prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where was the president born on the fourth of July born?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos
Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos (19 July 1871 – 25 May 1935) was a Dominican political figure  He served as provisional president of the Dominican Republic between 1922 and 1924 during the U S  military occupation 

Early life
Juan Bautista Vicini was born on 19 July 1871 to Italian immigrant Juan Bautista Vicini Cánepa (born Giovanni Battista Vicini) and his concubine María Burgos Brito  His father arrived to the Dominican Republic during the boom in the sugar industry which he took advantage of to create a respectable operation within a relatively short amount of time  According to the Dutch author H  Hoetink in his book El Pueblo Dominicano, 1850–1900, his father owned two sugar plantations by 1882 and by 1893 was the owner of the sugar mill "Angelina"  His friendly relationship with General Ulises Heureaux (Lilís) helped him consolidate a respectable fortune  Vicini inherited his father's business and was able to become a successful businessman mainly by part of his strict European education  Vicini was fluent in Spanish, Italian, English and French at a very young age 
Juan Bautista Vicini never married and had no wife during his presidency 

Political career
The Dominican Republic had been occupied by American Troops since 1916 and after the approval of the Hughes-Peynado plan Vicini was a candidate for the position of provisional President of the Dominican Republic  He was elected President in 1922 and his main goal was to facilitate the evacuation of the United States troops that were present in the Dominican Republic  The day after he was elected, Vicini named the five men who would make up his cabinet  They were as follows:

José del Carmen Ariza, Secretary of Internal Affairs
Cayetano Armando Rodríquez, Secretary of Justice and Instruction
Eladio Sánchez, Secretary of Promotion and Communications
Manuel Sanabia, Secretary of Health and Charity
Pedro Pérez, Secretary of Agriculture and ImmigrationWith these steps, Vicini assured the removal of the North American forces in a peaceful manner  Despite its good intentions, Vicini's regime was plagued and pressured by the tight grip of the Hughes-Peynado plan and by the American forces that were still in the country  Even so, he set up the cleanest elections that the Dominican Republic had ever seen in which Horacio Vásquez won on 15 March 1924 against Francisco J  Peynado 
When Vicini left the presidency after the elections, he went back to his sugar business and abandoned politics for the remainder of his life  At the time of his death on 25 May 1935 Juan Bautista Vicini left his relatives one of the largest sugar enterprises in the Caribbean, which is still operating as of 2010 
Passage 2:
Plymouth Notch Cemetery
The Plymouth Notch Cemetery in Plymouth Notch, Vermont, is noted as the burial place for 30th President of the United States Calvin Coolidge, as well as his wife Grace, children (Calvin Coolidge, Jr  1908–1924, John Coolidge 1906–2000), and other members of the Coolidge family Other notable burials include Howard E  Armstrong, who served as Secretary of State of Vermont from 1949 to 1965, and abolitionist Achsa W  Sprague 
Passage 3:
Ceredig
Ceredig ap Cunedda (died 453), was king of Ceredigion in Wales He may have been born c  420 in the Brythonic kingdom of Manaw Gododdin (modern Lothian in Scotland), centred on the Firth of Forth in the area known as Yr Hen Ogledd 
Little is known of him  One of the sons of Cunedda, grandfather of Saint David, according to Nennius' Historia Brittonum, he arrived in what is now modern Wales from Gododdin with his father's family when they were invited to help ward off Irish invaders  As a reward for his bravery, his father gave him the southernmost part of the territories in north-west Wales reconquered from the Irish  The realm is traditionally supposed to have been called Ceredigion after him, which led to the name of modern Ceredigion, one of the principal areas of Wales 
He married Meleri, one of the many daughters of King Brychan Brycheiniog of Brycheiniog (now Brecknockshire)  Amongst their children was a daughter named Ina who is thought to be the Saint Ina to whom St Ina's Church in Llanina near New Quay, Ceredigion is dedicated 

Footnotes
Passage 4:
Niels Henrik Abel
Niels Henrik Abel ( AH-bəl, Norwegian: [ˌnɪls ˈhɛ̀nːɾɪk ˈɑ̀ːbl̩]; 5 August 1802 – 6 April 1829) was a Norwegian mathematician who made pioneering contributions in a variety of fields   His most famous single result is the first complete proof demonstrating the impossibility of solving the general quintic equation in radicals  This question was one of the outstanding open problems of his day, and had been unresolved for over 250 years  He was also an innovator in the field of elliptic functions, discoverer of Abelian functions  He made his discoveries while living in poverty and died at the age of 26 from tuberculosis  He and his contemporary Évariste Galois (who also died young at 20) developed the branch of mathematics now known as group theory  
Most of his work was done in six or seven years of his working life  Regarding Abel, the French mathematician Charles Hermite said: "Abel has left mathematicians enough to keep them busy for five hundred years " Another French mathematician, Adrien-Marie Legendre, said: "What a head the young Norwegian has!"The Abel Prize in mathematics, originally proposed in 1899 to complement the Nobel Prizes (but first awarded in 2003), is named in his honour 

Life
Early life
Niels Henrik Abel was born prematurely in 
Nedstrand, Norway, as the second child of the pastor Søren Georg Abel and Anne Marie Simonsen  When Niels Henrik Abel was born, the family was living at a rectory on Finnøy  Much suggests that Niels Henrik was born in the neighboring parish, as his parents were guests of the bailiff in Nedstrand in July / August of his year of birth Niels Henrik Abel's father, Søren Georg Abel, had a degree in theology and philosophy and served as pastor at Finnøy  Søren's father, Niels's grandfather, Hans Mathias Abel, was also a pastor, at Gjerstad Church near the town of Risør  Søren had spent his childhood at Gjerstad, and had also served as chaplain there; and after his father's death in 1804, Søren was appointed pastor at Gjerstad and the family moved there  The Abel family originated in Schleswig and came to Norway in the 17th century 

Anne Marie Simonsen was from Risør; her father, Niels Henrik Saxild Simonsen, was a tradesman and merchant ship-owner, and said to be the richest person in Risør  Anne Marie had grown up with two stepmothers, in relatively luxurious surroundings  At Gjerstad rectory, she enjoyed arranging balls and social gatherings  Much suggests she was early on an alcoholic and took little interest in the upbringing of the children  Niels Henrik and his brothers were given their schooling by their father, with handwritten books to read  An addition table in a book of mathematics reads: 1+0=0 

Cathedral School and Royal Frederick University
With Norwegian independence and the first election held in Norway, in 1814, Søren Abel was elected as a representative to the Storting  Meetings of the Storting were held until 1866 in the main hall of the Cathedral School in Christiania (now known as Oslo)  Almost certainly, this is how he came into contact with the school, and he decided that his eldest son, Hans Mathias, should start there the following year  However, when the time for his departure approached, Hans was so saddened and depressed over having to leave home that his father did not dare send him away  He decided to send Niels instead In 1815, Niels Abel entered the Cathedral School at the age of 13  His elder brother Hans joined him there a year later  They shared rooms and had classes together  Hans got better grades than Niels; however, a new mathematics teacher, Bernt Michael Holmboe, was appointed in 1818  He gave the students mathematical tasks to do at home  He saw Niels Henrik's talent in mathematics, and encouraged him to study the subject to an advanced level  He even gave Niels private lessons after school 
In 1818, Søren Abel had a public theological argument with the theologian Stener Johannes Stenersen regarding his catechism from 1806  The argument was well covered in the press  Søren was given the nickname "Abel Treating" (Norwegian: "Abel Spandabel")  Niels' reaction to the quarrel was said to have been "excessive gaiety"  At the same time, Søren also almost faced impeachment after insulting Carsten Anker, the host of the Norwegian Constituent Assembly; and in September 1818 he returned to Gjerstad with his political career in ruins  He began drinking heavily and died only two years later, in 1820, aged 48 
Bernt Michael Holmboe supported Niels Henrik Abel with a scholarship to remain at the school and raised money from his friends to enable him to study at the Royal Frederick University 
When Abel entered the university in 1821, he was already the most knowledgeable mathematician in Norway  Holmboe had nothing more he could teach him and Abel had studied all the latest mathematical literature in the university library  During that time, Abel started working on the quintic equation in radicals  Mathematicians had been looking for a solution to this problem for over 250 years  In 1821, Abel thought he had found the solution  The two professors of mathematics in Christiania, Søren Rasmussen and Christopher Hansteen, found no errors in Abel's formulas, and sent the work on to the leading mathematician in the Nordic countries, Carl Ferdinand Degen in Copenhagen  He too found no faults but still doubted that the solution, which so many outstanding mathematicians had sought for so long, could really have been found by an unknown student in far-off Christiania  Degen noted, however, Abel's unusually sharp mind, and believed that such a talented young man should not waste his abilities on such a "sterile object" as the fifth degree equation, but rather on elliptic functions and transcendence; for then, wrote Degen, he would "discover Magellanian thoroughfares to large portions of a vast analytical ocean"  Degen asked Abel to give a numerical example of his method  While trying to provide an example, Abel found a mistake in his paper  This led to a discovery in 1823 that a solution to a fifth- or higher-degree equation was impossible Abel graduated in 1822  His performance was exceptionally high in mathematics and average in other matters 

Career
After he graduated, professors from university supported Abel financially, and Professor Christopher Hansteen let him live in a room in the attic of his home  Abel would later view Ms  Hansteen as his second mother  While living here, Abel helped his younger brother, Peder Abel, through examen artium  He also helped his sister Elisabeth to find work in the town 
In early 1823, Niels Abel published his first article in "Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne", Norway's first scientific journal, which had been co-founded by Professor Hansteen  Abel published several articles, but the journal soon realized that this was not material for the common reader  In 1823, Abel also wrote a paper in French  It was "a general representation of the possibility to integrate all differential formulas" (Norwegian: en alminnelig Fremstilling af Muligheten at integrere alle mulige Differential-Formler)  He applied for funds at the university to publish it  However, the work was lost while being reviewed, never to be found thereafter 

In mid-1823, Professor Rasmussen gave Abel a gift of 100 speciedaler so he could travel to Copenhagen and visit Ferdinand Degen and other mathematicians there  While in Copenhagen, Abel did some work on Fermat's Last Theorem  Abel's uncle, Peder Mandrup Tuxen, lived at the naval base in Christianshavn, Copenhagen, and at a ball there Niels Abel met Christine Kemp, his future fiancée  In 1824, Christine moved to Son, Norway to work as a governess and the couple got engaged over Christmas After returning from Copenhagen, Abel applied for a government scholarship in order to visit top mathematicians in Germany and France, but he was instead granted 200 speciedaler yearly for two years, to stay in Christiania and study German and French  In the next two years, he was promised a scholarship of 600 speciedaler yearly and he would then be permitted to travel abroad  While studying these languages, Abel published his first notable work in 1824, Mémoire sur les équations algébriques où on démontre l'impossibilité de la résolution de l'équation générale du cinquième degré (Memoir on algebraic equations, in which the impossibility of solving the general equation of the fifth degree is proven)  By 1823, Abel had at last proved the impossibility of solving the quintic equation in radicals (now referred to as the Abel–Ruffini theorem)  However, this paper was in an abstruse and difficult form, in part because he had restricted himself to only six pages in order to save money on printing  A more detailed proof was published in 1826 in the first volume of Crelle's Journal 

In 1825, Abel wrote a personal letter to King Carl Johan of Norway/Sweden requesting permission to travel abroad  He was granted this permission, and in September 1825 he left Christiania together with four friends from university (Christian P B Boeck, Balthazar M  Keilhau, Nicolay B  Møller and Otto Tank)  These four friends of Abel were traveling to Berlin and to the Alps to study geology  Abel wanted to follow them to Copenhagen and from there make his way to Göttingen  The terms for his scholarship stipulated that he was to visit Gauss in Göttingen and then continue to Paris  However, when he got as far as Copenhagen, he changed his plans  He wanted to follow his friends to Berlin instead, intending to visit Göttingen and Paris afterwards On the way, he visited the astronomer Heinrich Christian Schumacher in Altona, now a district of Hamburg  He then spent four months in Berlin, where he became well acquainted with August Leopold Crelle, who was then about to publish his mathematical journal, Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik  This project was warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the success of the venture  Abel contributed seven articles to it in its first year 
From Berlin Abel also followed his friends to the Alps  He went to Leipzig and Freiberg to visit Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich Naumann and his brother the mathematician August Naumann  In Freiberg Abel did research in the theory of functions, particularly, elliptic, hyperelliptic, and a new class now known as abelian functions 
From Freiberg they went on to Dresden, Prague, Vienna, Trieste, Venice, Verona, Bolzano, Innsbruck, Luzern and Basel  From July 1826 Abel traveled on his own from Basel to Paris  Abel had sent most of his work to Berlin to be published in Crelle's Journal, but he had saved what he regarded as his most important work for the French Academy of Sciences, a theorem on addition of algebraic differentials  With the help of a painter, Johan Gørbitz, he found an apartment in Paris and continued his work on the theorem  He finished in October 1826 and submitted it to the academy  It was to be reviewed by Augustin-Louis Cauchy  Abel's work was scarcely known in Paris, and his modesty restrained him from proclaiming his research  The theorem was put aside and forgotten until his death 
Abel's limited finances finally compelled him to abandon his tour in January 1827  He returned to Berlin, and was offered a position as editor of Crelle's Journal, but opted out  By May 1827 he was back in Norway  His tour abroad was viewed as a failure  He had not visited Gauss in Göttingen and he had not published anything in Paris  His scholarship was therefore not renewed and he had to take up a private loan in Norges Bank of 200 spesidaler  He never repaid this loan  He also started tutoring  He continued to send most of his work to Crelle's Journal  But in mid-1828 he published, in rivalry with Carl Jacobi, an important work on elliptic functions in Astronomische Nachrichten in Altona 

Death
While in Paris, Abel contracted tuberculosis  At Christmas 1828, he traveled by sled to Froland, Norway, to visit his fiancée  He became seriously ill on the journey  Although a temporary improvement allowed the couple to enjoy the holiday together, he died relatively soon after on 6 April 1829, just two days before a letter arrived from August Crelle telling Abel that Crelle had secured him an appointment as a professor at the University of Berlin 

Contributions to mathematics
Abel showed that there is no general algebraic solution for the roots of a quintic equation, or any general polynomial equation of degree greater than four, in terms of explicit algebraic operations with the Abel-Ruffini theorem  To do this, he invented (independently of Galois) a branch of mathematics known as group theory,  which is invaluable not only in many areas of mathematics, but for much of physics as well  Abel sent a paper on the unsolvability of the quintic equation to Carl Friedrich Gauss, who proceeded to discard without a glance what he believed to be the worthless work of a crank As a 16-year-old, Abel gave a rigorous proof of the binomial theorem valid for all numbers, extending Euler's result which had held only for rationals  Abel wrote a fundamental work on the theory of elliptic integrals, containing the foundations of the theory of elliptic functions 
While travelling to Paris he published a paper revealing the double periodicity of elliptic functions, which Adrien-Marie Legendre later described to Augustin-Louis Cauchy as "a monument more lasting than bronze" (borrowing a famous sentence by the Roman poet Horatius)  The paper was, however, misplaced by Cauchy While abroad Abel had sent most of his work to Berlin to be published in the Crelle's Journal, but he had saved what he regarded as his most important work for the French Academy of Sciences, a theorem on addition of algebraic differentials  The theorem was put aside and forgotten until his death  While in Freiberg, Abel did research in the theory of functions, particularly, elliptic, hyperelliptic, and a new class now known as abelian functions 
In 1823 Abel wrote a paper titled "a general representation of the possibility to integrate all differential formulas" (Norwegian: en alminnelig Fremstilling af Muligheten at integrere alle mulige Differential-Formler)  He applied for funds at the university to publish it  However the work was lost, while being reviewed, never to be found thereafter Abel said famously of Carl Friedrich Gauss's writing style, "He is like the fox, who effaces his tracks in the sand with his tail " Gauss replied to him by saying, "No self-respecting architect leaves the scaffolding in place after completing his building "

Legacy
Under Abel's guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis began to be cleared, new fields were entered upon and the study of functions so advanced as to provide mathematicians with numerous ramifications along which progress could be made  His works, the greater part of which originally appeared in Crelle's Journal, were edited by Bernt Michael Holmboe and published in 1839 by the Norwegian government, and a more complete edition by Ludwig Sylow and Sophus Lie was published in 1881  The adjective "abelian", derived from his name, has become so commonplace in mathematical writing that it is conventionally spelled with a lower-case initial "a" (e g , abelian group, abelian category, and abelian variety) 
On 6 April 1929, four Norwegian stamps were issued for the centenary of Abel's death  His portrait appears on the 500-kroner banknote (version V) issued during 1978–1985  On 5 June 2002, four Norwegian stamps were issued in honour of Abel two months before the bicentenary of his birth  There is also a 20-kroner coin issued by Norway in his honour  A statue of Abel stands in Oslo, and crater Abel on the Moon was named after him  In 2002, the Abel Prize was established in his memory 
Mathematician Felix Klein wrote about Abel:

But I would not like to part from this ideal type of researcher, such as has seldom appeared in the history of mathematics, without evoking a figure from another sphere who, in spite of his totally different field, still seems related  Thus, although Abel shared with many mathematicians a complete lack of musical talent, I will not sound absurd if I compare his kind of productivity and his personality with Mozart's  Thus one might erect a monument to this divinely inspired mathematician like the one to Mozart in Vienna: simple and unassuming he stands there listening, while graceful angels float about, playfully bringing him inspiration from another world 
Instead, I must mention the very different type of memorial that was in fact erected to Abel in Christiania and which must greatly disappoint anyone familiar with his nature  On a towering, steep block of granite a youthful athlete of the Byronic type steps over two greyish sacrificial victims, his direction toward the heavens  If needed be, one might take the hero to be a symbol of the human spirit, but one ponders the deeper significance of the two monsters in vain  Are they the conquered quintic equations or elliptic functions? Or the sorrows and cares of his everyday life? The pedestal of the monument bears, in immense letters, the inscription ABEL 

See also
List of things named after Niels Henrik Abel
Évariste Galois

Notes
Passage 5:
NASCAR Speedway Division
The NASCAR Speedway Division was a short-lived series brought forth in 1952 by NASCAR president and founder Bill France Sr  The series consisted of open-wheel race cars competing with stock engines  The idea of the series was to draw from the popularity of other open-wheel racing events such as the Indianapolis 500 

History
1952 season
The first Speedway Division race was held at Darlington Raceway and was won by Buck Baker with a Cadillac engine  The series' second race was held at Martinsville Speedway on May 25, with only 17 entries  The pole at Martinsville was won by Bill Miller in an "Olds 88 Special"  Tex Keene, driving a car with a stock Mercury engine came from 16th place to win the race  A total of seven races were run in 1952 with Buck Baker becoming the series champion 

1953 season
In 1953, Speedway Division events were paired with those in the Sportsman Division   Three races were held with few entries before the series was quietly discontinued   The final series champion was Pete Allen 

Statistics
Race wins
Championships
Passage 6:
Richard Fink
Richard Harold Fink (born May 31, 1951) is an American businessman and academic  He is the former executive vice president of Koch Industries, the second largest privately held company in the U S 

Education and academic career
Fink received a B A  in economics from Rutgers University, an M A  in economics from the University of California, Los Angeles, and a Ph D  in economics from New York University  Between 1980 and 1986, Fink was on the economics faculty at George Mason University, where he was the founder and director of the Center for Market Processes, which later became the Mercatus Center  Under his leadership, during the 1980s, George Mason was a center of Austrian Economics 

Relationship with Charles Koch
In the late '70s, Richard Fink met Charles Koch to discuss founding a research center devoted to teaching Austrian economics thought at Rutgers  Fink met with Koch in Wichita and planned what became the Mercatus Center in 1999 

Koch Industries
Fink served as an executive vice president of Koch Industries, Inc  He was also chairman and CEO of Koch Companies Public Sector, LLC, which provides legal and government and public affairs services to Koch Industries and its affiliate  He was on the board of directors of Koch Industries Inc , Georgia-Pacific and Flint Hills Resources, LLC 

Koch Family Foundations
Fink was a member of the boards of directors and President of the Charles G  Koch Charitable Foundation and the Claude R  Lambe Charitable Foundation  He was also on the board of the Fred C  and Mary R  Koch Foundation 

