prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the place of birth of the performer of Mother-in-Law elect its first black Mayor?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
E  Denise Simmons
E  Denise Simmons (born October 2, 1951) is the former mayor of Cambridge, Massachusetts, having served her first mayoral term 2008–2009 term and her second mayoral term 2016-2017  She was the first openly lesbian African-American mayor in the United States  Simmons has been on the Cambridge City Council continuously from 2001 to present, serving ten consecutive terms 

Early life and education
Simmons was born on October 2, 1951  She grew up in Cambridge's Area 4 neighborhood and attended Cambridge schools  She received a Bachelor of Science degree in Sociology from the University of Massachusetts Boston, and a Master's degree in Psychotherapy from Antioch College 
In 1982, Simmons established her own business, the Cambridgeport Insurance Agency 

Public Service and Political Career
Public Service
Simmons served as Executive Director of the Cambridge Civic Unity Committee in the 1980s  Among the work performed while in this role was her successful fight to increase the diversity within the Cambridge public school faculty 
In 1992, Simmons ran for and won a spot on the Cambridge School Committee  She quickly won praise from across Cambridge for her tremendous work ethic, and for her efforts to find ways to build consensus with her colleagues  Over the next several years, Simmons gained a reputation as a calm, thoughtful voice on the school committee, and as a person who always kept her door open to anyone who wished to speak with her 
Simmons is a Justice of the Peace and Notary Public 

City Council Member - 2001 to present
In 2001, Simmons ran for and won a seat on the Cambridge City Council  She immediately set out to make local government more accessible to a wider range of people, and through efforts such as holding "town hall" style meetings, Simmons worked to get more people involved in their own governance   Simmons – being Black, a woman, and a member of the GLBT community – worked hard to make sure that each of these constituencies was given a voice inside City Hall  Simmons was a member of the City Council when Cambridge City Hall became the first municipality, in 2004, to issue same-sex marriage licenses  She also promoted efforts to help local minority business owners network and establish themselves in Cambridge  Simmons also helped initiate community conversations about the role of race and class in contemporary Cambridge society 

First Term As Mayor
Her election to mayor of Cambridge by the Cambridge City Council on January 14, 2008, was unanimous  The previous mayor of Cambridge, Kenneth Reeves, was the first openly gay African-American mayor in the United States  As Cambridge mayor, Simmons served as head of the city's legislative body—while the non-elected city manager serves as the city's chief executive officer  Simmons brought the same sensibilities to the mayor's office that she brought to her previous endeavors – notably, she took pains to create an open-door atmosphere to her constituents  She opened the "mayor's parlor" to the people of Cambridge, where she convened meetings on everything from environmental policy, to the coordination of the city's various social services providers, to a senior citizens' advisory group  Simmons developed a reputation as a workhorse, with an emphasis on constituent services 
Simmons was mayor during the summer of 2009, during which time Cambridge was thrust into the international spotlight due to the arrest of Harvard University Professor Henry Louis Gates, Jr   As a result of the attention this incident generated, Simmons was sought after as a spokesperson for the city, and she was careful to avoid inflaming an already volatile situation   Simmons was interviewed on ABC's Good Morning America, CBS's The Early Show, CNN's State Of The Union with John King, among several other national media outlets   Simmons won praise from her constituents for giving measured, thoughtful responses in public, as well as for her diligent work to contain the situation behind the scenes  Simmons noted that she had a lengthy record of leading public discussions on how race and class impact contemporary Cambridge, and this work would continue long after the Professor Gates arrest faded from the headlines 

State Senate Bid
In February 2010, Councillor Simmons announced that she was running for an open state Senate seat in the Middlesex, Suffolk and Essex district that was vacated by Anthony Galluccio   She came in third, behind Everett City Councilor Sal DiDomenico and Cambridge Attorney Tim Flaherty, in the April 13, 2010 primary   She released a statement to the press that said, in part: "Despite coming up a little short at the end, this campaign was still a winning experience for me  I have had a tremendous opportunity to get to meet so many people, to learn more about the issues impacting the people in this district, and to make many new friends in Cambridge and beyond  The volunteers that made phone calls and knocked on doors every day were phenomenal, and their dedication and enthusiasm for civic engagement energized me every day "  Having lost the primary, Councillor Simmons returned her attention to her duties on the Cambridge City Council 

Career 2012 - Present
In the 2012–2013 term, she served as Vice Mayor of Cambridge 
Simmons was again elected Mayor on January 4, 2016 On November 5, 2019, Simmons was elected to her 10th term on the Cambridge City Council

Personal
Simmons is also a photo archivist and family historian and has facilitated workshops for public and private organizations both nationally and locally—including for the Cambridge Public Schools  Simmons has received numerous awards and commendations for her work in the community 

See also
List of first African-American mayors
List of the first LGBT holders of political offices
List of mayors of Cambridge, Massachusetts
Cambridge, Massachusetts municipal election, 2013
Passage 2:
Mother-in-Law Lounge
The Mother-in-Law Lounge is a live music venue, pub and a shrine in New Orleans, Louisiana dedicated to the memory of rhythm and blues singer, Ernie K-Doe    It is at the downtown river corner of Claiborne Avenue and Columbus Street in the 7th Ward of New Orleans   The exterior of the building is decorated with colorful murals depicting K-Doe and other prominent figures in New Orleans music, especially people who collaborated with K-Doe 
The lounge was originally opened by Ernie K-Doe in 1994, and it has become a historical icon in the local community   It was flooded with five and a half feet of water during Hurricane Katrina in 2005   With the help of the Hands on Network and Chet Haines, the lounge reopened its doors on 29 August 2006, on the first anniversary of Hurricane Katrina   Mother-in-Law Lounge was owned and operated by K-Doe's widow and musician, Antoinette K-Doe, before she died during Mardi Gras 2009   
In 2011, local musician Kermit Ruffins agreed to lease the site, and it reopened on January 20, 2014 
Ruffins is now running the establishment as Kermit's Mother-In-Law Lounge 
Passage 3:
2017 Raleigh mayoral election
The biennial nonpartisan election for the Mayor of Raleigh, North Carolina, was held on Tuesday, Oct  10, 2017  As no candidate won a majority of the vote in the first round, a runoff was held on November 7, 2017, as requested by the second-place finisher, Charles Francis  Incumbent Mayor Nancy McFarlane defeated Francis in the runoff, winning a fourth term in office 
This was the first Raleigh mayoral election to advance to a second round since 2001 

Candidates
Declared
Paul Fitts
Charles Francis, attorney and former City Council member
Nancy McFarlane, Mayor since 2011, former City Council member

First-round Results
Runoff Results


== Notes ==
Passage 4:
Hardin Bigelow
Hardin Bigelow (1809 in Michigan Territory – November 27, 1850 in San Francisco, California) was the first elected mayor of the city of Sacramento, California, which was known then as "Sacramento City " Bigelow's efforts to construct Sacramento's first levees won him enough support to become mayor in Sacramento's first mayoral elections in February 1850  Bigelow served seven months, from April to November, before succumbing to cholera; while he was mayor, Sacramento averted disaster in a potentially devastating flood, but fell victim to a series of April fires, a riot, and a cholera epidemic 

1850 floods
Bigelow gained popularity when he advocated and carried out the construction of Sacramento City's first levees and dams in the aftermath of the destruction caused by the 1850 Sacramento flood in January, which devastated the commercial operations on Sacramento City's Embarcadero and washed away hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of store merchandise  Bigelow's efforts prevented a second inundation event in March 1850 from enacting devastation similar to that of the flood that had destroyed the city two months earlier 

Mayoral office (1850)
Hardin Bigelow was the first mayor to be elected in Sacramento City, succeeding Major General Albert Maver Winn as city mayor in February 1850  Bigelow was chosen because of his foresight, which protected the city from a March 1850 flood event  Under Bigelow, the Sacramento dropped the "City" portion of its name and was chartered as a city by the newly formed California State Legislature in late February Bigelow was mayor during the 1850 Sacramento fires in April, which destroyed a number of wooden structures on the Embarcadero apiece; he was mayor during the aftermath as well, when Sacramento City rebuilt with iron-shuttered structures and with brick and stone rather than wood to reduce the likelihood of fire damage 

Squatters' riot
Ever since 1848, land-seeking settlers had decided to disregard the right that John Sutter had to the land in what he called his personal empire, "New Helvetia;" settling on his land, the squatters grew at odds with the government in Sacramento  After a squatter named John T  Madden was tried and found guilty of unlawful occupation in May 1850, the squatting settlers charged the government with "brute force" and worked to garner support from sympathetic settlers  Rallying around future Kansas governor Charles L  Robinson, settlers marched to free jailed prisoners James McClatchy and businessman Richard Moran from the city's prison brig in August 1850, from a ship called the La Grange According to the local Placer Times, Bigelow had feared a full uprising and decided to strike pre-emptively against Robinson's army while they marched through downtown Sacramento  In the following fight, Bigelow was wounded to an extent where Demas Strong replaced him as acting mayor of the city  City sheriff Joseph McKinney ended the conflict on Bigelow's behalf with a tactical strike on a squatter's retreat to the east of Sacramento while Bigelow traveled southwest to San Francisco to recover 

Death
Two months later in October 1850, a cholera epidemic struck the city of Sacramento, driving out eighty percent of the city populace and killing seventeen of the city's physicians  Bigelow became afflicted by the disease, and died in San Francisco that month  He was buried at the Sacramento Historic City Cemetery in Sacramento, California 
Passage 5:
Eugene P  Ruehlmann
Eugene Peter Ruehlmann (February 23, 1925 – June 8, 2013)  was an American lawyer and politician  He was the Mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio, from 1967 to 1971 

Early life and education
Ruehlmann was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, the son of John and Hattie Ruehlmann  Ruehlmann had nine siblings  In 1943, he graduated from Western Hills High School  In 1948, Ruehlmann earned his bachelor's degree in political science from the University of Cincinnati, where he also was awarded the McKibbin Medal from the College of Arts and Sciences  Ruehlmann was a member of Beta Theta Pi and the varsity football team  He then  served in the United States Marine Corps during World War II  In 1950, Ruehlmann earned his law degree from Harvard Law School 

Career
Ruehlmann was a founder of the Strauss, Troy and Ruehlmann law firm in Cincinnati In 1959, Ruehlmann was elected to Cincinnati City Council and then served as Mayor of Cincinnati from 1967 to 1971  As mayor, he helped to bring professional football to the city, and was among those who negotiated a deal that resulted in the construction of Riverfront Stadium, where the Cincinnati Bengals and Cincinnati Reds played  He is also credited with reaching out to the African American community and helping to heal the city after race riots in 1967 and 1968, following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr Ruehlmann was a member of the Republican Party  In the 1990s, he served as a chairman of the Hamilton County Republican Party 

Personal life and death
Ruehlmann's wife was Virginia Ruehlmann (née Juergens), who died in 2008  They had eight children On June 8, 2013, Ruehlmann died in Cincinnati at the age of 88 

Awards
1998 Great Living Cincinnatian Award  Presented by the Cincinnati USA Regional Chamber 
Passage 6:
Black people
Black is a racialized classification of people, usually a political and skin color-based category for specific populations with a mid to dark brown complexion  Not all people considered "black" have dark skin; in certain countries, often in socially based systems of racial classification in the Western world, the term "black" is used to describe persons who are perceived as dark-skinned compared to other populations  It is most commonly used for people of sub-Saharan African ancestry, Indigenous Australians and Melanesians, though it has been applied in many contexts to other groups, and is no indicator of any close ancestral relationship whatsoever  Indigenous African societies do not use the term black as a racial identity outside of influences brought by Western cultures  Following the murder of George Floyd in 2020, several style guides, including the AP Stylebook, changed their guides to capitalize the "b" in black in 2020  The ASA Style Guide says that the "b" should not be capitalized  Some perceive the term "black" as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result neither use nor define it, especially in African countries with little to no history of colonial racial segregation Contemporary anthropologists and other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a unified, distinguishable "Black race" as socially constructed  Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified "black", and these social constructs have changed over time  In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary  In the United Kingdom, "black" was historically equivalent with "person of color", a general term for non-European peoples   In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the term "black" or it was used by local populations with different histories and ancestral backgrounds 

Africa
Northern Africa
Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities  Others descend from migrants via the historical trans-Saharan trade or, after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, from slaves from the trans-Saharan slave trade in North Africa 
In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Warrior King" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black soldiers, called his Black Guard According to Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's University of the State of Bahia, in the 21st century Afro-multiracials in the Arab world, including Arabs in North Africa, self-identify in ways that resemble multi-racials in Latin America  He claims that darker-toned Arabs, much like darker-toned Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had a mother who was a dark-skinned Nubian Sudanese (Sudanese Arab) woman and a father who was a lighter-skinned Egyptian  In response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either  My blackness is tending to reddish" Due to the patriarchal nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more African women than men  The female slaves were often put to work in domestic service and agriculture  The men interpreted the Quran to permit sexual relations between a male master and his enslaved females outside of marriage (see Ma malakat aymanukum and sex), leading to many mixed-race children  When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab master's child, she was considered as umm walad or "mother of a child", a status that granted her privileged rights  The child was given rights of inheritance to the father's property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father  Because the society was patrilineal, the children inherited their fathers' social status at birth and were born free 
Some mixed-race children succeeded their respective fathers as rulers, such as Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608  He was not technically considered as a mixed-race child of a slave; his mother was Fulani and a concubine of his father In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa people of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically, people of Nilotic ancestry)  Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens  The government was accused of "deftly manipulat(ing) Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing Sudanese Arabs are also black people in that they are culturally and linguistically Arabized indigenous peoples of Sudan of mostly Nilo-Saharans, Nubian, and Cushitic ancestry; their skin tone and appearance resembles that of other black people 
American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens  According to Ayittey, "In Sudan    the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid " Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practicing Arab apartheid 

Sahara
In the Sahara, the native Tuareg Berber populations kept "negro" slaves  Most of these captives were of Nilotic extraction, and were either purchased by the Tuareg nobles from slave markets in the Western Sudan or taken during raids  Their origin is denoted via the Ahaggar Berber word Ibenheren (sing  Ébenher), which alludes to slaves that only spoke a Nilo-Saharan language  These slaves were also sometimes known by the borrowed Songhay term Bella Similarly, the Sahrawi indigenous peoples of the Western Sahara observed a class system consisting of high castes and low castes  Outside of these traditional tribal boundaries were "Negro" slaves, who were drawn from the surrounding areas 

North-Eastern Africa
In Ethiopia and Somalia, the slave classes mainly consisted of captured peoples from the Sudanese-Ethiopian and Kenyan-Somali international borders or other surrounding areas of Nilotic and Bantu peoples who were collectively known as Shanqella and Adone (both analogues to "negro" in an English-speaking context)  Some of these slaves were captured during territorial conflicts in the Horn of Africa and then sold off to slave merchants  The earliest representation of this tradition dates from a seventh or eighth century BC inscription belonging to the Kingdom of Damat These captives and others of analogous morphology were distinguished as tsalim barya (dark-skinned slave) in contrast with the Afroasiatic-speaking nobles or saba qayh ("red men") or light-skinned slave; while on the other hand, western racial category standards do not differentiate between saba qayh ("red men"—light-skinned) or saba tiqur ("black men"—dark-skinned) Horn Africans (of either Afroasiatic-speaking, Nilotic-speaking or Bantu origin) thus considering all of them as "black people" (and in some case "negro") according to Western society's notion of race 

Southern Africa
In South Africa, the period of colonization resulted in many unions and marriages between European and Africans (Bantu peoples of South Africa and Khoisans) from various tribes, resulting in mixed-race children  As the European colonialists acquired control of territory, they generally pushed the mixed-race and African populations into second-class status  During the first half of the 20th century, the white-dominated government classified the population according to four main racial groups: Black, White, Asian (mostly Indian), and Coloured  The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European ancestry (with some Malay ancestry, especially in the Western Cape)  The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa  It imposed a system of legal racial segregation, a complex of laws known as apartheid 
The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the Population Registration Act of 1945 to determine who belonged in which group  Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications  When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether the individual should be considered Coloured or Black, the "pencil test" was used  A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil, rather than having it pass through, as it would with smoother hair  If so, the person was classified as Black  Such classifications sometimes divided families 
Sandra Laing is a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to her skin colour and hair texture, although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors  At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school  The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life  She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic film Skin, which won numerous awards  During the apartheid era, those classed as "Coloured" were oppressed and discriminated against  But, they had limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as "Black"  The government required that Blacks and Coloureds live in areas separate from Whites, creating large townships located away from the cities as areas for Blacks 
In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a "Non-racial democracy"  In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support of affirmative action policies for Blacks; under these they define "Black" people to include "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians"  Some affirmative action policies favor "Africans" over "Coloureds" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits  Some South Africans categorized as "African Black" say that "Coloureds" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid  "Coloured" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, "we were not white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC (African National Congress)" In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled that Chinese South Africans who were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as "Black people," solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination  Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid do not qualify for such benefits Other than by appearance, "Coloureds" can usually be distinguished from "Blacks" by language  Most speak Afrikaans or English as a first language, as opposed to Bantu languages such as Zulu or Xhosa  They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names 

Asia
Afro-Asians
"Afro-Asians" or "African-Asians" are persons of mixed sub-Saharan African and Asian ancestry  In the United States, they are also called "black Asians" or "Blasians"  Historically, Afro-Asian populations have been marginalized as a result of human migration and social conflict 

Western Asia
Arab world
Historians estimate that between the advent of Islam in 650 CE and the abolition of slavery in the Arabian Peninsula in the mid-20th century, 10 to 18 million black Africans (known as the Zanj) were enslaved by east African slave traders and transported to the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries  This number far exceeded the number of slaves who were taken to the Americas  Several factors affected the visibility of descendants of this diaspora in 21st-century Arab societies: The traders shipped more female slaves than males, as there was a demand for them to serve as concubines in harems in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries  Male slaves were castrated in order to serve as harem guards  The death toll of black African slaves from forced labor was high  The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners were assimilated into the Arab owners' families under the patrilineal kinship system  As a result, few distinctive Afro-Arab communities have survived in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries Distinctive and self-identified black communities have been reported in countries such as Iraq, with a reported 1 2 million black people (Afro-Iraqis), and they attest to a history of discrimination  These descendants of the Zanj have sought minority status from the government, which would reserve some seats in Parliament for representatives of their population  According to Alamin M  Mazrui et al , generally in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, most of these communities identify as both black and Arab 

Iran
Afro-Iranians are people of black African ancestry residing in Iran  During the Qajar dynasty, many wealthy households imported black African women and children as slaves to perform domestic work  This slave labor was drawn exclusively from the Zanj, who were Bantu-speaking peoples that lived along the African Great Lakes, in an area roughly comprising modern-day Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi 

Israel
About 150,000 East African and black people live in Israel, amounting to just over 2% of the nation's population  The vast majority of these, some 120,000, are Beta Israel, most of whom are recent immigrants who came during the 1980s and 1990s from Ethiopia  In addition, Israel is home to more than 5,000 members of the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem movement that are ancestry of African Americans who emigrated to Israel in the 20th century, and who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood in the Negev town of Dimona  Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel, most of them converts from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States 
Additionally, there are around 60,000 non-Jewish African immigrants in Israel, some of whom have sought asylum  Most of the migrants are from communities in Sudan and Eritrea, particularly the Niger-Congo-speaking Nuba groups of the southern Nuba Mountains; some are illegal immigrants 

Turkey
Beginning several centuries ago, during the period of the Ottoman Empire, tens of thousands of Zanj captives were brought by slave traders to plantations and agricultural areas situated between Antalya and Istanbul, which gave rise to the Afro-Turk population in present-day Turkey  Some of their ancestry remained in situ, and many migrated to larger cities and towns  Other black slaves were transported to Crete, from where they or their descendants later reached the İzmir area through the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923, or indirectly from Ayvalık in pursuit of work Apart from the historical Afro-Turk presence Turkey also hosts a sizeable immigrant black population since the end of the 1990s  The community is composed mostly of modern immigrants from Ghana, Ethiopia, DRC, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Eritrea, Somalia and Senegal  According to official figures 1 5 million Africans live in Turkey and around 25% of them are located in Istanbul  Other studies state the majority of  Africans in Turkey lives in Istanbul and report Tarlabaşı, Dolapdere, Kumkapı, Yenikapı and Kurtuluş as having a strong African presence Most of the African immigrants in Turkey come to Turkey to further migrate to Europe   Immigrants from Eastern Africa are usually refugees, meanwhile Western and Central African immigration is reported to be economically driven  It is reported that African immigrants in Turkey regularly face economic and social challenges, notably racism and opposition to immigration by locals 

Southern Asia
The Siddi are an ethnic group inhabiting India and Pakistan  Members are descended from the Bantu peoples of Southeast Africa  Some were merchants, sailors, indentured servants, slaves or mercenaries  The Siddi population is currently estimated at around 270,000–350,000 individuals, living mostly in Karnataka, Gujarat, and Hyderabad in India and Makran and Karachi in Pakistan  In the Makran strip of the Sindh and Balochistan provinces in southwestern Pakistan, these Bantu descendants are known as the Makrani  There was a brief "Black Power" movement in Sindh in the 1960s and many Siddi are proud of and celebrate their African ancestry 

