connell, at a meeting in September 1955, "In fact, in the long run, mankind has no choice but to turn to the sun if it wants to survive "He and his team produced a report on the prospects for application of this technique in the field of communication and they named the supply of energy for artificial satellites as the most important application  He knew that he was not the first to suggest this application  For example, the science fiction author, Arthur C  Clarke had already made this suggestion in 1945, but without having a concrete technology for it at that time 
Ziegler participated in the development of the first planned satellites  The first satellite,
Explorer 1, still went into space without solar cells, since it was a quick, less-than-ideal solution after the start of the Sputnik to show the American public that America's scientists could also start a satellite  The actual scheduled satellite project, Project Vanguard, successfully put a satellite named Vanguard I in orbit around Earth on March 17, 1958 
Over the objections of the Navy, which still thought that solar cells were not a mature technology, this satellite had four solar cells on its outer hull, due to the persistent work of Ziegler, which powered the instruments and performed their duties reliably for more than seven years  After this success, solar cells were established as the energy supply for satellites  He was also involved with the development of the first communication satellite in the world, SCORE, which was started in 1958 
He was awarded the Meritorious Civilian Service Award by the US Department of Defense in 1963 as a " world pioneer in communications satellites and solar energy systems to power satellites"  When he retired in 1977, he was decorated with the highest award of the Army for "exceptional civilian service" 
Ziegler was the author of many technical papers, a member of the IEEE, and represented the US, in military and civilian matters, in many national and international committees  In 1958, he was a member of the US delegation to the International Geophysical Year in Moscow, USSR, and in 1964, he gave advice on the scientific activities in Antarctica and at the South Pole, under the direction of the US National Science Foundation 
Ziegler's wife Friederike died in 1996  He last lived in Colts Neck Township, New Jersey and died at the age of 88 on December 11, 1999  He was survived by his daughters, Christine Griffith and Friederike Meindl, and his son, Hans 

See also
Solar power
Solar panel
Active solar
Photovoltaic components, projects and howtos
Context 2: Passage 1:
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands  Australia is the largest country by area in Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country  Australia is the oldest, flattest, and driest inhabited continent, with the least fertile soils  It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates, with deserts in the centre, tropical rainforests in the north-east, tropical savannas in the north, and mountain ranges in the south-east 
The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving from south-east Asia approximately 65,000 years ago, during the last ice age  Arriving by sea, they settled the continent and had formed approximately 250 distinct language groups by the time of European settlement, maintaining some of the longest known continuing artistic and religious traditions in the world  Australia's written history commenced with the European maritime exploration of Australia  The Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon was the first known European to reach Australia, in 1606  In 1770, the British explorer James Cook mapped and claimed the east coast of Australia for Great Britain, and the First Fleet of British ships arrived at Sydney in 1788 to establish the penal colony of New South Wales  The European population grew in subsequent decades, and by the end of the 1850s gold rush, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and an additional five self-governing British colonies established  Democratic parliaments were gradually established through the 19th century, culminating with a vote for the federation of the six colonies and foundation of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901  This began a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and culminating in the Australia Act 1986 Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy, comprising six states and ten territories  Australia's population of nearly 27 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard  Canberra is the nation's capital, while its most populous city and financial centre is Sydney  The next four largest cities are Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide  It is ethnically diverse and multicultural, the product of large-scale immigration, with almost half of the population having at least one parent born overseas  Australia's abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade relations are crucial to the country's economy, which generates its income from various sources including services, mining exports, banking, manufacturing, agriculture and international education  Australia ranks amongst the highest in the world for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights Australia has a highly developed market economy and one of the highest per capita incomes globally  Australia is a regional power, and has the world's thirteenth-highest military expenditure  It is a member of international groupings including the United Nations; the G20; the OECD; the World Trade Organization; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; the Pacific Islands Forum; the Pacific Community the Commonwealth of Nations; and the defence/security organisations ANZUS, AUKUS, and the Five Eyes  It is a major non-NATO ally of the United States 

Etymology
The name Australia (pronounced  in Australian English) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis ("southern land"), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times  Several sixteenth century cartographers used the word Australia on maps, but not to identify modern Australia  When Europeans began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, the name Terra Australis was naturally applied to the new territories Until the early 19th century, Australia was best known as New Holland, a name first applied by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1644 (as Nieuw-Holland) and subsequently anglicised  Terra Australis still saw occasional usage, such as in scientific texts  The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who said it was "more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the Earth"  The first time that Australia appears to have been officially used was in April 1817, when Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledged the receipt of Flinders' charts of Australia from Lord Bathurst  In December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted  In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially by that name  The first official published use of the new name came with the publication in 1830 of The Australia Directory by the Hydrographic Office Colloquial names for Australia include "Oz" and "the Land Down Under" (usually shortened to just "Down Under")  Other epithets include "the Great Southern Land", "the Lucky Country", "the Sunburnt Country", and "the Wide Brown Land"  The latter two both derive from Dorothea Mackellar's 1908 poem "My Country" 

History
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous Australians comprise two groups: the Aboriginal peoples of the Australian mainland (and surrounding islands including Tasmania), and the Torres Strait Islanders, who are a distinct Melanesian people  Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia  It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians  The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is recognised as the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia  The oldest human remains found are the Lake Mungo remains, which have been dated to around 41,000 years ago Aboriginal Australian culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth  At the time of first European contact, Aboriginal Australians were complex hunter-gatherers with diverse economies and societies and about 250 different language groups  Recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 750,000 could have been sustained  Aboriginal Australians have an oral culture with spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime The Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands around 4000 years ago  Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas 

European exploration and colonisation
The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically for trade by Makassan fishermen from what is now Indonesia  The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch  The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon  He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February 1606 at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York  Later that year, Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through and navigated the Torres Strait Islands  The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent "New Holland" during the 17th century, and although no attempt at settlement was made, a number of shipwrecks left men either stranded or, as in the case of the Batavia in 1629, marooned for mutiny and murder, thus becoming the first Europeans to permanently inhabit the continent  In 1770, Captain James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named "New South Wales" and claimed for Great Britain Following the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the First Fleet, under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales  A camp was set up and the Union Flag raised at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, on 26 January 1788, a date which later became Australia's national day  Most early convicts were transported for petty crimes and assigned as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (non-convict immigrants)  While the majority of convicts settled into colonial society once emancipated, convict rebellions and uprisings were also staged, but invariably suppressed under martial law  The 1808 Rum Rebellion, the only successful armed takeover of government in Australia, instigated a two-year period of military rule  The following decade, social and economic reforms initiated by Governor Lachlan Macquarie saw New South Wales transition from a penal colony to a civil society The indigenous population declined for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease  Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers 

Colonial expansion
The British continued to push into other areas of the continent in the early 19th century, initially along the coast  In 1803, a settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania), and in 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, opening the interior to European settlement  The British claim extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major Edmund Lockyer established a settlement on King George Sound (modern-day Albany)  The Swan River Colony (present-day Perth) was established in 1829, evolving into the largest Australian colony by area, Western Australia  In accordance with population growth, separate colonies were carved from New South Wales: Tasmania in 1825, South Australia in 1836, New Zealand in 1841, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859  South Australia was founded as a "free province" — it was never a penal colony  Western Australia was also founded "free" but later accepted transported convicts, the last of which arrived in 1868, decades after transportation had ceased to the other colonies In 1823, a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales was established, together with a new Supreme Court, thus limiting the powers of colonial governors  Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, thus becoming elective democracies managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire  The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs and defence In the mid-19th century, explorers such as Burke and Wills went further inland to determine its agricultural potential and answer scientific questions  A series of gold rushes beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from China, North America and continental Europe, as well as outbreaks of bushranging and civil unrest; the latter peaked in 1854 when Ballarat miners launched the Eureka Rebellion against gold license fees From 1886, Australian colonial governments began introducing policies resulting in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities (referred to as the Stolen Generations) 

Federation to the World Wars
On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, constitutional conventions and referendums, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia as a nation and the entering into force of the Australian Constitution After the 1907 Imperial Conference, Australia and several other self-governing British settler colonies were given the status of self-governing "dominions" within the British Empire  Australia was one of the founding members of the League of Nations in 1920, and subsequently of the United Nations in 1945  Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom  Australia adopted it in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra  Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed  The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911  Australia became the colonial ruler of the Territory of Papua (which had initially been annexed by Queensland in 1883) in 1902 and of the Territory of New Guinea (formerly German New Guinea) in 1920  The two were unified as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975 
In 1914, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the First World War, and took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front  Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded  Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli in 1915 as the nation's "baptism of fire" — its first major military action, with the anniversary of the landing at Anzac Cove commemorated each year on Anzac Day From 1939 to 1945, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the Second World War  Australia's armed forces fought in the Pacific, European and Mediterranean and Middle East theatres  The shock of Britain's defeat in Asia in 1942, followed soon after by the bombing of Darwin and other Japanese attacks on Australian soil, led to a widespread belief in Australia that a Japanese invasion was imminent, and a shift from the United Kingdom to the United States as Australia's principal ally and security partner  Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the United States, under the ANZUS treaty 

Post-war and contemporary eras
In the decades following World War II, Australia enjoyed significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development  Using the slogan "populate or perish", the nation encouraged a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with such immigrants referred to as "New Australians" A member of the Western Bloc during the Cold War, Australia participated in the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency during the 1950s and the Vietnam War from 1962 to 1972  During this time, tensions over communist influence in society led to unsuccessful attempts by the Menzies Government to ban the Communist Party of Australia, and a bitter splitting of the Labor Party in 1955 As a result of a 1967 referendum, the Federal Government received a mandate to implement policies to benefit Aboriginal people, and all Indigenous Australians were included in the Census  Traditional ownership of land ("native title") was recognised in law for the first time when the High Court of Australia held in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) that the legal doctrine of terra nullius ("land belonging to no one") did not apply to Australia at the time of European settlement Following the final abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia  The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with other Pacific Rim nations  While the Australia Act 1986 severed the remaining vestigial constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom, a 1999 referendum resulted in 55% of voters rejecting a proposal to abolish the Monarchy of Australia and become a republic Following the September 11 attacks on the United States, Australia joined the United States in fighting the Afghanistan War from 2001 to 2021 and the Iraq War from 2003 to 2009  The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation's largest trading partner by a large margin During the COVID-19 pandemic which commenced in Australia in 2020, several of Australia's largest cities were locked down for extended periods of time, and free movement across state borders was restricted in an attempt to slow the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus 

Geography
General characteristics
Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand  The world's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area, Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent" and is sometimes considered the world's largest island  Australia has 34,218 km (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands), and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi)  This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory Mainland Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44° South, and longitudes 112° and 154° East  Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and desert in the centre  The desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land  Australia is the driest inhabited continent; its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm  The population density is 3 4 inhabitants per square kilometre, although the large majority of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline  The population density exceeds 19,500 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne 
The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 km (1,200 mi)  Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith, is located in Western Australia  At 2,228 m (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland  Even taller are Mawson Peak (at 2,745 m (9,006 ft)), on the remote Australian external territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3,492 m (11,457 ft) and 3,355 m (11,007 ft) respectively Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range, which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales and much of Victoria  The name is not strictly accurate, because parts of the range consist of low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than 1,600 m (5,200 ft) in height  The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland and shrubland  These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the Mitchell Grass Downs and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland  The northernmost point of the mainland is the tropical Cape York Peninsula 
The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Country—with their tropical climate—include forest, woodland, wetland, grassland, rainforest and desert  At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, and below that the Pilbara  The Victoria Plains tropical savanna lies south of the Kimberley and Arnhem Land savannas, forming a transition between the coastal savannas and the interior deserts  At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia  Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock), the famous sandstone monolith, and the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast  The Western Australian mulga shrublands lie between the interior deserts and Mediterranean-climate Southwest Australia 

Geology
Lying on the Indo-Australian Plate, the mainland of Australia is the lowest and most primordial landmass on Earth with a relatively stable geological history  The landmass includes virtually all known rock types and from all geological time periods spanning over 3 8 billion years of the Earth's history  The Pilbara Craton is one of only two pristine Archaean 3 6–2 7 Ga (billion years ago) crusts identified on the Earth Having been part of all major supercontinents, the Australian continent began to form after the breakup of Gondwana in the Permian, with the separation of the continental landmass from the African continent and Indian subcontinent  It separated from Antarctica over a prolonged period beginning in the Permian and continuing through to the Cretaceous  When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland  Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the mainland of Australia  The Australian continent is moving toward Eurasia at the rate of 6 to 7 centimetres a year The Australian mainland's continental crust, excluding the thinned margins, has an average thickness of 38 km, with a range in thickness from 24 km to 59 km  Australia's geology can be divided into several main sections, showcasing that the continent grew from west to east: the Archaean cratonic shields found mostly in the west, Proterozoic fold belts in the centre and Phanerozoic sedimentary basins, metamorphic and igneous rocks in the east The Australian mainland and Tasmania are situated in the middle of the tectonic plate and have no active volcanoes, but due to passing over the East Australia hotspot, recent volcanism has occurred during the Holocene, in the Newer Volcanics Province of western Victoria and southeastern South Australia  Volcanism also occurs in the island of New Guinea (considered geologically as part of the Australian continent), and in the Australian external territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands  Seismic activity in the Australian mainland and Tasmania is also low, with the greatest number of fatalities having occurred in the 1989 Newcastle earthquake 

Climate
The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia  These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year  Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical, predominantly summer-rainfall (monsoon)  The south-west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate  The south-east ranges from oceanic (Tasmania and coastal Victoria) to humid subtropical (upper half of New South Wales), with the highlands featuring alpine and subpolar oceanic climates  The interior is arid to semi-arid Driven by climate change, average temperatures have risen more than 1°C since 1960  Associated changes in rainfall patterns and climate extremes exacerbate existing issues such as drought and bushfires  2019 was Australia's warmest recorded year, and the 2019–2020 bushfire season was the country's worst on record  Australia's greenhouse gas emissions per capita are among the highest in the world Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought  Throughout much of the continent, major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in the early 2010s after the 2000s Australian drought 

Biodiversity
Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, the continent includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests  Fungi typify that diversity—an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5% have been described—occur in Australia  Because of the continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique  About 85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic  Australia has at least 755 species of reptile, more than any other country in the world  Besides Antarctica, Australia is the only continent that developed without feline species  Feral cats may have been introduced in the 17th century by Dutch shipwrecks, and later in the 18th century by European settlers  They are now considered a major factor in the decline and extinction of many vulnerable and endangered native species  Seafaring immigrants from Asia are believed to have brought the dingo to Australia sometime after the end of the last ice age—perhaps 4000 years ago—and Aboriginal people helped disperse them across the continent as pets, contributing to the demise of thylacines on the mainland  Australia is also one of 17 megadiverse countries Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts  Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra  Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world  The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE  Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement, including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced animal, chromistan, fungal and plant species  All these factors have led to Australia's having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world  The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species  Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention, and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established  Australia was ranked 21st out of 178 countries in the world on the 2018 Environmental Performance Index  There are more than 1,800 animals and plants on Australia's threatened species list, including more than 500 animals Paleontologists discovered a fossil site of a prehistoric rainforest in McGraths Flat, in South Australia, that presents evidence that this now arid desert and dry shrubland/grassland was once home to an abundance of life 

Government and politics
Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy  The country has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system under its constitution, which is one of the world's oldest, since Federation in 1901  It is also one of the world's oldest federations, in which power is divided between the federal and state and territorial governments  The Australian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United Kingdom (a fused executive, constitutional monarchy and strong party discipline) and the United States (federalism, a written constitution and strong bicameralism with an elected upper house), along with distinctive indigenous features The federal government is separated into three branches:
Legislature: the bicameral Parliament, comprising the monarch (represented by the governor-general), the Senate, and the House of Representatives;
Executive: the Federal Executive Council, which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet, comprising the prime minister and other ministers of state appointed by the governor-general on the advice of Parliament;Judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the governor-general on advice of ParliamentCharles III reigns as King of Australia and is represented in Australia by the governor-general at the federal level and by the governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers  Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the prime minister and the Federal Executive Council  The governor-general, however, does have reserve powers which, in some situations, may be exercised outside the prime minister's request  These powers are held by convention and their scope is unclear  The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975 
In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory)  The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 151 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats  Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which, along with the Senate and most state upper houses, combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote  Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction, as is enrolment  The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister  In cases where no party has majority support, the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament  Due to the relatively unique position of Australia operating as a Westminster parliamentary democracy with an elected upper house, the system has sometimes been referred to as having a "Washminster mutation", or as a semi-parliamentary system There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition, which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party  The Liberal National Party and the Country Liberal Party are merged state branches in Queensland and the Northern Territory that function as separate parties at a federal level  Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left  Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses  The Australian Greens are often considered the "third force" in politics, being the third largest party by both vote and membership The most recent federal election was held on 21 May 2022 and resulted in the Australian Labor Party, led by Anthony Albanese, being elected to government 

