prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is one of the members of the music group that performed "Good Little Girls"?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Secrets of a Windmill Girl
Secrets of a Windmill Girl is a 1966 British exploitation film directed by Arnold L  Miller  It recounts the road to ruin of a young woman (Pauline Collins) who becomes involved with the striptease scene after becoming a dancer at the Windmill Theatre in London  The film features fan dances by former Windmill Theatre Company performers  It was originally released in Britain as part of a double bill with Naked as Nature Intended 

Cast
Pauline Collins as Pat Lord
April Wilding as Linda Grey
Renée Houston as Molly - Dresser
Derek Bond as Inspector Thomas
Harry Fowler as Harry
Howard Marion-Crawford as	Richard - Producer
Peter Gordeno as Peter
Peter Swanwick as Len Mason
Martin Jarvis as Mike, Windmill Stage Manager
Leon Cortez as 'Uncle Marty'

Critical reception
A reviewer in TV Guide wrote that "the premise of this film is compelling, but the treatment is empty-headed"; and The Spinning Image asked, "and those hoping for titillation? As with so much of the sexually-themed cinema of this (British) nation, they were offered it with a moralistic angle, as if telling the audience off for their prurience "
Passage 2:
Mama's Little Girl
"Mama's Little Girl" is a song by Paul McCartney & Wings that was taped in March 1972 during the Red Rose Speedway recording sessions 

Recording and performance
The final mix was made in 1987 at Air Studios in London by McCartney, co-producer Chris Thomas and engineer Bill Price 
McCartney performed "Mama's Little Girl" as part of a medley during the 1973 James Paul McCartney television special, though it was not broadcast 

Personnel
Paul McCartney - vocals, acoustic guitar, drums, electric guitar, tambourine
Linda McCartney - tambourine, backing vocals
Denny Laine - backing vocals, bass
Henry McCullough - electric guitar
Denny Seiwell - African percussion
Heather McCartney - backing vocals

Release
"Mama's Little Girl" was intended to be included on Cold Cuts, an album of outtakes which was never released 
"Mama's Little Girl" was officially issued: 

In 1990 as the B-side of the "Put It There" single & on the 2 CD Japanese version of the Flowers in the Dirt album 
In 1993 as a bonus track on the 1993 remastered CD edition of Wings' 1971 Wild Life album 
In 2018 as part of the Red Rose Speedway Archive Collection 

Track listings
This song was released as a 7" single, a 12" maxi-single, and a CD single 

7" single"Put It There"
"Mama's Little Girl"12" single"Put It There"
"Mama's Little Girl"
"Same Time Next Year"CD single"Put It There"
"Mama's Little Girl"
"Same Time Next Year"
Passage 3:
Mia Aegerter
Mia Aegerter is a Swiss musician, model, and stage and film actress 

Childhood and early career
Mia Aegerter was born on October 9, 1976 into an artist family in Fribourg, Switzerland  Her parents were members of a band, which drew Aegerter to the stage at an early age  She started working as a model and took part in many talent competitions  At a young age, she won the "Little-Prix Walo," an important talent competition for young artists in Switzerland  She also succeeded in the famous "Bravo Girl - Model Contest,“ in Germany 
At fifteen, she began to write her own songs  After a yearlong stay in America, she graduated from high-school and moved to Munich to study music, dance, and acting  After a short time, Aegerter was discovered by a talent scout and moved to Berlin, Germany 

Musical and film career
From 2000 to 2003, she became famous for starring as "Xenia di Montalban" in eight episodes of Gute Zeiten Schlechte Zeiten, the most successful daily soap opera in Germany at the time 
At the beginning of 2003, Aegerter had a breakthrough in the national music scene  Her single, "U don't know how to love me," achieved high radio-ratings and got into the Top 20 of the Swiss single charts and the Top 40 of the German single charts  Shortly after, Aegerter played the role of “Laura Moretti” in the film Achtung, fertig, Charlie, which came in second on the list of the most successful Swiss movies ever made (with over 560'000 entries at the box office as of 2011; behind Rolf Lyssy's classic "Schweizermacher" of 1978 with over 940'000 tickets sold)  The film was also released in France, Germany, Italy, Russia and the USA, where it was renamed, Ready, Steady, Charlie!  Aegerter also composed and sang the film's title song, "Hie u Jetzt," which became a hit in Switzerland, reaching the Top 5 of the Swiss single charts  She received prizes and honors for her work, including the PRIX WALO in 2003, the VIVA COMET in the category of "Best of all CH Act," and the famous SWISS AWARD 
With her debut album, So wie I bi / The way I am, released in 2004, Aegerter proved that she is not only an excellent dialect singer, but very expressive with English lyrics  With the song, "Alive," she took part in the German selection to the "Grand Prix d'Eurovision"  "Alive" was her fourth single release and got into the Swiss and German charts 
In January 2005, the Album So wie I bi / The way I am went gold in Switzerland 
In the same year, Aegerter played the female lead in the Swiss film, Leben auf Kredit, which also played in France and Italy  She also hosted the weekly youth magazine, Bravo TV, for one year  Bravo TV was also broadcast in Germany, Switzerland and Austria 
After many unplugged gigs in 2004-2005, she and her rock band, were a supporting-act of Ronan Keating's German Tour, which allowed them to perform on the biggest stages in the country  Aegerter also had her own Club Tour in Switzerland and played in various open-air festivals 

Other skills
Besides acting in various plays and movies in Switzerland and Germany, Aegerter's main passion remains the music and the songwriting  Her lyrics have a healthy portion of provocative irony  She takes the listeners on a journey through her thoughts and beliefs 
She extended her writing, by working for three years, as a columnist for the Neue Luzerner Zeitung, a renowned daily Swiss newspaper 

Albums
Singles
External links
Myriam Aegerter at IMDb
(in German) Official website
Passage 4:
4 Little Girls
4 Little Girls is a 1997 American historical documentary film about the murder of four African-American girls (Addie May Collins, Carol Denise McNair, Cynthia Wesley, Carole Rosamond Robertson) in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama on September 15, 1963  The film was directed by Spike Lee and nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary The events inspired the 1964 song "Birmingham Sunday" by Richard and Mimi Fariña, which was used in the opening sequence of the film, as sung by Joan Baez, Mimi's sister  They also inspired the 1963 tune "Alabama" by John Coltrane, which is also included in the soundtrack 
4 Little Girls premiered on June 25, 1997, at the Guild 50th Street Theatre in New York City  It was produced by Lee's production company, 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks, and Home Box Office (HBO) In 2017, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" 

Synopsis
A local chapter of the Ku Klux Klan placed bombs at the 16th Street Baptist Church and set them off as Sunday services prepared to commence on the morning of September 15, 1963  Four young girls, ranging in age from 11 to 14, were killed in the explosion, which also caused anywhere between 14 and 22 additional injuries  The deaths provoked national outrage, and, the following summer, the United States Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which was signed by President Lyndon B  Johnson  The bombing is marked in history as a critical and pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement 
The film covered the events in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963 related to civil rights demonstrations and the movement to end racial discrimination in local stores and facilities  In 1963, Rev  Dr  Martin Luther King Jr  arrived in the town to help with their strategy and to speak at the funeral of the four young girls  People of the community met at the 16th Street Baptist Church while organizing their events  The demonstrations were covered by national media, and the use by police of police dogs and pressured water from hoses on young people shocked the nation  The large number of demonstrators who were arrested resulted in local jails filling to capacity 
The film ends with the trial and conviction in 1977 of Robert Edward Chambliss, also known as Dynamite Bob, as the main person responsible for the bombing, though he is said to have been only one of four Klan members involved  The film also references black churches being set on fire in Birmingham in 1993, giving the impression that, while progress has been made, there are some things that still have not changed 
Lee uses interviews with family and friends of the girls, government officials, and civil rights activists, as well as home movies and archival footage, to not only tell the story of the four girls' lives, but also to provide a greater historical and political context of the times 

Production
Lee first became interested in making a film about the Birmingham bombing in 1983, when he was a student at New York University  After reading a New York Times Magazine article about the incident, he was moved to write to Chris McNair, the father of Denise, one of the victims, to ask for permission to tell her story on film  McNair turned down the young, aspiring filmmaker  "I was entering my first semester at N Y U  So my skills as a filmmaker were nonexistent, and at that time, Chris McNair was still hesitant to talk about it," Lee said in a 1997 interview with Industry Central's The Director's Chair   "I believe timing is everything  So it took ten years of Chris thinking about this and ten years of myself making movies for this to come together "According to McNair, he changed his mind about supporting Lee's film idea due to learning about the depth and precision of Lee's research  McNair said, "[I]t's very important that this be done accurately and correctly  In all his research, he [Lee] showed that he was objective and seeking a broad section of opinion  I'm a stickler for the facts "At first, Lee had intended to create a dramatic reproduction of the incident, but eventually, he decided that would not be the best approach, and the project became a documentary  Once he secured funding, he went to Birmingham with a small skeleton film crew, as he wanted the families be as comfortable as possible during the interviews  Sam Pollard served as a producer and the editor and Ellen Kuras was the director of photography of the film 
Lee had developed a relationship with Kuras while working on an HBO project called Subway Stories, which was an anthology of short films compiled by Jonathan Demme (though Lee's film did not make the final cut due, in part, to conflict between him and Demme)  Kuras said of her desire to shoot 4 Little Girls, "I was really interested because my background is in political documentaries     I always felt that one of the reasons that I had got into filmmaking was that I wanted to use my craft to be able to say something about the human condition, however I could, in my own humble way  For me this was an opportunity to make a small contribution "
Lee's partnership with Sam Pollard had begun on Mo' Better Blues when Pollard was recommended to replace Barry Alexander Brown, who was unavailable because he was directing his own film, as editor  Pollard originally refused the overture because he was busy working on his segments of Eyes on the Prize, but ultimately, he accepted, and he has since become one of Lee's most frequent collaborators  Their first few films together were fiction, but Pollard's background was in documentary, and he was key to guiding the structure of 4 Little Girls  He said about his role: Basically it was to help with the conception of the structure, to edit it     We spent a lot of time screening dailies together   We could come to 40 Acres at 7a m , and we would spend three hours a day screening dailies for two weeks straight     We talked, selected all the material that we liked, and I started working on the structure in the editing room   Spike was asking if he needed narration and what the structure should be  I basically said the structure should be that there are parallels—the family, the history of the community—and then they come together on the explosion 

Reception
Critics and public
The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature  On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 100% based on 27 reviews, with an average rating of 8 42/10  The website's critical consensus reads: "4 Little Girls finds Spike Lee moving into documentary filmmaking with his signature style intact -- and all the palpable fury the subject requires "

Box office
It was initially planned for the film to first be seen by the public when it was aired on HBO, but, after seeing the final product, the production team decided it was important to release the film in theaters before running it on television  Accordingly, 4 Little Girls opened in American theaters on July 9, 1997, and closed on October 2, 1997  It grossed $130,146 from a total of four theaters  In its opening weekend, it earned $13,528 from a single theater, which was 10 4% of its total gross  It cost approximately $1 million to make, funded by HBO 

See also
Civil rights movement in popular culture
1956 Sugar Bowl
civil rights movement
Timeline of the civil rights movement
Passage 5:
Good Little Girls (song)
"Good Little Girls" is the debut song recorded by American country music duo Blue County   It was released in September 2003 as the first single from their debut album Blue County   The song was written by Troy Seals and Brett Jones 

Chart performance
"Good Little Girls" debuted at number 51 on the U S  Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for the week of October 18, 2003 

Year-end charts
Passage 6:
The King of Rock and Roll
The King of Rock and Roll is an album by Little Richard, released in 1971  It was his second album for Reprise Records  It was rereleased as part of the King of Rock and Roll: The Complete Reprise Recordings set 

Production
The King of Rock and Roll was produced and arranged by H  B  Barnum  It contains one original Little Richard song, the gospel rock "In the Name", and a new song co-written by Barnum, "Green Power", the album's single  The rest of the tracks are covers  The title track is a mock braggadocio that references Tom Jones, Elvis Presley, Ike & Tina Turner, Sly and the Family Stone and Aretha Franklin, among others  The album title and cover art were inspired by Little Richard's image in the early 1970s, when he would often appear in public wearing robes, jewelry, and a crown 

Critical reception
The album received a largely negative review in Rolling Stone, where Vince Aletti stated: "Much of the album seems designed around the Talk Show Personality rather than the Singer, giving it the sticky veneer of a jive extravaganza " Reviewing the album as part of the Reprise collection, The Austin Chronicle deemed it a "pandering covers concept "

Track listing
"King of Rock 'n' Roll" (Bradford Craig, H B  Barnum) - 3:11
"Joy to the World" (Hoyt Axton) – 6:49
"Brown Sugar" (Keith Richards, Mick Jagger) – 3:23
"In the Name" (Richard Penniman) – 3:10
"Dancing in the Street" (Marvin Gaye, William "Mickey" Stevenson) – 5:31
"Midnight Special" (Traditional; arranged by Richard Penniman) – 4:02
"The Way You Do the Things You Do" (Robert Rogers, William Robinson) – 3:29
"Green Power" (H B  Barnum, John "Skip" Anderson) – 3:59
"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" (Hank Williams) – 2:40
"Settin' the Woods on Fire" (Ed G  Nelson, Fred Rose) – 2:22
"Born on the Bayou" (John C  Fogerty) – 4:27

Personnel
Little Richard – vocals, electric pianoRest of personnel unknown, records not kept by Reprise 

Charts
Passage 7:
A Little Girl in Old Pittsburg
A Little Girl in Old Pittsburg is a novel for children set in late 18th century Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania written by the American writer Amanda Minnie Douglas (1831–1916) 
It opens in 1781 with the news of Lord Cornwallis’ surrender to George Washington as it reaches the Carrick, Bradin, and Duvernay families, pioneers who live near Fort Pitt  The protagonist, Daffodil, is the "little girl" of the title, and the plot primarily is used to illustrate the domestic life of early Pittsburghers  It ends with Daffodil’s marriage and her taking leave of the city   The novel is part of a series (e g , A Little Girl in Old Boston, A Little Girl in Old Philadelphia) that was among the first fiction series for American girls 

See also
List of fiction set in Pittsburgh
Passage 8:
The Little Match Girl (1928 film)
The Little Match Girl (French: La petite marchande d'allumettes) is a 1928 French drama featurette film directed by Jean Renoir and starring Catherine Hessling 

Plot
The story of a frozen girl who tries to sell matches during Christmas and dreams about a toy store  The film is based on the 1845 short story of the same name by Hans Christian Andersen 

Cast
Catherine Hessling as Karen
Amy Wells as Pop
Jean Storm as Lieutenant Axel Ott
Manuel Raaby as Politieagent

See also
List of Christmas films
Passage 9:
Ugod
Ugod is a small village in the North-Western part of Hungary, in Veszprém county, near Mount Bakony and close to Lake Balaton, at the juncture of Bakony and Little Alföld  The town is a great starting point for hikers, hunters and the lovers of countryside 
Distances: Budapest (150 km), Győr (60 km), Lake Balaton (80 km), Veszprém (60 km), Pápa (15 km) 

History
First written mention of the village from 1289  King László IV dated a charter during a campaign in this year  It  is supposed that the Fortress of Ugod still existed at that time but it is doubtful  Because that charter dated  "in Ugod" instead of "in Ugod fortress" or "under Ugod fortress" as usual at that time 
During Árpád Dynasty Ugod was the part of Bakony Erdőispánság  Ispán is the ruler of the territory  King Stephen V signed Csák Lukács's son Demeter and his posteriors to be forever ispán of that territory and allowed him to build fortress 
Csák family was relative to the dynasty  Their origin is from the Honfoglalás (settlement of the Magyars)  Due  to Anonymus and Képes Krónika Csák was the son of Chief Előd's great-grandchild Szabolcs  From that Csák is the  family originated  That family was streamed to 12 arm  One of them called ugodi  That arm's earliest known member  was Csák Lukács  In this family the name Ugrin (means Hungarian man) was very popular  One form of that name with  diminutive -d is Ugod 
That was the name of Demeter's son or grandson, who after the village is nominated 
Jews lived in the village in the 19th and 20th centuries, dozens of whom were murdered in the Holocaust 

Sights
Roman Catholic church (former fortress)
Parish
Pieta in front of parish
Chalk-smelters around the village
Ugod Lake
Stephen I's statue
Hubertlak in the surrounding forest
Passage 10:
This Little Girl of Mine
"This Little Girl of Mine" is a rhythm and blues single written and released as a single by Ray Charles in 1955 on the Atlantic label 
"This Little Girl of Mine" played off "This Little Light of Mine", much like the previous "I Got a Woman" and the later "Hallelujah I Love Her So" played off other classic gospel hymns  Much like those songs, it replaced sacred lyrics with secular blues lyrics, featuring doo-wop call and response harmonies 
The song was the B-side to Charles' number-one R&B single, "A Fool for You", and was a charted hit on its own, peaking at number nine on the chart 
The tune was re-made to top 40 pop status in 1958 by The Everly Brothers  It should not be confused with the 1981 Gary U S  Bonds hit "This Little Girl "
Passage 11:
Reform School Girl
Reform School Girl is a 1957 film starring Gloria Castillo as a teenage girl who is sent to a reformatory  The film was directed by Edward Bernds and was produced by Samuel Z  Arkoff   Reform School Girl was one of many sexploitation films released by American International Pictures (AIP) during the 1950s and 1960s   AIP's films during this period were largely focused on juvenile delinquency   As part of the AIP formula, young girls were typically depicted as "good" or "bad", the latter of which were petty criminals, gang members, or the girlfriends of gang members   Other AIP films in the same genre included Drag Strip Girl, Hot Rod Girl, and High School Hellcats  Reform School Girl is available for on-line viewing at AMCtv com  The film was released by American International Pictures as a double feature with Shake, Rattle and Rock 
The film marked the acting debut of Sally Kellerman   While filming the movie, she met Vickers and Byrnes and the three of them became lifelong friends 

Plot
Donna Price (Gloria Castillo) is picked up on a double date by Vince (Edward Byrnes)  During the course of the evening she discovers that the car they are riding in is stolen  As the night unfolds, an argument ensues in the car and Vince tells the others to get out, leaving Donna as his only passenger  When she asks him if he is worried about the other couple notifying the police, Vince tells her that he would murder anybody who ever turned on him  Subsequently, the police attempt to pull Vince over for speeding  During the high speed chase, Vince strikes a pedestrian and kills him  He flees the scene leaving Donna alone in the car  Fearing for her life, she refuses to identify Vince as the car's driver  Considered a juvenile delinquent, Donna is sent to a state school for girls 

At the school, Donna attends a history class that is taught by David Lindsay (Ross Ford) who is also the school's psychologist   Although Donna does not reveal her secret to David, he believes that she is a good person who may have been caught up in a series of bad events and that she can straighten out her life with his help 
While Donna is in the school, the police continue the accident investigation   Vince is troubled by the event and is worried that Donna will eventually tell authorities what happened   He develops a ruse where his girlfriend places a phone call to the police and identifies herself as Donna   She tells the police that one of the girls in the reform school is a thief   Eventually the other girls come to believe that Donna is a police informer  She is attacked by Roxy (Yvette Vickers) and while defending herself, Donna cuts Roxy with a pair of scissors   Despite David's plea to conduct an investigation, the school superintendent determines that Donna is a high risk student and that she should be transferred to the state prison   School authorities also question David's judgment, his relationship with Donna, and his ability to help students   Vince, who is still convinced that Donna will turn him into the police, attempts to break into the school and kill her   He fails and is apprehended   The police and school authorities investigate the incident and as a result of the investigation David is vindicated, and Donna is exonerated and released 

Reviews
The Rotten Tomatoes provides the following narrative:

 "The inherent trashiness of Reform School Girl is redeemed by the sincere performance of Gloria Castillo and the matter-of-fact direction of Edward Bernds  Castillo plays mixed-up teenager Donna Price, who is shipped off to a girl's reformatory when she is involved in a fatal car crash  Actually, Donna is innocent, but she refuses to reveal who was driving  Only when the culprit (a pre-77 Sunset Strip Edward Byrnes) reveals himself to be a total piece of excrement is Donna able to extricate herself from her dilemma "
Movie critic Leonard Maltin has characterized the movie as a "bomb "

"Hokey time capsule about a pretty teen from the "other side of the tracks" (Castillo)  After a fatal car mishap she ends up in reform school   Will she or won't she squeal on the party responsible for her dilemma?"
Since the film's release in 1957, the theatrical movie poster, featuring blond haired Vickers fighting dark haired Castillo, has become a collector's item  "    the two girls wrestling for a pair of scissors promise anything that a teenage male, from any decade, could want " The poster has also become popular on the internet since it was used as part of an advertisement for a 2006 Scrabble tournament held in France   The poster's slogan says, "In Scrabble anything is possible  Grand National Tournament September 23, 2006 "

In popular culture
An April 21, 1977 episode of SCTV (Season 1, Episode 11) contains a satirical skit called "Broads Behind Bars" which has half of the story of the movie, but mostly contains a subplot about the smoking of marijuana making one do criminal things  The skit is featured on the DVD SCTV: Best of the Early Years 

See also
List of American films of 1957
Passage 12:
Blue County (music group)
Blue County was an American country music duo composed of actor-singers Aaron Benward and Scott Reeves  They released their self-titled debut album in 2004 on Curb Records  This album produced four singles on the Billboard country singles charts, including the No  11 "Good Little Girls"  Two more singles — "Firecrackers and Ferris Wheels" and "I Get To" — were released in 2006, although neither was included on an album 

