prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the British general in the battle named after the birth city of the person who recorded Mother-in-Law?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Battle of New Orleans
The Battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8, 1815 between the British Army under Major General Sir Edward Pakenham and the United States Army under Brevet Major General Andrew Jackson, roughly 5 miles (8 km) southeast of the French Quarter of New Orleans, in the current suburb of Chalmette, Louisiana The battle was the climax of the five-month Gulf Campaign (September 1814 to February 1815) by Britain to try to take New Orleans, West Florida, and possibly Louisiana Territory which began at the First Battle of Fort Bowyer  Britain started the New Orleans campaign on December 14, 1814, at the Battle of Lake Borgne and numerous skirmishes and artillery duels happened in the weeks leading up to the final battle 
The battle took place 15 days after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, which formally ended the War of 1812, on December 24, 1814, though it would not be ratified by the United States (and therefore did not take effect) until February 16, 1815, as news of the agreement had not yet reached the United States from Europe  Despite a large British advantage in numbers, training, and experience, the American forces defeated a poorly executed assault in slightly more than 30 minutes  The Americans suffered just 71 casualties, while the British suffered over 2,000, including the deaths of the commanding general, Major General Sir Edward Pakenham, and his second-in-command, Major General Samuel Gibbs 

Background
In August 1814, Britain and the United States began negotiations to end the War of 1812  However, British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies Henry Bathurst issued Pakenham's secret orders on October 24, 1814, commanding him to continue the war even if he heard rumors of peace  Bathurst expressed concern that the United States might not ratify a treaty and did not want Pakenham either to endanger his forces or miss an opportunity for victory  Prior to that, in August 1814, Vice Admiral Cochrane had convinced the Admiralty that a campaign against New Orleans would weaken American resolve against Canada and hasten a successful end to the war There was a major concern that the British and their Spanish allies wanted to reclaim the territories of the Louisiana Purchase because they did not recognize any land deals made by Napoleon (first the 1800 transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France and then the 1803–1804 transfer of Louisiana from France to the United States) so that was the reason why the British invaded New Orleans in the middle of the Treaty of Ghent negotiations  If the British had won the Battle of New Orleans, they would have likely interpreted that all territories gained from the 1803 Louisiana Purchase would be void and not part of U S  territory  It has been claimed that British military communications indicate that Great Britain intended to take and keep New Orleans, which would have halted the westward expansion of the United States  This is contradicted by the content of Bathurst's correspondence, and disputed by Latimer, with specific reference to correspondence from the Prime Minister to the Foreign Secretary dated December 23, 1814 

Opposing forces
Prelude
Lake Borgne
Sixty British ships had anchored in the Gulf of Mexico to the east of Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Borgne by December 14, 1814, under the command of Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane  An American flotilla of five gunboats, commanded by Lieutenant Thomas ap Catesby Jones, blocked British access to the lakes  On December 14, around 980 British sailors and Royal Marines under Captain Nicholas Lockyer, set out to attack Jones's force  Lockyer's men sailed in 42 rowboats, almost all armed with a small carronade  Lockyer captured Jones's vessels in a brief engagement  Casualties included 17 British sailors killed and 77 wounded, while 6 Americans were killed, 35 wounded, and the remaining crews captured  The wounded included both Jones and Lockyer 
One unintended consequence is that it is believed the gunboat crews in captivity were able to mislead the British as to Jackson's strength in numbers, when they were questioned  There is a popular story concerning Purser Thomas Shields and Surgeon Robert Morrell, who were sent under a flag of truce to negotiate the return of the prisoners on parole  They were placed in a cabin, where their conversation could be heard  Shields, having hearing difficulties, talked loudly and mentioned that 20,000 troops were under Jackson's command  There was nothing in the actions of the British commanders to indicate they believed they were faced with superior numbers 

Disembarkation by the British
Sixteen hundred British soldiers under the command of General John Keane were rowed 60 miles west from Cat Island to Pea Island (possibly now Pearl Island), situated about 30 miles (48 km) east of New Orleans  It took six days and nights to ferry the troops, each transit taking around ten hours There were three potential routes to the east of the Mississippi that the British could take, in addition to traversing up the Mississippi itself   Rather than a slow approach to New Orleans up the Mississippi River, the British chose to advance on an overland route  The first route was to take the Rigolets passage into Lake Pontchartrain, and thence to disembark two miles north of the city  One hindrance was the fort at Petit Coquilles at the Rigolets passage 
The second option was to row to the Plain of Gentilly via the Bayou Chef Menteur, and to take the Chef Menteur Road that went from the Rigolets to the city  It was narrow, and could be easily blocked  Jackson was aware of this, and had it well guarded The third option was to head to Bayou Bienvenue, then Bayou Mazant and via the Villeré Canal to disembark at a point one mile from the Mississippi and seven miles south of the city  This latter option was taken by Keane Andrew Lambert notes that Keane squandered a passing opportunity to succeed, when he decided to not take the open road to New Orleans  Reilly observes that there has been a general acceptance that Cochrane cajoled Keane into a premature and ill-advised attack, but there is no evidence to support this theory  Codrington's correspondence does imply that the first option was intended to be followed by Cochrane, based upon inaccurate map details, as documented by Cochrane's papers  The shallow waters of the narrow passes of the Rigolets and the Chef Menteur could not take any vessel drawing eight feet or more A further hindrance was the lack of shallow draft vessels, which Cochrane had requested, yet the Admiralty had refused  As a consequence, even when using all shallow boats, it was not possible to transport more than 2,000 men at a time 

Villeré Plantation
On the morning of December 23, Keane and a vanguard of 1,800 British soldiers reached the east bank of the Mississippi River, 9 miles (14 km) south of New Orleans  They could have attacked the city by advancing a few hours up the undefended river road, but Keane decided to encamp at Lacoste's Plantation and wait for the arrival of reinforcements  The British invaded the home of Major Gabriel Villeré, but he escaped through a window and hastened to warn General Jackson of the approaching army and the position of their encampment   According to historian Stanley Clisby Arthur: 'At the close of Major Villeré's narrative the General drew up his figure, bowed with disease and weakness, to its full height, and with an eye of fire and an emphatic blow upon the table with his clenched fist, exclaimed: "By the Eternal, they shall not sleep on our soil!"

Commencement of battle
Jackson's raid on the British camp
Following Villeré's intelligence report, on the evening of December 23, Jackson led 2,131 men in a brief three-pronged assault from the north on the unsuspecting British troops, who were resting in their camp  He then pulled his forces back to the Rodriguez Canal, about 4 miles (6 4 km) south of the city  The Americans suffered 24 killed, 115 wounded, and 74 missing, while the British reported their losses as 46 killed, 167 wounded, and 64 missing  Consequentially, as at December 25 Pakenham's forces now had an effective strength of 5,933 out of a headcount of 6,660 soldiers  Historian Robert Quimby states that the British won a "tactical victory, which enabled them to maintain their position", but they "were disabused of their expectation of an easy conquest"  As a consequence, the Americans gained time to transform the canal into a heavily fortified earthwork 

British reconnaissance-in-force
On Christmas Day, General Edward Pakenham arrived on the battlefield  Two days later he received nine large naval artillery guns from Admiral Cochrane along with a hot shot furnace to silence the two U S  Navy warships, the sloop-of-war USS Louisiana and the schooner USS Carolina, that were harassing the army for 24 hours per day the past week from the Mississippi River  The Carolina was sunk in a massive explosion by the British, but the Louisiana survived thanks to the Baratarian pirates aboard getting into rowboats and tying the ship to the rowboats and rowing it further north away from the British artillery  The Louisiana was not able to sail northward under her own power due to the attack  These two vessels were now no longer a danger to the British, but Jackson ordered the ships' surviving guns and crew to be stationed on the west bank and provide covering fire for any British assault on the river road to Line Jackson (name of the U S  defensive line at the Rodriguez Canal) and New Orleans  After silencing the two ships, Pakenham ordered a reconnaissance-in-force on December 28 against the earthworks  The reconnaissance-in-force was designed to test Line Jackson and see how well-defended it was, and if any section of the line was weak the British would take advantage of the situation, break through, and call for thousands of more soldiers to smash through the defenses  On the right side of this offensive the British soldiers successfully sent the militia defenders into a retreating panic with their huge show of force and were just a few hundred yards from breaching the defensive line, but the left side of the reconnaissance-in-force turned into tragedy for the British  The surviving artillery guns from the two neutralized warships successfully defended the section of Line Jackson closest to the Mississippi River with enfilading fire, making it look like the British offensive completely failed even though on the section closest to the swamp the British were on the verge of breaking through  Pakenham inexplicably decided to withdraw all the soldiers after seeing the left side of his reconnaissance-in-force collapsing and retreating in panic  The British suffered 16 killed and 43 wounded and the Americans suffered 7 killed and 10 wounded  Luck saved Line Jackson on this day and this was the closest the British came during the whole campaign to defeating Jackson After the failure of this operation Pakenham met with General Keane and Admiral Cochrane that evening for an update on the situation  Pakenham wanted to use Chef Menteur Pass as the invasion route, but he was overruled by Admiral Cochrane, who insisted that his boats were providing everything needed  Admiral Cochrane believed that the veteran British soldiers would easily destroy Jackson's ramshackle army, and he allegedly said that if the army did not do it, his sailors would, and the meeting settled the method and place of the attack 

When the British reconnaissance force withdrew, the Americans immediately began constructing earthworks to protect the artillery batteries, further strengthening Line Jackson  They installed eight batteries, which included one 32-pound gun, three 24-pounders, one 18-pounder, three 12-pounders, three 6-pounders, and a 6-inch (150 mm) howitzer  Jackson also sent a detachment to the west bank of the Mississippi to man two 24-pounders and two 12-pounders on the grounded warship USS Louisiana  Even so, the British greatly outnumbered the Americans  Jackson's total of 4,732 men was made up of 968 Army regulars, 58 Marines (holding the center of the defensive line), 106 Navy seamen, 1,060 Louisiana militia and volunteers (including 462 Black people), 1,352 Tennessee militia, 986 Kentucky militia, 150 Mississippi militia, and 52 Choctaw warriors, along with a force from pirate Jean Lafitte's Baratarians   Jackson in the first week of the New Orleans land campaign that began on December 23 also had the support of the warships in the Mississippi River, including USS Louisiana, USS Carolina, the schooner USS Eagle, and the steamboat Enterprise   The naval warships were neutralized by the heavy naval artillery guns brought in by Pakenham and Cochrane a few days after Christmas  Major Thomas Hinds' Squadron of Light Dragoons, a militia unit from the Mississippi Territory, arrived at the battle on December 22 

Artillery duel
The main British army arrived on New Year's Day 1815 and began an artillery bombardment of the American earthworks  Jackson's headquarters, Macarty House, was fired at for the first 10 minutes of the skirmish while Jackson and his officers were eating breakfast  The house was completely destroyed but Jackson and the officers escaped harm  The Americans recovered quickly and mobilized their own artillery to fire back at the British artillery  This began an exchange of artillery fire that continued for three hours  Several of the American guns were silenced, including the 32-pounder, a 24-pounder, and a 12-pounder, while some damage was done to the earthworks  The British suffered even greater, losing 13 guns (5 British batteries out of 7 total batteries were silenced by the Americans)  The remaining British artillery finally exhausted its ammunition, and Pakenham canceled the attack  Major General Gibbs during the artillery duel sent soldiers to try to outflank Line Jackson on the right due to the near-success of the December 28 skirmish  A combined force of Tennessee militia and Choctaw warriors used heavy small arms fire to repel this maneuver  The Tennessee and Choctaw soldiers even moved forward in front of Line Jackson and counterattacked, guerrilla-style, to guarantee the British withdrawal  After yet another failure to breach Line Jackson Pakenham decided to wait for his entire force of 8,000 men to assemble before continuing his attack  (The 40th Foot arrived too late, disembarking on 12 January 1815 ) The British lost 45 killed and 55 wounded in the artillery duel and the Americans lost 11 killed and 23 wounded  British morale completely collapsed after expecting an easy, bloodless victory against an opposing army heavily composed of, in their minds, non-professional militia, pirates, and squirrel hunters during the past 3 battles in the previous 10 days  Hundreds of shell-shocked British soldiers refused to follow orders and retrieve damaged but repairable guns that were abandoned in the battlefield during the afternoon  Pakenham had to personally lead the soldiers to retrieve the guns later that night 

Battle
The Americans had constructed three lines of defense, with the forward line four miles south of the city  It was strongly entrenched at the Rodriguez Canal, which stretched from a swamp to the river, with a timber, loop-holed breastwork and earthworks for artillery  General Lambert and two infantry battalions totaling 1700 soldiers disembarked and reinforced the British on January 5 

Right Bank
The British battle plan was for an attack against the 20-gun west bank battery, then to turn those guns on the American line to assist the frontal attack  In the early morning of January 8, Pakenham gave his final orders for the two-pronged assault  Colonel William Thornton was to cross the Mississippi during the night with his force, move rapidly upriver, storm the battery commanded by Commodore Daniel Patterson on the flank of the main American entrenchments, and then open an enfilading fire on Jackson's line with the captured artillery, directly across from the earthworks manned by the vast majority of American troops  Keane was to lead a column along the river, and Major General Samuel Gibbs was to lead a column along the swamp  The brigade commanded by Major General John Lambert was held in reserve 
The British dug a canal to enable 42 small boats to get to the river  Preparations for the attack had foundered early on January 8, as the canal collapsed and the dam failed, leaving the sailors to drag the boats through the mud with Thornton's west bank assault force  This left the force starting off just before daybreak, 8 hours late according to Thornton's dispatch, assessed in 2008 to be 12 hours late  The frontal attack was not postponed, however, as the British hoped that the force on the west bank would create a diversion, even if they did not succeed in the assault The only British success of the battle was the delayed attack on the west bank of the Mississippi River, where Thornton's brigade of the 85th Regiment of Foot and detachments from the Royal Navy and Royal Marines 
attacked and overwhelmed the American line  The 700 militiamen were routed  The British had the advantage of the element of surprise  The decision by General Morgan to deploy his troops in two positions a mile apart, neither defensible, was favorable for the British  Morgan's mismanagement of his Kentucky and Louisiana militiamen was an open invitation to defeat  Whilst the retreat of the militia has been criticized, such a move was no less than prudent  An inquiry found that the conduct was 'not reprehensible'  Captain Rowland Money led the Navy detachment, and Brevet Major Thomas Adair led the Marines  Money was captain of HMS Trave, and Adair was the commanding officer of HMS Vengeur's detachment of Marines  As a consequence of the sides of the canal caved in and choked the passage that night, only enough boats got through to carry 600 men, being a third of the intended force  Thornton did not make allowance for the current, and it carried him about two miles below the intended landing place 
His brigade won their battle, but Thornton was badly wounded  Army casualties among the 85th Foot were two dead, one captured, and 41 wounded, the battalion reduced to 270 effectives on the Right Bank  Royal Navy casualties were two dead, Captain Rowland Money and 18 seamen wounded  Royal Marine casualties were two dead, with three officers, one sergeant, and 12 other ranks wounded  By contrast, the defenders' casualties were two dead, eleven wounded and nineteen missing  Both Jackson and Commodore Patterson reported that the retreating forces had spiked their cannon, leaving no guns to turn on the Americans' main defense line; Major Michell's diary, however, claims that he had "commenced cleaning enemy's guns to form a battery to enfilade their lines on the left bank"   General Lambert ordered his Chief of Artillery Colonel Alexander Dickson to assess the position  Dickson reported back that no fewer than 2,000 men would be required to hold the position  Lambert issued orders to withdraw after the defeat of their main army on the east bank and retreated, taking a few American prisoners and cannon with them  The Americans were so dismayed by the loss of this battery, which would be capable of inflicting much damage on their lines when the attack was renewed, that they were preparing to abandon the town when they received the news that the British were withdrawing, according to one British regimental historian  Reilly does not agree, but does note that Jackson was eager to send Humbert and 400 men to retake the position from Thornton's troops  Carson Ritchie goes as far to assert that 'it was not Pakenham, but Sir Alexander Dickson who lost the third battle of New Orleans' in consequence of his recommendation to evacuate the Right Bank  , and that 'he could think of nothing but defense' This success, being described as 'a brilliant exploit by the British, and a disgraceful exhibition [of General Morgan's leadership] by the Americans,' had no effect on the final outcome of the battle 

Left Bank
The main attack began in darkness and a heavy fog, but the fog lifted as the British neared the main American line, exposing them to withering artillery fire  Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Mullins, the British commander of the 44th Regiment of Foot, had forgotten the ladders and fascines needed to cross the eight-foot-deep and fifteen-foot-wide canal and scale the earthworks, and the British forces fell into confusion  Most of the senior officers were killed or wounded, including Major General Samuel Gibbs, who was killed leading the main attack column on the right, and Colonel Rennie, who led a detachment on the left by the river 

The Highlanders of the 93rd Regiment of Foot were ordered to leave Keane's assault column advancing along the river, possibly because of Thornton's delay in crossing the river and the artillery fire that might hit them, and to move across the open field to join the main force on the right  Keane fell wounded as he crossed the field with the 93rd  Rennie's men managed to attack and overrun an American advance redoubt next to the river, but they could neither hold the position nor successfully storm the main American line behind it without reinforcements  Within a few minutes, the American 7th Infantry arrived, moved forward, and fired upon the British in the captured redoubt; within half an hour, Rennie and nearly all of his men were dead  In the main attack on the right, the British infantrymen flung themselves to the ground, huddled in the canal, or were mowed down by a combination of musket fire and grapeshot from the Americans  A handful made it to the top of the parapet on the right, but they were killed or captured  The riflemen of the 95th Regiment of Foot had advanced in open skirmish order ahead of the main assault force and were concealed in the ditch below the parapet, unable to advance further without support 
The two large main assaults were repulsed  Pakenham and Gibbs were fatally wounded while on horseback by grapeshot fired from the earthworks  Major Wilkinson of the 21st Regiment of Foot reformed his lines and made a third assault  They were able to reach the entrenchments and attempted to scale them  Wilkinson made it to the top before being shot  The Americans were amazed at his bravery and carried him behind the rampart  The British soldiers stood out in the open and were shot apart with grapeshot from Line Jackson, including the 93rd Highlanders, having no orders to advance further or retreat  General Lambert was in the reserve and took command  He gave the order for his reserve to advance and ordered the withdrawal of the army  The reserve was used to cover the retreat of what was left of the British army in the field 
The inability of Thornton's troops to have taken the Right Bank at night, in advance of the main assault, meant that the British were enfiladed by the American batteries  It has been observed that Keane's failure, to have taken the Chef Menteur Road, was compounded when the aggressively natured Pakenham went ahead and launched a frontal assault before the vital flank operation on the other bank of the river had been completed, at a cost of over 2,000 casualties 