Southeastern Asia
Negritos, are a collection of various, often unrelated peoples, who were once considered a single distinct population of closely related groups, but genetic studies showed that they descended from the same ancient East Eurasian meta-population which gave rise to modern East Asian peoples, and consist of several separate groups, as well as displaying genetic heterogeneity  They inhabit isolated parts of Southeast Asia, and are now confined primarily to Southern Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands of India Negrito means "little black people" in Spanish (negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, i e , "little black person"); it is what the Spaniards called the aborigines that they encountered in the Philippines  The term Negrito itself has come under criticism in countries like Malaysia, where it is now interchangeable with the more acceptable Semang, although this term actually refers to a specific group 
They have dark skin, often curly-hair and Asiatic facial characteristics, and are stockily built Negritos in the Philippines frequently face discrimination  Because of their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they are marginalized and live in poverty, unable to find employment 

Europe
Western Europe
France
While census collection of ethnic background is illegal in France, it is estimated that there are about 2 5 – 5 million black people residing there 

Germany
As of 2020, there are approximately one million black people living in Germany 

Netherlands
Afro-Dutch are residents of the Netherlands who are of Black African or Afro-Caribbean ancestry  They tend to be from the former and present Dutch overseas territories of Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Sint Maarten and Suriname  The Netherlands also has sizable Cape Verdean and other African communities 

Portugal
As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Black-African immigrant background living in Portugal  They mainly live in the regions of Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra  As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity, the estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of a Sub Saharan African country or people who have acquired Portuguese citizenship from 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are now Portuguese citizens 

Spain
The term "Moors" has been used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims, especially those of Arab or Berber ancestry, whether living in North Africa or Iberia  Moors were not a distinct or self-defined people  Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name to Muslim Arabs, Berbers, Sub-Saharan Africans and Europeans alike Isidore of Seville, writing in the 7th century, claimed that the Latin word Maurus was derived from the Greek mauron, μαύρον, which is the Greek word for "black"  Indeed, by the time Isidore of Seville came to write his Etymologies, the word Maurus or "Moor" had become an adjective in Latin, "for the Greeks call black, mauron"  "In Isidore's day, Moors were black by definition   "Afro-Spaniards are Spanish nationals of West/Central African ancestry  Today, they mainly come from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Gambia, Mali, Nigeria and Senegal  Additionally, many Afro-Spaniards born in Spain are from the former Spanish colony Equatorial Guinea  Today, there are an estimated 683,000 Afro-Spaniards in Spain 

United Kingdom
According to the Office for National Statistics, at the 2001 census there were more than a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population described themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0 8% as "Black African", and 0 2% as "Black other"  Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement was of those who came on the ship the Empire Windrush and, hence, those who migrated between 1948 and 1970 are known as the Windrush generation  The preferred official umbrella term is "black, Asian and minority ethnic" (BAME), but sometimes the term "black" is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism, as in the Southall Black Sisters, which started with a mainly British Asian constituency, and the National Black Police Association, which has a membership of "African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin" 

Eastern Europe
As African states became independent in the 1960s, the Soviet Union offered many of their citizens the chance to study in Russia  Over a period of 40 years, about 400,000 African students from various countries moved to Russia to pursue higher studies, including many black Africans  This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the Eastern bloc 

Balkans
Due to the slave trade in the Ottoman Empire that had flourished in the Balkans, the coastal town of Ulcinj in Montenegro had its own black community  In 1878, that community consisted of about 100 people 

Oceania
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians have been referred to as "black people" in Australia since the early days of European settlement  While originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander ancestry in general and can refer to people of any skin pigmentation Being identified as either "black" or "white" in Australia during the 19th and early 20th centuries was critical in one's employment and social prospects  Various state-based Aboriginal Protection Boards were established which had virtually complete control over the lives of Indigenous Australians – where they lived, their employment, marriage, education and included the power to separate children from their parents  Aborigines were not allowed to vote and were often confined to reserves and forced into low paid or effectively slave labour  The social position of mixed-race or "half-caste" individuals varied over time  A 1913 report by Baldwin Spencer states that:

the half-castes belong neither to the aboriginal nor to the whites, yet, on the whole, they have more leaning towards the former;     One thing is certain and that is that the white population as a whole will never mix with half-castes    the best and kindest thing is to place them on reserves along with the natives, train them in the same schools and encourage them to marry amongst themselves 
After the First World War, however, it became apparent that the number of mixed-race people was growing at a faster rate than the white population, and, by 1930, fear of the "half-caste menace" undermining the White Australia ideal from within was being taken as a serious concern  Cecil Cook, the Northern Territory Protector of Natives, noted that:

generally by the fifth and invariably by the sixth generation, all native characteristics of the Australian Aborigine are eradicated  The problem of our half-castes will quickly be eliminated by the complete disappearance of the black race, and the swift submergence of their progeny in the white 
The official policy became one of biological and cultural assimilation: "Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture to half-castes and eventually the race will become white"  This led to different treatment for "black" and "half-caste" individuals, with lighter-skinned individuals targeted for removal from their families to be raised as "white" people and prohibited from speaking their native language and practicing traditional customs, a process now known as the Stolen Generation 

The second half of the 20th century to the present has seen a gradual shift towards improved human rights for Aboriginal people  In a 1967 referendum, more than 90% of the Australian population voted to end constitutional discrimination and to include Aborigines in the national census  During this period, many Aboriginal activists began to embrace the term "black" and use their ancestry as a source of pride  Activist Bob Maza said:

I only hope that when I die I can say I'm black and it's beautiful to be black  It is this sense of pride which we are trying to give back to the aborigine [sic] today 
In 1978, Aboriginal writer Kevin Gilbert received the National Book Council award for his book Living Black: Blacks Talk to Kevin Gilbert, a collection of Aboriginal people's stories, and in 1998 was awarded (but refused to accept) the Human Rights Award for Literature for Inside Black Australia, a poetry anthology and exhibition of Aboriginal photography  In contrast to previous definitions based solely on the degree of Aboriginal ancestry, the Government changed the legal definition of Aboriginal in 1990 to include any:

person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he [or she] lives
This nationwide acceptance and recognition of Aboriginal people led to a significant increase in the number of people self-identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander  The reappropriation of the term "black" with a positive and more inclusive meaning has resulted in its widespread use in mainstream Australian culture, including public media outlets, government agencies, and private companies  In 2012, a number of high-profile cases highlighted the legal and community attitude that identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is not dependent on skin color, with a well-known boxer Anthony Mundine being widely criticized for questioning the "blackness" of another boxer and journalist Andrew Bolt being successfully sued for publishing discriminatory comments about Aboriginals with light skin 

Melanesians
The region of Melanesia is named from Greek μέλας, black, and νῆσος, island, etymologically meaning "islands of black [people]", in reference to the dark skin of the indigenous peoples  Early European settlers, such as Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez, noted the resemblance of the people to those in Africa 

Melanesians, along with other Pacific Islanders, were frequently deceived or coerced during the 19th and 20th centuries into forced labour for sugarcane, cotton, and coffee planters in countries distant to their native lands in a practice known as blackbirding  In Queensland, some 55,000 to 62,500 were brought from the New Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, and New Guinea to work in sugarcane fields  Under the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901, most islanders working in Queensland were repatriated back to their homelands  
Those who remained in Australia, commonly called South Sea Islanders, often faced discrimination similarly to Indigenous Australians by white-dominated society  Many indigenous rights activists have South Sea Islander ancestry, including Faith Bandler, Evelyn Scott and Bonita Mabo 
Many Melanesians have taken up the term 'Melanesia' as a way to empower themselves as a collective people  Stephanie Lawson writes that the term "moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation" : 14  For instance, the term is used in the Melanesian Spearhead Group, which seeks to promote economic growth among Melanesian countries 

Other
John Caesar, nicknamed "Black Caesar", a convict and bushranger with parents born in an unknown area in Africa, was one of the first people of recent black African ancestry to arrive in Australia At the 2006 Census, 248,605 residents declared that they were born in Africa  This figure pertains to all immigrants to Australia who were born in nations in Africa regardless of race, and includes white Africans 

North America
Canada
"Black Canadians" is a designation used for people of black African ancestry who are citizens or permanent residents of Canada  The majority of black Canadians are of Caribbean origin, though the population also consists of African American immigrants and their descendants (including black Nova Scotians), as well as many African immigrants Black Canadians often draw a distinction between those of Afro-Caribbean ancestry and those of other African roots  The term African Canadian is occasionally used by some black Canadians who trace their heritage to the first slaves brought by British and French colonists to the North American mainland  Promised freedom by the British during the American Revolutionary War, thousands of Black Loyalists were resettled by the Crown in Canada afterward, such as Thomas Peters  In addition, an estimated ten to thirty thousand fugitive slaves reached freedom in Canada from the Southern United States during the Antebellum years, aided by people along the Underground Railroad 
Many black people of Caribbean origin in Canada reject the term "African Canadian" as an elision of the uniquely Caribbean aspects of their heritage, and instead identify as Caribbean Canadian  Unlike in the United States, where "African American" has become a widely used term, in Canada controversies associated with distinguishing African or Caribbean heritage have resulted in the term "black Canadian" being widely accepted there 

United States
There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to the Western Hemisphere  The number of enslaved people sold to the New World varied throughout the slave trade  As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others  Between 1650 and 1900, 10 24 million enslaved West Africans arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:
Senegambia (Senegal and The Gambia): 4 8%
Upper Guinea (Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone): 4 1%
Windward Coast (Liberia and Ivory Coast): 1 8%
Gold Coast (Ghana and east of Ivory Coast): 10 4%
Bight of Benin (Togo, Benin and Nigeria west of the Niger Delta): 20 2%
Bight of Biafra (Nigeria east of the Niger Delta, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon): 14 6%
West Central Africa (Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola): 39 4%
Southeastern Africa (Mozambique and Madagascar): 4 7%
By the early 1900s, nigger had become a pejorative word in the United States  In its stead, the term colored became the mainstream alternative to negro and its derived terms  After the American Civil Rights Movement, the terms colored and negro gave way to "black"  Negro had superseded colored as the most polite word for African Americans at a time when black was considered more offensive  This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the later Civil Rights movement in the late 1960s  One well-known example is the use by Dr  Rev  Martin Luther King Jr  of "Negro" in his famous speech of 1963, I Have a Dream  During the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notably Malcolm X, objected to the word Negro because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse  Malcolm X preferred Black to Negro, but later gradually abandoned that as well for Afro-American after leaving the Nation of Islam Since the late 1960s, various other terms for African Americans have been more widespread in popular usage  Aside from black American, these include Afro-American (in use from the late 1960s to 1990) and African American (used in the United States to refer to Black Americans, people often referred to in the past as American Negroes) In the first 200 years that black people were in the United States, they primarily identified themselves by their specific ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color  Individuals identified themselves, for example, as Ashanti, Igbo, Bakongo, or Wolof  However, when the first captives were brought to the Americas, they were often combined with other groups from West Africa, and individual ethnic affiliations were not generally acknowledged by English colonists  In areas of the Upper South, different ethnic groups were brought together  This is significant as the captives came from a vast geographic region: the West African coastline stretching from Senegal to Angola and in some cases from the south-east coast such as Mozambique  A new African-American identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the Black church and African-American English  This new identity was based on provenance and slave status rather than membership in any one ethnic group By contrast, slave records from Louisiana show that the French and Spanish colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans, including ethnicities and given tribal names The U S  racial or ethnic classification "black" refers to people with all possible kinds of skin pigmentation, from the darkest through to the very lightest skin colors, including albinos, if they are believed by others to have African ancestry (in any discernible percentage)  There are also certain cultural traits associated with being "African American", a term used effectively as a synonym for "black person" within the United States 
In March 1807, Great Britain, which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared the transatlantic slave trade illegal, as did the United States  (The latter prohibition took effect 1 January 1808, the earliest date on which Congress had the power to do so after protecting the slave trade under Article I, Section 9 of the United States Constitution )
By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term "African" became problematic  Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the United States  They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa  In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "Negro" or "Colored American"  A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church  African Americans popularly used the terms "Negro" or "colored" for themselves until the late 1960s The term black was used throughout but not frequently since it carried a certain stigma  In his 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech, Martin Luther King Jr  uses the terms negro fifteen times and black four times  Each time that he uses black, it is in parallel construction with white; for example, "black men and white men" With the successes of the American Civil Rights Movement, a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination  In place of Negro, activists promoted the use of black as standing for racial pride, militancy, and power  Some of the turning points included the use of the term "Black Power" by Kwame Ture (Stokely Carmichael) and the popular singer James Brown's song "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud" 
In 1988, the civil rights leader Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use instead the term "African American" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc  Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status  However, controversy continues over which, if any, of the two terms is more appropriate  Maulana Karenga argues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin  Others have argued that "black" is a better term because "African" suggests foreignness, although black Americans helped found the United States  Still others believe that the term "black" is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones  Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for "African American" or "black", although they have a slight preference for "black" in personal settings and "African American" in more formal settings In the U S  census race definitions, black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in the black racial groups of Africa  According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa  The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification, since not all immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa are "black"  The Census Bureau also notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological According to U S  Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American  The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%)  Immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term Recent surveys of African Americans using a genetic testing service have found varied ancestries that show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors  These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73 2–80 9% West African, 18–24% European, and 0 8–0 9% Native American genetic heritage, with large variation between individuals According to studies in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, U S  residents consistently overestimate the size, physical strength, and formidability of young black men 

One-drop rule
From the late 19th century, the South used a colloquial term, the one-drop rule, to classify as black a person of any known African ancestry  This practice of hypodescent was not put into law until the early 20th century  Legally, the definition varied from state to state  Racial definition was more flexible in the 18th and 19th centuries before the American Civil War  For instance, President Thomas Jefferson held in slavery persons who were legally white (less than 25% black) according to Virginia law at the time, but, because they were born to slave mothers, they were born into slavery, according to the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, which Virginia adopted into law in 1662 
Outside of the United States, some other countries have adopted the one-drop rule, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one-drop "rule" applies varies greatly from country to country 
The one-drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves and was maintained as an attempt to keep the white race "pure"  One of the results of the one-drop rule was the uniting of the African-American community  Some of the most prominent abolitionists and civil-rights activists of the 19th century were multiracial, such as Frederick Douglass, Robert Purvis and James Mercer Langston  They advocated equality for all 

Blackness
The concept of blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream African-American culture, politics, and values  To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about race but more about political orientation, culture and behavior  Blackness can be contrasted with "acting white", where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music, and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of black youth, academic achievement Due to the often political and cultural contours of blackness in the United States, the notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people  Toni Morrison once described Bill Clinton as the first black President of the United States, because, as she put it, he displayed "almost every trope of blackness"  Clinton welcomed the label The question of blackness also arose in the Democrat Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign  Commentators questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first president with black ancestry, was "black enough", contending that his background is not typical because his mother was a white American and his father was a black student visitor from Kenya  Obama chose to identify as black and African American 

Mexico
Caribbean
Dominican Republic
The first Afro-Dominican slaves were shipped to the Dominican Republic by Spanish conquistadors during the Transatlantic slave trade 

Puerto Rico
Spanish conquistadors shipped slaves from West Africa to Puerto Rico  Afro-Puerto Ricans in part trace ancestry to this colonization of the island 

South America
Approximately 12 million people were shipped from Africa to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade from 1492 to 1888  Of these, 11 5 million of those shipped to South America and the Caribbean  Brazil was the largest importer in the Americas, with 5 5 million African slaves imported, followed by the British Caribbean with 2 76 million, the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland with 1 59 million Africans, and the French Caribbean with 1 32 million  Today their descendants number approximately 150 million in South America and the Caribbean  In addition to skin color, other physical characteristics such as facial features and hair texture are often variously used in classifying peoples as black in South America and the Caribbean  In South America and the Caribbean, classification as black is also closely tied to social status and socioeconomic variables, especially in light of social conceptions of "blanqueamiento" (racial whitening) and related concepts 

Brazil
The concept of race in Brazil is complex  A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both of their parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from  Between an individual of unmixed West African ancestry and a very light mulatto individual, more than a dozen racial categories were acknowledged, based on various combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color  These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest  In Brazil, people are classified by appearance, not heredity Scholars disagree over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil  It is generally believed that achieving upward mobility and education results in individuals being classified as a category of lighter skin  The popular claim is that in Brazil, poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white  Some scholars disagree, arguing that "whitening" of one's social status may be open to people of mixed race, a large part of the population known as pardo, but a person perceived as preto (black) will continue to be classified as black regardless of wealth or social status 

Statistics
From the years 1500 to 1850, an estimated 3 5 million captives were forcibly shipped from West/Central Africa to Brazil  The territory received the highest number of slaves of any country in the Americas  Scholars estimate that more than half of the Brazilian population is at least in part descended from these individuals  Brazil has the largest population of Afro-ancestry outside Africa  In contrast to the US, during the slavery period and after, the Portuguese colonial government in Brazil and the later Brazilian government did not pass formal anti-miscegenation or segregation laws  As in other Latin American countries, intermarriage was prevalent during the colonial period and continued afterward  In addition, people of mixed race (pardo) often tended to marry white spouses, and their descendants became accepted as white  As a result, some of the European descended population also has West African or Amerindian blood  According to the last census of the 20th century, in which Brazilians could choose from five color/ethnic categories with which they identified, 54% of individuals identified as white, 6 2% identified as black, and 39 5% identified as pardo (brown)—a broad multi-racial category, including tri-racial persons In the 19th century, a philosophy of racial whitening emerged in Brazil, related to the assimilation of mixed-race people into the white population through intermarriage  Until recently the government did not keep data on race  However, statisticians estimate that in 1835, roughly 50% of the population was preto (black; most were enslaved), a further 20% was pardo (brown), and 25% white, with the remainder Amerindian  Some classified as pardo were tri-racial 
By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6 2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white  Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermixing  A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry 

Race relations in Brazil
According to the 2010 census, 6 7% of Brazilians said they were black, compared with 6 2% in 2000, and 43 1% said they were racially mixed, up from 38 5%  In 2010, Elio Ferreira de Araujo, Brazil's minister for racial equality, attributed the increases to growing pride among his country's black and indigenous communities The philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn some criticism, based on economic issues  Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world  The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%  The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white or predominantly European in ancestry  One-third of the population lives under the poverty line, with blacks and other people of color accounting for 70 percent of the poor 

In 2015 United States, African Americans, including multiracial people, earned 76 8% as much as white people  By contrast, black and mixed race Brazilians earned on average 58% as much as whites in 2014  The gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and all people of color  Other social factors, such as illiteracy and education levels, show the same patterns of disadvantage for people of color 

Some commentators observe that the United States practice of segregation and white supremacy in the South, and discrimination in many areas outside that region, forced many African Americans to unite in the civil rights struggle, whereas the fluid nature of race in Brazil has divided individuals of African ancestry between those with more or less ancestry and helped sustain an image of the country as an example of post-colonial harmony  This has hindered the development of a common identity among black Brazilians Though Brazilians of at least partial African heritage make up a large percentage of the population, few blacks have been elected as politicians  The city of Salvador, Bahia, for instance, is 80% people of color, but voters have not elected a mayor of color 
Patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some academic and other activists to advocate for use of the Portuguese term negro to encompass all African-descended people, in order to stimulate a "black" consciousness and identity 

Colombia
Afro-Colombians are the third-largest African diaspora population in Latin America after Afro-Brazilians and Afro-Haitians 

Venezuela
Most black Venezuelans descend from people brought as slaves to Venezuela directly from Africa during colonization; others have been descendants of immigrants from the Antilles and Colombia  Many blacks were part of the independence movement, and several managed to be heroes  There is a deep-rooted heritage of African culture in Venezuelan culture, as demonstrated in many traditional Venezuelan music and dances, such as the Tambor, a musical genre inherited from black members of the colony, or the Llanera music or the Gaita zuliana that both are a fusion of all the three major peoples that contribute to the cultural heritage  Also, black inheritance is present in the country's gastronomy 
There are entire communities of blacks in the Barlovento zone, as well as part of the Bolívar state and in other small towns; they also live peaceably among the general population in the rest of Venezuela  Currently, blacks represent a plurality of the Venezuelan population, although many are actually mixed people 

See also
African diaspora
Afrophobia
Black elite
Black supremacy
Black women
Lists of black people
Mulatto
Negrito
San Basilio de Palenque, the first free African town in the Americas
Scientific racism
Zambo
Passage 7:
Mother-in-Law (song)
"Mother-in-Law" is a 1961 song recorded by Ernie K-Doe  It was a number-one hit in the U S  on both the Billboard Hot 100 chart and the Billboard R&B chart  The song was written and produced by Allen Toussaint, who also played the piano solo  It was issued by Minit Records 
After several unsuccessful takes, Toussaint balled up the composition and threw it away as he was leaving the room  One of the backup singers, Willie Harper, thought that it was such a good song that he convinced K-Doe to give it one more try A cover version by The Newbeats was also included on their 1965 album Big Beat Sounds By The Newbeats 

