prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the body of water by the area where Athlete was formed?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Ekulu River
The River Ekulu is a 25-kilometre (16 mi) long river and the largest body of water in the city of Enugu in Enugu State, southeastern Nigeria, and it originates in the same city as well 
Passage 2:
Plankton
Plankton are the diverse collection of organisms found in water (or air) that are unable to propel themselves against a current (or wind)  The individual organisms constituting plankton are called plankters  In the ocean, they provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms, such as bivalves, fish, and baleen whales 
Marine plankton include bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries  Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found in lakes and rivers  Mostly plankton just drift where currents take them, though some, like jellyfish, swim slowly but not fast enough to generally gain control from the influence of currents 
Although plankton are usually thought of as inhabiting water, there are also airborne versions that live part of their lives drifting in the atmosphere  These aeroplankton include plant spores, pollen and wind-scattered seeds  They may also include microorganisms swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms and oceanic plankton swept into the air by sea spray 
Though many planktonic species are microscopic in size, plankton includes organisms over a wide range of sizes, including large organisms such as jellyfish  This is because plankton are defined by their ecological niche and level of motility rather than by any phylogenetic or taxonomic classification  The "plankton" category differentiates these organisms from those that float on the water's surface, called neuston, those that can swim against a current, called nekton, and those that live on the deep sea floor, called benthos 

Terminology
The name plankton was coined by German marine biologist Victor Hensen in 1887 from shortening the word halyplankton from Greek ᾰ̔́λς háls "sea" and πλανάω planáō to  "drift" or "wander" : 1  While some forms are capable of independent movement and can swim hundreds of meters vertically in a single day (a behavior called diel vertical migration), their horizontal position is primarily determined by the surrounding water movement, and plankton typically flow with ocean currents  This is in contrast to nekton organisms, such as fish, squid and marine mammals, which can swim against the ambient flow and control their position in the environment 
Within the plankton, holoplankton spend their entire life cycle as plankton (e g  most algae, copepods, salps, and some jellyfish)  By contrast, meroplankton are only planktic for part of their lives (usually the larval stage), and then graduate to either a nektic (swimming) or benthic (sea floor) existence  Examples of meroplankton include the larvae of sea urchins, starfish, crustaceans, marine worms, and most fish The amount and distribution of plankton depends on available nutrients, the state of water and a large amount of other plankton The study of plankton is termed planktology and a planktonic individual is referred to as a plankter  The adjective planktonic is widely used in both the scientific and popular literature, and is a generally accepted term  However, from the standpoint of prescriptive grammar, the less-commonly used planktic is more strictly the correct adjective  When deriving English words from their Greek or Latin roots, the gender-specific ending (in this case, "-on" which indicates the word is neuter) is normally dropped, using only the root of the word in the derivation 

Trophic groups
Plankton are primarily divided into broad functional (or trophic level) groups:   

Phytoplankton (from Greek phyton, or plant), are autotrophic prokaryotic or eukaryotic algae that live near the water surface where there is sufficient light to support photosynthesis  Among the more important groups are the diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and coccolithophores 
Zooplankton (from Greek zoon, or animal), are small protozoans or metazoans (e g  crustaceans and other animals) that feed on other plankton  Some of the eggs and larvae of larger nektonic animals, such as fish, crustaceans, and annelids, are included here 
Mycoplankton include fungi and fungus-like organisms, which, like bacterioplankton, are also significant in remineralisation and nutrient cycling 
Bacterioplankton include bacteria and archaea, which play an important role in remineralising organic material down the water column (note that prokaryotic phytoplankton are also bacterioplankton) 
Virioplankton are viruses  Viruses are more abundant in the plankton than bacteria and archaea, though much smaller 

Mixoplankton
Mixotrophs  Plankton have traditionally been categorized as producer, consumer and recycler groups, but some plankton are able to benefit from more than just one trophic level  In this mixed trophic strategy—known as mixotrophy—organisms act as both producers and consumers, either at the same time or switching between modes of nutrition in response to ambient conditions  This makes it possible to use photosynthesis for growth when nutrients and light are abundant, but switching to eat phytoplankton, zooplankton or each other when growing conditions are poor  Mixotrophs are divided into two groups; constitutive mixotrophs, CMs, which are able to perform photosynthesis on their own, and non-constitutive mixotrophs, NCMs, which use phagocytosis to engulf phototrophic prey that are either kept alive inside the host cell which benefit from its photosynthesis, or they digest their prey except for the plastids which continues to perform photosynthesis (kleptoplasty) Recognition of the importance of mixotrophy as an ecological strategy is increasing, as well as the wider role this may play in marine biogeochemistry  Studies have shown that mixotrophs are much more important for the marine ecology than previously assumed, and comprise more than half of all microscopic plankton  Their presence act as a buffer that prevents the collapse of ecosystems during times with little to no light 

Size groups
Plankton are also often described in terms of size  Usually the following divisions are used: 
However, some of these terms may be used with very different boundaries, especially on the larger end  The existence and importance of nano- and even smaller plankton was only discovered during the 1980s, but they are thought to make up the largest proportion of all plankton in number and diversity 
The microplankton and smaller groups are microorganisms and operate at low Reynolds numbers, where the viscosity of water is more important than its mass or inertia 

Habitat groups
Marine plankton
Marine plankton includes marine bacteria and archaea, algae, protozoa and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries 

Freshwater plankton
Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found inland in the freshwaters of lakes and rivers 

Aeroplankton
Aeroplankton are tiny lifeforms that float and drift in the air, carried by the current of the wind; they are the atmospheric analogue to oceanic plankton  Most of the living things that make up aeroplankton are very small to microscopic in size, and many can be difficult to identify because of their tiny size  Scientists can collect them for study in traps and sweep nets from aircraft, kites or balloons  Aeroplankton is made up of numerous microbes, including viruses, about 1000 different species of bacteria, around 40,000 varieties of fungi, and hundreds of species of protists, algae, mosses and liverworts that live some part of their life cycle as aeroplankton, often as spores, pollen, and wind-scattered seeds  Additionally, peripatetic microorganisms are swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms, and an even larger amount of airborne marine microorganisms are propelled high into the atmosphere in sea spray  Aeroplankton deposits hundreds of millions of airborne viruses and tens of millions of bacteria every day on every square meter around the planet 
The sea surface microlayer, compared to the sub-surface waters, contains elevated concentration of bacteria and viruses  These materials can be transferred from the sea-surface to the atmosphere in the form of wind-generated aqueous aerosols due to their high vapour tension and a process known as volatilisation  When airborne, these microbes can be transported long distances to coastal regions  If they hit land they can have an effect on animal, vegetation and human health  Marine aerosols that contain viruses can travel hundreds of kilometers from their source and remain in liquid form as long as the humidity is high enough (over 70%)  These aerosols are able to remain suspended in the atmosphere for about 31 days  Evidence suggests that bacteria can remain viable after being transported inland through aerosols  Some reached as far as 200 meters at 30 meters above sea level  The process which transfers this material to the atmosphere causes further enrichment in both bacteria and viruses in comparison to either the SML or sub-surface waters (up to three orders of magnitude in some locations) 

Geoplankton
Many animals live in terrestrial environments by thriving in transient often microscopic bodies of water and moisture, these include rotifers and gastrotrichs which lay resilient eggs capable of surviving years in dry environments, and some of which can go dormant themselves  Nematodes are usually microscopic with this lifestyle  Water bears, despite only having lifespans of a few months, famously can enter suspended animation during dry or hostile conditions and survive for decades  This allows them to be ubiquitous in terrestrial environments despite needing water to grow and reproduce  Many microscopic crustacean groups like copepods and amphipods (of which sandhoppers are members) and seed shrimp are known to go dormant when dry and live in transient bodies of water too

Other groups
Gelatinous zooplankton
Gelatinous zooplankton are fragile animals that live in the water column in the ocean  Their delicate bodies have no hard parts and are easily damaged or destroyed  Gelatinous zooplankton are often transparent  All jellyfish are gelatinous zooplankton, but not all gelatinous zooplankton are jellyfish  The most commonly encountered organisms include ctenophores, medusae, salps, and Chaetognatha in coastal waters  However, almost all marine phyla, including Annelida, Mollusca and Arthropoda, contain gelatinous species, but many of those odd species live in the open ocean and the deep sea and are less available to the casual ocean observer 

Ichthyoplankton
Ichthyoplankton are the eggs and larvae of fish  They are mostly found in the sunlit zone of the water column, less than 200 metres deep, which is sometimes called the epipelagic or photic zone  Ichthyoplankton are planktonic, meaning they cannot swim effectively under their own power, but must drift with the ocean currents  Fish eggs cannot swim at all, and are unambiguously planktonic  Early stage larvae swim poorly, but later stage larvae swim better and cease to be planktonic as they grow into juveniles  Fish larvae are part of the zooplankton that eat smaller plankton, while fish eggs carry their own food supply  Both eggs and larvae are themselves eaten by larger animals  Fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into the open water column  Fish eggs typically have a diameter of about 1 millimetre (0 039 in)  The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae  They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens  The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis) to become juveniles  During this transition larvae must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae  In time fish larvae become able to swim against currents, at which point they cease to be plankton and become juvenile fish 

Holoplankton
Holoplankton are organisms that are planktic for their entire life cycle  Holoplankton can be contrasted with meroplankton, which are planktic organisms that spend part of their life cycle in the benthic zone  Examples of holoplankton include some diatoms, radiolarians, some dinoflagellates, foraminifera, amphipods, krill, copepods, and salps, as well as some gastropod mollusk species  Holoplankton dwell in the pelagic zone as opposed to the benthic zone  Holoplankton include both phytoplankton and zooplankton and vary in size  The most common plankton are protists 

Meroplankton
Meroplankton are a wide variety of aquatic organisms which have both planktonic and benthic stages in their life cycles  Much of the meroplankton consists of larval stages of larger organism  Meroplankton can be contrasted with holoplankton, which are planktonic organisms that stay in the pelagic zone as plankton throughout their entire life cycle  After a period of time in the plankton, many meroplankton graduate to the nekton or adopt a benthic (often sessile) lifestyle on the seafloor  The larval stages of benthic invertebrates make up a significant proportion of planktonic communities  The planktonic larval stage is particularly crucial to many benthic invertebrate in order to disperse their young  Depending on the particular species and the environmental conditions, larval or juvenile-stage meroplankton may remain in the pelagic zone for durations ranging from hour to months 

Pseudoplankton
Pseudoplankton are organisms that attach themselves to planktonic organisms or other floating objects, such as drifting wood, buoyant shells of organisms such as Spirula, or man-made flotsam  Examples include goose barnacles and the bryozoan Jellyella  By themselves these animals cannot float, which contrasts them with true planktonic organisms, such as Velella and the Portuguese Man o' War, which are buoyant  Pseudoplankton are often found in the guts of filtering zooplankters 

Tychoplankton
Tychoplankton are organisms, such as free-living or attached benthic organisms and other non-planktonic organisms, that are carried into the plankton through a disturbance of their benthic habitat, or by winds and currents  This can occur by direct turbulence or by disruption of the substrate and subsequent entrainment in the water column  Tychoplankton are, therefore, a primary subdivision for sorting planktonic organisms by duration of lifecycle spent in the plankton, as neither their entire lives nor particular reproductive portions are confined to planktonic existence  Tychoplankton are sometimes called accidental plankton 

Mineralized plankton
Some planktons are protected with mineralized shells or tests 

Distribution
Apart from aeroplankton, plankton inhabits oceans, seas, lakes and ponds  Local abundance varies horizontally, vertically and seasonally  The primary cause of this variability is the availability of light  All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy (but see chemosynthesis), confining primary production to surface waters, and to geographical regions and seasons having abundant light 
A secondary variable is nutrient availability  Although large areas of the tropical and sub-tropical oceans have abundant light, they experience relatively low primary production because they offer limited nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate and silicate  This results from large-scale ocean circulation and water column stratification  In such regions, primary production usually occurs at greater depth, although at a reduced level (because of reduced light) 
Despite significant macronutrient concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called HNLC regions)  The micronutrient iron is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of phytoplankton algal blooms  Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface  Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive, arid land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e g , the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where trade winds bring dust from the Sahara Desert in north Africa) 
While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column  At depths where no primary production occurs, zooplankton and bacterioplankton instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above  This flux of sinking material, so-called marine snow, can be especially high following the termination of spring blooms 
The local distribution of plankton can be affected by wind-driven Langmuir circulation and the biological effects of this physical process 

Ecological significance
Food chain
Aside from representing the bottom few levels of a food chain that supports commercially important fisheries, plankton ecosystems play a role in the biogeochemical cycles of many important chemical elements, including the ocean's carbon cycle  Fish larvae mainly eat zooplankton, which in turn eat phytoplankton

Carbon cycle
Primarily by grazing on phytoplankton, zooplankton provide carbon to the planktic foodweb, either respiring it to provide metabolic energy, or upon death as biomass or detritus  Organic material tends to be denser than seawater, so it sinks into open ocean ecosystems away from the coastlines, transporting carbon along with it  This process, called the biological pump, is one reason that oceans constitute the largest carbon sink on Earth  However, it has been shown to be influenced by increments of temperature  In 2019, a study indicated that at ongoing rates of seawater acidification, Antarctic phytoplanktons could become smaller and less effective at storing carbon before the end of the century It might be possible to increase the ocean's uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) generated through human activities by increasing plankton production through iron fertilization – introducing amounts of iron into the ocean  However, this technique may not be practical at a large scale  Ocean oxygen depletion and resultant methane production (caused by the excess production remineralising at depth) is one potential drawback 

Oxygen production
Phytoplankton absorb energy from the Sun and nutrients from the water to produce their own nourishment or energy  In the process of photosynthesis, phytoplankton release molecular oxygen (O2) into the water as a waste byproduct  It is estimated that about 50% of the world's oxygen is produced via phytoplankton photosynthesis  The rest is produced via photosynthesis on land by plants  Furthermore, phytoplankton photosynthesis has controlled the atmospheric CO2/O2 balance since the early Precambrian Eon 

Absorption efficiency
The absorption efficiency (AE) of plankton is the proportion of food absorbed by the plankton that determines how available the consumed organic materials are in meeting the required physiological demands  Depending on the feeding rate and prey composition, variations in absorption efficiency may lead to variations in fecal pellet production, and thus regulates how much organic material is recycled back to the marine environment  Low feeding rates typically lead to high absorption efficiency and small, dense pellets, while high feeding rates typically lead to low absorption efficiency and larger pellets with more organic content  Another contributing factor to dissolved organic matter (DOM) release is respiration rate  Physical factors such as oxygen availability, pH, and light conditions may affect overall oxygen consumption and how much carbon is loss from zooplankton in the form of respired CO2  The relative sizes of zooplankton and prey also mediate how much carbon is released via sloppy feeding  Smaller prey are ingested whole, whereas larger prey may be fed on more “sloppily”, that is more biomatter is released through inefficient consumption  There is also evidence that diet composition can impact nutrient release, with carnivorous diets releasing more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium than omnivorous diets 

Biomass variability
The growth of phytoplankton populations is dependent on light levels and nutrient availability  The chief factor limiting growth varies from region to region in the world's oceans  On a broad scale, growth of phytoplankton in the oligotrophic tropical and subtropical gyres is generally limited by nutrient supply, while light often limits phytoplankton growth in subarctic gyres  Environmental variability at multiple scales influences the nutrient and light available for phytoplankton, and as these organisms form the base of the marine food web, this variability in phytoplankton growth influences higher trophic levels  For example, at interannual scales phytoplankton levels temporarily plummet during El Niño periods, influencing populations of zooplankton, fishes, sea birds, and marine mammals 
The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research  Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important impacts on future phytoplankton productivity  Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of zooplankton grazing may be significant 

Plankton diversity
Some of the diversity found in plankton

Planktonic Relationships
Fish & plankton
Zooplankton are the initial prey item for almost all fish larvae as they switch from their yolk sacs to external feeding  Fish rely on the density and distribution of zooplankton to match that of new larvae, which can otherwise starve  Natural factors (e g , current variations, temperature changes) and man-made factors (e g  river dams, ocean acidification, rising temperatures) can strongly affect zooplankton, which can in turn strongly affect larval survival, and therefore breeding success 
It's been shown that plankton can be patchy in marine environments where there aren't significant fish populations and additionally, where fish are abundant, zooplankton dynamics are influenced by the fish predation rate in their environment  Depending on the predation rate, they could express regular or chaotic behavior A negative effect that fish larvae can have on planktonic algal blooms is that the larvae will prolong the blooming event by diminishing available zooplankton numbers; this in turn permits excessive phytoplankton growth allowing the bloom to flourish  The importance of both phytoplankton and zooplankton is also well-recognized in extensive and semi-intensive pond fish farming  Plankton population-based pond management strategies for fish rearing have been practiced by traditional fish farmers for decades, illustrating the importance of plankton even in man-made environments 
Whales & plankton
Of all animal fecal matter, it is whale feces that is the 'trophy' in terms of increasing nutrient availability  Phytoplankton are the powerhouse of open ocean primary production and they can acquire many nutrients from whale feces  In the marine food web, phytoplankton are at the base of the food web and are consumed by zooplankton & krill, which are preyed upon by larger and larger marine organisms, including whales, so it can be said that whale poop fuels the entire food web 

Humans & plankton
Plankton have many direct and indirect effects on humans 
Around 70% of the oxygen in the atmosphere is produced in the oceans from phytoplankton performing photosynthesis, meaning that the majority of the oxygen available for us and other organisms that respire aerobically is produced by plankton Plankton also make up the base of the marine food web, providing food for all the trophic levels above  Recent studies have analyzed the marine food web to see if the system runs on a top-down or bottom-up approach  Essentially, this research is focused on understanding whether changes in the food web are driven by nutrients at the bottom of the food web or predators at the top  The general conclusion is that the bottom-up approach seemed to be more predictive of food web behavior  This indicates that plankton have more sway in determining the success of the primary consumer species that prey on them than do the secondary consumers that prey on the primary consumers 
In some cases, plankton act as an intermediate host for deadly parasites in humans  One such case is that of cholera, an infection caused by several strains of Vibrio cholerae  These species have been shown to have a symbiotic relationship with chitinous zooplankton species like copepods  These bacteria benefit not only from the food provided by the chiton from the zooplankton, but also from the protection from acidic environments  Once the copepods have been ingested by a human host, the chitinous exterior protects the bacteria from the stomach acids in the stomach and proceed to the intestines  Once there, the bacteria bind with the surface of the small intestine and the host will start developing symptoms, including extreme diarrhea, within five days 

See also
Aeroplankton
Gelatinous zooplankton
Ichthyoplankton
Nekton
Paradox of the plankton
Seston
Veliger
Passage 3:
Athlete (band)
Athlete were an English indie rock band formed in Deptford, London, comprising Joel Pott (lead vocals and guitar), Carey Willetts (bass and backing vocals), Stephen Roberts (drums and backing vocals), Tim Wanstall (keyboards) 
The band had a brief period of high-profile domestic success in which their debut album Vehicles & Animals (2003) was a platinum seller in 2005 and Mercury Music Prize nomination  It was followed up by Tourist (2005) which reached No  1 and sold over 500,000 copies allowing this album to also go platinum  Athlete's subsequent two albums, Beyond the Neighbourhood (2007) and Black Swan (2009), saw the band exploring different styles, influenced by the works of artists such as Nick Cave & the Bad Seeds 
The band has been on hiatus since anniversary tours in 2012 and 2013  Joel Pott has been working since then as songwriter and producer for other artists  Carey Willets released a solo album in 2012, called Stickers and has another project called "Boxes"  Stephen Roberts and Tim Wanstall have been working on production with other bands  In 2011, Stephen Roberts stated that they set aside plans for a fifth record, have no plans to make a new album, and are exploring different careers  Since then, they have been relatively quiet 

History
Debut releases and development (2000–2002)
Friends since the age of fourteen, Athlete took their wide ranging influences such as Grandaddy and The Flaming Lips and started jamming and practising in the basement of The Bear, a pub which was converted into a church and sandwich bar, on Deptford High Street in 1999  They began recording there, before sending demos out 
Signing with Regal Recordings, the band released their first single "Westside" in February 2002, which was a hit, garnering airplay on BBC Radio 1 and paving the way for another single, "You Got the Style" which cracked the Top 40 in June  Parlophone took notice and promptly signed the musicians, who entered the studio with producer Victor Van Vugt (Nick Cave & the Bad Seeds, Beth Orton) in late 2002 to record their first studio LP 

Commercial success, but mixed critical reception (2003–2006)
The band came to prominence in 2003 with their debut album, Vehicles and Animals, producing popular singles such as "You Got the Style" and "El Salvador"  The album earned a Mercury Music Prize nomination and went on to sell over 250,000 copies  They played their first live session on UK radio on the Dermot O'Leary Show on BBC Radio 2  Following the release of the album in April 2003, the summer of that year was a particularly fruitful time  Shortly after Glastonbury and T in The Park festivals, the band were nominated for the Mercury Award  After nomination, the album went from silver (60,000 sales) to gold (100,000) in the space of two weeks  "I think there's an underdog waiting to be discovered by the Mercury every year," said Steve  "And that year it was us " "By the time we played V at the end of the summer it seemed like everybody there knew the record,' said Joel Pott, 'There was 20,000 people, all singing along '
Their second album, Tourist, reached Number One in the UK Album Charts in its first week, following the huge success of single "Wires"  The song was written about Pott's newborn baby who was rushed to intensive care after a premature birth, and in 2006 it won them the Ivor Novello Award for "Best Contemporary Song"  In the UK charts, the band has frequently been frustrated by singles just missing out on top 40 placings, due to inconsistent support by music television channels and radio stations   For instance, certain songs, such as "Wires" and "Half Light", were played up to 10 times a day on larger UK radio stations, yet other singles such as "Westside" and "Tourist" received little radio play 
Tourist had a mixed critical reception, with some suggesting that Athlete had failed to sustain the unique style of their previous album, while others saw the new album as a logical progression from their old sound  Allmusic wrote that "Its art direction is a winning tribute to the striking cover art of Britpop past, but musically, Tourist settles for complacent " The supporting tour took place between 2005 and mid-2006 

