prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the source of the river of which Kraai River is a tributary?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Kabompo River
The Kabompo River is one of the main tributaries of the upper Zambezi River  It flows entirely in Zambia, rising to the east of the source of the Zambezi, in North-Western Province along the watershed between the Zambezi and Congo river basins which also forms the border between Zambia and DR Congo  It is the second deepest river in Africa and one of the top five in the world 

Geography
The Kabompo River flows south-west through miombo woodland, then a remote Cryptosepalum dry forest ecoregion, with the West Lunga National Park on its west bank  After flowing past the town of Kabompo, it develops a swampy floodplain up to 5 km wide  The Kabompo Ferry on its lower course carries the main north–south gravel highway on the eastern side of the Zambezi  The river enters the Zambezi north of the town of Lukulu, at the north end of the Barotse Floodplain  Its main tributaries are the Western Lunga River which flows from the north, and the Dongwe River from the east 

See also
List of rivers of Africa
Passage 2:
Chapare River
The Chapare River is a river in Bolivia, which is a tributary of the Mamoré River in the Amazon Basin  The river has its source at the confluence of Espíritu Santo River and San Mateo River in the Cochabamba Department at Villa Tunari  It is the main waterway of Chapare Province 

See also
Tunari National Park

External links
 Media related to Río Chapare at Wikimedia Commons

Chapare River Floods
Passage 3:
Rhonelle
The Rhonelle is a river of northern France  It is 32 km (20 mi) long  It is a right tributary of the Scheldt  Its source is near Locquignol  It flows generally northwest along Le Quesnoy, Villers-Pol and Famars  It flows into the Scheldt in Valenciennes 
Passage 4:
Utva River (Perm Krai)
The Utva (Russian: Утьва) is a river in Perm Krai, Russia, a right tributary of the Veslyana, which in turn is a tributary of the Kama  The river is 76 kilometres (47 mi) long, and its drainage basin covers 697 square kilometres (269 sq mi)  The source of the river is in the extreme southwest of the Gaynsky District of Perm Krai, near the border with Kirov Oblast and the Komi Republic  The main tributaries are the Chugrum (right) and the Yuzhnaya Anva (left) 
Passage 5:
Hushe River
The Hushe River is a tributary river to the Shyok River which itself is tributary to the Indus River  The main source of the Hushe River is the Gondogoro Glacier  Some streams also flow from other glaciers of the Hushe valley  The Hushe river joins with Saltoro River at Haldi village before joining the Shyok River  Both the Hushe and Saltoro rivers join the Shyok river at the Tsa thang Ghursa village 
Passage 6:
Loimijoki
The river Loimijoki is a river in Finland and the longest tributary of the river Kokemäenjoki  The river originates at the lake Pyhäjärvi in Tammela and joins the river Kokemäenjoki in Huittinen  There is a 54-metre (177 ft) difference in elevation between the source and the mouth of the river, which is 114 kilometres (71 mi) long  The river drains a catchment area of 3,140 square kilometres (1,210 sq mi)  The river has several dams at Forssa, Jokioinen and Loimaa The Loimijoki river runs through the most fertile lands of Finland making its water  relatively muddy  The river was badly polluted by sewage of industry and population centers along the river, but since the 1980s the river has been starting to recover and currently the river sees also recreational use like fishing and water sports 
Passage 7:
Kraai River
The Kraai River (literally "Crow River") is a tributary of the Orange River (also called Gariep River by locals) that flows near Barkly East in the Eastern Cape, South Africa 

The Kraai River originates in the mountains south of Lesotho and flows westward from the confluence of the Bell River and the Sterk Spruit at Moshesh's Ford at 30°51′09″S 27°46′40″E all the way to Aliwal North, where it joins the Orange River at 30°40′02″S 26°45′06″E The river flows almost entirely over sandstone rocks of the Clarens Formation 
The Kraai is fishable, containing rainbow trout, brown trout and smallmouth yellowfish 

In 1881
a sandstone arch bridge called the J W Sauer bridge was completed over the river   The bridge linked communities in the Kraai River basin with Aliwal North  The Sauer bridge and the Loch Bridge on the farm
Tyger Krantz, are now Provincial Heritage sites 

Major tributaries
Bell River and a tributary of the Bell, the Kloppershoek Spruit
Sterk Spruit, its tributaries are the Bok Spruit and Rifle Spruit
Joggem Spruit
Langkloof Spruit
Diep Spruit and its tributary, the Three Drifts Stream
Carlisleshoek Spruit and the Maartenshoek Spruit
Klein Wildebeest Spruit
Saalboom Spruit and its tributary, the Vaalhoek Spruit
Karnmelk Spruit

See also

List of rivers of South Africa
List of reservoirs and dams in South Africa
Passage 8:
Shaksgam River
The Shaksgam River (Chinese: 沙克思干河; pinyin: Shakesigan He, Hindi: शक्सगाम नदी, romanized: Shaksgām Nadi, Urdu: دریائے شکسگام, romanized: Daryá-e-Shaksgám) is a left tributary of the Yarkand River  The river is also known as the Kelechin River (Chinese: 克勒青河) and Muztagh River (Chinese: 穆斯塔格河)  It rises in the Gasherbrum, Urdok, Staghar, Singhi and Kyagar Glaciers in the Karakoram  It then flows in a general northwestern direction parallel to the Karakoram ridge line in  the Shaksgam Valley  It receives the waters of the Shimshal Braldu river and the Oprang river from the Pakistan-administered Hunza District before turning east and joining the Yarkand River  The stretch of the river's course between Shimshal Braldu and Oprang is used as the Pakistan–China border Administratively, the Chinese part of the valley is within the southernmost portions of Yarkand County (the source) and the Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County (lower course)  India claims the entire valley as part of its Jammu and Kashmir state, now part of Ladakh 

History
The river valley was explored in 1889 by Francis Younghusband (who referred to the Shaksgam as the Oprang) , and again in 1926 by Kenneth Mason, who confirmed the sources of the river 

Geography
The upper river valley is used by climbers approaching the north face of K2   The approach requires a crossing of the river, which is hazardous   Between its confluence with the Shimshal Braldu River and its confluence with the Oprang River the river forms the border between China and Pakistan administered Kashmir   The area is used as winter pastures by yak herdsmen from the village of Shimshal  Historically, the bed of the Yarkand river where Shaksgam joins it, was used for cultivation by farmers from the state of Hunza  The rulers of Hunza are said to have obtained these "territorial rights to Shaksgam" in the distant past The average annual temperature in the region can fall below freezing 

See also
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Dafdar
Yinsugaiti Glacier
Sarpo Laggo Glacier
Passage 9:
Neste (river)
The Neste (French pronunciation: ​[nɛst]; Occitan: Nestés) is a river in southern France, a left tributary of the Garonne  It is 73 1 km (45 4 mi) long  It rises from several sources around Saint-Lary-Soulan, central Pyrenees and flows through
the following departments and towns:

Hautes-Pyrénées: Saint-Lary-Soulan, Arreau, La Barthe-de-Neste
Haute-Garonne: MontréjeauTwo rivers, the Neste d'Aure and the Neste du Louron, join to form the Neste at Arreau  The Neste flows into the Garonne in Montréjeau 
Passage 10:
Bolshaya Lyampa
The Bolshaya Lyampa (Russian: Большая Лямпа) is a river in Perm Krai, Russia, a right tributary of the Uls which in turn is a tributary of the Vishera  The river is 34 kilometres (21 mi) long  Its source is near the border with Sverdlovsk Oblast  It flows into the Uls 55 kilometres (34 mi) from the larger river's mouth  The Bolshaya Lyampa's main tributary is the Malaya Lyampa 
Passage 11:
Raba (river)
The Raba is a river in the south of Poland (Lesser Poland Voivodeship), right tributary to the river Vistula  Its source is in the Beskids, between the towns of Rabka-Zdrój and Nowy Targ  It flows to the north and then to the northeast  Towns along the river Raba include Rabka-Zdrój, Mszana Dolna, Myślenice, Dobczyce and Bochnia 
For centuries, the Raba was an important artery, along which several towns and villages were established  Its name probably comes from Celtic languages, and the Raba is divided into three parts: the Upper Raba (60 kilometres [37 mi] long located in the Beskids), the Middle Raba (in the Carpathian Foothills), and the Lower Raba (in the Sandomierz Basin) 
The Raba has its source at the Sieniawa mountain pass, at the height of 750 metres (2,460 ft) above sea level  It flows into the Vistula near Uscie Solne, after 134 7 kilometres (83 7 mi), while the area of its drainage basin is  1,537 1 square kilometres (593 5 sq mi)  From its source downstream to the town of Myślenice, the Raba is a typical mountain river, with narrow valley, rock-covered bed, fast currents and big drops  Below Lake Dobczyce it retains its mountain features for several kilometers  The river has no tributaries for its last 19 kilometres (12 mi) 
The Raba marks the boundary between the Makow Beskids and the Island Beskids, as well as the boundary between the Wieliczka Foothills, and the Wisnicz Foothills  Its tributaries are mainly mountain streams, such as Poniczanka, Slonka, Krzyworzeka, Mszanka, Kasinianka, Kaczanka, Krzczonówka, Trzemesnianka, Stradomka, Babica 

See also
Rivers of Poland
1934 flood in Poland

Sources
Description of the Raba

External links
Fishing on the Raba
Kayaking on the Raba
Passage 12:
Congo River
The Congo River (Kongo: Nzâdi Kôngo, French: Fleuve Congo, Portuguese: Rio Congo), formerly also known as the Zaire River, is the second-longest river in Africa, shorter only than the Nile, as well as the third largest river in the world by discharge volume, following the Amazon and the Ganges rivers  It is also the world's deepest recorded river, with measured depths of around 220 m (720 ft)  The Congo-Lualaba-Chambeshi River system has an overall length of 4,700 km (2,900 mi), which makes it the world's ninth-longest river  The Chambeshi is a tributary of the Lualaba River, and Lualaba is the name of the Congo River upstream of Boyoma Falls, extending for 1,800 km (1,100 mi) 
Measured along with the Lualaba, the main tributary, the Congo River has a total length of 4,370 km (2,720 mi)  It is the only major river to cross the Equator twice  The Congo Basin has a total area of about 4,000,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi), or 13% of the entire African landmass 

Name
The name Congo/Kongo originates from the Kingdom of Kongo once located on the southern bank of the river  The kingdom in turn was named for the indigenous Bantu Kongo people, known in the 17th century as "Esikongo"  South of the Kingdom of Kongo proper lay the similarly named Kakongo kingdom, mentioned in 1535  Abraham Ortelius labeled "Manicongo" as the city at the mouth of the river in his world map of 1564  The tribal names in Kongo possibly derive from a word for a public gathering or tribal assembly  The modern name of the Kongo people or Bakongo was introduced in the early 20th century The name Zaire is from a Portuguese adaptation of a Kikongo word, nzere ("river"), a truncation of nzadi o nzere ("river swallowing rivers")  The river was known as Zaire during the 16th and 17th centuries; Congo seems to have replaced Zaire gradually in English usage during the 18th century, and Congo is the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to Zahir or Zaire as the name used by the inhabitants remained common  The Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo are named after it, as was the previous Republic of the Congo which had gained independence in 1960 from the Belgian Congo  The Republic of Zaire during 1971–1997 was also named after the river's name in French and Portuguese 

Basin and course
The Congo's drainage basin covers 4,014,500 km2 (1,550,000 sq mi), an area nearly equal to that of the European Union  The Congo's discharge at its mouth ranges from 23,000 to 75,000 m3/s (810,000 to 2,650,000 cu ft/s), with an average of 41,000 m3/s (1,400,000 cu ft/s)  The river transports annually 86 million tonnes of suspended sediment to the Atlantic Ocean and an additional 6% of bedload The river and its tributaries flow through the Congo rainforest, the second largest rainforest area in the world, after the Amazon rainforest in South America  The river also has the second-largest flow in the world, behind the Amazon; the second-largest drainage basin of any river, behind the Amazon; and is one of the deepest rivers in the world, at depths greater than 220 m (720 ft)  Because its drainage basin includes areas both north and south of the Equator, its flow is stable, as there is always at least one part of the river experiencing a rainy season The sources of the Congo are in the highlands and mountains of the East African Rift, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru, which feed the Lualaba River, which then becomes the Congo below Boyoma Falls  The Chambeshi River in Zambia is generally taken as the source of the Congo in line with the accepted practice worldwide of using the longest tributary, as with the Nile River 
The Congo flows generally toward the northwest from Kisangani just below the Boyoma Falls, then gradually bends southwestward, passing by Mbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River and running into the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool)  Kinshasa (formerly Léopoldville) and Brazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool, where the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons (collectively known as the Livingstone Falls), running by Matadi and Boma, and into the sea at Muanda 
Lower Congo constitutes the 'lower' parts of the great river; that is the section of the river from the river mouth at the Atlantic coast to the twin capitals of Brazzaville and Kinshasa  In this section of the river, there are two significant tributaries, both on the left or south side  The Kwilu River originates in the hills near the Angolan border and enters the Congo some 100 km upstream from Matadi  The other being the Inkisi River, that flows in a northerly direction from the Uíge Province in Angola to the confluence with the Congo at Zongo some 80 km downstream from the twin capitals  Because of the vast number of rapids, in particular the Livingstone Falls, this section of the river is not operated continuously by riverboats 

Drainage basin
The Congo basin covers ten countries and accounts for about 13% of Africa  The highest point in the Congo basin is in the Ruwenzori Mountains, at an altitude of around 4,340 m (14,240 ft) above sea level 

Distribution of the Congo basin area between countries:
The most important hydrological stations along the Congo river are:

Discharge
The Congo River discharge at Kinshasa/Brazzaville stations since the start of measurements (1902 to 2021):

Tributaries
The main river and tributaries are (sorted in order from the mouth heading upstream):

Lower Congo (river mouth to Kinshasa)
Downstream of Kinshasa, from the river mouth at Banana, there are a few major tributaries 

M'pozo (left)
Kwilu (left)
Inkisi (left)
Djoué (right)Middle Congo (Kinshasa to the Boyoma Falls)

Kwa-Kassai (left)
Fimi
Lukenie
Kwango
Kwilu
Sankuru
Alima (right)
Likouala-Mossaka (right)
Sangha (right)
Kadéï (570 km, 41,000 km², 466 m³/s)
Ubangi (right)
Mbomou
Uele
Tshuapa or Ruki (left)
Lulonga (left)
Lopori
Maringa
Mongala (right)
Itimbiri (right)
Aruwimi (right)
Lomami (left)
Lindi (right)Upper Congo (Lualaba; upstream from the Boyoma Falls)

Lowa (right)
Ulindi (right)
Elila (right)
Luama (right)
Lukuga (right)
Luvua (right)
Luapula (740 km, 173,386 km², 741 m³/s)
Chambeshi (500 km, 44,427 km², 185 m³/s)

Economic importance
Although the Livingstone Falls prevent access from the sea, nearly the entire Congo above them is readily navigable in sections, especially between Kinshasa and Kisangani  Large river steamers worked the river until quite recently  The Congo River still is a lifeline in a land with few roads or railways  Railways now bypass the three major falls, and much of the trade of Central Africa passes along the river, including copper, palm oil (as kernels), sugar, coffee, and cotton 

Hydroelectric power
The Congo River is the most powerful river in Africa  During the rainy season over 50,000 cubic metres (1,800,000 cu ft) of water per second flows into the Atlantic Ocean  Opportunities for the Congo River and its tributaries to generate hydropower are therefore enormous  Scientists have calculated that the entire Congo Basin accounts for 13 percent of global hydropower potential  This would provide sufficient power for all of Sub-Saharan Africa's electricity needs Currently, there are about 40 hydropower plants in the Congo Basin  The largest are the Inga dams, about 200 kilometres (120 mi) southwest of Kinshasa  The project was launched in the early 1970s, when the first dam was completed  The plan (as originally conceived) called for the construction of five dams that would have had a total generating capacity of 34,500 megawatts (MW)  To date only the Inga I and Inga II dams have been built, generating 1,776 MW In February 2005, South Africa's state-owned power company, Eskom, announced a proposal to expand generation through improvements and the construction of a new hydroelectric dam  The project would bring the maximum output of the facility to 40,000 megawatt (GW)  It is feared that these new hydroelectric dams could lead to the extinction of many of the fish species that are native to the river 