See also
List of Billboard Hot 100 number ones of 1961
List of number-one R&B singles of 1961 (U S )
Mother-in-law joke
Passage 8:
Balestrand
Balestrand is a former municipality in Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway  It was located on the northern shore of the Sognefjorden in the traditional district of Sogn  The administrative center was the village of Balestrand  Other villages in the municipality included Ese, Kvamme, Låne, Sæle, Tjugum, and Vetlefjorden 
The municipality was situated at the confluence of the Fjærlandsfjorden/Esefjorden and the main Sognefjorden  The major industries in the municipality were tourism and farming  Balestrand became popular early due to the interest of artists, such as Hans Gude, Kjartan Lauritzen, Alfred Heaton Cooper, Hans Dahl, and Johannes Flintoe  Their paintings of the scenery around Balestrand inspired visitors, and Balestrand maintains its connection with art  Other industries include made-to-order kitchen interiors, local apple juice, and Nesseplast which produces industrial plastic  The Norwegian County Road 13 runs through the municipality 
At the time of its dissolution in 2020, the 430-square-kilometre (170 sq mi) municipality was the 231st largest by area out of the 422 municipalities in Norway  Balestrand was the 370th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 1,272  The municipality's population density was 3 1 inhabitants per square kilometre (8 0/sq mi) and its population had decreased by 5 1% over the previous decade In 2016, the chief of police for Vestlandet formally suggested a reconfiguration of police districts and stations  He proposed that the police station in Balestrand be closed 

General information
Balestrand was established as a municipality in 1850 when the three sub-parishes (sokn) of Vangsnes, Tjugum, and Mundal in the northwestern part of the large Leikanger municipality were separated to form the new municipality of Balestrand  The initial population of the municipality was 2,122  In 1861, the Mundal sub-parish was renamed Fjærland During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee  On 1 January 1964 the municipalities of Vik, Leikanger, and Balestrand changed their boundaries in a land trade  The sub-parish of Vangsnes (population: 189) was transferred from Balestrand to Vik, Balestrand gained the sub-parish of Kvamsøy (population: 389) from Vik, and Leikanger gained the Hella-Eitorn area (population: 31) from Balestrand  Balestrand had a population of 1,606 after the changes were completed The Fjærland area of Balestrand had always been isolated from the rest of the municipality, and only accessible by boat  In 1995, the Frudal Tunnel was completed connecting Fjærland to neighboring Sogndal municipality (not to the rest of Balestrand)  This caused discussions about Fjærland's municipal future  On 1 January 2000, the entire sub-parish of Fjærland in northern Balestrand was transferred to Sogndal municipality On 1 January 2020, Balestrand Municipality ceased to exist  The far western Nesse area of Balestrand was transferred to the neighboring Høyanger Municipality and the rest of Balestrand was merged with the neighboring municipalities of Leikanger and Sogndal to form a much larger municipality called Sogndal 

Name
The municipality is named Balestrand, a compound name for the area that was created in 1832 by the Norwegian writer Henrik Wergeland  The first element is the name of the old Bale farm (Old Norse: Bali)  The farm name is identical to the word bali which means "grassy hillside"  The last element is derived from the word strǫnd which means "beach" or "shore"  Thus the "shore along the grassy hillside "

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 23 October 1989  The official blazon is "Azure, a down-pointing sword argent issuant from the base" (Norwegian: På blå grunn eit oppveksande nedvend sølv sverd)  This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is the hilt of a Viking sword  The charge has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used  The design symbolizes an old Viking sword found in the burial mound in Balestrand  The sword is belived to belong to King Bele from Frithiof's Saga  The arms were designed by Inge Rotevatn  The municipal flag has the same design as the coat of arms 

Churches
The Church of Norway had one parish (sokn) within the municipality of Balestrand  It was part of the Sogn prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin 

There is also one Anglican church in Balestrand:

St  Olaf's Church (built in 1897) is located in the village of Balestrand 

Government
While it existed, this municipality was responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment, social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads  During its existence, this municipality was governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives  The mayor was indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council  The municipality was under the jurisdiction of the Sogn og Fjordane District Court and the Gulating Court of Appeal 

Municipal council
The municipal council (Kommunestyre) of Balestrand is made up of 17 representatives that are elected to four year terms  The party breakdown of the final municipal council was as follows:

Mayors
The mayors of Balestrand:

Geography
Balestrand was located between the high snow-covered Gaularfjellet mountains in the center of the beautiful, lush Sognefjorden  Three fjord arms stretch inland, winding through the mountains and dotted with charming hamlets: Lånefjorden, Esefjorden, and Vetlefjorden  The Fjærlandsfjorden runs along the eastern border of the municipality  The Jostefonn glacier sits at the very northernmost part of the municipality 
Balestrand was bordered to the west by the municipalities of Høyanger and Gaular, to the north by Førde, and to the east by Sogndal and Leikanger  Across the Sognefjorden to the south is the municipality of Vik 

Attractions
Kvikne's Hotel
Built in the 19th century, the Kvikne's Hotel is one of the most famous buildings in Balestrand  The Kvikne family, who own the place, took it over in 1877  Since then the establishment has undergone constant development which continues to this day  There are many new buildings and remodeling and expansion projects have been carried out 
Today, the hotel is a highly modern facility resounding with tradition and culture  With 200 rooms, it is also one of Norway's largest fine hotels catering to tourists  An impressive collection of art and historical pieces is a central feature of the hotel's interior, and one of the elements of its distinct personality 
Kviknes Hotel was made popular for European visitors in the early part of the 20th century by Kaiser Wilhelm II, who often visited there during his summer vacations prior to World War I  The hotel still possesses the chair he used in their restaurant  The Kaiser is accompanied on the list by a number of emperors, kings, presidents, Prime ministers, film stars, and artists from many countries 

St  Olaf's Church
St  Olaf's Church, also known as the English Church, is an Anglican church built in the style of a Stave church  The church was completed in 1897 as a memorial to Margaret Green  Margaret, an English lady, came to the fjords as a tourist to hike the mountains  She met, fell in love with and married Knut Kvikne who was an avid mountain man  Being a very pious woman, she wished for an Anglican church in Balestrand  She started the church with her husband, but died before its completion  Sunday services are held during the summer months, being conducted by rotating vicars from England St  Olaf's Church is notable as the inspiration for the chapel in Elsa's coronation scene in the 2013 Disney film Frozen 

Other attractions
Songnefjord Aquarium
Balejazz summer jazz festival
Balestrand Art Village
The Norwegian Museum of Travel and Tourism

Notable people
Christian Garup Meidell (1780 in Balestrand – 1863), a military officer and politician; first Mayor of Leikanger in 1838-1839
Jakob Sverdrup (1845–1899), a Norwegian bishop and politician, raised in Balestrand
Georg Sverdrup (1848 in Balestrand – 1907), a Norwegian-American Lutheran theologian and teacher
Edvard Sverdrup (1861 in Balestrand – 1923), a Norwegian educator, author, church leader, and a key theologian in the Church of Norway in early 20thC 
Anders Johanneson Bøyum (1890 in Balestrand – 1962), a politician who was mayor of Balestrand before and after WWII
Trygve Heltveit (1913 in Balestrand – 1985), a Norwegian philologist 

See also
List of former municipalities of Norway
Passage 9:
Lodewijk Asscher
Lodewijk Frans Asscher (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈloːdəʋɛik frɑns ˈɑʃər]; born 27 September 1974) is a Dutch politician and jurist who served as Leader of the Labour Party (PvdA) from 2016 to 2021 and parliamentary leader in the House of Representatives from 2017 to 2021 
Asscher worked as a researcher at the University of Amsterdam from 1996 until 2002  He was elected as a municipal councillor of Amsterdam on 8 March 2002 and assumed the leadership of the Labour Party in the municipal council on 3 April 2004  He worked as an associate professor of Intellectual property law at the University of Amsterdam from 1 May 2002 until 1 May 2006  Asscher was the lijsttrekker (top candidate) for the PvdA in the 2006 municipal election and became Deputy Mayor and alderman on 26 April 2006  Following the resignation of Mayor of Amsterdam Job Cohen to run for the Labour Party leadership for the election of 2010, Asscher as Deputy Mayor served as ad interim Mayor of Amsterdam from 12 March 2010 until 7 July 2010  After the election of 2012 Asscher was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Social Affairs and Employment in the Cabinet Rutte II, serving from 5 November 2012 until 26 October 2017 

Early life and education
Lodewijk Frans Asscher was born on 27 September 1974 in Amsterdam in a mixed religious family; his father is of Jewish descent and his mother is Catholic  His father is a member of the centre-right People's Party for Freedom and Democracy and his mother a member of the Labour Party Asscher went to the Christelijk Gymnasium Sorghvliet in The Hague  He studied psychology (propaedeutics in 1995) and Dutch law (master's degree in 1998) at the University of Amsterdam in Amsterdam  In 2002, he received his PhD in law from the University of Amsterdam 

Politics
Amsterdam
Asscher entered the municipal council after the Dutch municipal elections of 2002  Besides his role as the group leader of the Labour Party in the Amsterdam municipal council, he took part in the commission on General Affairs 
Until 1 January 2006, Asscher taught information law at the University of Amsterdam  In his book "New Amsterdam", Asscher advocated the eventual disappearance of the red light district  A few days after the release of the book, Asscher revoked that statement, stating that he was not against prostitution, but rather against sexual slavery 
After the Dutch municipal elections of 2006, where he led the Labour Party's campaign in Amsterdam, Asscher was installed as an alderman on 26 April  His portfolio included Economics, Airport and Harbour; he also was Deputy Mayor of Amsterdam from 2006 until 2010  He served as Acting Mayor of Amsterdam from 12 March 2010 to 7 July 2010 and then became the alderman in charge of Finances until 5 November 2012 

Netherlands
On 5 November 2012, he became Minister of Social Affairs and Employment and Deputy Prime Minister in the Second Rutte cabinet  In Amsterdam he was succeeded by Eberhard van der Laan (also PvdA) 
In September 2014, Asscher announced heightened scrutiny of four Dutch-Turkish organisations that he suspected of hindering integration, including a religious group, Millî Görüş  This led to the expulsion of 2 Dutch Turkish MPs from the Labour Party after they harshly criticised the move On 9 December 2016, Asscher won the leadership of the Labour Party in an election against incumbent Diederik Samsom  He obtained 54,5% of the vote  In the Dutch general election of 2017, the PvdA suffered the biggest defeat in Dutch electoral history, receiving only 5 7% of the votes and losing 29 of its 38 seats  The PvdA did not rejoin the government after the election  Asscher was succeeded as Minister of Social Affairs and Employment by Wouter Koolmees in the Third Rutte cabinet, on 26 October 2017  While being the presumptive party leader for the 2021 parliamentary elections, Asscher withdrew as leader on 14 January 2021 with just two months before the election, due to his role as Minister of Social Affairs in the toeslagenaffaire (social benefits scandal) 

Personal
Lodewijk Asscher is married to Jildau Piena, with whom he has three sons 

Bibliography
(1999) Constitutionele convergentie van pers, omroep en telecommunicatie (Constitutional Convergence of Press, Broadcaster, and Telecommunication)
(2002) Communicatiegrondrechten (Fundamental Rights of Communication)
(2005) Nieuw Amsterdam (New Amsterdam)
(2010) De ontsluierde stad (The Unveiled City)
Context 2: Passage 1:
Arenal Volcano Emergency Forest Reserve
Arenal Volcano Emergency Forest Reserve is a Forest Reserve, part of the Arenal Huetar Norte Conservation Area, in the northern part of Costa Rica in the emergency zone of the Arenal Volcano  It was created in 1972 covering an area of forest, and there are no public facilities at the reserve 
Passage 2:
Occupation of Gori
The Occupation of Gori was the military occupation of Gori and its surrounding areas by Russian military forces, which started on 13 August 2008 as part of the Russo-Georgian War; it ended with the withdrawal of Russian units from the city on 22 August 2008 

Background and initial airstrikes
Gori is a strategic city in central Georgia, about 25 km (16 mi) from Tskhinvali  Gori is a major military installation and transportation hub in Georgia  75 tanks and armored personnel carriers (a third of the Georgian military's arsenal) were assembled near Gori on 7 August Around 6:27 AM on 9 August 2008, Reuters reported that two Russian fighters had bombed a Georgian artillery position about 10 km north of Gori  On 9 August, a Russian air attack targeted military barracks in Gori  In the resulting explosion, besides the base, several apartment buildings and a school were also damaged  The Georgian government reported that 60 civilians were killed when bombs hit the apartment buildings  According to the Russian media, Russian aircraft dropped three bombs on an armament depot, and the façade of one of the adjacent 5-story apartment buildings suffered damage as a result of exploding ammunition from the depot  Russian aircraft had bombed at least five Georgian cities by 9 August 

Georgian abandonment
Following its defeat in Tskhinvali, the Georgian Army regrouped at Gori  Georgian military entered the city on 10 August  On 10 August, BBC reported that people were leaving Gori because they feared of Russian advance towards the city  The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and World Food Programme determined that about 80 percent of residents had left Gori as of 10 August  Russians began advancing towards Gori On 11 August 2008, the Georgian forces retreated from Gori  A senior Georgian security official, Kakha Lomaia, said that the troops were ordered to defend Tbilisi  Police sealed off the highway from Tbilisi, and did not allow any cars into the city  The Russian attacks were met with Georgian artillery firing towards South Ossetia, and at least six Georgian helicopters were reported to have also attacked targets in South Ossetia  A Times reporter described the Georgian withdrawal as "sudden and dramatic", saying that the "residents watched in horror" as their army abandoned their positions  Georgian tanks and armored personnel carries fled to Tbilisi  A tank exploded on the mountain road due to unspecified reasons, and an armored car pushing it out of the way also caught fire  Georgian infantry fled the city by any means available  Five soldiers escaped the city on one Quad bike  By late 11 August, Gori was deserted after most remaining residents and Georgian soldiers had fled   Initial Georgian reports that Russian troops were in Gori, were later discounted by Georgia Georgian armed forces concentrated on holding Mtskheta, 15 miles (24 km) from the capital Tbilisi  Deputy Defense Minister Batu Kutelia said that the defense line was being moved to Mtskheta 

The final air attacks
On 12 August 2008, a Dutch television journalist Stan Storimans was killed and another journalist injured when Russian warplanes bombed the city  As a result of the explosion 7 people were killed, over 30 were injured  Georgian officials said Russian forces had been targeting the city's administrative buildings; the university of Gori and its post office were on fire after the bombings  Russia's deputy head of the General Staff, Colonel-General Anatoliy Nogovitsyn, denied that Russian forces had attacked the town  That day, a missile struck the Gori Military Hospital Human Rights Watch (HRW), an international rights group, accused Russia of deploying indiscriminately deadly cluster bombs in civilian areas Russian military official denied using cluster munitions  Numerous unexploded submunitions were subsequently found by local population in the Gori district and the HRW documented them 

Russian occupation
Several hours after the ceasefire agreement was reached, a Russian tank battalion occupied parts of Gori  Rumors of a possible attack on Tbilisi circulated  Russian troops took control of Gori on 13 August 2008  Russian troops said they were removing military hardware and ammunition from an arms depot outside Gori  A Russian armored column left Gori, traveling along the main road to Tbilisi  Russian forces then halted their advance and camped out in a field about an hour's drive from Tbilisi In the morning of 14 August,vehicles from the Georgian police and military prepared to re-enter Gori  Russian major general Vyacheslav Borisov told Aleksandre Lomaia, secretary of Georgia's National Security Council, that the residents of Gori were not disturbed by the Russians' presence  Later, Russian forces allowed Georgian police to return  Vyacheslav Borisov claimed that the city of Gori was controlled jointly by Georgian Police and Russian troops  He further said that Russian troops would start leaving Gori in two days  But joint patrols soon broke down because of apparent discord among personnel and the city returned to full Russian control  More than 30 police officers returned to a Georgian post outside the city Russian forces pushed to about 25 miles (40 km) from Tbilisi, the closest during the war; they stopped in Igoeti 41°59′22″N 44°25′04″E  The parts of Georgia’s army, which had manned a narrow front in the immediate vicinity down the road, maintained their positions  The Russian move coincided with the U S  Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice’s meeting with Georgian president Saakashvili on 15 August "Now Ossetians are running around and killing poor Georgians in their enclaves," said Major-General Vyacheslav Borisov on 14 August  A Russian lieutenant said: "We have to be honest  The Ossetians are marauding " Answering a journalist's question, a Russian lieutenant colonel said: "We're not a police force, we're a military force  [   ] It's not our job to do police work " The New York Times noted, that "the Russian military might be making efforts in some places to stop the rampaging"  On 17 August, BBC reported that humanitarian aid was being delivered to the city  The Russian commander in Gori said his troops were staying to prevent looting and would leave when Georgian police was ready to take over According to the Hague Convention, an occupying power has to insure public order and safety in the occupied areas  The Russian human rights group Memorial called the attacks by South Ossetian militia "pogroms" 

Russian pullout of Gori
The last Russian military formations left the city late on 22 August 2008, and Georgian law enforcement units moved into Gori shortly thereafter 
Passage 3:
Davidson, New South Wales
Davidson is a suburb on the Northern Beaches of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia  Davidson is located 20 kilometres north of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of Northern Beaches Council  Davidson is part of the Forest District 

Location
Davidson is adjacent to Belrose and Frenchs Forest and is located on the eastern edge of the Garigal National Park  Davidson is located approximately 15 kilometres (9 3 mi) from the Sydney CBD 
Davidson comprises part of the "Forest" area, which also encompasses the suburbs of Belrose, Frenchs Forest, Forestville, Killarney Heights, Terrey Hills and Duffys Forest  The Forest forms part of the Northern Beaches Council jurisdiction, which encompasses a large part of the Northern Beaches area of Sydney 

History
Davidson was named for Sir Walter Davidson, Governor of New South Wales from 18 February 1918 to 4 September 1923  A park was dedicated in his honour in this area in 1923 and the developing suburb later took this name  Davidson began life as a mining quarry, with residential developments not beginning until the late 1970s  
The area faced a significant threat in January 1994 when bushfires in the Garigal National Park came dangerously close to the suburb   These fires were suppressed by the brigades of the Warringah/Pittwater Rural Fire Service from entering the Davidson Valley System 

Geography
Davidson features uneven topography, in large part due to the area’s origins as a mining quarry, as well as its proximity to Garigal National Park  Steep descents are evident in Stone Parade, Borgnis Street and Maitland Street, whereas more undulatory landscapes can be seen along parts of Prahran Avenue and Kambora Avenue 
The Eucalyptus trees and Liquid Ambers that line the streets of Davidson provide a pleasant backdrop for those living in the suburb  They also provide a haven for large numbers of native birds such as Kookaburras, Galahs and Rainbow Lorikeets 

Parks
Davidson has many parks  The suburb adjoins Garigal and Kur-ing-gai Chase National Parks and in addition, has numerous other reserves suitable for picnics, ambling and quiet moments of reflection  These include McFarlane Reserve, Maitland Street Reserve, Aranda Place Reserve and Richard Healy Oval, to name but a few 

Education
Davidson is home to two primary schools:

Kambora Public School
St Martin De Porres Catholic Primary SchoolDavidson High School is named for the suburb, but is located in neighbouring suburb Frenchs Forest 

Commercial and Fire Brigade
A shopping complex on the corner of Yindela Street and Pound Avenue contains a small number of commercial premises, including a popular café, a hairdressers salon and a sports injury clinic  The complex also contains the only apartment accommodation in the suburb 
Davidson is also home to the Davidson Rural Fire Brigade since the station relocated from Cannons Parade Forestville in 1976  The Station has approximately 110 members, including former Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott, and is one of 13 Brigades in the Warringah/Pittwater District of the New South Wales Rural Fire Service (RFS) 
On 2 October 2013 a small bush fire swept through the national park in the area behind Maitland Street and Cambage Court, Frenchs Forest  No homes were directly threatened due to the fast action of the RFS  Ultimately, the fire was contained without any loss of property 

Population
At the 2016 census, there were 2,849 residents in Davidson  The most common ancestries in Davidson were English 32 1%, Australian 24 1%, Irish 9 1%, Scottish 7 6% and Chinese 2 8%   68 3% of people were born in Australia  The next most common countries of birth was England at 10 3%  84 8% of people only spoke English at home  The most common responses for religion were No Religion 32 7%, Catholic 23 8% and Anglican 22 3% 
The median weekly household income in Davidson was $2,630, higher than the national median of $1,438  In Davidson, the majority of the dwellings are separate houses (97 7%), with a total of just 20 properties that were semi-detached or units 

Notable residents
Michael Hutchence – Former frontman of the Australian band INXS
Matt Shirvington – Olympic athlete, sprinter and television news presenter
Peter Hardcastle – Olympic level athlete, rowing, three time Olympian 2000, 2004 & 2008
Robert Lee – Mythbusters narrator