History
Blue County was founded in 2003 by Aaron Benward (formerly of Aaron Jeoffrey) and actor-singer Scott Reeves, who had been friends for several years before the duo's foundation  Signed to Curb Records that year, the duo released their debut single "Good Little Girls"  This single peaked at No  11 on the Billboard country charts in early 2004, and was the first of four singles from their self-titled debut album, which Dann Huff produced  Also in 2004, the duo performed at the Country Music Association Music Festival Following "Good Little Girls" was the single "That's Cool", which peaked at No  24 on the country charts  "Nothing but Cowboy Boots" and "That Summer Song" followed in 2005, peaking at No  38 and No  53 respectively  The duo released their fifth single, "Firecrackers and Ferris Wheels", in 2006, although it did not chart  Their final release for Curb was the No  51-peaking "I Get To", which like "Firecrackers and Ferris Wheels" was never included on an album  After recording two songs for the Evan Almighty soundtrack, Blue County exited the Curb label in 2007 

Discography
Studio albums
Singles
Music videos
Passage 13:
Lara Cardella
Lara Cardella (born 13 November 1969 in Licata, Italy) is an Italian writer  She is best known for her best selling novel Good girls don't wear trousers 

Career
Cardella's first book Good Girls Don't Wear Trousers (in Italian: Volevo i pantaloni), written when she was nineteen, caused a scandal in the small Sicilian community where she lived because it fiercely criticized what she perceived as the backwardness and chauvinism of contemporary Sicilian society  One commentator laeleed her Italy's Salman Rushdie  The controversy surrounding the book, as well as the young age of its author, contributed to make it a huge bestseller in Italy and the novel was translated in many languages and published across the rest of Europe, in Brazil and Korea 
A film based on the novel, titled Volevo i pantaloni, came out in 1990 
In 1991 she wrote Intorno a Laura, a novel based on an original structure which combines the traditional novel structure and that of theatrical drama, showing she was able to experiment new solutions and themes 
Fedra se ne va and Una ragazza normale followed, in 1992 and 1994 respectively, but none of them matched the enormous success of her first book 
In 1995, perhaps in the effort of renewing her success as a writer, she wrote the sequel to her first novel: Volevo i pantaloni 2 She then changed publisher, leaving Mondadori for Rizzoli  With this publisher she released Detesto il soft (1997), a dreamy novel centred on morbid sexuality, and Finestre accese (2000), her last novel so far, where the lives of the two main female characters are followed down the years through the entries in their personal journals and where Cardella addresses for the first time the theme of mafia 

Themes
Through the years Cardella has experimented various styles and narrative solutions, from the traditional novel (Volevo i pantaloni, Una ragazza normale) to the contamination between novel and drama (Intorno a Laura), from the dreamlike atmospheres of Detesto il soft to the journal (Finestre accese) 
There are however some basic themes recurring in much of her work, as the main focus of the plot or lying under the surface, such as chauvinism, rape, the backward and negative aspects of Sicilian traditional society  In Una ragazza normale and Detesto il soft the subjects of sexuality and death are addressed in a fascinating morbid way  A general sense of pessimism and fatalism permeates much of her writings 

Selected works
In English
Good girls don't wear trousers, London, H Hamilton, 1993

In Italian
Finestre accese, Milano, Rizzoli, 2000
Detesto il soft, Milano, Rizzoli, 1997
Volevo i pantaloni 2, Milano, Mondadori, 1995
Una ragazza normale, Milano, Mondadori, 1994
Fedra se ne va, Milano, Mondadori, 1992
Intorno a Laura, Milano, Mondadori, 1991
Volevo i pantaloni, Milano, Mondadori, 1989
Passage 14:
Bobby's Girl (song)
"Bobby's Girl" is a song and single written by Gary Klein and Henry Hoffman   The original was performed by American teenage singer Marcie Blane, and became a #3 hit on the US charts   A near-simultaneous cover by British singer Susan Maughan was the hit in the UK, coincidentally also reaching #3 on the UK charts   Both Blane and Maughan are one-hit wonders; for both these artists, "Bobby's Girl" marked their only appearance on a national top 40 chart 

Marcie Blane version
Blane's version of the song was released in the United States in August, 1962  It has a spoken introduction and a backing refrain of "You're not a kid anymore" and was popular with the American teenage audience  It entered the charts in October and made the Top 10 within a month reaching 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 by December, where it stayed for four weeks  It reached 2 on the Cash Box chart staying on the charts for nineteen weeks and made Blane (very briefly) the top selling female singer in the US 

Chart history
Susan Maughan version
Susan Maughan's cover version was released in the UK, also in 1962  It featured Wally Stott and his orchestra and chorus  Substantially re-arranged from Blane's original, Maughan's version dropped the spoken word intro, and had a more sophisticated, less 'teen-age' sound   It spent nineteen weeks on the UK's Record Retailer chart, peaking at No  3 

Chart history
Other versions
In 1963 Swedish artist Lil Malmkvist made a version in German (Ariola AT 10 106) 

Tracey Ullman version
In 1983 Tracey Ullman released a version of "Bobby's Girl" on the album You Broke My Heart in 17 Places and as a single  Ullman's version reached No  45 in West Germany 

Foreign-language versions
1963 : French singer Arielle performed the French-language version Je n'aime que Bobby (I only love Bobby) 
1972 : Canadian singer Mimi Hétu performed the French-language version Pardonne-moi (Forgive me) 
1984 : French singer Douchka performed the French-language version Mon p'tit cœur (My little heart) 
Passage 15:
Little Green (song)
"Little Green" is a song composed and performed by Joni Mitchell  It is the third track on her 1971 album Blue 

Background
Mitchell wrote "Little Green" in 1966, shortly after she had signed the papers to place her daughter for adoption the previous year, while she was a poor folk singer in Toronto The existence of her daughter, originally called Kelly Dale, was not publicly known until 1993, when a roommate from Mitchell's art school days in the 1960s sold the story of the adoption to a tabloid magazine  However, in at least one early live performance, she mentioned her daughter’s given first name  At the Café Au Go Go in New York in 1967, there was (a reviewer later stated) "a raw, husky catch to her tender wishes for 'Kelly Green'" during the song Mitchell commented on the situation in an interview quoted in a 1998 article: "I was dirt poor  An unhappy mother does not raise a happy child  It was difficult parting with the child, but I had to let her go " Mitchell was reunited with her daughter, Kilauren Gibb, in 1997 The guitar tuning Mitchell uses on the song is Open G (low-to-high: D G D G B D) 

Critical reaction
Writing for Rolling Stone in 1971, Timothy Crouse, said:

Several of the lesser cuts on Blue give every indication of having sat in Joni's trunk for some time  The folkie melody of "Little Green" recalls "I Don't Know Where I Stand" from her second album  The pretty, "poetic" lyric is dressed up in such cryptic references that it passeth all understanding 
Reflecting on the song for The Atlantic in 2013, Jack Hamilton noted that "Little Green", arguably the most personal song on Blue, was not written about a lover but rather about Mitchell's daughter, concluding that "Blue was Mitchell's way into music that transcended her life to become about yours and everyone else's "Bob Dylan played the song on the "Colors" episode of Season 1 of his Theme Time Radio Hour show in 2007 
Passage 16:
Forrest Gump
Forrest Gump is a 1994 American comedy-drama film directed by Robert Zemeckis and written by Eric Roth  It is based on the 1986 novel of the same name by Winston Groom and stars Tom Hanks, Robin Wright, Gary Sinise, Mykelti Williamson and Sally Field  The film follows several decades in the life of a slow-witted and kindhearted Alabama man named Forrest Gump (Hanks) and his experiences in the 20th-century United States  The film differs substantially from the novel 
Principal photography took place between August and December 1993, mainly in Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina  Extensive visual effects were used to incorporate Hanks into archived footage and to develop other scenes  The soundtrack features songs reflecting the different periods seen in the film 
Forrest Gump was released in the United States on July 6, 1994, and received mostly positive reviews, with critical acclaim for Zemeckis's direction, performances (particularly those of Hanks and Sinise), visual effects, music, and screenplay  The film was an enormous success at the box office; it became the top-grossing film in America released that year and earned over US$678 2 million worldwide during its theatrical run, making it the second-highest-grossing film of 1994, behind The Lion King  The soundtrack sold over 12 million copies  Forrest Gump won six Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor for Hanks, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Visual Effects, and Best Film Editing  It received many award nominations, including Golden Globes, British Academy Film Awards and Screen Actors Guild Awards 
Various interpretations have been made of the protagonist and the film's political symbolism  In 2011, the Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" 

Plot
In 1981, a man named Forrest Gump recounts his life story to strangers who happen to sit next to him at a bus stop  
As a boy in 1956, Forrest has an IQ of 75 and is fitted with leg braces to correct a curved spine  He lives in Greenbow, Alabama, with his mother, who runs a boarding house and encourages him to live beyond his disabilities  Among their temporary tenants is a young Elvis Presley, who plays the guitar for Forrest and incorporates the boy's jerky dance movements into his performances  On his first day of school, Forrest meets a girl named Jenny Curran, and the two become best friends  Jenny is a victim of sexual abuse at the hands of her widowed, alcoholic father, but she is later removed from his custody 
Bullied because of his leg braces and dimwittedness, Forrest flees from a group of children, but when his braces break off, he is revealed to be a fast runner  With this talent, he receives a football scholarship at the University of Alabama in 1962, where he is coached by Bear Bryant, becomes a top kick returner, is named to the All-American team, and meets president John F  Kennedy at the White House  In his first year at college, he witnesses Governor George Wallace's Stand in the Schoolhouse Door and returns a dropped book to Vivian Malone Jones, one of the students admitted over state resistance  He visits Jenny at her college, where the two have an awkward sexual encounter 
After graduating from college in 1966, Forrest enlists in the U S  Army  During basic training, he befriends a fellow soldier named Benjamin Buford Blue (nicknamed "Bubba"), who becomes a close friend and convinces Forrest to go into the shrimping business with him after their service  While on leave, Forrest goes to Memphis, Tennessee, to see Jenny, who was expelled from college for posing in Playboy in her college sweater, and now works as a singer in a strip club  However, he embarrasses her by attacking some patrons who were harassing her, causing the two to part ways  Soon afterwards, Forrest and Bubba are sent to fight in Vietnam, serving with the 9th Infantry Division in the Mekong Delta region under Lieutenant Dan Taylor  After months of routine operations, their platoon is ambushed while on patrol, and several members of the platoon are killed in action, including Bubba  Forrest saves several others, including Lieutenant Dan, who loses both of his lower legs, while Forrest is shot "in the buttocks " While recovering from his wound, Forrest develops a talent for ping pong  Taylor is embittered from having his life saved as he had hoped to die in combat like his ancestors, and detests being handicapped  Forrest is awarded the Medal of Honor for his heroism by President Lyndon B  Johnson  
At an anti-war March on the Pentagon rally, Forrest meets Abbie Hoffman, encounters a Black Panther group, and reunites with Jenny, who has become a drug-addicted hippie and anti-war activist, but the two are soon parted again when she leaves for San Francisco with her abusive boyfriend, the president of SDS at Berkeley  Forrest plays ping-pong in the special services, competing against Chinese teams in ping-pong diplomacy, becoming a celebrity, and earns himself an interview alongside John Lennon on The Dick Cavett Show, appearing to influence Lennon's song "Imagine"  Forrest spends 1972 New Year's Eve in New York City with Lieutenant Dan, who has become an alcoholic, still bitter about his disability and the government's apathy towards Vietnam War veterans  Forrest does not enjoy the company of Lt  Dan's prostitutes because of his devotion to Jenny, and rejects their advances, leading Lt  Dan to angrily throw them out for insulting Forrest  Forrest's ping-pong success eventually leads to a meeting with President Richard Nixon  He is given a room in the Watergate complex, where he unwittingly exposes the Watergate scandal 
In 1974, Forrest is honorably discharged from the Army, and returns to Greenbow, where he endorses a company that makes ping-pong paddles  He uses the earnings to buy a shrimping boat in Bayou La Batre, fulfilling his promise to Bubba  Lieutenant Dan joins Forrest as his first mate, and they initially have very little success  However, after their boat becomes the only one to survive Hurricane Carmen, they pull in vast amounts of shrimp and create the profitable Bubba Gump Shrimp Company  Lieutenant Dan acknowledges that Forrest saved him, however does not actually thank him for saving his life  Dan invests his money in early tech companies on the stock market, which Forrest mistakes for "some kind of fruit company", and the two become millionaires  Forrest gives half of his earnings to Bubba's family for having inspired the shrimping venture  Forrest returns home to his mother and cares for her during her terminal illness from cancer  After she dies, Forrest spends most of his time volunteering as a gardener at the University of Alabama 
In 1976, Jenny – recovering from years of drugs and abuse – returns to Forrest  One day, the two are walking, and come across the now-abandoned house of Jenny's father, where Jenny, in a rage, throws all the rocks she can find at it, until she collapses in anguish  After some time, Forrest proposes to her, but she turns him down, much to Forrest's dismay  That night, she confesses to Forrest that she does indeed love him  They make love, but Jenny leaves the next morning  Heartbroken, Forrest, "for no particular reason", starts running and embarks on a cross-country marathon, becoming famous for another feat  Forrest starts to garner many followers, some of whom are struggling businessmen, whom he unwittingly gives inspiration  After a total of about three years and two-and-a half months running, Forrest decides to end the run, and returns to Greenbow, much to the surprise of his followers 
In 1981, Forrest gets a letter from Jenny, asking him to visit her, and it turns out that's why he's been waiting at the bus stop  An old lady informs him that the address is only five/six blocks away, and he rushes off  Forrest again reunites with Jenny, who has quit abusing drugs, and has turned her life around  Jenny then introduces him to her young son, Forrest Gump Jr , revealing that Forrest is his father  Initially shocked at the revelation, Forrest starts to bond with his son  Jenny later tells Forrest she is sick with "some kind of virus" and the doctors can't do anything for her  The three move back to Greenbow and Jenny and Forrest finally marry  Among their wedding guests is Lt  Dan, now walking on titanium alloy prosthetics, with his fiancé, a Vietnamese woman named Susan  Jenny succumbs to her illness a year later  Forrest is deeply saddened by her death but becomes a loving, devoted father to Forrest Jr  as the two engage in activities like ping pong and fishing  Forrest also buys the land that belonged to Jenny's father and has the house demolished  Lastly, Forrest sees his son off on his first day of school 

Cast
Tom Hanks as Forrest Gump: At an early age, Forrest is deemed to have a below-average IQ of 75  He has an endearing character and shows devotion to his loved ones and duties, character traits that bring him into many life-changing situations  Along the way, he encounters many historical figures and events throughout his life 
Michael Conner Humphreys as young Forrest Gump: Hanks revealed in interviews that instead of having Michael copy his accent, he copied Michael's unique accented drawl into the older character's accent 
Robin Wright as Jenny Curran: Forrest's childhood friend with whom he immediately falls in love, and never stops loving throughout his life  A victim of child sexual abuse at the hands of her bitterly widowed father, Jenny embarks on a different path from Forrest, leading a self-destructive life and becoming part of the hippie movement in California in the 1960s and the following Me Decade's sex and drug culture of the 1970s  She re-enters Forrest's life at various times in adulthood  Jenny eventually becomes a waitress in Savannah, Georgia, where she lives in an apartment with her (and Forrest's) son, Forrest Jr  They eventually get married, but soon afterward she dies from complications due to an unnamed disease  This unknown disease was intended by Winston Groom, the author of the original novel, to be Hepatitis C, itself an "unknown virus" until defined in April 1989, although some of the makers of the film have said that they intended for the unknown disease to have been HIV/AIDS Hanna R  Hall as young Jenny Curran
Gary Sinise as Lieutenant Dan Taylor: Forrest and Bubba Blue's platoon leader during the Vietnam War, whose ancestors have died in every U S  war and who regards it as his destiny to do the same  After losing his legs in an ambush and being rescued against his will by Forrest, he is initially bitter and antagonistic toward Forrest for leaving him a "cripple" and denying him his family's destiny, falling into a deep depression  He later serves as Forrest's first mate at the Bubba Gump Shrimp Company, gives most of the orders, becomes wealthy with Forrest, and regains his will to live  He ultimately forgives and thanks Forrest for saving his life  By the end of the film, he is engaged to be married to his fiancée Susan and is sporting "magic legs" – titanium alloy prosthetics that allow him to walk again 
Mykelti Williamson as Benjamin Buford "Bubba" Blue: Bubba was originally supposed to be the senior partner in the Bubba Gump Shrimp Company, but due to his death in Vietnam, their platoon leader, Dan Taylor, took his place  The company posthumously carried his name  Forrest later gave Bubba's mother Bubba's share of the business  Throughout filming, Williamson wore a lip attachment to create Bubba's protruding lip 
Sally Field as Mrs  Gump: Forrest's mother  Field reflected on the character, "She's a woman who loves her son unconditionally      A lot of her dialogue sounds like slogans, and that's just what she intends "
Haley Joel Osment as Forrest Gump Jr : Osment was cast in the film after the casting director noticed him in a Pizza Hut commercial  It was his debut feature film role 
Peter Dobson as Elvis Presley: Although Kurt Russell was uncredited, he provided the voice for Elvis in the scene 
Dick Cavett as himself: Cavett played a de-aged version of himself in the 1970s, with makeup applied to make him appear younger  Consequently, Cavett is the only well-known figure in the film to play a cameo role rather than be represented through the use of archival footage like John Lennon or President John F  Kennedy 
Sam Anderson as Principal Hancock: Forrest's elementary school principal 
Geoffrey Blake as Wesley: A member of the SDS group and Jenny's abusive boyfriend
Siobhan Fallon Hogan as Dorothy Harris: The school bus driver who drives Forrest, and later his son, to school
Sonny Shroyer as Coach Paul "Bear" Bryant
Grand L  Bush, Michael Jace, Conor Kennelly, and Teddy Lane Jr  as the Black Panthers
Richard D'Alessandro as Abbie Hoffman
Tiffany Salerno and Marla Sucharetza as "Cunning" Carla and "Long-Limbs" Lenore: a couple of prostitutes that Forrest and Dan spend a New Year's evening with and later turn away

Production
Pre-production and script
The film is based on the 1986 novel by Winston Groom  Both center on the character of Forrest Gump  However, the film primarily focuses on the first eleven chapters of the novel before skipping ahead to the end of the novel, with the founding of Bubba Gump Shrimp Co  and the meeting with Forrest Jr  In addition to skipping some parts of the novel, the film adds several aspects to Gump's life that do not occur in the novel, such as his needing leg braces as a child and his run across the United States Gump's core character and personality are also changed from the novel; among other things, his film character is less of a savant—in the novel, while playing football at the university, he fails craft and gym but receives a perfect score in an advanced physics class he is enrolled in by his coach to satisfy his college requirements  The novel also features Gump as an astronaut, a professional wrestler, and a chess player The book had a bidding war regarding an adaptation even before publication, with Wendy Finerman and Steve Tisch acquiring them by joining forces with Warner Bros , where Finerman's husband Mark Canton was president of production  Groom was paid $500,000 and also wrote the first three first drafts of the screenplay, which leaned closer to the events of the novel  After Rain Man told the story of a savant, Warner lost interest in the picture, and by 1990 the project was in turnaround  Finerman contacted Columbia Pictures, who went on reject it, while hiring Eric Roth to rewrite the script  Roth and Finerman kept in contact with Groom to ensure the script was historically accurate  Roth delivered a screenplay in 1992, which Paramount Pictures chairwoman Sherry Lansing liked enough to bring the project to her studio, who acquired the rights from Warner in exchange for the script for Executive Decision Ivan Reitman, Penny Marshall and Terry Gilliam passed on the project before Robert Zemeckis was hired  Barry Sonnenfeld was attached to the film, but left to direct Addams Family Values 

Casting
John Travolta was the original choice to play the title role and says passing on the role was a mistake  Bill Murray and Chevy Chase were also considered for the role  Sean Penn stated in an interview having been second choice for the role  Hanks revealed that he signed on to the film after an hour and a half of reading the script  He initially wanted to ease Forrest's pronounced Southern accent but was eventually persuaded by director Robert Zemeckis to portray the heavy accent stressed in the novel  Hanks also said it took him three days to learn how to play the role, and footage from that time could not be included  Winston Groom, who wrote the original novel, describes the film as having taken the "rough edges" off the character whom he had envisioned being played by John Goodman  Additionally, Tom's younger brother Jim Hanks is his acting double in the movie for the scenes when Forrest runs across the U S  Tom's daughter Elizabeth Hanks appears in the movie as the girl on the school bus who refuses to let young Forrest (Michael Conner Humphreys) sit next to her  Joe Pesci was considered for the role of Lieutenant Dan Taylor, which was eventually given to Gary Sinise  David Alan Grier, Ice Cube and Dave Chappelle were offered the role of Benjamin Buford Blue, but all three turned it down  Chappelle, who said he believed the film would be unsuccessful, has been reported as saying that he regrets not taking the role  Hanks was aware of Chappelle's disappointment in missing out on the part and agreed to work with him in a future movie, which ended up being You've Got Mail  Rapper Tupac Shakur also auditioned 

Filming
Filming began in August 1993 and ended in December of that year  Although most of the film is set in Alabama, filming took place mainly in and around Beaufort, South Carolina, as well as parts of coastal Virginia and North Carolina, including a running shot on the Blue Ridge Parkway  Downtown portions of the fictional town of Greenbow were filmed in Varnville, South Carolina  The scene of Forrest running through Vietnam while under fire was filmed on Hunting Island State Park  and Fripp Island, South Carolina  Additional filming took place on the Biltmore Estate in Asheville, North Carolina and along the Blue Ridge Parkway near Boone, North Carolina  The most notable place was Grandfather Mountain where a part of the road subsequently became known as "Forrest Gump Curve" 