Analysis
The Battle of New Orleans was remarkable both for its apparent brevity and its casualties, though some numbers are in dispute and contradict the official statistics  The defenders of the Left Bank had casualties amounting to 11 killed and 23 wounded; American losses were only 13 killed, 39 wounded, and 19 missing or captured in total on that day  Robert Remini and Anthony S Pitch make reference to the British casualty reports of 291 killed, 1,262 wounded, and 484 missing, a total loss of 2,037 men  Among the prisoners taken when the British retreated from the battlefield, Jackson estimated three hundred were mortally wounded  Colonel Arthur P  Hayne's dispatch to Jackson dated January 13 estimated the British had 700 fatalities and 1400 wounded, with 501 prisoners of war in his custody  A reduction in headcount due to 443 British soldiers' deaths since the prior month was reported on January 25, which is lower than Hayne's estimate of 700 for the battle alone The large number of casualties suffered by the British on the Left Bank reflects their failure to maintain the element of surprise, with plenty of advance notice being given to the defenders, owing to the delays in executing the attack on the Right Bank  The failure of the British to have breached the parapet and conclusively eliminated the first line of defense was to result in high casualties as successive waves of men marching in column whilst the prepared defenders were able to direct their fire into a Kill zone, hemmed in by the riverbank and the swamp   Reilly supports the assertion that it was the American artillery that won the battle  The losses among the regiments out of range of small arms fire were disproportionately high, with almost every British account emphasizing the effect of heavy gunfire  In contrast, the riflemen of the 95th Foot in skirmish order, the most difficult target for artillery, had lost only 11 killed  Dickson's eyewitness account is clear that the British were only within musket shot range for less than five minutes  The account by Latour states the battalions of Plauché, Daquin, Lacoste, along with three quarters of the 44th US Infantry did not fire at all  In order to have inflicted such a heavy toll on the British, it would not have been possible to have done this primarily with musket fire, of which the best trained men could only manage two shots per minute  Unlike their British counterparts, the American forces had larger guns, and more of them  They were situated in well-protected earthworks, with a ditch and stockade  The Americans therefore had a number of advantages, but they should not minimize the skill and bravery of their gunners   Almost universal blame was assigned to Colonel Mullins of the 44th Foot which had been detailed to carry fascines and ladders to the front to enable the British soldiers to cross the ditch and scale the parapet and fight their way to the American breastwork  Mullins was found half a mile to the rear when he was needed at the front  Pakenham learned of Mullins' conduct and placed himself at the head of the 44th, endeavoring to lead them to the front with the implements needed to storm the works, when he fell wounded after being hit with grapeshot some 500 yards from the front line  He was hit again while being helped to mount a horse, this time mortally wounded 

Aftermath
Fort St  Philip
Fort St  Philip, manned by an American garrison, defended the river approach to New Orleans  British naval forces attacked the fort on January 9 but were unsuccessful, withdrawing after ten days of bombardment with exploding bomb shells from two bomb vessels  In a dispatch sent to the Secretary of War, dated January 19, Jackson stated: "I am strengthened not only by [the defeat of the British at New Orleans]     but by the failure of his fleet to pass fort St  Philip "

British withdrawal
Despite news of capture of the American battery on the west bank of the Mississippi River, British officers concluded that continuing the Louisiana campaign would be too costly  Three days after the battle, General Lambert held a council of war  Deciding to withdraw, the British left camp at Villeré's Plantation by January 19  They were not pursued in any strength  The Chalmette battlefield was the plantation home of Colonel Denis de La Ronde's half-brother Ignace Martin de Lino (1755–1815)  The British forces burned it, reputedly causing de Lino's death from a broken heart shortly after returning home three weeks after the battle  The British returned to where they had landed, a distance in excess of sixty miles, the final troops re-embarked on January 27 The British fleet embarked the troops and sailed toward Mobile Bay on February 4, 1815    The army captured Fort Bowyer at the entrance to Mobile Bay on February 12  Preparations to attack Mobile were in progress when news arrived of the Treaty of Ghent  General Jackson also had made tentative plans to attack the British at Mobile and to continue the war into Spanish Florida  With Britain having ratified the treaty and the United States having resolved that hostilities should cease pending imminent ratification, the British left, sailing to the West Indies  The British government was determined on peace with the United States, and speculation that it planned to permanently seize the Louisiana Purchase has been rejected by historians   Thus Carr concludes, "by the end of 1814 Britain had no interest in continuing the conflict for the possession of New Orleans or any other part of American territory, but rather, due to the European situation 
and her own domestic problems, was anxious to conclude hostilities as quickly and gracefully as possible "

Assessment
For the campaign, American casualties totaled 333 with 55 killed, 185 wounded, and 93 missing, while British casualties totaled 2,459 with 386 killed, 1,521 wounded, and 552 missing, according to the respective official casualty returns  A reduction in headcount due to 443 British soldiers' deaths since the prior month was reported on January 25  The effective strength of the British had reduced from 5,933 to 4,868 soldiers of the original force, bolstered by 681 and 785 soldiers of the 7th Foot and 43rd Foot respectively  More than 600 prisoners of war were released from Jackson's captivity by March 1815 The battle became historically important mainly for the meaning Americans gave it, particularly with respect to Jackson  According to Matthew Warshauer, the Battle of New Orleans meant, "defeating the most formidable army ever arrayed against the young republic, saving the nation’ s reputation in the War of 1812, and establishing [Jackson] as America ’ s preeminent hero " News of victory "came upon the country like a clap of thunder in the clear azure vault of the firmament, and traveled with electromagnetic velocity, throughout the confines of the land "  Popular pamphlets, songs, editorials, speeches, and plays glorified Jackson's new, heroic image  Before New Orleans the war was overall a bloody stalemate with not a single overwhelming land battle victory for the Americans against an elite British Army unit (Lake Erie, Plattsburgh, and Baltimore were won primarily due to naval ships and forts near lakes or the ocean)   New England as a whole was against the war  The leaders of the Federalist Party of New England met at the Hartford Convention and decided to deliver a set of demands to the federal government in January 1815  The moderates were in charge and there was no proposal to secede from the union  When the Hartford delegation reached Washington word of the great American victory at  Orleans came and the Federalists were seen as traitors and anti-American; the Federalist Party was permanently ruined The Era of Good Feelings resulted from the Battle of New Orleans  From 1815 to 1825 there was single-party rule in Washington and an overwhelming feeling of patriotism due to the extinction of the Federalist Party  The victory at New Orleans effectively kept the United States unified for the next 45 years until the American Civil War  The Eighth of January was a federal holiday from 1828 to 1861, and it was among the earliest national celebrations, as "previously, Americans had only celebrated events such as the Fourth of July or George Washington's birthday on a national scale"  The anniversary of the battle was celebrated as an American holiday for many years called "The Eighth" Orleans Square in Savannah, Georgia, is named in commemoration of the battle 
In 1836 Ohio politician William Allen asked Jackson whether there was a point to the Battle of New Orleans  Jackson, unaware of the peace policy of the British government in 1815, speculated that if General Pakenham had won the British would have abrogated the Treaty of Ghent and would have pemanently seized the Louisiana Purchase  Poor British planning and communication, plus costly frontal assaults against an entrenched enemy, caused lopsided British casualties 

A discredited historical interpretation holds that British had an ambitious colonization plan for the "Crown colony of Louisiana" if they had succeeded in capturing New Orleans and Mobile  While some British generals did speculate, the British government under Lord Liverpool rejected all such ideas and planned to finalize the peace by ratifying the Treaty of Ghent as soon as possible, regardless of what happened in New Orleans The hundreds of dead British soldiers were likely buried at Jacques Villeré's plantation, which was the headquarters of the British Army during the New Orleans campaign  Nobody knows exactly where their final resting spot is  The only deceased British soldiers transported back to the United Kingdom were Generals Pakenham and Gibbs and Colonel Robert Rennie The Duke of Wellington faulted Cochrane and held that the attack could have succeeded were it not for his shortcomings  In a eulogy to his brother-in-law, General Edward Pakenham who died at New Orleans, he commented:

I cannot but regret that he was ever employed on such a service or with such a colleague  The expedition to New Orleans originated with that colleague     The Americans were prepared with an army in a fortified position which still would have been carried, if the duties of others, that is of the Admiral [Cochrane], had been as well performed as that of he whom we now lament 

Legacy
"Beauty and Booty" controversy
After the battle, a claim was published by George Poindexter, in a letter dated January 20 to the Mississippi Republican, that Pakenham's troops had used "Beauty and Booty" as a watchword  

The watch-word and countersign of the enemy on the morning of the 8th was,
BOOTY AND BEAUTY
Comment is unnecessary on these significant allusions held out to a licentious soldiery  Had victory declared on their side, the scenes of Havre de Grace, of Hampton, of Alexandria       would, without doubt, have been reacted at New Orleans, with all the unfeeling and brutal inhumanity of the savage foe with whom we are contending 

This was republished in Niles' Register, the National Intelligencer on February 13, and other newspapers  Whilst there were criticisms from the Federalist press, as well as from Poindexter's enemies, as to how reliable this information was, it was widely accepted elsewhere  Senator Charles Jared Ingersoll made direct reference to this in his speech to Congress on February 16, reproduced in full in the National Intelligencer  He continued, in an elated manner, 'with the tidings of this triumph from the south, to have peace from the east, is such a fullness of gratification as must overflow all hearts with gratitude ' He saw the news of victory at New Orleans against an immoral foe, followed by news of peace, as a positive sentiment to unite the different peoples of the United States, the zeitgeist of these postwar years later becoming known as the Era of Good Feelings 
This watchword claim, as originated by Poindexter, was repeated in Eaton's "Life of General Jackson", first published in 1817  A second edition of this biography was published in 1824, when Jackson made his first presidential bid  Further editions were published for the presidential elections of 1828 and 1833  Editions from 1824 onwards now contained the claim that documentary evidence proved the watchword was used  As a consequence it was reproduced in a travelogue in 1833 Following the publishing of a travelogue in 1833, whereby the author James Stuart referred to the watchword, this hitherto unknown controversy became known in Great Britain  In response to the author, five British officers who had fought in the battle, Keane, Lambert, Thornton, Blakeney and Dickson, signed a rebuttal in August 1833  It is stated this was published in The Times by American sources, but this is not the case  Somewhat ironically, Niles's Register, which originally printed Poindexter's claim, now printed the British rebuttal 
 “We, the undersigned, serving in that army, and actually present, and through whom all orders to the troops were promulgated, do, in justice to the memory of that distinguished officer who commanded and led the attack, the whole tenor of whose life was marked by manliness of purpose and integrity of view, most unequivocally deny that any such promise (of plunder) was ever held out to the army, or that the watchword asserted to have been given out was ever issued  And, further, that such motives could never have actuated the man who, in the discharge of his duty to his king and country, so eminently upheld the character of a true British soldier ”
James Stuart's account was criticised by a veteran, Major Pringle, who wrote several letters to the Edinburgh Evening Courant  In response, Stuart published a book to refute these criticisms  He quoted Major Eaton as a reliable source, and later went on to comment that as a result of Stuart, it had become accepted the watchword was a falsehood  One quote from the book 'certainly the refutation of
the charge as stated in Major Eaton’s Book is, though tardy, complete' considered the matter closed  Notwithstanding the refutation, the story had benefited both Jackson and Eaton's political careers, who had nothing left to prove The publication of Eaton's book in Britain in 1834, and in subsequent editions, still contained the story of "booty and beauty"  The British Ambassador, Sir Charles Richard Vaughan wrote to President Jackson about the matter  Vaughan wrote that Eaton 'expressed himself glad, that the report was at last contradicted' by the rebuttal, but there was no pressure on him to retract his comments from the Jackson biography  There is no recounting in 1833 of Jackson's supposed encounter with the mystery Creole planter (Denis de la Ronde), as reported by S C Arthur (see below) 
Arthur's 1915 publication, quoting from Parton's 1861 biography of Jackson, itself quoting extensively from Vincent Nolte's book published in 1854, has referred to a Creole planter reportedly visited a British military camp a few days prior to the battle, being welcomed in after claiming that he was supportive of a possible British takeover of the region  While dining at dinner with a group of British officers, the planter claimed he heard one officer offer the toast of "Beauty and Booty"  After gathering information on Pakenham's battle plans, the planter left the camp the next day and reported the information he had gathered to Jackson; the rumor that the British were offering toasts to "Beauty and Booty" soon spread throughout New Orleans, in particular among the upper-class women of the city  Nolte's book reveals the 'planter' to be no other than Denis de la Ronde, the colonel commanding the Third Regiment of the Louisiana Militia In the years since the Treaty of Ghent, not only did Jackson's reputation benefit from his major victory against the British, but also from vilifying the British as an amoral foe, against whom a second war of independence had been fought  As a national hero, it facilitated his subsequent career in politics, and tenure as President of the United States 

Distinguished service as mentioned in dispatches
In his general orders of January 21, General Jackson, in thanking the troops, paid special tributes to the Louisiana organizations, and made particular mention of Capts  Dominique and Belluche, and the Lafitte brothers, all of the Barataria privateers; of General Garrique de Flanjac, a State Senator, and brigadier of militia, who served as a volunteer; of Majors Plauche, St  Geme  Lacoste, D'Aquin, Captain Savary, Colonel De la Ronde, General Humbert, Don Juan de Araya, the Mexican Field-Marshal; Major-General Villere and General Morgan, the Engineers Latour and Blanchard; the Attakapas dragoons, Captain Dubuclay; the cavalry from the Felicianas and the Mississippi territory  General Labattut had command of the town, of which Nicolas Girod was then the mayor Among those who most distinguished themselves during this brief but memorable campaign, were, next to the Commander-in-chief, Generals Villere, Carroll, Coffee, Ganigues, Flanjac, Colonel Delaronde, Commodore Patterson, Majors Lacoste, Planche, Hinds, Captain Saint Gerne, Lieutenants Jones, Parker, Marent, and Dominique; Colonel Savary, a man of colour nor must we omit to mention Lafitte, pirate though he was Over the course of several days, the logistically and numerically superior British force was repelled, in no small part to a small contingent of Marines led by Maj  Daniel Carmick and Lt  Francis de Bellevue of the New Orleans Navy Yard At the Battle of New Orleans, [Governor Claiborne's aide-de-camp] Marigny distinguished himself by his courage and activity  It is noteworthy that the glorious victory was reaped on the fields of the plantation of his Uncle de Lino de Chalmette 

Memorials
The Louisiana Historical Association dedicated its Memorial Hall facility to Jackson on January 8, 1891, the 76th anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans  The Federal government established a national historical park in 1907 to preserve the Chalmette Battlefield, which also includes the Chalmette National Cemetery  It features the 100-foot-tall Chalmette Monument and is part of the Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve  The monument was supposed to be at least 150 feet tall but the very soft and wet soil limited it to 100 feet  A five-cent stamp in 1965 commemorated the sesquicentennial of the Battle of New Orleans and 150 years of peace with Britain  The bicentennial was celebrated in 2015 with a Forever stamp depicting United States troops firing on British soldiers along Line Jackson 
Prior to the twentieth century the British government commonly commissioned and paid for statues of fallen generals and admirals during battles to be placed inside St Paul's Cathedral in London as a memorial to their sacrifices  Major Generals Pakenham and Gibbs were both memorialized in a statue at St Paul's that was sculpted by Sir Richard Westmacott 

In popular culture
The Buccaneer was a 1938 American adventure film produced and directed by Cecil B  De Mille based on Jean Lafitte and the Battle of New Orleans  It was remade in 1958 
Jimmy Driftwood wrote the song "The Battle of New Orleans" using the melody from "The Eighth of January"  It was a 1959 hit for both Johnny Horton (U S  Number 1) and Lonnie Donegan (U K  Number 2)  The Horton version won the 1960 Grammy Award for Best Country & Western Recording 
The 1966 US science fiction series The Time Tunnel (series 1, episode 5) portrays the two protagonist time travelers as 'arriving' between the enemy lines the day before the battle and being arrested as 'American spies' 
Samuel Woodworth wrote the song "The Hunters of Kentucky", first performed in 1822, which was later covered by Burl Ives  The song valorizes the Kentucky militia that fought in the battle, but as historians such as Robert V  Remini have shown, their role was wildly overstated  It became the central campaign song for Andrew Jackson's 1828 presidential election campaign 

See also
List of War of 1812 battles
Saint Malo, Louisiana

Notes and citations
Notes

Citations
Passage 2:
Mother-in-Law (song)
"Mother-in-Law" is a 1961 song recorded by Ernie K-Doe  It was a number-one hit in the U S  on both the Billboard Hot 100 chart and the Billboard R&B chart  The song was written and produced by Allen Toussaint, who also played the piano solo  It was issued by Minit Records 
After several unsuccessful takes, Toussaint balled up the composition and threw it away as he was leaving the room  One of the backup singers, Willie Harper, thought that it was such a good song that he convinced K-Doe to give it one more try A cover version by The Newbeats was also included on their 1965 album Big Beat Sounds By The Newbeats 

See also
List of Billboard Hot 100 number ones of 1961
List of number-one R&B singles of 1961 (U S )
Mother-in-law joke
Passage 3:
Battle of Alto de los Godos
The Battle of Alto de los Godos was a battle that took place on 25 May 1813 in Maturín, Venezuela, in the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada  It resulted in a patriot victory against the forces of Spanish general Domingo de Monteverde  
It was one of the five attempts by the royalists to regain control over the region and it is notable for its inclusion of women in combat, such as Juana Ramírez, who was also known as "The Advancer" (La Avanzadora) 

See also
Colonial Venezuela
Passage 4:
Panos Kolokotronis
Panos Kolokotronis (Greek: Πάνος Κολοκοτρώνης) was the eldest son of the Greek General Theodoros Kolokotronis and his mother was Aikaterini Karousou (Greek: Αικατερίνη Καρούσου)  He was born on the island of Zakynthos in 1800, while his father was serving there as a Major in the British Infantry  He fought along with his father in the Greek War of Independence and distinguished himself in many battles 
In 1822, he married Eleni, the daughter of Laskarina Bouboulina 
In 1825, during the second civil war, he was murdered in Tripoli by order of the revolutionary government 
His skull is on display in the National Historical Museum in Athens 

See also
Theodoros Kolokotronis
Gennaios Kolokotronis
Passage 5:
Mother-in-Law Lounge
The Mother-in-Law Lounge is a live music venue, pub and a shrine in New Orleans, Louisiana dedicated to the memory of rhythm and blues singer, Ernie K-Doe    It is at the downtown river corner of Claiborne Avenue and Columbus Street in the 7th Ward of New Orleans   The exterior of the building is decorated with colorful murals depicting K-Doe and other prominent figures in New Orleans music, especially people who collaborated with K-Doe 
The lounge was originally opened by Ernie K-Doe in 1994, and it has become a historical icon in the local community   It was flooded with five and a half feet of water during Hurricane Katrina in 2005   With the help of the Hands on Network and Chet Haines, the lounge reopened its doors on 29 August 2006, on the first anniversary of Hurricane Katrina   Mother-in-Law Lounge was owned and operated by K-Doe's widow and musician, Antoinette K-Doe, before she died during Mardi Gras 2009   
In 2011, local musician Kermit Ruffins agreed to lease the site, and it reopened on January 20, 2014 
Ruffins is now running the establishment as Kermit's Mother-In-Law Lounge 
Passage 6:
Battle of Beauport
The Battle of Beauport, also known as the Battle of Montmorency, fought on 31 July 1759, was an important confrontation between the British and French Armed Forces during the Seven Years' War (also known as the French and Indian War and the War of Conquest) of the French province of Canada  The attack conducted by the British against the French defense line of Beauport, some 5 kilometres (3 1 mi) east of Quebec was checked, and the British soldiers of General James Wolfe retreated with 443 casualties and losses 

Background
The French and Indian War campaigns of 1758 were mostly successful for the British, who had sent more than 40,000 men against New France and made key gains by capturing Louisbourg and destroying Fort Frontenac, although their primary thrust was stopped by French general Louis-Joseph de Montcalm in the Battle of Carillon  William Pitt continued the aggressive policy in 1759, again organizing large campaigns aimed at the heartland of New France, the Canadien communities of Quebec and Montreal on the St  Lawrence River  For the campaign against Quebec, General James Wolfe was given command of an army of about 7,000 men 

Beauport
When he arrived before Quebec on 26 June, Wolfe observed that the northern shore of the St  Lawrence River around Beauport (the Beauport shore), the most favourable site for the landing of troops, was strongly defended by the French, who had built entrenchments on high ground, redoubts and floating batteries  Wolfe consequently had to devise a plan involving a landing on some other location of the shore  The search for the best site kept him busy for weeks 