Natural history
The current course of the Congo River formed between 1 5 and 2 million years BP, during the Pleistocene  It is likely that during this period many upper tributaries of the Congo were captured from adjacent river basins, including the Uele and upper Ubangi from the Chari system and the Chambeshi River alongside a number of upper Kasai River tributaries from the Zambezi system The Congo's formation may have led to the allopatric speciation of the bonobo and the common chimpanzee from their most recent common ancestor  The bonobo is endemic to the humid forests in the region, as are other iconic species like the Allen's swamp monkey, dryas monkey, aquatic genet, okapi, and Congo peafowl In terms of aquatic life, the Congo River Basin has a very high species richness and among the highest known densities of endemics  As of 2009, almost 800 fish species have been recorded from the Congo River Basin (not counting Lake Tanganyika, which is connected but ecologically very different), and large sections remain virtually unstudied  For example, the section in Salonga National Park, which is about the size of Belgium, had still not been sampled at all in 2006  New fish species are scientifically described with some regularity from the Congo River Basin, and many undescribed species are known The Congo has by far the highest diversity of any African river system; in comparison, the next richest are the Niger, Volta and Nile with about 240, 140 and 130 fish species, respectively  Because of the great ecological differences between the regions in the Congo basin —including habitats such as river rapids, deep rivers, swamps, and lakes— it is often divided into multiple ecoregions (instead of treating it as a single ecoregion)  Among these ecoregions, the Livingstone Falls cataracts has more than 300 fish species, including approximately 80 endemics while the southwestern part (Kasai River basin) has more than 200 fish species, of which about a quarter are endemic The dominant fish families – at least in parts of the river – are Cyprinidae (carp/cyprinids, such as Labeo simpsoni), Mormyridae (elephant fishes), Alestidae (African tetras), Mochokidae (squeaker catfishes), and Cichlidae (cichlids)  Among the natives in the river is the huge, highly carnivorous giant tigerfish  Three of the more unusual endemics are the whitish (non-pigmented) and blind Lamprologus lethops, which is believed to live as deep as 160 metres (520 ft) below the surface, Heterochromis multidens, which is more closely related to cichlids of the Americas than other African cichlids, and Caecobarbus geertsii, the only known cavefish in Central Africa  There are also numerous endemic frogs and snails  Several hydroelectric dams are planned on the river, and these may lead to the extinction of many of the endemics Several species of turtles and the slender-snouted, Nile and dwarf crocodile are native to the Congo River Basin  African manatees inhabit the lower parts of the river 

History
Pre-colonial history
The entire Congo basin is populated by Bantu peoples, divided into several hundred ethnic groups  Bantu expansion is estimated to have reached the middle Congo by about 500 BC and the upper Congo by the first century AD  Remnants of the aboriginal population displaced by the Bantu migration, Pygmies/Abatwa of the Ubangian phylum, remain in the remote forest areas of the Congo Basin 
The Kingdom of Kongo was formed in the late 14th century from a merging of the kingdoms of Mpemba Kasi and Mbata Kingdom on the left banks of the lower Congo River  Its territorial control along the river remained limited to what corresponds to the modern Kongo Central province  European exploration of the Congo began in 1482 when Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão discovered the river estuary (likely in August 1482), which he marked by a Padrão, or stone pillar (still existing, but only in fragments) erected on Shark Point  Cão sailed up the river for a short distance, establishing contact with the Kingdom of Kongo  The full course of the river remained unknown throughout the early modern period The upper Congo basin runs west of the Albertine Rift  Its connection to the Congo was unknown until 1877  The extreme northeast of the Congo basin was reached by the Nilotic expansion at some point between the 15th and 18th centuries, by the ancestors of the Southern Luo speaking Alur people  Francisco de Lacerda followed the Zambezi and reached the uppermost part of the Congo basin (the Kazembe in the upper Luapula basin) in 1796 
The upper Congo River was first reached by the Arab slave trade by the 19th century  Nyangwe was founded as a slavers' outpost around 1860  David Livingstone was the first European to reach Nyangwe in March 1871  Livingstone proposed to prove that the Lualaba connected to the Nile, but on 15 July, he witnessed a massacre of about 400 Africans by Arab slavers in Nyangwe, which experience left him too horrified and shattered to continue his mission to find the sources of the Nile, so he turned back to Lake Tanganyika 

Early European colonization
The Europeans had not reached the central regions of the Congo basin from either the east or west, until Henry Morton Stanley's expedition of 1876–77, supported by the Committee for Studies of the Upper Congo  At the time one of the last open questions of the European exploration of Africa was whether the Lualaba River fed the Nile (Livingstone's theory), the Congo, or even the Niger River  Financed in 1874, Stanley's first trans-Africa exploration started in Zanzibar and reached the Lualaba on October 17, 1876  Overland he reached Nyangwe, the center of a lawless area containing cannibal tribes at which Tippu Tip based his trade in slaves  Stanley managed to hire a force from Tippu Tip to guard him for the next 150 kilometres (90 mi) or so, for 90 days  
The party left Nyangwe overland through the dense Matimba forest  On November 19 they reached the Lualaba again  Since the going through the forest was so heavy, Tippu Tip turned around with his party on December 28, leaving Stanley on his own, with 143 people, including eight children and 16 women  They had 23 canoes  His first encounter with a local tribe was with the cannibal Wenya  In total Stanley reports 32 unfriendly meetings on the river, some violent, even though he attempted to negotiate a peaceful thoroughfare  But the tribes were wary as their only experience of outsiders was with slave traders 
On January 6, 1877, after 640 kilometres (400 mi), they reached Boyoma Falls (called Stanley Falls for some time after), consisting of seven cataracts spanning 100 kilometres (60 mi) which they had to bypass overland  It took them to February 7 to reach the end of the falls  Here Stanley learned that the river was called Ikuta Yacongo, proving to him that he had reached the Congo and that the Lualaba did not feed the Nile 
From this point, the tribes were no longer cannibals but possessed firearms, apparently as a result of Portuguese influence  Some four weeks and 1,900 kilometres (1,200 mi) later he reached Stanley Pool (now Pool Malebo), the site of the present day cities Kinshasa and Brazzaville  Further downstream were the Livingstone Falls, misnamed as Livingstone had never been on the Congo: a series of 32 falls and rapids with an elevation change of 270 metres (900 ft) over 350 kilometres (220 mi)  On 15 March they started the descent of the falls, which took five months and cost numerous lives  From the Isangile Falls, five falls from the foot, they beached the canoes and Lady Alice and left the river, aiming for the Portuguese outpost of Boma via land  
On August 3 they reached the hamlet Nsada  From there Stanley sent four men with letters forward to Boma, asking for food for his starving people  On August 7 relief came, being sent by representatives from the Liverpool trading firm Hatton & Cookson  On August 9 they reached Boma, 1,001 days since leaving Zanzibar on November 12, 1874  The party then consisted of 108 people, including three children born during the trip  Most probably (Stanley's own publications give inconsistent figures), he lost 132 people through disease, hunger, drowning, killing and desertion Kinshasa was founded as a trading post by Stanley in 1881 and named Léopoldville in honor of Leopold II of Belgium  The Congo Basin was privately claimed by Leopold II as Congo Free State in 1885 where the many Atrocities in the Congo Free State were committed until the region was called the Belgian Congo 

See also
List of crossings of the Congo River
2021 Congo River disaster

Notes
Passage 13:
Rufiji River
The Rufiji River lies entirely within Tanzania  It is also the largest and longest river in the country  The river is formed by the confluence of the Kilombero and Luwegu rivers  It is approximately 600 kilometres (370 mi) long, with its source in southwestern Tanzania and its mouth on the Indian Ocean opposite Mafia Island across the Mafia Channel, in Pwani Region  Its principal tributary is the Great Ruaha River  It is navigable for approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) 
The Rufiji river is approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi) south of Dar es Salaam  The river's delta contains the largest mangrove forest in eastern Africa 

History
A branch of ancient sea routes led down the East African coast called "Azania" by the Greeks and Romans in the 1st century CE as described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (and, very probably, Chinese: 澤散 in the 3rd century by the Chinese), at least as far as the port known to the Romans as Rhapta, which was probably located in the delta of the Rufiji River in modern Tanzania During the First World War, from October 1914 to July 1915, the river delta was the scene of a protracted naval operation  These were the attempts, and later achievement, by the Royal Navy to neutralize and destroy the German cruiser Konigsberg 

Basin
The catchment basin for the Rufiji River complex is 177,429 square kilometres (68,506 sq mi) 

Hydroelectric Project
Tanzania president John Magufuli has approved the construction of a controversial new dam and power station on the river at Stiegler's Gorge  The power station is expected to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more than triple Tanzania's existing installed hydropower capacity which is only 562 megawatts  Construction of the dam started on July 26, 2019, and it is expected be ready by 2022 
Passage 14:
Mangalam River
Mangalam River is the main tributary of the river Gayathripuzha, which in turn is a tributary of Bharathapuzha, the second longest river in Kerala, India   It is around 30 km long in length, with its source from Nelliyampathi forests, and passing through Vadakkencherry, Kannambra, Puthucode, Padur, etc  and joining Gayathripuzha at Plazhi in the border of Thrissur and Palakkad districts 
Cherukunnapuzha is a tributary of Mangalam River and Mangalam Dam is constructed across this river  A canal system for irrigation purpose was completed and opened in 1966, in Alathur taluk, Palakkad district 

Tributaries of the river Mangalam river
Cherukunnapuzha

See also
Bharathapuzha - Main river
Gayathripuzha - One of the main  tributaries of the river Bharathapuzha

Other tributaries of the river Gayathripuzha
Ayalurpuzha
Vandazhippuzha
Meenkarappuzha
Chulliyar
Passage 15:
Cagne
The Cagne is a river that flows through the Alpes-Maritimes department of southeastern France  Its source is near Coursegoules, and it flows into the Mediterranean Sea in Cagnes-sur-Mer  It is 27 5 km (17 1 mi) long  The Malvan is one of its tributaries 
Passage 16:
Thoré
The Thoré (French pronunciation: ​[tɔʁe]) is a 61 6-kilometre-long (38 3 mi) river in the Hérault and Tarn departments in southern France  Its source is in the northern part of Rieussec  It flows generally northwest  It is a left tributary of the Agout, into which it flows between Navès and Castres 

Departments and communes along its course
This list is ordered from source to mouth: 

Hérault: Rieussec, Verreries-de-Moussans,
Tarn: Labastide-Rouairoux, Anglès, Lacabarède, Rouairoux, Sauveterre, Albine, Saint-Amans-Valtoret, Saint-Amans-Soult, Bout-du-Pont-de-Larn, Mazamet, Pont-de-Larn, Aussillon, Payrin-Augmontel, Aiguefonde, Caucalières, Labruguière, Castres, Navès,
Passage 17:
Klehini River
The Klehini River is a large, glacially fed stream in the vicinity of Haines in the U S  state of Alaska 
The Klehini River is about 42 miles (68 km) long from its source in British Columbia to its mouth at the Chilkat River, of which it is the largest tributary   The Klehini River is renowned for its salmon runs, its biannual congregation of bald eagles—the second largest in the Haines area after the Chilkat River's Council Grounds—and for the Klehini Falls  The Klehini also delineates the northern boundary of the Chilkat Range 
The name Klehini appears to be derived from the Tlingit phrase l’éiw héeni, which translates to river with sand or gravel in it    The Klehini River contains abundances of both sand and gravel 
The lower Klehini is located within the Alaska Chilkat Bald Eagle Preserve 
Walt Disney's 1991 rendition of White Fang was filmed along the Klehini River 

Klehini Falls
The Klehini Falls are a series of four cataracts in far northwestern British Columbia occurring in a narrow gorge near the headwaters of the Klehini River  The falls are separated from one another by a distance of approximately 300 feet (91 m), with an average plunge of 30 to 40 feet (9 1 to 12 2 m)  The individual cataracts are currently unnamed 

See also
List of rivers of Alaska
List of British Columbia rivers
Passage 18:
Orange River
The Orange River (from Afrikaans/Dutch: Oranjerivier) is a river in Southern Africa  It is the longest river in South Africa  With a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi), the Orange River Basin extends from Lesotho into South Africa and Namibia to the north  It rises in the Drakensberg mountains in Lesotho, flowing westwards through South Africa to the Atlantic Ocean  The river forms part of the international borders between South Africa and Lesotho and between South Africa and Namibia, as well as several provincial borders within South Africa  Except for Upington, it does not pass through any major cities  The Orange River plays an important role in the South African economy by providing water for irrigation and hydroelectric power  The river was named the Orange River in honour of the Dutch ruling family, the House of Orange, by the Dutch explorer Robert Jacob Gordon  Other names include simply the word for river, in Khoekhoegowab orthography written as !Garib, which is rendered in Afrikaans as Gariep River with the intrusion of a velar fricative in place of the alveolar click, Groote River (derived from Kai !Garib) or Senqu River (used in Lesotho), derived from ǂNū "Black"  It is known in isiZulu as isAngqu 

Course
The Orange rises in the Drakensberg mountains along the border between South Africa and Lesotho, about 193 km (120 mi) west of the Indian Ocean and at an altitude of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft)  The extremity of the Orange River inside Lesotho is known as the Senqu  Parts of the Senqu River freeze in winter because of the high altitude  This creates droughts downstream, which mainly affect goat and cattle production 

The Orange River then runs westward through South Africa, forming the south-western boundary of the Free State province  In this section, the river flows first into the Gariep Dam and later into the Vanderkloof Dam  From the border of Lesotho to below the Vanderkloof Dam, the river bed is deeply incised  Further downstream, the land is flatter, and the river is used extensively for irrigation 
At the western point of the Free State, southwest of Kimberley, the Orange meets with its main tributary, the Vaal River, which forms much of the northern border of the province  From here, the river flows further westward through the arid wilderness of the southern Kalahari region and Namaqualand in the Northern Cape province to meet with Namibia at 20°E longitude  From here, it flows westward for 550 km (340 mi), forming the international border between the province and Namibia's ǁKaras Region  On the border, the river passes the town of Vioolsdrif, the main border post between South Africa and Namibia 

In the last 800 km (500 mi) of its course, the Orange receives many intermittent streams, and several large wadis lead into it  In this section, the Namib Desert terminates on the north bank of the river, so under normal circumstances, the volume of water added by these tributaries is negligible  Here, the bed of the river is once again deeply incised  The Augrabies Falls are located on this section of the Orange, where the river descends 122 m (400 ft) in a course of 26 km (16 mi) 
The Orange empties into the Atlantic Ocean between the small towns of Oranjemund (meaning "Orange mouth") in Namibia and Alexander Bay in South Africa, about equidistant between Walvis Bay and Cape Town  Some 33 km (21 mi) from its mouth, it is obstructed by rapids and sand bars and is generally not navigable for long stretches 
The river has a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi) 

Catchment and rainfall
In the dry season, the volume of the water in the river is considerably reduced because of the rapid run-off and evaporation  At the source of the Orange, the rainfall is about 2,000 mm (79 in) per annum, but precipitation decreases as the river flows westward; at its mouth, the rainfall is less than 50 mm (2 0 in) per year  The factors that support evaporation, though, tend to increase in a westerly direction  In the wet season (summer), the Orange river becomes a brown colored torrent  The huge mass of sediment carried constitutes a long-term threat to engineering projects on the river The total catchment of the Orange River (including the Vaal) extends over 973,000 km2 (376,000 sq mi), i e  equivalent to about 77% of the land area of South Africa (1,221,037 km2 (471,445 sq mi))  Around 366,000 km2 (141,000 sq mi) (38%), however, are situated outside the country in Lesotho, Botswana, and Namibia 

