prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the majority party in the House of Representatives gain control of the body which approves members of the Cabinet?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
2014 United States Senate elections
The 2014 United States Senate elections were held on November 4, 2014  A total of 36 seats in the 100-member U S  Senate were contested  Thirty-three Class 2 seats were contested for regular six-year terms to be served from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2021, and three Class 3 seats were contested in special elections due to Senate vacancies  The elections marked 100 years of direct elections of U S  senators  Going into the elections, 21 of the contested seats were held by the Democratic Party, while 15 were held by the Republican Party 
The Republicans regained the majority of the Senate in the 114th Congress, which started in January 2015; the Republicans had not controlled the Senate since January 2007  They needed a net gain of at least six seats to obtain a majority and were projected by polls to do so  On election night, they held all of their seats and gained nine Democratic-held seats  Republicans defeated five Democratic incumbents: Mark Begich of Alaska lost to Dan Sullivan, Mark Pryor of Arkansas lost to Tom Cotton, Mark Udall of Colorado lost to Cory Gardner, Mary Landrieu of Louisiana lost to Bill Cassidy, and Kay Hagan of North Carolina lost to Thom Tillis  Republicans also picked up another four open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia  Democrats did not pick up any Republican-held seats, but they did hold an open seat in Michigan 
This was the second consecutive election held in a president's sixth year where control of the Senate changed hands, the first being in 2006  This was also the first time that the Democrats lost control of the Senate in a sixth-year midterm since 1918  With a total net gain of nine seats, the Republicans made the largest Senate gain by any party since 1980  This is also the first election since 1980 in which more than two incumbent Democratic Senators were defeated by their Republican challengers  Days after the election, the United States Election Project estimated that 36 4% of eligible voters voted, 4% lower than the 2010 elections, and possibly the lowest turnout rate since the 1942 election As of 2022, this remains the last time that a Republican has won a U S  Senate election in Colorado  This is the most recent Senate elections where any Republican flipped an open Democratic-held seat  This is also the most recent election where the party winning control of the Senate won the popular vote  It also remains the last time that the president's party has suffered a net loss of Senate seats in a midterm 

Partisan composition
For a majority, Republicans needed at least 51 seats  Democrats could have retained a majority with 48 seats (assuming the two Independents continued to caucus with them) because the Democratic Vice President Joe Biden would become the tie-breaker  From 1915 to 2013, control of the U S  Senate flipped in 10 of 50 cycles, or 20% of the time  Republicans had lost ground in the 2012 elections, leading to an internal fight among the Republican leadership over the best strategies and tactics for the 2014 Senate races  By December 2013, eight of the twelve incumbent Republicans running for re-election saw Tea Party challenges  However, Republican incumbents won every primary challenge  Although Democrats saw some opportunities for pickups, the combination of Democratic retirements and numerous Democratic seats up for election in swing states and red states gave Republicans hopes of taking control of the Senate  7 of the 21 states with Democratic seats up for election in 2014 had voted for Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election compared to just 1 state with a Republican senator that voted for Barack Obama  Democrats also faced the lower voter turnout that accompanies mid-term elections Poll aggregation website FiveThirtyEight gave the Republican Party a 60% chance of taking control of the Senate as of September 28  Another poll aggregation website, RealClearPolitics, gave the Republican Party a net gain of 7 seats  Due to the closeness of several races, it was initially believed that Senate control might not be decided on election night  Both Louisiana and Georgia were seen as competitive, and both states require a run-off election if no candidate takes a majority of the vote 
Two independent candidates (in Kansas and South Dakota) refused to commit to caucusing with either party  In the final months of the race, polls showed them with viable chances of winning, leading some analysts to speculate on the possibility of an "Independent caucus" that could also include Maine Senator Angus King and possibly Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders  However, no Independent won a Senate race in 2014, and King and Sanders continue to caucus with the Democratic Party following the 2014 election 
By midnight ET, most major networks projected that the Republicans would take control of the Senate  The party held all three competitive Republican-held seats (Kentucky, Kansas, and Georgia), and defeated incumbent Democrats in North Carolina, Colorado, and Arkansas  Combined with the pick-ups of open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia, the Republicans made a net gain of 7 seats before the end of the night  Republicans defeated three incumbent Democrats, a task the party had not accomplished since the 1980 election  Five of the seven confirmed pickups were in states that voted for Mitt Romney in 2012, but two of the seats that Republicans won represent states that voted for Barack Obama in 2012 (Colorado and Iowa)  Of the three races that were not called by the end of election night, Alaska and Virginia were still too close to call, while Louisiana held a December 6 run-off election  Virginia declared Democrat Mark Warner the winner of his race by a narrow margin over Republican Ed Gillespie on November 7, and Alaska declared Dan Sullivan the winner against Democratic incumbent Mark Begich a week later, on November 12  Republican Bill Cassidy defeated Democratic incumbent Mary Landrieu in the Louisiana runoff on December 6 

Election spending
Altogether, at least $3 67 billion was spent by candidates, parties, committees and outside groups in the 2014 election  Spending on the 2014 Senate elections by outside groups (i e , organizations other than a candidate's campaign, such as super PACs and "dark money" nonprofit groups) more than doubled from 2010  In the 10 competitive races for which data was available, outside groups accounted for 47% of spending, candidates accounted for 41% of spending, and parties accounted for 12% of spending  The Senate race with the most outside spending was in North Carolina, at $80 million, a new record The top outside spenders in the 11 most competitive Senate races were the following:

On the Republican side, the National Republican Senatorial Committee, Crossroads GPS, U S  Chamber of Commerce, Ending Spending Action Fund, Freedom Partners Action Fund, American Crossroads, and the NRA Political Victory Fund 
On the Democratic side, the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, Senate Majority PAC, and NextGen Climate Action Committee 

Results summary
The Republican Party made a net gain of nine U S  Senate seats in the 2014 elections Going into the elections, there were 53 Democratic, 45 Republican and 2 independent senators (both of whom caucus with the Democrats)  In all, there were 36 elections: 33 senators were up for election this year as class 2 senators, and 3 faced special elections (all from Class 3)  Of all these seats, 21 were held by Democrats and 15 were held by Republicans 

Colored shading indicates party with largest share of that row 

Source: Clerk of the U S  House of Representatives

Change in composition
Before the elections
After the elections
Gains and losses
Retirements
Four Democrats and two Republicans retired instead of seeking re-election 

Resignations
One Republican resigned four years into his six-year term 

Nomination withdrawn
One Democrat was originally to seek election for a full 6-year term in office but withdrew 

Defeats
Five Democrats sought re-election but lost in the general election 

Race summaries
Special elections during the preceding Congress
In these special elections, the winners were elected during 2014 and seated before January 3, 2015 — except that one was seated on January 3, 2015, the effective date of the predecessor's resignation 

Elections leading to the next Congress
In these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning January 3, 2015; ordered by state 
All of the elections involved the Class 2 seats 

Closest races
In seven races the margin of victory was under 10% 

Final pre-election predictions
Predicted probability of Republican takeover
Several websites used poll aggregation and psephology to estimate the probability that the Republican Party would gain enough seats to take control of the Senate 

Predictions
Republicans needed to win at least six in order to gain a majority of 51 seats and Democrats needed to win at least seven in order to hold a majority of 50 seats (including the two independents who currently caucus with the Democrats) and the tie-breaking vote of Vice President Joe Biden 

Alabama
Three-term incumbent Republican Jeff Sessions had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Sessions sought re-election  Democrat Victor Sanchez Williams ran against Sessions as a write-in candidate  Sessions won with 97 3 percent of the vote against assorted write-in candidates 

Alaska
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Begich had been first elected with 48% of the vote in 2008, defeating six-term Senator Ted Stevens by 3,953 votes (a margin of 1 25%)  Begich was 52 years old in 2014 and was seeking re-election to a second term  Stevens, who would have been almost 91 years old at the time of the election, had already filed for a rematch back in 2009, but was killed in a plane crash the following year 
Republican Lieutenant Governor Mead Treadwell, 2010 nominee Joe Miller, State Natural Resources Commissioner Daniel S  Sullivan, and Air Force veteran John Jaramillo ran for the GOP nomination  In the August 19 primary, Sullivan won the Republican nomination with 40% and defeated Begich in the general election 

Arkansas
Two-term incumbent Democrat Mark Pryor had been re-elected with 80% of the vote without Republican opposition in 2008  Pryor was running for a third term Freshman Representative Tom Cotton of Arkansas's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee  In the general election, Cotton defeated Pryor 

Colorado
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Udall had been elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  Udall was running for re-election Congressman Cory Gardner of Colorado's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee; his late entry into the race caused numerous Republicans to withdraw their candidacies  Gaylon Kent was the Libertarian Party nominee  Unity Party of America founder and National Chairman Bill Hammons was the Unity Party nominee 

Delaware
Democrat Chris Coons won in the 2010 United States Senate special election in Delaware caused by Joe Biden's election as Vice President, winning by a 57% to 41% margin  Coons sought re-election  His Republican opponent was engineer Kevin Wade, whom Coons went on to defeat in the general election 

Georgia
Two-term incumbent Republican Saxby Chambliss had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008 in a runoff election with former state Representative Jim Martin; Georgia requires run-off elections when no Senate candidate wins over 50% of the vote  Chambliss did not seek a third term Political activist Derrick Grayson, Representatives Jack Kingston of Georgia's 1st congressional district, Paul Broun of Georgia's 10th congressional district, and Phil Gingrey of Georgia's 11th congressional district all declared their candidacy for the Republican nomination, as did former Secretary of State Karen Handel  In the May 20 primary, no candidate received a majority of votes, so the top two candidates faced each other in a runoff; Perdue narrowly won against Kingston in the runoff primary election on July 22 with 50 9% of the vote Michelle Nunn, CEO of Points of Light and the daughter of former U S  Senator Sam Nunn, won the Democratic nomination  Other declared Democratic candidates included former State Senator Steen Miles, psychiatrist Branko Radulovacki, and former US Army Ranger Todd Robinson  Amanda Swafford, a former Flowery Branch, Georgia, city councilwoman, received the Libertarian Party of Georgia nomination 

Hawaii (special)
Daniel Inouye, the second longest serving United States Senator in U S  history, died on December 17, 2012, after respiratory complications  Hawaii law allows the Governor of Hawaii, to appoint an interim Senator "who serves until the next regularly-scheduled general election, chosen from a list of three prospective appointees that the prior incumbent's political party submits"  Governor Neil Abercrombie did so, selecting Lieutenant Governor Brian Schatz to fill the Senate seat  Inouye had been re-elected in 2010 with 72% of the vote  Schatz was challenged in the Democratic primary by Congresswoman Colleen Hanabusa of Hawaii's 1st congressional district, who Inouye had hoped would be his successor  Schatz defeated Hanabusa in the primary with 48 5% to 47 8% Campbell Cavasso, former State Representative and nominee for the U S  Senate in 2004 and 2010, was the Republican nominee 

Idaho
One-term incumbent Republican Jim Risch had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Risch sought a second term Boise attorney Nels Mitchell was the Democratic nominee 

Illinois
Three-term incumbent and Senate Majority Whip Democrat Dick Durbin had been re-elected with 68% of the vote in 2008  Durbin ran for a fourth term State Senator Jim Oberweis was the Republican nominee  He defeated primary challenger Doug Truax with 56% of the vote 

Iowa
Five-term incumbent Democrat Tom Harkin had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Harkin announced on January 26, 2013, that he would not seek a sixth term  Congressman Bruce Braley was the Democratic nominee State Senator Joni Ernst was the Republican nominee Doug Butzier, who was the Libertarian Party's nominee, died in a plane crash on October 13, 2014, but still appeared on the ballot 

Kansas
Three-term incumbent Republican Pat Roberts had been re-elected with 60% of the vote in 2008  Roberts sought a fourth term  He faced a primary challenge from radiologist Milton Wolf, a conservative Tea Party supporter  Roberts defeated Wolf in the Republican primary by 48% to 41%  Shawnee County District Attorney Chad Taylor won the Democratic nomination  Randall Batson from Wichita was on the general election ballot as a Libertarian  Also, Greg Orman qualified for the ballot as an independent On September 3, Taylor announced he was dropping out of the election, leading to speculation that Democrats would support Orman's candidacy  On September 18, the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Taylor's name had to be removed from the ballot 

Kentucky
Five-term Republican incumbent and Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell had been re-elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  McConnell sought re-election to a sixth term  McConnell defeated businessman Matt Bevin in the Republican primary on May 20 Kentucky Secretary of State Alison Lundergan Grimes, with support from much of Kentucky's Democratic leadership, won the Democratic primary  Actress Ashley Judd publicly claimed to be considering a run for the Democratic nomination, but ultimately decided against it Ed Marksberry pursued an independent bid after dropping out of the Democratic field in September 2013 

Louisiana
Three-term incumbent Democrat Mary Landrieu had been re-elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Landrieu ran for a fourth term Louisiana uses a unique jungle primary system that eschews primaries in favor of run-off elections between the top two candidates; this run-off can be avoided if the winning candidate receives over 50% of the vote  Democrats Wayne Ables, Vallian Senegal, and William Waymire ran against Landrieu in the election, as did Republicans Bill Cassidy (representative of Louisiana's 6th congressional district), Thomas Clements (small business owner), and retired Air Force Colonel Rob Maness  Electrical Engineer Brannon McMorris ran as a Libertarian Because Republican candidate Maness took almost 14% of the votes in the primary, there was a runoff election on December 6, 2014, between Landrieu (42%) and Cassidy (41%)  Cassidy won the runoff with 56% of the vote 

Maine
Three-term incumbent Republican Susan Collins was seeking a fourth term  Shenna Bellows, former executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Maine, was the Democratic nominee 

Massachusetts
Five-term incumbent and 2004 Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry had been re-elected with 66% of the vote in 2008  Kerry resigned in early 2013 to become U S  Secretary of State  Governor Deval Patrick appointed Democrat Mo Cowan to the seat  Democratic Congressman Ed Markey beat Republican Gabriel E  Gomez in the June 25, 2013 special election by a 55% to 45% margin  Markey had served the remainder of Kerry's term before running for re-election to a first full term in 2014  Hopkinton Town Selectman Brian Herr was the Republican nominee 

Michigan
Six-term incumbent Senator and Chairman of the Armed Services Committee Democrat Carl Levin, the longest-serving senator in Michigan's history, had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Levin announced on March 7, 2013, that he would not seek re-election 
Three term Democratic Representative Gary Peters of MI-14 was the Democratic nominee  He defeated Republican former Secretary of State Terri Lynn Land who was unopposed for the Republican nomination 

Minnesota
One-term incumbent Democrat Al Franken unseated one-term Republican Norm Coleman by 312 votes in a contested three-way race with 42% of the vote in 2008; the third candidate in the race, former Senator Dean Barkley of the Independence Party of Minnesota, won 15% of the vote  Franken sought re-election  State Representative Jim Abeler, St  Louis County Commissioner Chris Dahlberg, co-CEO of Lazard Middle Market Mike McFadden, bison farmer and former hair salon owner Monti Moreno, state Senator Julianne Ortman, and U S  Navy reservist Phillip Parrish ran for the Republican nomination  McFadden won the Republican primary and was the Republican nominee in the general election Hannah Nicollet of the Independence Party of Minnesota also ran 

Mississippi
Six-term incumbent Republican Thad Cochran, re-elected with 62% of the vote in 2008, ran for re-election  Cochran was the last incumbent Senator to declare his plans, leading to widespread speculation that he might announce his retirement Tea Party candidate Chris McDaniel, a conservative Mississippi state senator, ran against Cochran in the Republican primary  Neither McDaniel nor Cochran was able to get 50% of the vote in the first round of the primary, so a runoff election was held June 24  Cochran won the runoff election by 51% to 49%, with the help of Democratic voters eligible to vote in the state's open primaries who chose Cochran as their preferred Republican  McDaniel filed a lawsuit to challenge the results of the run-off, but the challenge was rejected on appeal by the Supreme Court of Mississippi Former Congressman Travis Childers was the Democratic nominee 

Montana
Six-term incumbent Democrat Max Baucus, the longest-serving senator in Montana's history, had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Baucus announced on April 23, 2013, that he would retire in 2014, rather than seek re-election to a seventh term  Baucus was appointed as the United States Ambassador to China, leading him to resign from the Senate in February 2014 Following Baucus's confirmation as ambassador, Governor Steve Bullock appointed the Lieutenant Governor John Walsh to fill the vacant senate seat  Former Lieutenant Governor John Bohlinger was defeated by Walsh in the Democratic primary  Amid controversy over alleged plagiarism in a 2007 research paper, Walsh pulled out of the race  The Montana Democratic Party held a special nominating convention on August 16 to choose a replacement for Walsh  First-term State Representative Amanda Curtis won the nomination, thereby becoming the new Democratic nominee Congressman Steve Daines won the Republican nomination over state Representative Champ Edmunds of Missoula and David Leaser of Kalispell 

Nebraska
One-term incumbent Republican Mike Johanns had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  He did not seek a second term  Term limited Republican Governor Dave Heineman considered running for the Republican nomination, but ultimately decided not to do so  Former state Treasurer Shane Osborn, attorney Bart McLeay, banker Sid Dinsdale, and Midland University President Ben Sasse ran for the Republican nomination  In the May 13 primary, Sasse won the Republican nomination 
Trial lawyer David Domina was the Democratic nominee 

New Hampshire
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeanne Shaheen had been elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Shaheen ran for re-election  Shaheen defeated Republican nominee Scott Brown, who had represented neighboring Massachusetts in the Senate from 2010 to 2013 

New Jersey
Incumbent Democrat Frank Lautenberg had been re-elected with 56% of the vote in 2008  After announcing he would not seek re-election, Lautenberg died in June 2013, aged 89, after a long period of ill health Newark Mayor Cory Booker, a Democrat, defeated Republican nominee Steve Lonegan by 55%-to-45% in a 2013 special election to replace interim Republican appointee Jeffrey Chiesa  Booker ran for re-election to a full term in 2014  1978 and 1982 Republican candidate and political operative Jeff Bell was the Republican nominee 

New Mexico
One-term incumbent Democrat Tom Udall had been elected with 61% of the vote in 2008  Former Doña Ana County Republican Party Chairman David Clements and former New Mexico Republican Party Chairman Allen Weh sought the Republican nomination  Weh won the June 3 primary but lost to Udall in the general election 

North Carolina
One-term incumbent Democrat Kay Hagan had been elected with 53% of the vote against incumbent Republican Elizabeth Dole in 2008  Hagan was seeking re-election State House Speaker Thom Tillis was the Republican nominee  Sean Haugh won the Libertarian nomination 

Oklahoma
There were 2 elections in Oklahoma, due to the resignation of Tom Coburn 

Oklahoma (regular)
Three-term incumbent Republican Jim Inhofe had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008  Inhofe sought re-election  Matt Silverstein, an insurance agency owner, ran for the Democratic nomination 

Oklahoma (special)
Two-term incumbent Republican Tom Coburn had been re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2010, and was not scheduled to be up for election again until 2016  However, Coburn announced his intention to resign at the end of the 113th Congress  A special election to fill his seat took place in November 2014, concurrent with the other Senate elections  Congressman James Lankford was the Republican nominee  State Senator Connie Johnson was the Democratic nominee 

Oregon
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeff Merkley was narrowly elected with 49% of the vote in 2008  Merkley was running for a second term  State representative Jason Conger, attorney Tim Crawley, IT consultant Mark Callahan, neurosurgeon Dr  Monica Wehby, and former Linn County Republican Chair Jo Rae Perkins all ran for the Republican nomination, with Wehby ultimately winning the nomination in the May 20 primary 

Rhode Island
Three-term incumbent Democrat Jack Reed had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Reed defeated Republican nominee Mark Zaccaria in the 2014 election 

South Carolina
There were 2 elections in South Carolina, due to the resignation of Jim DeMint 

South Carolina (regular)
Two-term Republican Lindsey Graham had been re-elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Graham won the Republican nomination over a field that included state senator Lee Bright  State Senator Brad Hutto won the Democratic nomination 

South Carolina (special)
Jim DeMint had been elected to a second term in 2010, but resigned from the Senate in January 2013 to become president of The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank  Governor Nikki Haley appointed Congressman Tim Scott as DeMint's replacement  Scott, an African-American, was the Republican nominee to serve out the remainder of DeMint's term  Scott is the first African-American Republican since shortly after Reconstruction to represent a Southern state  Richland County Councilwoman Joyce Dickerson won the Democratic nomination 