Montmorency camp
On the night of 8th or 9 July, British forces landed on the north shore, some 1 2 km (0 75 mi) east of the Montmorency Falls, east of where the French west-east defence line ended, at the mouth of the Montmorency River  Wolfe landed first, leading the Louisbourg grenadiers, who were followed by the brigade commanded by George Townshend  The landing met no opposition from the French  James Murray, at the head of a part of his brigade, joined Wolfe and Townshend on 10 July  A camp was set up near the landing site  Wolfe ordered the construction of a battery to defend the camp, as well as rafts and floating batteries in anticipation of an attack on the French line 

Plan of attack
After establishing the Montmorency camp, Wolfe explored various plans of attack and chose his plan on 28 July  He had two main plans 
The first plan which Wolfe mentioned in his journal and the correspondence with his officers is that of 16 July  In a letter to Brigadier Robert Monckton, Wolfe wrote that he had hoped to capture one of the French redoubts, the second one counting from the east end of the Beauport line, in order to force the enemy out of their entrenchments  The plan involved an attack by the Navy, an important landing force transported from Île d'Orléans, as well as a body of troops crossing the river Montmorency on rafts and marching westward to the battle site  At the same time, the brigade commanded by Monckton was to land on the French right, between the Saint-Charles River and Beauport 
This plan was put on hold on 20 July, when an event of great import to the British occurred: the Royal Navy succeeded, on the night of 18–19 July, in passing seven ships, including the ship of the line HMS Sutherland and two frigates (HMS Diana and HMS Squirrel), through the narrow passage between Quebec and Pointe-Lévy, thus opening the possibility of a landing west of Quebec   Batteries firing at the British flotilla from the Lower Town of Quebec, as well as the floating batteries pursuing it, were unable to prevent the crossing  The Sutherland's log records that the French cannonballs flew too high to cause serious damage On 19 July Wolfe was at the Pointe-Lévy camp to reconnoiter the north shore west of Quebec  He moved further west the next day, near the mouth of the Chaudière River, to study the opposite shore between Sillery and Cap Rouge  Wolfe wrote to Monckton with orders for a plan of attack involving a landing near the village of Saint-Michel, something he had already considered in June  However, at 13:00, Wolfe countermanded his orders to Monckton, ordering him instead to wait a few days and remain ready to act quickly, because of some "particular circumstances"  It is possible that the circumstance he alluded to was a French counteroffensive in which a newly built battery at Samos (near Sillery) damaged the Squirrel 
Wolfe returned to the Montmorency camp on 26 July  Escorted by two battalions, he walked up the Montmorency river to reconnoiter the French lines  At about five kilometres (3 1 miles) from the river's mouth, he observed a ford allowing the easy crossing from the west shore to the east shore  This discovery was followed by a solid skirmish between British soldiers, attempting to cross, and French soldiers entrenched on the other side  The British reported 45 killed and wounded On 28 July, Wolfe wrote of an attack on the Beauport line to be executed on 30 July  However, poor winds did not allow for naval movements that day and the operations were postponed to the next day  The plan of attack then contemplated by Wolfe was a variation of the plan he had described to Monckton in his letter of 16 July  Unlike the earlier plan, there was no mention of a parallel landing on the French right (west of Beauport) 

Order of Battle
The order of battles were;

British Forces
British forces were commanded by Major General James Wolfe, who commanded less than 5,000 men 

Converged Grenadiers (13 Companies) from; 15th, 22nd, 28th, 35th, 40th, 43rd, 45th, 47th, 48th, 58th, 2nd Btn, 60th (Royal American), 3rd Btn, 60th (Royal American) Regiment of Foot, and 78th Fraser Highlanders
2 Companies of the 60th (Royal American) Regiment of Foot (200 men)
Monckton's Brigade commanded by Brigadier General Robert Monckton
15th Regiment of Foot
78th Fraser Highlanders

French Forces
French forces were commanded by Brigadier General Louis Joseph de Saint Véran, Marquis de Montcalm, who commanded 12,000 regulars and militia but just a part (left wing) of the force took part in the battle 

Extreme Left Wing commanded by Colonel Repentigny
800 Volunteers
Left Wing commanded by Colonel François-Gaston, Chevalier de Lévis
2nd Battalion, Régiment de Béarn
2nd Battalion, Régiment de Guyenne
2nd Battalion, Régiment Royal Roussillon
La Sarre Grenadiers (1 Company)
Mixed Battalion of Montréal (part militia, part Compagnies Franches de la Marine)
Montréal Militia
Trois-Rivières Militia, in reserve
500 Natives

Battle
Dangers of plan exposed
On the morning of 31 July the war vessel Centurion positioned itself by the Montmorency Falls to attack the easternmost French batteries  General Wolfe went on board the Russell, one of the two armed transports (the other being the Three Sisters) that were meant for the attack on the redoubt  Wolfe, who was then in the heat of the action, had a better chance to reconnoitre the French position than he could from Île d'Orléans  He immediately realized his mistake: the redoubt he hoped to seize to force the French out of their entrenchments was within range of enemy fire  The French soldiers could then very well shoot toward the redoubt without leaving their entrenchments on high ground  This fact changed everything and Wolfe's plan of attack consequently proved riskier than expected In spite of this, General Wolfe decided to proceed with the attack already underway  In his journal, he stated that it was "the confusion and disorder" he observed on the enemy's side which incited him to action  Townshend, who commanded at Montmorency, and Monckton who was doing the same at Pointe-Lévy, received the order to prepare for the attack 

Difficult landing
At around 11:00, the transport ships (Russell and Three Sisters) reached the north shore where the body of troops mobilized to take the redoubt landed  Toward 12:30, the boats transporting the main landing force left the Île d'Orléans to rendezvous with Wolfe  An unforeseen difficulty caused the landing planned a little to the west of the Montmorency Falls to be suspended: the boats met with a shoal preventing them from reaching the shore  A significant amount of time was lost trying to find a suitable site for landing, which finally occurred at around 17:30  By that time, the sky was covered by storm clouds 

Confrontation
The first troops advancing toward French lines were the thirteen companies of grenadiers and some 200 soldiers of the Royal Americans  Fire from the Montreal militia stalled their advance up the hill to the entrenchments above Shortly after the firing began, a summer storm broke out, causing gunpowder to become wet and rendering firearms unusable   When General Wolfe ordered the retreat, the troops marching from the Montmorency camp had not yet met up with the main force transported from the Île d'Orléans camp 

Consequences
The French were victorious  General Wolfe recorded 443 losses (210 killed and 233 wounded), while the French counted 60 killed and wounded on their side; losses which were attributed to the fire coming from the great battery of the Montmorency camp  The day after the battle, Wolfe wrote Monckton that the losses incurred in the battle were not great and that the defeat was no cause of discouragement While the news of the victory was celebrated in the French camp, General Montcalm remained lucid, writing to Bourlamaque that in his opinion this attack was only a prelude to a more important one, which they could do nothing but patiently wait for   The attack did eventually arrive, when on 13 September the British landed west of Quebec and defeated the French on the Plains of Abraham in a battle that claimed the lives of both Montcalm and Wolfe 

Notes
Passage 7:
Public holidays in Australia
Public holidays in Australia refer to the holidays recognised in law in Australia  Although they are declared on a state and territory basis, they comprise a mixture of nationally celebrated days and holidays exclusive to the individual jurisdictions 
Public holidays function as non-working days, with workers generally receiving full paid leave independently of annual leave  Those working on public holidays receive additional penalty rates of pay  Where they fall on a weekend, public holidays are generally declared in lieu for the following Monday 
Statutory holidays in Australia are based on varying religious, cultural and civic observations  Christian celebrations, namely Christmas and Easter, are some of the most significant ones observed  A Labour Day is observed in each state and territory, although it is varied in date  There are two significant national days, Australia Day (26 January) and Anzac Day (25 April), which are nationwide public holidays 
When a public holiday occurs on a Friday or Monday, the three-day period is colloquially known as a "long weekend" 

Nature of public holidays
Traditionally, Australians in employment (whether in the public or private sector) have had the right to take a public holiday off work with regular pay  In recent years this tradition has changed somewhat  For example, businesses that normally open on a public holiday may request employees to work on that day  Employers can deny employees a holiday only on reasonable business grounds From 2006, WorkChoices eliminated the entitlement to penalty rates in many workplaces; however since the implementation of the Fair Work Act 2009 and the modern awards in 2010, most public-holiday penalty rates have increased dramatically  As of 2018 employees generally receive pay at a penalty rate—usually 2 5 times (known as "double time and a half") the base rate of pay—when they work on a public holiday Besides designating days as public holidays, Australian authorities also designate some of these days as restricted trading days 
Public holidays are determined by a combination of:

statutes, with specific gazetting of public holidays
industrial awards and agreementsIf a standard public holiday falls on a weekend, a substitute public holiday will sometimes be observed on the first non-weekend day (usually Monday) after the weekend, whether by virtue of the public holiday legislation or by ad hoc proclamation  Workers required to work on a public holiday or substituted public holiday will usually be entitled to remuneration at a holiday penalty rate 
All states have their own public holidays in addition to national public holidays, and in some states certain public holidays, such as Melbourne Cup Day, are in force in only part of a state 
Alcohol licences in several states prevent sale of alcohol on certain public holidays, such as Good Friday 

Public holidays
Legend:
B City of Brisbane only  The Royal National Agricultural (RNA) Show Day (Brisbane only) is held on the Wednesday during the RNA Show period  The RNA Show commences on the first Friday in August, unless the first Friday is prior to 5 August, then it commences on the second Friday of August  Other Queensland show holidays: Show holiday dates | Public, school and show holidays
C = Conditional: Public Service employees or where defined in Employment Agreement/AwardH = Hobart area only
NH = Not Hobart area
P Part day, from 7 pm to midnight (6 pm to midnight for QLD)
† Often substituted with the Geelong Cup for Geelong residents  For regional Victoria other local cup days are sometimes substituted 
* The holiday is legislated for the 3rd Monday of May  Since 2006 it has been moved via the issuing of a special Proclamation by the Governor, to the 2nd Monday of March, on a trial basis 
** Sunday is nominally a public holiday in South Australia
*** Depends on occupation, generally from 6 pm to midnight

Substitute holidays for holidays falling on a weekend
When a public holiday falls on a weekend, the following work day may be considered a public holiday depending on the state/territory and the holiday in question 

Holidays that always fall on a particular day of the week are not listed in this table  Prior to 2008, Victorian law only specified substitute holidays for New Year and Boxing Day, and only if they fell on a Sunday  From 2008, Victorian law specifies the substitute holidays in the table above Since Easter Monday can occur as late as 26 April it is possible for the Easter Monday holiday to coincide with Anzac Day, as occurred in 2011   State Acts do not give a provision to separate the days when this occurs, so no additional public holiday is given by law  However an extra day is usually proclaimed by the minister, so as to have a steady number of public holidays each year  In the year 2038, Anzac Day will coincide with Easter Sunday 

Australia Day
Nationally, Australia Day was originally celebrated on 30 July 1915 Recorded celebrations of the 26 January date back to 1808 in Australia, and in 1818, Governor Lachlan Macquarie held the first official celebration of Australia Day   26 January was chosen because it is the day of the establishment of the first British settlement at Port Jackson by Captain Arthur Phillip in 1788   It was made a public holiday in New South Wales in 1836, and Victoria adopted the day as a public holiday in 1931  The 26 January commenced to be recognised by all states and territories as Australia Day in 1946 
Australia Day has been celebrated as a national public holiday on 26 January since 1994 Since 1960, the winner of the Australian of the Year award is announced by the Prime Minister on the eve of Australia Day (25 Jan) 

Labour Day
Labour Day commemorates the achievements of the Australian labour movement  The celebration of Labour Day has its origins in the eight-hour day movement, which advocated eight hours for work, eight hours for recreation, and eight hours for rest  On 21 April 1856 Stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne, Australia, stopped work and marched from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight-hour day  Their direct action protest was a success, and they are noted as the first organised workers in the world to achieve an eight-hour day with no loss of pay, which subsequently inspired the celebration of Labour Day and May Day  In Tasmania the public holiday is called Eight Hours Day and in the Northern Territory it is called May Day 
The Labour Day public holiday varies considerably between the various states and territories  It is the first Monday in October in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and South Australia  In Western Australia, it is the first Monday in March  In both Victoria and Tasmania, it is the second Monday in March  In the Northern Territory, and in Queensland it is the first Monday in May  More than 80 countries celebrate Labor Day  Labor Day is a long weekend 

Easter
The days of Easter vary each year depending on the day determined by the Western Christian calendar  Until 1994 Easter Tuesday was a Bank Holiday in Victoria (it retains this status partially in Tasmania)  The day after Good Friday and before Easter Sunday is traditionally known as Holy Saturday  However, the states where that day is a public holiday use different terminology – it is officially gazetted as "Easter Saturday" in the ACT, New South Wales, and the Northern Territory; as "the day after Good Friday" in Queensland and South Australia; and as "Saturday before Easter Sunday" in Victoria 

ANZAC Day
ANZAC Day is a day on which the country remembers those citizens who fell fighting or who served the country in wars  ANZAC Day is commemorated on 25 April every year  The tradition began to remember the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) soldiers who landed at Gallipoli in Turkey during World War I 
ANZAC Day commemoration features marches by veterans and by solemn "Dawn Services", a tradition started in Albany, Western Australia on 25 April 1923 and now held at war memorials around the country, accompanied by thoughts of those lost at war to the ceremonial sounds of The Last Post on the bugle  The fourth stanza of Laurence Binyon's poem For the Fallen (known as the "Ode of Remembrance") is often recited 

King's Birthday
In all states and territories except Queensland and Western Australia, the King's Birthday is observed on the second Monday in June  Because Western Australia celebrates Western Australia Day (formerly Foundation Day) on the first Monday in June, the Governor of Western Australia proclaims the day on which the state will observe the King's Birthday, based on school terms and the Perth Royal Show  There is no firm rule to determine this date before it is proclaimed, though it is typically the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October: in 2011 the King's Birthday holiday in Western Australia was moved from Monday, 3 October 2011 to Friday, 28 October 2011 to coincide with the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), which was held in Perth  In parts of the Pilbara, it is celebrated on a different date from the rest of Western Australia, and it may even be celebrated on different dates in different parts of the Pilbara  In Queensland, it is celebrated on the 1st Monday in October The day has been celebrated since 1788, when Governor Arthur Phillip declared a holiday to mark the birthday of King George III  Until 1936 it was held on the actual birthday of the Monarch, but after the death of King George V, it was decided to keep the date at mid-year 
On that day the "King's Birthday honours list" is released naming new members of the Order of Australia and other Australian honours  This occurs on the date observed in the Eastern States, not the date observed in Western Australia 
The King's Birthday weekend and Empire Day, 24 May, were long the traditional times for public fireworks displays in Australia  Although they still occur, the tradition has recently been overshadowed by larger New Year's Eve fireworks, as the sale of fireworks to the public was banned by the states in the 1980s, and in the ACT as of 24 August 2009  In the Northern Territory fireworks remain available to the public on 1 July for the celebration of Territory Day 

Christmas Day
Christmas is observed on 25 December each year to commemorate the birth of Jesus  In Australia, it was introduced with British settlement in 1788 as the cultural norms were transferred to the new colonies 

Boxing Day
Boxing Day is on the day after Christmas, i e  26 December each year, except in South Australia  In South Australia, the first otherwise working day after Christmas is a public holiday called Proclamation Day Boxing Day is noted for the start of the post-Christmas sale season  The day has also become a significant sporting day  Melbourne hosts the Boxing Day Test match; the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race also starts on this day 

Other holidays
Sunday is nominally a public holiday in South Australia 
Proclamation Day is in December in South Australia only 
Canberra Day is held on the 2nd Monday in March in the ACT  Prior to 2008, this holiday was celebrated on the 3rd Monday of March 
Melbourne Cup Day is held on the first Tuesday of November—the day of the Melbourne Cup  It was originally observed only in the Melbourne metropolitan area  From 2007 to 2009 in ACT, Melbourne Cup day was also a holiday called "Family and Community Day"  The holiday continued from 2010 to 2017 but no longer coincided with Melbourne Cup day  In Victoria, the Public Holidays Act 1993 (Vic) was amended from 24 September 2008 and made the Melbourne Cup Day holiday applicable in all parts of the state (unless another day is observed in substitute)  It also made the holiday applicable to employees covered by federal awards 
Recreation Day is the first Monday of November, and celebrated in Northern Tasmania where Regatta Day is not a holiday 
Regatta Day is the second Monday in February, and is celebrated in Southern Tasmania  Previously it was held on the second Tuesday in February 
Geelong Cup Day is held on the fourth Wednesday of October in the city of Geelong, Victoria
Queensland Day is celebrated on 6 June each year, but not with a public holiday 
Adelaide Cup Day is held on the second Monday in March in South Australia (held in May before 2006)
Western Australia Day in Western Australia on the first Monday in June 
Picnic Day in the Northern Territory in August, and also May Day
Tasmania has Easter Tuesday as a bank holiday (for bank and government employees only) 
New South Wales has the first Monday in August as a bank holiday (for bank employees only) 
Many cities and towns observe local public holidays for their local Agricultural Show   For example:
Darwin Show Day in Darwin area in late July
Royal Queensland Show Day in Brisbane area in August
Gold Coast Show in Gold Coast area in October
Territory Day celebrated in the Northern Territory on July 1 while not a designated public holiday, it remains the only Australian public celebration where the public may purchase fireworks for home detonation
"National Day of Mourning for Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II" was a "one off" national public holiday declared by the Prime Minister for 22 September 2022 to allow people to pay their respects for the death of Queen Elizabeth II, the longest-reigning Australian monarch 

Public holidays by state
Queensland
The days are set in the Holidays Act 1983   Most public holidays include a second public holiday on a week-day if they happen to fall on Saturday or Sunday  In which case, both days are public holidays 
New Year's Day: 1 January, and if 1 January is a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday 
Australia Day: 26 January, and if 26 January is a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday 
Good Friday: on the date it is publicly observed, always a Friday 
The day after Good Friday: Always a Saturday, one day after Good Friday 
Easter Monday: The next Monday after Good Friday 
ANZAC Day: 25 April, and if 25 April is a Sunday, 26 April 
Labour Day ("May Day"): 1st Monday in May 
Birthday of the Sovereign: 1st Monday in October 
Christmas Day: 25 December 
Boxing Day: 26 December If Christmas Day (25 December) is a Saturday or Sunday, then 27 December is also a public holiday 
If Boxing day (26 December) is a Saturday or Sunday, then 28 December is also a public holiday 
Because of the variable days of Easter, Anzac day could fall on an Easter holiday  When ANZAC falls on Saturday, there is no week day public holiday  In such situations it is generally expected that the minister will proclaim extra public holidays on week-days to ensure every year has the same number of public holidays on week-days 
The minister of the state may proclaim and adjustments or additions, such as the date of the Brisbane Ekka Show day holiday  This day has historically always been proclaimed for the second Wednesday in August, except if there are 5 Wednesday's in August, in which case the third Wednesday in August 

New South Wales
Public holidays generally follow the national pattern, but special cases are resolved by the State Government and advised by proclamation  Details of future holidays can be found on the NSW Industrial Relations website  Public holidays are regulated by the New South Wales Public Holidays Act 2010 No 115, which supersedes the Banks and Bank Holidays Act 1912 No 43 
The first Monday in August is a Bank Holiday, during which banks and financial institutions are closed 

Australian Capital Territory and Jervis Bay Territory
Most New South Wales public holidays are public holidays in the Australian Capital Territory, with the addition of Canberra Day and Reconciliation Day, which holiday falls on the Monday closest to May 27 

South Australia
Public holidays in South Australia are set out in the Holidays Act 1910, while additional holidays may be proclaimed in all or part of the State by the Governor  The Act defines public holidays and bank holidays, which are the same except where a holiday falls on a Saturday, in which case the public holiday is held on the following Monday and both the Saturday and Monday are bank holidays 