Development with subsequent releases (2007–2009)
On 10 June 2007, it was announced that the title of their third album would be Beyond the Neighbourhood  The album was recorded by the band themselves in their own studio, and mixed by Ben Allen and Michael Brauer, who had worked on Tourist  Released on 3 September 2007, Beyond the Neighbourhood was a self-produced collection of low-key songs, viewed as a disappointment by some, and an interesting sidestep by others  Jonny Pilcher contributed additional guitar on 7 tracks  Pilcher then played live with the band on the subsequent tour  It entered at No  5 on the UK album chart  Singles included Beach Boys-influenced "Hurricane", charting disappointingly at number 31, also "Tokyo" which missed the Top 100 (number 198) and "The Outsiders EP", which did not chart at all 
They embarked on tours of the UK in late 2007 and early 2008 in support of the album  They also played during the 2008 TT motorcycle racing festival on the Isle of Man Black Swan is the fourth studio album produced by the band  Athlete recorded this album while temporarily unsigned  American producer Tom Rothrock collaborated with the group long distance after hearing only a few acoustic demos  In April they announced a 29 date tour of the UK to promote their new album  The tour took place throughout June and July  On 2 June 2009 it was announced that the band had parted ways with Parlophone Records and signed up with Fiction Records, who released "Black Swan" on 24 August 2009  The first single from the album "Superhuman Touch" was released on 17 August 2009, entering the UK charts at No  74, climbing to No  71 a week later  On 12 June 2009, Athlete released the song "Summer Sun" as a free download for email-subscribers  The song is not included in the track listing confirmed by band member Carey Willetts, and is likely to be considered as a b-side from the upcoming album  The first single to be released in America is "The Getaway"  On 9 November 2009, Athlete released "Black Swan Song" as a single 

Compilation releases, touring and split (2010–2013)
Singles 1–10 was the first compilation album released by the band  Many of the bands big hits, including "El Salvador" and "Wires" appear on this album  The selection of tracks spans the past 10 years  There is one previously unreleased song on the album entitled "Back Track " After the release Athlete completed a tour of Britain, Europe and North America from March till December 2010, performing the hits from the non-bonus edition  The band toured in July across Britain, and in August headlined Union Chapel, and also took the stage at Bingley Music Live and Brownstock Festival in 3 and 4 September 2011 In 2011 the band toured some of their biggest songs, but in a "stripped back" fashion  The idea was that the band took some of their songs and reworked them completely to be played in an acoustic style  The tour came around after the band played a small gig at London's Canary Wharf  After the gig was highly successful, they announced the tour which included 18 dates across the U K with two dates at London's Union Chapel  The second of which was recorded for a live album "Live at Union Chapel" released early in 2012  The album has 12 songs including the singles "Wires" and "Half Light" and includes the band talking to the audience between songs  This was Athlete's fourth live EP after two iTunes Festival EPs and the "Tokyo EP" recorded at Camden Koko 
In a September 2011 interview, keyboardist Tim Wanstall said "it's been every two years (releasing an album) on the odd numbers since 2003 so this is the first year to break that cycle  Actually we're all exploring individual paths at the moment so the if/how/when of another album is a pretty open book " In 2012 the band performed at several festivals including Hop Farm Festival, Shindig Festival and Lakefest  In May 2013, the band embarked on Vehicles & Animals 10th Anniversary Tour, with dates at Bristol Academy, Cambridge Junction and Shepherd's Bush Empire Since this tour, the band became dormant and later split  Pott turned to songwriting and production duties for other artists, forging working relationship with George Ezra, co-writing and producing his first two studio albums: Wanted on Voyage (2014) and Staying at Tamara's (2018), as well as co-writing Shura's debut effort Nothing's Real (2016)  He referred to his time in the band in the past tense in a 2015 interview with M Magazine  Stephen Roberts and Tim Wanstall have been working on production with other bands  Carey Willets released his first solo album in 2012, called Stickers, while also working on production and on a project called "Boxes" 

Discography
Studio albumsVehicles & Animals (2003)
Tourist (2005)
Beyond the Neighbourhood (2007)
Black Swan (2009)

Members
Joel Pott – lead vocals and guitar
Carey Willetts – bass and backing vocals
Stephen Roberts – drums and backing vocals
Tim Wanstall – keyboards and backing vocals
Passage 4:
Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations
The Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations (BAAA) is the governing body for the sport of athletics in the Bahamas   Current president is Rosamunde Carey   She was elected on 28 November 2015 for the period 2015-2018  She becomes the first woman elected to the position

History
Prior to 1952, there was already a Bahamas Athletic Association   BAAA was founded on 6 May 1952 as Bahamas Amateur Athletic Association and was affiliated to the IAAF the same year   First president was Alfred Frances Adderley   Early in the new millennium the federation’s name was changed to The Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations   A detailed report on the history of BAAA was given on Facebook 

Affiliations
BAAA is the national member federation for the Bahamas in the following international organisations:

World Athletics
North American, Central American and Caribbean Athletic Association (NACAC)
Association of Panamerican Athletics (APA)
Central American and Caribbean Athletic Confederation (CACAC)Moreover, it is part of the following national organisations:

Bahamas Olympic Committee (BOC)

National records
BAAA maintains the Bahamian records in athletics 
Passage 5:
Dead Horse Bay
Dead Horse Bay is a small body of water off Barren Island, between the Gerritsen Inlet and Rockaway Inlet in the New York City borough of Brooklyn 

History
From the nineteenth century to the twentieth century, the area has been used in a variety of ways, including manufacturing fertilizer from the remains of dead animals, producing fish oil from the menhaden caught in the bay, and more recently a landfill for the disposal of New York City’s garbage  Periodic clogging by carcasses from the adjacent glue factory with 200 foot chimney gave the bay its name  A millstone used to grind horse bones can still be found along the Millstone trail In 1926, much of the salt marsh surrounding Dead Horse Bay and the rest of Barren Island were pumped with sand from Jamaica Bay  This raised the land to 16 feet above the high tide mark and connected the islands to each other, and the mainland of Brooklyn, in order to create Floyd Bennett Field as New York City's first municipal airport  The entire area, including the historic airfield, is now managed by the National Park Service as part of the Jamaica Bay Unit of the Gateway National Recreation Area 

In the 1950s, urban planner Robert Moses attempted to expand the now-peninsula to the west using garbage covered by topsoil, but the layer of soil eroded, and garbage can be seen on the coast during low tide  This coast contains many exposed broken glass bottles and other non-biodegradable material In August 2020, the National Park Service announced that Dead Horse Bay would be closed indefinitely because of the presence of radiological contamination  The NPS said at the time that the cleanup could last several years  The contamination was identified as having come from two deck markers, a type of Radium-226 or Strontium-90 based radioluminescent device used by the US military, though the risk of radiological exposure was considered low 

Current use
School groups are taken to Dead Horse Bay on a regular basis to walk the Millstone trail, seine for a variety of fishes, and learn about the natural and cultural history of the area  Its shores are also a popular sport fishing spot, and home to a marina operating in Deep Creek as a National Park Service concession  Today one can find a large array of glass bottles and pieces of broken glass on the beach, along with old shoes and construction materials, many from the landfill which is now leaking  It is a popular place for artists and crafters to collect strange decorative materials 
Passage 6:
Silver Lake (Madison, New Hampshire)
Silver Lake is a 969-acre (3 92 km2) water body located in Carroll County in eastern New Hampshire, United States, in the town of Madison  The village of Silver Lake within Madison lies at the north end of the lake  Water from Silver Lake flows via the West Branch, through the Ossipee Pine Barrens to Ossipee Lake and ultimately to the Saco River in Maine 
Much of the lake's perimeter is forested, but there are numerous swimming spots  Popular beaches include "the foot" of the lake, "Nichols Beach", and "the head of the lake " It was the summer home of E  E  Cummings whose father had built two houses on the lake's eastern shore and later purchased the nearby Joy Farm where Cummings' spent most of his summers as well as his final days 
The lake is classified as a cold- and warmwater fishery, with observed species including rainbow trout, lake trout, lake whitefish, smallmouth bass, chain pickerel, and horned pout 

See also
List of lakes in New Hampshire
Passage 7:
Contoocook Lake
Contoocook Lake ( (listen)) is a 344-acre (1 4 km2) water body located in Cheshire County in southwestern New Hampshire, United States, in the towns of Jaffrey and Rindge  The lake, along with Pool Pond, forms the headwaters of the Contoocook River, which flows north to the Merrimack River in Penacook, New Hampshire 
The lake is classified as a warmwater fishery, with observed species including largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white perch, yellow perch, black crappie, bluegill, pumpkinseed, chain pickerel, and brown bullhead 

See also
List of lakes in New Hampshire
Passage 8:
Secchi disk
The Secchi disk (or Secchi disc), as created in 1865 by Angelo Secchi, is a plain white, circular disk 30 cm (12 in) in diameter used to measure water transparency or turbidity in bodies of water  The disc is mounted on a pole or line and lowered slowly down in the water  The depth at which the disk is no longer visible is taken as a measure of the transparency of the water  This measure is known as the Secchi depth and is related to water turbidity  Since its invention, the disk has also been used in a modified, smaller 20 cm (8 in) diameter, black-and-white design to measure freshwater transparency 
Similar disks, with a black-and-yellow pattern, are used as fiducial markers on vehicles in crash tests, crash-test dummies, and other kinetic experiments 

History
The original Secchi disk was a plain white disk and was used in the Mediterranean Sea  Today, a plain white, 30 cm (12 in) diameter Secchi disk remains the standard design used in marine studies  In 1899 George C  Whipple modified the original all-white Secchi disk to "   a disc about 8 inches in diameter, divided into quadrants painted alternately black and white like the target of a level-rod   "  This modified black-and-white Secchi disk is the standard disk now used in limnology (freshwater) investigations 

Secchi depth
The Secchi depth is reached when the reflectance equals the intensity of light backscattered from the water  1 7 divided into this depth in metres yields an  attenuation coefficient (also called an extinction coefficient), for the available light averaged over the Secchi disk depth  While used as a variable, the extinction coefficient is also used as a variable for turbidity  The light attenuation coefficient, k, can then be used in a form of the Beer–Lambert law,

  
    
      
        
          
            
              I
              
                z
              
            
            
              I
              
                0
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          e
          
            −
            k
            z
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {I_{z} \over I_{0}}=e^{-kz}}
  to estimate Iz, the intensity of light at depth z from I0, the intensity of light at the ocean surface The Secchi disk readings do not provide an exact measure of transparency, as there can be errors because of the sun's glare on the water, or one person may see the disk at one depth, but another person with better eyesight may see it at a greater depth  However, it is an inexpensive and straightforward method of measuring water clarity  Because of the potential for variation between users, methods should be standardized as much as possible 
A Secchi disk measurement should always be taken off the shady side of a boat or dock between 9:00 and 15:00  The period for best results is between 10:00 and 14:00  The same observer should take Secchi depth measurements, in the same manner, every time  One can approach the measurement by lowering the disk beyond a point of disappearance, then raising it and lowering it slightly to set the Secchi depth  Another method is to record the depth at which the disk disappears, lower it another few feet, then record the depth at which the disk reappears as it is slowly brought up  The Secchi depth is taken as the average of the two values Secchi disk measurements do not indicate how attenuation changes with depth or particular wavelengths of light  Submarine photometers can operate at depths of 150 m (492 ft) and can record visible, ultraviolet, and infrared parts of the spectrum  Turbidimeters and Transmissometers have their own light sources and can measure transparency with scientific accuracy 

Applications
Secchi disk measurements have been an integral component of Minnesota's and Wisconsin's lake water quality assessment programs for some time; lake residents make periodic measurements and submit their readings to state and local agencies  The aggregated longitudinal data are used to reveal general trends in water quality  Similarly, the Indiana Clean Lakes Program trains and relies on volunteers to monitor turbidity in over 80 Indiana lakes using Secchi disks, and uses data submitted by volunteers to monitor lake quality in the state In 2013, a team of marine scientists established the global citizen science Secchi Disk program for seafarers to study marine phytoplankton  This ongoing citizen science Secchi Disk study combines the traditional plain white, 30  cm diameter marine Secchi Disk with mobile technology to upload Secchi depth data collected from the sea to a central database  The study's first scientific results were published in 2017  The Secchi Disk study was begun in response to a controversial scientific report that suggested the phytoplankton that influences water transparency had declined by 40% in the oceans between the years 1950 and 2008 

See also
Forel-Ule scale
Siemens star
Trophic state index
Water quality
Passage 9:
Powwow Pond
Powwow Pond is a 348-acre (1 41 km2) water body in Rockingham County in southeastern New Hampshire, United States  It is classified as an artificial impoundment  The outlet of the pond is located in the town of East Kingston, but most of the lake lies in the town of Kingston  The Powwow River, the outlet of the pond, flows to the Merrimack River in Amesbury, Massachusetts  
The lake is classified as a warmwater fishery, with observed species including smallmouth and largemouth bass, chain pickerel, horned pout, and black crappie 

See also
List of lakes in New Hampshire
Passage 10:
Sea of Sardinia
The Sea of Sardinia is a body of water in the Mediterranean Sea between the Spanish archipelago of Balearic Islands and the Italian island of Sardinia 
The deepest point is at some 3,000 m, some 150 km north-west to the island of Menorca 

Recognition
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin  It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia 

See also
Balearic Sea


== Notes ==
Passage 11:
Deptford
Deptford is an area on the south bank of the River Thames in southeast London, within the London Borough of Lewisham  It is named after a ford of the River Ravensbourne  From the mid 16th century to the late 19th it was home to Deptford Dockyard, the first of the Royal Dockyards  This was a major shipbuilding dock and attracted Peter the Great to come and study shipbuilding  Deptford and the docks are associated with the knighting of Sir Francis Drake by Queen Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind, the legend of Sir Walter Raleigh laying down his cape for Elizabeth, Captain James Cook's third voyage aboard HMS Resolution, and the mysterious apparent murder of Christopher Marlowe in a house along Deptford Strand Though Deptford began as two small communities, one at the ford, and the other a fishing village on the Thames, Deptford's history and population has been mainly associated with the docks established by Henry VIII  The two communities grew together and flourished during the period when the docks were the main administrative centre of the Royal Navy, and some grand houses like Sayes Court, home to diarist John Evelyn, and Stone House on Lewisham Way, were erected  The area declined as first the Royal Navy moved out, and then the commercial docks themselves declined until the last dock, Convoys Wharf, closed in 2000 
A Metropolitan Borough of Deptford existed from 1900 until 1965, when the area became part of the newly created London Borough of Lewisham 

History
Deptford took its name from a ford across the Ravensbourne (near what is now Deptford Bridge DLR station) along the route of the Celtic trackway which was later paved by the Romans and developed into the medieval Watling Street  The modern name is a corruption of "deep ford" Deptford was part of the pilgrimage route from London to Canterbury used by the pilgrims in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and is mentioned in the prologue to "The Reeve's Tale"  The ford developed into first a wooden then a stone bridge, and in 1497 saw the Battle of Deptford Bridge, in which rebels from Cornwall, led by Michael An Gof, marched on London protesting against punitive taxes, but were soundly beaten by the King's forces 

A second settlement, Deptford Strand, developed as a modest fishing village on the Thames until Henry VIII used that site for a royal dock repairing, building and supplying ships, after which it grew in size and importance, shipbuilding remaining in operation until March 1869 

Trinity House, the organisation concerned with the safety of navigation around the British Isles, was formed in Deptford in 1514, with its first Master being Thomas Spert, captain of the Mary Rose  It moved to Stepney in 1618  The name "Trinity House" derives from the church of Holy Trinity and St Clement, which adjoined the dockyard Originally separated by market gardens and fields, the two areas merged over the years, with the docks becoming an important part of the Elizabethan exploration  Queen Elizabeth I visited the royal dockyard on 4 April 1581 to knight the adventurer Francis Drake  As well as for exploration, Deptford was important for trade – the Honourable East India Company had a yard in Deptford from 1607 until late in the 17th century, later (1825) taken over by the General Steam Navigation Company  It was also connected with the slave trade, John Hawkins using it as a base for his operations, and Olaudah Equiano, the slave who became an important part of the abolition of the slave trade, was sold from one ship's captain to another in Deptford around 1760 Diarist John Evelyn lived in Deptford at Sayes Court, the manor house of Deptford, from 1652 after he had married the daughter of the owner of the house, Sir Richard Browne  After the Restoration, Evelyn obtained a 99-year lease of the house and grounds, and laid out meticulously planned gardens in the French style, of hedges and parterres  In its grounds was a cottage at one time rented by master woodcarver Grinling Gibbons  After Evelyn had moved to Surrey in 1694, Peter the Great, the Russian tsar, studied shipbuilding for three months in 1698 while staying at Sayes Court  Evelyn was angered at the antics of the tsar, who got drunk with his friends who, using a wheelbarrow with Peter in it, rammed their way through a "fine holly hedge"  Sayes Court was demolished in 1728-9 and a workhouse built on its site  Part of the estates around Sayes Court were purchased in 1742 for the building of the Navy Victualling Yard, which was renamed the Royal Victoria Victualling Yard in 1858 after a visit by Queen Victoria  This massive facility included warehouses, a bakery, a cattleyard/abattoir and sugar stores, and closed in 1961  All that remains is the name of Sayes Court Park, accessed from Sayes Court Street off Evelyn Street, not far from Deptford High Street  The Pepys Estate, opened on 13 July 1966, is on the former grounds of the Victualling Yard 

The Docks had been gradually declining from the 18th century; the larger ships being built found the Thames difficult to navigate, and Deptford was under competition from the new docks at Plymouth, Portsmouth and Chatham  When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815 the need for a Docks to build and repair warships declined; the Docks shifted from shipbuilding to concentrate on victualling at the Royal Victoria Victualling Yard, and the Royal Dock closed in 1869  From 1871 until 1913 the shipyard site was the City of London Corporation's Foreign Cattle Market, to which live animals were brought by cattle boat from four continents and from whence came about half of London's meat supply 

The yard was taken over by the War Office in 1914, and was an Army Supply Reserve Depot in the First and Second World Wars  The site lay unused until being purchased by Convoys (newsprint importers) in 1984, and eventually came into the ownership of News International  In the mid-1990s, although significant investment was made on the site, it became uneconomic to continue using it as a freight wharf  In 2008 Hutchison Whampoa bought the 16ha site from News International with plans for a £700m 3,500-home development scheme  The Grade II listed Olympia Warehouse will be refurbished as part of the redevelopment of the site Deptford experienced economic decline in the 20th century with the closing of the docks, and the damage caused by the bombing during the Blitz in the Second World War – a V-2 rocket destroyed a Woolworths store in New Cross Gate, killing 160 people  High unemployment caused some of the population to move away as the riverside industries closed down in the late 1960s and early 1970s  The local council have developed plans with private companies to regenerate the riverside area, and the town centre 

Governance
The Manor of Deptford or West Greenwich was bestowed by William the Conqueror upon Gilbert de Magminot or Maminot, bishop of Lisieux, one of the eight barons associated with John de Fiennes for the defence of Dover Castle  Maminot held the head of his barony at Deptford and according to John Lyon writing in 1814, he built himself a castle, or castellated mansion at Deptford  The location of the building is not known, but ancient foundations found on the brow of Broomfield,  near the Mast Dock and adjacent to Sayes Court may be the remains of the building 

Deptford was mostly located in the Blackheath Hundred of the county of Kent, with the Hatcham part in the Brixton Hundred of Surrey In 1730 was divided into the two parishes of St Nicholas and St Paul  It was also referred to as West Greenwich, with the modern town of Greenwich being referred to as East Greenwich until this use declined in the 19th century  The whole of Deptford came within the Metropolitan Police District in 1830 and was included in the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1855 
It was transferred to the County of London in 1889  Originally under the governance of the ancient parishes of St Paul and St Nicholas, in 1900, a Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was formed out of the southern parish of St Paul, with St Nicholas and the area around the Royal Dockyard coming under the governance of the Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich Under the London Government Act 1963, the Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was absorbed in 1965 into the newly created London Borough of Lewisham, with the Deptford St Nicholas area becoming part of the Royal Borough of Greenwich, with both these new boroughs now forming part of the new Greater London body  In 1994 the bulk of the northern part, including the former Royal Dockyard area, was transferred to Lewisham, an adjustment of about 40 hectares (99 acres), leaving only the north eastern area, around St Nicholas's church, in Greenwich 
Deptford is split between two electoral wards - Evelyn in the north and part of New Cross to the south  Following public consultation, the Local Government Boundary Commission for England recommended in June 2020 that the Deptford wards (Evelyn and New Cross) should be unified and renamed Deptford 