Culture
Davidson garners attention each December for its residents' enthusiastic display of Christmas lights  The "Davidson Lights" draw families from all over Sydney  Borgnis Street provides the centre of the nightly celebrations in the lead-up to Christmas, however the festive spirit is spread widely throughout the suburb with residents of Stone Parade and its various cul-de-sacs also actively participating 

Transport
Davidson's mode of public transport is solely operated by bus services operated by CDC NSW  The bus routes go throughout the suburb regularly with routes straight to the City and Chatswood, while residents who want to go Manly can do so by catching any bus that would take them to Forestway, where they can get a transfer 
Passage 4:
Mizugaki
Mizugaki is a climbing area in Japan, located in the northern part of the Yamanashi Prefecture  The forest of Mizugaki is owned by the Emperor of Japan It is known for highball bouldering and long trad lines 
The rock consists of granite with many natural pockets  
Because of the higher altitude it is also possible to climb in Mizugaki during the summer Jason Kehl can be seen climbing in Mizugaki in the movie Big in Japan  He praises Mizugaki for its beautiful forest setting 
Passage 5:
Erich Zakowski
Erich Zakowski (born 25 November 1934 in East Prussia) is a German master mechanic, and the founder and longtime head of the Zakspeed racing team 
After the Second World War, Zakowski fled from Prussia with his mother and four siblings initially to Dortmund then Hamburg and finally the family settled in Niederzissen  Zakowski graduated in Andernach as an apprentice auto mechanic, and passed his master exam  He founded his own garage in Niederzissen, which was the location of the Zakspeed racing operation, starting in 1968  In 1968, under the name "Zakowski Niederzissen tuning", he started using a Ford Escort for the Eifel race on the Nürburgring 
In the 1970s and 1980s, under the direction of Erich Zakowski, Zakspeed established itself in various racing series, (especially in sports car racing)  Zakspeed entered the Formula 1 series in 1985  In 1990, after five years of racing, Zakowski retired active leadership of the team and handed it to his son Peter 
Passage 6:
East Prussia
East Prussia (German: Ostpreußen) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and again from 1878 (with the Kingdom itself being part of the German Empire from 1871); following World War I it formed part of the Weimar Republic's Free State of Prussia, until 1945  Its capital city was Königsberg (present-day Kaliningrad)  East Prussia was the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast The bulk of the ancestral lands of the Baltic Old Prussians were enclosed within East Prussia  During the 13th century, the native Prussians were conquered by the crusading Teutonic Knights  After the conquest the indigenous Balts were gradually converted to Christianity  Because of Germanization and colonisation over the following centuries, Germans became the dominant ethnic group, while Masurians and Lithuanians formed minorities  From the 13th century, East Prussia was part of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights  After the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466 it became a fief of the Kingdom of Poland  In 1525, with the Prussian Homage, the province became the Duchy of Prussia  The Old Prussian language had become extinct by the 17th or early 18th century Because the duchy was outside of the core Holy Roman Empire, the prince-electors of Brandenburg were able to proclaim themselves King beginning in 1701  After the annexation of most of western Royal Prussia in the First Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, eastern (ducal) Prussia was connected by land with the rest of the Prussian state and was reorganized as a province the following year (1773)  Between 1829 and 1878, the Province of East Prussia was joined with West Prussia to form the Province of Prussia 
The Kingdom of Prussia became the leading state of the German Empire after its creation in 1871  However, the Treaty of Versailles following World War I granted West Prussia to Poland and made East Prussia an exclave of Weimar Germany (the new Polish Corridor separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany), while the Memel Territory was detached and annexed by Lithuania in 1923  Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, war-torn East Prussia was divided at Joseph Stalin's insistence between the Soviet Union (the Kaliningrad Oblast became part of the Russian SFSR, and the constituent counties of the Klaipėda Region in the Lithuanian SSR) and the People's Republic of Poland (the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship)  The capital city Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946  The German population of the province was largely evacuated during the war or expelled shortly afterwards in the expulsion of Germans after World War II  An estimated 300,000 died either in wartime bombing raids, in the battles to defend the province, or through mistreatment by the Red Army or  from hunger, cold and disease 

Background
At the instigation of Duke Konrad I of Masovia, the Teutonic Knights took possession of Prussia in the 13th century and created a monastic state to administer the conquered Old Prussians  Local Old-Prussian (north) and Polish (south) toponyms were gradually Germanised  The Knights' expansionist policies, including occupation of Polish Pomerania with Gdańsk/Danzig and western Lithuania, brought them into conflict with the Kingdom of Poland and embroiled them in several wars, culminating in the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War, whereby the united armies of Poland and Lithuania, defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) in 1410  Its defeat was formalised in the Second Treaty of Thorn in 1466 ending the Thirteen Years' War, and leaving the former Polish region Pomerania/Pomerelia under Polish control  Together with Warmia it formed the province of Royal Prussia  Eastern Prussia remained under the Knights but as a fief of Poland  1466 and 1525 arrangements by kings of Poland were not verified by the Holy Roman Empire, as well as the previous gains of the Teutonic Knights, were not verified 
The Teutonic Order lost eastern Prussia when Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach converted to Lutheranism and secularized the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order in 1525  Albert established himself as the first duke of the Duchy of Prussia and a vassal of the Polish crown by the Prussian Homage  Walter von Cronberg, the next Grand Master, was enfeoffed with the title to Prussia after the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, but the Order never regained possession of the territory  In 1569 the Hohenzollern prince-electors of the Margraviate of Brandenburg became co-regents with Albert's son, the feeble-minded Albert Frederick 
The Administrator of Prussia, the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order Maximilian III, son of emperor Maximilian II died in 1618  When Maximilian died, Albert's line died out, and the Duchy of Prussia passed to the Electors of Brandenburg, forming Brandenburg-Prussia  Taking advantage of the Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655, and instead of fulfilling his vassal's duties towards the Polish Kingdom, by joining forces with the Swedes and subsequent treaties of Wehlau, Labiau, and Oliva, Elector and Duke Frederick William succeeded in revoking the king of Poland's sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia in 1660  The absolutist elector also subdued the noble estates of Prussia 

History as a province
Kingdom of Prussia
Although Brandenburg was a part of the Holy Roman Empire, the Prussian lands were not within the Holy Roman Empire and were with the administration by the Teutonic Order grandmasters under jurisdiction of the Emperor  In return for supporting Emperor Leopold I in the War of the Spanish Succession, Elector Frederick III was allowed to crown himself "King in Prussia" in 1701  The new kingdom ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty became known as the Kingdom of Prussia  The designation "Kingdom of Prussia" was gradually applied to the various lands of Brandenburg-Prussia  To differentiate it from the larger entity, the former Duchy of Prussia became known as Altpreußen ("Old Prussia"), the province of Prussia, or "East Prussia" 
Approximately one-third of East Prussia's population died in the Great Northern War plague outbreak and famine of 1709–1711, including the last speakers of Old Prussian  The plague, probably brought by foreign troops during the Great Northern War, killed 250,000 East Prussians, especially in the province's eastern regions  Crown Prince Frederick William I led the rebuilding of East Prussia, founding numerous towns  Thousands of Protestants expelled from the Archbishopric of Salzburg were allowed to settle in depleted East Prussia  The province was overrun by Imperial Russian troops during the Seven Years' War 

In the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i e , the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Chełmno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby connecting his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting the rest of Poland from the Baltic coast  The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1772 were named East Prussia  The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Chełmno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) in 1773  The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1772, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself a King "of" Prussia 
The former Ducal Prussian districts of Eylau (Iława), Marienwerder, Riesenburg (Prabuty) and Schönberg (Szymbark) passed to West Prussia  Until the Prussian reforms of 1808, the administration in East Prussia was transferred to the General War and Finance Directorate in Berlin, represented by two local chamber departments:

German chamber department at Königsberg with the districts of:
Brandenburg
Neidenburg
Rastenburg
Samland
Tapiau
Braunsberg (Ermland)
Heilsberg (Ermland)
Mohrungen (Ermland)
Lithuanian chamber department at Gumbinnen (Gusev) with the districts of:
Gumbinnen
Insterburg
Memel
Olecko
Ragnit
Seehesten (Sensburg)
TilsitOn 31 January 1773, King Frederick II announced that the newly annexed lands were to be known as the Province of West Prussia, while the former Duchy of Prussia and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia became the Province of East Prussia 

Napoleonic Wars
After the disastrous defeat of the Royal Prussian Army at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, Napoleon occupied Berlin and had the officials of the Prussian General Directorate swear an oath of allegiance to him, while King Frederick William III and his consort Louise fled via Königsberg and the Curonian Spit to Memel  The French Grande Armée troops immediately took up pursuit but were delayed in the Battle of Eylau on 9 February 1807 by an East Prussian contingent under General Anton Wilhelm von L'Estocq  Napoleon had to stay at the Finckenstein Palace, but in May, after a siege of 75 days, his troops led by Marshal François Joseph Lefebvre were able to capture the city of Danzig, which had been tenaciously defended by General Count Friedrich Adolf von Kalkreuth  On 14 June, Napoleon ended the War of the Fourth Coalition with his victory at the Battle of Friedland  Frederick William and Queen Louise met with Napoleon for peace negotiations, and on 9 July the Prussian king signed the Treaty of Tilsit 
The succeeding Prussian reforms instigated by Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg included the implementation of an Oberlandesgericht appellation court at Königsberg, a municipal corporation, economic freedom as well as emancipation of the serfs and Jews  In the course of the Prussian restoration by the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the East Prussian territories were re-arranged in the Regierungsbezirke of Gumbinnen and Königsberg  From 1905, the southern districts of East Prussia formed the separate Regierungsbezirk of Allenstein  East and West Prussia were first united in personal union in 1824 and then merged in a real union in 1829 to form the Province of Prussia  The united province was again split into separate East and West Prussian provinces in 1878 

German Empire
From 1824 to 1878, East Prussia was combined with West Prussia to form the Province of Prussia, after which they were reestablished as separate provinces  Along with the rest of the Kingdom of Prussia, East Prussia became part of the German Empire during the unification of Germany in 1871 

From 1885 to 1890 Berlin's population grew by 20%, Brandenburg and the Rhineland gained 8 5%, Westphalia 10%, while East Prussia lost 0 07% and West Prussia 0 86%  This stagnancy in population despite a high birth surplus in eastern Germany was because many people from the East Prussian countryside moved westward to seek work in the expanding industrial centres of the Ruhr Area and Berlin (see Ostflucht) 
The population of the province in 1900 was 1,996,626 people, with a religious makeup of 1,698,465 Protestants, 269,196 Roman Catholics, and 13,877 Jews  The Low Prussian dialect predominated in East Prussia, although High Prussian was spoken in Warmia  The numbers of Masurians, Kursenieki and Prussian Lithuanians decreased over time due to the process of Germanization  The Polish-speaking population concentrated in the south of the province (Masuria and Warmia) and all German geographic atlases at the start of 20th century showed the southern part of East Prussia as Polish with the number of Polish-speakers estimated at the time to be 300,000  Kursenieki inhabited the areas around the Curonian lagoon, while Lithuanian-speaking Prussians concentrated in the northeast in (Lithuania Minor)  The Old Prussian ethnic group became completely Germanized over time and the Old Prussian language died out in the 18th century 

World War I
At the German entry into World War I, East Prussia became a theatre of war when the Russian Empire invaded the country  The Imperial Russian Army encountered at first little resistance because the bulk of the Imperial German Army had been directed towards the Western Front according to the Schlieffen Plan  Despite early success and the capture of the towns of Rastenburg and Gumbinnen, in the Battle of Tannenberg in 1914 and the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes in 1915, the Russians were decisively defeated and forced to retreat  The Russians were followed by the German Army advancing into Russian territory 
After the Russian army's first invasion the majority of the civilian population fled westwards, while several thousand remaining civilians were deported to Russia  Treatment of civilians by both armies was mostly disciplined, although 74 civilians were killed by Russian troops in the Abschwangen massacre  The region had to be rebuilt because of damage caused by the war 

Division after 1918
Weimar Republic
With the forced abdication of Emperor Wilhelm II in the German Revolution of 1918–1919, Germany became a republic  Most of the former Prussian provinces of West Prussia and Posen, territories annexed by Prussia in the 18th century Partitions of Poland, were ceded to the Second Polish Republic according to the Treaty of Versailles  East Prussia became an exclave, being separated from mainland Germany  The Memelland was also separated from the province  Because most of West Prussia became part of the Second Polish Republic as the Polish Corridor, the formerly West Prussian Marienwerder region became part of East Prussia as the administrative district (Regierungsbezirk) of West Prussia  Also, the Soldau district in the Allenstein region became part of the Second Polish Republic  The Seedienst Ostpreußen (Sea Service East Prussia) was established to provide an independent transport service to East Prussia 
On 11 July 1920, amidst the backdrop of the Polish-Soviet War in which the Second Polish Republic appeared to be on the brink of defeat, the East Prussian plebiscite in eastern West Prussia and southern East Prussia was held under Allied supervision to determine if the areas should join Poland or remain in the Weimar Germany Province of East Prussia  96 7% of the people voted to remain within Germany (97 89% in the East Prussian plebiscite district) 
The Klaipėda Territory (Memelland), a League of Nations mandate since 1920, was occupied by the Lithuanian Armed Forces in 1923 and annexed without giving the inhabitants a choice by ballot 

Nazi Germany
After Adolf Hitler's rise to power, opposition politicians were persecuted and newspapers banned  Erich Koch, who headed the East Prussian Nazi party from 1928, led the district from 1932  The Otto-Braun-House was requisitioned to become the headquarters of the SA, which used the house to imprison and torture its opponents  Walter Schütz, a communist member of the Reichstag, was murdered here  This period was characterized by efforts to collectivize the local agriculture and ruthlessness in dealing with his [whose? Koch's?] critics inside and outside the Nazi Party  He also had long-term plans for mass-scale industrialization of the largely agricultural province  These actions made him unpopular among the local peasants  In 1932 the local paramilitary SA had already started to terrorise their political opponents  On the night of 31 July 1932 there was a bomb attack on the headquarters of the Social Democrats in Königsberg, the Otto-Braun-House  The Communist politician Gustav Sauf was killed; the executive editor of the Social Democratic newspaper "Königsberger Volkszeitung", Otto Wyrgatsch; and the German People's Party politician Max von Bahrfeldt were all severely injured  Members of the Reichsbanner were assaulted while the local Reichsbanner Chairman of Lötzen, Kurt Kotzan, was murdered on 6 August 1932 In the March 1933 German federal election, the last pre-war German elections, the local population of East Prussia voted overwhelmingly for the Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party 
Through publicly funded emergency relief programs concentrating on agricultural land-improvement projects and road construction, the "Erich Koch Plan" for East Prussia allegedly made the province free of unemployment: on 16 August 1933 Koch reported to Hitler that unemployment had been banished entirely from the province, a feat that gained admiration throughout the Reich  In actuality, the Erich Koch Plan had been a staged propaganda event organized by Walther Funk and the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda to promote the Nazi Party's work creation policies, with East Prussia chosen because it already had relatively low unemployment due to its agrarian economy  Koch's industrialization plans provoked conflict with Richard Walther Darré, who held the office of the Reich Peasant Leader (Reichsbauernführer) and Minister of Agriculture  Darré, a neopaganist rural romantic, wanted to enforce his vision of an agricultural East Prussia   When his "Land" representatives challenged Koch's plans, Koch arrested them In 1938 the Nazis changed about one-third of the toponyms of the area, eliminating, Germanizing, or simplifying a number of Old Prussian, as well as those Polish or Lithuanian names originating from colonists and refugees to Prussia during and after the Protestant Reformation  More than 1,500 places were ordered to be renamed by 16 July 1938 following a decree issued by Gauleiter and Oberpräsident Erich Koch and initiated by Adolf Hitler  Many who would not cooperate with the rulers of Nazi Germany were sent to concentration camps and held prisoner there until their death or liberation 
After the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania, the Klaipėda region was integrated again into East Prussia 

World War II
After the 1939 invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany opening World War II, the borders of East Prussia were revised  Regierungsbezirk Westpreußen became part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, while Regierungsbezirk Zichenau was added to East Prussia  Originally part of the Zichenau region, the Sudauen district in Sudovia was later transferred to the Gumbinnen region 
In 1939 East Prussia had 2 49 million inhabitants, 85% of them ethnic Germans, the others Poles in the south who, according to Polish estimates numbered in the interwar period around 300,000-350,000, the Latvian speaking Kursenieki, and Lietuvininkai who spoke Lithuanian in the northeast  Most German East Prussians, Masurians, Kursieniki, and Lietuvininkai were Lutheran, while the population of Ermland was mainly Roman Catholic due to the history of its bishopric  The East Prussian Jewish Congregation declined from about 9,000 in 1933 to 3,000 in 1939, as most fled from Nazi rule 
During World War II, the Polish ethnic minorities of Catholic Warmians and Lutheran Masurians were persecuted by the Nazi German government, which wanted to erase all aspects of Polish culture and Polish language in Warmia and Masuria The Jews who remained in East Prussia in 1942 were shipped to concentration camps, including Theresienstadt in occupied Czechoslovakia, Kaiserwald in occupied Latvia, and camps in Minsk in occupied Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic  Those who remained were later deported and killed in the Holocaust 
In 1939 the Regierungsbezirk Zichenau was annexed by Germany and incorporated into East Prussia  Parts of it were transferred to other regions, e g  Suwałki Region to Regierungsbezirk Gumbinnen and Soldau to Regierungsbezirk Allenstein  Despite Nazi propaganda presenting all of the regions annexed as possessing significant German populations that wanted reunification with Germany, the Reich's statistics of late 1939 show that only 31,000 out of 994,092 people in this territory were ethnic Germans Hitler's top-secret Eastern front headquarters during the war, the Wolf's Lair, was located in East Prussia, near the town of Rasternburg 
East Prussia was only slightly affected by the war until January 1945, when it was devastated during the East Prussian Offensive  Most of its inhabitants became refugees in bitterly cold weather during the Evacuation of East Prussia 

Evacuation of East Prussia
In 1944 the medieval city of Königsberg, which had never been severely damaged by warfare in its 700 years of existence, was almost completely destroyed by two RAF Bomber Command raids – the first on the night of 26/27 August 1944, with the second one three nights later, overnight on 29/30 August 1944  Winston Churchill (The Second World War, Book XII) had erroneously believed it to be "a modernized heavily defended fortress" and ordered its destruction



ground_truth: 1970s

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What else happened in the northern part of Erich Zakowski's birthplace in the now Russian area?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: 
Gauleiter Erich Koch delayed the evacuation of the German civilian population until the Eastern Front approached the East Prussian border in 1944  The population had been systematically misinformed by Endsieg Nazi propaganda about the real state of military affairs  As a result, many civilians fleeing westward were overtaken by retreating Wehrmacht units and the rapidly advancing Red Army 
Reports of Soviet atrocities in the Nemmersdorf massacre of October 1944 and organized rape spread fear and desperation among the civilians  Thousands lost their lives during the sinkings (by Soviet submarine) of the evacuation ships Wilhelm Gustloff, the Goya, and the General von Steuben  Königsberg surrendered on 9 April 1945, following the desperate four-day Battle of Königsberg  An estimated 300,000 died either in wartime bombing raids, in the battles to defend the province, or through mistreatment by the Red Army or from hunger, cold and disease However, most of the German inhabitants, which then consisted primarily of women, children and old men, did manage to escape the Red Army as part of the largest exodus of people in human history: "A population which had stood at 2 2 million in 1940 was reduced to 193,000 at the end of May 1945 "

History after partition and annexation
Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, East Prussia was partitioned between Poland and the Soviet Union according to the Potsdam Conference, pending a final peace conference with Germany  Since a peace conference never took place, the region was effectively ceded by Germany  Southern East Prussia was placed under Polish administration, while northern East Prussia was divided between the Soviet republics of Russia (the Kaliningrad Oblast) and Lithuania (the constituent counties of the Klaipėda Region)  The city of Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946  Most of the German population of the province had left during the evacuation at the end of the war, but several hundreds of thousands died during the years 1944–46 and the remainder were subsequently expelled 

Expulsion of Germans from East Prussia after World War II
Shortly after the end of the war in May 1945, Germans who had fled in early 1945 tried to return to their homes in East Prussia  An estimated number of 800,000 Germans were living in East Prussia during the summer of 1945  Many more were prevented from returning, and the German population of East Prussia was almost completely expelled by the communist regimes  During the war and for some time thereafter 45 camps were established for about 200,000-250,000 forced labourers, the vast majority of whom were deported to the Soviet Union, including the Gulag camp system  The largest camp with about 48,000 inmates was established at Deutsch Eylau (Iława)  Orphaned children who were left behind in the zone occupied by the Soviet Union were referred to as Wolf children 