The Gump family home set was built along the Combahee River near Yemassee, South Carolina, and the nearby land was used to film Curran's home as well as some of the Vietnam scenes  Over 20 palmetto trees were planted to improve the Vietnam scenes  Forrest Gump narrated his life's story at the northern edge of Chippewa Square in Savannah, Georgia as he sat at a bus stop bench  There were other scenes filmed in and around the Savannah area as well, including a running shot on the Richard V  Woods Memorial Bridge in Beaufort while he was being interviewed by the press, and on West Bay Street in Savannah  Most of the college campus scenes were filmed in Los Angeles at the University of Southern California  The lighthouse that Forrest runs across to reach the Atlantic Ocean the first time is the Marshall Point Lighthouse in Port Clyde, Maine  Additional scenes were filmed in Arizona, Utah's Monument Valley, and Montana's Glacier National Park 

Visual effects
Ken Ralston and his team at Industrial Light & Magic were responsible for the film's visual effects  Using CGI techniques, it was possible to depict Gump meeting deceased personages and shaking their hands  Hanks was first shot against a blue screen along with reference markers so that he could line up with the archive footage  To record the voices of the historical figures, voice actors were filmed and special effects were used to alter lip-syncing for the new dialogue  Archival footage was used and with the help of such techniques as chroma key, image warping, morphing, and rotoscoping, Hanks was integrated into it 
In one Vietnam War scene, Gump carries Bubba away from an incoming napalm attack  To create the effect, stunt actors were initially used for compositing purposes  Then, Hanks and Williamson were filmed, with Williamson supported by a cable wire as Hanks ran with him  The explosion was then filmed, and the actors were digitally added to appear just in front of the explosions  The jet fighters and napalm canisters were also added by CGI The CGI removal of actor Gary Sinise's legs, after his character had them amputated, was achieved by wrapping his legs with a blue fabric, which later facilitated the work of the "roto-paint" team to paint out his legs from every single frame  At one point, while hoisting himself into his wheelchair, his legs are used for support The scene where Forrest spots Jenny at a peace rally at the Lincoln Memorial and Reflecting Pool in Washington, D C , required visual effects to create the large crowd of people  Over two days of filming, approximately 1,500 extras were used  At each successive take, the extras were rearranged and moved into a different quadrant away from the camera  With the help of computers, the extras were multiplied to create a crowd of several hundred thousand people 

Reception
Box office
Produced on a budget of $55 million, Forrest Gump opened in 1,595 theaters in the United States and Canada grossing $24,450,602 in its opening weekend  Motion picture business consultant and screenwriter Jeffrey Hilton suggested to producer Wendy Finerman to double the P&A (film marketing budget) based on his viewing of an early print of the film  The budget was immediately increased, in line with his advice  In its opening weekend, the film placed first at the US box office, narrowly beating The Lion King, which was in its fourth week of release  For the first twelve weeks of release, the film was in the top 3 at the US box office, topping the list 5 times, including in its tenth week of release  Paramount removed the film from release in the United States when its gross hit $300 million in January 1995, and it was the second-highest-grossing film of the year, behind The Lion King with $305 million  The film was reissued on February 17, 1995, after the Academy Awards nominations were announced  After the reissue in 1,100 theaters, the film grossed an additional $29 million in the United States and Canada, bringing its total to $329 7 million, making it the third-highest-grossing film at that time behind only E T  the Extra-Terrestrial and Jurassic Park, and was Paramount's biggest, surpassing Raiders of the Lost Ark  Forrest Gump held the record for being the highest-grossing Paramount film until it was taken by Titanic three years later in 1997  For 12 years, it remained as the highest-grossing film starring Tom Hanks until 2006 when it was surpassed by The Da Vinci Code  Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 78 5 million tickets in the US and Canada in its initial theatrical run The film took 66 days to surpass $250 million and was the fastest grossing Paramount film to pass $100 million, $200 million, and $300 million in box office receipts (at the time of its release)  After reissues, the film has gross receipts of $330,252,182 in the U S  and Canada and $347,693,217 in international markets for a total of $677,945,399 worldwide  Even with such revenue, the film was known as a "successful failure"—due to distributors' and exhibitors' high fees, Paramount's "losses" clocked in at $62 million, leaving executives realizing the necessity of better deals  This has also been associated with Hollywood accounting, where expenses are inflated in order to minimize profit sharing  It is Robert Zemeckis' highest-grossing film to date 

Critical reception
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 71% of 106 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 7 5/10  The website's consensus reads: "Forrest Gump may be an overly sentimental film with a somewhat problematic message, but its sweetness and charm are usually enough to approximate true depth and grace " At the website Metacritic, the film earned a rating of 82 out of 100 based on 20 reviews by mainstream critics, indicating "universal acclaim"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare "A+" grade The story was commended by several critics  Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote, "I've never met anyone like Forrest Gump in a movie before, and for that matter I've never seen a movie quite like 'Forrest Gump ' Any attempt to describe him will risk making the movie seem more conventional than it is, but let me try  It's a comedy, I guess  Or maybe a drama  Or a dream  The screenplay by Eric Roth has the complexity of modern fiction   The performance is a breathtaking balancing act between comedy and sadness, in a story rich in big laughs and quiet truths   What a magical movie " Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote that the film "has been very well worked out on all levels, and manages the difficult feat of being an intimate, even delicate tale played with an appealingly light touch against an epic backdrop " In contrast, Anthony Lane of The New Yorker called the film "Warm, wise, and wearisome as hell " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said that the film was "glib, shallow, and monotonous" and "reduces the tumult of the last few decades to a virtual-reality theme park: a baby-boomer version of Disney's America "Gump garnered comparisons to fictional character Huckleberry Finn, as well as U S  politicians Ronald Reagan, Pat Buchanan and Bill Clinton  Peter Chomo writes that Gump acts as a "social mediator and as an agent of redemption in divided times"  Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called Gump "everything we admire in the American character – honest, brave, and loyal with a heart of gold " The New York Times reviewer Janet Maslin called Gump a "hollow man" who is "self-congratulatory in his blissful ignorance, warmly embraced as the embodiment of absolutely nothing " Marc Vincenti of Palo Alto Weekly called the character "a pitiful stooge taking the pie of life in the face, thoughtfully licking his fingers " Bruce Kawin and Gerald Mast's textbook on film history notes that Forrest Gump's dimness was a metaphor for glamorized nostalgia in that he represented a blank slate onto which the Baby Boomer generation projected their memories of those events 

Re-evaluation
In the 21st century, the film became negatively re-evaluated  Writing in 2004, Entertainment Weekly said, "Nearly a decade after it earned gazillions and swept the Oscars, Robert Zemeckis's ode to 20th-century America still represents one of cinema's most clearly drawn lines in the sand  One half of folks see it as an artificial piece of pop melodrama, while everyone else raves that it's sweet as a box of chocolates " On the other hand though "Despite many, often special-effects-generated laughs, and several genuinely touching moments, one wishes that Forrest Gump were a sarcastic cautionary tale about the dangers of a simple-minded, apolitical America and not the anti-intellectual, mostly conservative fantasy it is,"" in other words, the film has been criticized for its perceived conservative politics  Writing for Indiewire in 2019, Eric Kohn said: "This no-nothing white man becomes a war hero and a wealthy man simply by chugging along, participating in a country that dictates his every move  He never comprehends racism or the complexities of Vietnam; the movie portrays political activism and hippy culture as a giant cartoon beyond Forrest’s understanding, while presenting his apolitical stance as the height of all virtue " Furthermore, in a 2014 article for CNN discussing the film's reassessment, Brandon Griggs wrote of possible readings against the film "Forrest, as played by Tom Hanks, is the epitome of wholesome decency: a God-fearing, All-American football player and war hero who has no use for the counterculture movements of the late '60s  Despite an IQ of 75, he achieves fame and financial success  He's even from red-state Alabama!"In a 2014 retrospective for the film's 20th anniversary re-release, Amy Nicholson criticized the film for being apolitical, writing "Forrest doesn't kill anyone  He doesn't get PTSD  He doesn't even have a clue why he's in Vietnam  The film is so afraid to dredge up debate that when Abbie Hoffman hands Forrest the microphone at an antiwar rally, someone unplugs the speakers so we can't hear him — fitting for a movie with nothing to say " LGBTQ+ critics have criticized the "shallow" portrayal of the AIDS epidemic, one that "sidesteps the significance of the disease by erasing its mere mention"  In 2015, The Hollywood Reporter polled hundreds of academy members, asking them to re-vote on past controversial decisions  Academy members said that, given a second chance, they would award the 1994 Oscar for Best Picture to The Shawshank Redemption instead 

Author payment controversy
Winston Groom was paid $350,000 for the screenplay rights to his novel Forrest Gump and was contracted for a 3 percent share of the film's net profits  However, Paramount and the film's producers did not pay him the percentage, using Hollywood accounting to posit that the blockbuster film lost money  Tom Hanks, by contrast, contracted for a percent share of the film's gross receipts instead of a salary, and he and director Zemeckis each received $40 million  In addition, Groom was not mentioned once in any of the film's six Oscar-winner speeches Groom's dispute with Paramount was later effectively resolved after Groom declared he was satisfied with Paramount's explanation of their accounting, this coinciding with Groom receiving a seven-figure contract with Paramount for film rights to another of his books, Gump & Co  This film was never made, remaining in development hell for at least a dozen years 

Home video
Forrest Gump was first released on VHS on April 27, 1995, and on Laserdisc the following day  The laserdisc was THX certified and released without chapters, requiring the film be watched start to finish  Film magazines of the period stated this was at the request of Zemeckis who wanted viewers to enjoy the film in its entirety  It became the best-selling adult sell-through video with sales of over 12 million  
A widescreen VHS release debuted a year later on September 10, 1996  It was released in a two-disc DVD set on August 28, 2001  Special features included director and producer commentaries, production featurettes, and screen tests  The film was released on Blu-ray in November 2009  Paramount released the film on Ultra HD Blu-ray in June 2018  On May 7, 2019, Paramount Pictures released a newly remastered two-disc Blu-ray that contains bonus content 

Accolades
Forrest Gump won Best Picture, Best Actor in a Leading Role (Hanks had won the previous year for Philadelphia), Best Director, Best Visual Effects, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Film Editing at the 67th Academy Awards  The film was nominated for seven Golden Globe Awards, winning three of them: Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama, Best Director – Motion Picture, and Best Motion Picture – Drama  The film was also nominated for six Saturn Awards and won two for Best Fantasy Film and Best Supporting Actor (Film) 
In addition to the film's multiple awards and nominations, it has also been recognized by the American Film Institute on several of its lists  The film ranks 37th on 100 Years   100 Cheers, 71st on 100 Years   100 Movies, and 76th on 100 Years   100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)  In addition, the quote "Mama always said life was like a box of chocolates  You never know what you're gonna get," was ranked 40th on 100 Years   100 Movie Quotes  The film also ranked at number 61 on Empire's list of the 100 Greatest Movies of All Time In December 2011, Forrest Gump was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress' National Film Registry  The Registry said that the film was "honored for its technological innovations (the digital insertion of Gump seamlessly into vintage archival footage), its resonance within the culture that has elevated Gump (and what he represents in terms of American innocence) to the status of folk hero, and its attempt to engage both playfully and seriously with contentious aspects of the era's traumatic history "American Film Institute lists

AFI's 100 Years   100 Movies – #71
AFI's 100 Years   100 Laughs – Nominated
AFI's 100 Years   100 Passions – Nominated
AFI's 100 Years   100 Heroes and Villains:
Forrest Gump – Nominated Hero
AFI's 100 Years   100 Movie Quotes:
"Mama always said life was like a box of chocolates  You never know what you're gonna get " – #40
"Mama says, 'Stupid is as stupid does '" – Nominated
AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated
AFI's 100 Years   100 Cheers – #37
AFI's 100 Years   100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #76
AFI's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Epic Film

Symbolism
Feather
Various interpretations have been suggested for the feather present at the opening and conclusion of the film  Sarah Lyall of The New York Times noted several suggestions made about the feather: "Does the white feather symbolize The Unbearable Lightness of Being? Forrest Gump's impaired intellect? The randomness of experience?" Hanks interpreted the feather as: "Our destiny is only defined by how we deal with the chance elements to our life and that's kind of the embodiment of the feather as it comes in  Here is this thing that can land anywhere and that it lands at your feet  It has theological implications that are really huge " Sally Field compared the feather to fate, saying: "It blows in the wind and just touches down here or there  Was it planned or was it just perchance?" Visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston compared the feather to an abstract painting: "It can mean so many things to so many different people "

Political interpretations
Hanks states that "the film is non-political and thus non-judgmental"  Nevertheless, CNN's Crossfire debated in 1994 whether the film promoted conservative values or was an indictment of the counterculture movement of the 1960s  Thomas Byers called it "an aggressively conservative film" in a Modern Fiction Studies article 

It has been noted that while Gump follows a very conservative lifestyle, Jenny's life is full of countercultural embrace, complete with drug use, promiscuity, and antiwar rallies, and that their eventual marriage might be a kind of reconciliation  Jennifer Hyland Wang argues in a Cinema Journal article that Jenny's death to an unnamed virus "symbolizes the death of liberal America and the death of the protests that defined a decade" in the 1960s  She also notes that the film's screenwriter, Eric Roth, developed the screenplay from the novel and transferred to Jenny "all of Gump's flaws and most of the excesses committed by Americans in the 1960s and 1970s" Other commentators believe the film forecast the 1994 Republican Revolution and used the image of Forrest Gump to promote movement leader Newt Gingrich's traditional, conservative values  Jennifer Hyland Wang observes that the film idealizes the 1950s, as made evident by the lack of "Whites Only"-signs in Gump's Southern childhood, and envisions the 1960s as a period of social conflict and confusion  She argues that this sharp contrast between the decades criticizes the counterculture values and reaffirms conservatism  Wang argues that the film was used by Republican politicians to illustrate a "traditional version of recent history" to gear voters toward their ideology for the congressional elections  Presidential candidate Bob Dole stated that the film's message was "no matter how great the adversity, the American Dream is within everybody's reach" In 1995, National Review included Forrest Gump in its list of the "Best 100 Conservative Movies" of all time, and ranked it number four on its "25 Best Conservative Movies of the Last 25 Years" list  National Review's John Miller wrote that "Tom Hanks plays the title-character, an amiable dunce who is far too smart to embrace the lethal values of the 1960s  The love of his life, wonderfully played by Robin Wright Penn, chooses a different path; she becomes a drug-addled hippie, with disastrous results "Professor James Burton at Salisbury University argues that conservatives claimed Forrest Gump as their own due less to the content of the film and more to the historical and cultural context of 1994  Burton claims that the film's content and advertising campaign were affected by the cultural climate of the 1990s, which emphasized family-values and American values, epitomized in the book Hollywood vs  America  He claims that this climate influenced the apolitical nature of the film, which allowed many different political interpretations Some commentators see the conservative readings of Forrest Gump as indicating the death of irony in American culture  Vivian Sobchack notes that the film's humor and irony rely on the assumption of the audience's historical knowledge 

Soundtrack
The 32-song soundtrack from the film was released on July 6, 1994  With the exception of a lengthy suite from Alan Silvestri's score, all the songs are previously released; the soundtrack includes songs from Bob Dylan, Elvis Presley, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Aretha Franklin, Lynyrd Skynyrd, Three Dog Night, the Byrds, the Beach Boys, the Jimi Hendrix Experience, the Doors, the Mamas & the Papas, the Doobie Brothers, Simon & Garfunkel, Bob Seger, and Buffalo Springfield among others  Music producer Joel Sill reflected on compiling the soundtrack: "We wanted to have very recognizable material that would pinpoint time periods, yet we didn't want to interfere with what was happening cinematically " The two-disc album has a variety of music from the 1950s–1980s performed by American artists  According to Sill, this was due to Zemeckis' request, "All the material in there is American  Bob (Zemeckis) felt strongly about it  He felt that Forrest wouldn't buy anything but American "The soundtrack reached a peak of number 2 on the Billboard album chart  The soundtrack went on to sell twelve million copies, and is one of the top selling albums in the US  The Oscar-nominated score for the film was composed and conducted by Alan Silvestri and released on August 2, 1994 

Adaptations
Novel-sequel
The screenplay for the sequel was written by Eric Roth in 2001  It is based on the original novel's sequel, Gump and Co , written by Winston Groom in 1995  Roth's script begins with Forrest sitting on a bench waiting for his son to return from school  After the September 11 attacks, Roth, Zemeckis, and Hanks decided the story was no longer "relevant " In March 2007, however, it was reported Paramount producers took another look at the screenplay On the first page of the sequel novel, Forrest Gump tells readers "Don't never let nobody make a movie of your life's story," and "Whether they get it right or wrong, it doesn't matter " The first chapter of the book suggests the real-life events surrounding the film have been incorporated into Forrest's storyline, and that Forrest got a lot of media attention as a result of the film  During the course of the sequel novel, Gump runs into Tom Hanks and at the end of the novel in the film's release, includes Gump going on The David Letterman Show and attending the Academy Awards 

Remake
The Indian film Laal Singh Chaddha, released in August 2022 and starring Aamir Khan in the title role, is an official remake of Forrest Gump, set in India between the late 1970s and the 2010s  The film was directed by Advait Chandan and produced by Aamir Khan Productions, Viacom18 Studios and Paramount Pictures 

See also
List of American football films
List of films about the sport of athletics
Context 2: Passage 1:
British nationality law
The primary law governing nationality in the United Kingdom is the British Nationality Act 1981, which came into force on 1 January 1983  Regulations apply to the British Islands, which include the UK itself and the Crown dependencies, and the 14 British Overseas Territories 
The six classes of British nationality each have varying degrees of civil and political rights, due to the UK's historical status as a colonial empire  The principal class of British nationality is British citizenship, which is associated with the British Islands  British nationals associated with an overseas territory are British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs)  Almost all BOTCs (except for those from Akrotiri and Dhekelia) have also been British citizens since 2002  Individuals connected with former British colonies may hold residual forms of British nationality, which do not confer an automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom and generally may no longer be acquired  These residual nationalities are the statuses of British Overseas citizen, British subject, British National (Overseas), and British protected person 
All persons born in the British Islands before 1 January 1983 were automatically granted citizenship by birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents  Individuals born in those territories since that date only receive citizenship at birth if at least the mother is a British citizen or holds settled status  Foreign nationals may naturalise as British citizens after meeting a minimum residence requirement (usually five years) and acquiring settled status 
The United Kingdom was previously a member state of the European Union (EU) and British citizens held full EU citizenship  They had held automatic and permanent permission to live and work in any EU or European Free Trade Association (EFTA) country and were able to vote in elections to the European Parliament  Despite the UK's withdrawal from the union in 2020, British citizens continue to hold permanent permission to work and reside in the Republic of Ireland as part of the Common Travel Area 

Terminology
The distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country  Generally, nationality refers to a person's legal belonging to a sovereign state and is the common term used in international treaties when addressing members of a country, while citizenship usually means the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation  This distinction is clearly defined in many non-English speaking countries but not in the Anglosphere  Historically, an individual associated with Britain was neither a national nor a citizen, but a British subject  British citizenship was not created until passage of the British Nationality Act 1981  This Act defined six types of nationality with varying degrees of civil and political rights, dependent on a person's connections with the United Kingdom, overseas territories, or former colonies  British citizens hold their status because of a close connection with the British Islands, usually through their own (or parents' or grandparents') birth, adoption, naturalisation, or registration as citizens of the UK 

Types of British nationality
There are six types of British nationality: any person who is a British citizen, British Overseas Territories citizen (BOTC), British Overseas citizen (BOC), British National (Overseas) (BN(O)), British subject, or British protected person is a British national  Of these statuses, only British citizenship grants automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom  British Overseas Territories are areas outside of the British Islands where the UK holds sovereignty  Since 2002, nearly all BOTCs also hold British citizenship, except for those associated with Akrotiri and Dhekelia The other four categories are residual nationality classes that generally cannot be acquired  BOCs are people connected with former British colonies who have no close ties to the UK or overseas territories  BN(O)s are Hong Kong residents who voluntarily registered for this status before the territory's transfer to China in 1997  British subjects hold their status through a connection either to former  British India or to what is now the Republic of Ireland as they existed before 1949  British protected persons come from areas controlled by the British Empire but were never formally incorporated as Crown territory; this includes protectorates, protected states, mandated territories, and Indian princely states 

History
Development from feudal allegiance
Before the concept of nationality was codified in legislation, inhabitants of English communities owed allegiance to their feudal lords, who were themselves vassals of the monarch  This system of loyalty, indirectly owed to the monarch personally, developed into a general establishment of subjecthood to the Crown  Calvin's Case in 1608 established the principle of jus soli, that all those who were born within Crown dominions were natural-born subjects  After passage of the Acts of Union 1707, English and Scottish subjects became British subjects  Similarly, the Kingdom of Ireland was merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801  Natural-born subjects were considered to owe perpetual allegiance to the Crown and could not voluntarily renounce British subject status until this was first permitted in 1870 Prior to 1708, foreigners could only be naturalised through Acts of Parliament  Protestants fleeing religious persecution in mainland Europe were allowed to naturalise as subjects in 1708, but this was quickly repealed in 1711 in response to the number of migrants exercising that ability  A standard administrative process was not introduced until 1844, when applicants were first able to acquire naturalisation grants from the Home Office  Despite the creation of this pathway, personalised naturalising legislation continued to be enacted until 1975 The monarch could personally make any individual a subject by royal prerogative  By this method, a foreigner became a denizen – although they were no longer considered an alien, they could not pass subject status to their children by descent and were barred from Crown service and public office  This mechanism was no longer used after 1873 Until the mid-19th century, it was unclear whether nationality regulations in the United Kingdom were applicable elsewhere in the British Empire  Individual colonies had each developed their own procedures and requirements for naturalisation, granting subject status at the discretion of the local governments  In 1847, Parliament formalised a clear distinction between subjects who were naturalised in the UK and those who became British subjects in other territories  Individuals who naturalised in the UK were deemed to have received the status by imperial naturalisation, which was valid throughout the Empire  Those naturalising in colonies were said to have gone through local naturalisation and were given subject status valid only within the relevant territory; a subject who locally naturalised in Canada was a British subject there, but not in England or New Zealand  When travelling outside of the Empire, British subjects who were locally naturalised in a colony were still entitled to imperial protection Certain territories that came under British jurisdiction were not formally incorporated as Crown territory proper  These included protectorates, protected states, mandated territories, and Indian princely states  Because domestic law treated these areas as foreign territory, birth in one of these areas did not automatically confer British subject status  Instead, most people associated with these territories were designated as British protected persons  British protected persons were treated as aliens in the United Kingdom, but both British subjects and protected persons could be issued British passports  Protected persons could not travel to the UK without first requesting permission, but were afforded the same consular protection as British subjects when travelling outside of the Empire 