Board memberships
Fink served on the board of trustees of the Democratic Leadership Council Fink co-founded Citizens for a Sound Economy, where he served as president, and co-founded the Citizens for a Sound Economy Foundation, which is now the Americans for Prosperity Foundation  
He also sat on the board of the Institute for Humane Studies, and the Mercatus Center at George Mason University  He previously served on the Consumer Advisory Council of the Federal Reserve Board and the Commission on Privatization 
Fink was a member of the boards of directors of the Charles Koch Foundation, the Claude R  Lambe Charitable Foundation, the Fred C  and Mary R  Koch Foundation, the Institute for Humane Studies, the Market-Based Management Institute, and Americans for Prosperity Foundation 
Passage 7:
Isabel Martínez de Perón
Isabel Martínez de Perón (Spanish pronunciation: [isaˈβel maɾˈtines ðe peˈɾon], born María Estela Martínez Cartas, 4 February 1931), also known as Isabelita, is an Argentine politician who served as President of Argentina from 1974 to 1976  She was one of the first female republican heads of state in the world, and the first woman to serve as president of a country 
Isabel Perón was the third wife of President Juan Perón  During her husband's third term as president from 1973 to 1974, she served as both Vice President and First Lady of Argentina  Following her husband's death in office in 1974, she served as President for almost two years before the military took over the government with the 1976 coup  Perón was then placed under house arrest for five years before she was exiled to Spain in 1981 In 2007 an Argentine judge ordered Perón's arrest over the forced disappearance of an activist in February 1976, on the grounds that the disappearance was authorized by her signing of decrees allowing Argentina's armed forces to take action against "subversives"  She was arrested near her home in Spain on 12 January 2007  Spanish courts subsequently refused her extradition to Argentina Since the death of Carlos Menem on 14 February 2021, Perón is the oldest living former Argentine president 

Early life and career
María Estela Martínez Cartas was born in La Rioja, Argentina, daughter of María Josefa Cartas Olguín and Carmelo Martínez  She dropped out of school after the fifth grade  In the early 1950s she became a nightclub dancer adopting the name Isabel, the saint's name (the Spanish form of that of Saint Elizabeth of Portugal) that she had chosen as a confirmation name 

Juan Perón
She met her future husband during his exile in Panama  Juan Domingo Perón, who was 35 years her senior, was attracted by her beauty and believed she could provide him with the female companionship he had been lacking since the death of his beloved second wife Eva Perón (Evita) in 1952  Perón brought Isabel with him when he moved to Madrid, Spain, in 1960  Authorities did not approve of Perón's cohabitation with a young woman to whom he was not married, so on 15 November 1961 the former president reluctantly married for a third time 

Early political career
As Perón resumed an active role in Argentine politics from exile, Isabel acted as a go-between from Spain to Argentina  Having been deposed in a coup in 1955, Perón was forbidden from returning to Argentina, so his new wife was appointed to travel in his stead  The CGT leader José Alonso became one of her main advisers in Perón's dispute against Steelworkers' leader Augusto Vandor's Popular Union faction during mid-term elections in 1965; Alonso and Vandor were both later assassinated in as-yet unexplained circumstances 

José López Rega
Isabel met José López Rega, who was a former policeman with an interest in occultism and fortune-telling, during a visit to Argentina in 1965  She was interested in occult matters (and as president reportedly employed astrological divination to determine national policy), so the two quickly became friends  Under pressure from Isabel, Perón appointed López as his personal secretary; López later founded the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A), a death squad accused of perpetrating 1,500 crimes in the 1970s 

Rise to power
Dr  Héctor Cámpora was nominated by Perón's Justicialist Party to run in the March 1973 presidential elections on the FREJULI ticket (a Peronist-led alliance)  Cámpora won, but it was generally understood that Juan Perón held the real power; a popular phrase at the time was "Cámpora al gobierno, Perón al poder" (Cámpora in government, Perón in power)  Later that year, Perón returned to Argentina, and Cámpora resigned to allow Perón to run for president  He chose Isabel as his nominee for the Vice Presidency to mollify feuding Peronist factions, as these could agree on no other running mate  His return from exile was marked by a growing rift between the right and left wings of the Peronist movement; while Cámpora represented the left wing, López Rega represented the right wing  The latter was, moreover, supported by the CGT labor federation leadership and Isabel herself, and this faction became known by the left as the entorno ('entourage') due to the inner circle status Perón afforded them  Juan Perón had long been inimical to the left, but cultivated their support while he was in exile  His sympathies ended, however, after the assassination of CGT leader José Ignacio Rucci by the leftist Montoneros in September Perón's victory in a snap election called by Congress in September 1973 was always considered likely, and he won with 62% of the vote  He began his third term on 12 October, with Isabel as Vice President  Perón was by then in precarious health, however; a CIA cable at the time described him as alternating between a lucid state and that of senile dependency  Isabel had to take over as Acting President on several occasions during his tenure 

Presidency
Juan Perón suffered a series of heart attacks on 28 June 1974; Isabel was summoned home from a European trade mission and secretly sworn in as acting president the next day  Juan Perón died on 1 July 1974, less than a year after his third election to office  As vice-president his widow formally ascended to the presidency, thus becoming the first woman in the world to hold the title of "President", although she was not the first woman to lead a country  She was popularly known as La Presidente Although she lacked Evita Perón's charisma, the grieving widow at first attracted support from the nation  She pledged to uphold the social market economy policies embodied in the 1973 "Social Pact" as well her husband's long-held orthodox Peronism and economic nationalism; her first significant economic policy decisions were the enactment of a new, pro-labor employment contract law and the granting to YPF a monopoly over filling stations  Even leftist groups, having fallen out with Juan Perón in previous months, publicly offered support to her  However she cancelled meetings with various constituent and political groups, and the sympathy resulting from her husband's death soon dissipated  Her government purged most leftists from university posts and the administration, and (as her husband and other Argentine presidents had done) used Federal intervention powers to unseat leftist governors  Following a string of political murders and a break by the Montoneros with the government, on 30 September Perón signed the Anti-Terrorism Law  This was the first in a series of measures which eroded constitutional rights, ostensibly for the sake of combating leftist violence Another source of contention between her and the voters was the increasing impression that José López Rega, the Minister of Social Welfare, set the agenda for a broad swath of Perón's policies, vetting nearly all domestic and foreign policy  His public behaviour – which included bizarre actions such as silently mouthing her words as she spoke – began to cost the president much-needed support among the Argentine public  Known to have fascist sympathies, López Rega was also notably corrupt and used his position to secure business partnerships with (ODESSA network principal) Otto Skorzeny, (Libyan leader) Muammar Gaddafi, and (the Italian Fascist) Licio Gelli (to whose P-2 lodge López Rega belonged) López Rega's greatest influence upon Isabel Perón's presidency came through his recently formed Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A)  A right-wing paramilitary force, between late 1973 and late 1974 the Triple A had already carried out nearly 300 murders, including that of Professor Silvio Frondizi (brother of former President Arturo Frondizi), Congressman Rodolfo Ortega Peña, activist Father Carlos Mugica, Buenos Aires Province Assistant Police Chief Julio Troxler, former Córdoba Vice-Governor Atilio López and former Chilean Army head Carlos Prats  Other prominent public servants, such as UCR Senator Hipólito Solari Yrigoyen, and left-wing University of Buenos Aires President Rodolfo Puiggrós, narrowly survived Triple A attacks; Puiggrós was then removed from his post Atrocities were also being committed by left-wing extremists  Organized in 1968, the anarchist Montoneros murdered former head of state Pedro Aramburu, popular CGT union Secretary General José Ignacio Rucci, construction workers' union leader Rogelio Coria, former Interior Minister Arturo Mor Roig and U S  Consul John Egan, among other murders and kidnappings  Throughout 1974, the rise of a new and nearly-as-violent Trotskyite group, the ERP, added to the cycle of violence  Having gained notoriety after the murder of FIAT executive Oberdan Sallustro, the ERP began the year with a violent assault on the Azul barracks  It murdered, among others, a criminal court judge, Jorge Quiroga; the writer Jordán Bruno Genta; and the publisher of La Plata's centrist El Día, David Kraiselburd  The kidnapping of Esso executive Victor Samuelson, freed for a ransom of US$12 million, ignited what would become a rash of such crimes  However, the government and paramilitaries used this environment to target and murder many legitimate opponents of the regime, as listed above Following the murder of Buenos Aires Police Chief Alberto Villar (one of López Rega's closest collaborators in the Triple A) and his wife, as well as amid increasing activity by the ERP in the Province of Tucumán, Perón was persuaded to declare a state of siege on 6 November (suspending, among other rights, habeas corpus)  Censorship also increased markedly, culminating in the closure by decree of one of the leading news dailies in Latin America (Crónica) and several other publications, as well as the banning of Argentine television figures such as talk show host Mirtha Legrand and comedian Tato Bores Operation Independence began in Tucumán on 5 February 1975  This military campaign, though successful from a military standpoint, gained notoriety for its brutality; in addition to going after insurgents, it attacked elected officials, magistrates, University of Tucumán faculty, and even secondary school teachers The government turned on the labor movement, the mainstay of Peronism for the better part of a quarter-century, classifying it as "subversive" and subject to reprisals  The November 1974 election of a left-wing union shop steward at a Villa Constitución steel mill and its disapproval by steelworkers' leader Lorenzo Miguel (a leading figure in the paramount CGT), resulted in a brutal 20 March 1975 police assault on the facility  The raid, executed jointly with Triple A heavies, led to the "disappearances" of many of the 300 workers arrested 

Stacking the State Intelligence Secretariat (SIDE) with Fascists loyal to him, Lopez Rega hastened unprecedented intrigue, culminating in the kidnapping of Jorge and Juan Born, prominent local executives who paid US$60 million for their release (a world record at the time)  Using contacts from among the Montoneros' many double agents, the agency kept the Born brothers in a known SIDE safehouse for nine months until their June 1975 release without public suspicion of SIDE involvement, a successful false flag operation that led to others (albeit less ambitious ones) in the following months López Rega, meanwhile, arranged the dismissal of many of the most competent policy makers Perón had inherited from her husband's brief presidency; by May 1975, both Economy Minister José Ber Gelbard and Central Bank President Alfredo Gómez Morales had been replaced with right-wing López Rega loyalists Isabel Perón initially maintained the Social Pact inherited from her husband, and succeeded in enhancing it with reforms such as the enactment in December 1974 of payroll taxes to strengthen the Public Retirement System  Yielding to pressure from labor she ignored the incomes policy aspect of the Social Pact, however, and while the economy remained otherwise stable, a price/wage spiral ensued with inflation rising from a low of 12% a year at the height of the Social Pact in May 1974 to 80% a year later The Social Pact also faced growing opposition by employers, particularly after conservative members of the General Economic Council (CGE) split from the conciliatory CGE in March 1975 to form the more combative APEGE; this group would later adopt the tactic of staging recurring lockouts against the administration Faced with record trade and budget deficits, the new Economy Minister, Celestino Rodrigo, proceeded to apply economic shock therapy in June  These measures doubled rates and fares and ordered a surprise halving of the peso's value, which, by forcing those who could to stampede towards the U S  dollar, destroyed the fragile financial balance that had been maintained to that point  Consumer prices doubled between May and August 1975 alone, and though sharp, mandatory wage hikes had been negotiated between the government, labor and employers, the resulting shock (known as the Rodrigazo) ignited protest across Argentina, including a two-day general strike by the CGT (the first ever against a Peronist administration)  Following protests in front of his offices, the now hated José López Rega was hastily appointed Ambassador to Spain and boarded a flight into exile 

Fall from power
López Rega left the country on 19 July  Shortly afterward, Perón dismissed her protégés in the Economy Ministry, Celestino Rodrigo, and in the Armed Forces High Command, General Alberto Numa Laplane, whom she replaced in August with General Jorge Videla, a quiet career officer with an uneventful military record  The president's appointment of a pragmatic economist, Peronist wheelhorse Antonio Cafiero and her 13 September announcement of a leave of absence relieved ample sectors of society, from labor unions to business  Designating Senate President Ítalo Lúder, a moderately conservative Peronist, in her stead, it was widely hoped that her leave would become permanent; but, it was not to be Limited largely to the murder of security forces and public figures during 1974, political violence escalated during 1975 to include soft targets in the population at large as Trotskyist ERP and fascist Triple A extremists began taking to midnight lightning strikes against each other and civilian targets such as banks, buses, yachts, parking lots, and restaurants  Over 700 people died from political violence during Mrs  Perón's first 15 months in office, of which more than half were subversives and most of the remainder were security forces; by March 1976, civilians comprised fully half of the 1,358 deaths attributable to this conflict The Montoneros, moreover, began a series of audacious attacks on military installations, including August dynamiting of the nearly finished destroyer Santísima Trinidad near the port of La Plata and the Operation Primicia, a terrorist attack on a military base in Formosa Province on 5 October  Anxious to placate the exasperated public, the military, hard-line labor leaders (particularly the steelworkers' Lorenzo Miguel), and most other Peronists, on 6 October she and Lúder signed new measures giving blanket immunity for the Armed Forces that they may (in her words) "annihilate subversive elements throughout the country" – in effect a nationwide extension of the state of siege that had been imposed in Tucumán  The measure won her just enough support to return from "sick leave" and on 17 October (on Peronists' historically central Loyalty Day), Perón appeared at the balcony of the Casa Rosada, back at her post Her health remained fragile, however, and a gallbladder affliction forced her to take a second, shorter leave of absence in November  Interior Minister Ángel Robledo's proposal that elections (scheduled for March 1977) should instead be held in November 1976 was approved by the president during this leave, bringing renewed hope that an increasingly rumored coup d'état could yet be averted Anxiety over inflation, meanwhile, continued to dominate daily life  Monthly inflation did slow from the (then-record) 35% logged in July - but remained at 10–15% monthly between September and January 1976  A sudden fall in business investment had by then sent the economy into a sharp recession, however  GDP growth had already slowed from a 6 8% rate in the fourth quarter of 1974 to 1 4% in the second quarter; following the Rodrigazo crisis, the economy shrank 4 4% by the first quarter of 1976, with fixed investment falling by one sixth and auto production by a third The mid-year recession had significantly curbed the growth in imports; but because exports continued to fall, the trade deficit reached a record billion dollars in 1975, nearly depleting foreign exchange reserves  The government's 1975 budget had been derailed by the crisis and by earlier commitments to cancel its then still-modest foreign debt, something which even so cost Argentina US$2 5 billion that year, alone  The resulting budget deficits (over US$5 billion, in 1975) and a series of lockouts in the agricultural and commercial sectors began to reassert pressure on prices after November, leading to hoarding and shortages The appointment of Brigadier General Héctor Fautario, a loyalist of Perón, to the branch's high command, fueled broader support in the Air Force for action against her administration, and on 18 December, General Jesús Capellini attempted a coup d'état by seizing the Morón Airport and Air Base  The military joint chiefs, however, who obtained Fautario's dismissal, stayed the mutiny's hand, secretly concluding that the timing was premature  Partly in response, the nearly defeated ERP on 23 December besieged the important Monte Chingolo Armory, which claimed the lives of six military personnel and 85 guerrilla members; this defeat marked the end of the ERP's violent campaign Allegations had surfaced in August that Perón had embezzled large sums from the Cruzada de Solidaridad ('Solidarity Crusade'), a government-run charity, into her personal accounts in Spain  A congressional investigation launched in November over the charity fund embezzlement allegations had meanwhile dissipated her remaining support in Congress, prompting the departure of the second-largest party in the FREJULI alliance, the centrist MID, and dividing the Peronist caucus into "Vericalist" and "Rebel" factions  Her administration was dealt further political blows from within her own party by a break in December with the Governor of Buenos Aires Victorio Calabró, who declared that "we won't make it [to the next elections]" and with the resignation in January 1976 of Interior Minister Ángel Robledo, her chief legislative and military point man 

Isabel Perón granted ever more significant policy concessions to the largely conservative military in the early months of 1976, from security matters to economic  Economy Minister Antonio Cafiero, supported by labor, was dismissed in February, and his replacement, Eugenio Mondelli, announced further shock therapy measures similar to the previous year's Rodrigazo – the Mondelazo  These measures included steep hikes in utility rates and a new devaluation of the already shredded peso, causing prices to more than double over the next three months (inflation reached a new record of over 700% by April) and leading a new wave of strikes and business lockouts The UCR initiated impeachment proceedings against the President in February with the support of the "Rebel" Peronist faction in Congress  Near defeat though still active, the Montoneros detonated a bomb at Army headquarters on 15 March, killing one and injuring 29 people  The head of the CGE, Julio Broner, left Argentina with his family, altogether; CGT Secretary General Casildo Herreras followed suit, announcing from exile that he had "erased" himself  The leader of the opposition UCR Ricardo Balbín, while making efforts to form a multi-party congressional crisis committee, held a private meeting in February with Army Chief of Staff Videla and told him, "If you're planning to stage a coup, do so as soon as possible – expect no applause from us, but no obstacles either "The media were by then openly counting down the days to the expected coup d'état, and several newspapers published editorials calling for Perón's overthrow  Even as the joint chiefs professed loyalty to La Presidente, the Armed Forces High Command had already given final approval to a coup, code-named 'Operation Aries', when the president returned from her leave of absence in October 1975 After working late into the evening of 23 March 1976, in the hope of averting a renewed business lockout, Perón celebrated her executive assistant's birthday with staff  Alerted to suspicious military exercises, she boarded the presidential helicopter shortly after midnight  It did not fly her to the Quinta de Olivos presidential residence but to an Air Force base in nearby Jorge Newbery International Airport, where she was formally deposed and arrested 

Detention and exile
The majority of Peronist officials in the national, provincial, and municipal governments were promptly arrested, brutally beaten, starved, tortured, and interrogated by military police  Many "disappeared" permanently during the subsequent Dirty War, including numerous right-wing Peronists  Isabel Perón herself remained under house arrest in Villa La Angostura and other secluded locations for five years, and was eventually sent into exile in Spain in July 1981  She continued to serve as official head of her husband's Justicialist Party until her resignation in February 1985, nearly a decade after her fall from power  Though there were some who desired her return and wished for her return to power, she refused to stand for election to the presidency when elections were ultimately called in 1983  She lived in Madrid, maintained close links with Francisco Franco's family, and sometimes went to Marbella  She sold Perón's Puerta de Hierro estate in 2001, and relocated to a townhouse in the western suburb of Villafranca del Castillo 

Following the restoration of democracy in Argentina, she was pardoned from charges of corruption during her presidency and returned in December 1983 as a guest of honor at President Raúl Alfonsín's inauguration, and in May 1984 to participate in policy talks arranged by Alfonsín and opposition leaders  Still nominally head of Juan Perón's Justicialist Party, she played a constructive role in the talks, supporting cooperation between the restive CGT labor union (her party's political base) and Alfonsín  The talks concluded with a weak agreement, and she resigned from her post as titular head of the party  She returned to Argentina in 1988 to resolve probate disputes concerning the Perón estate, then resumed residence in Spain under a very low profile 

Arrest in Spain
A judge in Mendoza, Argentina in November 2006 demanded testimony from Isabel Perón, along with other Peronist ministers of her government, in a case involving forced disappearances during her presidency; on 12 January 2007, she was arrested by police in Madrid  She was charged by the Argentine authorities with the disappearance of Héctor Aldo Fagetti Gallego on 25 February 1976, and for crimes related to her issuance of 6 October 1975 decree calling the Armed Forces to "annihilate subversive elements " The Nunca Más ("Never Again") report released in 1984 by the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons recorded 600 disappearances and 500 assassinations under the Peronist governments from 1973 to 1976, and it is acknowledged that the Triple A alone murdered some 600 people The 2006 capture in Spain of Triple A death-squad overseer Rodolfo Almirón, who had also been in charge of López Rega's and Isabel Perón's personal security, shed further light on the extent of Triple A involvement in the early stages of the Dirty War  Isabel Perón's extradition to Argentina was refused by Spain on 28 March 2008  Spain's National Court ruled twice that the charges against her did not constitute crimes against humanity, adding that the statute of limitations on the charges expired after 20 years The Supreme Court of Justice of Argentina unanimously dismissed on 21 June 2017 the petitions to interrogate Isabel Perón either as a witness or as a defendant 

