prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which two features were played up the person who had the biggest net worth in 2017?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Red Bull
Red Bull is a brand of energy drinks created and owned by the Austrian company Red Bull GmbH  With a market share of 43%, it is the most popular energy drink brand as of 2020, and the third most valuable soft drink brand behind Coca-Cola and Pepsi  Since its launch in 1987, more than 100 billion cans of Red Bull have been sold worldwide, including over 11 5 billion in 2022 Originally available only in a single nondescript flavor sold in a tall and slim silver-blue can, called Red Bull Energy Drink, numerous variants of the drink were added over the course of time  Its slogan, "Red Bull Gives You Wings", is considered one of the most popular and memorable advertising slogans in the United States, ranking at 16 out of 25 with a 59 3% slogan recognition rate according to a study by advertising and market research firm Survata  Rather than following a traditional marketing approach, Red Bull has generated awareness and created a "brand myth" through proprietary extreme sport event series such as Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series, Red Bull Air Race, Red Bull Crashed Ice and standout stunts such as the Stratos space diving project  In addition to sport series, its marketing includes multiple sports team ownerships; celebrity endorsements; and music, through its Red Bull Records label Red Bull was first derived from a similar drink called Krating Daeng that originated in Thailand and was introduced by the pharmacist Chaleo Yoovidhya  While doing business in Thailand, Dietrich Mateschitz purchased a can of Krating Daeng and claimed it cured his jet lag  Mateschitz sought to create a partnership with Yoovidhya and formulated a product that would suit the tastes of Westerners, such as by carbonating the drink  In 1984, the two founded Red Bull GmbH in Fuschl am See, Salzburg, Austria  When branding their new product, Mateschitz referenced Krating Daeng's name: in Thai, daeng means red, and a krating (known in English as a gaur or Indian bison) is a large species of wild bovine native to the Indian subcontinent  In 1987, the company sold its first can of Red Bull in Austria  In 1996, Red Bull began operation in the United States, and has seen steady growth ever since  Both Red Bull and Kraeting Daeng use the same red bull on yellow sun logo while continuing to market their drinks separately in the Thai and Western markets 

History
In 1976, Chaleo Yoovidhya introduced a drink called Krating Daeng in Thailand, which means "red gaur" in English  It was popular among Thai truck drivers and labourers  While working for German manufacturer Blendax (later acquired by Procter & Gamble) in 1982, Dietrich Mateschitz travelled to Thailand and met Chaleo, owner of T C  Pharmaceutical  During his visit, Mateschitz discovered that Krating Daeng helped cure his jet lag  In 1984, Mateschitz co-founded Red Bull GmbH with Yoovidhya and turned it into an international brand  Each partner invested US$500,000 of savings to fund the company  Yoovidhya and Mateschitz each held a 49 percent share of the new company  They gave the remaining two percent to Yoovidhya's son, Chalerm, but it was agreed that Mateschitz would run the company  The product was first launched in Austria on 1 April 1987 In Thailand, energy drinks are most popular with blue-collar workers  Red Bull re-positioned the drink as a trendy, upscale drink, first introducing it at Austrian ski resorts  Pricing was a key differentiator, with Red Bull positioned as a premium drink and Krating Daeng as a lower cost item  In many countries, both drinks are available, dominating both ends of the price spectrum  The flavouring used for Red Bull is still produced in Bangkok and exported worldwide  Gary Smith is one of the co-CEOs of Red Bull  As a senior board member and corporate secretary between 2000 and 2007, Mr  Smith was also responsible for all day-to-day operations of the company as the COO, including sales, trade marketing, motorsports marketing, finance, information systems, legal, supply chain, operations, and human resources During the 1990s, the product expanded into Hungary, Slovenia, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States  It entered Germany and the UK in 1994, the United States (via California) in 1996 and the Middle East in 2000  In 2008, Forbes magazine listed both Chaleo and Mateschitz as the 250th richest people in the world with an estimated net worth of US$4 billion Mateschitz died on 22 October 2022 aged 78, following a long illness Red Bull GmbH is headquartered in Fuschl am See, an Austrian village of about 1,500 inhabitants near Salzburg  The company is 51 percent controlled by the Yoovidhya family who, for technical reasons, own the trademark in Europe and the US 

Ingredients
Depending on the country, Red Bull contains different amounts of caffeine, taurine, B vitamins (B2, B3, B5, B6, B12), glucuronolactone and simple sugars (sucrose and glucose) in a buffer solution of carbonated water, sodium bicarbonate and magnesium carbonate (substituted in some flavours with a trisodium citrate/citric acid buffer, each solution providing electrolytes)  To produce Red Bull Sugarfree, sucrose and glucose have been replaced by artificial sweeteners acesulfame K and aspartame or sucralose 

Health effects
Claims about the drink's effects and performance have been challenged on various occasions, with the UK's Advertising Standards Authority imposing advertising restrictions in 2001 in response to complaints recorded as early as 1997 Energy drinks have the effects that caffeine and sugar provide, but experts still argue about the possible effects of the other ingredients  Most of the effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine  There is evidence that energy drinks can increase mental and athletic performance  A study funded by Red Bull GmbH, which did not include a caffeine-only control group, found that performance during prolonged driving is increased after consumption of Red Bull  Other tests for physical performance showed results such as increased endurance and power  Red Bull energy drink increased upper body muscle endurance during repeated Wingate tests in young healthy adults  Excessive or repeated consumption of energy drinks can lead to cardiac and psychiatric conditions The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that exposure to taurine and glucuronolactone at the levels presently used in energy drinks is not a safety concern  In a separate analysis, they also concluded that there is insufficient evidence to support a number of commercial health claims about taurine  A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, including Red Bull 

Caffeine content
The caffeine content of a single 250ml can of Red Bull is approximately 40–80 mg / 250 ml (15–32 mg / 100 ml)  The caffeine level in Red Bull varies depending on country, as some countries have legal restrictions on how much caffeine is allowed in drinks  As is the case with other caffeinated beverages, Red Bull drinkers may experience adverse effects as a result of overuse  Excessive consumption may induce mild to moderate euphoria primarily caused by stimulant properties of caffeine and may also induce agitation, anxiety, irritability and insomnia The general population of healthy adults is not at risk for potential adverse effects from caffeine if they limit their consumption to 400 mg per day, which is provided by 5 standard 250 ml cans  Consumption of a single energy drink will not lead to excessive caffeine intake  Adverse effects associated with caffeine consumption in amounts greater than 400 mg include nervousness, irritability, sleeplessness, increased urination, abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia), and dyspepsia  Consumption also has been known to cause pupil dilation when taken with certain antidepressants or SSRIs  Caffeine dosage is not required to be on the product label for food in the United States, unlike drugs, but some advocates are urging the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to change this practice  (Red Bull voluntarily lists the caffeine content in each can along with the ingredient list )

Variants
Over the years, Red Bull has offered many variations of its drink, all based on the same formula but differing in taste and colour Red Bull began offering variations on its drinks in 2003 with a sugar-free version of the drink with a different flavor from the original, called Red Bull Sugarfree  In 2012, Red Bull released Red Bull Total Zero, a variant with zero calories  In 2018, the company released Red Bull Zero, a different sugar-free formulation designed to taste more like the original flavor In 2009, Red Bull unveiled a highly concentrated variant of its drink called Red Bull Energy Shot, supplied in 2 oz (60 ml) cans The company began expanding its flavor offerings in 2013 with the launch of Red Bull Editions  Initially available in cranberry, lime, and blueberry, the Editions line has expanded to include a variety of flavours, including some available only during specific seasons or in certain regions 

Other products
Red Bull released a cola drink, called Simply Cola, in 2008  A new version of the cola was released in 2019, as part of Red Bull's Organics line 
In 2018, the company launched Organics by Red Bull, a line of organic sodas with four flavours; bitter lemon, ginger ale, tonic water, and a new version of Red Bull Simply Cola 

Regulatory approval and legal status
Authorities in France, Denmark, and Norway initially did not permit the sale of Red Bull  However, as of 2021, it is on sale in all 27 member states of the European Union and in 171 countries around the world The French food safety agency was concerned about taurine; a Red Bull drink that did not contain taurine was introduced  The French refusal of market approval was challenged by the European Commission, and partially upheld by the European Court of Justice in 2004  The French food safety agency relented in 2008, because it was unable to prove a definite health risk, taurine-related or not 

Litigation
In 2013, Red Bull told the Redwell Brewery, a Norfolk micro brewery, to change its name or face legal action, because it sounded too similar to Red Bull  The eight-man brewery in Norwich was told its name could "confuse" customers and "tarnish" its trademark  The two companies reached a settlement permitting Redwell to continue using its name In 2014, Red Bull entered into a US$13 million settlement to resolve two consumer class action lawsuits in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York  Named as plaintiffs were Benjamin Careathers, David Wolf, and Miguel Almarez, who had sued the company claiming breach of express warranty and unjust enrichment, saying that Red Bull falsely asserted performance-enhancing benefits from the drink's ingredients that were unsubstantiated by scientific studies  On 1 May 2015 the Court approved the settlement, giving customers who had submitted claims the opportunity to receive a US$10 cash reimbursement or US$15 in Red Bull products within 150 days of affirmance on any appeal  Contrary to reports from some news outlets, the plaintiffs had not alleged that the drink did not give consumers actual wings 

Advertising, sports team ownership, and sponsorships
Since 1997, Red Bull has been making commercials bearing its slogan "Red Bull gives you wings " Commercials usually were crudely animated and featured characters with constant squints 
Red Bull's international marketing campaign is largely linked to extreme sports  These range from motorcycle racing, such as MotoGP, Dakar Rally, motorcycle speedway, mountain biking, aerobatics, BMX, motocross, windsurfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, kayaking, rowing, wakeboarding, cliff-diving, parkour, surfing, skating, freestyle motocross, rallycross, Formula 1 motor racing, NASCAR racing, to breakdancing  Red Bull uses music and video games, and has enlisted celebrities, such as Eminem (sponsoring the Red Bull "EmSee Battle Rap championships")  It hosts events such as art shows and the "Red Bull Flugtag" (German for "flight day" or "flying day") Red Bull owns football teams, with clubs in Austria, Germany, the United States, and Brazil featuring the Red Bull trademark in their names  By associating the drink's image with these activities, the company seeks to promote a "cool" public image and raise brand power  The energy drink has created a market for over 150 related types of products In the PlayStation 3's social gaming platform, PlayStation Home, Red Bull developed its own in-game island, specifically advertising its energy drink and the Red Bull Air Race event (for which the space is named) released in January 2009  In late November 2009, Red Bull produced two new spaces, the Red Bull Illume space, and the Red Bull Beach space featuring the Red Bull Flugtag, both released on the same day  In January 2012, Red Bull released its first personal space called the "Red Bull House of Skate" featuring an indoor skate park In 2010, the company enlisted Adrian Newey to design a prototype racing car, the Red Bull X2010, for the video game Gran Turismo 5 In 2022, Red Bull announced a full-on production of a hypercar called RB17, also designed by Newey 

Red Bull Arts
Red Bull Arts is an art fellowship program launched by Red Bull in 2013 under the name Red Bull House of Arts  The program has multiple locations, including Detroit, Michigan; São Paulo, Brazil; and formerly New York City  The program typically consists of a three-month period during which six to eight participants create new artwork to be displayed at a final exhibition  During the fellowship, artists receive unlimited access to the galleries and a stipend for art supplies  Some of the artwork has been used in Red Bull advertising campaigns 

Sports and esports sponsorships
Red Bull has used sports sponsorships as an advertising vehicle for most of its existence  The company first started sponsoring athletes in 1989, initially focusing on Formula One racing and extreme sports such as windsurfing and hang gliding, and later growing to include more mainstream sports such as basketball and soccer  As of 2016, the company sponsored more than 750 individual athletes and more than a dozen teams in various disciplines, including motorsports, soccer, and esports 

Athlete sponsorships
Austrian Formula One driver Gerhard Berger was the first athlete to be sponsored by Red Bull in 1989  Many of the company's early sponsorships were in lesser-known or extreme sports, including Olympic rower Xeno Müller, who won a gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics in the single scull race and BASE jumpers Frank "Gambler" Gambalie, Miles Dashier, and Shane McConkey  In the 2010s, Red Bull began expanding its athlete base to include athletes from more mainstream sports, including Austrian tennis player Dominic Thiem, Brazilian skateboarder Letícia Bufoni, American skier Lindsey Vonn, and American Major League Baseball player Kris Bryant  The company also started sponsoring video game players and esports athletes, including American Fortnite player Richard "Ninja" Blevins, Spanish League of Legends player Enrique Cedeño "xPeke" Martinez, and Swedish Super Smash Bros  player William "Leffen" Hjelte 

Team ownership and sponsorships
The first team sponsored by Red Bull was ice hockey's EC Salzburg during the 1987–88 season  Red Bull acquired the club outright in 2000  Since 2014, Salzburg has also hosted the company's joint ice hockey and soccer academy  Red Bull became the title sponsor of DEL team EHC München in 2012, and took full ownership the following year  It also financed the team's new arena, SAP Garden In 1995, Red Bull sponsored its first motorsports team, the Swiss Formula One team Sauber and in 1999 started sponsoring the Flying Bulls, a Czech aerobatics team In the 2000s, the company expanded its sporting team ownership to include several soccer teams, including the Austrian Bundesliga team SV Austria Salzburg (rebranded as Red Bull Salzburg), the Major League Soccer team the New York MetroStars (rebranded as the New York Red Bulls) in 2006, and the fifth-tier German team SSV Markranstadt (rebranded as RasenBallsport Leipzig) in 2009, which the company sought to move to the top of the German Bundesliga  RB Leipzig has been divisive and the subject of protests by some fans but has also experienced rapid success, climbing through the German soccer divisions to get a place in the top-flight German Bundesliga and earning berths in the UEFA Champions League in 2017–2018 and 2019–2020, the latter trip ending with a semi-final loss to Paris St  Germain  The company also sponsors the Los Angeles Clippers NBA team and Red Bull 3X, a series of men's and women's 3x3 basketball tournaments In the 2010s, Red Bull began sponsoring gamers and esports organizations, including OG, G2 Esports and Cloud9, and founded the Red Bulls League of Legends team In 2021, Red Bull sponsored Hoang Anh Gia Lai from V League 1 
 Red Bull Salzburg
 FC Liefering
 Red Bull Bragantino
 Red Bull Brasil
 RB Leipzig
 RB Leipzig II
 Red Bull New York
 Red Bull New York II

Events
Current and former Red Bull events include ACF Nationals (2009), Air Race World Championship (2003–2019), Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix, Art of Motion, BC One, Big Wave Africa, Cape Fear, Cliff Diving World Series, Crashed Ice, Dolomitenmann, Drifting World Championship, Flugtag, Frozen Rush, Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix, King of the Air, King of the Rock Tournament, Last Man Standing, MotoGP Rookies Cup, Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas, New Year No Limits, Paper Wings, Rampage, Red Bull 400, Red Bull Joyride, Road Rage, Romaniacs Hard Enduro Rallye, Soapbox Race, Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix, Stratos, Street Freestyle World Champions (2019), Trolley Grand Prix, Unleashed (2015), Wings for Life World Run, X-Alps, Xcbusa, and X-Fighters 

See also
Red Bull Stratos – 2012 stratospheric parachute jump
Passage 2:
Ural Rakhimov
Ural Murtazovich Rakhimov (Russian: Урал Муртазович Рахимов; Bashkir: Рәхимов Урал Мортаза улы, Räximov Ural Mortaza ulı; born 13 December 1961) is a Russian businessman of Bashkir ethnicity  Rakhimov is the 191st richest man in Russia with a net worth of US$500 million as of 2011 

Biography
Rakhimov was born in Ufa  Worldwide, Rakhimov is known to be the only son of Murtaza Rakhimov, the former president of Bashkortostan  Throughout most of Rakhimov's life, he maintained a deep interest in science, eventually studying at Ufa State Petroleum Technological University and graduating in 1984 He then studied at the French Petroleum Institute, receiving a Master's of Science, and then he studied in the United States for another Master's degree  For most of his business career, he was a member of Bashneft  In 2003, he initiated the creation of Bashkir capital  During 2009 till early 2010, he was the owner of Salavat Yulaev Ufa 
Passage 3:
The World's Billionaires
The World's Billionaires is an annual ranking of people who are considered to have a net worth of $1 billion or more, by the American business magazine Forbes  The list was first published in March 1987  The total net worth of each individual on the list is estimated and is cited in United States dollars, based on their documented assets and accounting for debt and other factors  Royalty and dictators whose wealth comes from their positions are excluded from these lists  This ranking is an index of the wealthiest documented individuals, excluding any ranking of those with wealth that is not able to be completely ascertained In 2018, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos was ranked at the top for the first time and became the first centibillionaire included in the ranking, surpassing Microsoft founder Bill Gates, who had topped the list 18 of the previous 24 years  In 2022, after topping the list for four years, Bezos was surpassed by Elon Musk  In 2023, Musk was in turn surpassed by French businessman Bernard Arnault, after topping the list for just a year  Arnault became the first French person to top the list 

Methodology
Each year, Forbes employs a team of over 50 reporters from a variety of countries to track the activity of the world's wealthiest individuals and sometimes groups or families – who share wealth  Preliminary surveys are sent to those who may qualify for the list  According to Forbes, they received three types of responses – some people try to inflate their wealth, others cooperate but leave out details, and some refuse to answer any questions  Business deals are then scrutinized and estimates of valuable assets – land, homes, vehicles, artwork, etc  – are made  Interviews are conducted to vet the figures and improve the estimate of an individual's holdings  Finally, positions in a publicly traded stock are priced to market on a date roughly a month before publication  Privately held companies are priced by the prevailing price-to-sales or price-to-earnings ratios  Known debt is subtracted from assets to get a final estimate of an individual's estimated worth in United States dollars  Since stock prices fluctuate rapidly, an individual's true wealth and ranking at the time of publication may vary from their situation when the list was compiled When a living individual has dispersed his or her wealth to immediate family members it is included under a single listing (as a single "family fortune") provided that individual (the grantor) is still living  However, if a deceased billionaire's fortune has been dispersed, it will not appear as a single listing, and each recipient will only appear if his or her own total net worth is over a $Billion (his or her net worth will not be combined with family members') Royal families and dictators that have their wealth contingent on a position are always excluded from these lists 