Imperial common code
Parliament brought regulations for British subject status into codified statute law for the first time with passage of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914  British subject status was standardised as a common nationality across the Empire  Dominions that adopted Part II of this Act as part of local legislation were authorised to grant subject status to aliens by imperial naturalisation The 1914 regulations codified the doctrine of coverture into imperial nationality law, where a woman's consent to marry a foreigner was also assumed to be intent to denaturalise; British women who married foreign men automatically lost their British nationality  There were two exceptions to this: a wife married to a husband who lost his British subject status was able to retain British nationality by declaration, and a British-born widow or divorcée who had lost her British nationality through marriage could reacquire that status without meeting residence requirements after the dissolution or termination of her marriage By the end of the First World War, the Dominions had exercised increasing levels of autonomy in managing their own affairs and each by then had developed a distinct national identity  Britain formally recognised this at the 1926 Imperial Conference, jointly issuing the Balfour Declaration with all the Dominion heads of government, which stated that the United Kingdom and Dominions were autonomous and equal to each other within the British Commonwealth of Nations  Full legislative independence was granted to the Dominions with passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931 Women's rights groups throughout the Empire pressured the imperial government during this time to amend nationality regulations that tied a married woman's status to that of her husband  Because the government could no longer enforce legislative supremacy over the Dominions after 1931 and wanted to maintain a strong constitutional link to them through the common nationality code, it was unwilling to make major changes without unanimous agreement among the Dominions on this issue, which it did not have  Imperial legal uniformity was nevertheless eroded during the 1930s; New Zealand and Australia amended their laws in 1935 and 1936 to allow women denaturalised by marriage to retain their rights as British subjects, and Ireland changed its regulations in 1935 to cause no change to a woman's nationality after her marriage 

Irish independence
Irish resistance to the Union and desire for local self-governance led to the Irish War of Independence  Following the war, the island of Ireland was partitioned into two parts  Southern Ireland became the Irish Free State in 1922, while Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom  Under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Northern Ireland was included in the Irish Free State on independence, but had the right to opt out of the new state within one month of its establishment  This option was exercised on 7 December 1922  The 24-hour period in which Northern Ireland was officially part of the Irish Free State meant that every person ordinarily resident in Northern Ireland on 6 December who fulfilled the citizenship provisions in the Constitution of the Irish Free State had automatically become an Irish citizen on that date At its inception, the Irish Free State gained independence as a Dominion within the British Empire  Imperial legislation at the time dictated that although individual Dominions could define a citizenship for their own citizens, that citizenship would only be effective within the local Dominion's borders  A Canadian, New Zealand, or Irish citizen who traveled outside of their own country would have been regarded as a British subject  This was reinforced by Article 3 of the 1922 Free State Constitution, which stated that Irish citizenship could be exercised "within the limits of the jurisdiction of the Irish Free State" When Free State authorities were first preparing to issue Irish passports in 1923, the British government insisted on the inclusion of some type of wording that described the holders of these passports as "British subjects"  The two sides could not reach agreement on this issue and when the Irish government began issuing passports in 1924, British authorities refused to accept these documents  British consular staff were instructed to confiscate any Irish passports that did not include the term "British subject" and replace them with British passports  This situation continued until 1930, when Irish passports were amended to describe its holders as "one of His Majesty's subjects of the Irish Free State"  Despite these disagreements, the two governments agreed not to establish border controls between their jurisdictions and all Irish citizens and British subjects continued to have the ability to move freely within the Common Travel Area  Although Irish citizens have not been considered British subjects under Irish law since 1935, the British government continued to treat virtually all Irish citizens as British subjects, except for those who had acquired Irish citizenship by naturalisation since the Free State had not incorporated Part II of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 into its legislation 

Changing relationship with the Empire and Commonwealth
Diverging developments in Dominion legislation, as well as growing assertions of local national identity separate from that of Britain and the Empire, culminated with the creation of a substantive Canadian citizenship in 1946, breaking the system of a common imperial nationality  Combined with the approaching independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, comprehensive reform to nationality law was necessary at this point to address ideas that were incompatible with the previous system The British Nationality Act 1948 redefined British subject as any citizen of the United Kingdom, its colonies, or other Commonwealth countries  Commonwealth citizen was first defined in this Act to have the same meaning  This alternative term was necessary to retain a number of newly independent countries in the Commonwealth that wished to become republics rather than preserve the monarch as head of state  The change in naming also indicated a shift in the base theory to this aspect of British nationality; allegiance to the Crown was no longer a requirement to possess British subject status and the common status would be maintained by voluntary agreement among the various members of the Commonwealth British subject/Commonwealth citizen status co-existed with the citizenships of each Commonwealth country  A person born in Australia would be both an Australian citizen and a British subject  British subjects under the previous meaning who held that status on 1 January 1949 because of a connection with the United Kingdom or a remaining colony became Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC)  CUKC status was the principal form of British nationality during this period of time There was also a category of people called British subjects without citizenship  Irish citizens who fulfilled certain requirements could file formal claims with the Home Secretary to remain British subjects under this definition  Additionally, those who did not qualify for CUKC status or citizenship in other Commonwealth countries, or were connected with a country that had not yet defined citizenship laws, would transitionally remain British subjects in this group 

Irish departure from the Commonwealth
Despite the accommodations for republics, Ireland ended its Commonwealth membership in 1948 when it formally declared itself a republic and removed the British monarch's remaining official functions in the Irish state  This was recognised by Britain after passage of the Ireland Act 1949  Although Irish citizens have no longer been defined as British subjects in British law since 1949, they continue to be treated as non-foreign in the United Kingdom and retain the same rights and privileges exercised by Commonwealth citizens; Irish citizens remain eligible to vote and stand for parliament in the UK The British Nationality Act 1948 unintentionally excluded certain British subjects associated with Ireland from acquiring CUKC status  The wording of that law did not take into account the 24-hour period during which Northern Ireland was part of the Irish Free State in 1922  Individuals born before 1922 in the area that became the Republic of Ireland to fathers also born in that area but were domiciled in Northern Ireland on Irish independence had nevertheless automatically acquired Irish citizenship  The Ireland Act 1949 specifically addresses this by deeming any person in such circumstances who had never registered for Irish citizenship and had not permanently resided in the Republic between 10 April 1935 and 1 January 1949 as a CUKC and having never ceased to be a British subject 

Restricting Commonwealth free movement
All British subjects under the reformed system initially continued to hold free movement rights in both the UK and Ireland  Non-white immigration into the UK was systemically discouraged, but strong economic conditions in Britain following the Second World War attracted an unprecedented wave of colonial migration  This entitlement was part of a wider initiative to preserve close relationships with certain Dominions and colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia) and to moderate nationalist attitudes within the Commonwealth  In response, Parliament imposed immigration controls on any subjects originating from outside the British Islands with the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962  This restriction was somewhat relaxed by the Immigration Act 1971 for patrials, subjects whose parents or grandparents were born in the United Kingdom, which gave effective preferential treatment to white Commonwealth citizens  Ireland mirrored this restriction and limited free movement only to people born on the islands of Great Britain or Ireland  However, individuals born in the UK since 1983 are only British citizens if at least one parent is already a British citizen  The Irish regulation created a legal anomaly where persons born in Britain without British citizenship nevertheless held an unrestricted right to settle in Ireland; this inconsistency was removed in 1999 In other parts of the Commonwealth, British subjects already did not have an automatic right to settle  Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa had immigration restrictions in place for British subjects from outside their jurisdictions targeted at non-white migrants since the late 19th century  After 1949, non-local British subjects under the new definition who were resident in these independent Commonwealth countries continued to retain certain privileges  This included eligibility to vote in elections, for preferred paths to citizenship, and for welfare benefits  British subjects were eligible to vote in New Zealand until 1975 and Australia until 1984 (though subjects on the electoral roll in that year are still eligible)  In Canada, voting eligibility was revoked at the federal level in 1975, but not fully phased out in provinces until 2006  All Commonwealth citizens remain eligible to vote and stand for public office in the UK 

Post-imperial redefinition of nationality classes
By the 1970s and 1980s, most colonies of the British Empire had become independent and remaining ties to the United Kingdom had been significantly weakened  The UK updated its nationality law to reflect the more modest boundaries of its remaining territory and possessions with the British Nationality Act 1981  CUKCs were reclassified in 1983 into different nationality groups based on their ancestry, birthplace, and immigration status: CUKCs who had right of abode in the United Kingdom became British citizens while those connected with a remaining colony became British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs)  Remaining CUKCs who were no longer associated with a British territory became British Overseas citizens  The definition of "British subject" became limited to include only the category of people previously called British subjects without citizenship who held that status through a connection with former British India or Ireland before 1949 

Former membership in the European Union
In 1973, the United Kingdom joined the European Communities (EC), a set of organisations that later developed into the European Union (EU)  British citizens were able to work in other EC/EU countries under the freedom of movement for workers established by the 1957 Treaty of Rome and participated in their first European Parliament elections in 1979  With the creation of European Union citizenship by the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, free movement rights were extended to all nationals of EU member states regardless of their employment status  The scope of these rights was further expanded with the establishment of the European Economic Area in 1994 to include any national of an EFTA member state except for Switzerland, which concluded a separate free movement agreement with the EU that came into force in 2002 Not all British nationals were EU citizens  Only British citizens, British Overseas Territories citizens connected with Gibraltar, and British subjects under the 1981 Act who held UK right of abode were defined as UK nationals for the purposes of EU law  Although the Crown dependencies were part of the European Union Customs Union, free movement of persons was never implemented in those territories  Following the UK's withdrawal from the EU on 31 January 2020, British nationals have no longer been EU citizens  Despite this, British citizens continue to have free movement in Ireland as part of the preexisting arrangement for the Common Travel Area While the UK was a member state of the EU, Cypriot and Maltese citizens held a particularly favoured status there  While non-EU Commonwealth citizens continued to need a residence visa to live in the UK, Cypriot and Maltese citizens were able to settle there and immediately hold full rights to political participation due to their status as both Commonwealth and EU citizens  This group of EU citizens (along with Irish citizens) domiciled in the UK were able to vote in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum while all other non-British EU citizens could not 

Acquisition and loss of nationality
British citizenship
Prior to 1983, all Individuals born within the British Islands (the United Kingdom and Crown Dependencies) received British citizenship at birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents  Individuals born afterwards only receive citizenship at birth if at least one parent is a British citizen or considered to have settled status in the UK  Children born overseas are British citizens by descent if either parent is a citizen otherwise than by descent, subject to regulations  Adopted children are treated as if they were naturally born to the adopting parents at the time of adoption  Children born abroad to members of the British Armed Forces or British citizens on Crown service are treated as if they were born in the UK Children born in the UK to a resident Irish citizen at any time are always British citizens at birth  Since 1983, the status of a child born in the UK is dependent on whether their parents held British citizenship or settled status at the time of their birth  Irish citizens residing in the UK are deemed to hold settled status upon arrival  Regulations concerning settled status for other European Union (EU), European Economic Area (EEA), and Swiss citizens have changed greatly over time, affecting the status of their children born during the different regulatory periods  EU/EEA citizens living in the UK before 2 October 2000 were automatically considered to be settled  Between that date and 29 April 2006, EU/EEA citizens were required to apply for permanent residency  Swiss citizens became subject to the same regulations on 1 June 2002  From 30 April 2006 until 30 June 2021, EU/EEA and Swiss citizens living in the UK for at least five years automatically received permanent resident status  Permanent resident status for these citizens expired on 1 July 2021, after which they have been required to hold settled status through the European Union Settlement Scheme or another path Foreign nationals may naturalise as British citizens after residing in the UK for more than five years and possessing indefinite leave to remain (ILR) for at least one year  The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a British citizen and they immediately become eligible for naturalisation after receiving ILR or equivalent  Applicants must demonstrate proficiency in the English, Welsh, or Scottish Gaelic languages and pass the Life in the United Kingdom test 

British Overseas Territories citizenship
Individuals born in a territory automatically receive BOTC status if at least one parent is a BOTC or has belonger status  Children born in an overseas territory to British citizen parents who are not settled in a territory are British citizens at birth, but not BOTCs  Parents do not necessarily need to be connected with the same overseas territory to pass on BOTC status  Alternatively, a child born in an overseas territory may be registered as a BOTC if either parent becomes a BOTC or settles in any overseas territory subsequent to birth  A child who lives in the same territory until age 10 and is not absent for more than 90 days in each year is also entitled to registration as a BOTC  Furthermore, an adopted child automatically become a BOTC on the effective day of adoption if either parent is a BOTC or has belonger status  In all cases that an individual is a British Overseas Territories citizen at birth or adoption within the territories, that person is a BOTC otherwise than by descent Individuals born outside of the territories are BOTCs by descent if either parent is a BOTC otherwise than by descent  Unmarried fathers cannot automatically pass on BOTC status, and it would be necessary for them to register children as BOTCs  If a parent is a BOTC by descent, additional requirements apply to register children as BOTCs  Parents in Crown service who have children abroad are exempted from these circumstances, and their children would be BOTCs otherwise than by descent, as if they had been born on their home territory Foreigners and non-BOTC British nationals may naturalise as British Overseas Territories citizens after residing in a territory for more than five years and possessing belonger status or permanent residency for more than one year  The residency requirement is reduced to three years if an applicant is married to a BOTC  All applicants for naturalisation and registration are normally considered by the governor of the relevant territory, but the Home Secretary retains discretionary authority to grant BOTC status  Since 2004, BOTC applicants aged 18 or older are required to take an oath of allegiance to the Sovereign and loyalty pledge to the relevant territory during their citizenship ceremonies All British Overseas Territories citizens other than those solely connected with Akrotiri and Dhekelia became British citizens on 21 May 2002, and children born on qualified overseas territories to dual BOTC-British citizens since that date are both BOTCs and British citizens otherwise than by descent  Prior to 2002, only BOTCs from Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands were given unrestricted access to citizenship  BOTCs naturalised after that date may also become British citizens by registration at the discretion of the Home Secretary  Becoming a British citizen has no effect on BOTC status; BOTCs may also simultaneously be British citizens 

Other nationality classes
It is generally not possible to acquire other forms of British nationality  British Overseas citizenship, British subjecthood, and British protected person status are only transferred by descent if an individual born to a parent holding one of these statuses would otherwise be stateless  British Overseas citizens retain their status by association with most former British colonies, British subjects are connected specifically with Ireland or British India before 1949, and British protected persons are associated with territories that were under British control but not formally incorporated as part of the British Empire  British National (Overseas) status was exclusively granted by voluntary registration to Hong Kong residents who had been British Dependent Territories citizens prior to the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997 and cannot be newly acquired in any case  Noncitizen British nationals may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation, after residing in the United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing ILR for more than one year 

Renunciation and restoration
Any type of British nationality can be renounced by making a declaration to the Home Secretary, provided that the declarant possesses or intends to acquire another nationality  Former British citizens or BOTCs may subsequently apply for nationality restoration  Applicants who had originally renounced their British nationality in order to retain or acquire another nationality are entitled to register as British citizens or BOTCs once  Any subsequent renunciation and application for restoration, or someone applying for restoration who originally renounced their British nationality for a reason unrelated to acquiring or retaining an alternate nationality, would be subject to the discretionary approval of the Home Secretary 

Automatic loss of British nationality
British subjects (other than British subjects by virtue of a connection with the Republic of Ireland) and British protected persons lose British nationality upon acquiring any other form of nationality 

These provisions do not apply to British citizens 
British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs) who acquire another nationality do not lose their BOTC status but they may be liable to lose belonger status in their home territory under its immigration laws  Such persons are advised to contact the governor of that territory for information 
British Overseas citizens (BOCs) do not lose their BOC status upon acquisition of another citizenship, but any entitlement to registration as a British citizen on the grounds of having no other nationality no longer applies after acquiring another citizenship 

Deprivation of British nationality
The British government does not publish the number of people it strips of citizenship, but independent research by a lawyer-run website, in 2022, found at least 464 people's citizenship was revoked in the last 15 years  After the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 came into force British nationals could be deprived of their citizenship if and only if the Secretary of State was satisfied they were responsible for acts seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the United Kingdom or an Overseas Territory This was extended under the Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006: people with dual nationality who are British nationals can be deprived of their British citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied that "deprivation is conducive to the public good", or if nationality was obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact  Between 2006 and the end of 2021 at least 464 people have had their citizenship removed by the government since the law was introduced  There is a right of appeal  This provision has been in force since 16 June 2006 when the Immigration, Nationality and Asylum Act 2006 (Commencement No 1) Order 2006 brought it into force  Loss of British nationality in this way applies also to dual nationals who are British by birth  The Secretary of State may not deprive a person of British nationality, unless obtained by means of fraud, false representation or concealment of a material fact, if they are satisfied that the order would make a person stateless This provision was again modified by the Immigration Act 2014 so as not to require that a third country would actually grant nationality to a person; British nationality can be revoked if "the Secretary of State has reasonable grounds for believing that the person is able, under the law of a country or territory outside the United Kingdom, to become a national of such a country or territory "The powers to strip citizenship were initially very rarely used  Between 2010 and 2015, 33 dual nationals had been deprived of their British citizenship  In the two years to 2013 six people were deprived of citizenship; then in 2013, 18 people were deprived, increasing to 23 in 2014  In 2017, over 40 people had been deprived as of July (at this time increased numbers of British citizens went to join "Islamic State" and then tried to return) The Home Office does not issue information on these cases and is resistant to answering questions, for example under the Freedom of Information Act 2000  It appears that the government usually waits until the person has left Britain, then sends a warning notice to their British home and signs a deprivation order a day or two later  Appeals are heard at the highly secretive Special Immigration Appeals Commission (SIAC), where the government can submit evidence that cannot be seen or challenged by the appellant Home Secretary Sajid Javid said in 2018 that until then deprivation of nationality had been restricted to "terrorists who are a threat to the country", but that he intended to extend it to "those who are convicted of the most grave criminal offences"  The acting director of Liberty responded "The home secretary is taking us down a very dangerous road      making our criminals someone else’s problem is     the government washing its hands of its responsibilities     Banishment belongs in the dark ages "A Nationality and Borders Bill was introduced to the British House of Commons in July 2021, sponsored by the Home Office under Home Secretary Priti Patel  In November 2021, an amendment to the Bill was introduced which, if passed, would allow people to be deprived of British citizenship without being given notice  At the time the Home Office reiterated its position on citizenship: "British citizenship is a privilege, not a right" 

British citizenship ceremonies
From 1 January 2004, all new applicants for British citizenship by naturalisation or registration aged 18 or over if their application is successful must attend a citizenship ceremony and either make an affirmation or take an oath of allegiance to the monarch, and make a pledge to the UK 
Citizenship ceremonies are normally organised by:

local councils in England, Scotland, and Wales
the Northern Ireland Office
the governments of the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey
the Governors of British Overseas Territories
British consular offices outside the United Kingdom and territories Persons from what is now the Republic of Ireland born before 1949 reclaiming British subject status under section 31 of the 1981 Act do not need to attend a citizenship ceremony  If such a person subsequently applies for British citizenship by registration or naturalisation, attendance at a ceremony is required 
For those who applied for British citizenship before 2004:

the oath of allegiance was administered privately through signing a witnessed form in front of a solicitor or other accredited person
those who already held British nationality (other than British protected persons) were exempt, as were those citizens of countries with the King as Head of State (such as Australia and Canada) 

See also
Visa policy of the United Kingdom
Visa requirements for British citizens
Visa requirements for British Nationals (Overseas)
Visa requirements for British Overseas citizens
Visa requirements for British Overseas Territories citizens

Notes
Passage 2:
Pangi Territory
Pangi Territory is an administrative area in Maniema Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo  The  headquarters is the town of Pangi 
The Elila River flows through Pangi territory, entering the Lualaba River to the west 
The territory is divided into the Babene chiefdom and the Beia, Ikama, Wakabango and Wasongola sectors 
Most of the territory is inhabited by the Lega people, as are the adjoining Mwenga and Shabunda territories 
As of 1972 there were still a few Pygmies living among the Baziri tribe of Lega people 
Before independence the territory had 97,380 inhabitants of whom 35,518 were in urban and mining agglomerations 
Passage 3:
Love and War in the Apennines
Love and War in the Apennines is a 1971 Second World War memoir (with some changes of names and people and places, and some composite characters) by Eric Newby  In the United States the title was changed to When the Snow Comes, They Will Take You Away  It was dramatised as the 2001 film In Love and War starring Callum Blue and Barbora Bobuľová 

Overview
After the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces in 1943, the author left the prisoner-of-war camp in which he had been held for a year, PG 49 at Fontanellato, and evaded the Germans by going to ground high in the mountains and forests south of the Po River  In enforced isolation, he was sheltered and protected by an informal and highly courageous network of Italian peasants  Newby writes a powerful account of these idiosyncratic and selfless people and also of their bleak and very basic lifestyle  He undergoes a series of bizarre, funny and often dangerous incidents, and in the process meets Wanda, a local girl who later becomes his wife 