Victoria
Public holidays in Victoria are regulated by the Victorian Public Holidays Act 1993 
Victorian employees fall under the Workchoices system either as coming within the Commonwealth constitutional power (called "constitutional corporation employees") or because of Victoria's referral of its legislative powers to the Commonwealth for particular workplace relations matters 
Employee entitlements to public holidays and additional pay depend on whether they are covered by a federal award or agreement 
Employees not covered by a federal award or agreement are entitled to public holidays under the Victorian Public Holidays Act 1993  Also, all permanent employees not covered by a federal award or agreement who would normally work on a public holiday (or a substitute public holiday) are entitled to the holiday without loss of pay  Their employers are not required to provide additional payment if they work on a public holiday, but this does not exclude the possibility of employees and employers negotiating for additional pay 
Employees who are covered by a federal award or agreement are entitled to public holidays as provided by the relevant federal award or agreement and the Public Holidays Act 1993  Many federal awards and agreements also provide for additional penalty rates for work performed on a public holiday 
Restricted shop trading laws apply to Good Friday, Christmas Day and before 1 pm on Anzac Day  On these days only exempted businesses are permitted to open for trading  All public holidays and substitute public holidays are bank holidays In August 2015, the day before the AFL Grand Final, as well as Easter Sunday, were gazetted as Public Holidays within Victoria   This date of the holiday is as gazetted by the Victorian Government and cannot be accurately predicted  In 2019, the Victorian Parliament legislated the AFL Grand Final public holiday by amending the Public Holidays Act 1993 (Vic) The Victorian public holidays are as follows:
* Melbourne Cup Day is observed in most of the state, but various cup days and show days in the state's west are locally substituted  See the list at Non-Metropolitan Public Holiday Dates (Victoria Online) 
Melbourne Show Day used to be observed on the Thursday in the last full week of September as a half-day public holiday—later changing to full day—until 1994 (abolished by the state government)  Easter Tuesday was observed as a Bank Holiday in Victoria until 1994 (also abolished by the state government) 

Western Australia
*If a Public Holiday falls on a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday is also observed as a Public Holiday
#The King's Birthday may be held on a different date in regional communities

Penalty rates
Penalty rates are the rates of pay which an employee is paid higher than their standard base rate for working at times or on days, such as public holidays, which are outside the normal working week  They were introduced in 1947 for workers working on the Sabbath, as most workers were Christian, while today, these rates of pay are set by the Fair Work Commission 

See also
Australian labour law
Australian Pay and Classification Scales



ground_truth: General Edward Pakenham

Edward Pakenham

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How many times did plague occur in the birthplace of La Silvia's composer?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Black Death
The Black Death (also known as the Pestilence, the Great Mortality or the Plague) was a bubonic plague pandemic occurring in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353  It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing the deaths of 75–200 million people, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351  Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis spread by fleas, but during the Black Death it probably also took a secondary form, spread by person-to-person contact via aerosols, causing pneumonic plague The Black Death was the beginning of the second plague pandemic  The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history 
The origin of the Black Death is disputed  Genetic analysis points to the evolution of Yersinia pestis in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China 2,600 years ago  The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remains unclear with some pointing towards Central Asia, China, the Middle East and Europe  The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347  From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean Basin and reaching North Africa, Western Asia and the rest of Europe via Constantinople, Sicily and the Italian Peninsula  There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread person-to-person as pneumonic plague, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary vector was rat fleas causing bubonic plague  In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may not have been due to Mongol conquests in the 14th century, as previously speculated The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317) and is estimated to have killed 30 percent to 60 percent of the European population, as well as about one-third of the population of the Middle East  The plague might have reduced the world population from c  475 million to 350–375 million in the 14th century  There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, with other contributing factors (the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages), the European population did not regain its level in 1300 until 1500  Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century 

Names
European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in Latin as pestis or pestilentia, 'pestilence'; epidemia, 'epidemic'; mortalitas, 'mortality'  In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death"  Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first murrain) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as "black" in the time of occurrence in any European language, though the expression "black death" had occasionally been applied to fatal disease beforehand  "Black death" was not used to describe the plague pandemic in English until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated Danish: den sorte død, lit  'the black death'  This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was transferred to other languages as a calque: Icelandic: svarti dauði, German: der schwarze Tod, and French: la mort noire  Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the Latin: magna mortalitas, lit  'Great Death' The phrase 'black death' – describing Death as black – is very old  Homer used it in the Odyssey to describe the monstrous Scylla, with her mouths "full of black Death" (Ancient Greek: πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο, romanized: pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio)  Seneca the Younger may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', (Latin: mors atra) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark prognosis of disease  The 12th–13th century French physician Gilles de Corbeil had already used atra mors to refer to a "pestilential fever" (febris pestilentialis) in his work On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium)  The phrase mors nigra, 'black death', was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to an astrological conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn  His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease The historian Cardinal Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague"  In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J  I  Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant) 

Previous plague epidemics
Research from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age  Research in 2018 found evidence of Yersinia pestis in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "Neolithic decline" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly  This Y  pestis may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near Samara The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a fragment of Rufus of Ephesus preserved by Oribasius; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the Roman Empire before the reign of Trajan, six centuries before arriving at Pelusium in the reign of Justinian I  In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the Plague of Justinian (541–542 CE, with recurrences until 750) was Y  pestis  This is known as the first plague pandemic  In 610, the Chinese physician Chao Yuanfang described a "malignant bubo" "coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue " The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in Lingnan (Guangzhou)  Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600 

14th-century plague
Causes
Early theory
The most authoritative contemporary account is found in a report from the medical faculty in Paris to Philip VI of France  It blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air" (miasma theory)  Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a "martyrdom and mercy" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise  For non-believers, it was a punishment  Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God  Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans  These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks 

Predominant modern theory
Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease  The plague disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas, including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, North India, Uganda and the western United States Y  pestis was discovered by Alexandre Yersin, a pupil of Louis Pasteur, during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacillus was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission  The mechanism by which Y  pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y  pestis several days after feeding on an infected host  This blockage starves the fleas and drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour and attempts to clear the blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host  The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lacks resistance  When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic 

DNA evidence
Definitive confirmation of the role of Y  pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in PLOS Pathogens by Haensch et al  They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y  pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences  The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y  pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages"  In 2011, these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England  Schuenemann et al  concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y  pestis that may no longer exist" Later in 2011, Bos et al  reported in Nature the first draft genome of Y  pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y  pestis Since this time, further genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the Y  pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor of later plague epidemics including the third plague pandemic and as the descendant of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian  In addition, plague genomes from significantly earlier in prehistory have been recovered DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th century London have shown plague is a strain of Y  pestis almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013  Further DNA evidence also proves the role of Y  Pestis and traces the source to the Tian Shan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan 

Alternative explanations
It is recognised that an epidemiological account of plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period  Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the Domesday Book of 1086 and the poll tax of the year 1377  Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy 
Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission  A research in 2018 challenged the popular hypothesis that "infected rats died, their flea parasites could have jumped from the recently dead rat hosts to humans"  It suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people"  The second model claims to better fit the trends of death toll because the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, which contradict historical death data Lars Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities  Similarly, Monica Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y  pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person  This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and fleas during the second plague pandemic 

Summary
Although academic debate continues, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance  Many scholars arguing for Y  pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections  In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicaemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms  In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis  Currently, while osteoarcheologists have conclusively verified the presence of Y  pestis bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and dental pulp, no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations 

Transmission
Lack of hygiene
The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century with the development of the germ theory of disease; until then streets were commonly filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding, facilitating the spread of transmissible disease By the early fourteenth century so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste  In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for "shit"  There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris  Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were as careless as William E  Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without  A complaint lodged against Cosner charges that "men could not pass [by his house] for the stink [of]       horse dung and horse piss "One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden "stinking and putrid", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, "making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near " In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, "Look out below!" three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street Early Christians, who thought self-abnegation a cardinal virtue, considered bathing, if not a vice, then a temptation  "Who knows what impure thoughts might arise in a tub of warm water? With this danger in mind, St  Benedict declared, "To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted " St  Agnes took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing 

Territorial origins
According to a team of medical geneticists led by Mark Achtman that analysed the genetic variation of the bacterium Yersinia pestis "evolved in or near China" over 2,600 years ago  Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko places the origins more specifically in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China  However more recent research notes that the previous sampling had a very heavy East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of Y  pestis in the Caucasus region that were previously thought to be restricted to China  There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China  As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day  According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years  The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic; this is supported by recent direct findings of Y  pestis DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to "pestilence" as the cause of death  Epidemics killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before the Black Death reached Constantinople in 1347 
The evidence does not suggest, at least at present, that these mortality crises were caused by plague  Although some scholars, including McNeill and Cao, see the 1333 outbreak as a prelude to the outbreaks in Europe from the late 1340s to the early 1350s, scholars of the Yuan and Ming periods remain skeptical about such an interpretation  Nonetheless, the remarkably high mortality rates during the Datong mortality should discourage us from rejecting the possibility of localized/regional outbreaks of plague in different parts of China, albeit differing in scale from, and unrelated to, the pandemic mortality of the Black Death  What we lack is any indication of a plague pandemic that engulfed vast territories of the Yuan Empire and later moved into western Eurasia through Central Asia 
According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact  According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the Silk Road, and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak  There are no records of the symptoms of the Black Death from Mongol sources or writings from travelers east of the Black Sea prior to the Crimean outbreak in 1346  Finally, the Silk Road had already been heavily disrupted before the spread of the Black Death  Western and Middle Eastern traders found it difficult to trade on the Silk Road by 1325 and impossible by 1340, making spread of the plague less likely Others still favor an origin in China or even Kurdistan, and not Central Asia  According to the theory of Chinese origin, the disease may have traveled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders, or it could have arrived via ship, but this theory is still contested  It is speculated that rats aboard Zheng He's ships in the 15th century may have carried the plague to Southeast Asia, India and Africa 
Research on the Delhi Sultanate and the Yuan Dynasty shows no evidence of any serious epidemic in fourteenth-century India and no specific evidence of plague in fourteenth-century China, suggesting that the Black Death may not have reached these regions  Ole Benedictow argues that since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from Kaffa, the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea 
Demographic historians estimate that China's population fell by at least 15 percent, and perhaps as much as a third, between 1340 and 1370  This population loss coincided with the Black Death that ravaged Europe and much of the Islamic world in 1347–52  However, there is a conspicuous lack of evidence for pandemic disease on the scale of the Black Death in China at this time  War and famine – and the diseases that typically accompanied them – probably were the main causes of mortality in the final decades of Mongol rule 
Monica H  Green suggests that the reason why other parts of Eurasia outside the west do not contain the same evidence of the Black Plague is because there were actually four strains of Yersinia pestis that became predominant in different parts of the world  Mongol records of illness such as food poisoning may have been referring to the Black Plague  Another theory is that the Black Death originated near Europe and cycled through the Mediterranean, Northern Europe and Russia before making its way to China  Other historians such as John Norris and Ole Benedictaw believe the Black Death likely originated in Europe or the Middle East and never reached China 

European outbreak
Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders from their port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347  During a protracted siege of the city, in 1345–1346 the Mongol Golden Horde army of Jani Beg, whose mainly Tatar troops were suffering from the disease, catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants, though it is more likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants  As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the Black Sea to Constantinople, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347 The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the Byzantine emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on Thucydides's account of the 5th century BCE Plague of Athens, but noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities  Nicephorus Gregoras also described in writing to Demetrios Kydones the rising death toll, the futility of medicine, and the panic of the citizens  The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400 Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in Sicily in October 1347; the disease spread rapidly all over the island  Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy  Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseilles From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain (the epidemic began to wreak havoc first on the Crown of Aragon in the spring of 1348), Portugal and England by June 1348, then spread east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350  It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland  Finally, it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351  Plague was somewhat more uncommon in parts of Europe with less developed trade with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavourable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations and forced their fleas onto alternative hosts, inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean, as well as during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic region  Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, malnutrition, even if distantly, also contributed to such an immense loss in European population, since it weakened immune systems 

Western Asian and North African outbreak
The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures  As infected rodents infected new rodents, the disease spread across the region, entering also from southern Russia 
By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople; according to a contemporary witness, from a single merchant ship carrying slaves  By late summer 1348 it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural centre of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died  The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex  The historian al-Maqrizi described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of funeral rites, and plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza by April; by July it had reached Damascus, and in October plague had broken out in Aleppo  That year, in the territory of modern Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine, the cities of Ascalon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon and Homs were all infected  In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch  The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey  Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa  The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 Tunis was infected by ship from Sicily  Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of Almería in al-Andalus Mecca became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the Hajj  In 1351 or 1352, the Rasulid sultan of the Yemen, al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home  During 1348, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease 

Signs and symptoms
Bubonic plague
Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise  Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 percent die within eight days Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise  The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened  Boccaccio's description:

In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg     From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous  As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves 
This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood  Most people died two to seven days after initial infection  Freckle-like spots and rashes, which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of plague 

Pneumonic plague
Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems  Symptoms include fever, cough and blood-tinged sputum  As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red  Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 percent 

Septicaemic plague
Septicaemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%  Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation)  In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicaemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes 

Consequences
Deaths
There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality  In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality  It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia  A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe between 1250 and 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death  The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia and Ireland The mortality rate of the Black Death in the 14th century was far greater than the worst 20th-century outbreaks of Y  pestis plague, which occurred in India and killed as much as 3% of the population of certain cities  The overwhelming number of deceased bodies produced by the Black Death caused the necessity of mass burial sites in Europe, sometimes including up to several hundred or several thousand skeletons  The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical and anthropological implications of the Black Death According to medieval historian Philip Daileader, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague  Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests it could have been as much as 60% of the European population  In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished  In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die  Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died  In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351  At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well, with a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353  Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348  Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450  The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to contagion  Plague did not appear in Douai in Flanders until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of Hainaut, Finland, northern Germany and areas of Poland  Monks, nuns and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people with the Black Death 

The physician to the Avignon Papacy, Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (Latin: Magister Raimundus, lit  'Master Raymond'), observed the decreasing mortality rate of successive outbreaks of plague in 1347–48, 1362, 1371 and 1382 in his 1382 treatise On Epidemics (De epidemica)  In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived  By the 1380s in Europe, it predominantly affected children  Chalmel de Vinario recognised that bloodletting was ineffective (though he continued to prescribe bleeding for members of the Roman Curia, whom he disliked), and said that all true cases of plague were caused by astrological factors and were incurable; he himself was never able to effect a cure The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population  The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population  In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months Italian chronicler Agnolo di Tura recorded his experience from Siena, where plague arrived in May 1348:

Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight  And so they died  And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship  Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices     great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead  And they died by the hundreds both day and night     And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug     And I, Agnolo di Tura     buried my five children with my own hands  And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city  There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death  And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world 

Economic
It has been suggested that the plague, like some others in history, disproportionately affected the poorest people, who were already in generally worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens   Nevertheless, with such a large overall population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a labour shortage  On the other hand, in the quarter century after the Black Death in England, it is clear many labourers, artisans and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, did suffer a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation  Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants 

Environmental
A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation  This may have led to the Little Ice Age 

Persecutions
Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death  Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", lepers and Romani, blaming them for the crisis  Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe 
Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks  Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness There were many attacks against Jewish communities  In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered  In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated  By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed  During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great 

Social
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy and led to the Renaissance  Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife  It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century  The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy  The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an influx of Greek scholars following the fall of the Byzantine Empire  As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom  To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the workings of Europe were run by the Catholic Church and the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of fiefs and city-states  The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled Cairo's population, partly owing to the numerous plague epidemics, was in the early 18th century half of what it was in 1347  The populations of some Italian cities, notably Florence, did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century  The demographic decline due to the pandemic had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30–40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400  Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall  The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably destabilised feudalism The word "quarantine" has its roots in this period, though the concept of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older  In the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas  The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty" 

Recurrences
Second plague pandemic
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries  According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671  (Note that some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data ) The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–63; 1374; 1400; 1438–39; 1456–57; 1464–66; 1481–85; 1500–03; 1518–31; 1544–48; 1563–66; 1573–88; 1596–99; 1602–11; 1623–40; 1644–54; and 1664–67  Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century)  The historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s  However, other sources suggest that the Second pandemic did indeed reach Sub-Saharan Africa According to historian Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31 " In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1 7 million people in Italy  More than 1 25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world  Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850  Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions  Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa  Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42  Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s  Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century  Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800  Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died 

Third plague pandemic
The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone  The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney  This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908 

Modern-day
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine  It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat  One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995  A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014  In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions 

See also
Black Death in England
Black Death in medieval culture
Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Flagellant
Globalization and disease
List of epidemics
Second plague pandemic
Timeline of plague
Passage 2:
Patricia Millardet
Patricia Millardet (24 March 1957 − 13 April 2020) was a French movie and television actress, who played judge Silvia Conti in the Italian mafia series La piovra She died of a heart attack in 2020 at the age of 63 

Partial filmography
Passage 3:
La Rosiere de Pessac
La Rosière de Pessac (The Virgin of Pessac) is the title of two hour-long films directed by Jean Eustache (in 1968 and 1979 respectively)   The films cover an annual ceremony, held in Eustache's place of birth, in which the mayor and his associates nominate a girl as the town's most virtuous   Thus, the girls chosen in those two years are eponymous subjects of these documentaries 

External links
La Rosière de Pessac at IMDb
La Rosière de Pessac at IMDb
Passage 4:
Orlando furioso (Vivaldi, 1714)
Orlando furioso RV 819 (Italian pronunciation: [orˈlando fuˈrjoːzo, -so], Teatro San Angelo, Venice 1714) is a three-act opera surviving in manuscript in Antonio Vivaldi's personal library, only partly related to his better known Orlando furioso (RV 728) of 1727  It is a recomposition of an Orlando furioso written by Giovanni Alberto Ristori which had been very successfully staged by Vivaldi and his father's impresa in 1713, and whose music survives in a few fragments retained in the score of RV 819  Therefore, Vivaldi's first cataloguer Peter Ryom did not assign the opera a RV number, but catalogued it as RV Anh  84  The libretto was by Grazio Braccioli 

Authorship
Federico Maria Sardelli, according to the studies of Reinhard Strohm, argues that Orlando RV 819 was entirely recomposed by Vivaldi, starting from the original Ristori's opera that Vivaldi himself had already changed during the numerous representations of the season 1713  He assigned to it the catalogue number RV 819  One suggestion is that Vivaldi avoided putting his own name on the opera having himself only recently taken direction of the Teatro San Angelo  Against this others consider that the bulk of the opera is a copy of Ristori's lost work 

Opera
Unlike the Orlando furioso (RV 728) of 1727, in which the role of Orlando is sung by a contralto, the 1714 opera assigns the title role to a bass  The third act is missing and the rest of the score (evidently used in performances by the composer) is incomplete  Two arias are lost, seven arias are incomplete (only the bass part is extant) and three arias are identical with extant arias in RV 727 and RV 729 

Recording
The French label Naïve, which had already recorded the more famous Orlando furioso and Orlando finto pazzo for its Vivaldi Edition, released a recording of the July 20, 2012 première at the Festival de Beaune, with Sardelli conducting Modo Antiquo and singers including Riccardo Novaro as Orlando, Gaëlle Arquez as Angelica, Romina Basso as Alcina and Teodora Gheorghiu as Bradamante  Given the heavily defective nature of the surviving manuscript, Sardelli had to reconstruct or compose ex novo the seven incomplete arias, in a Vivaldian style 