Annual rankings
The rankings are published annually in March, so the net worths listed are snapshots taken at that time  These lists only show the top 10 wealthiest billionaires for each year 

Legend
2023
In the 37th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,640 billionaires with a total net wealth of $12 2 trillion, down 28 members and $500 billion from 2022  Nearly half the list is poorer than the previous year, including Elon Musk, who fell from No  1 to No  2  The list also marks for the first time a French citizen was in the top position as well as a non-American for the first time since 2013 when the Mexican Carlos Slim Helu was the world's richest person  The list, like in 2022, counted 15 under 30 billionaires with the richest of them being Red Bull heir Mark Mateschitz with a net worth of $34 7 billion  The youngest of the lot were Clemente Del Vecchio, heir to the Luxottica fortune shared with his six siblings and stepmother and Kim Jung-yang, whose fortune lies in Japanese-South Korean gaming giant Nexon, both under-20s 

2022
In the 36th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,668 billionaires with a total net wealth of $12 7 trillion, down 97 members from 2021 

2021
In the 35th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,755 billionaires with a total net wealth of $13 1 trillion, up 660 members from 2020; 86% of these billionaires had more wealth than they possessed last year 

2020
In the 34th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,095 billionaires with a total net wealth of $8 trillion, down 58 members and $700 billion from 2019; 51% of these billionaires had less wealth than they possessed last year  The list was finalized as of 18 March, thus was already partially influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic 

2019
In the 33rd annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,153 billionaires with a total net wealth of $8 7 trillion, down 55 members and $400 billion from 2018   The U S  continued to have the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 609, while China dropped to 324 (when not including Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan) 

2018
In the 32nd annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the aggregate wealth of the top 20 richest people on Earth amounted to about 13 percent of all billionaires' fortunes combined  A record of 2,208 billionaires were in the ranking and the total wealth was $9 1 trillion, up 18% since 2017  For the first time, Jeff Bezos was listed as the top billionaire due to Amazon's rising stock price that resulted in one person's biggest one-year gain in wealth ($35 billion) since Forbes started tracking in 1987  The U S  had the most billionaires in the world, with 585, while China was catching up with 476 when including Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan; it had 372 when excluding those three places  Forbes excluded Al-Walid bin Talal and all other Saudi billionaires due to the absence of accurate wealth estimations as a result of the 2017–19 Saudi Arabian purge 

2017
On the 30th anniversary of the Forbes list of the world's billionaires, for the fourth year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world  In 2017, there was a record of 2,043 people on the list, which is the first time over 2,000 people were listed  This included 195 newcomers of whom 76 were from China and 25 from the U S ; there were 56 people under 40 and it had a record of 227 women  The number of billionaires increased 13% to 2,043 from 1,810 in 2016; this was the biggest change in over 30 years of tracking billionaires globally  Added together, the total net worth for 2017's billionaires was US$7 67 trillion, up from US$7 1 trillion in 2015  This was the first time after 12 years that Carlos Slim was not within the top five  The U S  had the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 565  China had 319 (not including Hong Kong, Taiwan or Macau), Germany had 114, and India had the fourth most with 101; India reached over 100 billionaires for its first time 

2016
For the third year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes' 2016 list of the world's billionaires  This is the 17th time that the founder of Microsoft had claimed the top spot  Amancio Ortega rose from last year's position of number four to second  Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway came in third for the second consecutive time, while Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim slipped  from last year's second position to fourth  Jeff Bezos of Amazon, Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook and Michael Bloomberg of Bloomberg L P , appeared for the first time on the Forbes top 10 billionaires list, coming at fifth, sixth and eighth positions, respectively  Zuckerberg became the youngest top 10 billionaire this year at the age of 31  Larry Ellison, Charles Koch and David Koch also slipped from their previous year's positions, with Ellison dropping to seventh from fifth, and the Kochs falling to ninth position from sixth 

2015
In the 29th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, a record 1,826 billionaires were named with an aggregated net worth of $7 1 trillion compared to $6 4 trillion in the previous year  46 of the billionaires in this list were under the age of 40  A record number of 290 people joined the list for the first time, of whom 25 percent hailed from China, which produced a world-leading 71 newcomers  The United States came in second, with 57; followed by India, with 28; and Germany, with 23  The United States had the largest number of billionaires with 526  Russia went down to 88 from 111 in 2014  Russia was placed behind China, Germany and India by the number of billionaires  Self-made billionaires made up the largest number of people on the list with 1,191 positions (over 65 percent), while just 230 (under 13 percent) had wealth through inheritance  The number of billionaires who inherited a portion but were still working to increase their fortunes is 405 Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes' annual list of the world's billionaires  This was the 16th time that the founder of Microsoft claimed the top spot  Carlos Slim came in second for the second consecutive time  Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway placed third, while Amancio Ortega of Spain, slipped down a position from the previous year to number four  Larry Ellison, the founder of Oracle, rounded off the top five  Christy Walton was the highest-ranking female at number eight  America's Evan Spiegel, co-founder of photo messaging app Snapchat, became the youngest billionaire this year at age 24  At age 99, David Rockefeller maintained his position as the oldest billionaire included in the list  Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of Facebook, rose to number 16 with $33 4 billion  Iceland had a billionaire, Thor Bjorgolfsson, in the list after a gap of five years  Guatemala had a billionaire, Mario Lopez Estrada, for the first time in its history 

2014
Gates added $9 billion to his fortune since 2013 and topped the Forbes 2014 billionaire list  He had topped the list in 15 of the previous 20 years, but his previous number one ranking was in 2009  Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim came in second place after being number one the previous four years  Zara founder Amancio Ortega placed third for the second consecutive year  American investor Warren Buffett was in the top five for the 20th consecutive year, placing fourth  America's Christy Walton was the highest ranking woman, placing ninth overall  Aliko Dangote of Nigeria became the first African to enter the top 25, with an estimated net worth of $25 billion A total of 1,645 people made the 2014 billionaire list, representing a combined wealth of $6 4 trillion  Of those, a record 268 were newcomers, surpassing 2008's 226 newcomers  100 people listed in 2013 failed to make the list  The number of women on the list rose to a record 172 in 2014  Approximately 66 percent of the list were self-made, 13 percent achieved their wealth through inheritance alone, and 21 percent through a mixture of the two The United States had 492 billionaires on the list, the most of any country  It also had the most newcomers with 50, and women with 54  China had the second most billionaires with 152, while Russia was third with 111  Algeria, Lithuania, Tanzania, and Uganda were all represented on the list for the first time  Turkey saw the most people drop off the list, 19, due to a period of high inflation in the country 

2013
Carlos Slim topped the 2013 billionaire list, marking his fourth consecutive year at the top  Gates remained in second, while Amancio Ortega moved up to third  Ortega's gain of $19 5 billion was the largest of anyone on the list  Warren Buffett failed to make the top three for the first time since 2000, placing fourth  Diesel founder Renzo Rosso was among the top newcomers, debuting with an estimate net worth of $3 billion A global rise in asset prices led Forbes editor Randall Lane to declare "It [was] a very good year to be a billionaire"  However, it was not a good year to be Eike Batista, who fell from seventh to 100th, suffering the largest net loss of anyone on the list  Overall, net gainers outnumbered net losers by 4:1 A record total of 1,426 people made the 2013 list, representing $5 4 trillion of assets  Of those, 442 billionaires hailed from the United States  The Asian-Pacific region had 386 billionaires and Europe 366  The list also featured a record number of newcomers, 210, representing 42 countries  60 people from the 2012 list fell below a billion dollars of assets in 2013, and eight others from the 2012 list died  The Asia-Pacific region had the most drop-offs, with 29, followed by the United States with 16  The 2013 list featured 138 women, of which 50 came from the United States  A majority of the list (961 individuals, 67 percent) were entirely self-made; 184 (13 percent) inherited their wealth, and 281 (20 percent) achieved their fortune through a combination of inheritance and business acumen  Vietnam's Phạm Nhật Vượng was the first person from that country to be included in this list 

2012
Carlos Slim topped the 2012 list, marking this third consecutive year at the top  Gates placed second but narrowed the gap from 2011 as Slim's fortune fell $5 billion while Gates' rose $5 billion  Warren Buffett remained in third place  Bernard Arnault of France was the top-ranking European on the list, placing fourth  Ricardo Salinas Pliego was the greatest gainer in terms of dollars, adding $9 2 billion to his fortune and moving up to number 37 overall  Making her debut on the list at age 27, Spanx founder Sara Blakely became the youngest self-made female billionaire ever  Colombia's Alejandro Santo Domingo was the highest-ranked newcomer, inheriting a $9 5 billion stake in Santo Domingo Group from his father  India's Lakshmi Mittal was the largest loser as his fortune dropped from $31 1 billion to $20 7 billion as the price of steelmaker ArcelorMittal fell sharply  As a result, he failed to make the top 10 for the first time since 2004 and lost his title of richest Asian to Hong Kong's Li Ka-shing A record total of 1,226 people made the 2012 list, representing 58 countries  Of those, 126 were newcomers to the list and 104 were women  The United States had the greatest number of billionaires with 425  Russia had 96 people on the list, while China had 95  Georgia, Morocco, and Peru were newly represented on the list  Falling stock prices in Asia contributed to 117 former billionaires falling from the list worldwide  Twelve others listed in 2011 died  Overall, net gainers (460) barely outnumbered net losers (441) To coincide with the release of the 2012 list, Forbes announced a then-new "Billionaire Real-Time Ticker" updating the wealth of the world's top 50 billionaires in real time 

2011
In the 25th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, Slim added $20 5 billion to his fortune, the most of anyone, and retained his number one ranking with a total fortune of $74 billion  Gates remained in second place with $56 billion, while Warren Buffett was third with $50 billion  The top 10 had a combined wealth of $406 billion, up from $342 billion in 2010  According to Forbes editor Kerry Dolan, "media and technology billionaires definitely benefited from a stronger stock market and a growing enthusiasm for all things social" since the 2010 list  However, Nigerian commodity mogul Aliko Dangote was the greatest gainer on a percentage basis as his fortune increased 557 percent to $13 5 billion  Mark Zuckerberg was one of seven Facebook-related billionaires on the list, as he added $9 5 billion to his net worth to move up to 52nd  Facebook co-founder Dustin Moskovitz was the youngest person on the list  Aged 26, eight days younger than Zuckerberg, he debuted at number 420 with an estimated fortune of $2 7 billion  IKEA founder Ingvar Kamprad was the largest loser as he saw his fortune plummet from $23 billion to $6 billion, dropping him from 11th to 162nd overall A record 1,210 billionaires made the 2011 list, representing a combined wealth of $4 5 trillion, up from $3 6 trillion the previous year  One third of the world's billionaires, 413, came from the United States  China had the second most billionaires with 115, while Russia was third with 101  Asia moved up to 332 billionaires, passing Europe as a region for the first time since the 1990s  The 2011 list included 214 newcomers and the average net worth of those on it increased to $3 7 billion 

2010
Slim narrowly eclipsed Gates to top the billionaire list for the first time  Slim saw his estimated worth surge $18 5 billion to $53 5 billion as shares of America Movil rose 35 percent  Gates' estimated wealth rose $13 billion to $53 billion, placing him second  Warren Buffett was third with $47 billion  Christy Walton was the highest-ranking woman, placing 12th overall, with an inherited fortune of $22 5 billion  At age 25, Mark Zuckerberg continued to be the world's youngest self-made billionaire  American Isaac Perlmutter was among the newcomers with an estimated fortune of $4 billion largely acquired in his sale of Marvel Entertainment to Disney A total of 1,011 people made the 2010 list  The United States accounted for 403 billionaires, followed by China with 89 and Russia with 62  It was the first time China, while including Hong Kong, placed second  A total of 55 countries were represented on the 2010 list, including Finland and Pakistan which claimed their first billionaires  Eighty-nine women made the list, but only 14 of them were self-made  The combined net worth of the list was $3 6 trillion, up 50 percent from 2009's $2 4 trillion, while the average net worth was $3 5 billion The 2010 list featured 164 re-entries and 97 true newcomers  Asia accounted for more than 100 of the new entrants  Overall, just 12 percent of the list lost wealth since 2009, and 30 people fell off the list  13 others died  Of the 89 women, 12 were newcomers in 2010  Steve Forbes said the growing number of billionaires was a clear sign that the world's economy was recovering from 2009's global financial crisis In June 2010, Gates and Buffett announced the Giving Pledge, a promise to give the majority of their wealth to philanthropic causes  As of 2017, the pledge had 158 signatories, but some of the signatories have since died  Most of the signers of the pledge are billionaires, and their pledges total over $365 billion 

2009
In the wake of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008, the world's billionaires lost $2 trillion in net worth and the list became 30% smaller than the previous year's list 

2008
Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, four years after starting the company, joined the list at 23 to become the youngest self-made billionaire 

2007
Forbes recorded a then record of 946 billionaires  There were 178 newcomers, as well as the first billionaires from Cyprus, Oman, Romania and Serbia  Over 66% of the previous year's billionaires became richer  The billionaires' net worth increased in 2007 by $900 billion to $3 5 trillion 

2006
Free cash used by consumers from home equity extraction, known as the real estate bubble created a total of nearly $5 trillion in 2005, contributing to economic growth worldwide 

2005
The net worth of 2005's 691 billionaires was $2 2 trillion  More than half of them had self-made fortunes 

2004
The founders of Google, Sergey Brin and Larry Page, became billionaires at age 30 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2003
Oprah Winfrey became the first female African-American billionaire 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2002
As a result of the market crash caused by the Dot-com bubble, 83 billionaires dropped off the list from the previous year 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2001
In 2001, BET founder Robert L  Johnson became the first ever African-American billionaire 
* Each hold an essentially equal share in Wal-Mart  Had he been alive in 2001, Sam Walton would have been the world's wealthiest person 

2000
Gates became the first American to take the top spot of the world's billionaires in 1995 with a net worth of $12 5 billion, and he remained there during the dot-com bubble's height in 1999 when his fortune peaked at $90 billion  After the dot-com bubble started to collapse in 2000, his wealth dropped to $60 billion, although he remained at the top of the list 

1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
Statistics
The dot-com bubble created the most paper wealth for some billionaires  However, once the dotcom bubble burst the new rich saw their fortunes disappear  Billionaires' fortunes were hit even harder by the global financial crisis; 2009 was the first time in five years that the world had a net loss in the number of billionaires  The strong performance of the financial markets and global economic recovery have erased financial assets losses  Most of the richest people in the world saw their fortunes soar in the early 2010s 

See also
Passage 4:
Windows 98
Windows 98 is a consumer-oriented operating system developed by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x family of Microsoft Windows operating systems  The second operating system in the 9x line, it is the successor to Windows 95, and was released to manufacturing on May 15, 1998, and generally to retail on June 25, 1998  Like its predecessor, it is a hybrid 16-bit and 32-bit monolithic product with the boot stage based on MS-DOS Windows 98 is a web-integrated operating system that bears numerous similarities to its predecessor  Most of its improvements were cosmetic or designed to improve the user experience, but there were also a handful of features introduced to enhance system functionality and capabilities, including improved USB support and accessibility, as well as support for hardware advancements such as DVD players  Windows 98 was the first edition of Windows to adopt the Windows Driver Model, and introduced features that would become standard in future generations of Windows, such as Disk Cleanup, Windows Update, multi-monitor support, and Internet Connection Sharing 
Microsoft had marketed Windows 98 as a "tune-up" to Windows 95, rather than an entirely improved next generation of Windows  Upon release, it was generally well-received for its web-integrated interface and ease of use, as well as its addressing of issues present in Windows 95, although some pointed out that it was not significantly more stable than its predecessor  Windows 98 sold an estimated 58 million licenses and saw one major update, known as Windows 98 Second Edition (SE), released on May 5, 1999  After the release of its successor, Windows Me in 2000, mainstream support for Windows 98 and 98 SE ended on June 30, 2002, followed by extended support on July 11, 2006 

Development
Following the success of Windows 95, the development of Windows 98 began, initially under the development codename "Memphis " The first test version, Windows Memphis Developer Release, was released in January 1997 Memphis first entered beta as Windows Memphis Beta 1, released on June 30, 1997  It was followed by Windows 98 Beta 2, which dropped the Memphis name and was released in July  Microsoft had planned a full release of Windows 98 for the first quarter of 1998, along with a Windows 98 upgrade pack for Windows 95, but it also had a similar upgrade for Windows 3 x operating systems planned for the second quarter  Stacey Breyfogle, a product manager for Microsoft, explained that the later release of the upgrade for Windows 3 was because the upgrade required more testing than that for Windows 95 due to the presence of more compatibility issues, and without user objections, Microsoft merged the two upgrade packs into one and set all of their release dates to the second quarter On December 15, Microsoft released Windows 98 Beta 3  It was the first build to be able to upgrade from Windows 3 1x, and introduced new startup and shutdown sounds Near its completion, Windows 98 was released as Windows 98 Release Candidate on April 3, 1998, which expired on December 31  This coincided with a notable press demonstration at COMDEX that month  Microsoft CEO Bill Gates was highlighting the operating system's ease of use and enhanced support for Plug and Play (PnP)  However, when presentation assistant Chris Capossela plugged a USB scanner in, the operating system crashed, displaying a Blue Screen of Death  Bill Gates remarked after derisive applause and cheering from the audience, "That must be why we're not shipping Windows 98 yet " Video footage of this event became a popular Internet phenomenon Microsoft had quietly marketed the operating system as a "tune-up" to Windows 95  It was compiled as Windows 98 on May 11, 1998, before being fully released to manufacturing on May 15  The company was facing pending legal action for allowing free downloads of, and planning to ship Windows licenses with, Internet Explorer 4 0 in an alleged effort to expand its software monopoly  Microsoft's critics believed the lawsuit would further delay Windows 98's public release; it did not, and the operating system was released on June 25, 1998 A second major version of the operating system called Windows 98 Second Edition was later unveiled in March 1999  Microsoft compiled the final build on April 23, 1999, before publicly releasing it on May 5, 1999  Windows 98 was to be the final product in the Windows 9x line until Microsoft briefly revived the line to release Windows Me in 2000 as the final Windows 9x product before the introduction of Windows XP in 2001, which was based on the Windows NT architecture and kernel used in Windows 2000 