Summary
Newby takes part in a Special Boat Service operation on the east coast of Sicily  He and his colleagues fail to make their rendezvous with a British submarine and are picked up by a fishing boat 
Newby is imprisoned in an orphanage at Fontanellato in the Po valley  With the Armistizio, the Italians let the English prisoners escape  Because Newby has a broken ankle he is abandoned and is hidden in a farmer's hay loft until an Italian doctor takes him to the hospital  Here he is visited by Wanda, the daughter of a Slovene teacher, who gives him Italian lessons in exchange for English lessons and they fall in love  The Germans discover he is there but Newby escapes and hides, moving from one house to another 
Newby is nearly captured and moves into the mountains to stay with a shepherd; villagers build him a camouflaged cave  Further exciting adventures follow, and a meeting with Wanda 

Reception
The New York Times wrote of Love and War that "His memoir of that time became one of his most acclaimed books" The novelist Simon Mawer, writing on the NPR website, describes the book as follows:
Read the book and you are there in the Italian mountains with him: You can feel the stony soil, smell the wood smoke in the air, sense the snow on the wind  He conjures up the stubborn, fatalistic, bloody-minded locals who risked their lives for him so vividly that they seem to be standing in front of you  You share his fears and his hopes  He makes you laugh and he makes you weep  It's quite an achievement for an author commonly labeled as a travel writer  — Simon Mawer
Travel writer John Gimlette, writing in The Guardian, comments that "For sheer charm, there's nothing quite like Eric Newby's Love and War in the Apennines " He adds that while it is plainly a celebration of Italy, "At a more profound level, it's a beautifully philanthropic yet unsentimental work  However miserable the times and awkward the place, Newby's characters are usually endearing, and often complex "

Sources
Love and War in the Apennines, Picador (1983) ISBN 978-0-330-28024-2
Passage 4:
Essex County Park Commission Administration Building
The Essex County Park Commission Administration Building is located in Newark, Essex County, New Jersey, United States  The building was built in 1916 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 11, 1977 

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Essex County, New Jersey
Essex County Park System, New Jersey
Passage 5:
Tumaraa
Tumaraa is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The commune of Tumaraa is located on the island of Raiatea, in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, themselves part of the Society Islands  At the 2017 census it had a population of 3,721, making it the least populous commune on Raiatea Tumaraa consists of the following associated communes:

Fetuna
Tehurui
Tevaitoa
VaiaauThe administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Tevaitoa  The tallest mountain on Raiatea - Mont Temehani - is located within Tumaraa 
Passage 6:
Callum McManaman
Callum Henry McManaman (born 25 April 1991) is an English professional footballer who plays as a winger for EFL League One side Wigan Athletic 
Born in Whiston, Merseyside, lived and brought up in Rainhill, Merseyside, McManaman began his youth career at Everton before being released in 2007 and joining Wigan Athletic  He made his first team debut in 2009, and was the man of the match as they won the FA Cup in 2013  In January 2015, he joined West Bromwich Albion for £4 75 million 
On 13 October 2020, McManaman signed a two-year contract with A-League club Melbourne Victory ahead of the 2020–21 A-League season  In June 2023, he rejoined Wigan Athletic for his third spell at the club 

Club career
Wigan Athletic
McManaman was born in Huyton  He grew up as an Everton supporter, and joined the club's youth system when he was seven years old  After being released by the club at the age of sixteen, he signed for Wigan Athletic on a free transfer in 2007  He made his debut for the reserves toward the end of the 2007–08 season  He became a regular in the reserve team during the second half of the following season, appearing ten times and scoring four goals  He then made his first team debut on 24 May 2009 in a Premier League match against Portsmouth, becoming Wigan's youngest-ever player to play in the Premier League In July 2009, he signed his first professional contract with the club  McManaman remained in the reserve team during the 2009–10 season, scoring twice in a 5–0 win against Burnley  Although he did not appear in the first team, he earned a contract extension McManaman was an unused substitute in the first team at the start of the 2010–11 season, but Wigan manager Roberto Martínez felt the player was not yet ready for Premier League football



ground_truth: Aaron Benward

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In which borough was Callum McManaman born?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  On 30 November 2010, he made his first appearance in over 18 months when he came on as a substitute in a League Cup match against Arsenal  Martínez suggested the player would feature more regularly later in the season  He scored his first goal for Wigan in his first start for the club against Hull City in the FA Cup on 8 January 2011  In April 2011, he extended his contract for a further two years, keeping him at the club until 2013 On 17 October 2011, McManaman joined Blackpool in a three-month loan deal  He made his debut a day later, appearing as a substitute against Doncaster Rovers, and made his first start for the club in the following game against Nottingham Forest  On 3 December 2011, he scored his first league goal in a 1–0 win against Reading 
After he returned from his loan spell at Blackpool, McManaman scored against Swindon Town in the FA Cup on 7 January 2012  He returned to Premier League football at the DW Stadium on 16 January 2012 as an 81st-minute substitute in a single-goal defeat to Manchester City McManaman scored as a substitute in the 89th minute in Wigan's first League Cup game of the 2012–13 season, capping off a 1–4 win over Nottingham Forest  In January 2013, he signed a new contract with Wigan until 2016  On 17 February 2013, in the fifth round of the FA Cup, McManaman scored one goal and was named man-of-the-match in a 4–1 win against Huddersfield Town, helping Wigan reach the quarter-finals for the first time in 26 years  In that quarter-final match, he scored against his former club Everton, at Goodison Park, in a 3–0 win that sent Wigan to the semi-finals at Wembley After the Everton game, McManaman made his first Premier League start against Newcastle United on 17 March 2013  His challenge on Massadio Haïdara in that game was the subject of a two-day review by The Football Association; the Association concluded it lacked the authority to penalise McManaman retrospectively  On 23 March 2013, The Daily Telegraph reported that the McManaman situation had prompted the FA "    to raise the issue with the other 'stakeholders' involved in setting disciplinary guidelines     at the end of the season "On 27 April 2013, he scored his first Premier League goal for Wigan in a 2–2 draw against Tottenham Hotspur  A week later, he scored the winning goal in a 3–2 win against West Bromwich Albion  On 11 May, he was named man-of-the-match in the FA Cup Final, leading Wigan to a 1–0 victory over Manchester City 

West Bromwich Albion
On 28 January 2015, McManaman signed for Premier League club West Bromwich Albion on a three-and-a-half-year contract for £4 75 million  He was the first signing for the club by Tony Pulis On 27 December 2016, McManaman signed for Championship club Sheffield Wednesday on loan for the remainder of the season  He played in their first match of 2017 against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 2 January 

Sunderland
McManaman signed for Championship club Sunderland on 31 August 2017 on a two-year contract for an undisclosed fee  He scored his first goal for Sunderland with a 96th-minute equaliser in a 3–3 draw with Middlesbrough on 24 February 2018 

Return to Wigan Athletic
On 20 July 2018, McManaman returned to his boyhood club Wigan Athletic for an undisclosed fee, signing onto a one-year rolling contract 

Luton Town
On 4 June 2019, McManaman signed for newly promoted Championship club Luton Town on a free transfer  He was released at the end of the 2019–20 season 

Melbourne Victory
On 13 October 2020, McManaman signed a two-year contract with A-League club Melbourne Victory ahead of the 2020–21 A-League season  In July 2021, he was released by Melbourne Victory, with one-year left on his contract 

Tranmere Rovers
On 9 July, it was announced that McManaman had made a return to English football, signing with League Two side Tranmere Rovers on a one-year deal  McManaman was released at the end of the 2021–22 season 

Third spell at Wigan Athletic
On 30 June 2023, McManaman returned to League One side Wigan Athletic for a third spell in his career, signing a one-year deal 

International career
McManaman is available to represent England and the Republic of Ireland, through Irish ancestry In June 2011, McManaman, along with teammate Lee Nicholls, was included in the England under-20s squad for the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup, the first time a Wigan Athletic player has been involved in the tournament  He made his debut in a group match – a 0–0 draw against North Korea, and went on to play in all of England's games during the tournament before the team were knocked out by Nigeria 
On 14 May, he was called up for the first time to the England Under 21s for the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship in Israel  However, he was ruled out of the tournament due to an ankle injury picked up in a game against Arsenal on the same day 

Personal life
McManaman is a distant relative of former Liverpool, Real Madrid, Manchester City and England player Steve McManaman 

Career statistics
As of end of 2021–22 season

Honours
Wigan Athletic

FA Cup: 2012–13
Passage 7:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 8:
List of territorial entities where English is an official language
The following is a list of countries and territories where English is an official language—that is, a language used in citizen interactions with government officials  As of 2020, there were 58 sovereign states and 28 non-sovereign entities where English was an official language  Many administrative divisions have declared English an official language at the local or regional level 
Most states where English is an official language are former territories of the British Empire  Exceptions include Rwanda and Burundi, which were formerly German and then Belgian colonies; Cameroon, where only part of national territory was under British mandate; and Liberia, the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which were American territories  English is the sole official language of the Commonwealth of Nations and of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)  English is one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, NAFTA, the African Union, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Caribbean Community, the Union of South American Nations, and many other international organisations  Although English is not de jure an official language at the national level in the United States, most states and territories within the United States have English as an official language, and only Puerto Rico uses a language other than English as a primary working language The United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, where the overwhelming majority of native English speakers reside, do not have English as an official language de jure, but English is considered their de facto official language because it dominates in these countries 

Sovereign states
Countries where English is a de jure official language
Countries where English is a predominant language conventionally spoken by both the government and main population, despite it having no de jure official status at national level
Countries where English is a de facto working language in government or education, but it is not recognized as de jure official, nor a primary language spoken by the main population
Non-sovereign entities
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de jure official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official language
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official, but not a primary language
Country subdivisions
In these country subdivisions, English has de jure official status, but English is not official in their respective countries at the national level 

See also
English-only movement
Anglo-America
Commonwealth of Nations
Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
British Overseas Territories
English-speaking world
List of countries by English-speaking population
List of languages by total number of speakers
British Empire

Footnotes
Passage 9:
Whiston, Merseyside
Whiston is a town and civil parish within the Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley in Merseyside, England  Previously recorded within the historic county of Lancashire, it is located eight miles (ten kilometres) east of Liverpool  The population was 13,629 at the 2001 Census, increasing to 14,263 at the 2011 Census A new village, Halsnead Garden Village, was approved with government support in 2017 and will be located in the Halsnead area of the town  The new village will contain over 1,500 houses, a primary school, a country park, and various community and leisure facilities  Construction is estimated to cost around £270 million 

History
The first record of Whiston comes in 1245, being rendered as "Quistan" and being within the West Derby Hundred in Lancashire  Archeological evidence such as a neolithic polished hand-axe and mesolithic tool fragments suggest that the region was host to pre-historic settlement up to 12,000 years, ago while other archaeological finds include remnants of a Roman tile workshop in nearby Tarbock and a medieval shovel head The main industry of Whiston's earlier documented history is agriculture, with the first recorded mill in the area being held by local lord Henry Travers from 1190  By 1521, the first documentation of coal mining is made, which would in time become Whiston's primary industry  By 1700, the coalfields of Whiston, Prescot, and Sutton were producing 25,000-50,000 tonnes of coal annually, and this would only increase as the Industrial Revolution progressed and the Whiston area became host to tens of collieries over the 18th and 19th Centuries The Church of St  Nicholas on Windy Arbor Road was consecrated on 30 July 1868  It hosts a war memorial, designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott, which was struck by lightning in 1928  The memorial was replaced in 1932 Whiston was previously host to Halsnead Hall, a neoclassical manor that housed the Willis family, chief landholders in Whiston from 1684 until the auctioning of their estate in 1929  Halsnead Hall, demolished in 1932 and now the site of Halsnead static caravan park, was designed by the renowned architect Sir John Soane  Before its demolition, it was the sole example of Soane's work in either Lancashire or Cheshire 

Governance
Prior to boundary changes in 2016, Whiston consisted of the Whiston North and Whiston South wards of the Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley  The North and South wards were separated by the Liverpool to Manchester Railway, which runs directly through the town  The former borough wards of North and South are still used in the form of Town Council wards, but for the purposes of Borough representation, Whiston elects three councillors via the combined ward of Whiston and Cronton Whiston lent its name to and was formerly the headquarters of the Whiston Rural District within the County of Lancashire before the Local Government Act 1972  Today, Whiston Town Council oversees parish level administration 

Transport
Whiston is crossed by the historic Liverpool to Manchester Railway, and is served by Whiston railway station with services to Liverpool and Manchester, operated by Northern  Local bus routes to Runcorn, Liverpool, St Helens and Huyton also serve the town  These are operated by, among other smaller local providers, Stagecoach and Arriva 

Health
St Helens and Knowsley Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust operates Whiston Hospital  The hospital supports the primary maternity department for the Knowsley and St Helens boroughs, alongside a regional Burns and Plastic Surgery Unit serving North West England, North Wales and the Isle of Man  The Trust is a member organisation of the teaching hospital system partnered with the University of Liverpool, Liverpool John Moores University and Edge Hill University 

Industries
Local industry includes Glen Dimplex Home Appliances, producing kitchen appliances and employing approximately 1,000 people 

Education
Primary education
St Luke's Catholic Primary School
Halsnead Primary School
Whiston Willis Primary School
St Leo's & Southmead Catholic Primary School

Secondary education
In 2010, two of Whiston's secondary schools were closed and redeveloped under the Labour Party governments 'Building Schools for the Future' scheme  This £150 million programme created seven new 'Centres for Learning' to replace the ten existing secondary schools within the Knowsley borough 
Knowsley Higher Side Comprehensive School, Cumber Lane Constructed in 1964, Knowsley Higher Side Comprehensive School was one of the first comprehensive schools in the local area, purpose built under the Labour Party's education reforms to formally abolish the tripartite system of education; to amalgamate grammar, technical and secondary modern schools into one appropriately named Comprehensive System  
In March 2010, after serving the local area for 46 years, Higher Side Comprehensive School was permanently closed and subsequently demolished to make way for the new St Edmund Arrowsmith Catholic Centre for Learning which was constructed on vacant land behind Higher Side's main buildings  The land on which Higher Side once stood now serves as a car park and recreational area for staff and pupils of the new St Edmund Arrowsmith 
The only remaining building of the former Higher Side School site is the former Whiston & Prescot City Learning Centre (CLC), now St Edmund Arrowsmith Science Hub  The building was originally constructed and opened in 2000  Pupils of the school who were still enrolled at Higher Side at the time its closure were transferred to its replacement Knowsley Park Centre for Learning (now The Prescot School) based on Knowsley Park Lane, Prescot 

St Edmund Arrowsmith Catholic Academy, Whiston, Cumber Lane Closed, relocated and rebuilt behind the former Knowsley Higher Side Comprehensive School on Cumber Lane  Renamed as 'St Edmund Arrowsmith Catholic Centre for Learning' for a while  The original St Edmund Arrowsmith Building on Scotchbarn Lane was retained for several years and redeveloped as a youth training academy, but has also since been demolished 

Notable people
Alan Allport, historian
Peter Briggs, screenwriter
Melanie C, singer, "Sporty Spice" of the Spice Girls
Martin Dwyer, jockey
Steven Gerrard, footballer
Steve Hampson, rugby league player
Jamie Harrison, cricketer
Craig Hignett, footballer
Martin Kelly, footballer
David Leather, cricketer
Stuart Maconie, radio presenter and author
Kym Marsh, actress and singer
Conor McAleny, footballer
Dave McCabe, lead singer and guitarist of The Zutons
Natalie McCool, songwriter and musician
Rachel McDowall, actress
James Roby, rugby league player
Willy Russell, screenwriter and playwright
Matty Smith, rugby league player
William Snowden, cricketer
Mark Ward, footballer

See also
List of hospitals in England
Listed buildings in Whiston, Merseyside
Passage 10:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory  Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria  The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located  The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government  Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs)  There are 774 local governments in Nigeria  Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government  The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation 

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria 

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives  It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list 

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature)  The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state 

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government  The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly 

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007)  The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control  Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press  ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3 
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999)  The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research  ISBN 978-181-238-9 
Rotimi T  Suberu (1994)  1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria  Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan  ISBN 978-2015-28-8 

External links
"New States of Nigeria"  Statoids 
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors 
Passage 11:
Sant Martí d'Empúries
Sant Martí d'Empúries is an entity of the town of L'Escala  It is located next to the ruins of Empúries or Empòrion  Ancient Greeks established the settlement in the 6th century BC  It was the county seat until 1079 Empúries moved to Castelló d'Empúries place less exposed to attack 
Sant Martí d'Empúries is a staging point on the GR 92 long distance footpath, which roughly follows the length of the Mediterranean coast of Spain  Stage 5, to the north, takes a route behind the coast to the El Cortalet pond in the Parc Natural dels Aiguamolls de l'Empordà, a distance of 20 2 kilometres (12 6 mi)  Stage 6, to the south, follows the coast to l'Escala and then takes an inland route across the Montgri Massif to reach the next staging point of Torroella de Montgrí, a distance of 20 0 kilometres (12 4 mi) 

History
It was an inhabited place since the arrival of Greeks from Massalia, actual Marseille (France) in the 6th century BC  Greeks established a settlement there called it, Kypsela (Greek: Κύψελα)  At the ancient times there is a possibility that there was a temple of Artemis on the island It was Christianized by Saint Feliu, an African martyr who died in 304 in Girona  He was bishop between 516 and 693  Charlemagne mentions Ermenguer as first Count of Empúries in 812 
Passage 12:
Cyprus Popular Bank
Cyprus Popular Bank (from 2006 to 2011 known as Marfin Popular Bank) was the second-largest banking group in Cyprus behind the Bank of Cyprus until it was 'shuttered' in March 2013 and split into two parts  The 'good' Cypriot part was merged into the Bank of Cyprus (including insured deposits under 100,000 Euro) and the 'bad' part or legacy entity holds all the overseas operations as well as uninsured deposits above 100,000 Euro, old shares and bonds  The uninsured depositors were subject to a bail-in and became the new shareholders of the legacy entity   As at May 2017, the legacy entity is one of the largest shareholders of Bank of Cyprus with 4 8% but does not hold a board seat  All the overseas operations, of the now defunct Cyprus Popular Bank, are also held by the legacy entity, until they are sold by the Special Administrator, at first Ms Andri Antoniadou, who ran the legacy entity for two years, from March 2013 until 3 March 2015  She tendered her resignation due to disagreements, with the Governor of the Central Bank of Cyprus and the Central Bank Board members, who amended the lawyers of the legacy entity, without consulting her  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou who is an expert in Treasury and risk management took over as Special Administrator of the legacy entity in April 2015 until December 2016  The legacy entity is pursuing legal action against former major shareholder Marfin Investment Group 
Its shares were listed on the Cyprus Stock Exchange and the Athens Stock Exchange  CPB had a network of more than 295 branches in Cyprus, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, the UK and Malta  The bank had applied to open a representative office in Beijing, People's Republic of China Trading on the island as Laiki Bank (Laiki being the Greek word for Popular), as of September 2012 it held a 16% share of the market in loans and a 14 4% share of deposits   The Bank made a series of large loans, many to Greek companies prior to and during their financial crisis  What followed has been described as "billions handed out in bad loans created a financial time-bomb"  After the bank collapsed, it was rescued by the Cypriot government, which took 84% ownership on 30 June 2012 and as of March 2013 it is being dismantled as part of the 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis 

History
In 1901, four leading citizens of Limassol—Agathoclis Francoudis, Ioannis Kyriakides, Christodoulos Sozos and Neoklis Ioannides—established the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to encourage saving among the workforce  More than two decades later, in 1924, the bank changed its name from the Popular Savings Bank of Limassol to the Popular Bank of Limassol  The bank also became the first company in Cyprus to register as a public-traded company 
Then in 1967, the Popular Bank of Limassol changed its name to Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) to reflect the bank’s expansion beyond Limassol  Expansion beyond Limassol followed quickly, with the establishment of its first branches in Nicosia,  Famagusta (1969), and Paphos and Larnaca (1970)  Also in 1970, Midland Bank acquired 22% of the company's shares, making Midland a major shareholder in CPB  The next year CPB relocated its headquarters from Limassol to Nicosia 

1974 CPB established its first London branch 
1983 CPB acquired all the Cyprus operations of Grindlays Bank located in the area under government control 
1992 CPB opened the first branch of European Popular Bank in Athens  CPB owned 58% of the shares of the bank; other shareholders included HSBC (formerly Midland Bank) and Greek and Cypriot investors  CPB retained branches in Heraklion and Thessaloniki
1995 CPB opened its first representative offices in South Africa and in Toronto, Ontario, Canada 
1996 CPB opened its first representative offices in Australia 
1997 CPB opened its first representative offices in Serbia and in Russia ("Rosprombank")
1998 CPB establishes a representative office in New York  (NY State Banking Dept says State chartered) 
2000 The Cyprus Popular Bank Group changed its name to Laiki Group 
2001 The Laiki Group established a subsidiary in Australia with five branches 
2005 The Group established Laiki Bank (Guernsey), and purchased Bank Centrobank in Serbia 
2006 The Greek Marfin Investment Group acquired HSBC's shares in Laiki Bank, establishing a strong minority share position   Subsequently, the Marfin Investment Group through more acquisitions managed to take control of Laiki Bank, which it re-branded as Marfin Popular Bank   In Greece, the Marfin Group consolidated Egnatia, Laiki and Marfin to form Marfin Egnatia Bank, which is the 95%-owned Greek subsidiary of Marfin Popular Bank 
2007 The bank announced the planned takeover of 50 12% of the share capital of AS SBM Pank, a bank in Estonia MPB also acquired 99 2% of the shares of Marine Transport Bank Ukraine for US$156 million  This bank was founded in 1993 as Marine Trade Bank and changed its name to Marine Transport Bank in 1996  It has its headquarters in the Odesa region and has 86 branches 
Lastly, MPB acquired 43% of the share capital of Lombard Bank Malta for €48 million from Banca della Svizzera Italiana (BSI) of Lugano  CPB now holds c  49% of Lombard Bank Malta In 2007, the bank announced a multi-million financial deal to sponsor the football First Division in Cyprus until 2010 
2008 Marfin Popular Bank completed its acquisition of 50 4% of the shares of CJSC RPB Holding, parent company of the Rossisysky Promishlenny Bank (Rosprombank), for €83 million  The acquisition makes Marfin the first Greek or Cypriot bank to acquire control of a bank in Russia 
In 2010, they launched a new mobile banking and mobile trading service  In the same year, the company was selected as the bank of the year in Cyprus by the Banker 
2010 MPB sold 85% of Laiki Bank Australia to Bank of Beirut  The Australian bank received a new name, Beirut Hellenic Bank  At the time, the bank had a branch in Adelaide, four branches in Melbourne and five branches in Sydney 
2011 MPB sold the majority of its shareholding in its Estonian subsidiary and returned to its historic name of Cyprus Popular Bank (CPB) 
In 2012 CPB converted its Greek subsidiary into a branch of the parent bank 
The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis resulted in financial difficulties at CPB  The Cypriot state recapitalized CPB on 30 June 2012 with the result that the government acquired 84% of the bank's equity  This increased the bank's core tier 1 capital ratio towards 9%, the level mandated by the European Banking Authority 
In early 2013 CPB renamed its Greek branches to CPB Bank and on 26 March the bank sold them to Piraeus Bank  Laiki was split into a good and bad bank, the good bank (Cyprus operations) merged with Bank of Cyprus and the bad bank is in the process of being sold and finally shuttered  The board and CEO were replaced on 27 March  The bad bank was being run by a Special Administrator Ms Andri Antoniadou who was acting CEO until 3 March 2015  Veteran banker Chris Pavlou took over as Special Administrator in April 2015 until December 2016 In 2018 European Court dismisses compensation claim in Cyprus 2013 deposit-grab 
Passage 13:
Dunbar Hospital
The Dunbar Hospital was the first hospital for the black community in Detroit, Michigan  It is located at 580 Frederick Street, and is currently the administrative headquarters of the Detroit Medical Society  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 

