prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What record label does the performer of Emotional Rain belong to?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Waterfalls (album)
Waterfalls is a live album by American saxophonist and composer John Klemmer featuring studio enhanced live performances recorded in Los Angeles for the Impulse! label 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow awarded the album 4 stars stating it is "Worth investigating by open-eared listeners" 

Track listing
All compositions by John Klemmer"Prelude I" – 3:33
"Waterfalls" – 4:19
"Utopia: Man's Dream, Part 1" – 8:47
"Utopia: Man's Dream, Part 2" – 3:50
"There's Some Light Ahead" – 4:29
"Centrifugal Force" – 5:59
"Prelude II" – 4:02
"Waterfall II" – 6:08Recorded in performance at the Ash Grove in Los Angeles, California on June 17, 1972 and "enchanted" at The Village Recorder in Los Angeles on June 22, 1972

Personnel
John Klemmer – tenor saxophone, soprano saxophone, echoplex
Mike Nock – electric piano
Wilton Felder – electric bass
Eddie Marshall – drums
Victor Feldman – percussion
Diana Lee – vocals (tracks 3, 4 & 6)
Passage 2:
The Main Attraction (album)
The Main Attraction is an album by American jazz guitarist Grant Green featuring performances recorded in 1976 and released on the Kudu label 

Reception
The AllMusic review by Thom Jurek awarded the album two stars and stated "While it's true that this isn't one of Green's best records, it's not by any means his worst    Contrary to jazz critics' opinions, Green had nothing to be ashamed of on Main Attraction  If funky '70s soul-jazz is your thing, you won't go wrong with this one" 

Track listing
"The Main Attraction" (Don Grolnick, Steve Khan, Will Lee, David Matthews, Andy Newmark) - 19:35
"Future Feature" (Matthews) - 7:47
"Creature" (Grant Green) - 10:20Recorded at Rudy Van Gelder Studio, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey in March 1976 with additional recording at A&R Studios, NYC

Personnel
Grant Green - guitar
Burt Collins, Jon Faddis - trumpet
Sam Burtis - trombone
Hubert Laws - flute
Michael Brecker, Joe Farrell - tenor saxophone
Ronnie Cuber - baritone saxophone
Don Grolnick - electric piano, clavinet
Steve Khan - rhythm guitar
Will Lee - electric bass
Andy Newmark - drums
Carlos Charles - conga, percussion
Sue Evans - percussion
Dave Matthews - arranger, conductor
Passage 3:
Something Personal
Something Personal is an album by American jazz pianist Jack Wilson featuring performances recorded and released on the Blue Note label in 1967 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow awarded the album 4½ stars and stated "this album is an excellent showcase for the often-overlooked Jack Wilson" 

Track listing
All compositions by Jack Wilson except as indicated"Most Unsoulful Woman" - 6:53
"The Sphinx" (Ornette Coleman) - 5:07
"Shosh" - (Blues in F) 8:59
"Serenata" (Leroy Anderson) - 6:58
"Harbor Freeway 5 P M " - 7:12
"C F D " - 4:58
"One and Four" [aka  "Mr  Day"] (John Coltrane) - 4:51 Bonus track on CD reissueRecorded  on August 9 (4, 6-7) and August 10 (1-3, 5), 1966 

Personnel
Jack Wilson - piano
Roy Ayers - vibes
Ray Brown - bass (#3-6), cello (#1-2)
Charles 'Buster' Williams - bass (#1-2)
Varney Barlow - drums
Passage 4:
Rain, Hail or Shine
Rain, Hail or Shine, an album by The Battlefield Band, was released in 1998 on the Temple Records label  The total running time is 45:38 

Track listing
"Bodachan a Gharaidh/General Macdonal/Craig an Fhithich" – 3:47
"Heave Ya Ho" – 4:30
"Margaret Ann/Manor Park/Trip to the Bronx" – 5:24
"Jenny O' the Braes" – 3:23
"Magheraclone/Norland Wind/Royal Scottish Pipers Soc /Gardez Loo/Donald" – 9:24
"The Beaches of St  Valery/Elizabeth Clare" – 6:27
"Wee Michael's March/Oot B'est da Vong" – 4:03
"The Lass O' Glencoe" – 4:24
"The Canongate Twitch/Steamboat to Detroit/Twenty Pounds of Gin/Break Yer Ba" – 6:54

Personnel
Battlefield Band
Alan Reid (keyboards, guitar, vocals, writing   )
Davy Steele (lead vocals, writing   )
John McCusker (fiddle, whistle   )
Mike Katz (Highland pipes, small pipes, various whistles   )

Sources and links
Rain, Hail or Shine at AllMusic
Passage 5:
The Jazz Skyline
The Jazz Skyline is an album by American jazz vibraphonist Milt Jackson featuring performances recorded in 1956 and released on the Savoy label 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Bob Rusch states: "This session has interest as an example of Milt Jackson's mid-'50s work in a non-Modern Jazz Quartet context  And despite the many critical assertions that the vibist was restrained by pianist John Lewis' direction, his playing here revealed no marked change" 

Track listing
"Lover" (Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers) - 7:45
"Can't Help Lovin' Dat Man" (Oscar Hammerstein II, Jerome Kern) - 4:35
"The Lady Is a Tramp" (Hart, Rodgers) - 7:18
"Angel Face" (Hank Jones) - 6:38
"Sometimes I'm Happy" (Irving Caesar, Vincent Youmans) - 7:15
"What's New?" (Johnny Burke, Bob Haggart) - 3:51

Personnel
Milt Jackson – vibes
Lucky Thompson - tenor saxophone
Hank Jones - piano
Wendell Marshall - bass
Kenny Clarke – drums
Passage 6:
Rain on the Window
Rain on the Window is an album by English saxophonist John Surman with organist Howard Moody recorded in 2006 and released on the ECM label 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Michael G  Nastos awarded the album 3½ stars, stating, "If the listener enjoys a variety of folk forms turned into modern music, Rain on the Window may be appropriate, used here and there for any precipitous, or sunny day" 

Track listing
All compositions by John Surman except as indicated"Circum I" - 3:58
"Stained Glass" - 3:49
"The Old Dutch" - 3:30
"Dancing in the Loft" (Howard Moody, John Surman) - 1:53
"Step Lively!" (Moody, Surman) - 3:06
"Stone Ground" - 4:19
"Tierce" (Moody) - 2:59
"Circum II" - 2:03
"Rain on the Window" - 4:06
"Dark Reeds" (Moody, Surman) - 2:50
"O Waly Waly" (Traditional) - 2:43
"A Spring Wedding" - 3:07
"I'm Troubled in Mind" (Traditional) - 2:47
"On the Go" - 3:59
"Pax Vobiscum" - 4:12Recorded at Ullern Church in Oslo, Norway in January 2006 

Personnel
John Surman – soprano saxophone, baritone saxophone, bass clarinet
Howard Moody – church organ
Passage 7:
Plenty, Plenty Soul
Plenty, Plenty Soul is an album by American jazz vibraphonist Milt Jackson featuring performances recorded in 1957 and released on the Atlantic label 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow stated that "these all-star dates still sound fresh and enthusiastic decades later" 

Track listing
All compositions by Milt Jackson, except as indicated"Plenty, Plenty Soul" (Milt Jackson, Quincy Jones) - 9:33
"Boogity Boogity" (Jones) - 4:55
"Heartstrings" - 4:53
"Sermonette" (Cannonball Adderley) - 5:23
"The Spirit-Feel" - 4:22
"Ignunt Oil" - 5:35
"Blues at Twilight" (Jones) - 6:46Recorded in New York City on January 5 (tracks 4–7) and January 7 (tracks 1–3), 1957

Personnel
Milt Jackson – vibes
Joe Newman - trumpet
Jimmy Cleveland - trombone (tracks 1–3)
Cannonball Adderley - alto saxophone (tracks 1–3)
Frank Foster (tracks 1–3), Lucky Thompson (tracks 4–7) - tenor saxophone
Sahib Shihab - baritone saxophone (tracks 1–3)
Horace Silver - piano
Percy Heath (tracks 1–3), Oscar Pettiford (tracks 4–7) - bass
Art Blakey (tracks 1–3), Connie Kay (tracks 4––7) – drums
Quincy Jones - arranger (tracks 1–3)
Passage 8:
Three for Shepp
Three for Shepp is an album by American saxophonist Marion Brown featuring performances recorded in 1966 for the Impulse! label 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Thom Jurek awarded the album 4½ stars, stating: "Marion Brown's Three for Shepp is the image-in-the-mirror companion to Archie Shepp's Four for Trane recorded the year before  The program is equally divided between Brown's originals, which occupy the first half of the album, and Shepp tunes that take up the latter half  What is immediately striking is how similar in tone, color, and texture the two men were when it came to composition  Brown arms himself here with crack bands for these recordings    This is a classic Impulse! recording of the period by an overlooked master "The authors of the Penguin Jazz Guide wrote: "Brown's Impulse! records are routinely overlooked    In the wake of this, his first successful record, Brown took to the road, playing tirelessly but curbing his studio activities  Impulse! had already released Shepp's Four For Trane  This was explicitly intended as a companion project and its arresting opening    establishes it as one of the most inventive in the label's distinguished catalogue    Brief as it is at just 35 minutes, Three For Shepp is so densely packed with musical information that it takes many, many listens to deconstruct: a living lesson in musical history, a passionate manifesto for the future "A reviewer at SoundOhm included the album in the "Best of 2019" playlist, and stated: "Three For Shepp balances fiery energy and delicate precision    Even this early in his career, Brown stood apart from his peers in "the new thing " His solos were as gentle as they were furious  Informed by the African American folk traditions of his native Georgia and an enthusiastic embrace of the avant-garde, his music would confront and challenge society  As Brown says in the original liner notes, 'The music is definitely a part of what's going on in the black revolution in America '  Three For Shepp still sounds crucial today (over 50 years later) and remains a vital statement of jazz's past, present and future "

Track listing
All compositions by Marion Brown except as noted

"New Blue" - 5:11
"Fortunato" - 8:54
"The Shadow Knows" - 3:04
"Spooks" (Archie Shepp) - 4:32
"West India" (Shepp) - 6:24
"Delicado" (Shepp) - 6:38

Personnel
Marion Brown - alto saxophone
Grachan Moncur III - trombone
Dave Burrell (tracks 1-3), Stanley Cowell (tracks 4-6) - piano
Norris Jones - bass
Bobby Capp (tracks 1-3), Beaver Harris (tracks 4-6) – drums
Passage 9:
2 Horns / 2 Rhythm
2 Horns / 2 Rhythm is an album by American jazz trumpeter Kenny Dorham, featuring performances with Ernie Henry  It was recorded in 1957 and released on Riverside Records  This was Henry's last recording session 

Reception
The AllMusic review by Scott Yanow awarded the album four stars and stated "The sparse setting (unusual for a Dorham session) works quite well" 

Track listing
Recorded in New York City on November 13 (tracks 1–3, 5–7 & 9) and December 2 (tracks 4 & 8), 1957

Personnel
Kenny Dorham – trumpet, piano (track 3)
Ernie Henry – alto saxophone
Eddie Mathias (tracks 1–3, 5–7 & 9), Wilbur Ware (tracks 4 & 8) – bass
G T  Hogan – drums
Passage 10:
Lee Aaron (album)
Lee Aaron is the fourth studio album by singer Lee Aaron, released on 17 February 1987 through Attic Records; a remastered edition was reissued in 2002 through Unidisc Music  It is Aaron's third-highest charting album, reaching No  39 on the Canadian albums chart and remaining on that chart for seventeen weeks, as well as reaching the top 60 in three other countries  Two singles reached the Canadian singles chart: "Only Human" at No  44 and "Goin' Off the Deep End" at No  93 

Critical reception
Glenn Miller at AllMusic gave Lee Aaron three stars out of five, describing it as "refreshing, showcasing the best songwriting and strongest music of [Aaron's] career", and that she "succeeds in this softer, commercial vein with mature subject matter "

Track listing
Personnel
Lee Aaron – lead vocals, background vocals, arrangement
John Albani – guitar, background vocals, arrangement
Jim Gelcer – keyboard, background vocals, arrangement
Randy Cooke – drums, percussion, arrangement
Chris Brockway – bass, background vocals, arrangement
David Roberts – background vocals (tracks 3, 5), arrangement
Peter Coleman – arrangement, production

Chart performance
Album
Singles
Passage 11:
Crystal (Ahmad Jamal album)
Crystal is an album by American jazz pianist Ahmad Jamal featuring performances recorded in 1987 and released on the Atlantic label 

Critical reception
In an Allmusic review by Scott Yanow states "There are some magical moments on this quartet set    Jamal's control of dynamics and inventive use of space proved to be as effective as it had been when he first made his mark in the 1950s, although his chord voicings and general style had evolved  Jamal and his group perform ten of his originals with taste, swing and subtle surprises" 

Track listing
All compositions by Ahmad Jamal

"Quest for Light" – 4:48
"Arabesque" – 4:48
"Avo" – 7:04
"Piano Solo" – 1:57
"For My Daughter" – 3:34
"Perugia" – 3:57
"The Last Day" – 6:00
"Crystal" – 4:58
"Swahililand" – 4:08
"The Canteen" – 3:08

Personnel
Ahmad Jamal – piano
James Cammack – bass
David Bowler – drums
Willie White – percussion
Passage 12:
Jazz Contemporary
Jazz Contemporary is an album by American jazz trumpeter Kenny Dorham featuring performances recorded in 1960 and released on the Time label  The album features the recording debut of pianist Steve Kuhn 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow awarded the album 2½ stars and stated "The results are not quite essential but everyone plays up to par    It's fine hard bop, the modern mainstream music of the period" 

Track listing
All compositions by Kenny Dorham except as indicated"A Waltz" - 5:34
"Monk's Mood" (Thelonious Monk) - 8:09
"In Your Own Sweet Way" (Dave Brubeck) - 8:01
"Horn Salute" - 8:27
"Tonica" - 2:57
"This Love of Mine" (Sol Parker, Henry W  Sanicola Jr , Frank Sinatra) - 6:49Bonus tracks on CD reissue:

"Sign Off" - 5:29
"A Waltz" [alternate take] - 5:36
"Monk's Mood" [alternate take] (Monk) - 2:53
"This Love of Mine" [alternate take] (Parker, Sanicola, Sinatra) - 7:55Recorded on February 11 (tracks 2, 3, 7, 8, 10) and February 12, 1960 (tracks 1, 4-6, 9) 

Personnel
Kenny Dorham - trumpet
Charles Davis - baritone saxophone
Steve Kuhn - piano
Jimmy Garrison (tracks 2, 3, 7, 8 & 10), Butch Warren (tracks 1, 4-6 & 9)  - bass
Buddy Enlow - drums
Passage 13:
Opus de Jazz
Opus de Jazz (subtitled A Hi-Fi Recording for Flute, Vibes, Piano, Bass, Drums) is an album by American jazz vibraphonist Milt Jackson featuring performances recorded in 1955 and released on the Savoy label 

Reception
The AllMusic review by Scott Yanow stated: "This is not essential, but it is enjoyable music "

Track listing
"Opus de Funk" (Horace Silver) – 13:28
"Opus Pocus" (Ozzie Cadena) – 7:25
"You Leave Me Breathless" (Ralph Freed, Frederick Hollander) – 6:27
"Opus and Interlude" (Cadena) – 6:30Recorded in New York City on October 28, 1955

Personnel
Milt Jackson – vibes
Frank Wess – tenor saxophone, track 2; flute, tracks 1, 3 and 4
Hank Jones – piano
Eddie Jones – bass
Kenny Clarke – drums
Passage 14:
Tijuana Jazz
Tijuana Jazz is an album by American jazz vibraphonist Gary McFarland and trumpeter Clark Terry featuring performances recorded in 1965 for the Impulse! label  The album was also released in the UK on the HMV label as CLP3541 

Reception
The AllMusic review by Scott Yanow awarded the album 3 stars stating: "McFarland's arrangements are fine, but the solos are quite short, and the Mexican-flavored music is not particularly memorable  A blown opportunity" 

Track listing
All compositions by Gary McFarland except as indicated"South of the Border" (Jimmy Kennedy, Michael Carr) - 2:06
"Acapulco at Night" - 2:52
"Fantastic, That's You" (George Cates, George Douglas) - 2:54
"Limehouse Blues" (Philip Braham, Douglas Furber) - 3:37
"Tijuana" (Cates, Douglas) - 2:09
"Marcheta" (Victor Schertzinger) - 2:55
"Granny's Samba" - 3:30
"Soul Bird (Tin Tin Deo)" (Gil Fuller, Chano Pozo) - 4:01
"Mexicali Rose" (Jack Tenney, Helen Stone) - 2:27
"Ira Schwartz's Golden Dream" - 3:32
"Mary Jane" - 3:05
"Sweet Georgia Brown" (Ben Bernie, Kenneth Casey, Maceo Pinkard) - 2:06Recorded in New York City on December 3, 1965 (tracks 1, 2, 6 & 9), December 6, 1965 (tracks 4, 8, 11 & 12), and December 7, 1965 (tracks 3, 5, 7 & 10)

Personnel
Gary McFarland – marimba, electric piano
Joe Newman, Clark Terry - trumpet, flugelhorn
Bob Brookmeyer – valve trombone
Toots Thielemans - harmonica, guitar
Barry Galbraith - guitar
Bob Bushnell – electric bass
Mel Lewis, Grady Tate – drums
Passage 15:
It's What's Happenin'
It's What's Happenin' (subtitled The Varitone Sound of Clark Terry) is an album by American jazz trumpeter Clark Terry featuring performances recorded in 1967 for the Impulse! label   Remastered in 2012 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Impulse! Records, it was reissued together with Terry's only other record for the label as a solo leader, The Happy Horns of Clark Terry 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Richard S  Ginell awarded the album 3 stars stating "Not many will bother to recall that Clark Terry was the first trumpeter to make a recording with Selmer's Varitone attachment -- an electronic hookup to an amplifier that allowed a horn player to play octaves  Though the instrument quickly fell out of favor after a very brief vogue, it still produced an attractively soulful sound that was a good fit with Terry's jaunty, slurry, note-bending manner    there is nothing unmusically sensational about anything that happens here " 

Track listing
All compositions by Clark Terry except where noted 

"Electric Mumbles" - 3:51
"Secret Love" (Paul Francis Webster, Sammy Fain) - 6:15
"Take Me Back to Elkhart" - 7:11
"Take the "A" Train" (Billy Strayhorn) - 5:03
"Tee Pee Time" - 6:25
"Grand Canyon Suite" (Ferde Grofé) - 7:05

Personnel
Clark Terry - Varitone trumpet
Don Friedman - piano
George Duvivier - bass
Dave Bailey - drums
Passage 16:
Emotional Rain
Emotional Rain is the seventh studio album by singer Lee Aaron, released on August 3, 1994 through A&M Records (Canada) and in 1995 through Koch Entertainment (Europe); it was later reissued in 2004 through Solid Gold Records 

Track listing
Personnel
Lee Aaron – vocals, background vocals, mixing, executive production
John Albani – guitar (except tracks 13, 14), mixing, production
Knox Chandler – guitar (except tracks 13, 14)
Reeves Gabrels – guitar (except tracks 13, 14)
Don Harrison – guitar (tracks 13–14)
Don Short – drums
Daniel Mansilla – additional percussion
Don Binns – bass
Kim Deschamp – mandolin
Billy Newton-Davis – background vocals
Mischke – background vocals
Brad Nelson – engineering, mixing
Mark Berry – engineering, mixing
L  Stu Young – engineering
Graham Brewer – engineering
David Tedesco – engineering
Ray Gilliland – engineering
Keith Stein – engineering
Peter Wonsiak – engineering
Mark S  Berry – mixing, production
Passage 17:
Soundsigns
Soundsigns is an album by the American jazz saxophonist Dewey Redman of performances recorded in 1978 for the Galaxy label 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow awarded the album 3 stars stating "Recorded at the same sessions that resulted in Musics, this LP (which has not yet been reissued on CD) is actually more exploratory" 

Track listing
All compositions by Redman except as indicated"Piece for Tenor and Two Basses"  - 8:23
"Half Nelson" (Miles Davis) - 10:07
"Adesso Lo Sai" - 13:59
"Come Earth" - 8:00Recorded at Fantasy Studios in Berkeley, California on October 18 & 19, 1978

Personnel
Dewey Redman - tenor saxophone (tracks 1-3), harp (track 4)
Fred Simmons - piano (tracks 2 & 3)
Charlie Haden (tracks 1 & 4), Mark Helias - bass
Eddie Moore - drums, saw, cymbal (tracks 2-4)
Passage 18:
More Blues and the Abstract Truth
More Blues and the Abstract Truth is an album by American jazz composer, conductor and arranger Oliver Nelson featuring performances recorded in 1964 for the Impulse! label 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow awarded the album 4 stars, stating: "Unlike the original classic Blues and the Abstract Truth set from three years earlier, Oliver Nelson does not play on this album  He did contribute three of the eight originals and all of the arrangements but his decision not to play is disappointing    The emphasis is on blues-based pieces and there are some strong moments even if the date falls short of its predecessor" 

Track listing
All compositions by Oliver Nelson except as noted

"Blues and the Abstract Truth" - 5:14
"Blues O'Mighty" (Hodges) - 6:48
"Theme from Mr  Broadway" (Brubeck) - 5:45
"Midnight Blue" (Neal Hefti) - 4:06
"The Critic's Choice" - 2:21
"One for Bob" - 6:07
"Blues for Mr  Broadway" (Brubeck) - 8:12
"Goin' to Chicago Blues" (Count Basie, Jimmy Rushing) - 4:37
"One for Phil" - 3:58 Bonus track on CD reissue
"Night Lights" (Arnold Shaw) - 2:46 Bonus track on CD reissueRecorded on November 10, 1964 (tracks 4 & 6–9), and November 11, 1964 (tracks 1–3, 5 & 10) 

Personnel
Oliver Nelson - arranger, conductor
Thad Jones, Danny Moore (tracks 1 & 5) - trumpet
Phil Woods - alto saxophone
Ben Webster - tenor saxophone (tracks 4 & 7)
Phil Bodner - tenor saxophone, English horn
Pepper Adams - baritone saxophone
Roger Kellaway - piano
Richard Davis – bass
Grady Tate – drums
Passage 19:
Fire and Rain (song)
"Fire and Rain" is a song written and performed by American singer-songwriter James Taylor, released in August 1970 by Warner Bros  Records as the second single from Taylor's second studio album, Sweet Baby James  The song follows Taylor's reaction to the suicide of Suzanne Schnerr, a childhood friend, and his experiences with drug addiction and fame  After its release, "Fire and Rain" peaked at number two on RPM's Canada Top Singles chart and at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 