New and updated features
Web integration and shell enhancements
The first release of Windows 98 included Internet Explorer 4 01  This was updated to 5 0 in the Second Edition  Besides Internet Explorer, many other Internet companion applications are included such as Outlook Express, Windows Address Book, FrontPage Express, Microsoft Chat, Personal Web Server and a Web Publishing Wizard, and NetShow  NetMeeting allows multiple users to hold conference calls and work with each other on a document The Windows 98 shell is web-integrated; it contains deskbands, Active Desktop, Channels, ability to minimize foreground windows by clicking their button on the taskbar, single-click launching, Back and Forward navigation buttons, favorites, and address bar in Windows Explorer, image thumbnails, folder infotips and Web view in folders, and folder customization through HTML-based templates  The taskbar supports customizable toolbars designed to speed up access to the Web or the user's desktop; these toolbars include an Address Bar and Quick Launch  With the Address Bar, the user accesses the Web by typing in a URL, and Quick Launch contains shortcuts or buttons that perform system functions such as switching between windows and the desktop with the Show Desktop button  Another feature of this new shell is that dialog boxes show up in the Alt-Tab sequence 
Windows 98 also integrates shell enhancements, themes and other features from Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 such as DriveSpace 3, Compression Agent, Dial-Up Networking Server, Dial-Up Scripting Tool and Task Scheduler  3D Pinball Space Cadet is included on the CD-ROM, but not installed by default  Windows 98 had its own separately purchasable Plus! pack, called Plus! 98 Title bars of windows and dialog boxes support two-color gradients, a feature ported from and refined from Microsoft Office 95  Windows menus and tooltips support slide animation  Windows Explorer in Windows 98, as in Windows 95, converts all-uppercase filenames to sentence case for readability purposes; however, it also provides an option Allow all uppercase names to display them in their original case  Windows Explorer includes support for compressed CAB files  The Quick Res and Telephony Location Manager Windows 95 PowerToys are integrated into the core operating system 

Improvements to hardware support
Windows Driver Model
Windows 98 was the first operating system to use the Windows Driver Model (WDM)  This fact was not well publicized when Windows 98 was released, and most hardware producers continued to develop drivers for the older VxD driver standard, which Windows 98 supported for compatibility's sake  The WDM standard only achieved widespread adoption years later, mostly through Windows 2000 and Windows XP, as they were not compatible with the older VxD standard  With the Windows Driver Model, developers could write drivers that were compatible with other versions of Windows  Device driver access in WDM is implemented through a VxD device driver, NTKERN VXD, which implements several Windows NT-specific kernel support functions Support for WDM audio enables digital mixing, routing and processing of simultaneous audio streams and kernel streaming with high quality sample rate conversion on Windows 98  WDM Audio allows for software emulation of legacy hardware to support MS-DOS games, DirectSound support and MIDI wavetable synthesis  The Windows 95 11-device limitation for MIDI devices is eliminated  A Microsoft GS Wavetable Synthesizer licensed from Roland shipped with Windows 98 for WDM audio drivers  Windows 98 supports digital playback of audio CDs, and the Second Edition improves WDM audio support by adding DirectSound hardware mixing and DirectSound 3D hardware abstraction, DirectMusic kernel support, KMixer sample-rate conversion for capture streams and multichannel audio support  All audio is sampled by the Kernel Mixer to a fixed sampling rate which may result in some audio getting upsampled or downsampled and having a high latency, except when using Kernel Streaming or third-party audio paths like ASIO which allow unmixed audio streams and lower latency  Windows 98 also includes a WDM streaming class driver (Stream sys) to address real time multimedia data stream processing requirements and a WDM kernel-mode video transport for enhanced video playback and capture 
Windows Driver Model also includes Broadcast Driver Architecture, the backbone for TV technologies support in Windows  WebTV for Windows utilized BDA to allow viewing television on the computer if a compatible TV tuner card is installed  TV listings could be updated from the Internet and WaveTop Data Broadcasting allowed extra data about broadcasts to be received via regular television signals using an antenna or cable, by embedding data streams into the vertical blanking interval portion of existing broadcast television signals 

Other device support improvements
Windows 98 had more robust USB support than Windows 95, which only had support in OEM versions OSR2 1 and later  Windows 98 supports USB hubs, USB scanners and imaging class devices  Windows 98 also introduced built-in support for some USB Human Interface Device class (USB HID) and PID class devices such as USB mice, keyboards, force feedback joysticks etc  including additional keyboard functions through a certain number of Consumer Page HID controls Windows 98 introduced ACPI 1 0 support which enabled Standby and Hibernate states  However, hibernation support was extremely limited and vendor-specific  Hibernation was only available if compatible (PnP) hardware and BIOS are present, and the hardware manufacturer or OEM supplied compatible WDM drivers, non-VxD drivers  However, there are hibernation issues with the FAT32 file system, making hibernation problematic and unreliable 
Windows 98, in general, provides improved — and a broader range of — support for IDE and SCSI drives and drive controllers, floppy drive controllers and all other classes of hardware as compared to Windows 95  There is integrated Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) support (although the USB Supplement to Windows 95 OSR2 and later releases of Windows 95 did have AGP support)  Windows 98 has built-in DVD support and UDF 1 02 read support  The Still imaging architecture (STI) with TWAIN support was introduced for scanners and cameras and Image Color Management 2 0 for devices to perform color space transformations  Multiple monitor support allows using up to nine multiple monitors on a single PC, with the feature requiring one PCI graphics adapter per monitor  Windows 98 shipped with DirectX 5 2, which notably included DirectShow  Windows 98 Second Edition would later ship with DirectX 6 1 

Networking enhancements
Windows 98 networking enhancements to TCP/IP include built-in support for Winsock 2, SMB signing, a new IP Helper API, Automatic Private IP Addressing (also known as link-local addressing), IP multicasting, and performance enhancements for high-speed high bandwidth networks  Multihoming support with TCP/IP is improved and includes RIP listener support 
The DHCP client has been enhanced to include address assignment conflict detection and longer timeout intervals  NetBT configuration in the WINS client has been improved to continue persistently querying multiple WINS servers if it failed to establish the initial session until all of the WINS servers specified have been queried or a connection is established 
Network Driver Interface Specification 5 support means Windows 98 can support a wide range of network media, including Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Token Ring, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), ISDN, wide area networks, X 25, and Frame Relay  Additional features include NDIS power management, support for quality of service, Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) and support for a single INF file format across all Windows versions Windows 98 Dial-Up Networking supports PPTP tunneling, support for ISDN adapters, multilink support, and connection-time scripting to automate non-standard login connections  Multilink channel aggregation enables users to combine all available dial-up lines to achieve higher transfer speeds  PPP connection logs can show actual packets being passed and Windows 98 allows PPP logging per connection  The Dial-Up Networking improvements are also available in Windows 95 OSR2 and are downloadable for earlier Windows 95 releases 
For networked computers that have user profiles enabled, Windows 98 introduces Microsoft Family Logon which lists all users that have been configured for that computer, enabling users to simply select their names from a list rather than having to type them in Windows 98 supports IrDA 3 0 which specifies both Serial Infrared Devices and Fast Infrared devices, which are capable of sending and receiving data at 4 Mbit/s  Infrared Recipient, a new application for transferring files through an infrared connection is included  The IrDA stack in Windows 98 supports networking profiles over the IrCOMM kernel-mode driver  Windows 98 also has built-in support for browsing Distributed File System trees on Server Message Block shares such as Windows NT servers UPnP and NAT traversal APIs can be installed on Windows 98 by installing the Windows XP Network Setup Wizard  An L2TP/IPsec VPN client can also be downloaded  By installing Active Directory Client Extensions, Windows 98 can take advantage of several Windows 2000 Active Directory features 

Improvements to the system and built-in utilities
Performance improvements
Windows 95 introduced the 32-bit, protected-mode cache driver VCACHE (replacing SMARTDrv) to cache the most recently accessed information from the hard drive in memory, divided into chunks  However, the cache parameters needed manual tuning as it degraded performance by consuming too much memory and not releasing it quickly enough, forcing paging to occur far too early  The Windows 98 VCACHE cache size management for disk and network access, CD-ROM access and paging is more dynamic compared to Windows 95, resulting in no tuning being required for cache parameters  On the FAT32 file system, Windows 98 has a performance feature called MapCache that can run applications from the disk cache itself if the code pages of executable files are aligned/mapped on 4K boundaries, instead of copying them to virtual memory  This results in more memory being available to run applications, and lesser usage of the swap file 
Windows 98 registry handling is more robust than Windows 95 to avoid corruption and there are several enhancements to eliminate limitations and improve registry performance  The Windows 95 registry key size limitation of 64 KB is gone  The registry uses less memory and has better caching Disk Defragmenter has been improved to rearrange program files that are frequently used to a hard disk region optimized for program start  However, as with Windows 95, the message "Drive contents changed    restarting " still exists in this version (i e  if the contents of the hard drive changed, then the entire drive is then rescanned and then progress resumed where it had left off)  If it gets stuck on the same area too many times, it will ask the user if it should keep trying or give up  The version of Disk Defragmenter from Windows Me does not have this problem and will function on Windows 98 or Windows 95 if the user simply copies it over Windows 98 also supports a Fast Shutdown feature that initiates shutdown without uninitializing device drivers  However, this can cause Windows 98 to hang instead of shutting down the computer if a buggy driver is active, so Microsoft supplied instructions for disabling the feature  Windows 98 supports write-behind caching for removable disk drives  A utility for converting FAT16 partitions to FAT32 without formatting the partition is also included 

Other system tools
A number of improvements are made to various other system tools and accessories in Windows 98  Microsoft Backup supports differential backup and SCSI tape devices in Windows 98  Disk Cleanup, a new tool, enables users to clear their disks of unnecessary files  Cleanup locations are extensible through Disk Cleanup handlers  Disk Cleanup can be automated for regular silent cleanups Scanreg (DOS) and ScanRegW are Registry Checker tools used to back up, restore or optimize the Windows registry  ScanRegW tests the registry's integrity and saves a backup copy each time Windows successfully boots  The maximum number of copies could be customized by the user through "scanreg ini" file  The restoration of a registry that causes Windows to fail to boot can only be done from DOS mode using ScanReg System Configuration Utility is a new system utility used to disable programs and services that are not required to run the computer  A Maintenance Wizard is included that schedules and automates ScanDisk, Disk Defragmenter and Disk Cleanup  Windows Script Host, with VBScript and JScript engines is built-in and upgradeable to version 5 6  System File Checker checks installed versions of system files to ensure they were the same version as the one installed with Windows 98 or newer  Corrupt or older versions are replaced by the correct versions  This tool was introduced to resolve the DLL hell issue and was replaced in Windows Me by System File Protection 
Windows 98 Setup simplifies installation, reducing the bulk of user input required  The Windows 98 Startup Disk contains generic, real-mode ATAPI and SCSI CD-ROM drivers that can be used instead in the event that the specific driver for a CD-ROM is unavailable The system could be updated using Windows Update  A utility to automatically notify the user of critical updates was later released Windows 98 includes an improved version of the Dr  Watson utility that collects and lists comprehensive information such as running tasks, startup programs with their command line switches, system patches, kernel driver, user drivers, DOS drivers and 16-bit modules  With Dr  Watson loaded in the system tray, whenever a software fault occurs (general protection fault, hang, etc ), Dr  Watson will intercept it and indicate what software crashed and its cause Windows Report Tool takes a snapshot of system configuration and lets users submit a manual problem report along with system information to technicians  It has e-mail confirmation for submitted reports 

Accessories
Windows 98 includes Microsoft Magnifier, Accessibility Wizard and Microsoft Active Accessibility 1 1 API (upgradeable to MSAA 2 0 ) A new HTML Help system with 15 Troubleshooting Wizards was introduced to replace WinHelp 
Users can configure the font in Notepad  Microsoft Paint supports GIF transparency  HyperTerminal supports a TCP/IP connection method, which allows it to be used as a Telnet client  Imaging for Windows is updated  System Monitor—used to track the performance of hardware and software—supports output to a log file 

Miscellaneous improvements
Telephony API (TAPI) 2 1
DCOM version 1 2
Ability to list fonts by similarity determined using PANOSE information 
Tools to automate setup, such as Batch 98 and INFInst exe, support error-checking, gathering information automatically to create an INF file directly from a machine's registry, customizing IE4, shell and desktop settings and adding custom drivers 
Several other Resource Kit tools are included on the Windows 98 CD 
Windows 98 has new system event sounds for Low Battery Alarm and Critical Battery Alarm 
Windows 98 also introduced new and updated system sounds  The new startup sound for Windows 98 was composed by Microsoft sound engineer Ken Kato, who considered it to be a "tough act to follow" 
Windows 98 shipped with Flash Player and Shockwave Player preinstalled 

Windows 98 Second Edition
Windows 98 Second Edition (often shortened to Windows 98 SE and sometimes to Win98 SE) is an updated version of Windows 98 released on May 5, 1999, nine months before the release of Windows 2000  It includes many bug fixes, improved WDM audio and modem support, improved USB support, the replacement of Internet Explorer 4 0 with Internet Explorer 5 0, Web Folders (WebDAV namespace extension for Windows Explorer), and related shell updates  Also included is basic OHCI-compliant FireWire DV camcorder support (MSDV class driver) and SBP-2 support for mass storage class devices  Wake-On-LAN reenables suspended networked computers due to network activity, and Internet Connection Sharing allows multiple networked client computers to share an Internet connection via a single host computer Other features in the update include DirectX 6 1 which introduced major improvements to DirectSound and the introduction of DirectMusic, improvements to Asynchronous Transfer Mode support (IP/ATM, PPP/ATM and WinSock 2/ATM support), Windows Media Player 6 1 replacing the older Media Player, Microsoft NetMeeting 3 0, MDAC 2 1 and WMI  A memory overflow issue was resolved in which earlier versions of Windows 98 would crash most systems if left running for 49 7 days (equal to 232 milliseconds)  Windows 98 SE could be obtained as retail upgrade and full version packages, as well as OEM and a Second Edition Updates Disc for existing Windows 98 users  USB audio device class support is present from Windows 98 SE onwards  Windows 98 Second Edition improved WDM support in general for all devices, and it introduced support for WDM for modems (and therefore USB modems and virtual COM ports)  However, Microsoft driver support for both USB printers and USB mass-storage device class is not available for Windows 98 

Removed features
Windows 98 Second Edition did not ship with the WinG API or RealPlayer 4 0, unlike the original release of Windows 98, due to both of these having been superseded by DirectX and Windows Media Player, respectively 

Upgradeability
Several components of both Windows 98 and Windows 98 Second Edition can be updated to newer versions  These include:

Internet Explorer 6 SP1 and Outlook Express 6 SP1
Windows Media Format Runtime and Windows Media Player 9 Series on Windows 98 Second Edition (Windows Media Player 7 1 on Windows 98 original release)
Windows Media Encoder 7 1 and Windows Media 8 Encoding Utility
DirectX 9 0c (the latest compatible runtime is from October 2007 )
MSN Messenger 7 0
Significant features from newer Microsoft operating systems can be installed on Windows 98  Chief among them are  NET Framework versions 1 0, 1 1 and 2 0, the Visual C++ 2005 runtime, Windows Installer 2 0, the GDI+ redistributable library, Remote Desktop Connection client 5 2 and the Text Services Framework 
Several other components such as MSXML 3 0 SP7, Microsoft Agent 2 0, NetMeeting 3 01, MSAA 2 0, ActiveSync 3 8, WSH 5 6, Microsoft Data Access Components 2 81 SP1, WMI 1 5 and Speech API 4 0 
Office XP is the last version of Microsoft Office that is compatible with Windows 98 
Although Windows 98 does not fully support Unicode, certain Unicode applications can run if the Microsoft Layer for Unicode is installed 

System requirements
The two major versions of Windows 98 have minimum requirements needed to be run 

Users can bypass processor requirement checks with the undocumented /NM setup switch  This allows installation on computers with processors as old as the Intel 80386 

Limitations
The original release of Windows 98 may fail to boot on computers with a processor faster than 2 1 GHz  Windows 98 is only designed to handle up to 512 MB of RAM without changes  The maximum amount of RAM the operating system is designed to use is up to 1 GB of RAM  Systems with more than 1 5 GB of RAM may continuously reboot during startup  Both Windows 98 and Windows 98 Second Edition have problems running on hard drives of capacities larger than 32 GB in systems with certain Phoenix BIOS configurations  A software update fixed this shortcoming 

Support lifecycle
All computers running Windows NT 4 0 Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, and Windows 98 can be directly upgraded to Windows XP Professional  Support for Windows 98 under Microsoft's consumer product life cycle policy was originally planned to end on June 30, 2003, however, in December 2002, Microsoft extended the support window to January 16, 2004  This date would then be extended again to June 30, 2006 on January 13, 2004 up to a final end of support date of July 11, 2006, citing support volumes in emerging markets as the reason for the extension Retail availability for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and later became completely unavailable from Microsoft in any form (through MSDN or otherwise) due to the terms of Java-related settlements Microsoft made with Sun Microsystems The Windows Update website continued to be available after Windows 98's end of support date, however, in 2011, Microsoft retired the Windows Update v4 website and removed the updates for Windows 98 and Windows 98 SE from its servers 

Reception
Windows 98 was released to generally favorable reviews, with praise directed to its improved graphical user interface and customizability, ease of use,: 30–31  and the degree to which it addressed complaints that users and critics had with Windows 95  Michael Sweet of Smart Computing characterized it as heavily integrating features of the Internet browser, and found file and folder navigation easier : 30–31  Ed Bott of PC Computing lauded the bug fixes, easier troubleshooting, and support for hardware advances such as DVD players and USB  However, he also found that the operating system crashed only slightly less frequently, and criticized the high upgrade price and system requirements  He rated it four stars out of five 