States and territories
Australia has six states — New South Wales (NSW), Queensland (QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria (VIC) and Western Australia (WA) — and three mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), the Northern Territory (NT), and the Jervis Bay Territory (JBT)  In most respects, the ACT and NT function as states, except that the Commonwealth Parliament has the power to modify or repeal any legislation passed by the territory parliaments Under the constitution, the states essentially have plenary legislative power to legislate on any subject, whereas the Commonwealth (federal) Parliament may legislate only within the subject areas enumerated under section 51  For example, state parliaments have the power to legislate with respect to education, criminal law and state police, health, transport, and local government, but the Commonwealth Parliament does not have any specific power to legislate in these areas  However, Commonwealth laws prevail over state laws to the extent of the inconsistency Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament — unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states  The states are sovereign entities, although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution  The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council  The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister  The King is represented in each state by a governor; and in the Northern Territory, the administrator  In the Commonwealth, the King's representative is the governor-general The Commonwealth Parliament also directly administers the external territories of Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, and the claimed region of Australian Antarctic Territory, as well as the internal Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales  The external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the monarch  In 2015, the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government, integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council  Macquarie Island is part of Tasmania, and Lord Howe Island of New South Wales 

Foreign relations
Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a focus on relationships within the Asia-Pacific region and a continued close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact and its status as a major non-NATO ally of that country  A regional power, Australia is a member of regional and cultural groupings including the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community and the Commonwealth of Nations, and is a participant in the ASEAN+6 mechanism and the East Asia Summit 
Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the AUKUS security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with the United States, India and Japan; the Five Power Defence Arrangements with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the Reciprocal Access defence and security agreement with Japan 

Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation  It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO)  In recent decades, Australia has entered into the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership multilateral free trade agreements as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the United States, China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand Australia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two countries under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement and free trade under the Closer Economic Relations agreement  The most favourably viewed countries by the Australian people in 2021 include New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States and South Korea  A founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism, and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance  Australia ranked fourth in the Center for Global Development's 2021 Commitment to Development Index 

Military
Australia's armed forces — the Australian Defence Force (ADF) — comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 81,214 personnel (including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists) as of November 2015  The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General, who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government  In a diarchy, the Chief of the Defence Force serves as co-chairman of the Defence Committee, conjointly with the Secretary of Defence, in the command and control of the Australian Defence Organisation In the 2016–2017 budget, defence spending comprised 2% of GDP, representing the world's 12th largest defence budget  Australia has been involved in United Nations and regional peacekeeping, disaster relief, as well as armed conflicts from the First World War onwards 

Economy
Australia's high-income mixed-market economy is rich in natural resources  It is the world's thirteenth-largest by nominal terms, and the 18th-largest by PPP  As of 2021, it has the second-highest amount of wealth per adult, after Luxembourg, and has the thirteenth-highest financial assets per capita  Australia has a labour force of some 13 5 million, with an unemployment rate of 3 5% as of June 2022  According to the Australian Council of Social Service, the poverty rate of Australia exceeds 13 6% of the population, encompassing 3 2 million  It also estimated that there were 774,000 (17 7%) children under the age of 15 living in relative poverty  The Australian dollar is the national currency, which is also shared with three Island states in the Pacific: Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu Australian government debt, about $963 billion, exceeds 45 1% of the country's total GDP, and is the world's eighth-highest  Australia had the second-highest level of household debt in the world in 2020, after Switzerland  Its house prices are among the highest in the world, especially in the large urban areas  The large service sector accounts for about 71 2% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (25 3%), while the agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up only 3 6% of total GDP  Australia is the world's 21st-largest exporter and 24th-largest importer  China is Australia's largest trading partner by a wide margin, accounting for roughly 40% of the country's exports and 17 6% of its imports  Other major export markets include Japan, the United States, and South Korea Australia has high levels of competitiveness and economic freedom, and is ranked eighth in the Human Development Index  As of 2022, it is ranked twelfth in the Index of Economic Freedom and nineteenth in the Global Competitiveness Report  It attracted 9 5 million international tourists in 2019, and was ranked thirteenth among the countries of Asia-Pacific in 2019 for inbound tourism  The 2021 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Australia seventh-highest in the world out of 117 countries  Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $45 7 billion 

Energy
In 2003, Australia's energy sources were coal (58 4%), hydropower (19 1%), natural gas (13 5%), liquid/gas fossil fuel-switching plants (5 4%), oil (2 9%), and other renewable resources like wind power, solar energy, and bioenergy (0 7%)  During the 21st century, Australia has been trending to generate more energy using renewable resources and less energy using fossil fuels  In 2020, Australia used coal for 62% of all energy (3 6% increase compared to 2013), wind power for 9 9% (9 5% increase), natural gas for 9 9% (3 6% decrease), solar power for 9 9% (9 8% increase), hydropower for 6 4% (12 7% decrease), bioenergy for 1 4% (1 2% increase), and other sources like oil and waste coal mine gas for 0 5% In August 2009, Australia's government set a goal to achieve 20% of all energy in the country from renewable sources by 2020  They achieved this goal, as renewable resources accounted for 27 7% of Australia's energy in 2020 

Science and technology
In 2019, Australia spent A$35 6 billion on research and development, allocating about 1 79% of GDP  A recent study by Accenture for the Tech Council shows that the Australian tech sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people  The country's most recognized and important sector of this type is mining, where Australia continues to have the highest penetration of technologies, especially drones, autonomous and remote-controlled vehicles and mine management software  In addition, recent startup ecosystems in Sydney and Melbourne are already valued at $34 billion combined  Australia consistently has ranked high in the Global Innovation Index (GII)  In 2022, Australia ranked 25th out of the 132 economies featured in the GII 2022, down from being 22nd in 2019 With only 0 3% of the world's population, Australia contributed 4 1% of the world's published research in 2020, making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world  CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities  Its most notable contributions include the invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy, the essential components of Wi-Fi technology, and the development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote Australia is a key player in supporting space exploration  Facilities such as the Square Kilometre Array and Australia Telescope Compact Array radio telescopes, telescopes such as the Siding Spring Observatory, and ground stations such as the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex are of great assistance in deep space exploration missions, primarily by NASA 

Demographics
Australia has an average population density of 3 5 persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world  The population is heavily concentrated on the east coast, and in particular in the south-eastern region between South East Queensland to the north-east and Adelaide to the south-west
Context 3: Passage 1:
Maxime Bono
Maxime Bono (born 1 November 1947 in Algiers, Algeria) is a French politician and a member of the Socialist Party  He has been mayor of La Rochelle from April 1999 to April 2014, president of the Agglomeration community of La Rochelle from January 2000 to April 2014  and an MP of the Charente-Maritime's 1st constituency from April 1999 until June 2012  During his two mandates, he was a member of the Socialist, Radical, Citizen and Miscellaneous Left parliamentary group 

Legal studies and work
Maxime Bono studied public law in the Law and Economics Faculty of the University of Toulouse, graduating with a licence in 1971  He has been a tax inspector between 1972 and 1982 
In 1983, he became cultural councillor of the municipality of La Rochelle  In 1985, he became representative in the cabinet of Michel Crépeau, then mayor of La Rochelle  In 1986, he became chief of the staff of Michel Crépeau 

Political career (1975–2012)
Early period (1975–1999)
He has been a member of the Socialist party since 1974 
He has been a first deputy mayor of La Rochelle during ten years (1989–1999)  He was in charge of cultural affairs during this period  From 1993 to 1999, he has been a vice president of the Community of cities of La Rochelle  He was in charge of economics during this period  From 1992 to 1999, he has represented the La Rochelle 6th canton in the General Council of Charente-Maritime 
From 1995 to 1999, he has been a president of the municipality-owned company of the public transportation of La Rochelle 

Mayor of La Rochelle (1999−2014) and MP (1999−2012)
A mayor of La Rochelle since 1971, an MP of the Charente-Maritime's 1st constituency (1973–1993, again from 1997), a former Minister (1981–1986) during the first presidential mandate of François Mitterrand, Michel Crépeau died in Paris on 30 March 1999, after a heart attack which had arisen few days earlier during a parliamentary session of the National Assembly 
In April 1999, Maxime Bono succeeded him as a mayor of La Rochelle, a president of the Community of cities of La Rochelle and an MP of the Charente-Maritime's 1st constituency (the nine cantons of La Rochelle and the two cantons of the Île de Ré)  In January 2000, the Community of cities turned into the Agglomeration community of La Rochelle, which currently groups together eighteen towns and villages of Aunis On 27 April 1999, he resigned as a general councillor of La Rochelle-6 because of the law of the accumulation of mandates ("Cumul des mandats") 
However, he didn't seek a third parliamentary mandate in 2012  In the National Assembly, he sat as a member in the committee of the sustainable development and spatial planning  Olivier Falorni (Divers Gauche) succeeded him as an MP of the Charente-Maritime's 1st constituency In 2013, he decided not to seek a further mayoral mandate, hinting at his defeat at the 2012 parliamentary elections as one of the reasons motivating his decision  Following the 2014 French municipal elections, Maxime Bono was succeeded as mayor of La Rochelle and President of the La Rochelle Agglomeration Community by Jean-François Fountaine (Divers Gauche) 

Elections (2001-2008)
Municipal elections
In the 2001 municipal elections, Maxime Bono's miscellaneous left list largely overtook the absolute majority from the first round (67 36%, 15,190 votes)  He even polled more than his predecessor Michel Crépeau in 1995 (58 02%) 

In the 2008 municipal elections, his miscellaneous left list again largely overtook the absolute majority from the first round  Despite the competition of six lists and a lower percentage than in 2001, his municipal list polled 58 93% (15 400 votes) and got 41 of the 49 seats 

Parliamentary elections
The first constituency of the Charente-Maritime consists of La Rochelle, some of its surrounding towns and villages (Dompierre-sur-Mer, Esnandes, L'Houmeau, Lagord, Marsilly, Nieul-sur-Mer, Périgny, Puilboreau, Saint-Xandre) and the ten municipalities of the Île de Ré (Ars-en-Ré, La Couarde-sur-Mer, La Flotte, Le Bois-Plage-en-Ré, Les Portes-en-Ré, Loix, Rivedoux-Plage, Saint-Clément-des-Baleines, Saint-Martin-de-Ré, Sainte-Marie-de-Ré) 

La Rochelle in 2002
Polling 37 12% (21,138 votes) in the first round, Maxime Bono largely overtook the UMP candidate Catherine Normandin (27 63%, 15,731 votes)  In the run-off, he was elected as MP with 53 02% (28,725 votes) He attained his highest score in La Rochelle in the first round (41 45%, 12,027 votes) and in the run-off (57 74%, 15,834 votes)  Except for Dompierre-sur-Mer where he was overtaken by four votes by Catherine Normandin, he headed in the first round in all the surrounding towns and villages of La Rochelle  Except for Lagord and Marsilly, he got the absolute majority in the run-off in all the surrounding towns and villages of La Rochelle  In the first round, he arrived in second position in the ten municipalities of the Île de Ré; his lowest score was in La Couarde-sur-Mer (21 71%)  In the second round, he was defeated by Catherine Normandin in the ten municipalities of the Île de Ré; his lowest score was in Les Portes-en-Ré (32 08%) 

La Rochelle in 2007
Polling 40 77% (23,928 votes) in the first round, Maxime Bono overtook the UMP candidate Dominique Morvant, then general councillor of La Rochelle-4 (35 95%, 21,099 votes)  In the run-off, he was re-elected as MP with 55 05% (32,345 votes)  Compared to 2002, he slightly increased his parliamentary score He attained his highest score in Esnandes in the first round (45 49%) and in the run-off (62 84%)  In La Rochelle, he polled 45 14% (13 120 votes) in the first round and 60 69% (17 667 votes) in the run-off  Except for Marsilly in the first round and the run-off, he headed in the first round and got the absolute majority in the run-off in all the surrounding towns and villages of La Rochelle  In the first round, he arrived in second position in the ten municipalities of the Île de Ré; like in 2002, his lowest score was in La Couarde-sur-Mer (23 11%)  In the run-off, he was defeated by Dominique Morvant in the ten municipalities of the Île de Ré; his lowest score was in Loix (32 44%) 

Former local mandates
President of the Community of cities of La Rochelle: April 1999-January 2000
General councillor of La Rochelle-6 : 30 March 1992 – 27 April 1999
Mayor of La Rochelle : 19 April 1999 - 5 April 2014
President of the Agglomeration community of La Rochelle : January 2000 - April 2014

National mandate
MP of the Charente-Maritime's 1st constituency (30 March 1999−19 June 2012) : Socialist, Radical, Citizen and Miscellaneous Left parliamentary group, member of the committee of the sustainable development and spatial planning
Passage 2:
Cornelius Demarest House
Cornelius Demarest House is located in Rochelle Park, Bergen County, New Jersey, United States  The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 10, 1983 

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Bergen County, New Jersey
Passage 3:
Jean Guiton
Jean Guiton (2 July 1585 – 15 March 1654) was born in La Rochelle, where he followed the occupation of ship-owner  He became a notable Huguenot leader during the Naval battle of Saint-Martin-de-Ré and siege of La Rochelle 
Having been nominated Admiral of the fleet of La Rochelle, Jean Guiton fought the Naval battle of Saint-Martin-de-Ré against Royal forces on 27 October 1622 He later participated to the uprising of Soubise in 1625, leading to the Capture of Ré island by Royal forces that same year 
He became mayor of La Rochelle and, during the 1627-1628 Siege of La Rochelle, he organized an energetic resistance to the troops of king Louis XIII  The scene is still visible today in the City Hall (Hotel de Ville) of La Rochelle, where a marble table with a chip made by his dagger is on display 
Then, Richelieu offered him leadership in the royal fleet and he fought Spain  One of his daughters married the son of the famous Protestant admiral Abraham Duquesne, Abraham Duquesne-Guiton 
Like many other Rochelais (people from La Rochelle), Jean Guiton was a Huguenot 


== Notes ==
Passage 4:
James T  Schleifer
James Thomas Schleifer is an American historian, and emeritus Dean of the Mother Irene Gill Memorial Library, and professor at the College of New Rochelle 

Life
He graduated from Yale University with a Ph D  in 1972   He also lectures at Yale University 

Awards
1981 Merle Curti Award

Works
"Tocqueville: Écrits et discours politiques"  LA REVUE TOCQUEVILLE / THE TOCQUEVILLE REVIEW, VOL  XIII No  2, 1992
Eduardo Nolla, ed  (1996)  "How Many Democracies?"  Liberty, Equality, Democracy  NYU Press  ISBN 978-0-8147-5778-9 
The making of Tocqueville's Democracy in America  University of North Carolina Press  1980  ISBN 978-0-8078-1372-0 
Cheryl B  Welch, ed  (2006)  "Tocqueville's Democracy in America Reconsidered"  The Cambridge Tocqueville Companion  Cambridge University Press  ISBN 978-0-521-84064-4 
Passage 5:
Menucha Rochel Slonim
Rebbetzin Menucha Rochel Slonim (1798–1888) was a daughter of Rabbi Dovber Schneuri, the second Rebbe of the Chabad Hasidic dynasty  She is regarded a matriarch to the Chabad dynasty as well as Hebron's Jewish population in general 

Origin of name
Rebbetzin Slonim was born on the 19 Kislev, 5559 AM (27 November 1798), the same day her grandfather, Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi was released from imprisonment in S  Petersburg  Her father chose the name Menucha because in Hebrew the word "menucha" means "peace and quiet"  He said, "Henceforth we shall have a little Menucha " She was named Rochel after an aunt that died in her youth 
Her husband's last name was originally Griver, a descendant of Rabbi Moses Isserles, the Rema; they chose to change it to Slonim (this was when it was still easy to change names)  They then moved to Hebron 

Emigration to Hebron
After she fell dangerously ill, her father promised that she would live to emigrate to the Land of Israel  In 1845, with the blessing of her brother-in-law, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn, she and her family emigrated to Hebron  To allay her fears of rainstorms on the journey to Hebron, Rabbi Schneersohn blessed her to "walk between the raindrops "