Background and composition
On the VH1 series Storytellers, Taylor said the song was about several incidents during his early recording career   The second line "Suzanne, the plans they made put an end to you" refers to Suzanne Schnerr, a childhood friend of his who died by suicide while he was in London, England, recording his first album  In that same account, Taylor said he had been in a deep depression after the failure of his new band the Flying Machine to coalesce (the lyric "Sweet dreams and Flying Machines in pieces on the ground"; the reference is to the name of the band rather than a fatal plane crash, as was long rumored)  Taylor completed writing the song while in rehab In 2005, during an interview on NPR, Taylor explained to host Scott Simon that the song was written in three parts:
The first part was about Taylor's friend Suzanne, who died while Taylor was in London working on his first album after being signed to Apple Records  Friends at home, concerned that it might distract Taylor from his big break, kept the tragic news from him, and he found out six months later 
The second part details Taylor's struggle to overcome drug addiction and depression 
The third part deals with coming to grips with fame and fortune, looking back at the road that got him there  It includes a reference to James Taylor and the Flying Machine, a band he briefly worked with before his big break with Paul McCartney, Peter Asher, and Apple Records Carole King played piano on the song  Drummer Russ Kunkel used brushes rather than sticks on his drum kit, and Bobby West played double bass in place of a bass guitar to "underscore the melancholy on the song" 

Reception
Record World said that the release of Taylor's version as a single after several cover versions had been released "was bound to come along  With so many versions out there is no reason the excellent original will not be THE one " Cash Box similarly referred to Taylor releasing it as a single saying "Now, the fourth or fifth to release his own 'Fire & Rain,' Taylor may have found his sought after single hit the hard way  The 'original' comes in the wake of R  B  Greaves' sales and Johnny Rivers' current treatment (not to mention BS&T's album track getting further notice) "  Billboard described it as a "poignant ballad "Broadcast Music, Inc  ranked "Fire and Rain" at number 82 on its "Top 100 Songs of the Century" list, while voters for the National Endowment for the Arts and Recording Industry Association of America's Songs of the Century list, which comprises 365 songs of "historical significance" recorded from 1900 to 2000, placed "Fire and Rain" at number 85  In April 2011, the song was named at number 227 on Rolling Stone's list of 500 greatest songs of all time 

Chart performance
Weekly charts
Other versions
Certifications
Cover versions
R  B  Greaves and Johnny Rivers first released singles of "Fire and Rain" in 1970  Warner Brothers released Taylor's original as a single later that year, in August 1970  Greaves' and Rivers' versions peaked at numbers 82 and 94 on the Billboard Hot 100, respectively Billboard predicted that Greaves' version would be a hit and said that "The James Taylor song is a natural and the production matches the song in merit "  Record World also predicted it to be a hit and said that Taylor and Greaves "are perfect together "Record World called Rivers' version "top quality stuff " Cash Box said of Rivers' version that "the tang of country pop and a top forty arrangement make this the most commercial single yet on 'Fire & Rain '"American singer-songwriter Tim Hardin (cited by James Taylor as a songwriting influence) included a "heartwrenchingly moving" rendition of "Fire and Rain" on his 1973 album Nine 
Marcia Hines covered "Fire and Rain" on her 1975 debut LP, Marcia Shines   Her version reached No  17 in Australia  At the 1975 Australian Record Awards, the song won Hines Female Vocal Single of the Year 

References in other works
Taylor references the song in another of his compositions, "That's Why I'm Here", title track from his 1985 album, in which he writes, "Fortune and fame's such a curious game  Perfect strangers can call you by name  Pay good money to hear 'Fire and Rain' again and again and again "
He also refers to the song in another composition, "Money Machine" (a cynical take on the financial aspects of the recording industry): "When I began the game, see me singing ‘bout Fire and Rain; Lemme just sing it again — I've seen fives and I’ve seen tens "
Carole King has stated that her song "You've Got a Friend", which Taylor recorded, was a response to the line in the refrain, "I've seen lonely times when I could not find a friend "

Parodies
Taylor performs the song on The Simpsons in the episode "Deep Space Homer"  While singing the song for a group of astronauts (including Homer Simpson and Buzz Aldrin), he changes the lyric "Sweet dreams and flying machines in pieces on the ground" to "Sweet dreams and flying machines, flying safely through the air" when he realizes the Space Shuttle may crash In 2015, Taylor appeared on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, where he sang a version including numerous references to post-1970 popular culture 
Passage 20:
Groovin' with Golson
Groovin' with Golson is the sixth album by saxophonist Benny Golson featuring performances recorded in 1959 and originally released on the New Jazz label 

Reception
The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow states, "the hard bop music does indeed groove in its own fashion" 

Track listing
All compositions by Benny Golson except where noted 

"My Blues House" - 9:25
"Drum Boogie" (Roy Eldridge, Gene Krupa) - 3:59
"I Didn't Know What Time It Was" (Richard Rodgers, Lorenz Hart) - 5:25
"The Stroller" - 9:18
"Yesterdays" (Jerome Kern, Otto Harbach) - 5:54

Personnel
Benny Golson - tenor saxophone
Curtis Fuller - trombone
Ray Bryant - piano
Paul Chambers - bass
Art Blakey - drums
Context 2: Passage 1:
John Camm
John Camm may refer to:

John Camm (Anglican priest) (1718–1778), president of the College of William & Mary
John Camm (Quaker preacher) (1604/5–1657), English Quaker preacher and writer
Passage 2:
Kenjgewin Teg Educational Institute
Kenjgewin Teg (formerly Kenjgewin Teg Educational Institute) is an Aboriginal-owned and controlled post-secondary institution at M'Chigeeng First Nation, on Mnidoo Mnising Manitoulin Island, Ontario, Canada  In the Ojibwe language, Kenjgewin Teg means a place of knowledge 
Programs are offered to its eight-member First Nations: 

Aundeck Omni Kaning First Nation
Constance Lake First Nation
M'Chigeeng First Nation
Sagamok First Nation
Sheguiandah First Nation
Sheshegwaning First Nation
Whitefish River First Nation
Zhiibaahaasing First Nation

History
In April 1994 the Wautebek Training Institute and Nda-Gkenjge-Gamig Educational Institute merged to create the Kenjgewin Teg Educational Institute (KTEI)  Kenjgewin Teg developed Joint Management Committees with the affiliated educational institutions In January, 2022, Kenjgewin Teg received accreditation from the Indigenous Advanced Education and Skills Council to offer certificates, diplomas and degrees 

Partnerships
University
Indigenous Teacher Education Program, Queens' University
Master of Education in World Indigenous Studies in Education (WISE), Queens' University
Master of Social Work, Indigenous Field of Study, Laurentian University

College
Practical Nursing, Fleming College
Personal Support Worker, Canadore College
Anishinaabemowin Early Childhood Education, Canadore College
Renovation Techniques: Construction Carpentry, Canadore College

See also
United Chiefs and Councils of Manitoulin
Passage 3:
Robert Ray Hamilton
Robert Ray Hamilton (March 18, 1851 – August 23, 1890) was an American politician from New York 

Early life
He was the son of Gen  Schuyler Hamilton (1822–1903); grandson of John Church Hamilton (1792–1882); and great-grandson of Alexander Hamilton (1755/7–1804) and Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton 
Robert Ray Hamilton graduated from Columbia College and Columbia Law School  He was admitted to the bar, and practiced law in New York City 

Career
He was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co , 11th D ) in 1881, 1886, 1887, 1888 and 1889 
Hamilton bought a half interest in a ranch owned by John Sargent in Idaho where he intended to live permanently  In May 1890, he left New York City for his ranch, to go hunting 

Personal life
In August 1889, it became known that he was married to Evangeline L  Mann (née Steele), a "notorious woman" who had ensnared him by claiming that he was the father of her child Beatrice  Evangeline Mann assaulted her maid, and was sentenced to two years in prison  In October 1889, Hamilton sued for divorce  He stated that the marriage had been performed on January 7, 1889, and told the truth about Beatrice which had been in fact some foundling used for the scheme to get money out of Hamilton (who had an income of about $40,000 a year inherited from his maternal grandfather Robert Ray)  It was later proved in court that Eva had been married already to one Joshua L  Mann before she ever knew Hamilton, and Mann sued for divorce in 1893 
In September 1890, he was found dead in the Snake River, near the Southern end of Yellowstone Park, apparently having drowned and having been in the water for several days, making identification somewhat difficult  An investigation accused John I  Sergent of murdering Hamilton, but Sergent was found to be legally insane and was never prosecuted for the crime 
Passage 4:
Maltepe University
Maltepe University (Turkish: Maltepe Üniversitesi) is a private university located in Maltepe district of Istanbul, Turkey  It was established on July 9, 1997 by "Istanbul Marmara Education Foundation" (İMEV)   The institution has a broad scope of education starting from the elementary level to university  The first students graduated in June 2001 

Medium of teaching
Turkish is chosen as the medium of teaching, unlike many other private universities in Turkey, with the belief that an individual can best learn and perform in the mother tongue  However, having the awareness that English is indispensable in the international scientific arena, the university includes an English teaching program  Those students who are not exempt in the proficiency exam of the English language department enroll in the two-semester intensive English preparatory program  All students take compulsory English courses during their undergraduate education 

Academic programs
Undergraduate programs
Faculty of paedagogy (psychological guidance, English language)
Faculty of natural sciences and literature (philosophy, mathematics, psychology)
Faculty of fine arts (acting, film, plastic arts, cartoon making-animation, photography)
Faculty of law
Faculty of economics and business administration (economics, business administration, international relations and European Union)
Faculty of communication sciences (visual communication and design, public relations and publicity, radio-cinema-TV)
Faculty of architecture (graphic design, interior decoration, architecture)
Faculty of engineering (computer engineering, electronics, industrial engineering)
Faculty of medicine (Nursing)Vocational school
Radio–TV programming
Tourism and hotel management
Computer technology and programming
Film production techniquesPost-graduate and doctorate programs
Institute of social sciences (education administration, economics policy, business administration, law, psychology, human sciences, philosophy, radio-cinema-TV)
Institute of natural sciences (computer science, industrial engineering, mathematics, architecture, civil engineering-earthquake engineering)General
Atatürk's reforms and history of the Republic of Turkey
Foreign languages

Academic staff
As of 2003 academic year, the university holds 300 teaching staff of which 205 are full-time 

Campus
Maltepe University has three campuses  The main campus in Maltepe Eğitim Köyü (Maltepe Education Village), located at Maltepe, Büyükbakkalköy, was opened in September 2003  The President's Office and administrative units are situated on this campus, which extends over an area of 100 hectares comprising faculty buildings, indoor/outdoor sports facilities, an olympic-size swimming pool and student social activities centers 
The university's Dragos campus is located at Dragos, close to the shore on an area of 15,000 m²  The Vocational School, The Science Institute, The Social Sciences Institute and The Continuous Education Center are all located on this campus 
The Faculty of medicine and its hospital, which serves its students as an application hospital, are both located in Maltepe, on the campus where the university was first founded 

Affiliations
The university is a member of the Caucasus University Association 

Gallery
See also
List of universities in Turkey
Passage 5:
Jeffrey Black
Jeffrey Black (born September 6, 1962) is an Australian baritone who has had an active international performance career since the early 1980s  A frequent performer with Opera Australia and the Glyndebourne Festival Opera, he has performed leading role with the Metropolitan Opera, Opéra Bastille, Lyric Opera of Chicago, Bavarian State Opera, and the Royal Opera, Covent Garden among other opera houses  He is particularly known for his portrayals of Guglielmo in Mozart's Così fan tutte, Count Almaviva in Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro, and Figaro in Rossini's The Barber of Seville 

Early life and education
Born in Brisbane, Black was educated at the Anglican Church Grammar School  In his youth he was a boy soprano in the choir at the Cathedral of St Stephen, Brisbane for several years  He studied singing at the Queensland Conservatorium of Music where graduated with a Bachelor of Music degree in 1983  At the Conservatorium he participated in opera workshops led by tenor Donald Smith whose influence oriented his career towards opera  He appeared in many of the operas staged by the conservatorium students and post-graduate students, including appearing in the role of Figaro, as a first year opera student, in the conservatorium's 1981 production of The Marriage of Figaro at the Basil Jones Theatre (now called the QUT Gardens Theatre) In 1983 Black won the Marianne Mathy Scholarship in the Australian Singing Competition which enabled him to pursue further vocal training at the National Opera Studio in London in 1984  In 1985 he was awarded the Armstrong-Martin Scholarship  He later pursued further vocal training with Audrey Langford and Jane Chapman in London 

Performance career
Black began his professional career in the early 1980s as a concert baritone  He made his debut as a principal singer with the Opera Australia (OA) in 1984 as a featured soloist in a concert of works by Jean-Philippe Rameau at the Sydney Opera House  His first role in an opera with the OA was in 1985 as Mercutio in Charles Gounod's Roméo et Juliette  He notably performed the role of Nevers in Les Huguenots with the OA in 1990 for the farewell performance of Joan Sutherland as Marguerite de Valois  He also performed and recorded the roles of Nerone and Ottone, both transposed down an octave from the original score, in Claudio Monteverdi's L'incoronazione di Poppea with the AO in 1988 Black performed regularly at the Sydney Opera House with the OA for twenty years  His roles with that company included Papageno in Mozart's The Magic Flute (1986),  Schaunard in Giacomo Puccini's La bohème (1986), Dr  Falke in Die Fledermaus (1986), Dandini in Rossini's La Cenerentola (1987),  Figaro in The Barber of Seville (1989),  Guglielmo in Così fan tutte (1990),  Enrico in Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor (1996 and 2003), the title role of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin (1997), Wolfram in Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser (1998) Rodrigo in Verdi's Don Carlo (1999), the Count in Richard Strauss's Capriccio (2000), Belcore in L'elisir d'amore (2001), Count Almaviva in The Marriage of Figaro (2002), and Danilo in  The Merry Widow (2004)  In 1991 he had a critical triumph with the OA in the title role of Mozart's Don Giovanni; later reprising the role with the company in 2003 In 1986 Black made his first appearance in the United Kingdom with the Glyndebourne Festival Opera (GFO)  He returned to the GFO numerous times, portraying such roles as Demetrius in Benjamin Britten's A Midsummer Night's Dream (1989), the Count in Richard Strauss's Capriccio (1990), and Count Almaviva in The Marriage of Figaro (1991)  In 1987 he made his debut at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden as Harlequin in Richard Strauss's Ariadne auf Naxos, and appeared at the Opera Queensland in Brisbane as Dandini in Rossini's La Cenerentola  He returned to Covent Garden as Sid in Britten's Albert Herring (1989), Figaro in Rossini's The Barber of Seville (1990), and Dandini in Rossini's La Cenerentola (1991) Black made his first appearance in the United States as Guglielmo in Così fan tutte with the Los Angeles Opera in 1988; a role which he repeated at the Lyric Opera of Chicago (1993), the Salzburg Festival (1993), and the Aix-en-Provence Festival  In 1991 he made his debut at the Opéra Bastille in Paris as Lescaut in Puccini's Manon Lescaut  In 1992 he portrayed the Pirate King in Gilbert and Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance with the Victoria State Opera  He performed the role of Fieramosca in Berlioz's Benvenuto Cellini at the Grand Théâtre de Genève in 1992, and returned there in 1995 as Riccardo in Bellini's I puritani In 1995 Black made his debut at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City as Figaro in The Barber of Seville; a role which he has also performed with the San Francisco Opera (1992), the San Diego Opera (1993), and the Bavarian State Opera (1995)  In 1994 he returned to the San Diego Opera in the title role of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin, appeared in Los Angeles as Marcello in La bohème', and performed the role of Demetrius in Britten's A Midsummer Night's Dream with the Israeli Opera In 2000 Black made his debut with the Michigan Opera Theatre as Captain Balstrode in Benjamin Britten's Peter Grimes  In 2004 he portrayed Escamillo in Opera Queensland's production of Georges Bizet's Carmen with Yvonne Fontane in the tile role  In 2005 he performed the role of Danilo in a staging celebrating the 100th anniversary of The Merry Widow with the Welsh National Opera In 2009 Black sang the title role in a concert version of Verdi's Simon Boccanegra with the Chelsea Opera Group at Queen Elizabeth Hall  That same year he performed the role of Frank in Die Fledermaus with the London Lyric Opera  In 2010 he portrayed Gianciotto in Riccardo Zandonai's Francesca da Rimini with Opera Holland Park Black has also performed in operas with the Netherlands Opera, Vlaamse Opera, Opéra de Monte-Carlo, Washington National Opera, Teatro Colón, and Opera North  His stage repertoire also included the role of Ford in Falstaff 

Personal life
He met his wife Janice on stage when playing Figaro in the Marriage of Figaro and she played Suzanna  They have a son and a daughter  Black's son has diabetes, and he has been active in fundraising in support of this cause 
Passage 6:
Bobelle Sconiers Harrell
Ina Bobelle "Bobbie" Wright Sconiers Harrell (1923-2012) was a pharmacist and pilot who was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal (as part of the Civil Air Patrol) on December 10, 2014 She was born in Fort Walton Beach, and was the first female student admitted to the School of Pharmacy at what is today Auburn University, and was then Alabama Polytechnic Institute  She graduated in 1944 at the top of her class with Phi Kappa Phi and Cardinal Key honors  She later became one of the first women licensed to practice pharmacy in Florida  She was also licensed to practice pharmacy in Alabama Bobelle had married at age 18, to 1st Lt  Ewart T  Sconiers, but he died while imprisoned as a POW during World War II in Stalag Luft III (of “The Great Escape” fame)  [13] Shortly before Bobelle died, she learned his remains had been found  She and her second husband, Philip B  Harrell, owned Harrell's Drug Store from 1956 through 1982 According to her own journal, she made her first solo flight on April 5, 1945  That year she received a pilot's license and was trained to fly missions with the Civil Air Patrol  Bobelle moved to Crestview in 1946, where she worked at Brackin's Pharmacy and flew with the patrol between Pensacola and Birmingham off and on for two years 
Passage 7:
HOSA (organization)
HOSA – Future Health Professionals, formerly known as Health Occupations Students of America (HOSA), is an international career and technical student organization (CTSO) endorsed by the U S  Department of Education and the Health Science Technology Education Division of ACTE  HOSA is composed of middle school, secondary, and post-secondary/collegiate students, along with professionals, alumni, and honorary members  It is headquartered in Southlake, Texas, and is the largest student organization that prepares students to enter healthcare and similar fields, with membership in the United States, U S  Territories, Canada, China, South Korea, and Mexico 

History
HOSA was founded in 1976 out of a task force from the American Vocational Association in order to determine whether a new student organization accommodating healthcare students was necessary 
From November 4–7, 1975, the State Department of Education and Division of Vocational Education in New Jersey with 18 representatives from Alabama, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma and Texas voted to form the American Health Occupations Education Student Organization 
On November 10–13, 1976, in a constitutional convention in Arlington, Texas AHOESO adopted bylaws, which also changed the organization's name to Health Occupations Students of America; elected national leaders; selected colors and a motto; made plans to design an emblem; and set the first National Leadership Conference for the spring of 1978 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma In 2004, the organization dropped the acronym from its name, and began publishing all documents under the brand "HOSA – Future Health Professionals "

Chartered associations
As of 2020, HOSA has grown to more than 50 chartered associations in several countries, including the United States and its territories, Canada, China, South Korea, and Mexico  HOSA's chartered associations are:

Mission statement
The mission of HOSA is to empower HOSA-Future Health Professionals to become leaders in the global health community through education, collaboration, and experience 

Uniform
The official HOSA uniform consists of a navy-blue suit with maroon accent in the form of a tie for men or a scarf for women  The HOSA emblem is affixed to the suit jacket 

International Leadership Conferences (ILCs)
Members meet annually at an International Leadership Conference held in late June in cities across the United States  Selected major cities for hosting the conference rotate every few years  Over 7,500 students participate in general sessions, competitive events, and leadership experiences, all while networking with health sciences students representing nearly all 50 states and countries including Canada, China, and Mexico 

Competitive events
HOSA offers 82 competitive events, ranging from skill-based to leadership and team-based  The event groups are as follows: Health science, health professions, leadership, and recognition events  Members compete at the regional, state, and international levels  Those who place in the top three positions at the state level are given the opportunity to compete at the international level 
Passage 8:
Roberts Vaux Junior High School
The Promise Academy at Roberts Vaux High School (commonly referred to as the Roberts Vaux Promise Academy) is an historic, American high school building that is located in the North Central neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 
Named for American jurist, abolitionist, and philanthropist Roberts Vaux (1786-1836), it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988 

History and architectural features
Designed by Irwin T  Catharine and built between 1936 and 1938, this historic structure is a four-story, twenty-three-bay, "U"-shaped, yellow brick building that was created in a Moderne/Art Deco style  It features projecting end pavilions, terra cotta decorative work, and a two-story, stone, Tudor-arched entryway It was named for American jurist, abolitionist, and philanthropist Roberts Vaux (1786-1836)  Jacob C  White, Jr  served as principal from 1864 to 1896 and was the first black school principal in Philadelphia  During his tenure, White reformed the institute and became the leading figure in the field of urban education in Philadelphia 
During the 1980s and 1990s, Vaux developed a positive reputation for creating national and state chess champions  Mathematics teacher Jeff Chesin coached the team that first decade, but the team disbanded when Chesin Vaux left for another school  It was then resurrected during the 1990s by special education teacher Salome Thomas-Elwho later became the school's principal  During the early 2000s, the chess program disbanded again  
While teaching at Vaux High in North Philadelphia during the 2000s, rugby player Larry Conlan saw a need for his students to positively channel their aggression and started an after-school rugby club in 2012  
Added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988, the school was closed in 2013 as part of Philadelphia's shutdown of twenty-three district-run schools  Displaced students were enrolled in Strawberry Mansion High School and Benjamin Franklin High School  The school then reopened for the 2017-2018 academic year under the new leadership of Big Picture Philadelphia 