Sales
Windows 98 sold 530,000 licenses in its first four days of availability, overtaking Windows 95's 510,000  It later sold a total of 580,000 and 350,000 licenses in the first and second months of availability, respectively In the first year of its release, Windows 98 sold a total of 15 million licenses – 2 million more than its predecessor  However, International Data Corporation estimated that of the roughly 89 million shipped computers in the desktop market, the operating system had a market share of 17 2 percent, compared to Windows 95's 57 4 percent  Meanwhile, the two operating systems continued to observe a trend whereby Windows 98 improved in sales performance, whereas Windows 95 dwindled  After a legal dispute and subsequent settlement with Sun Microsystems over the former's Java Virtual Machine, Microsoft ceased distributing the operating system on December 15, 2003, and IDC estimated that a total of 58 million copies were installed worldwide by then 
Passage 5:
Susanne Klatten
Susanne Hanna Ursula Klatten (née Quandt, born 28 April 1962) is a German billionaire heiress, the daughter of Herbert and Johanna Quandt  As of January 2022, her net worth was estimated at US$23 4 billion, and the richest woman in Germany and the 50th richest person in the world according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index 

Education
Klatten was born in Bad Homburg, West Germany  After gaining a degree in business finance, she worked for the advertising agency Young & Rubicam in Frankfurt from 1981 to 1983  This was followed by a course in marketing and management at the University of Buckingham, and an MBA from IMD Business School in Lausanne specialising in advertising She gained further business experience in London with Dresdner Bank, the Munich branch of management consultants McKinsey and the bank Bankhaus Reuschel & Co 
She has often worked under the name Susanne Kant 

Investments
On her father's death she inherited his 50 1% stake in pharmaceutical and chemicals manufacturer Altana  She sits on Altana's supervisory board and helped transform it into a world-class corporation in the German DAX list of 30 top companies  In 2006 Altana AG sold its pharmaceutical activities to Nycomed for €4 5 billion, leaving only its speciality chemicals business  The €4 5 billion was distributed to shareholders as a dividend  Altana maintained its stock exchange listing and Klatten remained its majority shareholder  
In 2009, she bought almost all shares she did not already own in Altana  Altana and SKion, which are both wholly owned by Susanne Klatten, are shareholder of Landa Digital Printing with together 46% since 2018  Landa Digital Printing is a company of the Israeli entrepreneur and inventor Benny Landa in the field of digital printing and nanotechnology Her father also left her a 12 50% stake in BMW, but following the death of her mother in 2015, her stake in BMW is now 19 2%  She was appointed to the supervisory board of BMW with her brother Stefan Quandt in 1997 
German graphite maker SGL Carbon said on 16 March 2009 that Klatten owns options to raise her stake in SGL from 8% to almost a quarter of the shares but no more than that 

Quandt family activities during WWII
The Hanns Joachim Friedrichs Award winning documentary film The Silence of the Quandts by the German public broadcaster ARD described in October 2007 the role of the Quandt family businesses during the Second World War  The family's Nazi past was not well known, but the documentary film revealed this to a wide audience and confronted the Quandts about the use of slave labourers in the family's factories during World War II  As a result, five days after the showing, four family members announced, on behalf of the entire Quandt family, their intention to fund a research project in which a historian would examine the family's activities during Adolf Hitler's dictatorship  The independent 1,200-page study researched and compiled by Bonn historian, Joachim Scholtyseck, that was released in 2011 concluded: "The Quandts were linked inseparably with the crimes of the Nazis"  As of 2008, no compensation, apology or even memorial at the site of one of their factories, have been permitted  BMW was not implicated in the report 

Personal life
Police prevented an attempt to kidnap her and her mother Johanna Quandt in 1978 Susanne met Jan Klatten while she was doing an internship with BMW in Regensburg, where he worked as an engineer  It is reported that during this time, she called herself Kant and did not tell him who she was until they were sure about each other, but Klatten himself denies the story  They married in 1990 in Kitzbühel and live in Munich  They have three children  The couple separated in 2018  She has been a member of the University Council of the Technical University of Munich since 2005  In 2007 she was awarded the Bayerischer Verdienstorden, the Bavarian Order of Merit  She is one of the biggest donors of the centre-right political party, the Christian Democratic Union In 2007 Klatten was blackmailed by Helg "Russak" Sgarbi, a 44-year-old Swiss national who threatened to release materials depicting the two having an affair  Sgarbi, who was charged with similar blackmail schemes against multiple women, was arrested in January 2009 and brought to court in Germany, where he was sentenced to six years in jail  His accomplice, the Italian hotel owner Ernano Barretta who allegedly filmed Sgarbi and Klatten with hidden cameras, was also arrested and was sentenced in 2012 to seven years in prison 

See also
List of female billionaires
Passage 6:
List of countries by steel production
This article summarizes the world steel production by country 
In 2020, total world crude steel production was 1877 5 million tonnes (Mt)   The biggest steel producing country is currently China, which accounted for 57% of world steel production in 2020  In 2020, China became the first country to produce over one billion tons of steel  In 2008, 2009, 2015 and 2016 output fell in the majority of steel-producing countries as a result of the global recession  In 2010 and 2017, it started to rise again  Crude steel production contracted in all regions in 2019 except in Asia and the Middle East 

List of countries by steel production
This is a list of countries by steel production in 1967, 1980, 1990, 2000 and from 2007 to 2021, based on data provided by the World Steel Association  All countries with annual production of crude steel at least 2 million metric tons 

Exports
net: exports - imports

Imports
Net: imports − exports

See also
Steel industry
Global steel industry trends
List of steel producers
List of countries by iron ore production
Context 2: Passage 1:
Guy Gaunt
Admiral Sir Guy Reginald Archer Gaunt,  (25 May 1869 – 18 May 1953) was an Australian-born officer of the Royal Navy, counter-intelligence officer and a British Conservative Party politician 
Gaunt was born in Ballarat, Australia, to William Henry Gaunt and his wife Elizabeth Mary Palmer  Gaunt's brother-in-law was Alexander Stenson Palmer (banker and M P  for Victoria)  Gaunt's brother Ernest Gaunt was also an admiral  Their sister, Mary Gaunt, was a well-known author in Australia and wrote several travel books  Guy was educated at Melbourne Grammar School from 1881 to 1883 

Naval career
Gaunt's parents wanted him to become a lawyer, but he chose to go to sea  He began training for the merchant navy, but transferred to the Royal Navy in 1885, one of the "hungry hundred" merchant navy officers who were commissioned via the supplementary list 
Gaunt served as a lieutenant on several vessels in the Pacific Ocean, and was promoted to the rank of Commander in 1901  He became a captain in 1907, commanding a series of cruisers and the battleships HMS Majestic and HMS Thunderer  He saw action in the Philippines in 1897 and Samoa in 1901 In 1914 Gaunt was appointed naval attaché to the United States, and was instrumental in infiltrating the Hindu–German Conspiracy during the First World War  Gaunt headed the intelligence network operated by Courtenay Bennett's intelligence and liaised with the Czech intelligence network operated by E  V  Voska  On learning of the plot from the Czech European network at the outbreak of the war, Voska passed on the information to Gaunt and to Tomáš Masaryk who further passed on the information the American authorities  Voska's American network was a counter-espionage network of nearly 80 members who, as Habsburg subjects, were presumed to be German supporters but were involved in spying on German and Austrian diplomats 
When the U S  entered the war in 1917, Gaunt was appointed as liaison officer  In 1918 he served on convoys across the Atlantic and in June was appointed to the naval intelligence staff at the Admiralty 
Gaunt was promoted on the retired list to rear admiral in October 1918, vice admiral in July 1924 and admiral in February 1928  He was knighted as  in 1918 

Political career
Gaunt first stood as a candidate for parliament at the 1918 general election  He was the Liberal candidate for Leek and despite receiving the Coalition Coupon, he was unable to hold the seat  Gaunt was elected as Unionist Member of Parliament (MP) for the Buckrose constituency in the East Riding of Yorkshire at the 1922 general election, replacing the Liberal Algernon Moreing 
Gaunt resigned from the House of Commons in 1926, when he was cited as co-respondent in the divorce case between Sir Richard Cruise and his wife 

Family
Gaunt married a widow, Mrs Margaret Elizabeth Worthington (daughter of Sir Thomas Wardle) at Hong Kong in 1904  
She divorced him in 1927 following the scandal with Lady Cruise, and he retired to Tangier  He later remarried on 1 December 1932 a 35-year-old widow, Sybil Victoria Joseph, née Grant White and had two daughters  He returned to live in Cobham, Surrey and died at Woking Hospital on 18 May 1953 and was cremated Gaunt's autobiography, The Yield of the Years, was published in 1940  His brother Ernest Gaunt was also an admiral in the Royal Navy; his sister, Mary Gaunt, was a novelist 
Passage 2:
Comprehensive school
A comprehensive school is a secondary school for pupils aged 11–16 or 11–18, that does not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude, in contrast to a selective school system where admission is restricted on the basis of selection criteria, usually academic performance  The term is commonly used in relation to England and Wales, where comprehensive schools were introduced as state schools on an experimental basis in the 1940s and became more widespread from 1965  They may be part of a local education authority or be a self governing academy or part of a multi-academy trust 

About 90% of English secondary school pupils attend a comprehensive school (academy schools, community schools, faith schools, foundation schools, free schools, studio schools, university technical colleges, state boarding schools, City Technology Colleges, etc )  Specialist schools may however select up to 10% of their intake for aptitude in their specialism  A school may have a few specialisms, like arts (media, performing arts, visual arts), business and enterprise, engineering, humanities, languages, mathematics, computing, music, science, sports, and technology  They are not permitted to select on academic ability generally  Comprehensive schools correspond broadly to the public school in the United States, Canada and Australia 

England
Comprehensive schools provide an entitlement curriculum to all children, without selection whether due to financial considerations or attainment  A consequence of that is a wider ranging curriculum, including practical subjects such as design and technology and vocational learning, which were less common or non-existent in grammar schools  Providing post-16 education cost-effectively becomes more challenging for smaller comprehensive schools, because of the number of courses needed to cover a broader curriculum with comparatively fewer students  This is why schools have tended to get larger and also why many local authorities have organised secondary education into 11–16 schools, with the post-16 provision provided by sixth form colleges and further education colleges  Comprehensive schools do not select their intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude  In addition, government initiatives such as the City Technology Colleges and specialist schools programmes have expanded the comprehensive model  City Technology Colleges are independent schools in urban areas that are free to go to  They're funded by central government with company contributions and emphasise teaching science and technology 

English secondary schools are mostly comprehensive (i e  no entry exam), although the intake of comprehensive schools can vary widely, especially in urban areas with several local schools  Nearly 90% of state-funded secondary schools are specialist schools, receiving extra funding to develop one or more subjects (performing arts, business, humanities, art and design, languages, science, mathematics, technology, engineering, sports, etc ) in which the school specialises, which can select up to 10% of their intake for aptitude in the specialism  In these schools children could be selected on the basis of curriculum aptitude related to the school's specialism even though the schools do take quotas from each quartile of the attainment range to ensure they were not selective by attainment  In the selective school system, which survives in several parts of the United Kingdom, admission is dependent on selection criteria, most commonly a cognitive test or tests  Most comprehensives are secondary schools for children between the ages of 11 and 16, but in a few areas there are comprehensive middle schools, and in some places the secondary level is divided into two, for students aged 11 to 14 and those aged 14 to 18, roughly corresponding to the US middle school (or junior high school) and high school, respectively  With the advent of Key Stages in the National Curriculum some local authorities reverted from the Middle School system to 11–16 and 11–18 schools so that the transition between schools corresponds to the end of one key stage and the start of another  In principle, comprehensive schools were conceived as "neighbourhood" schools for all students in a specified catchment area 
Maths free schools like Exeter Mathematics School are for 16 to 19 year pupils who have a great aptitude for maths  As set out in the government's Industrial Strategy, maths schools help to encourage highly skilled graduates in sectors that depend on science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) skills  The aim of maths schools is to prepare the most mathematically able pupils to succeed in mathematics-related disciplines at highly selective maths universities and pursue mathematically intensive careers  Maths schools can also be centres of excellence in raising attainment, supporting and influencing the teaching of mathematics in their surrounding area, and are central to their associated universities' widening participation commitments 

Technical and vocational education in comprehensive schools are introduced during the secondary school years and goes on until further and higher education  Secondary vocational education is also known as further education  Further education incorporates vocational oriented education as well as a combination of general secondary education  Students can also go on to a further education college to prepare themselves for the Business and Technology Education Council, T-levels, and National Vocational Qualifications  Major provider of vocational qualifications in England include the City and Guilds of London Institute and Edexcel  Higher National Certificates and Higher National Diplomas typically require 1 and 2 years of full-time study and credit from either HNE or Diplomas can be transferred toward an undergraduate degree  Along with the HNC and HND, students who are interested in other vocational qualifications may pursue a foundation degree, which is a qualification that trains people to be highly skilled technicians  The National Apprenticeship Service also offers vocational education where people at ages of 16 and older enter apprenticeships in order to learn a skilled trade  There are over 60 different certifications can be obtained through an apprenticeship, which typically lasts from up to 3 years  Trades apprentices receive paid wages during training and spend one day at school and the rest in the workplace to hone their skills 
The first comprehensives were set up after the Second World War  At that time the terms "multi-lateral" or "multi-bias" were also used to describe non-selective secondary schools  In 1946 Walworth School was one of five 'experimental' comprehensive schools set up by the London County Council although London's first purpose built comprehensive was Kidbrooke School built in 1954  An early comprehensive school was Holyhead County School in Anglesey in 1949  Coventry opened two comprehensive schools in 1954 by combining grammar schools and secondary modern schools  These were Caludon Castle School and Woodlands School  Another early example was the 1956 Tividale Comprehensive School in Tipton  The first, purpose-built comprehensive in the North of England was Colne Valley High School near Huddersfield in 1956 
The largest expansion of comprehensive schools resulted from a policy decision taken in 1965 by Anthony Crosland, Secretary of State for Education in the 1964–1970 Labour government  The policy decision was implemented by Circular 10/65, a request to local education authorities to plan for conversion  Students sat the 11+ examination in their last year of primary education and were sent to one of a secondary modern, secondary technical or grammar school depending on their perceived ability  Secondary technical schools were never widely implemented and for 20 years there was a virtual bipartite system which saw fierce competition for the available grammar school places, which varied between 15% and 25% of total secondary places 
In 1970 Margaret Thatcher, the Secretary of State for Education in the new Conservative government, ended the compulsion on local authorities to convert, however, many local authorities were so far down the path that it would have been prohibitively expensive to attempt to reverse the process, and more comprehensive schools were established under Thatcher than any other education secretary  By 1975 the majority of local authorities in England and Wales had abandoned the 11-Plus examination and moved to a comprehensive system  Over that 10-year period many secondary modern schools and grammar schools were amalgamated to form large neighbourhood comprehensives, whilst a number of new schools were built to accommodate a growing school population  By the mid-1970s the system had been almost fully implemented, with virtually no secondary modern schools remaining  Many grammar schools were either closed or changed to comprehensive status  Some local authorities, including Sandwell and Dudley in the West Midlands, changed all of its state secondary schools to comprehensive schools during the 1970s 

In 1976 the future Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan launched what became known as the 'great debate' on the education system  He went on to list the areas he felt needed closest scrutiny: the case for a core curriculum, the validity and use of informal teaching methods, the role of school inspection and the future of the examination system  Comprehensive school remains the most common type of state secondary school in England, and the only type in Wales  They account for around 90% of pupils, or 64% if one does not count schools with low-level selection  This figure varies by region 
Since the 1988 Education Reform Act, parents have a right to choose which school their child should go to or whether to not send them to school at all and to home educate them instead  The concept of "school choice" introduces the idea of competition between state schools, a fundamental change to the original "neighbourhood comprehensive" model, and is partly intended as a means by which schools that are perceived to be inferior are forced either to improve or, if hardly anyone wants to go there, to close down  Government policy is currently promoting 'specialisation' whereby parents choose a secondary school appropriate for their child's interests and skills  Most initiatives focus on parental choice and information, implementing a pseudo-market incentive to encourage better schools  Both Conservative Party and Labour governments experimented with alternatives to the original neighbourhood comprehensive Experiments have included:

partnerships where successful schools share knowledge and best practice with nearby schools
federations of schools, where a partnership is formalised through joint governance arrangements
City Technology Colleges, 15 new schools where one fifth of the capital cost is privately funded
Academy schools, state schools not controlled by the local authority, which are allowed to select up to 10% of admissions by ability
Free schools, state schools not controlled by the local authority, which are allowed to select up to 10% of admissions by abilityFollowing the advice of Sir Cyril Taylor—former businessman and Conservative politician, and chairman of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSAT)—in the mid-1990s, all parties have backed the creation of specialist schools, which focus on excellence in a particular subject and are theoretically allowed to select up to 10% of their intake  This policy consensus had brought to an end the notion that all children will go to their local school, and assumes parents will choose a school they feel most meets their child's needs 

Curriculum
All maintained schools in England are required to follow the National Curriculum, which is made up of twelve subjects  Every state school must offer a curriculum which is balanced and broadly based and which promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils at the school and of society, and prepares pupils at the school for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of later life  For each of the statutory curriculum subjects, the Secretary of State for Education is required to set out a Programme of Study which outlines the content and matters which must be taught in those subjects at the relevant Key Stages  Teachers should set high expectations for every pupil  They should plan stretching work for pupils whose attainment is significantly above the expected standard  Teachers should use appropriate assessment to set targets which are deliberately ambitious Under the National Curriculum, all pupils undergo National Curriculum assessments at the end of Key Stage 2 in Year 6 in the core subjects of English, Mathematics and Science  Individual teacher assessment is used for foundation subjects, such as art and design, geography, history, design and technology, and computing  Pupils take GCSE exams at Key Stage 4 in Year 11, but may also choose to work towards the attainment of alternative qualifications, such as the National Vocational Qualifications and Business and Technology Education Council  Pupils take GCSEs examinations in the core English literature, English language, mathematics, science, and entitlement subjects from the arts, humanities, design and technology, and languages  The core subjects English, Mathematics and Science are compulsory for all pupils aged 5 to 16  A range of other subjects, known as foundation subjects, are compulsory in each Key Stage:

Art and design
Citizenship
Design and technology
Geography
History
Computing
Foreign languages
Music
Physical educationIn addition to the compulsory subjects, pupils at Key Stage 4 have a statutory entitlement to be able to study at least one subject from the arts (comprising art and design, music, photography, dance, drama and media arts), design and technology (comprising design and technology, electronics, engineering, food preparation and nutrition), the humanities (comprising geography and history), and modern foreign languages  Optional subjects include computer science, business studies, economics, astronomy, classical civilisation, film studies, geology, psychology, sociology, ancient languages, and ancient history The Department for Education has drawn up a list of preferred subjects known as the English Baccalaureate on the results in eight GCSEs including English, mathematics, the sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, computer science), history, geography, and an ancient or modern foreign language All schools are required to make provision for a daily act of collective worship and must teach religious education to pupils at every key stage and sex and relationships education to pupils in secondary education  Parents can withdraw their children for all or part of the lessons  Local councils are responsible for deciding the RE syllabus, but faith schools and academies can set their own  All schools should make provision for personal, social, health and economic education (PSHE)  Schools are also free to include other subjects or topics of their choice in planning and designing their own programme of education 

School years
Children are normally placed in year groups determined by the age they will attain at their birthday during the school year  In most cases progression from one year group to another is based purely on chronological age, although it is possible in some circumstances for a student to repeat or skip a year  Repetition may be due to a lack of attendance, for example from a long illness, and especially in Years requiring standard tests  A child significantly more advanced than their classmates may be forwarded one or more years 
State-funded nursery education is available from the age of 3, and may be full-time or part-time, though this is not compulsory  If registered with a state school, attendance is compulsory beginning with the term following the child's fifth birthday  Children can be enrolled in the reception year in September of that school year, thus beginning school at age 4 or 4 5  Unless the student chooses to stay within the education system, compulsory school attendance ends on the last Friday in June during the academic year in which a student attains the age of 16 In the vast majority of cases, pupils progress from primary to secondary levels at age 11; in some areas either or both of the primary and secondary levels are further subdivided  A few areas have three-tier education systems with an intermediate middle level from age 9 to 13  Years 12 and 13 are often referred to as "lower sixth form" and "upper sixth form" respectively, reflecting their distinct, voluntary nature as the A-level years  While most secondary schools enter their pupils for A-levels, some schools offer the International Baccalaureate or Cambridge Pre-U qualifications instead 

Scotland
Scotland has a very different educational system from England and Wales, though also based on comprehensive education  It has different ages of transfer, different examinations and a different philosophy of choice and provision  All publicly funded primary and secondary schools are comprehensive  The Scottish Government has rejected plans for specialist schools as of 2005 

Australia
When the first comprehensive schools appeared in the 1950s, the Australian Government started to transition to comprehensive schooling which has been expanding and improving ever since  Prior to the transition into comprehensive schooling systems, primary and secondary state schools regularly measured students' academic merit based on their performance in public examinations  The state of Western Australia was the first to replace selective school systems, then Queensland, and finally South Australia and Victoria The Australian education system is organised through three compulsory school types  Students commence their education in Primary school, which runs for seven or eight years, starting at kindergarten through to Year 6 or 7  The next is Secondary school which runs for three or four years, from Year 7 or 8 to Year 10  Finally, Senior Secondary school which runs for two years, completing Years 11 and 12  Each school tier follows a comprehensive curriculum that is categorised into sequences for each Year-level  The Year-level follows specific sequence content and achievement for each subject, which can be interrelated through cross-curricula  In order for students to complete and graduate each tier-level of schooling, they need to complete the subject sequences of content and achievement  Once students have completed Year 12, they may choose to enter into Tertiary education  The two-tier Tertiary education system in Australia includes both higher education (i e : university, college, other institutions) and vocational education and training (VET)  Higher education works off of the Australian Qualifications Framework and prepares Australians for an academic route that may take them into the theoretical and philosophical lenses of their career options 
Passage 3:
Elizabeth and After
Elizabeth and After is a novel by Matt Cohen, first published in 1999 by Knopf Canada  His final novel, it won the Governor General's Award for English-language fiction just a few weeks before Cohen's death 

Plot summary
The story is about the lives of a few people living in a small town north of Kingston, Ontario   Carl McKelvey, a "white trash male" as he describes himself, returns to the town after a three-year absence in the hope that he can live with his daughter again, and maybe even renew his relationship with his ex-wife, Chrissy   He carries deep in his heart his guilt of having driven his car into a tree, killing his mother, Elizabeth, many years earlier 
Elizabeth's sudden death ended not only an unhappy marriage she had with William McKelvey, a failed farmer, but also a secret relationship she had with Adam Goldsmith, Carl's real father   Elizabeth might have felt that the uncultured McKelvey ruined her life, or she might be too frightened to ruin her life herself by leaving him   In either case, her life has affected McKelvey, Adam and Carl so deeply that her influence is still felt eleven years later 
When Carl is attacked by Fred (Chrissy's boyfriend), Adam, even though reserved and gentle-natured, decides to do something for his son   Adam takes Fred in his car and drives him into the same tree that Elizabeth's car crashed into eleven years earlier   Both Adam and Fred are killed instantly   Carl learns about his relationship with Adam in a letter Adam left for him 

External links
Elizabeth and After weaves a twisted tale
Passage 4:
Matt Cohen (writer)
Matthew Cohen (30 December 1942 – 2 December 1999) was a Canadian writer who published both mainstream literature under his own name and children's literature under the pseudonym Teddy Jam 

History
Matt Cohen was born in Montreal, son of Morris Cohen and Beatrice Sohn, and was raised in Kingston and Ottawa  He studied political economy at the University of Toronto and taught political philosophy and religion at McMaster University in the late 1960s before publishing his first novel Korsoniloff in 1969 His fiction was translated into German, Dutch, French, Greek, Spanish and Portuguese   The Spanish Doctor, his biggest international success, continues to sell well in the French and Spanish markets 
His greatest critical success as a writer was his final novel Elizabeth and After which won the 1999 Governor General's Award for English-language Fiction only a few weeks before his death  He had been nominated twice previously, but had not won, in 1979 for The Sweet Second Summer of Kitty Malone and in 1997 for Last Seen 
A founding member of the Writers' Union of Canada, he served on the executive board for many years and as president in 1986  During his presidency, the Writer's Union was finally able to persuade the government of Canada to form a commission and establish a Public Lending Right program   He also served on the Toronto Arts Council as chair of the Literary Division and was able to obtain increased funding for writers  In recognition of this work, he was awarded a Toronto Arts Award and the Harbourfront Prize 
He also published a number of children's books under the pseudonym Teddy Jam  Cohen's authorship of the Teddy Jam books was not revealed until after his death  Dr  Kiss, illustrated by Joanne Fitzgerald won the Governor General's Award in 1991 and Fishing Summer was also nominated for a Governor General's Award for children's literature in 1997, making Cohen one of the few writers ever to be nominated for Governor General's Awards in two different categories in the same year 
He was married three times; first to Arden Ford, next to Susan Bricker and then to Patsy Aldana Cohen died at home in Toronto after a battle with lung cancer  His final book of short stories, Getting Lucky, and his final Teddy Jam title, The Kid's Line, were posthumously published in 2001  A Canadian literary award, the Matt Cohen Award, is presented in Cohen's memory by the Writers' Trust of Canada A film adaptation of his 1990 novel Emotional Arithmetic has been produced by Triptych films starring Max von Sydow, Christopher Plummer, Gabriel Byrne and Susan Sarandon  It was the closing gala at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival 

Bibliography
Years link to corresponding year in literature or, for poetry, to year in poetry 

Novels
Korsoniloff (1969)
Johnny Crackle Sings (1971)
The Disinherited (1974)
Wooden Hunters (1975)
The Colours of War (1977)
The Sweet Second Summer of Kitty Malone (1979)
Flowers of Darkness (1981)
The Spanish Doctor (1984)
Nadine (1987)
Emotional Arithmetic (1990)
Freud: The Paris Notebooks (1991)
The Bookseller (1993)
Last Seen (1997)
Elizabeth and After (1999)

Short stories
Columbus and the Fat Lady (1972)
Too Bad Galahad (1972)
Night Flights (1978)
The Leaves of Louise (1978)
The Expatriate (1982)
Café le Dog (1983)
Life on This Planet (1985)
Living on Water (1988)
Racial Memories (1990)
Lives of the Mind Slaves (1994)
Getting Lucky (2001)

Poetry
Peach Melba (1974)
In Search of Leonardo (1985)

Non-fiction
Typing: A Life in 26 Keys (2000)

Children's literature (as "Teddy Jam")
Night Cars (1987) illustrated by Eric Beddows
Doctor Kiss Says Yes (1991) illustrated by Joanne Fitzgerald
The Year of Fire (1993) illustrated by Ian Wallace
The Charlotte Stories (1994)
Jacob's Best Sisters (1996) illustrated by Joanne Fitzgerald
The Fishing Summer (1997) illustrated by Ange Zhang
This New Baby (1998)
The Stoneboat (1999) illustrated by Ange Zhang
ttuM (1999)
The Kid Line (2001) illustrated by Ange Zhang

See also
Canadian literature
Canadian poetry
List of Canadian poets
List of Canadian writers
Passage 5:
Algernon Methuen
Sir Algernon Marshall Stedman Methuen, Baronet (; 23 February 1856 – 20 September 1924) was an English publisher and a teacher of Classics and French   He is best known for founding the publishing company Methuen & Co 

Background and education
Methuen was born as Algernon Methuen Marshall Stedman in London, the third son of John Buck Stedman, FRCS, and Jane Elizabeth née Marshall  He was educated at Berkhamsted School and then Wadham College, Oxford, from which he graduated with an MA 

Career
After graduating from Oxford, Methuen entered teaching, and rose to become head of High Croft Preparatory School at Milford in Surrey from 1890 to 1895  While teaching he began, as a sideline, writing a number of school textbooks under the nom-de-plume A  W  S  Methuen, of which his series on French, Greek and Latin were best known  Among his works were books on gardening and current affairs  In June 1889, Methuen began to publish and market his own textbooks under the label Methuen & Co  (later Methuen Publishing Ltd )  Two months later he formally adopted Methuen as his surname  His first success at publishing came in 1892 with the publication of Rudyard Kipling's Barrack-Room Ballads  He later published works by Hilaire Belloc, Robert Louis Stevenson, and Oscar Wilde 
Methuen was an outspoken critic of the Boer War  He stood for Parliament as the Liberal party candidate for the seat of Guildford in the General Election of January 1910  The seat was a safe Conservative seat and he was unsuccessful  In 1916, he was created a baronet, of Haslemere in Surrey, and he later published his own memoir 

Personal life
Methuen married Emily Caroline Bedford in 1884  He died in September 1924, aged 68, when the baronetcy became extinct 
Passage 6:
Journal of Applied Philosophy
The Journal of Applied Philosophy is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Society for Applied Philosophy and edited by Elizabeth Brake (Rice University)  It covers a broad spectrum of issues in all areas of applied philosophy, including work on the environment, medicine, science, engineering, policy, law, politics, economics, and education 
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 1 018, ranking it 24th out of 51 journals in the category "Ethics" 

Journal for Applied Philosophy Annual Essay Prize
The Journal of Applied Philosophy awards an annual prize of £1,000 to the best article published in the year's volume 
2017: Natasha McKeever "Is the Requirement of Sexual Exclusivity Consistent with Romantic Love?"
2016: Federico Picinali "Base Rates of Negative Traits: Instructions for Use in Criminal Trials"
2015: Cheshire Calhoun "Geographies of Meaningful Living"
2014: Christopher Morgan-Knapp "Economic Envy"
2013: Daniel Friedrich "A Duty to Adopt"
2012: Avery Kolers "Floating Provisos and Sinking Islands"
2011: Jakob Elster "How Outlandish Can Imaginary Cases Be?"

Society for Applied Philosophy Annual Lectures
Each year since 2010, the Journal of Applied Philosophy has published the Annual Lecture hosted by the Society of Applied Philosophy [1]

2017: Philip Pettit presented the lecture, 'Three Mistakes about Doing Good (and Bad)'  Read the article here 
2016: Arthur Ripstein presented the lecture, 'Reclaiming Proportionality'  Read the article here 
2015: Shelley Kagan presented the lecture, 'What's Wrong with Speciesism?' 
2014: Julia Annas presented the lecture, 'Applying Virtue to Ethics'  Read the paper based on this talk here 
2013: Larry Temkin presented the lecture, 'Universal Healthcare in the Developing World: Solution or Siren? Some Preliminary Thoughts'  Read the paper based on this lecture here 
2012: Joseph Raz presented the lecture 'Death in Our Life'  The paper based on this lecture can be read here 
2011: Amartya Sen presented the lecture 'The Global Reach of Human Rights'  The paper based on this talk can be read here 
2010: Philip Kitcher presented the lecture 'Militant Modern Atheism'  The paper based on this talk can be found here 

See also
List of ethics journals
Passage 7:
The Landlord's Game
The Landlord's Game is a board game patented in 1904 by Elizabeth Magie as U S  Patent 748,626  It is a realty and taxation game intended to educate users about Georgism  It is the inspiration for the 1935 board game Monopoly 

History
In 1902 to 1903, Magie designed the game and play tested it in Arden, Delaware  The game was created to be a "practical demonstration of the present system of land grabbing with all its usual outcomes and consequences"  She based the game on the economic principles of Georgism, a system proposed by Henry George, with the object of demonstrating how rents enrich property owners and impoverish tenants  She knew that some people could find it hard to understand why this happened and what might be done about it, and she thought that if Georgist ideas were put into the concrete form of a game, they might be easier to demonstrate  Magie also hoped that when played by children the game would provoke their natural suspicion of unfairness, and that they might carry this awareness into adulthood The Landlord's Game has some similarities to the basic rules of the board game Zohn Ahl, played by the Kiowa Indians of North America  There are hints that suggest Elizabeth Magie might have known Zohn Ahl and incorporated some of the game's ideas 
In 1903, Magie filed for a patent on the game which was granted in 1904   Magie and fellow Georgists formed a company, Economic Game Company, in 1906 New York to publish the game  Besides Magie, the incorporators were E  H  Monroe of Chicago and E  G  Lenbusher of New York  Magie approached Parker Brothers to publish this and one other game in 1909  The other game was accepted while Landlord's was rejected as too complicated In the United Kingdom The Landlord's Game was first published in 1913 by the Newbie Game Company, formed by a Liberal Committee from the village of Newbie in Dumfries, under the title Brer Fox an' Brer Rabbit; although, despite the title change, it was recognizably the same game  Landlord sold well in the Northeast amongst its left-wing intellectuals, while Brer was unsuccessful Scott Nearing, socialist professor of economics at Wharton School of Finance from 1906 to 1915, lived in Arden in 1910, where Magie invented the game, learned about the game and taught it to his students  College students made up their own boards to use with her rules  Various versions of the game popped up over the following years under a variety of names, Monopoly, Finance, and Auction being among them  Among the Atlantic City and Philadelphia communities of Quakers, the game was particularly popular with college students and economics professors  Jesse and Eugene Raiford, Quakers in Atlantic City, used household items instead of pawns and changed the properties to those of Atlantic City With Magie's first patent having expired, in 1923, Magie decided to attempt to regain control by applying for another patent  On September 23, 1924, a second patent was issued to Magie for The Landlord's Game  Adgame Company (Inc ) published Landlord's Game and Prosperity under this patent in 1932 Robert Baron had Parker Brothers design its own version, Fortune, before negotiation to purchase her patents in case the discussion fell apart or she sold to another potential buyer, Dave Knapp, publisher of Finance  Magie held the patent until 1935, when she sold it to Parker Brothers for $500, equivalent to $10,672 in 2022  The company had recently started distributing Monopoly, which it purchased from Charles Darrow who claimed to have invented it   The company only printed a very small run of the game to secure the copyright  Surviving copies of The Landlord's Game by Parker Brothers are considered by many the rarest of all 20th century board games  Parker Brothers pushed her game aside for Darrow's by 1936  Magie then did two interviews showcasing copies of the original board with The Washington Post and The Evening Star to show that Darrow was not the inventor of the game In 1937, Carnival was published based on the 1904 version  Parker Brothers published their edition of the game in 1939 In a 2004 episode of PBS' History Detectives (title: "Monopoly; Japanese Internment Camp Artwork; The Lewis and Clark Cane"), the show investigated a game board belonging to a Delaware man, having an intermediate version of a game combining elements of The Landlord's Game and Monopoly  The investigators concluded that this game board was the missing link that proves that Monopoly was derived from The Landlord's Game 

Description
The set had rules for two different games, anti-monopolist and  Monopolist  The anti-monopolist rules reward all players during wealth creation, whereas the monopolist rules incentivize forming monopolies and forcing opponents out of the game  In the anti-monopolist or Single Tax version (later called "Prosperity"), the game is won when the player with the least money doubles their original stake The board featured a track around the outside edge of the board split into blocks representing properties and had their purchase price, and their rental value listed in the block  New York City's Broadway, Fifth Avenue, and Wall Street were the top properties in price and rent  The published game included Chance cards with quotes attributed to Thomas Jefferson, John Ruskin and Andrew Carnegie From the 1904 patented version to the published 1906 version, the property names were changed and the rule for increased rent for multiple railroads owned was added 