Tributaries
Vaal River - 1,458 km (906 mi)
Caledon River - 642 km (399 mi)
Khubelu River - 144 km (89 mi)

Dams
Armenia Dam
Egmont Dam
Gariep Dam
Newberry Dam
Vanderkloof Dam
Welbedacht Dam

History
Etymology
Some of the earliest precolonial inhabitants called the river ǂNūǃarib, referring to its black colour, or sometimes just Kai !Arib ("Great River"), from which is derived the Afrikaans version Gariep, and translation "Groote Rivier"  The early Dutch name for the river was just that translation, Groote Rivier, meaning "Great River"  The river was named the Orange River by Colonel Robert Gordon, commander of the United East India Company (VOC) garrison at Cape Town, on a trip to the interior in 1779  Gordon named the river in honor of William V of Orange  A popular but incorrect belief is that the river was named after the supposedly orange color of its water, as opposed to the color of its tributary, the Vaal River, which name is derived from the name ǀHaiǃarib "pale river" (vaal being Afrikaans for pale or grey)  Since the end of apartheid, the name "Gariep" has had greater favour in official correspondence in South Africa, although the name "Orange" has greater international recognition  In Lesotho, where the river rises, it is known as the Senqu River, derived from the original Khoemana name 

The Eastern Cape Geographical Names Committee has advertised its intention to consider a name change from the colonial name, for that portion of the river that forms the border between the Eastern Cape and the Free State, with suggestions being IGqili or Senqu  The advertisement placed in the Aliwal Weekblad newspaper states that the "present name is perceived to have a strong association with the history of colonial subjugation and has therefore no place under the current democratic dispensation "

The Grootslang
In South African folklore, the Orange River is often associated with the Grootslang, a mythical being resembling a giant serpent, which is often connected to the river's alluvial diamonds  The Grootslang is described as living in a gem-filled cave connected to the Orange River by a natural pipe through which the diamonds gradually enter the river  Other sites said to be lairs of the creature include the pool beneath the King George Cataract at Aughrabies Falls, which is also said to be a source of diamonds, and a large rock in the middle of the river itself  In this version of the legend, the Grootslang is also said to prey on cattle from the river's banks 

Economy
As the collection point for the majority of South Africa's water, the Orange River plays a major role in supporting agriculture, industry, and mining  To assist in this, two large water schemes have been created, the Orange River Project and the Lesotho Highlands Water Project  Historically, the river played an important role in the South African diamond rush, with the first diamonds in the country being discovered in alluvial deposits on the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate along the final stretch of the Orange River and around its mouth 
Because of the lack of dangerous animals and high water levels during summer, the river is used for recreational canoeing and rafting  Orange River rafting has become very popular with many companies using their camps along the river from which to operate  The most popular trips are four-day and six-day river trips that take place either along the gorge below the Augrabies Falls or along the Richtersveld area 

Orange River Project
The Orange River Project (ORP) was one of the largest and most imaginative projects of its kind in South Africa  It was constructed by Hendrik Verwoerd's government at the height of the apartheid era  The ORP was built to exploit the waters of the Orange River—which, without the Vaal River, represents some 14 1% of the total runoff in South Africa—and in the process, to satisfy an increasing demand for water  The main objectives of the project were:

to stabilise river flow,
the generation and transmission of hydroelectric power,
to provide a reliable water supply for users in the Orange River basin, and
to give a new lease on life to water-deficient areas in the Eastern Cape, such as the Great Fish and Sundays River valleys The Gariep Dam near Colesberg is the main storage structure within the Orange River  From here, the water is supplied in two directions, westward along the Orange River (via hydroelectric power generators) to the Vanderkloof Dam and southward through the Orange-Fish Tunnel to the Eastern Cape 

Hydroelectricity
Eskom operates hydroelectric power stations at both the Gariep Dam and the Vanderkloof Dam  The hydroelectric power station at the Vanderkloof Dam was the first power-generation station in South Africa situated entirely underground  The towns Oviston and Oranjekrag were established to facilitate the construction and operation of the new infrastructure 

Irrigation
Irrigation in the vast area downstream of the Vanderkloof Dam, which has turned thousands of hectares of arid veld into highly productive agricultural land, was made possible by the construction of the Gariep and Vanderkloof Dams  Old established irrigation schemes such as those at Buchuberg, Upington, Kakamas, and Vioolsdrif have also benefitted because regulation of the flow is now possible  On the Namibian side of the river, Aussenkehr produces grapes with the help of water from the Orange 
In recent years, the wine-producing areas along the Orange River have grown in importance  Irrigation in the Eastern Cape has also received a tremendous boost, not only from the additional water being made available, but also owing to improvement in water quality  Without this improvement, the citrus farmers along the Lower Sundays River would almost certainly have continued to suffer losses of productivity 

Lesotho Highlands Water Project
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was conceived to supplement the water supply in the Vaal River System  Water is delivered to South Africa by means of the delivery tunnel which passes under the Lesotho South Africa border at the Caledon River, and then under the Little Caledon River south of Clarens in the Free State, and discharges into the Ash River about 30 kilometres (19 mi) further to the north  The scheme became viable when water demands in Gauteng reached levels that could no longer be supported economically by alternative schemes such as the Tugela River-Vaal River pumped storage scheme, which used the Sterkfontein Dam, located near Harrismith in the Free State 

Alluvial diamonds
In 1867, the first diamond discovered in South Africa, the Eureka Diamond, was found near Hopetown on the Orange River  Two years later, a much larger diamond known as the Star of South Africa was found in the same area, causing a diamond rush  This was soon eclipsed by the diamond rush to mine diamonds directly from kimberlite at Kimberley in 1871, although alluvial diamonds continued to be found in the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate on the last stretch of the river, as well as the beaches around its mouth  Diamond mines also operate on the middle stretch of the river 

Rafting and canoeing
During the temperate months of March and April, given good rains and the sluices of the dams being open, a canoeist (or rafter) can easily travel 30 kilometres (19 mi) per day  The lower reaches of the river are most popular, because of the spectacular topography  Commercial tours are available, and these expeditions depart from the border town of Vioolsdrif 

Wildlife
The Orange River has no large animals  It lies outside the range of the Nile crocodile, and although hippopotami were once abundant, they were hunted to extermination in the 19th century  The Orange River has a relative paucity of species diversity  A 2011 survey of 13,762 fish found only 16 species of fish present   Three of these, the common carp, the Mozambique tilapia, and the western mosquitofish are not indigenous   Another exotic species, rainbow trout, is found in the river headwaters in Lesotho 
Seven species are endemic to the Vaal-Orange River system:
Rock-catfish (Austroglanis sclateri)
Maluti redfin or Maloti minnow (Pseudobarbus quathlambae)
Namaquab barb (Barbus hospes)
River sardine (Mesobola brevianalis)
Smallmouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus aeneus)
Largemouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus kimberlyensis)
Orange River Mudfish (Labeo capensis)

See also
List of rivers in South Africa
List of international border rivers
List of crossings of the Orange River
Passage 19:
Bhilangna River
Bhilangna River is a Himalayan river in Uttarakhand, India, which is the major tributary of the Bhagirathi river, the source stream of the Ganges River of India  Bhilangana is a combination of Bhil and Ganga The mainstem, Bhilangna, rises at the foot of the Khatling Glacier (elevation 3,717 m (12,195 ft)) approximately 50 km (31 mi) south of the ice cave at Gaumukh, traditionally considered the source of both the Bhagirathi and the Ganges and flows into the Bhagirathi at Old Tehri, the site of the Tehri dam   It meets its major tributary the Bal Ganga at Ghansali (elevation 976 m (3,202 ft)) 
The Bal Ganga, whose headwaters are formed at the foot of Mount Kukhli Dhar (elevation 4,600 m (15,100 ft)), itself has a minor tributary, the Dharam Ganga, which meets it at Thati Kathur (also Budha Kedar) at elevation 1,524 m (5,000 ft)
The Khatling trek route passes alongside the Bhilangna, starting from the last point accessible by road, Ghuttu, until the glacier, which stands at 3700 metres  If one were to go further on the trail past the glacier, one could reach Kedarnath 

See also
Bhagirathi River
Ganges
Alaknanda River
Context 2: Passage 1:
Black Death
The Black Death (also known as the Pestilence, the Great Mortality or the Plague) was a bubonic plague pandemic occurring in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353  It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing the deaths of 75–200 million people, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351  Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis spread by fleas, but during the Black Death it probably also took a secondary form, spread by person-to-person contact via aerosols, causing pneumonic plague The Black Death was the beginning of the second plague pandemic  The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history 
The origin of the Black Death is disputed  Genetic analysis points to the evolution of Yersinia pestis in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China 2,600 years ago  The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remains unclear with some pointing towards Central Asia, China, the Middle East and Europe  The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347  From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean Basin and reaching North Africa, Western Asia and the rest of Europe via Constantinople, Sicily and the Italian Peninsula  There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread person-to-person as pneumonic plague, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary vector was rat fleas causing bubonic plague  In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may not have been due to Mongol conquests in the 14th century, as previously speculated The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317) and is estimated to have killed 30 percent to 60 percent of the European population, as well as about one-third of the population of the Middle East  The plague might have reduced the world population from c  475 million to 350–375 million in the 14th century  There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, with other contributing factors (the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages), the European population did not regain its level in 1300 until 1500  Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century 

Names
European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in Latin as pestis or pestilentia, 'pestilence'; epidemia, 'epidemic'; mortalitas, 'mortality'  In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death"  Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first murrain) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as "black" in the time of occurrence in any European language, though the expression "black death" had occasionally been applied to fatal disease beforehand  "Black death" was not used to describe the plague pandemic in English until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated Danish: den sorte død, lit  'the black death'  This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was transferred to other languages as a calque: Icelandic: svarti dauði, German: der schwarze Tod, and French: la mort noire  Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the Latin: magna mortalitas, lit  'Great Death' The phrase 'black death' – describing Death as black – is very old  Homer used it in the Odyssey to describe the monstrous Scylla, with her mouths "full of black Death" (Ancient Greek: πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο, romanized: pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio)  Seneca the Younger may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', (Latin: mors atra) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark prognosis of disease  The 12th–13th century French physician Gilles de Corbeil had already used atra mors to refer to a "pestilential fever" (febris pestilentialis) in his work On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium)  The phrase mors nigra, 'black death', was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to an astrological conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn  His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease The historian Cardinal Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague"  In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J  I  Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant) 

Previous plague epidemics
Research from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age  Research in 2018 found evidence of Yersinia pestis in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "Neolithic decline" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly  This Y  pestis may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near Samara The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a fragment of Rufus of Ephesus preserved by Oribasius; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the Roman Empire before the reign of Trajan, six centuries before arriving at Pelusium in the reign of Justinian I  In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the Plague of Justinian (541–542 CE, with recurrences until 750) was Y  pestis  This is known as the first plague pandemic  In 610, the Chinese physician Chao Yuanfang described a "malignant bubo" "coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue " The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in Lingnan (Guangzhou)  Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600 

14th-century plague
Causes
Early theory
The most authoritative contemporary account is found in a report from the medical faculty in Paris to Philip VI of France  It blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air" (miasma theory)  Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a "martyrdom and mercy" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise  For non-believers, it was a punishment  Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God  Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans  These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks 

Predominant modern theory
Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease  The plague disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas, including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, North India, Uganda and the western United States Y  pestis was discovered by Alexandre Yersin, a pupil of Louis Pasteur, during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacillus was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission  The mechanism by which Y  pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y  pestis several days after feeding on an infected host  This blockage starves the fleas and drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour and attempts to clear the blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host  The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lacks resistance  When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic 

DNA evidence
Definitive confirmation of the role of Y  pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in PLOS Pathogens by Haensch et al  They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y  pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences  The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y  pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages"  In 2011, these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England  Schuenemann et al  concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y  pestis that may no longer exist" Later in 2011, Bos et al  reported in Nature the first draft genome of Y  pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y  pestis Since this time, further genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the Y  pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor of later plague epidemics including the third plague pandemic and as the descendant of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian  In addition, plague genomes from significantly earlier in prehistory have been recovered DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th century London have shown plague is a strain of Y  pestis almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013  Further DNA evidence also proves the role of Y  Pestis and traces the source to the Tian Shan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan 

Alternative explanations
It is recognised that an epidemiological account of plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period  Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the Domesday Book of 1086 and the poll tax of the year 1377  Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy 
Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission  A research in 2018 challenged the popular hypothesis that "infected rats died, their flea parasites could have jumped from the recently dead rat hosts to humans"  It suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people"  The second model claims to better fit the trends of death toll because the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, which contradict historical death data Lars Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities  Similarly, Monica Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y  pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person  This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and fleas during the second plague pandemic 

Summary
Although academic debate continues, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance  Many scholars arguing for Y  pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections  In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicaemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms  In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis  Currently, while osteoarcheologists have conclusively verified the presence of Y  pestis bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and dental pulp, no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations 

Transmission
Lack of hygiene
The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century with the development of the germ theory of disease; until then streets were commonly filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding, facilitating the spread of transmissible disease By the early fourteenth century so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste  In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for "shit"  There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris  Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were as careless as William E  Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without  A complaint lodged against Cosner charges that "men could not pass [by his house] for the stink [of]       horse dung and horse piss "One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden "stinking and putrid", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, "making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near " In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, "Look out below!" three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street Early Christians, who thought self-abnegation a cardinal virtue, considered bathing, if not a vice, then a temptation  "Who knows what impure thoughts might arise in a tub of warm water? With this danger in mind, St  Benedict declared, "To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted " St  Agnes took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing 

Territorial origins
According to a team of medical geneticists led by Mark Achtman that analysed the genetic variation of the bacterium Yersinia pestis "evolved in or near China" over 2,600 years ago  Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko places the origins more specifically in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China  However more recent research notes that the previous sampling had a very heavy East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of Y  pestis in the Caucasus region that were previously thought to be restricted to China  There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China  As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day  According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years  The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic; this is supported by recent direct findings of Y  pestis DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to "pestilence" as the cause of death  Epidemics killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before the Black Death reached Constantinople in 1347 
The evidence does not suggest, at least at present, that these mortality crises were caused by plague  Although some scholars, including McNeill and Cao, see the 1333 outbreak as a prelude to the outbreaks in Europe from the late 1340s to the early 1350s, scholars of the Yuan and Ming periods remain skeptical about such an interpretation  Nonetheless, the remarkably high mortality rates during the Datong mortality should discourage us from rejecting the possibility of localized/regional outbreaks of plague in different parts of China, albeit differing in scale from, and unrelated to, the pandemic mortality of the Black Death  What we lack is any indication of a plague pandemic that engulfed vast territories of the Yuan Empire and later moved into western Eurasia through Central Asia 
According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact  According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the Silk Road, and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak  There are no records of the symptoms of the Black Death from Mongol sources or writings from travelers east of the Black Sea prior to the Crimean outbreak in 1346  Finally, the Silk Road had already been heavily disrupted before the spread of the Black Death  Western and Middle Eastern traders found it difficult to trade on the Silk Road by 1325 and impossible by 1340, making spread of the plague less likely Others still favor an origin in China or even Kurdistan, and not Central Asia  According to the theory of Chinese origin, the disease may have traveled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders, or it could have arrived via ship, but this theory is still contested  It is speculated that rats aboard Zheng He's ships in the 15th century may have carried the plague to Southeast Asia, India and Africa 
Research on the Delhi Sultanate and the Yuan Dynasty shows no evidence of any serious epidemic in fourteenth-century India and no specific evidence of plague in fourteenth-century China, suggesting that the Black Death may not have reached these regions  Ole Benedictow argues that since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from Kaffa, the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea 
Demographic historians estimate that China's population fell by at least 15 percent, and perhaps as much as a third, between 1340 and 1370  This population loss coincided with the Black Death that ravaged Europe and much of the Islamic world in 1347–52  However, there is a conspicuous lack of evidence for pandemic disease on the scale of the Black Death in China at this time  War and famine – and the diseases that typically accompanied them – probably were the main causes of mortality in the final decades of Mongol rule 
Monica H  Green suggests that the reason why other parts of Eurasia outside the west do not contain the same evidence of the Black Plague is because there were actually four strains of Yersinia pestis that became predominant in different parts of the world  Mongol records of illness such as food poisoning may have been referring to the Black Plague  Another theory is that the Black Death originated near Europe and cycled through the Mediterranean, Northern Europe and Russia before making its way to China  Other historians such as John Norris and Ole Benedictaw believe the Black Death likely originated in Europe or the Middle East and never reached China 