South Dakota
Three-term incumbent Democrat Tim Johnson had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Johnson announced on March 26, 2013, that he would not run for re-election  Former Congressional aide Rick Weiland was the Democratic nominee Among Republicans, former two-term Governor Mike Rounds announced his candidacy for the GOP nomination on November 29, 2012  Rounds won the Republican nomination over state senator Larry Rhoden, state representative Stace Nelson, and physician Annette Bosworth Former Republican U S  Senator Larry Pressler and Republican State Senator Gordon Howie ran as independents  Pressler did not commit to caucusing with either party, while Howie said he would caucus with the Senate Republicans 

Tennessee
Two-term incumbent Republican Lamar Alexander had been re-elected with 65% of the vote in 2008  Alexander sought re-election to a third term  On August 7, 2014, Alexander won the Republican nomination over six challengers, including State Representative Joe Carr On November 4, 2014, Alexander faced Democratic nominee Gordon Ball, Libertarian Party nominee Joshua James, Constitution Party nominee Joe Wilmothm, and independent Danny Page also ran in the general election 

Texas
Two-term incumbent Republican John Cornyn, the Senate Minority Whip, had been re-elected with 55% of the vote in 2008  Cornyn sought re-election, and won the 2014 Republican primary with 59% of the vote  David Alameel, a dentist, and Kesha Rogers, a volunteer for The Lyndon LaRouche Policy Institute, faced each other in a run-off election for the Democratic nomination  Alameel won the run-off and was the Democratic nominee 

Virginia
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Warner had been elected with 65% of the vote in 2008; he sought re-election  Ed Gillespie, former RNC Chairman and presidential adviser, ran for the Republican nomination  Robert Sarvis, the Libertarian nominee for Governor in 2013, also ran 

West Virginia
Five-term incumbent Democrat Jay Rockefeller had been re-elected with 64% of the vote in 2008  He announced on January 11, 2013, that he would not seek re-election to a sixth term  Secretary of State Natalie Tennant won the Democratic nomination On November 26, 2012, Republican Congresswoman Shelley Moore Capito announced her plans to run for the seat, in hopes of becoming the first Republican Senator elected from West Virginia since 1956  Moore Capito won the Republican nomination and the general election, the first woman to serve as United States Senator from West Virginia 

Wyoming
Three-term incumbent Republican Mike Enzi had been re-elected with 76% of the vote in 2008  Enzi sought re-election  Liz Cheney, daughter of former Vice President Dick Cheney, briefly entered the race for the Republican nomination, but dropped her bid in January 2014  On August 19, Enzi won the Republican primary election with 82% of the vote, and Democrat Charlie Hardy, a former Catholic priest, won his party's primary election with 48% of the vote 

See also
2014 United States elections
2014 United States gubernatorial elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
113th United States Congress
114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 2:
114th United States Congress
The 114th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States of America federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives  It met in Washington, D C , from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2017, during the final two years of Barack Obama's presidency  The seats in the House were apportioned based on the 2010 United States census The 2014 elections gave the Republicans control of the Senate and the House for the first time since the 109th Congress  With 248 seats in the House of Representatives and 54 seats in the Senate, this Congress began with the largest Republican majority since the 71st Congress of 1929–1931 

Major events
January 6, 2015: Incumbent Speaker of the House John Boehner was re-elected even though several members of his own party once again chose not to vote for him  He received 216 votes, a majority of the votes cast, but two votes shy of a majority of the full membership 
January 20, 2015: 2015 State of the Union Address
March 3, 2015: Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu addressed a joint session of Congress regarding sanctions against Iran  Netanyahu was invited by Speaker John Boehner without consulting President Obama 
March 9, 2015: U S  Senator Tom Cotton wrote and sent a letter to the leadership of the Islamic Republic of Iran, signed by 47 of the Senate's 54 Republicans, attempting to cast doubt on the Obama administration's authority to engage in nuclear-proliferation negotiations with Iran 
March 25, 2015: Afghanistan President Ashraf Ghani addressed a joint session of Congress 
April 29, 2015: Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe addressed a joint session of Congress, becoming the first Japanese leader to do so 
September 24, 2015: Pope Francis addressed a joint session of Congress, becoming the first Pope to do so 
September 25, 2015: House Speaker John Boehner announced that he would resign as Speaker and from the House at the end of October 2015  Subsequently, Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy, the presumptive favorite to succeed John Boehner, unexpectedly withdrew his candidacy for the job 
October 29, 2015: Paul Ryan was elected to succeed John Boehner as Speaker of the House receiving 236 votes (of 432 votes cast)  He is the youngest Speaker since James G  Blaine in 1869 
January 12, 2016: 2016 State of the Union Address
June 8, 2016: Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed a joint session of Congress 
June 22–23, 2016: In the wake of the Orlando nightclub shooting, Congress debated gun control reform  The U S  House recessed for the July 4 holiday during a sit-in protest held by Democrats that halted business in the chamber for more than 24 hours 
November 8, 2016: Donald Trump and Mike Pence elected as president and vice-president in presidential elections, while the Republicans retain majority at both Senate and House of Representatives 

Major legislation
Enacted
January 12, 2015: Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–1 (text) (PDF)
February 27, 2015: Protecting Volunteer Firefighters and Emergency Responders Act, Pub L  114-3
March 4, 2015: Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2015, Pub L  114-4
April 16, 2015: Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–10 (text) (PDF)
May 22, 2015: Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–17 (text) (PDF)
June 2, 2015: USA FREEDOM Act: Uniting and Strengthening America by Fulfilling Rights and Ensuring Effective Discipline Over Monitoring Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–23 (text) (PDF)
June 29, 2015: Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–27 (text) (PDF)
July 6, 2015: Department of Homeland Security Interoperable Communications Act, Pub  L  114–29 (text) (PDF)
September 25, 2015: Gerardo Hernandez Airport Security Act of 2015, Pub L  114-50
September 30, 2015: National Winstorm Impact Reduction Act Reauthorization of 2015, Pub L  114-52
November 2, 2015: Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–74 (text) (PDF)
November 5, 2015: Librarian of Congress Succession Modernization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–86 (text) (PDF)
November 25, 2015: SPACE Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–90 (text) (PDF)
November 25, 2015: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016, Pub L  114-92
December 4, 2015: Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act, Pub  L  114–94 (text) (PDF)
December 10, 2015: Every Student Succeeds Act, Pub  L  114–95 (text) (PDF)
December 18, 2015: Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016, Pub  L  114–113 (text) (PDF)
January 28, 2016: Grants Oversight and New Efficiency (GONE) Act, Pub L  114-117
February 8, 2016: International Megan's Law to Prevent Sexual Exploitation and Other Crimes Through Advanced Notification of Traveling Sex Offenders, Pub L  114-119
February 8, 2016: Coast Guard Authorization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–120 (text) (PDF)
February 24, 2016: Internet Tax Freedom Act contained in Trade Facilitation and Trade Enforcement Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–125 (text) (PDF)
May 9, 2016: Protect and Preserve International Cultural Property Act, Pub L  114-151
June 28, 2016: Frank R  Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, Pub  L  114-182
June 30, 2016: Puerto Rico Oversight, Management, and Economic Stability Act (PROMESA), Pub L  114-187
July 20, 2016: Global Food Security Act of 2016, Pub  L  114–195 (text) (PDF)
July 29, 2016: Making Electronic Government Accountable By Yielding Tangible Efficiences (MEGABYTE) Act of 2016, Pub L  114-210
September 28, 2016: Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act, Pub  L  114–222 (text) (PDF)
September 29, 2016: Continuing Appropriations and Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2017, and Zika Response and Preparedness Act, Pub L  114-223
October 7, 2016: Sexual Assault Survivors' Rights Act, Pub  L  114–236 (text) (PDF)
December 10, 2016: Further Continuing and Security Assistance Appropriations Act, 2017, Pub L  114-254
December 13, 2016: 21st Century Cures Act, Pub  L  114–255 (text) (PDF)
December 14, 2016: First Responder Anthrax Preparedness Act, Pub L  114-268
December 14, 2016: Better Online Ticket Sales (BOTS) Act, Pub L  114-274
December 16, 2016: Frank R  Wolf International Religious Freedom Act, Pub  L  114-281
December 16, 2016: United States-Israel Advanced Research Partnership Act of 2016, Pub L  114-304
December 16, 2016: Holocaust Expropriated Art Recovery (HEAR) Act of 2016, Pub L  114-308
December 16, 2016: Foreign Cultural Exchange Jurisdictional Immunity Clarification Act, Pub L  114-319
December 23, 2016: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017, Pub L  114-328
January 6, 2017: American Innovation and Competitiveness Act, Pub L  114-329

Proposed
Vetoed
February 24, 2015: Keystone XL Pipeline Approval Act (S  1)
March 31, 2015: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the National Labor Relations Board relating to representation case procedures  (S J Res  8)
October 22, 2015: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016 (H R  1735)
December 19, 2015: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of a rule submitted by the Environmental Protection Agency relating to "Standards of Performance for Greenhouse Gas Emissions from New, Modified, and Reconstructed Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units" (S J Res  23)
December 19, 2015: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of a rule submitted by the Environmental Protection Agency relating to "Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units" (S J Res  24)
January 8, 2016: The Restoring Americans' Healthcare Freedom Reconciliation Act of 2015 (H R  3762)
January 19, 2016: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the Corps of Engineers and the Environmental Protection Agency relating to the definition of "waters of the United States" under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (S J Res  22)
June 8, 2016: A joint resolution disapproving the rule submitted by the Department of Labor relating to the definition of the term "Fiduciary" (H J Res  88)
July 22, 2016: Presidential Allowance Modernization Act of 2016 (H R  1777)
September 23, 2016: Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (S  2040) (Passed over Veto)

Party summary
Resignations and new members are discussed in the "Changes in membership" section, below 

Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Section contents: Senate: Majority (R), Minority (D) • House: Majority (R),  Minority (D)

Senate
President: Joe Biden (D)
President pro tempore: Orrin Hatch (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Mitch McConnell
Assistant Majority Leader (Majority Whip): John Cornyn
Chief Deputy Whip: Mike Crapo
Deputy Whips:[data unknown/missing]
Republican Conference Chairman: John Thune
Republican Conference Vice Chairman: Roy Blunt
Senatorial Committee Chairman: Roger Wicker
Policy Committee Chairman: John Barrasso

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Harry Reid
Assistant Minority Leader (Minority Whip): Dick Durbin
Chief Deputy Whip: Barbara Boxer
Deputy Whips:[data unknown/missing]
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Harry Reid
Democratic Caucus Vice Chair and Policy Committee Chairman: Chuck Schumer
Democratic Caucus Secretary: Patty Murray
Senatorial Campaign Committee Chairman: Jon Tester
Policy Committee Vice Chairwoman: Debbie Stabenow
Policy Committee Strategic Policy Adviser: Elizabeth Warren
Policy Committee Policy Development Adviser: Mark Warner
Steering and Outreach Committee Chairwoman: Amy Klobuchar
Steering and Outreach Committee Vice Chairwoman: Jeanne Shaheen

House of Representatives
Speaker: John Boehner (R), until October 29, 2015
Paul Ryan (R), from October 29, 2015

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Kevin McCarthy
Majority Whip: Steve Scalise
Majority Chief Deputy Whip: Patrick McHenry
Senior Deputy Whips: Kristi Noem, Dennis Ross, Aaron Schock (until March 31, 2015), Steve Stivers, Ann Wagner
Republican Conference Chairwoman: Cathy McMorris Rodgers
Republican Conference Vice-Chairwoman: Lynn Jenkins
Republican Conference Secretary: Virginia Foxx
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Greg Walden
Policy Committee Chairman: Luke Messer
Republican Campaign Committee Deputy Chairman: Lynn Westmoreland

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Nancy Pelosi
Minority Whip: Steny Hoyer
Assistant Democratic Leader: Jim Clyburn
Senior Chief Deputy Minority Whip: John Lewis
Chief Deputy Minority Whips: G  K  Butterfield, Diana DeGette, Keith Ellison, Jan Schakowsky, Kyrsten Sinema, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Peter Welch
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Xavier Becerra
Democratic Caucus Vice-Chairman: Joe Crowley
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Ben Ray Luján
Steering and Policy Committee Co-Chairs: Rosa DeLauro (Steering) and Donna Edwards (Policy)
Organization, Study, and Review Chairwoman: Karen Bass
Policy and Communications Chairman: Steve Israel

Members
Senate
Senators are listed by state and then by Senate classes, In this Congress, Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 2016; Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 2018; and Class 2 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 2020 

House of Representatives
Changes in membership
Senate
There were no changes in Senate membership during this Congress 

House of Representatives
Committees
[Section contents: Senate, House, Joint ]

Senate
House of Representatives
Joint committees
Caucuses
Employees
Senate
Source: "Senate Organization Chart for the 114th Congress"  Senate gov  US Senate  Archived from the original on March 28, 2015  Retrieved January 26, 2015 

Chaplain: Barry C  Black (Seventh-day Adventist)
Curator: Melinda Smith
Librarian: Leona I  Faust
Historian: Donald A  Ritchie, until June 1, 2015
Betty Koed, starting June 1, 2015
Parliamentarian: Elizabeth MacDonough
Secretary: Julie E  Adams
Sergeant at Arms: Frank J  Larkin
Secretary for the Majority: Laura Dove
Secretary for the Minority: Gary B  Myrick

House of Representatives
Source: "Officers and Organizations of the House"  House gov  US House  Archived from the original on July 6, 2017  Retrieved January 26, 2015 

Chaplain: Patrick J  Conroy (Roman Catholic)
Chief Administrative Officer: Ed Cassidy, until December 31, 2015
Will Plaster, January 1, 2016 – August 1, 2016
Phil Kiko, from August 1, 2016
Clerk: Karen L  Haas
Historian: Matthew Wasniewski
Inspector General: Theresa M  Grafenstine
Parliamentarian: Thomas J  Wickham Jr 
Reading Clerks: Susan Cole and Joseph Novotny
Sergeant at Arms: Paul D  Irving

Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Stephen T  Ayers
Attending Physician of the United States Congress: Brian P  Monahan
Comptroller General of the United States: Eugene Louis Dodaro
Director of the Congressional Budget Office: Douglas Elmendorf, until March 31, 2015
Keith Hall, from April 1, 2015
Librarian of Congress: James H  Billington, until September 30, 2015
David S  Mao (acting), October 1, 2015 – September 14, 2016
Carla Diane Hayden, from September 14, 2016
Public Printer of the United States: Davita Vance-Cooks

See also
Elections
2014 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
2014 United States Senate elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
2016 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
2016 United States presidential election
2016 United States Senate elections
2016 United States House of Representatives elections

Membership lists
List of new members of the 114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 3:
Svatopluk II
Svatopluk II or Svätopluk II (Latin: Zentobolchus) was a member of the House of Mojmír and Prince in Moravia (maybe of Nitra) from 894 to 899, as which he strove to control all of Great Moravia  He was the son of Svatopluk I son of Morot 

Biography
Svatopluk II was a younger son of Svatopluk I and grandson (according to Simon of Kéza) of Morot  As Prince of Nitra, Svatopluk II was subordinated to Mojmír II, the King of Great Moravia which contained the principality as its province  Svatopluk II rebelled against Mojmír II in 898 in an attempt to take over control of Great Moravia  Their conflict climaxed when Bavarian troops intervened in the winter of 898/899  Mojmír II defeated the Bavarians and captured Svatopluk II, but the Bavarians managed to rescue him and brought him to East Francia  Svatopluk II returned to the Principality of Nitra in 901  He probably died in 906 in fights with the Hungarians, who began to invade the Carpathian Basin in 896  Historical records contain no mention of Mojmír II, Svatopluk II, or their possible successors in connection with the three battles of Bratislava where the invading tribes defeated the Bavarian army 


== Notes ==
Passage 4:
Rita Mayfield
Rita Mayfield is a Democratic member of the Illinois House of Representatives who has represented the 60th district since July 2010 

Early life and career
She has a Bachelor of Science degree from Columbia College in Computer Information Systems and a Master of Science from Benedictine University in Management and Organization Behavior with an Emphasis in Organization Development 

Illinois House of Representatives
On June 4, 2010, State Representative Eddie Washington died of a heart attack  On July 6, 2010, Mayfield was appointed by local Democratic leaders to succeed Washington to serve in the Illinois House of Representatives from the 60th district  The 60th district, at the time, included all or parts of Waukegan and North Chicago  During the 2011 decennial redistricting process, portions of Gurnee, Beach Park, and Park City were added to the 60th district As of July 3, 2022, Representative Mayfield is a member of the following Illinois House committees:
Appropriations - Elementary & Secondary Education Committee (HAPE)
Appropriations - Human Services Committee (HAPH)
(Chairwoman of) Appropriations - Public Safety Committee (HAPP)
Consumer Protection Committee (HCON)
Elementary & Secondary Education: School Curriculum & Policies Committee (HELM)
Energy & Environment Committee (HENG)
Firefighters and First Responders Subcommittee (SHPF-FIRE)
Insurance Committee (HINS)
Law Enforcement Subcommittee (SHPF-LAWE)
Police & Fire Committee (SHPF)
(Chairwoman of) Product Safety Subcommittee (HCON-PROD)
Small Business, Tech Innovation, and Entrepreneurship Committee (SBTE)
(Co-chairwoman of) Special Issues (INS) Subcommittee (HINS-SPIS)

Electoral history
Passage 5:
Careen M  Gordon
Careen M  Gordon is a former Democratic member of the Illinois House of Representatives who served as a representative from the 75th district from her appointment in December 2003 until leaving office in January 2011 

Early life
Gordon was born and raised in Morris, Illinois and graduated from Morris Community High School  She attended Purdue University and later graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from University of Illinois in political science and English  After receiving her law degree from John Marshall Law School she worked as an Assistant State's Attorney in Grundy County, Kankakee County and Will County  In 2001, she became an Assistant Attorney General in the Illinois Department of Justice's Criminal Division, where she worked until she was appointed to fill the vacancy caused by Mary O'Brien's resignation 

Illinois House of Representatives
Gordon was appointed to represent the 75th district, which at that time stretched from Iroquois County in the southeast to LaSalle County in the northwest and included Bourbonnais, Braceville, Braidwood, Channahon, Chebanse, Coal City, Essex, Herscher, Coal City, Minooka, Morris, Seneca and Wilmington  She began her tenure as a member of the House Agriculture and Conservation, Appropriations—Elementary and Secondary Education, Commerce and Business Development, and Judiciary II—Criminal Law Committees She was voted out of office on November 2, 2010, when voters of the 75th district elected Republican Sue Rezin  (However, before she could take Gordon's seat in the House, Rezin was appointed to the State Senate; Gordon was ultimately succeeded by Pam Roth, appointed to take Rezin's place in the House )
Passage 6:
Michael P  McAuliffe
Michael P  McAuliffe (born December 7, 1963) is a former Republican member of the Illinois House of Representatives, representing the 20th district in northwestern Chicago  He was first appointed in 1997, following the death of his father, Roger McAuliffe; between them, the McAuliffes represented northwestern Chicago for 46 years  On June 17, 2019, McAuliffe resigned from the Illinois House of Representatives  He was the only Republican to represent a significant portion of Chicago in the Illinois General Assembly  On June 29, 2019, Republican Bradley Stephens, the Mayor of Rosemont, was appointed to succeed McAuliffe 
Passage 7:
Cabinet of the United States
The Cabinet of the United States is a body consisting of the vice president of the United States and the heads of the executive branch's departments in the federal government of the United States  It is the principal official advisory body to the president of the United States  The president chairs the meetings but is not formally a member of the Cabinet  The heads of departments, appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, are members of the Cabinet, and acting department heads also participate in Cabinet meetings whether or not they have been officially nominated for Senate confirmation  The president may designate heads of other agencies and non-Senate-confirmed members of the Executive Office of the President as members of the Cabinet 
The Cabinet does not have any collective executive powers or functions of its own, and no votes need to be taken  There are 24 members (25 including the vice president): 15 department heads and nine Cabinet-level members, all of whom, except two, require Senate confirmation  The Cabinet meets with the president in a room adjacent to the Oval Office  The members sit in the order in which their respective department was created, with the earliest being closest to the president and the newest farthest away The members of the Cabinet serve at the pleasure of the president, who can dismiss them at any time without the approval of the Senate, as affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States in Myers v  United States (1926) or downgrade their Cabinet membership status  Often it is legally possible for a Cabinet member to exercise certain powers over his or her own department against the president's wishes, but in practice this is highly unusual due to the threat of dismissal  The president also has the authority to organize the Cabinet, such as instituting committees  Like all federal public officials, Cabinet members are also subject to impeachment by the House of Representatives and trial in the Senate for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors" 
The Constitution of the United States does not explicitly establish a Cabinet  The Cabinet's role, inferred from the language of the Opinion Clause (Article II, Section 2, Clause 1) of the Constitution is to provide advice to the president  Additionally, the Twenty-fifth Amendment authorizes the vice president, together with a majority of the heads of the executive departments, to declare the president "unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office"  The heads of the executive departments are—if eligible—in the presidential line of succession 