Building construction and description
The building housing the Dunbar Hospital was built in 1892 by the Guy W  Vinton Company as a home for real estate developer Charles W  Warren  The home was constructed in a fashionable 19th century residential district The structure is a three-story home of mixed Romanesque Revival and Queen Anne style, built of red brick and rough-cut ashlar  The entrance is through a recessed, arched first-floor porch and the second story has a double-arch brick balcony  The roof is slate, with a bay-windowed gabled dormer surmounting the front façade 

Founding of the Dunbar Hospital
In 1894, Dr  James W  Ames, a graduate of both Straight University and Howard University, arrived in Detroit after a stint of teaching in New Orleans  He quickly became influential in both Detroit's white community and its then-small black community  Detroit's mayor at the time was Hazen Pingree  During his subsequent re-election campaign, Pingree actively courted the black vote, in part by supporting Ames's bid for election to the Michigan state legislature The nationally famous black poet Paul Laurence Dunbar, popular in both the black and white community, visited Detroit and lent his voice to those supporting Pingree, penning the poem, "Vote for Pingree and Vote for Bread " Both Ames and Pingree won their respective elections, and Ames spent the next two years in the legislature  He was the last black elected until the 1920s Two decades later, in the years following World War I, the black population of Detroit soared  In 1910, fewer than 6000 blacks called the city home; in 1917 more than 30,000 blacks lived in Detroit  The increase in black residents led to a crisis in health care  Hospitals were still segregated, and physicians like Ames were required to ask permission to admit black patients  Often black patients were simply denied care  The increase in the black population threatened to overwhelm the city's 30 black doctors In 1918, Ames led the group of 30 black physicians to form the Allied Medical Society  The area around Frederick street was at the cusp of becoming the center of social and cultural life for Detroit's black community, and the AMS purchased the Warren home on Frederick They opened their own non-profit hospital in the building, the first in the city to serve the black community, as well as an associated nursing school  The hospital was named for the poet Dunbar, who had died in 1906  The hospital had 27 beds and an operating room 

Later history
In 1928, demand led Dunbar Hospital to move from its first home to a larger facility several blocks to the east  The facility was renamed Parkside Hospital, and continued in operation until 1962  Soon after Dunbar moved from its home on Frederick, Charles Diggs Sr , who was later the first African-American Democratic state senator, purchased the home  Diggs's son, Charles C  Diggs Jr , served in the Michigan State Senate from 1951 to 1954 and the U S  House of Representatives from 1954 to 1980  In 1978, the Detroit Medical Society (the successor to the Allied Medical Society) purchased and restored the building  It now serves as their administrative headquarters and a museum 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Robert Robinson Taylor
Robert Robinson Taylor (June 8, 1868 – December 13, 1942) was an American architect and educator  Taylor was the first African-American student enrolled at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and the first accredited African-American architect when he graduated in 1892  He was an early and influential member of the Tuskegee Institute faculty 
A native of Wilmington, North Carolina, Taylor remained in architectural practice in the American South for over forty years  He was part of what was possibly the nation’s first black architecture firm, Taylor and Persley, a partnership founded in July 1920 with Louis H  Persley  He designed many of the early buildings of the Tuskegee Institute, and at several other Historically black colleges and universities  As second-in-command to Booker T  Washington, the Tuskegee Institute's founder, Taylor was instrumental in both campus planning and inventing the school's industrial curriculum 

Early life
Robert Robinson Taylor was born on June 8, 1868, in Wilmington, North Carolina  His father, Henry Taylor, worked as a carpenter and businessman, born into slavery but freed in 1847 by his father and owner Angus Taylor  His mother, Emily Still, was the daughter of freedmen even prior to the Civil War  He left home for MIT in 1888, where he studied architecture  In June 1890 and again in September 1891, he was recommended for the Loring Scholarship, which he held for two consecutive academic years: 1890–1891 and 1892–1893 During his course of study at MIT, he talked in person on more than one occasion with Booker T  Washington  What Washington had in mind was for Taylor to develop the industrial program at Tuskegee and to plan and direct the construction of new buildings for the campus  At the MIT faculty meeting on May 26, 1892, Taylor was one of twelve students in Course IV, the architectural program, recommended for a degree  The class of 1892 was the largest on record since MIT's founding  After graduation Taylor did not head directly to Tuskegee  He finally accepted the Tuskegee offer in the fall or winter of 1892 

Career
Taylor's first building project on the Tuskegee University campus was the Science Hall (Thrasher Hall) completed in 1893  The new Science Hall was constructed entirely by students, using bricks made also by students under Taylor's supervision  The project epitomized Washington's philosophy of instilling in Tuskegee students, the descendants of former enslaved Africans, the value and dignity of physical labor   It exemplified of the capabilities of African Americans in the building trades, and it underscored the larger potential of the manual training curricula being developed at Tuskegee  A number of other buildings followed, including the original Tuskegee Chapel, erected between 1895 and 1898, and The Oaks, built in 1899 as Tuskegee's presidential residence From 1899 to 1902, he returned to Cleveland, Ohio, to work on his own and for the architectural firm of Charles W  Hopkinson  Upon his return to Tuskegee from Cleveland in 1902, he was architect and director of "mechanical industries" until his retirement in the mid-1930s  To develop a sound curriculum at Tuskegee, both Washington and Taylor drew inspiration from MIT as a model  Taylor's own admiration for MIT as a model for Tuskegee's development was conveyed in a speech that he delivered at MIT in 1911  Taylor cited examples to the 1911 US Congress in a paper to illustrate the kinds of rigorous ideas, approaches, and methods that Tuskegee had adopted from MIT and successfully applied within the context of a black educational institution Taylor also designed buildings that were not at Tuskegee  These include Carnegie libraries at Wiley College in Marshall, Texas, and at Livingstone College in Salisbury, North Carolina  With his later partner, the black architect Louis H  Persley, he did large buildings at Selma University in Selma, Alabama, and the Colored Masonic Temple, which is also an office building and entertainment venue, in Birmingham, Alabama He served for a period as vice-principal of Tuskegee, beginning in 1925  In 1929, under the joint sponsorship of the Phelps-Stokes Fund, the Liberian government, and Firestone Rubber, he went to Kakata, Liberia to lay out architectural plans and devise a program in industrial training for the proposed Booker Washington Institute – "the Tuskegee of Africa " Robert Taylor served on the Mississippi Valley Flood Relief Commission, appointed by President Herbert Hoover, and was chairman of the Tuskegee chapter of the American Red Cross Following his retirement to his native Wilmington, North Carolina, in 1935, the governor of North Carolina appointed Taylor to the board of trustees of what is now Fayetteville State University  Moreover, in 1942, less than a decade after his retirement from Tuskegee, he wrote to the secretary of his MIT class indicating that he had just been released from treatment for an unspecified illness at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota  "Thanks to a kind Providence and skillful physicians," he said, "I am much better now "

Personal life
In 1898, he married Beatrice Rochon Taylor  They had four children, one of whom, Robert Rochon Taylor, became a noted housing advocate in Chicago  Beatrice's younger sister was teacher and pharmacist Etnah Rochon Boutte  After Beatrice died in 1906, Robert remarried in 1912 to Nellie Chestnutt; they had one child 

Death
He died on December 13, 1942, while attending services in the Tuskegee Chapel, the building that he considered his most outstanding achievement as an architect  He was buried at the Pine Forest Cemetery in Wilmington, North Carolina 

Legacy
The Taylor School of Architecture and Construction Science at Tuskegee University is named for Taylor  The housing project in Chicago, Robert Taylor Homes, was named after his son, Robert Rochon Taylor, a civic leader and former Chairman of the Chicago Housing Authority 
The US Postal Service has a postage stamp with his likeness His great-granddaughter, Valerie Jarrett, was a senior advisor to Former President Barack Obama 

Projects
Huntington Hall (1900)
Emery dormitories 4 buildings (1900)
Dorothy Hall (1901) Tuskegee Institute
Women's Trades Building (1901)
Carnegie Library (1901)
Administration Building (1902–03)
Rockefeller Hall (1903)
Men's residence Hall (1904)
Douglass Hall (1904)
Collis P  Huntington Memorial Building academic building(1904–05)
Tantum Hall (1907)
Milbank Agriculture Building (1909)
Tompkins Hall, dining facility (1910)
White Hall, women's dormitory (1910)
John A  Andrew Memorial Hospital (1913)
Laundry, now The George Washington Carver Museum (1915)
James Hall (1921)
Prince Hall Masonic Temple (1924)
Sage Hall (1927)
Wilcox Trade Buildings, architecture buildings (1928)
Logan Hall, old gym (1931)
Armstrong Science Building (1932)
Hollis Burke Frissell Library (1932)

See also
African-American architects
Robert Charles Bates, an early architecture teacher at Claflin University
Passage 2:
Helen Eugenia Hagan
Helen Eugenia Hagan (January 10, 1891 – March 6, 1964) was an American pianist, music educator and composer of African descent 

Life
Helen Eugenia Hagan was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the daughter of John A  and Mary Estella Neal Hagan  She studied piano with her mother and then in the public schools of New Haven, Connecticut  Around the age of nine, she began playing organ for the Dixwell Avenue Congregational United Church in New Haven She studied at Yale School of Music with pianist H Stanley Knight and composer Horatio Parker, graduating in 1912 with a bachelor's degree in music  In doing so, she became the first known African American woman to earn a Yale degree She performed as soloist on her own Piano Concerto in C Minor in May 1912 with the New Haven Symphony Orchestra conducted by Parker  She received the Samuel Simmons Stanford scholarship to study in Paris, with Blanche Selva and Vincent d'Indy, and graduated from Schola Cantorum in 1914 Hagan returned to the United States as World War I began and began a career as a concert pianist, touring from 1915 to 1918  In 1918 she was music director (i e  music department chair) at Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State College  In early 1919 she left for France to entertain black troops of the American Expeditionary Forces, along with spirituals singer Joshua Blanton and the Rev  Henry Hugh Proctor, under the auspices of the YMCA  General John Pershing personally requested that Ms  Hagan entertain the troops In 1920 Hagan married John Taylor Williams of Morristown, New Jersey but continued her concert career  They divorced ca  1931 She had a music studio in Morristown for at least a decade and was the first African American woman admitted to the Morristown Chamber of Commerce  She taught at the Mendelssohn Conservatory of Music in Chicago and pursued a Masters of Arts degree from Teachers College, Columbia University  In the 1930s she served as dean of music at Bishop College in Marshall, Texas  She also continued to work as a choir director and church organist  She died in New York City after an extended illness On September 29, 2016, a crowdfunded monument for Hagan's previously unmarked grave was unveiled at New Haven's Evergreen Cemetery, and the day was declared "Women Making Music Day" by New Haven mayor Toni Harp  The New Haven Symphony Orchestra's season opening concert that evening was performed in Ms  Hagan's honor The only known video footage of Helen Hagen is in the 1954 New York Board of Education documentary Let Us Break Bread Together, where she is shown performing in a school context 

Works
The Piano Concerto is the only work by Helen Hagan to survive  In 2014 Lola Perrin and the Ivory Duo Piano Ensemble made a transcription from the 1912 manuscript to create a performable version in a piano reduction  In 2022, pianist Samantha Ege recorded a two piano version on her album Black Renaissance Woman  Composer and Yale School of Music alum Soomin Kim has re-orchestrated the work based on the existing sources  The new version was first performed by the Yale Philharmonia and Samantha Ege on October 21, 2022 Her other compositions, including songs, piano pieces, a violin sonata (pre-1912), and string quartets, have all been lost  The New Haven Symphony Orchestra is an active advocate for Ms  Hagan's legacy and encourages anyone who might be in possession of a score or manuscript of her music to please contact the Symphony 
Passage 3:
Todd Duncan
Robert Todd Duncan (February 12, 1903 – February 28, 1998) was an American baritone opera singer and actor  One of the first African-Americans to sing with a major opera company, Duncan is also noted for appearing as Porgy in the premier production of Porgy and Bess (1935) 

Early life
Duncan was born February 12, 1903, in Danville, Kentucky, to John and Lettie (Cooper) Duncan   They were married in Danville 1901, he being born in Danville, and she born in Frankfort  John was a garage owner and Lettie was a music teacher   He obtained his musical training at Butler University in Indianapolis with a B A  in music followed by an M A  from Columbia University Teachers College 

Career
In 1934, Duncan debuted in Pietro Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana at the Mecca Temple in New York with the Aeolian Opera, a black opera company Duncan was George Gershwin's personal choice as the first performer of the role of Porgy in Porgy and Bess in 1935 and played the role more than 1,800 times   He led the cast during the Washington run of Porgy and Bess at the National Theatre in 1936, to protest the theatre's policy of segregation  Duncan stated that he "would never play in a theater which barred him from purchasing tickets to certain seats because of his race " Eventually management would give into the demands and allow for the first integrated performance at National Theatre   Duncan was also the first performer for the role of Stephen Kumalo in Kurt Weill's Lost in the Stars which opened on Broadway at the Music Box Theatre on October 30, 1949, and closed on July 1, 1950, after 281 performances 
In 1938, Duncan appeared on the London stage at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in C B Cochran's musical production The Sun Never Sets  The cast included fellow American Adelaide Hall, Leslie Banks, Edna Best and Stewart Granger  The musical was adapted by Pat Wallace and Guy Bolton from various stories written by Edgar Wallace and the show included original music by Cole Porter  Costumes were designed by Elizabeth Haffenden  One of the numbers Duncan sang was 'River God'  After the London run closed, Duncan and Adelaide Hall from the original cast toured Britain with the production 
Duncan taught voice at Howard University in Washington, D C  from 1930 until 1945  While teaching at Howard, he continued touring as a soloist with pianists William Duncan Allen and George Malloy   He had a very successful career as a concert singer with over 2,000 performances in 56 countries and two film roles  He retired from Howard and opened his own voice studio teaching privately and giving periodic recitals 
In 1945, he became the first African American to sing with a major opera company, and the first black person to sing in an opera with an otherwise white cast, when he performed the role of Tonio in Leoncavallo's Pagliacci with the New York City Opera   In the same year he sang the role of Escamillo, the bullfighter, in Bizet's Carmen   In 1954, Duncan was the first to record "Unchained Melody", a popular song with music by Alex North and lyrics by Hy Zaret   The recording was made for the soundtrack of the obscure prison film Unchained, in which Duncan also played a minor character   Following Duncan's version, the song went on to become one of the most recorded songs of the 20th century 
In his final interview, Todd Duncan spoke of his love for spirituals: "    spirituals are so deep inside of me, it's difficult for me to find words that are meaningful   Spirituals are a part of whatever I am   When I sing them my being sings them, not my throat     It is very difficult for me to put into words something that is at the bottom of my very being "In addition to singing, Duncan was also a voice teacher  Among his notable pupils was operatic bass Philip Booth who was a mainstay at the Metropolitan Opera for two decades 

Honors and death
In 1978, the Washington Performing Arts Society presented his 75th birthday gala   Duncan was awarded the George Peabody Medal of Music from the Peabody Conservatory of Music of Johns Hopkins University in 1984   Other awards he received include a medal of honor from Haiti, an NAACP award, the Donaldson Award, the New York Drama Critics' Award for Lost in the Stars, and honorary doctorates from Valparaiso University and Butler University 
Duncan was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity He died of a heart ailment at his home in Washington, D C , February 28, 1998, survived by his wife, Gladys Jackson Duncan, and adopted son, Charles, a successful attorney 

See also
List of African American firsts
Passage 4:
Franklinton Elementary School (North Carolina)
Franklin County Schools is a PK–12 graded school district serving Franklin County, North Carolina, United States  Its 16 schools serve 7,769 students as of the 2022–23 school year  The administrative offices are located in Louisburg 

Student demographics
For the 2022–23 school year, Franklin County Schools had a total population of 7,769 students and 582 66 teachers on a (FTE) basis  This produced a student-teacher ratio of 14 87:1  That same year, out of the student total, the gender ratio was 52% male to 48% female  The demographic group makeup was: 37% White, 31% Black, 25% Hispanic, 6% Two or more Races,  6% Asian,  4% American Indian  For the same school year, 72% of the students received free and reduced-cost lunches 

Governance
The primary governing body of Franklin County Schools follows a council–manager government format with a seven-member Board of Education appointing a Superintendent to run the day-to-day operations of the system  The school system currently resides in the North Carolina State Board of Education's Third District 

Board of education
The seven members of the Board of Education are elected by district (five districts and two at-large seats) in staggered four-year terms with general elections being held during the North Carolina State Primary on even numbered years   They generally meet on the second Monday of each month  The current members of the board are: Dr  Elizabeth Keith (District 3, Chair), Meghan Jordan (District 5), Bernard Hall (District 1), Tommy Piper (District 2), Debra Brodie (District 4), Rosemary Champion (At-large, Vice-Chair), and Paige Sayles (At-large) 

Superintendent
Dr  Rhonda Schuhler currently serves as the Franklin County Schools Superintendent 

Member schools
Franklin County Schools has 16 schools ranging from pre-kindergarten to twelfth grade  Those 16 schools are separated into four high schools, four middle schools, and eight elementary schools 

High schools
Bunn High School (Bunn)
Franklin County Early College (Louisburg)
Franklinton High School (Franklinton)
Louisburg High School (Louisburg)

Middle schools
Bunn Middle School (Bunn)
Cedar Creek Middle School (Youngsville)
Franklinton Middle School (Franklinton)
Terrell Lane Middle School (Louisburg)

Elementary schools
Bunn Elementary School (Bunn)
Edward Best Elementary School (Louisburg)
Franklinton Elementary School (Franklinton)
Laurel Mill Elementary School (Louisburg)
Long Mill Elementary School (Youngsville)
Louisburg Elementary School (Louisburg)
Royal Elementary School (Louisburg)
Youngsville Elementary School [year-round] (Youngsville)

Athletics
According to the North Carolina High School Athletic Association, for the 2021-2025 conference realignment: Bunn, Franklinton and Louisburg high schools are all in the Big East Conference, with Bunn and Louisburg being Class 2A and Franklinton being Class 3A  The early college does not have any athletic teams, but students that attend the early college are eligible to try out for the high school team in their home district 

See also
List of school districts in North Carolina
Passage 5:
Sierra Linda High School
Sierra Linda High School is a high school located in the west part of Phoenix, Arizona, USA, administered by the Tolleson Union High School District  It had 1,787 students as of October 1, 2013, but currently holds about 1,867 as of the 2018–19 school year  It opened in 2008; due to facility issues, students attended the first semester of classes at La Joya Community High School, then moved into the campus in January 2009  Students of the 2012 cohort were the first graduating class, with approximately 355 students 
Passage 6:
Oblate Sisters of Providence
The Oblate Sisters of Providence (OSP) is a Catholic women's religious institute founded by Mother Mary Elizabeth Lange, and James Nicholas Joubert in 1829 in Baltimore, Maryland for the education of girls of African descent  It was the first permanent community of Black Catholic sisters in the United States  
The Oblate Sisters were free women of color who sought to provide Baltimore's African American population with education and "a corps of teachers from its own ranks " The congregation is also a member of the Women of Providence in Collaboration 

History
Founding
James Nicholas Joubert was born in France, and working in Saint-Domingue, (Haiti), when he was forced by the Revolution to escape to the United States  Arriving in Baltimore, he entered St  Mary's Seminary to become a Sulpician priest  After his ordination, he was given charge of the black French-speaking Catholics of St  Mary's chapel  Finding he was making no headway as the children were having trouble reading and learning their catechism he had the idea of founding a school for the purpose of educating these children  In this he was encouraged by his two friends, Fathers Babade and Tessier He was introduced to two women of African descent who kept a small private school and had a hope of consecrating their lives to God  Father Joubert made known to them his plans for a school for girls of African descent and they offered to be at his service  Father Joubert proposed that they also form a religious institute as well as conducting a school  This idea would become St  Frances Academy in 1828 With the approval of James Whitfield, Archbishop of Baltimore, a novitiate was begun  A little over a year later, on 2 July 1829, the first four sisters, Miss Elisabeth Lange from Santiago, Cuba, Miss Mary Rosine Boegues of Saint Domingue, Miss Mary Frances Balas of Saint Domingue, Miss Mary Theresa Duchemin of Baltimore made their vows Sister Mary Lange was chosen superior, and Rev  Father Joubert was appointed director  Pope Gregory XVI approved the institute on 2 October 1831 under the title of Oblate Sisters of Providence  The sisters opened other Catholic schools for African American girls in the city as well as teaching adult women in evening classes and opened a home for widows  The sisters educated youth and nursed the terminally ill during the cholera epidemic of 1832  They provided a home for orphans and sheltered the elderly  The sisters took in washing, ironing and mending to care for the "children of the house"  The organization did not consider "previous condition of servitude a liability for Oblate membership" and eight of the forty women who joined in the antebellum years (1828-1860) had been slaves 