See also
Passage 9:
Yeni Həyat, Khachmaz
Yeni Həyat (also, Yeni-Khayat) is a village and municipality in the Khachmaz Rayon of Azerbaijan   It has a population of 3,503 
Passage 10:
James Meredith
James Howard Meredith (born June 25, 1933) is an American civil rights activist, writer, political adviser, and United States Air Force veteran who became, in 1962, the first African-American student admitted to the racially segregated University of Mississippi after the intervention of the federal government (an event that was a flashpoint in the civil rights movement)  Inspired by President John F  Kennedy's inaugural address, Meredith decided to exercise his constitutional rights and apply to the University of Mississippi  His goal was to put pressure on the Kennedy administration to enforce civil rights for African Americans  The admission of Meredith ignited the Ole Miss riot of 1962 where Meredith's life was threatened and 31,000 American servicemen were required to quell the violence - the largest ever invocation of the Insurrection Act of 1807 In 1966, Meredith planned a solo 220-mile (350-kilometer) March Against Fear from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi; he wanted to highlight continuing racism in the South and encourage voter registration after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965  He did not want major civil rights organizations involved  The second day, he was shot by a white gunman and suffered numerous wounds  Leaders of major organizations vowed to complete the march in his name after he was taken to the hospital  While Meredith was recovering, more people from across the country became involved as marchers  He rejoined the march and when Meredith and other leaders entered Jackson on June 26, they were leading an estimated 15,000 marchers, in what was the largest civil rights march in Mississippi  During the march, more than 4,000 African Americans registered to vote, and it was a catalyst to continued community organizing and additional registration 
In 2002 and again in 2012, the University of Mississippi led year-long series of events to celebrate the 40th and 50th anniversaries of Meredith's integration of the institution  He was among numerous speakers invited to the campus, where a statue of him commemorates his role  The Lyceum-The Circle Historic District at the center of the campus has been designated as a National Historic Landmark for these events 

Early life and education
Meredith was born in 1933 in Kosciusko, Mississippi, the son of Roxie (Patterson) and Moses Meredith  He is of African-American, English Canadian, Scots and Choctaw heritage  His family nickname was "J-Boy"  European traders intermarried with some Choctaw during the colonial period  In the 1830s, thousands of Choctaw chose to stay in Mississippi and become United States citizens when most of the tribe left their traditional homeland for Indian Territory during the federally imposed removal  Those in the state had unions with European Americans and African Americans (some of whom were enslaved), adding to the multi-racial population in the developing territory Meredith completed 11th grade at Attala County Training School (which was segregated as "white" and "colored" under the state's Jim Crow laws) and completed 12th grade at Gibbs High School in St  Petersburg, Florida  He graduated from high school in 1951  Then, Meredith enlisted in the United States Air Force  He served from 1951 to 1960 Afterward Meredith attended Jackson State University for two years, achieving good grades 

University of Mississippi
Challenge to the University
In 1961, inspired the day before by U S  President John F  Kennedy, Meredith started to apply to the University of Mississippi, intending to insist on his civil rights to attend the state-funded university  It still admitted only white students under the state's culture of racial segregation, although the U S  Supreme Court ruled in Brown v  Board of Education (1954) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional, as they are supported by all the taxpayers 
Meredith wrote in his application that he wanted admission for his country, race, family, and himself  He said,

Nobody handpicked me   I believed, and believe now, that I have a Divine Responsibility    I am familiar with the probable difficulties involved in such a move as I am undertaking and I am fully prepared to pursue it all the way to a degree from the University of Mississippi 
He was twice denied admission  During this time, he was advised by Medgar Evers, who was head of the state chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 
On May 31, 1961, Meredith, with backing of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, filed suit in the U S  District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi, alleging that the university had rejected him only because of his race, as he had a highly successful record of military service and academic courses  The case went through many hearings, after which the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled that Meredith had the right to be admitted to the state school  The state appealed to the U S  Supreme Court, which supported the ruling of the appeals court On September 13, 1962, the District Court entered an injunction directing the members of the Board of Trustees and the officials of the University to register Meredith  The Democratic Governor of Mississippi, Ross Barnett, declared "no school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your governor"   The state legislature quickly created a plan  They passed a law that denied admission to any person "who has a crime of moral turpitude against him" or who had been convicted of any felony offense or not pardoned  The same day it became law, Meredith was accused and convicted of "false voter registration," in absentia, in Jackson County  The conviction against Meredith was trumped up: Meredith both owned land in northern Mississippi and was registered to vote in Jackson, where he lived  "Later the clerk testified that Meredith was qualified to register and vote in Jackson [where he was registered] "
On September 20, the federal government obtained an injunction against enforcement of this Act and of the two state court decrees that had barred Meredith's registration  That day Meredith was rebuffed again by Governor Barnett in his efforts to gain admission, though university officials were prepared to admit him  On September 28, the Court of Appeals, en banc and after a hearing, found the Governor in civil contempt and ordered that he be arrested and pay a fine of $10,000 for each day that he kept up the refusal, unless he complied by October 2  On September 29, Lieutenant Governor Paul B  Johnson Jr  (elected Governor on November 5, 1963) was also found in contempt by a panel of the court, and a similar order was entered against him, with a fine of $5,000 a day Attorney General Robert F  Kennedy had a series of phone calls with Governor Barnett between September 27 to October 1  Barnett reluctantly agreed to let Meredith enroll in the university, but secretly bargained with Kennedy on a plan which would allow him to save face 
Barnett committed to maintain civil order  Robert Kennedy ordered 127 U S  Marshals as well as 316 deputized U S  Border Patrol and 97 Federal Bureau of Prisons officers to accompany Meredith during his arrival and registration  On September 29, President Kennedy issued a proclamation commanding all persons engaged in the obstruction of the laws and the orders of the courts to "cease and desist therefrom and to disperse and retire peaceably forthwith", citing his authority under 10 U S C  § 332, § 333, and § 334 to use the militia or the armed forces to suppress any insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful combination, or conspiracy 

Rioting at the University
On the evening of September 29, the day after State Senator George Yarbrough withdrew the State Highway Police, a riot broke out  Whites opposing integration had been gathering at the campus and began fighting with federal agents  Despite the Kennedy administration's reluctance to use force, it ordered the nationalized Mississippi National Guard and federal troops to the campus  In the violent clashes which followed, two civilians were killed by gunshot wounds, and white rioters burned cars, pelted federal agents and soldiers with rocks, bricks and small arms fire, and damaged university property 

Enrollment
The day after the riots, on October 1, 1962, after federal and state forces took control, Meredith became the first African-American student to enroll at the University of Mississippi  Meredith's admission is regarded as a pivotal moment in the history of civil rights in the United States 
Many students harassed Meredith during his two semesters on campus, but others accepted him  According to first-person accounts, students living in Meredith's dorm bounced basketballs on the floor just above his room through all hours of the night  Other students ostracized him: when Meredith walked into the cafeteria for meals, the students eating would turn their backs  If Meredith sat at a table with other students, all of whom were white, the students would immediately get up and go to another table  He persisted through harassment and extreme isolation to graduate on August 18, 1963, with a degree in political science 

Education and activism
Meredith continued his education, focusing on political science, at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria  He returned to the United States in 1965  He attended law school through a scholarship at Columbia University and earned an LL B (law degree) in 1968 In 1966, Meredith organized and led a solo, personal March Against Fear for 220 miles from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi, beginning on June 6, 1966  Inviting only black men to join him, he wanted to highlight continuing racial oppression in the Mississippi Delta, as well as to encourage blacks to register and vote following passage of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight and enforcement of rights  Governor Paul Johnson promised to allow the march and provide State Highway Police protection  Meredith wanted blacks in Mississippi to overcome fear of violence Despite police, on the second day, Meredith was shot and wounded by Aubrey James Norvell, a white man whose motives were never determined, and who pleaded guilty at trial  Meredith was quickly taken to a hospital  Leaders of major organizations rallied at the news and vowed to complete the march in Meredith's name  They struggled to reconcile differing goals, but succeeded in attracting more than 10,000 marchers from local towns and across the country by the end Meredith recovered from his wounds and rejoined the march before it reached Jackson on June 26, when 15,000 marchers entered the city in what had become the largest civil rights march in state history  During the march, more than 4,000 black Mississippians registered to vote  Continued community organizing was catalyzed by these events, and African Americans began to enter the political system again  Black voters in Mississippi have established a high rate of voter registration and voting participation 

Political career
In 1967, while living and studying in New York, Meredith decided to run as a Republican against incumbent Adam Clayton Powell Jr , a multi-term Democrat, in a special election for the Congressional seat in Harlem  He withdrew from the race and Powell was re-elected  Meredith said later of his campaign, "The Republican Party [of New York] made me an offer: full support in every way, everything " He had full access to top New York Republicans After returning to Mississippi to live, in 1972 Meredith ran for the US Senate against Democratic senator James Eastland, who had been the incumbent for 29 years in what had operated as a one-party state  Following provisions of a new state constitution in 1890 that made voter registration extremely difficult, African Americans had been effectively disenfranchised and the Republican Party had been crippled  Meredith conceded that he had little chance of winning unless Governor George Wallace of Alabama entered the presidential race and split the white vote An active Republican, Meredith served from 1989 to 1991 as a domestic adviser on the staff of United States Senator Jesse Helms  Faced with criticism from the civil rights community for working for the avowed segregationist, Meredith said that he had applied to every member of the Senate and House offering his services, and only Helms' office responded  He also wanted a chance to do research at the Library of Congress In 2002, officials at the University of Mississippi celebrated the 40th anniversary of Meredith's historic admission and integration of the institution with a year-long series of events  Of the celebration, Meredith said,

It was an embarrassment for me to be there, and for somebody to celebrate it, oh my God  I want to go down in history, and have a bunch of things named after me, but believe me that ain't it 
He said he had achieved his main goal at the time by getting the federal government to enforce his rights as a citizen  He saw his actions as "an assault on white supremacy " In 2003, he was far more proud that his son Joseph Meredith graduated as the top doctoral student at the university's graduate business school 

Legacy and honors
In 2002, the University of Mississippi honored the 40th anniversary of Meredith's admission with numerous events 
In 2006, a statue of him was dedicated on campus in his honor 
In 2012, the University commemorated the 50th anniversary of the historic admission, featuring a range of speakers, artists, lectures and events during the year 
That year Meredith received the Harvard Graduate School of Education 'Medal for Education Impact' and was the school's convocation speaker  Meredith said it was the first award in 50 years he had accepted 

Cultural depictions
In 2011 miniseries The Kennedys, he was portrayed by Matthew G  Brown in episode five of the series, Life Sentences 

Political viewpoint
A highly independent man, Meredith has identified as an individual American citizen who demanded and received the constitutional rights held by any American, not as a participant in the Civil Rights Movement  There have been tensions between him and leaders of major organizations of the movement  When interviewed in 2002, the 40th anniversary of his enrollment at University of Mississippi, Meredith said, "Nothing could be more insulting to me than the concept of civil rights  It means perpetual second-class citizenship for me and my kind "Meredith was a supporter of the unsuccessful 1967 gubernatorial bid of ex-Mississippi Governor (and avowed segregationist) Ross Barnett, as well as the 1991 gubernatorial campaign of Louisiana State Representative and ex-Klansman David Duke In a 2002 interview with CNN, Meredith said of his efforts to integrate Ole Miss, "I was engaged in a war  I considered myself engaged in a war from Day One  And my objective was to force the federal government—the Kennedy administration at that time—into a position where they would have to use the United States military force to enforce my rights as a citizen "

Personal life
On March 14, 1956, Meredith married Mary June Wiggins  She later worked as a high school English teacher  They had three sons, James, John and Joseph Howard Meredith   Mary June Meredith died of heart failure in December 1979 
In 1982, Meredith married Judy Alsobrooks in Gary, Indiana  She had one son, Kip Naylor, from a previous marriage  Jessica Howard Meredith was born to their union   The couple live in Jackson, Mississippi 

Works
In 1966, his memoir, Three Years in Mississippi, was published by the Indiana University Press 
He has self-published several books on politics and society 

See also
List of African-American pioneers in desegregation of higher education
List of civil rights leaders
School integration in the United States
Passage 11:
Student loans in the United States
In the United States, student loans are a form of financial aid intended to help students access higher education  In 2018, 70 percent of higher education graduates had used loans to cover some or all of their expenses  With notable exceptions, student loans must be repaid, in contrast to other forms of financial aid such as scholarships, which are not repaid, and grants, which rarely have to be repaid  Student loans may be discharged through bankruptcy, but this is difficult Student loan debt has proliferated since 2006, totaling $1 73 trillion by July 2021  In 2019, students who borrowed to complete a bachelor's degree had about $30,000 of debt upon graduation : 1   Almost half of all loans are for graduate school, typically in much higher amounts : 1   Loan amounts vary widely based on race, social class, age, institution type, and degree sought  As of 2017, student debt constituted the largest non-mortgage liability for US households  Research indicates that increasing borrowing limits drives tuition increases Student loan defaults are disproportionately common in the for-profit college sector  Around 2010, about 10 percent of college students attended for-profit colleges, but almost 40 percent of all defaults on federal student loans were to for-profit attendees  The schools whose students have the highest amount of debt are University of Phoenix, Walden University, Nova Southeastern University, Capella University, and Strayer University  Except for Nova Southeastern, they are all for-profit  In 2018, the National Center for Education Statistics reported that the 12-year student loan default rate for for-profit colleges was 52 percent The default rate for borrowers who do not complete their degree is three times the rate for those who did : 1  A Brookings Institution study from 2023 revealed that when the government pauses repayment on student loans, it most often "   benefit[s] affluent borrowers the most   " primarily due to affluent borrowers holding the largest student debt balances 

History
Federal student loans were first offered in 1958 under the National Defense Education Act (NDEA)  They were available only to select categories of students, such as those studying engineering, science, or education  The program was established in response to the Soviet Union's launch of the Sputnik satellite  It addressed the widespread perception that the United States had fallen behind in science and technology  Student loans became more broadly available in the 1960s under the Higher Education Act of 1965, with the goal of encouraging greater social mobility and equal opportunity In 1967, the publicly owned Bank of North Dakota made the first federally-insured student loan The US first major government loan program was the Student Loan Marketing Association (Sallie Mae), formed in 1973 Before 2010, federal loans included:

loans originated and funded directly by the Department of Education (DOE)
government guaranteed loans originated and funded by private investors Direct-to-consumer private loans were the fastest-growing segment of education finance  The "percentage of undergraduates obtaining private loans from 2003–04 to 2007–08 rose from 5 percent to 14 percent" and was under legislative scrutiny due to the lack of school certification The rules for disability discharge underwent major changes as a result of the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008  The regulations took effect July 1, 2010  In June 2010, the amount of student loan debt held by Americans exceeded the amount of credit card debt held by Americans  At that time, student loan debt totalled at least $830 billion, of which approximately 80% was federal and 20% was private  By the fourth quarter of 2015, total outstanding student loans owned and securitized had surpassed $1 3 trillion Guaranteed loans were eliminated in 2010 through the Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act and replaced with direct loans  The Obama administration claimed that guaranteed loans benefited private companies at taxpayer expense but did not reduce student costs The Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (HCERA) ended private-sector lending under the Federal Family Education Loan Program (FFELP) starting July 1, 2010; all subsidized and unsubsidized Stafford loans, PLUS loans, and Consolidation loans are under the Federal Direct Loan Program As of July 1, 2013, borrowers determined to be disabled by the Social Security Administration would be accepted for loan discharge if the SSA placed the individual on a five- to seven-year review cycle  As of January 1, 2018, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 established that debt discharged due to the death or disability of the borrower was no longer treated as taxable income  (This provision is scheduled to sunset on December 31, 2025 )In an effort to improve the student loan market, LendKey, SoFi (Social Finance, Inc ) and CommonBond began offering student loans and refinancing at lower rates than traditional lenders, using an alumni-funded model  According to a 2016 analysis by online student loan marketplace Credible, about 8 million borrowers could qualify for refinancing The Federal Reserve Bank of New York's February 2017 Quarterly Report on Household Debt and Credit reported 11 2% of aggregate student loan debt was 90 or more days delinquent On July 25, 2018, Education Secretary Betsy DeVos issued an order declaring that the Borrower Defense Program (enacted in November 2016), would be replaced with a stricter repayment policy, effective July 1, 2019  When a school closes for fraud before conferring degrees, students would have to prove that they were financially harmed  As of 2018, 10% of borrowers were in default after three years and 16 percent after five years In 2019, President Donald Trump ordered loan forgiveness for permanently disabled veterans, saving 25,000 veterans an average of $30,000 each  The same year, Theresa Sweet and other student loan debtors filed a claim against the US Department of Education, arguing that they had been defrauded by their colleges  The debtors filed under a rule known as Borrower Defense to Repayment In 2021, student loan servicers began dropping out of the federal student loan business, including FedLoan Servicing on July 8, Granite State Management and Resources on July 20, and Navient on September 28  According to Sallie Mae, as of 2021, 1 in 8 families lenders are using private student loans when federal financing doesn't cover all college costs In July 2021, the U S  Second Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that private student loans are dischargeable in bankruptcy, following two other cases In August 2021, the Biden administration announced it would use executive action to cancel $5
Context 3: Passage 1:
Vinko Dvořák
Vinko Dvořák (January 21, 1848 – May 6, 1922) was a Czech-Croatian physicist, professor and academician He studied mathematics and physics at the Charles University in Prague, and after graduating he became an assistant to professor Ernst Mach  After obtaining his doctorate in Prague in 1873/1874 he came to Zagreb (at the time also part of Austria-Hungary) and founded the Physics Cabinet at the Faculty of Philosophy in 1875 
Dvořák made many important discoveries in the field of experimental acoustics and optics, which are known as the Dvořák-Rayleigh current, the Dvořák acoustic repulsion, and the Dvořák circuit  His work on acoustic radiometers coincided with that of Lord Rayleigh He was the dean of the Faculty of Philosophy in 1881/82 and again in 1891/92 and the rector of the University of Zagreb in 1893/94 
Professor Dvorak made constant advancements in physics experimentation at the Faculty—in 1896 he obtained a Röntgen radiation device just six months after it was discovered He became a member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts in 1883 (associate) and 1887 (full member)  He was also an associate member of the Czech Academy of Franz Joseph I, a member of the Société francaise de physique (French Physics Society) and the Paris Société internationale des électriciens, and a member of the Royal Czech Society of Sciences in Prague 
Dvořák retired in 1911 
Passage 2:
Boeing VC-25
The Boeing VC-25 is a military version of the Boeing 747 airliner, modified for presidential transport and commonly operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) as Air Force One, the call sign of any U S  Air Force aircraft carrying the president of the United States 
Only two examples of this aircraft type are in service; they are highly modified Boeing 747-200Bs, designated VC-25A and having tail numbers 28000 and 29000  Although technically the Air Force One designation applies to the aircraft only while the president is on board, the term is commonly used to refer to the VC-25 in general  The two aircraft often operate in conjunction with Marine One helicopters, which ferry the president to airports whenever a vehicle motorcade would be inappropriate  Two new aircraft, based on the Boeing 747-8I and designated VC-25B, have been ordered by the USAF to replace the aging VC-25As 

Development
By 1985, the pair of Boeing 707-based VC-137s used as the presidential aircraft had been in service for 23 and 13 years respectively, and the USAF began searching for an eventual replacement  The Request for Proposal issued stated that the aircraft to be selected should have at least three engines and an unrefueled range of at least 6,000 miles (9,700 km)  Both Boeing with its 747 and McDonnell Douglas with the DC-10 were in competition to be selected, with the Boeing entry the eventual winner   The fabrication of the current 747s began during the presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981–1989) 
The VC-25s were completed in 1986 and first flew in 1987   The interior designs were created by First Lady Nancy Reagan, who used designs reminiscent of the American Southwest  Problems with interior wiring for communication systems delayed delivery of the two aircraft until 1990, during the administration of George H  W  Bush 
The Air Force reported that the operating cost for each VC-25A in 2014 was $210,877 per hour 

Design and configuration
The VC-25 is capable of flying 7,800 miles (12,600 km)—roughly one-third the distance around the world—without refueling  The VC-25A can accommodate more than 70 passengers  Each VC-25A cost approximately $325 million  While the VC-25 has two main decks and a cargo area, like a regular Boeing 747, its 4,000 square feet (370 m2) of floor space has been reconfigured for presidential duties  Its lowest level is mostly cargo space, carrying luggage and the onboard food supply 
The main passenger area is on the second floor or main deck  There are three entrances on board, two on the main and one on the lower deck  Typically the president boards and disembarks from the front, main deck entrance via an airstair, while journalists and other passengers enter at the rear door of the main deck  Facilities for the press and other passengers are configured like an ordinary airliner's first-class cabin 

The "White House"
The front section of the aircraft is informally called the "White House", a reference to the president's official residence in Washington, D C  The president's executive suite includes sleeping quarters with two couches that can be converted into beds, lavatory and shower, vanity, double sink, and a private office, or the president's "Oval Office aboard Air Force One"  If necessary, the president can address the nation from the office  This capability was added after the September 11 attacks, during which the aircraft had to land at Barksdale Air Force Base for President George W  Bush to address the nation  These offices, including the president's suite, are mostly located on the starboard (right) side, and a long corridor runs along the port (left) side  The aircraft also contains a conference room, originally designed as a situation room, but now used for meeting with staff while traveling  This room includes a 50-inch plasma screen television which can be used for teleconferencing  The aircraft has fully equipped office areas with telecommunication systems (including 87 telephones and 19 televisions) On board the VC-25 is a medical annex, which includes a fold-out operating table, emergency medical supplies, and a well-stocked pharmacy  George W  Bush had a treadmill added to Air Force One during his term in office  Every flight is staffed by a doctor and nurse  The aircraft is self-sufficient, such as carrying all the food it will need  Meals are prepared in two galleys, which together are equipped to feed up to 100 people at a time  The president gets a personal menu  An area where guests sit is near the center of the aircraft, outside the "White House" There are separate quarters for guests, senior staff, Secret Service and security personnel, and the news media located in the aft area of the main deck  Protocol states that one may wander aft of one's assigned seat, but not forward of it  Communications equipment and the cockpit are on the upper deck  There are also secure and non-secure voice, fax and data communications facilities  While the aircraft's luggage capacity is adequate to carry the belongings of the passengers, the logistics train of the president means that the aircraft must fly preceded by an aerial convoy of several cargo transports, which carry the helicopters, motorcade vehicles, and other equipment required by the presidential entourage 

Operational history
VC-25A
The VC-25A replaced the VC-137C (a military version of the Boeing 707) as the mainstay of the Air Force One fleet  On some occasions, the VC-25s serve as transport for the US vice president, for which service they use the Air Force Two call sign  The VC-25A aircraft are maintained and operated as military operations by the Presidential Airlift Group, part of Air Mobility Command's 89th Airlift Wing, based at Joint Base Andrews in Camp Springs, Maryland 
The aircraft can also be operated as a military command center in the event of an incident such as a nuclear attack  Operational modifications include aerial refueling capability and countermeasures against anti-aircraft missiles  The electronics on board are connected with approximately 238 miles (383 km) of wiring, twice that of a regular 747  All wiring is covered with heavy shielding for protection from a nuclear electromagnetic pulse in the event of a nuclear attack  The aircraft also has electronic countermeasures (ECMs) to jam enemy radar, flares to avoid heat-seeking missiles, and chaff to avoid radar-guided missiles  All small arms and ammunition stores not in the physical possession of the Secret Service on board the VC-25s are stowed and secured by the Secret Service in separate locked compartments, each with a different locking mechanism for added security   Many of the VC-25's other capabilities are classified for security reasons 
After a presidential inauguration resulting in a change in office, the outgoing president is provided transport on a VC-25 aircraft to their home destination   The aircraft for this flight does not use the Air Force One call sign because it is not carrying the president in office   For both Presidents Bill Clinton and George W  Bush, the flight was known as Special Air Mission 28000, where the number represents the aircraft's tail number 