History
The tradition of the Cabinet arose out of the debates at the 1787 Constitutional Convention regarding whether the president would exercise executive authority solely or collaboratively with a cabinet of ministers or a privy council  As a result of the debates, the Constitution (Article II, Section 1, Clause 1) vests "all executive power" in the president singly, and authorizes—but does not compel—the president (Article II, Section 2, Clause 1) to "require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices"  The Constitution does not specify what the executive departments will be, how many there will be, or what their duties will be 
George Washington, the first president of the United States, organized his principal officers into a Cabinet, and it has been part of the executive branch structure ever since  Washington's Cabinet consisted of five members: himself, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of War Henry Knox and Attorney General Edmund Randolph  Vice President John Adams was not included in Washington's Cabinet because the position was initially regarded as a legislative officer (president of the Senate)  Furthermore, until there was a vacancy in the presidency (which did not occur until the death of William Henry Harrison in 1841) it was not certain that a vice president would be allowed to serve as president for the duration of the original term as opposed to merely acting as president until new elections could be held  It was not until the 20th century that vice presidents were regularly included as members of the Cabinet and came to be regarded primarily as a member of the executive branch 
Presidents have used Cabinet meetings of selected principal officers but to widely differing extents and for different purposes  During President Abraham Lincoln's administration, Secretary of State William H  Seward advocated the use of a parliamentary-style Cabinet government  However, Lincoln rebuffed Seward  While a professor Woodrow Wilson also advocated a parliamentary-style Cabinet, but after becoming president did not implement it in his administration  In recent administrations, Cabinets have grown to include key White House staff in addition to department and various agency heads  President Ronald Reagan formed seven sub-cabinet councils to review many policy issues, and subsequent presidents have followed that practice 

Federal law
In 3 U S C  § 302 with regard to delegation of authority by the president, it is provided that "nothing herein shall be deemed to require express authorization in any case in which such an official would be presumed in law to have acted by authority or direction of the president " This pertains directly to the heads of the executive departments as each of their offices is created and specified by statutory law (hence the presumption) and thus gives them the authority to act for the president within their areas of responsibility without any specific delegation 
Under 5 U S C  § 3110 (also known as the 1967 Federal Anti-Nepotism statute), federal officials are prohibited from appointing their immediate family members to certain governmental positions, including those in the Cabinet Under the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998, an administration may appoint acting heads of department from employees of the relevant department  These may be existing high-level career employees, from political appointees of the outgoing administration (for new administrations), or sometimes lower-level appointees of the administration 

Confirmation process
The heads of the executive departments and all other federal agency heads are nominated by the president and then presented to the Senate for confirmation or rejection by a simple majority (although before the use of the "nuclear option" during the 113th United States Congress, they could have been blocked by filibuster, requiring cloture to be invoked by 3⁄5 supermajority to further consideration)  If approved, they receive their commission scroll, are sworn in, and begin their duties  When the Senate is not in session, the president can appoint acting heads of the executive departments, and do so at the beginning of their term 
An elected vice president does not require Senate confirmation, nor does the White House chief of staff, which is an appointed staff position of the Executive Office of the President 

Salary
The heads of the executive departments and most other senior federal officers at cabinet or sub-cabinet level receive their salary under a fixed five-level pay plan known as the Executive Schedule, which is codified in Title 5 of the United States Code  Twenty-one positions, including the heads of the executive departments and others, receiving Level I pay are listed in 5 U S C  § 5312, and those forty-six positions on Level II pay (including the number two positions of the executive departments) are listed in 5 U S C  § 5313  As of January 2023, the Level I annual pay was set at $235,600 
The annual salary of the vice president is $235,300  The salary level was set by the Government Salary Reform Act of 1989, which provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees  The vice president receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on their ex officio position as the president of the Senate 

Current Cabinet and Cabinet-rank officials
The individuals listed below were nominated by President Joe Biden to form his Cabinet and were confirmed by the United States Senate on the date noted or are serving as acting department heads by his request, pending the confirmation of his nominees 

Vice president and the heads of the executive departments
The Cabinet permanently includes the vice president and the heads of 15 executive departments, listed here according to their order of succession to the presidency  The speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate follow the vice president and precede the secretary of state in the order of succession, but both are in the legislative branch and are not part of the Cabinet 

Cabinet-level officials
The president may designate additional positions to be members of the Cabinet, which can vary under each president  They are not in the line of succession and are not necessarily officers of the United States 

Former executive and Cabinet-level departments
Department of War (1789–1947), headed by the secretary of war: renamed Department of the Army by the National Security Act of 1947 
Department of the Navy (1798–1949), headed by the secretary of the Navy: became a military department within the Department of Defense 
Post Office Department (1829–1971), headed by the postmaster general: reorganized as the United States Postal Service, an independent agency 
National Military Establishment (1947–1949), headed by the secretary of Defense: created by the National Security Act of 1947 and recreated as the Department of Defense in 1949 
Department of the Army (1947–1949), headed by the secretary of the Army: became a military department within the Department of Defense 
Department of the Air Force (1947–1949), headed by the secretary of the Air Force: became a military department within the Department of Defense 

Renamed heads of the executive departments
Secretary of Foreign Affairs: created in July 1781 and renamed Secretary of State in September 1789 
Secretary of War: created in 1789 and was renamed as Secretary of the Army by the National Security Act of 1947  The 1949 Amendments to the National Security Act of 1947 made the secretary of the Army a subordinate to the secretary of defense 
Secretary of Commerce and Labor: created in 1903 and renamed Secretary of Commerce in 1913 when its labor functions were transferred to the new secretary of labor 
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare: created in 1953 and renamed Secretary of Health and Human Services in 1979 when its education functions were transferred to the new secretary of education 

Positions intermittently elevated to Cabinet-rank
Ambassador to the United Nations (1953–1989, 1993–2001, 2009–2018, 2021–present)
Director of the Office of Management and Budget (1953–1961, 1969–present)
White House Chief of Staff (1953–1961, 1974–1977, 1993–present)
Counselor to the President (1969–1977, 1981–1985, 1992–1993): A title used by high-ranking political advisers to the president of the United States and senior members of the Executive Office of the President since the Nixon administration  Incumbents with Cabinet rank included Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Donald Rumsfeld and Anne Armstrong 
White House Counsel (1974–1977)
United States Trade Representative (1975–present)
Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers (1977–1981, 1993–2001, 2009–2017, 2021–present)
National Security Advisor (1977–1981)
Director of Central Intelligence (1981–1989, 1995–2001)
Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (1993–present)
Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (1993–2009)
Administrator of the Small Business Administration (1994–2001, 2012–present)
Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (1996–2001): Created as an independent agency in 1979, raised to Cabinet rank in 1996, and dropped from Cabinet rank in 2001 
Director of National Intelligence (2017–present)
Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (2017–2021)
Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy (2021–present)

Proposed Cabinet departments
Department of Industry and Commerce, proposed by Secretary of the Treasury William Windom in a speech given at a Chamber of Commerce dinner in May 1881 
Department of Natural Resources, proposed by the Eisenhower administration, President Richard Nixon, the 1976 GOP national platform, and by Bill Daley (as a consolidation of the Departments of the Interior and Energy, and the Environmental Protection Agency) 
Department of Peace, proposed by Senator Matthew Neely in the 1930s, Congressman Dennis Kucinich, 2020 presidential candidate Marianne Williamson, and other members of the U S  Congress 
Department of Social Welfare, proposed by President Franklin Roosevelt in January 1937 
Department of Public Works, proposed by President Franklin Roosevelt in January 1937 
Department of Conservation (renamed Department of the Interior), proposed by President Franklin Roosevelt in January 1937 
Department of Urban Affairs and Housing, proposed by President John F  Kennedy 
Department of Business and Labor, proposed by President Lyndon Johnson 
Department of Community Development, proposed by President Richard Nixon; to be chiefly concerned with rural infrastructure development 
Department of Human Resources, proposed by President Richard Nixon; essentially a revised Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 
Department of Economic Affairs, proposed by President Richard Nixon; essentially a consolidation of the Departments of Commerce, Labor, and Agriculture 
Department of Environmental Protection, proposed by Senator Arlen Specter and others 
Department of Intelligence, proposed by former Director of National Intelligence Mike McConnell 
Department of Global Development, proposed by the Center for Global Development 
Department of Art, proposed by Quincy Jones 
Department of Business, proposed by President Barack Obama as a consolidation of the U S  Department of Commerce's core business and trade functions, the Small Business Administration, the Office of the U S  Trade Representative, the Export-Import Bank, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation, and the U S  Trade and Development Agency 
Department of Education and the Workforce, proposed by President Donald Trump as a consolidation of the Departments of Education and Labor 
Department of Health and Public Welfare, proposed by President Donald Trump as a renamed Department of Health and Human Services 
Department of Economic Development, proposed by Senator Elizabeth Warren to replace the Commerce Department, subsume other agencies like the Small Business Administration and the Patent and Trademark Office, and include research and development programs, worker training programs, and export and trade authorities like the Office of the U S  Trade Representative with the single goal of creating and protecting American jobs 
Department of Technology, proposed by businessman and 2020 Democratic presidential candidate Andrew Yang 
Department of Culture, patterned on similar departments in many foreign nations, proposed by, among others, Murray Moss and Jeva Lange 
When he was SEC Chairman, Harvey Pitt proposed that the Securities and Exchange Commission be elevated to Cabinet level  In July 2002, The New York Times wrote: "Democratic and Republican members of Congress joined administration officials today in ridiculing Harvey L  Pitt's request that his pay be increased and his job as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission be elevated to Cabinet rank     evoking an outpouring of bipartisan scorn " Pitt had tried to insert a provision into corporate antifraud legislation that would increase his pay by 21%, and also elevate his status to that of Cabinet level, at a time when the stock markets had sunk to five-year lows and some congressional leaders were calling for him to resign 

See also
Black Cabinet
Brain trust
Cabinet of Joe Biden
Cabinet of the Confederate States of America
Kitchen Cabinet
List of African-American United States Cabinet members
List of Hispanic and Latino American United States Cabinet members
List of female United States Cabinet members
List of foreign-born United States Cabinet members
List of people who have held multiple United States Cabinet-level positions
List of United States Cabinet members who have served more than eight years
List of United States political appointments that crossed party lines
St  Wapniacl (historical mnemonic acronym)
Unsuccessful nominations to the Cabinet of the United States
Passage 8:
Dean Sanpei
Dean Sanpei is an American politician and a Republican member of the Utah House of Representatives representing District 63 since his June 10, 2010 appointment to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Stephen Clark  He lives in Provo with his wife, Hinckley, and their two children: Joelle and Timothy 

Early life and education
Dean was born into a military family  His father was a Lieutenant Colonel in the Air Force and they moved around a lot during his childhood  By the time Dean was in the 7th grade, he had attended seven different schools  After graduating from Brigham Young University with a Master's of Public Administration, Dean became the Assistant Director of Planning for Intermountain Healthcare’s Urban North Region  He was part of the core team that planned the rebuild of the McKay Dee Hospital  He worked there for several years, before going to work for the consulting group of Johnston, Zabor, McManus in North Carolina where he was a Senior Project Manager with clients spread from San Diego to New York In 2003, Dean was brought back to Provo and Intermountain Healthcare as the Director of Planning for the Urban South Region, which includes Utah Valley Regional Medical Center, Orem Community Hospital, and American Fork Hospital  In 2006 he was promoted to the central office and later became the Vice President over Planning for all of Intermountain Healthcare 

Political career
Dean served as a precinct chair, state and county delegate, member of the executive committee, and from 2005 - 2010 he served as the Legislative District Chair for District 63  He was first elected to the Utah House of Representatives on June 10, 2010, and last elected on November 4, 2014  During the 2016 Legislative Session, served on the Executive Appropriations Committee, and the House Government Operations Committee 

2016 sponsored legislation
Sanpei also floor sponsored SB 2 Public Education Budget Amendments, SB 3 Current Fiscal Year Supplemental Appropriations, SB 7 National Guard, Veterans' Affairs, and Legislature Base Budget, SJR 8 Joint Rules Resolution on Performance Notes, and SJR 9 Joint Rules Resolution on Request for Appropriations Process Change 

Elections
2016 Sanpei won in the general election by 79 2% of the vote in November against Nathan Smith Jones 
2014 Sanpei won the Republican nomination by 71% of the vote in April against Colby Johnson and then went on to win in the November General Election unopposed 
2012 Sanpei won both the June 26, 2012 Republican primary and the November 6, 2012 General election, winning with 5,057 votes 
2010 Sanpei was chosen from among three candidates by the Republican convention and won the November 2, 2010 General election with 57 6% against Democratic candidate Donald Jarvis, who had run for the seat in 2008 
Passage 9:
Ordinance (India)
Ordinances are laws that are promulgated by the President of India on the recommendation of the Union Cabinet, which will have the same effect as an Act of Parliament  They can only be issued when Parliament is not  in session  They enable the Indian government to take immediate legislative action  Ordinances cease to operate either if Parliament does not approve of them within six weeks of reassembly, or if disapproving resolutions are passed by both Houses  It is also compulsory for a session of Parliament to be held within six months  A total of 679 ordinances have been issued from 1950-2014 

List of Central Government Ordinances since 2003
List of state government ordinances
Uttar Pradesh Recovery of Damages to Public and Private Property Ordinance, 2020
Passage 10:
David J  Robinson
David J  Robinson is a former member of the Ohio House of Representatives  He was appointed to his position when the previous representative, E  J  Thomas, resigned; in turn, when Robinson lost the Republican primary election to Jim Hughes, he resigned so that Hughes could be appointed to his seat and run as an incumbent While in office, Robinson was the sponsor of noise-reduction legislation for trains 
Passage 11:
Mary Ann Love
Mary Ann Love (February 21, 1940 – January 27, 2022) was an American politician from Maryland and a member of the Democratic Party  She served 4 full terms in the Maryland House of Delegates, representing Maryland's District 32  Love was originally appointed to the seat in 1993, but was later elected in her own right  She most recently served on the Economic Matters Committee  Love declined to run for reelection in 2014 

Early life
Mary Ann was born in West Pittston, Pennsylvania on February 21, 1940  She graduated from St  John's High School in 1958  She attended the Wilkes-Barre Business School 

Career
Legislative Notes
voted in favor of increasing the sales tax by from 5% to 6% - Tax Reform Act of 2007(HB2)[1]
voted to support in-state tuition for all graduates of a Maryland public high school, 2007(HB6)[2]
voted for the Maryland Gang Prosecution Act of 2007 (HB713), subjecting gang members to up to 20 years in prison and/or a fine of up to $100,000 [3]
voted for Jessica's Law (HB 930), eliminating parole for the most violent child sexual predators and creating a mandatory minimum sentence of 25 years in state prison, 2007 [4]
voted for Public Safety – Statewide DNA Database System – Crimes of Violence and Burglary – Post conviction (HB 370), helping to give police officers and prosecutors greater resources to solve crimes and eliminating a backlog of 24,000 unanalyzed DNA samples, leading to 192 arrests, 2008 [5]
voted for Vehicle Laws – Repeated Drunk and Drugged Driving Offenses – Suspension of License (HB 293), strengthening Maryland's drunk driving laws by imposing a mandatory one year license suspension for a person convicted of drunk driving more than once in five years, 2009 [6]
voted for HB 102, creating the House Emergency Medical Services System Workgroup, leading to Maryland's budgeting of $52 million to fund three new Medevac helicopters to replace the State's aging fleet, 2009 [7]
voted in 2013 in favor of gun control legislation (SB 281) banning certain firearms and placing significant new restrictions on the ability of law-abiding citizens to own firearms [8]

Election results
2002 Race for Maryland House of Delegates – District 32Voters to choose three:1998 Race for Maryland House of Delegates – District 32Voters to choose three:1994 Race for Maryland House of Delegates – District 32Voters to choose three:

Death
Love died on January 27, 2022, aged 81 
Passage 12:
Thomas Chapais
Sir Joseph Amable Thomas Chapais  (March 23, 1858 – July 15, 1946) was a French Canadian author, editor, historian, journalist, professor, and politician 
Born in Saint-Denis, Quebec (then Canada East), the son of Jean-Charles Chapais, a Father of Canadian Confederation, and Henriette-Georgina Dionne, he received a bachelor's degree in 1876 from Université Laval and was called to the Bar of Quebec in 1879 
From 1879 to 1884, he was the principal secretary to the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, Théodore Robitaille  Turning to journalism, he became the editor-in-chief of the daily newspaper, Le Courrier du Canada in 1884 and from 1890 to 1901 was the owner  From 1907 to 1934, he was a professor of history at Université Laval 
In 1891, he ran unsuccessfully as a Conservative for the House of Commons of Canada in the riding of Kamouraska  He was appointed to the Legislative Council of Quebec in 1892 representing Laurentides  From 1893 to 1894, he was the Leader of the Government  In 1893, he was appointed Minister without Portfolio in the cabinet of Louis-Olivier Taillon  From 1895 to 1897, he was the speaker of the legislative council  From 1896 to 1897, he was the president of the executive council in the cabinet of Edmund James Flynn and was a Cabinet Minister  In 1917, he refused a seat in the Senate but was summoned to the Senate in 1919  A Conservative, he represented the senatorial division of Grandville, Quebec and served until his death in 1946 
From 1936 to 1939 and again from 1944 to 1946, he was the leader of the government in the legislative council  From 1936 to 1938, he was a minister without portfolio in the cabinet of Maurice Duplessis  He was appointed again in 1944 
In 1912, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and was its president from 1923 to 1924  From 1925 to 1926, he was the president of the Canadian Historical Association  In 1930, he was a member of the Canadian delegation to the League of Nations  In 1935, he was made a Knight Bachelor by George V 
Parc Thomas-Chapais in Montreal is named in his honour 
Chapais, Quebec is named for him 

Published works
Congrégations enseignantes et le brevet de capacité (1893)
Discours et conférences (1895)
le Serment du roi (1901)
Jean Talon, intendant de la Nouvelle-France (1904)
Mélanges de polémique et d'études religieuses, politiques et littéraires (1905)
le Marquis de Montcalm (1911)
Mélanges (1915)
Cours d'histoire du Canada, 1760–1867 (1919)

See also
Université Laval
Context 2: Passage 1:
3rd Berlin International Film Festival
The 3rd annual Berlin International Film Festival was held from 18 to 28 June 1953 

Description
This year's festival did not give any official jury prizes; instead awards were given by audience voting  This continued until the FIAPF granted Berlin "A-Status" in 1956 The Golden Bear was awarded to Le Salaire de la peur by audience vote  It was at this edition that the first replica of the Bär first created by sculptor Renée Sintenis, produced by the Noack Foundry, was presented The festival held a retrospective on silent films 

Films in competition
The following films were in competition for the Golden Bear award:

Key
Awards
The following prizes were awarded by audience votes:
Golden Bear: Le Salaire de la peur by Henri-Georges Clouzot
Silver Bear: Magia verde by Gian Gaspare Napolitano
Bronze Berlin Bear: Sie fanden eine Heimat by Leopold Lindtberg
Passage 2:
Lars Jakobson
Lars Jakobson (1959, Lund) is a Swedish author  Among the awards he won are the Svenska Dagbladet book prize and the Selma Lagerlöf Prize, both in 2006  For many years he lived in  Stockholm 

Bibliography
Vinterkvarteret (novel, 1985)
Vetten (novel, 1986)
Menageri (short stories, 1989)
Pumpan (novel, 1991)
Hemsökelser (short stories, 1994)
Kanalbyggarnas barn (novel, 1997)
I den Röda damens slott  En martiansk biografi (novel, 2000)
Stjärnfall  Om sf (essays, 2003)  (Co-written with Ola Larsmo and Steve Sem-Sandberg)
Berättelser om djur och andra (short stories, 2004)
Vid den stora floden (novel, 2006)
Vännerna (novel, 2010)
Effekter (essays and short stories, 2011)
Passage 3:
The Corrections
The Corrections is a 2001 novel by American author Jonathan Franzen  It revolves around the troubles of an elderly Midwestern couple and their three adult children, tracing their lives from the mid-20th century to "one last Christmas" together near the turn of the millennium  The novel was awarded the National Book Award in 2001 and the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 2002 
The Corrections was published to wide acclaim from literary critics for its characterization and prose  While the novel's release preceded the September 11 terrorist attacks by ten days, many have interpreted The Corrections as having prescient insight into the major concerns and general mood of post-9/11 American life, and it has been listed in multiple publications as one of the greatest novels of the 21st century 