European outbreak
Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders from their port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347  During a protracted siege of the city, in 1345–1346 the Mongol Golden Horde army of Jani Beg, whose mainly Tatar troops were suffering from the disease, catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants, though it is more likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants  As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the Black Sea to Constantinople, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347 The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the Byzantine emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on Thucydides's account of the 5th century BCE Plague of Athens, but noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities  Nicephorus Gregoras also described in writing to Demetrios Kydones the rising death toll, the futility of medicine, and the panic of the citizens  The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400 Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in Sicily in October 1347; the disease spread rapidly all over the island  Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy  Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseilles From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain (the epidemic began to wreak havoc first on the Crown of Aragon in the spring of 1348), Portugal and England by June 1348, then spread east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350  It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland  Finally, it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351  Plague was somewhat more uncommon in parts of Europe with less developed trade with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavourable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations and forced their fleas onto alternative hosts, inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean, as well as during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic region  Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, malnutrition, even if distantly, also contributed to such an immense loss in European population, since it weakened immune systems 

Western Asian and North African outbreak
The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures  As infected rodents infected new rodents, the disease spread across the region, entering also from southern Russia 
By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople; according to a contemporary witness, from a single merchant ship carrying slaves  By late summer 1348 it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural centre of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died  The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex  The historian al-Maqrizi described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of funeral rites, and plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza by April; by July it had reached Damascus, and in October plague had broken out in Aleppo  That year, in the territory of modern Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine, the cities of Ascalon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon and Homs were all infected  In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch  The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey  Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa  The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 Tunis was infected by ship from Sicily  Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of Almería in al-Andalus Mecca became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the Hajj  In 1351 or 1352, the Rasulid sultan of the Yemen, al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home  During 1348, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease 

Signs and symptoms
Bubonic plague
Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise  Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 percent die within eight days Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise  The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened  Boccaccio's description:

In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg     From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous  As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves 
This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood  Most people died two to seven days after initial infection  Freckle-like spots and rashes, which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of plague 

Pneumonic plague
Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems  Symptoms include fever, cough and blood-tinged sputum  As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red  Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 percent 

Septicaemic plague
Septicaemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%  Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation)  In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicaemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes 

Consequences
Deaths
There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality  In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality  It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia  A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe between 1250 and 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death  The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia and Ireland The mortality rate of the Black Death in the 14th century was far greater than the worst 20th-century outbreaks of Y  pestis plague, which occurred in India and killed as much as 3% of the population of certain cities  The overwhelming number of deceased bodies produced by the Black Death caused the necessity of mass burial sites in Europe, sometimes including up to several hundred or several thousand skeletons  The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical and anthropological implications of the Black Death According to medieval historian Philip Daileader, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague  Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests it could have been as much as 60% of the European population  In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished  In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die  Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died  In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351  At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well, with a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353  Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348  Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450  The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to contagion  Plague did not appear in Douai in Flanders until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of Hainaut, Finland, northern Germany and areas of Poland  Monks, nuns and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people with the Black Death 

The physician to the Avignon Papacy, Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (Latin: Magister Raimundus, lit  'Master Raymond'), observed the decreasing mortality rate of successive outbreaks of plague in 1347–48, 1362, 1371 and 1382 in his 1382 treatise On Epidemics (De epidemica)  In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived  By the 1380s in Europe, it predominantly affected children  Chalmel de Vinario recognised that bloodletting was ineffective (though he continued to prescribe bleeding for members of the Roman Curia, whom he disliked), and said that all true cases of plague were caused by astrological factors and were incurable; he himself was never able to effect a cure The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population  The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population  In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months Italian chronicler Agnolo di Tura recorded his experience from Siena, where plague arrived in May 1348:

Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight  And so they died  And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship  Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices     great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead  And they died by the hundreds both day and night     And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug     And I, Agnolo di Tura     buried my five children with my own hands  And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city  There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death  And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world 

Economic
It has been suggested that the plague, like some others in history, disproportionately affected the poorest people, who were already in generally worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens   Nevertheless, with such a large overall population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a labour shortage  On the other hand, in the quarter century after the Black Death in England, it is clear many labourers, artisans and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, did suffer a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation  Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants 

Environmental
A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation  This may have led to the Little Ice Age 

Persecutions
Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death  Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", lepers and Romani, blaming them for the crisis  Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe 
Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks  Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness There were many attacks against Jewish communities  In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered  In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated  By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed  During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great 

Social
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy and led to the Renaissance  Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife  It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century  The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy  The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an influx of Greek scholars following the fall of the Byzantine Empire  As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom  To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the workings of Europe were run by the Catholic Church and the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of fiefs and city-states  The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled Cairo's population, partly owing to the numerous plague epidemics, was in the early 18th century half of what it was in 1347  The populations of some Italian cities, notably Florence, did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century  The demographic decline due to the pandemic had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30–40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400  Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall  The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably destabilised feudalism The word "quarantine" has its roots in this period, though the concept of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older  In the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas  The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty" 

Recurrences
Second plague pandemic
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries  According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671  (Note that some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data ) The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–63; 1374; 1400; 1438–39; 1456–57; 1464–66; 1481–85; 1500–03; 1518–31; 1544–48; 1563–66; 1573–88; 1596–99; 1602–11; 1623–40; 1644–54; and 1664–67  Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century)  The historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s  However, other sources suggest that the Second pandemic did indeed reach Sub-Saharan Africa According to historian Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31 " In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1 7 million people in Italy  More than 1 25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world
Context 3: Passage 1:
He Comes Up Smiling
He Comes Up Smiling is a 1918 American comedy film produced by and starring Douglas Fairbanks and directed by Allan Dwan 
This film was based on a novel of the same title by Charles Sherman, which was adapted into a 1914 play of the same name by Byron Ongley and Emil Nyitray  Fairbanks starred in the play with Patricia Collinge as the female lead  This film "survives incomplete" 

Plot
As described in a film magazine, the principal duty of bank clerk Jerry Martin is to care for the bank president's pet canary  The bird escapes and Jerry starts in pursuit  In a chase that takes him far afield, Jerry meets a hobo and decides to give up his bank job  Baron Bean (Montana), another hobo, becomes his valet, but they desert Jerry when he is taking a bath and steal his clothes  He finds a suit belonging to William Batchelor (MacQuarrie), a broker who is cooling off at a pool, and with the broker's business cards he passes himself off as Batchelor  He meets John Bartlett (Campeau) and his daughter Billie (Daw) and promptly falls in love  Her father is also a stock broker who has been nicked by Batchelor  An attempt is made to corner the market while Jerry is being entertained, but he foils the plotters, falls heir to a fortune, and wins the love of Billie 

Cast
Douglas Fairbanks as Jerry Martin
Marjorie Daw as Billie Bartlett
Herbert Standing as Mike
Frank Campeau as John Bartlett
Bull Montana as Baron Bean
Albert MacQuarrie as William Batchelor
Kathleen Kirkham as Louise
Jay Dwiggins as General
William Elmer
Robert Cain

Preservation
The surviving reels of He Comes Up Smiling were preserved by the Academy Film Archive in 2010 
Passage 2:
Spexy Beast
Spexy Beast is a stand-up comedy tour performed by British comedian Alan Carr  The tour was Carr's first to be performed in arena type venues, with extra dates being added in most territories due to popular demand 

Show incidents
During one of the shows in Brighton a female member of the audience, who was pregnant went into labour from laughing so much 
Tessa Lawson was watching the comic’s new Spexy Beast show when she felt the baby move and rushed to the toilet just before the interval 
When her waters broke, she was rushed to hospital and gave birth to a healthy girl later that evening  Carr later commented on the incident via Twitter stating,

"An audience member has gone into labour  Pass me a hot towel and tongs, I’m going in! Love to you and bump "

Tour dates
Passage 3:
Giuseppe Demachi
Giuseppe Demachi (9 June 1732 – 1791 or after) was a composer born in Alessandria, Italy   He served as a leading violinist in the city of his birth and later in the city of Geneva with the Concerto di Ginevra of the Societé de Musique   He also served in the employ of one Count Sannazzaro in the 1760s and 1770s at Casale Monferrato   Not much is known about his life or death   Other than the records of his birth in 1732, his next known appearance in history is in 1763 when he was listed as playing in Alessandria's orchestra   After 1777 he again falls into obscurity until his last verifiable appearance during some concerts in London in 1791   The date of his death is not known, but is believed to have been shortly after his performances in London 
Demachi is listed as a composer of a significant number of works, including four symphonie concertante, eighteen duo sonatas, fifty-six trio sonatas, a pair of orchestral overtures and six string quartets listed as "for orchestra "  One of his most famous works is the symphony Le campane di Roma (The Bells of Rome) 

Sources
Giuseppe Demachi at AllMusic
Free scores by Giuseppe Demachi at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Passage 4:
O Sorriso do Lagarto
O Sorriso do Lagarto (The Lizard's Smile) is a Brazilian television series that first aired on Rede Globo in 1991 

Cast
Tony Ramos - João Pedroso
Raul Cortez - Angelo Marcos
Maitê Proença - Ana Clara
Carlos Augusto Strazzer - Peçanha
José Lewgoy - Lúcio Nemésio
Lúcia Veríssimo - Bebel
Alexandre Frota - Tavinho
Claudio Mamberti - Cirino
Ana Paula Bouzas - Branca
Marcelo Picchi - Nando
Ana Beatriz Nogueira - Evangelina
Sofia Papo - Maria das Mercês
Pedro Paulo Rangel - Padre Monteirinho
Fábio Sabag - Bará
Chiquinho Brandão - Chico
Passage 5:
The House of Smiles
The House of Smiles (Italian: La casa del sorriso) is a 1991 Italian film directed by Marco Ferreri  It depicts a romance between an old man and an old woman inside a care home 
The film won the Golden Bear at the 41st Berlin International Film Festival 

Cast
Ingrid Thulin as Adelina
Dado Ruspoli as Andrea
Enzo Cannavale as Avvocato
María Mercader as Elvira
Lucia Vasini as Giovanna
Francesca Antonelli as Rosy
Elisabeth Kaza as Esmeralda
Nunzia Fumo
Fulvio Falzarano
Passage 6:
Maureen Payne
Maureen Payne was a South African cricketer who played as a slow left-arm orthodox bowler  She appeared in five Test matches for South Africa between 1960 and 1972, including captaining the side in their series against New Zealand  She played domestic cricket for Western Province 
Passage 7:
Just to See You Smile
"Just to See You Smile" is a song written by Mark Nesler and Tony Martin, and recorded by American country music artist Tim McGraw  It was released in August 1997 as the third single from McGraw's fourth studio album Everywhere  Having spent 42 weeks on the Billboard chart, it set what was then a record for being the longest-running single on the Billboard country chart since the inception of Nielsen SoundScan in 1990  It was also the longest chart run for any country single in the 1990s  The song was also released by Mitchell Tenpenny in 2018  No music video was made for this song 

Critical reception
Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe gave the song an A grade, saying McGraw "plays his cards so close to his chest that upon first listen, you may only pick up on his unconditional love and selflessness toward the girl who’s been stringing him along for all these years "

Track listing
Single

Just To See You Smile 	3:34
Everywhere 	4:50

Chart performance
"Just to See You Smile" debuted in August 1997 and surged in November  It became McGraw's third consecutive No  1 single from Everywhere, spending six weeks atop the Billboard magazine Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in January and February 1998  It was also McGraw's second single to be declared by Billboard as the Number One country single of the year 

Chart history
Year-end charts
Certifications
Passage 8:
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (bapt  26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor  He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist  He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "the Bard")  His extant works, including collaborations, consist of some 39 plays, 154 sonnets, three long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship  His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright  Shakespeare remains arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his works continue to be studied and reinterpreted 
Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire  At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith  Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men  At age 49 (around 1613), he appears to have retired to Stratford, where he died three years later  Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive; this has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, his sexuality, his religious beliefs and whether the works attributed to him were written by others Shakespeare produced most of his known works between 1589 and 1613  His early plays were primarily comedies and histories and are regarded as some of the best works produced in these genres  He then wrote mainly tragedies until 1608, among them Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, all considered to be among the finest works in the English language  In the last phase of his life, he wrote tragicomedies (also known as romances) and collaborated with other playwrights 
Many of Shakespeare's plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy in his lifetime  However, in 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two fellow actors and friends of Shakespeare's, published a more definitive text known as the First Folio, a posthumous collected edition of Shakespeare's dramatic works that included 36 of his plays  Its Preface was a prescient poem by Ben Jonson, a former rival of Shakespeare, that hailed Shakespeare with the now famous epithet: "not of an age, but for all time" 

Life
Early life
Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover (glove-maker) originally from Snitterfield in Warwickshire, and Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent landowning family  He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, where he was baptised on 26 April 1564  His date of birth is unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, Saint George's Day  This date, which can be traced to William Oldys and George Steevens, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on the same date in 1616  He was the third of eight children, and the eldest surviving son Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King's New School in Stratford, a free school chartered in 1553, about a quarter-mile (400 m) from his home  Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but grammar school curricula were largely similar: the basic Latin text was standardised by royal decree, and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway  The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582  The next day, two of Hathaway's neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage  The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times, and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, baptised 26 May 1583  Twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585  Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596 

After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592  The exception is the appearance of his name in the "complaints bill" of a law case before the Queen's Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589  Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost years"  Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories  Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare's first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy  Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him  Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London  John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster  Some 20th-century scholars suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will  Little evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area 

London and theatrical career
It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592  By then, he was sufficiently known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his Groats-Worth of Wit:

    there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country 
Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene's words, but most agree that Greene was accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match such university-educated writers as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe, and Greene himself (the so-called "University Wits")  The italicised phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 3, along with the pun "Shake-scene", clearly identify Shakespeare as Greene's target  As used here, Johannes Factotum ("Jack of all trades") refers to a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others, rather than the more common "universal genius" Greene's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare's work in the theatre  Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s to just before Greene's remarks  After 1594, Shakespeare's plays were performed only by the Lord Chamberlain's Men, a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading playing company in London  After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a royal patent by the new King James I, and changed its name to the King's Men 

In 1599, a partnership of members of the company built their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames, which they named the Globe  In 1608, the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre  Extant records of Shakespeare's property purchases and investments indicate that his association with the company made him a wealthy man, and in 1597, he bought the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto editions, beginning in 1594, and by 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages  Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright  The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Sejanus His Fall (1603)  The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson's Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end  The First Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of "the Principal Actors in all these Plays", some of which were first staged after Volpone, although one cannot know for certain which roles he played  In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that "good Will" played "kingly" roles  In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father  Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It, and the Chorus in Henry V, though scholars doubt the sources of that information Throughout his career, Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford  In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St  Helen's, Bishopsgate, north of the River Thames  He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599, the same year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there  By 1604, he had moved north of the river again, to an area north of St Paul's Cathedral with many fine houses  There, he rented rooms from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of women's wigs and other headgear 