Geography
Deptford borders the areas of Brockley and Lewisham to the south, New Cross to the west and Rotherhithe to the north west; the Ravensbourne river divides it from Greenwich to the east, and the Thames separates the area from the Isle of Dogs to the north east; it is contained within the London SE8 post code area  The area referred to as North Deptford is the only part of the London Borough of Lewisham to front the Thames and is sandwiched between Rotherhithe and Greenwich  Much of this riverside estate is populated by the former Naval Dockyards, now known as Convoys Wharf, the Pepys Estate and some southern fringes of the old Surrey Commercial Docks 
The name Deptford – anciently written Depeford meaning "deep ford" — is derived from the place where the road from London to Dover, the ancient Watling Street (now the A2), crosses the River Ravensbourne at the site of what became Deptford Bridge at Deptford Broadway  The Ravensbourne crosses under the A2 at roughly the same spot as the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) crosses over; and at the point where it becomes tidal, just after Lewisham College, it is known as Deptford Creek, and flows into the River Thames at Greenwich Reach 

Demography
Deptford's population has been mainly associated with the docks since the establishment of the Royal Docks by Henry VIII, though there has also been some market gardening and potteries  When the docks were thriving as the main administrative centre of the British Navy, so the area prospered, and fine houses were built for the administrative staff and the skilled shipbuilders, and a few grand houses like Sayes Court and Stone House on Lewisham Way were erected There was a start of a demographic shift downwards when the Royal Navy pulled out of Deptford, and the docks moved into storage and freight  The downward shift continued into the 20th century as the local population's dependency on the docks continued: as the docks themselves declined, so did the economic fortune of the inhabitants until the last dock, Convoys Wharf, closed in 2000 In common with neighbouring areas of South East London, immigrants from the Caribbean settled in Deptford in the 1950s and 1960s Deptford's northern section nearest the old docks contains areas of council housing, with some concentrations of people experiencing the forms of deprivation typically associated with the poverty of Inner London  Northern Deptford near the Thames, along with neighbouring New Cross, has been touted as "the new Shoreditch" by some journalists and estate agents paying attention to a trendy arts and music scene that is popular with students and artists  To the south where Deptford rolls into the suburban spread of Brockley, the previously multi-occupancy Victorian houses are being gentrified by young city workers and urban professionals  Deptford has a growing Vietnamese community reflected in the number of restaurants in the area 
Deptford contains a number of student populations, including those of Goldsmiths College, the University of Greenwich, Bellerbys College and Laban Dance Centre  Goldsmiths College's hall of residence, Rachel McMillan, in Creek Road was sold in 2001 for £79 million, and was subsequently demolished and replaced with the McMillan Student Village which opened in 2003 and provides accommodation for approximately 970 students of the University of Greenwich, Trinity Laban and Bellerbys colleges 

Economy
Deptford's economic history has been strongly connected to the Dockyard - when the Dockyard was thriving, so Deptford thrived; with the docks now all closed, Deptford has declined economically  However, areas of Deptford are being gradually re-developed and gentrified - and the local council has plans to regenerate the riverside and the town centre  A large former industrial site by the Thames called Convoys Wharf is scheduled for redeveloping into mixed use buildings  This will involve the construction of around 3,500 new homes and an extension of the town centre northwards towards the river The site of a former foundry (established in 1881 by J  Stone & Co in Arklow Road) which closed in 1969 is being redeveloped for commercial and residential use Much of the area along Creek Road, close to Greenwich, has also been redeveloped, with the demolition of the old Deptford Power Station and Rose Bruford College buildings  Aragon Tower on the Pepys Estate was sold by Lewisham Borough to fund regeneration plans for the estate; the award-winning refurbishment into privately owned accommodation was featured in the BBC One documentary, "The Tower" Deptford Market, a street market in Deptford High Street sells a range of goods, and is considered one of London's liveliest street markets  In February 2005, the High Street was described as "the capital's most diverse and vibrant high street" by Yellow Pages business directory, using a unique mathematical formula 

Culture
The Albany Theatre, a community arts centre with a tradition of "radical community arts and music" including holding 15 "Rock Against Racism" concerts, has its roots in a charity established in 1894 to improve the social life of Deptford's deprived community  The original building, the Albany Institute, was opened in 1899 on Creek Road, changing its name in the 1960s to the Albany Empire  It was burnt down in 1978, but rebuilt on Douglas Way, with Prince Charles laying the foundation stone, and Diana, Princess of Wales opening it in 1982 Deptford Cinema is a volunteer run, not-for-profit, community cinema, art gallery, and occasional music venue, open since late 2014 and located at 39 Deptford Broadway  At the time of opening it was the borough of Lewisham's only functioning cinema Creekside, a regeneration area beside Deptford Creek, is used for educational and artistic purposes, such as the Laban Dance Centre, which was designed by Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron, and opened in February 2003; and the Art in Perpetuity Trust (APT) gallery and studio space  A record label, Deptford Fun City Records was set up by Miles Copeland III, brother of Stewart Copeland, in the late 1970s as an outlet for Deptford bands such as Alternative TV and Squeeze The area has several pubs, including the Dog & Bell which has a reputation for serving a range of cask ales; and The Bird's Nest which has live music, film and art performances from local bands and artists  The town hall of the former Metropolitan Borough of Deptford, built in 1905 with decorative sculpture by Henry Poole, lies just outside Deptford, on the New Cross Road in New Cross  It was purchased by Goldsmiths College in 2000 There are several green spaces in the area, the largest being Brookmill Park, Deptford Park, Ferranti Park, Pepys Park and Sayes Court Park  In 1884 William John Evelyn, a descendant of John Evelyn, sold ground then being used as market gardens in Deptford, to the London County Council for less than its market value, as well as paying toward the cost of its purchase  It was officially opened to the public as Deptford Park on 7 June 1897  In 1886, he dedicated an acre and a half of the Sayes Court recreation ground in perpetuity to the public and a permanent provision was made for the Evelyn estate to cover the expense of maintenance and caretaking, this was opened on 20 July 1886 

Transport
Deptford is served by National Rail and Docklands Light Railway services  The National Rail service is operated by Southeastern and Thameslink on the suburban Greenwich Line at Deptford railway station, the oldest passenger only railway station in London  Deptford station was redeveloped during 2011 and 2012  The works included the demolition of the original 1836 station building and its replacement by a new station to the west in the former station yard  Deptford's DLR station is at Deptford Bridge on the DLR's Lewisham branch There are two main road routes through Deptford: the A200 which runs along Evelyn Street and Creek Road, and the A2 which runs along New Cross Road, and is the modern version of the Celtic trackway which was later paved by the Romans and developed into the medieval Watling Street  The A20 marks the southern boundary of the area, along Lewisham Way and Loampit Vale Since June 2016, Deptford has been on the cycling route of the London Quietway route Q1 that starts in Greenwich and ends near Waterloo Bridge in central London  A second Quietway route, Q14, between Waterloo and Thamesmead, passes through Deptford's riverfront 

Education
There are five primary schools in the area  There are no local secondary schools directly in Deptford, however there are two secondary schools near the border between New Cross and Deptford: Deptford Green, regarded by Ofsted as "needing improvement", and Addey and Stanhope, regarded by Ofsted as "good"  A branch of the further education college, Lewisham College incorporating Southwark College (known as LeSoCo), is located on Deptford Church Street; the college was regarded as "inadequate" in the 2014 Ofsted inspection 

Landmarks
Deptford railway station is one of the oldest suburban stations in the world, being built (c 1836-38) as part of the first suburban service (the London and Greenwich Railway), between London Bridge and Greenwich  Close to Deptford Creek is a Deptford pumping station, a Victorian pumping station built in 1864, part of the massive London sewerage system designed by civil engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette The former Deptford Power Station, in use from 1891 to 1983, originated as a pioneering plant designed by Sebastian de Ferranti, which when built was the largest station in the world In 2008, Lewisham Council granted permission for the last remnants of the Deptford Ragged School known as The Princess Louise Institute to be demolished and replaced by flats Albury Street (previously Union Street) contains a fine row of early urban houses largely dating from 1705 to 1717 which were once popular with naval captains and shipwrights Tanners Hill in the St John's or New Deptford area to the south of New Cross Road, is part of an Area of Archaeological Priority due to the longevity of settlement and early industry, and contains a set of commercial buildings from numbers 21 to 31 which are survivors from a row of 31 which were built in the 1750s on the site of cottages dating from the 17th century These timber-frame buildings have a Grade II listing from English Heritage and are home to established businesses such as bicycle maker Witcomb Cycles  Of Deptford's two important houses, Sayes Court no longer exists, but the Stone House in St Johns, built around 1772 by the architect George Gibson the Younger, and described by Pevsner as "the one individual house of interest in this area", still stands by Lewisham Way Deptford's Albany Theatre has a history stretching back over 100 years and is a prominent feature of the South-East London arts scene 

Churches
St Nicholas' Church, the original parish church, dates back to the 14th century but the current building is 17th century  The entrance to the churchyard features a set of skull-and-bones on top of the posts  A plaque on the north wall commemorates playwright Christopher Marlowe, who was stabbed to death by Ingram Frizer in a nearby house, and buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard on 1 June 1593  Frizer was pardoned for the killing on the grounds that he acted in self-defence There is also St  Luke's, another historic circular church, dating from 1870  It is the daughter church of the parish of St Nicholas' 
In the 18th century St  Paul's, Deptford (1712–1730) was built, acclaimed by the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England as one of the finest Baroque churches in the country  John Betjeman is attributed as referring to the church as "a pearl at the heart of Deptford"  It was designed by the architect Thomas Archer, who was a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren, as part of the Commission for Building Fifty New Churches with the intention of instilling pride in Britain, and encouraging people to stay in London rather than emigrate to the New World Adjacent to the church yard is Albury Street, which contains some fine 18th-century houses which were popular with sea captains and shipbuilders 

Deptford Dockyard
Deptford Dockyard was established in 1513 by Henry VIII as the first Royal Dockyard, building vessels for the Royal Navy, and was at one time known as the King's Yard  It was shut down from 1830 to 1844 before being closed as a dockyard in 1869, and is currently known as Convoys Wharf  From 1871 until the First World War it was the City of London Corporation's Foreign Cattle Market  In 1912, The Times reported that over 4 million head of live cattle, and sheep, had been landed From 1932 until 2008 the site was owned by News International, which used it to import newsprint and other paper products from Finland until early 2000  It is now owned by Hutchison Whampoa Limited and is subject to a planning application to convert it into residential units, though it has safeguarded wharf status Other notable shipyards in Deptford were, Charles Lungley's Dockyard and the General Steam Navigation Company's yards at Deptford Green and Dudman's Dock, also sometimes referred to as Deadmans Dock at Deptford Wharf 

Murder of Christopher Marlowe
The Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe was killed during an alleged drunken brawl in Eleanor Bull's house in Deptford Strand in May 1593  Various versions of Marlowe's death were current at the time  Francis Meres says Marlowe was "stabbed to death by a bawdy serving-man, a rival of his in his lewd love" as punishment for his "epicurism and atheism"  In 1917, in the Dictionary of National Biography, Sir Sidney Lee wrote that Marlowe was killed in a drunken fight  Some modern theories posit that he was assassinated  It is commonly assumed that the fight took place in a Deptford tavern The scholar Leslie Hotson discovered in 1925 the coroner's report on Marlowe's death in the Public Record Office which gave fuller details  Marlowe had spent all day in a house owned by the widow Eleanor Bull, along with three men, Ingram Frizer, Nicholas Skeres and Robert Poley  Witnesses testified that Frizer and Marlowe had earlier argued over the bill, exchanging "divers malicious words " Later, while Frizer was sitting at a table between the other two and Marlowe was lying behind him on a couch, Marlowe snatched Frizer's dagger and began attacking him  In the ensuing struggle, according to the coroner's report, Marlowe was accidentally stabbed above the right eye, killing him instantly  The jury concluded that Frizer acted in self-defence, and within a month he was pardoned  Marlowe was buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard of St Nicholas, Deptford, on 1 June 1593 

Notable people
Among people associated with Deptford are Christopher Marlowe, who was killed at Deptford Strand; diarist John Evelyn (1620–1706), who lived at Sayes Court, and had Peter the Great (1672–1725) as a guest for about three months in 1698; Sir Francis Drake, who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind in Deptford Docks; and Emperor Norton (Joshua Abraham Norton), the San Francisco eccentric and self-proclaimed "Emperor of the United States", who was born in Deptford in 1818 Other people who have lived in Deptford range from the first governor of the East India Company and ambassador to the court of Russia, Thomas Smythe, whose magnificent house was destroyed by fire in 1618; to early members of the Chartist movement, John Gast and George Julian Harney; and the Cleveleys, John Cleveley the Elder and his sons John and Robert, a family of marine artists who also worked as tradesmen in the Dockyard  Another artist born in Deptford is Henry Courtney Selous, who is known for The Opening of The Great Exhibition, painted in 1851 Members of rock groups Squeeze and Dire Straits lived on the Crossfield Estate in Deptford in the late 1970s, along with Mark Perry, founder of the punk fanzine Sniffin Glue and punk rock band Alternative TV  The DJ and music journalist Danny Baker lived near the Crossfield Estate, where he was born and brought up Children's author Robin Jarvis wrote two trilogies of books: The Deptford Mice (and a couple of spin off books called The Deptford Mouselets series) and The Deptford Histories, set in and around Deptford and featuring many of its landmarks 
Passage 12:
Wapizagonke Lake
The Wapizagonke Lake is one of the bodies of water located the sector "Lac-Wapizagonke", in the city of Shawinigan, in the La Mauricie National Park, in the region of Mauricie, in Quebec, in Canada 

Geography
With a length of 9 2 kilometers, the Wapizagonke lake is located near the west boundary of La Mauricie National Park in northern Shawinigan  Surrounded by mountains, this lake is a narrow shape and length is in the north-south axis  It drains through its southern end into the Shawinigan River, which flows eastward and then south to empty into the Saint-Maurice River 
Major lakes feeding the Wapizagonke Lake watershed are: Reid, Houle, Jodon, Anticagamac and Avalon 

Toponymy
The lake appears on the cards in 1852 under the name "Lake Pisagunk"  Forestry workers identified him rather as the "lake Mistagance"  Wapizagonke appear on the map in 1925 and is a variation of Ouapitagone in Montagnais, which meant according to Father Joseph-Étienne Guinard (1864-1965): "kind of very rare duck species"  In Abenaki, the lake is named Wawibizagak and means "surrounded by the bush"  Certain visitors named the lake under two names: "Island Lake" and "Lake Croche" 

See also
Shawinigan River
Shawinigan
Passage 13:
Walker Pond
Walker Pond is a body of water in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, situated off Route 49 on the way to Wells State Park 

History
The pond took its name from settler Rachael "Walker" Smith, a local resident who raised twelve Italian children there   (The house, since demolished, was called the Perez Walker House in memory of Nathaniel Walker's grandson, a prominent townsman ) In 1894, the town of Sturbridge voted to rename the pond Tantousque Lake, from an Indian word meaning "located between two breast-shaped hills "  The traditional Indian name did not, however, stick 

Fishing
According to a 1980 survey, the pond contains largemouth bass, chain pickerel, yellow perch, white perch, bluegill, pumpkinseed, brown bullhead, white suckers, and golden and bridled shiners  It is a popular place for ice fishing 
Passage 14:
John Meyers (swimmer)
John Meyers (June 28, 1880 – February 1975) was an American freestyle swimmer and water polo player who competed in the 1904 Summer Olympics in St  Louis, Missouri   In the 1904 Olympics he won a bronze medal as a member of the Missouri Athletic Club water polo team  He also competed in one-mile freestyle, but did not finish the competition 
Context 2: Passage 1:
John Houseman
John Houseman (born Jacques Haussmann; September 22, 1902 – October 31, 1988) was a Romanian-born British-American actor and producer of theatre, film, and television  He became known for his highly publicized collaboration with director Orson Welles from their days in the Federal Theatre Project through to the production of Citizen Kane and his collaboration, as producer of The Blue Dahlia, with writer Raymond Chandler on the screenplay  He won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Professor Charles W  Kingsfield in the 1973 film The Paper Chase  He reprised the role of Kingsfield in the 1978 television series adaptation 

Early life
Houseman was born Jacques Haussmann on September 22, 1902, in Bucharest, Romania, the son of May (née Davies) a governess and Georges Haussmann, who ran a grain business  His mother was British, from a Christian family of Welsh and Irish descent  His father was an Alsatian-born Jew  He was educated in England at Clifton College, became a British subject, and worked in the grain trade in London before emigrating to the United States in 1925, where he took the stage name of John Houseman  He became a United States citizen in 1943 

Theatre producer
Houseman worked as a speculator in the international grain markets, only turning to the theater following the 1929 stock market crash 
On Broadway he co-wrote Three and One (1933) and And Be My Love (1934)  Composer Virgil Thomson recruited him to direct Four Saints in Three Acts (1934), Thomson's collaboration with Gertrude Stein  He later directed The Lady from the Sea (1934) and Valley Forge (1934) 

Collaboration with Orson Welles
In 1934, Houseman was looking to cast Panic, a play he was producing based on a drama by Archibald MacLeish concerning a Wall Street financier whose world crumbles about him when consumed by the crash of 1929  Although the central figure is a man in his late fifties, Houseman became obsessed by the notion that a young man named Orson Welles he had seen in Katharine Cornell's production of Romeo and Juliet was the only person qualified to play the leading role  Welles consented and, after preliminary conversations, agreed to leave the play he was in after a single night to take the lead in Houseman's production  Panic opened at the Imperial Theatre on March 15, 1935  Among the cast was Houseman's ex-wife, Zita Johann, who had co-starred with Boris Karloff three years earlier in Universal's The Mummy 
Although the play opened to indifferent notices and ran for a mere three performances, it nevertheless led to the forging of a theatrical team, a fruitful but stormy partnership in which Houseman said Welles "was the teacher, I, the apprentice "
He supervised the direction of Walk Together Chillun in 1936 

Federal Theatre Project
In 1936, the Federal Theatre Project of the Works Progress Administration put unemployed theatre performers and employees to work  The Negro Theatre Unit of the Federal Theatre Project was headed by Rose McClendon, a well-known black actress, and Houseman, a theatre producer  Houseman describes the experience in one of his memoirs:

Within a year of its formation, the Federal Theatre had more than fifteen thousand men and women on its payroll at an average wage of approximately twenty dollars a week  During the four years of its existence its productions played to more than thirty million people in more than two hundred theatres as well as portable stages, school auditoriums and public parks the country over 

Macbeth (1936)
Houseman immediately hired Welles and assigned him to direct Macbeth for the FTP's Negro Theater Unit, a production that became known as the "Voodoo Macbeth", as it was set in the Haitian court of King Henri Christophe (and with voodoo witch doctors for the three Weird Sisters) and starred Jack Carter in the title role  The incidental music was composed by Virgil Thomson  The play premiered at the Lafayette Theatre on April 14, 1936, to enthusiastic reviews and remained sold out for each of its nightly performances  The play was regarded by critics and patrons as an enormous, if controversial, success  After 10 months with the Negro Theater Project, however, Houseman felt he was faced with the dilemma of risking his future:

    on a partnership with a 20-year-old boy in whose talent I had unquestioning faith but with whom I must increasingly play the combined and tricky roles of producer, censor, adviser, impresario, father, older brother and bosom friend 
Houseman later produced for the Negro Theatre Unit Turpentine (1936) without Welles 
In 1936, Houseman and Welles were running a WPA unit in midtown Manhattan for classic productions called Project No  891  Their first production was Christopher Marlowe's Tragical History of Dr  Faustus which Welles directed while also playing the title role 
Houseman and Welles put on Horse Eats Hat (1936)  Houseman, without Welles, helped in the direction of Leslie Howard's production of Hamlet (1936) 

The Cradle Will Rock (1937)
In June 1937, Project No  891 produced their most controversial work with The Cradle Will Rock  Written by Marc Blitzstein, the musical was about Larry Foreman, a worker in Steeltown (played in the original production by Howard da Silva), which is run by the boss, Mister Mister (played in the original production by Will Geer)   The show was thought to have had left-wing and unionist sympathies (Foreman ends the show with a song about "unions" taking over the town and the country), and became legendary as an example of a "censored" show  Shortly before the show was to open, FTP officials in Washington announced that no productions would open until after July 1, 1937, the beginning of the new fiscal year 
In his memoir, Run-Through, Houseman wrote about the circumstances surrounding the opening night at the Maxine Elliott Theatre  All the performers had been enjoined not to perform on stage for the production when it opened on July 14, 1937  The cast and crew left their government-owned theatre and walked 20 blocks to another theatre, with the audience following  No one knew what to expect; when they got there Blitzstein himself was at the piano and started playing the introduction music  One of the amateur performers, Olive Stanton, who played the part of Moll, the prostitute, stood up in the audience, and began singing her part  All the other performers, in turn, stood up for their parts  Thus the "oratorio" version of the show was born  Apparently, Welles had designed some intricate scenery, which ended up never being used  The event was so successful that it was repeated several times on subsequent nights, with everyone trying to remember and reproduce what had happened spontaneously the first night  The incident, however, led to Houseman being fired and Welles's resignation from Project No  891 

Mercury Theatre
That same year, 1937, after detaching themselves from the Federal Theatre Project, Houseman and Welles did The Cradle Will Rock as an independent production on Broadway  They also founded the acclaimed New York drama company, the Mercury Theatre  Houseman wrote of their collaboration at this time:

On the broad wings of the Federal eagle, we had risen to success and fame beyond ourselves as America's youngest, cleverest, most creative and audacious producers to whom none of the ordinary rules of the theater applied 
Armed with a manifesto written by Houseman declaring their intention to foster new talent, experiment with new types of plays, and appeal to the same audiences that frequented the Federal Theater the company was designed largely to offer plays of the past, preferably those that "   seem to have emotion or factual bearing on contemporary life "  The company mounted several notable productions, the most remarkable being its first commercial production of Julius Caesar   Houseman called the decision to use modern dress "an essential element in Orson's conception of the play as a political melodrama with clear contemporary parallels "
Houseman and Welles later presented The Shoemaker's Holiday (1938), Heartbreak House (1938) and Danton's Death (1938) 

Radio
Beginning in the summer of 1938, the Mercury Theatre was featured in a weekly dramatic radio program on the CBS network, initially promoted as First Person Singular before gaining the official title The Mercury Theatre on the Air  An adaptation of Treasure Island was scheduled for the program's first broadcast, for which Houseman worked feverishly on the script  However, a week before the show was to air, Welles decided that a program far more dramatic was required  To Houseman's horror, Treasure Island was abandoned in favor of Bram Stoker's Dracula, with Welles playing the infamous vampire  During an all night session at Perkins' Restaurant, Welles and Houseman hashed out a script The Mercury Theatre on the Air featured an impressive array of talents, including Agnes Moorehead, Bernard Herrmann, and George Coulouris 

"The War of the Worlds" (1938)
The Mercury Theatre on the Air subsequently became famous for its notorious 1938 radio adaptation of H  G  Wells' The War of the Worlds, which had put much of the country in a panic  By all accounts, Welles was shocked by the panic that ensued  According to Houseman, "he hadn't the faintest idea what the effect would be"  CBS was inundated with calls; newspaper switchboards were jammed 
Without Welles, Houseman staged Douglas Moore's The Devil and Daniel Webster (1939) 

Film producer
Too Much Johnson (1938)
While Houseman was teaching at Vassar College, he produced Welles' never-completed second short film, Too Much Johnson (1938)  The film was never publicly screened and no print of the film was thought to have survived  Footage was rediscovered in 2013 

Citizen Kane (1941)
The Welles-Houseman collaboration continued in Hollywood  In the spring of 1939, Welles began preliminary discussions with RKO's head of production, George Schaefer, with Welles and his Mercury players being given a two-picture deal, in which Welles would produce, direct, perform, and have full creative control of his projects 
For his motion picture debut, Welles first considered adapting Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness for the screen  A 200-page script was written  Some models were constructed, while the shooting of initial test footage had begun  However, little, if anything, had been done either to whittle down the budgetary difficulties or begin filming  When RKO threatened to eliminate the payment of salaries by December 31 if no progress had been made, Welles announced that he would pay his cast out of his own pocket  Houseman proclaimed that there wasn't enough money in their business account to pay anyone  During a corporate dinner for the Mercury crew, Welles exploded, calling his partner a "bloodsucker" and a "crook"  As Houseman attempted to leave, Welles began hurling dish heaters at him, effectively ending both their partnership and friendship 
Houseman later, however, played a pivotal role in ushering Citizen Kane (1941), which starred Welles  Welles telephoned Houseman asking him to return to Hollywood to "babysit" screenwriter Herman J  Mankiewicz while he completed the script, and keep him away from alcohol  Still drawn to Welles, as was virtually everyone in his sphere, Houseman agreed  Although Welles took credit for the screenplay of Kane, Houseman stated that the credit belonged to Mankiewicz, an assertion that led to a final break with Welles  Houseman took some credit himself for the general shaping of the story line and for editing the script  In an interview with Penelope Huston for Sight & Sound magazine (Autumn, 1962) Houseman said that the writing of Citizen Kane was a delicate subject:

I think Welles has always sincerely felt that he, single-handed, wrote Citizen Kane and everything else that he has directed—except, possibly, the plays of Shakespeare  But the script of Kane was essentially Mankiewicz's  The conception and the structure were his, all the dramatic Hearstian mythology and the journalistic and political wisdom he had been carrying around with him for years and which he now poured into the only serious job he ever did in a lifetime of film writing  But Orson turned Kane into a film: the dynamics and the tensions are his and the brilliant cinematic effects—all those visual and aural inventions that add up to make Citizen Kane one of the world's great movies—those were pure Orson Welles 
In 1975, during an interview with Kate McCauley, Houseman stated that film critic Pauline Kael in her essay "Raising Kane", had caused an "idiotic controversy" over the issue: "The argument is Orson's own fault  He wanted to be given all the credit because he's a hog  Actually, it is his film  So it's a ridiculous argument "

Return to the theatre
After he and Welles went their separate ways, Houseman went on to direct The Devil and Daniel Webster (1939) and Liberty Jones (1941) and produced the Mercury Theatre's stage production of Native Son (1941) on Broadway, directed by Welles 

David O  Selznick
In Hollywood he became a vice-president of David O  Selznick Productions  His most notable achievement during that time was helping adapt and produce the adaptation of Jane Eyre (1943) which starred Joan Fontaine and Welles 

World War II
In the aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Houseman quit his job and became the head of the overseas radio division of the Office of War Information (OWI), working for the Voice of America whilst also managing its operations in New York City 

Paramount
In 1945 Houseman signed a contract with Paramount Pictures to produce movies  His first credit for that studio was The Unseen (1945)  He followed it with Miss Susie Slagle's (1945) and The Blue Dahlia (1946), both with Veronica Lake  The latter, starring Alan Ladd and written by Raymond Chandler, has become a classic 
He left Paramount and returned to Broadway to direct Lute Song (1946) with Mary Martin 
Back in Hollywood he produced Letter from an Unknown Woman (1948) for Max Ophuls at Universal 

RKO
Houseman went to RKO where he produced They Live by Night (1948) the directorial debut of Nicholas Ray  He also did The Company She Keeps (1949) and On Dangerous Ground (1951) 
He returned to Broadway to produce Joy to the World (1949) and King Lear (1950-51), the latter with Louis Calhern 

MGM
RKO's head of production had been Dore Schary  When Schary moved to MGM he offered Houseman a contract at the studio, which the producer accepted 
Houseman's stint at MGM began with Holiday for Sinners (1952); then he had a huge success with The Bad and the Beautiful (1952), directed by Vincente Minnelli  He followed it with the film adaptation of Julius Caesar (1953) (for which he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture)
Also popular was Executive Suite (1954), a highly creative adaptation by Ernest Lehman of Cameron Hawley's bestselling novel  However, although Her Twelve Men (1954), Minnelli's The Cobweb (1955) and Fritz Lang's Moonfleet (1955) all lost money  So did Lust for Life (1956), a biopic directed by Minnelli of Vincent van Gogh, although it was extremely well-received critically 

Television and theatre
Houseman moved into television producing, notably doing The Seven Lively Arts (1957) and episodes of Playhouse 90 
He also returned to theatre, producing revivals of Measure for Measure (1957) and The Duchess of Malfi (1957) 

Return to MGM
Houseman was enticed back to MGM as a producer, and given his own production company, John Houseman Productions  His films were All Fall Down (1962), Two Weeks in Another Town (1962) and In the Cool of the Day (1963) 

Return to television
Houseman returned to television where he made The Great Adventure and Journey to America (1964)  He returned to Hollywood briefly to produce This Property Is Condemned (1966), then returned to TV for Evening Primrose (1966) 
He returned to Broadway, directing Pantagleize (1967) 

Teaching
The Juilliard School and The Acting Company
Houseman became the founding director of the Drama Division at The Juilliard School, and held this position from 1968 until 1976  The first graduating class in 1972 included Kevin Kline and Patti LuPone; subsequent classes under Houseman's leadership included Christopher Reeve, Mandy Patinkin, and Robin Williams Unwilling to see that very first class disbanded upon graduation, Houseman and his Juilliard colleague Margot Harley formed them into an independent, touring repertory company they named the "Group 1 Acting Company " The organization was subsequently renamed The Acting Company, and has been active for more than 40 years  Houseman served as the producing artistic director through 1986, and Harley has been the company's producer since its founding   Writing in The New York Times in 1996, Mel Gussow called it "the major touring classical theater in the United States "

Theatre
Houseman continued to be involved in theatre, producing The School for Wives (1971), The Three Sisters (1973), The Beggar's Opera (1973), Scapin (1973), Next Time I'll Sing to You (1974), The Robber Bridegroom (1975), Edward II (1975), and The Time of Your Life (1975)
He directed The Country Girl (1972), Don Juan in Hell (1973), Measure for Measure  (1973), and Clarence Darrow (1974) (with Henry Fonda) 
In 1979, Houseman earned induction into the American Theater Hall of Fame

Acting
Houseman had acted occasionally during the early part of his career and he had a brief but important part in Seven Days in May (1964) 
Houseman first became widely known to the public for his Golden Globe and Academy Award-winning role as Professor Charles Kingsfield in the film The Paper Chase (1973)  The film was a success and launched Houseman into an unexpected late career as a character actor 
Houseman played Energy Corporation Executive Bartholomew in the film Rollerball (1975), and was in the thrillers Three Days of the Condor (1975) and St Ives (1976) 
Houseman appeared on TV in Fear on Trial (1975), The Adams Chronicles (1976), Truman at Potsdam (1976), Hazard's People (1976) and Six Characters in Search of an Author (1976)  Houseman was reunited with The Paper Chase co-star Lindsay Wagner in 1976's "Kill Oscar", a three-part joint episode of the popular science fiction series The Bionic Woman and The Six Million Dollar Man; he played the scientific genius Dr  Franklin 
He continued appearing on TV in Captains and the Kings (1976), The Displaced Person (1977), a version of Our Town (1977), Washington: Behind Closed Doors (1977), The Best of Families (1977), Aspen, The Last Convertible (1978), The French Atlantic Affair (1978) and The Associates (1980) 
In films he parodied Sydney Greenstreet in the Neil Simon film The Cheap Detective (1978) and was in Old Boyfriends (1980), John Carpenter's The Fog (1980), Wholly Moses! (1981) and My Bodyguard (1981) 
Houseman briefly returned to producing with the TV movie Gideon's Trumpet (1980), which he also appeared in and Choices of the Heart (1983)  He produced one more show on Broadway, The Curse of an Aching Heart (1982) 
He acted in The Babysitter (1980), A Christmas Without Snow (1980), Ghost Story (1981), Mork & Mindy, Murder by Phone (1982) (second billed), Marco Polo (1982), and American Playhouse (1982) 

Television star
Having played a Harvard Law School professor in the film The Paper Chase (1973), he reprised the role in a television series of the same name, which ran from 1978 to 1979 and 1983 to 1986  During that time, he received two Golden Globe nominations for "Best Actor in a TV Series—Drama" 
In the 1980s Houseman became more widely known for his role as grandfather Edward Stratton II in Silver Spoons, which starred Rick Schroder, and for his commercials for brokerage firm Smith Barney, which featured the catchphrase, "They make money the old fashioned way    they earn it " Another was Puritan brand cooking oil, with "less saturated fat than the leading oil", featuring the famous 'tomato test' 
He played Jewish author Aaron Jastrow (loosely based on the real life figure of Bernard Berenson) in the highly acclaimed 1983 miniseries The Winds of War (receiving a fourth Golden Globe nomination)  He declined to reprise the role in the sequel War and Remembrance miniseries (the role then went to Sir John Gielgud) 
However he was in the miniseries A D  (1984), Noble House (1986), and Lincoln (1986) 

Personal life
Houseman had an affair with actress Joan Fontaine after her marriage to actor Brian Aherne ended  "Ours was what was known in Hollywood as a 'romance,' -- which meant that we slept together three or four nights a week, got invited to parties together, went away together for weekends and sometimes talked about getting married without really meaning it," Houseman wrote in Front and Center, his second autobiography 

Final years and death
Later film appearances included Bright Lights, Big City (1988) and Another Woman (1988) 
In 1988, he appeared in his last two roles—cameos in the films The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! and Scrooged  He played a driving instructor (whose mannerisms parodied many of his prior roles) in the former, and himself in the latter  Both films were released after his death 
On October 31, 1988, Houseman died at age 86 of spinal cancer at his home in Malibu, California  He was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea 

In popular culture
Houseman was portrayed by Cary Elwes in the Tim Robbins–directed film Cradle Will Rock (1999)  Actor Eddie Marsan plays the role of Houseman in Richard Linklater's film Me & Orson Welles (2009)  Houseman was played by actor Jonathan Rigby in the Doctor Who audio drama Invaders from Mars set around the War of the Worlds broadcast  Actor Sam Troughton portrayed Houseman in the 2020 film Mank 
In the Seinfeld episode "The Face Painter", Jerry tells Elaine that Alec Berg has "a good John Houseman name"  Jerry then imitates Houseman, speaking Alec Berg's name in a non-rhotic, gravelly rasp 
In the SCTV episode "Jane Eyrehead", guest star Robin Williams portrayed Houseman in the sketch commercial "An Evening with John Houseman", in which he reads the Mellonville phonebook to a cheering theater audience 

Filmography
Film
As actor (film)
As producer (film)
Television
As actor (television)
As producer (television)
Passage 2:
Indutiomarus
Indutiomarus (died 53 BC) was a leading aristocrat of the Treveri (the people of the area around present-day Trier) at the time of Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul  He was the head of the anti-Roman party and the political rival of his pro-Roman son-in-law Cingetorix for "supreme power" in the state 

Biography
In 54 BC, Indutiomarus made preparations for war against the Romans and evacuated non-combatants to the Ardennes  However, when Caesar arrived in the territory of the Treveri en route to Britain, Indutiomarus was deserted by many of his leading supporters and submitted to Caesar in the hopes of preserving his position  Caesar accepted his submission, taking 200 hostages including several of Indutiomarus' close family members, but he also took the opportunity to promote Cingetorix to power among the Treveri at Indutiomarus' expense Deprived of much of his power, Indutiomarus became all the more bitter an enemy of the Romans, and waited for a favourable opportunity to take his revenge  Such an opportunity arrived soon  To ensure adequate food supplies, Caesar had separated his troops into winter quarters dispersed in different parts of Gaul  Indutiomarus encouraged Ambiorix and Cativolcus, chiefs of the Eburones, to attack the Roman legion stationed in their country; he himself soon afterwards marched against Titus Labienus, who was encamped among the Remi, immediately west of the Treveri  Forewarned of Caesar's victory over the Nervii, Indutiomarus withdrew his forces into Treveran country and raised fresh troops  He also spent the winter sending ambassadors to the Germans in search of allies  Other peoples began sending ambassadors to Indutiomarus of their own accord as well – these included the Senones, the Carnutes, the Nervii and the Aduatuci Now emboldened, Indutiomarus declared Cingetorix an enemy of the state and confiscated his property 
He marched against Labienus again and surrounded the Roman camp  Indutiomarus took to riding around the camp with his cavalry force almost daily, both to reconnoitre and to intimidate the Romans within  Labienus one day sneaked a large contingent of auxiliary cavalry into the Roman camp, and during one of these exercises the auxiliaries surprised the Treveran force with a sudden sally  Indutiomarus himself was killed in the rout while crossing a river  His death was still a source of anger and rebellion as of 51 BC, when the Treveri remained in the field on the side of Ambiorix 
Passage 3:
Et tu, Brute?
Et tu, Brute? (pronounced [ɛt ˈtuː ˈbruːtɛ]) is a Latin phrase literally meaning "and you, Brutus?" or "also you, Brutus?", often translated as "You as well, Brutus?", "You too, Brutus?", or "Even you, Brutus?"  The quote appears in Act 3 Scene 1 of William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, where it is spoken by the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, at the moment of his assassination, to his friend Marcus Junius Brutus, upon recognizing him as one of the assassins  The first known occurrences of the phrase are said to be in two earlier Elizabethan plays; Henry VI, Part 3 by Shakespeare, and an even earlier play, Caesar Interfectus, by Richard Edes  The phrase is often used apart from the plays to signify an unexpected betrayal by a friend  
There is no evidence that the historical Caesar spoke these words  Though the historical Caesar's last words are not known with certainty, the Roman historian Suetonius, a century and a half after the incident, claims Caesar said nothing as he died, but that others reported that Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase Kai su, teknon (Και συ τέκνον), which means "You too, child" or "You too, young man" to Brutus  Contrary to popular belief, the words are not Caesar's last in the play, as he says "Then fall Caesar!" right after 

Etymology
The name Brutus, a second declension masculine noun, appears in the phrase in the vocative case, and so the -us ending of the nominative case is replaced by -e 

Context
On March 15 (the Ides of March), 44 BC, the historic Caesar was attacked by a group of senators, including Brutus, who was Caesar's friend and protégé  Caesar initially resisted his attackers, but when he saw Brutus, he reportedly responded as he died  Suetonius mentions the quote merely as a rumor, as does Plutarch who also reports that Caesar said nothing, but merely pulled his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators Caesar saying Et tu, Brute? in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (1599) was not the first time the phrase was used in a dramatic play  Edmond Malone claimed that it appeared in a work that has since been lost—Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582  The phrase had also occurred in another play by Shakespeare, The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke, and the death of good King Henrie the Sixth, with the Whole Contention betweene the two Houses Lancaster and Yorke of 1595, which is the earliest printed version of Henry VI, Part 3 

Interpretation
It has been argued that the phrase can be interpreted as a curse or warning  One theory states that the historic Caesar adapted the words of a Greek sentence which to the Romans had long since become proverbial: The complete phrase is said to have been "You too, my son, will have a taste of power", of which Caesar only needed to invoke the opening words to foreshadow Brutus' own violent death, in response to his assassination  The poem Satires; Book I, Satire 7 by Horace, written approximately 30 BC, mentions Brutus and his tyrannicide; in discussing that poem, author John Henderson considers that the expression E-t t-u Br-u-t-e, (as he hyphenates it), can be interpreted as a complaint containing a "suggestion of mimetic compulsion" 

See also
List of Latin phrases (E)
Passage 4:
Assassination of Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar was  assassinated by a group of senators on the Ides of March (15 March) of 44 BC during a meeting of the Senate at the Curia of Pompey of the Theatre of Pompey in Rome where the senators stabbed Caesar 23 times  They claimed to be acting over fears that Caesar's unprecedented concentration of power during his dictatorship was undermining the Roman Republic  At least 60 to 70 senators were party to the conspiracy, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, Gaius Cassius Longinus, and Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus  Despite the death of Caesar, the conspirators were unable to restore the institutions of the Republic  The ramifications of the assassination led to his Martyrdom, the Liberators' civil war and ultimately to the Principate period of the Roman Empire 

Causes
Caesar had served the Republic for eight years in the Gallic Wars, fully conquering the region of Gaul (roughly equivalent to modern-day France)  After the Roman Senate demanded that Caesar disband his army and return home as a civilian, he refused, crossing the Rubicon with his army and plunging Rome into Caesar's Civil War in 49 BC  After defeating the last of the opposition, Caesar was appointed dictator perpetuo ("dictator in perpetuity") in early 44 BC  Roman historian Titus Livius describes three incidents that occurred from 45 to 44 BC as the final causes of Caesar's assassination – the "three last straws" as far as some Romans were concerned The first incident took place in December 45 BC or possibly early 44 BC  According to Roman historian Cassius Dio, after the Senate had voted to bestow a large group of honours upon Caesar, they decided to present them to him formally, and marched as a senatorial delegation to the Temple of Venus Genetrix  When they arrived, etiquette called for Caesar to stand up to greet the senators, but he did not rise  He also joked about their news, saying that his honours needed to be cut back instead of increased  Roman historian Suetonius wrote (almost 150 years later) that Caesar failed to rise in the temple, either because he was restrained by the consul Lucius Cornelius Balbus or that he balked at the suggestion he should rise  Regardless of the reasoning, by practically rejecting a senatorial gift and not acknowledging the delegation's presence with proper etiquette, Caesar gave the strong impression that he no longer cared about the Senate The second incident occurred in 44 BC  One day in January, the tribunes Gaius Epidius Marullus and Lucius Caesetius Flavus discovered a diadem on the head of the statue of Caesar on the Rostra in the Roman Forum  According to Suetonius, the tribunes ordered the wreath be removed as it was a symbol of Jupiter and royalty  Nobody knew who had placed the diadem, but Caesar suspected that the tribunes had arranged for it to appear so that they could have the honour of removing it  Matters escalated shortly after on the 26th, when Caesar was riding on horseback to Rome on the Appian Way  A few members of the crowd greeted him as rex ("king"), to which Caesar replied, "I am not Rex, but Caesar" ("Non sum Rex, sed Caesar")  This was wordplay; "Rex" was a family name as well as a Latin title  Marullus and Flavus, the aforementioned tribunes, were not amused, and ordered the man who first cried "rex" arrested  In a later senate meeting, Caesar accused the tribunes of attempting to create opposition to him, and had them removed from office and membership in the Senate  The Roman plebs took their tribunes seriously as the representatives of the common people; Caesar's actions against the tribunes put him on the wrong side of public opinion The third incident took place at the festival of the Lupercalia, on 15 February 44 BC  Mark Antony, who had been elected co-consul with Caesar, climbed onto the Rostra and placed a diadem on Caesar's head, saying "The People give this to you through me " While a few members of the crowd applauded, most responded with silence  Caesar removed the diadem from his head; Antony again placed it on him, only to get the same response from the crowd  Finally, Caesar put it aside to use as a sacrifice to Jupiter Optimus Maximus  "Jupiter alone of the Romans is king", Caesar said, which received an enthusiastic response from the crowd  At the time, many believed that Caesar's rejection of the diadem was a way for him to see if there was enough support for him to become king, and despised him for it According to Suetonius, Caesar's assassination ultimately occurred primarily due to concerns that he wished to crown himself the king of Rome  These concerns were exacerbated by the "three last straws" of 45 and 44 BC  In just a few months, Caesar had disrespected the Senate, removed People's Tribunes, and toyed with monarchy  By February, the conspiracy that caused his assassination was being born 