Plot summary
The novel shifts back and forth through the late 20th century, intermittently following spouses Alfred and Enid Lambert as they raise their children Gary, Chip, and Denise in the traditional Midwestern suburb of St  Jude, and the lives of each family member as the three children grow up, distancing themselves and living on the East Coast  Alfred, a rigid and strict patriarch who worked as a railroad engineer, has developed Parkinson's and shows increasingly unmanageable symptoms of dementia  Enid takes out her frustrations with him by attempting to impose her traditional judgments on her adult children's lives, to their annoyance 
The middle son, Chip, is an unemployed academic living in New York City following his termination as a tenure-track university professor due to a sexual relationship with a student  Living on borrowed money from Denise, Chip works obsessively on a screenplay, but finds no success or motivation to pay off his debts  Following a rejection of his screenplay, Chip takes a job from his girlfriend's estranged husband Gitanas, a friendly but corrupt Lithuanian government official, later moving to Vilnius and working to defraud American investors over the Internet 
Their eldest son, Gary, is a successful but increasingly depressive and alcoholic banker living in Philadelphia with his wife, Caroline, and their three young sons  When Enid attempts to persuade Gary to bring his family to St  Jude for Christmas, Caroline is reluctant, and turns Gary's sons against him and Enid, worsening his depressive tendencies  In return, Gary attempts to force his parents to move to Philadelphia so that Alfred may undergo an experimental neurological treatment that he and Denise learn about 
Also living in Philadelphia, their youngest child Denise finds growing success as an executive chef despite Enid's disapproval and persistent scrutiny of her personal life, and is commissioned to open a new restaurant  Simultaneously impulsive and a workaholic, Denise begins affairs with both her boss and his wife, and though the restaurant is successful, she is fired when they are uncovered  Flashbacks to her childhood show her responding to her repressed upbringing by beginning an affair with one of her father's subordinates, a married railroad signals worker 
As Alfred's condition worsens, Enid attempts to manipulate all of her children into going to St  Jude for Christmas, with increasing desperation  Initially only Gary and Denise are present, Gary having failed to convince his wife or children, while Chip is delayed by a violent political conflict in Lithuania, eventually arriving late after being attacked and robbed of all his savings  Denise inadvertently discovers that her father had known of her teenaged affair with his subordinate, and had kept his knowledge a secret to protect her privacy, at great personal cost  After a disastrous Christmas morning together, the three children are dismayed by their father's condition, and Alfred is finally moved into a nursing home 
As Alfred's condition deteriorates in care, Chip stays with Enid and visits his father frequently while dating a doctor, eventually having twins with her  Denise leaves Philadelphia and moves to New York to work at a new restaurant where she is much happier  Enid, freed of her responsibilities and long-time frustrations with Alfred, slowly becomes a more open-minded person, and enjoys a healthier involvement in her children's and grandchildren's lives, finally stating that she is ready to make some changes in her life 

Themes
The title of The Corrections refers most literally to the decline of the technology-driven economic boom of the late nineties  Franzen makes this clear at the beginning of the book's final chapter, also titled "The Corrections": 

The Correction, when it finally came, was not an overnight bursting of a bubble but a much more gentle let-down, a year-long leakage of value from key financial markets   
(On a more abstract level, the title is an homage to William Gaddis' The Recognitions )This economic correction parallels the simultaneous "corrections" that Franzen's characters make to their own lives in the novel's final pages  Franzen has said that "the most important corrections of the book are the sudden impingements of truth or reality on characters who are expending ever larger sums of energy on self-deception or denial " Enid becomes more flexible in her worldview and less submissive to her husband's authority, and Chip begins a more mature relationship with a woman, simultaneously reconciling with his father  Gary, the only central character who fails to learn from his mistakes and grow during the course of the novel, loses a lot of money as technology stocks begin to decline 
Another key theme in the book is America's transition from an industrial economy to an economy based largely on the financial, high-tech and service sectors  Alfred, a railroad engineer with a pension and a deep loyalty to his company, embodies the old economic order of mid-twentieth century America  His children, a chef, an investment banker, and a professor/internet entrepreneur, embody the new economic order at the turn of the millennium  Franzen depicts this economic transition most concretely in his descriptions of Denise's workplace, an abandoned Philadelphia coal plant converted into a trendy, expensive restaurant 
The narrative of Chip's involvement with Gitanas' attempt to bring the country of Lithuania to the market – "lithuania com" on the internet – comments on unrestrained capitalism and the privileges and power of the wealthy while meaningful distinctions between private and public sectors disappear  "The main difference between America and Lithuania, as far as Chip could see, was that in America the wealthy few subdued the unwealthy many by means of mind-numbing and soul-killing entertainments and gadgetry and pharmaceuticals, whereas in Lithuania the powerful few subdued the unpowerful many by threatening violence "
The book addresses conflicts and issues within a family that arise from the presence of a progressive debilitating disease of an elder  As Alfred's dementia and parkinsonism unfold mercilessly, they affect Enid and all three children, eliciting different and, over time, changing reactions  Medical help and hype – the latter in the form of the investigatory method “Corecktall” – do not provide a solution  At the end, Alfred refuses to eat and dies, the ultimate “correction” of the problem 

Reception
The novel won the 2001 National Book Award for Fiction
and the 2002 James Tait Black Memorial Prize, was a finalist for the 2002 Pulitzer Prize, was nominated for the 2001 National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction and the 2002 PEN/Faulkner Award, and was shortlisted for the 2003 International Dublin Literary Award  According to John Leonard, the novel explores the generation gap and the grasp of one generation on another in a way that reminds you of "why you read serious fiction in the first place"  In 2005, The Corrections was included in TIME magazine's list of the 100 best English-language novels since 1923  In 2006, Bret Easton Ellis declared the novel "one of the three great books of my generation " In 2009, website The Millions polled 48 writers, critics, and editors, including Joshua Ferris, Sam Anderson, and Lorin Stein; the panel voted The Corrections the best novel since 2000 "by a landslide" The novel was a selection of Oprah's Book Club in 2001  Franzen caused some controversy when he publicly expressed his ambivalence at his novel having been chosen by the club due to its inevitable association with the "schmaltzy" books selected in the past  As a result, Oprah Winfrey rescinded her invitation to him to appear on The Oprah Winfrey Show Entertainment Weekly put The Corrections on its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, saying, "Forget all the Oprah hoo-ha: Franzen's 2001 doorstop of a domestic drama teaches that, yes, you can go home again  But you might not want to "

Style and interpretations
With The Corrections, Franzen moved away from the postmodernism of his earlier novels and towards literary realism  In a conversation with novelist Donald Antrim for BOMB Magazine, Franzen said of this stylistic change, "Simply to write a book that wasn't dressed up in a swashbuckling, Pynchon-sized megaplot was enormously difficult " Critics pointed out many similarities between Franzen's childhood in St  Louis and the novel, but the work is not an autobiography   Franzen said in an interview that "the most important experience of my life     is the experience of growing up in the Midwest with the particular parents I had  I feel as if they couldn’t fully speak for themselves, and I feel as if their experience—by which I mean their values, their experience of being alive, of being born at the beginning of the century and dying towards the end of it, that whole American experience they had—[is] part of me  One of my enterprises in the book is to memorialize that experience, to give it real life and form " The novel also focuses on topics such as the multi-generational transmission of family dysfunction and the waste inherent in today's consumer economy, and each of the characters "embody the conflicting consciousnesses and the personal and social dramas of our era " Influenced by Franzen's life, the novel in turn influenced it; during its writing, he said in 2002, he moved "away from an angry and frightened isolation toward an acceptance – even a celebration – of being a reader and a writer "In a Newsweek feature on American culture during the George W  Bush administration, Jennie Yabroff said that despite being released less than a year into Bush's term and before the September 11 attacks, The Corrections "anticipates almost eerily the major concerns of the next seven years " According to Yabroff, a study of The Corrections demonstrates that much of the apprehension and disquiet that is seen as characteristic of the Bush era and post-9/11 America actually predated both  In this way, the novel is both characteristic of its time and prophetic of things to come; for Yabroff, even the controversy with Oprah, which saw Franzen branded an "elitist," was symptomatic of the subsequent course of American culture, with its increasingly prominent anti-elitist strain  She argues that The Corrections stands above later novels which focus on similar themes, because unlike its successors it addresses these themes without being "hamstrung by the 9/11 problem" which preoccupied Bush-era novels by writers such as Don DeLillo, Jay McInerney, and Jonathan Safran Foer 

Film adaptation
In August 2001, producer Scott Rudin optioned the film rights to The Corrections for Paramount Pictures  The rights still have not yet been turned into a completed film In 2002, the film was said to be in pre-production, with Stephen Daldry attached to direct and dramatist David Hare working on the screenplay  In October 2002, Franzen gave Entertainment Weekly a wish-list for the cast of the film, saying, "If they told me Gene Hackman was going to do Alfred, I would be delighted  If they told me they had cast Cate Blanchett as [Alfred's daughter] Denise, I would be jumping up and down, even though officially I really don't care what they do with the movie "In January 2005, Variety announced that, with Daldry presumably off the project, Robert Zemeckis was developing Hare's script "with an eye toward directing "  In August 2005, Variety confirmed that the director would definitely be helming The Corrections  Around this time, it was rumored that the cast would include Judi Dench as the family matriarch Enid, along with Brad Pitt, Tim Robbins and Naomi Watts as her three children  In January 2007, Variety wrote that Hare was still at work on the film's screenplay In September 2011, it was announced that Rudin and the screenwriter and director Noah Baumbach were preparing The Corrections as a "drama series project," to potentially co-star Anthony Hopkins and air on HBO  Baumbach and Franzen collaborated on the screenplay, which Baumbach would direct  In 2011, it was announced that Chris Cooper and Dianne Wiest would star in the HBO adaptation  In November 2011, it was announced that Ewan McGregor had joined the cast  In a March 7, 2012, interview, McGregor confirmed that work on the film was "about a week" in and noted that both Dianne Wiest and Maggie Gyllenhaal were among the cast members  But on May 1, 2012, HBO decided not to pick up the pilot for a full series 

Radio adaptation
In January 2015, the BBC broadcast a 15-part radio dramatisation of the work  The series of 15-minute episodes, adapted by Marcy Kahan and directed by Emma Harding, also starred Richard Schiff (The West Wing), Maggie Steed (The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus), Colin Stinton (Rush, The Bourne Ultimatum) and Julian Rhind-Tutt (Lucy, Rush, Notting Hill)  The series was part of BBC Radio 4's 15 Minute Drama "classic and contemporary original drama and book dramatisations" 
Passage 4:
Lectures on Jurisprudence
Lectures on Jurisprudence, also called Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms (1763) is a collection of Adam Smith's lectures, comprising notes taken from his early lectures  It contains the formative ideas behind The Wealth of Nations 

Background
Published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Adam Smith   It consists of two sets of lecture notes that were apparently taken from Smith's lectures of the 1760s, along with an 'Early Draft' of The Wealth of Nations  The same material had also appeared as An Early Draft of Part of The Wealth of Nations and as Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms 

Summary
Smith’s Lectures on Jurisprudence, originally delivered at the University of Glasgow in 1762–1763, present his ‘theory of the rules by which civil government ought to be directed ’ The chief purpose of government, according to Smith, is to preserve justice; and ‘the object of justice is security from injury ’ The state must protect the individual’s right to his person, property, reputation, and social relations  Smith specifically defines the term jurisprudence as "the theory of general principles of law and government"  It is also defined as the general guidelines about the essence of a nation's laws  Smith specifically defines the term jurisprudence as "the theory of general principles of law and government"  It is also defined as the general guidelines about the essence of a nation's laws 

Part I: Of Justice
Division I  Of Public Jurisprudence
Division II  Domestic Law
Division III  Private Law

Part II: Of Police
The pros and cons of money, prices, and financial exchanges fall under this section of the Lectures "since the regulation of prices and the creation of money by the state both came under the head of police "
Division I  Cleanliness and Security
Division II  Cheapness or Plenty

Part III: Of Revenue
Part IV: Of Arms
Part V: Of the Laws of Nations
Scholarly critique
According to William Caldwell, the lectures accomplish three goals: they detail Smith's philosophy and beliefs about economics, they explain his motivation to write about the historical origins of political societies, and they show the influence of mercantilism and Francis Hutcheson on Smith's thoughts on the political economy  In an article for Political Science Quarterly, Wilhelm Hasbach opines that Smith believed that the political economy is the foundation for morality, law, government, wealth, revenue, and arms, a position that originated from the idea of natural law  He also notes that Smith's relationship with the  physiocrats is important in the Lectures and that some critics state that Smith produced the same concepts as the physiocrats on economics   Hasbach also states that Smith expands on physiocratic ideas by advocating a freedom of  industry  Smith expects that industry - and also commerce - be  laisser-faire and relevant to all aspects of political economics  Another scholar,  C  F  Bastable, notes that Smith recognizes the need for industry for the production of wealth  Industry creates capital which is much needed in an economically viable society Hasbach has also written that the Lectures offer a perspective of Smith's view on property that differs from that of John Locke  Smith believes that property does not lie within the individual but rather that it ought to be shared within society   "The individual and his labor are in no respect the ultimate source of the  right of property in land: the origin of this right is in society " Also, according to Hasbach, Smith rejects a state of nature and the doctrine on an  original contract, two ideas supported by Locke 

Notes
External links
Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms on OLL
Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms on archive org
Passage 5:
John Dear
John Dear (born August 13, 1959) is an American Catholic priest, peace activist, lecturer, and author of 35 books on peace and nonviolence  He has spoken on peace around the world, organized hundreds of demonstrations against war, injustice and nuclear weapons and been arrested 85 times in acts of nonviolent civil disobedience against war, injustice, poverty, nuclear weapons and environmental destruction   
Dear has been nominated several times for the Nobel Peace Prize, including in January 2008 by Archbishop Desmond Tutu  He has served as the director of the Fellowship of Reconciliation, and currently serves as the founder and director of the Beatitudes Center for the Nonviolent Jesus 

Biography
Early life
Dear was born in Elizabeth City, North Carolina, on August 13, 1959  He graduated magna cum laude from Duke University, in Durham, North Carolina, in 1981  He then worked for the Robert F  Kennedy Memorial Foundation in Washington, D C 

Jesuit formation
In August 1982, Dear entered the Society of Jesus, commonly known as the Jesuits, at their novitiate in Wernersville, Pennsylvania  He then spent two years studying philosophy at Fordham University in the Bronx, New York (1984–1986), during which time he lived and worked for the Jesuit Refugee Service in a refugee camp in El Salvador for three months in 1985  
For his period of regency, he taught at Scranton Preparatory School in Scranton, Pennsylvania, from 1986 to 1988  He then spent a year working at the Fr  McKenna Center, a drop-in center and shelter for the homeless, in Washington, D C  From 1989 to 1993, he attended the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley, California, and received two master's degrees in theology from the Jesuit School of Theology at Berkeley  
He was ordained a Catholic priest in Baltimore, Maryland on June 12, 1993, and began serving as associate pastor of St  Aloysius' Church in Washington, D C 

Promoting peace and nonviolence
Dear founded Bay Area Pax Christi, a region of Pax Christi USA, the national Catholic peace movement, and began to arrange for Mother Teresa to intervene with various governors on behalf of people scheduled to be executed on death row 
Dear was arrested in scores of nonviolent civil disobedience actions against war, injustice and nuclear weapons—from the Pentagon to Livermore Laboratories in California  On December 7, 1993, he was arrested with three others at the Seymour Johnson Air Force Base in Goldsboro, North Carolina, for hammering on an F-15 nuclear capable fighter bomber  He was jailed, tried and convicted of two felony counts, and served seven-and-a-half months in North Carolina jails and four-and-a-half months, under house arrest in Washington, D C , followed by 3 years probation  As part of the Plowshares disarmament movement, the defendants argued that they were fulfilling Isaiah's mandate to "beat swords into plowshares," and Jesus' command to "love your enemies "From 1994–1996, Dear served as executive director of the Sacred Heart Center, a community center for low-income African-American women and children, in Richmond, Virginia  In the Spring of 1997, he taught theology for one semester at Fordham University in the Bronx, New York  From 1997–98, he lived in Derry, Northern Ireland, as part of the Jesuit "tertianship" sabbatical program, and worked at a human rights center in Belfast 
From 1998–2001, Dear served as executive director of the Fellowship of Reconciliation, the largest interfaith peace organization in the United States, based in Nyack, New York  In 1999, he led a delegation of Nobel Peace Prize winners on a peace mission to Iraq, and also an interfaith delegation to Palestine/Israel 
Immediately after September 11, 2001, Dear served as a Red Cross coordinator of chaplains at the Family Assistance Center in Manhattan, and personally counseled thousands of relatives and rescue workers  From 2002–04, he served as pastor to five parishes in the high desert of northeastern New Mexico, and founded Pax Christi New Mexico, a region of Pax Christi USA 
In 2006, Dear led a demonstration against the U S  war in Iraq in Santa Fe, New Mexico  In 2009, he joined the Creech 14 in a civil disobedience protest at Creech Air Force base against the U S  drone war in Afghanistan and Pakistan, and was arrested and put in the Clark County, Nevada jail for a night  He was later found guilty but given time served 
In January 2014, Dear left the Jesuits and wrote about his leaving in the National Catholic Reporter, saying that the Society of Jesus has turned from its commitment to social justice, and that he would not be permitted to work for peace and disarmament  Dear then joined the Diocese of Monterey, California where he remains a Catholic priest 

Speaker, writer, teacher
Over the years, Dear has given thousands of lectures on peace, disarmament and nonviolence in churches, schools and groups across the United States, and around the world, including national speaking tours of Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, Canada and England 
Dear formerly wrote a weekly column for the National Catholic Reporter and the Huffington Post  He is also featured in several other books and featured in a wide variety of U S  publications, including The New York Times and The Washington Post  He is featured in the DVD documentary film, The Narrow Path, and the subject of John Dear on Peace, by Patti Normile (St  Anthony Messenger Press, 2009)  He has published hundreds of articles (see: www johndear org) and over 35 books 

Awards
Dear has received several peace awards, including the 2010 Pacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Award, from the Diocese of Davenport, Iowa; and the Courage of Conscience Award, from Peace Abbey in Boston, Massachusetts 
Dear has been also nominated several times for the Nobel Peace Prize, including a nomination in January 2008 by Archbishop Desmond Tutu and later by Senator Barbara Mikulski 

Bibliography
Disarming the Heart: Toward a Vow of Nonviolence (Foreword by John Stoner)
Jean Donovan and the Call to Discipleship
Christ Is With the Poor: Sayings of Horace McKenna, S J  (Ed )
Our God Is Nonviolent: Witnesses in the Struggle for Peace and Justice (Foreword by Elizabeth McAlister)
It's a Sin to Build a Nuclear Weapon: The Writings of Richard McSorley, S J  (Ed )
Oscar Romero and the Nonviolent Struggle for Justice
Seeds of Nonviolence (Foreword by Thomas Gumbleton)
The God of Peace: Toward a Theology of Nonviolence (Foreword by James W  Douglass) 
The Sacrament of Civil Disobedience (Foreword by Daniel Berrigan)
Peace Behind Bars: A Peacemaking Priest's Journal from Jail (Foreword by Philip Berrigan) 
The Road to Peace: Writings on Peace and Justice by Henri Nouwen (Ed )
Jesus the Rebel (Foreword by Daniel Berrigan)
The Vision of Peace: Writings by Mairead Maguire (Foreword by the Dalai Lama) (Ed )
The Sound of Listening: A Retreat Journal from Thomas Merton's Hermitage
And the Risen Bread: The Selected Poetry of Daniel Berrigan, S J  (Ed )
Living Peace: A Spirituality of Contemplation and Action
Christianity and Vegetarianism: Pursuing the Nonviolence of Jesus (online excerpt)
Mohandas Gandhi: Essential Writings (Ed )
Mary of Nazareth, Prophet of Peace (Foreword by Joan Chittister)
The Questions of Jesus (Foreword by Richard Rohr)
Testimony: Essays by Daniel Berrigan (Ed )
Transfiguration (Foreword by Desmond Tutu)
You Will Be My Witnesses (with icons by Rev  William McNichols)
The Advent of Peace
A Persistent Peace: An Autobiography (Foreword by Martin Sheen)
Put Down Your Sword: Essays on Peace and Justice
Daniel Berrigan: Essential Writings (Ed )
Lazarus Come Forth!: How Jesus Confronts the Culture of Death, and How We Can Too
Thomas Merton Peacemaker
The Nonviolent Life
Radical Prayers
They Will Inherit the Earth: Peace and Nonviolence in a Time of Climate Change
The Beatitudes of Peace
Walking the Way
The Trouble with Our State: Poetry of Daniel Berrigan (ed )
Praise be Peace
Passage 6:
Gyldendal's Endowment
Gyldendal's Endowment was a literature prize that was awarded in the period 1934–1995 by the Norwegian publisher Gyldendal Norsk Forlag   The prize was awarded to significant authors, regardless of which publisher the author was associated with 
From 1996 the Gyldendals endowment was superseded by the Gyldendal Prize for "particularly significant writing" and (since 1998) by the Sult-prisen (Hunger Award) for "eminent young authors" 