Life in Hebron
For forty-three years she served as the matriarch of the Hebron community  New brides and barren women would request blessings from her  Before she died on the 24th of Shevat, 5648 AM (6 February 1888), she sent a letter to the then Rebbe, Rabbi Sholom Dovber Schneersohn, informing him of her imminent passing  She thus lived during the leadership of all of the first five Lubavitcher Rebbes She became renowned among both townspeople and beyond, Jews and non-Jews alike for her curative and salvation abilities, and was nicknamed "the grandmother Menucha Rachel"  Every bride who visited the Tomb of Machpela on the day of her wedding came to get her blessing and the Admor Rebbe Elazar Mendel of Lelov used to visit her home three times a week when staying in Hebron  He was strict about standing when she entered or left the room and always asked her to bless him 

Her family went on to become leaders of the Hebron Jewish community, helping unite the Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jewish communities and reaching out to the Arabic community  Her son was Rabbi Yehuda Leib Slonim, who was the father of Rebbetzin Moshke Devora Epstein, who inherited Menucha Rochel's home when she got married  Other children included Rabbi Mordechai Dov Slonim 
Rabbi Yaakov Yosef Slonim was the chief Ashkenazi rabbi during the 1929 Hebron massacre  His son was Eliezer Dan Slonim, who spoke fluent Arabic and was a member on the city council and a director of the Anglo-Palestine Bank  He had excellent relations with the British Mandate authorities and Arab community and was reported to have not believed in rumors of an impending riot  He and his family were slaughtered as they attempted to make a barricade in the Slonim family house  One-year-old Shlomo Slonim (1928-2014) survived the massacre  He was the grandson of Rabbi Yaakov Yosef Slonim and son of Eliezer Dan Slonim  Shlomo Slonim went on to join the Irgun Tzvai Leumi, the Haganah, and the Israel Defense Forces  He worked for Bank Leumi for almost 50 years, was married for 50 years, and had 4 children  His photo as a wounded toddler is included in the Museum of the Jewish Community of Hebron  as are many photos of the Slonim family 

Annual visits to grave in Hebron
Today, the grave of Menucha Rochel Slonim receives hundreds of visitors every year, especially on the anniversary of her passing  It is located in the Old Jewish cemetery, Hebron  The grave made headlines in 1997, when the H1 and H2 sections of the city were created  Concerned residents and supporters protested the government to ensure that the cemetery and Menucha Rochel's final resting place were not left outside of the designated area  Other venerated Jewish scholars buried in the cemetery include Eliyahu de Vidas, Solomon Adeni, Elijah Mizrachi and Yehuda Bibas 
Today, the local Chabad chapter in Hebron leads visits to her grave and continues her legacy  In 2002 The Menucha Rochel Kollel, a learning center moved to a historic building adjacent to the grave of Menucha Rochel in the cemetery  Daily classes and services are held there 
Passage 6:
Gillardeau oysters
Gillardeau oysters are a brand of edible oysters that are produced by the Gillardeau family and their small private company, which was founded in 1898 in Bourcefranc-le-Chapus near La Rochelle and the Île d'Oléron in western France Gillardeau now produces roughly half its oysters in Normandy, near Utah Beach, and half in County Cork, Ireland, He also gets his oysters from P  Sugrue one of the worlds top growers from Kerry Ireland  where the waters are cleaner, there are fewer parasites and less agricultural runoff, and the area is easier to farm with tractors 
Passage 7:
Daddy's Home 2
Daddy's Home 2 (titled on screen as Daddy's Home Two)  is a 2017 American Christmas buddy comedy film directed by Sean Anders and written by Anders and John Morris  A sequel to Daddy's Home (2015), it stars Will Ferrell, Mark Wahlberg, Linda Cardellini, John Cena, with John Lithgow and Mel Gibson  The plot follows now-reformed fathers Brad and Dusty (Ferrell and Wahlberg), now co-parenting Dusty's kids, who have to deal with their own fathers (Lithgow and Gibson) visiting for the holidays 
Unlike its predecessor, Red Granite Pictures was not involved in the film's production  Principal photography on the film began in Massachusetts in March 2017 and it was released in the United States by Paramount Pictures on November 10, 2017  Although the film received generally negative reviews from critics, it grossed over $180 million worldwide against a production budget of $69–70 million 

Plot
Finally friends, Brad Whitaker and Dusty Mayron co-parent Dusty's two children, Megan and Dylan, who take turns at each father's house  Dusty has remarried to Karen, a doctor/novelist, and is a stepfather to her daughter Adrianna  The men decide to have a joint Christmas rather than separate ones, after Megan embarrassingly admits during a school recital, that she does not like Christmas anymore due to the stress and embarrassment caused by the dual arrangement  She'd prefer one "together Christmas" 
Dusty's tough fighter pilot/Space Shuttle astronaut father Kurt and Brad's overbearing and cheerful father, Don, unexpectedly arrive for Christmas  Megan and Dylan warmly embrace Don, as he is very present in their lives, while Kurt hasn't seen them since they were toddlers  From his envy of the affection the children show Don, Kurt rents a large cabin through Airbnb, to house them all through the holiday week 
Brad and Dusty's co-parenting is put to the test by Kurt's meddling  Dusty’s beef with Kurt mainly stems from the fact that he was rarely there for him as a child  Especially painful was when, during a youth Glee Club recital he embarrassed himself by missing his solo part when Kurt left to make out with a woman during his part  Sara, meanwhile, tries to bond with Karen, but is appalled by her shoplifting clothes from a store and not caring if Adriana and Megan drink alcoholic eggnog  She later becomes concerned Don isn’t with his wife, whom he claims couldn’t come as she was staying home to take care of her ill brother 
Dylan develops a crush on a little girl staying in the cabin next door, causing Megan and Adrianna to constantly tease him in front of her  Brad gives him some “advice", and Dusty interjects when he thinks Brad is having what looks like “the talk” with Dylan, although they had agreed to do it together  As the trees on the Christmas tree farm are small, Kurt suggests they illegally go on to private property to cut one down  Brad mistakes a cell tower for a tree and is electrocuted 
After bowling, the family takes the kids to see Santa  There, Kurt tries to convince Dylan to ask Santa for a shotgun, but Don talks him out of it  Megan, however, wants one instead and is granted permission after Kurt makes a sexist comment  Out hunting the next day, Megan accidentally shoots Kurt in the shoulder, sending him to the hospital  While Kurt is down, she shoots two turkeys, surprising him  Sara confronts Brad over Don’s odd behavior, but he refuses to believe her 
Brad, Dusty, Don and Kurt go to an improv comedy club, where they have a good time until Kurt picking up a woman at the bar annoys Dusty  Brad enters Don into the improv show, and Dusty chooses the topic of a husband confronting his cheating wife as the subject of the skit  As it progresses, it is revealed that Don has separated from his wife in real life  Sara comforts Don about his divorce in front of an eggnog bowl, but when Dusty reveals his part in the skit, Don and Brad become furious and Dusty and Brad's relationship becomes strained  When they leave, Megan and Adrianna sneak cups of alcoholic eggnog  Brad, attempting to get back at Dusty, invites Adrianna's father, Roger  Roger intimidates Dusty as he had done to Brad in the first film 
The entire family takes part in a live nativity  Brad fights with Dusty because he wants to play Joseph  A drunken Megan begins to swear, and an equally drunk Adrianna falls from her platform, then the crowd breaks up  Instead of Dusty fighting Brad, he almost fights Roger, and Don is repeatedly hit in the face with ice-balls 
On Christmas Day the families, depressed from all the arguing, pack up to leave  On their way out of town, they are forced back due to a blizzard, taking shelter at a movie theater  They see Missile Tow, a holiday action comedy film starring Liam Neeson  When the power cuts off during the movie, everyone goes to the lobby where each man confronts his father about his secrets, lies, and attitudes, and reconcile 
Remembering advice given to him by Kurt, Dylan walks toward the girl he has a crush on to kiss her, but instead kisses Adrianna  Kurt pushes Dusty to stand up to Adrianna and punish her for her recent behavior, but he instead tells her he loves her  He then tells Roger that loving Adrianna means loving her real father as well as he is also part of the family  Roger almost leaves without Adrianna  However, he has a change of heart after everyone breaks out into a song of "Do They Know It's Christmas?" (during which the power comes back on) and he decides to stay 
Sometime later, at the airport, Don and Kurt are preparing to head back to their respective homes  Adrianna, who has grown close with Don, reveals she signed him up for a dating app for seniors so he can move on from Brad’s mother  Kurt and Don go up the terminal escalators, where Kurt reveals to Don that he switched out the tickets and they are going to spend New Year's together in Las Vegas to find dates more effectively 
As Brad's mother arrives, Dusty and Brad discover Brad's new stepfather is Sully Sullenberger, pilot of the 2009 "Miracle on the Hudson" flight  They remember watching the film Sully together recently, and Dusty appears to be excited to meet him  However, an infuriated Brad runs down the terminal, screaming that Sully will never replace his father and "You only have one good story, my father has a million" 

Cast
Production
In April 2016, the sequel was announced, with Will Ferrell and Mark Wahlberg reprising their roles, Sean Anders and John Morris writing the script, and Anders directing  In January 2017, it was reported that Mel Gibson and John Lithgow were being sought to play the main characters' fathers in the film  The two were later confirmed to star, along with Linda Cardellini, John Cena, Owen Vaccaro and Scarlett Estevez, reprising their roles Principal photography began on March 20, 2017  Scenes were filmed in Concord, Massachusetts, Clinton, Massachusetts, Framingham, Massachusetts, Lawrence, Massachusetts and Great Barrington, Massachusetts 

Release
The film was released in the United States on November 10, 2017 Daddy's Home 2 was released on Digital HD on February 6, 2018, and was released on Blu-ray and DVD on February 20, 2018 

Reception
Box office
Daddy's Home 2 grossed $104 million in the United States and Canada, and $76 6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $180 6 million, against a production budget of  $69–70 million In the United States and Canada, Daddy's Home 2 opened alongside Murder on the Orient Express, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 3,575 theaters in its opening weekend  The film made $10 7 million on its first day, including $1 5 million from Thursday night previews at 2,500 theaters, up from the $1 2 million made by the first film  It went on to debut to $29 7 million, finishing second at the box office, behind holdover Thor: Ragnarok ($57 million)  In its second weekend, the film made $14 4 million (a drop of 51 3%), finishing 4th behind Justice League, Wonder and Thor: Ragnarok 

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, Daddy's Home 2 holds an approval rating of 21% based on 129 reviews, and an average rating of 4 1/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "A formulaic comedy that's unlikely to spread much yuletide merriment, Daddy's Home 2 can only muster a few stray yuks from its talented cast " On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 30 out of 100 based on 26 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale Alonso Duralde of TheWrap was critical of what he described as the film's sloppiness and laziness, saying, "Director Sean Anders and his co-writer John Morris execute what are supposed to be the laughs with blunt force  The jokes announce themselves with heavy footsteps, and almost none of them land, stranding a talented cast with terrible material that they’re straining to sell " Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 1 out of 4 stars, saying: "After enduring last week’s lousy and lazy A Bad Moms Christmas, I would have bet it would be many a year before we’d see another holiday comedy more sour and cynical and profoundly unfunny  I sit corrected "Glenn Kenny of RogerEbert com gave the film 2 5 out of 4 stars, writing, "I found the sequel better than the original—the writing sharper, the jokes fresher and smarter, the comic interaction between the lead characters consistently engaging  I mentioned this to my incredulous wife, who said, 'So you’re saying it's the Godfather, Part 2 of the Daddy’s Home series' "

Accolades
Possible sequel
In an interview, Mark Wahlberg mentioned that they would like to get Liam Neeson for the third installment of the film 

See also
List of Christmas films
Passage 8:
Jean Duvignaud
Jean Duvignaud (22 February 1921 – 17 February 2007) was a French novelist, sociologist and anthropologist  He was born in La Rochelle, Charente-Maritime, on February 22, 1921 
Duvignaud was a secondary school teacher first at Abbeville, then at Étampes (1947–1956), where he taught Georges Perec  After submitting his doctoral thesis, he taught at the University of Tours  In 1972, he founded the magazine Cause commune with Georges Perec and Paul Virilio  For a time he was in a relationship with Clara Malraux, the ex-wife of novelist André Malraux He died (aged 85) in La Rochelle on February 17, 2007 

Bibliography
L'Acteur, esquisse d'une sociologie du comédien, Paris, Gallimard, 1965  Rééd  L'Archipel, 1995
Durkheim, sa vie, son œuvre, Paris, PUF, 1965
Visites d'Atelier Marta Pan, Cimaise, N 87, Juin Spetembre 1968
Sociologie du théâtre, Paris, PUF, 1965  Rééd  Quadrige, 1999
Georges Gurvitch, symbolisme social et sociologie dynamique, Paris, Seghers, 1969
Anthologie des sociologues français contemporains, Paris, PUF, 1970
Spectacle et société, Paris, Denoël, 1970
Introduction à la sociologie, Paris, Gallimard, 1971
Sociologie de l'art, Paris, PUF, 1972
L'Anomie, hérésie et subversion, Paris, Anthropos, 1973
Le Langage perdu, essai sur la différence anthropologique, Paris, PUF, 1973
Fêtes et civilisations, Paris, Weber, 1974
Le Théâtre contemporain, culture et contre-culture, Paris, Larousse, 1974
Le Ça perché, Paris, Stock, 1976
Le Don du rien, essai d'anthropologie de la fête, Paris, Plon, 1977
Le Jeu du jeu, Paris, Balland, 1980
L' Or de la République, Paris, Gallimard, 1984
Le Propre de l'homme, histoires du comique et de la dérision, Paris, Hachette, 1985
La Solidarité, liens de sang et liens de raison, Paris, Fayard, 1986
Chebika, étude sociologique, Paris, Gallimard, 1978  Rééd  Paris, Plon, 1990
La Genèse des passions dans la vie sociale, Paris, PUF, 1990
Dis l'Empereur, qu'as-tu fait de l'oiseau ?, Arles, Actes Sud, 1991
Fêtes et civilisations ; suivi de La fête aujourd'hui, Arles, Actes Sud, 1991
Perec ou La cicatrice, Arles, Actes Sud, 1993
Le singe patriote  Talma, un portrait imaginaire (novel), Arles, Actes Sud, 1993
L'oubli ou La chute des corps, Arles, Actes Sud, 1995
Le pandémonium du présent, idées sages, idées folles, Paris, Plon, 1998
Le prix des choses sans prix, Arles, Actes Sud, 2001
Les octos, béant aux choses futures, Arles, Actes Sud, 2003
Le sous-texte, Arles, Actes Sud, 2005
La ruse de vivre, état des lieux, Arles, Actes Sud, 2006
Passage 9:
Julien Berger
Julien Berger is a Belgian rugby union player who currently plays for his national side and the French club La Rochelle as a scrum-half  He has played for La Rochelle since 2009 and has played 14 games, but had only started in 5 (during the 2011–12 season) 
Passage 10:
Peter Conrad (sociologist)
Peter Conrad (born 1945, raised in New Rochelle, NY) is an American medical sociologist who has researched and published on numerous topics including ADHD, the medicalization of deviance, the experience of illness, wellness in the workplace, genetics in the news, and biomedical enhancements 

Biography
He has been a member of the faculty at Brandeis University since 1979 and since 1993 has been the Harry Coplan Professor of Social Sciences   He received his B A  in Sociology at State University of New York at Buffalo (1967), M A, from Northeastern University (1970) and Ph D  in Sociology from Boston University in 1976   Prior to Brandeis, he taught at Suffolk University in Boston, Massachusetts (1971–75) and Drake University in Des Moines, Iowa (1975–78)   At Brandeis he served as chair of the Department of Sociology for nine years and since 2002 as chair of the interdisciplinary program "Health:  Science, Society and Policy" (HSSP)    He has also been a visiting professor at New York University, Gadjah Mada University (Yogyakarta, Indonesia), University of London, Royal Holloway, and Queen's University Belfast (Northern Ireland) 

Personal life
He lives in Lincoln, MA with his wife, Dr  Libby Bradshaw   They have two children, Rya (b  1980) and Jared (b



ground_truth: ATS - 6 (Applications Technology Satellite - 6)

ATS-6

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What administrative territorial entity is the owner of Ciudad Deportiva located?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Australia is highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018  Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age  In 2018 the average age of the Australian population was 38 8 years  In 2015, 2 15% of the Australian population lived overseas, one of the lowest proportions worldwide 