Patents
The game's first patent was the first issued for a game while claiming four features in the application, the most important feature was a continuous path game  At the time, most games had a start and end spot  With the first patent having expired in 1921, Magie applied for another patent with five new claims 
The claims of Magie's second patent could not include those of the first (now in the public domain) and leaned more towards the single tax theory of play  One common misconception is that Parker Brothers acquired the rights to Magie's original invention of Monopoly play and the unique design by purchasing the later 1924 patent
Context 3: Passage 1:
Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University
Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, (Persian: دانشگاه شهید مدنی آذربایجان, Danushgah-e Shihid-e Midâni-ye Âzerbaijan) commonly called only Azarbaijan University, is a public university located near Tabriz, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran, founded in 1987  The university provides both undergraduate and graduate education to approximately 7,500 students at a wide range of fields including engineering, basic sciences, literature and theology  The university has got Research Gate's total impact point of 1716 47 from 61 publications, according to the latest statistics 

History
Azarbaijan University was founded in 1987 in Tabriz as a branch of Tehran's Tarbiat Moallem (teacher education) University  The initial objective of the university was to train teachers in different area for the fulfillment of Iranian government educational development policies and the major concern of the university was focused on training teachers for high schools and technical schools 
In 1988, Azarbaijan University became an independent university under the title Tabriz University of Tarbiat Moallem and later Azarbaijan University of Tarbiat Moallem  In 2012, due to changing of Iranian educational policies, the university turned to a general educational university under the title Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University  The name "Shahid Madani" comes from an Iranian cleric from Azarshahr who became a martyr in the early years of Islamic Revolution 
Recently, the university is expanding fast and it is planning to be one of the prominent educational and research centers in Iran  New faculty buildings are being opened, new young academic staff are being employed and a lot of academic activities are underway to convert the university to one of the most dynamic universities in northwestern Iran 

Faculties
Engineering
Basic Sciences
Literature and Human Sciences
Theology and Islamic Sciences
Information Technology
Psychology & Educational Sciences
Agriculture

Campuses
Azarbaijan University has two campuses:

Main campus is located in the countryside of Tabriz alongside the Tabriz - Maragheh highway, near Azarshahr and Mamaqan, 35 km Southwest of Tabriz  Administrative part, faculties, most of student dormitories, laboratories, workshops and amphitheaters are located in main campus  The campus also has a train station, 3 restaurants, bakery, a health center, and a shopping center 
Tabriz campus, which is located in Dampezeshki neighborhood of Tabriz, was established in 2013 with a focus on graduate studies in some of the theoretical engineering and science majors  The programs in Tabriz campus include Master of Science in: Analytical Chemistry, Theoretical Physics, Structural Engineering, Electrical Power Engineering, Applied Mathematics and PhD degree programs in: Analytical Chemistry, Atomic and Molecular Physics  Tabriz Campus holds the "Virtual and Distance Learning Center" of the university and also summer and short courses are held in this campus 

International Relations
Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University has cooperation and exchange programs with several universities and institutes in the Middle East and also in Asia and Europe  Some of them are as follows:

Kanazawa University in Japan
Khazar University in Azerbaijan
Gebze Technical University in Turkey
Siirt University in Turkey
Van Yüzüncü Yıl University in Turkey 
BBCA Institute in Italy

Student Communities
There are various student communities and associations with different academic, athletic or artistic objects:

Materials Student Association
Poetry and Literature Association
Music Association
Photography and Filming Association
Red Crescent Association
Charitable Association
Engineering Academic Communities
Literature Academic Communities
Basic Sciences Academic Communities
Psychology Academic Community
Botany Academic Community

Exclusive Train
Thanks to the Tehran - Tabriz railroad which passes through the university, Azarbaijan University is the only university in Iran with a railway station inside and its exclusive train which transports students between Tabriz and the university 4 times every business day  Due to the rising number of students  In morning and afternoon rush hours an older train is also used to increase the capacity 

See also
Higher education in Iran
List of universities in Iran
Passage 2:
2018 French Grand Prix
The 2018 French Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 Pirelli Grand Prix de France 2018) was a Formula One motor race that took place on 24 June 2018 at the Circuit Paul Ricard in Le Castellet, France  The race was the eighth round of the 2018 FIA Formula One World Championship and marked the first time that the French Grand Prix has been run since 2008  It was the 87th running of the French Grand Prix, and the 59th time the event had been included as a round of the Formula One World Championship since the inception of the series in 1950 Ferrari driver Sebastian Vettel entered the race with a one-point lead over Lewis Hamilton in the World Drivers' Championship  In the World Constructors' Championship, Mercedes led Ferrari by seventeen points  Hamilton took the lead in the Driver's Championship by winning the race, with Vettel finishing fifth 

Background
The race returned to the calendar for the first time since 2008, with Circuit Paul Ricard chosen as the venue  The circuit last hosted the French Grand Prix in 1990 before the event moved to the Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours in 1991  The race used the 5 842 km (3 630 mi) layout of the Circuit Paul Ricard for the first time  The layout includes a chicane on the Mistral straight as opposed to the 5 809 km (3 610 mi) circuit that was used nine times between 1971 and 1985 The race was run in June, filling a vacancy left by the Azerbaijan Grand Prix  The race in Azerbaijan was moved to an April date to avoid clashing with celebrations for the centenary of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic 

Drag reduction system
The circuit featured two drag reduction system (DRS) zones  The first was located along the main straight, while the second was on the Mistral Straight on the approach to the chicane 

Tyres
Tyre supplier Pirelli provided teams with the soft, supersoft and ultrasoft compounds of tyres  They reverted to their narrow tread compound following feedback from the teams in the wake of mid-season testing at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya 

Free practice
Lewis Hamilton set the fastest lap in the first free practice session, which was cut short by an accident involving Sauber driver Marcus Ericsson  Ericsson lost control of his Sauber C37 on the approach to Turn 11 and spun into the barrier on the outside of the corner  The car hit the tyre wall at an angle and subsequently caught fire  Ericsson was unharmed, but with two minutes remaining the session was abandoned and the damage to his car so extensive that he was unable to take part in the second free practice session  Several drivers experienced spins during the session, most notably at Turn 6 where an intermittent and gusty local wind caught the drivers unaware as they accelerated away from the apex of the corner  Unlike Ericsson, all of the drivers avoided contact with the wall courtesy of the circuit's unique, abrasive tarmac run-off areas designed to slow down cars that left the circuit 
Hamilton was fastest again in the second free practice session despite having his flying lap interrupted by another red flag  Sergio Pérez lost a wheel as he turned onto the Mistral Straight, prompting race officials to mount an investigation as to whether Force India had released Pérez from the pit lane with his car in an unsafe condition  The session was restarted once Pérez's car was cleared away 

Qualifying
Notes^1  – Brendon Hartley received a 35-place grid penalty for exceeding his quota of power unit components 

Race
Race report
At the start Sebastian Vettel ran into the back of Valtteri Bottas, with both sustaining damage and having to pit for repairs, also there was a separate collision between Pierre Gasly and Esteban Ocon leaving both cars stranded out on the track, this brought out a brief safety car period lasting till the end of lap 5  Vettel would later receive a penalty for his collision with Bottas which meant he would only manage to finish 5th  Lance Stroll suffered a tyre puncture near the end of the race causing a virtual safety car, which ended with only half a lap left of the race  Lewis Hamilton comfortably won ahead of Max Verstappen, while Kimi Räikkönen completed the podium 

Race classification
Notes^1  – Sergey Sirotkin had 5 seconds added to his race time for driving unnecessarily slowly behind the safety car 
^2  – Fernando Alonso and Lance Stroll retired from the race, but were classified as they completed more than 90% of the race distance 

Championship standings after the race
Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings 

See also
2018 Le Castellet Formula 2 round
2018 Le Castellet GP3 Series round

Notes
Passage 3:
Hans Albert Einstein
Hans Albert Einstein (May 14, 1904 – July 26, 1973) was a Swiss-American engineer and educator, the second child and first son of physicists Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić  He was a long-time professor of hydraulic engineering at the University of California, Berkeley Einstein was widely recognized for his research on sediment transport  To honor his outstanding achievement in hydraulic engineering, the American Society of Civil Engineers established the "Hans Albert Einstein Award" in 1988 and the annual award is given to those who have made significant contributions to the field 

Early life
Hans Albert Einstein was born on May 14, 1904, in Bern, Switzerland, where his father, Albert Einstein, worked as a clerk in the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property  His father was of German-Jewish descent and his mother, Mileva Marić, Serbian  His younger brother, Eduard Einstein, was born in 1910 and died in 1965  In 1913, Hans and Eduard were baptized as 
Orthodox Christians in the Orthodox Church of Saint Nicholas in Novi Sad  The fate of his older sister, Lieserl Einstein, Albert Einstein's and Mileva Marić's first child, is unknown, although it has been suggested she died of scarlet fever in 1903  Their parents divorced in 1919 after living apart for five years 

Career
In 1922, Hans followed in his parents' footsteps and entered ETH Zurich, where he studied civil engineering, graduating in 1926  From 1926 to 1930 he worked at the steel design company Klönne, in Dortmund, Germany  From 1931 to 1938, he worked as a research engineer at the newly founded Laboratory of Hydraulics and Soil Mechanics (VAWE) at ETH Zurich  There, in 1936 Hans Albert obtained a doctorate in technical science  His doctoral thesis "Bed Load Transport as a Probability Problem" (Der Geschiebetrieb als Wahrscheinlichkeitsproblem) is considered the definitive work on sediment transport Hans' father, Albert, left Germany in 1933 to escape the persecution of Jews by the Nazi government  Heeding his father's advice, Hans emigrated from Switzerland to Greenville, South Carolina, in 1938  He worked for the US Department of Agriculture, studying sediment transport from 1938 to 1943  He continued working for the USDA at the California Institute of Technology starting in 1943  In 1947 he took a position as associate professor of hydraulic engineering at the University of California, Berkeley  He advanced to full professor, and later professor emeritus   Einstein traveled the world to participate in hydraulic engineering conferences  He was at a symposium at Woods Hole in Massachusetts when he collapsed and died from heart failure on July 26, 1973 Einstein was honored by a Guggenheim Fellowship (1953), research awards from the American Society of Civil Engineers (1959 and 1960), the Berkeley Citation from the University of California (1971), the Certificate of Merit from the U S  Department of Agriculture (1971), and a certificate of recognition for more than 20 years of devoted and distinguished service to Applied Mechanics Reviews by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1972) Hans was also made an member of Pi Tau Sigma in December 1949 with honorary membership grade 
In 1958 he was the principal guest of honor at the Technion's dedication of a new building housing the Albert Einstein Institute of Physics 
 
Hans Albert Einstein died due to heart failure on July 26, 1973 in Woods Hole, Massachusetts  His papers are held at the Water Resources Collections and Archives in the University of California, Riverside Libraries and in the University of Iowa Libraries Special Collections and Archives 

Personal life
In 1927, Hans Albert Einstein married Frieda Knecht  They had four children:

Bernhard Caesar Einstein (10 July 1930 – 30 September 2008), who was a physicist and engineer 
Klaus Martin Einstein (1932–1939), died of diphtheria aged six 
David Einstein (October–November 1939), died aged one month 
Evelyn Einstein (28 March 1941 – 13 April 2011), adopted Knecht died in 1958, and Hans Albert married neurochemist Elizabeth Roboz (1904–1995) the following year Einstein was an avid sailor, frequently taking colleagues and family out for excursions on the San Francisco Bay  On his many field trips and academic excursions, he took thousands of pictures, many of which he developed himself and presented as slide shows  He also loved music, as denoted on his gravestone, and he played flute and piano 

See also
Einstein family
Genius, a television series depicting the Einsteins
Passage 4:
2017 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix
The 2017 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix was the first round of the 2017 MotoGP season  It was held at the Losail International Circuit in Doha on 26 March 2017  For all the three classes, the starting grid was formed by each rider's best time from any of the three free practice sessions held, after rain cancelled the planned qualifying sessions In the MotoGP race, Maverick Viñales won on his first outing for Yamaha, becoming the first rider to do so on début for Yamaha since his teammate Valentino Rossi did the same back in 2004 
The Moto2 class saw the début of the KTM Moto2 chassis package, following KTM's expansion into Moto2 along with MotoGP with the RC16 

Classification
MotoGP
Moto2
Moto3
Gabriel Rodrigo suffered a broken collarbone in a crash during the opening free practice and withdrew from the event 

Championship standings after the race
MotoGP
Below are the standings for the top five riders and constructors after round one has concluded 

Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings 

Moto2
Moto3
Notes
Passage 5:
Lap Engine
The Lap Engine is a beam engine designed by James Watt, built by Boulton and Watt in 1788  It is now preserved at the Science Museum, London 
It is important as both an early example of a beam engine by Boulton and Watt, and also mainly as illustrating an important innovative step in their development for its ability to produce rotary motion The engines name comes from its use in Matthew Boulton's Soho Manufactory, where it was used to drive a line of 43 polishing or lapping machines, used for the production of buttons and buckles 

Innovations
Watt did not invent the steam engine and there is no single 'Watt steam engine' as such  He developed a number of separate innovations, each of which improved the existing engines of the day, beginning with Newcomen's   The Lap Engine of 1788, also the Whitbread Engine (1785), represent survivors of the first engines to show all of Watt's major improvements in one 

Parallel motion
Rotative beam engines
Sun and planet gear
The rotative beam engine needs a means to convert reciprocating motion of the piston and beam to rotary motion  The crankshaft was well known for centuries before Watt, mostly from its use in mining machinery powered by water wheels  However its use for a steam engine was covered by James Pickard's patent at this time  Watt was unwilling to pay a license fee to use the crank and so sought an alternative  The sun and planet gear was invented by another Scottish engineer, William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton and Watt  Watt patented it in October 1781 
The sun and planet gear is a simple epicyclic gear  The planet is attached rigidly to the end of the connecting rod, hung from the beam  As it rotates it applies a torque to the sun gear, just as for a crank, and so causes it to rotate  As the two gears also rotate relative to each other, like conventional gearwheels, this has the effect of giving the sun gear a further rotation  The sun, and the output crankshaft, thus rotates twice for every piston cycle of the engine, twice as fast as with a conventional crank  Beam engines were slow-moving and the output shafts driven by the Lap Engine were fast-moving, so this was an advantage 

Centrifugal governor
According to the Science Museum, it was the first steam engine to be fitted with a centrifugal governor 

History
Preservation
Notes
Passage 6:
Meenakshi Sundararajan Engineering College
Meenakshi Sundararajan Engineering College (MSEC) (Tamil:மீனாட்சி சுந்தரராஜன் பொறியியல் கல்லூரி) is an engineering college in Kodambakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India and it is founded in 2001 

History
The Engineering College was founded in 2001 by the educationist of South India, Professor K R Sundararajan  Meenakshi Sundararajan Engineering College is a part of the KRS Group of Institutions which includes the Indian Institute of Technical Education (IIET, est  1947), Meenakshi College for Women and the Meenakshi Sundararajan School of Management  Institutions dedicated to impart qualitative education and research for both under-graduate and post-graduate education in the fields of Engineering, Arts, Science, Commerce and Management 

Courses
B E  Electrical and Electronics Engineering
B Tech Information Technology
B E  Mechanical Engineering
B E  Civil Engineering
B E  Computer Science and Engineering
B E  Electronics and Communication Engineering
M E  Construction Engineering and Management
Passage 7:
Marvin R  Sambur
Marvin Robert Sambur (born March 31, 1946) is an American engineer and businessman who served as Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Acquisition) from 2001 to 2005 
Sambur was educated at the City College of New York, receiving his B S  in electrical engineering in 1968   He then joined the technical staff of Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey, while continuing his education  He received an M S  in electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1969 and a Ph D  in electrical engineering from MIT in 1972 Sambur worked at Bell Labs until 1977, when he joined ITT Defense Communications in Nutley, New Jersey, as senior vice president   In 1988, he moved to Easton, Pennsylvania, to become president and general manager of the ITT's Electron Technology division   He held that position until 1991, when he became president and general manager of ITT's Aerospace/Communications division in Fort Wayne, Indiana   Finally, in 1998, he became president and CEO of ITT Defense in McLean, Virginia In 2001, President of the United States George W  Bush nominated Sambur to be Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Acquisition)   He held the office until January 2005 After leaving government service, Sambur co-founded Raptors Consulting Group, based in Potomac, Maryland   He also joined the faculty of the A  James Clark School of Engineering Sambur had been a resident of Denville Township, New Jersey 


== Notes ==
Passage 8:
1963 Mexican Grand Prix
The 1963 Mexican Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at the Ciudad Deportiva Magdalena Mixhuca in Mexico City on October 27, 1963  It was race 9 of 10 in both the 1963 World Championship of Drivers and the 1963 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers 
Jim Clark dominated the race from pole position, a time that was 1 7 seconds faster than anybody else  Mexico was considered one of his most successful venues  His fastest lap of the race eclipsed his pole time by 0 7 seconds, and he lapped the entire field except for second and third behind him  He eventually scored a total of five pole positions, four fastest laps and three victories at the venue in his Formula One career  This was also his sixth win, his sixth fastest lap, and his sixth pole position of the nine races completed in 1963 This was also the only World Championship Grand Prix where a car raced with the number 13 until Pastor Maldonado selected the number as his permanent race number in 2014 

Classification
Qualifying
Race
Surtees was disqualified for a push-start 

Championship standings after the race

Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings  Only the best 6 results counted towards the Championship  Numbers without parentheses are Championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored 
Passage 9:
Thiruvalluvar College of Engineering and Technology
Thiruvalluvar College of Engineering and Technology or popularly known as TCET,  located in Vandavasi, Tamil Nadu, India is a private educational institution in India 

About
Varadhammal manickam education and charitable trust [VMECT] was founded in 1996 as a non-profitable organization at 178,vagataranam pillai street, Triplicane, Chennai 600 005  The administrative office is located at R 6/4, vaigai street, bezant nagar, Chennai -600 090  The trustees are eminent personalities in various walks of life such as education, research, industry, business, administration etc 
Thiruvalluvar College of Engineering and Technology was founded in the year 1998 by Prof  Dr  S  Arunachalam M E (Civil), PhD a Former Professor in Anna University and Former Syndicate Member - Anna University, Chennai 
The Institution is approved by A I C T E - All India Council for Technical Education, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University Chennai 