See also
List of operas by Antonio Vivaldi
Passage 5:
Denmark Place fire
The Denmark Place fire occurred on 16 August 1980 at 18 Denmark Place in Central London  The fire, caused by arson, killed 37 people of eight nationalities, most of whom were Spanish or Latin American, who were patrons of two unlicensed bars in the building  At the time, The Sunday Times suggested that it could be "the worst mass murder in British history" 

Background
There were two unlicensed bars on the top two floors of 18 Denmark Place: The Spanish Rooms, a late night bar frequented by locals, including Irish and Jamaican immigrants; and Rodo's, also known as El Dandy, a salsa club popular with South American immigrants  Access to both of these bars was obtained by shouting up from the street below in order to obtain a key  The only way into both of these clubs was through a locked front door and up some stairs leading to a landing  
Access to the club on the lower floor was via this landing and access to the club on the upper floor was via a fire escape enclosed with plywood  Both bars, being unlicensed, were obscured from the outside world by boarded up windows and the door on Denmark Street that led to the fire escape was bolted shut  The Metropolitan Police were aware of the clubs and were planning to shut them both down on Monday 18 August  A farewell party was being thrown over the weekend 

The fire
On the night of 16 August 1980, John Thompson, a Scottish-born petty criminal aged 42, entered The Spanish Rooms and drank there  He believed that the barman had overcharged him for the drink  After fighting with the barman he was ejected from the building and the door was locked behind him  Thompson found a 2-gallon container outside the club, hailed a taxi and then travelled to a 24-hour petrol station in Camden where he filled the container with petrol  He then returned to 18 Denmark Place, poured the petrol through the letterbox of the front door and put a lit piece of paper through Fire quickly took hold in the premises owing to the largely timber construction of the building  Both bars were badly damaged  There were estimated to be 150 people within the building at the time  People could not escape easily due to the boarded up windows, the locked fire escape and general lack of fire safety precautions owing to the bars' unlicensed status The fire burned quickly through the wooden staircase, destroying the main entrance and exit to the bars  Some patrons tried to escape via the back door but found that this was locked  Others smashed windows and jumped out onto the street below  On Denmark Street there was a music shop that backed onto the clubs and some patrons were found here trapped behind the security shutters  One firefighter managed to rescue six people from this area 
When firefighters were called to the fire at around 03:30 they could see smoke seeping from the shuttered windows  When an attempt was made to force the locked front door open they were showered with sparks and embers and were forced to retreat  Once firefighters were able to access the front door it took four minutes to break it down – behind it they found that the staircase was completely on fire 
The speed of the fire was so rapid that many of the bar patrons died where they were sitting or standing  An officer from the London Fire Brigade described the scene:

People seem to have died on the spot without even having time to move an inch  Some were slumped at tables  Seven were at the bar and appear to have fallen as they stood, with drinks still in their hands 

Aftermath
In May 1981, Thompson was convicted on a specimen charge of murdering one of the victims, Archibald Campbell (aged 63) and sentenced to life imprisonment  He died of lung cancer on 16 August 2008, the 28th anniversary of the fire There was comparatively little publicity about the fire, and no formal enquiry into it  The families of some of those who died were not aware of the circumstances  In 2022, after redevelopment of the site, a plaque was placed on a wall in memory 

See also
Blue Bird Café fire, 1972 fire in Montreal started in retaliations by patrons refused entry who then lit petrol in front of main entrance and only exit; also killed 37 
Happy Land fire, 1990 fire in New York City at illegally operated nightclub started the same way by aggrieved ejected patron; resulting 87 fatalities is the worst mass murder in city history caused by a single person 
Clerkenwell cinema fire, 1994 fire in London at an illegally operated adult cinema, intentionally started by an aggrieved patron 
Ghost Ship warehouse fire, 2016 fire at illegally operated nightclub in California that killed 37
Passage 6:
List of bones of the human skeleton
The human skeleton of an adult consists of around 206 bones, depending on the counting of sternum (which may alternatively be included as the manubrium, body of sternum, and the xiphoid process)  It is composed of 270 bones at the time of birth, but later decreases to 206: 80 bones in the axial skeleton and 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton  Many small accessory bones, such as sesamoid bones, are not included in this count 

Introduction
As a person ages, some bones fuse, a process which typically lasts until sometime within the third decade of life  Therefore, the number of bones in an individual may be evaluated differently throughout a lifetime  In addition, the bones of the skull and face are counted as separate bones, despite being fused naturally  Some reliable sesamoid bones such as the pisiform are counted, while others, such as the hallux sesamoids, are not 
Individuals may have more or fewer bones than the average (even accounting for developmental stage) owing to anatomical variations  The most common variations include sutural (wormian) bones, which are located along the sutural lines on the back of the skull, and sesamoid bones which develop within some tendons, mainly in the hands and feet  Some individuals may also have additional (i e , supernumerary) cervical ribs or lumbar vertebrae  Amputations or other injuries may result in the loss of bones  Complete bone fractures may split one bone into multiple pieces  Other genetic conditions may result in abnormally higher (e g  polydactyly or conjoined twins) or lower (e g  oligodactyly) counts of bones 

Bones
The axial skeleton, comprising the spine, chest and head, contains 80 bones  The appendicular skeleton, comprising the arms and legs, including the shoulder and pelvic girdles, contains 126 bones, bringing the total for the entire skeleton to 206 bones  Infants are born with about 270 bones with most of it being cartilage, but will later fuse together and decrease over time to 206 bones 

Spine (vertebral column)
A fully grown adult features 26 bones in the spine, whereas a child can have 34 

Cervical vertebrae (7 bones)
Thoracic vertebrae (12 bones)
Lumbar vertebrae (5 bones)
Sacrum (5 bones at birth, fused into one after adolescence)
Coccygeal vertebrae/Cordal (set of 4 bones at birth; some or all fuse together, but there seems to be a disagreement between researchers as to what the most common number should be  Some say the most common is 1, others say 2 or 3, with 4 being the least likely  It is counted as 1 in this article )

Chest (thorax)
There are 25 bones in the chest  The chest contains cartilage for the lungs to fill with air  

Sternum (1 or 3 bones  It is counted as 1 in this article )
Ribs (24, in 12 pairs)
Cervical ribs are extra ribs that occur in some people 

Head
There are 23 bones in the skull  Including the bones of the middle ear and the hyoid bone, the head contains 29 bones 

Cranial bones (8)
Occipital bone
Parietal bones (2)
Frontal bone
Temporal bones (2)
Sphenoid bone (sometimes counted as facial)
Ethmoid bone (sometimes counted as facial)
Facial bones (15)
Nasal bones (2)
Maxillae (upper jaw) (2)
Lacrimal bone (2)
Zygomatic bone (cheek bones) (2)
Palatine bone (2)
Inferior nasal concha (2)
Vomer (1)
Hyoid bone (1)
Mandible (1)
Middle ears (6 bones in total, 3 on each side)
Malleus (2)
Incus (2)
Stapes (2)

Upper limb (arm and forearm) and hand
There are a total of 64 bones in the arms, 32 in each arm

Upper arm bones (6 bones in total; 3 on each side)
Humerus (2)
Pectoral girdle (shoulder)
Scapula (2)
Clavicle (2)
Lower arm bones (4 bones in total, 2 on each side) left bone
Ulna (2) (Lined up with pinky)
Radius (2) (Lined up with thumb)
Hand (54 bones in total; 27 in each hand)
Carpals
Scaphoid bone (2)
Lunate bone (2)
Triquetral bone (2)
Pisiform bone (2)
Trapezium (2)
Trapezoid bone (2)
Capitate bone (2)
Hamate bone (2)
Metacarpals (10 bones in total; 5 on each side)
Phalanges of the hand (28 bones in total, 14 on each hand)
Proximal phalanges (10 bones in total; 5 on each side)
Intermediate phalanges (8 bones in total; 4 on each side)
Distal phalanges (10 bones in total; 5 on each side)

Pelvis (pelvic girdle)
The pelvis (or hip bone) is made up of three regions that have fused to form two coxal bones  They are the ilium, ischium, and pubis 

The sacrum and coccyx attach to the two hip bones to form the pelvis, but are more important to the spinal column, where they are counted The pelvis is one of two bones used to determine the sex of a skeleton, which is determined by examining the size of the greater sciatic notch (also known as the pelvic opening) 

Lower limb (thigh and leg) and foot
There are a total of 60 bones in the legs 

Femur (2)
Patella or kneecap (2)
Tibia (2)
Fibula (2)
Foot (52 bones in total, 26 per foot)
Tarsus/Tarsals
Calcaneus or heel bone (2)
Talus (2)
Navicular bone (2)
Medial cuneiform bone (2)
Intermediate cuneiform bone (2)
Lateral cuneiform bone (2)
Cuboid bone (2)
Metatarsals (10)
Phalanges of the foot (28 bones in total, 14 per foot)
Proximal phalanges (10)
Intermediate phalanges (8)
Distal phalanges (10)

See also
List of skeletal muscles of the human body
List of nerves of the human body
Circulatory system
Blood vessel
Passage 7:
2010 Elazığ earthquake
The 2010 Elazığ earthquake was a 6 1 Mw earthquake that occurred on 8 March 2010 at 02:32 UTC (04:32 local time)  The epicentre was Başyurt in Elazığ Province, in eastern Turkey  Initial reports in global media said as many as 57 people had died  By 10 March, reports in the Turkish media placed the death toll at 41 and later, the death toll rose to 42  Another 74 were injured, many after falling and jumping from buildings  A stampede through the streets led to further injuries The earthquake came one week to the day after the Turkish Chamber of Civil Engineers sent a report to parliament detailing inadequate building projects and the possibility that Istanbul would be destroyed by an earthquake, which could kill tens of thousands of people, at some point in the next three decades 

Earthquake
The quake occurred on the East Anatolian Fault, a major transform fault which represents  the boundary between the Anatolian Plate and the Arabian Plate 

Damage
According to officials, most of the deaths occurred in three villages: Okçular, Yukarı Kanatlı and Kayalı  At least five villages, though, suffered loss of life  Villagers fled buildings, spending the night outside and lighting fires in the streets for warmth Thirty houses collapsed in Okçular, and the death toll is at least 17  Reports from the scene indicate "the village is totally flattened" and "everything has been knocked down – there is not a stone in place" At least 25 people died in Yukarı Demirci, and emergency services went to Kovancılar Many people used vehicles and taxis to drive to the hospital  Most were asleep at the time the quake struck, with four sleeping sisters perishing in one house  Farm animals were also killed, and minarets fell down 

Aftershocks
Several aftershocks were felt, the strongest measuring 5 5 (at 09:47 local time), 5 1 (at 12:14) and 5 3 (at 13:12)  A total of over 20 aftershocks were counted within a short time following the quake  Villagers were told to stay away from buildings for several days due to the potential of further aftershocks Onur Tan et al  (2011) analyzed 2130 aftershocks (ML≥0 3) and reported in Geophysical Research Letters 

Response
Turkey: Four government ministers, including Deputy Prime Minister Cemil Çiçek, visited the scene as soon as news of the earthquake was reported  The Red Crescent and Turkey's disaster management centre donated blankets and tents  Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan later arrived  Pakistan: Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani sent a condolence message to his Turkish counterpart Recep Tayyip Erdoğan over the loss of lives and property and said that "We have learnt with utter sense of shock and profound sadness the news of the massive earthquake that has hit your beautiful country, today  Our hearts go out to our Turkish brethren over the loss of precious lives and destruction of property  I wish to convey, on behalf of the people and Government of Pakistan and on my own behalf our deepest condolences and commiserations to the people and Government of Turkey in bearing this enormous natural calamity " Israel: Defense Minister Ehud Barak ordered an aid proposal to be put together but later said that Turkey informed Israel that it did not require assistance at this time 

See also
2020 Elazığ earthquake
List of earthquakes in 2010
List of earthquakes in Turkey
Passage 8:
La Cantuta massacre
La Cantuta massacre took place in Peru on 18 July 1992, during the presidency of Alberto Fujimori  Supposed members of Shining Path, including a university professor and nine students from Lima's La Cantuta University, were abducted, tortured, and killed by Grupo Colina, a military death squad  The incident occurred two days after the Shining Path's Tarata bombing, which killed over 40 people in Lima Province 
The massacre was one of the crimes cited in the conviction of Fujimori on 7 April 2009, for human rights abuses 

Context
The Enrique Guzmán y Valle National Education University (Universidad Nacional de Educación Enrique Guzmán y Valle, or "UNE"; better known as "La Cantuta", from the neighbourhood in which it stands) was founded as a teacher-training college in 1822, granted its university charter in 1965, closed down by the military government in 1977, and reopened in 1980 Because of its remote location, far away from the centre of Lima, the fact that most of its students hailed from the impoverished interior of the country, and that most of them intended to enter the highly politicised teaching profession, La Cantuta gained a reputation as hotbed of radical politics, such as communism and anarchism as early as the late 1950s and early 1960s  A series of student-led protest actions on the campus — including the blocking of the railway line linking Lima with the interior of the country — that led to the suspension of its activities in 1977 With the return of democratic rule in 1980, President Belaúnde reopened the university  The radical elements among the students and lecturers were quick to return, and by the mid-1980s the country's two main insurgent groups, Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) and the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), had a strong presence on campus, being widely regarded as 2 very legitimate organisations  By the early 1990s, due to a strategic withdrawal by MRTA and the fragmentation of the other left-wing groups on campus, legal and illegal alike, Sendero Luminoso had the upper hand  This was in spite of operations such as that of 13 February 1987, when 4000 police officers conducted night-time raids at the dormitories of three state universities (including La Cantuta); 20 April 1989, when a joint force of police and army descended on La Cantuta University and San Marcos National University and arrested over 500 students on charges of subversion; or 22 May 1991, when, in response to a hostage crisis and rumors of an explosive device squirreled away on campus, Fujimori sent the army in to restore law and order at La Cantuta  Graffiti alluding to Sendero Luminoso and its leader, Abimael Guzmán, were painted over with patriotic slogans; students went about their business only after passing checkpoints and under close supervision from the armed forces; and the campus remained under military control for several years 

Abduction of July 1992
In the pre-dawn hours of 18 July 1992, two days after the Tarata bombing, members of the Army Intelligence Service (SIE) and the Army Directorate of Intelligence (DINTE), most of whom were attached to the recently established Grupo Colina death squad, burst into the residences of the Enrique Guzmán y Valle National University Once inside, the troops forced all the students to leave their rooms and lie belly-down on the floor  Nine students believed to be linked to the Tarata Bombing — Bertila Lozano Torres, Dora Oyague Fierro, Luis Enrique Ortiz Perea, Armando Richard Amaro Cóndor, Robert Édgar Teodoro Espinoza, Heráclides Pablo Meza, Felipe Flores Chipana, Marcelino Rosales Cárdenas, and Juan Gabriel Mariños Figueroa — were separated from the others and taken away  Meanwhile, in the staff residences, a group of soldiers broke into the home of professor Hugo Muñoz Sánchez  After searching his bedroom, they gagged the professor and led him away 

Prosecutions and amnesty
In April 1993, a group of Peruvian military officers anonymously released a document detailing the events at La Cantuta  Their document claimed the death squad had abducted the victims, tortured and murdered them, and then hurriedly buried them; later, they claimed, after questions had been raised in Congress, that the armed forces had exhumed, incinerated, and reburied the bodies in another location  The military whistleblowers named the members of Grupo Colina involved, identified the operations chief as Major Santiago Martín Rivas, and suggested that the group operated on the orders of Vladimiro Montesinos, head of the National Intelligence Service (SIN) and a close advisor to President Fujimori 
On 6 May, Lt  Gen  Humberto Robles Espinoza, the army's third highest-ranking officer, publicly denounced a number of human rights violations committed by the SIN and the armed forces, including the La Cantuta killings  He was later dismissed from duty and subjected to death threats, and finally fled the country for political asylum in Argentina In June 1993, Justo Arizapana Vicente, a recycler, and his friend Guillermo Cataroca, leaked a marked map to congress man Roger Cáceres Velásquez and Radio Comas journalist Juan Jara Berrospi  Cáceres then shared the map with Ricardo Uceda at the news magazine Sí, who published it in July of that year  Mariella Barreto, an agent of the Peruvian Army Intelligence Service, is also sometimes credited with leaking this map to a Peruvian magazine  An investigation of the site indicated on the map by the public prosecutor revealed four clandestine graves  Forensic tests conducted on the remains, and on another set of bones found at another site, revealed that they belonged to Muñoz Sánchez and the students Luis Enrique Ortiz Perea, Armando Amaro Condor, and Juan Gabriel Mariños Figueroa, and that at least some of them had been tortured prior to receiving an execution-style coup-de-grâce to the base of the neck  Barreto was murdered some years later: her decapitated and dismembered corpse, showing signs of ante-mortem torture, was found in March 1997  A few weeks after Mariella Barreto's death, her colleague Leonor La Rosa, was on TV in a hospital bed, declaring she had been tortured and that Barreto had been killed in retaliation for leaking information to the press about the Groupo Colina's plan to intimidate journalists and politicians from the opposition The military authorities had begun an investigation into the killings in May 1993  In addition, in December 1993, a civilian prosecutor filed criminal charges against several named members of the military  A conflict of jurisdiction thus arose between the military and civilian courts  The controversy was placed before the Supreme Court which, on 3 February 1994, ruled that it was unable to reach agreement on which venue should apply  Consequently, on the night of 7 February, Congress enacted a new law whereby the Supreme Court could decide such matters with a simple majority, instead of a unanimous vote  By a three-to-two vote of the Supreme Court's criminal division, the case was placed under military jurisdiction On 21 February 1994, the Supreme Council of Military Justice (CSJM) sentenced ten of the perpetrators to prison sentences of between one and 20 years Following Fujimori's landslide re-election in April 1995, in another all-night session on 14 June 1995, Congress enacted law No  26479, the "Amnesty Law", ordering the release of all police officers, soldiers, and civil servants convicted of or charged with civilian or military crimes during Peru's War on Terrorism  On 15 July, the Supreme Council of Military Justice ordered the release of all the individuals convicted for the La Cantuta killings 

Repeal of the Amnesty Law
The Amnesty Law was repealed after the Fujimori government in 2000 and, on 21 March 2001, Attorney General Nelly Calderón presented charges against Fujimori, accusing him of being one of the "co-authors" of this massacre and of the 1991 Barrios Altos massacre  She presented evidence that Fujimori, acting in concert with SIN supremo Vladimiro Montesinos, exercised control over Grupo Colina  The charges alleged that the group could not have committed crimes of this magnitude without Fujimori's express orders or consent, and that the formation and function of the Colina group was part of an overall counter-insurgency policy that involved systematic violations of human rights 

Prosecutions and apology
In November 2005, Fujimori was detained in Chile  Peruvian authorities filed for his extradition to face charges arising from various incidents during his presidency, including the La Cantuta massacre, and he was returned to Peru on 22 September 2007 
On 8 April 2008, a court found a number of people, including Julio Salazar, guilty of kidnapping, homicide, and forced disappearance In October 2007, pursuant to a 2006 ruling from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the government extended a formal apology for the massacre and undertook to make amends to the victims' next-of-kin, including compensation in the amount of US$1 8 million 

Fujimori's trial
During the trial of Alberto Fujimori, it was asserted by former Colina member José William Tena Jacinto that at least two of the victims were positively identified as Shining Path members Lieutenant Aquilino Portella and the Dean of the Social Science Department of the University, Claudio Cajahuaringa, have also claimed that Professor Hugo Muñoz Sánchez and student Bertila Lozano Torres were involved with Shining Path  In the case of Lozano, it was claimed that documents allegedly in her possession revealed that she was indeed an actual member of the insurgent organization In 2009 it was determined by a judicial ruling that not a single one of the victims in La Cantuta massacre was linked to any terrorist organization, it was in the same ruling that condemned Fujimori to a 25 years imprisonment for crimes against humanity 