See also
National Reorganization Process

Notes
Passage 8:
Territorial evolution of the United States
The United States of America was formed after thirteen British colonies in North America declared independence from the British Empire on July 4, 1776  In the Lee Resolution, passed by the Second Continental Congress two days prior, the colonies resolved that they were free and independent states  The union was formalized in the Articles of Confederation, which came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states  Their independence was recognized by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which concluded the American Revolutionary War  This effectively doubled the size of the colonies, now able to stretch west past the Proclamation Line to the Mississippi River  This land was organized into territories and then states, though there remained some conflict with the sea-to-sea grants claimed by some of the original colonies  In time, these grants were ceded to the federal government 
The first great expansion of the country came with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, which doubled the country's territory, although the southeastern border with Spanish Florida was the subject of much dispute until it and Spanish claims to the Oregon Country were ceded to the US in 1821  The Oregon Country gave the United States access to the Pacific Ocean, though it was shared for a time with the United Kingdom  The annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845 led directly to the Mexican–American War, after which the victorious United States obtained the northern half of Mexico's territory, including what was quickly made the state of California  However, as the development of the country moved west, the question of slavery became more important, with vigorous debate over whether the new territories would allow slavery and events such as the Missouri Compromise and Bleeding Kansas  This came to a head in 1860 and 1861, when the governments of the southern states proclaimed their secession from the country and formed the Confederate States of America  The American Civil War led to the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865 and the eventual readmission of the states to the United States Congress  The cultural endeavor and pursuit of manifest destiny provided a strong impetus for westward expansion in the 19th century 
The country began expanding beyond North America in 1856 with the passage of the Guano Islands Act, causing many small and uninhabited, but economically important, islands in the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea to be claimed  Most of these claims were eventually abandoned, largely due to competing claims from other countries  The Pacific expansion culminated in the annexation of Hawaii in 1898, after the overthrow of its government five years previously  Alaska, the last major acquisition in North America, was purchased from Russia in 1867 
Support for the independence of Cuba from the Spanish Empire, and the sinking of the USS Maine, led to the Spanish–American War in 1898, in which the United States gained Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, and occupied Cuba for several years  American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the Second Samoan Civil War  The United States purchased the U S  Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917  Guam and Puerto Rico remain territories; the Philippines became independent in 1946, after being a major theater of World War II  Following the war, many islands were entrusted to the U S  by the United Nations, and while the Northern Mariana Islands remain a U S  territory, the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau emerged from the trust territory as independent nations  The last major international change was the acquisition in 1904, and return to Panama in 1979, of the Panama Canal Zone, an unincorporated US territory which controlled the Panama Canal  The final cession of formal control over the region was made to Panama in 1999 
States have generally retained their initial borders once established  Only four states (Maine, Kentucky, Vermont, and West Virginia) have been created from land claimed by another state; all of the other states were created from territories or from acquisitions  Four states (Louisiana, Missouri, Nevada, and Pennsylvania) have expanded by acquiring additional federal territory after their initial admission to the Union  In 1912, Arizona was the last state established in the contiguous United States, commonly called the "lower 48"  In 1959, Hawaii was the 50th and most recent state admitted 

Legend for maps
Key to map colors

1776–1784 (American Revolution)
1784–1803 (Organization of territory)
1803–1818 (Purchase of Louisiana)
1819–1845 (Northwest expansion)
1845–1860 (Southwest expansion)
1860–1865 (Civil War)
1866–1897 (Reconstruction and western statehood)
1898–1945 (Pacific and Caribbean expansion)
1946–present (Decolonization)
Bancos along the Rio Grande
The Banco Convention of 1905 between the United States and Mexico allowed, in the event of sudden changes in the course of the Rio Grande (as by flooding), for the border to be altered to follow the new course   The sudden changes often created bancos (land surrounded by bends in the river that became segregated from either country by a cutoff, often due to rapid accretion or avulsion of the alluvial channel), especially in the Lower Rio Grande Valley  When these bancos are created, the International Boundary and Water Commission investigates if land previously belonging to the United States or Mexico is to be considered on the other side of the border  In all cases of these adjustments along the Rio Grande under the 1905 convention, which occurred on 37 different dates from 1910 to 1976, the transferred land was minuscule (ranging from one to 646 acres) and uninhabited 

See also
Geography of the United States
Territories of the United States
Historic regions of the United States
American frontier
List of U S  state partition proposals
List of U S  states by date of admission to the Union
Movements for the annexation of Canada to the United States
National Atlas of the United States
Ostend Manifesto (annexation of Cuba)
List of territorial claims and designations in Colorado
Territorial evolution of Arizona
Territorial evolution of California
Territorial evolution of Idaho
Territorial evolution of Montana
Territorial evolution of Nevada
Territorial evolution of New Mexico
Territorial evolution of North Dakota
Territorial evolution of Oregon
Territorial evolution of South Dakota
Territorial evolution of Utah
Territorial evolution of Washington
Territorial evolution of Wyoming
Territories of the United States on stamps
List of U S –Native American treaties, which indicates tribal land cessions

Notes
Passage 9:
Carmen Ionesco
Carmen Ionesco (birth name Carmen Ionescu; born July 28, 1951 in Bucharest, Romania) is a retired discus thrower and shot putter, who competed for Romania and Canada at the Summer Olympics 
She represented Romania in her first Olympic appearance, at Munich in 1972  Following her emigration to Canada, Ionesco competed for Canada at two Commonwealth Games (1978 and 1982), the 1979 Pan American Games, and the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles 
Her younger sister Florența competed for Romania in the 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics 

Achievements
Passage 10:
Independence Day (United States)
Independence Day, known colloquially as the Fourth of July, is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the Declaration of Independence, which was ratified by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, establishing the United States of America 
The Founding Father delegates of the Second Continental Congress declared that the Thirteen Colonies were no longer subject (and subordinate) to the monarch of Britain, King George III, and were now united, free, and independent states  The Congress voted to approve independence by passing the Lee Resolution on July 2 and adopted the Declaration of Independence two days later, on July 4 Independence Day is commonly associated with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball games, family reunions, political speeches, and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States  Independence Day is the national day of the United States 

Background
During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the thirteen colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain's rule  After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author  
While Jefferson consulted extensively with the other four members of the Committee of Five, he largely wrote the Declaration of Independence in isolation over 17 days between June 11, 1776, and June 28, 1776, from the second floor he was renting in a three-story private home at 700 Market Street in Philadelphia, now known as the Declaration House, and within walking distance of Independence Hall 
Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, removing Jefferson's vigorous denunciation of King George III for importing the slave trade, finally approving it two days later on July 4  A day earlier, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail:The second day of July 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America  I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival  It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty  It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forever more 
Adams's prediction was off by two days  From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much-publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day  Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed By a remarkable coincidence, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, the only two signatories of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as presidents of the United States, both died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration  Although not a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected president, also died on July 4, 1831, making him the third President who died on the anniversary of independence  The only U S  president to have been born on Independence Day was Calvin Coolidge, who was born on July 4, 1872 

Observance
In 1777, thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, Rhode Island  An article in the July 18, 1777, issue of The Virginia Gazette noted a celebration in Philadelphia in a manner a modern American would find familiar: an official dinner for the Continental Congress, toasts, 13-gun salutes, speeches, prayers, music, parades, troop reviews, and fireworks  Ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting 
In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a double ration of rum for his soldiers and an artillery salute (feu de joie)  Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, France 
In 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday  The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5 
In 1781, the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration 
In 1783, Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration with a challenging music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter entitled The Psalm of Joy  The town claims it to be the first public July 4 event, as it was carefully documented by the Moravian Church, and there are no government records of any earlier celebrations 
In 1870, the U S  Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees 
In 1938, Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday 

Customs
Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays  Per 5 U S C  § 6103, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day   While the legal holiday remains on July 4, if that date happens to be on a Saturday or Sunday, then federal government employees will instead take the day off on the adjacent Friday or Monday, respectively Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with family members or friends  Decorations (e g , streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag  Parades are often held in the morning, before family get-togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, sporting venues, fairgrounds, public shorelines, or town squares The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece  In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks  They were lit at nightfall to usher in the celebration  The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels  These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded  The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries and is still practiced in some New England towns Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs, such as "The Star-Spangled Banner" (the American national anthem); "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean"; "God Bless America"; "America the Beautiful"; "My Country, 'Tis of Thee"; "This Land Is Your Land"; "Stars and Stripes Forever"; "Yankee Doodle"; "Dixie" in southern states; "Lift Every Voice and Sing"; and occasionally, but has nominally fallen out of favor, Hail Columbia  Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812 

Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show  Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed  In addition, local and regional conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed; for example, the global supply chain crisis following the COVID-19 pandemic forced cancellations of shows  Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns  On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union," is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base New York City has the largest fireworks display in the country sponsored by Macy's, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded in 2009  It generally holds displays in the East River  Other major displays are in Seattle on Lake Union; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in Philadelphia over the Philadelphia Museum of Art; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D C During the annual Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan, hosts one of the largest fireworks displays in North America, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario's celebration of Canada Day The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three-day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips 

Celebration gallery
Notable celebrations
Held since 1785, the Bristol Fourth of July Parade in Bristol, Rhode Island, is the oldest continuous Independence Day celebration in the United States 
Since 1868, Seward, Nebraska, has held a celebration on the same town square  In 1979 Seward was designated "America's Official Fourth of July City-Small Town USA" by resolution of Congress  Seward has also been proclaimed "Nebraska's Official Fourth of July City" by Governor J  James Exon in proclamation  Seward is a town of 6,000 but swells to 40,000+ during the July 4 celebrations 
Since 1912, the Rebild Society, a Danish-American friendship organization, has held a July 4 weekend festival that serves as a homecoming for Danish-Americans in the Rebild Hills of Denmark 
Since 1959, the International Freedom Festival is jointly held in Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario, during the last week of June each year as a mutual celebration of Independence Day and Canada Day (July 1)  It culminates in a large fireworks display over the Detroit River 
The famous Macy's fireworks display usually held over the East River in New York City has been televised nationwide on NBC, and locally on WNBC-TV since 1976  In 2009, the fireworks display was returned to the Hudson River for the first time since 2000 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Henry Hudson's exploration of that river 
The Boston Pops Orchestra has hosted a music and fireworks show over the Charles River Esplanade called the "Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular" annually since 1974  Cannons are traditionally fired during the 1812 Overture  The event was broadcast nationally from 1991 until 2002 on A&E, and since 2002 by CBS and its Boston station WBZ-TV  WBZ/1030 and WBZ-TV broadcast the entire event locally, and from 2002 through 2012, CBS broadcast the final hour of the concert nationally in primetime  The national broadcast was put on hiatus beginning in 2013, which Pops executive producer David G  Mugar believed was the result of decreasing viewership caused by NBC's encore presentation of the Macy's fireworks  The national broadcast was revived for 2016, and expanded to two hours  In 2017, Bloomberg Television took over coverage duty, with WHDH carrying local coverage beginning in 2018 
On the Capitol lawn in Washington, D C , A Capitol Fourth, a free concert broadcast live by PBS, NPR and the American Forces Network, precedes the fireworks and attracts over half a million people annually 

Other countries
The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate the day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U S  territory and the United States officially recognized  Philippine Independence 
July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962  In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day 
Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States 

See also
Federal holidays in the United States
Juneteenth
List of occasions known by their dates

Notes
Passage 11:
David Gardiner Tyler
David Gardiner Tyler (July 12, 1846 – September 5, 1927), was a U S  Democratic Party politician and the ninth child and fourth son of John Tyler, the tenth President of the United States 
Although born in New York, he went to school in Virginia and fought in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War  After attending college in Germany and Virginia, he became a lawyer  He later served in the Virginia State Senate, as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia's second congressional district, and as a Virginia Circuit Court judge 

Early life
Tyler was born in East Hampton, New York and was the first child born to former President John Tyler and his second wife, Julia Gardiner Tyler  He was named after his late maternal grandfather, David Gardiner  As a child, he attended private schools in Charles City County, Virginia 
In 1862, he entered present-day Washington and Lee University, where he was a member of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity, but dropped out the following year to fight in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War   He was present at the surrender of Robert E  Lee at Appomattox Court House in 1865   Following the war, he and his brother, John Alexander Tyler, traveled to Germany, and attended school in the Grand Duchy of Baden  He returned to the United States, and graduated from the Washington and Lee School of Law in 1869 

Career
From 1870 to 1884, Tyler practiced law in Richmond, Virginia, before accepting an appointment as Director of the state lunatic asylum in Williamsburg, Virginia, serving until 1887  From 1891 to 1892, he served in the Virginia State Senate, and on the Board of Visitors of the College of William and Mary Tyler was elected to the United States House of Representatives from the state's 2nd District, serving from 1893 to 1897  He was defeated for renomination in 1896, and returned to private law practice until his reelection to the state senate, where he served from 1900 to 1904  From 1904 until his death in 1927, he served as a state circuit court judge 

Elections
1892; Tyler was elected to the U S  House of Representatives defeating Independent Republicans P C  Garrigan and John F  Deyendorf, H S  Collier, and Independent George Edwin Bowden, winning 55 61% of the vote 
1894; Tyler was re-elected defeating Republican Thomas R  Borland and Independent T J  Edwards, winning 56 27% of the vote 

Personal life
Tyler was married to the former Mary Morris Jones (1865–1931)  Together, they were the parents of five children, four of whom survived to adulthood:
Mary Lyon Tyler (1895–1975), who married George Peterkin Gamble (1899–1986) 
Margaret Gardiner Tyler (1897–1981), who married Stephen F  Chadwick (1894–1975), grandson of Stephen F  Chadwick, the 5th Governor of Oregon 
David Gardiner Tyler Jr  (1899–1993), who married Anne Morton Shelton (1900–1977) 
James Alfred Jones Tyler (1902–1972), who married Katherine Thomason (1909–1967) 
John Tyler (1905–1907), who died young He died at Sherwood Forest Plantation and is buried at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond 
Passage 12:
Karen Tandy
Karen Pomerantz Tandy is an American attorney and law enforcement official who served as the 9th Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration from 2003 to 2007  She was nominated by President George W  Bush and confirmed by the U S  Senate on July 31, 2003  She was the first female head of the DEA 

Early life and education
Tandy is a native of Fort Worth, Texas and graduated from L  D  Bell High School in Hurst, Texas  She earned a bachelor's degree from Texas Tech University and a Juris Doctor from the Texas Tech University School of Law 

Career
On October 22, 2007, she announced her retirement from the DEA, and took a position with Motorola  Tandy then became senior vice president of public affairs and communications where she served as Motorola's top public policy spokesperson on issues related to global telecom policy, trade, regulation, spectrum allocation, and country relations Since June 2016, she has served as vice chair of the Homeland Security Advisory Council  In March 2021, after Secretary of Homeland Security Alejandro Mayorkas dismissed all 32 members of the advisory council, Tandy was one of only three senior-level members to remain in their positions 
Passage 13:
Immokolee
Immokolee (also known as the Dorothy Binney Palmer House) is a historic home in Fort Pierce, Florida  It is located at 8431 Immokolee Road  On July 29, 1994, it was added to the U S  National Register of Historic Places 
The name "Immokolee" derives from a Seminole dialect word meaning "our home" or "my home place "The Mission Revival house was constructed in 1931 by local builder Franklind Tyler from a design provided by owner Dorothy Binney Palmer  The house was restored after Palmer's death in 1985 
Context 2: Passage 1:
East Timor
East Timor ( (listen)), also known as Timor-Leste (; Portuguese pronunciation: [tiˈmoɾ ˈlɛʃtɨ]), officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia  It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, of which the western half is administered by Indonesia, the exclave of Oecusse on the island's north-western half, and the minor islands of Atauro and Jaco  Australia is the country's southern neighbour, separated by the Timor Sea  The country's size is 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi)  Dili is its capital and largest city 
East Timor came under Portuguese influence in the sixteenth century, remaining a Portuguese colony until 1975  Internal conflict preceded a unilateral declaration of independence and an Indonesian invasion and annexation  Resistance continued throughout Indonesian rule, and, in 1999, a United Nations–sponsored act of self-determination led to Indonesia relinquishing control of the territory  On 20 May 2002, as Timor-Leste, it became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century  That same year, relations with Indonesia were established and normalized, with Indonesia also supporting East Timor's accession into ASEAN  
The national government runs on a semi-presidential system, with the popularly elected president sharing power with a prime minister appointed by the National Parliament  Power is centralised under the national government, although many local leaders have informal influence  The country maintains a policy of international cooperation, and is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, an observer of the Pacific Islands Forum, and an applicant for ASEAN membership  The country remains relatively poor, with an economy that relies heavily on natural resources, especially oil, and foreign aid 
The total population is over 1 1 million, and is heavily skewed towards young people due to a high fertility rate  Education has led to increasing literacy over the past half-century, especially in the two official languages of Portuguese and Tetum  High ethnic and linguistic diversity is reflected by the 30 indigenous languages spoken in the country  The majority of the population is Catholic, which exists alongside strong local traditions, especially in rural areas 

Name
"Timor" is derived from timur, meaning 'east' in Malay, thus resulting in a tautological place name meaning 'East East'  In Indonesian, this results in the name Timor Timur  (this name only refers to the former de facto Indonesian province, Timor Leste is used instead to refer this country)  In Portuguese, the country is called Timor-Leste (Leste meaning 'east')  In Tetum it is Timór Lorosa'e (Lorosa'e can be literally translated as 'where the sun rises') The official names under its constitution are "Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste" in English, "República Democrática de Timor-Leste" in Portuguese, and "Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste" in Tetum  The official short form of the name is "Timor-Leste", and it uses the ISO codes TLS & TL 

History
Prehistory and Classical era
Cultural remains at Jerimalai on the eastern tip of East Timor have been dated to 42,000 years ago  The first known inhabitants are those who arrived during the Australo-Melanesian migration through the region, likely bringing the precursors to today's Papuan languages  A later migration of Austroasiatic-speakers is suspected, although no such languages remain  The arrival of Austronesian peoples brought new languages, and merged with existing cultures on the island  Timorese origin myths recount settlers sailing around the eastern end of the island before landing in the south  These people are sometimes noted as being from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra  Austronesian migration to Timor may be associated with the development of agriculture on the island While information is limited about the political system of Timor during this period, the island had developed an interconnected series of polities governed by customary law  Small communities, centred around a particular sacred house, were part of wider sucos (or principalities), which were themselves part of larger kingdoms led by a liurai  Authority within these kingdoms was held by two individuals, with the worldly power of the liurai balanced by the spiritual power of a rai nain, who was generally associated with the primary sacred house of the kingdom  These polities were numerous and saw shifting alliances and relations, but many were stable enough that they survived from initial European documentation in the 16th century until the end of Portuguese rule : 11–15 From perhaps the thirteenth century, the island exported sandalwood,: 267  which was valued both for its use in crafting and as a source of perfume  Timor was included in Southeast Asian, Chinese, and Indian trading networks by the fourteenth century, exporting sandalwood, honey, and wax  The island was recorded by the Majapahit Empire as a source of tribute : 89  It was sandalwood that attracted European explorers to the island in the early sixteenth century  Early European presence was limited to trade, with the first Portuguese settlement being on the nearby island of Solor : 90

Portuguese era (1769–1975)
Early Portuguese presence on Timor was very limited; trade was directed through Portuguese settlements on nearby islands  Only in the 17th century did they establish a more direct presence on the island, a consequence of being driven out of other islands by the Dutch : 267  After Solor was lost in 1613 the Portuguese moved to Flores  In 1646 the capital moved to Kupang on Timor's west, before Kupang too was lost to the Dutch in 1652  The Portuguese then moved to Lifau, in what is now East Timor's Oecusse exclave : 90  Effective European occupation in the east of the island only began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded, although actual control remained highly limited  A definitive border between the Dutch and Portuguese parts of the island was established by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1914 and remains the international boundary between the successor states Indonesia and East Timor, respectively For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post, with minimal investment in infrastructure and education, until the late nineteenth century  Even when Portugal established actual control over the interior of its colony, investment remained minimal : 269, 273  Sandalwood continued to be the main export crop and coffee exports became significant in the mid-nineteenth century At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering domestic economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies, which was met with East Timorese resistance  The colony was seen as an economic burden during the Great Depression and received little support or management from Portugal : 269 During World War II, Dili was occupied by the Allies in 1941, and later by the Japanese beginning in 1942  The mountainous interior of the colony became the scene of a guerrilla campaign, known as the Battle of Timor  Waged by East Timorese volunteers and Allied forces against the Japanese, the struggle killed between 40,000 and 70,000 East Timorese civilians  The Japanese eventually drove the last of the Australian and Allied forces out in early 1943  Portuguese control resumed, however, after Japanese surrender at the end of World War II Portugal began investment in the colony in the 1950s, funding education and promoting coffee exports, but the economy did not improve substantially and infrastructure improvements were limited : 269  Growth rates remained low, near 2%  Following the 1974 Portuguese revolution, Portugal effectively abandoned its colony in Timor, and civil war between East Timorese political parties broke out in 1975 
The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) resisted a Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) coup attempt in August 1975, and unilaterally declared independence on 28 November 1975  Fearing a communist state within the Indonesian archipelago, the Indonesian military launched an invasion of East Timor in December 1975  Indonesia declared East Timor its 27th province on 17 July 1976  The United Nations Security Council opposed the invasion, and the territory's nominal status in the UN remained as "non-self-governing territory under Portuguese administration" 