Expansion
In 1871 the sisters vacated the motherhouse on Richmond St  because the city needed the property  A new location was found on a knoll on what was then the outskirts of the city and a new motherhouse was built on Chase St  The sisters continued to operate an orphanage as well as a day and boarding school within the convent walls 
Foreign missions began in 1900 when the Oblates opened their first mission in Havana, Cuba  The OSPs established seven missions in Cuba but left in 1961 when the regime of Fidel Castro made it impossible for them to continue their work  In 1903 a convent and school opened on Old Providence Island in the western Caribbean  Due to extremely harsh conditions, the mission closed after fifteen months 
By 1910 the sisters conducted schools and orphanages at Baltimore, Washington, Leavenworth, St  Louis, and Normandy, Missouri  Eventually the institute founded schools in eighteen states  Some missions only lasted a few years while others endured and changed with the needs of the community 

Modern era
By the 1950s there were over 300 Oblate Sisters of Providence teaching and caring for African American children  The Oblates had missions in the Dominican Republic and opened missions in Costa Rica in 1964, where they continue today The motherhouse remained on Chase Street in Baltimore until a new motherhouse was built in 1961 at 701 Gun Rd  in southwest Baltimore County  It is called Our Lady of Mount Providence and remains the motherhouse today  Several missions operated on the motherhouse property including Mt  Providence Junior College from 1963–1966  
The sisters began a Child Development Center and Reading and Math Center in 1972 on the motherhouse property  The sisters continue to operate St  Francis Academy on Chase Street in Baltimore 

Bill and Camille Cosby donations
In 2005, Camille Cosby (wife of Bill Cosby), an alumna of a school in Washington run by the Oblates, made a donation to the school to create an endowment that will pay the tuition for 16 students a year The Cosbys made another donation in 2012 to assist St  Frances Academy in building a community center in East Baltimore  The community center was originally named after her and her husband, but his name was removed after the revelation of multiple sexual offenses 

Charism
"The original inspiration of the Oblate Sisters of Providence is that gift of the Spirit so evident in the life of Mother Mary Lange   This charism enables us, with total trust in God's Providence, to bring joy, healing and the liberating, redemptive love of the suffering Jesus to the victims of poverty, racism, and injustice despite contradictions, prejudice and pain "Currently the institute has approximately eighty members  The Oblate Sisters continue in Baltimore, Maryland, Miami, Florida, Buffalo, New York, Alajuela and Siquirres, Costa Rica 

Motherhouse
The motherhouse houses the administrative offices, a health care unit, a novitiate (there is also a novitiate in Costa Rica), the Mother Lange Guild (supporting the cause for canonization of Mother Lange), and the Oblate Sisters of Providence Archives and Special Collections Library  Offices for the affiliated organizations of the National Oblate Sisters of Providence Alumni Association and Cojourners of the Oblate Sisters of Providence are also located at the Motherhouse 

See also
Oblate (religion)
Passage 7:
Robert Swirsky
Robert Swirsky (born December, 1962, Brooklyn, NY) is a computer scientist, author and pianist  In the early 1980s, he was one of the first regular contributors to the nascent computer magazine industry, including Popular Computing, Kilobaud Microcomputing, and Interface Age to Creative Computing Swirsky holds bachelor's and master's degrees in computer science from Hofstra University, and is one of Hofstra's Alumni of Distinction  While there, he met VOIP pioneer Jeff Pulver who attended Hofstra as an undergraduate student  After graduating, Swirsky worked on projects ranging from aircraft avionics to one of the first all-software digital radio receivers for a VLF submarine application 
In 1989, Swirsky moved to California and joined Olivetti Advanced Technology's Unix group  He was a frequent speaker at Uniforum, Usenix, and other Unix shows, and hosted parties where he entertained people with song parodies about the Unix computer operating system, some of which were featured in a special Evatone Soundsheet issue of Interface Age magazine  He studied music and piano at Hofstra University with professor Morton Estrin 
After Olivetti, Swirsky went to Adobe Systems, where he was a member of the core PostScript team, and the team that developed the first versions of Photoshop for Microsoft Windows, including Win32s on Microsoft Windows for Workgroups 3 11  His work made him a participant in many industry standards committees, such as TWAIN, and he was a frequent speaker and contributor at ACM SIGGRAPH events  Before leaving Adobe in 1998, he worked with Will Harvey on HTML rendering technology 

The Disney years
In 1998, Swirsky began working for Walt Disney Imagineering R&D as Director, Creative Technology, under Bran Ferren, developing electronic games and digital imaging systems  He developed technology to play interactive games synchronized with live television shows, and electronic toys including Disney's Magical Moments Pin  His digital photography projects included systems to synchronize picture-taking with ride vehicles, and active infrared badges to identify picture-takers 
Swirsky was a major technical contributor to ABC's Enhanced TV, an Emmy Award-winning technology that allowed television viewers to play along with game shows and sporting events, and to answer live polls during talk shows  His interactive media research also involved working with nerdcore rapper Monzy, then an intern at Walt Disney Imagineering, on a variety of cutting-edge display technologies, including the display of digital data on a spherical surface 
Swirsky continues to work as a consultant for the themed entertainment industry, including Disney 

3D photography
Swirsky is known for his work in 3D digital photography  He has developed algorithms for generating full-color anaglyph images from stereo pairs that can be viewed through red/cyan glasses  A popular freeware program, Callipygian 3D, is widely used and has been featured on TechTV's The Screen Savers show several times, with Swirsky demonstrating it  The popularity of anaglyph images from Mars, and of anaglyph movies like Spy Kids 3D, introduced new audiences to anaglyph technology  Swirsky's software played a major role in enabling people to create their own anaglyph images 

Production company
In 2003, Swirsky started a production company, Thrill Science, Inc  "Thrill Science" , to produce and distribute short films and related media for the portable media player market  The company has a 20-acre (81,000 m2) lot adjacent to Walt Disney World in Florida  The property, known as Swampworth, is used as a filming location for productions, and as a studio for Swirsky's other projects 

Code used in The Terminator
Some of Swirsky's computer code, from the May 1984 issue of 73 Magazine, was used in the movie The Terminator in a scene where COBOL code was briefly displayed 
Passage 8:
Emma Azalia Hackley
Emma Azalia Hackley, also known as E  Azalia Hackley and Azalia Smith Hackley (1867–1922), was a concert soprano, newspaper editor, teacher, and political activist  An African American, she promoted racial pride through her support and promotion of music education for African-Americans  She was a choir director and she organized Folk Songs Festivals in African American churches and schools  Hackley studied music for years, including in Paris under opera singer Jean de Reszke  She was a music teacher who taught Roland Hayes, Marian Anderson, and R  Nathaniel Dett  She founded the Vocal Normal Institute in Chicago 
She co-founded both the Imperial Order of Libyans and the Colored Women's League  She was a newspaper editor for the women's section of The Statesman and an author  Hackley published The Colored Girl Beautiful, a "how to" on becoming an accomplished and refined African American lady 

Early life
Born Emma Azalia Smith on June 29, 1867, in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, she was the daughter of Henry B  and Corilla (Carrilla) Smith  Her mother, formerly Corilla Beard, lived in Detroit and her father was from Murfreesboro  They moved south after their marriage  The daughter of an escaped slave, Corilla founded a school in Murfreesboro for former enslaved people and their children  She gave voice lessons at night  In 1870, the school was threatened and attacked by the Ku Klux Klan and other hostile groups during evening singing lessons  Concerned for the safety of their family, the Smiths moved to Detroit, Michigan, in 1870 or in the 1870s  Her father was a blacksmith  Corilla was a teacher and supported herself and the girls after the Smiths separated  Hackley had a younger sister named Marietta Hackley learned to play the piano at age three and took voice and violin lessons as a child  She was the first African American student to attend public school there  She sang and played piano at high school dances, which contributed to the Smith family's income  She completed her education at Capital High School and a normal school at the same time, graduating with honors from the Washington Normal School in 1886  She received a teaching certificate in 1887 and taught at Clinton Elementary School in Detroit from that year to 1894 She continued her voice and violin lessons, and she also took French lessons  She sang for the Detroit Musical Society  She paid for her lessons by giving piano lessons  Hackley also gave voice recitals  Due to her very light skin color and auburn hair, many people suggested that she try to pass for white in order to further her musical career  She refused to deny her heritage and remained intensely proud of her roots throughout her life 

Marriage
She married Edwin Henry Hackley, an attorney and newspaper publisher from Denver, Colorado in 1894  After the marriage, she moved to Colorado with him  Edwin Henry Hackley, educated at the University of Michigan, was the first African American admitted to the Colorado bar  He co-founded The Statesman with Joseph D D  Rivers Hackley and her husband co-founded the Imperial Order of Libyans, to combat racial prejudice and foment equality  At the turn of the twentieth century, Edwin sold his interest in The Statesman and published the Statesman-cum-Denver Star with his wife Her health suffered due to the high altitude and Hackley decided to move east for her health  In 1901 or 1905, Hackley separated from her husband and left Denver for Philadelphia, Pennsylvania  Hackley lived with her husband in Philadelphia in 1910 and 1912  Her mother-in-law lived with them in 1910  At the time, Edwin worked as a letter carrier and she was a singer and a music teacher  There is no record of the Hackleys having divorced  She was identified as a married woman on her death certificate of 1922; Edwin H  Hackley was identified as her husband  Identified as a widower and a playwright, Edwin died in 1940  Hackley was on his birth certificate as his deceased wife 

Career
She received her bachelor's degree from the Denver School of Music in 1900  She was the first African American graduate  Trained in the bel canto vocal style, she was a concert soprano  While receiving her education, she was the assistant director of a large choir in Denver and was the choir director at her church She promoted racial pride through music  She defined herself as a "race musical missionary"  She wanted children to be inspired, stimulated, and trained at her concerts  The Denver Post acknowledged her efforts to draw African Americans into music and said that she was "one of the best vocalists in the city "She established the Colorado branch of the Colored Women's League and was the editor of the Statesman Exponent, the woman's section of The Colorado Statesman  She wrote articles about African American literature and music, including the influence of music on children and home life  Other topics include civil government, current events, and the importance of compiling facts on blacks  She also wrote about household economies and hygiene  In one column she wrote of the Colored Women's League:

In mapping out this program we have borne in mind the great need for thought and talk on the practical as well as cultural side of woman's life  Our first work will be toward the education and improvement of our Colored women and the promotion of their interests 
She held her first performance of a concert tour in Denver in 1901  In 1901, Hackley moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to continue her career as a notable choral director  She was the director of music at the Episcopal Church of the Crucifixion  In 1904, she founded and led the 100-member People's Choir, which became known as the Hackley Choral She organized Folk Songs Festivals to present African American Spirituals  She introduced Black folk music to an international audience at the World Sunday School Convention in Tokyo  She held large community concerts with programs that included classical music, operatic arias, and African American spirituals performed by her and local performers  She financed the programs and provided training sessions for local performers about ten days before the concert In Paris, she studied under Jean de Reszke, a well-known opera singer and vocal coach in 1905 and 1906  She trained artists such as Roland Hayes, Marian Anderson, and R  Nathaniel Dett Hackley wrote newspaper and magazine articles and short books  She gave lectures at churches, colleges, and schools throughout the United States and Canada  Hackley raised funds by holding benefit concerts, which was used to provide foreign scholarships for African American classical musicians In 1912, she formed the Vocal Normal Institute in Chicago, Illinois, which operated until 1916  She had intended for it to be her headquarters and a central location for the school that she could return to between her tours  Instead it put a strain on her  As a result, her health began to decline She gathered recommendations that she had made during her lecture tours for Black woman to succeed  In 1916, Hackley published The Colored Girl Beautiful, a "how to" on becoming a refined African American lady  She defined beauty, duty, and career and leadership opportunities for black women  She was described as one of W  E  B  Du Bois's Talented Tenth by Lois Brevard, her biographer She was driven by a philosophy to uplift people, which she did by delivering lectures inspired by the 19th-century New Thought spiritual movement  She also enjoyed giving music lessons to large audiences  Juanita Karpf wrote the book Performing Racial Uplift: E  Azalia Hackley and African American Activism in the Post-Bellum to Pre-Harlem Era 

Death
Hackley collapsed on stage while performing in San Diego in 1921 and was brought back to Detroit  She died on December 13, 1922, at the home of her sister, Mrs



ground_truth: Knowsley

Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the first African American student at the university Robert Khayat was educated at?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Marieta Johnson, in Detroit, Michigan  She is buried at the Elmwood Cemetery in Detroit A special collection, the E  Azalia Hackley Collection of African Americans in the Performing Arts, was founded in her name at the Detroit Public Library in 1943 

In popular culture
A portrait of Hackley, painted by Detroit artist Telitha Cumi Bowens, was included in the 1988/89 exhibit Ain't I A Woman at the Museum of African American History, Detroit  The exhibit featured a dozen prominent Black women from the state of Michigan, including the Honorable Cora M  Brown, Ethelene Jones Crockett, M D , and teacher Fannie M  Richards 

See also
List of African American pioneers of Colorado

Notes
Passage 9:
Thurgood Marshall College
Thurgood Marshall College (Marshall) is one of the seven undergraduate colleges at the University of California, San Diego   The college, named after Thurgood Marshall, the first African-American Supreme Court Justice and lawyer for the landmark 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v  Board of Education, emphasizes "scholarship, social responsibility and the belief that a liberal arts education must include an understanding of [one's] role in society " Marshall College's general education requirements emphasize the culture of community involvement and multiculturalism; accordingly Marshall houses the minors in Public Service and Film Studies for the campus  Significant academic programs and departments have come out of the college over many decades: Communication, Ethnic Studies, Third World Studies, African American Studies, Urban Studies & Planning, and Education Studies 
Founded as Third College in 1970 amid the student activism of the period, TMC's original aim was to help students understand their own community through a critical examination of diversity and community in the United States  Marshall College's required writing program is called Dimensions of Culture (DOC), and is a 3 quarter (1 year) sequence that explores race, identity, imagination, tradition, and the law in the United States  During President Obama's administration, the White House honored UC San Diego and Marshall College's Public Service minor and charter school outreach as exemplary community service institutions serving the United States 

Early history
In November 1965, the College III Preliminary Planning Committee released the first substantial report on what form UCSD's third college would take  The committee, comprising faculty members George Backus, Henry Booker, Gabriel Jackson, C D  Keeling, and committee chair Andrew Wright, suggested that College III should focus itself on history and theory 
The Wright Committee report suggested that the college have a muse—namely Clio, the Greek muse of history  History was chosen by the committee because it mixed humanism with science—College III would be a sort of "common ground" between the science of Revelle and the humanities of Muir 
In a quiet act of rebelliousness (or perhaps it was just individuality), the committee planned that College III students would only have to take three courses per quarter to graduate in four years, as opposed to the four it took at the other UCSD colleges  Citing the three-course "full load" at UC Santa Cruz, the committee suggested that taking four courses in one quarter would "make the students ride off in all directions," and that three-in depth courses would be preferable 
The final note of the Wright Committee report described what the committee felt was needed in a College III Provost "a paragon of intellectual vitality, scholarly accomplishment, and administrative talent    sympathetic with the aims of College III, but independent enough    to be able to shape the College in important ways " They asked that a provost be appointed as soon as possible 
By 1967, College III had found its first provost, Armin Rappaport, a history professor at U C  Berkeley  It was appropriate that the provost of a college with Clio as its muse would be a historian, and Rappaport was that  By the time May rolled around, College III was now "Third College "
However, with the swirling political changes of the late 1960s, the college of Clio and Rappaport was never to be  Once the controversy and battles among students, faculty, and administration commenced—featuring lively figures such as Herbert Schiller, Herbert Marcuse, and Angela Davis—the future of Third College would be in a turmoil that didn't fully clear until it finally received its official name, Thurgood Marshall College, in 1993 
Chancellor William J  McGill persuaded Dr  Joseph Watson to become the first operational provost of Third College during this very turbulent time in 1970  Provost Watson's term lasted eleven years as he then assumed a higher campus position as Vice Chancellor for Student Affairs   Professor Faustina Solís then followed as the second college administrator and was also the university's first Latina provost  She served in that capacity from 1981 to 1988  Solís established public health coursework for undergraduates and medical students, following years of social work and health care for under-served populations  She was honored in 1990 when Thurgood Marshall Lecture Hall was renamed the Faustina F  Solís Hall 

Student activism
Naming controversy
At its inception, students pushed for the new college to be named "Lumumba-Zapata College" in honor of the legendary twentieth century revolutionaries Patrice Lumumba and Emiliano Zapata  Unable to get approval for this name from UC Administration, the college was renamed Third College  This name did also inspire the idea that the student body would be one-third white students, one-third black students, and one-third definable minority students  Third College took up much of the activism that the campus was lacking, and the naming controversy was a catalyst for this movement  However, UCSD failed to attract enough black students for this plan to reach fruition and the UC Regents would not allow large scale deviation from the University of California's admission guidelines In the early 1990s, an attempt was made to name the college after Martin Luther King Jr , but failed when UCSD students objected to naming the college after someone who was charged with plagiarizing his doctoral dissertation  More to the point, King's family announced that they would rather see a full-fledged King College built in the South, and preferably in Atlanta 
In 1993 UCSD's Third College finally received its official name in honor of the famous lawyer and Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall  Before becoming the first African American Supreme Court Justice, Marshall argued the 1954 landmark civil rights case Brown v  Board of Education  Justice Marshall was widely known and recognized for his historic contributions to American life and dedication to breaking down barriers to education, civil rights, freedom of speech, women's rights, and the right to privacy  Today Thurgood Marshall College continues to honor the legacy of its namesake by promoting a curriculum and environment that empowers students to become both scholars and citizens 

DOC controversy
In the early 1990s, Thurgood Marshall College created a core freshman writing program that provided a critical examination of identity and diversity in American culture  The intellectual program was inspired by the University of Chicago and Columbia University's freshman humanities programs  The program, Dimensions of Culture (DOC), periodically generated heated debates among students, families, and alumni, based on difficult political issues 
In the spring of 2007, a new curriculum controversy arose pertaining to DOC as students at TMC began protesting against the administrators of the college  The Lumumba-Zapata Coalition (which had resurfaced with the addition of graduate students) along with other students claimed that DOC had lost some of its original messages, protesting against what they termed a "new and diluted" core writing requirement with a decreased focus on race and the ethnic significance of the individual within society  The protests, including picketing, began with the controversial non-renewal of two DOC Teaching Assistants’ contracts for the subsequent year  Others believed that the coalition was pushing an agenda of political indoctrination that conflicted with the academic goals of the Dimensions of Culture Program and the sensibility of a science oriented campus 
The protests had mixed effects  In response to the complaints in regards to the curriculum a new committee was set up to review and change the curriculum accordingly with an emphasis on hiring tenured faculty to teach DOC  Student positions with voting rights were included on the permanent committee so an equitable curriculum will be created reflecting full community input from both students and faculty  Thurgood Marshall College Student Council (TMCSC) issued a report recommending that DOC have an upper division course which also sparked the public service course  In August 2009, Co-Director of the DOC Program, Robert Horwitz stated, "Various criticisms were leveled at DOC in the last few years, and faculty and student investigations concluded that changes needed to be made  Those changes have been implemented and have resulted in a new DOC ”

College programs
Minors
Thurgood Marshall College has created more academic departments and programs than any other college at UCSD, including Third World Studies, Ethnic Studies, Education Studies, African American Studies Minor, and Urban Studies and Planning  TMC is now home to two UCSD Minors: the Public Service Minor and the Film Studies Minor 
The Public Service Minor encourages students to understand the history and practices of public service and to work towards the development of civic skills  Those skills and practices are essential cornerstones of participation in a democratic society regardless of one's chosen profession  The coursework for the minor emphasizes the history and emergence of the non-profit sector as a national institution distinct from the private and public spheres  The practicum aspects of the minor couples with the traditional academic work encourages students to see the connection between the deeds of charitable service and the historic worth of citizens participation in the common public franchise The Film Studies Minor provides students an exciting opportunity to examine the many facets of American and International cinema  Students interested in exploring cinema as a multidimensional art medium will engage in the analysis of cinematic works of various forms  Study of film genres, history, theories, directors, cultural perspectives and more allow students to gain a robust understanding of cinema as a historical and contemporary means of expression  The interdisciplinary nature of the minor provides investigation of cinematic art through its connection to related fields such as Communication, Literature, Sociology and Visual Arts  Students pursuing the Film Studies Minor exhibit a wide range of interests; from those who plan graduate study in film to those who simply wish to understand better this powerful and influential medium 

Morehouse/Spelman/Xavier Student Exchange Program
The Morehouse/Spelman Student Exchange Program was officially launched in the fall quarter of 1989  This formal exchange program with two distinguished Historically Black Colleges was developed by Thurgood Marshall College and is open to all UCSD undergraduates  Morehouse College and Spelman College are both located in Atlanta, Georgia 
Xavier University in New Orleans became the third historic Black college to have this exchange with Marshall College in 2016 