See also
List of massacres in Peru

Notes
External links
"The La Canuta Case"  APRODEH 
La Cantuta Case – Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
La Cantuta Case vs  Peru – Inter-American Court of Human Rights
La Cantuta – Truth and Reconciliation Commission, final report (PDF; Spanish)
La Cantuta – overview (MIT Western Hemisphere Project)
La Cantuta – summary of events (Spanish)
Questions and answers about Fujimori's criminal prosecution – Human Rights Watch
Passage 9:
La Silvia
La Silvia (RV 734) is an dramma pastorale per musica in three acts by Antonio Vivaldi to an Italian libretto by Enrico Bissari  It was first performed on 28 August 1721 at the Teatro Regio Ducale in Milan on the occasion of the birthday celebrations of the Austrian Empress Elisabeth Christine, wife of Emperor Charles VI of Austria 

Background
In 1718 Vivaldi had been nominated maestro di cappella di camera, at the court of Philipp von Hessen-Darmstadt in Mantua for whom he composed Armida al campo d'Egitto, Teuzzone, Scanderbeg (all 1718) and then Tito Manlio (1719) and La Candace (1720)  On his return to Venice, following performance of La verità in cimento at the Teatro Sant'Angelo, Vivaldi, thinly disguised as "Aldiviva", became, along with Giovanni Porta, Anna Maria Strada and others, one of the principal targets of the gentleman-composer Benedetto Marcello's satirical pamphlet Il teatro alla moda (written 1718-1719, published 1720) Bissari's text had originally been written in 1710 as a play for Princess Teresa Kunegunda Sobieska, second wife of the Bavarian elector Maximillian II Emmanuel  The opera was performed again in Milan in 1723 and 1724  8 of the arias are preserved in the Biblioteca Nazionale di Torino 

Roles
Recordings
2001 (reconstruction of nine surviving arias) Roberta Invernizzi, Gloria Banditelli, John Elwes, Philippe Cantor   Ensemble Baroque de Nice, dir  Gilbert Bezzina  Ligia  1CD 
Passage 10:
Giovanni Cifolelli
Giovanni Cifolelli was an Italian mandolin virtuoso and dramatic composer whose date and place of birth are unknown  In 1764 he made his appearance in Paris as a mandolin virtuoso and was highly esteemed, both as a performer and teacher  He published his Method for the mandolin while residing in Paris, which met with great success throughout France, being the most popular of its period 
His chief works were the operas L'Italienne and Pierre et Lucette, the former being an opera bouffe in one act (with the storyline or libretto by Nicolas-Étienne Framery)  These works were commissioned by the Comedie Italienne, Paris, and were produced at this theatre successfully, in 1770 and 1774  Several of the songs and duets in Pierre and Lucette were exceedingly popular in France, and they were republished in Paris in 1775 and 1780 

Works
L'Italienne  : comédie en 1 acte, mêlée d'ariettes (Paris, 1770)
Pierre et Lucette, comédie en deux actes et en prose mêlée d'ariettes (Paris, 1774)
Airs détachés de Perin et Lucette, comédie en deux actes, mêlées d'ariettes par M  Davesne (Paris, 1775)
Ariette nouvelle avec accompagnement de deux violons et basse
Non, laisse moi, laisse moi, Lucas  Duo (1775)



ground_truth: 22

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the voice of the character in Spongebob Squarepants with the same name as the creature that annelid larvae live like?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Mary Jo Catlett
Mary Jo Catlett (born September 2, 1938) is an American actress  She is a main cast member on the animated series SpongeBob SquarePants, providing the voice of Mrs  Puff  She is also known for originating the role of Ernestina in the 1964 Broadway production of Hello, Dolly! and for playing Pearl Gallagher, the third housekeeper on Diff'rent Strokes Catlett was born in Denver, Colorado, where she performed in a variety of plays and eventually directed a company of Pirates of Penzance  Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, she performed in Off-Broadway and Broadway musicals, often taking light-hearted, humorous roles  Since the late 1960s, Catlett has appeared in television shows such as M*A*S*H, The Dukes of Hazzard, and General Hospital  Catlett received Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Awards in 1978 and 1980, a nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical at the Ovation Awards in 1995, and a Daytime Emmy Award nomination in 1990 In 1998, Catlett joined the main cast of the then-upcoming cartoon SpongeBob SquarePants as the voice of Mrs  Puff, the title character's teacher, who has become her longest-running and most well-known role  Series creator Stephen Hillenburg had seen Catlett perform on stage and sought her out for the part himself  She quickly accepted and has since voiced Mrs  Puff in every season of the cartoon, in addition to all of the theatrical SpongeBob films and video games  In 2001, she received an Annie Award nomination for her voice-over work as Mrs  Puff 

Early life
Catlett was born in Denver, Colorado, on September 2, 1938, the daughter of Cornelia M  (née Callaghan) and Robert J  Catlett  She has a sister, Patricia Marie, who is a nun with the Dominican Order  Catlett is a Catholic 

Career
In 1974, Catlett originated the role of Mrs  Tiffany in Fashion: or, Life in New York  Her performance was well-received; The New York Times' theater critic Clive Barnes called Catlett and co-star Henrietta Valor "exceptional     both particular delights," and Jerry Tallmer of the New York Post said that the play's casting was "top-notch, with particular praise from this quarter for Mary Jo Catlett " Catlett would reprise her role in the 1994 revival of Fashion Catlett described herself as a character actress  In a 1988 interview with the Orlando Sentinel, she said, "It has been a plus to be a character actress  There are plenty of them out there but far fewer than ingenues and leading ladies, who perhaps eventually become character actresses  But I always was a character actress  I always was round and funny "

In 1976 and 1980, Catlett received Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Awards for her roles in Come Back, Little Sheba and Philadelphia, Here I Come!, respectively  In 1995, Catlett's role as Madame de la Grande Bouche in Beauty and the Beast earned her a nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical at the Ovation Awards  Catlett became a main cast member on Diff'rent Strokes in its fifth season, playing the third housekeeper, Pearl Gallagher  She also played characters on General Hospital (for which she was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award) and in several episodes of the television sitcom M*A*S*H 
In 1987, Catlett directed a production of Dan Goggin's Nunsense after meeting with Goggin and discussing the character of Sister Mary Regina  It was staged at the Mark Two Dinner Theatre in Orlando, Florida  Catlett decided to play Sister Mary as well, taking on a dual role as both director and performer  She was partially inspired to direct the show after witnessing directors' unfair treatment of her castmates in previous productions  She said, "I have worked with many directors who were tyrannical  You get afraid to do anything because he'll yell, 'Don't do that!' It makes you crazy    as a director, I believe that there can be a democracy "

SpongeBob SquarePants
In 1998, Catlett was cast as the voice of Mrs  Puff, one of the main characters of Nickelodeon's then-upcoming animated series SpongeBob SquarePants  She is one of the show's nine main cast members and has performed in every season, as well as in all of the theatrical SpongeBob films and video games  Mrs  Puff has become her longest-running and most well-known role  Stephen Hillenburg, the creator of the cartoon, specifically sought out Catlett to voice Mrs  Puff  He had seen her perform on stage and had a strong vision for Mrs  Puff as a character  Catlett quickly accepted and attended early practice sessions with the rest of the voice cast  Her first official recording as Mrs  Puff took place on August 24, 1998; she recorded dialogue with Tom Kenny as SpongeBob SquarePants and Bill Fagerbakke as Patrick Star in a single booth at Nickelodeon Animation Studio for the episode "Boating School" 
In 2001, Catlett was nominated for an Annie Award for her voice-over work as Mrs  Puff, placing in the category "Best Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Production " Kenny was also nominated at the same ceremony, making Catlett and Kenny the first two SpongeBob cast members to be nominated for an award 
As of 2017, voicing Mrs  Puff is Catlett's only regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she is good friends with the other SpongeBob cast members, making the SpongeBob recording booth an easy environment that requires less preparation than in-person performances  The About Group's Nancy Basille noted in 2016 that Catlett's "rich, low tones as teacher Mrs  Puff recall other roles she has had," citing Diff'rent Strokes and M*A*S*H as programs on which she had used a similar voice 

Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Theatre
Passage 2:
Annelid
The annelids  (Annelida , from Latin anellus, "little ring"), also known as the segmented worms, are a large phylum, with over 22,000 extant species including ragworms, earthworms, and leeches  The species exist in and have adapted to various ecologies – some in marine environments as distinct as tidal zones and hydrothermal vents, others in fresh water, and yet others in moist terrestrial environments 
The Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms  They also have parapodia for locomotion  Most textbooks still use the traditional division into polychaetes (almost all marine), oligochaetes (which include earthworms) and leech-like species  Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes  In addition, the Pogonophora, Echiura and Sipuncula, previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes  Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa, a "super-phylum" of protostomes that also includes molluscs, brachiopods, and nemerteans 
The basic annelid form consists of multiple segments  Each segment has the same sets of organs and, in most polychates, has a pair of parapodia that many species use for locomotion  Septa separate the segments of many species, but are poorly defined or absent in others, and Echiura and Sipuncula show no obvious signs of segmentation  In species with well-developed septa, the blood circulates entirely within blood vessels, and the vessels in segments near the front ends of these species are often built up with muscles that act as hearts  The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments, which facilitates movement by peristalsis ("ripples" that pass along the body) or by undulations that improve the effectiveness of the parapodia  In species with incomplete septa or none, the blood circulates through the main body cavity without any kind of pump, and there is a wide range of locomotory techniques – some burrowing species turn their pharynges inside out to drag themselves through the sediment 
Earthworms are oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil  The burrowing of marine polychaetes, which may constitute up to a third of all species in near-shore environments, encourages the development of ecosystems by enabling water and oxygen to penetrate the sea floor  In addition to improving soil fertility, annelids serve humans as food and as bait  Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water  Although blood-letting is used less frequently by doctors than it once was, some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over-harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries  Ragworms' jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer an exceptional combination of lightness and strength 
Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare – mostly jaws and the mineralized tubes that some of the species secreted  Although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids, the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period  Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous, about 299 million years ago  Palaeontologists disagree about whether some body fossils from the mid Ordovician, about 472 to 461 million years ago, are the remains of oligochaetes, and the earliest indisputable fossils of the group appear in the Paleogene period, which began 66 million years ago 

Classification and diversity
There are over 22,000 living annelid species, ranging in size from microscopic to the Australian giant Gippsland earthworm and Amynthas mekongianus, which can both grow up to 3 meters (9 8 ft) long  to the largest annelid, Microchaetus rappi which can grow up to 6 7 m (22 ft)  Although research since 1997 has radically changed scientists' views about the evolutionary family tree of the annelids, most textbooks use the traditional classification into the following sub-groups:
Polychaetes (about 12,000 species)  As their name suggests, they have multiple chetae ("hairs") per segment  Polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, and nuchal organs that are thought to be chemosensors  Most are marine animals, although a few species live in fresh water and even fewer on land 
Clitellates (about 10,000 species )  These have few or no chetae per segment, and no nuchal organs or parapodia  However, they have a unique reproductive organ, the ring-shaped  clitellum ("pack saddle") around their bodies, which produces a cocoon that stores and nourishes fertilized eggs until they hatch  or, in moniligastrids, yolky eggs that provide nutrition for the embryos  The clitellates are sub-divided into:Oligochaetes ("with few hairs"), which includes earthworms  Oligochaetes have a sticky pad in the roof of the mouth  Most are burrowers that feed on wholly or partly decomposed organic materials 
Hirudinea, whose name means "leech-shaped" and whose best known members are leeches  Marine species are mostly blood-sucking parasites, mainly on fish, while most freshwater species are predators  They have suckers at both ends of their bodies, and use these to move rather like inchworms The Archiannelida, minute annelids that live in the spaces between grains of marine sediment, were treated as a separate class because of their simple body structure, but are now regarded as polychaetes  Some other groups of animals have been classified in various ways, but are now widely regarded as annelids:

Pogonophora / Siboglinidae were first discovered in 1914, and their lack of a recognizable gut made it difficult to classify them  They have been classified as a separate phylum, Pogonophora, or as two phyla, Pogonophora and Vestimentifera  More recently they have been re-classified as a family, Siboglinidae, within the polychaetes 
The Echiura have a checkered taxonomic history: in the 19th century they were assigned to the phylum "Gephyrea", which is now empty as its members have been assigned to other phyla; the Echiura were next regarded as annelids until the 1940s, when they were classified as a phylum in their own right; but a molecular phylogenetics analysis in 1997 concluded that echiurans are annelids 
Myzostomida live on crinoids and other echinoderms, mainly as parasites  In the past they have been regarded as close relatives of the trematode flatworms or of the tardigrades, but in 1998 it was suggested that they are a sub-group of polychaetes  However, another analysis in 2002 suggested that myzostomids are more closely related to flatworms or to rotifers and acanthocephales 
Sipuncula was originally classified as annelids, despite the complete lack of segmentation, bristles and other annelid characters  The phylum Sipuncula was later allied with the Mollusca, mostly on the basis of developmental and larval characters  Phylogenetic analyses based on 79 ribosomal proteins indicated a position of Sipuncula within Annelida  Subsequent analysis of the mitochondrion's DNA has confirmed their close relationship to the Myzostomida and Annelida (including echiurans and pogonophorans)  It has also been shown that a rudimentary neural segmentation similar to that of annelids occurs in the early larval stage, even if these traits are absent in the adults Mitogenomic and phylogenomic analysis also implies that Orthonectida, a group of extremely simplified parasites traditionally placed in Mesozoa, are actually reduced annelids 

Distinguishing features
No single feature distinguishes Annelids from other invertebrate phyla, but they have a distinctive combination of features  Their bodies are long, with segments that are divided externally by shallow ring-like constrictions called annuli and internally by septa ("partitions") at the same points, although in some species the septa are incomplete and in a few cases missing  Most of the segments contain the same sets of organs, although sharing a common gut, circulatory system and nervous system makes them inter-dependent  Their bodies are covered by a cuticle (outer covering) that does not contain cells but is secreted by cells in the skin underneath, is made of tough but flexible collagen and does not molt – on the other hand arthropods' cuticles are made of the more rigid α-chitin, and molt until the arthropods reach their full size  Most annelids have closed circulatory systems, where the blood makes its entire circuit via blood vessels 

Description
Segmentation
Most of an annelid's body consists of segments that are practically identical, having the same sets of internal organs and external chaetae (Greek χαιτη, meaning "hair") and, in some species, appendages  The frontmost and rearmost sections are not regarded as true segments as they do not contain the standard sets of organs and do not develop in the same way as the true segments  The frontmost section, called the prostomium (Greek προ- meaning "in front of" and στομα meaning "mouth") contains the brain and sense organs, while the rearmost, called the pygidium (Greek πυγιδιον, meaning "little tail") or periproct contains the anus, generally on the underside  The first section behind the prostomium, called the peristomium (Greek περι- meaning "around" and στομα meaning "mouth"), is regarded by some zoologists as not a true segment, but in some polychaetes the peristomium has chetae and appendages like those of other segments The segments develop one at a time from a growth zone just ahead of the pygidium, so that an annelid's youngest segment is just in front of the growth zone while the peristomium is the oldest  This pattern is called teloblastic growth  Some groups of annelids, including all leeches, have fixed maximum numbers of segments, while others add segments throughout their lives 
The phylum's name is derived from the Latin word annelus, meaning "little ring" 

Body wall, chaetae and parapodia
Annelids' cuticles are made of collagen fibers, usually in layers that spiral in alternating directions so that the fibers cross each other  These are secreted by the one-cell deep epidermis (outermost skin layer)  A few marine annelids that live in tubes lack cuticles, but their tubes have a similar structure, and mucus-secreting glands in the epidermis protect their skins  Under the epidermis is the dermis, which is made of connective tissue, in other words a combination of cells and non-cellular materials such as collagen  Below this are two layers of muscles, which develop from the lining of the coelom (body cavity): circular muscles make a segment longer and slimmer when they contract, while under them are longitudinal muscles, usually four distinct strips,  whose contractions make the segment shorter and fatter  But several families have lost the circular muscles, and it has been suggested that the lack of circular muscles is a plesiomorphic character in Annelida  Some annelids also have oblique internal muscles that connect the underside of the body to each side The setae ("hairs") of annelids project out from the epidermis to provide traction and other capabilities  The simplest are unjointed and form paired bundles near the top and bottom of each side of each segment  The parapodia ("limbs") of annelids that have them often bear more complex chetae at their tips – for example jointed, comb-like or hooked  Chetae are made of moderately flexible β-chitin and are formed by follicles, each of which has a chetoblast ("hair-forming") cell at the bottom and muscles that can extend or retract the cheta  The chetoblasts produce chetae by forming microvilli, fine hair-like extensions that increase the area available for secreting the cheta  When the cheta is complete, the microvilli withdraw into the chetoblast, leaving parallel tunnels that run almost the full length of the cheta  Hence annelids' chetae are structurally different from the setae ("bristles") of arthropods, which are made of the more rigid α-chitin, have a single internal cavity, and are mounted on flexible joints in shallow pits in the cuticle Nearly all polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, while other major annelid groups lack them  Parapodia are unjointed paired extensions of the body wall, and their muscles are derived from the circular muscles of the body  They are often supported internally by one or more large, thick chetae  The parapodia of burrowing and tube-dwelling polychaetes are often just ridges whose tips bear hooked chetae  In active crawlers and swimmers the parapodia are often divided into large upper and lower paddles on a very short trunk, and the paddles are generally fringed with chetae and sometimes with cirri (fused bundles of cilia) and gills 

Nervous system and senses
The brain generally forms a ring round the pharynx (throat), consisting of a pair of ganglia (local control centers) above and in front of the pharynx, linked by nerve cords either side of the pharynx to another pair of ganglia just below and behind it  The brains of polychaetes are generally in the prostomium, while those of clitellates are in the peristomium or sometimes the first segment behind the prostomium  In some very mobile and active polychaetes the brain is enlarged and more complex, with visible hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain sections  The rest of the central nervous system, the ventral nerve cord, is generally "ladder-like", consisting of a pair of nerve cords that run through the bottom part of the body and have in each segment paired ganglia linked by a transverse connection  From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body  However, in most polychaetes the two main nerve cords are fused, and in the tube-dwelling genus Owenia the single nerve chord has no ganglia and is located in the epidermis As in arthropods, each muscle fiber (cell) is controlled by more than one neuron, and the speed and power of the fiber's contractions depends on the combined effects of all its neurons  Vertebrates have a different system, in which one neuron controls a group of muscle fibers  Most annelids' longitudinal nerve trunks include giant axons (the output signal lines of nerve cells)  Their large diameter decreases their resistance, which allows them to transmit signals exceptionally fast  This enables these worms to withdraw rapidly from danger by shortening their bodies  Experiments have shown that cutting the giant axons prevents this escape response but does not affect normal movement The sensors are primarily single cells that detect light, chemicals, pressure waves and contact, and are present on the head, appendages (if any) and other parts of the body  Nuchal ("on the neck") organs are paired, ciliated structures found only in polychaetes, and are thought to be chemosensors  Some polychaetes also have various combinations of ocelli ("little eyes") that detect the direction from which light is coming and camera eyes or compound eyes that can probably form images  The compound eyes probably evolved independently of arthropods' eyes  Some tube-worms use ocelli widely spread over their bodies to detect the shadows of fish, so that they can quickly withdraw into their tubes  Some burrowing and tube-dwelling polychaetes have statocysts (tilt and balance sensors) that tell them which way is down  A few polychaete genera have on the undersides of their heads palps that are used both in feeding and as "feelers", and some of these also have antennae that are structurally similar but probably are used mainly as "feelers" 