Later years and death
Nicholas Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition, repeated by Samuel Johnson, that Shakespeare retired to Stratford "some years before his death"  He was still working as an actor in London in 1608; in an answer to the sharers' petition in 1635, Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans, the King's Men "placed men players" there, "which were Heminges, Condell, Shakespeare, etc "  However, it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London throughout 1609  The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the plague (a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and February 1610), which meant there was often no acting work  Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time  Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614  In 1612, he was called as a witness in Bellott v Mountjoy, a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy's daughter, Mary  In March 1613, he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory; and from November 1614, he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall  After 1610, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed to him after 1613  His last three plays were collaborations, probably with John Fletcher, who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King's Men  He retired in 1613, before the Globe Theatre burned down during the performance of Henry VIII on 29 June Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, at the age of 52  He died within a month of signing his will, a document which he begins by describing himself as being in "perfect health"  No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died  Half a century later, John Ward, the vicar of Stratford, wrote in his notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton, and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and, it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted", not an impossible scenario since Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton  Of the tributes from fellow authors, one refers to his relatively sudden death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st so soon / From the world's stage to the grave's tiring room "

He was survived by his wife and two daughters  Susanna had married a physician, John Hall, in 1607, and Judith had married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, two months before Shakespeare's death  Shakespeare signed his last will and testament on 25 March 1616; the following day, his new son-in-law, Thomas Quiney was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret Wheeler, who had died during childbirth  Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance, which would have caused much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna under stipulations that she pass it down intact to "the first son of her body"  The Quineys had three children, all of whom died without marrying  The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died without children in 1670, ending Shakespeare's direct line  Shakespeare's will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one-third of his estate automatically  He did make a point, however, of leaving her "my second best bed", a bequest that has led to much speculation  Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance 

Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death  The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones, which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008:
Some time before 1623, a funerary monument was erected in his memory on the north wall, with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing  Its plaque compares him to Nestor, Socrates, and Virgil  In 1623, in conjunction with the publication of the First Folio, the Droeshout engraving was published  Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world, including funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey 

Plays
Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point, as critics agree Shakespeare did, mostly early and late in his career The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI, written in the early 1590s during a vogue for historical drama  Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date precisely, however, and studies of the texts suggest that Titus Andronicus, The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew, and The Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to Shakespeare's earliest period  His first histories, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty  The early plays were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe, by the traditions of medieval drama, and by the plays of Seneca  The Comedy of Errors was also based on classical models, but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found, though it is related to a separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk story  Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona, in which two friends appear to approve of rape, the Shrew's story of the taming of a woman's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics, directors, and audiences 

Shakespeare's early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight double plots and precise comic sequences, give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies  A Midsummer Night's Dream is a witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and comic lowlife scenes  Shakespeare's next comedy, the equally romantic Merchant of Venice, contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock, which reflects dominant Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern audiences  The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About Nothing, the charming rural setting of As You Like It, and the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night complete Shakespeare's sequence of great comedies  After the lyrical Richard II, written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s, Henry IV, parts 1 and 2, and Henry V  His characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative variety of his mature work  This period begins and ends with two tragedies: Romeo and Juliet, the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence, love, and death; and Julius Caesar— based on Sir Thomas North's 1579 translation of Plutarch's Parallel Lives—which introduced a new kind of drama  According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro, in Julius Caesar, "the various strands of politics, character, inwardness, contemporary events, even Shakespeare's own reflections on the act of writing, began to infuse each other" 

In the early 17th century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called "problem plays" Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida, and All's Well That Ends Well and a number of his best known tragedies  Many critics believe that Shakespeare's greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art  The titular hero of one of Shakespeare's greatest tragedies, Hamlet, has probably been discussed more than any other Shakespearean character, especially for his famous soliloquy which begins "To be or not to be; that is the question"  Unlike the introverted Hamlet, whose fatal flaw is hesitation, the heroes of the tragedies that followed, Othello and King Lear, are undone by hasty errors of judgement  The plots of Shakespeare's tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves  In Othello, the villain Iago stokes Othello's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him  In King Lear, the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers, initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of Lear's youngest daughter Cordelia  According to the critic Frank Kermode, "the play   offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty"  In Macbeth, the shortest and most compressed of Shakespeare's tragedies, uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth, to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne until their own guilt destroys them in turn  In this play, Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure  His last major tragedies, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, contain some of Shakespeare's finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T  S  Eliot In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays: Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale, and The Tempest, as well as the collaboration, Pericles, Prince of Tyre  Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors  Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare's part, but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day  Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays, Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen, probably with John Fletcher 

Classification
Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623, listed according to their folio classification as comedies, histories, and tragedies  Two plays not included in the First Folio, The Two Noble Kinsmen and Pericles, Prince of Tyre, are now accepted as part of the canon, with today's scholars agreeing that Shakespeare made major contributions to the writing of both  No Shakespearean poems were included in the First Folio 
In the late 19th century, Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as romances, and though many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies, Dowden's term is often used  In 1896, Frederick S  Boas coined the term "problem plays" to describe four plays: All's Well That Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida, and Hamlet  "Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies", he wrote  "We may, therefore, borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them together as Shakespeare's problem plays " The term, much debated and sometimes applied to other plays, remains in use, though Hamlet is definitively classed as a tragedy 

Performances
It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays  The title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes  After the plagues of 1592–93, Shakespeare's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch, north of the Thames  Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV, Leonard Digges recording, "Let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest     and you scarce shall have a room"  When the company found themselves in dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre, the first playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark  The Globe opened in autumn 1599, with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged  Most of Shakespeare's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe, including Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear 

After the Lord Chamberlain's Men were renamed the King's Men in 1603, they entered a special relationship with the new King James  Although the performance records are patchy, the King's Men performed seven of Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604, and 31 October 1605, including two performances of The Merchant of Venice  After 1608, they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer  The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly staged masques, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices  In Cymbeline, for example, Jupiter descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt  The ghosts fall on their knees "The actors in Shakespeare's company included the famous Richard Burbage, William Kempe, Henry Condell and John Heminges  Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare's plays, including Richard III, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear  The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing, among other characters  He was replaced around 1600 by Robert Armin, who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear  In 1613, Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII "was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony"  On 29 June, however, a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground, an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision 

Textual sources
In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare's friends from the King's Men, published the First Folio, a collected edition of Shakespeare's plays  It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the first time  The others had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves  No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions, which the First Folio describes as "stol'n and surreptitious copies" Alfred Pollard termed some of the pre-1623 versions as "bad quartos" because of their adapted, paraphrased or garbled texts, which may in places have been reconstructed from memory  Where several versions of a play survive, each differs from the other  The differences may stem from copying or printing errors, from notes by actors or audience members, or from Shakespeare's own papers  In some cases, for example, Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida, and Othello, Shakespeare could have revised the texts between the quarto and folio editions  In the case of King Lear, however, while most modern editions do conflate them, the 1623 folio version is so different from the 1608 quarto that the Oxford Shakespeare prints them both, arguing that they cannot be conflated without confusion 

Poems
In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because of plague, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on sexual themes, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece  He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton  In Venus and Adonis, an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual advances of Venus; while in The Rape of Lucrece, the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lustful Tarquin  Influenced by Ovid's Metamorphoses, the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust  Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare's lifetime  A third narrative poem, A Lover's Complaint, in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor, was printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609  Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover's Complaint  Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects  The Phoenix and the Turtle, printed in Robert Chester's 1601 Love's Martyr, mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his lover, the faithful turtle dove  In 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim, published under Shakespeare's name but without his permission 

Sonnets
Published in 1609, the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare's non-dramatic works to be printed  Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership  Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599, Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare's "sugred Sonnets among his private friends"  Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare's intended sequence  He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion (the "dark lady"), and one about conflicted love for a fair young man (the "fair youth")  It remains unclear if these figures represent real individuals, or if the authorial "I" who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though Wordsworth believed that with the sonnets "Shakespeare unlocked his heart" 

The 1609 edition was dedicated to a "Mr  W H ", credited as "the only begetter" of the poems  It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page; nor is it known who Mr  W H  was, despite numerous theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication  Critics praise the Sonnets as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time 

Style
Shakespeare's first plays were written in the conventional style of the day  He wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama  The poetry depends on extended, sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits, and the language is often rhetorical—written for actors to declaim rather than speak  The grand speeches in Titus Andronicus, in the view of some critics, often hold up the action, for example; and the verse in The Two Gentlemen of Verona has been described as stilted 

However, Shakespeare soon began to adapt the traditional styles to his own purposes  The opening soliloquy of Richard III has its roots in the self-declaration of Vice in medieval drama  At the same time, Richard's vivid self-awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare's mature plays  No single play marks a change from the traditional to the freer style  Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career, with Romeo and Juliet perhaps the best example of the mixing of the styles  By the time of Romeo and Juliet, Richard II, and A Midsummer Night's Dream in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare had begun to write a more natural poetry  He increasingly tuned his metaphors and images to the needs of the drama itself 
Shakespeare's standard poetic form was blank verse, composed in iambic pentameter  In practice, this meant that his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten syllables to a line, spoken with a stress on every second syllable  The blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later ones  It is often beautiful, but its sentences tend to start, pause, and finish at the end of lines, with the risk of monotony  Once Shakespeare mastered traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its flow  This technique releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as Julius Caesar and Hamlet  Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil in Hamlet's mind:

After Hamlet, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, particularly in the more emotional passages of the late tragedies  The literary critic A  C  Bradley described this style as "more concentrated, rapid, varied, and, in construction, less regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical"  In the last phase of his career, Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these effects  These included run-on lines, irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure and length  In Macbeth, for example, the language darts from one unrelated metaphor or simile to another: "was the hope drunk/ Wherein you dressed yourself?" (1 7 35–38); "    pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd/ Upon the sightless couriers of the air  



ground_truth: Thaba Putsoa

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How many times did plague occur in the place where Venus with a Mirror's creator died?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850  Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions  Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa  Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42  Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s  Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century  Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800  Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died 

Third plague pandemic
The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone  The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney  This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908 

Modern-day
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine  It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat  One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995  A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014  In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions 

See also
Black Death in England
Black Death in medieval culture
Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Flagellant
Globalization and disease
List of epidemics
Second plague pandemic
Timeline of plague
Passage 2:
Christian Ackermann
Christian Ackermann was a sculptor and carver who worked in Estonia 

Life and work
Christian Ackermann was born in Königsberg  He worked in Riga, Stockholm, and Gdańsk, before becoming active in Tallinn from about 1672 until his death in 1710  In 1675, Ackermann moved to Tallinn and worked first in the workshop of Elert Thiele, a local woodcarver  After Thiele's death in 1674, Achermann married the master's widow  He then became a citizen of Tallinn but didn't join the local guild of woodcarvers   And that was a reason why between him and the guild's masters had begun a strong struggle which finished in court  Ackermann won and got the permission to work alone, he was the first independent sculptor in Estonia and acquired his own workshop at Toompea Hill  He probably died either in 1710 or a short time later from plague 
Christian Ackermann was one of the greatest masters of the Baroque style in Estonia  He brought strong Central European influences to Northeast Europe, in particular the motifs of the Baroque and masterful Acanthus ornaments  The majority of his works consists of almost twenty altarpieces, pulpits and large coat-of-arms epitaphs 

Most important works
Baptistery for the Swedish St  Michael's Church in Tallinn (around 1680)
Altarpiece for the church of Simuna (1684)
Altar and pulpit for the church of Türi (1693)
Pulpit with figures of the apostles (1686) and altarpiece (1696) for St Mary's Cathedral of Tallinn
Emblem for St Mary's Cathedral of Tallinn
Clock for the Church of the Holy Ghost in Tallinn
Altar figures and altarpiece for the church of Martna
Pulpit for the church of Juuru Parish (1695)
Pulpit for the church of Karuse (1697)
Crucifix for the church of Koeru Parish (end of the 17th century)

See also
List of Baltic German artists
Passage 3:
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence (Titian)
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence is a 1558 painting by Titian, now in the church of I Gesuiti in Venice  It so impressed Philip II of Spain that he commissioned a second version in 1567 for the basilica at El Escorial 

See also
List of works by Titian
Passage 4:
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea and gastro, is an inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract including the stomach and intestine  Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain  Fever, lack of energy, and dehydration may also occur  This typically lasts less than two weeks  It is not related to influenza, even though in the U S  it is sometimes called the "stomach flu" Gastroenteritis is usually caused by viruses; however, gut bacteria, parasites, and fungi can also cause gastroenteritis  In children, rotavirus is the most common cause of severe disease  In adults, norovirus and Campylobacter are common causes  Eating improperly prepared food, drinking contaminated water or close contact with a person who is infected can spread the disease  Treatment is generally the same with or without a definitive diagnosis, so testing to confirm is usually not needed For young children in impoverished countries, prevention includes hand washing with soap, drinking clean water, breastfeeding babies instead of using formula, and proper disposal of human waste  The rotavirus vaccine is recommended as a prevention for children  Treatment involves getting enough fluids  For mild or moderate cases, this can typically be achieved by drinking oral rehydration solution (a combination of water, salts and sugar)  In those who are breastfed, continued breastfeeding is recommended  For more severe cases, intravenous fluids may be needed  Fluids may also be given by a nasogastric tube  Zinc supplementation is recommended in children  Antibiotics are generally not needed  However, antibiotics are recommended for young children with a fever and bloody diarrhea In 2015, there were two billion cases of gastroenteritis, resulting in 1 3 million deaths globally  Children and those in the developing world are affected the most  In 2011, there were about 1 7 billion cases, resulting in about 700,000 deaths of children under the age of five  In the developing world, children less than two years of age frequently get six or more infections a year  It is less common in adults, partly due to the development of immunity 

Signs and symptoms
Gastroenteritis usually involves both diarrhea and vomiting  Sometimes, only one or the other is present  This may be accompanied by abdominal cramps  Signs and symptoms usually begin 12–72 hours after contracting the infectious agent  If due to a virus, the condition usually resolves within one week  Some viral infections also involve fever, fatigue, headache and muscle pain  If the stool is bloody, the cause is less likely to be viral and more likely to be bacterial  Some bacterial infections cause severe abdominal pain and may persist for several weeks Children infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery within three to eight days  However, in poor countries treatment for severe infections is often out of reach and persistent diarrhea is common   Dehydration is a common complication of diarrhea  Severe dehydration in children may be recognized if the skin color and position returns slowly when pressed  This is called "prolonged capillary refill" and "poor skin turgor"  Abnormal breathing is another sign of severe dehydration  Repeat infections are typically seen in areas with poor sanitation, and malnutrition  Stunted growth and long-term cognitive delays can result Reactive arthritis occurs in 1% of people following infections with Campylobacter species  Guillain–Barré syndrome occurs in 0 1%  Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) may occur due to infection with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli or Shigella species  HUS causes low platelet counts, poor kidney function, and low red blood cell count (due to their breakdown)  Children are more predisposed to getting HUS than adults  Some viral infections may produce benign infantile seizures 

Cause
Viruses (particularly rotavirus (in children) and norovirus (in adults)) and the bacteria Escherichia coli and Campylobacter species are the primary causes of gastroenteritis  There are, however, many other infectious agents that can cause this syndrome including parasites and fungus  Non-infectious causes are seen on occasion, but they are less likely than a viral or bacterial cause  Risk of infection is higher in children due to their lack of immunity  Children are also at higher risk because they are less likely to practice good hygiene habits  Children living in areas without easy access to water and soap are especially vulnerable 

Viral
Rotaviruses, noroviruses, adenoviruses, and astroviruses are known to cause viral gastroenteritis  Rotavirus is the most common cause of gastroenteritis in children, and produces similar rates in both the developed and developing world  Viruses cause about 70% of episodes of infectious diarrhea in the pediatric age group  Rotavirus is a less common cause in adults due to acquired immunity  Norovirus is the cause in about 18% of all cases  Generally speaking, viral gastroenteritis accounts for 21–40% of the cases of infectious diarrhea in developed countries Norovirus is the leading cause of gastroenteritis among adults in America accounting for about 90% of viral gastroenteritis outbreaks  These localized epidemics typically occur when groups of people spend time proximate to each other, such as on cruise ships, in hospitals, or in restaurants  People may remain infectious even after their diarrhea has ended  Norovirus is the cause of about 10% of cases in children 