Ancestry and immigration
Between 1788 and the Second World War, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century  In the decades immediately following the Second World War, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades  Since the end of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia has pursued an official policy of multiculturalism, and there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century Today, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major Western nations  160,323 permanent immigrants were admitted to Australia in 2018–2019 (excluding refugees), whilst there was a net population gain of 239,600 people from all permanent and temporary immigration in that year  The majority of immigrants are skilled, but the immigration program includes categories for family members and refugees  In 2020, the largest foreign-born populations were those born in England (3 8%), India (2 8%), Mainland China (2 5%), New Zealand (2 2%), the Philippines (1 2%) and Vietnam (1 1%) The Australian Bureau of Statistics does not collect data on race, but asks each Australian resident to nominate up to two ancestries each census  These ancestry responses are classified into broad standardised ancestry groups  At the 2021 census, the number of ancestry responses within each standardised group as a proportion of the total population was as follows: 57 2% European (including 46% North-West European and 11 2% Southern and Eastern European), 33 8% Oceanian, 17 4% Asian (including 6 5% Southern and Central Asian, 6 4% North-East Asian, and 4 5% South-East Asian), 3 2% North African and Middle Eastern, 1 4% Peoples of the Americas, and 1 3% Sub-Saharan African  At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:

At the 2021 census, 3 8% of the Australian population identified as being Indigenous — Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders 

Language
Although English is not the official language of Australia in law, it is the de facto official and national language  Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon, and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling  General Australian serves as the standard dialect At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population  The next most common languages spoken at home were Mandarin (2 7%), Arabic (1 4%), Vietnamese (1 3%), Cantonese (1 2%) and Punjabi (0 9%) Over 250 Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact  The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered  The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians  NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages The Australian sign language known as Auslan was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census 

Religion
Australia has no state religion; Section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the federal government from making any law to establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion At the 2021 Census, 38 9% of the population identified as having "no religion", up from 15 5% in 2001  The largest religion is Christianity (43 9% of the population)  The largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church (20% of the population) and the Anglican Church of Australia (9 8%)  Multicultural immigration since the Second World War has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3 2%), Hinduism (2 7%), Buddhism (2 4%), Sikhism (0 8%), and Judaism (0 4%) In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions  In Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation  The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land 

Health
Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females), is the fifth-highest in the world  It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world, while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7 8% of the total mortality and disease  Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7 6%, with obesity third at 7 5%  Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults; 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese Australia spent around 9 91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021  It introduced universal health care in 1975  Known as Medicare, it is now nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently at 2%  The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice During the COVID-19 pandemic Australia had one of the most restrictive quarantine policies, resulting in one of the lowest death rates worldwide 

Education
School attendance, or registration for home schooling, is compulsory throughout Australia  Education is the responsibility of the individual states and territories so the rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16  In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003  However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that Tasmania has a literacy and numeracy rate of only 50% Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level  The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university  There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople  About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries  30 9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world Australia has the highest ratio of international students per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019  Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26 7% of the student bodies of Australian universities  International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas  Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed over $28 billion to the economy in 2016–17 

Culture
The country is home to a diversity of cultures, a result of its history of immigration  Prior to 1850, Australia was dominated by Indigenous cultures  Since then, Australian culture has primarily been a Western culture, strongly influenced by Anglo-Celtic settlers  Other influences include Australian Aboriginal culture, the traditions brought to the country by waves of immigration from around the world, and the culture of the United States  The cultural divergence and evolution that has occurred over the centuries since European settlement has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture 

Arts
Australia has over 100,000 Aboriginal rock art sites, and traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, "the last great art movement of the 20th century" according to critic Robert Hughes; its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye  Early colonial artists showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land  The impressionistic works of Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts and other members of the 19th-century Heidelberg School—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to nationalist sentiments in the lead-up to Federation  While the school remained influential into the 1900s, modernists such as Margaret Preston, and, later, Sidney Nolan, explored new artistic trends  The landscape remained central to the work of Aboriginal watercolourist Albert Namatjira, as well as Fred Williams, Brett Whiteley and other post-war artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the figurative and the abstract Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous oral traditions, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older  In the 19th-century, Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson captured the experience of the bush using a distinctive Australian vocabulary  Their works are still popular; Paterson's bush poem "Waltzing Matilda" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem  Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia's most prestigious literary prize, awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life  Its first recipient, Patrick White, went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973  Australian Booker Prize winners include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan  Australian public intellectuals have also written seminal works in their respective fields, including feminist Germaine Greer and philosopher Peter Singer Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government's Australia Council  There is a symphony orchestra in each state, and a national opera company, Opera Australia, well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland  At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers  Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies  Each state has a publicly funded theatre company 

Media
The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era  After World War I, Hollywood monopolised the industry, and by the 1960s Australian film production had effectively ceased  With the benefit of government support, the Australian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, many exploring themes of national identity, such as Wake in Fright and Gallipoli, while Crocodile Dundee and the Ozploitation movement's Mad Max series became international blockbusters  In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7 7% share of the local box office in 2015  The AACTAs are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable Academy Award winners from Australia include Geoffrey Rush, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations  Each major city has at least one daily newspaper, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review  In 2020, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 25th on a list of 180 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (33rd) and United States (44th)  This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia; most print media are under the control of News Corporation and Nine Entertainment Co 

Cuisine
Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker  The first settlers introduced British and Irish cuisine to the continent  This influence is seen in the enduring popularity of several British dishes such as fish and chips, and in quintessential Australian dishes such as the Australian meat pie, which is related to the British steak pie  Post-war immigration transformed Australian cuisine  For instance, Southern European migrants helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture which gave rise to Australian coffee drinks such as the flat white, while East Asian migration led to dishes such as the Cantonese-influenced dim sim and Chiko Roll, as well as a distinct Australian Chinese cuisine  Sausage sizzles, pavlovas, lamingtons, meat pies, Vegemite and Anzac biscuits are regarded as iconic Australian foods Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of wine  Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country  The nation also ranks highly in beer consumption, with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries  Australia is also known for its cafe and coffee culture in urban centres 

Sport and recreation
Cricket and football are the predominant sports in Australia during the summer and winter months, respectively  Australia is unique in that it has professional leagues for four football codes  Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s, Australian rules football is the most popular code in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, where rugby league holds sway, followed by rugby union  Soccer, while ranked fourth in popularity and resources, has the highest overall participation rates  Cricket is popular across all borders and has been regarded by many Australians as the national sport  The Australian national cricket team competed against England in the first Test match (1877) and the first One Day International (1971), and against New Zealand in the first Twenty20 International (2004), winning all three games  It has also participated in every edition of the Cricket World Cup, winning the tournament a record five times Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era, and has hosted the Games twice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney  It is also set to host the 2032 Games in Brisbane  Australia has also participated in every Commonwealth Games, hosting the event in 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and 2018  As well as being a regular FIFA World Cup participant, Australia has won the OFC Nations Cup four times and the AFC Asian Cup once—the only country to have won championships in two different FIFA confederations Other major international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennis grand slam tournament and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix  The annual Melbourne Cup horse race and the Sydney to Hobart yacht race also attract intense interest  Australia is also notable for water-based sports, such as swimming and surfing  The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia, and the volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons  Snow sports take place primarily in the Australian Alps and Tasmania 

See also
Outline of Australia
Index of Australia-related articles

Notes
Passage 2:
Ciudad del Niño metro station
Ciudad del Niño is an underground metro station on the Line 2 of the Santiago Metro, in Santiago, Chile  It is named for the former Ciudad del Niño Presidente Juan Antonio Ríos  The station was opened on 21 December 1978 as part of the extension of the line from Franklin to Lo Ovalle 
Passage 3:
Ciudad Deportiva (Nuevo Laredo)
The Ciudad Deportiva (Sports City) is a sports complex  in Nuevo Laredo, Mexico  It is home to the Tecolotes de Nuevo Laredo Mexican Baseball League team and the Toros de Nuevo Laredo Mexican professional basketball team from the Liga Nacional de Baloncesto Profesional  The Ciudad Deportiva's Estadio Nuevo Laredo (baseball park) can seat up to 12,000 fans at a baseball game and the Nuevo Laredo Multidisciplinary Gymnasium can seat 4,000 fans at a basketball game 

Phase II
Phase II of this project will include a new soccer stadium within Mexican Primera Division standards for a possible expansion of one of its teams to Nuevo Laredo  Part of Phase II has already been completed which includes an indoor stadium with a capacity of 4,000 fans that allows fans to enjoy basketball, volleyball, and gymnastics among other sports 

Gallery
Passage 4:
1969 Mexican Grand Prix
The 1969 Gran Premio de Mexico (Mexican Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held at the Ciudad Deportiva Magdalena Mixhuca, Mexico City on October 19, 1969, two weeks after the United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen  It was race 11 of 11 in both the 1969 World Championship of Drivers and the 1969 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers  The 65-lap race was won by McLaren driver Denny Hulme after he started from fourth position  Jacky Ickx finished second for the Brabham team and his teammate Jack Brabham came in third 

Report
Entry
A total of 17 F1 cars were entered for this event, the last of the season  Team Lotus had had mixed fortunes at Watkins Glen, although Jochen Rindt had won the race, his teammate Graham Hill had broken both legs in an accident  At this event, Lotus decided not to replace him  However they did run a second car, a Lotus 63 developmental car with four wheel drive for John Miles, as Mario Andretti was busy winning the Dan Gurney 200 at Pacific Raceways, USA The rest of the field was unchanged, with only one Ferrari 312 entered by NART for local hero, Pedro Rodríguez 

Qualifying
The Motor Racing Developments Ltd team proved to be very fast in Mexico, as they dominated qualifying in their Brabham-Cosworth BT26A  Jack Brabham secured pole position, for the team, averaging a speed of 96 087 mph  Next fastest was his teammate, Jacky Ickx  The 1969 World Champion, Jackie Stewart was third fastest in his Matra-Cosworth MS80, who shared the second row with the McLaren-Cosworth M7A of Denny Hulme  A pair of Lotus 49s were on row three, with Jo Siffert ahead of Jochen Rindt 

Race
The race was held over 65 laps, however, for the second consecutive race, Bruce McLaren failed to make the start  Of the 16 remaining cars, Jackie Stewart made the best start, with the Brabhams of Jacky Ickx and Jack Brabham in pursuit, Jochen Rindt fourth, and Denny Hulme close behind  By the end of the second lap, led, while Ickx was putting pressure on Stewart  By lap six, Ickx was through, into the lead, and Hulme past Brabham to take third  Hulme overtook Stewart on the next lap, and set about chasing down Ickx   On lap 10, Hulme's McLaren was ahead  Meanwhile, Stewart’s Matra had dropped behind Brabham, and this is how the top four remained throughout the remainder of the race  Rindt ran fifth early on in the race, but bent his suspension on a curb, leading to his retirement, so fifth went to Jean-Pierre Beltoise, with Jackie Oliver finishing sixth in the BRM P139, two laps adrift Hulme won in a time of 1hr 54min 5 3sec, an average speed of 99 618 mph (160 320 km/h)  Hulme finished just 2 56 seconds ahead of Ickx 

Qualifying
Qualifying classification
Race
Classification
Championship standings after the race

Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings  Only the best 5 results from the first 6 rounds and the best 4 results from the last 5 rounds counted towards the Championship  Numbers without parentheses are Championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored 
Passage 5:
Tumaraa
Tumaraa is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The commune of Tumaraa is located on the island of Raiatea, in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, themselves part of the Society Islands  At the 2017 census it had a population of 3,721, making it the least populous commune on Raiatea Tumaraa consists of the following associated communes:

Fetuna
Tehurui
Tevaitoa
VaiaauThe administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Tevaitoa  The tallest mountain on Raiatea - Mont Temehani - is located within Tumaraa 
Passage 6:
Buenos Aires Argentina Temple
The Buenos Aires Argentina Temple is the 39th operating temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), located in Ciudad Evita, near Buenos Aires, Argentina 

History
LDS Church leaders announced plans to build a temple in Buenos Aires in April 1980   Three years later, ground was broken and the site was dedicated by Bruce R  McConkie   After the building's completion an open house was held from December 17–24, 1985   Because of the location, visitors traveling from the airport to downtown Buenos Aires drive right past the temple 
Thomas S  Monson presided over the temple dedication on January 17, 1986  The Buenos Aires Argentina Temple has a total of 17,683 square feet (1,642 8 m2), four ordinance rooms, and three sealing rooms 
The temple closed for a renovation and expansion that added two smaller wings to the temple, set at angles to the existing structure  The renovated temple was rededicated September 9, 2012 by Henry B  Eyring, First Counselor in the church's First Presidency  It reopened September 11, 2012 In 2020, the Buenos Aires Argentina Temple was temporarily closed temporarily during the year in response to the coronavirus pandemic 

See also
Comparison of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints by geographic region
Temple architecture (Latter-day Saints)
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Argentina
Passage 7:
Ofu Airport
Ofu Airport (IATA: OFU, ICAO: NSAS, FAA LID: Z08) is a public airport located one mile (2 km) southeast of the village of Ofu on the island of Ofu in American Samoa, an unincorporated territory of the United States  This airport is publicly owned by Government of American Samoa The Ofu runway was driven as part of the Google Street View project; users looking at Street View imagery at this location will get a view from the runway as opposed to the road which was apparently under construction when the photos were taken 

History
Originally constructed in 1974, the airport runway was moved to its current location in 1986 

Facilities and aircraft
Ofu Airport covers an area of 18 acres (7 3 ha) and has one paved runway (8/26) measuring 2,000 x 60 ft (610 x 18 m) For 12-month period ending December 30, 2004, the airport had 1,944 aircraft operations, an average of 5 per day, 100% of which were air taxi flights 

Airlines and destinations
Passage 8:
Sportivo Italiano
Club Sportivo Italiano is an Argentine football club located in Ciudad Evita, La Matanza Partido, Greater Buenos Aires  The team currently plays in the Primera B Metropolitana, the third division of the Argentine football league system 
The club was founded on May 7, 1955, by Italian immigrants who lived in Florida neighbourhood (part of Vicente López Partido in the Greater Buenos Aires)  The club was originally named "Associazione del Calcio Italiano in Argentina"  In 1978 the institution merged with Sociedad Italiana and changed its name to "Club Deportivo Italiano"  The club's last name change occurred in 2000, when it became known under its current denomination "Club Sportivo Italiano" 
The team mainly appeared in the 2nd and third division of Argentine football, although in the 1986–87 played its only season in the Argentine top flight  Despite finishing bottom of the league and being relegated, this was its highest league finish ever 

Players
Current squad
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules  Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality 

Notable managers
Ramón Cabrero (1985–87)

Honours
Primera B (3): 1986, 1995–96, 2008–09
Primera C (3): 1962, 1974, 2013–14
Primera D (1): 1960

External links

Official Website
Mundo Azzurro
Dep Italiano
Passage 9:
Juan Carlos Espinoza Mercado
Juan Carlos Espinoza Mercado (born 23 July 1987, in Machala) is an Ecuadorian professional football player who has played for Ecuadorian club Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Loja and in 2010 he joined Peruvian club Juan Aurich 

International career
Identity case
In January 2013, he was called into the 2013 South American Youth Championship for the Peruvian U20 team  He played in four games under the name of Max Barrios Prado before it was reported that he had used false documentation that implied that the player was 17 years old  The Civil Registry of Ecuador released documentation showing that the player was 25 years old and married  He was withdrawn from the competition 
The rumours were initially reported by someone who claimed to be a friend of 'Maradona', the former player of Palma de Huacho and apparent father of 'Max Barrios'  The person claimed Maradona told him that the U20 player was from "Colombia or Ecuador" and that 'Maradona' is not the player's father Jaime Villavicencio, President of Universitaria de Loja club confirmed that the player in the U20 competition is the same person as the one who played for Universitaria de Loja  The Peruvian club Juan Aurich have passed information on to their lawyers as the player signed a contract with Juan Aurich using false documentation 
Passage 10:
Nuevo Laredo Municipality
The Municipality of Nuevo Laredo is located in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas  Its municipal seat is Nuevo Laredo  The municipality contains more than 60 localities which the most important ones are Nuevo Laredo, El Campanario y Oradel, and Álvarez, the last two being suburbs of the city of Nuevo Laredo  By population, the municipality is the third largest in the state of Tamaulipas (behind Reynosa and Matamoros respectively)  The Nuevo Laredo municipality is the northernmost in Tamaulipas, lying at the extreme northwestern tip of its narrow strip of land along the Río Grande  The city of Nuevo Laredo contains approximately 97 5% of the total population of the municipality 