The VC-25As have also been used to transport deceased former presidents, as the guest area aft of "the White House" has chairs and tables that can be removed and the casket laid in their place  The bodies of Ronald Reagan, Gerald Ford, and George H W  Bush were transported to Washington for their state funerals, and then on to their final resting places  Colonel Mark Tillman, pilot for President George W  Bush, said, "We'll take care of the president from basically when he's in office to when he lays in state " For the funeral of President Ronald Reagan in 2004, Tillman said that the crew converted the front of the aircraft to look the way it would have appeared when Reagan was president; President and Nancy Reagan's Air Force One jackets were placed on the chairs to "make them feel at home"  A specially designed hydraulic lifter (similar to the type used by airline catering) with the presidential seal affixed to the sides lifts the casket up to the portside aft door to enter the VC-25A  The tradition of placing the caskets in the passenger cabin dates back to the assassination of John F  Kennedy, when the crew did not want the president's body placed in the cargo hold, and again during the state funeral of Lyndon B  Johnson The two VC-25As are slated for retirement by the end of 2025 

VC-25B
The VC-25A aircraft are aging and have become less cost-effective to operate  The USAF Air Mobility Command investigated possible replacements, with early press coverage suggesting that the USAF would consider the Boeing 747-8 and the Airbus A380  On 7 January 2009, Air Force Materiel Command issued a new Sources Sought notice for a replacement aircraft to enter service by 2017 with an additional two aircraft to follow in 2019 and 2021  On 28 January 2009, EADS North America representing EADS and its Airbus division confirmed it would not respond to the US Air Force notice, as assembling only three airplanes in the US would not make financial sense  This made Boeing the only aircraft manufacturer interested in supplying the replacement aircraft, and was reported to be exploring a 787 option also  On 28 January 2015, the Air Force announced the selection of the Boeing 747-8 to replace the aging VC-25A for presidential transport On 10 May 2016, the Air Force posted online an amendment to its Air Force One contract authorizing Boeing to begin preliminary design activities  This version of the contract synopsis confirmed that the government will buy two modified 747-8 aircraft  Boeing was awarded a contract in January 2016 to identify cost reduction opportunities in areas including maintenance, aerial refueling and communications  On 15 July 2016, Boeing received another contract for pre-engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) risk-reduction to address "system specification, the environmental control system, the aircraft interior, the electrical and power system and sustainment and maintenance approaches" to reduce development risks and life-cycle costs On 1 August 2017, Defense One reported that in an effort to pay less for the replacement program, the USAF entered into a contract to purchase two 747-8 Intercontinentals from Boeing, which had originally been ordered by Transaero, a Russian airline, in 2011  Before they could be delivered, the company filed for bankruptcy and was closed down; the two aircraft were stored at Southern California Logistics Airport in the Mojave desert to prevent corrosion  On 27 February 2018, the White House announced a US$3 9 billion agreement with Boeing to modify the two unsold 747-8s to replace the current VC-25As  The new aircraft will be designated VC-25B  These aircraft are to be retrofitted with telecommunications and security equipment to bring them to the required security level for the presidential aircraft, and are due to be delivered by 2024  Once the new aircraft are delivered, the VC-25As will be retired and placed in museums In June 2019, President Trump announced his plans to revamp the VC-25's livery from the traditional white and ultramarine shades to one of red, white, and blue  This would have been the first deviation from the Raymond Loewy livery scheme since it was introduced in 1962 on the VC-137C which was first used as Air Force One during the Kennedy administration  The Biden administration abandoned the new design, citing "additional engineering, as well as increased time and cost " A modified version of the traditional scheme was announced in March 2023 The 747s begun undergoing modification work at the Boeing's San Antonio facility in 2020  According to The Wall Street Journal, the development process has been hit by multiple "production mishaps", including the discovery of empty tequila mini-bottles on one of the aircraft, and the use of jacks that were not rated to support the weight of the aircraft  While the jacking did not result in damage to the planes, "the Pentagon's contractor-management agency formally requested Boeing improve its operations " While the initial delivery date was set to 2024, the Pentagon expects the jets to be two to three years late In April 2022, Boeing's CEO Dave Calhoun revealed that he expects the company to have a loss of $660 million on the VC-25B program, after the contract was renegotiated by President Trump 

Variants
VC-25A
based on Boeing 747-200B
VC-25B
based on Boeing 747-8 Intercontinental, to replace the VC-25As

Operators
United StatesUnited States Air Force
89th Airlift Wing, Presidential Airlift Group (PAG) - Andrews AFB, Maryland

Specifications (VC-25A)
Data from Boeing BDSGeneral characteristics
Crew: 26: 2 pilots, flight engineer, navigator, + cabin crew + mission crew
Capacity: 76 passengers
Length: 231 ft 10 in (70 66 m)
Wingspan: 196 ft 8 in (59 94 m)
Height: 63 ft 5 in (19 33 m)
Max takeoff weight: 833,000 lb (377,842 kg)
Powerplant: 4 × General Electric CF6-80C2B1 turbofan engines, 56,700 lbf (252 kN) thrust eachPerformance

Maximum speed: 547 5 kn (630 1 mph, 1,014 0 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,668 m)
Maximum speed: Mach 0 92
Cruise speed: 500 kn (580 mph, 930 km/h) / M0 84 at 35,000 ft (10,668 m)
Range: 6,800 nmi (7,800 mi, 12,600 km)
Service ceiling: 45,100 ft (13,700 m)

Notable appearances in media
The VC-25 "Air Force One" is a prominent symbol of the U S  presidency and its powers; with the White House and presidential seal, it is among the most recognized presidential symbols  Air Force One has often appeared in popular culture and fiction, including the setting of the 1997 action movie Air Force One where the aircraft had an escape pod and a parachute ramp, unlike the actual presidential aircraft 

See also
Air Force One photo op incident
Air Force Two
Air transports of heads of state and governmentRelated development

Boeing 747
Boeing E-4B NightwatchAircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

VC-137C SAM 26000
VC-137C SAM 27000
Boeing C-32
Boeing C-40 Clipper
Airbus A330 MRTT Vespina
Passage 3:
SOLID
In software engineering, SOLID is a mnemonic acronym for five design principles intended to make object-oriented designs more understandable, flexible, and maintainable  The principles are a subset of many principles promoted by American software engineer and instructor Robert C  Martin, first introduced in his 2000 paper Design Principles and Design Patterns discussing software rot : 2–3 The SOLID ideas are

The Single-responsibility principle: "There should never be more than one reason for a class to change " In other words, every class should have only one responsibility 
The Open–closed principle: "Software entities     should be open for extension, but closed for modification "
The Liskov substitution principle: "Functions that use pointers or references to base classes must be able to use objects of derived classes without knowing it " See also design by contract 
The Interface segregation principle: "Clients should not be forced to depend upon interfaces that they do not use "
The Dependency inversion principle: "Depend upon abstractions, [not] concretions "The SOLID acronym was introduced later, around 2004, by Michael Feathers Although the SOLID principles apply to any object-oriented design, they can also form a core philosophy for methodologies such as agile development or adaptive software development 

See also
Code reuse
GRASP (object-oriented design)
Inheritance (object-oriented programming)
List of software development philosophies
Passage 4:
Form I-9
Form I-9, officially the Employment Eligibility Verification, is a United States Citizenship and Immigration Services form  Mandated by the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, it is used to verify the identity and legal authorization to work of all paid employees in the United States  All U S  employers must ensure proper completion of Form I-9 for each individual they hire for employment in the United States 

Requirements
The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) required employers to verify that all newly hired employees presented facially valid documentation verifying the employee's identity and legal authorization to accept employment in the United States  The I-9 form, or more properly the Employment Eligibility Verification Form, is provided by the federal government for that purpose Every employee hired after November 6, 1986 must complete an I-9 form at the time of hire  Employees must complete Section 1 of the form upon commencing employment  The employer must complete Section 2 within three days of the employee's starting date at work  The employer is responsible for ensuring that the forms are completed properly and in a timely manner  
The I-9 is not required for unpaid volunteers or for contractors  However, a company could still find itself liable if it contracts work to a contractor it knows either is or employs unauthorized workers Multiple versions of Form I-9, Employment Eligibility Verification, have been issued since the form was first introduced in 1987; not all versions are valid for use  Currently, only forms showing the following revision date are valid: "Rev  07/17/2017 N*" If an employee cannot read or cannot write in English, a translator or preparer may complete the form and sign it on behalf of the employee  The form also requires the employee's own signature 
In October 2004, new legislation made it possible to complete the I-9 electronically 

Prerequisites for employees
In completing form I-9, prospective employees attest, under penalty of perjury, that they are in one of the following categories:

A U S  citizen,
A U S  non-citizen national,
A lawful permanent resident or
An alien authorized to work 

Documentation for proof of identity or employment authorization
With the form, prospective employees must provide documents that prove their eligibility to work  A variety of documents are acceptable  The prospective employee must provide either:

One document that establishes both identity and employment eligibility (on List A on the I-9)
One document that establishes identity (on List B) together with another document that establishes employment eligibility (on List C) All documents must be unexpired

List A
Documents that may be used under "List A" of the I-9 form to establish both identity and employment eligibility include:

An unexpired U S  Passport,
A U S  Passport Card,
A Permanent Resident Card (often called a "green card") or Alien Registration Receipt Card with photograph,
An unexpired Temporary Resident Card,
An unexpired foreign passport with an I-551 stamp, or with Form I-94 (For the certain alien who is authorized to work with restrictions  The person should also attach the documents which indicate an unexpired employment authorization ),
An unexpired Employment Authorization Document issued by the United States Department of Homeland Security that includes a photograph (Form I-766) or
An unexpired Employment Authorization Card 

List B
Documents that may be used under "List B" of the I-9 to establish identity include:

Driver's license or identification card issued by a U S  state or outlying possession of the U S  provided it contains a photograph or identifying information such as name, date of birth, sex, height, eye color and address;
Federal or state identification card provided it contains a photograph or identifying information such as name, date of birth, sex, height, eye color and address;
School identification card with photograph;
U S  Armed Services identification card or draft record;
Voter Registration Card;
U S  Coast Guard Merchant Mariner Card;
Native American tribal document;
Driver's license issued by a Canadian government authority or
Trusted traveler documentation (Global Entry, NEXUS, SENTRI) For individuals under the age of eighteen, the following documents may be used to establish identity:

School record or report card;
Clinic, doctor or hospital record or
Daycare or nursery school record Employees who supply an item from List B (to establish identity) must also supply an item from List C (to establish employment eligibility) 

List C
Documents that may be used under "List C" of the I-9 to establish employment eligibility include:

A U S  Social Security card issued by the Social Security Administration unless it indicates one of the following:
NOT VALID FOR EMPLOYMENT (generally issued to non-immigrant aliens unauthorized to work)
VALID FOR WORK ONLY WITH INS AUTHORIZATION
VALID FOR WORK ONLY WITH DHS AUTHORIZATION,
A birth certificate issued by the U S  State Department (Form FS-545 or Form DS-1350),
Original or certified copy of a birth certificate from the U S  or an outlying possession of the U S , bearing an official seal,
A Certificate of U S  Citizenship (Form N-560 or N-561),
A Certificate of Naturalization (Form N-550 or N-570),
Native American tribal document,
U S  Citizen ID Card (Form I-197),
An ID Card for the use of a Resident Citizen in the United States (Form I-179),
An unexpired employment authorization card issued by the Dept  of Homeland Security (other than those included on List A) or
Consular Report of Birth Abroad (Form FS-240) U S  citizens who have lost their social security card can apply for a duplicate at the Social Security Administration  
Employees who supply an item from List C (to establish employment eligibility) must also supply an item from List B (to establish identity) 

Reverification
Employers must update or reverify certain ID documents at or prior to their expiration date  This does not apply to already presented and accepted non-expired U S  Passports or Permanent Resident Cards when they reach their expiration date, nor to any List B documents (e g , state driver's licenses and state IDs)  The USCIS website, in the Employer section, Employer Bulletins, lists the limited requirements and allowed instances for reverification 
For U S  citizens, I-9s are valid continuously unless a break of more than a year of employment occurs  International employees on F-1 (student), H-1B (specialty occupation), or J-1 (exchange visitor) visas must have their I-9 reverified each time their visa has expired with a new work authorization permit (renewed visa with work authorization, EAD, Permanent Residence Card, etc ) 

Retention
Employers must retain a Form I-9 for all current employees  Employers must also retain a Form I-9 for three years after the date of hire, or one year after the date employment ends, whichever is later  Employers must show their employees' I-9 form any time the immigration or labor authority requests it 

Anti-discrimination provisions
The Immigration Reform and Control Act which introduced the requirement leading to the promulgation of the I-9 form also included anti-discrimination provisions  Under the Act, most U S  citizens, permanent residents, temporary residents, asylees or refugees who are legally allowed to work in the United States cannot be discriminated against on the basis of national origin or citizenship status  This provision applies to employers of three or more workers and covers both hiring and termination decisions  In addition, an employer must accept any valid document or combination of documents specified in the I-9 form as long as the documents appear genuine For example, an employer could not refuse to hire a candidate because his I-9 revealed that he was a non-citizen (such as a permanent resident or a refugee) rather than a U S  citizen  For this reason some immigration lawyers advise companies to avoid requiring an I-9 until a candidate is hired rather than risk a lawsuit  As another example, a company could not insist that an employee provide a passport rather than, say, a driver's license and social security card  Another anti-discrimination provision requires that employers must enforce I-9 compliance in a uniform manner  For example, an employer must not require some employees to complete an I-9 before being hired, but allow others to complete the form after starting employment Employers must not assume that the employee is unauthorized to work just because the individual either could not bring the proof of employment authorization or has brought the unaccepted documents until the start date of the employment  Instead, employers should encourage that employee to bring the acceptable documents which are under the List A, B and C  Employers may terminate the employment only if the employee cannot attest the person's work authorization by bringing the proof after the start date 
The Office of Special Counsel for Immigration-Related Unfair Employment Practices ("OSC") is a section within the Department of Justice's Civil Rights Division that enforces the anti-discrimination provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act ("INA")  The OSC can help workers by calling employers and explaining proper verification practices and, when necessary, by providing victims of discrimination with charge forms  Upon receipt of a charge of discrimination, OSC investigations typically take no longer than seven months  Victims may obtain various types of relief including job relief and back pay 
OSC also has an extensive outreach program  It provides staff to speak at outreach events throughout the country, and has free informational brochures, posters and tapes for distribution 

Types of discrimination
The OSC investigates the following types of discriminatory conduct under the anti-discrimination provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), 8 U S C  § 1324b:

Citizenship or immigration status discrimination
With respect to hiring, firing, recruitment or referral for a fee by employers with four or more employees, employers may not treat individuals differently because they are or are not U S  citizens or work-authorized individuals  U S  citizens, recent permanent residents, temporary residents, asylees and refugees are protected from citizenship status discrimination  However, permanent residents who do not apply for naturalization within six months of eligibility are not protected from citizenship status discrimination  Citizenship status discrimination which is otherwise required to comply with law, regulation, executive order or government contract is permissible by law 

National origin discrimination
With respect to hiring, firing, recruitment or referral for a fee by employers with more than three and fewer than fifteen employees, employers may not treat individuals differently because of their place of birth, country of origin, ancestry, native language, accent or because they are perceived as looking or sounding foreign  All U S  citizens, lawful permanent residents and work authorized individuals are protected from national origin discrimination  The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has jurisdiction over employers with fifteen or more employees 

Unfair documentary practices
Relating to verifying the employment eligibility of employees, employers may not request more or different documents than are required to verify employment eligibility, reject reasonably genuine-looking documents or specify certain documents over others with the purpose or intent of discriminating on the basis of citizenship status or national origin  U S  citizens and all work authorized individuals are protected from document abuse 

Retaliation
Individuals who file charges with OSC; who cooperate with an OSC investigation; who contest action that may constitute unfair documentary practices or discrimination based upon citizenship, immigration status, or national origin; or who assert their rights under the INA's anti-discrimination provision are protected from retaliation 

Penalties
The IRCA includes penalties for I-9 noncompliance  Federal law provides for imprisonment or fines for making false statements or using false documents in connection with the completion of the I-9  An employer who hires an unauthorized worker can be fined between $250 and $5,500 per worker  In addition, such an employer can be barred from federal government contracts for a year  An employee who knowingly accepts fraudulent documentation can also be criminally prosecuted under other immigration laws An employer who fails to keep proper records that I-9s are properly filed can be fined $110 per missing item for each form, up to $1100 per form, even if the employee is legally authorized to work in the United States  Since 2009, Immigration & Customs Enforcement (ICE) has conducted over 7,500 audits and imposed over $80 million in fines  In 2011 alone, ICE conducted 2,740 audits and assessed over $7 million in fines An individual who knowingly commits or participates in document fraud may be fined between $375 and $3,200 per document for the first offense and between $3,200 and $6,500 per document for subsequent offenses 

See also
Immigration to the United States
E-Verify
Passage 5:
Mach bands
Mach bands is an optical illusion named after the physicist Ernst Mach  It exaggerates the contrast between edges of the slightly differing shades of gray, as soon as they contact one another, by triggering edge-detection in the human visual system 

Explanation
The Mach bands effect is due to the spatial high-boost filtering performed by the human visual system on the luminance channel of the image captured by the retina  Mach reported the effect in 1865, conjecturing that filtering is performed in the retina itself, by lateral inhibition among its neurons   This conjecture is supported by observations on other (non-visual) senses, as pointed out by von Békésy   The visual pattern is often found on curved surfaces subject to a particular, naturally-occurring illumination, so the occurrence of filtering can be explained as the result of learnt image statistics   The effect of filtering can be modeled as a convolution between a trapezoidal function that describes the illumination and one or more bandpass filters   A tight approximation is obtained by a model employing 9 even-symmetric filters scaled at octave intervals The effect is independent of the orientation of the boundary 

In radiology
This visual phenomenon is important to keep in mind when evaluating dental radiographs for evidence of decay, in which grayscale images of teeth and bone are analyzed for abnormal variances of density  A false-positive radiological diagnosis of dental caries can easily arise if the practitioner does not take into account the likelihood of this illusion  Mach bands manifest adjacent to metal restorations or appliances and the boundary between enamel and dentin  Mach bands may also result in the misdiagnosis of horizontal root fractures because of the differing radiographic intensities of tooth and bone Mach effect can also lead to an erroneous diagnosis of pneumothorax by creating a dark line at the lung periphery (whereas a true pneumothorax will have a white pleural line) 

In computer graphics
Mach bands can also appear when there is a discontinuity in the derivative of a gradient, a visual effect common when intensities are linearly interpolated such as in Gouraud shading 
Computer image processing systems use edge-detection in a way analogous to the brain, using unsharp masking to clarify edges in photos for example 

See also
Acutance
Cornsweet illusion
Hermann grid illusion
Lateral inhibition
Optical illusions
Watercolour illusion
Gibbs phenomenon
Passage 6:
Sound barrier
The sound barrier or sonic barrier is the large increase in aerodynamic drag and other undesirable effects experienced by an aircraft or other object when it approaches the speed of sound  When aircraft first approached the speed of sound, these effects were seen as constituting a barrier, making faster speeds very difficult or impossible  The term sound barrier is still sometimes used today to refer to aircraft approaching supersonic flight in this high drag regime  Flying faster than sound produces a sonic boom 
In dry air at 20 °C (68 °F), the speed of sound is 343 metres per second (about 767 mph, 1234 km/h or 1,125 ft/s)  The term came into use during World War II when pilots of high-speed fighter aircraft experienced the effects of compressibility, a number of adverse aerodynamic effects that deterred further acceleration, seemingly impeding flight at speeds close to the speed of sound  These difficulties represented a barrier to flying at faster speeds  In 1947, American test pilot Chuck Yeager demonstrated that safe flight at the speed of sound was achievable in purpose-designed aircraft, thereby breaking the barrier  By the 1950s, new designs of fighter aircraft routinely reached the speed of sound, and faster 

History
Some common whips such as the bullwhip or stockwhip are able to move faster than sound: the tip of the whip exceeds this speed and causes a sharp crack—literally a sonic boom  Firearms made after the 19th century generally have a supersonic muzzle velocity The sound barrier may have been first breached by living beings about 150 million years ago  Some paleobiologists report that computer models of their biomechanical capabilities suggest that certain long-tailed dinosaurs such as Brontosaurus, Apatosaurus, and Diplodocus could flick their tails at supersonic speeds, creating a cracking sound  This finding is theoretical and disputed by others in the field  Meteorites in the Earth's upper atmosphere usually travel at higher than Earth's escape velocity, which is much faster than sound 

Early problems
The tip speed of a propeller blade depends on the propeller speed and the forward speed of the aircraft  When the aircraft speed is high enough, the tips reach supersonic speeds  Shock waves form at the blade tips and sap the shaft power driving the propeller  To maintain thrust, the engine power must replace this loss, and must also match the aircraft drag as it increases with speed  The required power is so great that the size and weight of the engine becomes prohibitive  This speed limitation led to research into jet engines, notably by Frank Whittle in England and Hans von Ohain in Germany  The jet engine is suitable for two reasons  It produces the required power, in terms of thrust, from a relatively small size compared to the piston engine it replaced  The whirling blades in the front of the jet engine are not adversely affected by high aircraft speeds in the same way as the propeller  
Nevertheless, propeller aircraft were able to approach their critical Mach number, different for each aircraft, in a dive  Unfortunately, doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons  Flying the Mitsubishi Zero, pilots sometimes flew at full power into terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the control surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them  In this case, several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse  Likewise, the flexing caused by the low torsional stiffness of the Supermarine Spitfire's wings caused them, in turn, to counteract aileron control inputs, leading to a condition known as control reversal  This was solved in later models with changes to the wing  Worse still, a particularly dangerous interaction of the airflow between the wings and tail surfaces of diving Lockheed P-38 Lightnings made "pulling out" of dives difficult; however, the problem was later solved by the addition of a "dive flap" that upset the airflow under these circumstances  Flutter due to the formation of shock waves on curved surfaces was another major problem, which led most famously to the breakup of a de Havilland Swallow and death of its pilot Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr  on 27 September 1946  A similar problem is thought to have been the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union 
All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a "barrier" making it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound  Erroneous news reports caused most people to envision the sound barrier as a physical "wall", which supersonic aircraft needed to "break" with a sharp needle nose on the front of the fuselage  Rocketry and artillery experts' products routinely exceeded Mach 1, but aircraft designers and aerodynamicists during and after World War II discussed Mach 0 7 as a limit dangerous to exceed 