Coelom, locomotion and circulatory system
Most annelids have a pair of coelomata (body cavities) in each segment, separated from other segments by septa and from each other by vertical mesenteries  Each septum forms a sandwich with connective tissue in the middle and mesothelium (membrane that serves as a lining) from the preceding and following segments on either side  Each mesentery is similar except that the mesothelium is the lining of each of the pair of coelomata, and the blood vessels and, in polychaetes, the main nerve cords are embedded in it   The mesothelium is made of modified epitheliomuscular cells; in other words, their bodies form part of the epithelium but their bases extend to form muscle fibers in the body wall  The mesothelium may also form radial and circular muscles on the septa, and circular muscles around the blood vessels and gut  Parts of the mesothelium, especially on the outside of the gut, may also form chloragogen cells that perform similar functions to the livers of vertebrates: producing and storing glycogen and fat; producing the oxygen-carrier hemoglobin; breaking down proteins; and turning nitrogenous waste products into ammonia and urea to be excreted 

Many annelids move by peristalsis (waves of contraction and expansion that sweep along the body), or flex the body while using parapodia  to crawl or swim  In these animals the septa enable the circular and longitudinal muscles to change the shape of individual segments, by making each segment a separate fluid-filled "balloon"  However, the septa are often incomplete in annelids that are semi-sessile or that do not move by peristalsis or by movements of parapodia – for example some move by whipping movements of the body, some small marine species move by means of cilia (fine muscle-powered hairs) and some burrowers turn their pharynges (throats) inside out to penetrate the sea-floor and drag themselves into it The fluid in the coelomata contains coelomocyte cells that defend the animals against parasites and infections  In some species coelomocytes may also contain a respiratory pigment – red hemoglobin in some species, green chlorocruorin in others (dissolved in the plasma) – and provide oxygen transport within their segments  Respiratory pigment is also dissolved in the blood plasma  Species with well-developed septa generally also have blood vessels running all long their bodies above and below the gut, the upper one carrying blood forwards while the lower one carries it backwards  Networks of capillaries in the body wall and around the gut transfer blood between the main blood vessels and to parts of the segment that need oxygen and nutrients  Both of the major vessels, especially the upper one, can pump blood by contracting  In some annelids the forward end of the upper blood vessel is enlarged with muscles to form a heart, while in the forward ends of many earthworms some of the vessels that connect the upper and lower main vessels function as hearts  Species with poorly developed or no septa generally have no blood vessels and rely on the circulation within the coelom for delivering nutrients and oxygen However, leeches and their closest relatives have a body structure that is very uniform within the group but significantly different from that of other annelids, including other members of the Clitellata  In leeches there are no septa, the connective tissue layer of the body wall is so thick that it occupies much of the body, and the two coelomata are widely separated and run the length of the body  They function as the main blood vessels, although they are side-by-side rather than upper and lower  However, they are lined with mesothelium, like the coelomata and unlike the blood vessels of other annelids  Leeches generally use suckers at their front and rear ends to move like inchworms  The anus is on the upper surface of the pygidium 

Respiration
In some annelids, including earthworms, all respiration is via the skin  However, many polychaetes and some clitellates (the group to which earthworms belong) have gills associated with most segments, often as extensions of the parapodia in polychaetes  The gills of tube-dwellers and burrowers usually cluster around whichever end has the stronger water flow 

Feeding and excretion
Feeding structures in the mouth region vary widely, and have little correlation with the animals' diets  Many polychaetes have a muscular pharynx that can be everted (turned inside out to extend it)  In these animals the foremost few segments often lack septa so that, when the muscles in these segments contract, the sharp increase in fluid pressure from all these segments everts the pharynx very quickly  Two families, the Eunicidae and Phyllodocidae, have evolved jaws, which can be used for seizing prey, biting off pieces of vegetation, or grasping dead and decaying matter  On the other hand, some predatory polychaetes have neither jaws nor eversible pharynges   Selective deposit feeders generally live in tubes on the sea-floor and use palps to find food particles in the sediment and then wipe them into their mouths  Filter feeders use "crowns" of palps covered in cilia that wash food particles towards their mouths  Non-selective deposit feeders ingest soil or marine sediments via mouths that are generally unspecialized  Some clitellates have sticky pads in the roofs of their mouths, and some of these can evert the pads to capture prey  Leeches often have an eversible proboscis, or a muscular pharynx with two or three teeth The gut is generally an almost straight tube supported by the mesenteries (vertical partitions within segments), and ends with the anus on the underside of the pygidium  However, in members of the tube-dwelling family Siboglinidae the gut is blocked by a swollen lining that houses symbiotic bacteria, which can make up 15% of the worms' total weight  The bacteria convert inorganic matter – such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from hydrothermal vents, or methane from seeps – to organic matter that feeds themselves and their hosts, while the worms extend their palps into the gas flows to absorb the gases needed by the bacteria Annelids with blood vessels use metanephridia to remove soluble waste products, while those without use protonephridia  Both of these systems use a two-stage filtration process, in which fluid and waste products are first extracted and these are filtered again to re-absorb any re-usable materials while dumping toxic and spent materials as urine  The difference is that protonephridia combine both filtration stages in the same organ, while metanephridia perform only the second filtration and rely on other mechanisms for the first – in annelids special filter cells in the walls of the blood vessels let fluids and other small molecules pass into the coelomic fluid, where it circulates to the metanephridia  In annelids the points at which fluid enters the protonephridia or metanephridia are on the forward side of a septum while the second-stage filter and the nephridiopore (exit opening in the body wall) are in the following segment  As a result, the hindmost segment (before the growth zone and pygidium) has no structure that extracts its wastes, as there is no following segment to filter and discharge them, while the first segment contains an extraction structure that passes wastes to the second, but does not contain the structures that re-filter and discharge urine 

Reproduction and life cycle
Asexual reproduction
Polychaetes can reproduce asexually, by dividing into two or more pieces or by budding off a new individual while the parent remains a complete organism  Some oligochaetes, such as Aulophorus furcatus, seem to reproduce entirely asexually, while others reproduce asexually in summer and sexually in autumn  Asexual reproduction in oligochaetes is always by dividing into two or more pieces, rather than by budding  However, leeches have never been seen reproducing asexually Most polychaetes and oligochaetes also use similar mechanisms to regenerate after suffering damage  Two polychaete genera, Chaetopterus and Dodecaceria, can regenerate from a single segment, and others can regenerate even if their heads are removed  Annelids are the most complex animals that can regenerate after such severe damage  On the other hand, leeches cannot regenerate 

Sexual reproduction
It is thought that annelids were originally animals with two separate sexes, which released ova and sperm into the water via their nephridia  The fertilized eggs develop into trochophore larvae, which live as plankton  Later they sink to the sea-floor and metamorphose into miniature adults: the part of the trochophore between the apical tuft and the prototroch becomes the prostomium (head);  a small area round the trochophore's anus becomes the pygidium (tail-piece); a narrow band immediately in front of that becomes the growth zone that produces new segments; and the rest of the trochophore becomes the peristomium (the segment that contains the mouth) However, the lifecycles of most living polychaetes, which are almost all marine animals, are unknown, and only about 25% of the 300+ species whose lifecycles are known follow this pattern  About 14% use a similar external fertilization but produce yolk-rich eggs, which reduce the time the larva needs to spend among the plankton, or eggs from which miniature adults emerge rather than larvae  The rest care for the fertilized eggs until they hatch – some by producing jelly-covered masses of eggs which they tend, some by attaching the eggs to their bodies and a few species by keeping the eggs within their bodies until they hatch  These species use a variety of methods for sperm transfer; for example, in some the females collect sperm released into the water, while in others the males have a penis that inject sperm into the female  There is no guarantee that this is a representative sample of polychaetes' reproductive patterns, and it simply reflects scientists' current knowledge Some polychaetes breed only once in their lives, while others breed almost continuously or through several breeding seasons  While most polychaetes remain of one sex all their lives, a significant percentage of species are full hermaphrodites or change sex during their lives  Most polychaetes whose reproduction has been studied lack permanent gonads, and it is uncertain how they produce ova and sperm  In a few species the rear of the body splits off and becomes a separate individual that lives just long enough to swim to a suitable environment, usually near the surface, and spawn Most mature clitellates (the group that includes earthworms and leeches) are full hermaphrodites, although in a few leech species younger adults function as males and become female at maturity  All have well-developed gonads, and all copulate  Earthworms store their partners' sperm in spermathecae ("sperm stores") and then the clitellum produces a cocoon that collects ova from the ovaries and then sperm from the spermathecae  Fertilization and development of earthworm eggs takes place in the cocoon  Leeches' eggs are fertilized in the ovaries, and then transferred to the cocoon  In all clitellates the cocoon also either produces yolk when the eggs are fertilized or nutrients while they are developing  All clitellates hatch as miniature adults rather than larvae 

Ecological significance
Charles Darwin's book The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms (1881) presented the first scientific analysis of earthworms' contributions to soil fertility  Some burrow while others live entirely on the surface, generally in moist leaf litter  The burrowers loosen the soil so that oxygen and water can penetrate it, and both surface and burrowing worms help to produce soil by mixing organic and mineral matter, by accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and thus making it more quickly available to other organisms, and by concentrating minerals and converting them to forms that plants can use more easily  Earthworms are also important prey for birds ranging in size from robins to storks, and for mammals ranging from shrews to badgers, and in some cases conserving earthworms may be essential for conserving endangered birds Terrestrial annelids can be invasive in some situations  In the glaciated areas of North America, for example, almost all native earthworms are thought to have been killed by the glaciers and the worms currently found in those areas are all introduced from other areas, primarily from Europe, and, more recently, from Asia   Northern hardwood forests are especially negatively impacted by invasive worms through the loss of leaf duff, soil fertility, changes in soil chemistry and the loss of ecological diversity  Especially of concern is Amynthas agrestis and at least one state (Wisconsin) has listed it as a prohibited species 
Earthworms migrate only a limited distance annually on their own, and the spread of invasive worms is increased rapidly by anglers and from worms or their cocoons in the dirt on vehicle tires or footwear 
Marine annelids may account for over one-third of bottom-dwelling animal species around coral reefs and in tidal zones  Burrowing species increase the penetration of water and oxygen into the sea-floor sediment, which encourages the growth of populations of aerobic bacteria and small animals alongside their burrows Although blood-sucking leeches do little direct harm to their victims, some transmit flagellates that can be very dangerous to their hosts  Some small tube-dwelling oligochaetes transmit myxosporean parasites that cause whirling disease in fish 

Interaction with humans
Earthworms make a significant contribution to soil fertility  The rear end of the Palolo worm, a marine polychaete that tunnels through coral, detaches in order to spawn at the surface, and the people of Samoa regard these spawning modules as a delicacy  Anglers sometimes find that worms are more effective bait than artificial flies, and worms can be kept for several days in a tin lined with damp moss   Ragworms are commercially important as bait and as food sources for aquaculture, and there have been proposals to farm them in order to reduce over-fishing of their natural populations  Some marine polychaetes' predation on molluscs causes serious losses to fishery and aquaculture operations Scientists study aquatic annelids to monitor the oxygen content, salinity and pollution levels in fresh and marine water Accounts of the use of leeches for the medically dubious practise of blood-letting have come from China around 30 AD, India around 200 AD, ancient Rome around 50 AD and later throughout Europe  In the 19th century medical demand for leeches was so high that some areas' stocks were exhausted and other regions imposed restrictions or bans on exports, and Hirudo medicinalis is treated as an endangered species by both IUCN and CITES  More recently leeches have been used to assist in microsurgery, and their saliva has provided anti-inflammatory compounds and several important anticoagulants, one of which also prevents tumors from spreading Ragworms' jaws are strong but much lighter than the hard parts of many other organisms, which are biomineralized with calcium salts  These advantages have attracted the attention of engineers  Investigations showed that ragworm jaws are made of unusual  proteins that bind strongly to zinc 

Evolutionary history
Fossil record
Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare  Polychaetes' fossil record consists mainly of the jaws that some species had and the mineralized tubes that some secreted  Some Ediacaran fossils such as Dickinsonia in some ways resemble polychaetes, but the similarities are too vague for these fossils to be classified with confidence  The small shelly fossil Cloudina, from 549 to 542 million years ago, has been classified by some authors as an annelid, but by others as a cnidarian (i e  in the phylum to which jellyfish and sea anemones belong)  Until 2008 the earliest fossils widely accepted as annelids were the polychaetes Canadia and Burgessochaeta, both from Canada's Burgess Shale, formed about 505 million years ago in the early Cambrian  Myoscolex, found in Australia and a little older than the Burgess Shale, was possibly an annelid  However, it lacks some typical annelid features and has features which are not usually found in annelids and some of which are associated with other phyla   Then Simon Conway Morris and John Peel reported Phragmochaeta from Sirius Passet, about 518 million years old, and concluded that it was the oldest annelid known to date  There has been vigorous debate about whether the Burgess Shale fossil Wiwaxia was a mollusc or an annelid  Polychaetes diversified in the early Ordovician, about 488 to 474 million years ago   It is not until the early Ordovician that the first annelid jaws are found, thus the crown-group cannot have appeared before this date and probably appeared somewhat later  By the end of the Carboniferous, about 299 million years ago, fossils of most of the modern mobile polychaete groups had appeared  Many fossil tubes look like those made by modern sessile polychaetes, but the first tubes clearly produced by polychaetes date from the Jurassic, less than 199 million years ago  In 2012, a 508 million year old species of annelid found near the Burgess shale beds in British Columbia, Kootenayscolex, was found that changed the hypotheses about how the annelid head developed  It appears to have bristles on its head segment akin to those along its body, as if the head simply developed as a specialized version of a previously generic segment 
The earliest good evidence for oligochaetes occurs in the Tertiary period, which began 65 million years ago, and it has been suggested that these animals evolved around the same time as flowering plants in the early Cretaceous, from 130 to 90 million years ago  A trace fossil consisting of a convoluted burrow partly filled with small fecal pellets may be evidence that earthworms were present in the early Triassic period from 251 to 245 million years ago  Body fossils going back to the mid Ordovician, from 472 to 461 million years ago, have been tentatively classified as oligochaetes, but these identifications are uncertain and some have been disputed 

Internal relationships
Traditionally the annelids have been divided into two major groups, the polychaetes and clitellates  In turn the clitellates were divided into oligochaetes, which include earthworms, and hirudinomorphs, whose best-known members are leeches  For many years there was no clear arrangement of the approximately 80 polychaete families into higher-level groups  In 1997 Greg Rouse and Kristian Fauchald attempted a "first heuristic step in terms of bringing polychaete systematics to an acceptable level of rigour", based on anatomical structures, and divided polychaetes into:
Scolecida, less than 1,000 burrowing species that look rather like earthworms 
Palpata, the great majority of polychaetes, divided into:
Canalipalpata, which are distinguished by having long grooved palps that they use for feeding, and most of which live in tubes 
Aciculata, the most active polychaetes, which have parapodia reinforced by internal spines (aciculae) 
Also in 1997 Damhnait McHugh, using molecular phylogenetics to compare similarities and differences in one gene, presented a very different view, in which: the clitellates were an offshoot of one branch of the polychaete family tree; the pogonophorans and echiurans, which for a few decades had been regarded as a separate phyla, were placed on other branches of the polychaete tree  Subsequent molecular phylogenetics analyses on a similar scale presented similar conclusions In 2007 Torsten Struck and colleagues compared three genes in 81 taxa, of which nine were outgroups, in other words not considered closely related to annelids but included to give an indication of where the organisms under study are placed on the larger tree of life  For a cross-check the study used an analysis of 11 genes (including the original 3) in ten taxa  This analysis agreed that clitellates, pogonophorans and echiurans were on various branches of the polychaete family tree  It also concluded that the classification of polychaetes into Scolecida, Canalipalpata and Aciculata was useless, as the members of these alleged groups were scattered all over the family tree derived from comparing the 81 taxa  It also placed sipunculans, generally regarded at the time as a separate phylum, on another branch of the polychaete tree, and concluded that leeches were a sub-group of oligochaetes rather than their sister-group among the clitellates  Rouse accepted the analyses based on molecular phylogenetics, and their main conclusions are now the scientific consensus, although the details of the annelid family tree remain uncertain In addition to re-writing the classification of annelids and three previously independent phyla, the molecular phylogenetics analyses undermine the emphasis that decades of previous writings placed on the importance of segmentation in the classification of invertebrates  Polychaetes, which these analyses found to be the parent group, have completely segmented bodies, while polychaetes' echiurans and sipunculan offshoots are not segmented and pogonophores are segmented only in the rear parts of their bodies  It now seems that segmentation can appear and disappear much more easily in the course of evolution than was previously thought  The 2007 study also noted that the ladder-like nervous system, which is associated with segmentation, is less universal than previously thought in both annelids and arthropods The updated phylogenetic tree of the Annelid phylum is comprised by a grade of basal groups of polychaetes: Palaeoannelida, Chaetopteriformia and the Amphinomida/Sipuncula/Lobatocerebrum clade  This grade is followed by Pleistoannelida, the clade containing nearly all of annelid diversity, divided into two highly diverse groups: Sedentaria and Errantia  Sedentaria contains the clitellates, pogonophorans, echiurans and some archiannelids, as well as several polychaete groups  Errantia contains the eunicid and phyllodocid polychaetes, and several archiannelids  Some small groups, such as the Myzostomida, are more difficult to place due to long branching, but belong to either one of these large groups 

External relationships
Annelids are members of the protostomes, one of the two major superphyla of bilaterian animals – the other is the deuterostomes, which includes vertebrates  Within the protostomes, annelids used to be grouped with arthropods under the super-group Articulata ("jointed animals"), as segmentation is obvious in most members of both phyla  However, the genes that drive segmentation in arthropods do not appear to do the same in annelids  Arthropods and annelids both have close relatives that are unsegmented  It is at least as easy to assume that they evolved segmented bodies independently as it is to assume that the ancestral protostome or bilaterian was segmented and that segmentation disappeared in many descendant phyla  The current view is that annelids are grouped with molluscs, brachiopods and several other phyla that have lophophores (fan-like feeding structures) and/or trochophore larvae as members of Lophotrochozoa  Meanwhile, arthropods are now regarded as members of the Ecdysozoa ("animals that molt"), along with some phyla that are unsegmented 
The "Lophotrochozoa" hypothesis is also supported by the fact that many phyla within this group, including annelids, molluscs, nemerteans and flatworms, follow a similar pattern in the fertilized egg's development  When their cells divide after the 4-cell stage, descendants of these four cells form a spiral pattern  In these phyla the "fates" of the embryo's cells, in other words the roles their descendants will play in the adult animal, are the same and can be predicted from a very early stage  Hence this development pattern is often described as "spiral determinate cleavage" 

Fossil discoveries lead to the hypothesis that Annelida and the lophophorates are more closely related to each other than any other phyla  Because of the body plan of lophotrochozoan fossils, a phylogenetic analysis found the lophophorates as the sister group of annelids  Both groups share in common: the presence of chaetae secreted by microvilli; paired, metameric coelomic compartments; and a similar metanephridial structure 

Notes
Passage 3:
Lori Alan
Lori Alan is an American actress  She has played a long-running role as Pearl Krabs on the animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants  She also voiced Diane Simmons on Family Guy, the Invisible Woman on Fantastic Four, and The Boss in the Metal Gear video game series 

Personal life
Alan had a mixed-faith family: her mother is a Southern Baptist and her father is Jewish  Both of her parents were performers and supported her choice to be an actress  Alan lives in Los Angeles 
She started acting at age five, making her television debut in a Shakey's Pizza commercial Alan is active in animal rescue and welfare causes  She has spoken out against animal cruelty and has campaigned for the anti-dog meat charity World Protection for Dogs and Cats in the Meat Trade  She is also on the board of Pickle Pants Rescue, an animal rescue organization in Los Angeles 