Indonesian occupation (1975–1999)
Fretilin resisted the invasion, initially as an army, holding territory until November 1978, and then as a guerrilla resistance  The Indonesian occupation of Timor was marked by violence and brutality  A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a minimum of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period between 1974 and 1999, including approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 excess deaths from hunger and illness  The total number of conflict-related deaths during this period is difficult to determine due to a lack of data  One estimate based on Portuguese, Indonesian, and Catholic Church data suggests it may have been as high as 200,000  Repression and restrictions counteracted improvements in health and education infrastructure and services, meaning there was little overall improvement in living standards; economic growth mostly benefited immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia : 271  A huge expansion of education was intended to increase Indonesian language use and internal security as much as it was for development The 1991 massacre of more than 200 demonstrators by the Indonesian military was a turning point for the independence cause, and brought increased international pressure on Indonesia  Following the resignation of Indonesian President Suharto, the new President BJ Habibie, prompted by a letter from Australian Prime Minister John Howard, decided to hold a referendum on independence  A UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia and Portugal allowed for a UN-supervised popular referendum in August 1999  A clear vote for independence was met with a punitive campaign of violence by East Timorese pro-integration militias supported by elements of the Indonesian military  In response, the Indonesian government allowed a multinational peacekeeping force, INTERFET, to restore order and aid East Timorese refugees and internally displaced persons  On 25 October 1999, the administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)  INTERFET deployment ended in February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN 

Contemporary era
On 30 August 2001, the East Timorese voted in their first election organised by the UN to elect members of the Constituent Assembly  On 22 March 2002, the Constituent Assembly approved the Constitution  By May 2002, more than 205,000 refugees had returned  On 20 May 2002, the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor came into force and East Timor was recognised as independent by the UN  The Constituent Assembly was renamed the National Parliament, and Xanana Gusmão was elected as the country's first president  On 27 September 2002 the country became a UN member state In 2006, a crisis of unrest and factional fighting forced 155,000 people to flee their homes; the United Nations sent in security forces to restore order  The following year, Gusmão declined to run for another term  While there were minor incidents in the build-up to the mid-year presidential elections, the process was peaceful overall and José Ramos-Horta was elected president  In June 2007, Gusmão ran in the parliamentary elections and became prime minister at the head of the National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction (CNRT) party  In February 2008, Ramos-Horta was critically injured in an attempted assassination; Prime Minister Gusmão also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed  Australian reinforcements were immediately sent to help keep order  In March 2011, the UN handed over operational control of the police force to the East Timor authorities  The United Nations ended its peacekeeping mission on 31 December 2012 Francisco Guterres of the centre-left Fretilin party became president in May 2017  The leader of Fretilin, Mari Alkatiri, formed a coalition government after the July 2017 parliamentary election  This government soon fell, leading to a second general election in May 2018  In June 2018, former president and independence fighter, Taur Matan Ruak, became the new prime minister  José Ramos-Horta again became president on 20 May 2022 after winning the April 2022 presidential election runoff against Francisco Guterres 

Politics and government
The political system of East Timor is semi-presidential, based upon the Portuguese system : 175  The constitution establishes both this separation of executive powers between the president and the prime minister; and the separation of powers between the executive, legislature, and judiciary : 12  Individuals are not allowed to participate in both the legislature and the executive branch  The legislature is intended to provide a check on the executive; in practice the executive has maintained control of the legislature under all political parties, reflecting the dominance of individual leaders within political parties and coalitions : 174  The executive, through the council of ministers, also holds some formal legislative powers : 175  The judiciary operates independently, although there are instances of executive interference : 13, 39  Some courts shift between locations, to improve access for those in more isolated areas  Despite political rhetoric, the constitution and democratic institutions have been followed by politicians, and changes of government are peaceful : 15, 42  Elections are run by an independent body,: 216  and turnout is high, ranging from around 70% to 85% : 17  The political system has wide public acceptance : 17 : 106 The head of state of East Timor is the president of the republic, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term,: 244  and can serve a maximum of two terms  Formally, the directly elected president holds relatively limited powers compared to those in similar systems, with no power over the appointment and dismissal of the prime minister and the council of ministers  However, as they are directly elected, past presidents have wielded great informal power and influence : 175  The president does have the power to veto government legislation, initiate referendums, and to dissolve parliament in the event that it is unable to form a government or pass a budget : 244  If the president vetoes a legislative action, the parliament can overturn the veto with a two-thirds majority : 10  The prime minister is chosen by the parliament, with the president appointing the leader of the majority party or coalition as prime minister of East Timor and the cabinet on the proposal of the latter : 10  As head of government, the prime minister presides over the cabinet 

Representatives in the unicameral National Parliament are elected by popular vote to a five-year term  The number of seats can vary from a minimum of fifty-two to a maximum of sixty-five  Parties must achieve 3% of the vote to enter parliament, with seats for qualifying parties allocated using the D'Hondt method  Elections occur within the framework of a competitive multi-party system  Upon independence, power was held by the Fretilin political party, which was formed shortly before the Indonesian invasion and led its resistance  Given its history, Fretilin viewed itself as the natural party of government and supported a multi-party system, expecting the development of a dominant-party system  Support from the United Nations and the international community, both before and after independence, allowed the nascent political system to survive shocks such as the 2006 crisis : 173 Candidates in parliamentary elections run in a single national district in a party-list system  One in three of all candidates presented by political parties must be women  This system promotes a diversity of political parties, but gives voters little influence over the individual candidates selected by each party : 175–176  Women hold more than a third of parliamentary seats, with parties required by law to run female candidates, but they are less prominent at other levels and within party leadership Political divisions exist along class lines and along geographical lines  There is broadly a divide between eastern and western areas of the country, stemming from differences that arose under Indonesian rule  Fretilin in particular is strongly linked to the Eastern areas : 176–177  Political parties are more closely associated with prominent personalities more than with ideology : 16  The National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction became the main opposition to Fretilin, following its establishment to allow Xanana Gusmão to run for Prime Minister in the 2007 parliamentary elections : 168–169  While both major parties have been relatively stable, they remain led by an "old guard" of individuals who came to prominence during the resistance against Indonesia : 175 : 10–11 Politics and administration is centred in the capital Dili, with the national government responsible for most civil services : 9, 36  Oecusse, separated from the rest of the country by Indonesian territory, is a special administrative region with some autonomy : 180  The National Police of East Timor and Timor Leste Defence Force have held a monopoly on violence since 2008 and very few guns are present outside of these organisations : 8  While there are allegations of abuse of power, there is some judicial oversight of police and public trust in the institution has grown  An active civil society functions independently of the government, as do media outlets : 11–12  Civil society organisations are concentrated in the capital, including student groups  Due to the structure of the economy, there are no powerful trade unions : 17  The Catholic Church has strong influence in the country : 40

Foreign relations and military
International cooperation has always been important to East Timor; donor funds made up 80% of the budget before oil revenues began to replace them : 42–44  International forces also provided security, with five UN missions sent to the country from 1999  The final one, the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor, began after the 2006 East Timorese crisis and concluded in 2012 : 4, 14 East Timor formally applied to join ASEAN in 2011,: 42–44  and was granted observer status and accepted "in principle" in November 2022  Despite the nationalist political leadership promoting closer ties with Melanesian states, the country has targeted ASEAN membership since before its independence, with its leaders stating that joining Pacific bodies would have precluded ASEAN membership  ASEAN membership was sought for economic and security reasons, including to improve the relationship with Indonesia  Nonetheless, the process has been slow due to a lack of support from some ASEAN states : 10–11  East Timor is thus an observer to the Pacific Islands Forum and the Melanesian Spearhead Group  More broadly, the country is a leader within the Group of Seven Plus (g7+), an organisation of fragile states  It is also a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries : 42–44 Continuing bilateral donors include Australia, Portugal, Germany, and Japan, and East Timor has a reputation for effectively and transparently using donor funds  Good relations with Australia and with Indonesia are a policy goal for the government, despite historical and more-recent tensions  These countries are important economic partners and provide most transport links to the country : 42–44  China has also increased its presence by contributing to infrastructure in Dili : 12 The relationship with Australia was dominated from before independence by disputes over natural resources in the ocean between them, hampering the establishment of a mutually agreed border  The dominance of Australian hard power led East Timor to utilise public diplomacy and forums for international law to push their case  The dispute was resolved in 2018 following negotiations at the Permanent Court of Arbitration, when a maritime boundary between the two was established along with an agreement on natural resource revenues The Timor Leste Defence Force (F-FDTL) was established in 2001, replacing Falintil, and was restructured following the events of 2006  It is responsible not only for safeguarding against external threats, but also for addressing violent crime, a role it shares with the National Police of East Timor  These forces remain small: 2,200 soldiers in the regular army and 80 in a naval component  A single aircraft and seven patrol boats are operated, and there are plans to expand the naval component  There is some military cooperation with Australia, Portugal, and the United States 

Administrative divisions
East Timor is divided into fourteen municipalities, which in turn are subdivided into 64 administrative posts, 442 sucos (villages), and 2,225 aldeias (hamlets)  The municipalities are: Aileu, Ainaro, Atauro, Baucau, Bobonaro, Cova Lima, Dili, Ermera, Lautém, Liquiçá, Manatuto, Manufahi, Oecusse, and Viqueque The existing system of municipalities and administrative posts was established during Portuguese rule : 3  While decentralisation is mentioned in the constitution, administrative powers generally remain with the national government operating out of Dili : 2  Upon independence there was debate about how to implement decentralisation; various proposed models would create different levels of administration between the sucos and the central government  In most proposals, there were no specific provisions for suco-level governance, and they were expected to continue to exist as mostly traditional spaces, identifying communities rather than being part of the civil administration  In the end, the existing districts were kept and renamed municipalities in 2009, and received very few powers : 88–92  In 2016 changes were made so that each municipality is led by a civil servant appointed by the central government  This civil servant is advised by locally elected leaders : 4, 7  The isolated Oecusse municipality, which has a strong identity and is fully surrounded by Indonesian territory, is specified by Articles 5 and 71 of the 2002 constitution to be governed by a special administrative policy and economic regime  Law 3/2014 of 18 June 2014 implemented this constitutional provision, which went into effect in January 2015, turning Oecusse into a Special Administrative Region  The region began operating its own civil service in June 2015  In January 2022 the island of Atauro, formerly an Administrative Post of Dili, became its own municipality Administration in the lowest levels of the administrative system of East Timor, the aldeias and sucos, generally reflects traditional customs,: 1  reflecting community identity and relationships between local households : 4  Sucos generally contain 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants  Their long persistence and links to local governance means the sucos are the level of government that is linked to community identities, rather than any high level of administration : 89  Such relationships, however, are associated specifically with the kinship groups within that land, rather than the land itself : 52–53  Relationships between sucos also reflect customary practices, for example through the reciprocal exchanging of support for local initiatives : 9  Laws passed in 2004 provided for the election of some suco officials, but assigned these positions no formal powers  An updated law in 2009 established the expected mandate of these positions, although it continued to leave them outside of the formal state system, reliant on municipal governments to provide formal administration and services : 94–97  Further clarification was given in 2016, which entrenched the treatment of sucos and aldeias more as communities than formal levels of administration  Despite this lack of formal association with the state, suco leaders hold great influence and are often seen by their community as representatives of the state  They have responsibilities usually associated with civic administration : 7–10

Geography
Located in between Southeast Asia and the South Pacific,: 2  the island of Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands, which lie within the Malay archipelago : 1  The island is surrounded by the Ombai and Wetar Straits of the rougher Banda Sea in the north, and the calmer Timor Sea in the south : 2  East Timor shares the island with Indonesia, with Indonesian territory separating the Oecusse exclave from the rest of the country  The island of Atauro lies north of the mainland,: 2  with the fourth area being the small island of Jaco  The Savu Sea lies north of Oecusse : 1  The country is about 265 kilometres (165 mi) long and 97 kilometres (60 mi) wide, with a total land area of 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi) : 1  This territory is situated between 8′15S – 10′30S latitude and 125′50E – 127′30E longitude : 2  The country's coastline covers around 700 kilometres (430 mi),: 27  while the main land border with Indonesia is 125 kilometres (78 mi) long, and the Oecusse land border is around 100 kilometres (62 mi) long : 1  Maritime borders exist with Australia to the south and Indonesia elsewhere  East Timor has an exclusive economic zone of 77,051 km2 (29,750 sq mi) The interior of the country is mountainous,: 2  with ridges of inactive volcanic mountains extending along the island : 2  Almost half of the country has a slope of at least 40%  The south is slightly less mountainous, and has some plains near the coastline : 2  The highest point is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 metres (9,721 ft)  Most rivers dry up at least partially during the dry season : 2  Outside of some coastal areas and river valleys, the soil is shallow and prone to erosion, and its quality is poor : 13 : 2  The capital and largest city is Dili  The second-largest city is the eastern town of Baucau : 22 

The climate is tropical with relatively stable temperatures throughout the year  A wet season lasts from December to May throughout the country, and lasts slightly longer in the south: 5  and the interior due to the effect of a monsoon from Australia : 2  During this period, rainfall can reach 222–252 millimetres (8 7–9 9 in) per month  In the dry season, it drops to 12–18 millimetres (0 47–0 71 in) : 5  The country is vulnerable to flooding and landslides that occur as a result of heavy rain, especially when rainfall levels are increased by the La Niña effect : 13  The mountainous interior is cooler than the coasts  Coastal areas are heavily dependent on groundwater, which faces pressure from mismanagement, deforestation, and climate change : 14  While the temperature is thought to have experienced a small increase due to climate change, there has been little change in annual rainfall : 6 Coastal ecosystems around the country are diverse and varied, with vary spatially between the north and south coastlines, as well as between the eastern tip and areas more to the west  These ecosystems include coral reefs, as the country's waters are part of the Coral Triangle biodiversity hotspot : 28  The easternmost area of East Timor consists of the Paitchau Range and the Lake Ira Lalaro area, which contains the country's first conservation area, the Nino Konis Santana National Park  It contains the last remaining tropical dry forested area within the country  It hosts a number of unique plant and animal species and is sparsely populated  The northern coast is characterised by a number of coral reef systems that have been determined to be at risk There are around 41,000 terrestrial plant species in the country  Forests covered 35% of East Timor's land in the mid 2010s : 1  The forests of the northern coast, central uplands, and southern coast are distinct : 2  East Timor is home to the Timor and Wetar deciduous forests ecoregion  There is some environmental protection in law, but it has not been a government priority : 27 : 10–14  In addition to climate change, local ecosystems are threatened by deforestation, land degradation, overfishing, and pollution : 2–3

Economy
The economy of East Timor is a market economy, although it is dependent upon the export of a few commodities and has a large public sector  Internally, market operations are limited by widespread poverty : 20  The country uses the United States dollar, producing its own coins to facilitate smaller transactions  The economy is generally open to foreign investment, although a prohibition on foreigners owning land means many require a local partner in the country : 20  Competition is limited by the small size of the economy, rather than any government barriers  There are far more imports than exports,: 21  and prices for goods are often higher than in nearby countries : 27  Inflation is strongly affected by government spending : 257  Growth has been slow, averaging just 2 5% per year from 2011 to 2021 : 24 Most of the country is very poor, with just more than 40% living under the national poverty line  This poverty is especially prevalent in rural areas, where many are subsistence farmers or fishermen  Even in urban areas, the majority are poor  Overall, women are poorer than men, often being employed in lower-paying careers : 18  Malnutrition is common, with over half of children showing stunted growth : 255  While 91% of married working age (15–49) men were employed as of 2016, only 43% of married working age women were  There are small disparities in favour of men in terms of home and land ownership and owning a bank account : 14  The eastern three municipalities, which contain around a quarter of the population, has less poverty than the western areas, which contain 50% of the population : 214 Sixty-six per cent of families are in part supported by subsistence activities; however, the country as a whole does not produce enough food to be self-sustaining, and thus relies on imports : 16  Agricultural work carries the implication of poverty, and the sector receives little investment from the government : 260  Ninety-four per cent of domestic fish catch comes from the ocean, especially coastal fisheries : 17  Those in the capital of Dili are on average better off, although they remain poor by international standards : 257  The small size of the private sector means the government is often the customer of public businesses  A quarter of the national population works in the informal economy, with the official public and private sectors employing 9% each : 18  Of those of working age, around 23% are in the formal sector, 21% are students, and 27% are subsistence farmers and fishers : 21  The economy is mostly cash-based, with little commercial credit available from banks : 11–12  Remittances from overseas workers add up to around $100 million annually : 257 

This poverty belies significant wealth in terms of natural resources, which at the time of independence had per capita value equivalent to the wealth of an upper-middle income country  Over half of this was in oil, and over a quarter natural gas  The Timor-Leste Petroleum Fund was established in 2005 to turn these non-renewable resources into a more sustainable form of wealth : 4–6  From 2005 to 2021, $23 billion earned from oil sales has entered the fund  $8 billion has been generated from investments, while $12 billion has been spent : 30  A decrease in oil and gas reserves led to decreasing HDI beginning in 2010 : 18–19  Eighty per cent of government spending comes from this fund, which as of 2021 had $19 billion, 10 times greater than the size of the national budget  As oil income has decreased, the fund is at risk of being exhausted  Withdrawals have exceeded sustainable levels almost every year since 2009 : 23  Resources within the Bayu-Undan field are expected to soon run out, while extracting those within the so far undeveloped Greater Sunrise field has proven technically and politically challenging  Remaining potential reserves are also losing value as oil and gas become less favoured sources of energy : 264–272 The country's economy is dependent on government spending and, to a lesser extent, assistance from foreign donors  Government spending decreased beginning in 2012, which had knock-on effects in the private sector over the following years  The government and its state-owned oil company often invest in large private projects  Decreasing government spending was matched with a decrease in GDP growth : 18  After the petroleum fund, the second largest source of government income is taxes  Tax revenue is less than 8% of GDP, lower than many other countries in the region and with similarly sized economies  Other government income comes from 23 "autonomous agencies", which include port authorities, infrastructure companies, and the National University of East Timor : 13, 28–309  Overall, government spending remains among the highest in the world,: 12  although investment into education, health, and water infrastructure is negligible : 260 

Private sector development has lagged due to human capital shortages, infrastructure weakness, an incomplete legal system, and an inefficient regulatory environment  Property rights remain ill-defined, with conflicting titles from Portuguese and Indonesian rule, as well as needing to accommodate traditional customary rights : 23  As of 2010, 87 7% of urban (321,043 people) and 18 9% of rural (821,459 people) households have electricity, for an overall average of 38 2%  The private sector shrank between 2014 and 2018, despite a growing working age population  Agriculture and manufacturing are less productive per capita than at independence : 255–256  Non-oil economic sectors have failed to develop, and growth in construction and administration is dependent on oil revenue : 256  The dependence on oil shows some aspects of a resource curse  Coffee made up 90% of all non-fossil fuel exports from 2013 to 2019, with all such exports totalling to around US$20 million annually : 257  In 2017, the country was visited by 75,000 tourists 

Demographics
East Timor recorded a population of 1,183,643 in its 2015 census  The population lives mainly along the coastline, where all urban areas are located : 27  Those in urban areas generally have more formal education, employment prospects, and healthcare
Context 3: Passage 1:
Daylight saving time
Daylight saving time (DST), also referred to as daylight savings time, daylight time (United States, Canada, and Australia), or summer time (United Kingdom, European Union, and others), is the practice of advancing clocks (typically by one hour) during warmer months so that darkness falls at a later clock time  The typical implementation of DST is to set clocks forward by one hour in either the late winter or spring ("spring forward"), and to set clocks back by one hour in the fall ("fall back") to return to standard time  As a result, there is one 23-hour day in early spring and one 25-hour day in the middle of autumn 
The idea of aligning waking hours to daylight hours to conserve candles was first proposed in 1784 by U S  polymath Benjamin Franklin  In a satirical letter to the editor of The Journal of Paris, Franklin suggested that waking up earlier in the summer would economize on candle usage; and calculated considerable savings  In 1895, New Zealand entomologist and astronomer George Hudson proposed the idea of changing clocks by two hours every spring to the Wellington Philosophical Society  In 1907, British resident William Willett presented the idea as a way to save energy  After some serious consideration, it was not implemented In 1908, Port Arthur in Ontario, Canada (today merged into Thunder Bay), started using DST  Starting on 30 April 1916, the German Empire and Austria-Hungary each organized the first nationwide implementation in their jurisdictions  Many countries have used DST at various times since then, particularly since the 1970s energy crisis  DST is generally not observed near the Equator, where sunrise and sunset times do not vary enough to justify it  Some countries observe it only in some regions: for example, parts of Australia observe it, while other parts do not  Conversely, it is not observed at some places at high latitudes, because there are wide variations in sunrise and sunset times and a one-hour shift would relatively not make much difference  The United States observes it, except for the states of Hawaii and Arizona (within the latter, however, the Navajo Nation does observe it, conforming to federal practice)  A minority of the world's population uses DST; Asia, Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean generally do not 