Early claims
During WWII and immediately thereafter, a number of claims were made that the sound barrier had been broken in a dive  The majority of these purported events can be dismissed as instrumentation errors  The typical airspeed indicator (ASI) uses air pressure differences between two or more points on the aircraft, typically near the nose and at the side of the fuselage, to produce a speed figure  At high speed, the various compression effects that lead to the sound barrier also cause the ASI to go non-linear and produce inaccurately high or low readings, depending on the specifics of the installation  This effect became known as "Mach jump"  Before the introduction of Mach meters, accurate measurements of supersonic speeds could only be made remotely, normally using ground-based instruments  Many claims of supersonic speeds were found to be far below this speed when measured in this fashion 
In 1942, Republic Aviation issued a press release stating that Lts  Harold E  Comstock and Roger Dyar had exceeded the speed of sound during test dives in a Republic P-47 Thunderbolt  It is widely agreed that this was due to inaccurate ASI readings  In similar tests, the North American P-51 Mustang demonstrated limits at Mach 0 85, with every flight over Mach 0 84 causing the aircraft to be damaged by vibration 

One of the highest recorded instrumented Mach numbers attained for a propeller aircraft is the Mach 0 891 for a Spitfire PR XI, flown during dive tests at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough in April 1944  The Spitfire, a photo-reconnaissance variant, the Mark XI, fitted with an extended "rake type" multiple pitot system, was flown by Squadron Leader J  R  Tobin to this speed, corresponding to a corrected true airspeed (TAS) of 606 mph  In a subsequent flight, Squadron Leader Anthony Martindale achieved Mach 0 92, but it ended in a forced landing after over-revving damaged the engine Hans Guido Mutke claimed to have broken the sound barrier on 9 April 1945 in the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft  He states that his ASI pegged itself at 1,100 kilometres per hour (680 mph)  Mutke reported not just transonic buffeting, but the resumption of normal control once a certain speed was exceeded, then a resumption of severe buffeting once the Me 262 slowed again  He also reported engine flame-out This claim is widely disputed, even by pilots in his unit  All of the effects he reported are known to occur on the Me 262 at much lower speeds, and the ASI reading is simply not reliable in the transonic  Further, a series of tests made by Karl Doetsch at the behest of Willy Messerschmitt found that the plane became uncontrollable above Mach 0 86, and at Mach 0 9 would nose over into a dive that could not be recovered from  Post-war tests by the RAF confirmed these results, with the slight modification that the maximum speed using new instruments was found to be Mach 0 84, rather than Mach 0 86 In 1999, Mutke enlisted the help of Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University to run computational tests to determine whether the aircraft could break the sound barrier  These tests do not rule out the possibility, but are lacking accurate data on the coefficient of drag that would be needed to make accurate simulations  Wagner stated: "I don't want to exclude the possibility, but I can imagine he may also have been just below the speed of sound and felt the buffeting, but did not go above Mach-1 "One bit of evidence presented by Mutke is on page 13 of the "Me 262 A-1 Pilot's Handbook" issued by Headquarters Air Materiel Command, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio as Report No  F-SU-1111-ND on January 10, 1946:

Speeds of 950 km/h (590 mph) are reported to have been attained in a shallow dive 20° to 30° from the horizontal  No vertical dives were made  At speeds of 950 to 1,000 km/h (590 to 620 mph) the air flow around the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, and it is reported that the control surfaces no longer affect the direction of flight  The results vary with different airplanes: some wing over and dive while others dive gradually  It is also reported that once the speed of sound is exceeded, this condition disappears and normal control is restored 
The comments about restoration of flight control and cessation of buffeting above Mach 1 are very significant in a 1946 document  However, it is not clear where these terms came from, as it does not appear the US pilots carried out such tests In his 1990 book Me-163, former Messerschmitt Me 163 "Komet" pilot Mano Ziegler claims that his friend, test pilot Heini Dittmar, broke the sound barrier while diving the rocket plane, and that several people on the ground heard the sonic booms  He claims that on 6 July 1944, Dittmar, flying Me 163B V18, bearing the Stammkennzeichen alphabetic code VA+SP, was measured traveling at a speed of 1,130 km/h (702 mph)  However, no evidence of such a flight exists in any of the materials from that period, which were captured by Allied forces and extensively studied  Dittmar had been officially recorded at 1,004 5 km/h (623 8 mph) in level flight on 2 October 1941 in the prototype Me 163A V4  He reached this speed at less than full throttle, as he was concerned by the transonic buffeting  Dittmar himself does not make a claim that he broke the sound barrier on that flight and notes that the speed was recorded only on the AIS  He does, however, take credit for being the first pilot to "knock on the sound barrier" The Luftwaffe test pilot Lothar Sieber (7 April 1922 – 1 March 1945) may have inadvertently become the first human to break the sound barrier on 1 March 1945  This occurred while he was piloting a Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" for the first crewed vertical takeoff of a rocket in history  In 55 seconds, he traveled a total of 14 km (8 7 miles)  The aircraft crashed, and he perished violently in this endeavor There are a number of unmanned vehicles that flew at supersonic speeds during this period  In 1933, Soviet designers working on ramjet concepts fired phosphorus-powered engines out of artillery guns to get them to operational speeds  It is possible that this produced supersonic performance as high as Mach 2, but this was not due solely to the engine itself  In contrast, the German V-2 ballistic missile routinely broke the sound barrier in flight, for the first time on 3 October 1942  By September 1944, V-2s routinely achieved Mach 4 (1,200 m/s, or 3044 mph) during terminal descent 

Breaking the sound barrier
In 1942, the United Kingdom's Ministry of Aviation began a top-secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier  The project resulted in the development of the prototype Miles M 52 turbojet-powered aircraft, which was designed to reach 1,000 mph (417 m/s; 1,600 km/h) (over twice the existing speed record) in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft (11 km) in 1 minute 30 seconds 
A huge number of advanced features were incorporated into the resulting M 52 design, many of which hint at a detailed knowledge of supersonic aerodynamics  In particular, the design featured a conical nose and sharp wing leading edges, as it was known that round-nosed projectiles could not be stabilised at supersonic speeds  The design used very thin wings of biconvex section proposed by Jakob Ackeret for low drag  The wing tips were "clipped" to keep them clear of the conical shock wave generated by the nose of the aircraft  The fuselage had the minimum cross-section allowable around the centrifugal engine with fuel tanks in a saddle over the top 

Another critical addition was the use of a power-operated stabilator, also known as the all-moving tail or flying tail, a key to supersonic flight control, which contrasted with traditional hinged tailplanes (horizontal stabilizers) connected mechanically to the pilots control column  Conventional control surfaces became ineffective at the high subsonic speeds then being achieved by fighters in dives, due to the aerodynamic forces caused by the formation of shockwaves at the hinge and the rearward movement of the centre of pressure, which together could override the control forces that could be applied mechanically by the pilot, hindering recovery from the dive  A major impediment to early transonic flight was control reversal, the phenomenon which caused flight inputs (stick, rudder) to switch direction at high speed; it was the cause of many accidents and near-accidents  An all-flying tail is considered to be a minimum condition of enabling aircraft to break the transonic barrier safely, without losing pilot control  The Miles M 52 was the first instance of this solution, which has since been universally applied 
Initially, the aircraft was to use Frank Whittle's latest engine, the Power Jets W 2/700, which would only reach supersonic speed in a shallow dive  To develop a fully supersonic version of the aircraft, an innovation incorporated was a reheat jetpipe – also known as an afterburner  Extra fuel was to be burned in the tailpipe to avoid overheating the turbine blades, making use of unused oxygen in the exhaust  Finally, the design included another critical element –  the use of a shock cone in the nose to slow the incoming air to the subsonic speeds needed by the engine 
Although the project was eventually cancelled, the research was used to construct an unmanned missile that went on to achieve a speed of Mach 1 38 in a successful, controlled transonic and supersonic level test flight; this was a unique achievement at that time, which validated the aerodynamics of the M 52 
Meanwhile, test pilots achieved high velocities in the tailless, swept-wing de Havilland DH 108  One of them was Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr , who was killed on 27 September 1946 when his DH 108 broke up at about Mach 0 9  John Derry has been called "Britain's first supersonic pilot" because of a dive he made in a DH 108 on 6 September 1948 

The first aircraft to officially break the sound barrier
The British Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange all its high-speed research, data and designs and Bell Aircraft company was given access to the drawings and research on the M 52, but the U S  reneged on the agreement, and no data was forthcoming in return  Bell's supersonic design was still using a conventional tail, and they were battling the problem of control 

They utilized the information to initiate work on the Bell X-1  The final version of the Bell X-1 was very similar in design to the original Miles M 52 version  Also featuring the all-moving tail, the XS-1 was later known as the X-1  It was in the X-1 that Chuck Yeager was credited with being the first person to break the sound barrier in level flight on 14 October 1947, flying at an altitude of 45,000 ft (13 7 km)  George Welch made a plausible but officially unverified claim to have broken the sound barrier on 1 October 1947, while flying an XP-86 Sabre  He also claimed to have repeated his supersonic flight on 14 October 1947, 30 minutes before Yeager broke the sound barrier in the Bell X-1  Although evidence from witnesses and instruments strongly imply that Welch achieved supersonic speed, the flights were not properly monitored and are not officially recognized  The XP-86 officially achieved supersonic speed on 26 April 1948 On 14 October 1947, just under a month after the United States Air Force had been created as a separate service, the tests culminated in the first crewed supersonic flight, piloted by Air Force Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager in aircraft #46-062, which he had christened Glamorous Glennis  The rocket-powered aircraft was launched from the bomb bay of a specially modified B-29 and glided to a landing on a runway  XS-1 flight number 50 is the first one where the X-1 recorded supersonic flight, with a maximum speed of Mach 1 06 (361 m/s, 1,299 km/h, 807 2 mph) 
As a result of the X-1's initial supersonic flight, the National Aeronautics Association voted its 1947 Collier Trophy to be shared by the three main participants in the program  Honored at the White House by President Harry S  Truman were Larry Bell for Bell Aircraft, Captain Yeager for piloting the flights, and John Stack for the NACA contributions Jackie Cochran was the first woman to break the sound barrier, which she did on 18 May 1953, piloting a plane borrowed from the Royal Canadian Air Force, with Yeager accompanying her On December 3, 1957, Margaret Chase Smith became the first woman in Congress to break the sound barrier, which she did as a passenger in an F-100 Super Sabre piloted by Air Force Major Clyde Good In the late 1950s, Allen Rowley, a British journalist, was able to fly in a Super Sabre at 1000mph one of the few non-American civilians to exceed the speed of sound and one of the few civilians anywhere to make such a trip On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8-43 (registration N9604Z) unofficially exceeded Mach 1 in a controlled dive during a test flight at Edwards Air Force Base, as observed and reported by the flight crew; the crew were William Magruder (pilot), Paul Patten (co-pilot), Joseph Tomich (flight engineer), and Richard H  Edwards (flight test engineer)  This was the first supersonic flight by a civilian airliner, achieved before the Concorde or the Tu-144 flew 

The sound barrier understood
As the science of high-speed flight became more widely understood, a number of changes led to the eventual understanding that the "sound barrier" is easily penetrated, with the right conditions  Among these changes were the introduction of thin swept wings, the area rule, and engines of ever-increasing performance  By the 1950s, many combat aircraft could routinely break the sound barrier in level flight, although they often suffered from control problems when doing so, such as Mach tuck  Modern aircraft can transit the "barrier" without control problems By the late 1950s, the issue was so well understood that many companies started investing in the development of supersonic airliners, or SSTs, believing that to be the next "natural" step in airliner evolution  However, this has not yet happened  Although the Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144 entered service in the 1970s, both were later retired without being replaced by similar designs  The last flight of a Concorde in service was in 2003 
Although Concorde and the Tu-144 were the first aircraft to carry commercial passengers at supersonic speeds, they were not the first or only commercial airliners to break the sound barrier  On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8 broke the sound barrier at Mach 1 012, or 1,240 km/h (776 2 mph), while in a controlled dive through 41,088 feet (12,510 m)  The purpose of the flight was to collect data on a new design of leading edge for the wing 

Breaking the sound barrier in a land vehicle
On 12 January 1948, a Northrop unmanned rocket sled became the first land vehicle to break the sound barrier  At a military test facility at Muroc Air Force Base (now Edwards AFB), California, it reached a peak speed of 1,019 mph (1,640 km/h) before jumping the rails On 15 October 1997, in a vehicle designed and built by a team led by Richard Noble, Royal Air Force pilot Andy Green became the first person to break the sound barrier in a land vehicle in compliance with Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile rules  The vehicle, called the ThrustSSC ("Super Sonic Car"), captured the record 50 years and one day after Yeager's first supersonic flight 

Breaking the sound barrier as a human projectile
Felix Baumgartner
In October 2012 Felix Baumgartner, with a team of scientists and sponsor Red Bull, attempted the highest sky-dive on record  The project would see Baumgartner attempt to jump 120,000 ft (36,580 m) from a helium balloon and become the first parachutist to break the sound barrier  The launch was scheduled for 9 October 2012, but was aborted due to adverse weather; subsequently the capsule was launched instead on 14 October  Baumgartner's feat also marked the 65th anniversary of U S  test pilot Chuck Yeager's successful attempt to break the sound barrier in an aircraft Baumgartner landed in eastern New Mexico after jumping from a world record 128,100 feet (39,045 m), or 24 26 miles, and broke the sound barrier as he traveled at speeds up to 833 9 mph (1342 km/h, or Mach 1 26)  In the press conference after his jump, it was announced that he was in freefall for 4 minutes 18 seconds, the second longest freefall after the 1960 jump of Joseph Kittinger for 4 minutes 36 seconds 

Alan Eustace
In October 2014, Alan Eustace, a senior vice president at Google, broke Baumgartner's record for highest sky-dive and also broke the sound barrier in the process  However, because Eustace's jump involved a drogue parachute, while Baumgartner's did not, their vertical speed and free-fall distance records remain in different categories 

Legacy
David Lean directed The Sound Barrier, a fictionalized retelling of the de Havilland DH 108 test flights 

See also
Sonic boom
Vapor cone
Passage 7:
Global Alliance in Management Education
CEMS - The Global Alliance in Management Education or CEMS (formerly the Community of European Management Schools and International Companies) is a cooperation of leading business schools and universities with multinational companies and NGOs  The CEMS Global Alliance includes 34 academic institutions on every continent, nearly 70 corporate partners and eight social partners (NGOs) from around the globe  CEMS administers the delivery of the CEMS MIM degree in its member schools, supports the CEMS Alumni Association (CAA) and facilitates general cooperation among its members 

CEMS MIM
CEMS Master in International Management (CEMS MIM) is a one-year degree program for a select group of students at the member institutions,  taught jointly by CEMS business schools and universities  Created in 1988 by founding members from the University of Cologne, HEC Paris, ESADE and the Bocconi University, it was the first supra-national MSc  The aim of CEMS is to develop knowledge and provide education that is essential in the multilingual, multicultural and interconnected business world The MIM Programme consists of three terms: two academic terms and one internship term  The two academic terms must be consecutive, while the internship term can take place at any time during the graduate period of studies  Students must spend at least two out of the three terms abroad  In addition to completing one's home degree, graduation from CEMS also requires completion of a business project, skill seminars, an international internship, and two foreign language exams 
Each CEMS academic member has a limited number of places available  In many cases, schools have prerequisites to be admitted into the selection process, including a high-grade average and proof of language skills  The selection process typically requires the student to already be enrolled or selected for a Master of Business degree with a member university before applying for the CEMS MIM  CEMS graduates receive a degree from their home institution as well as from CEMS 

Global ranking
The CEMS MIM has consistently ranked among the top 10 in the Masters in Management Ranking since 2005 by the Financial Times 

Academic members
Schools offering the CEMS Master's in International Management (CEMS MIM):

Corporate partners
Nearly 70 corporate partners contribute financially on an annual basis and provide the programme with human resources and input into the curriculum itself in each country they are based  They chart skills courses, give lectures or invite CEMS students to company activities where students learn about corporate practices or solve cases  These connections are very useful to promote the company to the students, while the students gain insight into real-world problems and solution approaches 
Students are advised to be responsible and arrange by themselves an internship partner which will accept the student intern for at least ten consecutive weeks  There are student visa requirements that each student takes responsibility to abide by, and the regulation varies by each local government 

Social partners
The first CEMS social partners joined the organisation in December 2010  These are the first in a series of non-profits and NGOs that contribute to the alliance in a way identical to corporate partners (selection and admission of students, governance, curriculum delivery, proposal of internships and employment opportunities)  This new initiative is part of a major sustainability drive from within CEMS  In the same vein, CEMS has also signed the PRME (Principles for Responsible Management Education) declaration 

Alumni association
The CEMS Alumni Association (CAA), founded in 1993 by CEMS graduates, is an international network of CEMS graduates throughout the world  To date, there are nearly 16,000 CEMS alumni  The Graduation Ceremony takes place each year during the CEMS Annual Events (usually at the end of November) which is hosted by one of the CEMS member schools The CAA is led by an alumni board and is present in many countries through local committees of CEMS alumni  The local committees are responsible for keeping in contact with CEMS alumni and organizing professional and social activities  They meet regularly to discuss the activities and development of the association  The alumni board comprises the CAA President, the CEMS Executive Director, a representative of the CEMS Student Board, a representative of CEMS member schools, three local committee representatives, two senior alumni and two junior alumni  It proposes and develops initiatives to foster career and personal development opportunities for its alumni members and represents alumni interests on the CEMS Executive Board 
While students stay at partner universities, there are support groups called CEMS clubs through which CEMS students share their identities  The extended network of CEMS students spans schools across the world 

Footnotes
Notes
Passage 8:
Confederation of Finnish Industries
The Confederation of Finnish Industries (EK, Finnish: Elinkeinoelämän Keskusliitto, Swedish: Finlands Näringsliv) is the largest employers' association in Finland  It was formed at the beginning of 2005 when the two employers' associations Palvelutyönantajat (Employers of the Service Sector) and Teollisuuden ja Työnantajain Keskusliitto (Union of Industries and Employers) merged  EK's member companies collectively contribute over 70% of Finland's GDP, and over 95% of Finland's exports  It has considerable negotiating power, since Finland has universal validity of collective labour agreements, and often a national income policy agreement is reached 
EK focuses its activity on the following goals:

A business environment which stimulates growth and success for companies
Securing the competitiveness of Finnish work
Ways to benefit from the opportunities offered by globalisation
Economic policies promoting competitiveness
Efficient member servicesThe organisation consists of:

43 branch associations
About 15,000 member companies, 96% of which are small and medium enterprises (SMEs)
About 900,000 employees

External links
The Confederation of Finnish Industries  Official site
Passage 9:
Mach's principle
In theoretical physics, particularly in discussions of gravitation theories,  Mach's principle (or Mach's conjecture) is the name given by Einstein to an imprecise hypothesis often credited to the physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach  The hypothesis attempted to explain how rotating objects, such as gyroscopes and spinning celestial bodies, maintain a frame of reference  
The proposition is that the existence of absolute rotation (the distinction of local inertial frames vs  rotating reference frames) is determined by the large-scale distribution of matter, as exemplified by this anecdote:

You are standing in a field looking at the stars  Your arms are resting freely at your side, and you see that the distant stars are not moving  Now start spinning  The stars are whirling around you and your arms are pulled away from your body  Why should your arms be pulled away when the stars are whirling? Why should they be dangling freely when the stars don't move?