Southern East Prussia to Poland
Representatives of the Polish government officially took over the civilian administration of the southern part of East Prussia on 23 May 1945  Subsequently, Polish expatriates from Polish lands annexed by the Soviet Union as well as Ukrainians and Lemkos from southern Poland, expelled in Operation Vistula, were settled in the area, initially organised as the Masurian District, later replaced by the Olsztyn Voivodeship in 1947, with a few counties incorporated into Białystok Voivodeship and to Gdańsk Voivodeship  The latter counted in 1950 689,000 inhabitants, 22 6% of them coming from areas annexed by the Soviet Union, 10% Ukrainians, and 18 5% of them pre-war inhabitants  It was dissolved in 1975 to form three smaller units: a much smaller homonymous Olsztyn Voivodeship, the bulk of Elbląg Voivodeship and a significant part of the Suwałki Voivodeship 
The remaining pre-war population was treated as Germanized Poles and a policy of re-Polonization was pursued throughout the country Most of these "Autochthons" chose to emigrate to West Germany from the 1950s through 1980s (between 1970 and 1988 55,227 persons from Warmia and Masuria moved to Western Germany)  Local toponyms were Polonised by the Polish Commission for the Determination of Place Names 

Origin of the post-war population
During the Polish post-war census of December 1950, data about the pre-war places of residence of the inhabitants as of August 1939 was collected  In case of children born between September 1939 and December 1950, their origin was reported based on the pre-war places of residence of their mothers  Thanks to this data it is possible to reconstruct the pre-war geographical origin of the post-war population  The same area corresponding to pre-war southern parts of East Prussia (which became Polish in 1945) was inhabited in December 1950 by:

Over 80% of the 1950 inhabitants were new in the region, less than 20% had resided in the province already back in 1939 (so called autochthons, who had German citizenship before World War II and were granted Polish citizenship after 1945)  Over 20% of all inhabitants were Poles expelled from areas of Eastern Poland annexed by the USSR  The rest were mostly people from neighbouring areas located right next to East Prussia (almost 44% came from Masovia, Sudovia, Podlachia and pre-war Polish Pomerania) and southern Poland (≈16%) 

Northern part to the Soviet Union
In April 1946, northern East Prussia became an official province of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic as the "Kyonigsbergskaya Oblast", with the Memel Territory becoming part of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic  In June 1946 114,070 German and 41,029 Soviet citizens were registered in the Oblast, with an unknown number of disregarded unregistered persons  In July of that year, the historic city of Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad to honour Mikhail Kalinin and the area named the Kaliningrad Oblast  Between 24 August and 26 October 1948 21 transports with in total 42,094 Germans left the Oblast to the Soviet Occupation Zone (which became East Germany)  The last remaining Germans left in November 1949 (1,401 persons) and January 1950 (7 persons) The Prussian Lithuanians also experienced the same fate 
A similar fate befell the Curonians who lived in the area around the Curonian Lagoon  While many fled from the Red Army during the evacuation of East Prussia, Curonians that remained behind were subsequently expelled by the Soviet Union  Only 219 lived along the Curonian Spit in 1955  Many had German names such as Fritz or Hans, a cause for anti-German discrimination  The Soviet authorities considered the Curonians fascists  Because of this discrimination, many immigrated to West Germany in 1958, where the majority of Curonians now live 
After the expulsion of the German population ethnic Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians were settled in the northern part  In the Soviet part of the region, a policy of eliminating all remnants of German history was pursued  All German place names were replaced by new Russian names  The exclave was a military zone, which was closed to foreigners; Soviet citizens could only enter with special permission  In 1967 the remnants of Königsberg Castle were demolished on the orders of Leonid Brezhnev to make way for a new "House of the Soviets" 

Modern status
Although the 1945–1949 expulsion of Germans from the northern part of former East Prussia was often conducted in a violent and aggressive way by Soviet officials, the present Russian inhabitants of the Kaliningrad Oblast have much less animosity towards Germans  German names have been revived in commercial Russian trade and there is sometimes talk of reverting Kaliningrad's name to its historical name of Königsberg  The city centre of Kaliningrad was completely rebuilt, as Royal Air Force bombs in 1944 and the Soviet siege in 1945 had left it in ruins 
Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, some German groups have tried to help settle the Volga Germans from eastern parts of European Russia in the Kaliningrad Oblast  This effort was only a minor success, however, as most impoverished Volga Germans preferred to emigrate to the richer Federal Republic of Germany, where they could become German citizens through the right of return 
The Polish part of the region, divided in 1975 to form three units: the Olsztyn Voivodeship, the Elbląg Voivodeship, and the Suwałki Voivodeship, has been reestablished as a single entity in 1999 under the name of Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, whose borders correspond closely to those of southern East Prussia  Since 2004, Poland and Lithuania have become European Union member states, and both the Polish part of the region as well as the Lithuanian Klaipėda Region, has thereafter become freely accessible by Germans, in line with the free movement of people policy 

Demographics
Historical ethnic and religious structure
In year 1824, shortly before its merger with West Prussia, the population of East Prussia was 1,080,000 people  Of that number, according to Karl Andree, ethnic Germans were slightly more than half, while 280,000 (≈26%) were ethnically Polish and 200,000 (≈19%) were ethnically Lithuanian  As of year 1819, there were also 20,000 strong ethnic Curonian and Latvian minorities as well as 2,400 Jews, according to Georg Hassel  Similar numbers are given by August von Haxthausen in his 1839 book, with a breakdown by county  However, the majority of East Prussian Polish and Lithuanian inhabitants were Lutherans, not Roman Catholics like their ethnic kinsmen across the border in the Russian Empire  Only in Southern Warmia (German: Ermland) Catholic Poles - so called Warmiaks (not to be confused with predominantly Protestant Masurians) - comprised the majority of population, numbering 26,067 people (≈81%) in county Allenstein (Polish: Olsztyn) in 1837  Another minority in 19th century East Prussia, were ethnically Russian Old Believers, also known as Philipponnen - their main town was Eckersdorf (Wojnowo) In year 1817, East Prussia had 796,204 Evangelical Christians, 120,123 Roman Catholics, 864 Mennonites and 2,389 Jews 

Ethnolinguistic composition by district
As of 1905, the province of East Prussia was divided into three government regions, known as Regierungsbezirke  These were the regions of Königsberg, Gumbinnen and Allenstein 

Administration
The Prussian central government appointed for every province an Oberpräsident ("Upper President") carrying out central prerogatives on the provincial level and supervising the implementation of central policy on the lower levels of administration 
Since 1875, with the strengthening of self-rule, the urban and rural districts (Kreise) within each province (sometimes within each governorate) formed a corporation with common tasks and assets (schools, traffic installations, hospitals, cultural institutions, jails etc ) called the Provinzialverband (provincial association)  Initially the assemblies of the urban and rural districts elected representatives for the provincial diets (Provinziallandtage), which were thus indirectly elected  As of 1919 the provincial diets (or as to governorate diets, the so-called Kommunallandtage) were directly elected by the citizens of the provinces (or governorates, respectively)  These parliaments legislated within the competences transferred to the provincial associations  The provincial diet of East Prussia elected a provincial executive body (government), the provincial committee (Provinzialausschuss), and a head of province, the Landeshauptmann ("Land Captain"; till the 1880s titled Landdirektor, land director) 

Upper Presidents of East Prussia and Prussia
1765–1791: Johann Friedrich von Domhardt, president of the Gumbinnen and Königsberg War and Demesnes Chambers
1791–1808: Friedrich Leopold von Schrötter, president of the Gumbinnen and Königsberg War and Demesnes Chambers, as of 1795 Minister for East and New East Prussia
1808–1814: vacancy?
1814–1824: Hans Jakob von Auerswald, upper president of East Prussia
1824–1842: Heinrich Theodor von Schön, upper president of Prussia, merged from East and West Prussia, since 1816 already upper president of West Prussia
1842–1848: Carl Wilhelm von Bötticher, upper president of Prussia
1848–1849: Rudolf von Auerswald, upper president of Prussia
1849–1850: Eduard Heinrich von Flottwell (1786–1865), upper president of Prussia
1850–1868: Franz August Eichmann, upper president of Prussia
1868–1869: vacancy
1869–1882: Carl Wilhelm Heinrich Georg von Horn, upper president of Prussia, after 1878 of East Prussia
1882–1891: Albrecht Heinrich von Schlieckmann, upper president of East Prussia
1891–1895: Count Udo zu Stolberg-Wernigerode, upper president of East Prussia
1895–1901: Count Wilhelm von Bismarck-Schönhausen, upper president of East Prussia
1901–1903: Hugo Samuel von Richthofen, upper president of East Prussia
1903–1907: Count Friedrich von Moltke, upper president of East Prussia
1907–1914: Ludwig von Windheim, upper president of East Prussia
1914–1916: Adolf Tortilowicz von Batocki-Friebe, upper president of East Prussia
1916–1918: Friedrich von Berg, upper president of East Prussia
1918–1919: Adolf Tortilowicz von Batocki-Friebe, upper president of East Prussia
1919–1920: August Winnig (SPD), upper president of East Prussia
1920–1932: Ernst Siehr (DDP), upper president of East Prussia
1932–1933: Wilhelm Kutscher (DNVP), upper president of East Prussia
1933–1945: Erich Koch (NSDAP), upper president of East Prussia

Elections to the provincial diets
Land Directors and Land Captains of East Prussia
1876–1878: Heinrich Edwin Rickert (NLP, later DFP), titled land director
1878–1884: Kurt von Saucken-Tarputschen (Fortschritt, later DFP), titled land director
1884–1888: Alfred von Gramatzki (DKP), titled land director
1888–1896: Klemens von Stockhausen, titled land director
1896–1909: Rudolf von Brandt, titled land captain
1909–1916: Friedrich von Berg, titled land captain
1916–1928: Manfred Graf von Brünneck-Bellschwitz, titled land captain
1928–1936: Paul Blunk, titled land captain
1936–1941: Helmuth von Wedelstädt (NSDAP), titled land captain
1941–1945: vacancy
1941–1945: Reinhard Bezzenberger, first land councillor, per pro

Cities and towns
See also
Drang nach Osten
Landsmannschaft Ostpreußen
East Prussian Regional Museum
Ostsiedlung

Explanatory notes
Citations
General bibliography
Publications in EnglishBaedeker, Karl, Northern Germany, 14th revised edition, London, 1904 
Beevor, Antony (2002)  "chapters 1-8"  Berlin: The Downfall 1945  Penguin Books  ISBN 0-670-88695-5  Archived from the original on 5 February 2006  Retrieved 6 May 2006  (on the years 1944/45)
Alfred-Maurice de Zayas, " Nemesis at Potsdam"  London, 1977  ISBN 0-8032-4910-1 
Alfred-Maurice de Zayas, A Terrible Revenge: The Ethnic Cleansing of the East European Germans, 1944-1950, 1994, ISBN 0-312-12159-8
Carsten, F  L  "East Prussia"  History 33#119 (1948), pp  241–246  JSTOR 24402359  Historiography of medieval and early modern period 
Dickie, Reverend J F , with E Compton, Germany, A & C Black, London, 1912 
Douglas, R M : Orderly and Humane  The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War  Yale University Press, 2012  ISBN 978-0300166606 
von Treitschke, Heinrich, History of Germany - vol 1: The Wars of Emancipation, (translated by E & C Paul), Allen & Unwin, London, 1915 
Powell, E  Alexander, Embattled Borders, London, 1928 
Prausser, Steffen and Rees, Arfon: The Expulsion of the "German" Communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the Second World War  Florence, Italy, European University Institute, 2004 
Naimark, Norman: Fires of Hatred  Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe  Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2001 
Steed, Henry Wickham, Vital Peace - A Study of Risks, Constable & Co , London, 1936 
Newman, Bernard, Danger Spots of Europe, London, 1938 
Wieck, Michael: A Childhood Under Hitler and Stalin: Memoirs of a "Certified Jew", University of Wisconsin Press, 2003, ISBN 0-299-18544-3 
Woodward, E L , Butler, Rohan; Medlicott, W N , Dakin, Douglas, & Lambert, M E , et al  (editors), Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939, Three Series, Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO), London, numerous volumes published over 25 years  Cover the Versailles Treaty including all secret meetings; plebiscites and all other problems in Europe; includes all diplomatic correspondence from all states 
Previté-Orton, C W , Professor, The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, Cambridge University Press, 1952 (2 volumes) 
Balfour, Michael, and John Mair, Four-Power Control in Germany and Austria 1945-1946, Oxford University Press, 1956 
Kopelev, Lev, To Be Preserved Forever, ("Хранить вечно"), 1976 
Koch, H W , Professor, A History of Prussia, Longman, London, 1978/1984, (P/B), ISBN 0-582-48190-2
Koch, H W , Professor, A Constitutional History of Germany in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Longman, London, 1984, (P/B), ISBN 0-582-49182-7
MacDonogh, Giles, Prussia, Sinclair-Stevenson, London, 1994, ISBN 1-85619-267-9
Nitsch, Gunter, Weeds Like Us, AuthorHouse, 2006, ISBN 978-1-4259-6755-0
Denny, Isabel (2007)  The fall of Hitler's fortress city : the battle of Konigsberg, 1945  Havertown, Penn : Casemate  ISBN 978-1-61200-058-9  OCLC 783289112 
Tooze, Adam (2006)  The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy  New York: Viking  ISBN 978-0-670-03826-8 Publications in GermanB  Schumacher: Geschichte Ost- und Westpreussens, Würzburg 1959
Boockmann, Hartmut: Ostpreußen und Westpreußen (= Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas)  Siedler, Berlin 1992, ISBN 3-88680-212-4
Buxa, Werner and Hans-Ulrich Stamm: Bilder aus Ostpreußen
Dönhoff, Marion Gräfin v  :Namen die keiner mehr nennt - Ostpreußen, Menschen und Geschichte
Dönhoff, Marion Gräfin v : Kindheit in Ostpreussen
Falk, Lucy:  Ich Blieb in Königsberg  Tagebuchblätter aus dunklen Nachkriegsjahren
Kibelka, Ruth:  Ostpreußens Schicksaljahre, 1945-1948
Bernd, Martin (1998)  Masuren, Mythos und Geschichte  Karlsruhe: Evangelische Akademie Baden  ISBN 83-85135-93-6 
Nitsch, Gunter: "Eine lange Flucht aus Ostpreußen", Ellert & Richter Verlag, 2011, ISBN 978-3-8319-0438-9
Wieck, Michael: Zeugnis vom Untergang Königsbergs: Ein "Geltungsjude" berichtet, Heidelberger Verlaganstalt, 1990, 1993, ISBN 3-89426-059-9 Publications in FrenchPierre Benoît, Axelle
Georges Blond, L'Agonie de l'Allemagne
Michel Tournier, Le Roi des aulnesPublications in PolishK  Piwarski (1946)  Dzieje Prus Wschodnich w czasach nowożytnych  Gdańsk 
Gerard Labuda, ed  (1969–2003)  "Historia Pomorza", vol  I–IV  Poznań 
collective work (1958–61)  "Szkice z dziejów Pomorza", vol  1–3  Warszawa 
Andreas Kossert (2009)  PRUSY WSCHODNIE, Historia i mit  Warszawa  ISBN 978-83-7383-354-8 

External links
Pictures of East Prussia Large archive
Brandenburg Prince-Electors co-inheritors 1568, co-regent 1577
East Prussia FAQ
Extensive East & West Prussian Historical Materials Archived 14 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine (in English and German)
East and West Prussia Gazetteer
Provinz Ostpreußen (in German)
Ostpreußen net (in German)
Ostpreußen Info – East Prussia Information (in German)
East- and West Prussia in Photos
Spuren der Vergangenheit / Следы Пρошлого (Traces of the past) This site by W A  Milowskij, a Kaliningrad resident, contains hundreds of interesting photos, often with text explanations, of architectural and infrastructural artifacts of the territory's long German past (in German and Russian)
German Empire: Province of East Prussia (in German)
"East Prussia"   Encyclopædia Britannica  Vol  8 (11th ed )  1911 
Britannica 2007 article
Growing up in East Prussia An oral history project, documenting the German history of East Prussia with memories and reports by contemporary witnesses (in German and Polish)
East & West Prussia Map Collection
Historical borders of East Prussia (in German)
Passage 7:
Russian Far East
The Russian Far East (Russian: Дальний Восток России) is a region in Northeast Asia  It is the easternmost part of Russia and the Asian continent; and is administered as part of the Far Eastern Federal District, which is located between Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia and the Pacific Ocean  The area's largest city is Khabarovsk, followed by Vladivostok  The region shares land borders with the countries of Mongolia, China, and North Korea to its south, as well as maritime boundaries with Japan to its southeast, and with the United States along the Bering Strait to its northeast  
Although the Russian Far East is often considered as a part of Siberia abroad, it has been historically categorized separately from Siberia in Russian regional schemes (and previously during the Soviet era when it was called the Soviet Far East) 

Terminology
In Russia, the region is usually referred to as just "Far East" (Дальний Восток - Dal'niy Vostok)  What is known in English as the Far East is usually referred to as "the Asia-Pacific Region" (Азиатско-тихоокеанский регион - Aziatsko-tikhookeanskiy region, abbreviated to АТР - ATR), or "East Asia" (Восточная Азия - Vostochnaya Aziya), depending on the context 

Geographical features
Beyenchime-Salaatin crater
Klyuchevskaya Sopka volcano
Kuril–Kamchatka Trench
Lake Baikal

Fauna
Order Galliformes
Family Tetraonidae
Hazel grouse
Siberian grouse
Black grouse
Black-billed capercaillie
Willow ptarmigan
Rock ptarmigan

Family Phasianidae
Daurian partridge
Japanese quail
Ring-necked pheasant

Order Artiodactyla
Sika deer
Snow sheep
Caribou
Elk
Wild boar
Siberian roe deer
Manchurian wapiti
Siberian musk deer

Order Carnivora
Family Canidae
Eurasian wolf
Tundra wolf
Arctic fox
Red fox

Family Felidae
Amur leopard
Siberian tiger

Family Ursidae
Ussuri black bear
Eurasian brown bear
East Siberian brown bear
Kamchatka brown bear
Ussuri brown bear
Polar bear

Flora
Picea obovata
Pinus pumila
Alnus japonica

History
Russian expansion
Russians reached the Pacific coast in 1647 with the establishment of Okhotsk, and the Russian Empire consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century, after the annexation of part of Chinese Manchuria (1858-1860)  Primorskaya Oblast was established as a separate administrative division of the Russian Empire in 1856, with its administrative center at Khabarovsk 

Administrative history
Several entities with the name "Far East" existed in the first half of the 20th century, all with rather different boundaries:

1920–1922: the Far Eastern Republic, which included Transbaikal, Amur, Primorskaya, and Kamchatka Oblasts and northern Sakhalin;
1922–1926: Far-Eastern Oblast, which included Amur, Transbaikal and Kamchatka Guberniyas and others;
1926–1938: Far-Eastern Krai, which included the present-day Primorsky and Khabarovsk Krais Until 2000 the Russian Far East lacked officially-defined boundaries   A single term "Siberia and the Far East" (Сибирь и Дальний Восток) often referred to Russia's regions east of the Urals without drawing a clear distinction between "Siberia" and "the Far East" 
In 2000 Russia's federal subjects were grouped into larger federal districts, one of which, the Far Eastern Federal District, comprised Amur Oblast, the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Kamchatka Oblast with the Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Khabarovsk Krai, Magadan Oblast, Primorsky Krai, the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, and Sakhalin Oblast  In November 2018 Zabaykalsky Krai and the Republic of Buryatia were added they had previously formed part of the Siberian Federal District  Since 2000, Russians have increasingly used the term "Far East" to refer to the federal district, though the term is often also used more loosely 
Defined by the boundaries of the federal district, the Far East has an area of 6 2 million square kilometres (2,400,000 sq mi)—over one-third of Russia's total area 

Russo-Japanese War
Russia in the early 1900s persistently sought a warm-water port on the Pacific Ocean for the Imperial Russian Navy as well as to facilitate maritime trade  The recently-established Pacific seaport of Vladivostok (founded in 1860) was operational only during the summer season, but Port Arthur (leased by Russia from China from 1896 onwards) in Manchuria could operate all year  After the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the failure of the 1903 negotiations between Japan and the Tsar Nicholas II's government, Japan chose war to protect its domination of Korea and adjacent territories  Russia, meanwhile, saw war as a means of distracting its populace from government repression and of rallying patriotism in the aftermath of several general strikes  Japan issued a declaration of war on 8 February 1904  However, three hours before Japan's declaration of war was received by the Russian government, the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the Russian 1st Pacific Squadron at Port Arthur  Eight days later Russia declared war on Japan 
The war ended in September 1905 with a Japanese victory following the fall of Port Arthur and the failed Russian invasion of Japan through the Korean Peninsula and Northeast China; also, Japan had threatened to invade Primorsky Krai via Korea  The warring parties signed the Treaty of Portsmouth on 5 September 1905, and both Japan and Russia agreed to evacuate Manchuria and to return its sovereignty to China, but Japan was allowed to lease the Liaodong Peninsula (containing Port Arthur and Talien, aka Kwantung Leased Territory), and the Russian rail system in southern Manchuria with its access to strategic resources  Japan also received the southern half of the island of Sakhalin from Russia  In 1907 Japan forced Russia to confiscate land from Korean settlers (who formed the majority of Primorsky Krai's population) due to a fear of an invasion of Korea and of the ousting of Japanese troops by Korean guerrillas 