Geography
Nuevo Laredo is located in the Northern tip of Tamaulipas on the west end of the Rio Grande Plains  Rio Grande is the only source that supplies its citizens with water  El Coyote Creek supplies Nuevo Laredo's only natural lake El Laguito (The Small Lake)   The area consists of a few hills and flat land covered with grass, oak, cacti, and mesquite 

Climate
Nuevo Laredo features a semiarid climate  Nuevo Laredo's weather is influenced by its proximity to the Chihuahuan Desert to the west, by the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains to the south and west, and by the Gulf of Mexico to the east   Much of the moisture from the Pacific is blocked by the Sierra Madre Oriental   Therefore, most of the moisture derives from the Gulf of Mexico   Its geographic location causes Nuevo Laredo's weather to range from long periods of heat to sudden violent storms in a short period of time  Nuevo Laredo is cold for Tamaulipas standards during winter, the average daytime highs are around 66 °F (19 C) and overnight lows around 43 °F (6 C); although it is rare for snow to fall in Nuevo Laredo, there was actually snow on the ground for a few hours on the morning of Christmas Day 2004 
Nuevo Laredo experiences an average high temperature of about 99 °F (37 C), and an average low of about 75 °F (24 C) during summer, and 20 inches (510 mm) of rain per year  As Laredo sometimes undergoes  drought, a water conservation ordinance was implemented in 2003 

Government
Nuevo Laredo is governed by an elected Cabildo, which is composed of the Presidente Municipal (Municipal President or Mayor), two Síndicos,  and twenty Regidores  The PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) is in control of the city government  The Mayor is in charge of the municipal administration  The Síndicos supervise the municipal budget and expenditures, and the Regidores are elected by the party 

Public safety
Public safety is provided by three municipal departments: (1) municipal police (Dirección de Seguridad Ciudadana), (2) traffic control (Dirección de Seguridad Vial), and (3) the emergency services department (Dirección de Protección Civil, Bomberos y Desastres) 

Towns and villages
The largest localities (cities, towns, and villages) are:

Populated places
See also
Municipalities of Tamaulipas
Nuevo Laredo (City)
Tamaulipas
Passage 11:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory  Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria  The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located  The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government  Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs)  There are 774 local governments in Nigeria  Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government  The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation 

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria 

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives  It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list 

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature)  The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state 

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government  The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly 

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007)  The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control  Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press  ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3 
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999)  The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research  ISBN 978-181-238-9 
Rotimi T  Suberu (1994)  1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan  ISBN 978-2015-28-8 

External links
"New States of Nigeria"  Statoids 
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors 
Passage 12:
Pangi Territory
Pangi Territory is an administrative area in Maniema Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo  The  headquarters is the town of Pangi 
The Elila River flows through Pangi territory, entering the Lualaba River to the west 
The territory is divided into the Babene chiefdom and the Beia, Ikama, Wakabango and Wasongola sectors 
Most of the territory is inhabited by the Lega people, as are the adjoining Mwenga and Shabunda territories 
As of 1972 there were still a few Pygmies living among the Baziri tribe of Lega people 
Before independence the territory had 97,380 inhabitants of whom 35,518 were in urban and mining agglomerations 
Passage 13:
Estadio Unión Tarma
Estadio Unión Tarma is a multi-use stadium in Tarma, Peru  It is currently used mostly for football matches and is the home stadium of Asociación Deportiva Tarma of the Liga 1 Peru  The stadium holds 9,000 spectators 

External links
Stadium information
Context 3:  1985) 

Published works
Conrad is the author of over one hundred articles and chapters and a dozen books, including Identifying Hyperactive Children:  The Medicalization of Deviant Behavior (1975, 2004),  Deviance and Medicalization:  From Badness to Sickness (with Joseph W  Schneider, 1980, 1992), Having Epilepsy:  The Experience and Control of Illness (1983) and The Medicalization of Society:  On the Transformation of Human Conditions into Treatable Disorders (2007)   He has also edited or co-edited numerous volumes, including Handbook of Medical Sociology, 5th edition (2000) and eight editions of Sociology of Health and Illness:  Critical Perspectives (1981–2009), a widely used text for undergraduates 

Awards
He has received numerous academic honors including the Charles Horton Cooley Award (1981) for Deviance and Medicalization, a Distinguished Fulbright Fellowship (1997), the Leo G  Reeder Award (2004) from the American Sociological Association for "distinguished contributions to medical sociology", and the Lee Founder's Award (2007) "made in recognition of significant achievements that, over a distinguished career, have demonstrated continuing devotion to the ideals of the founders of the Society for the Study of Social Problems and especially to the humanist tradition of Alfred McClung Lee and Elizabeth Briant Lee "
Passage 11:
Shelly Steely
Anne Rochelle Steely Ramirez (born October 23, 1962), née Anne Rochelle Steely, is a former long-distance runner who competed internationally for the United States   She specialized in the 3,000 meters on the track and later competed in road running events 
She made her international debut in cross country and helped the United States the women's team title at the IAAF World Cross Country Championships in 1985   Her focus changed to the 3,000 meters, a distance in which she was a two-time US champion (outdoors in 1991 and indoors in 1992)  She reached the final of that event at the 1991 World Championships in Athletics and the 1992 Barcelona Olympics 
Steely's performances deteriorated and she was diagnosed with hyperthyroidism  However, she made an athletic comeback in 1998 and she won two national road titles, as well as appearing at the Goodwill Games and IAAF World Half Marathon Championships that year  She made one more appearance at the World Half Marathon event in 2000, but retired to focus on education studies 

Career
Early life and college career
Steely was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, and attended Bishop Conwell High School in Levittown, Pennsylvania   She received an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida, where she ran for the Florida Gators track and field team in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) competition  Steely was fifth in the 10,000 meters at the NCAA Outdoors in 1983, but found greater success over shorter distances the following year: she won both the 5000 meters and 3000 meters Southeastern Conference (SEC) titles  She was third in the 3,000 meters at the 1984 NCAA Outdoors and made two podium finishes at the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships (third over 5,000 meters, second over 3,000 meters)  She also reached the semi-finals of the US Olympic Track and Field Trials that year In her final year at Florida, she took a sweep of the SEC long-distance titles, winning the 3,000, 5,000 and 10,000-meter distance races   During her time as a Gator runner, she won five All-American honors and nine All-SEC honors, and was later inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a "Gator Great" in 2006 Steely made her international debut for the United States in 1985, and her fifteenth-place finish at the 1985 IAAF World Cross Country Championships helped the American women (including Cathy Branta and Betty Springs) to the long race team title  She made two more appearances at that competition, taking part in the 1989 and 1990 editions  She also competed on the international cross country circuit in Europe, including a win at the Cross Internacional de Venta de Baños 

World and Olympic competition
She began training in New Mexico and improved her best times in the 3,000 and 5,000 meters in 1990, and was ranked highly at the national level  She began to expand her oeuvre to include road running and that year she took wins at the Cooper River Bridge Run and Great Cow Harbor 10K races, as well as shorter distance wins at the Fifth Season Race and the Jean Bouin Memorial in Spain  The following year saw her make a career breakthrough on the track  She won the national title in the 3,000 meters with a significant personal best run of 8:49 00 minutes  This gained her a place on the national team for the 1991 World Championships in Athletics  Steely ran a personal record of 8:48 54 minutes in the qualifying rounds, only finishing behind two eventual medalists (Susan Sirma and Yelena Romanova)  She did not perform as well in the final, however, and ended the competition in fourteenth place  She ended her season with road wins at the Phoenix 10K and Senior Bowl 10K She claimed her second national title at the start of the following year, winning the 3,000 meters at the USA Indoor Track and Field Championships with a time of 8:51 29 minutes  A third title followed on the roads that May as she took the 5,000 meters U S  title in Cedar Rapids, Iowa  In the outdoor season she ran a career best time of 8:41 28 minutes for the 3,000 meters and her runner-up placing at the Olympic Trials saw her make the US Olympic Team for the first time  At the 1992 Barcelona Olympics, both Steely and PattiSue Plumer (the trials winner) made the event final and Steely came seventh, two spots behind her compatriot 

Switch to roads and retirement
She won the Carlsbad 5000 the following March  Steely was the 1993 USA Outdoor runner-up in the 3,000 meters but was replaced in the national team for the 1993 World Championships in Athletics  Her performances waned over the next three years and she did not compete at all in 1996  She was later diagnosed with a hyperthyroid condition Steely returned to compete in 1998 and ran frequently, mainly out of necessity as she no longer had a sponsor  She was in the top three at the 1998 USA Outdoors in the 10,000 meters, came fourth in the event at the 1998 Goodwill Games, and ranked second nationally in the distance that year  She won the US titles in the 25-kilometer and 10-mile events that year, as well as runner-up placing in the national 12-kilometer and half marathon events  Her performance over the latter distance gained her a spot at the 1998 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships, where she placed 42nd overall She ran in the 10,000 meters at the 1999 USA Outdoor Championships (coming fifth) and competed at the 2000 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships  However, she moved on from her athletic career to focus on obtaining an Educational specialist degree 

Personal bests
1500 m – 4:05 07 mins (1992)
3000 m – 8:41 28 mins (1992)
5000 m – 15:08 67 mins (1992)
10,000 m – 32:41 14 mins (1990)
Half marathon – 1:13:33 hrs (1998)

International competition record
See also
Florida Gators
List of University of Florida alumni
List of University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame members
List of University of Florida Olympians
Passage 12:
La Jarne
La Jarne (French pronunciation: ​[la ʒaʁn]) is a commune in the Charente-Maritime department in southwestern France  It is 7 km southeast of the city of La Rochelle 

Population
See also
Communes of the Charente-Maritime department
Passage 13:
June Rochelle
June Rochelle is an American contemporary gospel singer, songwriter, executive media producer, editor, and talent scout from Indianapolis, Indiana  Her music infuses gospel, soul, pop, r&b, and jazz  Her debut album, Changing Places, garnered a Grammy ballot  Her next albums are Play This, and June Rochelle Christmas ' Rochelle is the first African-American to headline ABC's-RTV6 Circle of Lights  She was previously a backing vocalist for Diana Ross and Celine Dion  June Rochelle is also the founder of Good Deeds People a public-benefit charity and June Rochelle Media 
Passage 14:
Jean-Louis Raduit de Souches
Jean-Louis Raduit de Souches (16 August 1608 to 12 August 1682), also known as Ludwig de Souches, was a French-born professional soldier who spent a number of years in the Swedish Army before switching to Imperial service in 1642  Although he was a capable officer who reached the rank of Field Marshal, his career was marred by a tendency to quarrel with his colleagues and superiors 
Born into a family of minor French Protestant nobility, de Souches went into exile after the Siege of La Rochelle in 1629  He served in the Swedish army when it entered the Thirty Years' War against Emperor Ferdinand III and by 1642 was colonel of an infantry regiment  However, he fell out with his superior officer and switched sides, joining the Imperial army 
He established his reputation in the defence of Brno against the Swedes in 1645 and was promoted Field Marshal in 1664  When Emperor Leopold joined the Franco-Dutch War in 1673, de Souches was appointed commander of Imperial forces in the Low Countries but had a poor relationship with his Dutch and Spanish allies and was removed in December 1674  
This was the end of his military career; he retired to his estates in at Jevišovice in Moravia, where he died on 12 August 1682 and was buried in the Church of St  James (Brno) 

Personal details
Jean-Louis Raduit de Souches was born on 16 August 1608, son of Jean Ratuit, Sieur de Barres (died 1614), and his wife Marguerite de Bourdigalea (died after 1636)  Both parents were members of the Huguenot nobility, originally from Aunis, who owned property in the Protestant stronghold of La Rochelle  His elder brother was killed serving with the French army in 1636, while he also had a sister, Marguerite (died 1654) His first wife Anna Elisabeth de Hoffkirchen died in 1663; they had two sons, Jean Louis (died 1717) and Charles Louis (1645–1691), who both served in the Imperial Army, and two daughters, Anna Dorotha (1652–1724) and Eleonora  Anna Salome Aspermont-Reckheim (1648–1729) became his second wife in 1677; they had no surviving children 

Career
Thirty Years War
Souches began his military career during the siege of La Rochelle, part of the 1627 to 1629 Huguenot rebellions against Louis XIII of France  When the town surrendered in October 1628, he went into exile in Protestant Sweden, where he joined the army led by Gustavus Adolphus which entered the Thirty Years War in 1630  By 1636, he was captain in an infantry regiment which unsuccessfully defended Stargard against an Imperial force; he narrowly escaped court martial after accusing his commanding officer of negligence  This was symptomatic of a quarrelsome tendency which followed him throughout his career 

In May 1636, France formally entered the Thirty Years War in alliance with Sweden; the rapid expansion of the French army created vacancies for experienced officers and de Souches used the opportunity to return home  He was unable to obtain a satisfactory position and returned to Sweden in August 1639, where he was promoted colonel of a regiment in the force that invaded Bohemia in early 1640  However, he later fell out with his superior officer whom he challenged to a duel in violation of military regulations; he resigned from the Swedish army in early 1642 and a few months later was appointed colonel in the Imperial army Over the next two years, de Souches took part in the 1643 invasion of Pomerania and an attack on the Swedish-held city of Olomouc in Moravia  Although both actions were unsuccessful, he impressed his superiors sufficiently to be given command of defending Brno in May 1645 against a force led by Lennart Torstensson; after a siege described as "one of the epic stands of the Imperial army", the Swedes retreated in August having lost 8,000 men  This contributed to the failure of Torstensson's attempt to attack Vienna and helped speed up peace negotiations at Westphalia  Until the end of the war, de Souches contributed to regaining Swedish-occupied cities in the Erblande like the capture of Jihlava in 1647 De Souches was rewarded with promotion to the rank of general and granted lands outside Brno; when the war finally ended in 1648, he was placed in charge of supervising the withdrawal of Swedish troops from Moravia and made Governor of Špilberk Castle  In 1649, he was elevated to the Moravian nobility on condition he converted to Catholicism within the next three years 

Later career
In 1654, Sweden attacked the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, initiating the Second Northern War  When the fighting expanded to include Brandenburg-Prussia in 1657, Austria joined the anti-Swedish coalition  With de Souches in charge of the infantry, an army under Melchior von Hatzfeldt was sent to support Poland and helped recapture Kraków in August 1657  De Souches later commanded the Austrian contingent at the Siege of Toruń, whose Swedish garrison surrendered in December 1658  In 1659, he was given command of an army of 13,000 which invaded Swedish Pomerania and besieged Stettin; before the town fell, the Treaty of Oliva ended the war in May 1660, while de Souches quarrelled with his colleague Raimondo Montecuccoli and was ordered home to Moravia The 1663 to 1664 Austro-Turkish War began when Ottoman forces invaded Hungary and over-ran large parts of eastern and southern Moravia  Having successfully defended Brno and Olomouc, de Souches was promoted Field Marshall in May 1664 and given command of one of three separate forces operating in Hungary, with the other two led by Montecuccoli and Miklós Zrínyi  Although he won a minor victory at Levice in July 1664, while Montecuccoli stopped the main Ottoman advance at Saint Gotthard in August, Leopold was concerned by the expansionist policies of Louis XIV of France and agreed the Peace of Vasvár a few days later 
          
In October 1664, de Souches was appointed Governor of Komárom, an important town on the modern Slovakian/Hungarian border, and spent the next few years supervising the construction of new fortifications there, as well as other towns in the region  He also became a member of the Hofkriegsrat, or Imperial War Council, although his duties were largely nominal  When Austria entered the Franco-Dutch War in 1673 as an ally of the Dutch Republic and Spain, he was appointed commander of Imperial troops in the Low Countries and took part in the Battle of Seneffe in August 1674  The Imperial troops suffered minimal casualties in what was the bloodiest battle of the war and his Allies subsequently claimed de Souches had ignored requests for support  One suggestion is he did so under instructions from Emperor Leopold, who wanted to conserve resources for the Rhineland campaign, which he viewed as having far greater strategic significance Shortly thereafter, the Allies attacked the town of Oudenarde; siege operations commenced on 16 September, and the French began marching to its relief three days later  The Dutch and Spanish redoubled efforts to breach the walls before their arrival, but without advising his colleagues, de Souches withdrew the Imperial artillery to Ghent  Since his troops would not fight without their guns, and the Dutch and Spanish could not face the French on their own, the Allies were forced to abandon the siege  After strong protests from the Dutch States General, supported by some of his Austrian colleagues, de Souches was relieved of his command  In December 1674, Emperor Leopold set up an enquiry into his conduct, which resulted in de Souches being dismissed from his remaining military positions  He retired to his estates at Jevišovice in Moravia, where he died on 12 August 1682 and was buried in the Church of St  James (Brno) 
Passage 15:
Chaya Mushka Schneersohn
Chaya Mushka Schneersohn was the daughter of Rabbi Dovber Schneuri, the second Rebbe of the Chabad Hasidic movement, and the wife of Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn the third Rebbe Chaya Mushka Schneerson died on December 9, 1860 O S  (Tevet 8, 5621; December 21, 1860 N S ), and was buried in the town of Lubavitch near her grandmother Rebbetzin Sterna and her mother Rebbetzin Sheina 