Bacterial
In some countries, Campylobacter jejuni is the primary cause of bacterial gastroenteritis, with half of these cases associated with exposure to poultry  In children, bacteria are the cause in about 15% of cases, with the most common types being Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter species  If food becomes contaminated with bacteria and remains at room temperature for a period of several hours, the bacteria multiply and increase the risk of infection in those who consume the food  Some foods commonly associated with illness include raw or undercooked meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs; raw sprouts; unpasteurized milk and soft cheeses; and fruit and vegetable juices  In the developing world, especially sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, cholera is a common cause of gastroenteritis  This infection is usually transmitted by contaminated water or food Toxigenic Clostridium difficile is an important cause of diarrhea that occurs more often in the elderly  Infants can carry these bacteria without developing symptoms  It is a common cause of diarrhea in those who are hospitalized and is frequently associated with antibiotic use  Staphylococcus aureus infectious diarrhea may also occur in those who have used antibiotics  Acute "traveler's diarrhea" is usually a type of bacterial gastroenteritis, while the persistent form is usually parasitic  Acid-suppressing medication appears to increase the risk of significant infection after exposure to a number of organisms, including Clostridium difficile, Salmonella, and Campylobacter species  The risk is greater in those taking proton pump inhibitors than with H2 antagonists 

Parasitic
A number of parasites can cause gastroenteritis  Giardia lamblia is most common, but Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium spp , and other species have also been implicated  As a group, these agents comprise about 10% of cases in children  Giardia occurs more commonly in the developing world, but this type of illness can occur nearly everywhere  It occurs more commonly in persons who have traveled to areas with high prevalence, children who attend day care, men who have sex with men, and following disasters 

Transmission
Transmission may occur from drinking contaminated water or when people share personal objects  Water quality typically worsens during the rainy season and outbreaks are more common at this time  In areas with four seasons, infections are more common in the winter  Worldwide, bottle-feeding of babies with improperly sanitized bottles is a significant cause  Transmission rates are also related to poor hygiene, (especially among children), in crowded households, and in those with poor nutritional status  Adults who have developed immunities might still carry certain organisms without exhibiting symptoms  Thus, adults can become natural reservoirs of certain diseases  While some agents (such as Shigella) only occur in primates, others (such as Giardia) may occur in a wide variety of animals 

Non-infectious
There are a number of non-infectious causes of inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract  Some of the more common include medications (like NSAIDs), certain foods such as lactose (in those who are intolerant), and gluten (in those with celiac disease)  Crohn's disease is also a non-infectious cause of (often severe) gastroenteritis  Disease secondary to toxins may also occur  Some food-related conditions associated with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea include: ciguatera poisoning due to consumption of contaminated predatory fish, scombroid associated with the consumption of certain types of spoiled fish, tetrodotoxin poisoning from the consumption of puffer fish among others, and botulism typically due to improperly preserved food In the United States, rates of emergency department use for noninfectious gastroenteritis dropped 30% from 2006 until 2011  Of the twenty most common conditions seen in the emergency department, rates of noninfectious gastroenteritis had the largest decrease in visits in that time period 

Pathophysiology
Gastroenteritis is defined as vomiting or diarrhea due to inflammation of the small or large bowel, often due to infection  The changes in the small bowel are typically noninflammatory, while the ones in the large bowel are inflammatory  The number of pathogens required to cause an infection varies from as few as one (for Cryptosporidium) to as many as 108 (for Vibrio cholerae) 

Diagnosis
Gastroenteritis is typically diagnosed clinically, based on a person's signs and symptoms  Determining the exact cause is usually not needed as it does not alter the management of the condition However, stool cultures should be performed in those with blood in the stool, those who might have been exposed to food poisoning, and those who have recently traveled to the developing world  It may also be appropriate in children younger than 5, old people, and those with poor immune function  Diagnostic testing may also be done for surveillance  As hypoglycemia occurs in approximately 10% of infants and young children, measuring serum glucose in this population is recommended  Electrolytes and kidney function should also be checked when there is a concern about severe dehydration 

Dehydration
A determination of whether or not the person has dehydration is an important part of the assessment, with dehydration typically divided into mild (3–5%), moderate (6–9%), and severe (≥10%) cases  In children, the most accurate signs of moderate or severe dehydration are a prolonged capillary refill, poor skin turgor, and abnormal breathing  Other useful findings (when used in combination) include sunken eyes, decreased activity, a lack of tears, and a dry mouth  A normal urinary output and oral fluid intake is reassuring  Laboratory testing is of little clinical benefit in determining the degree of dehydration  Thus the use of urine testing or ultrasounds is generally not needed 

Differential diagnosis
Other potential causes of signs and symptoms that mimic those seen in gastroenteritis that need to be ruled out include appendicitis, volvulus, inflammatory bowel disease, urinary tract infections, and diabetes mellitus  Pancreatic insufficiency, short bowel syndrome, Whipple's disease, coeliac disease, and laxative abuse should also be considered  The differential diagnosis can be complicated somewhat if the person exhibits only vomiting or diarrhea (rather than both) Appendicitis may present with vomiting, abdominal pain, and a small amount of diarrhea in up to 33% of cases  This is in contrast to the large amount of diarrhea that is typical of gastroenteritis  Infections of the lungs or urinary tract in children may also cause vomiting or diarrhea  Classical diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) presents with abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting, but without diarrhea  One study found that 17% of children with DKA were initially diagnosed as having gastroenteritis 

Prevention
Water, sanitation, hygiene
A supply of easily accessible uncontaminated water and good sanitation practices are important for reducing rates of infection and clinically significant gastroenteritis  Personal hygiene measures (such as hand washing with soap) have been found to decrease rates of gastroenteritis in both the developing and developed world by as much as 30%  Alcohol-based gels may also be effective  Food or drink that is thought to be contaminated should be avoided Breastfeeding is important, especially in places with poor hygiene, as is improvement of hygiene generally  Breast milk reduces both the frequency of infections and their duration 

Vaccination
Due to both its effectiveness and safety, in 2009 the World Health Organization recommended that the rotavirus vaccine be offered to all children globally  Two commercial rotavirus vaccines exist and several more are in development  In Africa and Asia these vaccines reduced severe disease among infants and countries that have put in place national immunization programs have seen a decline in the rates and severity of disease  This vaccine may also prevent illness in non-vaccinated children by reducing the number of circulating infections  Since 2000, the implementation of a rotavirus vaccination program in the United States has substantially decreased the number of cases of diarrhea by as much as 80 percent  The first dose of vaccine should be given to infants between 6 and 15 weeks of age  The oral cholera vaccine has been found to be 50–60% effective over two years There are a number of vaccines against gastroenteritis in development  For example, vaccines against Shigella and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), which are two of the leading bacterial causes of gastroenteritis worldwide 

Management
Gastroenteritis is usually an acute and self-limiting disease that does not require medication  The preferred treatment in those with mild to moderate dehydration is oral rehydration therapy (ORT)  For children at risk of dehydration from vomiting, taking a single dose of the anti vomiting medication metoclopramide or ondansetron, may be helpful, and butylscopolamine is useful in treating abdominal pain 

Rehydration
The primary treatment of gastroenteritis in both children and adults is rehydration  This is preferably achieved by drinking rehydration solution, although intravenous delivery may be required if there is a decreased level of consciousness or if dehydration is severe  Drinking replacement therapy products made with complex carbohydrates (i e  those made from wheat or rice) may be superior to those based on simple sugars  Drinks especially high in simple sugars, such as soft drinks and fruit juices, are not recommended in children under five years of age as they may increase diarrhea  Plain water may be used if more specific ORT preparations are unavailable or the person is not willing to drink them  A nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted  In those who require intravenous fluids, one to four hours' worth is often sufficient 

Dietary
It is recommended that breast-fed infants continue to be nursed in the usual fashion,  and that formula-fed infants continue their formula immediately after rehydration with ORT  Lactose-free or lactose-reduced formulas usually are not necessary  Children should continue their usual diet during episodes of diarrhea with the exception that foods high in simple sugars should be avoided  The BRAT diet (bananas, rice, applesauce, toast and tea) is no longer recommended, as it contains insufficient nutrients and has no benefit over normal feeding A Cochrane Review from 2020 concludes that probiotics make little or no difference to people who have diarrhea lasting 2 days or longer and that there is no proof that they reduce its duration  They may be useful in preventing and treating antibiotic associated diarrhea  Fermented milk products (such as yogurt) are similarly beneficial  Zinc supplementation appears to be effective in both treating and preventing diarrhea among children in the developing world 

Antiemetics
Antiemetic medications may be helpful for treating vomiting in children  Ondansetron has some utility, with a single dose being associated with less need for intravenous fluids, fewer hospitalizations, and decreased vomiting  Metoclopramide might also be helpful  However, the use of ondansetron might possibly be linked to an increased rate of return to hospital in children  The intravenous preparation of ondansetron may be given orally if clinical judgment warrants  Dimenhydrinate, while reducing vomiting, does not appear to have a significant clinical benefit 

Antibiotics
Antibiotics are not usually used for gastroenteritis, although they are sometimes recommended if symptoms are particularly severe or if a susceptible bacterial cause is isolated or suspected  If antibiotics are to be employed, a macrolide (such as azithromycin) is preferred over a fluoroquinolone due to higher rates of resistance to the latter  Pseudomembranous colitis, usually caused by antibiotic use, is managed by discontinuing the causative agent and treating it with either metronidazole or vancomycin  Bacteria and protozoans that are amenable to treatment include Shigella Salmonella typhi, and Giardia species  In those with Giardia species or Entamoeba histolytica, tinidazole treatment is recommended and superior to metronidazole  The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the use of antibiotics in young children who have both bloody diarrhea and fever 

Antimotility agents
Antimotility medication has a theoretical risk of causing complications, and although clinical experience has shown this to be unlikely, these drugs are discouraged in people with bloody diarrhea or diarrhea that is complicated by fever  Loperamide, an opioid analogue, is commonly used for the symptomatic treatment of diarrhea  Loperamide is not recommended in children, however, as it may cross the immature blood–brain barrier and cause toxicity  Bismuth subsalicylate, an insoluble complex of trivalent bismuth and salicylate, can be used in mild to moderate cases, but salicylate toxicity is theoretically possible 

Epidemiology
It is estimated that there were two billion cases of gastroenteritis that resulted in 1 3 million deaths globally in 2015  Children and those in the developing world are most commonly affected  As of 2011, in those younger than five, there were about 1 7 billion cases resulting in 0 7 million deaths, with most of these occurring in the world's poorest nations  More than 450,000 of these fatalities are due to rotavirus in children under five years of age  Cholera causes about three to five million cases of disease and kills approximately 100,000 people yearly  In the developing world, children less than two years of age frequently get six or more infections a year that result in significant gastroenteritis  It is less common in adults, partly due to the development of acquired immunity In 1980, gastroenteritis from all causes caused 4 6 million deaths in children, with the majority occurring in the developing world  Death rates were reduced significantly (to approximately 1 5 million deaths annually) by 2000, largely due to the introduction and widespread use of oral rehydration therapy  In the US, infections causing gastroenteritis are the second most common infection (after the common cold), and they result in between 200 and 375 million cases of acute diarrhea and approximately ten thousand deaths annually, with 150 to 300 of these deaths in children less than five years of age 

Society and culture
Gastroenteritis is associated with many colloquial names, including "Montezuma's revenge", "Delhi belly", "la turista", and "back door sprint", among others  It has played a role in many military campaigns and is believed to be the origin of the term "no guts no glory" Gastroenteritis is the main reason for 3 7 million visits to physicians a year in the United States and 3 million visits in France  In the United States gastroenteritis as a whole is believed to result in costs of US$23 billion per year, with rotavirus alone resulting in estimated costs of US$1 billion a year 

Terminology
The first usage of "gastroenteritis" was in 1825  Before this time it was commonly known as typhoid fever or "cholera morbus", among others, or less specifically as "griping of the guts", "surfeit", "flux", "colic", "bowel complaint", or any one of a number of other archaic names for acute diarrhea  Cholera morbus is a historical term that was used to refer to gastroenteritis rather than specifically cholera 

Other animals
Many of the same agents cause gastroenteritis in cats and dogs as in humans  The most common organisms are Campylobacter, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens, and Salmonella  A large number of toxic plants may also cause symptoms Some agents are more specific to a certain species  Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV) occurs in pigs resulting in vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration  It is believed to be introduced to pigs by wild birds and there is no specific treatment available  It is not transmissible to humans 

See also
Enterocolitis
Passage 5:
Gender symbol
A gender symbol is a pictogram or glyph used to represent sex and gender, for example in biology and medicine, in genealogy, or in the sociological fields of gender politics, LGBT subculture and identity politics 
In his books Mantissa Plantarum (1767) and Mantissa Plantarum Altera (1771), Carl Linnaeus regularly used the planetary symbols of Mars, Venus and Mercury – ♂, ♀, ☿ – for male, female and hermaphroditic (perfect) flowers, respectively  Botanists now use ⚥ for the last In genealogy, including kinship in anthropology and pedigrees in animal husbandry, the geometric shapes △ or □ are used for male and ○ for female  These are also used on public toilets in some countries  
The modern international pictograms used to indicate male and female public toilets, 🚹︎ and 🚺︎, became widely used in the 1960s and 1970s  They are sometimes abstracted to ▽ for male and △ for female 

Biology and medicine
The three standard sex symbols in biology are male ♂, female ♀ and hermaphroditic ⚥; originally the symbol for Mercury, ☿, was used for the last  These symbols were first used by Carl Linnaeus in 1751 to denote whether flowers were male (stamens only), female (pistil only) or perfect flowers with both pistils and stamens  (Most flowering and conifer plant species are hermaphroditic and either bear flowers/cones that themselves are hermaphroditic, or bear both male and female flowers/cones on the same plant ) These symbols are now ubiquitous in biology and medicine to indicate the sex of an individual, for example of a patient 

Genealogy
Kinship charts use a triangle △ for male and circle ○ for female  Pedigree charts published in scientific papers use an earlier anthropological convention of a square □ for male and a circle ○ for female Before a shape distinction was adopted, all individuals had been represented by a circle in Morgan's 1871 System of Consanguinity and Affinity of Human Family, where gender is encoded in the abbreviations for the kin relation (e g  M for 'mother' and F for 'father')  W  H  R  River distinguished gender in the words of the language being recorded by writing male kinship terms in all capitals and female kinship terms with normal capitalization  That convention was quite influential for a time, and his convention of prioritizing male kin by placing them to the left and females to the right continues to this day though there have been exceptions, such as Margaret Mead, who placed females to the left 

Public toilets
The modern gender symbols used for public toilets, 🚹︎ for male and 🚺︎ and female, are pictograms created for the British Rail system in the mid-1960s  Before that, local usage had been more variable  For example, schoolhouse outhouses in the 19th-century United States had ventilation holes in their doors that were shaped like a starburst Sun ✴ or like a crescent Moon ☾, respectively, to indicate whether the toilet was for use by boys or girls  The British Rail pictograms – often color-coded blue and red – are now the norm for marking public toilets in much of the world, with the female symbol distinguished by a triangular skirt or dress, and in early years (and sometimes still) the male symbol stylized like a tuxedo These symbols are abstracted to varying degrees in different countries – for example, the circle-and-triangle variants  (female) and  (male) commonly found on portable toilets, to the extreme of a triangle △ (representing a skirt or dress) for female and an inverted triangle ▽ (representing a broad-shouldered tuxedo) for male in Lithuania In elementary schools, the pictograms may be of children rather than of adults, with the girl distinguished by her hair  In themed locations, such as bars and tourist attractions, a thematic image or figurine of a man and woman or boy and girl may be used In Poland, an inverted triangle ▽ is used for male while a circle ○ is used for female In mainland China, silhouettes of heads in profile may be used as gender pictograms, generally alongside the Chinese characters for male (男) and female (女) 