Endowment winners
1934 – Olav Duun
1935 – Peter Egge, Herman Wildenvey, Arnulf Øverland
1936 – Gabriel Scott
1937 – Cora Sandel
1938 – Arthur Omre
1939 – Johan Falkberget
1940 – Sigurd Christiansen, Ronald Fangen, Sigurd Hoel
1941 – Gunnar Reiss-Andersen, Kristian Elster
1942 – Inge Krokann
1943 – Tarjei Vesaas
1944 – Inger Hagerup
1945 – Johan Borgen
1946 – Emil Boyson, Ernst Orvil, Tore Ørjasæter
1947 – Nils Johan Rud
1948 – Ingeborg Møller, Aksel Sandemose
1949 – Gunnar Larsen, Magnhild Haalke
1950 – Egil Rasmussen, Hans Henrik Holm
1951 – Gunvor Hofmo
1952 – Jakob Sande, Mikkjel Fønhus
1953 – Engvald Bakkan
1954 – Agnar Mykle, Terje Stigen
1955 – Bjørn Rongen, Alfred Hauge
1956 – Sigbjørn Hølmebakk
1957 – Eivind Tverbak, Halldis Moren Vesaas
1958 – Astrid Tollefsen
1959 – Alf Larsen, Åge Rønning
1960 – Finn Bjørnseth
1961 – Johannes Heggland, Per Bronken
1962 – Bergljot Hobæk Haff
1963 – Åsta Holth, Arnold Eidslott, Ola Viker
1964 – Aslaug Låstad Lygre, Odd Hølaas
1965 – Marie Takvam, Gisken Wildenvey
1966 – Georg Johannesen, Odd Winger
1967 – Kåre Holt, Per Hansson
1968 – Jan Erik Vold
1969 – Knut Faldbakken
1970 – Espen Haavardsholm, Sigmund Skard, Merete Wiger
1971 – Tor Obrestad
1972 – Jens Bjørneboe
1973 – Tor Edvin Dahl
1974 – Emil Boyson, Nils Johan Rud, Gunvor Hofmo, Bergljot Hobæk Haff, Tor Åge Bringsværd
1975 – Pål Sundvor
1976 – Finn Carling, Sigurd Evensmo
1977 – Jan Jakob Tønseth
1978 – Olav Nordrå, Arne Ruste
1979 – Cecilie Løveid, Wera Sæther
1980 – Marta Schumann, Tormod Haugen
1981 – Gidske Anderson, Stein Mehren
1982 – Ola Bauer, Ketil Gjessing
1983 – Karin Bang, Terje Johanssen
1984 – Mari Osmundsen, Simen Skjønsberg
1985 – Paal-Helge Haugen, Geir Kjetsaa
1986 – Inger Elisabeth Hansen, Erland Kiøsterud
1987 – Hans Herbjørnsrud, Tor Ulven
1988 – Liv Køltzow, Øystein Lønn
1989 – Edvard Hoem, Gunnar Staalesen
1990 – Sigmund Mjelve, Atle Næss
1991 – Kjartan Fløgstad and Herbjørg Wassmo
1992 – Sissel Lie, Steinar Løding og Tor Fretheim
1993 – Britt Karin Larsen, Thorvald Steen
1994 – Kjersti Scheen, Bjørn Aamodt
1995 – Torgrim Eggen, Terje Holtet Larsen
Passage 7:
Adam Smith Prize
The Adam Smith Prizes are prizes currently awarded for the best overall examination performance and best dissertation in Part IIB of the Economics Tripos (the graduation examination for economics undergraduates) at the University of Cambridge  The prize - named after Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith - was originally established in 1891 and awarded triennially for the best submitted essay on a subject of the writer's choice 

List of past recipients
1894 Arthur Lyon Bowley
1897 Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence
1900 Sydney Chapman
1903 Arthur Cecil Pigou
1906 Ernest Alfred Benians
1909 John Maynard Keynes
1929 R  F  Kahn
1930 Ruth Cohen
1932 K  S  Isles
1933 B  P  Adarkar
1935 W  B  Reddaway
1936 D  G  Champernowne
1954 Amartya Sen
1956 Manmohan Singh
1974 Martin Osborne
1987 Richard J  Parkin
2000 Saugato Datta and Richard Fearon
2004 James Benford
2006 Mark Shields
2007 Stefanie Stantcheva
2008 Thomas Mckendrick and Shivam Patel
2009 Praneet Shah
2011 Ossie Akushie and Shafi Anwar
2013 Inna Grinis and Ivan Kuznetsov
2014 James Walker
2015 Ben Andrews and Jonathon Hazell
2016 Isar Bhattacharjee and Toni Oki
2017 Joel Flynn and Joseph Lee
2018 Tireni Ajilore, George Nikolakoudis, Laurence O’Brien and Sajan Shah
2019 Vlastimil Rasocha and Kuishuai Yi
2020 Neal Patel, David Lee, Liam Grant, Andrew Koh and Michael Bennett
2021 Valerie Chuang, Matthew Chen and Jack Golden

See also
List of economics awards
Passage 8:
Faraday Lectureship Prize
The Faraday Lectureship Prize, previously known simply as the Faraday Lectureship, is awarded once every two years (approximately) by the Royal Society of Chemistry for "exceptional contributions to physical or theoretical chemistry"  Named after Michael Faraday, the first Faraday Lecture was given in 1869, two years after Faraday's death, by Jean-Baptiste Dumas  As of 2009, the prize was worth £5000, with the recipient also receiving a medal and a certificate  As the name suggests, the recipient also gives a public lecture describing his or her work
Context 3: Passage 1:
Group Portrait with a Lady
Group Portrait with a Lady (German: Gruppenbild mit Dame) is a 1977 German-French drama film directed by Aleksandar Petrović  It was entered into the 1977 Cannes Film Festival  It is based on the novel of the same name  by German Nobel-Prize winning novelist Heinrich Böll 

Cast
Passage 2:
List of territorial entities where German is an official language
The following is a list of the countries and territories where German is an official language (also known as the Germanosphere)  It includes countries that have German as (one of) their nationwide official language(s), as well as dependent territories with German as a co-official language 

German as an official language
German is the official language of six countries, all of which lie in central and western Europe  These countries (with the addition of South Tyrol of Italy) also form the Council for German Orthography and are referred to as the German Sprachraum (German language area)  Since 2004, Meetings of German-speaking countries have been held annually with six participants: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Switzerland:

Subdivisions of countries
While not official at the national level, German is a co-official language in subdivisions of the countries listed below  In each of these regions, German is an official language on the administrative level 

Other legal statuses
There are other political entities (countries as well as dependent entities) which acknowledge other legal statuses for the German language or one of its dialects  While these may cover minority rights, support of certain language facilities (schools, media, etc ), and the promotion of cultural protection/heritage, they do not encompass the establishment of German as an "official" language, i e , being required in public offices or administrative texts 
These countries include:

Brazil (German is a statewide cultural language in Espírito Santo and Rio Grande do Sul; Standard German official in 2 municipalities and non-standard German dialects official in 16 others)
Czech Republic (national minority language)
Denmark (minority language in Syddanmark, established with the Bonn-Copenhagen declarations, 1955)
Hungary (national minority language)
Namibia (national language; co-official language 1884–1990)
Poland (national minority language; also auxiliary language in 31 communes)
Romania (national minority language)
Russia (minority language in the Azovo German National District)
Slovakia (regional minority language)Although in France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as "regional languages" according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998, the French government has not yet ratified the treaty, and therefore those varieties have no official legal status Due to the German diaspora, other countries with sizable populations of (mostly bilingual) German L1 speakers include Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Canada, Chile, Paraguay, as well as the United States  However, in none of these countries does German or a German variety have any legal status 

International institutions
German is an official language of the following international institutions:

International sports associations:
European Handball Federation (EHF)
Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT)
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
Fédération Internationale de Luge de Course (FIL)
Fédération Internationale de Ski (FIS)
International Biathlon Union (IBU)
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)

Notes
See also
German language in the Basic Law
Passage 3:
Aleksandar Petrović (film director)
Aleksandar "Saša" Petrović (14 January 1929 – 20 August 1994) was a Serbian film director  He was one of the major figures of the Yugoslav Black Wave  Two of his films were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film: Three in 1966 and I Even Met Happy Gypsies (Feather Gatherers) in 1967  The latter (original title "Skupljaci perja") was the first movie that presented the existence of Gypsies in society and everyday life; it was also the first full-feature film where Gypsies spoke their own language, Roma  Most roles were interpreted by real Gypsies; this was their movie  "As a child, I observed them and saw in these people faith and irrationality," said Petrović I Even Met Happy Gypsies won the FIPRESCI Prize and the Grand Prize of the Jury at the Cannes Film Festival; it also received a nomination for a Golden Globe  In 1967 Petrović was a member of the jury at the 17th Berlin International Film Festival One of his most famous films is It Rains in My Village  Petrović found inspiration for this film in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel The Possessed  The film was nominated for a Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at the 1969 Cannes Film FestivalIn 1973, Petrović was forced to leave his post at the Belgrade Film Academy after being accused of holding anti-communist views by the communist government of Yugoslavia  In late December 1989, he joined the founding committee of the Democratic Party in Serbia, the first opposition anti-communist party in Serbia  He died at age 65 in Paris, France 
Petrović published several hundreds of articles and several books, including Novi film I: 1960-1965 and Novi film II: Crni film (1965-1970) 

Filmography
Passage 4:
Yugoslavia at the Olympics
Teams from Yugoslavia first participated at the Olympic Games in 1920  Previously, several athletes from Croatia, Slovenia and northern Serbian province Vojvodina had competed for Austria or Hungary when those countries were part of the Empire of Austria-Hungary  A small team of two athletes had competed distinctly for Serbia at the 1912 Summer Olympics 
Yugoslavia has been the designation for Olympic teams from three distinct national entities:

Kingdom of Yugoslavia (officially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes until 1929) from 1920 to 1936
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 1948 to the 1992 Winter Olympics
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, formed as a joint state by only Montenegro and Serbia after the breakup of Yugoslavia, from 1992 to 2002 (due to UN ban allowed to compete as Independent Olympic Participants at the 1992 Summer Olympics and was not allowed to compete at 1994 Winter Olympics)Two of the successor nations (Croatia and Slovenia) began to compete as independent teams at the Olympics starting at the 1992 Winter Games and Bosnia and Herzegovina at the 1992 Summer Games and as of the 2008 Summer Olympics, all six successor nations, former socialist republics, have participated independently  Kosovo, a former autonomous province, made its Olympic debut as an independent national team at the 2016 Summer Olympics 

Timeline of participation
The Yugoslav Olympic Committee was established in Zagreb in 1919 (recognized by the IOC in 1920), before moving to Belgrade in 1927, and it took the place of the Serbian Olympic Committee in the Association of National Olympic Committees  During the dissolution of Yugoslavia, several new committees were formed in the break-away countries  The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, consisting of the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro, participated at the Games since 1996  At the 1996 and 2000 Games, the nation was designated with the same code, Yugoslavia (YUG), as the defunct SFRY  It was rechartered as the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro in 2003 with there being no territorial changes  The Serbia and Montenegro (SCG) designation and code were used at the 2004 Games 

Hosted Games
Yugoslavia has hosted the Games on one occasion 

Medal tables
*Red border colour indicates the games were held on home soil 
*Yugoslavia hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo, now part of Bosnia and Herzegovina 

List of medalists
Summer Olympics
As Federal Republic of YugoslaviaAs Independent Olympic Participants

Winter Olympics
See also
List of flag bearers for Yugoslavia at the Olympics
Category:Olympic competitors for Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia at the Paralympics
List of Yugoslav Olympic medalists
Passage 5:
Catalan language
Catalan (; autonym: català, Eastern Catalan: [kətəˈla]), known in the Valencian Community and Carche as Valencian (autonym: valencià), is a Western Romance language  It is the official language of Andorra, and an official language of two autonomous communities in eastern Spain: Catalonia and the Balearic Islands  It is also an official language in Valencia, where it is called Valencian  It has semi-official status in the Italian comune of Alghero, and it is spoken in the Pyrénées-Orientales department of France and in two further areas in eastern Spain: the eastern strip of Aragon and the Carche area in the Region of Murcia  The Catalan-speaking territories are often called the Països Catalans or "Catalan Countries" 
The language evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees  Nineteenth-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, culminating in the early 1900s 

Etymology and pronunciation
The word Catalan is derived from the territorial name of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology  The main theory suggests that Catalunya (Latin Gathia Launia) derives from the name Gothia or Gauthia ("Land of the Goths"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, whence Gothland > Gothlandia > Gothalania > Catalonia theoretically derived In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain (from French)  It is attested a language name since at least 1652  The word Catalan can be pronounced in English as ,  or  The endonym is pronounced [kətəˈla] in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and [kataˈla] in the Western dialects  In the Valencian Community and Carche, the term valencià [valensiˈa, ba-] is frequently used instead  Thus, the name "Valencian", although often employed for referring to the varieties specific to the Valencian Community and Carche, is also used by Valencians as a name for the language as a whole, synonymous with "Catalan"  Both uses of the term have their respective entries in the dictionaries by the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua and the Institut d'Estudis Catalans  See also status of Valencian below 

History
Middle Ages
By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the eastern end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south  From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of the Muslims, bringing their language with them  This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of the County of Barcelona from the Carolingian Empire in 988 In the 11th century, documents written in macaronic Latin begin to show Catalan elements, with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080  Old Catalan shared many features with Gallo-Romance, diverging from Old Occitan between the 11th and 14th centuries During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded southward to the Ebro river, and in the 13th century they conquered the Land of Valencia and the Balearic Islands  The city of Alghero in Sardinia was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century  The language also reached Murcia, which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century In the Low Middle Ages, Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness  Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath Ramon Llull (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in Ausiàs March (1397–1459)  By the 15th century, the city of Valencia had become the sociocultural center of the Crown of Aragon, and Catalan was present all over the Mediterranean world  During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language  Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th  During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms "one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe" Martorell's outstanding novel of chivalry Tirant lo Blanc (1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen in Metge's work  The first book produced with movable type in the Iberian Peninsula was printed in Catalan 

Start of the modern era
Spain
With the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon in 1479, the Spanish kings ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and they had to swear by the Laws of each territory before the respective Parliaments  But after the War of the Spanish Succession, Spain became an Absolute monarchy under Philip V, which led to the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the Crown of Castile through the Nueva Planta decrees, as a first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state; as in other contemporary European states, this meant the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant groups  Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards national minorities have been a constant 

The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they "will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed " From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to "represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish " Anyway, the use of Spanish gradually became more prestigious and marked the start of the decline of Catalan  Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the nobles, part of the urban and literary classes became bilingual 

France
With the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), Spain ceded the northern part of Catalonia to France, and soon thereafter the local Catalan varieties came under the influence of French, which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region Shortly after the French Revolution (1789), the French First Republic prohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the regional languages of France, such as Catalan, Alsatian, Breton, Occitan, Flemish, and Basque 

France: 19th to 20th century
Following the French establishment of the colony of Algeria from 1830 onward, it received several waves of Catalan-speaking settlers  People from the Spanish Alicante province settled around Oran, whereas Algiers received immigration from Northern Catalonia and Menorca 
Their speech was known as patuet  By 1911, the number of Catalan speakers was around 100,000  After the declaration of independence of Algeria in 1962, almost all the Catalan speakers fled to Northern Catalonia (as Pieds-Noirs) or Alacant The government of France formally recognizes only French as an official language  Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales officially recognized Catalan as one of the languages of the department and seeks to further promote it in public life and education 

Spain: 18th to 20th century
In 1807, the Statistics Office of the French Ministry of the Interior asked the prefects for an official survey on the limits of the French language  The survey found that in Roussillon, almost only Catalan was spoken, and since Napoleon wanted to incorporate Catalonia into France, as happened in 1812, the consul in Barcelona was also asked  He declared that Catalan "is taught in schools, it is printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses", indicating that it was spoken everywhere "with the exception of the royal courts"  He also indicated that Catalan was spoken "in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall d "Aran and Cerdaña" The defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in the War of Spanish Succession (1714) initiated a series of laws which, among other centralizing measures, imposed the use of Spanish in legal documentation all over Spain  Because of this, use of the Catalan language declined into the 18th century 
However, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival (Renaixença), which has continued up to the present day  This period starts with Aribau's Ode to the Homeland (1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work of Verdaguer (poetry), Oller (realist novel), and Guimerà (drama)  In the 19th century, the region of Carche, in the province of Murcia was repopulated with Valencian speakers  Catalan spelling was standardized in 1913 and the language became official during the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939)  The Second Spanish Republic saw a brief period of tolerance, with most restrictions against Catalan lifted The Catalan language and culture were frowned upon during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and the subsequent decades in Francoist Catalonia  The Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975) imposed the use of Spanish in schools and in public administration in all of Spain  However, in 1944, it became mandatory by law for universities with Romance Philology to include the subject of Catalan Philology  Numerous and prestigious cultural contests were created to reward works produced in Catalan  In January 1944, the "Eugenio Nadal" award was created  In 1945, with the sponsorship and subsidy of the Government, the centenary of Mossèn Cinto Verdaguer was celebrated  In 1947 the Joan Martorell prize for novels in Catalan was awarded  In 1949, the Víctor Català award for short novels in Catalan and the Aedos awards for biographies, the Josep Ysart award for essays, and the Ossa Menor award, later renamed Carles Riba, were created  In 1951, a national prize was awarded to poetry in Catalan with the same financial amount as Spanish poetry  That same year, Selecta Editions was founded for works written in Catalan  And the Joanot Martorell is awarded to Josep Pla for his work El carrer estret  In subsequent years (50s, 60s and 70s) countless awards were born, such as the Lletra d'Or, Amadeu Oller for poetry, the Sant Jordi for novels (endowed with 150,000 pesetas), the Honor Award of Catalan Letters, the Verdaguer, the Josep Pla Prize, the Mercè Rodoreda Prize for short stories and narratives  The first Catalan-language TV show was broadcast during the Franco period, in 1964  The Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975) banned the use of Catalan in schools and in public administration  At the same time, oppression of the Catalan language and identity was carried out in schools, through governmental bodies, and in religious centers  Franco's desire for a homogenous Spanish population resonated with some Catalans in favor of his regime, primarily members of the upper class, who began to reject the use of Catalan  Despite all of these hardships, Catalan continued to be used privately within households, and it was able to survive Francisco Franco's dictatorship  Several prominent Catalan authors resisted the suppression through literature In addition to the loss of prestige for Catalan and its prohibition in schools, migration during the 1950s into Catalonia from other parts of Spain also contributed to the diminished use of the language  These migrants were often unaware of the existence of Catalan, and thus felt no need to learn or use it  Catalonia was the economic powerhouse of Spain, so these migrations continued to occur from all corners of the country  Employment opportunities were reduced for those who were not bilingual 