History
Chaya Mushka Schneersohn married the third Rebbe of Chabad, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn  She is known in the Chabad community as "Rebbetzin Chaya Mushka " Rebbetzin Chaya Mushka was an advocate for Agunot, women who are bound to their marriages by Jewish law whether through the husband's disappearance or refusal to comply with divorce proceedings Chaya Mushka held the personal custom of reciting the Slichot prayers during the week between Rosh Hashana, the Jewish New Year, and Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement 
Passage 16:
Hunt Slonem
Hunt Slonem (born Hunt Slonim, July 18, 1951) is an American painter, sculptor, and printmaker  He is best known for his Neo-Expressionist paintings of butterflies, bunnies, and his tropical birds, often based on a personal aviary in which he has been keeping from 30 to over 100 live birds of various species  Slonem's works are included in many important museum collections all over the world; he is exhibiting regularly at both public and private venues, and he has received numerous honors and awards 

Early life
Hunt Slonem was born in Kittery, Maine, in an upper middle class family, the eldest of four children  His father was a Navy officer, and mother – a homemaker who spent much of her time doing volunteer work  As a result of his father's military career, Slonem's family moved around as frequently as every two to three years  He lived in Hawaii, Virginia, Connecticut, California and Washington State  Slonem's grandmother was a Tennessee native who married a Minnesota-born amateur artist and educator who became the Superintendent of Public Schools in Duluth, Minnesota  It was Slonem's grandfather who always encouraged young Hunt to paint   "I grew up around painting, and my parents dabbled in painting themselves  I was given paints as a child, and I wanted to be a painter from first grade onwards," Slonem told the online magazine Art Interview  His younger brother, Jeffrey Slonim, is a prolific journalist, and contributing editor of the Interview Magazine, and his cousin is the best-selling author Tama Janowitz After completing school, which included living in Nicaragua as an exchange student when he was 16 years old, Slonem commenced undergraduate studies at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee  He then spent about six months of his sophomore year at the University of the Americas in San Andrés Cholula, Puebla, Mexico, but later graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Painting and Art History from Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana  He also took courses at the Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture in Maine, where he was exposed to such influential artists from the New York area as Louise Nevelson, Alex Katz, Alice Neel, Richard Estes, Jack Levine, and Al Held  During that period, Slonem altered the "i" to an "e" in his family name as a nod to numerology  He moved to New York in 1973 to further his art practice, and Manhattan had become his consistent base ever since 

Career
I would say my whole life could be summed up by the word 'exotica' 
Hunt Slonem's artistic career began in New York, in the late 1970s  When he first came to Manhattan, in 1973, he was hired by the Department of Social Services to teach painting to senior citizens  He was unhappy at his job and seriously considered moving to Amsterdam when, unexpectedly, in 1975, he got a call from artist Janet Fish who offered him her studio for the summer  That telephone call turned Slonem's life around  Shortly afterwards, In 1976, Hunt Slonem received a painting grant from the Elizabeth Greenshields Foundation in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and began painting in earnest  His first solo show was held at New York's Harold Reed Gallery in 1977, followed by a major exhibition at the prestigious Fischbach Gallery  As Slonem's career progressed, he was introduced to people like Andy Warhol, Liza Minnelli, Sylvia Miles, and Truman Capote  Through Jeffrey Slonim, who would later serve as an usher at Andy Warhol's funeral, he also met and befriended the Belgian-born actress Monique van Vooren, the star of Warhol's film Flesh for Frankenstein  He soon became a habitué of New York's trendiest hot spots and an active participant in the city's burgeoning art scene Slonem's move to New York had a profound influence on his development as an artist  According to the New York Times, he fell in love with "a very particular kind of New York life, one most people can only fantasize about  But people this determinedly unusual do exist here, and that is one of the city's surest charms  They feed off the city and the city feeds off them " Novelist Tama Janowitz put it succinctly, saying, "His pictures are the subtext of Manhattan, an imaginary, vivid and grotesquely evocative world that bubbles beneath the paved-over, gray city of New York which he physically inhabits -- a city where people have come from all over the world, bringing their images of other places and other lives with them "Despite living in the heart of Manhattan,  Slonem remained true to his boyhood fascination with exotica, which he had developed as a youth in Hawaii and during his time as a foreign exchange student in Managua, Nicaragua  His paintings expressed a strong affinity for nature, especially the various species of exotic butterflies and tropical birds living on the island  He soon became well known for creating grisaille paintings of small birds in their cages   He often painted them wet-on-wet and grit off the surfaces to denote wire enclosures after the birds had been strategically placed  Art critic Roberta Smith wrote in the New York Times that Slonem's "witty Formalism strategy meshes the creatures into the picture plane and sometimes nearly obliterates them as images, but it also suspends and shrouds them in a dim, atmospheric light that is quite beautiful  If Joseph Cornell had concentrated on painting, the results might have looked like this " Birds also fill the surface of his largest project yet – a 6-foot by 86 foot mural he painted for the iconic Bryant Park Grill Restaurant in New York City, completed in 1995  According to The New Yorker, "The most notable aspect of the [restaurant's] interior is an 86-foot long mural by the artist Hunt Slonem, which depicts hundreds of birds, similar to those found in the artist's studio, where he can be found painting away with a bird or two perched on his shoulders "Hunt Slonem's oil paintings pivot between the fantastic and the natural  These natural forms ultimately become the subjects for many of his artworks, appearing in large lavishly colored paintings and constructed sculptures  As an artist, he endeavors to explore the many expressive faculties of color  His paintings are layered with thick brushstrokes of vivid color, often cut into in a cross-hatched pattern that adds texture to the overall surface of the painting  Slonem often hides his subjects "behind a grid of incised lines, blurring their contours and emphasizing the paint's tactile quality " This surface patterning combines with the rich colors and recognizable subject matter to create paintings that are physically and aesthetically rich  Poet and critic John Ashbery observed, "From the narrow confines of his grids, half cage, half perch, Slonem summons dazzling explosions of the variable life around us that need only to be looked at in order to spring into being "Slonem's obsessive and repetitive rendering of his subjects reflects his desire to explore issues of spatial complexity, compression and density in what the acclaimed Metropolitan Museum of Art curator Henry Geldzahler deemed "a consistent investigation of post-cubist abstraction " The repetitive imagery also makes a reference to Andy Warhol  "I was influenced by Warhol's repetition of soup cans and Marilyn," says Slonem  "But I'm more interested in doing it in the sense of prayer, with repetition    It's really a form of worship " He is not interested in realism or, unlike Warhol, in advertising or media, and his paintings are neither narrative nor specific in detail  Rather, Slonem's work is deeply rooted in the act of painting  His jarring color choices, spontaneous mark making, and scratched hatch marks are the result of his ongoing fascination with the manipulation and implementation of paint  For Slonem, cross-hatching has "a feeling of a tapestry, it's like weaving  I'm making colors bleed into each other, I'm revealing the under-painting  I'm making these marks to allow the light to come through, basically  So you're seeing about five levels of paint, instead of one " It is this kind of devotion to the process of painting that prompted Henry Geldzahler to observe in 1993 that "Slonem is a painter, a painter's painter with an enormous bag of technical tricks which become apparent to the viewer the longer he stands before the work "Another recurring theme of Slonem's pictorial work is portrait painting, and that of Abraham Lincoln in particular  He is interested in history and memorabilia, and for him, the "larger-than-life" Lincoln is a catchall  In Slonem's words, "On Marilyn [Monroe]'s desk, she had a picture of her mother and a picture of Lincoln  And she said, 'I really didn't know who my father was, so it might as well be Abraham Lincoln '" According to the Interview Magazine, "Slonem's portraits of Lincoln feel personal, and in surprising ways, he's close to the long-deceased " "I work with diviners and mystics, and one of them started channeling Lincoln in my house," says Slonem  "[Lincoln] guided me to paint certain things, like my doves: he wanted me to paint them as a symbol of freedom "In the early 1980s, Slonem began working on a new series of so-called "Rabbit paintings "  The idea for this critically acclaimed series came to him after he had discovered that the year of his birth, 1951, was the year of the Rabbit in the Chinese zodiac calendar  He often repeats imagery in this series, just like in his other series, because, he told the Wall Street Journal, the act is similar to spiritual meditation: "Mantras are holy because you repeat them " This theme continued to inspire Slonem over the years, and the series is as prominent in his work today as it was over thirty years ago Apart from painting, Slonem is also making sculptures, like the sizable, "Tocos," an 18-foot acrylic and aluminum tower of toucans exhibited at the Polk Museum of Art in 2012  He has also restored several historic houses  "I consider it part of my art form,"  Slonem said in an interview with NewsChief com   His "art form" also includes Gothic revival furniture - in his homes, studios, and exhibits  In 2009, Bergdorf Goodman, a luxury department store in New York City, recreated Slonem's distinct art-filled living room for its windows display  In Slonem's view, "Art incorporated with furniture becomes a work of art itself "In 2008, German automaker Audi enlisted Hunt Slonem to create an exclusive design for its sleek new A5 coupe, and he created a one-of-a-kind design based on one of his oil painting for the car's exterior  "It's an earlier work of mine with birds flying through the sky; the original work is in the collection of the Colby Museum in Maine, where I was born," said Slonem of the piece, which is painted in blues, blacks, reds, and whites with cockatoos  The mobile artwork was unveiled in conjunction with the New York International Auto Show at the Audi Forum in Manhattan  The "Hunt Slonem Audi A5," as it was dubbed, then toured Audi dealerships throughout the United States, before returning to New York where it was auctioned off to benefit a cancer research charity In 2010, Albert Maysles, the Oscar-nominated documentary filmmaker (Salesman, Gimme Shelter, Grey Gardens), announced that he will be shooting a feature-length documentary on Hunt Slonem's life and his art In 2014, he collaborated with fashion accessories company Echo Design Group for a limited edition scarf and handbag collection 

Museum exhibitions and collections
Since 1977, Slonem had solo shows at many prestigious contemporary art galleries including the Fischbach Gallery in New York and the Serge Sorokko Gallery in San Francisco  His work has been exhibited globally, including in Madras, Quito, Venice, Gustavia, San Juan, Guatemala City, Paris, Amsterdam, Madrid, Stockholm, Oslo, Cologne, Tokyo, and Hong Kong  His work has been shown in thirty-one different museums including the Hunter Museum of American Art in Chattanooga, Tennessee, in 1981; the Museo Diocesano d'arte sacra Sant'Apollonia in Venice, Italy, in 1986; the Albany Museum of Art in Albany, Georgia, in 2007; the  Istanbul Museum of Modern Art in Istanbul, Turkey, in 2007; Museo de Arte de El Salvador in San Salvador, El Salvador, in 2010; the National Gallery for Foreign Art in Sofia, Bulgaria, in 2010;  the Alexandria Museum of Art in Alexandria, Louisiana in 2011, the Polk Museum of Art in Lakeland, Florida in 2012, the Moscow Museum of Modern Art in 2015, and the Russian State Museum in St  Petersburg, Russia in 2017, among others Slonem has been an active participant in the Art in Embassies Program sponsored by the United States Department of State, alongside other American artists including Jim Dine, Julian Schnabel, Sol LeWitt, Jasper Johns, Ellsworth Kelly, and Jeff Koons, who received the first ever Medal of Arts from the Department of State for his "outstanding commitment" to the program  Through Art in Embassies, Slonem's paintings have been exhibited globally revealing, as Hillary Clinton put it, "the rich history and cultural heritage of the United States and the experiences that we share with peoples of different countries, backgrounds and faiths  Every exhibition reminds us of the diversity of mankind and the values that bind us together "Hunt Slonem's paintings are widely represented in important private collections all over the world  According to the San Francisco Chronicle, "Slonem's work has attracted many well-known [Hollywood] art collectors including Sharon Stone, Gina Gershon, Brooke Shields, Julianne Moore, Mandy Moore, Kate Hudson, and J Lo", among others   "I'm a big fan of Hunt's work," Brooke Shields told Daily Front Row  "It's whimsical without being too sweet "  A March 2012 issue of Architectural Digest features Shields's Manhattan townhouse, with three of Slonem's "rabbit paintings" prominently displayed on her living room wall Over fifty museums internationally include Hunt Slonem's paintings in their collections, among them the Smithsonian American Art Museum; the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D C ; the Brooklyn Museum of Art in Brooklyn, NY; the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Massachusetts; Fundació Joan Miró in Barcelona, Spain; the Würth Museum in Künzelsau, Germany; the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Whitney Museum of American Art, and the Solomon R  Guggenheim Museum all in New York 

Personal life
Until 2010, Slonem occupied a Tenth Street studio in Manhattan that was 40,000 square feet, divided into 89 rooms  In 2010, Slonem moved to a 15,000 square foot fourth floor former headquarters of the film company Moviola, on West 45th Street  The space served as his painting studio and was divided into a number of small rooms, all of which Slonem painted in old Louisiana plantation-house colors  The studio housed his ever-expanding quirky collections, from Neo-Gothic chairs to top hats, to marble busts of Marie Antoinette, to various objets d'art, mined from flea markets and antique fairs  In an interview in Vincent Katz's book Pleasure Palaces: The Art & Homes of Hunt Slonem, he describes his collecting technique as "cluttering "  For him, objects are "friends;" the more there are, the more he is inspired  "I have to have a certain amount of stuff in place before I can function and paint," he says  Although, Slonem still lives in the loft apartment he moved into in 1973, according to the Wall Street Journal, he does nearly all his entertaining at his new 25,000 square foot West 34th Street studio in the industrial Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan where he moved in 2011  He christened the third floor loft space with a birthday party attended by more than 200 people Hunt Slonem also owns two historically important Louisiana plantations—one called Albania Plantation, on the Bayou Teche in St  Mary Parish, about two hours' drive northwest of New Orleans, and the other – the Lakeside Plantation, in a remote location near the town of Batchelor, one hour north of Baton Rouge  According to the New York Times, the Batchelor property includes "an 1832 plantation house called Lakeside, pink if you please, as surprising in this community of shoebox houses as an aged diva in a pink organdy dress at McDonald's  Also as indifferent, inasmuch as a house can be indifferent, to the bruising of time " It was once owned by Marquis de La Fayette whose close relationship with lifelong friends such as Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, James Monroe, John Adams, and Robert Livingston played a pivotal role in the Louisiana Purchase   In a show of gratitude, the United States gave La Fayette land which is known today as Lakeside Plantation  The property is listed in the National Register of Historic Places listings in Louisiana 
Passage 17:
Sébastien Fauqué
Sébastien Fauqué is a French rugby union player, born 6 March 1977 in Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées), who plays as fly half for La Rochelle 
He arrived at US Montauban from US Dax after a spell at Castres Olympique and a first professional contract at Section Paloise  He was the backup for David Aucagne at Pau and Thomas Castaignède at Castres  He trained at two clubs: Riscle and Lourdes  After the 2008 season, and after six seasons at Montauban, he joined RC Toulon, who were promoted to Top 14 

Honours
Club
Pro D2 Champions : 2006

Personal
Best player of Pro D2: 2006 (383 points, 22 more than second placed Antoine Vignau-Tuquet)2nd : 2005 (397 points, 18 less than first place Martin Vickers-Pearson)
Best kicker in Pro D2: 2006 (353 points, 22 more than second placed Antoine Vigneau-Tuquet)2nd : 2005 (377 points, 3 less than first placed Martin Vickers-Pearson)