Conspiracy
The conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar began with a meeting between Cassius Longinus and his brother-in-law Marcus Brutus in the evening of 22 February 44 BC, when after some discussion the two agreed that something had to be done to prevent Caesar from becoming king of the Romans The two men then began to recruit others  While it took only one man to murder another, Brutus believed that for the assassination of Caesar to be considered a legitimate removal of a tyrant, done for the sake of their country, it must include a large number of Rome's leading men  They attempted to strike a balance: they aimed to recruit enough men to surround Caesar and fight his supporters, but not so many that they would risk being discovered  They preferred friends to acquaintances and recruited neither reckless youths nor feeble elders  In the end, the conspirators recruited senators near the age of forty, as were they  The men assessed each potential recruit with innocent-sounding questions  The ancient sources report that in the end, around sixty to eighty conspirators joined the plot, although the latter number may be a scribal error Notable conspirators included Pacuvius Labeo, who answered affirmatively on 2 March when Brutus asked him whether it was wise for a man to put himself into danger if it meant overcoming evil or foolish men; Decimus Brutus, who joined on 7 March after being approached by Labeo and Cassius; Gaius Trebonius, Tillius Cimber, Minucius Basilus, and the brothers Casca (Publius and another whose name is unknown), all men from Caesar's own ranks; and Pontius Aquila, who had been personally humiliated by Caesar  According to Nicolaus of Damascus, the conspirators included Caesar's soldiers, officers, and civilian associates, and while some joined the conspiracy due to concerns over Caesar's authoritarianism, many had self-interested motives such as jealousy: feeling that Caesar had not rewarded them enough or that he had given too much money towards Pompey's former supporters  The conspirators did not meet openly but instead secretly assembled at each other's homes and in small groups in order to work out a plan First, the conspirators discussed the addition of two other men to the conspiracy  Cicero, the famous orator, was trusted by both Cassius and Brutus, and had made it no secret that he considered Caesar's rule oppressive
Context 3: Passage 1:
Black Death
The Black Death (also known as the Pestilence, the Great Mortality or the Plague) was a bubonic plague pandemic occurring in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353  It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing the deaths of 75–200 million people, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351  Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis spread by fleas, but during the Black Death it probably also took a secondary form, spread by person-to-person contact via aerosols, causing pneumonic plague The Black Death was the beginning of the second plague pandemic  The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history 
The origin of the Black Death is disputed  Genetic analysis points to the evolution of Yersinia pestis in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China 2,600 years ago  The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remains unclear with some pointing towards Central Asia, China, the Middle East and Europe  The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347  From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean Basin and reaching North Africa, Western Asia and the rest of Europe via Constantinople, Sicily and the Italian Peninsula  There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread person-to-person as pneumonic plague, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary vector was rat fleas causing bubonic plague  In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may not have been due to Mongol conquests in the 14th century, as previously speculated The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317) and is estimated to have killed 30 percent to 60 percent of the European population, as well as about one-third of the population of the Middle East  The plague might have reduced the world population from c  475 million to 350–375 million in the 14th century  There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, with other contributing factors (the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages), the European population did not regain its level in 1300 until 1500  Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century 

Names
European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in Latin as pestis or pestilentia, 'pestilence'; epidemia, 'epidemic'; mortalitas, 'mortality'  In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death"  Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first murrain) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as "black" in the time of occurrence in any European language, though the expression "black death" had occasionally been applied to fatal disease beforehand  "Black death" was not used to describe the plague pandemic in English until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated Danish: den sorte død, lit  'the black death'  This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was transferred to other languages as a calque: Icelandic: svarti dauði, German: der schwarze Tod, and French: la mort noire  Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the Latin: magna mortalitas, lit  'Great Death' The phrase 'black death' – describing Death as black – is very old  Homer used it in the Odyssey to describe the monstrous Scylla, with her mouths "full of black Death" (Ancient Greek: πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο, romanized: pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio)  Seneca the Younger may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', (Latin: mors atra) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark prognosis of disease  The 12th–13th century French physician Gilles de Corbeil had already used atra mors to refer to a "pestilential fever" (febris pestilentialis) in his work On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium)  The phrase mors nigra, 'black death', was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to an astrological conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn  His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease The historian Cardinal Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague"  In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J  I  Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant) 

Previous plague epidemics
Research from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age  Research in 2018 found evidence of Yersinia pestis in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "Neolithic decline" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly  This Y  pestis may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near Samara The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a fragment of Rufus of Ephesus preserved by Oribasius; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the Roman Empire before the reign of Trajan, six centuries before arriving at Pelusium in the reign of Justinian I  In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the Plague of Justinian (541–542 CE, with recurrences until 750) was Y  pestis  This is known as the first plague pandemic  In 610, the Chinese physician Chao Yuanfang described a "malignant bubo" "coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue " The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in Lingnan (Guangzhou)  Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600 

14th-century plague
Causes
Early theory
The most authoritative contemporary account is found in a report from the medical faculty in Paris to Philip VI of France  It blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air" (miasma theory)  Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a "martyrdom and mercy" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise  For non-believers, it was a punishment  Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God  Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans  These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks 

Predominant modern theory
Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease  The plague disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas, including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, North India, Uganda and the western United States Y  pestis was discovered by Alexandre Yersin, a pupil of Louis Pasteur, during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacillus was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission  The mechanism by which Y  pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y  pestis several days after feeding on an infected host  This blockage starves the fleas and drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour and attempts to clear the blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host  The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lacks resistance  When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic 

DNA evidence
Definitive confirmation of the role of Y  pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in PLOS Pathogens by Haensch et al  They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y  pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences  The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y  pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages"  In 2011, these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England  Schuenemann et al  concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y  pestis that may no longer exist" Later in 2011, Bos et al  reported in Nature the first draft genome of Y  pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y  pestis Since this time, further genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the Y  pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor of later plague epidemics including the third plague pandemic and as the descendant of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian  In addition, plague genomes from significantly earlier in prehistory have been recovered DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th century London have shown plague is a strain of Y  pestis almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013  Further DNA evidence also proves the role of Y  Pestis and traces the source to the Tian Shan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan 

Alternative explanations
It is recognised that an epidemiological account of plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period  Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the Domesday Book of 1086 and the poll tax of the year 1377  Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy 
Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission  A research in 2018 challenged the popular hypothesis that "infected rats died, their flea parasites could have jumped from the recently dead rat hosts to humans"  It suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people"  The second model claims to better fit the trends of death toll because the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, which contradict historical death data Lars Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities  Similarly, Monica Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y  pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person  This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and fleas during the second plague pandemic 

Summary
Although academic debate continues, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance  Many scholars arguing for Y  pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections  In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicaemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms  In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis  Currently, while osteoarcheologists have conclusively verified the presence of Y  pestis bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and dental pulp, no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations 

Transmission
Lack of hygiene
The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century with the development of the germ theory of disease; until then streets were commonly filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding, facilitating the spread of transmissible disease By the early fourteenth century so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste  In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for "shit"  There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris  Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were as careless as William E  Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without  A complaint lodged against Cosner charges that "men could not pass [by his house] for the stink [of]       horse dung and horse piss "One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden "stinking and putrid", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, "making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near " In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, "Look out below!" three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street Early Christians, who thought self-abnegation a cardinal virtue, considered bathing, if not a vice, then a temptation  "Who knows what impure thoughts might arise in a tub of warm water? With this danger in mind, St  Benedict declared, "To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted " St  Agnes took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing 

Territorial origins
According to a team of medical geneticists led by Mark Achtman that analysed the genetic variation of the bacterium Yersinia pestis "evolved in or near China" over 2,600 years ago  Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko places the origins more specifically in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China  However more recent research notes that the previous sampling had a very heavy East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of Y  pestis in the Caucasus region that were previously thought to be restricted to China  There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China  As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day  According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years  The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic; this is supported by recent direct findings of Y  pestis DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to "pestilence" as the cause of death  Epidemics killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before the Black Death reached Constantinople in 1347 
The evidence does not suggest, at least at present, that these mortality crises were caused by plague  Although some scholars, including McNeill and Cao, see the 1333 outbreak as a prelude to the outbreaks in Europe from the late 1340s to the early 1350s, scholars of the Yuan and Ming periods remain skeptical about such an interpretation  Nonetheless, the remarkably high mortality rates during the Datong mortality should discourage us from rejecting the possibility of localized/regional outbreaks of plague in different parts of China, albeit differing in scale from, and unrelated to, the pandemic mortality of the Black Death  What we lack is any indication of a plague pandemic that engulfed vast territories of the Yuan Empire and later moved into western Eurasia through Central Asia 
According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact  According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the Silk Road, and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak  There are no records of the symptoms of the Black Death from Mongol sources or writings from travelers east of the Black Sea prior to the Crimean outbreak in 1346  Finally, the Silk Road had already been heavily disrupted before the spread of the Black Death  Western and Middle Eastern traders found it difficult to trade on the Silk Road by 1325 and impossible by 1340, making spread of the plague less likely Others still favor an origin in China or even Kurdistan, and not Central Asia  According to the theory of Chinese origin, the disease may have traveled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders, or it could have arrived via ship, but this theory is still contested  It is speculated that rats aboard Zheng He's ships in the 15th century may have carried the plague to Southeast Asia, India and Africa 
Research on the Delhi Sultanate and the Yuan Dynasty shows no evidence of any serious epidemic in fourteenth-century India and no specific evidence of plague in fourteenth-century China, suggesting that the Black Death may not have reached these regions  Ole Benedictow argues that since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from Kaffa, the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea 
Demographic historians estimate that China's population fell by at least 15 percent, and perhaps as much as a third, between 1340 and 1370  This population loss coincided with the Black Death that ravaged Europe and much of the Islamic world in 1347–52  However, there is a conspicuous lack of evidence for pandemic disease on the scale of the Black Death in China at this time  War and famine – and the diseases that typically accompanied them – probably were the main causes of mortality in the final decades of Mongol rule 
Monica H  Green suggests that the reason why other parts of Eurasia outside the west do not contain the same evidence of the Black Plague is because there were actually four strains of Yersinia pestis that became predominant in different parts of the world  Mongol records of illness such as food poisoning may have been referring to the Black Plague  Another theory is that the Black Death originated near Europe and cycled through the Mediterranean, Northern Europe and Russia before making its way to China  Other historians such as John Norris and Ole Benedictaw believe the Black Death likely originated in Europe or the Middle East and never reached China 

European outbreak
Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders from their port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347  During a protracted siege of the city, in 1345–1346 the Mongol Golden Horde army of Jani Beg, whose mainly Tatar troops were suffering from the disease, catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants, though it is more likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants  As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the Black Sea to Constantinople, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347 The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the Byzantine emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on Thucydides's account of the 5th century BCE Plague of Athens, but noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities  Nicephorus Gregoras also described in writing to Demetrios Kydones the rising death toll, the futility of medicine, and the panic of the citizens  The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400 Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in Sicily in October 1347; the disease spread rapidly all over the island  Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy  Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseilles From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain (the epidemic began to wreak havoc first on the Crown of Aragon in the spring of 1348), Portugal and England by June 1348, then spread east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350  It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland  Finally, it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351  Plague was somewhat more uncommon in parts of Europe with less developed trade with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavourable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations and forced their fleas onto alternative hosts, inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean, as well as during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic region  Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, malnutrition, even if distantly, also contributed to such an immense loss in European population, since it weakened immune systems 

Western Asian and North African outbreak
The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures  As infected rodents infected new rodents, the disease spread across the region, entering also from southern Russia 
By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople; according to a contemporary witness, from a single merchant ship carrying slaves  By late summer 1348 it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural centre of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died  The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex  The historian al-Maqrizi described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of funeral rites, and plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza by April; by July it had reached Damascus, and in October plague had broken out in Aleppo  That year, in the territory of modern Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine, the cities of Ascalon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon and Homs were all infected  In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch  The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey  Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa  The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 Tunis was infected by ship from Sicily  Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of Almería in al-Andalus Mecca became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the Hajj  In 1351 or 1352, the Rasulid sultan of the Yemen, al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home  During 1348, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease 

Signs and symptoms
Bubonic plague
Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise  Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 percent die within eight days Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise  The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened  Boccaccio's description:

In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg     From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous  As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves 
This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood  Most people died two to seven days after initial infection  Freckle-like spots and rashes, which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of plague 

Pneumonic plague
Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems  Symptoms include fever, cough and blood-tinged sputum  As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red  Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 percent 

Septicaemic plague
Septicaemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%  Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation)  In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicaemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes 

Consequences
Deaths
There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality  In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality  It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia  A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe between 1250 and 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death  The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia and Ireland The mortality rate of the Black Death in the 14th century was far greater than the worst 20th-century outbreaks of Y  pestis plague, which occurred in India and killed as much as 3% of the population of certain cities  The overwhelming number of deceased bodies produced by the Black Death caused the necessity of mass burial sites in Europe, sometimes including up to several hundred or several thousand skeletons  The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical and anthropological implications of the Black Death According to medieval historian Philip Daileader, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague  Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests it could have been as much as 60% of the European population  In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished  In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die  Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died  In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351  At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well, with a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353  Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348  Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450  The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to contagion  Plague did not appear in Douai in Flanders until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of Hainaut, Finland, northern Germany and areas of Poland  Monks, nuns and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people with the Black Death 

The physician to the Avignon Papacy, Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (Latin: Magister Raimundus, lit  'Master Raymond'), observed the decreasing mortality rate of successive outbreaks of plague in 1347–48, 1362, 1371 and 1382 in his 1382 treatise On Epidemics (De epidemica)  In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived  By the 1380s in Europe, it predominantly affected children  Chalmel de Vinario recognised that bloodletting was ineffective (though he continued to prescribe bleeding for members of the Roman Curia, whom he disliked), and said that all true cases of plague were caused by astrological factors and were incurable; he himself was never able to effect a cure The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population  The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population  In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months Italian chronicler Agnolo di Tura recorded his experience from Siena, where plague arrived in May 1348:

Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight  And so they died  And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship  Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices     great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead  And they died by the hundreds both day and night     And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug     And I, Agnolo di Tura     buried my five children with my own hands  And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city  There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death  And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world 

Economic
It has been suggested that the plague, like some others in history, disproportionately affected the poorest people, who were already in generally worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens   Nevertheless, with such a large overall population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a labour shortage  On the other hand, in the quarter century after the Black Death in England, it is clear many labourers, artisans and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, did suffer a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation  Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants 

Environmental
A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation  This may have led to the Little Ice Age 

Persecutions
Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death  Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", lepers and Romani, blaming them for the crisis  Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe 
Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks  Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness There were many attacks against Jewish communities  In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered  In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated  By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed  During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great 

Social
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy and led to the Renaissance  Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife  It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century  The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy  The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an influx of Greek scholars following the fall of the Byzantine Empire  As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom  To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the workings of Europe were run by the Catholic Church and the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of fiefs and city-states  The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled Cairo's population, partly owing to the numerous plague epidemics, was in the early 18th century half of what it was in 1347  The populations of some Italian cities, notably Florence, did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century  The demographic decline due to the pandemic had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30–40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400  Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall  The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably destabilised feudalism The word "quarantine" has its roots in this period, though the concept of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older  In the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas  The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty" 

Recurrences
Second plague pandemic
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries  According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671  (Note that some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data ) The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–63; 1374; 1400; 1438–39; 1456–57; 1464–66; 1481–85; 1500–03; 1518–31; 1544–48; 1563–66; 1573–88; 1596–99; 1602–11; 1623–40; 1644–54; and 1664–67  Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century)  The historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s  However, other sources suggest that the Second pandemic did indeed reach Sub-Saharan Africa According to historian Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31 " In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1 7 million people in Italy  More than 1 25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world



ground_truth: River Thames

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where did the producer of Julius Caesar study or work?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  He also had great popularity among the common people and a large network of friends, which would help attract others to join their cause  However, the conspirators considered Cicero too cautious; at that time, Cicero was over sixty, and the conspirators thought he would be too likely to put safety over speed when planning the assassination  Next, the conspirators considered Mark Antony, aged thirty-nine and one of Caesar's best generals  The conspirators were agreeing to attempt to recruit him until Gaius Trebonius spoke  He revealed that he had personally approached Antony the summer before and asked him to join a different conspiracy to end Caesar's life, and Antony had turned him down  This rejection to the old conspiracy caused the conspirators to decide against recruiting Antony Now, however, a new idea took place  Antony was strong because of his familiarity with the soldiers, and powerful due to his consulship  If Antony was not to join them, then they must assassinate Antony as well, lest he interfere with the conspiracy  Eventually, this idea was expanded upon and split the conspirators into two factions  The optimates, the "Best Men" of Rome, among the conspirators wanted to go back to the way things were before Caesar  This would entail killing both Caesar and all the men around him, including Antony, and reverting Caesar's reforms  The former supporters of Caesar among the conspirators did not agree to this  They liked Caesar's reforms, and did not want a purge of Caesar's supporters  However, even they agreed to kill Antony Brutus disagreed with both  He argued that killing Caesar, and doing nothing else, was the option they should choose  The conspirators claimed to be acting based on the principles of law and justice, he told them, and it would be unjust to kill Antony  While the assassination of Caesar would be viewed as the killing of a tyrant, killing his supporters would be seen only as a politicized purge and the work of Pompey's former supporters  By keeping Caesar's reforms intact, they would both keep the support of the Roman people, who Brutus believed opposed Caesar the king, not Caesar the reformer, and the support of Caesar's soldiers and other supporters  His argument convinced the other conspirators  They began making plans for Caesar's assassination The conspirators believed that how and where they assassinated Caesar would make a difference  An ambush in a secluded area would have a different impact on public opinion than an assassination in the heart of Rome  The conspirators came up with multiple ideas for the assassination  They considered an attack on Caesar while he was walking on the Via Sacra, the "Sacred Street"  Another idea was to wait to attack him during the elections for new consuls  The conspirators would wait for Caesar to begin crossing the bridge that all voters crossed as part of the election procedures, and then topple him over the rail and into the water  There would be conspirators waiting in the water for Caesar, with daggers drawn  Another plan was to attack at a gladiatorial game, which had the benefit that nobody would be suspicious of armed men Finally, somebody brought up the idea to assassinate Caesar at one of the senate meetings  All other plans had one detriment: while Caesar had no official bodyguards, he asked his friends to protect him in public  Most of these friends were imposing and dangerous-looking and the conspirators were afraid that they would interfere with the assassination  Here, this would not be an issue, since only senators were allowed in the Senate House  Some also said that the murder of a tyrant in full view of the Senate would not be seen as a political plot, but as a noble act, done on behalf of their country  The conspirators ultimately settled on this as the chosen plan  Caesar would be leaving the city on 18 March to embark on a military campaign against the Getae and the Parthians  The last senate meeting before that date was on the 15th, the Ides of March, and so the conspirators chose this as the day of the assassination In the days leading up to the Ides, Caesar was not completely oblivious to what was being planned  According to the ancient historian Plutarch, a seer had warned Caesar that his life would be in danger no later than the Ides of March  The Roman biographer Suetonius identifies this seer as a haruspex named Spurinna  In addition, on 1 March, Caesar watched Cassius speaking with Brutus at the senate house and said to an aide, "What do you think Cassius is up to? I don't like him, he looks pale "Two days before the assassination, Cassius met with the conspirators and told them that, should anyone discover the plan, they were to turn their knives on themselves 