Soviet era
Between 1937 and 1939, the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin deported over 200,000 Koreans to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, fearing that the Koreans might act as spies for Japan  Many Koreans died on the way in cattle trains due to starvation, illness, or freezing conditions  Soviet authorities purged and executed many community leaders; Koryo-saram were not allowed to travel outside of Central Asia for the next 15 years  Koreans were also not allowed to use the Korean language and its use began to become lost with the involvement of the Koryo-mar dialect and the use of Russian 
Development of numerous remote locations in the Soviet Far East relied on Gulag labour camps during Stalin's rule, especially in the region's northern half  After the death of Stalin in 1953 the large-scale use of forced labour waned and was superseded by volunteer employees attracted by relatively high wages 

Soviet–Japanese conflicts
During the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Soviets occupied Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island, Yinlong Island, and several adjacent islets to separate the city of Khabarovsk from the territory controlled by a possibly hostile power Indeed, Japan turned its military attention to Soviet territories  Conflicts between the Japanese and the Soviets frequently happened on the border of Manchuria between 1938 and 1945  The first confrontation occurred in Primorsky Krai, the Battle of Lake Khasan (July–August 1938) involved an attempted military incursion of Japanese-controlled Manchukuo into territory claimed by the Soviet Union  This incursion was founded in the beliefs of the Japanese side that the Soviet Union had misinterpreted the demarcation of the boundary based on the 1860 Treaty of Peking between Imperial Russia and Manchu China  Primorsky Krai was always threatened by a Japanese invasion despite the fact that most of the remaining clashes occurred in Manchukuo 
The clashes ended shortly before and after the conclusion of World War II (see Soviet–Japanese War) when a war-weakened Japan found its territories of Manchukuo, Mengjiang, Korea, and South Sakhalin invaded by Soviet and Mongolian troops (August 1945) 

World War II
Both the Soviet Union and Japan regarded the Primorsky Krai as a strategic location in World War II, and clashes over the territory were common  The Soviets and the other Allies considered it a key location for the planned invasion of Japan through Korea; Japan viewed it as a key location to begin a mass invasion of Eastern Russia  The Primorsky Krai served as the Soviet Union's Pacific headquarters in the war to plan an invasion for allied troops of Korea in order to reach Japan 
After the Soviet invasion, the USSR returned Manchukuo and Mengjiang to China; Korea became liberated  The Soviet Union also occupied and annexed Japan's Kuril Islands and southern Sakhalin  The planned Soviet invasion of Japan proper never happened 

Cold War
During the Korean War, Primorsky Krai became the site of extreme security concern for the Soviet Union 
Vladivostok became the site of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks in 1974  At the time, the Soviet Union and the United States decided quantitative limits on various nuclear weapons systems and banned the construction of new land-based ICBM launchers  Vladivostok and other cities in Primorsky Krai soon became closed cities because of the bases of the Soviet Pacific Fleet 
Incursions of American reconnaissance aircraft from Alaska sometimes happened  Concerns of the Soviet military caused the infamous Korean Air Lines Flight 007 incident in 1983 

Russian Federation
Russian Homestead Act
In 2016, President Vladimir Putin proposed the Russian Homestead Act to populate the Russian Far East 

Demographics
Population
According to the 2010 Census, Far Eastern Federal District had a population of 6,293,129 
Most of it is concentrated in the southern parts   Given the vast territory of the Russian Far East, 6 3 million people translates to slightly less than one person per square kilometer, making the Russian Far East one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world   The population of the Russian Far East has been rapidly declining since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (even more so than for Russia in general), dropping by 14% in the last fifteen years   The Russian government had been discussing a range of re-population programs to avoid the forecast drop to 4 5 million people by 2015, hoping to attract in particular the remaining Russian population of the near abroad but eventually agreeing on a program to resettle Ukrainian Illegal immigrants 
Ethnic Russians and Ukrainians make up the majority of the population 

Cities
75% of the population is urban   The largest cities are:

Vladivostok
Khabarovsk
Ulan-Ude
Chita
Komsomolsk-on-Amur
Blagoveshchensk
Yakutsk
Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky
Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk
Nakhodka
Ussuriysk

Traditional ethnic groups
The original population groups of the Russian Far East include (grouped by language group):

Mongolic: Buryats
Turkic: Sakha
Eskimo–Aleut: Aleuts, Siberian Yupiks (Yuits)
Chukotko-Kamchatkan: Chukchi, Koryaks, Alutors, Kereks, Itelmens
Tungusic: Evenks, Evens, Nanais, Orochs, Ul'ch, Udegey, Orok, Manchus
Isolate: Yukaghirs, Nivkhs, Ainus

Transportation
The region was not connected with the rest of Russia via domestic highways until the M58 highway was completed in 2010 
Uniquely for Russia, most cars have right-hand drive (73% of all cars in the region), though traffic still flows on the right-hand side of the road 
Railways are better developed  The Trans-Siberian Railway and Baikal–Amur Mainline (since 1984) provide a connection with Siberia (and the rest of the country)  The Amur–Yakutsk Mainline is aimed to link the city of Yakutsk to the Russian railway network  Passenger trains connect to Nizhny Bestyakh as of 2013 
Like in nearby Siberia, for many remote localities, aviation is the main mode of transportation to/from civilisation, but the infrastructure is often poor 
Maritime transport is also important for delivering supplies to localities at (or near) the Pacific and Arctic coasts, and for shipping exports, especially oil, gas and ores 

See also
Bering Strait
Far North (Russia)
Kolyma
List of Russian explorers
Russian Manchuria

Footnotes
Bibliography
Beer, Daniel  The house of the dead: Siberian exile under the tsars (Vintage, 2017) 
Bobrick, Benson/ East of the Sun: the Epic Conquest and Tragic History of Siberia, (NY: Poseidon Press, 1992)
Forsyth, James  History of the Peoples of Siberia, (Cambridge: University Press 1992)
Glebov, Sergei  "Center, Periphery, and Diversity in the Late Imperial Far East: New Historiography of a Russian Region " Ab Imperio 2019 3 (2019): 265–278 
Hartley, Janet M  Siberia, A History of the People, (New Haven: Yale University Press 2014)
Haywood, A J  Siberia: A Cultural History, (Oxford UP, 2010)
Monahan, Erika  The merchants of Siberia: Trade in early modern Eurasia (Cornell UP, 2016) 
Naumov, Igor  History of Siberia, (London: Routledge, 2006)
Reid, Anna  The Shaman's Coat: A Native History of Siberia, (NY: Walker & Comp , 2002)
Stolberg  Eva-Maria  (ed ), Siberian Saga: a History of Russia's Wild East, (2005)
Vajda (ed ),  Edward J Languages and Prehistory of Central Siberia, (Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2004)
Wood, Alan  The History of Siberia, (London: Rutledge, 1991)
Wood, Alan    Russian Far East 1581 -1991, (London:  Bloomsbury Academic, 2011)

External links

Meeting of Frontiers: Siberia, Alaska, and the American West (includes materials on Russian Far East)
Дальневосточный федеральный округ at WGEO
Context 3: Passage 1:
Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos
Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos (19 July 1871 – 25 May 1935) was a Dominican political figure  He served as provisional president of the Dominican Republic between 1922 and 1924 during the U S  military occupation 

Early life
Juan Bautista Vicini was born on 19 July 1871 to Italian immigrant Juan Bautista Vicini Cánepa (born Giovanni Battista Vicini) and his concubine María Burgos Brito  His father arrived to the Dominican Republic during the boom in the sugar industry which he took advantage of to create a respectable operation within a relatively short amount of time  According to the Dutch author H  Hoetink in his book El Pueblo Dominicano, 1850–1900, his father owned two sugar plantations by 1882 and by 1893 was the owner of the sugar mill "Angelina"  His friendly relationship with General Ulises Heureaux (Lilís) helped him consolidate a respectable fortune  Vicini inherited his father's business and was able to become a successful businessman mainly by part of his strict European education  Vicini was fluent in Spanish, Italian, English and French at a very young age 
Juan Bautista Vicini never married and had no wife during his presidency 

Political career
The Dominican Republic had been occupied by American Troops since 1916 and after the approval of the Hughes-Peynado plan Vicini was a candidate for the position of provisional President of the Dominican Republic  He was elected President in 1922 and his main goal was to facilitate the evacuation of the United States troops that were present in the Dominican Republic  The day after he was elected, Vicini named the five men who would make up his cabinet  They were as follows:

José del Carmen Ariza, Secretary of Internal Affairs
Cayetano Armando Rodríquez, Secretary of Justice and Instruction
Eladio Sánchez, Secretary of Promotion and Communications
Manuel Sanabia, Secretary of Health and Charity
Pedro Pérez, Secretary of Agriculture and ImmigrationWith these steps, Vicini assured the removal of the North American forces in a peaceful manner  Despite its good intentions, Vicini's regime was plagued and pressured by the tight grip of the Hughes-Peynado plan and by the American forces that were still in the country  Even so, he set up the cleanest elections that the Dominican Republic had ever seen in which Horacio Vásquez won on 15 March 1924 against Francisco J  Peynado 
When Vicini left the presidency after the elections, he went back to his sugar business and abandoned politics for the remainder of his life  At the time of his death on 25 May 1935 Juan Bautista Vicini left his relatives one of the largest sugar enterprises in the Caribbean, which is still operating as of 2010 
Passage 2:
Plymouth Notch Cemetery
The Plymouth Notch Cemetery in Plymouth Notch, Vermont, is noted as the burial place for 30th President of the United States Calvin Coolidge, as well as his wife Grace, children (Calvin Coolidge, Jr  1908–1924, John Coolidge 1906–2000), and other members of the Coolidge family Other notable burials include Howard E  Armstrong, who served as Secretary of State of Vermont from 1949 to 1965, and abolitionist Achsa W  Sprague 
Passage 3:
Ceredig
Ceredig ap Cunedda (died 453), was king of Ceredigion in Wales He may have been born c  420 in the Brythonic kingdom of Manaw Gododdin (modern Lothian in Scotland), centred on the Firth of Forth in the area known as Yr Hen Ogledd 
Little is known of him  One of the sons of Cunedda, grandfather of Saint David, according to Nennius' Historia Brittonum, he arrived in what is now modern Wales from Gododdin with his father's family when they were invited to help ward off Irish invaders  As a reward for his bravery, his father gave him the southernmost part of the territories in north-west Wales reconquered from the Irish  The realm is traditionally supposed to have been called Ceredigion after him, which led to the name of modern Ceredigion, one of the principal areas of Wales 
He married Meleri, one of the many daughters of King Brychan Brycheiniog of Brycheiniog (now Brecknockshire)  Amongst their children was a daughter named Ina who is thought to be the Saint Ina to whom St Ina's Church in Llanina near New Quay, Ceredigion is dedicated 

Footnotes
Passage 4:
Niels Henrik Abel
Niels Henrik Abel ( AH-bəl, Norwegian: [ˌnɪls ˈhɛ̀nːɾɪk ˈɑ̀ːbl̩]; 5 August 1802 – 6 April 1829) was a Norwegian mathematician who made pioneering contributions in a variety of fields   His most famous single result is the first complete proof demonstrating the impossibility of solving the general quintic equation in radicals  This question was one of the outstanding open problems of his day, and had been unresolved for over 250 years  He was also an innovator in the field of elliptic functions, discoverer of Abelian functions  He made his discoveries while living in poverty and died at the age of 26 from tuberculosis  He and his contemporary Évariste Galois (who also died young at 20) developed the branch of mathematics now known as group theory  
Most of his work was done in six or seven years of his working life  Regarding Abel, the French mathematician Charles Hermite said: "Abel has left mathematicians enough to keep them busy for five hundred years " Another French mathematician, Adrien-Marie Legendre, said: "What a head the young Norwegian has!"The Abel Prize in mathematics, originally proposed in 1899 to complement the Nobel Prizes (but first awarded in 2003), is named in his honour 

Life
Early life
Niels Henrik Abel was born prematurely in 
Nedstrand, Norway, as the second child of the pastor Søren Georg Abel and Anne Marie Simonsen  When Niels Henrik Abel was born, the family was living at a rectory on Finnøy  Much suggests that Niels Henrik was born in the neighboring parish, as his parents were guests of the bailiff in Nedstrand in July / August of his year of birth Niels Henrik Abel's father, Søren Georg Abel, had a degree in theology and philosophy and served as pastor at Finnøy  Søren's father, Niels's grandfather, Hans Mathias Abel, was also a pastor, at Gjerstad Church near the town of Risør  Søren had spent his childhood at Gjerstad, and had also served as chaplain there; and after his father's death in 1804, Søren was appointed pastor at Gjerstad and the family moved there  The Abel family originated in Schleswig and came to Norway in the 17th century 

Anne Marie Simonsen was from Risør; her father, Niels Henrik Saxild Simonsen, was a tradesman and merchant ship-owner, and said to be the richest person in Risør  Anne Marie had grown up with two stepmothers, in relatively luxurious surroundings  At Gjerstad rectory, she enjoyed arranging balls and social gatherings  Much suggests she was early on an alcoholic and took little interest in the upbringing of the children  Niels Henrik and his brothers were given their schooling by their father, with handwritten books to read  An addition table in a book of mathematics reads: 1+0=0 

Cathedral School and Royal Frederick University
With Norwegian independence and the first election held in Norway, in 1814, Søren Abel was elected as a representative to the Storting  Meetings of the Storting were held until 1866 in the main hall of the Cathedral School in Christiania (now known as Oslo)  Almost certainly, this is how he came into contact with the school, and he decided that his eldest son, Hans Mathias, should start there the following year  However, when the time for his departure approached, Hans was so saddened and depressed over having to leave home that his father did not dare send him away  He decided to send Niels instead In 1815, Niels Abel entered the Cathedral School at the age of 13  His elder brother Hans joined him there a year later  They shared rooms and had classes together  Hans got better grades than Niels; however, a new mathematics teacher, Bernt Michael Holmboe, was appointed in 1818  He gave the students mathematical tasks to do at home  He saw Niels Henrik's talent in mathematics, and encouraged him to study the subject to an advanced level  He even gave Niels private lessons after school 
In 1818, Søren Abel had a public theological argument with the theologian Stener Johannes Stenersen regarding his catechism from 1806  The argument was well covered in the press  Søren was given the nickname "Abel Treating" (Norwegian: "Abel Spandabel")  Niels' reaction to the quarrel was said to have been "excessive gaiety"  At the same time, Søren also almost faced impeachment after insulting Carsten Anker, the host of the Norwegian Constituent Assembly; and in September 1818 he returned to Gjerstad with his political career in ruins  He began drinking heavily and died only two years later, in 1820, aged 48 
Bernt Michael Holmboe supported Niels Henrik Abel with a scholarship to remain at the school and raised money from his friends to enable him to study at the Royal Frederick University 
When Abel entered the university in 1821, he was already the most knowledgeable mathematician in Norway  Holmboe had nothing more he could teach him and Abel had studied all the latest mathematical literature in the university library  During that time, Abel started working on the quintic equation in radicals  Mathematicians had been looking for a solution to this problem for over 250 years  In 1821, Abel thought he had found the solution  The two professors of mathematics in Christiania, Søren Rasmussen and Christopher Hansteen, found no errors in Abel's formulas, and sent the work on to the leading mathematician in the Nordic countries, Carl Ferdinand Degen in Copenhagen  He too found no faults but still doubted that the solution, which so many outstanding mathematicians had sought for so long, could really have been found by an unknown student in far-off Christiania  Degen noted, however, Abel's unusually sharp mind, and believed that such a talented young man should not waste his abilities on such a "sterile object" as the fifth degree equation, but rather on elliptic functions and transcendence; for then, wrote Degen, he would "discover Magellanian thoroughfares to large portions of a vast analytical ocean"  Degen asked Abel to give a numerical example of his method  While trying to provide an example, Abel found a mistake in his paper  This led to a discovery in 1823 that a solution to a fifth- or higher-degree equation was impossible Abel graduated in 1822  His performance was exceptionally high in mathematics and average in other matters 

Career
After he graduated, professors from university supported Abel financially, and Professor Christopher Hansteen let him live in a room in the attic of his home  Abel would later view Ms  Hansteen as his second mother  While living here, Abel helped his younger brother, Peder Abel, through examen artium  He also helped his sister Elisabeth to find work in the town 
In early 1823, Niels Abel published his first article in "Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne", Norway's first scientific journal, which had been co-founded by Professor Hansteen  Abel published several articles, but the journal soon realized that this was not material for the common reader  In 1823, Abel also wrote a paper in French  It was "a general representation of the possibility to integrate all differential formulas" (Norwegian: en alminnelig Fremstilling af Muligheten at integrere alle mulige Differential-Formler)  He applied for funds at the university to publish it  However, the work was lost while being reviewed, never to be found thereafter 

In mid-1823, Professor Rasmussen gave Abel a gift of 100 speciedaler so he could travel to Copenhagen and visit Ferdinand Degen and other mathematicians there  While in Copenhagen, Abel did some work on Fermat's Last Theorem  Abel's uncle, Peder Mandrup Tuxen, lived at the naval base in Christianshavn, Copenhagen, and at a ball there Niels Abel met Christine Kemp, his future fiancée  In 1824, Christine moved to Son, Norway to work as a governess and the couple got engaged over Christmas After returning from Copenhagen, Abel applied for a government scholarship in order to visit top mathematicians in Germany and France, but he was instead granted 200 speciedaler yearly for two years, to stay in Christiania and study German and French  In the next two years, he was promised a scholarship of 600 speciedaler yearly and he would then be permitted to travel abroad  While studying these languages, Abel published his first notable work in 1824, Mémoire sur les équations algébriques où on démontre l'impossibilité de la résolution de l'équation générale du cinquième degré (Memoir on algebraic equations, in which the impossibility of solving the general equation of the fifth degree is proven)  By 1823, Abel had at last proved the impossibility of solving the quintic equation in radicals (now referred to as the Abel–Ruffini theorem)  However, this paper was in an abstruse and difficult form, in part because he had restricted himself to only six pages in order to save money on printing  A more detailed proof was published in 1826 in the first volume of Crelle's Journal 

In 1825, Abel wrote a personal letter to King Carl Johan of Norway/Sweden requesting permission to travel abroad  He was granted this permission, and in September 1825 he left Christiania together with four friends from university (Christian P B Boeck, Balthazar M  Keilhau, Nicolay B  Møller and Otto Tank)  These four friends of Abel were traveling to Berlin and to the Alps to study geology  Abel wanted to follow them to Copenhagen and from there make his way to Göttingen  The terms for his scholarship stipulated that he was to visit Gauss in Göttingen and then continue to Paris  However, when he got as far as Copenhagen, he changed his plans  He wanted to follow his friends to Berlin instead, intending to visit Göttingen and Paris afterwards On the way, he visited the astronomer Heinrich Christian Schumacher in Altona, now a district of Hamburg  He then spent four months in Berlin, where he became well acquainted with August Leopold Crelle, who was then about to publish his mathematical journal, Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik  This project was warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the success of the venture  Abel contributed seven articles to it in its first year 
From Berlin Abel also followed his friends to the Alps  He went to Leipzig and Freiberg to visit Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich Naumann and his brother the mathematician August Naumann  In Freiberg Abel did research in the theory of functions, particularly, elliptic, hyperelliptic, and a new class now known as abelian functions 
From Freiberg they went on to Dresden, Prague, Vienna, Trieste, Venice, Verona, Bolzano, Innsbruck, Luzern and Basel  From July 1826 Abel traveled on his own from Basel to Paris  Abel had sent most of his work to Berlin to be published in Crelle's Journal, but he had saved what he regarded as his most important work for the French Academy of Sciences, a theorem on addition of algebraic differentials  With the help of a painter, Johan Gørbitz, he found an apartment in Paris and continued his work on the theorem  He finished in October 1826 and submitted it to the academy  It was to be reviewed by Augustin-Louis Cauchy  Abel's work was scarcely known in Paris, and his modesty restrained him from proclaiming his research  The theorem was put aside and forgotten until his death 
Abel's limited finances finally compelled him to abandon his tour in January 1827  He returned to Berlin, and was offered a position as editor of Crelle's Journal, but opted out  By May 1827 he was back in Norway  His tour abroad was viewed as a failure  He had not visited Gauss in Göttingen and he had not published anything in Paris  His scholarship was therefore not renewed and he had to take up a private loan in Norges Bank of 200 spesidaler  He never repaid this loan  He also started tutoring  He continued to send most of his work to Crelle's Journal  But in mid-1828 he published, in rivalry with Carl Jacobi, an important work on elliptic functions in Astronomische Nachrichten in Altona 

Death
While in Paris, Abel contracted tuberculosis  At Christmas 1828, he traveled by sled to Froland, Norway, to visit his fiancée  He became seriously ill on the journey  Although a temporary improvement allowed the couple to enjoy the holiday together, he died relatively soon after on 6 April 1829, just two days before a letter arrived from August Crelle telling Abel that Crelle had secured him an appointment as a professor at the University of Berlin 