Notes
External links
(in French) Player profile at lequipe fr
(in French) Statistics at itsrugby fr
"Sébastien Fauqué"  itsrugby co uk  Retrieved 13 November 2021 
Passage 18:
Gaston de Gerlache
Baron Gaston de Gerlache de Gomery (Brussels, 17 November 1919 – Oudenaarde, 13 July 2006) was a Belgian polar explorer 
Gaston de Gerlache was the son of Adrien de Gerlache, and followed in the tracks of his father by leading the second Belgian expedition to Antarctica in 1957–1958, 60 years after his father led the 1897–1899 Belgian Antarctic Expedition aboard the ship Belgica 
Gaston de Gerlache and his crew established the King Baudouin Base in 1958 in the context of the International Geophysical Year  On 11 December 1958 an aircraft with four Belgians, led by Gaston de Gerlache crashed in the Crystal Mountains, 250 km from King Baudouin Base, Antarctica  The crew was searched for and rescued on 16 December by the Soviet polar pilot V  M  Perov on an Li-2 aircraft, that had taken off from Mirny Station In 1960 Gaston de Gerlache published his travel journal Retour dans l'antarctique  A year later he made a documentary about his expedition named Plein sud 
An article, "Belgium in the Antarctic", written by Gaston de Gerlache de Gomery appeared in the Geographical magazine (May 1962 issue) 
Mount Gaston de Gerlache in the Queen Fabiola Mountains on Antarctica was named after him 
Passage 19:
Marvin Felix Camillo
Marvin Felix Camillo (1937 in Newark, New Jersey – January 22, 1988 in La Rochelle, France) was an American theater director and actor, noted for his founding of The Family theater company, a group in New York largely made up of ex-convicts 

Stage productions
Short Eyes (1974)
The Cool World (1960)



ground_truth: Tamaulipas

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who followed Menucha Rochel Slonim's father?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  He was born in 1951  On November 5, 1955, he sat at the dinner table with his family and Marty McFly, whom his father had hit with the car earlier that day  He remained silent while the guest was present 

Joey Baines
Joey Baines was born on August 28, 1954, to Sam and Stella Baines, and was the fifth child in the Baines family  In the early 1970s, Joey was Marty McFly's favorite uncle  Joey would allow Marty to do dangerous things, but would always be there to make sure he was all right  He spent many years in Folsom Prison  On October 25, 1985, he failed to earn his release on parole for at least the second time 
By the 21st century, USA Today ran an article on Joey Baines in their October 22, 2015 issue, titled Parole denied again, which mentioned that this was Joey's twelfth consecutive parole hearing to end in denial  He was serving a twenty-year term at Folsom for racketeering and had spent two-thirds of his life behind bars 

Ellen Baines
Ellen Baines was the sixth child of Sam and Stella Baines, the sister of Lorraine, Milton, Sally Toby, and Joey Baines, the sister-in-law of George McFly, and the aunt of David, Linda, and Marty McFly  Born in 1956 (a few months after Marty's trip to 1955), she moved to Chicago at some point prior to 1986 

Brown family
Jules and Verne Brown
Jules Eratosthenes Brown and Verne Newton Brown (portrayed by Todd Cameron Brown and Dannel Evans in Back to the Future Part III, voiced by Josh Keaton and Troy Davidson in the animated series) are the two children of Doc Brown and his wife, Clara, who named them after their favorite author Jules Verne 
The characters had minor, non-speaking roles in Back to the Future Part III but were further developed in the animated series  Jules, an introvert, mostly imitates his father's interests and mannerisms while Verne appears to be more outgoing and extroverted  Several plot points of the animated series revolve around either Jules or Verne altering history and the steps necessary to correct the damage 
In the Back to the Future game when asked about his family, Doc reveals that his sons are now teenagers and their parents are discussing what time period they should attend college at 

Copernicus
Copernicus is Doc's dog from 1955  Like his other dogs, Copernicus was used in many of Doc's experiments  When Copernicus died, he was eventually replaced by Einstein 

Einstein
Einstein (portrayed by Tiger and stuntman Dick Butler in the first film and Freddie in the other two, voiced by Danny Mann in the animated series) is Doc Brown's pet Catalan sheepdog  He later becomes one of the main characters in the animated series as the Brown family's dog 
In the first film, Doc successfully tests his time machine by placing Einstein in it and sending him one minute into the future  In the animated series, Einstein becomes anthropomorphic and smarter, helping Doc with his inventions for traveling to the past and the future 

Tannen family
Irving "Kid" Tannen
Kid Tannen (voiced by Owen Thomas) is Biff's father who only appears in the Back to the Future: The Game  Kid is a gangster who runs a local speakeasy in the 1930s Hill Valley  He, like the rest of the Tannen family, bullies the McFly family forcing Marty's grandfather Arthur to do his accounting  Kid is brought down with the help of Marty, a young version of Doc, and Arthur McFly  He later marries Edna Strickland and reforms from his criminal ways with her help 

Buford "Mad Dog" Tannen
Buford Tannen (portrayed by Thomas F  Wilson in Back to the Future Part III, Liam O'Brien in Lego Dimensions) is the main antagonist of the third film  He is the great-grandfather of Biff Tannen and the local town outlaw in 1885 Hill Valley  He was nicknamed "Mad Dog" by a newspaper reporter, due to his violent temper and propensity for drooling, a nickname Tannen greatly despises  Buford is cruel, homicidal, rude, and emotionally unstable  He displays a need for control and is brought down to childlike tantrums when he is humiliated or makes mistakes, whether it be something that happens to him or something he says or does  He is often accompanied by his gang (played by Christopher Wynne, Sean Sullivan and Mike Watson), and developed a feud with Marshal James Strickland and his deputies  Like his descendant Biff, he has a dislike for manure 

Griff Tannen
Griff Tannen (portrayed by Thomas F  Wilson in both Back to the Future Part II and in the animated series) is a grandson of Biff  He is part of a gang that also consists of Rafe "Data" Unger, Leslie "Spike" O'Malley and Chester "Whitey" Noguera  Unlike his grandfather and great-great-great-grandfather whose gangs only consisted of Caucasian males, his accomplices are one Caucasian male (Data), one Caucasian female (Spike), and one Asian-American male (Whitey) 
In the animated series, Griff makes a brief cameo appearance in the episode "Solar Sailors" where his grandson, Ziff (also voiced by Wilson), is detained after he attempts to sabotage Marta McFly's space cruiser due to his hatred towards her family 
Griff's last name is never mentioned in the movie, which means he could either be the son of Biff's son Biff Jr, or the son of Biff's daughter, Tiffaney, but in the animated series, Ziff says that both he and Griff are Tannens 

Biff Tannen Jr 
In the animated series, Biff Jr  (voiced by Benji Gregory) is the son of Biff Tannen  Like his father and paternal relatives, he likes to bully and steal from children around him including Jules and Verne Brown with whom he developed a feud  In addition, Biff Jr  delights in vandalizing other people's properties  Biff Jr  lives with his father with whom he has an abusive relationship 

Strickland family
Gerald Strickland
Gerald Strickland (portrayed by James Tolkan) is the strict principal of Hill Valley High School  He is a descendant of Chief Marshal James Strickland of Hill Valley 1885  He frequently makes a great noisy show of sternly reprimanding his students for faults such as "slacking" or liquor consumption, although he himself is revealed to sneak a drink of alcohol at his desk at school 
There is a reference from Verne Brown that there is another Strickland who works at Hill Valley Elementary School as its vice principal 

James Strickland
James Strickland (portrayed by James Tolkan in Back to the Future Part III) is the chief marshal of Hill Valley in 1885 and an ancestor of Mr  Strickland  He also has an unnamed son (portrayed by Kaleb Henley) 
In a deleted scene not included in the final cut, and in the movie's novelization, Strickland is killed by Buford Tannen  In the theatrical release Strickland simply remains absent for the latter half 
In the Back to the Future game, Edna Strickland in 1986 notes that James was shot and killed by Buford  Marty remarks that's a detail he doesn't remember, possibly a reference to the differences between the film and the movie novelization 

Edna Strickland
Edna Strickland (voiced by Rebcca Sweitzer) is introduced in Back to the Future: The Game where she is the sister of Gerald Strickland  She is somewhat nicer than her brother, but still set in her ways towards upholding strong morals and abolishing crime and laziness  After Marty alters her original timeline, Edna married Kid Tannen and became the stepmother of Biff Tannen 

Other characters
Marvin Berry
Marvin Berry (portrayed by Harry Waters Jr ) is an African-American jazz musician and electric guitar player whose band was hired in Back to the Future Part I to perform at the "Enchantment Under The Sea" dance  He is also the cousin of then-rising musician Chuck Berry  After injuring his hand while helping Marty McFly out of a car's trunk, Marty takes his place as guitarist in the evening's most important dance  When Marty subsequently performs Johnny B  Goode to the audience's excitement, Marvin immediately calls Chuck to introduce him to the new music style, thereby humorously implying that Chuck stole the song to further his musical career  This creates a time paradox, since Marty was playing a song made famous by Chuck Berry, before Berry wrote it, so the song either has no actual creator or Berry was essentially stealing a song from his alternate timeline self  Another theory was that Chuck was going to write it anyway, but after hearing it maybe wrote it faster 

Otis "Old Man" Peabody
Otis Peabody (portrayed by Will Hare) is the patriarch of a 1950s farmer family in Back to the Future Part I  For some obscure reason, he decided to plant pines on his land; while his plan ultimately came to no fruition, the area was decades later converted into a shopping mall named "Twin Pines Mall" as a testimony to his efforts  The town sees Peabody odd including Doc Brown, who himself has a similar reputation  When Marty McFly makes his involuntary time trip back to 1955, he ends up crashing into Peabody's shed with the DeLorean and then flattening one of his two growing pine saplings while escaping  The farmer's family believes that the time-traveling car and its driver in an NBC suit are extraterrestrial  As results, according to a headline of the newspaper Hill Valley Telegraph with Peabody being photographed in a straitjacket, he is committed to a county asylum after claiming "'space zombie' wrecked his barn," and after Marty returns to 1985, the mall is found having been (re)named "Lone Pine Mall" 

Douglas J  Needles
Douglas J  Needles (portrayed by Flea in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III) is the rival of Marty McFly in Hill Valley High School  Like his school's alumnus, Biff Tannen, Needles also has his own gang and develops a rivalry with Marty (although he doesn't outright bully him like Biff did to George and has no relation to the Tannens)  He often goads Marty into doing reckless things, leveraging on Marty's fear of being labeled as a "chicken" 

Goldie Wilson
Goldie Wilson (played by Donald Fullilove in the first film) is a young man working at Lou's Cafe in 1955 who goes on to become the first black Mayor of Hill Valley in the 1980s  By 1985, he creates a controversy when he plans to replace the damaged clock from the Hill Valley Courthouse's clock tower, which continues in 2015 after he left the office  A campaign poster shows the name Goldie in quotation marks, suggesting Goldie is a nickname, presumably in reference to his gold tooth 
He would also have a grandson, Goldie Wilson III (also played by Fullilove) who works as a car salesman in Back to the Future: Part II 

Match, Skinhead and 3-D
"Match" O'Malley (portrayed by Billy Zane), Joey "Skinhead" Unger (portrayed by Jeffrey Jay Cohen), and "3-D" Noguera (portrayed by Casey Siemaszko) are the three high school boys who make up Biff Tannen's gang in 1955  Their nicknames are only given in the films' novels, screenplays, and credits  Only one of their real names is mentioned in the movies – Biff refers to Skinhead as Joey in one of the 1955 scenes in Back to the Future Part II, while outside of the "Enchantment Under the Sea" dance 
In the alternate 1985, the three work in Biff's casino as his bodyguards  Each get their nickname from a distinctive character trait  Match often has a match sticking out of his mouth; Skinhead has very short, close-cropped hair; 3-D is always wearing a pair of anaglyphic 3-D glasses (a reference to the 3-D movies that were popular in the 1950s) 

Spike, Data and Whitey
Leslie "Spike" O'Malley (portrayed by Darlene Vogel), Rafe "Data" Unger (portrayed by Ricky Dean Logan) and Chester "Whitey" Noguera (portrayed by Jason Scott Lee) they are high school kids who make up Griff Tannen's gang in 2015  Each one of them is also the grandchild of Biff Tannen's original gang  Spike is Match's granddaughter, Data is Skinhead's grandson, and Whitey is 3-D's grandson 
Passage 4:
Back to the Future Part II
Back to the Future Part II is a 1989 American science fiction film directed by Robert Zemeckis from a screenplay by Bob Gale; both wrote the story  It is the sequel to the 1985 film Back to the Future and the second installment in the Back to the Future franchise  The film stars Michael J  Fox, Christopher Lloyd, Lea Thompson, and Thomas F  Wilson with Elisabeth Shue (replacing Claudia Wells), and Jeffrey Weissman (replacing Crispin Glover) in supporting roles  It follows Marty McFly (Fox) and his friend Dr  Emmett "Doc" Brown (Lloyd) as they travel from 1985 to 2015 to prevent Marty's son from sabotaging the McFly family's future  When their arch-nemesis Biff Tannen (Wilson) steals Doc's DeLorean time machine and uses it to alter history for his benefit, the duo must return to 1955 to restore the timeline 
The film was produced on a $40 million budget and was filmed back to back with its sequel Part III  Filming began in February 1989, after two years were spent building the sets and writing the scripts  Back to the Future Part II was also a ground-breaking project for visual effects studio Industrial Light & Magic (ILM)  In addition to digital compositing, ILM used the VistaGlide motion control camera system, which allowed an actor to portray multiple characters simultaneously on-screen without sacrificing camera movement 
Back to the Future Part II was released by Universal Pictures on November 22, 1989  Though the film received mostly positive reviews from critics, it was deemed inferior to its predecessor  The film grossed over $332 million worldwide in its initial run, making it the third-highest-grossing film of 1989 

Plot
On October 26, 1985, Dr  Emmett "Doc" Brown arrives unexpectedly in the DeLorean time machine  He persuades Marty McFly and his girlfriend, Jennifer Parker, to travel to the future with him and help their future children, with Biff Tannen witnessing their departure  They arrive on October 21, 2015, where Doc incapacitates Jennifer electronically leaving her asleep in an alley, explaining that she should not have too much knowledge of future events  He has Marty pose as his son and lookalike Marty Jr  to refuse an offer to participate in a robbery with Biff's grandson Griff, thus saving Marty Jr  from prison 
Marty switches places with Marty Jr  and refuses Griff's offer, but Griff goads Marty into a fight, and a subsequent hoverboard chase ensues  Griff and his gang are arrested, saving Marty's future children  Before rejoining Doc, Marty purchases an almanac containing the results of major sporting events from 1950 to 2000  Doc discovers it and warns Marty about profiting from time travel  Before Doc can adequately dispose of it, they are interrupted by the police, who have found Jennifer incapacitated and are taking her to her 2015 home  They pursue, as does the elderly Biff, who has overheard their conversation and retrieved the discarded almanac 
Jennifer wakes up in her 2015 home and hides from the McFly family  She overhears that her future self's life with Marty is not what she expected, due to his involvement in an automobile accident  She witnesses Marty being goaded by his co-worker, Douglas Needles, into a shady business deal, resulting in Marty's firing  Jennifer tries to escape the house but faints after encountering her 2015 self  While Marty and Doc attend to her, Biff steals the time machine to give the almanac to his younger self, then returns to 2015  Marty, Doc, and an unconscious Jennifer return to 1985, unaware of Biff's actions  They leave Jennifer on her front porch 
The 1985 they return to has changed dramatically, with Biff now one of the country's wealthiest and most corrupt men  He has turned Hill Valley into a chaotic dystopia, secretly killed Marty's father, George, in 1973, and forced Marty's mother, Lorraine, to marry him  Doc has been committed to a mental hospital  Doc deduces that old Biff took the time machine to give his younger self the almanac, and Marty learns from the alternate 1985 Biff that he received it on November 12, 1955  Biff tries to kill Marty, but Marty flees and travels to 1955 with Doc 
Marty secretly follows the 1955 Biff and watches him receive the almanac from his 2015 self  Marty then follows him to the high school dance, carefully avoiding interrupting the events from his previous visit  After several fruitless attempts, Marty finally gets the almanac, leaving Biff to crash into a manure truck 
Marty burns the almanac, nullifying the changes to the timeline that it had caused, as Doc hovers above in the time machine  Before Marty can join him, the DeLorean is struck by lightning and disappears  A Western Union courier arrives immediately after and delivers a letter to Marty; it is from Doc, who tells him that the lightning strike transported him 70 years in the past to 1885  Marty races back into town to find the 1955 Doc, who had just helped Marty to return to 1985  Shocked by Marty's sudden reappearance, Doc faints 