Mach's principle says that this is not a coincidence—that there is a physical law that relates the motion of the distant stars to the local inertial frame  If you see all the stars whirling around you, Mach suggests that there is some physical law which would make it so you would feel a centrifugal force  There are a number of rival formulations of the principle, often stated in vague ways like "mass out there influences inertia here"  A very general statement of Mach's principle is "local physical laws are determined by the large-scale structure of the universe" Mach's concept was a guiding factor in Einstein's development of the general theory of relativity  Einstein realized that the overall distribution of matter would determine the metric tensor which indicates which frame is stationary with respect to rotation  Frame-dragging and conservation of gravitational angular momentum makes this into a true statement in the general theory in certain solutions  But because the principle is so vague, many distinct statements have been made which would qualify as a Mach principle, and some of which are false  The Gödel rotating universe is a solution of the field equations that is designed to disobey Mach's principle in the worst possible way  In this example, the distant stars seem to be revolving faster and faster as one moves further away  This example does not completely settle the question of the physical relevance of the principle because it has closed timelike curves 

History
Mach put forth the idea in his book The Science of Mechanics (1883 in German, 1893 in English)  Before Mach's time, the basic idea also appears in the writings of George Berkeley  After Mach, the book Absolute or Relative Motion? (1896) by Benedict Friedlaender and his brother Immanuel contained ideas similar to Mach's principle 

Einstein's use of the principle
There is a fundamental issue in relativity theory: if all motion is relative, how can we measure the inertia of a body? We must measure the inertia with respect to something else  But what if we imagine a particle completely on its own in the universe? We might hope to still have some notion of its state of motion  Mach's principle is sometimes interpreted as the statement that such a particle's state of motion has no meaning in that case 
In Mach's words, the principle is embodied as follows:
[The] investigator must feel the need of    knowledge of the immediate connections, say, of the masses of the universe  There will hover before him as an ideal insight into the principles of the whole matter, from which accelerated and inertial motions will result in the same way 
Albert Einstein seemed to view Mach's principle as something along the lines of:
   inertia originates in a kind of interaction between bodies   
In this sense, at least some of Mach's principles are related to philosophical holism  Mach's suggestion can be taken as the injunction that gravitation theories should be relational theories  Einstein brought the principle into mainstream physics while working on general relativity  Indeed, it was Einstein who first coined the phrase Mach's principle  There is much debate as to whether Mach really intended to suggest a new physical law since he never states it explicitly 
The writing in which Einstein found inspiration was Mach's book The Science of Mechanics (1883, tr  1893), where the philosopher criticized Newton's idea of absolute space, in particular the argument that Newton gave sustaining the existence of an advantaged reference system: what is commonly called "Newton's bucket argument" 
In his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Newton tried to demonstrate that one can always decide if one is rotating with respect to the absolute space, measuring the apparent forces that arise only when an absolute rotation is performed  If a bucket is filled with water, and made to rotate, initially the water remains still, but then, gradually, the walls of the vessel communicate their motion to the water, making it curve and climb up the borders of the bucket, because of the centrifugal forces produced by the rotation  This experiment demonstrates that the centrifugal forces arise only when the water is in rotation with respect to the absolute space (represented here by the earth's reference frame, or better, the distant stars) instead, when the bucket was rotating with respect to the water no centrifugal forces were produced, this indicating that the latter was still with respect to the absolute space 
Mach, in his book, says that the bucket experiment only demonstrates that when the water is in rotation with respect to the bucket no centrifugal forces are produced, and that we cannot know how the water would behave if in the experiment the bucket's walls were increased in depth and width until they became leagues big  In Mach's idea this concept of absolute motion should be substituted with a total relativism in which every motion, uniform or accelerated, has sense only in reference to other bodies (i e , one cannot simply say that the water is rotating, but must specify if it's rotating with respect to the vessel or to the earth)  In this view, the apparent forces that seem to permit discrimination between relative and "absolute" motions should only be considered as an effect of the particular asymmetry that there is in our reference system between the bodies which we consider in motion, that are small (like buckets), and the bodies that we believe are still (the earth and distant stars), that are overwhelmingly bigger and heavier than the former 
This same thought had been expressed by the philosopher George Berkeley in his De Motu  It is then not clear, in the passages from Mach just mentioned, if the philosopher intended to formulate a new kind of physical action between heavy bodies  This physical mechanism should determine the inertia of bodies, in a way that the heavy and distant bodies of our universe should contribute the most to the inertial forces  More likely, Mach only suggested a mere "redescription of motion in space as experiences that do not invoke the term space"   What is certain is that Einstein interpreted Mach's passage in the former way, originating a long-lasting debate 
Most physicists believe Mach's principle was never developed into a quantitative physical theory that would explain a mechanism by which the stars can have such an effect  Mach himself never made his principle exactly clear : 9–57  Although Einstein was intrigued and inspired by Mach's principle, Einstein's formulation of the principle is not a fundamental assumption of general relativity, although the principle of equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass is most certainly fundamental 

Mach's principle in general relativity
Because intuitive notions of distance and time no longer apply, what exactly is meant by "Mach's principle" in general relativity is even less clear than in Newtonian physics and at least 21 formulations of Mach's principle are possible, some being considered more strongly Machian than others : 530   A relatively weak formulation is the assertion that the motion of matter in one place should affect which frames are inertial in another 
Einstein, before completing his development of the general theory of relativity, found an effect which he interpreted as being evidence of Mach's principle   We assume a fixed background for conceptual simplicity, construct a large spherical shell of mass, and set it spinning in that background   The reference frame in the interior of this shell will precess with respect to the fixed background   This effect is known as the Lense–Thirring effect   Einstein was so satisfied with this manifestation of Mach's principle that he wrote a letter to Mach expressing this:

it    turns out that inertia originates in a kind of interaction between bodies, quite in the sense of your considerations on Newton's pail experiment     If one rotates [a heavy shell of matter] relative to the fixed stars about an axis going through its center, a Coriolis force arises in the interior of the shell; that is, the plane of a Foucault pendulum is dragged around (with a practically unmeasurably small angular velocity) 
The Lense–Thirring effect certainly satisfies the very basic and broad notion that "matter there influences inertia here"   The plane of the pendulum would not be dragged around if the shell of matter were not present, or if it were not spinning   As for the statement that "inertia originates in a kind of interaction between bodies", this, too, could be interpreted as true in the context of the effect 
More fundamental to the problem, however, is the very existence of a fixed background, which Einstein describes as "the fixed stars"   Modern relativists see the imprints of Mach's principle in the initial-value problem   Essentially, we humans seem to wish to separate spacetime into slices of constant time   When we do this, Einstein's equations can be decomposed into one set of equations, which must be satisfied on each slice, and another set, which describe how to move between slices   The equations for an individual slice are elliptic partial differential equations   In general, this means that only part of the geometry of the slice can be given by the scientist, while the geometry everywhere else will then be dictated by Einstein's equations on the slice In the context of an asymptotically flat spacetime, the boundary conditions are given at infinity   Heuristically, the boundary conditions for an asymptotically flat universe define a frame with respect to which inertia has meaning   By performing a Lorentz transformation on the distant universe, of course, this inertia can also be transformed 
A stronger form of Mach's principle applies in Wheeler–Mach–Einstein spacetimes, which require spacetime to be spatially compact and globally hyperbolic   In such universes Mach's principle can be stated as the distribution of matter and field energy-momentum (and possibly other information) at a particular moment in the universe determines the inertial frame at each point in the universe (where "a particular moment in the universe" refers to a chosen Cauchy surface) : 188–207 There have been other attempts to formulate a theory that is more fully Machian, such as the Brans–Dicke theory and the Hoyle–Narlikar theory of gravity, but most physicists argue that none have been fully successful  At an exit poll of experts, held in Tübingen in 1993, when asked the question "Is general relativity perfectly Machian?", 3 respondents replied "yes", and 22 replied "no"   To the question "Is general relativity with appropriate boundary conditions of closure of some kind very Machian?" the result was 14 "yes" and 7 "no" : 106 However, Einstein was convinced that a valid theory of gravity would necessarily have to include the relativity of inertia:

So strongly did Einstein believe at that time in the relativity of inertia that in 1918 he stated as being on an equal footing three principles on which a satisfactory theory of gravitation should rest:
The principle of relativity as expressed by general covariance 
The principle of equivalence 
Mach's principle (the first time this term entered the literature): … that the gµν are completely determined by the mass of bodies, more generally by Tµν In 1922, Einstein noted that others were satisfied to proceed without this [third] criterion and added, 
"This contentedness will appear incomprehensible to a later generation however "

It must be said that, as far as I can see, to this day, Mach's principle has not brought physics decisively farther  It must also be said that the origin of inertia is and remains the most obscure subject in the theory of particles and fields  Mach's principle may therefore have a future – but not without the quantum theory 

Inertial induction
In 1953, in order to express Mach's Principle in quantitative terms, the Cambridge University physicist Dennis W  Sciama proposed the addition of an acceleration dependent term to the Newtonian gravitation equation  Sciama's acceleration dependent term was 
  
    
      
        F
        =
        G
        
          
            
              
                m
                
                  A
                
              
              
                m
                
                  B
                
              
              
                
                  a
                
              
            
            
              r
              
                c
                
                  2
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\textstyle F=G{\frac {m_{A}m_{B}{\bf {a}}}{rc^{2}}}\ }
   where r is the distance between the particles, G is the gravitational constant, a is the relative acceleration and c represents the speed of light in vacuum  Sciama referred to the effect of the acceleration dependent term as Inertial Induction 

Variations in the statement of the principle
The broad notion that "mass there influences inertia here" has been expressed in several forms 
Hermann Bondi and Joseph Samuel have listed eleven distinct statements that can be called Mach principles, labelled Mach0 through Mach10   Though their list is not necessarily exhaustive, it does give a flavor for the variety possible 

Mach0: The universe, as represented by the average motion of distant galaxies, does not appear to rotate relative to local inertial frames 
Mach1: Newton's gravitational constant G is a dynamical field 
Mach2: An isolated body in otherwise empty space has no inertia 
Mach3: Local inertial frames are affected by the cosmic motion and distribution of matter 
Mach4: The universe is spatially closed 
Mach5: The total energy, angular and linear momentum of the universe are zero 
Mach6: Inertial mass is affected by the global distribution of matter 
Mach7: If you take away all matter, there is no more space 
Mach8: 
  
    
      
        Ω
         
        
          
            
              
                =
              
              
                def
              
            
          
        
         
        4
        π
        ρ
        G
        
          T
          
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Omega \ {\stackrel {\text{def}}{=}}\ 4\pi \rho GT^{2}}
   is a definite number, of order unity, where 
  
    ρ
    \rho
   is the mean density of matter in the universe, and 
  
    T
    T
   is the Hubble time 
Mach9: The theory contains no absolute elements 
Mach10: Overall rigid rotations and translations of a system are unobservable 

See also



ground_truth: Attic Records

Attic

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the first black student admitted to where Robert Khayat was educated?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: 8 billion in student loans held by 323,000 people who are permanently disabled Starting in March 2020, federal student loan borrowers received temporary relief from student loan payments during the COVID-19 pandemic  This relief was subsequently extended multiple times, and is set to expire at the end of June 2023 According to repayment data released by the Education Department, in December 2021, just 1 2 percent of borrowers were continuing to pay down their loans during the over two years of optional deferment In November 2022, federal judge William Alsup ruled for immediate relief for about 200,000 student debtors and in April 2023 US Supreme Justice Elana Kagan declined to grant emergency relief to three for-profit colleges In February 2023, the U S  Supreme Court heard oral arguments in Biden v  Nebraska concerning President Biden's order to cancel student loan debt for an estimated 40 million debtors In June 2023, the Supreme Court voted in favour of Nebraska to block Biden’s plan to forgive federal student loans 

Overview
Student loans play a significant role in U S  higher education  Nearly 20 million Americans attend college each year, of whom close to 12 million –  or 60% –  borrow annually to help cover costs  As of 2021, approximately 45 million Americans held student debt, with an average balance of approximately $30,000 In Europe, higher education receives more government funding, making student loans less common  In parts of Asia and Latin America government funding for post-secondary education is lower –  usually limited to flagship universities, like UNAM in Mexico –  and government programs under which students can borrow money are uncommon In the United States, college is funded by government grants, scholarships, loans  The primary grant program is Pell grants Student loans come in several varieties, but are basically either federal loans or private student loans  Federal loans are either subsidized (the government pays the interest) and unsubsidized  Federal student loans are subsidized for undergraduates only  Subsidized loans generally defer payments and interest until some period (usually six months) after the student has left school  Some states have their own loan programs, as do some colleges  In almost all cases, these student loans have better conditions than private loans Student loans may be used for college-related expenses, including tuition, room and board, books, computers, and transportation 

Demographics
Approximately 30% of all college students do not borrow  In 2019, the average undergraduate who had taken on debt had a loan balance of about $30,000 upon graduation  Almost half of the student loans are for graduate education, and those loan amounts are typically much higher : 1

Social class
According to the Saint Louis Federal Reserve Bank, "existing racial wealth disparities and soaring higher education costs may replicate racial wealth disparities across generations by driving racial disparities in student loan debt load and repayment "Low-income students often prefer grants and scholarships over loans because of their difficulty repaying them  In 2004, 88 5% of Pell Grant recipients who had bachelor's degrees graduated with student loan debt  After college, students struggle to break into a higher income bracket because of the loans they owe  Though, it's been shown that when it comes to student loan forgiveness and advocacy around this issue, lower-socioeconomic groups are the ones most motivated to contact their legislators about student loans  In 1995, 64 percent of students whose family incomes falling below $35,000 were contacting their legislators concerning student loans 

Race and gender
According to the New York Times, "recent black graduates of four-year colleges owe, on average, $7,400 more than their white peers  Four years after graduation, they still owe an average of $53,000, almost twice as much as whites "According to an analysis by Demos, 12 years after entering college:

White men paid off 44 percent of their student-loan balance
White women paid off 28 percent
Black men saw their balances grow 11 percent
Black women saw their loan balances grow 13 percent

Age
According to a CNBC analysis, the highest student debt balances are carried by adults aged 25–49, with the lowest debt loads held by those aged 62 and older As of 2021, approximately 7 8 million Americans from 18 to 25 carry student loan debt, with an average balance of almost $15,000  For adults between the ages of 35 and 49, the average individual balance owed exceeded $42,000  The average debt for adults between 50 and 61 is slightly lower  These balances include loans for their education and their children 

Federal loans
Loans to students
Stafford and Perkins loans were federal loans made to students  These loans did not consider credit history (most students have no credit history); approval was automatic if the student met program requirements  Nearly all students are eligible to receive federal loans 

Payment/discharge
The student makes no payments while enrolled at least half-time  If a student drops below half time or graduates, a six-month deferment begins  If the student returns to least half-time status, the loans are again deferred, but a second episode no longer qualifies and repayment must begin  All Perkins loans and some undergraduate Stafford loans are subsidized  Loan amounts are limited 
Many deferment and forbearance options are offered in the Federal Direct Student Loan program Disabled borrowers have the possibility of discharge  Other discharge provisions are available for teachers in specific critical subjects or in a school that has more than 30% of its students on reduced-price lunch  They qualify for discharge of Stafford, Perkins, and Federal Family Education Loan Program loans up to $77,500 Any person employed full-time by a 501(c)(3) non-profit group, or another qualifying public service organization, or serving in a full-time AmeriCorps or Peace Corps position, qualifies for discharge after 120 qualifying payments  However, loan discharge is considered taxable income  Loans discharged that were not the result of long-term public service employment constitute taxable income 
Student loan borrowers may have their existing federal student loan debt removed if they can prove that their school misled them  The program is called Borrower Defense to Repayment or Borrower Defense Subsidies are conditional depending on financial need  Pricing and loan limits are determined by Congress  Undergraduates typically receive lower interest rates, while graduate students typically can borrow more  Disregarding risk has been criticized as contributing to inefficiency  Financial needs may vary from school to school  The government covers interest charges while the student is in college  For example, those who borrow $10,000 during college owe $10,000 upon graduation 

Terms
Loans are guaranteed by DOE, either directly or through guarantee agencies 
The dependent undergraduate limits are $5,500 per year for freshman undergraduates, $6,500 for sophomore undergraduates, and $7,500 per year for junior and senior undergraduates, as well as students enrolled in teacher certification or coursework preparatory for graduate programs For independent undergraduates, the limits are $9,500 per year for freshmen, $10,500 for sophomores, and $12,500 per year for juniors and seniors, as well as students enrolled in teacher certification or preparatory coursework for graduate programs 
Unsubsidized loans are also guaranteed, but interest accrues during study  Nearly all students are eligible for these loans regardless of financial need  Those who borrow $10,000 during college owe $10,000 plus interest upon graduation  Accrued interest is added to the loan amount, and the borrower makes payments on the total  Students can make payments while studying 
Graduate students have higher limits: $8,500 for subsidized Stafford and $12,500 (varying by course of study) for unsubsidized Stafford  For graduate students, the Perkins limit is $6,000 per year 

Stafford loan aggregate limits
Stafford borrowers cannot exceed aggregate limits for subsidized and unsubsidized loans  For dependent undergraduates, the aggregate limit is $57,500, while subsidized loans are limited to $23,000  Students who reach the maximum in subsidized loans may (based on grade level—undergraduate, graduate/professional, etc ) add a loan of less than or equal to the amount they would have been eligible for in subsidized loans  Once aggregate limits are met, the student is ineligible for additional Stafford loans until they pay back a portion of the borrowed funds  A student who has paid back some of these amounts regains eligibility up to the aggregate limits as before  Graduate students have a lifetime aggregate loan limit of $138,500 

Debt statistics
Direct loans ($1 15 trillion, 34 2 million borrowers)
FFEL loans ($281 8 billion, 13 5 million borrowers)  The program ended in 2010 
Perkins loans ($7 1 billion, 2 3 million borrowers)  The program ended in 2018 
Total ($1 4392 trillion, 42 9 million borrowers)

Loans to parents
PLUS loans are federal education loans made to parents  These have much higher loan limits, usually enough to cover costs that exceed student financial aid  Payments start immediately after education ends, although prepayment is allowed  Credit history is considered; thus, approval is not automatic 
Interest accrues during the time the student is in school  PLUS interest rates as of 2017 were 7% The parents are personally responsible for repayment  The parents sign the master promissory note and are accountable  Parents are advised to consider their monthly payments  Loan documents reflect the repayment schedule for a single year  Since most students borrow again each year, the ultimate payments are much higher  PLUS loans consider credit history, making it more difficult for low-income parents to qualify 
Graduate students are eligible to receive PLUS loans in their own names  Graduate PLUS loans have the same interest rates and terms as those to parents 
Federal Direct Student Loans, also known as Direct Loans or FDLP loans, originate with the United States Treasury  FDLP loans are distributed by the DOE, then to the college or university and then to the student 

Debt levels
Loan limits are below the cost of most four-year private institutions and most public universities  Students add private student loans to make up the difference The maximum amount that any student can borrow is adjusted as federal policies change 

Defaults
Out of 100 students who ever attended a for-profit institution, 23 defaulted in the 1996 cohort compared to 43 in the 2004 cohort (compared to an increase from 8 to 11 among borrowers who never attended a for-profit) As of 2018 black BA graduates defaulted at five times the rate of white BA graduates (21 versus 4 percent), and were more likely to default than white dropouts 

Private loans
Private loans are offered by banks or finance companies  They are not guaranteed by a government agency  Private loans cost more, offer less favorable terms, and are generally used only when students have exhausted the federal borrowing limit  They are not eligible for Income-Based Repayment plans, and frequently have less flexible payment terms, higher fees, and more penalties, than federal student loans  Private loans may be difficult to discharge through bankruptcy Private loans are made to students or parents  They have higher limits and no payments until after education, although interest starts to accrue immediately and the deferred interest is added to the principal  Interest rates are higher on federal loans, which are set by the United States Congress The advantage of private student loans is that they do not include loan or total debt limits  They typically offer a no-payment grace period of six months (occasionally 12 months) 
Most experts recommend private loans only as a last resort, because of the less favorable terms 

Loan types
Private student loans generally come in two types: school-channel and direct-to-consumer 
School-channel loans offer borrowers lower interest rates, but generally take longer to process  These loans are "certified" by the school, which means the school signs off on the borrowing amount, and the funds are disbursed directly to the school  The "certification" means only that the school confirms the loan funds will be used for educational expenses only and agrees to hold them and disburse them as needed  Certification does not mean that the school approves of, recommends, or has even examined the loan terms 
Direct-to-consumer private loans do not involve the school  The student supplies enrollment verification to the lender, and the loan proceeds are disbursed directly to the student  While direct-to-consumer loans generally carry higher interest rates than school-channel loans, they allow families access to funds more quickly — in some cases, in a matter of days  This convenience comes at the risk of student over-borrowing and/or use of funds for inappropriate purposes Loan providers range from large education finance companies to speciality companies that focus exclusively on this niche 

Interest rates
Private student loans usually have substantially higher interest rates, and the rates fluctuate depending on the financial markets  Some private loans require substantial up-front origination fees ("points") along with lower interest rates  Interest rates also vary depending on the applicant's credit history 
Most private loan programs are tied to financial indexes such as the Wall Street Journal Prime rate or the BBA LIBOR rate, plus an overhead charge  Students and families with excellent credit generally receive lower rates and smaller loan origination fees than those with poorer credit histories  Interest payments are tax deductible 
Lenders rarely give complete details of loan terms until after an application is submitted  Many lenders advertise only the lowest interest rate they charge (for good credit borrowers)  Borrowers with damaged credit can expect interest rates that are as much as 6% higher, loan fees that are as much as 9% higher, and loan limits that are two-thirds lower than those advertised figures 

Loan fees
Private loans often carry an origination fee, which can be substantial  Origination fees are a one-time charge based on the amount of the loan  They can be paid from the loan proceeds or from personal funds independent of the loan amount, often at the borrower's preference  Some lenders offer low-interest, 0-fee loans  The origination fee gets paid once, while interest is paid throughout the loan  The loan amount accumulates to about 15 billion borrowed from private loans All lenders are legally required to provide a statement of the annual percentage rate (APR) prior to closure  Unlike the "base" rate, this rate includes any fees charged and can be thought of as the "effective" interest rate including interest, fees, etc  When comparing loans, comparing APR rather than "rate" ensures a valid comparison for loans that have the same repayment term  However, if the repayment terms are different, APR becomes a less-perfect comparison tool  In those circumstances comparing total financing costs may be more appropriate 

Loan terms
In contrast with federal loans, whose terms are standardized, private loan terms vary from loan to loan  However, it is not easy to compare them, as some conditions may not be revealed until signing  A common suggestion is to consider all terms, not just respond to advertised interest rates  Applying to multiple lenders (to create a comparison) can damage the borrower's credit score  Examples of other terms  that vary by lender are deferments (amount of time after leaving school before payments start) and forbearances (a period when payments are temporarily stopped due to financial or other hardship) 

Cosigners
Private student loan programs generally issue loans based on the credit history of the applicant and any applicable cosigner, co-endorser or coborrower  Students may find that their families have too much income or too many assets to qualify for federal aid, but lack sufficient assets and income to pay for school without assistance  Most students need a cosigner in order to qualify for a private loan Many international students can obtain private loans (they are usually ineligible for federal loans) with a cosigner who is a citizen or permanent resident  However, some graduate programs (notably top MBA programs) partner with private loan providers  In those cases, no cosigner is needed for international students 

Loan servicers
The U S  Department of Education contracts with companies to manage, or service, the loans it owns  These companies are the primary point of contact for borrowers after they graduate and enter repayment 
As of July 2023, the four companies which service the majority of student loans are Aidvantage, EdFinancial Services, MOHELA (Higher Education Loan Authority of the State of Missouri) and Nelnet  ECSI (Educational Computer Systems, Inc ) is the exclusive servicer for the remaining Perkins Loans  Borrowers who have defaulted on loans are assigned to the Department of Education’s Default Resolution Group for servicing 

Student loan asset-backed securities (SLABS)
FFELP and private loans are bundled, securitized, rated, then sold to institutional investors as student loan asset-backed securities (SLABS)  Navient and Nelnet are two major private lenders  Wells Fargo Bank, JP MorganChase, Goldman Sachs and other large banks package and sell SLABS in bundles  Moody's, Fitch Ratings, and Standard and Poor's rate SLAB quality The Asset-Backed Security (ABS) industry received financial relief in 2008 and in 2020 through the Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility (TALF) program, which was created to preserve the flow of credit to consumers and businesses, including student loans  In 2020, critics argued that the SLAB market was poorly regulated and could be headed toward a significant downturn, despite perceptions that it was low risk 

Repayment and default
Metrics
The industry metrics are repayment rate and default rate, such as the one-, three-, five-, and seven-year default rates  DOE's College Scorecard includes the following repayment statuses:

Making Progress
Forbearance
Deferment
Not Making Progress
Delinquent
Defaulted
Paid In Full
Discharged

Repayment rate
The three-year repayment rate for each school that receives Title IV funding is available at DOE's College Scorecard  This number may be a poor indicator of the overall default rate: some schools place loans into forebearance, deferring loans beyond the three-year window to present a low default rate 

Default rate
The default rate for borrowers who did not complete their degree is three times as high as the rate for those who did : 1

Standard repayment
Federal loans are initially designated as standard repayment  Standard repayment borrowers have 10 years to repay  The loan servicer calculates the monthly payment amount that will pay off the original loan amount plus all accrued interest after 120 equal payments 
Payments cover interest and part of the principal  Some loan terms may be shorter than 10 years  The minimum monthly payment is  $50 

Income-related repayment
Income-based repayment
If loan debt is high but income is modest or zero, borrowers may qualify for an income-driven repayment (IDR) plan  Most major types of federal student loans—except for PLUS loans for parents—are eligible  IDRs allow borrowers to cap their monthly payments at 10%, 15%, or 20% of disposable income for up to 20 or 25 years, after which the remaining balance is forgiven Four IDRs are available:

Income-Based Repayment (IBR)
Pay As You Earn (PAYE)
Revised Pay As You Earn (REPAYE)
Income-Contingent Repayment (ICR)

Income share agreements
An income share agreement is an alternative to a traditional loan  The borrower agrees to pay a percentage of their salary to the educational institution after graduation  Purdue University offers income share agreements 

Defenses to repayment
Under some circumstances, debt can be cancelled  For example, students who attended a school when it closed or the student was enrolled based on false claims may be able to escape repayment 

Leaving the country to evade repayment
Debt evasion is the intentional act of trying to avoid attempts by creditors to collect a debt  News accounts report that some individuals are departing the US to escape their debt  Emigration does not discharge the loan or stop interest and penalties from accruing 
International addresses make it more difficult to find people, and collection companies would usually need to hire an international counsel or a third party collector to recoup the debt, cutting into their profits and reducing their incentive to go after a debtor   'It increases our expenses to go overseas,' says Justin Berg of American Profit Recovery, a debt collection agency in Massachusetts  'Our revenues are cut by more than half,' he says "
Nations may enter into agreements with the US to facilitate the collection of student loans After default, co-signers remain liable for repayment 

Bankruptcy
Federal loans and some private loans can be discharged in bankruptcy by demonstrating that the loan does not meet the requirements of section 523(a)(8) of the bankruptcy code or by showing that repayment of the loan would constitute "undue hardship"  While credit card debt often can be discharged through bankruptcy proceedings, this option is not generally available for federally subsidize or insured student loans  Unless the loan can be proven not to be an educational benefit, those seeking to discharge their debt must initiate an adversary proceeding, a separate lawsuit within the bankruptcy case where they illustrate the required hardship  Many borrowers cannot afford the costs to retain an attorney or litigation costs associated with an adversary proceeding, such as a bankruptcy case  The undue hardship standard varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but is generally difficult to meet  In most circuit courts discharge depends on meeting the three prongs in the Brunner test: As noted by the district court, there is very little appellate authority on the definition of "undue hardship" in the context of 11 U S C  § 523(a)(8)(B)  Based on legislative history and the decisions of other district and bankruptcy courts, the district court adopted a standard for "undue hardship" requiring a three-part showing: (1) that the debtor cannot maintain, based on current income and expenses, a "minimal" standard of living for herself and her dependents if forced to repay the loans; (2) that additional circumstances exist indicating that this state of affairs is likely to persist for a significant portion of the repayment period of the student loans; and (3) that the debtor has made good faith efforts to repay the loans  For the reasons set forth in the district court's order, we adopt this analysis  The first part of this test has been applied frequently as the minimum necessary to establish "undue hardship " See, e g , Bryant v  Pennsylvania Higher Educ  Assistance Agency (In re Bryant), 72 B R  913, 915 (Bankr E D Pa 1987); North Dakota State Bd  of Higher Educ  v  Frech (In re Frech), 62 B R  235 (Bankr D Minn 1986); Marion v  Pennsylvania Higher Educ  Assistance Agency (In re Marion), 61 B R  815 (Bankr W D Pa 1986)  Requiring such a showing comports with common sense as well 
Federal student loans may be eligible for administrative discharge  Those provisions do not apply to private loans, although private loans may be subject to discharge in bankruptcy  One study found that a quarter million student debtors file for bankruptcy each year  Approximately 450 attempted to seek a discharge in 2017 by arguing that their loan was not an "educational benefit" as defined by section 523(a)(8), or they successfully argued for "undue hardship"  Of the completed cases, more than 60% were able to discharge their debts or achieve a settlement  The study concluded that the data showed: Creditors are settling unfavorable cases to avoid adverse precedent and litigating good cases to cultivate favorable precedent  Ultimately, this litigation strategy has distorted the law and cultivated the myth of nondischargeability The study found that debtors who obtain favorable outcomes do not possess unique characteristics differentiating them from those who do not seek discharge and estimates that 64,000 individuals who filed for bankruptcy in 2019 would have met the hardship standard  It concluded about half of all bankrupt debtors could obtain relief, except that they had become convinced that loans were not dischargeable For disabled debtors the standard is whether "substantial gainful activity" (SGA) is still possible Borrowers determined to be disabled by the Social Security Administration, are eligible if the SSA placed the individual on a five- to seven-year review cycle  Debt discharged due to death or total permanent disability is nontaxable In three circuit court jurisdictions private student loans are dischargeable in bankruptcy 

Criticisms
School effects
Some critics of financial aid in general claim that it allows schools to raise their fees, to accept unprepared students, and to produce too many graduates in some fields of study In 1987, then-Secretary of Education William Bennett argued that “    increases in financial aid in recent years have enabled colleges and universities blithely to raise tuition, confident that Federal loan subsidies would help cushion the increase ” This statement came to be known as the “Bennett Hypothesis” 
In July 2015, a Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Report concluded that institutions more exposed to increases in student loan program maximums tended to respond with disproportionate tuition increases  Pell Grant, subsidized, and unsubsidized loans led to increases of about 40, 60, and 15 cents on the dollar, respectively  In the 20 years between 1987 and 2007, tuition costs rose 326%  Public universities increased their fees by 27% over the five years ending in 2012, or 20% adjusted for inflation  Public university students paid an average of almost $8,400 annually for in-state tuition, while out-of-state students paid more than $19,000  For the two decades ending in 2013, college costs rose 1 6% more than inflation each year  By contrast, government funding per student fell 27% between 2007 and 2012 Many students cannot get loans or determine that the cost of going to school is not worth the debt, believing that they would still be unable to make enough income to pay it back Some universities steered borrowers to preferred lenders that charged higher interest rates  Some of these lenders allegedly paid kick backs to university financial aid staff  After the behavior became public, many universities rebated fees to affected borrowers 

Interest rates
The federal student loan program was criticized for not adjusting interest rates according to factors under students' control, such as the choice of academic major  Critics have contended that flat-rate pricing contributes to inefficiency and misallocation of resources in higher education and lower productivity in the labor market  However, one study found that high debt and default levels do not burden society substantially 

Bankruptcy
In 2009 student loans' non-dischargeability was claimed to provide a credit risk-free loan for the lender, averaging 7 percent a year 

Long-term debt and default
About one-third of borrowers never pay off their loans  Those who default shift their burden to taxpayers According to Harvard Business School researchers, "when student debt is erased, a huge burden is lifted and people take big steps to improve their lives: They seek higher-paying careers in new states, improve their education, get their other finances in order, and make more substantial contributions to the economy "

Sallie Mae and Nelnet
Sallie Mae and Nelnet are the largest lenders and are frequently defendants in lawsuits  The False Claims Suit was filed on behalf of the federal government by former DOE researcher Dr  Jon Oberg against Sallie Mae, Nelnet, and other lenders  Oberg argued that the lenders overcharged the United States Government and defrauded taxpayers of over $22 million  In August 2010, Nelnet settled and paid $55 million  Ultimately seven lenders returned taxpayer funds as a result of his lawsuits 

School quality
In April 2019, Brookings Institution fellow Adam Looney, a long-time analyst of student loans, claimed that:"It is an outrage that the federal government offers loans to students at low-quality institutions even when we know those schools don’t boost their earnings and that those borrowers won’t be able to repay their loans  It is an outrage that we make parent PLUS loans to the poorest families when we know they almost surely will default and have their wages and social security benefits garnished and their tax refunds confiscated, as $2 8 billion was in 2017  It is an outrage that we saddled several million students with loans to enroll in untested online programs that seem to have offered no labor market value  It is an outrage that our lending programs encourage schools like USC to charge $107,484 (and students to blithely enroll) for a master’s degree in social work (220 percent more than the equivalent course at UCLA) in a field where the median wage is $47,980  It’s no wonder many borrowers feel their student loans led to economic catastrophe "

Potential consequences of student loan debt
While college grads earn about 70% more than people with only a high school degree, student loan debt has been associated with several social, economic, and psychological consequences, including:

having to choose less satisfying work that pays more
lower credit ratings from missed payments that may disqualify borrowers from work opportunities given poor payment history
reduced wealth accumulation
reduced housing access
delayed marriage
delayed childbirth
decreased retirement security
increased anxiety

Reform proposals
Organizations that advocate for student loan reform include the Debt Collective and Student Loan Justice Some pundits proposed that colleges share liability on defaulted student loans Sen  Bernie Sanders (I-Vt ) and Rep  Pramila Jayapal (D-Wash ) introduced legislation in 2017 to "make public colleges and universities tuition-free for working families and to significantly reduce student debt " The policy would eliminate undergraduate tuition and fees at public colleges and universities, lower interest rates, and allow those with existing debt to refinance  Sanders offered a new proposal in 2019 that would cancel $1 6 trillion of student loan, undergraduate and graduate debt for around 45 million Americans Senator Brian Schatz (D-Hawaii) reintroduced the Debt Free College Act in 2019 In 2020, a majority of economists surveyed by the Initiative on Global Markets felt that forgiving all student loans would be more beneficial to higher income earners than lower income earners During the 2020 presidential election, then-candidate Joe Biden said he planned to allow $10,000 in debt forgiveness to all student debtors  On August 24, 2022, Biden announced that he would forgive an amount of $10,000 for an estimated 43 million borrowers, and an additional $10,000 for Pell Grant recipients, with this relief limited to singles earning under $125,000 and married couples earning under $250,000, including refunding payments during the forbearance period by any borrower who requests it  This would reduce debt for an estimated 43 million borrowers and eliminate student loan debt for an estimated 20 million   The Congressional Budget Office estimated that it would cost the government about $400 billion  The administration also proposed a new income-driven repayment plan  The U S  Supreme Court ruled June 30, 2023 that Biden's plan required action by Congress and that the HEROES Act did not permit the administration to act on its own Some borrowers still have loans issued under the Federal Family Education Loan Program which closed in 2010  The Biden forgiveness plan originally allowed these borrowers to receive forgiveness by consolidating into Direct Loans, but due to potential lawsuits stopped allowing this on September 29, 2022, potentially excluding 800,000 FFEL borrowers 

See also
Student financial aid in the United States
College tuition in the United States
EdFund
Free education
Higher Education Price Index
Tertiary education
Private university
Student debt
Student loan
Tuition payments
Tuition freeze
Passage 12:
Robert Khayat
Robert Conrad Khayat (born April 18, 1938) was the 15th Chancellor of the University of Mississippi  He also played American football as a placekicker, guard, and center for Ole Miss and in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins during the 1960, 1962 and 1963 seasons  He was appointed Chancellor in 1995 

Early years
Khayat was born in Moss Point, Mississippi, to Lebanese parents  He attended Moss Point High School and the University of Mississippi  He received both bachelor of arts and Juris Doctor degrees from the University of Mississippi  He also played football for the Ole Miss Rebels football team from 1957 to 1959  He also received an LL M  degree from Yale University 

Professional football career
Khayat was selected by the Cleveland Browns in the 1960 NFL Draft  He was then traded to the Washington Redskins in April 1960  He played for the Redskins during the 1960, 1962, and 1963 seasons  Following the 1960 season, he was named to the Pro Bowl squad  He appeared in a total of 40 NFL games and kicked 38 field goals and 90 extra points His brother Eddie Khayat also played and coached in the NFL 

Later years
Khayat later became a lawyer and taught law at the University of Mississippi School of Law He was appointed chancellor in 1995  In one of his first acts as chancellor, Khayat arranged for a $5 4 million gift from Jim and Sally Barksdale to establish an honors college at the university  In 1996, with enrollment declining, Khayat retained the public relations firm, Burson-Marsteller, to conduct a survey of public perception — including university symbols  When The New York Times reported on the review, which included the Confederate Flag and other Old South symbols, a media frenzy ensued 
On January 6, 2009, Khayat announced his retirement effective June 30, 2009  He was succeeded by Daniel Jones on June 15, 2009 
Khayat's memoir, The Education of a Lifetime, was published on September 10, 2013 



ground_truth: James Howard Meredith

James Meredith

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the employer of the person Mach's principle was named after?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: 
Bogart and Bergman's on-screen relationship was based on professionalism rather than actual rapport, although Mayo Methot assumed otherwise  Off the set, the co-stars hardly spoke  Bergman (who had a reputation for affairs with her leading men) later said about Bogart, "I kissed him but I never knew him " Because she was taller, Bogart had 3-inch (76 mm) blocks attached to his shoes in some scenes Bogart is reported to have been responsible for the notion that Rick Blaine should be portrayed as a chess player, a metaphor for the relationships he maintained with friends, enemies, and allies  He played tournament-level chess (one division below master) in real life, often enjoying games with crew members and cast but finding his better in Paul Henreid Casablanca won the Academy Award for Best Picture at the 16th Academy Awards for 1943  Bogart was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role, but lost to Paul Lukas for his performance in Watch on the Rhine  The film vaulted Bogart from fourth place to first in the studio's roster, however, finally overtaking James Cagney  He more than doubled his annual salary to over $460,000 by 1946, making him the world's highest-paid actor Bogart went on United Service Organizations and War Bond tours with Methot in 1943 and 1944, making arduous trips to Italy and North Africa (including Casablanca)  He was still required to perform in films with weak scripts, leading to conflicts with the front office  He starred in Conflict (1945, again with Greenstreet), but turned down God is My Co-Pilot that year 

Bogart and Bacall
To Have and Have Not
Howard Hawks introduced Bogart and Lauren Bacall (1924–2014) while Bogart was filming Passage to Marseille (1944)  The three subsequently collaborated on To Have and Have Not (1944), a loose adaptation of the Ernest Hemingway novel, and Bacall's film debut  It has several similarities to Casablanca: the same kind of hero and enemies, and a piano player (portrayed this time by Hoagy Carmichael) as a supporting character  When they met, Bacall was 19 and Bogart 44; he nicknamed her "Baby " A model since age 16, she had appeared in two failed plays  Bogart was attracted by Bacall's high cheekbones, green eyes, tawny blond hair, lean body, maturity, poise and earthy, outspoken honesty; he reportedly said, "I just saw your test  We'll have a lot of fun together" Their emotional bond was strong from the start, their difference in age and acting-experience encouraged a mentor-student dynamic  In contrast to the Hollywood norm, their affair was Bogart's first with a leading lady  His early meetings with Bacall were discreet and brief, their separations bridged by love letters  The relationship made it easier for Bacall to make her first film, and Bogart did his best to put her at ease with jokes and quiet coaching  He encouraged her to steal scenes; Howard Hawks also did his best to highlight her role, and found Bogart easy to direct However, Hawks began to disapprove of the relationship  He considered himself Bacall's protector and mentor, and Bogart was usurping that role  Not usually drawn to his starlets, the married director also fell for Bacall; he told her that she meant nothing to Bogart and threatened to send her to the poverty-row studio Monogram Pictures  Bogart calmed her down, and then went after Hawks; Jack Warner settled the dispute, and filming resumed  Hawks said about Bacall, "Bogie fell in love with the character she played, so she had to keep playing it the rest of her life "

The Big Sleep
Months after wrapping To Have and Have Not, Bogart and Bacall were reunited for an encore: the film noir The Big Sleep (1946), based on the novel by Raymond Chandler with script help from William Faulkner  Chandler admired the actor's performance: "Bogart can be tough without a gun  Also, he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt " Although the film was completed and scheduled for release in 1945, it was withdrawn and re-edited to add scenes exploiting Bogart and Bacall's box-office chemistry in To Have and Have Not and the publicity surrounding their offscreen relationship  At the insistence of director Howard Hawks, production partner Charles K  Feldman agreed to a rewrite of Bacall's scenes to heighten the "insolent" quality which had intrigued critics such as James Agee and audiences of the earlier film, and a memo was sent to studio head Jack Warner The dialogue, especially in the added scenes supplied by Hawks, was full of sexual innuendo  The film was successful, although some critics found its plot confusing and overly complicated  According to Chandler, Hawks and Bogart argued about who killed the chauffeur; when Chandler received an inquiry by telegram, he could not provide an answer 

Marriage to Bacall
Bogart filed for divorce from Methot in February 1945  He and Bacall married in a small ceremony at the country home of Bogart's close friend, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Louis Bromfield, at Malabar Farm (near Lucas, Ohio) on May 21, 1945 They moved into a $160,000 ($2,600,000 in 2022) white brick mansion in an exclusive neighborhood of Los Angeles' Holmby Hills  At the time of the 1950 United States census, the couple was living at 2707 Benedict Canyon Drive in Beverly Hills with their son and nursemaid  Bacall is listed as Betty Bogart  The marriage was a mostly happy one but not without its troubles  Bogart's drinking was sometimes problematic and he initially wasn't happy about having his first child  He was a homebody, and Bacall liked the nightlife; he loved the sea, which made her seasick  Bogart and Bacall both had affairs but they never stopped loving each other; a fact Bacall mentions throughout her memoir "By Myself"  Bacall, in a 1997 Parade Magazine cover story told reporter Dotson Rader that Bogart said ‘If you want a career more than anything, I will do everything I can to help you, and I will send you on your way, but I will not marry you  I’ve been through it, and I know it doesn’t work ’ He was right  He loved me and wanted me with him  I made the deal, and I stuck to it, and I’m damn glad that I did ”Bogart bought the Santana, a 55-foot (17 m) sailing yacht, from actor Dick Powell in 1945  He found the sea a sanctuary and spent about thirty weekends a year on the water, with a particular fondness for sailing around Catalina Island: "An actor needs something to stabilize his personality, something to nail down what he really is, not what he is currently pretending to be " Bogart joined the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve (a forerunner of the modern Coast Guard Auxiliary), offering the Coast Guard use of the Santana  He reportedly attempted to enlist, but was turned down due to his age 

Dark Passage and Key Largo
The suspenseful Dark Passage (1947) was Bogart and Bacall's next collaboration  Vincent Parry (Bogart) is intent on finding the real murderer for a crime of which he was convicted and sentenced to prison  According to Bogart's biographer, Stefan Kanfer, it was "a production line film noir with no particular distinction" Bogart and Bacall's last pairing in a film was in Key Largo (1948)  Directed by John Huston, Edward G  Robinson was billed second (behind Bogart) as gangster Johnny Rocco: a seething, older synthesis of many of his early bad-guy roles  The billing question was hard-fought and at the end of at least one of the trailers, Robinson is listed above Bogart in a list of the actors' names in the last frame; and in the film itself, Robinson's name, appearing between Bogart's and Bacall's, is pictured slightly higher onscreen than the other two  Robinson had top billing over Bogart in their four previous films together: Bullets or Ballots (1936), Kid Galahad (1937), The Amazing Dr  Clitterhouse (1938) and Brother Orchid (1940)  In some posters for Key Largo, Robinson's picture is substantially larger than Bogart's, and in the foreground manhandling Bacall while Bogart is in the background  The characters are trapped during a hurricane in a hotel owned by Bacall's father-in-law, portrayed by Lionel Barrymore  Claire Trevor won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance as Rocco's physically abused, alcoholic girlfriend 

Later career
The Treasure of the Sierra Madre
Riding high in 1947 with a new contract which provided limited script refusal and the right to form his own production company, Bogart rejoined with John Huston for The Treasure of the Sierra Madre: a stark tale of greed among three gold prospectors in Mexico  Lacking a love interest or a happy ending, it was considered a risky project  Bogart later said about co-star (and John Huston's father) Walter Huston, "He's probably the only performer in Hollywood to whom I'd gladly lose a scene "The film was shot in the heat of summer for greater realism and atmosphere and was grueling to make  James Agee wrote, "Bogart does a wonderful job with this character     miles ahead of the very good work he has done before " Although John Huston won the Academy Award for Best Director and screenplay and his father won the Best Supporting Actor award, the film had mediocre box-office results  Bogart complained, "An intelligent script, beautifully directed—something different—and the public turned a cold shoulder on it "

House Un-American Activities Committee
Bogart, a liberal Democrat, organized the Committee for the First Amendment (a delegation to Washington, D C ) opposing what he saw as the House Un-American Activities Committee's harassment of Hollywood screenwriters and actors  He later wrote an article, "I'm No Communist", for the March 1948 issue of Photoplay magazine distancing himself from the Hollywood Ten to counter negative publicity resulting from his appearance  Bogart wrote, "The ten men cited for contempt by the House Un-American Activities Committee were not defended by us "

Santana Productions
Bogart created his film company, Santana Productions (named after his yacht and the cabin cruiser in Key Largo), in 1948  The right to create his own company had left Jack Warner furious, fearful that other stars would do the same and further erode the major studios' power  In addition to pressure from freelancing actors such as Bogart, James Stewart, and Henry Fonda, they were beginning to buckle from the impact of television and the enforcement of antitrust laws which broke up theater chains  Bogart appeared in his final films for Warners, Chain Lightning (1950) and The Enforcer (1951) 

Except for Beat the Devil (1953), originally distributed in the United States by United Artists, the company released its films through Columbia Pictures; Columbia re-released Beat the Devil a decade later  In quick succession, Bogart starred in Knock on Any Door (1949), Tokyo Joe (1949), In a Lonely Place (1950), and Sirocco (1951)  Santana also made two films without him: And Baby Makes Three (1949) and The Family Secret (1951) 
Although most lost money at the box office (ultimately forcing Santana's sale), at least two retain a reputation; In a Lonely Place is considered a film-noir high point  Bogart plays Dixon Steele, an embittered writer with a violent reputation who is the primary suspect in the murder of a young woman and falls in love with failed actress Laurel Gray (Gloria Grahame)  Several Bogart biographers, and actress-writer Louise Brooks, have felt that this role is closest to the real Bogart  According to Brooks, the film "gave him a role that he could play with complexity, because the film character's pride in his art, his selfishness, drunkenness, lack of energy stabbed with lightning strokes of violence were shared by the real Bogart"  The character mimics some of Bogart's personal habits, twice ordering the actor's favorite meal (ham and eggs) A parody of sorts of The Maltese Falcon, Beat the Devil was the final film for Bogart and John Huston  Co-written by Truman Capote, the eccentrically filmed story follows an amoral group of rogues, one of whom was portrayed by Peter Lorre, chasing an unattainable treasure  Bogart sold his interest in Santana to Columbia for over $1 million in 1955 