Ides of March
On the Ides of March of 44 BC, conspirators and non-conspirators met at the Senate House of Pompey, located in the Theatre of Pompey, for the senate meeting  Usually, the senators would be meeting at the Roman Forum, but Caesar was financing a reconstruction of the forum and so the senators met in other venues throughout Rome, this being one of them  There were gladiatorial games underway at the Theatre, and Decimus Brutus, who owned a company of gladiators, stationed them in the Portico of Pompey, also located in the Theatre of Pompey  The gladiators could be useful to the conspirators: if a fight broke out to protect Caesar, the gladiators could intervene; if Caesar was killed but the conspirators came under attack, the gladiators could protect them; and since it was impossible to enter the Senate House without going through the Portico, the gladiators could block entrance to both if necessary The senators waited for Caesar's arrival, but he did not come  The reason for this is that early that morning, Calpurnia, Caesar's wife, was awoken from a nightmare  She had dreamt that she was holding a murdered Caesar in her arms and mourning him  Other versions have Calpurnia dream that the front pediment of their house had collapsed and that Caesar had died; yet another shows Caesar's body streaming with blood  Calpurnia had no doubt heard Spurinna's warnings of great peril to Caesar's life, which helps explain her visions  Around 5 a m , Calpurnia begged Caesar not to go to the senate meeting that day  After some hesitation, Caesar acquiesced  Although not superstitious, he knew that Spurinna and Calpurnia were involved in Roman politics, and decided to be cautious  Caesar sent Mark Antony to dismiss the Senate  When the conspirators heard of this dismissal, Decimus went to Caesar's home to try to talk him into coming to the Senate meeting  "What do you say, Caesar?" Decimus said  "Will someone of your stature pay attention to a woman's dreams and the omens of foolish men?" Caesar eventually decided to go Caesar was walking to the senate house when he caught sight of Spurinna  "Well, the Ides of March have come!" Caesar called out playfully  "Aye, the Ides have come," said Spurinna, "but they are not yet gone " Mark Antony started to enter with Caesar, but was intercepted by one of the plotters (either Trebonius or Decimus Brutus) and detained outside  He remained there until after the assassination, at which point he fled 
According to Plutarch, as Caesar took his seat, Lucius Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother  The other conspirators crowded round to offer their support  Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed Caesar's shoulders and pulled down Caesar's toga  Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!")  At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck  Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm  According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" Casca, frightened, shouted simultaneously "Brother! Help me!" (Ancient Greek: ἀδελφέ, βοήθει, romanized: adelphe, boethei)  Though Caesar was able to violently throw Casca away, Gaius Servilius Casca stabbed him in the side  Within moments, Caesar was attacked from all directions, with Cassius, slashing Caesar's face, Bucilianus stabbing at the back and Decimus slicing his thigh  Caesar attempted to fight back, but tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenseless on the lower steps of the portico  Caesar was stabbed 23 times  Suetonius relates that a physician who performed an autopsy on Caesar established that only one wound (the second one to his ribs) had been fatal  This autopsy report (the earliest known post-mortem report in history) describes that Caesar's death was mostly attributable to blood loss from his stab wounds Caesar was killed at the base of the Curia of Pompey in the Theatre of Pompey The dictator's last words are a contested subject among scholars and historians  Suetonius himself says he said nothing, nevertheless, he mentions that others have written that Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "καὶ σύ, τέκνον;" (transliterated as "Kai su, teknon?": "You too, child?" in English)  Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators  According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators not involved in the plot; they, however, fled the building  Brutus and his companions then marched through the city, announcing: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumours of what had taken place began to spread  According to Suetonius, after the murder all the conspirators fled; Caesar's body lay untouched for some time afterwards, until finally three slaves put him on a litter and carried him home, with one arm hanging down 

Preceding events
Virgil wrote in the Georgics that several unusual events took place preceding Caesar's assassination  This should be read in the context of the ancient Romans' belief in omens 

Who dare say the Sun is false? He and no other warns us when dark uprising threaten, when treachery and hidden wars are gathering strength  He and no other was moved to pity Rome on the day that Caesar died, when he veiled his radiance in gloom and darkness, and a godless age feared everlasting night  Yet in this hour Earth also and the plains of Ocean, ill-boding dogs and birds that spell mischief, sent signs which heralded disaster  How oft before our eyes did Etna deluge the fields of the Cyclopes with a torrent from her burst furnaces, hurling thereon balls of fire and molten rocks  Germany heard the noise of battle sweep across the sky and, even without precedent, the Alps rocked with earthquakes  A voice boomed through the silent groves for all to hear, a deafening voice, and phantoms of unearthly pallor were seen in the falling darkness  Horror beyond words, beasts uttered human speech; rivers stood still, the earth gaped upon; in the temples ivory images wept for grief, and beads of sweat covered bronze statues  King of waterways, the Po swept forests along in the swirl of his frenzied current, carrying with him over the plain cattle and stalls alike  Nor in that same hour did sinister filaments cease to appear in ominous entrails or blood to flow from wells or our hillside towns to echo all night with the howl of wolves  Never fell more lightning from a cloudless sky; never was comet's alarming glare so often seen 

Aftermath
A wax statue of Caesar was erected at the Forum displaying the 23 stab wounds  A crowd who had amassed there expressed their anger at the assassins by burning the Senate House  Two days after the assassination, Mark Antony summoned the senate and managed to work out a compromise in which the assassins would not be punished for their acts, but all of Caesar's appointments would remain valid  By doing this, Antony most likely hoped to avoid large cracks in government forming as a result of Caesar's death  Simultaneously, Antony diminished the goals of the conspirators  The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic  The Roman lower classes, with whom Caesar was popular, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had sacrificed Caesar  Antony capitalized on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself  But, to his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavius his sole heir, bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name as well as making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic  Upon hearing of his adoptive father's death, Octavius abandoned his studies in Apollonia and sailed across the Adriatic Sea to Brundisium  Octavius became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus or Octavian, the son of the great Caesar, and consequently also inherited the loyalty of much of the Roman populace  Octavian, aged only 18 at the time of Caesar's death, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position  Antony did not initially consider Octavius a true political threat due to his young age and inexperience, but Octavius quickly gained the support and admiration of Caesar's friends and supporters To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the money from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them  With passage of the Lex Titia on 27 November 43 BC, the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's Master of the Horse Lepidus  It formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became Divi filius ("Son of the Divine")  Seeing that Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate brought back proscription, abandoned since Sulla  It engaged in the legally sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents in order to fund its forty-five legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius  Antony and Octavian defeated them at Philippi The Second Triumvirate was ultimately unstable and could not withstand internal jealousies and ambitions  Antony detested Octavian and spent most of his time in the East, while Lepidus favoured Antony but felt himself obscured by both his colleagues  Following the Sicilian revolt, led by Sextus Pompey, a dispute between Lepidus and Octavian regarding the allocation of lands broke out  Octavian accused Lepidus of usurping power in Sicily and of attempted rebellion and, in 36 BC, Lepidus was forced into exile in Circeii and stripped of all his offices except that of Pontifex Maximus  His former provinces were awarded to Octavian  Antony, meanwhile, married Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome  A third civil war subsequently broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other  This final civil war culminated in the latter's defeat at Actium in 31 BC; Octavian's forces would then chase Antony and Cleopatra to Alexandria, where they would both commit suicide in 30 BC  With the complete defeat of Antony and the marginalisation of Lepidus, Octavian, having been restyled "Augustus", a name that raised him to the status of a deity, in 27 BC, remained as the sole master of the Roman world and proceeded to establish the Principate as the first Roman "Emperor" 

List of conspirators
Most of the conspirators' names are lost to history and only about twenty are known  Nothing is known about some of those whose names have survived  The known members are:

Marcus Tullius Cicero was not a member of the conspiracy and was surprised by it  He later wrote to the conspirator Trebonius that he wished he had been "invited to that superb banquet" and believed that the conspirators should also have killed Mark Antony 

Gallery
See also
List of assassinated and executed heads of state and government
Acta Caesaris
Death of Alexander the Great
Death of Cleopatra
Julius Caesar, a play by William Shakespeare
The Ides of March, a novel by Thornton Wilder
The Throne of Caesar, a novel by Steven Saylor
Amanita caesarea

Notes
Passage 5:
Julius Caesar (1953 film)
Julius Caesar (billed on-screen as William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar) is a 1953 American film adaptation of the Shakespearean play, directed by Joseph L  Mankiewicz and produced by John Houseman for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer  It stars Marlon Brando as Mark Antony, James Mason as Brutus, John Gielgud as Cassius, Louis Calhern as Caesar, Edmond O'Brien as Casca,  Greer Garson as Calpurnia, and Deborah Kerr as Portia 
The film opened to positive reviews, and was nominated in five categories at the 26th Academy Awards (including Best Picture and Best Actor for Brando), winning Best Art Direction - Black-and-White  Brando and Gielgud both won BAFTA Awards, Brando for Best Foreign Actor and Gielgud for Best British Actor 

Plot
"Upon Caesar's return to Rome, after defeating Pompey in the civil war, his countrymen chose him a fourth time consul and then dictator for life      thus he became odious to moderate men through the extravagance of the titles and powers that were heaped upon him "Plutarch's LivesThe film is a largely-faithful adaptation of Shakespeare's play, with no significant cuts or alterations to the original text  The only notable exception is the Messenger's text recounting the Battle of Philippi, which is substituted with a visual depiction of the battle 

Cast
Cast as listed in end credits
Production
Producer John Houseman says the film was made because Laurence Olivier's 1944 production of Henry V had been a success  MGM's head of production Dore Schary offered the project to Houseman, who said he wanted Joseph L  Mankiewicz to direct because he thought he and William Wyler were "probably the two best dialogue directors in the business" and that Mankiewicz was "younger and more flexible "Houseman did not want to use an all-British cast  "I'd done a lot of Shakespeare in America," he said  "If it was going to be cast all-English, it should be an English picture, made in England and we might as well forget about it "Houseman says MGM wanted to make the film in color but he and Mankiewicz refused, "partly because we wanted people to relate to the newsreels, to the Fascist movements in Europe, which were still relevant" and also because they would be "using a lot of the Quo Vadis sets, and it seemed idiotic to invite comparison with Quo Vadis "Though Houseman originally intended to shoot the film in Italy, production ultimately took place in Los Angeles instead  Many of the sets and costumes were repurposed from Quo Vadis (1951), with several setpieces deconstructed, flown from Rome to California, and rebuilt on MGM's Culver City studio backlot 
Houseman says they "decided to do it as a small production, not a spectacle; to do it for what it really is—the drama of a political power play "

Casting
Many actors in this film had experience in the play  John Gielgud had played Mark Antony at the Old Vic Theatre in 1930 and Cassius at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1950, James Mason had played Brutus at the Abbey Theatre in Dublin in the 1940s, and John Hoyt, who plays Decius Brutus, also played him in the Mercury Theatre's 1937 stage version  Gielgud later played the title role in the 1970 film with Charlton Heston, Jason Robards and Richard Johnson (as Cassius) and in a stage production directed by John Schlesinger at the Royal National Theatre  John Houseman, who had produced the famous 1937 Broadway version of the play starring Orson Welles and the Mercury Theatre, also produced the MGM film  By this time, however, Welles and Houseman had had a falling out, and Welles had nothing to do with the 1953 film  P  M  Pasinetti, Italian-American writer, scholar, and teacher at UCLA served as a technical advisor 

Brando's casting was met with some skepticism when it was announced, as he had acquired the nickname of "The Mumbler" following his performance in A Streetcar Named Desire (1951)   Director Joseph L  Mankiewicz even considered Paul Scofield for the role of Mark Antony if Brando's screen test was unsuccessful   Brando asked John Gielgud for advice in declaiming Shakespeare, and adopted all of Gielgud's recommendations  Brando's performance turned out so well that the New York Times' Bosley Crowther stated in his review of the film: “Happily, Mr  Brando's diction, which has been guttural and slurred in previous films, is clear and precise in this instance  In him a major talent has emerged ”  Brando was so dedicated in his performance during shooting that Gielgud offered to direct him in a stage production of Hamlet, a proposition that Brando seriously considered but ultimately turned down   During filming, James Mason became concerned that Brando was stealing the audience's sympathy away from him and his character, Brutus, so Mason appealed to Mankiewicz, with whom he had bonded earlier while making the film 5 Fingers, requesting that the director stop Brando from dominating the film and "put the focus back where it belongs  Namely on me!"  The subsequent shift in directorial attention didn't escape Brando, who threatened to walk off the film if Mankiewicz "threw one more scene to Mason", alleging a ménage à trois  among Mankiewicz, Mason and his wife Pamela Mason   Despite the feuding, production continued with only minimal disruption, thanks to what Gielgud called, "Mankiewicz's consummate tact that kept us together as a working unit "O  Z  Whitehead is listed on the Internet Movie Database as having played Cinna the Poet in the film and not receiving screen credit, but his one scene was deleted before release, and it is not included in any DVD or video releases of the film  (However, Cinna the Conspirator does appear — he is played by actor William Cottrell )

Release
The film premiered at the Booth Theatre in New York City on June 3, 1953 

Reception
Critical response
The film received highly favorable reviews  Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called it "a stirring and memorable film," while Variety wrote: "A triumphant achievement in film-making, it will be rated one of the great pictures of Hollywood " Harrison's Reports raved, "Excellent! Sumptuously produced, expertly directed and brilliantly acted, 'Julius Caesar' is an artistic triumph that ranks with the best of the Shakespearean plays that have been put on film " John McCarten of The New Yorker called the film "a very chilly exercise" and opined that Brando "plainly shows he needs a bit of speech training before he can graduate into an acting league where the spoken word is a trifle more significant than the flexed biceps and the fixed eye," but praised Mason and Gielgud as "a pleasure to watch and listen to " The Monthly Film Bulletin called it "an excellent film, excellent cinema, excellent entertainment, and pretty respectable art "In the second volume of his book The Story of Cinema, author David Shipman pointed to Gielgud "negotiating the verse as in no other Shakespeare film to date except Olivier's"  On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 95% based on reviews from 22 critics The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:
Nominated Epic Film

Box office
According to MGM records, the film earned $2,021,000 in the U S  and Canada and $1,899,000 in other markets, resulting in a profit of $116,000 In 1976, Houseman said "It's still shown a lot—in theaters and schools and on TV  I suspect it finally made more money than any other picture I made "

Awards and nominations
The film won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction (Cedric Gibbons, Edward Carfagno, Edwin B  Willis, Hugh Hunt), and was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role (Marlon Brando), Best Cinematography, Black-and-White, Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture and Best Picture  Brando's nomination was his third consecutive for Best Actor, following 1951's A Streetcar Named Desire and 1952's Viva Zapata!  He would win the following year for On the Waterfront 
Julius Caesar won BAFTA awards for Best British Actor (John Gielgud) and Best Foreign Actor (Marlon Brando), and was also nominated for Best Film  It was Brando's second of three consecutive BAFTA Best Actor awards, for Viva Zapata! (1952), Julius Caesar (1953),  and On the Waterfront (1954) 
The National Board of Review awarded Julius Caesar Best Film and Best Actor (James Mason), and it also won the Golden Leopard at the Locarno International Film Festival 

Soundtrack
Intrada Records released an album featuring a 1995 re-recording of Miklós Rózsa’s film score  The re-recording was performed by the Sinfonia of London and conducted by Bruce Broughton 

See also
List of historical drama films
List of films set in ancient Rome
Julius Caesar (1950 film)
Julius Caesar (1970 film)
Passage 6:
Caesar Must Die
Caesar Must Die (Italian: Cesare deve morire) is a 2012 Italian drama film directed by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani  The film competed at the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival where it won the Golden Bear  The film is set in Rebibbia Prison (suburb of Rome), and follows convicts in their rehearsals ahead of a prison performance of Julius Caesar 

Cast
Salvatore Striano as Bruto (Brutus)
Cosimo Rega as Cassio (Cassius)
Giovanni Arcuri as Cesare (Caesar)
Antonio Frasca as Marcantonio (Mark Antony)
Juan Dario Bonetti as Decio (Decius Brutus)
Vincenzo Gallo as Lucio (Lucius)
Rosario Majorana as Metello (Metellus Cimber)
Francesco De Masi as Trebonio (Trebonius)
Gennaro Solito as Cinna (Cinna)
Vittorio Parrella as Casca (Casca)
Pasquale Crapetti as Legionär
Francesco Carusone as Wahrsager (Soothsayer)
Fabio Rizzuto as Stratone (Strato)
Maurilio Giaffreda as Ottavio (Octavius)
Fabio Cavalli as Theatre director

Accolades
Caesar Must Die won the Golden Bear at the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival in February 2012 where British director Mike Leigh led the judging panel  The Hollywood Reporter described the outcome as "a major upset"  Der Spiegel said it was a "very conservative selection"  Der Tagesspiegel criticised the outcome, saying that the "jury shunned almost all the contemporary films that were admired or hotly debated at an otherwise pretty remarkable festival"  The film was also selected as the Italian entry for the Best Foreign Language Oscar at the 85th Academy Awards, but it did not make the final shortlist Critics praised the use of actual prisoners in the film, saying it brought a higher intensity to the piece  Filmed largely in black-and-white, it has been described as a "deeply humanist film" that "blends gentle humour with an emotional punch"  Paolo Taviani said that he hoped moviegoers would "say to themselves or even those around them    that even a prisoner with a dreadful sentence, even a life sentence, is and remains a human being"  Vittorio Taviani read out the names of the cast At Metacritic, the film was given a rating of 76/100 based on 12 critics, which evaluates as generally favorable reviews

See also
List of black-and-white films produced since 1970
List of submissions to the 85th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Italian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Passage 7:
Ides of March
The Ides of March (; Latin: Idus Martiae, Late Latin: Idus Martii) is the 74th day in the Roman calendar, corresponding to 15 March  It was marked by several religious observances and was a deadline for settling debts in Rome  In 44 BC, it became notorious as the date of the assassination of Julius Caesar, which made the Ides of March a turning point in Roman history 

Ides
The Romans did not number each day of a month from the first to the last day  Instead, they counted back from three fixed points of the month: the Nones (the 5th or 7th, 8 days before the Ides), the Ides (the 13th for most months, but the 15th in March, May, July, and October), and the Kalends (1st of the following month)  Originally the Ides were supposed to be determined by the full moon, reflecting the lunar origin of the Roman calendar  In the earliest calendar, the Ides of March would have been the first full moon of the new year 

Religious observances
The Ides of each month were sacred to Jupiter, the Romans' supreme deity  The Flamen Dialis, Jupiter's high priest, led the "Ides sheep" (ovis Idulis) in procession along the Via Sacra to the arx, where it was sacrificed In addition to the monthly sacrifice, the Ides of March was also the occasion of the Feast of Anna Perenna, a goddess of the year (Latin annus) whose festival originally concluded the ceremonies of the new year  The day was enthusiastically celebrated among the common people with picnics, drinking, and revelry  One source from late antiquity also places the Mamuralia on the Ides of March  This observance, which has aspects of scapegoat or ancient Greek pharmakos ritual, involved beating an old man dressed in animal skins and perhaps driving him from the city  The ritual may have been a new year festival representing the expulsion of the old year In the later Imperial period, the Ides began a "holy week" of festivals celebrating Cybele and Attis, being the day Canna intrat ("The Reed enters"), when Attis was born and found among the reeds of a Phrygian river  He was discovered by shepherds or the goddess Cybele, who was also known as the Magna Mater ("Great Mother") (narratives differ)  A week later, on 22 March, the solemn commemoration of Arbor intrat ("The Tree enters") commemorated the death of Attis under a pine tree  A college of priests, the dendrophoroi ("tree bearers") annually cut down a tree, hung from it an image of Attis, and carried it to the temple of the Magna Mater with lamentations  The day was formalized as part of the official Roman calendar under Claudius (d  54 AD)  A three-day period of mourning followed, culminating with celebrating the rebirth of Attis on 25 March, the date of the vernal equinox on the Julian calendar 

Assassination of Caesar
In modern times, the Ides of March is best known as the date on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC  Caesar was stabbed to death at a meeting of the Senate  As many as 60 conspirators, led by Brutus and Cassius, were involved  According to Plutarch, a seer had warned that harm would come to Caesar on the Ides of March  On his way to the Theatre of Pompey, where he would be assassinated, Caesar passed the seer and joked, "Well, the Ides of March are come", implying that the prophecy had not been fulfilled, to which the seer replied "Aye, they are come, but they are not gone " This meeting is famously dramatised in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, when Caesar is warned by the soothsayer to "beware the Ides of March " The Roman biographer Suetonius identifies the "seer" as a haruspex named Spurinna 
Caesar's assassination opened the final chapter in the crisis of the Roman Republic  After his victory in Caesar's civil war, his death triggered a series of further Roman civil wars that would finally result in the rise to sole power of his adopted heir Octavian  In 27 BC, Octavian was raised to be emperor Augustus, and thus he finally terminated the Roman Republic  Writing under Augustus, Ovid portrays the murder as a sacrilege, since Caesar was also the pontifex maximus of Rome and a priest of Vesta  On the fourth anniversary of Caesar's death in 40 BC, after achieving a victory at the siege of Perugia, Octavian executed 300 senators and equites who had fought against him under Lucius Antonius, the brother of Mark Antony  The executions were one of a series of actions taken by Octavian to avenge Caesar's death  Suetonius and the historian Cassius Dio characterised the slaughter as a religious sacrifice, noting that it occurred on the Ides of March at the new altar to the deified Julius 

See also
The Ides of March – a 1948 novel by Thornton Wilder
The Ides of March (est  1964) – an American musical group
The Ides of March – a 2011 film by George Clooney, Beau Willimon and Grant Heslov
The Ides of March – a 2021 music album by Myles Kennedy
Passage 8:
Et tu, Brute?
Et tu, Brute? (pronounced [ɛt ˈtuː ˈbruːtɛ]) is a Latin phrase literally meaning "and you, Brutus?" or "also you, Brutus?", often translated as "You as well, Brutus?", "You too, Brutus?", or "Even you, Brutus?"  The quote appears in Act 3 Scene 1 of William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, where it is spoken by the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, at the moment of his assassination, to his friend Marcus Junius Brutus, upon recognizing him as one of the assassins  The first known occurrences of the phrase are said to be in two earlier Elizabethan plays; Henry VI, Part 3 by Shakespeare, and an even earlier play, Caesar Interfectus, by Richard Edes  The phrase is often used apart from the plays to signify an unexpected betrayal by a friend  
There is no evidence that the historical Caesar spoke these words  Though the historical Caesar's last words are not known with certainty, the Roman historian Suetonius, a century and a half after the incident, claims Caesar said nothing as he died, but that others reported that Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase Kai su, teknon (Και συ τέκνον), which means "You too, child" or "You too, young man" to Brutus  Contrary to popular belief, the words are not Caesar's last in the play, as he says "Then fall Caesar!" right after 