Present day
Since the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige  In Catalonia, there is an unparalleled large bilingual European non-state linguistic community  The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools, but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations – if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or more recently arrived immigrant students  There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan More recently, several Spanish political forces have tried to increase the use of Spanish in the Catalan educational system  As a result, in May 2022 the Spanish Supreme Court urged the Catalan regional government to enforce a measure by which 25% of all lessons must be taught in Spanish According to the Statistical Institute of Catalonia, in 2013 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, after Spanish, as a native or self-defining language: 7% of the population self-identifies with both Catalan and Spanish equally, 36 4% with Catalan and 47 5% only Spanish  In 2003 the same studies concluded no language preference for self-identification within the population above 15 years old: 5% self-identified with both languages, 44 3% with Catalan and 47 5% with Spanish  To promote use of Catalan, the Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalonia's official Autonomous government) spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories, with entities such as Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística (Consortium for Linguistic Normalization)In Andorra, Catalan has always been the sole official language  Since the promulgation of the 1993 constitution, several policies favoring Catalan have been enforced, like Catalan medium education On the other hand, there are several language shift processes currently taking place  In the Northern Catalonia area of France, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004)  Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary  The cultural association La Bressola promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs 
In Alicante province, Catalan is being replaced by Spanish and in Alghero by Italian  There is also well ingrained diglossia in the Valencian Community, Ibiza, and to a lesser extent, in the rest of the Balearic islands During the 20th century many Catalans emigrated or went into exile to Venezuela, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina and other South American countries  They formed a large number of Catalan colonies that today continue to maintain the Catalan language  They also founded many Catalan casals (associations) 

Classification and relationship with other Romance languages
One classification of Catalan is given by Pèire Bèc:

Romance languages
Italo-Western languages
Western Romance languages
Gallo-Iberian languages
Gallo-Romance languages
Occitano-Romance languages
Catalan languageHowever, the ascription of Catalan to the Occitano-Romance branch of Gallo-Romance languages is not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such as Ramón Menéndez Pidal 
Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover term Occitan language (see also differences between Occitan and Catalan and Gallo-Romance languages)  Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages 

Relationship with other Romance languages
Some include Catalan in Occitan, as the linguistic distance between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the Gascon language) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects  Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century and still today remains its closest relative Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring Romance languages (Occitan, French, Italian, Sardinian as well as Spanish and Portuguese among others)  However, despite being spoken mostly on the Iberian Peninsula, Catalan has marked differences with the Iberian Romance group (Spanish and Portuguese) in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularly Occitan and to a lesser extent Gallo-Romance (Franco-Provençal, French, Gallo-Italian) According to Ethnologue, the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% with Ladin and Romansh; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian 
During much of its history, and especially during the Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975), the Catalan language was ridiculed as a mere dialect of Spanish  This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity  Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in features closer to Occitan (and French) There is evidence that, at least from the 2nd century a d , the vocabulary and phonology of Roman Tarraconensis was different from the rest of Roman Hispania  Differentiation arose generally because Spanish, Asturian, and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanish hervir, Asturian and Portuguese ferver vs  Catalan bullir, Occitan bolir "to boil") and innovatory regionalisms (Sp novillo, Ast nuviellu vs  Cat torell, Oc taurèl "bullock"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan Like all Romance languages, Catalan has a handful of native words which are unique to it, or rare elsewhere  These include:

verbs: cōnfīgere 'to fasten; transfix' > confegir 'to compose, write up', congemināre > conjuminar 'to combine, conjugate', de-ex-somnitare > deixondar/-ir 'to wake; awaken', dēnsāre 'to thicken; crowd together' > desar 'to save, keep', īgnōrāre > enyorar 'to miss, yearn, pine for', indāgāre 'to investigate, track' > Old Catalan enagar 'to incite, induce', odiāre > OCat ujar 'to exhaust, fatigue', pācificāre > apaivagar 'to appease, mollify', repudiāre > rebutjar 'to reject, refuse';
nouns: brīsa > brisa 'pomace', buda > boga 'reedmace', catarrhu > cadarn 'catarrh', congesta > congesta 'snowdrift', dēlīrium > deler 'ardor, passion', fretu > freu 'brake', lābem > (a)llau 'avalanche', ōra > vora 'edge, border', pistrīce 'sawfish' > pestriu > pestiu 'thresher shark, smooth hound; ray', prūna 'live coal' > espurna 'spark', tardātiōnem > tardaó > tardor 'autumn' The Gothic superstrate produced different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan  For example, Catalan fang "mud" and rostir "to roast", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanish lodo and asar, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan filosa "spinning wheel" and templa "temple", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish rueca and sien, of Germanic origin The same happens with Arabic loanwords  Thus, Catalan alfàbia "large earthenware jar" and rajola "tile", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanish tinaja and teja, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan oli "oil" and oliva "olive", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish aceite and aceituna  However, the Arabic element in Spanish is generally much more prevalent Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Iberian Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such as enyorar "to miss somebody", apaivagar "to calm somebody down", and rebutjar "reject"



ground_truth: January 2015

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who gives out the prize named after the author of Lectures on Jurisprudence?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: 

Winners
Source: RSC

See also
List of chemistry awards
Passage 9:
Puffin/Nation Prize for Creative Citizenship
The Puffin Prize for Creative Citizenship is an American award given jointly by Type Media Center (a nonprofit media organization previously associated with The Nation magazine) and the Puffin Foundation  The annual $100,000 award honors artists and others who have "challenged the status quo through distinctive, courageous, imaginative and socially responsible work of significance " The prize is intended to "encourage the recipients to continue their work, and to inspire others to challenge the prevailing orthodoxies they face in their careers " The inaugural award was in 2001 The Puffin Prize for Creative Citizenship was renamed in 2017   It was formerly known as the Puffin/Nation Prize for Creative Citizenship 

Winners
2001 Robert Parris Moses
2002 Dolores Huerta
2003 David Protess
2004 Barbara Ehrenreich
2005 Jonathan Kozol
2006 Amy Goodman
2007 Michael Ratner
2008 Van Jones
2009 Jim Hightower
2010 Bill McKibben
2010 Cecile Richards
2011 Tony Kushner
2012 Benjamin Todd Jealous
2013 Barry W  Lynn
2014 Frances Fox Piven
2015 William J  Barber II
2016 Bryan Stevenson
2017 Colin Kaepernick
2018 Parkland student activists
2019 The Sunrise Movement
2020 Desmond Meade
2021 The National Network for Abortion Funds
Passage 10:
List of Nobel laureates
The Nobel Prizes (Swedish: Nobelpriset, Norwegian: Nobelprisen) are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Swedish Academy, the Karolinska Institutet, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals and organizations who make outstanding contributions in the fields of chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine  They were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which dictates that the awards should be administered by the Nobel Foundation  An additional prize in memory of Alfred Nobel was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank (Sweden’s central bank) for outstanding contributions to the field of economics  Each recipient, a Nobelist or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma, and a sum of money which is decided annually by the Nobel Foundation 

Prize
Each prize is awarded by a separate committee; the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, and Economics; the Karolinska Institute awards the Prize in Physiology or Medicine; and the Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Prize in Peace  Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award that has varied throughout the years  In 1901, the recipients of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 8,402,670 SEK in December 2017  In 2017, the laureates were awarded a prize amount of 9,000,000 SEK  The awards are presented in Stockholm in an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death In years in which the Nobel Prize is not awarded due to external events or a lack of nominations, the prize money is returned to the funds delegated to the relevant prize  The Nobel Prize was not awarded between 1940 and 1942 due to the outbreak of World War II 

Laureates
Between 1901 and 2017, the Nobel Prizes and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 585 times to 923 people and organizations  With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 892 individuals (including 844 men, 48 women) and 24 organizations  Six Nobel laureates were not permitted by their governments to accept the Nobel Prize  Adolf Hitler forbade four Germans, Richard Kuhn (Chemistry, 1938), Adolf Butenandt (Chemistry, 1939), Gerhard Domagk (Physiology or Medicine, 1939) and Carl von Ossietzky (Peace, 1936) from accepting their Nobel Prizes  The Chinese government forbade Liu Xiaobo from accepting his Nobel Prize (Peace, 2010) and the government of the Soviet Union pressured Boris Pasternak (Literature, 1958) to decline his award  Liu Xiaobo, Carl von Ossietzky and Aung San Suu Kyi were all awarded their Nobel Prize while in prison or detention  Two Nobel laureates, Jean-Paul Sartre (Literature, 1964) and Lê Ðức Thọ (Peace, 1973), declined the award; Sartre declined the award as he declined all official honors, and Thọ declined the award due to the situation Vietnam was in at the time 
Seven laureates have received more than one prize; of the seven, the International Committee of the Red Cross has received the Nobel Peace Prize three times, more than any other  UNHCR has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize twice  Also the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to John Bardeen twice, as was the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Frederick Sanger and Karl Barry Sharpless  Two laureates have been awarded twice but not in the same field: Marie Curie (Physics and Chemistry) and Linus Pauling (Chemistry and Peace)  Among the 892 Nobel laureates, 48 have been women; the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize was Marie Curie, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903  She was also the first person (male or female) to be awarded two Nobel Prizes, the second award being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, given in 1911 

List of laureates
50 year secrecy rule
The Committee neither informs the media nor the candidates themselves of the names of the nominees  Insofar as specific names frequently appear in the early predictions of who will receive the award in any given year, this is either pure speculation or inside information from the person or people who submitted the nomination  After fifty years, the database of nominations maintained by the Nobel Committee is made available to the public  Statutes of the Nobel Foundation, § 10, states:A prize-awarding body may, however, after due consideration in each individual case, permit access to material which formed the basis for the evaluation and decision concerning a prize, for purposes of research in intellectual history  Such permission may not, however, be granted until at least 50 years have elapsed after the date on which the decision in question was made 

See also
List of Nobel laureates by country
List of female Nobel laureates
List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Literature
List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physics
List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize
List of individuals nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize
List of organizations nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize

Notes
Passage 11:
Bel Canto (novel)
Bel Canto is the fourth novel by American author Ann Patchett, published in 2001 by Perennial, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers  It was awarded both the Orange Prize for Fiction and PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction  It was placed on several top book lists, including Amazon's Best Books of the Year (2001)  It was also adapted into an opera in 2015 
Based on the Japanese embassy hostage crisis (also called the Lima Crisis) of 1996–1997 in Lima, Peru, the novel follows the relationships among a group of young terrorists and their hostages, who are mostly high-profile executives and politicians, over several months  Many of the characters form unbreakable bonds of friendship, while some fall in love 
Opera is a centralizing theme on many levels throughout the story; the operatic term bel canto literally means "beautiful singing "

Plot summary
Set in an unspecified South American country, the story begins at a birthday party thrown at the country's vice presidential home in honor of Katsumi Hosokawa, the visiting chairman of a large Japanese company and opera enthusiast  As a not-so-subtle pretext to get Hosokawa to invest in the country, famous American soprano Roxane Coss is scheduled to perform as the highlight of the party 
Near the end of the party, members of a terrorist organization break into the house, intending to take the President of the country hostage  When they realize the President is not in attendance, the terrorist group decides to take the entire party hostage  After determining they have too many hostages, the terrorists decide to release all of the hostages except those they deem most likely to return a large ransom 
Two major romantic relationships develop as the standoff drags on and serve as the backdrop to the rest of the story  The first is between Coss and Hosokawa, who develop a deep bond even though they do not speak each other's language and thus cannot communicate verbally  The second relationship is between the translator Gen and the young terrorist Carmen, who must keep their love a secret  The two lovers meet in the china closet every night 
At the end of the novel, the government breaks into the house and kills all the terrorists  All of the hostages are freed except for Hosokawa, who is shot by government forces in the struggle  
In an epilogue that takes place some years later, former hostages Simon Thibault and his wife meet with Gen and Roxane, who are getting married in Italy 

Characters
Katsumi Hosokawa is a Japanese business mogul, who is married with two daughters  He has a strong bond with his young translator Gen  He doesn't speak Spanish and must use Gen for all communication in the host country  Since attending a performance with his father as a child, opera has been his greatest love, and he is passionate about the soprano Roxane Coss, having heard her recordings  He falls in love with the woman herself during their time together  However, he knows their relationship can only last for the duration of the standoff  He is gunned down in the final scenes by the soldiers of the host country, in his attempt to save the teenaged terrorist Carmen 
Roxane Coss is an internationally renowned American soprano  At first a prima donna who sets herself apart from the rest of the guests, she eventually begins to bond with the others when she receives a box of musical scores and begins singing to them every morning  She is especially touched by her relationships with Mr  Hosokawa, with whom she falls in love; Gen, with whom she forms a strong bond and eventually marries; Carmen, who sleeps in her bed, braids her hair, and comforts her; and Cesar, another young terrorist with a gifted singing voice whom she begins tutoring 
Gen Watanabe is Mr  Hosokawa's translator and assistant  He is a quiet, sensitive and gifted young man who speaks several languages  As the translator, he is usually at the center of the action of the novel, although he is the only hostage, besides a priest, who is not fabulously wealthy and powerful  He begins tutoring Carmen when she asks him to teach her how to read and write in Spanish and English, and they begin meeting each night in the china closet to study and eventually make love 
General Benjamin is the most intelligent and thoughtful of the three generals who lead the terrorists  Benjamin was a       schoolteacher until his brother was arrested and imprisoned for handing out flyers publicizing a political protest  After that, he joined the terrorist group La Familia de Martin Suarez, named after a ten-year-old boy who was shot dead while handing out flyers for a political rally  Benjamin has left behind a wife and children, and he is fatherly to some of the young terrorists under his command  He is plagued with shingles, which rage across much of his face 
Joachim Messner is a Swiss representative for the Red Cross  who negotiates between the government and the terrorists  He is the one person allowed to come and go from the mansion  Messner punctuates the general happiness with frequent reminders that the situation will end badly 
Carmen is the terrorist whom Gen loves  Carmen remains incognito in the guise of a male terrorist for the first part of the novel  The leader of the organization, General Benjamin, notices what a beautiful young woman she has become and notes that, "had she been this pretty before, he never would have let her sign up " She often prays to Saint Rose of Lima  In the ultimate shootout, she is gunned down before Gen can get to her  In the ensuing newspaper articles, there is no record of her ever existing 
Simon Thibault is the French ambassador to the South American country where the novel is set  Because he longs for his wife Edith, who is released early with the rest of the women and children, Thibault is the hostage who is most unhappy during the long standoff  He spends much of his time cooking for both the hostages and the terrorists, and he is almost always wearing Edith's scarf  He and Edith are reunited after the standoff, and they are the witnesses to the marriage of Gen and Roxane in the final chapter 

Creative process
Patchett was inspired by the Lima Crisis as she watched the events unfold on the news and thought how operatic the crisis was  Patchett was an opera novice prior to writing the book, although she has stated that the character Roxane was modeled on Karol Bennett, an acquaintance of hers who was an opera singer  Since she was not familiar with Bennett's voice, she listened to recordings by the famous American soprano Renée Fleming and imagined Roxane Coss as possessing Fleming's voice  (Patchett and Fleming became friends only after the novel was published )
The original working title was How to Fall in Love with Opera, but her editor advised against it in case bookstores would mis-shelve it in their "how to" section  The manuscript originally contained a prologue from Gen's perspective, establishing the book as a story about how he met his wife  However, Patchett's mentor Elizabeth McCracken told her that the prologue was not needed, so Patchett cut it Patchett has stated that she always wanted to write with an omniscient third person narrator that "moves from person to person within a room"—a style she calls "Anna Karenina-third " Her first two novels were in first-person and her third novel was in third-person, but it was limited to one character's perspective  She was pleased when she was able to write in this style for Bel Canto, deeming her achievement of the style a progression in her writing 

Reception
Sue MacGregor, the broadcaster and chairman of the Orange Prize judges, praised the work, saying, "This is a fine piece of writing, mixing tenderness and danger to an impressive degree " Critic Alex Clark praised the wide range of Patchett's writing, which "encompass[es] both lightning flashes of brutality and terror and long stretches of incarcerated ennui " Several reviews note a departure in style from Patchett's earlier works and credit Bel Canto for pushing her into the national spotlight Critic James Polk largely praised the novel, but noted Patchett "strained a bit too hard" to highlight the terrorists' humanizing traits, which he argued "diminished the story's taut ambivalence, making some scenes near the end sound almost like accounts of a Boy Scout jamboree " Other reviewers also criticize the slow pacing and unrealistic characterizations, although other critics attribute this to Patchett's brand of magic realism Bel Canto has been translated into over 30 languages  According to Patchett, it was slated to become a movie five or six times, a Broadway musical, and an opera by Aaron Jay Kernis, commissioned for the Santa Fe Opera's 2006 season, all of which fell through, until the opera came together in 2015 and the film in 2018 

Adaptations
The novel has been adapted under the same title into an opera by composer Jimmy López to a libretto Nilo Cruz  It premiered at the Lyric Opera of Chicago on December 7, 2015 
A film adaptation of the same name from director Paul Weitz with Julianne Moore and Ken Watanabe was released in 2018 The television series Archer parodied Bel Canto during its seventh season with a two-episode arc called "Bel Panto": the visitors of a charity event are taken hostage by a group of clowns seeking to steal a jeweled necklace from a wealthy actress 
Passage 12:
Geoffrey Keynes
Sir Geoffrey Langdon Keynes ( KAYNZ; 25 March 1887, Cambridge – 5 July 1982, Cambridge) was a British surgeon and author  He began his career as a physician in World War I, before becoming a doctor at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London, where he made notable innovations in the fields of blood transfusion and breast cancer surgery  Keynes was also a publishing scholar and bibliographer of English literature and English medical history, focusing primarily on William Blake and William Harvey 

Early life and education
Geoffrey Keynes was born on 25 March 1887 in Cambridge, England  His father was John Neville Keynes, an economics lecturer at the University of Cambridge and his mother was Florence Ada Brown, a successful author and a social reformer  Geoffrey Keynes was the third child, after his older brother, the prominent economist John Maynard Keynes, and his sister Margaret, who married the Nobel Prize–winning physiologist Archibald Hill 
He attended Rugby School, where he became friends with English poet Rupert Brooke  In 1915 he was appointed literary executor for Brooke's estate 
He graduated from Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he earned a first-class degree in the Natural Sciences Tripos  He was later made an honorary fellow of Pembroke College  Keynes then qualified for a scholarship to become a surgeon with the Royal College of Surgeons in London 

Career
First and Second world wars
Keynes delayed his medical education in order to serve in World War I, where he served as a Lieutenant in the Royal Army Medical Corps and then worked as a consultant surgeon, becoming an expert in blood transfusion  His experience in the First World War led him to publish Blood Transfusion, the first book on the subject written by a British author  Keynes also founded the London Blood Transfusion Service with P  L  Oliver  Alexander Bogdanov acquired a copy of this book whilst visiting London to negotiate the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement in 1922  Bogdanov went on to found the Institute for Haematology and Blood Transfusions in Moscow Keynes was deeply affected by the brutality and gore that he witnessed in the field, which may have influenced his dislike for radical surgery later in his career 
Keynes enlisted to be a consulting surgeon to the Royal Air Force at the outbreak of World War II  In 1944 he was promoted to the rank of acting air vice-marshal 

Medical career
Keynes began working full-time at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London, where he worked under George Gask and Sir Thomas Dunhill, after returning from World War I  Keynes used his influence as an assistant surgeon to advocate for limited surgery instead of the invasive radical mastectomy  Frustrated with the mortality rate and gruesomeness of the radical mastectomy, Keynes experimented by inserting 50 milligrams of radium in a patient's tumour  He later observed that, "The ulcer rapidly healed     and the whole mass became smaller, softer and less fixed "Keynes pursued his new idea through a number of trials, observing the effectiveness of injecting radium chloride into breast cancer tumours compared with the effectiveness of the radical mastectomy  The promising results of these trials led Keynes to be cautiously optimistic, writing in 1927 that the "extension of [an] operation beyond a local removal might sometimes be unnecessary " Keynes' outlook was considered a radical break from the medical consensus at the time  Keynes wrote in his autobiography that his work with radium "was regarded with some interest by American surgeons," but that the concept of a limited mastectomy failed to gain significant traction in the medical community at the time  His doubts regarding the radical mastectomy were vindicated some 50 years later, when innovators like Bernard Fisher and others revisited his data and pursued what became known as a lumpectomy  Limited surgeries, like the lumpectomy, accompanied by radiation are now the standard treatment for breast cancer Keynes was also a pioneer in the treatment of myasthenia gravis  Much like with breast cancer, the medical community knew little about how to treat the disease at the time  Keynes pioneered the removal of the thymus gland, which is now the standard treatment for myasthenia gravis In 1955 Keynes received a knighthood for services to medicine 