The African Queen
Outside Santana Productions, Bogart starred with Katharine Hepburn in the John Huston-directed The African Queen in 1951  The C  S  Forester novel on which it was based was overlooked and left undeveloped for 15 years until producer Sam Spiegel and Huston bought the rights  Spiegel sent Katharine Hepburn the book; she suggested Bogart for the male lead, believing that "he was the only man who could have played that part"  Huston's love of adventure, his deep, longstanding friendship (and success) with Bogart, and the chance to work with Hepburn convinced the actor to leave Hollywood for a difficult shoot on location in the Belgian Congo  Bogart was to get 30 percent of the profits and Hepburn 10 percent, plus a relatively small salary for both  The stars met in London and announced that they would work together 
Bacall came for the over-four-month duration, leaving their young son in Los Angeles  The Bogarts began the trip with a junket through Europe, including a visit with Pope Pius XII  Bacall later made herself useful as a cook, nurse and clothes washer; her husband said: "I don't know what we'd have done without her  She Luxed my undies in darkest Africa " Nearly everyone in the cast developed dysentery except Bogart and Huston, who subsisted on canned food and alcohol; Bogart said, "All I ate was baked beans, canned asparagus and Scotch whisky  Whenever a fly bit Huston or me, it dropped dead " Hepburn (a teetotaler) fared worse in the difficult conditions, losing weight and at one point becoming very ill  Bogart resisted Huston's insistence on using real leeches in a key scene where Charlie has to drag his steam launch through an infested marsh, and reasonable fakes were employed  The crew overcame illness, army-ant infestations, leaky boats, poor food, attacking hippos, poor water filters, extreme heat, isolation, and a boat fire to complete the film  Despite the discomfort of jumping from the boat into swamps, rivers and marshes, The African Queen apparently rekindled Bogart's early love of boats; when he returned to California, he bought a classic mahogany Hacker-Craft runabout which he kept until his death 
His performance as cantankerous skipper Charlie Allnutt earned Bogart an Academy Award for Best Actor in 1951 (his only award of three nominations), and he considered it the best of his film career  Promising friends that if he won his speech would break the convention of thanking everyone in sight, Bogart advised Claire Trevor when she was nominated for Key Largo to "just say you did it all yourself and don't thank anyone"  When Bogart won, however, he said: "It's a long way from the Belgian Congo to the stage of this theatre  It's nicer to be here  Thank you very much     No one does it alone  As in tennis, you need a good opponent or partner to bring out the best in you  John and Katie helped me to be where I am now " Despite the award and its accompanying recognition, Bogart later said: "The way to survive an Oscar is never to try to win another one     too many stars     win it and then figure they have to top themselves     they become afraid to take chances  The result: A lot of dull performances in dull pictures " The African Queen was Bogart's first starring Technicolor role 

The Caine Mutiny
Bogart dropped his asking price to obtain the role of Captain Queeg in Edward Dmytryk's drama, The Caine Mutiny (1954)  Though he retained some of his old bitterness about having to do so, he delivered a strong performance in the lead; he received his final Oscar nomination and was the subject of a June 7, 1954, Time magazine cover story 
Despite his success, Bogart was still melancholy; he grumbled to (and feuded with) the studio, while his health began to deteriorate  Like his portrayal of Fred C  Dobbs in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre, Bogart's Queeg is a paranoid, self-pitying character whose small-mindedness eventually destroys him  Henry Fonda played a different role in the Broadway version of The Caine Mutiny, generating publicity for the film 

Final roles
For Sabrina (1954), Billy Wilder wanted Cary Grant for the older male lead and chose Bogart to play the conservative brother who competes with his younger, playboy sibling (William Holden) for the affection of the Cinderella-like Sabrina (Audrey Hepburn)  Although Bogart was lukewarm about the part, he agreed to it on a handshake with Wilder without a finished script but with the director's assurance that he would take good care of Bogart during filming  The actor, however, got along poorly with his director and co-stars; he complained about the script's last-minute drafting and delivery, and accused Wilder of favoring Hepburn and Holden on and off the set  Wilder was the opposite of Bogart's ideal director (John Huston) in style and personality; Bogart complained to the press that Wilder was "overbearing" and "is [a] kind of Prussian German with a riding crop  He is the type of director I don't like to work with     the picture is a crock of crap  I got sick and tired of who gets Sabrina " Wilder later said, "We parted as enemies but finally made up " Despite the acrimony, the film was successful; according to a review in The New York Times, Bogart was "incredibly adroit     the skill with which this old rock-ribbed actor blends the gags and such duplicities with a manly manner of melting is one of the incalculable joys of the show" Joseph L  Mankiewicz's The Barefoot Contessa (1954) was filmed in Rome  In this Hollywood backstory, Bogart is a broken-down man, a cynical director-narrator who saves his career by making a star of a flamenco dancer modeled on Rita Hayworth  He was uneasy with Ava Gardner in the female lead; she had just broken up with his Rat Pack buddy Frank Sinatra, and Bogart was annoyed by her inexperienced performance  The actor was generally praised as the film's strongest part  During filming and while Bacall was home, Bogart resumed his discreet affair with Verita Bouvaire-Thompson (his long-time studio assistant, whom he drank with and took sailing)  When Bacall found them together, she extracted an expensive shopping spree from her husband; the three traveled together after the shooting 

Bogart could be generous with actors, particularly those who were blacklisted, down on their luck or having personal problems  During the filming of the Edward Dmytryk-directed The Left Hand of God (1955), he noticed his co-star Gene Tierney having a hard time remembering her lines and behaving oddly; he coached her, feeding Tierney her lines  Familiar with mental illness because of his sister's bouts of depression, Bogart encouraged Tierney to seek treatment  He also stood behind Joan Bennett and insisted on her as his co-star in Michael Curtiz's We're No Angels (1955) when a scandal made her persona non grata with studio head Jack Warner Bogart had already been diagnosed with terminal cancer when shooting The Harder They Fall, a boxing drama with Rod Steiger in a supporting role  Steiger later mentioned Bogart's courage and geniality during his final performance:

"Bogey and I got on very well  Unlike some other stars, when they had closeups, you might have been relegated to a two-shot, or cut out altogether  Bogey didn't play those games  He was a professional and had tremendous authority  He'd come in exactly at 9am and leave at precisely 6pm  I remember once walking to lunch in between takes and seeing Bogey on the lot  I shouldn't have because his work was finished for the day  I asked him why he was still on the lot, and he said, 'They want to shoot some retakes of my closeups because my eyes are too watery'  A little while later, after the film, somebody came up to me with word of Bogey's death  Then it struck me  His eyes were watery because he was in pain with the cancer  I thought: 'How dumb can you be, Rodney'!"

Television and radio
Bogart rarely performed on television, but he and Bacall appeared on Edward R  Murrow's Person to Person and disagreed on the answer to every question  He also appeared on The Jack Benny Show, where a surviving kinescope of the live telecast captures him in his only TV sketch-comedy performance (October 25, 1953) 
Bogart and Bacall worked on an early color telecast in 1955, an NBC adaptation of "The Petrified Forest" for Producers' Showcase  Bogart received top billing, Henry Fonda played Leslie Howard's role and Bacall played Bette Davis's part   Jack Klugman, Richard Jaeckel, and Jack Warden played supporting roles  In the late 1990s, Bacall donated the only known kinescope of the 1955 performance (in black and white) to the Museum Of Television & Radio (now the Paley Center for Media), where it remains archived for viewing in New York City and Los Angeles  It is now in the public domain 
Bogart also performed radio adaptations of some of his best-known films, such as Casablanca and The Maltese Falcon, and recorded a radio series entitled Bold Venture with Bacall 

Personal life
Children
Bogart became a father at age 49, when Bacall gave birth to their son Stephen Humphrey Bogart on January 6, 1949, during the filming of Tokyo Joe  The name was taken from Steve, Bogart's character's nickname in To Have and Have Not  Stephen became an author and biographer and hosted a television special about his father on Turner Classic Movies  The couple's second child and daughter, Leslie Howard Bogart, was born on August 23, 1952  Her first and middle names honor Leslie Howard, Bogart's friend and co-star in The Petrified Forest 

Rat Pack
Bogart was a founding member and the original leader of the Hollywood Rat Pack  In the spring of 1955, after a long party in Las Vegas attended by Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, her husband Sidney Luft, Michael Romanoff and his wife Gloria, David Niven, Angie Dickinson and others, Bacall surveyed the wreckage and said: "You look like a goddamn rat pack "The name stuck and was made official at Romanoff's in Beverly Hills  Sinatra was dubbed pack president; Bacall den mother; Bogart director of public relations, and Sid Luft acting cage manager  Asked by columnist Earl Wilson what the group's purpose was, Bacall replied: "To drink a lot of bourbon and stay up late "

Illness and death
After signing a long-term deal with Warner Bros , Bogart predicted with glee that his teeth and hair would fall out before the contract ended  In 1955, however, his health was failing  In the wake of Santana, Bogart had formed a new company and had plans for a film (Melville Goodwin, U S A ) in which he would play a general and Bacall a press magnate  His persistent cough and difficulty eating became too serious to ignore, though, and he dropped the project A heavy smoker and drinker, Bogart had developed esophageal cancer  He did not talk about his health and visited a doctor in late January 1956 after considerable persuasion from Bacall  The disease worsened and several weeks later, on March 1, Bogart had surgery to remove his esophagus, two lymph nodes and a rib  The surgery was unsuccessful, and chemotherapy followed  He had additional surgery in November 1956, when the cancer had metastasized  Although he became too weak to walk up and down stairs, he joked despite the pain: "Put me in the dumbwaiter and I'll ride down to the first floor in style " It was then altered to accommodate his wheelchair  Frank Sinatra, Katharine Hepburn, and Spencer Tracy visited him on January 13, 1957  In an interview, Hepburn said:

Spence patted him on the shoulder and said, "Goodnight, Bogie " Bogie turned his eyes to Spence very quietly and with a sweet smile covered Spence's hand with his own and said, "Goodbye, Spence " Spence's heart stood still  He understood  
Bogart lapsed into a coma and died the following day, 20 days after his 57th birthday; at the time of his death he weighed only 80 pounds (36 kg)  A simple funeral was held at All Saints Episcopal Church, with music by Bogart's favorite composers: Johann Sebastian Bach and Claude Debussy  In attendance were some of Hollywood's biggest stars: Hepburn, Tracy, Judy Garland, David Niven, Ronald Reagan, James Mason, Audrey Hepburn, Bette Davis, Danny Kaye, Joan Fontaine, Marlene Dietrich, Gene Tierney, Laurence Olivier, Barbara Stanwyck, Lana Turner, Bob Hope, Barton MacLane, Lex Barker, Olivia de Havilland, Michael Curtiz, James Cagney, David O  Selznick, William Wyler, Richard Brooks, Harry Cohn, Jane Wyman, Jean Arthur, Claude Rains, Raymond Massey, George Raft, Myrna Loy, Lee J  Cobb, Gene Kelly, Henry Fonda, John Wayne, Jimmy Stewart, Jack Benny, Robert Taylor, Eleanor Parker, Greer Garson, Bing Crosby, Ronald Colman, Lena Horne, Joan Crawford, Marilyn Monroe, Ingrid Bergman, Glenda Farrell, Don Ameche, Ann Sheridan, Ida Lupino, Joan Blondell, Alexander Knox, Veronica Lake, Randolph Scott, Miriam Hopkins, José Ferrer, Charles Laughton, Mary Astor, Bruce Bennett, Margaret Lindsay, Sylvia Sidney, Alexis Smith, Priscilla Lane, Mary Pickford, Ralph Bellamy, Cyd Charisse, Cesar Romero, Ann Sothern, Zero Mostel, Walter Brennan, Jennifer Jones, Louella Parsons, Joel McCrea, Norma Shearer, John Huston, Agnes Moorehead, Rosalind Russell, Adolphe Menjou, Fredric March, Errol Flynn, Edward G  Robinson, Gregory Peck, Gary Cooper, Billy Wilder, studio head Jack L  Warner, and others  Bacall asked Tracy to give the eulogy; he was too upset, however, and John Huston spoke instead:

Himself, he never took his work too seriously  He regarded the somewhat gaudy figure of Bogart, the star, with an amused cynicism; Bogart, the actor, he held in deep respect     In each of the fountains at Versailles there is a pike which keeps all the carp active; otherwise they would grow over-fat and die  Bogie took rare delight in performing a similar duty in the fountains of Hollywood  Yet his victims seldom bore him any malice, and when they did, not for long  His shafts were fashioned only to stick into the outer layer of complacency, and not to penetrate through to the regions of the spirit where real injuries are done     He is quite irreplaceable  There will never be another like him  
Bogart was cremated, and his ashes were interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park's Columbarium of Eternal Light in its Garden of Memory in Glendale, California  He was buried with a small, gold whistle that had been part of a charm bracelet he had given to Bacall before they married  On it was inscribed, "If you want anything, just whistle " This alluded to a scene in To Have and Have Not when Bacall's character says to Bogart shortly after their first meeting, "You know how to whistle, don't you, Steve? You just put your lips together and blow "
Bogart's estate had a gross value of $910,146 and a net value of $737,668 ($9 5 million and $7 7 million, respectively, in 2022) 

Awards and honors
On August 21, 1946, he recorded his hand- and footprints in cement in a ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre  On February 8, 1960, Bogart was posthumously inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame with a motion-picture star at 6322 Hollywood Boulevard 

Legacy and tributes
After his death, a "Bogie cult" formed at the Brattle Theatre in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in Greenwich Village, and in France; this contributed to his increased popularity during the late 1950s and 1960s  In 1997, Entertainment Weekly magazine ranked Bogart the number-one movie legend of all time; two years later, the American Film Institute rated him the greatest male screen legend 
Jean-Luc Godard's Breathless (1960) was the first film to pay tribute to Bogart  Over a decade later, in Woody Allen's comic paean Play It Again, Sam (1972), Bogart's ghost aids Allen's character: a film critic having difficulties with women who says that his "sex life has turned into the 'Petrified Forest'" The United States Postal Service honored Bogart with a stamp in its "Legends of Hollywood" series in 1997, the third figure recognized  At a ceremony attended by Lauren Bacall and the Bogart children, Stephen and Leslie, USPS governing-board chair Tirso del Junco delivered a tribute:

"Today, we mark another chapter in the Bogart legacy  With an image that is small and yet as powerful as the ones he left in celluloid, we will begin today to bring his artistry, his power, his unique star quality, to the messages that travel the world "
On June 24, 2006, 103rd Street between Broadway and West End Avenue in New York City was renamed Humphrey Bogart Place  Lauren Bacall and her son, Stephen Bogart, attended the ceremony  "Bogie would never have believed it", she said to the assembled city officials and onlookers 

In popular culture
Bogart has inspired multiple artists  Two Bugs Bunny cartoons featured the actor: Slick Hare (1947) and 8 Ball Bunny (1950, based on The Treasure of the Sierra Madre)  The Man with Bogart's Face (1981, starring Bogart lookalike Robert Sacchi) was an homage to the actor  The lyrics of Bertie Higgins' 1981 song, "Key Largo", refer to two of Bogart's films, Key Largo and Casablanca 

Filmography
Notable radio appearances
See also
Bogart–Bacall syndrome
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
List of amateur chess players
List of members of the American Legion
Passage 4:
The Master Mind
Mastermind, Master Mind or The Mastermind may refer to:

Fictional characters
Mastermind (Jason Wyngarde), a fictional supervillain in Marvel Comics, a title also held by his daughters:
Martinique Jason, the first daughter and successor of the Mastermind
Lady Mastermind, the second daughter and successor of the Mastermind
Mastermind (computer), a character in Marvel Comics' Captain Britain
Mastermind, an enemy of the Challengers of the Unknown in DC Comics

Literature
"Master Mind" (comics), a comic strip in British comic Buster
Mastermind: How to Think Like Sherlock Holmes, a 2013 non-fiction book by Maria Konnikova
Masterminds, a novel series by Gordon Korman

Film and TV
Films
Master Minds (1949 film), a 1949 American comedy film in The Bowery Boys series
Mastermind (1976 film), a Charlie Chan spoof feature film, released in 1976
Masterminds (1997 film), an American action comedy
Masterminds (2013 film), a direct to DVD film
Masterminds (2016 film), an American comedy film
The Master Mind (1914 film), an American crime/drama film, based on a 1913 play
The Master Mind (1920 film), a lost American silent crime drama, also based on the play
Wallander: Mastermind, a 2005 Swedish film
Master Mind (2015 film), an Indian Kannada-language film
Master Mind, the original title of 2010 film Megamind

Television
Mastermind (British game show), a British quiz show
Mastermind India, an Indian quiz show based on the British show
Mastermind (Irish game show), an Irish quiz show based on the British show
Mastermind (Australian game show), an Australian version of the show
Masterminds (Canadian TV series), a true crime documentary
Masterminds (quiz bowl), an American TV show
Master Minds (game show), a successor to Best Ever Trivia Show
Mastermind (audio drama), a 2013 Doctor Who drama

Music
Mastermind (American band), a progressive rock band
Dr  Mastermind, an American heavy metal band
Herbie the Mastermind, a British DJ

Albums
Mastermind (Tina Cousins album), 2005
Mastermind (Monster Magnet album), 2010
Mastermind (Rick Ross album), 2014
Mastermind (EP), by Beast, 2010

Songs
"Mastermind", a song by Mike Oldfield from the 1999 album The Millennium Bell
"Mastermind", a song by Mindless Self Indulgence from the 2008 album If
"Mastermind", a song by Megadeth from the 1997 album Cryptic Writings
"Mastermind", a song by Deltron 3030 from the 2000 album Deltron 3030
Mastermind (song), a song by Taylor Swift from the 2022 album Midnights

Other uses
Mastermind (board game), a classic board game
Mastermind (role variant), in the Keirsey Temperament Sorter
Mastermind Toys, a Canadian chain of toy stores
Mastermind School, in Dhaka, Bangladesh

See also
All pages with titles beginning with Mastermind
All pages with titles containing Mastermind
All pages with titles beginning with Master Mind
Genius (disambiguation)
Mastermind group, a peer-to-peer mentoring concept
Criminal mastermind, or crime boss
Passage 5:
Heureux Anniversaire
Heureux Anniversaire (also known as Happy Anniversary) is a 1962 French short comedy film directed by Pierre Étaix  It won an Oscar in 1963 for Best Short Subject 

Cast
Robert Blome
Pierre Étaix
Lucien Frégis
Laurence Lignières
Georges Loriot
Ican Paillaud
Nono Zammit
Passage 6:
Lost in Munich
Lost in Munich (Czech: Ztraceni v Mnichově) is a 2015 Czech comedy film directed by Petr Zelenka  The movie plot and title is inspired by Lost in La Mancha, a documentary film about Terry Gilliam's unfinished movie The narrative revolves a haunted making of the movie Lost in Munich which tells the story about unsuccessful journalist and 90-year-old parrot who used to live with the French prime minister Édouard Daladier and is still repeating Daladier's quotes related to the Munich Agreement  The failed film production (with the feigned French co-production) is the allegory to the alleged French betrayal in 1938 The film received the Czech Film Critics' Awards for Best Film, Director and Screenplay  It was selected as the Czech entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 89th Academy Awards but it was not nominated 

Cast
Martin Myšička as journalist Pavel Liehm, as himself
Marek Taclík as journalist Jakub, as himself
Jana Plodková as secretary of the French Institute, as herself
Václav Kopta as editor in chief
Václav Neužil as husband of actress Plodková
Tomáš Bambušek as film director Tomáš
Vladimír Škultéty as producent Vladimír
Jiří Rendl as the assistant director Adam
Jitka Schneiderová as Pavel's wife Dana, as herself
Stanislas Pierret as director of French Institute, as actor Gérard Pierret
Marcial Di Fonzo Bo as parrot assistant/assistant director Jean Dupont

Reception
Stephen Dalton of The Hollywood Reporter wrote:

Paying explicit homage to Francois Truffaut's classic behind-the-scenes film-set comedy Day for Night, Zelenka's mischievous mix of farce and tragedy is a much smarter animal than it first appears  Behind its zany premise and sometimes bumpy tone, Lost in Munich eventually emerges as a sardonic commentary on the Czech people's simplistic self-image as eternal victims of more powerful European neighbors      Lost in Munich is unlikely to take much business from Judd Apatow in the multiplex laughter league, but it is both entertaining and educational, a largely successful experiment in navel-gazing meta-comedy 

See also
List of submissions to the 89th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Czech submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Passage 7:
Crime School
Crime School is a 1938 Warner Bros  film directed by Lewis Seiler and starring the Dead End Kids and Humphrey Bogart 

Plot
A junkman does business with the Dead End Kids: Frankie, Squirt, Spike, Goofy, Fats, and Bugs  When the boys ask for a $20 payoff, "Junkie" says "Five is all you'll get  Now take it and get out of here " In a rage, Spike strikes the man in the back of the head with a hard object, and the junkman falls to the floor and doesn't move   When Judge Clinton cannot convince the boys to divulge which one struck the damaging blow, they are all sent to reform school 
The harsh warden of the reformatory, Morgan, inflicts discipline at the school and flogs Frankie after he tries to escape  The superintendent of the state reformatories, Mark Braden, visits the school and finds evidence of Morgan's subtle cruelty, as in feeding his new inmates poor-quality food   He then visits Frankie in the hospital ward, finding him untreated and the doctor inebriated  As a way of starting over, he fires the doctor, Morgan, and four ex-convict guards, while retaining the head guard, Cooper    Braden takes charge of the reformatory himself and wins over the boys' cooperation by considerate treatment, while romancing Frankie's sister, Sue Warren 
Meanwhile, Cooper is afraid that Braden will learn of Morgan's embezzlement of the food budget, which would implicate him as well   He learns that Spike is the one who dealt the blow to the junkman and blackmails him   He gets him to tell Frankie that Braden's generous treatment is due to his sister's acceptance of Braden's attentions   Although untrue, it causes the kids to escape from the school in Cooper's car with his gun  They go to Sue's apartment, and Frankie climbs the fire escape with the gun to confront Braden, but Sue and Braden dispel Frankie's suspicions 
Meanwhile, Cooper "discovers" that the kids have escaped, and Morgan calls the press to discredit Braden and get him fired   But, Braden drives the boys back to the reformatory and gets them into their beds, before the Commissioner, alerted by Morgan, arrives for an inspection with the police in tow   Their plot foiled and their fraud uncovered, Morgan and Cooper are arrested  The boys are subsequently paroled into the care of their parents 

Cast
The Dead End Kids
Billy Halop as Frankie Warren
Bobby Jordan as Lester "Squirt" Smith
Huntz Hall as Richard "Goofy" Slade
Leo Gorcey as Charles "Spike" Hawkins
Bernard Punsly as George "Fats" Papadopolos
Gabriel Dell as Timothy "Bugs" Burke

Additional cast
Background
As this was a Warner Bros  film and not a United Artists' film like Dead End, they advertised the kids as 'The Crime School Kids' in this film, and their next, Angels with Dirty Faces   However, the name did not catch on and they remained 'The Dead End Kids' 
Before the film was released, Halop, Dell, Hall, and Punsly were released from their contracts by Warner Brothers and they went on to make a film at Universal, Little Tough Guy   The success of this film caused Warner to reconsider and they were rehired at a substantial raise 
The Dead End Kids received top billing over Humphrey Bogart for Crime School, with their typeface also larger than Bogart's in posters and advertising 

Home media
Warner Archives released the film on made to order DVD in the United States on August 4, 2009 



ground_truth: Charles University