Contributions to mathematics
Abel showed that there is no general algebraic solution for the roots of a quintic equation, or any general polynomial equation of degree greater than four, in terms of explicit algebraic operations with the Abel-Ruffini theorem  To do this, he invented (independently of Galois) a branch of mathematics known as group theory,  which is invaluable not only in many areas of mathematics, but for much of physics as well  Abel sent a paper on the unsolvability of the quintic equation to Carl Friedrich Gauss, who proceeded to discard without a glance what he believed to be the worthless work of a crank As a 16-year-old, Abel gave a rigorous proof of the binomial theorem valid for all numbers, extending Euler's result which had held only for rationals  Abel wrote a fundamental work on the theory of elliptic integrals, containing the foundations of the theory of elliptic functions 
While travelling to Paris he published a paper revealing the double periodicity of elliptic functions, which Adrien-Marie Legendre later described to Augustin-Louis Cauchy as "a monument more lasting than bronze" (borrowing a famous sentence by the Roman poet Horatius)  The paper was, however, misplaced by Cauchy While abroad Abel had sent most of his work to Berlin to be published in the Crelle's Journal, but he had saved what he regarded as his most important work for the French Academy of Sciences, a theorem on addition of algebraic differentials  The theorem was put aside and forgotten until his death  While in Freiberg, Abel did research in the theory of functions, particularly, elliptic, hyperelliptic, and a new class now known as abelian functions 
In 1823 Abel wrote a paper titled "a general representation of the possibility to integrate all differential formulas" (Norwegian: en alminnelig Fremstilling af Muligheten at integrere alle mulige Differential-Formler)  He applied for funds at the university to publish it  However the work was lost, while being reviewed, never to be found thereafter Abel said famously of Carl Friedrich Gauss's writing style, "He is like the fox, who effaces his tracks in the sand with his tail " Gauss replied to him by saying, "No self-respecting architect leaves the scaffolding in place after completing his building "

Legacy
Under Abel's guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis began to be cleared, new fields were entered upon and the study of functions so advanced as to provide mathematicians with numerous ramifications along which progress could be made  His works, the greater part of which originally appeared in Crelle's Journal, were edited by Bernt Michael Holmboe and published in 1839 by the Norwegian government, and a more complete edition by Ludwig Sylow and Sophus Lie was published in 1881  The adjective "abelian", derived from his name, has become so commonplace in mathematical writing that it is conventionally spelled with a lower-case initial "a" (e g , abelian group, abelian category, and abelian variety) 
On 6 April 1929, four Norwegian stamps were issued for the centenary of Abel's death  His portrait appears on the 500-kroner banknote (version V) issued during 1978–1985  On 5 June 2002, four Norwegian stamps were issued in honour of Abel two months before the bicentenary of his birth  There is also a 20-kroner coin issued by Norway in his honour  A statue of Abel stands in Oslo, and crater Abel on the Moon was named after him  In 2002, the Abel Prize was established in his memory 
Mathematician Felix Klein wrote about Abel:

But I would not like to part from this ideal type of researcher, such as has seldom appeared in the history of mathematics, without evoking a figure from another sphere who, in spite of his totally different field, still seems related  Thus, although Abel shared with many mathematicians a complete lack of musical talent, I will not sound absurd if I compare his kind of productivity and his personality with Mozart's  Thus one might erect a monument to this divinely inspired mathematician like the one to Mozart in Vienna: simple and unassuming he stands there listening, while graceful angels float about, playfully bringing him inspiration from another world 
Instead, I must mention the very different type of memorial that was in fact erected to Abel in Christiania and which must greatly disappoint anyone familiar with his nature  On a towering, steep block of granite a youthful athlete of the Byronic type steps over two greyish sacrificial victims, his direction toward the heavens  If needed be, one might take the hero to be a symbol of the human spirit, but one ponders the deeper significance of the two monsters in vain  Are they the conquered quintic equations or elliptic functions? Or the sorrows and cares of his everyday life? The pedestal of the monument bears, in immense letters, the inscription ABEL 

See also
List of things named after Niels Henrik Abel
Évariste Galois

Notes
Passage 5:
NASCAR Speedway Division
The NASCAR Speedway Division was a short-lived series brought forth in 1952 by NASCAR president and founder Bill France Sr  The series consisted of open-wheel race cars competing with stock engines  The idea of the series was to draw from the popularity of other open-wheel racing events such as the Indianapolis 500 

History
1952 season
The first Speedway Division race was held at Darlington Raceway and was won by Buck Baker with a Cadillac engine  The series' second race was held at Martinsville Speedway on May 25, with only 17 entries  The pole at Martinsville was won by Bill Miller in an "Olds 88 Special"  Tex Keene, driving a car with a stock Mercury engine came from 16th place to win the race  A total of seven races were run in 1952 with Buck Baker becoming the series champion 

1953 season
In 1953, Speedway Division events were paired with those in the Sportsman Division   Three races were held with few entries before the series was quietly discontinued   The final series champion was Pete Allen 

Statistics
Race wins
Championships
Passage 6:
Richard Fink
Richard Harold Fink (born May 31, 1951) is an American businessman and academic  He is the former executive vice president of Koch Industries, the second largest privately held company in the U S 

Education and academic career
Fink received a B A  in economics from Rutgers University, an M A  in economics from the University of California, Los Angeles, and a Ph D  in economics from New York University  Between 1980 and 1986, Fink was on the economics faculty at George Mason University, where he was the founder and director of the Center for Market Processes, which later became the Mercatus Center  Under his leadership, during the 1980s, George Mason was a center of Austrian Economics 

Relationship with Charles Koch
In the late '70s, Richard Fink met Charles Koch to discuss founding a research center devoted to teaching Austrian economics thought at Rutgers  Fink met with Koch in Wichita and planned what became the Mercatus Center in 1999 

Koch Industries
Fink served as an executive vice president of Koch Industries, Inc  He was also chairman and CEO of Koch Companies Public Sector, LLC, which provides legal and government and public affairs services to Koch Industries and its affiliate  He was on the board of directors of Koch Industries Inc , Georgia-Pacific and Flint Hills Resources, LLC 

Koch Family Foundations
Fink was a member of the boards of directors and President of the Charles G  Koch Charitable Foundation and the Claude R  Lambe Charitable Foundation  He was also on the board of the Fred C  and Mary R  Koch Foundation 

Board memberships
Fink served on the board of trustees of the Democratic Leadership Council Fink co-founded Citizens for a Sound Economy, where he served as president, and co-founded the Citizens for a Sound Economy Foundation, which is now the Americans for Prosperity Foundation  
He also sat on the board of the Institute for Humane Studies, and the Mercatus Center at George Mason University  He previously served on the Consumer Advisory Council of the Federal Reserve Board and the Commission on Privatization 
Fink was a member of the boards of directors of the Charles Koch Foundation, the Claude R  Lambe Charitable Foundation, the Fred C  and Mary R  Koch Foundation, the Institute for Humane Studies, the Market-Based Management Institute, and Americans for Prosperity Foundation 
Passage 7:
Isabel Martínez de Perón
Isabel Martínez de Perón (Spanish pronunciation: [isaˈβel maɾˈtines ðe peˈɾon], born María Estela Martínez Cartas, 4 February 1931), also known as Isabelita, is an Argentine politician who served as President of Argentina from 1974 to 1976  She was one of the first female republican heads of state in the world, and the first woman to serve as president of a country 
Isabel Perón was the third wife of President Juan Perón  During her husband's third term as president from 1973 to 1974, she served as both Vice President and First Lady of Argentina  Following her husband's death in office in 1974, she served as President for almost two years before the military took over the government with the 1976 coup  Perón was then placed under house arrest for five years before she was exiled to Spain in 1981 In 2007 an Argentine judge ordered Perón's arrest over the forced disappearance of an activist in February 1976, on the grounds that the disappearance was authorized by her signing of decrees allowing Argentina's armed forces to take action against "subversives"  She was arrested near her home in Spain on 12 January 2007  Spanish courts subsequently refused her extradition to Argentina Since the death of Carlos Menem on 14 February 2021, Perón is the oldest living former Argentine president 

Early life and career
María Estela Martínez Cartas was born in La Rioja, Argentina, daughter of María Josefa Cartas Olguín and Carmelo Martínez  She dropped out of school after the fifth grade  In the early 1950s she became a nightclub dancer adopting the name Isabel, the saint's name (the Spanish form of that of Saint Elizabeth of Portugal) that she had chosen as a confirmation name 

Juan Perón
She met her future husband during his exile in Panama  Juan Domingo Perón, who was 35 years her senior, was attracted by her beauty and believed she could provide him with the female companionship he had been lacking since the death of his beloved second wife Eva Perón (Evita) in 1952  Perón brought Isabel with him when he moved to Madrid, Spain, in 1960  Authorities did not approve of Perón's cohabitation with a young woman to whom he was not married, so on 15 November 1961 the former president reluctantly married for a third time 

Early political career
As Perón resumed an active role in Argentine politics from exile, Isabel acted as a go-between from Spain to Argentina  Having been deposed in a coup in 1955, Perón was forbidden from returning to Argentina, so his new wife was appointed to travel in his stead  The CGT leader José Alonso became one of her main advisers in Perón's dispute against Steelworkers' leader Augusto Vandor's Popular Union faction during mid-term elections in 1965; Alonso and Vandor were both later assassinated in as-yet unexplained circumstances 

José López Rega
Isabel met José López Rega, who was a former policeman with an interest in occultism and fortune-telling, during a visit to Argentina in 1965  She was interested in occult matters (and as president reportedly employed astrological divination to determine national policy), so the two quickly became friends  Under pressure from Isabel, Perón appointed López as his personal secretary; López later founded the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A), a death squad accused of perpetrating 1,500 crimes in the 1970s 

Rise to power
Dr  Héctor Cámpora was nominated by Perón's Justicialist Party to run in the March 1973 presidential elections on the FREJULI ticket (a Peronist-led alliance)  Cámpora won, but it was generally understood that Juan Perón held the real power; a popular phrase at the time was "Cámpora al gobierno, Perón al poder" (Cámpora in government, Perón in power)  Later that year, Perón returned to Argentina, and Cámpora resigned to allow Perón to run for president  He chose Isabel as his nominee for the Vice Presidency to mollify feuding Peronist factions, as these could agree on no other running mate  His return from exile was marked by a growing rift between the right and left wings of the Peronist movement; while Cámpora represented the left wing, López Rega represented the right wing  The latter was, moreover, supported by the CGT labor federation leadership and Isabel herself, and this faction became known by the left as the entorno ('entourage') due to the inner circle status Perón afforded them  Juan Perón had long been inimical to the left, but cultivated their support while he was in exile  His sympathies ended, however, after the assassination of CGT leader José Ignacio Rucci by the leftist Montoneros in September Perón's victory in a snap election called by Congress in September 1973 was always considered likely, and he won with 62% of the vote  He began his third term on 12 October, with Isabel as Vice President  Perón was by then in precarious health, however; a CIA cable at the time described him as alternating between a lucid state and that of senile dependency  Isabel had to take over as Acting President on several occasions during his tenure 

Presidency
Juan Perón suffered a series of heart attacks on 28 June 1974; Isabel was summoned home from a European trade mission and secretly sworn in as acting president the next day  Juan Perón died on 1 July 1974, less than a year after his third election to office  As vice-president his widow formally ascended to the presidency, thus becoming the first woman in the world to hold the title of "President", although she was not the first woman to lead a country  She was popularly known as La Presidente Although she lacked Evita Perón's charisma, the grieving widow at first attracted support from the nation  She pledged to uphold the social market economy policies embodied in the 1973 "Social Pact" as well her husband's long-held orthodox Peronism and economic nationalism; her first significant economic policy decisions were the enactment of a new, pro-labor employment contract law and the granting to YPF a monopoly over filling stations  Even leftist groups, having fallen out with Juan Perón in previous months, publicly offered support to her  However she cancelled meetings with various constituent and political groups, and the sympathy resulting from her husband's death soon dissipated  Her government purged most leftists from university posts and the administration, and (as her husband and other Argentine presidents had done) used Federal intervention powers to unseat leftist governors  Following a string of political murders and a break by the Montoneros with the government, on 30 September Perón signed the Anti-Terrorism Law  This was the first in a series of measures which eroded constitutional rights, ostensibly for the sake of combating leftist violence Another source of contention between her and the voters was the increasing impression that José López Rega, the Minister of Social Welfare, set the agenda for a broad swath of Perón's policies, vetting nearly all domestic and foreign policy  His public behaviour – which included bizarre actions such as silently mouthing her words as she spoke – began to cost the president much-needed support among the Argentine public  Known to have fascist sympathies, López Rega was also notably corrupt and used his position to secure business partnerships with (ODESSA network principal) Otto Skorzeny, (Libyan leader) Muammar Gaddafi, and (the Italian Fascist) Licio Gelli (to whose P-2 lodge López Rega belonged) López Rega's greatest influence upon Isabel Perón's presidency came through his recently formed Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A)  A right-wing paramilitary force, between late 1973 and late 1974 the Triple A had already carried out nearly 300 murders, including that of Professor Silvio Frondizi (brother of former President Arturo Frondizi), Congressman Rodolfo Ortega Peña, activist Father Carlos Mugica, Buenos Aires Province Assistant Police Chief Julio Troxler, former Córdoba Vice-Governor Atilio López and former Chilean Army head Carlos Prats  Other prominent public servants, such as UCR Senator Hipólito Solari Yrigoyen, and left-wing University of Buenos Aires President Rodolfo Puiggrós, narrowly survived Triple A attacks; Puiggrós was then removed from his post Atrocities were also being committed by left-wing extremists  Organized in 1968, the anarchist Montoneros murdered former head of state Pedro Aramburu, popular CGT union Secretary General José Ignacio Rucci, construction workers' union leader Rogelio Coria, former Interior Minister Arturo Mor Roig and U S  Consul John Egan, among other murders and kidnappings  Throughout 1974, the rise of a new and nearly-as-violent Trotskyite group, the ERP, added to the cycle of violence  Having gained notoriety after the murder of FIAT executive Oberdan Sallustro, the ERP began the year with a violent assault on the Azul barracks  It murdered, among others, a criminal court judge, Jorge Quiroga; the writer Jordán Bruno Genta; and the publisher of La Plata's centrist El Día, David Kraiselburd  The kidnapping of Esso executive Victor Samuelson, freed for a ransom of US$12 million, ignited what would become a rash of such crimes  However, the government and paramilitaries used this environment to target and murder many legitimate opponents of the regime, as listed above Following the murder of Buenos Aires Police Chief Alberto Villar (one of López Rega's closest collaborators in the Triple A) and his wife, as well as amid increasing activity by the ERP in the Province of Tucumán, Perón was persuaded to declare a state of siege on 6 November (suspending, among other rights, habeas corpus)



ground_truth: names were replaced by new Russian names

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where was the president born on the fourth of July born?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Censorship also increased markedly, culminating in the closure by decree of one of the leading news dailies in Latin America (Crónica) and several other publications, as well as the banning of Argentine television figures such as talk show host Mirtha Legrand and comedian Tato Bores Operation Independence began in Tucumán on 5 February 1975  This military campaign, though successful from a military standpoint, gained notoriety for its brutality; in addition to going after insurgents, it attacked elected officials, magistrates, University of Tucumán faculty, and even secondary school teachers The government turned on the labor movement, the mainstay of Peronism for the better part of a quarter-century, classifying it as "subversive" and subject to reprisals  The November 1974 election of a left-wing union shop steward at a Villa Constitución steel mill and its disapproval by steelworkers' leader Lorenzo Miguel (a leading figure in the paramount CGT), resulted in a brutal 20 March 1975 police assault on the facility  The raid, executed jointly with Triple A heavies, led to the "disappearances" of many of the 300 workers arrested 

Stacking the State Intelligence Secretariat (SIDE) with Fascists loyal to him, Lopez Rega hastened unprecedented intrigue, culminating in the kidnapping of Jorge and Juan Born, prominent local executives who paid US$60 million for their release (a world record at the time)  Using contacts from among the Montoneros' many double agents, the agency kept the Born brothers in a known SIDE safehouse for nine months until their June 1975 release without public suspicion of SIDE involvement, a successful false flag operation that led to others (albeit less ambitious ones) in the following months López Rega, meanwhile, arranged the dismissal of many of the most competent policy makers Perón had inherited from her husband's brief presidency; by May 1975, both Economy Minister José Ber Gelbard and Central Bank President Alfredo Gómez Morales had been replaced with right-wing López Rega loyalists Isabel Perón initially maintained the Social Pact inherited from her husband, and succeeded in enhancing it with reforms such as the enactment in December 1974 of payroll taxes to strengthen the Public Retirement System  Yielding to pressure from labor she ignored the incomes policy aspect of the Social Pact, however, and while the economy remained otherwise stable, a price/wage spiral ensued with inflation rising from a low of 12% a year at the height of the Social Pact in May 1974 to 80% a year later The Social Pact also faced growing opposition by employers, particularly after conservative members of the General Economic Council (CGE) split from the conciliatory CGE in March 1975 to form the more combative APEGE; this group would later adopt the tactic of staging recurring lockouts against the administration Faced with record trade and budget deficits, the new Economy Minister, Celestino Rodrigo, proceeded to apply economic shock therapy in June  These measures doubled rates and fares and ordered a surprise halving of the peso's value, which, by forcing those who could to stampede towards the U S  dollar, destroyed the fragile financial balance that had been maintained to that point  Consumer prices doubled between May and August 1975 alone, and though sharp, mandatory wage hikes had been negotiated between the government, labor and employers, the resulting shock (known as the Rodrigazo) ignited protest across Argentina, including a two-day general strike by the CGT (the first ever against a Peronist administration)  Following protests in front of his offices, the now hated José López Rega was hastily appointed Ambassador to Spain and boarded a flight into exile 

Fall from power
López Rega left the country on 19 July  Shortly afterward, Perón dismissed her protégés in the Economy Ministry, Celestino Rodrigo, and in the Armed Forces High Command, General Alberto Numa Laplane, whom she replaced in August with General Jorge Videla, a quiet career officer with an uneventful military record  The president's appointment of a pragmatic economist, Peronist wheelhorse Antonio Cafiero and her 13 September announcement of a leave of absence relieved ample sectors of society, from labor unions to business  Designating Senate President Ítalo Lúder, a moderately conservative Peronist, in her stead, it was widely hoped that her leave would become permanent; but, it was not to be Limited largely to the murder of security forces and public figures during 1974, political violence escalated during 1975 to include soft targets in the population at large as Trotskyist ERP and fascist Triple A extremists began taking to midnight lightning strikes against each other and civilian targets such as banks, buses, yachts, parking lots, and restaurants  Over 700 people died from political violence during Mrs  Perón's first 15 months in office, of which more than half were subversives and most of the remainder were security forces; by March 1976, civilians comprised fully half of the 1,358 deaths attributable to this conflict The Montoneros, moreover, began a series of audacious attacks on military installations, including August dynamiting of the nearly finished destroyer Santísima Trinidad near the port of La Plata and the Operation Primicia, a terrorist attack on a military base in Formosa Province on 5 October  Anxious to placate the exasperated public, the military, hard-line labor leaders (particularly the steelworkers' Lorenzo Miguel), and most other Peronists, on 6 October she and Lúder signed new measures giving blanket immunity for the Armed Forces that they may (in her words) "annihilate subversive elements throughout the country" – in effect a nationwide extension of the state of siege that had been imposed in Tucumán  The measure won her just enough support to return from "sick leave" and on 17 October (on Peronists' historically central Loyalty Day), Perón appeared at the balcony of the Casa Rosada, back at her post Her health remained fragile, however, and a gallbladder affliction forced her to take a second, shorter leave of absence in November  Interior Minister Ángel Robledo's proposal that elections (scheduled for March 1977) should instead be held in November 1976 was approved by the president during this leave, bringing renewed hope that an increasingly rumored coup d'état could yet be averted Anxiety over inflation, meanwhile, continued to dominate daily life  Monthly inflation did slow from the (then-record) 35% logged in July - but remained at 10–15% monthly between September and January 1976  A sudden fall in business investment had by then sent the economy into a sharp recession, however  GDP growth had already slowed from a 6 8% rate in the fourth quarter of 1974 to 1 4% in the second quarter; following the Rodrigazo crisis, the economy shrank 4 4% by the first quarter of 1976, with fixed investment falling by one sixth and auto production by a third The mid-year recession had significantly curbed the growth in imports; but because exports continued to fall, the trade deficit reached a record billion dollars in 1975, nearly depleting foreign exchange reserves  The government's 1975 budget had been derailed by the crisis and by earlier commitments to cancel its then still-modest foreign debt, something which even so cost Argentina US$2 5 billion that year, alone  The resulting budget deficits (over US$5 billion, in 1975) and a series of lockouts in the agricultural and commercial sectors began to reassert pressure on prices after November, leading to hoarding and shortages The appointment of Brigadier General Héctor Fautario, a loyalist of Perón, to the branch's high command, fueled broader support in the Air Force for action against her administration, and on 18 December, General Jesús Capellini attempted a coup d'état by seizing the Morón Airport and Air Base  The military joint chiefs, however, who obtained Fautario's dismissal, stayed the mutiny's hand, secretly concluding that the timing was premature  Partly in response, the nearly defeated ERP on 23 December besieged the important Monte Chingolo Armory, which claimed the lives of six military personnel and 85 guerrilla members; this defeat marked the end of the ERP's violent campaign Allegations had surfaced in August that Perón had embezzled large sums from the Cruzada de Solidaridad ('Solidarity Crusade'), a government-run charity, into her personal accounts in Spain  A congressional investigation launched in November over the charity fund embezzlement allegations had meanwhile dissipated her remaining support in Congress, prompting the departure of the second-largest party in the FREJULI alliance, the centrist MID, and dividing the Peronist caucus into "Vericalist" and "Rebel" factions  Her administration was dealt further political blows from within her own party by a break in December with the Governor of Buenos Aires Victorio Calabró, who declared that "we won't make it [to the next elections]" and with the resignation in January 1976 of Interior Minister Ángel Robledo, her chief legislative and military point man 