External links
Thiruvalluvar College of Engineering and Technology
Passage 10:
Callcott Reilly
Callcott Reilly (28 October 1828 – 21 May 1900) was a British civil and construction engineer  He is noted for his work on uniform stress, as illustrated by reference to bridge building, for which the Institution of Civil Engineers awarded him the Telford Medal in 1865   He played a prominent role in promoting the professional education of engineers and in 1871 became the first Professor of Engineering Construction at the newly formed Royal Indian Engineering College (RIEC) located at Coopers Hill near Englefield Green 
Passage 11:
André Milhoux
André Milhoux (born 9 December 1928) is a former racing driver from Belgium   He participated in one Formula One World Championship Grand Prix, the 1956 German Grand Prix on 5 August 1956, but had to retire after 15 laps due to an engine failure  He scored no championship points 

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)
Passage 12:
Malaviya Regional Engineering College
Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur (MNIT or NIT Jaipur) is a public technical university located in Jaipur, India with, an emphasis on science, engineering and management 
Formerly known as Malaviya Regional Engineering College (MREC) Jaipur, it assumed its present name in 2002 and was recognised as an Institute of National Importance in 2007  It was founded in 1963 with only two engineering branches and now comprises fourteen departments, a school of management and allied centres  The institute is fully funded by the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India and is governed by a Senate as per NIT Statutes 

History
The institute was established in 1963 as Malaviya Regional Engineering College (MREC), as a joint venture of the government of India and the Government of Rajasthan  It was named after Madan Mohan Malaviya  V G  Garde was its first principal  The college moved to the present campus in Jaipur in 1965 It used to offer five-year Bachelor of Engineering programs in Civil, Electrical, Mechanical, and Metallurgical Engineering  The duration of the B E  Degree Course was changed to four years from the year 1983 The institute was upgraded to a National Institute of Technology and was declared a Deemed University on 26 June 2002 since then the institute started offering Bachelor of Technology (B Tech ) degree instead of Bachelor of Engineering (B E ) degree On 15 August 2007, MNIT and all other NITs were declared Institutes of National Importance by the government of India under the National Institutes of Technology Act, 2007  The institute is now under The Ministry of Education (MHRD), New Delhi  It has been selected to participate in the Technical Education Quality Improvement Program of the government of India and the World Bank Milestone: MNIT celebrated its Golden Jubilee foundation year in 2013 

Academics
Programmes
MNIT offers a wide variety of study in engineering, sciences, management, design, and humanities with a primary focus on engineering  Eight four-year undergraduate courses of study led to the Bachelor of Technology degree and a five-year undergraduate course leading to the Bachelor of Architecture degree, with a total of over 5,000 students  Postgraduate degrees award Master of Technology (M Tech ), Master of Science (M Sc ), Master of Business Administration (M B A) and Master of Urban Planning  There are also doctoral programs with over 300 students  There are over 150 faculty members engaged in teaching and research 

Financial aid
More than 30 financial aid schemes are made available to students under different criteria to support institute fees and in some cases hostel accommodation as well 

Requisites for enrolments
Admission to undergraduate courses of the institute is through the Central Seat Allocation Board (CSAB) which takes into account the performance in Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) Supernumerary seats are reserved for students from outside India who are nominated by the Ministry of External Affairs, Govt  of India, and the Indian Council of Cultural Relations and DASA students  SAT scores are criteria for selection Admission for post graduate courses namely Master of Technology (M Tech ) and Master of Urban & Regional Planning (MURP) are through Centralized Counselling for MTech/MArch and M Plan (CCMT) after Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) Admission to M Sc  is through CCMN (Centralized Counseling for MSc/MSc (Tech )), admission to M B A  is through GMAT/CAT followed by GD, PI and Ph D  are through department's respective written test followed by an interview 

Rankings
Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur was ranked 46th among engineering colleges by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2022 

Grading
MNIT follows the credit-based system of performance evaluation, with the proportional weighting of courses based on their importance  The total marks (usually out of 100) form the basis of grades, with a grade value (out of 10) assigned to a range of marks  This range of marks is decided by Grade Moderation Committee and is relative in nature  For each semester, the students are graded by taking a weighted average from all the courses with their respective credit points  Each semester's evaluation is done independently with a cumulative grade point average (CGPA) reflecting the average performance across semesters 

Research
Research in the institute is sponsored by major government agencies which include the Indian Ordnance Factories, Ministry of Communication & IT, Govt  of India, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST) 

Collaboration with International Universities
University of Greenwich, London
Stevens Institute of Technology
North Dakota University
University of Saskatchewan
Deakin University
Florida International University
University of Dundee
Medine Education, Mauritius

Administration
The Organisational structure
MNIT shares a common Visitor (a position held by the President of India) who is the most powerful person in the NIT organizational structure and the NIT Council with the other sister NITs 
The board of governors consists of members nominated by the NIT Council, the director, representatives from the Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource and Development, and Government of India 
The institute's director serves as the chief academic and executive officer of the institute  He is aided by the deputy director  Under the director and the deputy director are the deans, heads of departments, registrar, president of the students' council, and chairman of the hall management committee 
The registrar is the chief administrative officer and oversees day-to-day operations  He is the custodian of records, funds, and other properties of the institute 
Under the charge of the heads of departments (HODs) are the faculty (full-time professors as well as those of associate and assistant status)  The wardens of hostels are placed under the chairman of the hall management committee in the organization 

Financing
Annually, the institute receives US$20 million from the Government of India and the World Bank 
Alumni and other bodies also donate to contribute to the development of the institute  Financial management is undertaken by the Financial Committee of the institute 

Academic policies
The academic policies of the institute are decided by its senate  It consists of the deans of the institute, all the professors, the director, educationists, and specialists  The senate controls and approves the curriculum, courses, examinations, and results and appoints committees to look into academic matters  The teaching, training, and research activities of the institute are reviewed by the senate to maintain educational standards  The director serves as the ex-officio and chairman of the senate 

Academic Events
MNIT Jaipur AICTE – Training Program on Design Thinking for Innovative Medical Devices

Motto
"Yogaḥ Karmasu Kauśalam" (योगः कर्मसु कौशलम् in Sanskrit)  The motto literally translates to "Excellence in action is Yoga" essentially implying that doing your work well is (true) yoga or "Diligence leads to Excellence"  It is sourced to Sri Krishna's discourse to Arjuna in Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 2, Verse 50  This quote in its larger context of Gita urges man to acquire equanimity because such a soul endowed with the mind of equanimity allows him to shed the effects of his good and evil deeds in this world itself  Equanimity is the source of perfection in Karmic endeavors while leading to Salvation 

Departments, Centres and Schools
Engineering departments
Architecture
Chemical Engineering
Civil Engineering
Computer Science & Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Information Technology, Kota (temporary campus) – Computer Science Engineering and Electronics & Communication Engineering

Centres
Energy and Environment
Earthquake and Disaster Mitigation Centre
Innovation and Incubation Centre
Advance Materials Research Centre
Tribology Laboratory
Electronics & ICT Academy
Stones

Science Departments
Applied Biology
Mathematics
Physics (Photonics and Electronics )
Chemistry

Allied Departments
Humanities and Social Sciences
Department of Physical Education

Campus
MNIT's 317-acre campus is located in Jaipur, Rajasthan, approximately 2 5 miles (4 km) from Jaipur International Airport  It is 6 miles (10 km) from Pink City and is within walking distance of the business district therefore the two locations are frequent gateways for MNIT students  The vast campus is lush green and has a hill out of Aravali Ranges  
Numerous buildings, and clusters constitute the campus  To the west are the departmental buildings, research laboratories, associations and club buildings, lecture theatres, bank (ICICI Bank), post office, canteens, lawns, auditoriums, main building, computer centre; to the east are Boys hostels, STP; to the north are guest houses, staff quarters, bank (SBI, ICICI); at the center and south are sports facilities and dispensary 

The dispensary is supervised by a team of Medical Officers and supported staff  The institute has a part-time Homeopathic doctor and Ayurvedic doctor on the campus  Canteen buildings, five in all, are near the instructional zone and hostels and in addition to it, an Amul parlor  The central canteen is run by Akshaya Patra Foundation  There are two guest houses on the campus for visitors, alumni, guests, and guardians of students 
Each Department has its own building which has laboratories, staff cabins, lecture halls, classrooms, auditoriums, departmental libraries, etc , and all are linked via a continuous gallery that runs throughout the eastern part 

Sports facilities
Facilities for sports and games include a soccer ground, a cricket ground with nets, three basketball courts, three lawn tennis courts, three volleyball courts, three raw volleyball courts, one indoor badminton court and other outdoor badminton courts, a gymnasium, a billiards room, a chess room, a jogging track, table tennis boards, and a swimming pool is in future plans 

Materials Research Center
Materials Research Center (MRC) has the infrastructure for advanced research in various streams with a focus on materials  The facilities are extended to the scientists and researchers of other institutes  Equipment at the center, set up at the cost of $6 3 million, offers a wide range of research assistance  Various machines, facilities and software are available in the lab 

Central Library
Now known as LEARNING RESOURCE CENTRE (LRC), aids the teaching and research programmes of the institute and provides facilities for general reading and information with 156,314 print books, 3,073 ebooks, 10,000 e-journals, international journals, technical pamphlets, standards, CD-ROMs and periodicals  In addition, it is connected to other library networks like DELNET, which enables students to access libraries of other 4697 Indian and International libraries  It is spread across a plinth area of 15,847 Sq  feet  The services and operations in the library are fully digital with RFID and Smart card systems with Koha (software)   In addition to books, it offers Wi-Fi and LAN services 

Computer Center
The centre has 10 computer laboratories  A Datacenter with Private Cloud using VMWare V Cloud Suite 5 and 64 TB of EMC2 Storage has also been established in the center  The Private Cloud has features of automated provisioning of IT resources, a single interface for administrators for the entire IT infrastructure, and workload elasticity  It is used for Library digitization, E-mail archival, hosting various services/applications and Research on cloud computing by Ph D  and MTech students 

Vivekananda Lecture Theatre Complex (VLTC)
Vivekananda Lecture Hall complex will have 40 classrooms that could accommodate about 5,500 students at a time  It will have a food court in its basement  Its construction was started on 19 September 2012  It holds the record of being Asia's Largest Lecture Theatre Complex Among other facilities, each hostel is equipped with Wi-fi and/or LAN, and a common room with a TV, LAN, table-tennis court, newspaper stands and a mess 

Student life
Annually MNIT conducts the MNIT Sports Tournament (MST)



ground_truth: ease of use and enhanced support for Plug and Play

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The author of Elizabeth and After attended which university?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Parker Brothers acquired Magie's patent to The Landlord's Game but although both patents had the same name they covered different claims  The substitution or confusion of the early patent for the latter is still commonplace 

See also
Ralph Anspach's Anti-Monopoly
Bertell Ollman's Class Struggle
Passage 8:
Nicholas Eftimiades
Nicholas Eftimiades is an American government official, author, and educator best known for his work Chinese Intelligence Operations (1994)  He currently resides in the Tokyo area  He is a current professor at Penn State Harrisburg 

Education
Eftimiades graduated from George Washington University with a B A  in East Asian Studies and the National Defense Intelligence College with a M S  in Strategic Intelligence   He also did undergraduate and graduate work in Asia   He is a Visiting Research Fellow at King's College, War Studies Department, London, United Kingdom 

Government career
Nicholas Eftimiades' 30 year government career includes seven years at the National Security Space Office leading engineering teams designing "generation after next" national security space capabilities  He was also Senior Technical Officer in the Defense Intelligence Agency, Future's Division, and Chief of DIA's Space Division  He served as DIA's lead for national space policy and strategy development Mr  Eftimiades has provided numerous briefings and testimony on national security, technology, and space exploration issues to senior policy officials and the U S  Congress  He testified before the President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy   He has sponsored and chaired international conferences on U S  and foreign defense policy issues   He is a frequent lecturer and public speaker on future technology and societal changes and national security issues 

Chinese Intelligence Operations
Eftimiades first came into public view in 1994 with the publication of his book Chinese Intelligence Operations (Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland , March 1994)  The book is an examination of the structure, operations, and methodology of the intelligence services of the People's Republic of China  The book received worldwide recognition with the Chinese government declaring Eftimiades "an enemy of the people" in the People's Daily newspaper  To date, the book remains the only scholarly analysis of China's intelligence services and operational methodology Chinese Intelligence Operations gained worldwide attention when one of the Chinese companies identified as having a relationship with China's intelligence services was identified as a donor to the Bill Clinton presidential campaign through the Democratic National Committee  This revelation resulted in Eftimiades appearing on TV, radio, and being quoted in newspapers   He appeared on CBS Evening News with Connie Chung, Dateline NBC, ABC's Day One, BBC America, National Public Radio and many other television and radio broadcasts    Some organizations protested the CBS news broadcast as being racist  Eftimiades testified before the U S  Congress on several occasions 

Science Fiction
Eftimiades' most recent work is a political and philosophical satire entitled Edward of Planet Earth   The book is influenced by authors such as Alexander Zinoviev and Ignazio Silone—names not normally associated with science fiction   The story takes place 200 years in the future and centers on a man, his computer friends, a female companion and their quest to communicate with God 

Non-Profit Activity
In 2001, Eftimiades founded a non-profit educational organization entitled the Federation of Galaxy Explorers to inspire youth interest in science and engineering   Students in the Galaxy Explorers program attend after school "Mission Team" meetings where they participate in hands-on lessons that support National Science Education Standards  Mission Team members are rewarded for participation and achievements with ribbons, patches, medals, and certificates   In addition to Mission Teams, Galaxy Explorers also have Summer Camps, Star Parities, and the Battle of the Rockets Competition 
Passage 9:
Stephen Henry Parker
Sir Stephen Henry Parker  (7 November 1846 – 13 December 1927) was a lawyer and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Western Australia from 1906 to 1914 

Biography
Early life
Stephen Henry Parker was the second son of Stephen Stanley Parker (1817–1904) and his wife Elizabeth, née Sewell  He was the grandson of Stephen Parker (c  1795 – 1879), a pioneer settler in York, Western Australia  Parker was educated at the Bishop's School, Perth, and was called to the bar in 1868 

Career
He became a member of the Western Australian Legislative Council and advocated responsible government for the colony  In 1878 he moved for the introduction of a bill to amend the constitution, but this motion was defeated  A constitution bill for responsible government was passed by the Legislative Council on 26 April 1889, but was met with some opposition in the British House of Commons  It was suggested and agreed that a delegation consisting of the retiring governor, Sir Frederick Broome, Sir Thomas Cockburn-Campbell and Parker should go to London to see the bill through the British parliament  The delegation was able to give a good answer to all objections raised, and subsequently the bill was passed and became law 
He served as colonial secretary in the John Forrest ministry from October 1892 to December 1894 when he retired  He was also chairman of the Perth City Council from November 1877 to 1879, for a few months in 1880-81 and Mayor from February to October 1892  In 1881, he joined with his brother George to form the well known law firm Parker and Parker (which in 1997 merged with the Perth office of Freehill Hollingdale & Page) 

Personal life and death
He married Amey Katharine Leake, daughter of George Walpole Leake on 27 July 1872   She died in 1914   They had four sons and seven daughters who reached adulthood  Their second son Hubert Stanley Wyborn Parker (1883-1966) was the member of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly for North-East Fremantle in 1930-33, and of the Western Australian Legislative Council for Metropolitan-Suburban province in 1934-54  He was attorney-general for two months in 1933 and chief secretary in 1948-50 
Parker, and his brother George, were heavily involved with the East Perth (now known as Perth) Cricket Club in the W A C A  Competition  He was club President from 1899 to 1903 
He died on 13 December 1927 

See also
Judiciary of Australia
Passage 10:
Elizabeth Blanchard (educator)
Elizabeth Blanchard (1834–1891) was an American educator who was the seventh president of Mount Holyoke College (as Principal and Acting President) 
Blanchard graduated from Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in 1858, and taught there for twelve years before becoming the Associate Principal from 1872-1883   She served as Principal from 1883-1888   When Mount Holyoke Female Seminary received its collegiate charter and became Mount Holyoke College, she served as Acting President from 1888-1889 

See also
Presidents of Mount Holyoke College
Passage 11:
Elizabeth Gertrude Britton
Elizabeth Gertrude Britton (née Knight) (January 9, 1858 – February 25, 1934) was an American botanist, bryologist, and educator  She and her husband, Nathaniel Lord Britton played a significant role in the fundraising and creation of the New York Botanical Garden  She was a co-founder of the predecessor of the American Bryological and Lichenological Society  She was an activist for the protection of wildflowers, inspiring local chapter activities and the passage of legislation  Elizabeth Britton made major contributions to the literature of mosses, publishing 170 papers in that field 

Early life and family
Elizabeth Gertrude Knight was born on January 9, 1858, in New York City, one of five daughters, to James and Sophie Anne (née Compton) Knight  Her family operated a furniture factory and sugar plantation in the vicinity of Matanzas, Cuba, and she spent much of her childhood there  In later childhood, she attended a private school in New York before attending Normal College (later, Hunter College)  She graduated from Normal College in 1875, at the early age of seventeen  On August 27, 1885, she married Nathaniel Lord Britton, an assistant in geology at Columbia College who shared her growing interest in botany  The couple had no children 