Sexual orientation and gender politics
Since the 1970s, variations of gender symbols have been used to express sexual orientation and gender politics  Two interlocking male symbols ⚣ are used to represent gay men while two interlocking female symbols ⚢ are often used to represent lesbians Since the 2000s, numerous such variants have been introduced in the context of LGBT culture and politics  Some of these symbols have been adopted into Unicode (in the Miscellaneous Symbols block) beginning with version 4 1 in 2005 

Encoding
See also
Alchemical symbol
Astrological symbols
Fertility symbols
LGBT symbols
Miscellaneous Symbols Unicode block

Notes
Passage 6:
Venus with a Mirror
Venus with a Mirror (c  1555) is a painting by Titian, now in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, and it is considered to be one of the collection's highlights The pose of the Venus resembles the classical statues of the Venus de' Medici in Florence or the Capitoline Venus in Rome, which Titian may have seen when he wrote that was "learning from the marvelous ancient stones " The painting is said to celebrate the ideal beauty of the female form, or to be a critique of vanity, or perhaps both  It was copied by several later artists, including Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck Titian made a number of paintings of the same subject, but this is believed to be the earliest and the only version to be entirely by the hand of Titian, without additions by his assistants  It remained in his house until his death in 1576 

Painting, and versions
X-rays of the painting have revealed that Titian painted it over a double portrait which he had abandoned  Titian kept the red cloak of one of the figures in the abandoned painting and placed it under Venus's arm  The use of the cloak from the earlier painting probably played a large part in the composition of the new painting Titian is believed to have made another version of this Venus for the Venetian lawyer Niccolo Crasso, who also commissioned Titian to paint the Retable of Saint Nicholas de Bari at about the same time  A drawing of the other version was included by Anthony van Dyck in the sketchbook made during his trip to Italy  This other version is now lost, but a studio copy exists in the Hermitage Museum Titian is thought to have made a second copy, which was sent to his regular patron King Philip II of Spain, in 1567  This version was also lost, but a copy of it by Peter Paul Rubens exists, which is in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum in Madrid 

Other versions
Provenance
In 1581, five years after Titian's death, the contents of his house in Venice, including the Venus with a Mirror, were sold by his son and heir Pomponio Vechellio to Christoforo Barbarigo  In 1850 the Russian Consul-General in Venice, A  Kvostov, purchased the painting, along with a large number of other masterpieces, from the Barbarigo family, for Czar Nicholas I for the sum of 525,000 francs, and it entered the collection of the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg In 1931, in order to earn foreign currency for the first of the five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin and the Soviet government secretly sold the painting, along with a number of other masterpieces, to a syndicate of art dealers, who sold it to the American collector Andrew Mellon, who wished to create a national art museum for the United States  Mellon donated it to the United States Government in 1937  It was one of the first masterpieces to be displayed in the National Gallery of Art in Washington when it opened in 1941 

Works that may have influenced Titian
The pose of the painting may have been influenced by Ancient Greek and Roman statues of Venus Titian could have seen in Rome and Florence  He was also influenced by his teacher Giovanni Bellini, who was the leader of the Venetian school of painters, known for their masterful use of color 

Influence of the painting
The theme of the painting was adapted by a number of later artists, including Peter Paul Rubens and Diego Velázquez 
The painting itself was the inspiration for the protagonist Severin's imagination in the 1870 novel Venus in Furs by Leopold von Sacher-Masoch 

Gallery, influences
Notes
See also
List of paintings in the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, formerly in the Hermitage Museum
Venus in Furs, a novel containing great reference to the painting 



ground_truth: 22

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the Smile performer's birthday?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  " (1 7 21–25)  The listener is challenged to complete the sense  The late romances, with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired a last poetic style in which long and short sentences are set against one another, clauses are piled up, subject and object are reversed, and words are omitted, creating an effect of spontaneity Shakespeare combined poetic genius with a practical sense of the theatre  Like all playwrights of the time, he dramatised stories from sources such as Plutarch and Holinshed  He reshaped each plot to create several centres of interest and to show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible  This strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation, cutting, and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama  As Shakespeare's mastery grew, he gave his characters clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech  He preserved aspects of his earlier style in the later plays, however  In Shakespeare's late romances, he deliberately returned to a more artificial style, which emphasised the illusion of theatre 

Legacy
Influence
Shakespeare's work has made a significant and lasting impression on later theatre and literature  In particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of characterisation, plot, language, and genre  Until Romeo and Juliet, for example, romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy  Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information about characters or events, but Shakespeare used them to explore characters' minds  His work heavily influenced later poetry  The Romantic poets attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama, though with little success  Critic George Steiner described all English verse dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes " John Milton, considered by many to be the most important English poet after Shakespeare, wrote in tribute: "Thou in our wonder and astonishment/ Has built thyself a live-long monument "Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner, and Charles Dickens  The American novelist Herman Melville's soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare; his Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick is a classic tragic hero, inspired by King Lear  Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked to Shakespeare's works  These include three operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Macbeth, Otello and Falstaff, whose critical standing compares with that of the source plays  Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the Pre-Raphaelites, while William Hogarth's 1745 painting of actor David Garrick playing Richard III was decisive in establishing the genre of theatrical portraiture in Britain  The Swiss Romantic artist Henry Fuseli, a friend of William Blake, even translated Macbeth into German  The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular, that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature  Shakespeare has been a rich source for filmmakers; Akira Kurosawa adapted Macbeth and King Lear as Throne of Blood and Ran, respectively  Other examples of Shakespeare on film include Max Reinhardt's A Midsummer Night's Dream, Laurence Olivier's Hamlet and Al Pacino's documentary Looking For Richard  Orson Welles, a lifelong lover of Shakespeare, directed and starred in films of Macbeth and Othello, and Chimes at Midnight, in which he plays John Falstaff, which Welles himself called his best work In Shakespeare's day, English grammar, spelling, and pronunciation were less standardised than they are now, and his use of language helped shape modern English  Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other author in his A Dictionary of the English Language, the first serious work of its type  Expressions such as "with bated breath" (Merchant of Venice) and "a foregone conclusion" (Othello) have found their way into everyday English speech Shakespeare's influence extends far beyond his native England and the English language  His reception in Germany was particularly significant; as early as the 18th century Shakespeare was widely translated and popularised in Germany, and gradually became a "classic of the German Weimar era;" Christoph Martin Wieland was the first to produce complete translations of Shakespeare's plays in any language  Actor and theatre director Simon Callow writes, "this master, this titan, this genius, so profoundly British and so effortlessly universal, each different culture – German, Italian, Russian – was obliged to respond to the Shakespearean example; for the most part, they embraced it, and him, with joyous abandon, as the possibilities of language and character in action that he celebrated liberated writers across the continent  Some of the most deeply affecting productions of Shakespeare have been non-English, and non-European  He is that unique writer: he has something for everyone "According to Guinness World Records, Shakespeare remains the world's best-selling playwright, with sales of his plays and poetry believed to have achieved in excess of four billion copies in the almost 400 years since his death  He is also the third most translated author in history 

Critical reputation
Shakespeare was not revered in his lifetime, but he received a large amount of praise  In 1598, the cleric and author Francis Meres singled him out from a group of English playwrights as "the most excellent" in both comedy and tragedy  The authors of the Parnassus plays at St John's College, Cambridge, numbered him with Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser  In the First Folio, Ben Jonson called Shakespeare the "Soul of the age, the applause, delight, the wonder of our stage", although he had remarked elsewhere that "Shakespeare wanted art" (lacked skill) Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century, classical ideas were in vogue  As a result, critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare below John Fletcher and Ben Jonson  Thomas Rymer, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic  Nevertheless, poet and critic John Dryden rated Shakespeare highly, saying of Jonson, "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare"  He also famously remarked that Shakespeare "was naturally learned; he needed not the spectacles of books to read nature; he looked inwards, and found her there " For several decades, Rymer's view held sway  But during the 18th century, critics began to respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and, like Dryden, to acclaim what they termed his natural genius  A series of scholarly editions of his work, notably those of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, added to his growing reputation  By 1800, he was firmly enshrined as the national poet, and described as the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "the Bard")  In the 18th and 19th centuries, his reputation also spread abroad  Among those who championed him were the writers Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal, and Victor Hugo 

During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his plays in the spirit of German Romanticism  In the 19th century, critical admiration for Shakespeare's genius often bordered on adulation  "This King Shakespeare," the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840, "does not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible"  The Victorians produced his plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale  The playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry", claiming that the new naturalism of Ibsen's plays had made Shakespeare obsolete The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century, far from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant-garde  The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in Moscow mounted productions of his plays  Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised an epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare  The poet and critic T  S  Eliot argued against Shaw that Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in fact made him truly modern  Eliot, along with G  Wilson Knight and the school of New Criticism, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery  In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for post-modern studies of Shakespeare  By the 1980s, Shakespeare studies were open to movements such as structuralism, feminism, New Historicism, African-American studies, and queer studies  Comparing Shakespeare's accomplishments to those of leading figures in philosophy and theology, Harold Bloom wrote, "Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St  Augustine  He encloses us because we see with his fundamental perceptions "

Speculation
Authorship
Around 230 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the works attributed to him  Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford  Several "group theories" have also been proposed  All but a few Shakespeare scholars and literary historians consider it a fringe theory, with only a small minority of academics who believe that there is reason to question the traditional attribution, but interest in the subject, particularly the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship, continues into the 21st century 

Religion
Shakespeare conformed to the official state religion, but his private views on religion have been the subject of debate  Shakespeare's will uses a Protestant formula, and he was a confirmed member of the Church of England, where he was married, his children were baptised, and where he is buried  Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare's family were Catholics, at a time when practising Catholicism in England was against the law  Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, certainly came from a pious Catholic family  The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by his father, John Shakespeare, found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street  However, the document is now lost and scholars differ as to its authenticity  In 1591, the authorities reported that John Shakespeare had missed church "for fear of process for debt", a common Catholic excuse  In 1606, the name of William's daughter Susanna appears on a list of those who failed to attend Easter communion in Stratford  Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare's religious beliefs  Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare's Catholicism, Protestantism, or lack of belief in his plays, but the truth may be impossible to prove 

Sexuality
Few details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known  At 18, he married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, who was pregnant  Susanna, the first of their three children, was born six months later on 26 May 1583  Over the centuries, some readers have posited that Shakespeare's sonnets are autobiographical, and point to them as evidence of his love for a young man  Others read the same passages as the expression of intense friendship rather than romantic love  The 26 so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets, addressed to a married woman, are taken as evidence of heterosexual liaisons 

Portraiture
No written contemporary description of Shakespeare's physical appearance survives, and no evidence suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait, so the Droeshout engraving, which Ben Jonson approved of as a good likeness, and his Stratford monument provide perhaps the best evidence of his appearance  From the 18th century, the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare  That demand also led to the production of several fake portraits, as well as misattributions, repaintings, and relabelling of portraits of other people 

See also
Outline of William Shakespeare
English Renaissance theatre
Spelling of Shakespeare's name
World Shakespeare Bibliography
Passage 9:
Giovanni Cifolelli
Giovanni Cifolelli was an Italian mandolin virtuoso and dramatic composer whose date and place of birth are unknown  In 1764 he made his appearance in Paris as a mandolin virtuoso and was highly esteemed, both as a performer and teacher  He published his Method for the mandolin while residing in Paris, which met with great success throughout France, being the most popular of its period 
His chief works were the operas L'Italienne and Pierre et Lucette, the former being an opera bouffe in one act (with the storyline or libretto by Nicolas-Étienne Framery)  These works were commissioned by the Comedie Italienne, Paris, and were produced at this theatre successfully, in 1770 and 1774  Several of the songs and duets in Pierre and Lucette were exceedingly popular in France, and they were republished in Paris in 1775 and 1780 

Works
L'Italienne  : comédie en 1 acte, mêlée d'ariettes (Paris, 1770)
Pierre et Lucette, comédie en deux actes et en prose mêlée d'ariettes (Paris, 1774)
Airs détachés de Perin et Lucette, comédie en deux actes, mêlées d'ariettes par M  Davesne (Paris, 1775)
Ariette nouvelle avec accompagnement de deux violons et basse
Non, laisse moi, laisse moi, Lucas  Duo (1775)
Passage 10:
Smile (James Cottriall song)
"Smile" is a song by English musician James Cottriall, from his second studio album Love Is Louder  It was released in Austria as a digital download on 11 November 2011  It entered the Austrian Singles Chart at number 48, and has peaked to number 12 

Track listing
Digital download"Smile" – 3:55

Chart performance
Release history
Passage 11:
Please Smile Again
"Please Smile Again" is Namie Amuro's 17th solo single on the Avex Trax label  Although the single "Think of Me / No More Tears" (2001) was slated to be released in December, it was pushed back until the next year making "Please Smile Again" the last single to precede her 4th studio album, Break the Rules (2000)  It was certified gold for 200,000 copies shipped to stores 

Commercial tie-in
"Please Smile Again" was used in commercials for Meiji Fran products  "Cross Over" was used in cell phone MM TU-KA commercials  Amuro appeared in both ad campaigns 

Track listing
"Please Smile Again (TK original mix)" (Tetsuya Komuro) – 4:46
"Cross Over (TK original mix)" (Tetsuya Komuro) – 4:43
"Please Smile Again (Jamaster A Mix)" (Remixed by Alex Baboo & Groovy Cat) – 6:37
"Please Smile Again (TV mix)" (Tetsuya Komuro) – 4:45
"Please Smile Again (a cappella)" (Tetsuya Komuro) – 4:35

Personnel
Namie Amuro – vocals, background vocals
Tetsuya Komuro – synthesizer, keyboard
Ken Kimura – guitar

Production
Producer – Tetsuya Komuro
Arranger – Tetsuya Komuro
Mixing – Tetsuya Komuro
Remixing & additional production – Alex Baboo & Groovy Cat
Synthesizer programming – Akihisa Murakami, Toshihide Iwasa

Charts
Oricon Sales Chart (Japan)
Passage 12:
Barry Manilow discography
Barry Manilow is an American singer–songwriter, musician, arranger, producer, and conductor  His discography consists of 31 studio albums, 6 live albums, 17 compilation albums, and 57 singles (15 #1's)  Signed to his first recording contract in 1969 by Tony Orlando, after writing, singing, and recording hit jingles for business corporations in the mid and late 1960s, Manilow released his first solo album, Barry Manilow, in 1973  He is best known for such recordings as "Mandy", "Can't Smile Without You", and "Copacabana (At the Copa)"  To date, he has sold more than 85 million records worldwide, making him one of the best selling recording artists of all time 

Albums
Studio albums
Live albums
Compilation albums
Soundtracks
Singles
Passage 13:
India and weapons of mass destruction
India possesses nuclear weapons and previously developed chemical weapons  Although India has not released any official statements about the size of its nuclear arsenal, recent estimates suggest that India has 164 nuclear weapons and has produced enough weapons-grade plutonium for up to 200 nuclear weapons  In 1999, India was estimated to have 800 kilograms (1,800 lb) of separated reactor-grade plutonium, with a total amount of 8,300 kilograms (18,300 lb) of civilian plutonium, enough for approximately 1,000 nuclear weapons  India has conducted nuclear weapons tests in a pair of series namely Pokhran I and Pokhran II India is a member of three multilateral export control regimes — the Missile Technology Control Regime, Wassenaar Arrangement and Australia Group  It has signed and ratified the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention  India is also a subscribing state to the Hague Code of Conduct  India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory  India previously possessed chemical weapons, but voluntarily destroyed its entire stockpile in 2009 — one of the seven countries to meet the OPCW extended deadline India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and has developed a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "Minimum Credible Deterrence" doctrine 