Marshall partnership schools
Then Thurgood Marshall College Provost Cecil Lytle and Sociology Professor Bud Mehan were instrumental in founding the Preuss School at UCSD, which opened in 1999 on campus despite strong opposition  The project was seen by faculty as a deviation from UC San Diego's focus on science and medicine  However, providing the impetus for the founding of The Preuss School reflected the social justice oriented mission of Marshall College  Between 2007 and 2012 Preuss has consistently been listed among the top 50 American high schools by both Newsweek and U S  News & World Report After Preuss was established successfully, the idea and structure of the UCSD-supported charter school model was expanded to Gompers Preparatory Academy  Based on educational theories, the successes of Preuss should be able to be recreated in a different environment, which was why Gompers was selected   Gompers was historically one of the most dangerous and low performing schools in the district, and yet has been transformed into an academically rigorous school with 100% graduation rate with the transition to the charter school model The College maintains strong links to both charter schools by providing them with hundreds of undergraduate tutors and mentors every year from all six colleges  In addition, the College's Provost is a Preuss School Board Member 

Artist in residence
The artist-in-residence program, begun in 2006, brings to campus leading performers and visual artists from San Diego and Southern California to UC San Diego  Each artist is featured for one year and given the opportunity to develop new showcase work, which often goes on to fuller production off campus  Marshall College is the first college at UCSD to commission public art on campus, and has contributed in the creation of a vibrant campus community  Allan Havis, a professor from the Theatre Department, launched these programs during his term as college provost from 2006 to 2016 

Student life
Student involvement
Marshall College is home to an eclectic mix of student-led organizations, programs to facilitate students' success, and opportunities to give back to the Marshall community 

Student organizations
ACT (Active Community at TMC)
Commuter Board
CAUSE (Cultural Association Uniting Students through Education)
Graduation Committee
Judicial Board
LC3 (Leadership Committee for Cultural Celebration)
MAC (Marshall Activities Committee)
Marshall Memos
MSC (Marshall Spirit Crew)
Marshallpalooza Committee
SCORE (Student Committee on Residential Engagement)
TMCSC (Thurgood Marshall College Student Council)
TMTV (Thurgood Marshall Television)
TRES (Transfer and Re-Entry Student Organizations)

Student programs
Dine-with-a-Prof
Each One Reach One
Marshall Mentor Program
Transfer Connect & Success

Leadership Development
Dean's Office Internship
Lift as You Climb
Orientation Leaders (OL)
Resident Advisors (RA)
Resident Life Interns
Passage 10:
Robert Khayat
Robert Conrad Khayat (born April 18, 1938) was the 15th Chancellor of the University of Mississippi  He also played American football as a placekicker, guard, and center for Ole Miss and in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins during the 1960, 1962 and 1963 seasons  He was appointed Chancellor in 1995 

Early years
Khayat was born in Moss Point, Mississippi, to Lebanese parents  He attended Moss Point High School and the University of Mississippi  He received both bachelor of arts and Juris Doctor degrees from the University of Mississippi  He also played football for the Ole Miss Rebels football team from 1957 to 1959  He also received an LL M  degree from Yale University 

Professional football career
Khayat was selected by the Cleveland Browns in the 1960 NFL Draft  He was then traded to the Washington Redskins in April 1960  He played for the Redskins during the 1960, 1962, and 1963 seasons  Following the 1960 season, he was named to the Pro Bowl squad  He appeared in a total of 40 NFL games and kicked 38 field goals and 90 extra points His brother Eddie Khayat also played and coached in the NFL 

Later years
Khayat later became a lawyer and taught law at the University of Mississippi School of Law He was appointed chancellor in 1995  In one of his first acts as chancellor, Khayat arranged for a $5 4 million gift from Jim and Sally Barksdale to establish an honors college at the university  In 1996, with enrollment declining, Khayat retained the public relations firm, Burson-Marsteller, to conduct a survey of public perception — including university symbols  When The New York Times reported on the review, which included the Confederate Flag and other Old South symbols, a media frenzy ensued 
On January 6, 2009, Khayat announced his retirement effective June 30, 2009  He was succeeded by Daniel Jones on June 15, 2009 
Khayat's memoir, The Education of a Lifetime, was published on September 10, 2013 
Passage 11:
Yeni Həyat, Khachmaz
Yeni Həyat (also, Yeni-Khayat) is a village and municipality in the Khachmaz Rayon of Azerbaijan   It has a population of 3,503 
Passage 12:
Fort Wagner
Fort Wagner or Battery Wagner was a beachhead fortification on Morris Island, South Carolina, that covered the southern approach to Charleston Harbor  It was the site of two American Civil War battles in the campaign known as Operations Against the Defenses of Charleston in 1863, in which United States forces took heavy casualties while trying to seize the fort 

Construction
Named for deceased Lt  Col  Thomas M  Wagner, Fort Wagner measured 250 yards (230 m) by 100 yards (91 m), and spanned an area between the Atlantic on the east and an impassable swamp on the west  Its walls, composed of sand and earth, rose 30 feet (9 1 m) above the level beach and were supported by palmetto logs and sandbags  The fort's arsenal included fourteen cannons, the largest a 10-inch (250 mm) Columbiad that fired a 128-pound shell  It was a large structure capable of sheltering nearly 1,000 of the fort's 1,700-man garrison and provided substantial protection against naval shelling  The fort's land face was protected by a water-filled trench, 10 feet (3 0 m) wide and 5 feet (1 5 m) deep, surrounded by buried land mines and sharpened palmetto stakes   The fort itself was supported by defenses throughout Morris Island 

History
The First Battle of Fort Wagner, occurred on July 11, 1863  Only 12 Confederate soldiers were killed, as opposed to 339 losses for the U S  side The Second Battle of Fort Wagner (pictured in Glory (1989 film)), a week later, is better known  It was the Union attack on July 18, 1863, led by the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, one of the first major American military units made up of black soldiers  Colonel Robert Gould Shaw led the 54th Massachusetts on foot while they charged, and was killed in the assault Although a tactical defeat, the publicity of the battle of Fort Wagner led to further action for black U S  troops in the Civil War, and it spurred additional recruitment that gave the Union Army a further numerical advantage in troops over the South Union forces besieged the fort after the unsuccessful assault  By August 25, Union entrenchments were close enough to attempt an assault on the Advanced Rifle Pits, 240 yards in front of the Battery, but the attempt was defeated  A second attempt, by the 24th Massachusetts Infantry, on August 26 was successful  After enduring almost 60 days of heavy U S  shelling, the Confederates abandoned it on the night of September 6–7, 1863, withdrawing all operable cannons and the garrison The main reason the fort was abandoned was a concern about the loss of the garrison due to artillery fire and the threat of imminent assault   On September 6, the garrison commander, Colonel Keitt, wrote to his superiors, "The garrison must be taken away immediately after dark, or it will be destroyed or captured  It is idle to deny that the heavy Parrott shells have breached the walls and are knocking away the bomb-proofs  Pray have boats immediately after dark at Cummings Point to take away the men  I say deliberately that this must be done or the garrison will be sacrificed  I am sending the wounded and sick now to Cummings Point, and will continue to do so, if possible, until all are gone  I have a number of them now there  I have not in the garrison 400 effective men, including artillery  The engineers agree in opinion with me, or, rather, shape my opinion  I shall say no more " A council of war in Charleston on the 4th had already reached the same conclusion, and the evacuation was carried out as planned Within twenty years of the Civil War, the remnants of the fort had been washed away by erosion on Morris Island  A group of three ex-servicemen traveled to the fort in May 1885 and reported that the entire fort and approaches to it had washed away into the ocean The fall of Battery Wagner would have considerable strategic significance  With its loss and that of Fort Gregg, Morris Island too fell to the United States  Although Charleston remained in the hands of the rebels its port was effectively closed   At the end of the year Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles could report that "the commerce of Charleston has ceased "  The impact also showed directly in rebel customs receipts, which fell drastically from 1863 to 1864   The labors and sacrifices of the United States forces during the storms and siege had in the end shut down a vital lifeline to the rebellion 

54th Massachusetts
The most famous regiment that fought for the Union in the battle of Fort Wagner was the 54th regiment, which was one of the first African-American regiments in the war  The 54th was controversial in the North, where many people supported the abolition of slavery but still treated African Americans as lesser or inferior to whites  Though some claimed blacks could not fight as well as whites, the actions of the 54th Massachusetts demonstrated once again the fallacy in that argument, as this was not the first time blacks ever fought in war or even for the United States 
William Carney, an African American and a sergeant with the 54th, is considered the first black recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions at Fort Wagner in recovering and returning the unit's American flag to Union lines  After the battle, the Confederates buried the regiment's commanding officer, Colonel Shaw, in an unmarked mass grave with the African-American soldiers of his regiment as an insult to him  Instead, his family considered it an honor that Shaw was buried with his men 
Morris Island is smaller than 1,000 acres and is subject to extensive erosion by storm and sea  Much of the site of Fort Wagner has been eroded away, including the place where the Union soldiers were buried  However, by the time that happened, the soldiers' remains were no longer there because soon after the end of the Civil War, the Army disinterred and reburied all the remains, including presumably those of Shaw, at the Beaufort National Cemetery in Beaufort, South Carolina, where their gravestones were marked as "unknown"     The number missing presumed dead at Battery Wagner was 391, among the 10 regiments involved  54th with the most at 146   100 NY with 119, 48th NY with 112  The number of unknowns at Beaufort on their Civil monument 1870s is 174 unknowns   These unknowns collected from three Southern states  Sites include East Florida,  Millen and Lawton Georgia  and Hilton Head   Two Confederate POW sites included  Given the missing at Morris island is  more than double the total unknowns at Beaufort National Cemetery, it appears many bodies were not removed and were lost to the shifting sea 

In popular culture
This fort plays a major part in the film Glory  The final scene portrays Shaw and the men of the 54th Massachusetts leading the attack and storming the fort unsuccessfully 
In the book Magnus Chase and the Ship of the Dead, a character named T J  dies charging the battlements at Fort Wagner 

Preservation
Although the Atlantic Ocean consumed Fort Wagner in the late 1800s and the original site is now offshore, the Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 118 acres (0 48 km2) of historic Morris Island, which had gun emplacements and other military installations during the war 
Passage 13:
James Meredith
James Howard Meredith (born June 25, 1933) is an American civil rights activist, writer, political adviser, and United States Air Force veteran who became, in 1962, the first African-American student admitted to the racially segregated University of Mississippi after the intervention of the federal government (an event that was a flashpoint in the civil rights movement)  Inspired by President John F  Kennedy's inaugural address, Meredith decided to exercise his constitutional rights and apply to the University of Mississippi  His goal was to put pressure on the Kennedy administration to enforce civil rights for African Americans  The admission of Meredith ignited the Ole Miss riot of 1962 where Meredith's life was threatened and 31,000 American servicemen were required to quell the violence - the largest ever invocation of the Insurrection Act of 1807 In 1966, Meredith planned a solo 220-mile (350-kilometer) March Against Fear from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi; he wanted to highlight continuing racism in the South and encourage voter registration after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965  He did not want major civil rights organizations involved  The second day, he was shot by a white gunman and suffered numerous wounds  Leaders of major organizations vowed to complete the march in his name after he was taken to the hospital  While Meredith was recovering, more people from across the country became involved as marchers  He rejoined the march and when Meredith and other leaders entered Jackson on June 26, they were leading an estimated 15,000 marchers, in what was the largest civil rights march in Mississippi  During the march, more than 4,000 African Americans registered to vote, and it was a catalyst to continued community organizing and additional registration 
In 2002 and again in 2012, the University of Mississippi led year-long series of events to celebrate the 40th and 50th anniversaries of Meredith's integration of the institution  He was among numerous speakers invited to the campus, where a statue of him commemorates his role  The Lyceum-The Circle Historic District at the center of the campus has been designated as a National Historic Landmark for these events 

Early life and education
Meredith was born in 1933 in Kosciusko, Mississippi, the son of Roxie (Patterson) and Moses Meredith  He is of African-American, English Canadian, Scots and Choctaw heritage  His family nickname was "J-Boy"  European traders intermarried with some Choctaw during the colonial period  In the 1830s, thousands of Choctaw chose to stay in Mississippi and become United States citizens when most of the tribe left their traditional homeland for Indian Territory during the federally imposed removal  Those in the state had unions with European Americans and African Americans (some of whom were enslaved), adding to the multi-racial population in the developing territory Meredith completed 11th grade at Attala County Training School (which was segregated as "white" and "colored" under the state's Jim Crow laws) and completed 12th grade at Gibbs High School in St  Petersburg, Florida  He graduated from high school in 1951  Then, Meredith enlisted in the United States Air Force  He served from 1951 to 1960 Afterward Meredith attended Jackson State University for two years, achieving good grades 

University of Mississippi
Challenge to the University
In 1961, inspired the day before by U S  President John F  Kennedy, Meredith started to apply to the University of Mississippi, intending to insist on his civil rights to attend the state-funded university  It still admitted only white students under the state's culture of racial segregation, although the U S  Supreme Court ruled in Brown v  Board of Education (1954) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional, as they are supported by all the taxpayers 
Meredith wrote in his application that he wanted admission for his country, race, family, and himself  He said,

Nobody handpicked me   I believed, and believe now, that I have a Divine Responsibility    I am familiar with the probable difficulties involved in such a move as I am undertaking and I am fully prepared to pursue it all the way to a degree from the University of Mississippi 
He was twice denied admission  During this time, he was advised by Medgar Evers, who was head of the state chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 
On May 31, 1961, Meredith, with backing of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, filed suit in the U S  District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi, alleging that the university had rejected him only because of his race, as he had a highly successful record of military service and academic courses  The case went through many hearings, after which the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled that Meredith had the right to be admitted to the state school  The state appealed to the U S  Supreme Court, which supported the ruling of the appeals court On September 13, 1962, the District Court entered an injunction directing the members of the Board of Trustees and the officials of the University to register Meredith  The Democratic Governor of Mississippi, Ross Barnett, declared "no school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your governor"   The state legislature quickly created a plan  They passed a law that denied admission to any person "who has a crime of moral turpitude against him" or who had been convicted of any felony offense or not pardoned  The same day it became law, Meredith was accused and convicted of "false voter registration," in absentia, in Jackson County  The conviction against Meredith was trumped up: Meredith both owned land in northern Mississippi and was registered to vote in Jackson, where he lived  "Later the clerk testified that Meredith was qualified to register and vote in Jackson [where he was registered] "
On September 20, the federal government obtained an injunction against enforcement of this Act and of the two state court decrees that had barred Meredith's registration  That day Meredith was rebuffed again by Governor Barnett in his efforts to gain admission, though university officials were prepared to admit him  On September 28, the Court of Appeals, en banc and after a hearing, found the Governor in civil contempt and ordered that he be arrested and pay a fine of $10,000 for each day that he kept up the refusal, unless he complied by October 2  On September 29, Lieutenant Governor Paul B  Johnson Jr  (elected Governor on November 5, 1963) was also found in contempt by a panel of the court, and a similar order was entered against him, with a fine of $5,000 a day Attorney General Robert F  Kennedy had a series of phone calls with Governor Barnett between September 27 to October 1  Barnett reluctantly agreed to let Meredith enroll in the university, but secretly bargained with Kennedy on a plan which would allow him to save face 
Barnett committed to maintain civil order  Robert Kennedy ordered 127 U S  Marshals as well as 316 deputized U S  Border Patrol and 97 Federal Bureau of Prisons officers to accompany Meredith during his arrival and registration  On September 29, President Kennedy issued a proclamation commanding all persons engaged in the obstruction of the laws and the orders of the courts to "cease and desist therefrom and to disperse and retire peaceably forthwith", citing his authority under 10 U S C  § 332, § 333, and § 334 to use the militia or the armed forces to suppress any insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful combination, or conspiracy 

Rioting at the University
On the evening of September 29, the day after State Senator George Yarbrough withdrew the State Highway Police, a riot broke out  Whites opposing integration had been gathering at the campus and began fighting with federal agents  Despite the Kennedy administration's reluctance to use force, it ordered the nationalized Mississippi National Guard and federal troops to the campus  In the violent clashes which followed, two civilians were killed by gunshot wounds, and white rioters burned cars, pelted federal agents and soldiers with rocks, bricks and small arms fire, and damaged university property 

Enrollment
The day after the riots, on October 1, 1962, after federal and state forces took control, Meredith became the first African-American student to enroll at the University of Mississippi  Meredith's admission is regarded as a pivotal moment in the history of civil rights in the United States 
Many students harassed Meredith during his two semesters on campus, but others accepted him  According to first-person accounts, students living in Meredith's dorm bounced basketballs on the floor just above his room through all hours of the night  Other students ostracized him: when Meredith walked into the cafeteria for meals, the students eating would turn their backs  If Meredith sat at a table with other students, all of whom were white, the students would immediately get up and go to another table  He persisted through harassment and extreme isolation to graduate on August 18, 1963, with a degree in political science 

Education and activism
Meredith continued his education, focusing on political science, at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria  He returned to the United States in 1965  He attended law school through a scholarship at Columbia University and earned an LL B (law degree) in 1968 In 1966, Meredith organized and led a solo, personal March Against Fear for 220 miles from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi, beginning on June 6, 1966  Inviting only black men to join him, he wanted to highlight continuing racial oppression in the Mississippi Delta, as well as to encourage blacks to register and vote following passage of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight and enforcement of rights  Governor Paul Johnson promised to allow the march and provide State Highway Police protection  Meredith wanted blacks in Mississippi to overcome fear of violence Despite police, on the second day, Meredith was shot and wounded by Aubrey James Norvell, a white man whose motives were never determined, and who pleaded guilty at trial  Meredith was quickly taken to a hospital  Leaders of major organizations rallied at the news and vowed to complete the march in Meredith's name  They struggled to reconcile differing goals, but succeeded in attracting more than 10,000 marchers from local towns and across the country by the end Meredith recovered from his wounds and rejoined the march before it reached Jackson on June 26, when 15,000 marchers entered the city in what had become the largest civil rights march in state history  During the march, more than 4,000 black Mississippians registered to vote  Continued community organizing was catalyzed by these events, and African Americans began to enter the political system again  Black voters in Mississippi have established a high rate of voter registration and voting participation 

Political career
In 1967, while living and studying in New York, Meredith decided to run as a Republican against incumbent Adam Clayton Powell Jr , a multi-term Democrat, in a special election for the Congressional seat in Harlem  He withdrew from the race and Powell was re-elected  Meredith said later of his campaign, "The Republican Party [of New York] made me an offer: full support in every way, everything " He had full access to top New York Republicans After returning to Mississippi to live, in 1972 Meredith ran for the US Senate against Democratic senator James Eastland, who had been the incumbent for 29 years in what had operated as a one-party state  Following provisions of a new state constitution in 1890 that made voter registration extremely difficult, African Americans had been effectively disenfranchised and the Republican Party had been crippled  Meredith conceded that he had little chance of winning unless Governor George Wallace of Alabama entered the presidential race and split the white vote An active Republican, Meredith served from 1989 to 1991 as a domestic adviser on the staff of United States Senator Jesse Helms  Faced with criticism from the civil rights community for working for the avowed segregationist, Meredith said that he had applied to every member of the Senate and House offering his services, and only Helms' office responded  He also wanted a chance to do research at the Library of Congress In 2002, officials at the University of Mississippi celebrated the 40th anniversary of Meredith's historic admission and integration of the institution with a year-long series of events  Of the celebration, Meredith said,

It was an embarrassment for me to be there, and for somebody to celebrate it, oh my God  I want to go down in history, and have a bunch of things named after me, but believe me that ain't it 
He said he had achieved his main goal at the time by getting the federal government to enforce his rights as a citizen  He saw his actions as "an assault on white supremacy " In 2003, he was far more proud that his son Joseph Meredith graduated as the top doctoral student at the university's graduate business school 

Legacy and honors
In 2002, the University of Mississippi honored the 40th anniversary of Meredith's admission with numerous events 
In 2006, a statue of him was dedicated on campus in his honor 
In 2012, the University commemorated the 50th anniversary of the historic admission, featuring a range of speakers, artists, lectures and events during the year 
That year Meredith received the Harvard Graduate School of Education 'Medal for Education Impact' and was the school's convocation speaker  Meredith said it was the first award in 50 years he had accepted 

Cultural depictions
In 2011 miniseries The Kennedys, he was portrayed by Matthew G  Brown in episode five of the series, Life Sentences 

Political viewpoint
A highly independent man, Meredith has identified as an individual American citizen who demanded and received the constitutional rights held by any American, not as a participant in the Civil Rights Movement  There have been tensions between him and leaders of major organizations of the movement  When interviewed in 2002, the 40th anniversary of his enrollment at University of Mississippi, Meredith said, "Nothing could be more insulting to me than the concept of civil rights  It means perpetual second-class citizenship for me and my kind "Meredith was a supporter of the unsuccessful 1967 gubernatorial bid of ex-Mississippi Governor (and avowed segregationist) Ross Barnett, as well as the 1991 gubernatorial campaign of Louisiana State Representative and ex-Klansman David Duke In a 2002 interview with CNN, Meredith said of his efforts to integrate Ole Miss, "I was engaged in a war  I considered myself engaged in a war from Day One  And my objective was to force the federal government—the Kennedy administration at that time—into a position where they would have to use the United States military force to enforce my rights as a citizen "

Personal life
On March 14, 1956, Meredith married Mary June Wiggins  She later worked as a high school English teacher  They had three sons, James, John and Joseph Howard Meredith   Mary June Meredith died of heart failure in December 1979 
In 1982, Meredith married Judy Alsobrooks in Gary, Indiana  She had one son, Kip Naylor, from a previous marriage  Jessica Howard Meredith was born to their union   The couple live in Jackson, Mississippi 

Works
In 1966, his memoir, Three Years in Mississippi, was published by the Indiana University Press 
He has self-published several books on politics and society 

See also
List of African-American pioneers in desegregation of higher education
List of civil rights leaders
School integration in the United States



ground_truth: James Howard Meredith

James Meredith