Rationale
Industrialized societies usually follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year  The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, and the coordination of mass transit, for example, usually remain constant year-round  In contrast, an agrarian society's daily routines for work and personal conduct are more likely governed by the length of daylight hours and by solar time, which change seasonally because of the Earth's axial tilt  North and south of the tropics, daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater the farther one moves away from the equator 
After synchronously resetting all clocks in a region to one hour ahead of standard time in spring in anticipation of longer daylight hours, individuals following a clock-based schedule will be awakened an hour earlier in the solar day than they would have otherwise  They will begin and complete daily work routines an hour earlier: in most cases they will have an extra hour of daylight available to them after their workday activities Proponents of daylight saving time argue that most people prefer a greater increase in daylight hours after the typical "nine to five" workday  Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, but the actual effect on overall energy use is heavily disputed The shift in apparent time is also motivated by practicality  In American temperate latitudes, for example, the sun rises around 04:30 at the summer solstice and sets around 19:30  Since most people are asleep at 04:30, it is seen as more practical to treat 04:30 as if it is 05:30, thereby allowing people to wake closer to the sunrise and be active in the evening light 
Because sunrise and sunset times become significantly out of phase with standard working hours at higher latitudes (such as Iceland, Scandinavia, and Alaska), the manipulation of time would have little effect on daily life, and thus is not practiced DST is similarly of little use for locations near the Equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year 

Variation within a time zone
The effect of Daylight Savings Time also varies according to how far east or west the location is within its time zone, with locations farther east inside the time zone benefiting more from DST than locations farther west in the same time zone  In spite of a width spanning thousands of miles, all of China is located within a single time zone per government mandate, minimizing any potential benefit of Daylight Savings Time there 

History
Ancient civilizations adjusted daily schedules to the sun more flexibly than DST does, often dividing daylight into 12 hours regardless of daytime, so that each daylight hour became progressively longer during spring and shorter during autumn  For example, the Romans kept time with water clocks that had different scales for different months of the year; at Rome's latitude, the third hour from sunrise (hora tertia) started at 09:02 solar time and lasted 44 minutes at the winter solstice, but at the summer solstice it started at 06:58 and lasted 75 minutes  From the 14th century onward, equal-length civil hours supplanted unequal ones, so civil time no longer varied by season  Unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as monasteries of Mount Athos and in Jewish ceremonies Benjamin Franklin published the proverb "early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise," and published a letter in the Journal de Paris during his time as an American envoy to France (1776–1785) suggesting that Parisians economize on candles by rising earlier to use morning sunlight  This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells and firing cannons at sunrise  Despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST; 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules  However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks required a standardization of time unknown in Franklin's day In 1810, the Spanish National Assembly Cortes of Cádiz issued a regulation that moved certain meeting times forward by one hour from 1 May to 30 September in recognition of seasonal changes, but it did not change the clocks  It also acknowledged that private businesses were in the practice of changing their opening hours to suit daylight conditions, but they did so of their own volition 
 
New Zealand entomologist George Hudson first proposed modern DST  His shift-work job gave him leisure time to collect insects and led him to value after-hours daylight  In 1895, he presented a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society proposing a two-hour daylight-saving shift, and considerable interest was expressed in Christchurch; he followed up with an 1898 paper  Many publications credit the DST proposal to prominent English builder and outdoorsman William Willett, who independently conceived DST in 1905 during a pre-breakfast ride when he observed how many Londoners slept through a large part of a summer day  Willett also was an avid golfer who disliked cutting short his round at dusk  His solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, and he published the proposal two years later  Liberal Party member of parliament Robert Pearce took up the proposal, introducing the first Daylight Saving Bill to the British House of Commons on 12 February 1908  A select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearce's bill did not become law and several other bills failed in the following years  Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915 

Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada, was the first city in the world to enact DST, on 1 July 1908  This was followed by Orillia, Ontario, introduced by William Sword Frost while mayor from 1911 to 1912  The first states to adopt DST (German: Sommerzeit) nationally were those of the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary commencing 30 April 1916, as a way to conserve coal during wartime  Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed  Russia and a few other countries waited until the next year, and the United States adopted daylight saving in 1918  Most jurisdictions abandoned DST in the years after the war ended in 1918, with exceptions including Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Ireland, and the United States  It became common during World War II (some countries adopted double summer time), and was standardized in the U S  by federal law in 1966, and widely adopted in Europe from the 1970s as a result of the 1970s energy crisis  Since then, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals It is a common myth in the United States that DST was first implemented for the benefit of farmers  In reality, farmers have been one of the strongest lobbying groups against DST since it was first implemented  The factors that influence farming schedules, such as morning dew and dairy cattle's readiness to be milked, are ultimately dictated by the sun, so the time change introduces unnecessary challenges DST was first implemented in the US with the Standard Time Act of 1918, a wartime measure for seven months during World War I in the interest of adding more daylight hours to conserve energy resources  Year-round DST, or "War Time", was implemented again during World War II  After the war, local jurisdictions were free to choose if and when to observe DST until the Uniform Time Act which standardized DST in 1966   Permanent daylight saving time was enacted for the winter of 1974, but there were complaints of children going to school in the dark and working people commuting and starting their work day in pitch darkness during the winter months, and it was repealed a year later 

Procedure
The relevant authorities usually schedule clock changes to occur at (or soon after) midnight, and on a weekend, in order to lessen disruption to weekday schedules  A one-hour change is usual, but twenty-minute and two-hour changes have been used in the past  In all countries that observe daylight saving time seasonally (i e  during summer and not winter), the clock is advanced from standard time to daylight saving time in the spring, and they are turned back from daylight saving time to standard time in the autumn  
For a midnight change in spring, a digital display of local time would appear to jump from 23:59:59 9 to 01:00:00 0  For the same clock in autumn, the local time would appear to repeat the hour preceding midnight, i e  it would jump from 23:59:59 9 to 23:00:00 0 
In most countries that observe seasonal daylight saving time, the time reverts in winter to "standard time"  An exception exists in Ireland, where its winter clock has the same offset (UTC±00:00) and legal name as that in Britain (Greenwich Mean Time)—but while its summer clock also has the same offset as Britain's (UTC+01:00), its legal name is Irish Standard Time as opposed to British Summer Time Since 2019 Morocco observes daylight saving time every month but Ramadan  During the holy month (the date of which is determined by the lunar calendar and thus moves annually with regard to the Gregorian calendar), the country's civil clocks observe Western European Time (UTC+00:00, which geographically overlaps most of the nation)  At the close of that month, its clocks are turned forward to Western European Summer Time (UTC+01:00) The time at which to change clocks differs across jurisdictions  Members of the European Union conduct a coordinated change, changing all zones at the same instant, at 01:00 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which means that it changes at 02:00 Central European Time (CET), equivalent to 03:00 Eastern European Time (EET)  As a result, the time differences across European time zones remain constant  North America coordination of the clock change differs, in that each jurisdiction change at 02:00 local time, which temporarily creates an imbalance with the next time zone (until it adjusts its time, one hour later, at 2 AM there)  For example, Mountain Time is for one hour in the spring two hours ahead of Pacific Time instead of the usual one hour ahead, and instead of one hour in the autumn, briefly zero hours ahead of Pacific Time 
The dates on which clocks change vary with location and year; consequently, the time differences between regions also vary throughout the year  For example, Central European Time is usually six hours ahead of North American Eastern Time, except for a few weeks in March and October/November, while the United Kingdom and mainland Chile could be five hours apart during the northern summer, three hours during the southern summer, and four hours for a few weeks per year  Since 1996, European Summer Time has been observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October; previously the rules were not uniform across the European Union  Starting in 2007, most of the United States and Canada observed DST from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November, almost two-thirds of the year  Moreover, the beginning and ending dates are roughly reversed between the northern and southern hemispheres because spring and autumn are displaced six months  For example, mainland Chile observes DST from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March, with transitions at 24:00 local time  In some countries time is governed by regional jurisdictions within the country such that some jurisdictions change and others do not; this is currently the case in Australia, Canada, and the United States From year to year, the dates on which to change clock may also move for political or social reasons  The Uniform Time Act of 1966 formalized the United States' period of daylight saving time observation as lasting six months (it was previously declared locally); this period was extended to seven months in 1986, and then to eight months in 2005  The 2005 extension was motivated in part by lobbyists from the candy industry, seeking to increase profits by including Halloween (31 October) within the daylight saving time period  In recent history, Australian state jurisdictions not only changed at different local times but sometimes on different dates  For example, in 2008 most states there that observed daylight saving time changed clocks forward on 5 October, but Western Australia changed on 26 October 

Politics, religion and sport
The concept of daylight saving has caused controversy since its early proposals  Winston Churchill argued that it enlarges "the opportunities for the pursuit of health and happiness among the millions of people who live in this country" and pundits have dubbed it "Daylight Slaving Time"  Retailing, sports, and tourism interests have historically favored daylight saving, while agricultural and evening-entertainment interests (and some religious groups) have opposed it; energy crises and war prompted its initial adoption The fate of Willett's 1907 proposal illustrates several political issues  It attracted many supporters, including Arthur Balfour, Churchill, David Lloyd George, Ramsay MacDonald, King Edward VII (who used half-hour DST or "Sandringham time" at Sandringham), the managing director of Harrods, and the manager of the National Bank Ltd  However, the opposition proved stronger, including Prime Minister H  H  Asquith, William Christie (the Astronomer Royal), George Darwin, Napier Shaw (director of the Meteorological Office), many agricultural organizations, and theatre-owners  After many hearings, a parliamentary committee vote narrowly rejected the proposal in 1909  Willett's allies introduced similar bills every year from 1911 through 1914, to no avail  People in the US demonstrated even more skepticism; Andrew Peters introduced a DST bill to the House of Representatives in May 1909, but it soon died in committee 

Germany together with its allies led the way in introducing DST (German: Sommerzeit) during World War I on 30 April 1916, aiming to alleviate hardships due to wartime coal shortages and air-raid blackouts  The political equation changed in other countries; the United Kingdom used DST first on 21 May 1916  US retailing and manufacturing interests—led by Pittsburgh industrialist Robert Garland—soon began lobbying for DST, but railroads opposed the idea  The USA's 1917 entry into the war overcame objections, and DST started in 1918 The end of World War I brought change in DST use  Farmers continued to dislike DST, and many countries repealed it—like Germany itself, which dropped DST from 1919 to 1939 and from 1950 to 1979  Britain proved an exception; it retained DST nationwide but adjusted transition dates over the years for several reasons, including special rules during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid clock shifts on Easter mornings  As of 2009 summer time began annually on the last Sunday in March under a European Community directive, which may be Easter Sunday (as in 2016)  In the U S , Congress repealed DST after 1919  President Woodrow Wilson—an avid golfer like Willett—vetoed the repeal twice, but his second veto was overridden  Only a few U S  cities retained DST locally, including New York (so that its financial exchanges could maintain an hour of arbitrage trading with London), and Chicago and Cleveland (to keep pace with New York)  Wilson's successor as president, Warren G  Harding, opposed DST as a "deception", reasoning that people should instead get up and go to work earlier in the summer  He ordered District of Columbia federal employees to start work at 8 am rather than 9 am during the summer of 1922  Some businesses followed suit, though many others did not; the experiment was not repeated Since Germany's adoption of DST in 1916, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals of DST, with similar politics involved  The history of time in the United States features DST during both world wars, but no standardization of peacetime DST until 1966  St  Paul and Minneapolis, Minnesota, kept different times for two weeks in May 1965: the capital city decided to switch to daylight saving time, while Minneapolis opted to follow the later date set by state law  In the mid-1980s, Clorox and 7-Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension to U S  DST  Both senators from Idaho, Larry Craig and Mike Crapo, voted for it based on the premise that fast-food restaurants sell more French fries (made from Idaho potatoes) during DST A referendum on the introduction of daylight saving took place in Queensland, Australia, in 1992, after a three-year trial of daylight saving  It was defeated with a 54 5% "no" vote, with regional and rural areas strongly opposed, and those in the metropolitan southeast in favor In 2003, the United Kingdom's Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents supported a proposal to observe year-round daylight saving time, but it has been opposed by some industries, by some postal workers and farmers, and particularly by those living in the northern regions of the UK In 2005 the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to U S  DST In December 2008 the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland (DS4SEQ) political party was officially registered in Queensland, advocating the implementation of a dual-time-zone arrangement for daylight saving in South East Queensland, while the rest of the state maintained standard time  DS4SEQ contested the March 2009 Queensland state election with 32 candidates and received one percent of the statewide primary vote, equating to around 2 5% across the 32 electorates contested  After a three-year trial, more than 55% of Western Australians voted against DST in 2009, with rural areas strongly opposed  Queensland Independent member Peter Wellington introduced the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland Referendum Bill 2010 into the Queensland parliament on 14 April 2010, after being approached by the DS4SEQ political party, calling for a referendum at the next state election on the introduction of daylight saving into South East Queensland under a dual-time-zone arrangement  The Queensland parliament rejected Wellington's bill on 15 June 2011 Russia declared in 2011 that it would stay in DST all year long (UTC+4:00); Belarus followed with a similar declaration  (The Soviet Union had operated under permanent "summer time" from 1930 to at least 1982 ) Russia's plan generated widespread complaints due to the dark of winter-time mornings, and thus was abandoned in 2014  The country changed its clocks to standard time (UTC+3:00) on 26 October 2014, intending to stay there permanently In the United States, Arizona (with the exception of the Navajo Nation), Hawaii, and the five populated territories (American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the US Virgin Islands) do not participate in daylight saving time  Indiana only began participating in daylight saving time as recently as 2006  Since 2018, Florida Republican Senator Marco Rubio has repeatedly filed bills to extend daylight saving time permanently into winter, without success Mexico observed summertime daylight saving time starting in 1996  In late 2022, the nation's clocks "fell back" for the last time, in restoration of permanent standard time 

Religion
Some religious groups and individuals have opposed DST on religious grounds  For religious Muslims and Jews it makes religious practices such as prayer and fasting more difficult or inconvenient 
Some Muslim countries, such as Morocco, have temporarily abandoned DST during Ramadan In Israel, DST has been a point of contention between the religious and secular, resulting in fluctuations over the years, and a shorter DST period than in the EU and US  Religious Jews prefer a shorter DST due to DST delaying the time for morning prayers, thus conflicting with standard working and business hours  Additionally, DST is ended before Yom Kippur (a 25-hour fast day starting and ending at sunset, much of which is spent praying in synagogue until the fast ends at sunset) since DST would result in the day ending later, which many feel makes it more difficult In the US, Orthodox Jewish groups have opposed extensions to DST, as well as a 2022 bipartisan bill that would make DST permanent, saying it will "interfere with the ability of members of our community to engage in congregational prayers and get to their places of work on time "

Effects
Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy, promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening (in summer), and is therefore good for physical and psychological health, reduces traffic accidents, reduces crime or is good for business  Opponents argue the actual energy savings are inconclusive A 2017 meta-analysis of 44 studies found that DST leads to electricity savings of 0 3% during the days when DST applies  Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption, but a 2008 United States Department of Energy report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST  An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, once a primary use of electricity  Although energy conservation remains an important goal, energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then  Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, so the results of a study conducted in one place may not be relevant to another country or climate Later sunset times from DST are thought to affect behavior; for example, increasing participation in after-school sports programs or outdoor afternoon sports such as golf, and attendance at professional sporting events  Advocates of daylight saving time argue that having more hours of daylight between the end of a typical workday and evening induces people to consume other goods and services Many farmers oppose DST, particularly dairy farmers as the milking patterns of their cows do not change with the time



ground_truth: Plymouth Notch

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the president of the newly declared independent country that is part of the Commission of Truth and Friendship with the country where Kotamadya is located?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  While a strong gender disparity exists throughout the country, it is less severe in the urban capital  The wealthy minority often go abroad for health, education and other purposes : 25  The population is young, with the median age being under 20 : 29  In particular, a large proportion of the population (almost 45% in 2015) are males between the ages of 15 and 24, the third largest male 'youth bulge' in the world : 212 The Government of Timor-Leste's website lists the English-language demonym for East Timor as Timorese  Other reference sources list it as East Timorese  The word Maubere formerly used by the Portuguese to refer to native East Timorese and often employed as synonymous with the illiterate and uneducated, was adopted by Fretilin as a term of pride Healthcare received 6% of the national budget in 2021 : 24  From 1990 to 2019 life expectancy rose from 48 5 to 69 5  Expected years of schooling rose from 9 8 to 12 4 between 2000 and 2010, while mean years of schooling rose from 2 8 to 4 4  Progress since 2010 for these has been limited  Gross national income per capita similarly peaked in 2010, and has decreased since : 3  As of 2016, 45 8% of East Timorese were impoverished, 16 3% severely so : 6  The fertility rate, which at the time of independence was the highest in the world at 7 8, dropped to 4 2 by 2016  It is relatively higher in rural areas, and among poorer: 3  and less literate households  As of 2016, the average household size was 5 3, with 41% of people aged under 15, and 18% of households headed by women : 2  Infant mortality stood at 30 per 1,000, down from 60 per 1,000 in 2003 : 7  46% of children under 5 showed stunted growth, down from 58% in 2010  Working age adult obesity increased from 5% to 10% during the same time period  As of 2016, 40% of children, 23% of women, and 13% of men had anemia : 11

Ethnicity and language
Timorese communities are not strictly defined by ethnic background or linguistic group  Separate communities may share ethnicity or language, and many areas show overlaps and hybridisation between ethnic and linguistic groups : 44  Familial relations and descent, which are interlinked with sacred house affiliation, are a more important indicator of identity : 47  Each family group generally identifies with a single language or dialect : 49  With this immense local variation in mind, there is a broad cultural and identity distinction between the east (Bacau, Lautém, and Viqueque Municipalities) and the west of the country, a product of history more than it is of linguistic and ethnic differences,: 45–47  although it is very loosely associated with the two language groups : 142–143  There is a small mestiço population of mixed Portuguese and local descent  There is a small Chinese minority, most of whom are Hakka  Many Chinese left in the mid-1970s, but a significant number have also returned to East Timor following the end of Indonesian occupation  East Timor has a small community of Timorese Indian, specifically Goan descent, as well as historical immigration from Africa and Yemen Likely reflecting the mixed origins of the different ethnolinguistic groups of the island, the indigenous languages fall into two language families: Austronesian and Papuan : 10  Depending on how they are classified, there are up to 19 indigenous languages with up to 30 dialects : 136  Aside from Tetum, Ethnologue lists the following indigenous languages: Adabe, Baikeno, Bunak, Fataluku, Galoli, Habun, Idaté, Kairui-Midiki, Kemak, Lakalei, Makasae, Makuv'a, Mambae, Nauete, Tukudede, and Waima'a  According to the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are six endangered languages in East Timor: Adabe, Habu, Kairui-Midiki, Maku'a, Naueti, and Waima'a  The largest Malayo-Polynesian group is the Tetum, mostly around Dili or the western border  Other Malayo-Polynesian languages with native speakers of more than 40,000 are Mambai in the central mountains south of Dili, Baikeno in Oecusse, Kemak in the north-west interior, and Tokodede on the northwest coast  The main Papuan languages spoken are Bunak in the centre of Timor, especially within Bobonaro Municipality; Makasae in the eastern Baucau and Viqueque municipalities; and Fataluku in the eastern Lautém Municipality : 43  The 2015 census found that the most commonly spoken mother tongues were Tetum Prasa (mother tongue for 30 6% of the population), Mambai (16 6%), Makasai (10 5%), Tetum Terik (6 05%), Baikenu (5 87%), Kemak (5 85%), Bunak (5 48%), Tokodede (3 97%), and Fataluku (3 52%)  Other indigenous languages accounted for 10 47%, while 1 09% of the population spoke foreign languages natively East Timor's two official languages are Portuguese and Tetum  In addition, English and Indonesian are designated by the constitution as "working languages" : 3  This is within the Final and Transitional Provisions, which do not set a final date  In 2012, 35% could speak, read, and write Portuguese, which is up significantly from less than 5% in the 2006 UN Development Report  Portuguese is recovering as it has now been made the main official language of Timor, and is being taught in most schools  The use of Portuguese for government information and in the court system provides some barriers to access for those who do not speak it  Tetum is also not understood by everyone in the country : 11  According to the Observatory of the Portuguese Language, the East Timorese literacy rate was 77 8% in Tetum, 55 6% in Indonesian, and 39 3% in Portuguese, and that the primary literacy rate increased from 73% in 2009 to 83% in 2012  According to the 2015 census, 50% of the population between the ages of 14 and 24 can speak and understand Portuguese  The 2015 census found around 15% of those over the age of five were literate in English 