Career
Alan has done vocal work for over three decades  Her process of getting to the authentic personality of the character she is providing the voice for is to improvise and trust her own choices, something she learned at her first voice acting job Alan voices Pearl the Whale on SpongeBob SquarePants, Sue Richards (the Invisible Woman) on Marvel Comics' The Fantastic Four, newsreader-turned-murderer Diane Simmons on Family Guy, and The Boss in the Metal Gear series  Lori has done voices in feature films: Monsters University, Toy Story 3, Despicable Me 2, WALL·E, Inside Out, and each movie in the SpongeBob SquarePants film series  She has also voiced roles for Henry Hugglemonster, Cow and Chicken, Animaniacs, and Futurama  Her rendition of The Boss was rated as one of the top 25 "Greatest Acting Performances in Video Games" by Complex In 2005, she joined Warren Beatty, Rob Reiner, Kurtwood Smith and Jason George to help voice commercials against proposals made by California's Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger In 2014, she won a Voice Arts Award (VAA) for outstanding body of work and outstanding national television commercial Alan's on-camera roles include Desperate Housewives, Ray Donovan, Comedy Central's Workaholics, Bones, Southland, CSI, 90210, Law & Order: LA, Law & Order and many more  On stage credits include The Pee-wee Herman Show, solo show Lori Alan: The Musical, Queen Celia in the hit musical Sneaux!, and the award-winning musical Reefer Madness  Her 1999 performance in Reefer Madness as a "Reefer Madam" was praised by the Los Angeles Times She revisited her role in the Reefer Madness tenth Anniversary Cast in 2015  Her vocals on the song "The Stuff" was considered both sultry and comical by Broadway World 

Filmography
Film
Television
Web
Video games
Passage 4:
Hilo March
"Hilo March" is a Hawaiian popular song written by Joseph Kapeau Ae`a  It was originally called "Ke Ala Tuberose"  It has been covered by a number of musicians, Polynesian and non-Polynesian alike  It was also used in the soundtrack of SpongeBob SquarePants (arranged by The Hawaiian Serenaders as "Hilo March", and arragnged by Kapono Beamer as "Old Hilo March") 

About the song
It has been adopted as the school song by the University of Hawaii at Hilo  Along with another popular song, "Aloha ʻOe", every person from child to senior citizen know is said to the words and music to these songs  Originally the song was called "Ke Ala Tuberose" and was composed by Joseph Kapeau Ae`a, who was a member of the Royal Hawaiian Band and also a friend of Princess Liliuokalani  The princess requested  Ae`a and the band come to Hilo and that is where he composed the song  In August 1881, the title was changed from "Ke Ala Tuberose" to "Hilo March" and played by the Royal Hawaiian band under Captain Henri Berger's direction  Besides being a favorite of the Royal Hawaiian band and its popularity in the Islands, it has been picked up as a favorite by many steel guitarists on the mainland  The lyrics of the song tell of Hilo's beauty as well as the beauty of the Lehua flower 

Covers
It has been covered by artists such as Trevor Edmondson, Christopher Homer & Raney Van Vink, the Four Hawaiians, Lani McIntyre and his Aloha Islanders, the Mena Moeria Minstrels, Tau Moe's Original Hawaiians, Johnny Pineapple And His Orchestra, Hank Snow, Bashful Brother Oswald, and Bill Wolfgramme and his Islanders
Passage 5:
Derek Drymon
Derek Drymon (born November 19, 1968) is an American animator, writer, storyboard artist, director, comedian, and producer  He has worked on numerous animated cartoon productions of the 1990s and 2000s, best known for his work on Rocko's Modern Life, SpongeBob SquarePants and Adventure Time 

Early life
Derek Drymon was born in New Jersey  He attended Jefferson Township and Dover public schools as a child and enjoyed drawing and making comic books  Drymon graduated from Jefferson Township High School in 1987  Drymon attended the School of Visual Arts (SVA) in New York, where he majored in Illustration, sharpening his drawing skills and moving from still images to animation  He graduated from SVA in 1992 

Career
Drymon obtained an internship with Disney on the strength of his life drawings Drymon was discovered by Nickelodeon in 1993  He moved to California to work as an animator for Nickelodeon  In 1993, Drymon also began working as a storyboard artist and writer for Rocko's Modern Life  It was here he met two of his future employers, Tim Hill and Stephen Hillenburg; Hill was a writer, Hillenburg a co-producer and storyboard artist  In 1997, Hillenburg created SpongeBob SquarePants  Drymon performed many duties on SpongeBob, including being a writer on all episodes, the creative director, and, on his last season with the show, supervising producer  Drymon also worked on the Cartoon Network animated series Camp Lazlo  Drymon worked on Tim Hill's side project, the popular KaBlam! skit Action League Now!, as a storyboard artist  He also wrote the Emmy Award-nominated episode of CatDog "Doggone" Drymon met Stephen Hillenburg on the Nickelodeon cartoon Rocko's Modern Life  Hillenburg recalled Drymon as "one of the main people in the genesis of SpongeBob"  Drymon teamed up with Hillenburg, Hill, and Nick Jennings who was also a companion from Nickelodeon  Drymon was the creative director for the first three seasons and became Supervising Producer in season 3 until being replaced by Paul Tibbitt starting in season 4  Along with Stephen Hillenburg, Drymon approved the writers' ideas and outlines for episodes and controlled the creative and production process on SpongeBob Drymon was eventually promoted to Executive producer on television show Adventure Time, and become a lead writer for DreamWorks Pictures, and a director at Illumination Entertainment  During the first three seasons of SpongeBob, Drymon being creative director allowed him to work with executive story editor Merriwether Williams and the rest of the writing team 
Staff writer Kent Osborne responded to the writing process with Drymon and other writers by saying  "By the third season we had done 26 half-hours  I came up with millions of ideas"  Despite the issues with writing new episodes, Drymon collaborated with the writers to create episode ideas like the half-hour specials and episodes that focused on other characters, for example the season three episodes "The Algae Always Greener" and "Plankton's Army" focused on Sheldon Plankton and "Doing Time" focused on Mrs  Puff  Drymon said in an interview "Coming up with episode ideas was always tough"  The writers were influenced for the episode "The Secret Box", which was influenced by Drymon because he told them when he was younger he kept a "secret box", the writers thought it was hilarious and weird and used Drymon's idea to create the story of the episode   Drymon co-wrote the pilot episode "Help Wanted"  Drymon earned two Emmy nominations and along with the crew of SpongeBob won the "Best Animated Television Production" Annie award in 2005 for season 3 of SpongeBob Drymon hired a large amount of the staff writers, including Sam Henderson, a friend and fellow alumnus of SVA, along with Kent Osborne and Walt Dohrn From 2008 to 2017, Drymon work as a Storyboard Artist for DreamWorks Animation, working on films such as the Kung Fu Panda trilogy, Monsters vs  Aliens, Shrek Forever After, Puss in Boots, Turbo, Penguins of Madagascar, and Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie 
Drymon was an executive producer (with Fred Seibert) on the Cartoon Network series Adventure Time, created by Pendleton Ward for the show's first season  He was no longer credited on episodes starting with the second season On September 17, 2020, Drymon was set to co-direct Hotel Transylvania: Transformania with story artist Jennifer Kluska In April 2023, Drymon was announced as the director of the fourth SpongeBob SquarePants theatrical film titled The SpongeBob Movie: Search for SquarePants 

Filmography
Television
Film
Bibliography
Passage 6:
List of SpongeBob SquarePants cast members
SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated television series created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg that debuted on Nickelodeon in the United States on May 1, 1999  The regular voice cast consists of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Doug Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan  Most one-off and background characters are voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, Sirena Irwin, Bob Joles, Mark Fite, Thomas F  Wilson, Carlos Alazraqui and Jess Harnell  Throughout the show's run, it has employed numerous guest stars from many ranges of professions  Repeat guests include Ernest Borgnine, Tim Conway, Brian Doyle-Murray, Marion Ross, John O'Hurley and Michael McKean 
SpongeBob SquarePants chronicles the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom  Many of the ideas for the show originated in an unpublished, educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in the mid-1980s  He began developing SpongeBob SquarePants into a television series in 1996 upon the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, another Nickelodeon animated series which Hillenburg directed  While creating the show, Hillenburg, with colleague Derek Drymon, was also conducting auditions to find voices for the show's characters  He turned to Kenny, who had worked with him on Rocko's Modern Life, to voice the title character 
The cast members receive residuals every time a new episode they appeared in has aired, which Carolyn Lawrence described as "a very complicated mathematical calculation " Lawrence said in 2008 that it was a "declining scale" and the entertainment industry were "still in negotiations    both sides are still talking " She further stated that "they're still trying to work it out "Kenny and Catlett were the first cast members to receive award nominations for their performance on SpongeBob SquarePants  They each received Annie Award nominations in 2001, but did not win  In 2010, Kenny won the Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in a Television Production, making it the first time a cast member had won this type of award  Bumpass was the first cast member to be nominated for an Emmy Award, receiving a nomination in 2012  In 2018, Kenny won both an Annie Award and an Emmy Award for his performance as SpongeBob 

Regular cast
Background
SpongeBob SquarePants has featured the voices of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke,  Rodger Bumpass,  Clancy Brown, Mr  Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan since it began  Stephen Hillenburg started developing the SpongeBob concept into a television series in 1996 upon the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, which he directed  While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997, he and the show's then-creative director Derek Drymon were also conducting auditions to find voices for the show's characters For the voice of SpongeBob, the main character, Hillenburg approached Kenny, who previously worked with him on Rocko's Modern Life  Drymon said, "Steve [Hillenburg] wanted to find an original sounding voice [for SpongeBob] " Hillenburg utilized Kenny's and other people's personalities to help create the personality of SpongeBob  The voice of SpongeBob was originally used by Kenny for a minor character in Rocko's Modern Life  Kenny forgot the voice initially as he created it only for that single use  Hillenburg, however, remembered it when he was coming up with SpongeBob and used a video clip of the episode to remind Kenny of the voice  Kenny says that SpongeBob's high-pitched laugh was specifically created to be unique   They wanted an annoying laugh in the tradition of Popeye and Woody Woodpecker  Fagerbakke voices SpongeBob's best friend, a starfish named Patrick Star  He auditioned for the role after Kenny had been cast as SpongeBob  Fagerbakke said, "Steve is such a lovely guy, and I had absolutely no feeling for the material whatsoever " He described his experience in the audition, saying "I was just going in for another audition, and I had no idea what was in store there in terms of the remarkable visual wit and really the kind of endearing child-like humanity in the show  I couldn't pick that up from the audition material at all  I was just kind of perfunctorially trying to give the guy what he wanted "Rodger Bumpass provides the voice of Squidward Tentacles, and other characters  Squidward was "a very nasally, monotone kind of guy", said Bumpass  He said that the character "became a very interesting character to do" because of "his sarcasm, and then his frustration, and then his apoplexy, and so he became a wide spectrum of emotions"  Voice acting veteran Clancy Brown voices Mr  Krabs, SpongeBob's boss at the Krusty Krab  For the character, Brown uses a voice that he describes as "piratey" with "a little Scottish brogue"  According to Brown, his Mr  Krabs voice was improvised during his audition and it was not challenging for him to find the correct voice Mr  Lawrence had met Hillenburg previously on Rocko's Modern Life  When working on the pilot episode of SpongeBob, Hillenburg invited him to audition for all of the characters  Since other voices had been found for the main cast already, Lawrence started out by voicing a variety of minor characters  This included Plankton, who was initially only set to appear in one episode  Mr  Lawrence stated in an interview with Thomas F  Wilson that Nickelodeon executives told Hillenburg, "'we could stunt-cast this  You know, we could have Bruce Willis do this voice ' And Steve was just like, 'it's Doug [Lawrence], don't you hear it? This is the character! This is the guy!'" Jill Talley, Tom Kenny's wife, voices Karen Plankton  Being a Chicago native, she uses a Midwestern accent for the character  Electronic sound effects are underlaid by the series' audio engineers to create a robotic sound whenever she speaks  Talley and Lawrence often improvise their characters' dialogue  In 2009, Lawrence called improvisation his "favorite part of the voice over"  He elaborated in a 2012 interview, saying, "I always enjoy the back-and-forth  [Talley and I] start to actually overlap so much talking to each other that [the voice directors] have to tell us, 'hey, stop doing that, separate what you're saying!'"Carolyn Lawrence provides Sandy Cheeks' voice  When Lawrence was on a sidewalk in Los Feliz, Los Angeles with a friend who knew SpongeBob SquarePants casting director Donna Grillo, her friend said to the director that Lawrence had "an interesting voice"  Grillo invited Lawrence to audition and she then got the role  American actress Mary Jo Catlett, who is known for her live-action roles on television programs from the 1970s such as Diff'rent Strokes and M*A*S*H, provides Mrs  Puff's voice  As of 2017, voicing Mrs  Puff has become her only regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she is good friends with the other SpongeBob cast members, making the SpongeBob recording booth an easy environment that requires less preparation than in-person performances  Lori Alan voices Pearl  During her audition for the role, she was shown an early drawing of Pearl and took note of how the character was much larger than the rest of the cast  She decided to reflect the character's size in her voice by making it deep and full in tone  She aimed to make Pearl's voice invoke the sound of whales’ low vocalizations while also sounding "spoiled and lovable " In an interview with AfterBuzz TV, Alan said that she knew Pearl "had to sound somewhat like a child," but at the same time needed "an abnormally large voice "In the Christmas special "Christmas Who?", the characters of Patchy the Pirate, the president of the fictional SpongeBob SquarePants fan club, and his pet called Potty the Parrot debuted  The former is portrayed by Kenny in live-action, while series creator Hillenburg voiced the latter  After Hillenburg's departure as the series' showrunner in 2004, staff writer Paul Tibbitt was given the role voicing Potty the Parrot  Mr  Krabs' mother, Mama Krabs, who debuted in the episode "Sailor Mouth", was voiced by Tibbitt  However, voice actress Sirena Irwin overtook Tibbitt's role as the character reappeared in the fourth season episode "Enemy In-Law" in 2005  Irwin also provides the voices of other characters in the show, including Margaret SquarePants, SpongeBob's mother 
Voice recording sessions always include a full cast of actors, which Kenny describes as "getting more unusual"  Kenny said, "That's another thing that's given SpongeBob its special feel  Everybody's in the same room, doing it old radio-show style  It's how the stuff we like was recorded"  It takes about four hours to record an 11-minute episode  For the first three seasons, Hillenburg and Drymon sat in on recording sessions at Nickelodeon Studios, and they directed the actors  In the fourth season, Andrea Romano took over the role as the voice director  Wednesday is recording day, the same schedule followed by the crew since 1999  Casting supervisor Jennie Monica Hammond said, "I loved Wednesdays" 

Main cast
Other regular cast
Recurring guest voices
Former cast members
Awards and nominations
Notes
Passage 7:
List of SpongeBob SquarePants episodes
SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated television series created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg that premiered on Nickelodeon on May 1, 1999  The series is set in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom, and centers on the adventures and endeavors of SpongeBob SquarePants, an over-optimistic sea sponge  Many of the ideas for the show originated in an unpublished, educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in the mid-1980s  He began developing SpongeBob SquarePants into a television series in 1996 after the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, another Nickelodeon television series that Hillenburg previously directed As of April 7, 2023, 288 episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants have aired, currently in its thirteenth season  The thirteenth season consists of 26 episodes  The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, a feature-length film, was released in theaters on November 19, 2004, and grossed over US$140 million worldwide  Atlantis SquarePantis, a television film guest starring David Bowie, debuted as part of the fifth season  In 2009, Nickelodeon celebrated the show's tenth anniversary with Square Roots: The Story of SpongeBob SquarePants and SpongeBob's Truth or Square  The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water, a stand-alone sequel, was released in theaters on February 6, 2015, and grossed over US$324 million worldwide Episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants have been nominated for a variety of different awards, including 17 Annie Awards (with six wins), 17 Golden Reel Awards (with eight wins), 15 Emmy Awards (with one win), 21 Kids' Choice Awards (with 20 wins), and four BAFTA Children's Awards (with two wins)  Several compilation DVDs have been released  In addition, the first twelve seasons have been released on DVD, and are available for Regions 1, 2 and 4 as of January 12, 2021 

Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (1999–2001)
The first season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (41 segments, since the first episode has three segments)  This is the only season that used cel animation  The episodes are ordered according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 2 (2000–03)
The second season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (39 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 3 (2001–04)
The third season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (37 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 4 (2005–07)
The fourth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (38 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 5 (2007–09)
The fifth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (41 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 6 (2008–10)
The sixth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (47 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 7 (2009–11)
The seventh season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (50 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 8 (2011–12)
The eighth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (47 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 9 (2012–17)
The ninth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (49 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 10 (2016–17)
The tenth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 11 episodes (22 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order  It is the shortest season, lacking the usual 26 episode length 

Season 11 (2017–18)
The eleventh season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (50 segments), which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Season 12 (2018–22)
The twelfth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 31 episodes (53 segments), including 5 specials, which are ordered according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order  This was the last season that series creator Stephen Hillenburg was involved in, before his death from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis on November 26, 2018, at age 57 

Season 13 (2020–23)
The thirteenth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes, which are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order 

Films
Notes
DVD Notes
Passage 8:
Nannochoristidae
Nannochoristidae is a family of scorpionflies with many unusual traits  It is a tiny, relict family with a single extant genus, Nannochorista, with eight species occurring in New Zealand, southeastern Australia, Tasmania, Argentina and Chile  Due to the group's distinctiveness from other scorpionflies, it is sometimes placed in its own order, the Nannomecoptera  Some studies have placed them as the closest living relatives of fleas  Most mecopteran larvae are eruciform, or shaped like caterpillars  Nannochoristid larvae, however, are elateriform, and have elongated and slender bodies  The larvae are aquatic, which is unique among mecopterans  The larvae are predatory, hunting on the beds of shallow streams, primarily on the larvae of aquatic Diptera like chironomids Fossils indicate that Nannochoristidae formerly had a wider distribution, being present in the Northern Hemisphere during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Some research suggests the nannochoristids are the only holometabolous insects with true larval compound eyes  All other eyed larvae have stemmata, which are structurally different from adult compound eyes with ommatidia  This is unusual, since most adult features are present as imaginal discs in larvae and not formed until pupation  The presence of compound eyes in nannochoristid larvae suggests the timing of the development of adult features can be initiated earlier in development, which has important implications for insect evolutionary development 

Phylogeny
The cladogram of external relationships, based on a 2008 DNA and protein analysis, shows the family as a clade, sister to the Siphonaptera (fleas) and rest of Mecoptera, and more distantly related to the Diptera (true flies) and Mecoptera (scorpionflies) 
A more recent study in 2021 found Nannochoristidae to be the sister group to fleas, with strong support 

Genera
After Cao et al  2022 
Nannochorista Tillyard, 1917 (8 species: Argentina, Chile, Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand) Koonwarra fossil bed, Australia, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
†Dahurochorista Sukatsheva 1985 (one species: Ichetuy Formation, Russia, Late Jurassic (Oxfordian)
†Dahurolarva Sukatsheva 1985 (one species: Ichetuy Formation, Oxfordian, Russia) (based on larvae only)
†Itaphlebia Sukatsheva 1985 (14 species) Itat Formation, Russia, Middle Jurassic (Bathonian), Daohugou, China, Middle Jurassic (Callovian), Karabastau Formation, Kazakhstan, Late Jurassic (Oxfordian) Doronino Formation, Russia, Early Cretaceous (Barremian)
†Namdyrus Sukacheva 1993 Khaya Formation, Russia, Late Jurassic (Tithonian)
†Tarantogus Sukatsheva, 1985 Itat Formation, Russia, Bathonian (based on larvae only)
†Undisca Sukatsheva, 1990 Glushkovo Formation, Russia, Tithonian



ground_truth: Mr. Lawrence

Doug Lawrence