Biological weapons
India has ratified the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and pledges to abide by its obligations  There is no clear evidence, circumstantial or otherwise, that directly points toward an offensive BW program  India does possess the scientific capability and infrastructure to launch an offensive BW program  In terms of delivery, India also possesses the capability to produce aerosols and has numerous potential delivery systems ranging from crop dusters to sophisticated ballistic missiles No information exists in the public domain suggesting interest by the Indian government in delivery of biological agents by these or any other means  To reiterate the latter point, in October 2002, the then President A  P  J  Abdul Kalam asserted that "India will not make biological weapons  It is cruel to human beings" 

Chemical weapons
In 1992,  India signed the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), becoming one of the original signatories of the CWC in 1993, and ratified it on 2 September 1996  According to India's ex-Army Chief General Sundarji, a country having the capability of making nuclear weapons does not need to have chemical weapons, since the dread of chemical weapons could be created only in those countries that do not have nuclear weapons  Others suggested that the fact that India has found chemical weapons dispensable highlighted its confidence in the conventional weapons system at its command 
In June 1997, India declared its stock of chemical weapons (1,045 tonnes of sulphur mustard)  By the end of 2006, India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons/material stockpile and was granted extension for destroying the remaining stocks by April 2009 and was expected to achieve 100 percent destruction within that time frame  India informed the United Nations in May 2009 that it had destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons in compliance with the international Chemical Weapons Convention  With this India has become third country after South Korea and Albania to do so  This was cross-checked by inspectors of the United Nations 
India has an advanced commercial chemical industry, and produces the bulk of its own chemicals for domestic consumption  It is also widely acknowledged that India has an extensive civilian chemical and pharmaceutical industry and annually exports considerable quantities of chemicals to countries such as the United Kingdom, United States and Taiwan 

Nuclear weapons
As early as 26 June 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru, soon to be India's first Prime Minister, announced: As long as the world is constituted as it is, every country will have to devise and use the latest devices for its protection  I have no doubt India will develop her scientific researches and I hope Indian scientists will use the atomic force for constructive purposes  But if India is threatened, she will inevitably try to defend herself by all means at her disposal 
Nehru pursued a policy of formally foregoing nuclear weapons while at the same time constructing a civilian nuclear energy program, and by extension the capability to make a nuclear bomb  This policy was motivated by a conventional weapons superiority over its rivals Pakistan and China  India built its first research reactor in 1956 and its first plutonium reprocessing plant by 1964  India's nuclear programme can trace its origins to March 1944 and its three-stage efforts in technology were established by Homi Jehangir Bhabha when he founded the nuclear research centre, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research India's loss to China in a brief Himalayan border war in October 1962, provided the New Delhi government impetus for developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterring potential Chinese aggression   By 1964 India was in a position to develop nuclear weapons  Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri opposed developing nuclear weapons but fell under intense political pressure, including elements within the ruling Indian National Congress  India was also unable to obtain security guarantees from either the United States or the Soviet Union  As a result, Shastri announced that India would pursue the capability of what it called "peaceful nuclear explosions" that could be weaponized in the future India first tested a nuclear device in 1974 (code-named "Smiling Buddha"), under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi as a peaceful nuclear explosion  The test used plutonium produced in the Canadian-supplied CIRUS reactor, and raised concerns that nuclear technology supplied for peaceful purposes could be diverted to weapons purposes   This also stimulated the early work of the Nuclear Suppliers Group  During the 1970s and the 1980s Prime Ministers Indira Gandhi, Morarji Desai, and Rajiv Gandhi opposed weaponizing its nuclear program beyond PNE's and theoretical research  In 1982, Indira Gandhi refused to allow the Defence Research and Development Organisation to develop active nuclear weapons, but also approved the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme that would develop missiles to deliver a nuclear warhead if India developed one  India also supported international nuclear non-proliferation and arms control efforts The situation changed again in the late 1980s after the 1987 Brasstacks crisis and the beginning of the Pakistani nuclear weapons program  In 1989, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi gave Defense Secretary Naresh Chandra approval to develop the bomb  Chandra continued the program through successive governments in the 1990s after Gandhi lost power in the 1989 general election  India most likely completed weaponized nuclear warheads around 1994  India performed further nuclear tests in 1998 (code-named "Operation Shakti") under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee  In 1998, as a response to the continuing tests, the United States and Japan imposed sanctions on India, which have since been lifted 

Neutron bombs
R Chidambaram, who headed India's Pokhran-II nuclear tests, said in a 1999 interview with the Press Trust of India that India is capable of producing a neutron bomb 

India's no-first-use policy
India has a declared nuclear no-first-use policy and is in the process of developing a nuclear doctrine based on "credible minimum deterrence " In August 1999, the Indian government released a draft of the doctrine which asserts that nuclear weapons are solely for deterrence and that India will pursue a policy of "retaliation only"  The document also maintains that India "will not be the first to initiate a nuclear first strike, but will respond with punitive retaliation should deterrence fail" and that decisions to authorise the use of nuclear weapons would be made by the Prime Minister or his 'designated successor(s)'  According to the NRDC, despite the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan in 2001–2002, India remained committed to its nuclear no-first-use policy 
India's Strategic Nuclear Command was formally established in 2003, with an Indian Air Force officer, Air Marshal Tej Mohan Asthana, as the Commander-in-Chief  The joint services SNC is the custodian of all of India's nuclear weapons, missiles and assets  It is also responsible for executing all aspects of India's nuclear policy  However, the civil leadership, in the form of the CCS (Cabinet Committee on Security) is the only body authorised to order a nuclear strike against another offending strike  The National Security Advisor Shivshankar Menon reiterated a policy of "no first use" against nuclear weapon states and "non use against non-nuclear weapon states" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of National Defence College in New Delhi on 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's "strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence  In April 2013 Shyam Saran, convener of the National Security Advisory Board, affirmed that regardless of the size of a nuclear attack against India, be it a miniaturised version or a "big" missile, India will retaliate massively to inflict unacceptable damage In 2016, Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar questioned the no first use policy, asking why India should "bind" itself when it is a "responsible nuclear power"  Later he clarified that this was his personal opinion  Defence Minister Rajnath Singh in 2019 said that in the future, India's no first use policy might change depending upon the "circumstances"  In a January 2022 statement, however, the Ministry of External Affairs reiterated India's doctrine of "maintaining a credible minimum deterrence based on a No First Use posture and non-use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states" 

Indian nuclear triad
Air-launched nuclear weapons
Nuclear-armed fighter-bombers were India's first and only nuclear-capable strike force until 2003, when the country's first land-based nuclear ballistic missiles were fielded In addition to their ground-attack role, it is believed that the Dassault Mirage 2000s and SEPECAT Jaguars of the Indian Air Force are able to provide a secondary nuclear-strike role  The SEPECAT Jaguar was designed to be able to carry and deploy nuclear weapons and the Indian Air Force has identified the jet as being capable of delivering Indian nuclear weapons  The most likely delivery method would be the use of bombs that are free-falling and unguided Three airbases with four squadrons of Mirage 2000H (about 16 aircraft with 16 bombs from 1st and 7th squadrons of the 40th Wing at Maharajpur Air Force Station) and Jaguar IS/IB (about 32 aircraft with 32 bombs from one squadron each at Ambala Air Force Station and Gorakhpur Air Force Station) aircraft, are believed to be assigned the nuclear strike role 

Land-based ballistic missiles
The estimated 68 nuclear warheads of land-based nuclear weapons of India are under the control of and deployed by the Strategic Forces Command, using a variety of both vehicles and launching silos  They currently consist of six different types of ballistic missiles, the Agni-I, the Agni-II, Agni-III, Agni-IV, Agni-V, Agni-P and the Army's variant of the Prithvi missile family – the Prithvi-I  However, the Prithvi missiles are less useful for delivering nuclear weapons because they have a shorter range and must be deployed very close to the India–Pakistan border  Additional variants of the Agni missile series have recently been inducted including the most recent, the Agni-IV and the Agni-V, which is currently being deployed  Agni-VI is also under development, with an estimated range of 8,000–12,000 km and features such as Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) or Maneuverable reentry vehicles (MARVs) 

Sea-based ballistic missiles
The Indian Navy has developed two sea-based delivery systems for nuclear weapons, completing Indian ambitions for a nuclear triad, which may have been deployed in 2015 

The first is a submarine-launched system consisting of at least four 6,000 tonne (nuclear-powered) ballistic missile submarines of the Arihant class  The first vessel, INS Arihant, was commissioned in August 2016  She is the first nuclear-powered submarine to be built by India  A CIA report claimed that Russia provided technological aid to the naval nuclear propulsion program  The submarines will be armed with up to 12 Sagarika (K-15) missiles armed with nuclear warheads  Sagarika is a submarine-launched ballistic missile with a range of 700 km  This missile has a length of 8 5 meters, weighs seven tonnes and can carry a pay load of up to 500 kg  Sagarika has already been test-fired from an underwater pontoon, but now DRDO is planning a full-fledged test of the missile from a submarine and for this purpose may use the services of the Russian Navy  India's DRDO is also working on a submarine-launched ballistic missile version of the Agni-III missile, known as the Agni-III SL  According to Indian defence sources, the Agni-III SL will have a range of 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi)  The new missile will complement the older and less capable Sagarika submarine-launched ballistic missiles  However, the Arihant class ballistic missile submarines will be only capable of carrying a maximum of four Agni-III SL 
The second is a ship-launched system based around the short range ship-launched Dhanush ballistic missile (a variant of the Prithvi missile)  It has a range of around 300 km  In the year 2000 the missile was test-fired from INS Subhadra (a Sukanya class patrol craft)  INS Subhadra was modified for the test and the missile was launched from the reinforced helicopter deck  The results were considered partially successful  In 2004, the missile was again tested from INS Subhadra and this time the results were reported successful  In December 2005 the missile was tested again, but this time from the destroyer INS Rajput  The test was a success with the missile hitting the land based target 

International response
India is not a signatory to either the NPT or the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), but did accede to the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in October 1963  Journalist, conspiracy theorist, and holocaust denier Gregory Douglas claims CIA officer Robert Crowley told him in an interview in 1993 that India's pursuit of the programme disturbed the United States and that the CIA assassinated Prime Minister Shastri and Homi Bhabha in 1966  India is a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and four of its 17 nuclear reactors are subject to IAEA safeguards  India announced its lack of intention to accede to the NPT as late as 1997 by voting against the paragraph of a General Assembly Resolution which urged all non-signatories of the treaty to accede to it at the earliest possible date  India voted against the UN General Assembly resolution endorsing the CTBT, which was adopted on 10 September 1996  India objected to the lack of provision for universal nuclear disarmament "within a time-bound framework " India also demanded that the treaty ban laboratory simulations  In addition, India opposed the provision in Article XIV of the CTBT that requires India's ratification for the treaty to enter into force, which India argued was a violation of its sovereign right to choose whether it would sign the treaty  In early February 1997, Foreign Minister I  K  Gujral reiterated India's opposition to the treaty, saying that "India favors any step aimed at destroying nuclear weapons, but considers that the treaty in its current form is not comprehensive and bans only certain types of tests "
In August 2008, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) approved safeguards agreement with India under which the former will gradually gain access to India's civilian nuclear reactors  In September 2008, the Nuclear Suppliers Group granted India a waiver allowing it to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries  The implementation of this waiver makes India the only known country with nuclear weapons which is not a party to the NPT but is still allowed to carry out nuclear commerce with the rest of the world Since the implementation of the NSG waiver, India has signed nuclear deals with several countries including France, United States, Mongolia, Namibia,  Kazakhstan and Australia while the framework for similar deals with Canada and the United Kingdom are also being prepared 

Domestic legislation
India has a number of laws in whole or in partial measure that deal with the regulation of weapons of mass destruction  They include the Weapons of Mass Destruction and their Delivery Systems (Prohibition of Unlawful Activities) Act of 2005  In April 2022 a bill was tabled to amend the 2005 act to include the financing of proliferation 

See also
Weapons of mass destructionIndia–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement
Weapons of mass destruction
Nuclear Command Authority (India)Defence relatedIndian military satellites
Guided missiles of India
Indian Armed Forces
Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
Passage 14:
James Cottriall
James Cottriall (born 1 January 1986, in Stratford upon Avon, England) is an English musician, active predominantly, and living in Vienna, Austria  He became famous throughout Austria with the success of his first single, "Unbreakable", which spent twenty weeks in the Austrian top 40 charts in summer 2010  "Unbreakable" was nominated for the Song of the Year category at the 2010 Austrian music Amadeus Awards 

Background
Cottriall grew up in the countryside of Warwickshire, England, just outside Stratford-upon-Avon  He has two brothers, Ben Cottriall and Alex Cottriall  His father is a stamp dealer  His Mother has a degree from Warwick University  He studied German at King Edward VI School, Stratford-upon-Avon, and then at the University of Nottingham where part of the course required him to study for one year abroad in a German-speaking country  He chose to study at the University of Vienna in Austria  Following encouragement from fellow students and friends, he began to give performances of his songs in cafés and bars around Vienna, playing a combination of covers together with his own, newly composed songs  He was also a regular and notorious busker on the Kärntnerstraße, in Vienna's town centre  Following a measure of success, when his one year of study was completed, Cottriall chose to remain in Vienna to actively promote his music  On 29 December 2016 his first child, Lily Joy Cottriall was born in Los Angeles  After divorcing his ex- wife in California in 2018 James moved back to Vienna and became engaged to long-term girlfriend Jessica Garrison in 2021 

2010: Sincerely Me
Cottriall released his single, "Unbreakable", in Austria on 9 April 2010  It received generous airplay from almost every local and national Austrian radio station  It reached number 1 in the Ö3 Hörercharts (Most Requested by listeners charts for Austria) and remained in the Top 40 Charts for 20 weeks  The song was included on the Ö3 Greatest Hits vol  50 and AustroPop Forever vol  4 compilation albums  The song was accompanied by a promotional video of Cottriall with a fictional girlfriend going through an emotional break-up, with a concurrent sub-plot of him playing his guitar in an apartment with a broken water pipe gradually flooding the room, leaving him eventually submerged 
His follow-up single, "So Nice" was released on 6 August 2010 through Pop Pate Records/Edel  In contrast to the hurt and heartache of "Unbreakable", "So Nice" focuses on the positive aspects of love and relationships  It was produced by Gwenael Damman, bass guitarist for Christina Stürmer  Damman also produced Cottriall's first album, Sincerely Me, which was released in Austria 15 October 2010, also through Pop Pate/Edel  Drums were played by Klaus Pérez-Salado (also part of the Christina Stürmer band) and the piano and keyboards were played by Mark Royce 

2012: Love is Louder
In 2011, Cottriall recorded his fourth single "By Your Side" with the producer Doug Petty in Los Angeles, USA  This single reached No  24 in the Austrian Top 40 and stayed there for several weeks  Petty also produced Cottriall's second album, Love is Louder, which was released on 24 February 2012 and charted at No  10 
Further success was achieved with the song "Smile", which spent 16 weeks in the Austrian Top40, peaking at number 12  Two more songs from the album entered the charts: "Stand Up" and "One Wish" 
"One Wish" was used worldwide by Hollister and Abercrombie & Fitch in 2012  Cottriall's second album and its singles celebrated almost a year of chart success 

2015: Common Ground
Cottriall released his third studio album in June 2015 and its lead single "Givin' Up" enjoyed 31 weeks in the Austrian Most Requested Charts, 22 weeks in the AirPlay Charts and 8 weeks in the Top 40 Charts  Common Ground is nominated for Best Sound at the 2016 Amadeus Awards in Austria 

2021: Let's Talk
In September 2021 Cottriall released his latest album "Let's Talk" largely written throughout the various Coronavirus Lockdowns  The album consists of 11 songs recorded and produced between England, Los Angeles and Nashville  2 of the tracks on the album "Turn the Key" and "Fall On Me" were produced and recorded by Cottriall himself during the national lockdowns  The album launched at Calea Dinner Club in Vienna on the 9th September 2021 

Discography
Albums
Singles
Other charted songs



ground_truth: 1 January 1986