Education
East Timor's adult literacy rate was 68% among adults, and 84% among those aged 15–24, as of 2021  It is slightly higher among women than men : 27  More girls than boys attend school, although some drop out upon reaching puberty : 25  As of 2016 22% of working age women (15–49) and 19% of working age men had no education, 15% of women and 18% of men had some primary education, 52% of women and 51% of men had some secondary education, and 11% of women and 12% of men had higher education  Overall, 75% of women and 82% of men were literate : 2  Primary schools exist throughout the country, although the quality of materials and teaching is often poor  Secondary schools are generally limited to municipal capitals  Education takes up 10% of the national budget : 27  The country's main university is the National University of East Timor  There are also four colleges Since independence, both Indonesian and Tetum have lost ground as media of instruction, while Portuguese has increased: in 2001 only 8 4% of primary school and 6 8% of secondary school students attended a Portuguese-medium school; by 2005 this had increased to 81 6% for primary and 46 3% for secondary schools  Indonesian formerly played a considerable role in education, being used by 73 7% of all secondary school students as a medium of instruction, but by 2005 Portuguese was used by most schools in Baucau, Manatuto, as well as the capital district  Portugal provides support to about 3% of the public schools in East Timor, focused on those in urban areas, further encouraging the use of the Portuguese language : 28

Religion
While the Constitution of East Timor enshrines the principles of freedom of religion and separation of church and state, Section 45 Comma 1 also acknowledges "the participation of the Catholic Church in the process of national liberation" in its preamble  Upon independence, the country joined the Philippines to become the only two predominantly Catholic states in Asia, although nearby parts of eastern Indonesia such as Flores and parts of Western New Guinea also have Catholic majorities According to the 2015 census, 97 57% of the population is Catholic; 1 96% Protestant; 0 24% Muslim; 0 08% Traditional; 0 05% Buddhist; 0 02% Hindu, and 0 08% other religions  A 2016 survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Survey programme showed that Catholics made up 98 3% of the population, Protestants 1 2%, and Muslims 0 3% The number of churches grew from 100 in 1974 to more than 800 in 1994, with Church membership having grown considerably under Indonesian rule as Pancasila, Indonesia's state ideology, requires all citizens to believe in one God and does not recognise traditional beliefs  East Timorese animist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia's constitutional monotheism, resulting in mass conversions to Christianity  Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests and Latin and Portuguese mass was replaced by Indonesian mass  While just 20% of East Timorese called themselves Catholics at the time of the 1975 invasion, the figure surged to reach 95% by the end of the first decade after the invasion  The Roman Catholic Church divides East Timor into three dioceses: the Archdiocese of Díli, the Diocese of Baucau, and the Diocese of Maliana  In rural areas, Roman Catholicism is syncretised with local animist beliefs  The number of Protestants and Muslims declined significantly after September 1999, as these groups were disproportionately represented among supporters of integration with Indonesia  Fewer than half of previous Protestant congregations existed after September 1999, and many Protestants were among those who remained in West Timor 

Culture
The many cultures within East Timor stem from the several waves of Austronesian and Melanesian migration that led to the current population, with unique identities and traditions developing within each petty kingdom  Portuguese authorities built upon traditional structures, blending Portuguese influence into the existing political and social systems : 91–92  The presence of the Catholic Church created a point of commonality across the various ethnic groups, despite full conversion remaining limited  The Portuguese language also provided common linkages, even if direct Portuguese impact was limited : 97–98  Under Indonesian rule, resistance strengthened cultural links to Catholicism and the Portuguese language  At the same time, Indonesian cultural influence was spread through schools and administration : 98–99 The preservation of traditional beliefs in the face of Indonesian attempts to suppress them became linked to the creation of the country's national identity : 7–13  This national identity only began to emerge at the very end of Portuguese rule, and further developed during Indonesian rule : 134–136  Following independence, a civic identity began to develop  This was most clearly expressed through enthusiasm for national-level democracy,: 155–156  and was reflected in politics through a shift from resistance narratives to development ones : 3  The capital has developed a more cosmopolitan culture, while rural areas maintain stronger traditional practices : 30  Internal migration into urban areas, especially Dili, creates cultural links between these areas and rural hinterlands  Those in urban areas often continue to identify with a specific rural area, even those with multiple generations born in Dili : 53–54 The presence of so many ethnic and linguistic groups means cultural practices vary across the country : 11  These practices reflect historical social structures and practices, where political leaders were regarded as having spiritual powers  Ancestry was an important part of cultural practices, and partly signified leadership  Leaders often had influence over land use, and these leaders continue to play an informal role in land disputes and other aspects of community practice today  An important traditional concept is lulik, or sacredness  Some lulik ceremonies continue to reflect animist beliefs, for example through divination ceremonies which vary throughout the country  Sacred status can also be associated with objects, such as Portuguese flags which have been passed down within families : 7–13 

Community life is centred around sacred houses (Uma Lulik), physical structures which serve as a representative symbol and identifier for each community : 47–49  The architectural style of these houses varies between different parts of the country, although following widespread destruction by Indonesian forces many were rebuilt with cheap modern materials : 22–25  The house as a concept extends beyond the physical object to the surrounding community : 92–93, 96  Kinship systems exist within and between houses  Traditional leaders, who stem from historically important families, retain key roles in administering justice and resolving disputes through methods that vary between communities : 47–49  Such leaders are often elected to official leadership positions, merging cultural and historical status with modern political status : 52  The concept of being part of a communal house has been extended to the nation, with Parliament serving as the national sacred house : 96 Art styles vary throughout the various ethnolinguistic groups of the island  Nonetheless, similar artistic motifs are present throughout, such as large animals and particular geometric patterns  Some art is traditionally associated with particular genders  For example, the Tais textiles that play a widespread role in traditional life throughout the island are traditionally handwoven by women  Different tais patterns are associated with different communities, and more broadly with linguistic groups : 137  Many buildings within central Dili maintain historical Portuguese architecture : I-5 Traditional rituals remain important, often mixed in with more modern aspects : 137  A strong oral history is highlighted in individuals able to recite long stories or poetry  This history, or Lia nain, passes down traditional knowledge : 16  There remains a strong tradition of poetry  Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão, for example, is a distinguished poet, earning the moniker "poet warrior" In the field of cinema, East Timor released its first feature-length film, a period thriller titled Beatriz's War, in 2013  Shot with a limited budget by a mix of local filmmakers and a volunteer Australian film crew, the film depicted East Timorese life under Indonesian occupation in the 1970s, with producer Lurdes Pires acknowledging their aim to diverge from the government's "friendship and forgiveness" policy for its past conflicts by telling a story of truth-seeking and justice 

See also
Outline of East Timor
Index of East Timor-related articles
List of topics on the Portuguese Empire in the East
Passage 2:
Estanislau da Silva
Estanislau da Conceição Aleixo Maria da Silva (born 4 August 1952) is an East Timorese politician and a key member of Fretilin  He was acting Prime Minister from May 2007 to August 2007 
A member of Fretilin since 1974, Da Silva served on the diplomatic front for the East Timorese resistance during the years of the Indonesian occupation of Timor-Leste (1975 to 1999)  During the occupation, Da Silva resided in Mozambique (1976 to 1984), Portugal (1975 to 1976 and 1984 to 1985) and Australia (1985 to 1999), before returning to Timor-Leste in 1999 
After Timor-Leste achieved independence in 2002, Da Silva was appointed as the country's first Minister for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries  On 10 July 2006, he was sworn in as the First Deputy Prime Minister of Timor-Leste  He was sworn in as the acting Prime Minister on 19 May 2007 to replace José Ramos-Horta who had been elected President of the young nation  He left office when Xanana Gusmão was sworn in as Prime Minister on 8 August 2007, following the June 2007 parliamentary election 

Early life
Da Silva was born in Dili in 1952 to Luis da Silva and Genoveva Aleixo  He attended primary school from 1961-1962 to 1964-1965 in Fuiloro - Lautém district, and Dili Technical School from 1965-1966 to 1970-1971  Upon graduation from Dili Technical School, Da Silva went to Lisbon to pursue further training in electrical and mechanical engineering 

Political activities
Da Silva joined Fretilin in 1974 and was a founding member of the Fretilin External Branch in Lisbon 
In 1976, Da Silva interrupted his studies in Lisbon and was sent to Australia by the Fretilin leadership to lobby support for Timor-Leste's independence struggle  During that time, Australian supporters of Timor-Leste's independence struggle (Campaign for Independence of East Timor - CIET) requested that Da Silva assist Neville Cunningham and António Belo to operate and maintain a radio connection to the Fretilin leadership based in Timor-Leste  As Da Silva was not an Australian resident, he had to operate the radio secretly and spent six months in bush of Australia's Northern Territory  
In September 1976, Da Silva and Cunningham were tracked down and arrested by the Northern Territory Police Force and the radio link severed  Da Silva was released after a one-day trial and left Australia for Mozambique  The radio link was later re-established by Fretilin members and Australian supporters of Timor-Leste's struggle for independence 
Upon his return to Australia in 1985, Da Silva campaigned tirelessly for Timor-Leste's independence  This included speaking at public forums, organising demonstrations against the illegal Indonesian occupation, organising fundraising activities and lobbying MPs  Da Silva also maintained regular contact with the clandestine movement and the Fretilin leadership in Timor-Leste and assisted in helping people at risk of persecution escape Timor-Leste and settle in Australia  In 1994 he became the Fretilin representative in Australia 
Da Silva was voted into the Fretilin Central Committee in 1998 at the Fretilin National Conference held in Sydney, Australia  His mandate was renewed at the First National Congress in 2001 as well as the Second National Congress which was held in May 2006  He was elected chairperson in both events  He is also one of the 15 members of the National Political Commission of Fretilin which leads the work of the party between the Fretilin Central Committee meetings 
He was re-elected to a seat in parliament in the June 2007 parliamentary election as the ninth name on Fretilin's candidate list 

Education and professional career
Da Silva studied Agronomy at Eduardo Mondlane University, and worked at Marracuene state enterprise as the Chief Agronomist for the Mozambican government  He also attended the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics in India for short training courses in agriculture systems for arid and semi arid regions 
Whilst in Australia, Da Silva continued his studies in agronomy at the University of Sydney, where he completed a post-graduate diploma in Agronomy in 1987  In 1988 Da Silva was employed by the New South Wales Agricultural Department at the Trangie Research Agricultural Centre and from 1994 to 1997 worked at the Australian Cotton Research Institute in Narrabri 
In 1999, Da Silva returned to Timor-Leste  He worked as a World Bank consultant for agriculture and later as Asian Development Bank project manager for infrastructure before becoming Minister for Agriculture during the second United Nations transitional government  In May 2002, upon the restoration of independence of Timor Leste, Da Silva became the Minister for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 
In 2002, Da Silva completed a two-year post-graduate training course in management and leadership provided by the Asian Development Bank Institute in Tokyo, Japan 
Da Silva is a capable and respected administrator and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is one of the success stories of an independent Timor Leste  Under Da Silva, Timor-Leste's rice production increased every year except for in 2006 where the political crisis had a negative effect on the country's institutions and economy as a whole  During this time Timor-Leste's rice import dependency was reduced from two thirds to one third of domestic consumption 
Da Silva is fluent in English, Portuguese and Tetum 
Passage 3:
Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship
The Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission on Truth and Friendship (more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym CVA, Comissão Verdade e Amizade) was a truth commission established jointly by the governments of Indonesia and East Timor in August 2005  The commission was officially created to investigate acts of violence that occurred around the independence referendum held in East Timor in 1999 and sought to find the "conclusive truth" behind the events  After holding private hearings and document reviews, the commission handed in the final report on July 15, 2008 to the presidents of both nations, and was fully endorsed by Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, providing the first acknowledgement by the government of Indonesia of the human rights violations committed by state institutions in Timor  The commission is notable for being the first modern truth commission to be bilateral 

Background
East Timor was originally colonized by the Portuguese, and remained a colony up until the fall of the military dictatorship in 1974  East Timor declared independence soon afterwards, but Indonesia soon decided to intervene as it became clear that the government of the new state would most likely be leftist  The Indonesian government began Operation Komodo, which was intended to bring about the integration of the East Timorese territory  It began with a propaganda campaign, but after the outbreak of conflict in East Timor, the Indonesian military began a campaign on 7 October starting with an assault on a border post and accumulating with a full-scale invasion utilizing paratroopers and naval support  The United Nations quickly condemned the invasion via resolution, but due to resistance in the Security council, no further action was taken  The United States also tacitly gave their approval, as the dismantling of a pro-communist government helped advance the policy of containment being pursued by the government 
Indonesia occupied the territory for the following two decades  During the administration of the Habibie government, a referendum was held in the occupied area asking if the residents of the area wished to remain a part of Indonesia  Even before the referendum, there was harassment by militia groups in the area, with UN workers being attacked in Maliana  It soon became clear in the wake of the referendum that the referendum result would be overwhelmingly in favor of the "no" option on the ballot; this raised tensions to a boiling point, and within two hours of the announcement of the results, armed militia groups began attacking civilians  Militia continued to attack civilians as they withdrew from the country, and several massacres occurred as the troops filtered out of the area  A UN peacekeeping force known as INTERFET was deployed to stabilize the situation, made up of mostly Australian troops, and was withdrawn with the arrival of normal UN peacekeepers  East Timor eventually transitioned from a UN mandate to an independent country 

Report
The commission itself was announced in August 2006 and sought to establish "the conclusive truth regarding human rights violations to have occurred prior to, immediately after the Popular Consultation on 30 August 1999" as well as "prepare recommendations that can contribute to healing wounds of the past and strengthen friendship"  The timing of the commission's creation was criticized by some, as it was believed that it was created to intentionally subvert calls for an international tribunal to deal with the events surrounding the 1999 plebiscite  The commission's mandate allowed it to review documents pertaining to four other inquiries surrounding the events that predated it: "The Indonesian National Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights Violations in East Timor in 1999", "The Indonesian Ad Hoc Human Rights Court on East Timor", "The Special Panels for Serious Crimes", and "The Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation" The commission was made up of four members appointed from each nation, and these commissioners were instructed to conduct a document review and analyze previous trials and investigations into the subject, including the UN Special Panels for Serious Crimes and Serious Crime Units in Dili, and the report of the Commission of Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste  The commission also stated its intent to research the "historical background, political dynamics, and institutional structures that shaped events before and during 1999" to "inform its conclusions with a broader understanding of the way in which the causes of the violence in 1999 were connected to previously established institutional structures and practices "Operating over three years, the commission gave its final report on July 15, 2008, and presented it to the Presidents of Indonesia and East Timor, concluding that "gross human rights violations in the form of crimes against humanity did occur in East Timor in 1999" and that "pro-autonomy militia groups, TNI, the Indonesian civil government, and Polri must all bear institutional responsibility", as well as stating that "from a moral and political perspective the respective states must accept state responsibility for the violations identified in the report " The commission also made recommendations that both nations begin institutional reform enhancing the strength of investigative and prosecuting bodies involved with investigations into the events, as well as forming joint security policy to ensure the safety of individuals in case of the recurrence of violence  It also noted the need to resolve other standing border and security issues between the two nations to allow for more cooperation  Notably, the report gave no recommendations of amnesty or rehabilitation  The report was endorsed by the president of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, making it the first recognition of the Indonesian government's complicity in human rights violations in East Timor by Indonesia 

Reception
In Indonesia and Timor, the report was presented to both governments and accepted by both the Timorese and Indonesian governments  However, Timorese NGO Timor-Leste National Alliance for International Tribunal wrote an open letter in response to the commission's findings with several criticisms, including the lack of public consultation with victims and parliamentary approval of the commission, as well as noting that the commission assigned institutional responsibility rather than individual responsibility, "which is contrary to the principles of international laws which were ratified by the state of Timor-Leste and to Article 160 of its constitution which says that there must be a justice process for crimes against humanity ", as well as stating their belief that the CAVR was a more trustworthy and support worthy commission for the government to support Internationally, the report had a mixed reception  Some, such as the War Crimes Studies Center at the University of California, Berkeley, said that the commission could be seen as "widely acknowledged as credible and far-reaching ", noting that the Indonesian government's affirmation of the results was important and that the commission made arguments that "there was credible evidence to indicate that Timorese institutions were also responsible for illegal detentions and possibly other crimes "

See also
History of East Timor
Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor
Indonesian occupation of East Timor
Santa Cruz massacre
Passage 4:
The Truth About Men
The Truth About Men is the eighth studio album by American country music artist Tracy Byrd  Released in 2003 as the third and final album for RCA Nashville, it features the singles "The Truth About Men", "Drinkin' Bone", and "How'd I Wind Up in Jamaica"  Before its release, Byrd charted in the country top 40 with the single "Lately (Been Dreamin' 'bout Babies)", which does not appear on the album 
The track "Making Memories of Us" was later recorded by The Notorious Cherry Bombs on their self-titled debut album, and again by Keith Urban on his 2004 album Be Here  Urban's rendition of the song was a Number One hit on the country music charts in 2005 

Track listing
Personnel
Tracy Byrd - lead vocals
Billy Carpenter - drums
Johnny Lee Carpenter - fiddle
Britt Godwin - electric guitar
Larry Shelton - trumpet
Stacy Clark - trumpet
Lisa Cochran - background vocals
Jim Cox - piano
Eric Darken - percussion
Randall Dennis - piano
Dan Dugmore - dobro, steel guitar
Stuart Duncan - fiddle
Paul Franklin - steel guitar
Troy Gentry - vocals on "The Truth About Men"
Andy Griggs - vocals on "The Truth About Men"
Aubrey Haynie - fiddle, mandolin
Wes Hightower - background vocals
John Hobbs - piano
John Barlow Jarvis - Hammond organ, piano, synthesizer
Troy Lancaster - electric guitar
Paul Leim - drums, percussion
B  James Lowry - acoustic guitar
Liana Manis - background vocals
Jay Dee Maness - steel guitar
Brent Mason - electric guitar
Mark Matoska - steel guitar
Eddie Montgomery - vocals on "The Truth About Men"
John J  Moore - bass guitar, background vocals
John Robinson - drums
John Wesley Ryles - background vocals
Blake Shelton - vocals on "The Truth About Men"
Leland Sklar - bass guitar
Carey Stone - electric guitar
Michael Thompson - electric guitar
Neil Thrasher - background vocals
Billy Joe Walker Jr  - acoustic guitar, electric guitar
Gabe Witcher - fiddle
Glenn Worf - bass guitar
Reggie Young - electric guitar

Charts
Passage 5:
The Trouble with the Truth (song)
"The Trouble with the Truth" is a song written by Gary Nicholson, and recorded by American country music artist Patty Loveless  It was released in April 1997 as the fifth and final single and title track from her album  The Trouble with the Truth 
The song charted for 20 weeks on the Billboard Hot Country Singles and Tracks chart, reaching number 15 during the week of July 12, 1997 

Other versions
Joan Baez also cut a version of the song during an early 1990s recording session in Nashville, but the recording remained unissued until released in 2012 as a bonus track on the remastered rerelease of her 1992 album Play Me Backwards 

Chart positions
Passage 6:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1264
United Nations Security Council resolution 1264, adopted unanimously on 15 September 1999, after recalling previous resolutions on East Timor (Timor-Leste), the Council authorised the establishment of the multinational International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) to restore peace and security in the territory, facilitate humanitarian assistance and protect the United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) The Security Council welcomed the successful conduct of the East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum on 30 August 1999, in which the East Timorese people voted for independence from Indonesia  Meanwhile, there was concern about the deteriorating security situation and the violence that had displaced many residents  Attacks also took place against UNAMET and other international and national humanitarian personnel and this had particularly affected vulnerable groups  There were reports of widespread violations of international humanitarian and human rights law across East Timor, and Indonesia had accepted the presence of a United Nations international peacekeeping force in the region Acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the Council condemned the violence in East Timor, called for those responsible to be brought to justice and emphasised the need for immediate unrestricted humanitarian assistance to the area  In this regard, it authorised the establishment of an Australian-led multinational force under joint command with the task of restoring peace, protecting the UNAMET mission and assisting in humanitarian operations using all necessary measures  The force consisted of 8,000 personnel from 17 countries  The Government of Indonesia, which had temporary responsibility for the security of East Timor, would co-operate with the multinational force or INTERFET 
The resolution noted that part of the agreement between Indonesia and Portugal on the future of East Timor stipulated a peaceful and orderly transfer of authority in East Timor to the United Nations and INTERFET was asked to support the process  The multinational force would be present in East Timor for four months until replaced by a United Nations peacekeeping force and would be required to submit periodic reports on its progress Finally, the Secretary-General was asked to make preparations for a transitional administration in East Timor that would include a peacekeeping operation during the implementation phase following the referendum 