Cast
Development
Director Robert Zemeckis said that initially, a sequel was not planned for the first film, but its huge box office success led to the conception of a second installment  He later agreed to do a sequel, but only if Michael J  Fox and Christopher Lloyd returned as well  With Fox and Lloyd confirmed, Zemeckis met with screenwriting partner Bob Gale to create a story for the sequel  Zemeckis and Gale would later regret that they ended the first one with Jennifer in the car with Marty and Doc Brown, because it required them to come up with a story that would fit her in, rather than a whole new adventure Gale wrote most of the first draft by himself as Zemeckis was busy making Who Framed Roger Rabbit  At first, the film's third act was to take place in 1967 where Lorraine was a flower child protesting the war and George was a college professor at Berkeley, but Zemeckis later stated that the time paradoxes of it provided a good opportunity to go back to 1955 and see the first film's events in a different light  While most of the original cast agreed to return, a major stumbling block arose when negotiating Crispin Glover's fee for reprising the role of George McFly  When it became clear that he would not return, the role was rewritten so that George is dead when the action takes place in the alternative version of 1985 The greatest challenge was the creation of the futuristic vision of Marty's hometown in 2015  Production designer Rick Carter wanted to create a very detailed image with a different tone from the film Blade Runner, wishing to get past the smoke and chrome  Carter and his crew spent months plotting, planning, and preparing Hill Valley's transformation into a city of the future  Visual effects art director John Bell said that they had no script to work with, only the indications that the setting would be 30 years into the future featuring "something called hoverboards" When writing the script for Part II, Gale wanted to push the first film's ideas further for humorous effect  Zemeckis said he was somewhat concerned about portraying the future because of the risk of making wildly inaccurate predictions  According to Gale, they tried to make the future a nice place, "where what's wrong is due to who lives in the future as opposed to the technology" in contrast to the pessimistic, Orwellian future seen in most science fiction  To keep production costs low and take advantage of an extended break Fox had from Family Ties (which was ending its run when filming began), it was shot back-to-back with sequel Part III 

Production
Two years were needed to finish building the sets and writing the scripts before shooting could begin  During filming the creation of the appearance of the aged characters was a well-guarded secret, involving state-of-the-art make-up techniques  Fox described the process as very time-consuming, saying that "it took over four hours, although it could be worse"  Principal photography began on February 20, 1989  For a three-week period near the end of the filming, the crew split and, while most remained dedicated to shooting Part III, a few, including Gale, focused on finishing its predecessor  Zemeckis himself slept only a few hours per day, supervising both films, having to fly between Burbank, where it was being finished and other locations in California for Part III The film was considered one of the most ground-breaking projects for Industrial Light & Magic  It was one of the effects house's first forays into digital compositing, as well as the VistaGlide motion control camera system, which enabled them to shoot one of its most complex sequences, in which Fox played three separate characters (Marty Sr , Marty Jr , and Marlene), all of whom interacted with each other  Although such scenes were not new, the VistaGlide allowed, for the first time, a completely dynamic scene in which camera movement could finally be incorporated  The technique was also used in scenes where Fox, Thomas F  Wilson, Christopher Lloyd, and Elisabeth Shue's characters encounter and interact with their counterparts  It also includes a brief moment of computer-generated imagery in a holographic shark used to promote a fictional Jaws 19, which wound up unaltered from the first test done by ILM's digital department because effects supervisor Ken Ralston "liked the fact that it was all messed up "Animation supervisor Wes Takahashi, who then was the head of ILM's animation department, worked heavily on the film's time travel sequences, as he had done in the original film and in Part III  As Part II neared release, sufficient footage of Part III had been shot to allow a trailer to be assembled  It was added to the conclusion of Part II before the closing credits, as a reassurance to moviegoers that there was more to follow 

Replacement of Crispin Glover and lawsuit
Crispin Glover was asked to reprise the role of George McFly  He expressed interest, but could not come to an agreement with the producers regarding his salary  He stated in a 1992 interview on The Howard Stern Show that the producers' highest offer was $125,000, less than half of what the other returning cast members were offered  Gale has since asserted that Glover's demands were excessive for an actor of his professional stature at that time  In an interview on the Opie and Anthony show in 2013, Glover stated that his primary reason for not doing Part II was a philosophical disagreement on the film's message; Glover felt the story rewarded the characters with financial gain, such as Marty's truck, rather than love Rather than write George out of the film, Zemeckis used previously filmed footage of Glover from the first film as well as new footage of actor Jeffrey Weissman, who wore prosthetics including a false chin, nose, and cheekbones to resemble Glover  Various techniques were used to obfuscate the Weissman footage, such as placing him in the background rather than the foreground, having him wear sunglasses, and hanging him upside down  Unhappy with this, Glover filed a lawsuit against the producers of the film on the grounds that they neither owned his likeness nor had permission to use it  As a result of the suit, there are now clauses in the Screen Actors Guild collective bargaining agreements stating that producers and actors are not allowed to use such methods to reproduce the likeness of other actors  Glover's legal action, while resolved outside of the courts, has been considered as a key case in personality rights for actors with increasing use of improved special effects and digital techniques, in which actors may have agreed to appear in one part of a production but have their likenesses be used in another without their agreement 

Replacement of Claudia Wells
Claudia Wells, who had played Marty's girlfriend Jennifer Parker in the first film, planned to reprise her role, but turned it down due to family reasons–reportedly to care for her mother, who was ill with cancer at the time of filming the second film  The producers cast Elisabeth Shue instead, which involved re-shooting the closing scenes of the first film for the beginning of Part II  The re-shot sequence is a near shot-for-shot match with the original, with only minor differences Wells returned to acting with a starring role in the 2008 independent film Still Waters Burn  She is one of the few cast members not to make an appearance within the bonus material on the Back to the Future Trilogy DVD set released in 2002  However, she is interviewed for the Tales from the Future documentaries in the trilogy's 25th anniversary issue on Blu-ray Disc in 2010  In 2011, she finally had the opportunity to reprise her role from the first film, 26 years after her last appearance in the series, by providing the voice of Jennifer for Back to the Future: The Game by Telltale Games 

Hoverboard hoax
Zemeckis said on the film's behind-the-scenes featurette that the hoverboards (flying skateboards) used in it were real, yet not released to the public, due to parental complaints regarding safety  Footage of "real hoverboards" was also featured in the extras of a DVD release of the trilogy  A number of people thought Zemeckis was telling the truth and requested them at toy stores  In an interview, Wilson said one of the most frequent questions he was asked was if they are real 

Depiction of the future
Though the filmmakers did research contemporary predictions by scientists on what might occur by 2015, Zemeckis has said that the film was not meant to be a serious attempt at predicting the future  In 2010, he commented: "For me, filming the future scenes of the movie were the least enjoyable of making the whole trilogy, because I don't really like films that try and predict the future  The only ones I've actually enjoyed were the ones done by Stanley Kubrick, and not even he predicted the PC when he made A Clockwork Orange  So, rather than trying to make a scientifically sound prediction that we were probably going to get wrong anyway, we figured, let's just make it funny"  Similarly, Gale said: "We knew we weren't going to have flying cars by the year 2015, but God we had to have those in our movie" However, the film did correctly predict a number of technological and sociological changes that occurred by 2015, including: the rise of ubiquitous cameras; use of unmanned flying drones for newsgathering; widescreen flat-panel television sets mounted on walls with multiple channel viewing; smart home technology; video chat systems; hands-free video games; talking animated billboards; wearable technology; tablet computers with fingerprint scanners and head-mounted displays  Payment on personal portable devices is also depicted  Although payment by thumbprint is not widely used, fingerprint scanning is in use as security at places such as airports and schools, and electronic payment with fingerprint scanning as a security feature is deployed for Apple Pay Other aspects of the depiction of the future had not come to pass by 2015, but efforts were made to replicate the technology advances 

The film shows Marty putting on Nike "Air Mag" tennis shoes with automatic shoelaces  Nike released a version of their Hyperdunk Supreme shoes, which appear similar to Marty's, in July 2008  Fans dubbed them the Air McFly  In April 2009, they filed the patent for self-lacing shoes, and their design bears a resemblance to those worn by Marty in the film  In 2010, a fan named Blake Bevin created shoes that tie themselves  Though Nike had made a very limited quantity of Air Mags in the same style as the movie, they stated in September 2011 that their consumer-line MAG line of shoes would not feature the self-lacing feature shown in it  Tinker Hatfield, one of the shoe's designers, indicated in 2014 that they would introduce shoes with power-lacing technology the following year, 2015  In March 2016, Nike unveiled the HyperAdapt 1 0 shoe, a consumer-market model of the Air Mag which features the same self-lacing technology used for the commemorative Air Mags; these were put on sale in limited quantities in late 2016 The producers created a futuristic flying car to depict a typical taxi cab in the future world of 2015  This taxi was based on the Citroën DS The concept of the hoverboard—a skateboard that can float off the ground—has been explored by various groups since the release of the film  Attempts similar to hoverboats, which blast air at the ground, have been demonstrated, with a 2021 record distance of 275 meters (902 ft)  A different type is the MagBoard, developed by researchers at the Paris Diderot University  It uses a large superconductor plate on the bottom cooled with liquid nitrogen as to achieve the Meissner effect and allow it to float over a special track; it was shown capable of carrying the weight of a human in its practical demonstration  However, the requirement to run the superconductor at higher, more ambient temperatures prevents this from becoming practical  In March 2014, a company named HUVr Tech purportedly demonstrated a working hoverboard along with several celebrities including Lloyd, though this shortly was revealed as a hoax created by the website Funny or Die  Self-balancing 'hoverboards' became popular in 2015 even though they do not hover above the ground In the 2015 scene, the film imagines the Chicago Cubs winning the 2015 World Series against the fictional Miami-based Gators, referring to the Cubs' longstanding failure to win a championship  In the actual 2015 season, the Cubs qualified for the postseason, their first postseason appearance since 2008, but lost the National League Championship Series (not the World Series) to the New York Mets on October 21, which coincidentally was the same day as "Back to the Future Day", the day Marty McFly arrived in 2015 in the film  Despite losing, one year later the Cubs did win the 2016 World Series against the Cleveland Indians; in congratulations to the Cubs, the official Twitter feed for the Back to the Future franchise jokingly tweeted out that Marty & Doc's time-traveling caused "a rift in the space-time continuum" that led to the 1994 strike (and subsequent cancellation of the 1994 World Series), thus delaying the accurate prediction by a year  In the real 2015 World Series, the Kansas City Royals defeated the Mets to win their first World Series championship since 1985, the year which Marty and Doc time traveled in the film  As for the fictional Miami team, when the film was made, Florida did not have a Major League Baseball team, but has since gained two: the Florida Marlins (now the Miami Marlins) in 1993 and Tampa Bay Devil Rays (now the Tampa Bay Rays) in 1998  While both teams have each made two appearances in the World Series (the Marlins winning in 1997 and 2003, and the Rays losing in 2008 and 2020), neither qualified for the postseason in 2015 

Release and reception
Box office
The film was released to theaters in North America on Wednesday, November 22, 1989, the day before Thanksgiving  It grossed a total of $27 8 million over Friday to Sunday, and $43 million across the five-day holiday opening, breaking the previous Thanksgiving record set by Rocky IV in 1985  On the following weekend, it had a drop of 56 percent, earning $12 1 million, but remained at number 1  Its total gross was $118 5 million in the United States and $213 million overseas, for a total of $332 million worldwide, ranking as 1989's sixth-most successful film domestically and the third-most worldwide—behind Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and Batman  However this was still short of the first film's gross  Part III, which Universal released only six months later, experienced a similar drop  In Japan, it had a record opening, grossing $7 5 million in six days from 153 screens 

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 63% based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 6 2/10  The website's critics consensus reads: "Back to the Future II is far more uneven than its predecessor, but its madcap highs outweigh the occasionally cluttered machinations of an overstuffed plot"  On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 57 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three out of four stars  Ebert criticized it for lacking the "genuine power of the original" but praised it for its slapstick humor and the hoverboard in its chase sequence  Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film is "ready for bigger and better things" and later said that it "manages to be giddily and merrily mind-boggling, rather than confusing"  Tom Tunney of Empire magazine wrote that the film was well-directed, "high-energy escapism", and called it "solidly entertaining", though noting it as being inferior to the other two films in the franchise Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader gave the film a negative review, criticizing Zemeckis and Gale for turning the characters into "strident geeks" and for making the frenetic action formulaic  He believed that it contained "rampant misogyny", because the character of Jennifer Parker "is knocked unconscious early on so she won't interfere with the little-boy games"  He cited, as well, Michael J  Fox dressing in drag  Variety said, "[Director Robert] Zemeckis' fascination with having characters interact at different ages of their lives hurts it visually, and strains credibility past the breaking point, by forcing him to rely on some very cheesy makeup designs" In 2018, Bob Gale, who co-wrote the movie with Robert Zemeckis, said the movie received a mixed reception because of the dark aspect of the story: "They [the audiences] were absolutely surprised by it  The whole 1985 stuff    we went places the audience was not ready to go  That is some of my favorite stuff in the whole trilogy" 

Accolades
The film won the Saturn Award for Best Special Effects (for Ken Ralston, the special effects supervisor), the BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects (Ken Ralston, Michael Lantieri, John Bell and Steve Gawley), an Internet-voted 2003 AOL Movies DVD Premiere Award for the trilogy DVDs, a Golden Screen Award, a Young Artist Award, and the Blimp Awards for Favorite Movie Actor (Michael J  Fox), and Favorite Movie Actress (Lea Thompson) at the 1990 Kids' Choice Awards  It was nominated in 1990 for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects (John Bell, Steve Gawley, Michael Lantieri and Ken Ralston), but lost to The Abyss 

Home media
The film was released on VHS and LaserDisc on May 22, 1990, three days before the theatrical release of Part III  It was due to be the first release under the MCA/Universal Home Video banner  Universal reissued it on VHS, LaserDisc, and compact disc in 1991, 1995, and 1998  On December 17, 2002, Universal released it on DVD in a boxed trilogy set, although widescreen framing problems led to a product recall  The trilogy was released on Blu-ray Disc in October 2010 
Universal re-released the trilogy alongside new features on DVD and Blu-ray on October 20, 2015, coinciding with Back to the Future Day the following day  The new set included a featurette called "Doc Brown Saves the World", where Lloyd, reprising his role as Doc Brown, explains the reasons for the differences between the future of 2015 as depicted in Back to the Future Part II and in real life  A new remaster as part of Back to the Future: The Ultimate Trilogy on Blu-ray and Ultra HD Blu-ray was released on October 20, 2020 In May 2020, the trilogy was released for streaming on Netflix  A small minor edit was noticed to Part II during the scene featuring the fictional soft porn magazine called Oh La La!  Gale stated that neither he nor Zemeckis were aware of this change, and believed it originated from a foreign print of the film  Shortly afterwards, Universal provided Netflix with the unedited, theatrical version of the film, replacing the censored cut on the streaming platform 

Music
The soundtrack was released by MCA Records on November 22, 1989  AllMusic rated it four-and-a-half stars out of five  Unlike the previous soundtrack, it contains only a musical score by composer Alan Silvestri  None of the vocal songs featured throughout the film are included  On October 12, 2015, Intrada Records released the complete score of Back to the Future Part II in a 2-disc set including early scoring sessions and alternative takes 

See also
List of 1989 box office number-one films in the United States
List of films featuring drones

Notes
Passage 5:
William Ragsdale
William Ragsdale (born January 19, 1961) is an American actor known for playing teenaged vampire slayer Charley Brewster in the horror vampire film Fright Night (1985) and Herman Brooks in the television series Herman's Head (1991–94) 

Early life and education
Ragsdale was born January 19, 1961, in El Dorado, Arkansas, and attended Hendrix College, where he appeared in plays alongside Natalie Canerday 

Career
He garnered attention as the young hero of Fright Night and Fright Night Part 2 and onstage in Neil Simon's plays Brighton Beach Memoirs and Biloxi Blues, two of the three parts of Simon's trilogy, which ends with Broadway Bound  Ragsdale featured in the romance comedy movie Mannequin Two: On the Move (1991) Ragsdale has had a sporadic career with regard to prime-time television  He featured for three years on Herman's Head  He had a brief recurring role in the television series Judging Amy  He played a television producer for Grosse Pointe, which lasted one season 
He was cast in the pilot for Charmed, but refused the series to feature in the short-lived situation comedy Brother's Keeper  He appeared on Ellen as the boyfriend of Ellen Morgan (played by Ellen DeGeneres) before her character revealed her homosexuality  He has had guest roles on television, including a four-episode stint on Less than Perfect, as well as small feature movie roles 
He played the role of Gary Hawkins in 12 episodes of the television series Justified from March 2010 through March 2012, during the series' first three seasons   In 2014, he played Chris Smith in the remake of the movie Left Behind In 2017, he appeared in the role of Reverend Todd in the Off-Broadway production of Man from Nebraska at the Second Stage Theatre 

Filmography
Film
Television



ground_truth: Menachem Mendel Schneersohn