Etymology
The name Brutus, a second declension masculine noun, appears in the phrase in the vocative case, and so the -us ending of the nominative case is replaced by -e 

Context
On March 15 (the Ides of March), 44 BC, the historic Caesar was attacked by a group of senators, including Brutus, who was Caesar's friend and protégé  Caesar initially resisted his attackers, but when he saw Brutus, he reportedly responded as he died  Suetonius mentions the quote merely as a rumor, as does Plutarch who also reports that Caesar said nothing, but merely pulled his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators Caesar saying Et tu, Brute? in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (1599) was not the first time the phrase was used in a dramatic play  Edmond Malone claimed that it appeared in a work that has since been lost—Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582  The phrase had also occurred in another play by Shakespeare, The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke, and the death of good King Henrie the Sixth, with the Whole Contention betweene the two Houses Lancaster and Yorke of 1595, which is the earliest printed version of Henry VI, Part 3 

Interpretation
It has been argued that the phrase can be interpreted as a curse or warning  One theory states that the historic Caesar adapted the words of a Greek sentence which to the Romans had long since become proverbial: The complete phrase is said to have been "You too, my son, will have a taste of power", of which Caesar only needed to invoke the opening words to foreshadow Brutus' own violent death, in response to his assassination  The poem Satires; Book I, Satire 7 by Horace, written approximately 30 BC, mentions Brutus and his tyrannicide; in discussing that poem, author John Henderson considers that the expression E-t t-u Br-u-t-e, (as he hyphenates it), can be interpreted as a complaint containing a "suggestion of mimetic compulsion" 

See also
List of Latin phrases (E)
Context 3:  Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850  Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions  Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa  Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42  Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s  Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century  Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800  Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died 

Third plague pandemic
The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone  The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney  This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908 

Modern-day
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine  It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat  One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995  A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014  In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions 

See also
Black Death in England
Black Death in medieval culture
Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Flagellant
Globalization and disease
List of epidemics
Second plague pandemic
Timeline of plague
Passage 2:
Christian Ackermann
Christian Ackermann was a sculptor and carver who worked in Estonia 

Life and work
Christian Ackermann was born in Königsberg  He worked in Riga, Stockholm, and Gdańsk, before becoming active in Tallinn from about 1672 until his death in 1710  In 1675, Ackermann moved to Tallinn and worked first in the workshop of Elert Thiele, a local woodcarver  After Thiele's death in 1674, Achermann married the master's widow  He then became a citizen of Tallinn but didn't join the local guild of woodcarvers   And that was a reason why between him and the guild's masters had begun a strong struggle which finished in court  Ackermann won and got the permission to work alone, he was the first independent sculptor in Estonia and acquired his own workshop at Toompea Hill  He probably died either in 1710 or a short time later from plague 
Christian Ackermann was one of the greatest masters of the Baroque style in Estonia  He brought strong Central European influences to Northeast Europe, in particular the motifs of the Baroque and masterful Acanthus ornaments  The majority of his works consists of almost twenty altarpieces, pulpits and large coat-of-arms epitaphs 

Most important works
Baptistery for the Swedish St  Michael's Church in Tallinn (around 1680)
Altarpiece for the church of Simuna (1684)
Altar and pulpit for the church of Türi (1693)
Pulpit with figures of the apostles (1686) and altarpiece (1696) for St Mary's Cathedral of Tallinn
Emblem for St Mary's Cathedral of Tallinn
Clock for the Church of the Holy Ghost in Tallinn
Altar figures and altarpiece for the church of Martna
Pulpit for the church of Juuru Parish (1695)
Pulpit for the church of Karuse (1697)
Crucifix for the church of Koeru Parish (end of the 17th century)

See also
List of Baltic German artists
Passage 3:
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence (Titian)
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence is a 1558 painting by Titian, now in the church of I Gesuiti in Venice  It so impressed Philip II of Spain that he commissioned a second version in 1567 for the basilica at El Escorial 

See also
List of works by Titian
Passage 4:
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea and gastro, is an inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract including the stomach and intestine  Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain  Fever, lack of energy, and dehydration may also occur  This typically lasts less than two weeks  It is not related to influenza, even though in the U S  it is sometimes called the "stomach flu" Gastroenteritis is usually caused by viruses; however, gut bacteria, parasites, and fungi can also cause gastroenteritis  In children, rotavirus is the most common cause of severe disease  In adults, norovirus and Campylobacter are common causes  Eating improperly prepared food, drinking contaminated water or close contact with a person who is infected can spread the disease  Treatment is generally the same with or without a definitive diagnosis, so testing to confirm is usually not needed For young children in impoverished countries, prevention includes hand washing with soap, drinking clean water, breastfeeding babies instead of using formula, and proper disposal of human waste  The rotavirus vaccine is recommended as a prevention for children  Treatment involves getting enough fluids  For mild or moderate cases, this can typically be achieved by drinking oral rehydration solution (a combination of water, salts and sugar)  In those who are breastfed, continued breastfeeding is recommended  For more severe cases, intravenous fluids may be needed  Fluids may also be given by a nasogastric tube  Zinc supplementation is recommended in children  Antibiotics are generally not needed  However, antibiotics are recommended for young children with a fever and bloody diarrhea In 2015, there were two billion cases of gastroenteritis, resulting in 1 3 million deaths globally  Children and those in the developing world are affected the most  In 2011, there were about 1 7 billion cases, resulting in about 700,000 deaths of children under the age of five  In the developing world, children less than two years of age frequently get six or more infections a year  It is less common in adults, partly due to the development of immunity 

Signs and symptoms
Gastroenteritis usually involves both diarrhea and vomiting  Sometimes, only one or the other is present  This may be accompanied by abdominal cramps  Signs and symptoms usually begin 12–72 hours after contracting the infectious agent  If due to a virus, the condition usually resolves within one week  Some viral infections also involve fever, fatigue, headache and muscle pain  If the stool is bloody, the cause is less likely to be viral and more likely to be bacterial  Some bacterial infections cause severe abdominal pain and may persist for several weeks Children infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery within three to eight days  However, in poor countries treatment for severe infections is often out of reach and persistent diarrhea is common   Dehydration is a common complication of diarrhea  Severe dehydration in children may be recognized if the skin color and position returns slowly when pressed  This is called "prolonged capillary refill" and "poor skin turgor"  Abnormal breathing is another sign of severe dehydration  Repeat infections are typically seen in areas with poor sanitation, and malnutrition  Stunted growth and long-term cognitive delays can result Reactive arthritis occurs in 1% of people following infections with Campylobacter species  Guillain–Barré syndrome occurs in 0 1%  Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) may occur due to infection with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli or Shigella species  HUS causes low platelet counts, poor kidney function, and low red blood cell count (due to their breakdown)  Children are more predisposed to getting HUS than adults  Some viral infections may produce benign infantile seizures 

Cause
Viruses (particularly rotavirus (in children) and norovirus (in adults)) and the bacteria Escherichia coli and Campylobacter species are the primary causes of gastroenteritis  There are, however, many other infectious agents that can cause this syndrome including parasites and fungus  Non-infectious causes are seen on occasion, but they are less likely than a viral or bacterial cause  Risk of infection is higher in children due to their lack of immunity  Children are also at higher risk because they are less likely to practice good hygiene habits  Children living in areas without easy access to water and soap are especially vulnerable 

Viral
Rotaviruses, noroviruses, adenoviruses, and astroviruses are known to cause viral gastroenteritis  Rotavirus is the most common cause of gastroenteritis in children, and produces similar rates in both the developed and developing world  Viruses cause about 70% of episodes of infectious diarrhea in the pediatric age group  Rotavirus is a less common cause in adults due to acquired immunity  Norovirus is the cause in about 18% of all cases  Generally speaking, viral gastroenteritis accounts for 21–40% of the cases of infectious diarrhea in developed countries Norovirus is the leading cause of gastroenteritis among adults in America accounting for about 90% of viral gastroenteritis outbreaks  These localized epidemics typically occur when groups of people spend time proximate to each other, such as on cruise ships, in hospitals, or in restaurants  People may remain infectious even after their diarrhea has ended  Norovirus is the cause of about 10% of cases in children 

Bacterial
In some countries, Campylobacter jejuni is the primary cause of bacterial gastroenteritis, with half of these cases associated with exposure to poultry  In children, bacteria are the cause in about 15% of cases, with the most common types being Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter species  If food becomes contaminated with bacteria and remains at room temperature for a period of several hours, the bacteria multiply and increase the risk of infection in those who consume the food  Some foods commonly associated with illness include raw or undercooked meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs; raw sprouts; unpasteurized milk and soft cheeses; and fruit and vegetable juices  In the developing world, especially sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, cholera is a common cause of gastroenteritis  This infection is usually transmitted by contaminated water or food Toxigenic Clostridium difficile is an important cause of diarrhea that occurs more often in the elderly  Infants can carry these bacteria without developing symptoms  It is a common cause of diarrhea in those who are hospitalized and is frequently associated with antibiotic use  Staphylococcus aureus infectious diarrhea may also occur in those who have used antibiotics  Acute "traveler's diarrhea" is usually a type of bacterial gastroenteritis, while the persistent form is usually parasitic  Acid-suppressing medication appears to increase the risk of significant infection after exposure to a number of organisms, including Clostridium difficile, Salmonella, and Campylobacter species  The risk is greater in those taking proton pump inhibitors than with H2 antagonists 

Parasitic
A number of parasites can cause gastroenteritis  Giardia lamblia is most common, but Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium spp , and other species have also been implicated  As a group, these agents comprise about 10% of cases in children  Giardia occurs more commonly in the developing world, but this type of illness can occur nearly everywhere  It occurs more commonly in persons who have traveled to areas with high prevalence, children who attend day care, men who have sex with men, and following disasters 

Transmission
Transmission may occur from drinking contaminated water or when people share personal objects  Water quality typically worsens during the rainy season and outbreaks are more common at this time  In areas with four seasons, infections are more common in the winter  Worldwide, bottle-feeding of babies with improperly sanitized bottles is a significant cause  Transmission rates are also related to poor hygiene, (especially among children), in crowded households, and in those with poor nutritional status  Adults who have developed immunities might still carry certain organisms without exhibiting symptoms  Thus, adults can become natural reservoirs of certain diseases  While some agents (such as Shigella) only occur in primates, others (such as Giardia) may occur in a wide variety of animals 

Non-infectious
There are a number of non-infectious causes of inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract  Some of the more common include medications (like NSAIDs), certain foods such as lactose (in those who are intolerant), and gluten (in those with celiac disease)  Crohn's disease is also a non-infectious cause of (often severe) gastroenteritis  Disease secondary to toxins may also occur  Some food-related conditions associated with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea include: ciguatera poisoning due to consumption of contaminated predatory fish, scombroid associated with the consumption of certain types of spoiled fish, tetrodotoxin poisoning from the consumption of puffer fish among others, and botulism typically due to improperly preserved food In the United States, rates of emergency department use for noninfectious gastroenteritis dropped 30% from 2006 until 2011  Of the twenty most common conditions seen in the emergency department, rates of noninfectious gastroenteritis had the largest decrease in visits in that time period 

Pathophysiology
Gastroenteritis is defined as vomiting or diarrhea due to inflammation of the small or large bowel, often due to infection  The changes in the small bowel are typically noninflammatory, while the ones in the large bowel are inflammatory  The number of pathogens required to cause an infection varies from as few as one (for Cryptosporidium) to as many as 108 (for Vibrio cholerae) 

Diagnosis
Gastroenteritis is typically diagnosed clinically, based on a person's signs and symptoms  Determining the exact cause is usually not needed as it does not alter the management of the condition However, stool cultures should be performed in those with blood in the stool, those who might have been exposed to food poisoning, and those who have recently traveled to the developing world  It may also be appropriate in children younger than 5, old people, and those with poor immune function  Diagnostic testing may also be done for surveillance  As hypoglycemia occurs in approximately 10% of infants and young children, measuring serum glucose in this population is recommended  Electrolytes and kidney function should also be checked when there is a concern about severe dehydration 

Dehydration
A determination of whether or not the person has dehydration is an important part of the assessment, with dehydration typically divided into mild (3–5%), moderate (6–9%), and severe (≥10%) cases  In children, the most accurate signs of moderate or severe dehydration are a prolonged capillary refill, poor skin turgor, and abnormal breathing  Other useful findings (when used in combination) include sunken eyes, decreased activity, a lack of tears, and a dry mouth  A normal urinary output and oral fluid intake is reassuring  Laboratory testing is of little clinical benefit in determining the degree of dehydration  Thus the use of urine testing or ultrasounds is generally not needed 

Differential diagnosis
Other potential causes of signs and symptoms that mimic those seen in gastroenteritis that need to be ruled out include appendicitis, volvulus, inflammatory bowel disease, urinary tract infections, and diabetes mellitus  Pancreatic insufficiency, short bowel syndrome, Whipple's disease, coeliac disease, and laxative abuse should also be considered  The differential diagnosis can be complicated somewhat if the person exhibits only vomiting or diarrhea (rather than both) Appendicitis may present with vomiting, abdominal pain, and a small amount of diarrhea in up to 33% of cases  This is in contrast to the large amount of diarrhea that is typical of gastroenteritis  Infections of the lungs or urinary tract in children may also cause vomiting or diarrhea  Classical diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) presents with abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting, but without diarrhea  One study found that 17% of children with DKA were initially diagnosed as having gastroenteritis 

Prevention
Water, sanitation, hygiene
A supply of easily accessible uncontaminated water and good sanitation practices are important for reducing rates of infection and clinically significant gastroenteritis  Personal hygiene measures (such as hand washing with soap) have been found to decrease rates of gastroenteritis in both the developing and developed world by as much as 30%  Alcohol-based gels may also be effective  Food or drink that is thought to be contaminated should be avoided Breastfeeding is important, especially in places with poor hygiene, as is improvement of hygiene generally  Breast milk reduces both the frequency of infections and their duration 

Vaccination
Due to both its effectiveness and safety, in 2009 the World Health Organization recommended that the rotavirus vaccine be offered to all children globally  Two commercial rotavirus vaccines exist and several more are in development  In Africa and Asia these vaccines reduced severe disease among infants and countries that have put in place national immunization programs have seen a decline in the rates and severity of disease  This vaccine may also prevent illness in non-vaccinated children by reducing the number of circulating infections  Since 2000, the implementation of a rotavirus vaccination program in the United States has substantially decreased the number of cases of diarrhea by as much as 80 percent  The first dose of vaccine should be given to infants between 6 and 15 weeks of age  The oral cholera vaccine has been found to be 50–60% effective over two years There are a number of vaccines against gastroenteritis in development  For example, vaccines against Shigella and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), which are two of the leading bacterial causes of gastroenteritis worldwide 

Management
Gastroenteritis is usually an acute and self-limiting disease that does not require medication  The preferred treatment in those with mild to moderate dehydration is oral rehydration therapy (ORT)  For children at risk of dehydration from vomiting, taking a single dose of the anti vomiting medication metoclopramide or ondansetron, may be helpful, and butylscopolamine is useful in treating abdominal pain 

Rehydration
The primary treatment of gastroenteritis in both children and adults is rehydration  This is preferably achieved by drinking rehydration solution, although intravenous delivery may be required if there is a decreased level of consciousness or if dehydration is severe  Drinking replacement therapy products made with complex carbohydrates (i e  those made from wheat or rice) may be superior to those based on simple sugars  Drinks especially high in simple sugars, such as soft drinks and fruit juices, are not recommended in children under five years of age as they may increase diarrhea  Plain water may be used if more specific ORT preparations are unavailable or the person is not willing to drink them  A nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted  In those who require intravenous fluids, one to four hours' worth is often sufficient 

Dietary
It is recommended that breast-fed infants continue to be nursed in the usual fashion,  and that formula-fed infants continue their formula immediately after rehydration with ORT  Lactose-free or lactose-reduced formulas usually are not necessary  Children should continue their usual diet during episodes of diarrhea with the exception that foods high in simple sugars should be avoided  The BRAT diet (bananas, rice, applesauce, toast and tea) is no longer recommended, as it contains insufficient nutrients and has no benefit over normal feeding A Cochrane Review from 2020 concludes that probiotics make little or no difference to people who have diarrhea lasting 2 days or longer and that there is no proof that they reduce its duration  They may be useful in preventing and treating antibiotic associated diarrhea  Fermented milk products (such as yogurt) are similarly beneficial  Zinc supplementation appears to be effective in both treating and preventing diarrhea among children in the developing world 

Antiemetics
Antiemetic medications may be helpful for treating vomiting in children  Ondansetron has some utility, with a single dose being associated with less need for intravenous fluids, fewer hospitalizations, and decreased vomiting  Metoclopramide might also be helpful  However, the use of ondansetron might possibly be linked to an increased rate of return to hospital in children  The intravenous preparation of ondansetron may be given orally if clinical judgment warrants  Dimenhydrinate, while reducing vomiting, does not appear to have a significant clinical benefit 

Antibiotics
Antibiotics are not usually used for gastroenteritis, although they are sometimes recommended if symptoms are particularly severe or if a susceptible bacterial cause is isolated or suspected  If antibiotics are to be employed, a macrolide (such as azithromycin) is preferred over a fluoroquinolone due to higher rates of resistance to the latter  Pseudomembranous colitis, usually caused by antibiotic use, is managed by discontinuing the causative agent and treating it with either metronidazole or vancomycin  Bacteria and protozoans that are amenable to treatment include Shigella Salmonella typhi, and Giardia species  In those with Giardia species or Entamoeba histolytica, tinidazole treatment is recommended and superior to metronidazole  The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the use of antibiotics in young children who have both bloody diarrhea and fever 

Antimotility agents
Antimotility medication has a theoretical risk of causing complications, and although clinical experience has shown this to be unlikely, these drugs are discouraged in people with bloody diarrhea or diarrhea that is complicated by fever  Loperamide, an opioid analogue, is commonly used for the symptomatic treatment of diarrhea  Loperamide is not recommended in children, however, as it may cross the immature blood–brain barrier and cause toxicity  Bismuth subsalicylate, an insoluble complex of trivalent bismuth and salicylate, can be used in mild to moderate cases, but salicylate toxicity is theoretically possible 

Epidemiology
It is estimated that there were two billion cases of gastroenteritis that resulted in 1 3 million deaths globally in 2015  Children and those in the developing world are most commonly affected  As of 2011, in those younger than five, there were about 1 7 billion cases resulting in 0 7 million deaths, with most of these occurring in the world's poorest nations  More than 450,000 of these fatalities are due to rotavirus in children under five years of age  Cholera causes about three to five million cases of disease and kills approximately 100,000 people yearly  In the developing world, children less than two years of age frequently get six or more infections a year that result in significant gastroenteritis  It is less common in adults, partly due to the development of acquired immunity In 1980, gastroenteritis from all causes caused 4 6 million deaths in children, with the majority occurring in the developing world  Death rates were reduced significantly (to approximately 1 5 million deaths annually) by 2000, largely due to the introduction and widespread use of oral rehydration therapy  In the US, infections causing gastroenteritis are the second most common infection (after the common cold), and they result in between 200 and 375 million cases of acute diarrhea and approximately ten thousand deaths annually, with 150 to 300 of these deaths in children less than five years of age 

Society and culture
Gastroenteritis is associated with many colloquial names, including "Montezuma's revenge", "Delhi belly", "la turista", and "back door sprint", among others  It has played a role in many military campaigns and is believed to be the origin of the term "no guts no glory" Gastroenteritis is the main reason for 3 7 million visits to physicians a year in the United States and 3 million visits in France  In the United States gastroenteritis as a whole is believed to result in costs of US$23 billion per year, with rotavirus alone resulting in estimated costs of US$1 billion a year 

Terminology
The first usage of "gastroenteritis" was in 1825  Before this time it was commonly known as typhoid fever or "cholera morbus", among others, or less specifically as "griping of the guts", "surfeit", "flux", "colic", "bowel complaint", or any one of a number of other archaic names for acute diarrhea  Cholera morbus is a historical term that was used to refer to gastroenteritis rather than specifically cholera 

Other animals
Many of the same agents cause gastroenteritis in cats and dogs as in humans  The most common organisms are Campylobacter, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens, and Salmonella  A large number of toxic plants may also cause symptoms Some agents are more specific to a certain species  Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV) occurs in pigs resulting in vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration  It is believed to be introduced to pigs by wild birds and there is no specific treatment available  It is not transmissible to humans 

See also
Enterocolitis
Passage 5:
Gender symbol
A gender symbol is a pictogram or glyph used to represent sex and gender, for example in biology and medicine, in genealogy, or in the sociological fields of gender politics, LGBT subculture and identity politics 
In his books Mantissa Plantarum (1767) and Mantissa Plantarum Altera (1771), Carl Linnaeus regularly used the planetary symbols of Mars, Venus and Mercury – ♂, ♀, ☿ – for male, female and hermaphroditic (perfect) flowers, respectively  Botanists now use ⚥ for the last In genealogy, including kinship in anthropology and pedigrees in animal husbandry, the geometric shapes △ or □ are used for male and ○ for female  These are also used on public toilets in some countries  
The modern international pictograms used to indicate male and female public toilets, 🚹︎ and 🚺︎, became widely used in the 1960s and 1970s  They are sometimes abstracted to ▽ for male and △ for female 