See also
1999 East Timorese crisis
Indonesian occupation of East Timor
List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1201 to 1300 (1998–2000)
United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
Passage 7:
Kotamadya
In Indonesian law, the term "city" (kota) is generally defined as the second-level administrative subdivision of the Republic of Indonesia, an equivalent to regency (kabupaten)   The difference between a city and a regency is that a city has non-agricultural economic activities and a dense urban population, while a regency comprises predominantly rural areas and is larger in area than a city   However, Indonesia historically had several classifications of cities 
According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, the official dictionary of Indonesian language, city (kota) is "a densely populated area with high density and modern facilities and most of the population works outside of agriculture "Cities are divided into districts (Kecamatan, Distrik in Papua region, or Kemantren in Yogyakarta) 

Historical classification
Gemeente/municipality
During the Dutch East Indies period, a city was governed as gemeente, or municipality, since the decentralisation law in 1903  The gemeente was a third-level subdivision, below residentie (residency) and gouvernement (governorate) or provincie (province) 

Kota besar and kota kecil
The terms kota besar (big city), and kota kecil (small city or town), were used since the implementation of the Act Number 22 of 1948  Kota Besar was an urban equivalent of kabupaten (regency), which was the country's second level subdivision, just below province   Kota kecil, used for a small urban area, was the third-level division below regency and province 

Kotaraya, kotamadya, and kotapraja
According to the Act Number 18 of 1965, cities in Indonesia were classified into three: kotaraya (great city, first-level subdivision), kotamadya (medium city, second-level subdivision), and kotapraja (small city or town, third-level subdivision)   Kotaraya is an equivalent of a province, kotamadya is an equivalent of a regency, while kotapraja is an equivalent of kecamatan (districts)   Jakarta was the only city granted the kotaraya status, due to its function as the capital of Indonesia The terms kotaraya and kotapraja had been abolished since 1974, and kotamadya was used for most of urban areas in Indonesia up to 1999   Jakarta continued to become the only urban area with a province status 

Kota administratif
The term kota administratif (administrative city, not to be confused with kota administrasi) was used after the implementation of Act Number 5 of 1974  Kota administratif status was granted to a town inside the territory of a regency (kabupaten) that were deemed necessary in accordance with the town's growth and development  Kota administratif does not have autonomy and its own legislature, and was responsible to its parent regency  The term kota administratif was abolished with the implementation of Act Number 22 of 1999, and all kota administratif were either granted full kota (city) status or dissolved and merged with its parent regency 

Kota
The term kota (city) has been implemented to substitute kotamadya since the post-Suharto era in Indonesia  Kota is headed by a mayor (walikota), who is directly elected via elections to serve for a five-year term, which can be renewed for one further five-year term   Each kota is divided further into districts, more commonly known as kecamatan 

Jakarta as a city
Jakarta, then known as Batavia, was the first city in the archipelago to be developed by the Dutch Empire   On the 4 March 1621, the first city government (stad) was created in Batavia, and on 1 April 1905, it became the very first municipality (gemeente) of the Dutch East Indies  Upon Indonesian independence, it remains as the city within the province of West Java  With the release of the Act Number 1 of 1957, Jakarta became the first provincial-level city in Indonesia  Although Jakarta is now written as a 'province' in Indonesian law products, it is still widely referred to as a city  The United Nations (UN) classifies Jakarta as a 'city' on its statistical database The Special Capital Region of Jakarta consists of five 'administrative cities' and one 'administrative regency'  Unlike other actual cities in Indonesia, administrative cities in Jakarta are not self-governing, and were only created for bureaucracy purposes   The administrative cities do not have city councils, and their mayors were exclusively selected by the Governor of Jakarta without any public election   Ryas Rasyid, an Indonesian regional government expert, stated that Jakarta is a "province with a city management"  Anies Baswedan, the 17th Governor of Jakarta, asserted that "Jakarta has only an area of 600 square kilometres   It is a city with the province status " Unlike other 36 Indonesian provinces whose governors work in a 'governor office', the governor of Jakarta works in a city hall (Balai Kota DKI Jakarta) 

List of cities by date of incorporation
Notes^[a]  Incorporated as Batavia
^[b]  Incorporated as Buitenzorg
^[c]  Incorporated as Fort de Kock
^[d]  Incorporated as Kutaraja
^[e]  Incorporated as Tanjungkarang–Telukbetung

See also

City status
List of Indonesian cities by population
List of Indonesian cities by GDP
Passage 8:
Zeferino Martins
Zeferino Martins, also known as Ze Martins (born September 5, 1985) is an East Timorese footballer who plays as midfielder for Ad  Dili Oeste and the Timor-Leste national team 
Context 3:  and others whose hours are set by the sun  There is concern for schoolchildren who are out in the darkness during the morning due to late sunrises  DST also hurts prime-time television broadcast ratings, drive-ins and other theaters It has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight-saving effect implied an estimated one-day loss of $31 billion on U S  stock exchanges, Others have asserted that the observed results depend on methodology and disputed the findings, though the original authors have refuted points raised by disputers 

Health
There are measurable adverse effects of time-shifts on human health  It has been shown to disrupt human circadian rhythms, negatively affecting human health in the process, and that the yearly DST time-shifts can increase health risks such as heart attack, and traffic accidents A 2017 study in the American Economic Journal: Applied Economics estimated that "the transition into DST caused over 30 deaths at a social cost of $275 million annually", primarily by increasing sleep deprivation A correlation between clock shifts and increase in traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden  Four reports have found that this effect is smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities  In 2018, the European Parliament, reviewing a possible abolition of DST, approved a more in-depth evaluation examining the disruption of the human body's circadian rhythms which provided evidence suggesting the existence of an association between DST time-shifts and a modest increase of occurrence of acute myocardial infarction, especially in the first week after the spring shift  However a Netherlands study found, against the majority of investigations, contrary or minimal effect  Year-round standard time (not year-round DST) is proposed by some to be the preferred option for public health and safety  Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent, and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency  Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks 

Social relations
DST likely reduces some kinds of crime, such as robbery and sexual assault, as fewer potential victims are outdoors after dusk  Artificial outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime In 2022, a publication of three replicating studies of individuals, between individuals, and transecting societies, demonstrated that sleep loss affects the human motivation to help others, which in its fMRI findings is "associated with deactivation of key nodes within the social cognition brain network that facilitates prosociality " Furthermore, they detected, through analysis of over 3 million real-world charitable donations, that loss of sleep inflicted by the transition to Daylight Saving Time reduces altruistic giving compared to controls (being states not implementing DST)  They conclude that implications for cooperative, civil society are "non-trivial" Another study, which also examined sleep manipulation due to the shift to daylight saving time in the spring, analyzed archival data from judicial punishment imposed by U S  federal courts which showed sleep-deprived judges exact more severe penalties 

Inconvenience
DST's clock shifts have the disadvantage of complexity  People must remember to change their clocks; this can be time-consuming, particularly for mechanical clocks that cannot be moved backward safely  People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules, as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way  The length of the calendar day becomes variable; it is no longer always 24 hours  Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, billing systems, and records management is common, and can be expensive  During an autumn transition from 02:00 to 01:00, a clock reads times from 01:00:00 through 01:59:59 twice, possibly leading to confusion 

Remediation
Some clock-shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously or at least more gradually—for example, Willett at first suggested weekly 20-minute transitions—but this would add complexity and has never been implemented  DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time  For example, when reading a sundial, one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies  Also, sun-exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect Andrew D  Huberman, a professor of neurobiology at Stanford University, suggests viewing sunlight before the sun is overhead & exercise, ideally outside, before 2 pm the day following the clock adjustment  This applies regardless of if the sky were to be covered by clouds 

Terminology
As explained by Richard Meade in the English Journal of the (American) National Council of Teachers of English, the form daylight savings time (with an "s") was already in 1978 much more common than the older form daylight saving time in American English ("the change has been virtually accomplished")  Nevertheless, even dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster's, American Heritage, and Oxford, which describe actual usage instead of prescribing outdated usage (and therefore also list the newer form), still list the older form first  This is because the older form is still very common in print and preferred by many editors  ("Although daylight saving time is considered correct, daylight savings time (with an "s") is commonly used ") The first two words are sometimes hyphenated (daylight-saving(s) time)  Merriam-Webster's also lists the forms daylight saving (without "time"), daylight savings (without "time"), and daylight time  The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style explains the development and current situation as follows: "Although the singular form daylight saving time is the original one, dating from the early 20th century—and is preferred by some usage critics—the plural form is now extremely common in AmE  [   ] The rise of daylight savings time appears to have resulted from the avoidance of a miscue: when saving is used, readers might puzzle momentarily over whether saving is a gerund (the saving of daylight) or a participle (the time for saving)  [   ] Using savings as the adjective—as in savings account or savings bond—makes perfect sense  More than that, it ought to be accepted as the better form "In Britain, Willett's 1907 proposal used the term daylight saving, but by 1911 the term summer time replaced daylight saving time in draft legislation  The same or similar expressions are used in many other languages: Sommerzeit in German, zomertijd in Dutch, kesäaika in Finnish, horario de verano or hora de verano in Spanish, and heure d'été in French The name of local time typically changes when DST is observed  American English replaces standard with daylight: for example, Pacific Standard Time (PST) becomes Pacific Daylight Time (PDT)  In the United Kingdom, the standard term for UK time when advanced by one hour is British Summer Time (BST), and British English typically inserts summer into other time zone names, e g  Central European Time (CET) becomes Central European Summer Time (CEST) 

The North American English mnemonic "spring forward, fall back" (also "spring ahead    ", "spring up    ", and "    fall behind") helps people remember in which direction to shift the clocks 

Computing
Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations  For example, the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required that many computer systems be upgraded, with the greatest onus on e-mail and calendar programs  The upgrades required a significant effort by corporate information technologists Some applications standardize on UTC to avoid problems with clock shifts and time zone differences  Likewise, most modern operating systems internally handle and store all times as UTC and only convert to local time for display However, even if UTC is used internally, the systems still require external leap second updates and time zone information to correctly calculate local time as needed  Many systems in use today base their date/time calculations from data derived from the tz database also known as zoneinfo 

IANA time zone database
The tz database maps a name to the named location's historical and predicted clock shifts  This database is used by many computer software systems, including most Unix-like operating systems, Java, and the Oracle RDBMS; HP's "tztab" database is similar but incompatible  When temporal authorities change DST rules, zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance  In Unix-like systems the TZ environment variable specifies the location name, as in TZ=':America/New_York'  In many of those systems there is also a system-wide setting that is applied if the TZ environment variable is not set: this setting is controlled by the contents of the /etc/localtime file, which is usually a symbolic link or hard link to one of the zoneinfo files  Internal time is stored in time-zone-independent Unix time; the TZ is used by each of potentially many simultaneous users and processes to independently localize time display 
Older or stripped-down systems may support only the TZ values required by POSIX, which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value  For example, TZ='EST5EDT,M3 2 0/02:00,M11 1 0/02:00' specifies time for the eastern United States starting in 2007  Such a TZ value must be changed whenever DST rules change, and the new value applies to all years, mishandling some older timestamps 

Permanent daylight saving time
A move to permanent daylight saving time (staying on summer hours all year with no time shifts) is sometimes advocated and is currently implemented in some jurisdictions such as Argentina, Belarus, Iceland, Kyrgyzstan, Morocco, Namibia, Saskatchewan, Singapore, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Yukon  Although Saskatchewan follows Central Standard Time, its capital city Regina experiences solar noon close to 13:00, in effect putting the city on permanent daylight time  Similarly, Yukon is classified as being in the Mountain Time Zone, though in effect it observes permanent Pacific Daylight Time to align with the Pacific time zone in summer, but local solar noon in the capital Whitehorse occurs nearer to 14:00, in effect putting Whitehorse on "double daylight time" 
The United Kingdom and Ireland put clocks forward by an extra hour during World War II and experimented with year-round summer time between 1968 and 1971  Russia switched to permanent DST from 2011 to 2014, but the move proved unpopular because of the extremely late winter sunrises; in 2014, Russia switched permanently back to standard time  However, the change to permanent DST has proven popular in Turkey, with the Minister of Energy and Natural Resources saying the practice saves "millions in energy costs and reduces depression and anxiety levels associated with short exposure to daylight" In September 2018, the European Commission proposed to end seasonal clock changes as of 2019  Member states would have the option of observing either daylight saving time all year round or standard time all year round  In March 2019, the European Parliament approved the commission's proposal, while deferring implementation from 2019 until 2021  In response to this proposition, the European Sleep Research Society stated "installing permanent Central European Time (CET, standard time or 'wintertime') is the best option for public health " As of October 2020, the decision has not been confirmed by the Council of the European Union  The council has asked the commission to produce a detailed assessment of its effects, but the Commission considers that the onus is on the Member States to find a common position in Council  As a result, progress on the issue is effectively blocked In the United States, several states have enacted legislation to implement permanent DST, but the bills would require Congress to change federal law in order to take effect  The Uniform Time Act of 1966 permits states to opt out of DST and observe permanent standard time, it does not permit permanent DST  Florida senator Marco Rubio in particular has promoted changing the federal law to implement permanent DST, with the support of the Florida Chamber of Commerce seeking to boost evening revenue  In 2022, Rubio's "Sunshine Protection Act" passed the United States Senate without committee review by way of voice consent, with many senators afterward stating they were unaware of the vote or its topic  The bill was stopped in the U S  House, where questions were raised as to whether permanent DST or standard time would be more beneficial Advocates cite the same advantages as normal DST without the problems associated with the twice yearly time shifts  Additional benefits have also been cited, including safer roadways, boosting the tourism industry, and energy savings  Detractors cite the relatively late sunrises, particularly in winter, that year-round DST entails Some experts in circadian rhythms and sleep health recommend year-round standard time as the preferred option for public health and safety  Several chronobiology societies have published position papers against adopting DST permanently  A paper by the Society for Research on Biological Rhythms states: "based on comparisons of large populations living in DST or ST or on western versus eastern edges of time zones, the advantages of permanent ST outweigh switching to DST annually or permanently " The World Federation of Societies for Chronobiology stated that "the scientific literature strongly argues against the switching between DST and Standard Time and even more so against adopting DST permanently " The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) holds the position that "seasonal time changes should be abolished in favor of a fixed, national, year-round standard time," and that "standard time is a better option than daylight saving time for our health, mood and well-being " The AASM's position is endorsed by 20 other nonprofits, including the American College of Chest Physicians, National Safety Council, and National PTA Current public opinion polls show mixed results  Surveys reported between 2021 and 2022 by the National Sleep Foundation, YouGov, CBS, and Monmouth University indicate more Americans would prefer permanent DST  A 2019 survey by National Opinion Research Center and a 2021 survey by the Associated Press indicate more Americans would prefer permanent Standard Time  The National Sleep Foundation, YouGov, and Monmouth University polls leaned significantly in favor of seeing Daylight Saving Time made permanent  The Monmouth University poll reported 44% preferring year-round DST and 13% preferring year-round standard time  In 1973 and 1974, NORC found 79% of Americans to be in favor of permanent DST before its implementation during the Oil Crisis, and only 42% to support permanent DST the following February 

See also
Daylight saving time by country
Daylight saving time in Africa
Daylight saving time in Asia
Summer time in Europe
Daylight saving time in the Americas
Daylight saving time in Oceania
Analysis of daylight saving time
Winter time (clock lag)

Notes
Passage 2:
International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples
The International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples is observed on 9 August each year to raise awareness and protect the rights of the world's indigenous population  This event also recognizes the achievements and contributions that indigenous people make to improve world issues such as environmental protection  It was first pronounced by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1994, marking the day of the first meeting of the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in 1982 

History
In December 1992 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a resolution to make 1993  the International Year of the World's Indigenous Peoples The International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples was first pronounced by the UN General Assembly in December 1994, to be celebrated every year during the first International Decade of the World's Indigenous Peoples (1995–2004)  In 2004, the Assembly proclaimed a Second International Decade, from 2005–2015, with the theme of "A Decade for Action and Dignity"  People from different nations are encouraged to participate in observing the day to spread the UN's message on indigenous peoples  Activities may include educational forums and classroom activities to gain an appreciation and a better understanding of indigenous peoples By resolution 49/214 of 23 December 1994, the United Nations General Assembly decided that the International Day of the World's Indigenous People shall be observed on 9 August every year during the International Decade of the World's Indigenous People  The date marks the day of the first meeting, in 1982, of the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights 

International Year of Indigenous Languages 2019
In the year 2016, it was reported that about 2,680 indigenous languages were in danger and on the verge of becoming extinct  Hence, UN designated 2019 to be the International Year of Indigenous Languages to persuade, convince and create awareness to people about indigenous languages 

Symbols
Artwork by Rebang Dewan, a Chakma boy from Bangladesh, was chosen as the visual identifier of the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues  It has also been seen on material to promote the International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples  It features two ears of green leaves facing each other and a globe resembling planet earth  Within the globe is a picture of a handshake (two different hands) in the middle and above the handshake is a landscape background  The handshake and the landscape background are encapsulated by blue at the top and bottom within the globe 

Celebration in Canada
International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples is celebrated as an all nations community celebration with artists, speakers, poets, performers, and a wide range of vendors and community service booths in Kingston, Ontario, by Ollin 

Celebration in Taiwan
In 2016, the administration under President Tsai Ing-wen approved a proposal that designated 1 August as Indigenous Peoples' Day in Taiwan  In celebration of the special day, President Tsai issued an official apology to the country's aboriginal people and outlined steps to further promote legislation and involve organizations related to aboriginal causes, like the Presidential Office's Indigenous Historical Justice and Transitional Justice Committee  The government hopes the day will remind the public of the diverse ethnic groups in Taiwan by bringing greater respect for indigenous peoples' cultures and history and promoting their rights 

See also
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous Peoples' Day
National Indigenous Peoples Day
Passage 3:
The Loneliest Planet
The Loneliest Planet is a 2011 German-American film written and directed by Julia Loktev, starring Gael García Bernal, Hani Furstenberg, and Georgian actor Bidzina Gujabidze  The plot centers around a young couple who travel with a local guide through a twisted backpacking trip across the Georgian wilderness 
The film had its international premiere at the 2011 Locarno International Film Festival followed by its North American premiere at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival  It then went on to be featured during the New York Film Festival, the BFI London Film Festival, and the 2011 AFI Fest in Los Angeles, where it won the Grand Jury Prize  On March 24, 2012, The Loneliest Planet was awarded the top prize of "Lady Harimaguada de Oro" (The Golden Lady) at the Las Palmas de Gran Canaria International Film Festival, where actress Hani Furstenberg also won for Best Actress  On April 14, 2012, the film also won the Golden Tulip International Competition award at the 31st International Istanbul Film Festival On October 11, 2011, it was announced that Sundance Selects, a division of IFC Films, had acquired North American distribution rights  The film's theatrical release in the United States was on October 26, 2012 
The film is adapted from McSweeney's writer Tom Bissell's short story "Expensive Trips Nowhere," published in his collection God Lives in St  Petersburg 

Plot
Alex (Gael García Bernal) and Nica (Hani Furstenberg) are in love and engaged to be married  They are seasoned travelers on a trip in the country of Georgia, formerly a republic of the Soviet Union  They hire a local guide (Bidzina Gujabidze) to take them backpacking through the breathtaking scenery of the Caucasus Mountains 
While on their journey, they meet an older man with two boys on their route; he is suspicious of the two foreigners  After a short conversation with their guide, the older man suddenly aims a hunting rifle aggressively at Alex and Nica at point-blank range   For a moment, Alex's reaction is to shield himself behind Nica  He immediately regains his composure and pushes himself in front of Nica to face the stranger's gun, while their guide in turn persuades the stranger to lower his gun and go on his way  A seemingly traumatized Nica walks away on her own 
A few scenes show the couple not speaking or walking together while on their journey to the mountains, although Alex repeatedly attempts to reconnect with Nica  At one point, they cross a stream where Nica accidentally falls only to be saved by the local guide  Alex tries to offer a shivering Nica some help, but she rebuffs him  At night, the local guide tells Nica the story of his failed marriage, and they kiss  Soon after, Nica returns to Alex and the couple have sex  At dawn, the trio start packing up their camps, and it remains ambiguous as to whether or not the couple have finally reconciled 