Isabel Perón granted ever more significant policy concessions to the largely conservative military in the early months of 1976, from security matters to economic  Economy Minister Antonio Cafiero, supported by labor, was dismissed in February, and his replacement, Eugenio Mondelli, announced further shock therapy measures similar to the previous year's Rodrigazo – the Mondelazo  These measures included steep hikes in utility rates and a new devaluation of the already shredded peso, causing prices to more than double over the next three months (inflation reached a new record of over 700% by April) and leading a new wave of strikes and business lockouts The UCR initiated impeachment proceedings against the President in February with the support of the "Rebel" Peronist faction in Congress  Near defeat though still active, the Montoneros detonated a bomb at Army headquarters on 15 March, killing one and injuring 29 people  The head of the CGE, Julio Broner, left Argentina with his family, altogether; CGT Secretary General Casildo Herreras followed suit, announcing from exile that he had "erased" himself  The leader of the opposition UCR Ricardo Balbín, while making efforts to form a multi-party congressional crisis committee, held a private meeting in February with Army Chief of Staff Videla and told him, "If you're planning to stage a coup, do so as soon as possible – expect no applause from us, but no obstacles either "The media were by then openly counting down the days to the expected coup d'état, and several newspapers published editorials calling for Perón's overthrow  Even as the joint chiefs professed loyalty to La Presidente, the Armed Forces High Command had already given final approval to a coup, code-named 'Operation Aries', when the president returned from her leave of absence in October 1975 After working late into the evening of 23 March 1976, in the hope of averting a renewed business lockout, Perón celebrated her executive assistant's birthday with staff  Alerted to suspicious military exercises, she boarded the presidential helicopter shortly after midnight  It did not fly her to the Quinta de Olivos presidential residence but to an Air Force base in nearby Jorge Newbery International Airport, where she was formally deposed and arrested 

Detention and exile
The majority of Peronist officials in the national, provincial, and municipal governments were promptly arrested, brutally beaten, starved, tortured, and interrogated by military police  Many "disappeared" permanently during the subsequent Dirty War, including numerous right-wing Peronists  Isabel Perón herself remained under house arrest in Villa La Angostura and other secluded locations for five years, and was eventually sent into exile in Spain in July 1981  She continued to serve as official head of her husband's Justicialist Party until her resignation in February 1985, nearly a decade after her fall from power  Though there were some who desired her return and wished for her return to power, she refused to stand for election to the presidency when elections were ultimately called in 1983  She lived in Madrid, maintained close links with Francisco Franco's family, and sometimes went to Marbella  She sold Perón's Puerta de Hierro estate in 2001, and relocated to a townhouse in the western suburb of Villafranca del Castillo 

Following the restoration of democracy in Argentina, she was pardoned from charges of corruption during her presidency and returned in December 1983 as a guest of honor at President Raúl Alfonsín's inauguration, and in May 1984 to participate in policy talks arranged by Alfonsín and opposition leaders  Still nominally head of Juan Perón's Justicialist Party, she played a constructive role in the talks, supporting cooperation between the restive CGT labor union (her party's political base) and Alfonsín  The talks concluded with a weak agreement, and she resigned from her post as titular head of the party  She returned to Argentina in 1988 to resolve probate disputes concerning the Perón estate, then resumed residence in Spain under a very low profile 

Arrest in Spain
A judge in Mendoza, Argentina in November 2006 demanded testimony from Isabel Perón, along with other Peronist ministers of her government, in a case involving forced disappearances during her presidency; on 12 January 2007, she was arrested by police in Madrid  She was charged by the Argentine authorities with the disappearance of Héctor Aldo Fagetti Gallego on 25 February 1976, and for crimes related to her issuance of 6 October 1975 decree calling the Armed Forces to "annihilate subversive elements " The Nunca Más ("Never Again") report released in 1984 by the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons recorded 600 disappearances and 500 assassinations under the Peronist governments from 1973 to 1976, and it is acknowledged that the Triple A alone murdered some 600 people The 2006 capture in Spain of Triple A death-squad overseer Rodolfo Almirón, who had also been in charge of López Rega's and Isabel Perón's personal security, shed further light on the extent of Triple A involvement in the early stages of the Dirty War  Isabel Perón's extradition to Argentina was refused by Spain on 28 March 2008  Spain's National Court ruled twice that the charges against her did not constitute crimes against humanity, adding that the statute of limitations on the charges expired after 20 years The Supreme Court of Justice of Argentina unanimously dismissed on 21 June 2017 the petitions to interrogate Isabel Perón either as a witness or as a defendant 

See also
National Reorganization Process

Notes
Passage 8:
Territorial evolution of the United States
The United States of America was formed after thirteen British colonies in North America declared independence from the British Empire on July 4, 1776  In the Lee Resolution, passed by the Second Continental Congress two days prior, the colonies resolved that they were free and independent states  The union was formalized in the Articles of Confederation, which came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states  Their independence was recognized by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which concluded the American Revolutionary War  This effectively doubled the size of the colonies, now able to stretch west past the Proclamation Line to the Mississippi River  This land was organized into territories and then states, though there remained some conflict with the sea-to-sea grants claimed by some of the original colonies  In time, these grants were ceded to the federal government 
The first great expansion of the country came with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, which doubled the country's territory, although the southeastern border with Spanish Florida was the subject of much dispute until it and Spanish claims to the Oregon Country were ceded to the US in 1821  The Oregon Country gave the United States access to the Pacific Ocean, though it was shared for a time with the United Kingdom  The annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845 led directly to the Mexican–American War, after which the victorious United States obtained the northern half of Mexico's territory, including what was quickly made the state of California  However, as the development of the country moved west, the question of slavery became more important, with vigorous debate over whether the new territories would allow slavery and events such as the Missouri Compromise and Bleeding Kansas  This came to a head in 1860 and 1861, when the governments of the southern states proclaimed their secession from the country and formed the Confederate States of America  The American Civil War led to the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865 and the eventual readmission of the states to the United States Congress  The cultural endeavor and pursuit of manifest destiny provided a strong impetus for westward expansion in the 19th century 
The country began expanding beyond North America in 1856 with the passage of the Guano Islands Act, causing many small and uninhabited, but economically important, islands in the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea to be claimed  Most of these claims were eventually abandoned, largely due to competing claims from other countries  The Pacific expansion culminated in the annexation of Hawaii in 1898, after the overthrow of its government five years previously  Alaska, the last major acquisition in North America, was purchased from Russia in 1867 
Support for the independence of Cuba from the Spanish Empire, and the sinking of the USS Maine, led to the Spanish–American War in 1898, in which the United States gained Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, and occupied Cuba for several years  American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the Second Samoan Civil War  The United States purchased the U S  Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917  Guam and Puerto Rico remain territories; the Philippines became independent in 1946, after being a major theater of World War II  Following the war, many islands were entrusted to the U S  by the United Nations, and while the Northern Mariana Islands remain a U S  territory, the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau emerged from the trust territory as independent nations  The last major international change was the acquisition in 1904, and return to Panama in 1979, of the Panama Canal Zone, an unincorporated US territory which controlled the Panama Canal  The final cession of formal control over the region was made to Panama in 1999 
States have generally retained their initial borders once established  Only four states (Maine, Kentucky, Vermont, and West Virginia) have been created from land claimed by another state; all of the other states were created from territories or from acquisitions  Four states (Louisiana, Missouri, Nevada, and Pennsylvania) have expanded by acquiring additional federal territory after their initial admission to the Union  In 1912, Arizona was the last state established in the contiguous United States, commonly called the "lower 48"  In 1959, Hawaii was the 50th and most recent state admitted 

Legend for maps
Key to map colors

1776–1784 (American Revolution)
1784–1803 (Organization of territory)
1803–1818 (Purchase of Louisiana)
1819–1845 (Northwest expansion)
1845–1860 (Southwest expansion)
1860–1865 (Civil War)
1866–1897 (Reconstruction and western statehood)
1898–1945 (Pacific and Caribbean expansion)
1946–present (Decolonization)
Bancos along the Rio Grande
The Banco Convention of 1905 between the United States and Mexico allowed, in the event of sudden changes in the course of the Rio Grande (as by flooding), for the border to be altered to follow the new course   The sudden changes often created bancos (land surrounded by bends in the river that became segregated from either country by a cutoff, often due to rapid accretion or avulsion of the alluvial channel), especially in the Lower Rio Grande Valley  When these bancos are created, the International Boundary and Water Commission investigates if land previously belonging to the United States or Mexico is to be considered on the other side of the border  In all cases of these adjustments along the Rio Grande under the 1905 convention, which occurred on 37 different dates from 1910 to 1976, the transferred land was minuscule (ranging from one to 646 acres) and uninhabited 

See also
Geography of the United States
Territories of the United States
Historic regions of the United States
American frontier
List of U S  state partition proposals
List of U S  states by date of admission to the Union
Movements for the annexation of Canada to the United States
National Atlas of the United States
Ostend Manifesto (annexation of Cuba)
List of territorial claims and designations in Colorado
Territorial evolution of Arizona
Territorial evolution of California
Territorial evolution of Idaho
Territorial evolution of Montana
Territorial evolution of Nevada
Territorial evolution of New Mexico
Territorial evolution of North Dakota
Territorial evolution of Oregon
Territorial evolution of South Dakota
Territorial evolution of Utah
Territorial evolution of Washington
Territorial evolution of Wyoming
Territories of the United States on stamps
List of U S –Native American treaties, which indicates tribal land cessions

Notes
Passage 9:
Carmen Ionesco
Carmen Ionesco (birth name Carmen Ionescu; born July 28, 1951 in Bucharest, Romania) is a retired discus thrower and shot putter, who competed for Romania and Canada at the Summer Olympics 
She represented Romania in her first Olympic appearance, at Munich in 1972  Following her emigration to Canada, Ionesco competed for Canada at two Commonwealth Games (1978 and 1982), the 1979 Pan American Games, and the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles 
Her younger sister Florența competed for Romania in the 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics 

Achievements
Passage 10:
Independence Day (United States)
Independence Day, known colloquially as the Fourth of July, is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the Declaration of Independence, which was ratified by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, establishing the United States of America 
The Founding Father delegates of the Second Continental Congress declared that the Thirteen Colonies were no longer subject (and subordinate) to the monarch of Britain, King George III, and were now united, free, and independent states  The Congress voted to approve independence by passing the Lee Resolution on July 2 and adopted the Declaration of Independence two days later, on July 4 Independence Day is commonly associated with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball games, family reunions, political speeches, and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States  Independence Day is the national day of the United States 

Background
During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the thirteen colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain's rule  After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author  
While Jefferson consulted extensively with the other four members of the Committee of Five, he largely wrote the Declaration of Independence in isolation over 17 days between June 11, 1776, and June 28, 1776, from the second floor he was renting in a three-story private home at 700 Market Street in Philadelphia, now known as the Declaration House, and within walking distance of Independence Hall 
Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, removing Jefferson's vigorous denunciation of King George III for importing the slave trade, finally approving it two days later on July 4  A day earlier, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail:The second day of July 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America  I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival  It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty  It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forever more 
Adams's prediction was off by two days  From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much-publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day  Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed By a remarkable coincidence, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, the only two signatories of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as presidents of the United States, both died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration  Although not a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected president, also died on July 4, 1831, making him the third President who died on the anniversary of independence  The only U S  president to have been born on Independence Day was Calvin Coolidge, who was born on July 4, 1872 

Observance
In 1777, thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, Rhode Island  An article in the July 18, 1777, issue of The Virginia Gazette noted a celebration in Philadelphia in a manner a modern American would find familiar: an official dinner for the Continental Congress, toasts, 13-gun salutes, speeches, prayers, music, parades, troop reviews, and fireworks  Ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting 
In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a double ration of rum for his soldiers and an artillery salute (feu de joie)  Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, France 
In 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday  The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5 
In 1781, the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration 
In 1783, Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration with a challenging music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter entitled The Psalm of Joy  The town claims it to be the first public July 4 event, as it was carefully documented by the Moravian Church, and there are no government records of any earlier celebrations 
In 1870, the U S  Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees 
In 1938, Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday 

Customs
Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays  Per 5 U S C  § 6103, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day   While the legal holiday remains on July 4, if that date happens to be on a Saturday or Sunday, then federal government employees will instead take the day off on the adjacent Friday or Monday, respectively Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with family members or friends  Decorations (e g , streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag  Parades are often held in the morning, before family get-togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, sporting venues, fairgrounds, public shorelines, or town squares The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece  In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks  They were lit at nightfall to usher in the celebration  The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels  These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded  The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries and is still practiced in some New England towns Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs, such as "The Star-Spangled Banner" (the American national anthem); "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean"; "God Bless America"; "America the Beautiful"; "My Country, 'Tis of Thee"; "This Land Is Your Land"; "Stars and Stripes Forever"; "Yankee Doodle"; "Dixie" in southern states; "Lift Every Voice and Sing"; and occasionally, but has nominally fallen out of favor, Hail Columbia  Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812 

Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show  Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed  In addition, local and regional conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed; for example, the global supply chain crisis following the COVID-19 pandemic forced cancellations of shows  Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns  On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union," is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base New York City has the largest fireworks display in the country sponsored by Macy's, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded in 2009  It generally holds displays in the East River  Other major displays are in Seattle on Lake Union; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in Philadelphia over the Philadelphia Museum of Art; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D C During the annual Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan, hosts one of the largest fireworks displays in North America, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario's celebration of Canada Day The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three-day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips 

Celebration gallery
Notable celebrations
Held since 1785, the Bristol Fourth of July Parade in Bristol, Rhode Island, is the oldest continuous Independence Day celebration in the United States 
Since 1868, Seward, Nebraska, has held a celebration on the same town square  In 1979 Seward was designated "America's Official Fourth of July City-Small Town USA" by resolution of Congress  Seward has also been proclaimed "Nebraska's Official Fourth of July City" by Governor J  James Exon in proclamation  Seward is a town of 6,000 but swells to 40,000+ during the July 4 celebrations 
Since 1912, the Rebild Society, a Danish-American friendship organization, has held a July 4 weekend festival that serves as a homecoming for Danish-Americans in the Rebild Hills of Denmark 
Since 1959, the International Freedom Festival is jointly held in Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario, during the last week of June each year as a mutual celebration of Independence Day and Canada Day (July 1)  It culminates in a large fireworks display over the Detroit River 
The famous Macy's fireworks display usually held over the East River in New York City has been televised nationwide on NBC, and locally on WNBC-TV since 1976  In 2009, the fireworks display was returned to the Hudson River for the first time since 2000 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Henry Hudson's exploration of that river 
The Boston Pops Orchestra has hosted a music and fireworks show over the Charles River Esplanade called the "Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular" annually since 1974  Cannons are traditionally fired during the 1812 Overture  The event was broadcast nationally from 1991 until 2002 on A&E, and since 2002 by CBS and its Boston station WBZ-TV  WBZ/1030 and WBZ-TV broadcast the entire event locally, and from 2002 through 2012, CBS broadcast the final hour of the concert nationally in primetime  The national broadcast was put on hiatus beginning in 2013, which Pops executive producer David G  Mugar believed was the result of decreasing viewership caused by NBC's encore presentation of the Macy's fireworks  The national broadcast was revived for 2016, and expanded to two hours  In 2017, Bloomberg Television took over coverage duty, with WHDH carrying local coverage beginning in 2018 
On the Capitol lawn in Washington, D C , A Capitol Fourth, a free concert broadcast live by PBS, NPR and the American Forces Network, precedes the fireworks and attracts over half a million people annually 

Other countries
The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate the day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U S  territory and the United States officially recognized  Philippine Independence 
July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962  In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day 
Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States 

See also
Federal holidays in the United States
Juneteenth
List of occasions known by their dates

Notes
Passage 11:
David Gardiner Tyler
David Gardiner Tyler (July 12, 1846 – September 5, 1927), was a U S  Democratic Party politician and the ninth child and fourth son of John Tyler, the tenth President of the United States 
Although born in New York, he went to school in Virginia and fought in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War  After attending college in Germany and Virginia, he became a lawyer  He later served in the Virginia State Senate, as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia's second congressional district, and as a Virginia Circuit Court judge 

Early life
Tyler was born in East Hampton, New York and was the first child born to former President John Tyler and his second wife, Julia Gardiner Tyler  He was named after his late maternal grandfather, David Gardiner  As a child, he attended private schools in Charles City County, Virginia 
In 1862, he entered present-day Washington and Lee University, where he was a member of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity, but dropped out the following year to fight in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War   He was present at the surrender of Robert E  Lee at Appomattox Court House in 1865   Following the war, he and his brother, John Alexander Tyler, traveled to Germany, and attended school in the Grand Duchy of Baden  He returned to the United States, and graduated from the Washington and Lee School of Law in 1869 

Career
From 1870 to 1884, Tyler practiced law in Richmond, Virginia, before accepting an appointment as Director of the state lunatic asylum in Williamsburg, Virginia, serving until 1887  From 1891 to 1892, he served in the Virginia State Senate, and on the Board of Visitors of the College of William and Mary Tyler was elected to the United States House of Representatives from the state's 2nd District, serving from 1893 to 1897  He was defeated for renomination in 1896, and returned to private law practice until his reelection to the state senate, where he served from 1900 to 1904  From 1904 until his death in 1927, he served as a state circuit court judge 

Elections
1892; Tyler was elected to the U S  House of Representatives defeating Independent Republicans P C  Garrigan and John F  Deyendorf, H S  Collier, and Independent George Edwin Bowden, winning 55 61% of the vote 
1894; Tyler was re-elected defeating Republican Thomas R  Borland and Independent T J  Edwards, winning 56 27% of the vote 

Personal life
Tyler was married to the former Mary Morris Jones (1865–1931)  Together, they were the parents of five children, four of whom survived to adulthood:
Mary Lyon Tyler (1895–1975), who married George Peterkin Gamble (1899–1986) 
Margaret Gardiner Tyler (1897–1981), who married Stephen F  Chadwick (1894–1975), grandson of Stephen F  Chadwick, the 5th Governor of Oregon 
David Gardiner Tyler Jr  (1899–1993), who married Anne Morton Shelton (1900–1977) 
James Alfred Jones Tyler (1902–1972), who married Katherine Thomason (1909–1967) 
John Tyler (1905–1907), who died young He died at Sherwood Forest Plantation and is buried at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond 
Passage 12:
Karen Tandy
Karen Pomerantz Tandy is an American attorney and law enforcement official who served as the 9th Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration from 2003 to 2007  She was nominated by President George W  Bush and confirmed by the U S  Senate on July 31, 2003  She was the first female head of the DEA 

Early life and education
Tandy is a native of Fort Worth, Texas and graduated from L  D  Bell High School in Hurst, Texas  She earned a bachelor's degree from Texas Tech University and a Juris Doctor from the Texas Tech University School of Law 

Career
On October 22, 2007, she announced her retirement from the DEA, and took a position with Motorola  Tandy then became senior vice president of public affairs and communications where she served as Motorola's top public policy spokesperson on issues related to global telecom policy, trade, regulation, spectrum allocation, and country relations Since June 2016, she has served as vice chair of the Homeland Security Advisory Council  In March 2021, after Secretary of Homeland Security Alejandro Mayorkas dismissed all 32 members of the advisory council, Tandy was one of only three senior-level members to remain in their positions 
Passage 13:
Immokolee
Immokolee (also known as the Dorothy Binney Palmer House) is a historic home in Fort Pierce, Florida  It is located at 8431 Immokolee Road  On July 29, 1994, it was added to the U S  National Register of Historic Places 
The name "Immokolee" derives from a Seminole dialect word meaning "our home" or "my home place "The Mission Revival house was constructed in 1931 by local builder Franklind Tyler from a design provided by owner Dorothy Binney Palmer  The house was restored after Palmer's death in 1985 



ground_truth: Plymouth Notch