Biology and medicine
The three standard sex symbols in biology are male ♂, female ♀ and hermaphroditic ⚥; originally the symbol for Mercury, ☿, was used for the last  These symbols were first used by Carl Linnaeus in 1751 to denote whether flowers were male (stamens only), female (pistil only) or perfect flowers with both pistils and stamens  (Most flowering and conifer plant species are hermaphroditic and either bear flowers/cones that themselves are hermaphroditic, or bear both male and female flowers/cones on the same plant ) These symbols are now ubiquitous in biology and medicine to indicate the sex of an individual, for example of a patient 

Genealogy
Kinship charts use a triangle △ for male and circle ○ for female  Pedigree charts published in scientific papers use an earlier anthropological convention of a square □ for male and a circle ○ for female Before a shape distinction was adopted, all individuals had been represented by a circle in Morgan's 1871 System of Consanguinity and Affinity of Human Family, where gender is encoded in the abbreviations for the kin relation (e g  M for 'mother' and F for 'father')  W  H  R  River distinguished gender in the words of the language being recorded by writing male kinship terms in all capitals and female kinship terms with normal capitalization  That convention was quite influential for a time, and his convention of prioritizing male kin by placing them to the left and females to the right continues to this day though there have been exceptions, such as Margaret Mead, who placed females to the left 

Public toilets
The modern gender symbols used for public toilets, 🚹︎ for male and 🚺︎ and female, are pictograms created for the British Rail system in the mid-1960s  Before that, local usage had been more variable  For example, schoolhouse outhouses in the 19th-century United States had ventilation holes in their doors that were shaped like a starburst Sun ✴ or like a crescent Moon ☾, respectively, to indicate whether the toilet was for use by boys or girls  The British Rail pictograms – often color-coded blue and red – are now the norm for marking public toilets in much of the world, with the female symbol distinguished by a triangular skirt or dress, and in early years (and sometimes still) the male symbol stylized like a tuxedo These symbols are abstracted to varying degrees in different countries – for example, the circle-and-triangle variants  (female) and  (male) commonly found on portable toilets, to the extreme of a triangle △ (representing a skirt or dress) for female and an inverted triangle ▽ (representing a broad-shouldered tuxedo) for male in Lithuania In elementary schools, the pictograms may be of children rather than of adults, with the girl distinguished by her hair  In themed locations, such as bars and tourist attractions, a thematic image or figurine of a man and woman or boy and girl may be used In Poland, an inverted triangle ▽ is used for male while a circle ○ is used for female In mainland China, silhouettes of heads in profile may be used as gender pictograms, generally alongside the Chinese characters for male (男) and female (女) 

Sexual orientation and gender politics
Since the 1970s, variations of gender symbols have been used to express sexual orientation and gender politics  Two interlocking male symbols ⚣ are used to represent gay men while two interlocking female symbols ⚢ are often used to represent lesbians Since the 2000s, numerous such variants have been introduced in the context of LGBT culture and politics  Some of these symbols have been adopted into Unicode (in the Miscellaneous Symbols block) beginning with version 4 1 in 2005 

Encoding
See also
Alchemical symbol
Astrological symbols
Fertility symbols
LGBT symbols
Miscellaneous Symbols Unicode block

Notes
Passage 6:
Venus with a Mirror
Venus with a Mirror (c  1555) is a painting by Titian, now in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, and it is considered to be one of the collection's highlights The pose of the Venus resembles the classical statues of the Venus de' Medici in Florence or the Capitoline Venus in Rome, which Titian may have seen when he wrote that was "learning from the marvelous ancient stones " The painting is said to celebrate the ideal beauty of the female form, or to be a critique of vanity, or perhaps both  It was copied by several later artists, including Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck Titian made a number of paintings of the same subject, but this is believed to be the earliest and the only version to be entirely by the hand of Titian, without additions by his assistants  It remained in his house until his death in 1576 

Painting, and versions
X-rays of the painting have revealed that Titian painted it over a double portrait which he had abandoned  Titian kept the red cloak of one of the figures in the abandoned painting and placed it under Venus's arm  The use of the cloak from the earlier painting probably played a large part in the composition of the new painting Titian is believed to have made another version of this Venus for the Venetian lawyer Niccolo Crasso, who also commissioned Titian to paint the Retable of Saint Nicholas de Bari at about the same time  A drawing of the other version was included by Anthony van Dyck in the sketchbook made during his trip to Italy  This other version is now lost, but a studio copy exists in the Hermitage Museum Titian is thought to have made a second copy, which was sent to his regular patron King Philip II of Spain, in 1567  This version was also lost, but a copy of it by Peter Paul Rubens exists, which is in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum in Madrid 

Other versions
Provenance
In 1581, five years after Titian's death, the contents of his house in Venice, including the Venus with a Mirror, were sold by his son and heir Pomponio Vechellio to Christoforo Barbarigo  In 1850 the Russian Consul-General in Venice, A  Kvostov, purchased the painting, along with a large number of other masterpieces, from the Barbarigo family, for Czar Nicholas I for the sum of 525,000 francs, and it entered the collection of the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg In 1931, in order to earn foreign currency for the first of the five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin and the Soviet government secretly sold the painting, along with a number of other masterpieces, to a syndicate of art dealers, who sold it to the American collector Andrew Mellon, who wished to create a national art museum for the United States  Mellon donated it to the United States Government in 1937  It was one of the first masterpieces to be displayed in the National Gallery of Art in Washington when it opened in 1941 

Works that may have influenced Titian
The pose of the painting may have been influenced by Ancient Greek and Roman statues of Venus Titian could have seen in Rome and Florence  He was also influenced by his teacher Giovanni Bellini, who was the leader of the Venetian school of painters, known for their masterful use of color 

Influence of the painting
The theme of the painting was adapted by a number of later artists, including Peter Paul Rubens and Diego Velázquez 
The painting itself was the inspiration for the protagonist Severin's imagination in the 1870 novel Venus in Furs by Leopold von Sacher-Masoch 

Gallery, influences
Notes
See also
List of paintings in the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, formerly in the Hermitage Museum
Venus in Furs, a novel containing great reference to the painting 



ground_truth: Clifton College

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How many times did plague occur in the place where Venus with a Mirror's creator died?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: 

Boundaries
Its boundaries are: 

North : Candelaria municipality 
South : El Salvador 
East  : Piraera municipality 
West  : Mapulaca municipality 
Surface Extents: 36 km2

Resources
Since it is on the border with El Salvador, it is much easier for people to go there to establish commercial activities  Also there are more and better jobs on the other side of the border, with the advantage of receiving their wages in US dollars  It is not an ideal location for coffee plantations, therefore corn and beans crops became important (even though they are for local consumption); followed by cattle raising  Like the rest of the department, it has electricity and mobile communication services 

Population
Population: The amount of inhabitants was 2,734 and according to INE Honduras estimates, there will be 2,574 in 2015 
Villages: 5
Settlements: 35

Demographics
At the time of the 2013 Honduras census, Virginia municipality had a population of 2,548  Of these, 97 06% were Mestizo, 2 90% Indigenous (2 86% Lenca) and 0 04% Black or Afro-Honduran 

Tourism
As for the remaining 15 km, although this dirt road is not in the best condition, it is still an easy drive  A half-hour visit will be enough to see all there is to see in the municipality capital  For those who are interested in rural and quiet towns, this is a good place to visit  Surprisingly, the mobile phone signal from El Salvador is stronger than the Honduran signal  Since it is near the Lempa River, the local pastime is going there to bathe  The local holidays and festivals attract many visitors 

Local Holidays: "Santa Lucia" day on December 13 
Passage 12:
Darial, Pakistan
Darial is a town in the Islamabad Capital Territory of Pakistan  It is located at 33° 23' 35N 73° 19' 45E with an altitude of 494 metres (1624 feet) 
Passage 13:
Alamnagar
Alamnagar (community development block) is one of the administrative divisions of Madhepura district in the Indian state of Bihar  The block headquarters are located at a distance of 58 km from the district headquarters, namely, Madhepura  The name of Alamnagar is named for Shah Alamgir  Almost alls caste of Hindus and Muslims live together  Khara Budhama is also attached in Alamnagar vidhan shabha from udakishunganj  Khara is located 12 km from Alamnagar 

Geography
Alamnagar is located at 25°32′56″N 86°54′40″E

Panchayats
Panchayats in Alamnagar community development block are: Bispatti, Basanbara, [Khurhan, Bargaon, Singhar, Itahari, Alamnagar North, Alamnagar South, Alamnagar East, Northua Bhagipur, Kujauri, Gangapur, Kishanpur Ratwara and Khapur 

Demographics
In the 2001 census Alamnagar Block had a population of 129,226 
Passage 14:
Swan Miara
Swan Miara (ساون میرا) is a village and union council (an administrative subdivision) of Mansehra District in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan  It is located in the south of the district where it borders Abbottabad District Formerly it was a part of the Princely State of Amb 
Passage 15:
Thirukkanur
Thirukkanur is a village in the union territory of Puducherry, India  It is one of 16 villages located in Mannadipet commune panchayat of the Villianur taluk  It is bordered by the state of Tamil Nadu both to the east and west 
Thirukkanur has a primary health center, police station, post office, electricity office and registrar office   The area is mainly oriented to agriculture  Thirukkanur market is the only bazaar catering to the needs of about 20 nearby villages   There is no major industry within the purview area of the Thirukkanar Police Station 


== Notes ==
Passage 16:
Pulaski High School
Pulaski High School is a public high school in Pulaski, Wisconsin, United States, in Brown County (school district also serves parts of Shawano, Outagamie and Oconto counties), that serves students in grades 9 through 12   Its mascot is the Red Raider 

History
The original school was built in 1909, with additions throughout the next five decades  In 1975, the high school took over an existing school along with other additions, most notably an indoor swimming pool  Another new building was built in 1998 due to a rapidly growing population 

Academics
Pulaski offers Advanced Placement classes  The student to teacher ratio is 18 to 1 

Demographics
Over 90 percent of the student body is Caucasian, while 2 9 percent are American Indian, 2 5 percent are Hispanic, 1 4 percent are African American and 1 0 percent are Asian  The school is split 51/49 male to female, while just over 22 percent of the school is eligible for free or reduced lunch 

Athletics
State championships
Boys' Basketball: 2013
Wrestling: 1969, 1974, 1993 (all runner-up)
Football: 1980 (runner-up)
Softball: 1996 (runner-up)
Cross Country: 2004 (runner-up)
Rugby: 2009, 2010, 2014, 2015, 2018Pulaski has also had a number of individual state champions 
In 2016, Pulaski citizens privately funded a $4 9 million athletic expansion project, including a new football stadium, track, baseball and softball fields, as well as expanding the tennis facilities 

Incident involving Mike McCarthy
On February 27, 2019, the school became the center of attention during a basketball game against Notre Dame Academy after former Green Bay Packers head coach Mike McCarthy was berating officials during the game  A complaint was submitted to the Wisconsin Interscholastic Athletic Association following the incident  McCarthy's behavior was criticized as "unacceptable" from the Notre Dame Academy and Pulaski athletic director Janet Batten  A day later, McCarthy apologized for the incident 

Music
The Red Raider Marching Band performed in the 2007, 2012, and 2017 Rose Parades and in the 2003 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City 

Notable alumni
Jacqui Banaszynski, Pulitzer Prize-winning writer
Jeremy Borseth, NFL punter
Carey Lohrenz, F-14 Tomcat pilot
Neil Worden, NFL fullback
Passage 17:
Jerome Quinn
Jerome Quinn (May 23, 1908 – February 29, 2008) was a Wisconsin politician and realtor Born in Green Bay, Wisconsin, Quinn was a realtor and served on the Green Bay Common Council, the Brown County, Wisconsin Board of Supervisors, the local Board of Education, and the Wisconsin State Assembly from 1955 until 1973  He was a Republican 
Passage 18:
Baranya County
Baranya (Hungarian: Baranya vármegye, pronounced [ˈbɒrɒɲɒ ˈvaːrmɛɟɛ]; German: Branau; Croatian: Baranjska županija) is a county (vármegye) in southern Hungary  It is part of the Southern Transdanubia statistical region and the historical Baranya region, which was a county (comitatus) in the Kingdom of Hungary dating back to the 11th century  Its current status as one of the 19 counties of Hungary was established in 1950 as part of wider Soviet administrative territorial reform following World War II  It is bordered by Somogy County to the northwest, Tolna County to the north, Bács-Kiskun County and the Danube to the east, and the border with Croatia (part of which is formed by the Drava River) to the south 
As of the 2011 census, it had a population of 386,441 residents  Of the 19 counties of Hungary (excluding Budapest), it is ranked 10th by both geographic area and population  Its county seat and largest city is Pécs 

Etymology
In German, it is known as Komitat Branau, and in Croatian as Baranjska županija (Baranja) 
The county was probably named after its first comes 'Brana' or 'Braina' 

Geography
This county has a total area of 4,430 km2 (1,710 sq mi) – 4 76% of Hungary, it is divided in Upper Baranya and Lower Baranya 
The northern part of the county is a mountain area with large forests, the Mecsek Mountains  The central areas are shared between the Baranya Hills and Villány Mountains  The very eastern and southern parts are flat 
The highest point in the county is Zengő in the Mecsek Mountains, at 682 metres  This is also the highest point of the mountain range 
Baranya is rich in mineral and thermal water, and also in other resources  98% of Hungary's coal resources are found here 

Neighbours
Tolna County in the North 
Bács-Kiskun County in the East  (across the Danube river)
Croatia in the south (across the Drava river) – Osijek-Baranja County and Virovitica-Podravina County
Somogy County in the Northwest 

Climate
The climate of Baranya is a mix of continental and temperate, which makes it unique in Hungary, as the rest of the country is primarily continental  Its milder climate is due to its southern location and relative proximity to the Mediterranean Sea in comparison to other parts of the country, leaving it with warmer winters  It has the highest average annual rainfall of the Hungarian counties and a high amount of sunshine hours 

History
The area has been inhabited since ancient times  Before the Hungarian tribes conquered the area, it was inhabited by Slavs and Avars  Stephen I founded an episcopal seat here 
In 1526, the county was occupied by Ottomans and was freed in 1689  Its medieval borders remained unchanged until 1919  According to the peace treaty of Trianon, the southern part of the county (1,163 km2, 449 sq mi) reverted to Slavic rule (present-day Croatia)  The re-organizing of the counties (1950) brought only minor changes (town of Szigetvár got there) 
Baranya has the largest number of minorities in Hungary (more than twice the country average), providing home to 34% of the German minority the so-called Danube Swabians, and 32% of the Southern Slav minorities in Hungary 
The Stifolder or Stiffoller Shvove are a Roman Catholic subgroup of the so-called Danube Swabians  Their ancestors once came ca  1717 - 1804 from the Hochstift Fulda and surroundings, (Roman Catholic Diocese of Fulda), and settled in the Baranya  They retained their own German dialect and culture, until the end of WW2  After WW2, the majority of Danube Swabians were expelled to allied-occupied Germany and allied-occupied Austria as a result of the Potsdam Agreement Only a few people can speak the old Stiffolerisch Schvovish dialect  Also a salami is named after these people  Electoral History

Demographics
In 2015, it had a population of 371,110 and the population density was 84/km2 

2011 census
As of the census of 2011, there were 386,441 residents, 160,040 households, and 105,646 families living in the county  The population density was 226 inhabitants per square mile (87/km2)  There were 167,453 housing units at an average density of 98 per square mile (38/km2) 
There were 160,040 households, of which 63 2% were one-family households, 1 4% were multi-family households, 32 1% were one-person households, and 3 4% were other non-family households  Elderly individuals living alone were 15 9% of all households  The average household size was 2 34 
There were 105,646 families, of which 44 1% were married couples or consensual unions living together with children, 36 4% were couples without children, 16 7% were single females with children, and 2 8% were single males with children  The average family size was 2 82 
The age breakdown of the county was 20 1% under the age of 20, 7 0% between ages 20 and 24, 27 4% aged 25 to 44, 28 3% aged 45 to 64, and 17 2% aged 65 or older  The gender makeup of the county was 47 2% male and 52 8% female 
Religious adherence in the county was 46 8% Roman Catholic, 6 4% Reformed (Calvinist), 1 2% Evangelical (Lutheran), 0 3% Greek Catholic, 0 1% Orthodox, and 1 5% other religions  The non-religious were 16 2% and atheists were 1 5%, with 26 0% declining to answer 

2001 census
As of the census of 2001, there were 407,448 residents, 151,956 households, and 115,946 families living in the county  The population density was 238 inhabitants per square mile (92/km2)  There were 156,632 housing units at an average density of 92 per square mile (35/km2) 
There were 151,956 households, of which 68 5% were one-family households, 3 8% were multi-family households, 24 9% were one-person households, and 2 7% were other non-family households  Elderly individuals living alone were 13 1% of all households  The average household size was 2 60 
There were 115,946 families, of which 48 7% were married couples or consensual unions living together with children, 35 4% were couples without children, 13 7% were single females with children, and 2 1% were single males with children  The average family size was 2 87 
The age breakdown of the county was 23 0% under the age of 20, 8 1% between ages 20 and 24, 28 0% aged 25 to 44, 26 0% aged 45 to 64, and 14 9% aged 65 or older  The gender makeup of the county was 47 5% male and 52 5% female 
Religious adherence in the county was 64 2% Roman Catholic, 8 7% Reformed (Calvinist), 1 5% Evangelical (Lutheran), 0 5% Greek Catholic, 0 1% Orthodox, and 0 8% other religions  The non-religious were 13 4%, with 10 8% declining to answer 

Ethnicity
Besides the Hungarian majority, the main minorities are the Germans (approx  22,000), Roma (17,000), Croats (6,000), and Serbs (500) 
Total population (2011 census): 386,441
Ethnic groups (2011 census):
Identified themselves: 364,801 persons:

Hungarians: 315,713 (86 54%)
Germans: 22,150 (6 07%)
Romani: 16,995 (4 66%)
Croats: 6,343 (1 74%)
Others and indefinable: 3,600 (0 99%)Approx  58,000 persons in Baranya County did not declare their ethnic group at the 2011 census 

Regional structure
Politics
County Assembly
The Baranya County Council, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 18 counselors, with the following party composition:

President of the Assembly
Members of the National Assembly
The following members elected of the National Assembly during the 2022 parliamentary election:

Municipalities
Baranya County has 1 urban county, 13 towns, 3 large villages and 284 villages  There are 301 municipalities 

Like Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Baranya is a county of extremes when it comes to regional structure  The county seat is one of the five largest cities (and three largest agglomerations) of Hungary, but more than 2/3 of the municipalities are small hamlets with a population under 500  Half of the county's population lives in the county seat or in its immediate vicinity, while 22% of the population lives in villages that have less than 1000 inhabitants 

Cities with county rights(ordered by population, as of 2011 census)

Pécs (156,049) – county seatTowns
Villages
 municipalities are large villages 

Gallery
Notes
Passage 19:
Majura Training Area
The Majura Training Area (MTA) is a facility belonging to the Australian Department of Defence located to the east of Mount Majura in the Majura district in the Australian Capital Territory, Australia  The MTA is used primarily by the Australian Army for the conduct of field exercises and weapon qualification shoots   The MTA is located near to the Royal Military College, Duntroon and the Australian Defence Force Academy and is frequently used by these training establishments  Accommodation and support on the range is through 'Camp Blake', which consists of headquarters buildings, Q-Store, Mess, Staff accommodation and amenities and trainee accommodation and amenities 
The MTA contains a number of shooting ranges including the 600m Marksmanship Training Range (MTR), 25m Pistol range, Grenade range and multiple other ranges  Artillery ranges are also situated on the site and are designated as danger areas due to the risk of unexploded ordnance 
Passage 20:
Krasnovishersky District
Krasnovishersky District (Russian: Краснови́шерский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion) of Perm Krai, Russia; one of the thirty-three in the krai  Municipally, it is incorporated as Krasnovishersky Municipal District  It is located in the northeast of the krai, in the valley of the Vishera River, and borders with the Komi Republic in the north, Sverdlovsk Oblast in the east, Cherdynsky District in the west, Solikamsky District in the south, and with the territory of the town of krai significance of Alexandrovsk in the southeast  The area of the district is 15,375 square kilometers (5,936 sq mi)  Its administrative center is the town of Krasnovishersk  Population:  22,554 (2010 Census); 27,871 (2002 Census); 30,827 (1989 Census)  The population of Krasnovishersk accounts for 71 4% of the district's total population 

Geography
The eastern part of the district is mostly mountainous, while the western part is mostly flat, with some hills with the height of about 190–220 meters (620–720 ft)  The highest point of Perm Krai, Mount Tulymsky Kamen, is located in the district  There are many rivers in the district, including the Vishera River with its tributaries the Yazva, the Vels, the Uls, and many others  The town of Krasnovishersk is located 320 kilometers (200 mi) from the city of Perm  Natural resources of the district include diamonds, gold, oil, natural gas, and others 
The climate is temperate continental  The average annual temperature is +0 1 °C (32 2 °F); annual precipitation is 550–700 millimeters (22–28 in)  Up to 87% of the district's territory is covered by forests  In the extreme northeast of the district the Vishera Nature Reserve is located 

History
The district was established on January 13, 1941  Until then, its territory was a part of Cherdynsky District  Krasnovishersk, the administrative center of the district, was granted town status on July 2, 1942 

Demographics
As of the 2002 Census, about 89 7% of district's population were Russians and 2 5% were the Komi people 

Economy
The industry of the district includes timber industry, pulp and paper mill, mining and food industry 

See also
Visherogorsk
Zagovorukha



ground_truth: 22