Cast
Gael García Bernal as Alex
Hani Furstenberg as Nica
Bidzina Gujabidze as local guide
Amiran Gudrshauri as kebab seller

Reception
The film was well-received by critics  The film holds a "certified fresh" approval rating of 70% on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 62 reviews with an average of 6 9/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "The source material that inspired The Loneliest Planet may be brief, but this adaptation of a Tom Bissell short story compensates with studious, finely detailed filmmaking, haunting visuals, and thought-provoking subtext " On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews" A O  Scott of The New York Times called The Loneliest Planet, "gripping and haunting, but also coy and elusive "Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 2 out of 4 and wrote: "All of this grows tiresome  We're given no particular reason at the outset of The Loneliest Planet to care about these people, our interest doesn't grow along the way, the landscape grows repetitive  



ground_truth: Francisco Guterres

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: At what local time does the country where Fuser and Alberto meet the indigenous couple traveling to look for work change their clocks for DST?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  "
Passage 4:
Le Défenseur du Temps
Le Défenseur du Temps (The Defender of Time) is a large mechanical work of art in the form of a clock created by the French artist Jacques Monestier 

Description
Le Défenseur du Temps is a clock made of automata  Close to the dial, a man perched on a rock with a sword and shield fights against a bird, a dragon, and a crab which respectively represent air, earth, and water  As originally designed, every hour from 9 am to 10 pm, he fights one of the three animals chosen randomly by a program  At noon, 6 pm, and 10pm, all three animals attack at the same time 
The time is announced by three strokes  While the man fights, he is accompanied by sounds of breaking waves, rumbling earth or the sound of wind, depending on the animal chosen 
Le Défenseur du temps is 4 meters high and weighs about 1 ton  The characters, animals and the clock face are hammered brass and gold leaf  The rock on which they sit is composed of oxidized brass  In its original configuration, a master electronic quartz circuit board controlled the random attacks chance, and used six cam timers and five tape recorders 

Location
Le Défenseur du temps is located at 8 rue Bernard de Clairvaux, in the Quartier de l'Horloge in Paris' 3rd arrondissement  The area around the clock owes its name to this work 

History
Le Défenseur du temps was commissioned in 1975 by COGEDIM  The scales of the dragon were made by Louis Desouches, and the construction of the steel structure was by Alain Moirod 
The clock was partially installed in September 1979  It was formally dedicated on 8 October 1979 by the Mayor of Paris, Jacques Chirac The clock underwent restoration in 1995  The master clock's quartz crystal was replaced by a radio clock, and the tape recorders were replaced by a compact disc player  Without funding for maintenance, the clock has been stopped since July 1, 2003 In February 2022, the clock was taken down and the restoration of the clock has begun to take place  The Defenseur Du Temps should be fixed and reinstalled by March 2023 

External links
Conception et réalisation du "Défenseur du Temps"
Le Defenseur du Temps clock
Passage 5:
The Motorcycle Diaries (film)
The Motorcycle Diaries (Spanish: Diarios de motocicleta) is a 2004 biopic about the journey and written memoir of the 23-year-old Ernesto Guevara, who would several years later become internationally known as the Marxist guerrilla leader and revolutionary leader Che Guevara  The film recounts the 1952 expedition, initially by motorcycle, across South America by Guevara and his friend Alberto Granado  As well as being a road movie, the film is a coming-of-age film; as the adventure, initially centered on youthful hedonism, unfolds, Guevara discovers himself transformed by his observations on the life of the impoverished indigenous peasantry  Through the characters they encounter on their continental trek, Guevara and Granado witness first hand the injustices that the destitute face and are exposed to people and social classes they would have never encountered otherwise  To their surprise, the road presents to them both a genuine and captivating picture of Latin American identity  As a result, the trip also plants the initial seed of radicalization within Guevara, who would later challenge the continent's endemic economic inequalities and political repression 
The screenplay is based primarily on Guevara's trip diary of the same name, with additional context supplied by Traveling with Che Guevara: The Making of a Revolutionary by Alberto Granado  Guevara is played by Gael García Bernal (who previously played Che in the 2002 miniseries Fidel), and Granado by the Argentine actor Rodrigo de la Serna, who incidentally is a second cousin to the real-life Guevara on his maternal side  Directed by Brazilian director Walter Salles and written by Puerto Rican playwright José Rivera, the film was an international co-production among production companies from Argentina, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Chile, Peru and France  The film's executive producers were Robert Redford, Paul Webster, and Rebecca Yeldham; the producers were Edgard Tenenbaum, Michael Nozik, and Karen Tenkhoff; and the co-producers were Daniel Burman and Diego Dubcovsky 

Plot
The Che of The Motorcycle Diaries is more akin to Jack Kerouac or Neal Cassady than Marx or Lenin "
In 1952, a semester before Ernesto "Fuser" Guevara is due to complete his medical degree, he and his older friend Alberto Granado, a biochemist, leave Buenos Aires to travel across South America  While there is a goal at the end of their journey - they intend to work in a leper colony in Peru - the main purpose is initially fun and adventure  They desire to see as much of Latin America as they can, more than 14,000 kilometres (8,700 mi) in just four and a half months, while Granado's purpose is also to bed as many women as will fall for his pickup lines  Their initial method of transport is Granado's dilapidated Norton 500 motorcycle christened La Poderosa ("The Mighty One") 
Their planned route is ambitious, bringing them north across the Andes, along the coast of Chile, through the Atacama Desert and into the Peruvian Amazon in order to reach Venezuela just in time for Granado's 30th birthday on 2 April  However, due to La Poderosa's breakdown, they are forced to travel at a much slower pace, often walking, and do not make it to Caracas until July 
During their expedition, Guevara and Granado encounter the poverty of the indigenous peasants, and the movie assumes a greater seriousness once the men gain a better sense of the disparity between the "haves" (to which they belong) and the obviously exploited "have-nots" (who make up the majority of those they encounter) by travelling on foot  In Chile, for instance, they encounter a penniless and persecuted couple forced onto the road because of their communist beliefs  In a fire-lit scene, Guevara and Granado ashamedly admit to the couple that they are not out looking for work as well  The duo then accompanies the couple to the Chuquicamata copper mine, where Guevara becomes angry at the treatment of the workers 
However, it is a visit to the ancient Incan ruins of Machu Picchu in Peru that solidifies something in Guevara  His musings are then somberly refocused to how an indigenous civilization capable of building such beauty could be destroyed by the creators of the eventually polluted urban decay of nearby Lima Later, in Peru, they volunteer for three weeks at the San Pablo leper colony  There, Guevara observes both literally and metaphorically the division of society, as the staff live on the north side of a river, separated from the deprived lepers living across the river to the south  To demonstrate his solidarity, and his medical belief that leprosy is not contagious, Guevara refuses to wear rubber gloves during his visit as the head nun requires, choosing instead to shake bare hands and interact normally with the surprised leper patients 
At the end of the film, after his sojourn at the leper colony, Guevara confirms his nascent egalitarian, revolutionary impulses, while making a birthday toast, which is also his first political speech  In it, he invokes a pan-Latin American identity that transcends the arbitrary boundaries of both nation and race  These encounters with social injustice transform the way Guevara sees the world and his purposes in it, and by implication motivates his later political activities as a Marxist revolutionary 
Guevara makes his symbolic "final journey" at night when, despite the danger and his asthma, he swims across the river that separates the two societies of the leper colony, to spend the night in a leper shack, instead of in the doctors' cabins  Later, as they bid each other farewell at an airport, Granado reveals that his birthday was not 2 April, but rather 8 August, and that the aforementioned goal was simply a motivator: Guevara replies that he knew all along  The film closes with an appearance by the real 82-year-old Alberto Granado, along with pictures from the actual journey and a brief mention of Che Guevara's eventual 1967 CIA-assisted execution in the Bolivian jungle 

Cast
Development
The film shows what we were, which was two young men - boys, really - who went looking for adventure and found the truth and tragedy of our homeland 
Gael García Bernal agreed to reprise his role as young Che Guevara having previously portrayed him in the television film Fidel (2002 film)  To prepare for the role, he went through six months of intense preparation  This groundwork included reading "every biography" about Guevara, traveling to Cuba to speak with Guevara's family, and consulting with Guevara's then still living travel partner Alberto Granado  Despite being in his eighties, Granado was also taken on as an adviser by Salles, and enthusiastically followed the film crew as they retraced his former journey 

Moreover, García Bernal (who is Mexican) adopted an Argentine accent and spent 14 weeks reading the works of José Martí, 
Karl Marx and Pablo Neruda (Guevara's favorite poet)  García Bernal told reporters "I feel a lot of responsibility  I want to do it well because of what Che represents to the world  He is a Romantic  He had a political consciousness that changed Latin America " According to García Bernal, the role crystallized his "own sense of duty" because Guevara "decided to live on the side of the mistreated, to live on the side of the people who have no justice - and no voice " In surmising the similarities between his transformation and Guevara's, García Bernal posits that "my generation is awakening, and we're discovering a world full of incredible injustice "Granado later stated that he appreciated the film's effort "to dig beneath the "mythical Che", whose defiant image appears on T-shirts and posters around the world, "to reveal the flawed, flesh-and-blood Ernesto beneath "

Film locales
We were re-enacting a journey that was done 50 years ago, and what's surprising is that the social problems of Latin America are the same  Which is heartbreaking in a way, but it also makes you feel how important it is to tell the story "
In a journey that lasts eight months, the partners travel over 14,000 kilometers (8,700 miles), from Argentina through Chile, Peru, and Colombia to Venezuela  Key locations along the journey described in the film include: in Argentina: Buenos Aires, Miramar, Villa Gesell, San Martín de los Andes, Lago Frías, Patagonia and Nahuel Huapi Lake; in Chile: Temuco, Los Angeles, Valparaiso, the Atacama desert, and Chuquicamata; in Peru: Cuzco, Machu Picchu, Lima, The San Pablo Leper Colony; as well as Leticia, Colombia and Caracas, Venezuela 
Reviewer Nick Cowen of The Daily Telegraph described the scenery as "visually stunning" while remarking that "the cinematography of fog-cloaked mountains, lush, green forests and sunburnt deserts is breathtakingly beautiful enough to serve as a travel advert for the entire continent "

Tourist trails
The Observer reported that shortly after the film's release, tour operators in the region received a surge of inquiries, with some of them even offering Che Guevara-themed trips, where travellers could "follow in the footsteps of the revolutionary icon "The crew filmed in the same San Pablo Leper Colony that Guevara himself had visited  According to Bernal, 85% of the people suffering leprosy in the film were actual lepers, with some of them having lived there when Che and Granado worked at the colony  In fact, when Granado returned with the film crew to the leprosarium of San Pablo, he found some of the people he had treated half a century earlier, remarking that "It was wonderful and amazing that they could still remember me " Granado was also pleased that buildings constructed for the scenes shot at the leprosarium were afterwards used by the patients themselves The scene which features Guevara's character swimming across to the other side of the river was filmed during three nights in which Bernal swam across the actual Amazon River 

Soundtrack
The score for The Motorcycle Diaries was composed by Gustavo Santaolalla  The film's soundtrack was released on the Deutsche Grammophon label in 2004 

Distribution
The film was first presented at the Sundance Film Festival on 15 January 2004  Granado had an invitation to the Sundance premiere, but he was refused an entry Visa by the United States  Later it was featured at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival on 19 May, and Granado was able to attend The film later screened at many other film festivals, including: the Auckland International Film Festival, New Zealand; the Copenhagen International Film Festival, Denmark; the Espoo Film Festival, Finland; the Telluride Film Festival, United States; the Toronto International Film Festival, Canada; the Vancouver International Film Festival, Canada; the Celebrating Literature in Cinema Film Festival Frankfurt, Germany; and the Morelia Film Festival, Mexico 
Release datesUnited States: 15 January 2004 (premiere at Sundance Film Festival)
France: 7 July 2004
Argentina: 29 July 2004
United Kingdom: 27 August 2004
United States: 24 September 2004
Chile:  21 October 2004
Germany: 28 October 2004

Critical reception
The Motorcycle Diaries may not provide any satisfactory answers as to how a 23-year-old medical student went on to become arguably the most famous revolutionary of the latter half of the 20th Century, but it has an undeniable charm in that it imbues the memories of youth with a sense of altruism and purity – which are complemented by the scenery  It's an incomplete portrait to be sure, but it's a gorgeous depiction of two best friends riding unknowingly into the history books "
The Motorcycle Diaries was released to very positive reviews by critics, and received a standing ovation at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival  The New York Times film critic, A O  Scott, wrote that "in Mr  Salles's hands what might have been a schematic story of political awakening becomes a lyrical exploration of the sensations and perceptions from which a political understanding of the world emerges " Gregory Weinkauf of the Dallas Observer espoused that the film "delivers as both biography and road movie, and proves itself a deceptively humble epic, an illuminating part of the Che legacy " Claudia Puig of USA Today postulated that "the movie achieves an impressive blend of emotional resonance and light entertainment" while describing it as "more coming-of-age story than biopic" and "a transformative adventure well worth watching " Keri Petersen of The Gainesville Sun referred to the film as "a gorgeous, poetic adventure "Paula Nechak of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer praised director Salles by remarking that he "presents the evolutionary course of a young man who coincidentally became the dorm-room poster boy for an idealistic generation, and captures the lovely, heart-and-eye-opening ode to youthful possibility with affection and compassion " Washington Post critic Desson Thomson lent praise for the film's starring actor by observing that "what Bernal and this well-wrought movie conveys so well is the charisma that would soon become a part of human history, and yes, T-shirts "Among the film's few detractors was Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times, who described the film's positive reviews as "a matter of political correctness, I think; it is uncool to be against Che Guevara " Ebert also criticized the film's characterization: "seen simply as a film, The Motorcycle Diaries is attenuated and tedious  We understand that Ernesto and Alberto are friends, but that's about all we find out about them; they develop none of the complexities of other on-the-road couples    Nothing is startling or poetic " Jessica Winter of The Village Voice also criticized the film's simplistic representation of the peasantry, describing "the young men's encounters with conscience-pricking, generically noble locals" who are occasionally assembled "to face the camera in a still life of heroic, art-directed suffering"  The film also received criticism for its positive representation of Guevara as a youthful idealist  Anthony Daniels, an outspoken critic of Guevara's, argued that the film helps to continue his wrongful glorification, noting "The film is thus the cinematic equivalent of the Che Guevara T-shirt; it is morally monstrous and emotionally trivial " Frans Weiser agreed, saying that the film's narrative is dominated by reductive images of Guevara as an idealistic, loveable rogue Online review aggregator Metacritic gives the film a score of 75 out of 100 based on 37 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  Meanwhile, Rotten Tomatoes records an 83% approval rating based on 157 reviews, with an average rating of 7 5/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "The Motorcycle Diaries is heartfelt and profound in its rendering of the formative experiences that turn Ernesto "Che" Guevara into a famous revolutionary " Furthermore, British historian Alex von Tunzelmann, who reviews films at The Guardian for historical accuracy, graded the film an A− in "History", while giving the film a B in "Entertainment"  After comparing scenes from the film to the actual diaries, Tunzelmann posited that "The Motorcycle Diaries gets a lot right, it's an entertaining and accurate portrayal of the formative youth of a revolutionary icon "

Awards won
Cannes Film Festival: François Chalais Award, Walter Salles; Prize of the Ecumenical Jury, Walter Salles; Technical Grand Prize, Eric Gautier; 2004 
Donostia-San Sebastián International Film Festival: Audience Award Walter Salles; 2004 
Academy Awards: Oscar; Best Achievement in Music Written for Motion Pictures, Original Song; Jorge Drexler; for the song "Al otro lado del río"; 2005 
Argentine Film Critics Association Awards: Best Actor, Rodrigo de la Serna; Best Music, Gustavo Santaolalla; Best Adapted Screenplay, Jose Rivera; 2005 
British Academy of Film and Television Arts: Best Film Not in the English Language, Michael Nozik, Edgard Tenenbaum, Karen Tenkhoff, Walter Salles; Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music, Gustavo Santaolalla; 2005 
Goya Awards: Goya; Best Adapted Screenplay, José Rivera; 2005 
Independent Spirit Awards: Independent Spirit Award; Best Cinematography, Eric Gautier; Best Debut Performance, Rodrigo de la Serna; 2005 

Related films
Passage 6:
Noon
Noon (or midday) is 12 o'clock in the daytime  It is written as 12 noon, 12:00 m  (for meridiem, literally 12:00 midday), 12 p m  (for post meridiem, literally "after midday"), 12 pm, or 12:00 (using a 24-hour clock) or 1200 (military time) 
Solar noon is the time when the Sun appears to contact the local celestial meridian  This is when the Sun reaches its apparent highest point in the sky, at 12 noon apparent solar time and can be observed using a sundial  The local or clock time of solar noon depends on the longitude and date, with Daylight Saving Time tending to place solar noon closer to 1:00pm 

Etymology
The word noon is derived from Latin nona hora, the ninth canonical hour of the day, in reference to the Western Christian liturgical term none, one of the seven fixed prayer times in traditional Christian denominations  The Roman and Western European medieval monastic day began at 6:00 a m  (06:00) at the equinox by modern timekeeping, so the ninth hour started at what is now 3:00 p m  (15:00) at the equinox  In English, the meaning of the word shifted to midday and the time gradually moved back to 12:00 local time – that is, not taking into account the modern invention of time zones  The change began in the 12th century and was fixed by the 14th century 

Solar noon
Solar noon, also known as the local apparent solar noon and Sun transit time (informally high noon), is the moment when the Sun contacts the observer's meridian (culmination or meridian transit), reaching its highest position above the horizon on that day and casting the shortest shadow  This is also the origin of the terms ante meridiem (a m ) and post meridiem (p m ), as noted below  The Sun is directly overhead at solar noon at the Equator on the equinoxes, at the Tropic of Cancer (latitude 23°26′10 4″ N) on the June solstice and at the Tropic of Capricorn (23°26′10 4″ S) on the December solstice  In the Northern Hemisphere, north of the Tropic of Cancer, the Sun is due south of the observer at solar noon; in the Southern Hemisphere, south of the Tropic of Capricorn, it is due north 
The elapsed time from the local solar noon of one day to the next is exactly 24 hours on only four instances in any given year  This occurs when the effects of Earth's obliquity of ecliptic and its orbital speed around the Sun offset each other  These four days for the current epoch are centered on 11 February, 13 May, 26 July, and 3 November  It occurs at only one particular line of longitude in each instance  This line varies year to year, since Earth's true year is not an integer number of days  This event time and location also varies due to Earth's orbit being gravitationally perturbed by the planets  These four 24-hour days occur in both hemispheres simultaneously  The precise UTC times for these four days also mark when the opposite line of longitude, 180° away, experiences precisely 24 hours from local midnight to local midnight the next day  Thus, four varying great circles of longitude define from year to year when a 24-hour day (noon to noon or midnight to midnight) occurs 
The two longest time spans from noon to noon occur twice each year, around 20 June (24 hours plus 13 seconds) and 21 December (24 hours plus 30 seconds) 
The shortest time spans occur twice each year, around 25 March (24 hours minus 18 seconds) and 13 September (24 hours minus 22 seconds) 
For the same reasons, solar noon and "clock noon" are usually not the same  The equation of time shows that the reading of a clock at solar noon will be higher or lower than 12:00 by as much as 16 minutes  Additionally, due to the political nature of time zones, as well as the application of daylight saving time, it can be off by more than an hour 

Nomenclature
In the US, noon is commonly indicated by 12 p m , and midnight by 12 a m  While some argue that such usage is "improper" based on the Latin meaning (a m  stands for ante meridiem and p m  for post meridiem, meaning "before midday" and "after midday" respectively), digital clocks are unable to display anything else, and an arbitrary decision must be made  An earlier standard of indicating noon as "12M" or "12m" (for "meridies"), which was specified in the U S  GPO Government Style Manual, has fallen into relative obscurity; the current edition of the GPO makes no mention of it  However, due to the lack of an international standard, the use of "12 a m " and "12 p m " can be confusing  Common alternative methods of representing these times are:

to use a 24-hour clock (00:00 and 12:00, 24:00; but never 24:01)
to use "12 noon" or "12 midnight" (though "12 midnight" may still present ambiguity regarding the specific date)
to specify midnight as between two successive days or dates (as in "midnight Saturday/Sunday" or "midnight December 14/15")
to avoid those specific times and to use "11:59 p m " or "12:01 a m " instead  (This is common in the travel industry to avoid confusion to passengers' schedules, especially train and plane schedules )

See also
Afternoon
Analemma
Dipleidoscope
Hour angle
Solar azimuth angle

Notes



ground_truth: 24:00