Literary work
Keynes maintained a passionate interest in English literature all his life and devoted a large amount of his time to literary scholarship and the science of bibliography  He was a leading authority on the literary and artistic work of William Blake  He also produced biographies and bibliographies of English writers such as Sir Thomas Browne, John Evelyn, Siegfried Sassoon, John Donne and Jane Austen  He was also a pioneer in the history of science, with studies of John Ray, William Harvey and Robert Hooke  His biography The Life of William Harvey was awarded the 1966 James Tait Black Memorial Prize  Keynes also collected books, with a personal library with around four thousand works His autobiography The Gates of Memory was published in 1981, and he died the following year, aged 95  The Gates of Memory includes anecdotes of Keynes' numerous run-ins and friendships with other famous public figures  For example, Keynes often went climbing with George Mallory, the renowned British mountaineer; he also once performed life-saving treatment on Virginia Woolf after the budding author overdosed on pills 

Personal life
On 12 May 1917 Keynes married Margaret Elizabeth Darwin, the daughter of Sir George Howard Darwin and granddaughter of Charles Darwin  They had one daughter, who died in infancy, and four sons:

Harriet Frances Keynes (1918–1918)
Richard Darwin Keynes (1919–2010)
Quentin George Keynes (1921–2003)
William Milo Keynes (1924–2009)
Stephen John Keynes (1927–2017)Keynes dedicated his life to his work and was also sociable with many friends  He took pride in never having been drunk, and was known by most as an affable, well-mannered man 

Legacy
Keynes' contributions profoundly influenced the fields of surgery and English literature  He pioneered limited breast cancer surgery accompanied by radiation, a strategy that has endured the test of time  His work on William Blake "was instrumental in establishing Blake as a central figure in the history of English art and literature "A library of his scholarly works, notes, and correspondences is held by the University of Cambridge 

Works
A Bibliography of Dr  John Donne (1914, 1932, 1958, 1973)
A Bibliography of William Blake (The Grolier Club, New York, 1921)
Blood Transfusion (H  Frowde, London, 1922)
A Bibliography of Sir Thomas Browne (Cambridge, 1924, 1968)
William Pickering, Publisher: A Memoir and a Hand-List of his Editions (The Fleuron, 1924)
Jane Austen: a Bibliography (Nonesuch Press, 1929)
Selected Essays of William Hazlitt 1778 : 1830 (Nonesuch Press, 1930)
The Works of Sir Thomas Browne (Faber & Gwyer / Faber & Faber 1928-1931 [6 volumes], 1964 [4 volumes])
The Note-Book of William Blake (Nonesuch Press, 1935)
John Evelyn: a Study in Bibliophily & a Bibliography of his Writings (Cambridge, 1937)
The Faber Gallery Series: Blake (Faber and Faber, 1945)
The Poetical Works of Rupert Brooke (Faber & Faber, 1946)
William Blake, 1757–1827 (1947)
Poetry and Prose of William Blake (Nonesuch Press, 1948)
The Portraiture of William Harvey (The Thomas Vicary Lecture 1948) (Royal College of Surgeons, 1949)
The Personality of William Harvey (Cambridge University Press: 1949)
William Blake's Engravings, edited with an introduction (Faber and Faber, (1950)
The Tempera Paintings of William Blake (1951)
The Apologie and Treatise of Ambroise Containing the Voyages Made into Divers Places with Many of His Writings Upon Surgery (1951)
Samuel Butler's Note-Books, selections (1951) with Brian Hill
Poems of Rupert Brooke (1954)
A Bibliography of Rupert Brooke (The Soho Bibliographies, No 4) (Rupert Hart-Davis, 1954)
The Letters of William Blake (Rupert Hart-Davis, 1956, 1968)
Harvey Though John Aubrey's Eyes (1958)
A Bibliography of Dr  Robert Hooke (1960)
Essays in Biography 1961 by J  M  Keynes, editor
Dr  Timothie Bright 1550—1615  A Survey of his Life with a Bibliography of his Writings (1962)
A Study of the Illuminated Books of William Blake: Poet, Printer, Prophet (1964)
An Exhibition of the Illuminated Books of William Blake: Poet – Printer – Prophet (1964) with Lessing J  Rosenwald
On Editing Blake (1964)
Blake  The Masters 6 (1965)
Blake: Complete Writings with Variant Readings, editor, Oxford University Press, 1966 (UK-Paperback, Revised)  ISBN 0192810502
William Blake  Songs of Innocence and of Experience, editor, with Introduction and Commentary  London: Oxford University Press (1967)
Henry James in Cambridge (1967)
Sir Thomas Browne, Selected Writings (1968)
The Letters of Rupert Brooke (1968)
William Blake Engraver (1969)
William Pickering, Publisher: A Memoir and a Check-List of his Publications (London, Galahad Press, 1969; New York, Burt Franklin, 1969)
Drawings of William Blake: 92 Pencil Studies  Selection, Introduction and Commentary, Dover Publications, Inc , New York, 1970 ISBN 0-486-22303-5
A Bibliography of Sir William Petty F R S  and of 'Observations on the Bills of Mortality' by John Graunt F R S  Oxford : Clarendon Press (1971)
William Blake's Water-Colours Illustrating the Poems of Thomas Gray (1972)
Deaths Duell by John Donne (Godine, 1973)
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (Oxford University Press, 1975)
A Bibliography of Henry King D D , Bishop of Chichester (Douglas Cleverdon, 1977)
The Gates of Memory (Oxford University Press, 1981)
A Watch of Nightingales (Stourton Press, 1981) edited with Peter Davidson
Passage 13:
Sophie Prize
The Sophie Prize was an international environment and development prize (USD 100,000) awarded annually from 1998 to 2013   It was established in 1997 by the Norwegian author Jostein Gaarder and his wife Siri Dannevig, and is named after Gaarder's novel Sophie's World  It aimed to recognize individuals or organizations working with the environment and sustainable development  In 2013, representatives announced that the prize would not be awarded any longer due to a lack of funds 

Prize winners
1998: Environmental Rights Action, Nigeria
1999: Herman Daly and Thomas Kocherry
2000: Sheri Liao
2001: ATTAC France
2002: Patriarch Bartholomew I
2003: John Pilger
2004: Wangari Maathai
2005: Sheila Watt-Cloutier
2006: Romina Picolotti
2007: Göran Persson
2008: Gretchen Daily
2009: Marina Silva, Brazil
2010: James Hansen
2011: Tristram Stuart
2012: Eva Joly
2013: Bill McKibben

Board members
Åslaug Haga (chair)
Petter Nome (deputy chair)
Helene Bank
Siri Dannevig
Nikolas Dannevig Gaarder
Elin Enge
Thomas Hylland Eriksen
Jostein Gaarder
Elizabeth Hartmann
Dag Olav Hessen
Bård Lahn
Ylva Lindberg
Sidsel Mørck

See also
List of environmental awards
Passage 14:
Million Writers Award
Million Writers Award was a short story literary award presented annually by storySouth from 2003 to 2016  It honored the best online short stories  The award was structured to be egalitarian allowing for anyone to nominate a story including readers, authors, editors and publishers; prize money was donated by readers and writers; and the winners were selected by public vote from a short-list of entries selected by judges 

Overview
The Million Writers Award was founded by author Jason Sanford in 2003 at a time when the literary establishment "didn't believe online magazines were legitimate places to publish fiction," seeing it as a fad  Sanford set out to honor and highlight online only publications and stories with the award 
Stories eligible for the award include those first published in online literary journals, magazines, and e-zines that have an editorial process  The award had a variable cash prize, in 2011 for example it was $600 for the winner, $200 for the runner-up and $100 for third place  Prize money was raised through donations from writers, editors and readers and thus fluctuates each year  Anyone could nominate up to one story, while editors and publishers can nominate three stories  Stories must be at least 1000 words The award became one of the premier online literary awards and was named a Hot Site by USA Today  The award was profiled in a six-page feature interview with editor Jason Sanford in the 2005 Novel and Short Story Writer's Market and mentioned in The 100 Best Trends, 2006: Emerging Developments You Can't Afford to Ignore as an example of the emerging online literary movement In 2012 Spotlight Publishing released two anthologies of stories from the Million Writers Award, with one focused on literary stories and the other on science fiction and fantasy stories 

Winners
Previous winners 2003

Top 10 stories:2004

Best story: Randa Jarrar, "You Are a 14-Year-Old Arab Chick Who Just Moved to Texas" (Eyeshot)
Best online publication: Eclectica
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: The King's English
Best new online magazine or journal: Narrative Magazine2005

Best story: Alicia Gifford, "Toggling the Switch" (Narrative Magazine)
Best story runnerup: Terry Bisson, "Super 8" (Scifiction com)
Best story runnerup: Anjana Basu, "The Black Tongue" (Gowanus)
Best online publication: Strange Horizons
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: The King's English
Best new online magazine or journal: Anderbo2006

Best story: Richard Bowes, "There's a Hole in the City" (Scifiction com)
Best story runnerup: Michael Croley, "Two Lives" (Blackbird)
Best online publication: Storyglossia
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: Narrative Magazine (co-winner)
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: The King's English (co-winner)
Best new online magazine or journal: Menda City Review (co-winner)
Best new online magazine or journal: Clarkesworld Magazine (co-winner)2007

Best story: Catherynne M  Valente, "Urchins, While Swimming" (Clarkesword Magazine)
Best story runnerup: A  Ray Norsworthy, "All the Way to Grangeville" (Eclectica Magazine)
Best story runnerup: Marshall Moore, "The Infinite Monkey Theorem" (Word Riot)
Best online publication: Blackbird
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: Jim Baen's Universe
Best new online magazine or journal: Farrago's Wainscot2008

Best story: Matt Bell, "Alex Trebek Never Eats Fried Chicken" (Storyglossia)
Best story runnerup: Sruthi Thekkiam, "Friday Afternoons on Bus 51" (Blackbird)
Best online publication: Narrative Magazine
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: (no award)
Best new online magazine or journal: Cha: An Asian Literary Journal2009

Winner: Jenny Williams, "The Fisherman's Wife" (LitNImage)
Runner-up: Roderic Crooks, "Fuckbuddy" (Eyeshot)
Honorable mention: Geronimo Madrid, "No Bullets in the House" (Drunken Boat)
Best online publication: Fantasy Magazine
Best publisher of novella-length fiction: Subterranean Magazine
Best new online magazine or journal: Kill Author2010

Winner: Summer Block, "Hospitality" (Wheelhouse Magazine)
Runner-up: Rachel Swirsky, "Eros, Philia, Agape" (Tor com)
Honorable mention: Eric Beetner, "Ditch" (Thuglit)
Best online publication: Words Without Borders
Best new online magazine or journal: Lightspeed Magazine2011

Winner: Adam-Troy Castro, "Arvies" (Lightspeed Magazine)
Runner-up: Eric Maroney, "The Incorrupt Body of Carlo Busso" (Eclectica)
Honorable mention: Amal El-Mohtar, "The Green Book" (Apex Magazine)2012

Winner: xTx, "The Mill Pond" (StoryGlossia)
Runner-up: Kelly Cherry, "On Familiar Terms" (Blackbird)
Honorable mention: Micah Dean Hicks, "The Butcher's Chimes" (Menda City Review)2013

First place : Rachel Steiger-Meister, "Chlorine Mermaid" (Carve Magazine)
Second place: Lou Gaglia, "Hands" (Waccamaw)
Third place : Adrienne Celt, "The Eternal Youth of Everyone Else" (Carve Magazine)2014

First place: Caroline Casper, "Eminence" (Carve Magazine)
Second place: Susan Tepper, "Distance" (Thrice Fiction)
Third place: Carmen Maria Machado, "Inventory" (Strange Horizons)2015

First place: Wendy Oleson, “The Snow Children” (Carve Magazine)
Second place: Chikodili Emelumadu, “Jermyn” (Eclectica)
Third place: Allegra Hyde, “Syndication” (Nashville Review)2016

First place: Reza Ghasemi Ataee, "Anatomy of Mr wakefield" (Time magazine)
Second place: Jude Whelchel, "Big Joy Family" (North Carolina Literary Review)
Third place: Annie Reid, "Last Song" (Baltimore Review)
Passage 15:
Hickinbottom Award
The Hickinbottom Award (also referred to as the Hickinbottom Fellowship) is awarded annually by the Royal Society of Chemistry for contributions in the area of organic chemistry from an early career scientist  The prize winner receives a monetary award and will complete a lecture tour within the UK  The winner is chosen by the awards committee of the Royal Society of Chemistry's organic division 

Award history
The award was established by the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1979 following Wilfred Hickinbottom's bequest  Hickinbottom was noted for supporting high standards in experimental chemistry  
Part of the monetary award is the Briggs scholarship, which was funded following a bequest from Lady Alice Lilian Thorpe, William Briggs' daughter 

Previous recipients
The award was first granted in 1981 to Steven Ley and Jeremy Sanders Subsequent recipients include:

See also
List of chemistry awards
Passage 16:
Francis Ambrière
Francis Ambrière (27 September 1907 – 1 July 1998) was a French author who was selected for the Prix Goncourt in 1940, for his book Les Grandes Vacances; the prize was awarded in 1946 because of World War II  He was born in Paris 

Biography
Francis Ambriere has been recognised for his novel Les Grandes Vacances, which chronicles the lives of French prisoners of war in 1940  He was the author of several Guides bleus for example in Paris in 1949, and then Greece in 1957, or on Italy published in 1960 

Works
Joachim du Bellay, Firmin-Didot et cie, 1930
Estaunié, John Charpentier, Francis Ambrière, Firmin-Didot et cie, 1932
Les grandes vacances, 1939-1945, Les Éditions de la nouvelle France, 1946, (reprint Éditions du Seuil, 1956)
The long holiday Translator Elaine P  Halperin, Publisher Ziff-Davis Pub  Co , 1948
Le solitaire de la Cervara, V  Attinger, 1947
The exiled, Staples Press, 1951
Le Maroc, Les Documents d'art, 1952
Théâtre et collectivité, Flammarion, 1953
Le Siecle des Valmore, Seuil, 1987 
Mademoiselle Mars et Marie Dorval: au théâtre et dans la vie, Seuil, 1992
Talma, ou l'histoire au théâtre, Madeleine Ambrière, Francis Ambrière, Éditions de Fallois, 2007, ISBN 978-2-87706-638-9
Context 3: 

Geographic distribution
Catalan-speaking territories
Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories are sometimes called the Països Catalans (Catalan Countries), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status  Various interpretations of the term may include some or all of these regions 

Number of speakers
The number of people known to be fluent in Catalan varies depending on the sources used  A 2004 study did not count the total number of speakers, but estimated a total of 9–9 5 million by matching the percentage of speakers to the population of each area where Catalan is spoken  The web site of the Generalitat de Catalunya estimated that as of 2004 there were 9,118,882 speakers of Catalan  These figures only reflect potential speakers; today it is the native language of only 35 6% of the Catalan population  According to Ethnologue, Catalan had 4 1 million native speakers and 5 1 million second-language speakers in 2021 

According to a 2011 study the total number of Catalan speakers is over 9 8 million, with 5 9 million residing in Catalonia  More than half of them speak Catalan as a second language, with native speakers being about 4 4 million of those (more than 2 8 in Catalonia)  Very few Catalan monoglots exist; basically, virtually all of the Catalan speakers in Spain are bilingual speakers of Catalan and Spanish, with a sizable population of Spanish-only speakers of immigrant origin (typically born outside Catalonia or whose parents were both born outside Catalonia) existing in the major Catalan urban areas as well 
In Roussillon, only a minority of French Catalans speak Catalan nowadays, with French being the majority language for the inhabitants after a continued process of language shift  According to a 2019 survey by the Catalan government, 31 5% of the inhabitants of Catalonia have Catalan as first language at home whereas 52 7% have Spanish, 2 8% both Catalan and Spanish and 10 8% other languages Spanish is the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally  According to this census of 2013 Catalan is also very commonly spoken in the city of 1,501,262: it is understood by 95% of the population, while 72 3% over the age of 2 can speak it (1,137,816), 79% can read it (1,246 555), and 53% can write it (835,080)  The proportion in Barcelona who can speak it, 72 3%, is lower than that of the overall Catalan population, of whom 81 2% over the age of 15 speak the language  Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a language immersion educational system  An important social characteristic of the Catalan language is that all the areas where it is spoken are bilingual in practice: together with the French language in Roussillon, with Italian in Alghero, with Spanish and French in Andorra and with Spanish in the rest of the territories 

1 ^  The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it 
2 ^  Figures relate to all self-declared capable speakers, not just native speakers 

Level of knowledge
(% of the population 15 years old and older) 

Social use
(% of the population 15 years old and older) 

Native language
Phonology
Catalan phonology varies by dialect  Notable features include:
Marked contrast of the vowel pairs /ɛ e/ and /ɔ o/, as in other Western Romance languages, other than Spanish 
Lack of diphthongization of Latin short ĕ, ŏ, as in Galician and Portuguese, but unlike French, Spanish, or Italian 
Abundance of diphthongs containing /w/, as in Galician and Portuguese In contrast to other Romance languages, Catalan has many monosyllabic words, and these may end in a wide variety of consonants, including some consonant clusters  Additionally, Catalan has final obstruent devoicing, which gives rise to an abundance of such couplets as amic ("male friend") vs  amiga ("female friend") Central Catalan pronunciation is considered to be standard for the language  The descriptions below are mostly representative of this variety  For the differences in pronunciation between the different dialects, see the section on pronunciation of dialects in this article 

Vowels
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: /a ɛ e i ɔ o u/, a common feature in Western Romance, with the exception of Spanish  Balearic also has instances of stressed /ə/  Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction, and the incidence of the pair /ɛ e/ In Central Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to three: /a e ɛ/ > [ə]; /o ɔ u/ > [u]; /i/ remains distinct  The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section pronunciation of dialects in this article) 

Consonants
The consonant system of Catalan is rather conservative 

/l/ has a velarized allophone in syllable coda position in most dialects  However, /l/ is velarized irrespective of position in Eastern dialects like Majorcan and standard Eastern Catalan 
/v/ occurs in Balearic, Algherese, standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia  It has merged with /b/ elsewhere 
Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing: /b/ > [p], /d/ > [t], /ɡ/ > [k] 
Voiced stops become lenited to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: /b/ > [β], /d/ > [ð], /ɡ/ > [ɣ]  Exceptions include /d/ after lateral consonants, and /b/ after /f/  In coda position, these sounds are realized as stops, except in some Valencian dialects where they are lenited 
There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/  Some sources describe them as "postalveolar"  Others as "back alveolo-palatal", implying that the characters ⟨ɕ ʑ tɕ dʑ⟩ would be more accurate  However, in all literature only the characters for palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives are used, even when the same sources use ⟨ɕ ʑ⟩ for other languages like Polish and Chinese 
The distribution of the two rhotics /r/ and /ɾ/ closely parallels that of Spanish  Between vowels, the two contrast, but they are otherwise in complementary distribution: in the onset of the first syllable in a word, [r] appears unless preceded by a consonant  Dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda with Western Catalan generally featuring [ɾ] and Central Catalan dialects featuring a weakly trilled [r] unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same prosodic unit, in which case [ɾ] appears 
In careful speech, /n/, /m/, /l/ may be geminated  Geminated /ʎ/ may also occur  Some analyze intervocalic [r] as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme  This is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics 

Phonological evolution
Sociolinguistics
Catalan sociolinguistics studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents  It is a subdiscipline of Catalan philology and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact) 

Preferential subjects of study
Dialects of Catalan
Variations of Catalan by class, gender, profession, age and level of studies
Process of linguistic normalization
Relations between Catalan and Spanish or French
Perception on the language of Catalan speakers and non-speakers
Presence of Catalan in several fields: tagging, public function, media, professional sectors

Dialects
Overview
The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages; both in terms of vocabulary, semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology  Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high, estimates ranging from 90% to 95%  The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic Algherese dialect Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western  The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed a and e; which have merged to /ə/ in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as /a/ and /e/ in Western dialects  There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of Northwestern Catalan and Valencian; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: Central Catalan, Balearic, Rossellonese, and Algherese  Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects  The terms "Catalan" and "Valencian" (respectively used in Catalonia and the Valencian Community) refer to two varieties of the same language  There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community 
Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers  It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the Barcelona province, the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona Catalan has an inflectional grammar  Nouns have two genders (masculine, feminine), and two numbers (singular, plural)  Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways  Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and gender  In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages 

Pronunciation
Vowels
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: /a ɛ e i ɔ o u/, a common feature in Western Romance, except Spanish  Balearic has also instances of stressed /ə/  Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction, and the incidence of the pair /ɛ e/ In Eastern Catalan (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: /a e ɛ/ > [ə]; /o ɔ u/ > [u]; /i/ remains distinct  There are a few instances of unreduced [e], [o] in some words  Algherese has lowered [ə] to [a] 
In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: /a e ɛ/ follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however /o ɔ/ reduce to [o], with /u/ remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan In Western Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to five: /e ɛ/ > [e]; /o ɔ/ > [o]; /a u i/ remain distinct  This reduction pattern, inherited from Proto-Romance, is also found in Italian and Portuguese  Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed /e/ and /ɛ/  Usually, words with /ɛ/ in Central Catalan correspond to /ə/ in Balearic and /e/ in Western Catalan  Words with /e/ in Balearic almost always have /e/ in Central and Western Catalan as well  As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of /ɛ/ 

Consonants
Morphology
Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is -e in verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or -o in all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia E g  parle, tem, sent (Valencian); parlo, temo, sento (Northwestern Catalan) 
Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is -o, -i, or -∅ in all conjugations  E g  parlo (Central), parl (Balearic), and parli (Northern), all meaning ('I speak') 

Western Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are -isc/-esc, -ix, -ixen, -isca/-esca 
Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are -eixo, -eix, -eixen, -eixi 
Western Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of /n/ of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words E g  hòmens 'men', jóvens 'youth' 
Eastern Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, loss of /n/ of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words E g  homes 'men', joves 'youth' (Ibicencan, however, follows the model of Western Catalan in this case) 

Vocabulary
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices  Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism  Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element 

Standards
Standard Catalan, virtually accepted by all speakers, is mostly based on Eastern Catalan, which is the most widely used dialect  Nevertheless, the standards of the Valencian Community and the Balearics admit alternative forms, mostly traditional ones, which are not current in eastern Catalonia The most notable difference between both standards is some tonic ⟨e⟩ accentuation, for instance: francès, anglès (IEC) – francés, anglés (AVL)  Nevertheless, AVL's standard keeps the grave accent ⟨è⟩, while pronouncing it as /e/ rather than /ɛ/, in some words like: què ('what'), or València  Other divergences include the use of ⟨tl⟩ (AVL) in some words instead of ⟨tll⟩ like in ametla/ametlla ('almond'), espatla/espatlla ('back'), the use of elided demonstratives (este 'this', eixe 'that') in the same level as reinforced ones (aquest, aqueix) or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, like subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in -ix- at the same level as -eix- or the priority use of -e morpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative (-ar verbs): jo compre instead of jo compro ('I buy') 
In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by the University of the Balearic Islands's philological section  In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing cantam as much as cantem ('we sing'), but the university says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must be cantam in all fields  Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative: jo compr ('I buy'), jo tem ('I fear'), jo dorm ('I sleep') 
In Alghero, the IEC has adapted its standard to the Algherese dialect  In this standard one can find, among other features: the definite article lo instead of el, special possessive pronouns and determinants la mia ('mine'), lo sou/la sua ('his/her'), lo tou/la tua ('yours'), and so on, the use of -v- /v/ in the imperfect tense in all conjugations: cantava, creixiva, llegiva; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Algherese: manco instead of menys ('less'), calqui u instead of algú ('someone'), qual/quala instead of quin/quina ('which'), and so on; and the adaptation of weak pronouns 
In 2011, the Aragonese government passed a decree approving the statutes of a new language regulator of Catalan in La Franja (the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon) as originally provided for by Law 10/2009  The new entity, designated as Acadèmia Aragonesa del Català, shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language in La Franja 

Status of Valencian
Valencian is classified as a Western dialect, along with the northwestern varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces of Lleida and the western half of Tarragona)  Central Catalan has 90% to 95% inherent intelligibility for speakers of Valencian Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language  The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the Valencian Academy of Language (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties 

The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (Normes de Castelló)  Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian an independent standard 
Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004 showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan  This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly  Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views  A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy  For example, during the drafting of the European Constitution in 2004, the Spanish government supplied the EU with translations of the text into Basque, Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical 

Vocabulary
Word choices
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices  Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism  Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use  However, from the 19th century onwards, there has been a tendency towards favoring words of Northern dialects to the detriment of others, even though nowadays there is a greater freedom of choice 

Latin and Greek loanwords
Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of loanwords from Greek and Latin  This process started very early, and one can find such examples in Ramon Llull's work  In the 14th and 15th centuries Catalan had a far greater number of Greco-Latin loanwords than other Romance languages, as is attested for example in Roís de Corella's writings  The incorporation of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language, Latin, into Catalan is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church  Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Catalan speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Catalan 

Word formation
The process of morphological derivation in Catalan follows the same principles as the other Romance languages, where agglutination is common  Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example elèctric [əˈlɛktrik] ("electrical") vs  electricitat [ələktrisiˈtat]  Prefixes are usually appended to verbs, as in preveure ("foresee") There is greater regularity in the process of word-compounding, where one can find compounded words formed much like those in English 

Writing system
Catalan uses the Latin script, with some added symbols and digraphs  The Catalan orthography is systematic and largely phonologically based  Standardization of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906  Subsequently, the Philological Section of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (IEC, founded in 1911) published the Normes ortogràfiques in 1913 under the direction of Antoni Maria Alcover and Pompeu Fabra  In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered in Castelló de la Plana to make a formal adoption of the so-called Normes de Castelló, a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms 

Grammar
The grammar of Catalan is similar to other Romance languages  Features include:
Use of definite and indefinite articles



ground_truth: University of Cambridge

Cambridge

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the country, whose co-official language was used by the director of Group Portrait with a Lady, first attend the Olympics as an independent team?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 
Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and articles are inflected for gender (masculine and feminine), and number (singular and plural)  There is no case inflexion, except in pronouns 
Verbs are highly inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood (including a subjunctive) 
There are no modal auxiliaries 
Word order is freer than in English 

Gender and number inflection
In gender inflection, the most notable feature is (compared to Portuguese, Spanish or Italian), the loss of the typical masculine suffix -o  Thus, the alternance of -o/-a, has been replaced by ø/-a  There are only a few exceptions, like minso/minsa ("scarce")  Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:
Affrication: boig/boja ("insane") vs  lleig/lletja ("ugly")
Loss of n: pla/plana ("flat") vs  segon/segona ("second")
Final obstruent devoicing: sentit/sentida ("felt") vs  dit/dita ("said")Catalan has few suppletive couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French  Thus, Catalan has noi/noia ("boy"/"girl") and gall/gallina ("cock"/"hen"), whereas French has garçon/fille and coq/poule There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favor of marked ones, something prevalent in Occitan and French  Thus, one can find bullent/bullenta ("boiling") in contrast with traditional bullent/bullent As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix -s, which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely  The most important one is the addition of -o- before certain consonant groups, a phonetic phenomenon that does not affect feminine forms: el pols/els polsos ("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs  la pols/les pols ("the dust"/"the dusts") 

Determiners
The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages  Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than Spanish, like dels ("of + the [plural]"), but not as many as Italian (which has sul, col, nel, etc ) Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives (mon, etc ) in favor of constructions of article + stressed forms (el meu, etc ), a feature shared with Italian 

Personal pronouns
The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, especially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian)  Features include the gender-neutral ho and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations) Catalan pronouns exhibit T–V distinction, like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English)  This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality 
This flexibility allows Catalan to use extraposition extensively, much more than French or Spanish  Thus, Catalan can have m'hi recomanaren ("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must say ils m'ont recommandé à lui, and Spanish me recomendaron a él  This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence topic, without having to use so often the passive voice (as in French or English), or identifying the direct object with a preposition (as in Spanish) 

Verbs
Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal  Suffixation is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role  Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion  However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of anar ("to go") + infinitive Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes -a-, -e-, -i-, the last two being split into two subtypes  However, this division is mostly theoretical  Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of servir, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive  The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding 

Syntax
The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages  The primary word order is subject–verb–object  However, word order is very flexible  Commonly, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect  The sentence "The train has arrived" could be translated as Ha arribat el tren or El tren ha arribat  Both sentences mean "the train has arrived", but the former puts a focus on the train, while the latter puts a focus on the arrival  This subtle distinction is described as "what you might say while waiting in the station" versus "what you might say on the train "

Catalan names
In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname  The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction i ("and") 

Sample text
Selected text from Manuel de Pedrolo's 1970 novel Un amor fora ciutat ("A love affair outside the city") 

See also
Notes
Passage 6:
Serbian language
Serbian (српски / srpski, pronounced [sr̩̂pskiː]) is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs  It is the official and national language of Serbia, one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina and co-official in Montenegro and Kosovo  It is a recognized minority language in Croatia, North Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic 
Standard Serbian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian (more specifically on the dialects of Šumadija-Vojvodina and Eastern Herzegovina), which is also the basis of standard Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin varieties and therefore the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Montenegrins was issued in 2017  The other dialect spoken by Serbs is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian 
Serbian is practically the only European standard language whose speakers are fully functionally digraphic, using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets  The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created it based on phonemic principles  The Latin alphabet used for Serbian (latinica) was designed by the Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in the 1830s based on the Czech system with a one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correlation between the Cyrillic and Latin orthographies, resulting in a parallel system 

Classification
Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language (Indo-European), of the South Slavic subgroup  Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian, Croatian, and Montenegrin  "An examination of all the major 'levels' of language shows that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system " It has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian, than with Slovene (Slovene is part of the Western South Slavic subgroup, but there are still significant differences in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation to the standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian, although it is closer to the Kajkavian and Chakavian dialects of Serbo-Croatian) 

Geographic distribution
Figures of speakers according to countries:

Serbia: 6,540,699 (official language)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1,086,027 (co-official language)
Germany: 568,240
Austria: 350,000
Montenegro: 265,890 (language in official use)
Switzerland: 186,000
United States: 172,874
Sweden: 120,000
Italy: 106,498
Kosovo: est  70 000–100 000 (co-official language)
Canada: 72,690
Australia: 55,114
Croatia: 52,879 (recognized minority language)
Slovenia: 38,964
North Macedonia: 24,773 (recognized minority language)
Romania: 22,518 (recognized minority language)

Status in Montenegro
Serbian was the official language of Montenegro until October 2007 when the new Constitution of Montenegro replaced the Constitution of 1992  Amid opposition from pro-Serbian parties, Montenegrin was made the sole official language of the country, and Serbian was given the status of a language in official use along with Bosnian, Albanian, and Croatian In the 2011 Montenegrin census, 42 88% declared Serbian to be their native language, while Montenegrin was declared by 36 97% of the population 

Differences between standard Serbian and standard Croatian and Bosnian
Writing system
Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic (ћирилица, ćirilica) and Latin script (latinica, латиница)  Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia, a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them  Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or the other  In general, the alphabets are used interchangeably; except in the legal sphere, where Cyrillic is required, there is no context where one alphabet or another predominates 
Although Serbian language authorities have recognized the official status of both scripts in contemporary Standard Serbian for more than half of a century now, due to historical reasons, the Cyrillic script was made the official script of Serbia's administration by the 2006 Constitution The Latin script continues to be used in official contexts, although the government has indicated its desire to phase out this practice due to national sentiment  The Ministry of Culture believes that Cyrillic is the "identity script" of the Serbian nation However, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means, leaving the choice of script as a matter of personal preference and to the free will in all aspects of life (publishing, media, trade and commerce, etc ), except in government paperwork production and in official written communication with state officials, which have to be in Cyrillic 

Usage
To most Serbians, the Latin script tends to imply a cosmopolitan or neutral attitude, while Cyrillic appeals to a more traditional or vintage sensibility In media, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia, predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink, predominantly use the Latin script  Newspapers can be found in both scripts 
In the public sphere, with logos, outdoor signage and retail packaging, the Latin script predominates, although both scripts are commonly seen  The Serbian government has encouraged increasing the use of Cyrillic in these contexts  Larger signs, especially those put up by the government, will often feature both alphabets; if the sign has English on it, then usually only Cyrillic is used for the Serbian text 
A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors the Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one Latin script has become more and more popular in Serbia, as it is easier to input on phones and computers 

Alphabetic order
The sort order of the ćirilica (ћирилица) alphabet:

Cyrillic order called Azbuka (азбука): А Б В Г Д Ђ Е Ж З И Ј К Л Љ М Н Њ О П Р С Т Ћ У Ф Х Ц Ч Џ ШThe sort order of the latinica (латиница) alphabet:

Latin order called Abeceda (абецеда): A B C Č Ć D Dž Đ E F G H I J K L Lj M N Nj O P R S Š T U V Z Ž

Grammar
Serbian is a highly inflected language, with grammatical morphology for nouns, pronouns and adjectives as well as verbs 

Nouns
Serbian nouns are classified into three declensional types, denoted largely by their nominative case endings as "-a" type, "-i" and "-e" type  Into each of these declensional types may fall nouns of any of three genders: masculine, feminine or neuter  Each noun may be inflected to represent the noun's grammatical case, of which Serbian has seven:

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative
Instrumental
LocativeNouns are further inflected to represent the noun's number, singular or plural 

Pronouns
Pronouns, when used, are inflected along the same case and number morphology as nouns  Serbian is a pro-drop language, meaning that pronouns may be omitted from a sentence when their meaning is easily inferred from the text  In cases where pronouns may be dropped, they may also be used to add emphasis  For example:

Adjectives
Adjectives in Serbian may be placed before or after the noun they modify, but must agree in number, gender and case with the modified noun 

Verbs
Serbian verbs are conjugated in four past forms—perfect, aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect—of which the last two have a very limited use (imperfect is still used in some dialects, but the majority of native Serbian speakers consider it archaic), one future tense (also known as the first future tense, as opposed to the second future tense or the future exact, which is considered a tense of the conditional mood by some contemporary linguists), and one present tense  These are the tenses of the indicative mood  Apart from the indicative mood, there is also the imperative mood  The conditional mood has two more tenses: the first conditional (commonly used in conditional clauses, both for possible and impossible conditional clauses) and the second conditional (without use in the spoken language—it should be used for impossible conditional clauses)  Serbian has active and passive voice 
As for the non-finite verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive, two adjectival participles (the active and the passive), and two adverbial participles (the present and the past) 

Vocabulary
Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to the Proto-Slavic language  There are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history  Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, English, Russian, German, Czech and French 

Serbian literature
Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje (Miroslav's Gospel) in 1186 and Dušanov zakonik (Dušan's Code) in 1349  Little secular medieval literature has been preserved, but what there is shows that it was in accord with its time; for example, the Serbian Alexandride, a book about Alexander the Great, and a translation of Tristan and Iseult into Serbian  Although not belonging to the literature proper, the corpus of Serbian literacy in the 14th and 15th centuries contains numerous legal, commercial and administrative texts with marked presence of Serbian vernacular juxtaposed on the matrix of Serbian Church Slavonic 
By the beginning of the 14th century the Serbo-Croatian language, which was so rigorously proscribed by earlier local laws, becomes the dominant language of the Republic of Ragusa  However, despite her wealthy citizens speaking the Serbo-Croatian dialect of Dubrovnik in their family circles, they sent their children to Florentine schools to become perfectly fluent in Italian  Since the beginning of the 13th century, the entire official correspondence of Dubrovnik with states in the hinterland was conducted in Serbian In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and for the next 400 years there was no opportunity for the creation of secular written literature  However, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being epic poetry  The epic poems were mainly written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s, a few centuries or even a millennium longer than by most other "epic folks"  Goethe and Jacob Grimm learned Serbian in order to read Serbian epic poetry in the original  By the end of the 18th century, the written literature had become estranged from the spoken language  In the second half of the 18th century, the new language appeared, called Slavonic-Serbian  This artificial idiom superseded the works of poets and historians like Gavrilo Stefanović Venclović, who wrote in essentially modern Serbian in the 1720s  These vernacular compositions have remained cloistered from the general public and received due attention only with the advent of modern literary historians and writers like Milorad Pavić  In the early 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić promoted the spoken language of the people as a literary norm 

Dialects
The dialects of Serbo-Croatian, regarded Serbian (traditionally spoken in Serbia), include:

Šumadija–Vojvodina (Ekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): central and northern Serbia
Eastern Herzegovinian (Ijekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): southwestern Serbia, western half of Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia
Kosovo–Resava (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): eastern central Serbia, central Kosovo
Smederevo–Vršac (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): east-central Serbia
Prizren–Timok (transitional Torlakian): southeastern Serbia, southern Kosovo
Zeta–Raška (Ijekavian, Old-Shtokavian): eastern half of Montenegro, southwestern Serbia

Dictionaries
Vuk Karadžić's Srpski rječnik, first published in 1818, is the earliest dictionary of modern literary Serbian  The Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (I–XXIII), published by the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts from 1880 to 1976, is the only general historical dictionary of Serbo-Croatian  Its first editor was Đuro Daničić, followed by Pero Budmani and the famous Vukovian Tomislav Maretić  The sources of this dictionary are, especially in the first volumes, mainly Štokavian  There are older, pre-standard dictionaries, such as the 1791 German–Serbian dictionary or 15th century Arabic-Persian-Greek-Serbian Conversation Textbook 

Standard dictionaries
Dictionary of Serbo-Croatian Literary and Vernacular Language (Rečnik srpskohrvatskog književnog i narodnog jezika) is the biggest dictionary of Serbian (and Serbo-Croatian as a whole) and still unfinished  Starting in 1959, 21 volumes were published as of 2020 and about 40 are expected by the time it is finished 
Dictionary of Serbo-Croatian Literary Language (Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika) in six volumes in 1967–1976, started as a common project of Matica srpska (published in Cyrillic) and Matica hrvatska (published in Latin)  Only the first three volumes were published by Matica hrvatska due to negative feedback from Croatian linguists 
Dictionary of the Serbian language (Rečnik srpskoga jezika; ISBN 978-86-7946-004-2) in one volume, published in 2007 by Matica srpska, which on more than 1500 pages in A4 format explains more than 85,000 entries 

Etymological dictionaries
The standard and the only completed etymological dictionary of Serbian is the "Skok", written by the Croatian linguist Petar Skok: Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika ("Etymological Dictionary of Croatian or Serbian")  I-IV  Zagreb 1971–1974 
There is also a new monumental Etimološki rečnik srpskog jezika (Etymological Dictionary of Serbian)  So far, two volumes have been published: I (with words on A-), and II (Ba-Bd) 
There are specialized etymological dictionaries for German, Italian, Croatian, Turkish, Greek, Hungarian, Russian, English and other loanwords (cf  chapter word origin) 

Dialectal dictionaries
Kosovsko-resavski dialect dictionaries:
Gliša Elezović, Rečnik kosovsko-metohiskog dijalekta I-II  1932/1935 
Prizren-Timok (Torlakian) dialect dictionaries:
Brana Mitrović, Rečnik leskovačkog govora  Leskovac 1984 
Nikola Živković, Rečnik pirotskog govora  Pirot, 1987 
Miodrag Marković, Rečnik crnorečkog govora I-II  1986/1993 
Jakša Dinić, Rečnik timočkog govora I-III 1988–1992 
Jakša Dinić, Timocki dijalekatski recnik, (Institut za srpski jezik, Monografije 4; ISBN 978-86-82873-17-4) Beograd 2008,
Momčilo Zlatanović, Rečnik govora južne Srbije  Vranje, 1998, 1–491 
East-Herzegovinian dialect dictionaries:
Milija Stanić, Uskočki rečnik I–II  Beograd 1990/1991 
Miloš Vujičić, Rečnik govora Prošćenja kod Mojkovca  Podgorica, 1995 
Srđan Musić, Romanizmi u severozapadnoj Boki Kotorskoj  1972 
Svetozar Gagović, Iz leksike Pive  Beograd 2004 
Zeta-Pešter dialect:
Rada Stijović, Iz leksike Vasojevića  1990 
Drago Ćupić – Željko Ćupić, Rečnik govora Zagarača  1997 
Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Crnoj Gori – jugoistočni dio Boke Kotorske  Cetinje – Titograd, 1981 
Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Budvi i Paštrovićima  Novi Sad 1997 
Others:
Rečnik srpskih govora Vojvodine  Novi Sad 
Mile Tomić, Rečnik radimskog govora – dijaspora, Rumunija  1989 

Sample text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Cyrillic script:
Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима  Она су обдарена разумом и свешћу и треба једни према другима да поступају у духу братства 
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Latin alphabet:
Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima  Ona su obdarena razumom i svešću i treba jedni prema drugima da postupaju u duhu bratstva 
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights  They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood 

See also



ground_truth: 2016