Career
After graduation in 1875, Elizabeth Knight joined the staff of Normal College as a critic teacher  She joined the Torrey Botanical Club in 1879, and in 1881 she published her first scientific paper in that organization's Bulletin, reporting observations of unexpected white flowers in two species of plants  She also observed the presence of a curlygrass fern, Schizaea pusilla, in Nova Scotia  In 1883, she became a tutor in natural science  It was at this time that she began to specialize in bryology and her first paper concerning mosses appeared  Britton collected fertile specimens of Eustichium norvegicum in Wisconsin and wrote the first description of its fruits  Although known since 1827, the plant had hitherto been known only in a sterile condition  Her Observer articles were models of popular scientific writings on plants which had “fanciful” titles like “The Humpbacked Elves” and “The Brownies ”After her marriage in 1885, Britton resigned her teaching position at Normal College, and took charge of the moss collections at Columbia in an unofficial, unpaid capacity  She served as editor of the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club from 1886 to 1888; in 1889, she published the first of an eleven-part series of papers titled Contributions to American Bryology in that journal  Her catalogue of the mosses of West Virginia appeared in 1892, and the first of eight articles titled How to Study the Mosses for a popular magazine was published in 1894  These papers "sufficed to place Mrs  Britton in command of the bryological field in America " She worked with her husband to acquire for Columbia the moss herbarium of August Jaeger of Switzerland; Britton persuaded wealthy friends to contribute the necessary $6,000 
Britton, along with her husband, was one of the Torrey Botanical Club members who spurred the establishment of the New York Botanical Garden (NYBG)  The couple also travelled to England in 1888 where Nathaniel was performing research at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew  At Kew Nathaniel worked on the Bolivian botanical collections of Henry Hurd Rusby, a gift to Columbia; meanwhile, Elizabeth worked on mosses at the Linnean Society of London  Inspired by the quality and quantity of Kew's herbarium, library, and gardens, the couple set about organizing an institution of comparable stature for New York  A Club meeting was held in October, 1888 where rich and prominent citizens were recruited as incorporators  The Botanical Garden was established by act of the state legislature in 1891  Britton was important in the efforts to raise funds for the organization in the 1890s  Her husband became the first director of the Botanical Garden in 1896, whilst she volunteered there  It was largely through her interest that the collection of liverworts and mosses of William Mitten was acquired for the NYBG in 1906  In recognition of her service, Britton was named Honorary Curator of the Mosses in 1912, a post which she held until her death Britton enumerated the ferns in the Rusby collection in 1888 and she published her examination of the Rusby mosses in 1896 

Britton travelled to various locations in the United States to collect botanical specimens, including the Great Dismal Swamp, the Adirondack Mountains, and the mountains of North Carolina  She accompanied Nathaniel on 23 of the 25 trips he made to the islands of the Caribbean and West Indies  Under her own name, she published her findings in the Bulletin in 1913–1915  Britton wrote the chapters concerning mosses for Nathaniel's Flora of Bermuda and The Bahama Flora Britton worked with organizations to promote the study of mosses, especially by women scientists and she chaired the division of Bryophyta for the (Women's) National Science Club (NWSC) in 1897 As part of her unofficial position at Columbia, Britton acted as advisor to doctoral students, including James Franklin Collins and Abel Joel Grout  Together, in 1898 Grout and Britton founded the Sullivant Moss Chapter of the Agassiz Association  By 1908, it was known as the Sullivant Moss Society (and after 1949, as the American Bryological and Lichenological Society)  Although relations between the two researchers later became chilly, Britton continued to participate in the Society, contributing articles to The Bryologist, its journal, and serving as its president from 1916 to 1919 Britton continued to study plants other than mosses  She published A Revision of the North American Species of Ophioglossum, the adder's-tongue ferns, in 1897  With Delia West Marble, she collected the type specimen of Thelypteris brittonae, a species of maiden fern, in 1906  Britton collected the type specimen for the orchid now named Britton's shadow witch (Ponthieva brittoniae) 

In the first decade of the 20th century, Britton began to devote her time to the conservation of wildflowers  A gift of $3,000 by Olivia and Caroline Phelps Stokes to the NYBG spurred the creation of the Wild Flower Preservation Society of America  The first meeting was held on April 23, 1902 where Frederick Vernon Coville was elected president, Charles Louis Pollard was elected secretary, and Britton was elected to the Board of Managers  Other members of the board included Charles Edwin Bessey, Liberty Hyde Bailey, William Trelease, Charles Frederick Millspaugh and Alice Eastwood  Britton went on to serve as secretary and treasurer of the organization  The Society established numerous local chapters  It was incorporated in the state of New York in 1915, then reorganized as the Wild Flower Preservation Society in 1925, with Percy L  Ricker as its head  Britton promoted the cause for nearly 35 years, by publishing, lecturing, and conducting correspondence; her efforts led to adoption of legislation in various states, as well as local conservation activities in garden clubs and public schools  She published fourteen articles in the NYBG's Journal under the series title of Wild Plants Needing Protection 
In 1925, as chair of the conservation committee of the Federated Garden Clubs of New York State, Britton successfully led a boycott campaign against the common practice of harvesting wild American holly for use as a Christmas decoration  As a substitute, she promoted the propagation of the plant by cuttings for commercial use 
All told, during the period 1881 to 1930, Britton published 346 papers, of which 170 dealt with mosses  She wrote descriptions of six families of mosses for the New York Botanical Garden's Flora of America  Marshall Avery Howe described Britton as "a woman of extraordinary physical and mental energy—the possessor of a remarkably quick and brilliant intellect  She has left an enduring record in the literature of science, and her well-directed activities have had an outstanding influence in the conservation of the native flora of the United States "

Wild Plants Needing Protection
Wild Plants Needing Protection, written by Britton, is a New York Botanical Garden journal comprising fourteen articles  In the journal, she gives an in depth description of different wild plants and their importance to their environment  Each plant section included an illustration of the plant described, while also giving descriptions of both the scientific and historical background of the plants  This is shown in Britton’s journal of “Spring Beauty”: 

“The Spring Beauty was named by Linnaeus in 1753 in honor of John Clayton, an American botanist, and correspondent, who wrote, in 1743, a flora of Virginia " Britton then goes over how there are about twenty-five species of Claytonia plants  Her Journal entry of “Wild Pink” is an example of her descriptions which is conveyed within the writing when she states:“before the trees cast much shade, while their greens are still so exquisitely fresh and varied, a bright flash of color will attract the eye to the Wild Pink, growing in hilly places on rocks or often in their cracks and crevices with the Saxifrage "

Recognition and legacy
In 1893, Britton was the only woman among the 25 scientists nominated for charter membership in the Botanical Society of America  In 1905, she was one of three bryologists appointed to the nomenclature committee that would report to the 1910 meeting of the International Botanical Congress in Brussels  In 1906, Britton was one of only nineteen women listed in the first edition of American Men of Science  Her entry was marked with an asterisk: this "starred" listing was limited to the top 1,000 scientists in the book, as determined by the editors  Britton was starred in the five editions of the book that appeared through 1933 The moss genus Bryobrittonia is named for Elizabeth Britton, as well as fifteen species of plants and one of animals Mount Britton, a double peak in El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico, honors both of the Brittons In 1940, a memorial plaque in honor of Britton was installed in the new Wild Flower Garden of the New York Botanical Garden  A gift of the New York Bird and Tree Club, it is mounted on a ten-ton boulder of Bronx schist, and its text reads, "Let those who find pleasure in this garden remember Elizabeth Gertrude Knight Britton, lover of wildflowers and ardent advocate of their protection"  The garden is now known as the Native Plant Garden, and the boulder as Britton Rock Today, the Elizabeth Gertrude Knight Britton archive is held by the NYBG Mertz Library  It includes personal papers, manuscripts and published research, artwork and photographs, and printing plates  The archive documents Britton's teaching career at Normal College, as well as her participation in the Torrey Botanical Club and the NYBG  Her field notebooks can be found in the New York Botanical Garden Collectors' Field Notebook collection The character of Alma Whittaker in the 2013 novel The Signature of All Things, by Elizabeth Gilbert, is modeled in part on Britton 

Later life and death
Elizabeth Britton died at her home at 2965 Decatur Avenue in The Bronx on February 25, 1934, following an apoplectic stroke; her husband Nathaniel survived her by four months  Although she was nominally a member of the Episcopalian faith, she was buried in the Moravian Cemetery on Staten Island, where her husband's ancestors had been early settlers and he held property 

Selected publications
See also
The Britton Cottage
Timeline of women in science
Passage 12:
Mary Gaunt
Mary Eliza Bakewell Gaunt (20 February 1861 – 19 January 1942) was an Australian novelist and writer  born in Chiltern, Victoria  She also wrote collections of short stories, novellas, autobiographies, and non-fiction  She published her first novel Dave's Sweetheart in 1894  Gaunt visited many countries in her life and she wrote about her experiences in five travel books 

Early life and education
Mary was the elder daughter of William Henry Gaunt, a Victorian county court judge and Elizabeth Gaunt, née Palmer (c  1835–1922), and was born in Chiltern, Victoria  She was educated at Grenville College, Ballarat and the University of Melbourne, being one of the first two women students to be admitted there 

Career
She began writing for the press and in 1894 published her first novel Dave's Sweetheart  In the same year she married Dr Hubert Lindsay Miller (a widower) of Warrnambool, Victoria  He died in 1900, and, with only a small income, Gaunt (now also known as Mrs Mary Miller) went to London intending to earn a living by her writing  Gaunt left Melbourne on 15 March 1901 and never returned 
Gaunt had difficulties at first but eventually established herself, and was able to travel in the West Indies, in West Africa, and in China and other parts of the East  Her experiences were recorded in five pleasantly written travel books: Alone in West Africa (1912), A Woman in China (1914), A Broken Journey (1919), Where the Twain Meet (1922), Reflection - in Jamaica (1932)  In 1929 she also published George Washington and the Men Who Made the American Revolution  Between 1895 and 1934, 16 novels or collections of short stories were published, mostly with love and adventure interests  Three other novels were written in collaboration with John Ridgwell Essex  A collection of interviews with Mary were published in the 1925 Girls' Own Annual under the headings "Pioneering for Women" parts I, II, and III, and "Strange Journeys I Have Made" 
From the early 1920s, Gaunt lived mostly at Bordighera, Italy  In 1940 she fled Italy and died at Cannes in 1942  She had no children 
She had a sister Lucy, and brothers Cecil, Clive, Guy and Ernest; Guy and Ernest were both admirals of the Royal Navy, and Guy later became a Conservative Member of Parliament 

Bibliography
Novels
Dave's Sweetheart (1894)
Kirkham's Find (1897)
Deadman's: An Australian Story (1898)
Mistress Betty Carew (1903)
The Arm of the Leopard: A West African Story (1904) [with John Ridgwell Essex]
Fools Rush In (1906) [with John Ridgwell Essex]
The Silent Ones (1909) [with John Ridgwell Essex]
The Mummy Moves (1910)
The Uncounted Cost (1910)
Every Man's Desire (1913)
A Wind from the Wilderness (1919)
As the Whirlwind Passeth (1923)
The Forbidden Town (1926)
Saul's Daughter (1927)
The Lawless Frontier (1929)
Joan of the Pilchard (1930)
Harmony: A Tale of the Old Slave Days of Jamaica (1933)
Worlds Away (1934)

Novellas
Bingley's Gap (1888)
Down in the World (1893)
The Other Man (1894)

Short story collections
The Moving Finger (1895)
The Ends of the Earth : Stories (1915)
The Surrender and Other Happenings (1920)
Life at Deadman's : Stories of Colonial Victoria (2001)

Autobiography
Alone in West Africa (1912)
A Woman in China (1914)
A Broken Journey: Wanderings from the Hoang-Ho to Saghalien (1919)

Non-fiction
Where the Twain Meet (1922) - travel
Peeps at Great Men : George Washington and the Men Who Made the American Revolution (1929) - children's
Reflection in Jamaica (1932) - travel

Notes and references
Sources
E  Archer, 'Gaunt, Mary Eliza Bakewell (1861 - 1942)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 8, MUP, 1981, pp 632–633  Retrieved 30 October 2008
Serle, Percival (1949)  "Gaunt, Mary"  Dictionary of Australian Biography  Sydney: Angus & Robertson  Retrieved 30 October 2008 
Auslit Gaunt, Mary  (birth name: Gaunt, Mary Eliza Bakewell ) (a k a  Miller, Mary )

External links

Works by Mary Gaunt at Project Gutenberg
Works by Mary Gaunt at Project Gutenberg Australia
Works by or about Mary Gaunt at Internet Archive
Passage 13:
Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades
Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades, also referred to as PSAT, is a government institution of technical vocational education and training higher learning located in Alvear Street, Lingayen, Pangasinan, Philippines  PSAT is duly registered by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority  All PSAT programs are accredited by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) 
History: 
Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades (PSAT) is an outgrowth of the intermediate school organized by American Roy E  Blackman in 1904   It served as a normal training department for teachers who intended to teach shopwork in the different municipalities of Pangasinan   Through the late Provincial Governor, Hon  Isabelo Artacho, the Pangasinan Trade School building was constructed in its present site in 1907 
Mr  Jorge Garcia was the first Filipino principal and was succeeded by Martin Mendoza   It was during the incumbency of Mr  Mendoza in 1923 that the first year high school level of the trade school was introduced 
In 1920 the first batch of students of the four-year trade curriculum graduated   The shop courses offered then were Woodworking, Building Construction and Automotive 
In 1929 – 1930, the Pangasinan Vocational High School emerged as an offshoot of the merger of Home Economics Education, Normal Training Department and Trade Courses Program 
In 1935 – 1936, the Pangasinan High School and the Pangasinan Vocational High School were fused into one high school known as the Pangasinan Secondary School 
In 1939 – 1940, the Pangasinan Vocational High School became known as Pangasinan Trade School, an entirely separate entity from the Pangasinan High School of which it has earlier been a part 
On August 15, 1945, the Pangasinan Trade School was temporarily opened at Dagupan City due to the construction of the buildings in Lingayen 
On March 14, 1953, by virtue of Republic Act 704, the Pangasinan Trade School was converted into a National School of Arts and Trades and named as Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades (PSAT) whose curricular offerings were expanded to include Master of Arts in Vocational Technical Education, major in Practical Arts   This gave PSAT the distinction of being the only vocational school offering graduate studies, in Region I 
In 1987, the offering of post-secondary technical-vocational education was retrieved from the Pangasinan State University which brought with it all post-secondary courses upon its conversion as a state university in 1978 and only the secondary courses were left with PSAT 
In 1990, PSAT  was elevated as a Higher Technical Education institution by virtue of Republic Act 7078 
In 1995, PSAT was transferred t the administrative supervision of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) by virtue o Republic Act 7845  It was, however, only in 1997 that PSAT became a full-fledged CSI (CHED-Supervised Institution) 
On April 25, 2000, by virtue of CHED-TESDA Memorandum of Agreement, PSAT was transferred to the administrative supervision of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) 
On May 10, 2000 the Joint CHED-TESDA Memorandum Circular  No  1, s  2000, the Implementing Guidelines on the Transfer of CHED-Supervised Institutions (CSIs) to Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) was issued  Dr  Geronimo S  dela Cruz, Sr  was the first Vocational School Superintendent of PSAT under TESDA supervision 
On April 1, 2001, Dr  Lina C  Alcantara took over as the Officer-In-Charge   It was during her term when eleven (11) of the school offerings were registered under UTPRAS   Three courses (Garments, Computer Technician and Hotel and Restaurant Technology) were registered WTR and seven (7) courses were registered NTR 
On August 3, 2005, Manuel A  Jaramilla, Ph  D  assumed the position of Officer-In-Charge   It was during his term when Short-term courses were first offered which eventually boomed    It was also during his term when 16 courses were registered under WTR status in June, 2007   Technology Trainers were also granted Trainers’ Qualification I (TQ I) in support of the Competency Based Training Delivery 
On June 1, 2008, Clemencia T  Ibarra, CSEE and Civil Service Commission Local Scholarship Program – Masteral Degree Program and University of the Philippines Scholarship recipient assumed her post as Vocational School Superintendent I 
Her leadership and administration shall anchor in the full implementation of Competency Based Training Delivery, registration of short-term courses under WTR Status, institutional application and accreditation by Asia Pacific Accreditation and Certification Commission (APACC), improvement of school facilities, Instructional and Administrative Staff Development and Welfare Benefit Program, efficiency and transparency on school’s communication, financial, administrative, and supplies management, systems and processes, and institutionalization of income generating project 

Program Offerings
Junior & Senior High School
Automotive Servicing NC II
Bread and Pastry Production NC II
Commercial Cooking NC II
Computer Hardware Servicing NC II
Consumer Electronics Servicing NC II
Dressmaking NC II
Electrical Installation and Maintenance NC II
Food and Beverage Services NC II
Front Office Services NC II
Hairdressing NC II
Housekeeping NC II
Shielded Metal Arc Welding NC II
Trainer's Methodology Level I

External links
TESDA Accredited Assessment Centers – Pangasinan School of Arts and Trades
Passage 14:
Arthur Kroker
Arthur Kroker (born 1945) is a Canadian author, editor, educator and researcher of political science, technology and culture 

Life and career
He earned a PhD in political science from McMaster University in 1975  In addition to being a professor of political science at the University of Victoria, Kroker serves as director of the Pacific Centre for Technology and Culture (PACTAC), located at the university  Kroker was appointed to the Canada Research Chair in technology, culture and theory in 2003  He is the editor for the online academic journal CTheory, an international journal of theory, technology and culture 
Kroker has been an outspoken critic of the transformation of the early internet into a consumer-driven system ("virtual class")  Austrian magazine Monochrom interviewed him about his political motivations in 1996 He was married to Marilouise Kroker from 1971 until her death in 2018 

Bibliography
Books
Technology and the Canadian Mind: Innis, McLuhan, Grant (1984)
The Postmodern Scene: Excremental Culture and Hyper-Aesthetics (1987) (with David Cook)
Panic Encyclopedia: The Definitive Guide to the Postmodern Scene (1989) (with David Cook and Marilouise Kroker)
The Possessed Individual: Technology and the French Postmodern (1992)
SPASM: Virtual Reality, Android Music, and Electric Flesh (1993)
Data Trash: Theory of the Virtual Class (1994) (with Michael A  Weinstein)
Hacking the Future (1996) (with Marilouise Kroker)
The Will to Technology and the Culture of Nihilism: Heidegger, Nietzsche and Marx (2004)
Body Drift: Butler, Hayles, Haraway (2012)
Exits to the Posthuman Future (2014)
Technologies of the New Real: Viral Contagion and Death of the Social (2021) (with Marilouise Kroker)

As editor
Body Invaders: Panic Sex in America (1987) (with Marilouise Kroker)
The Hysterical Male: New Feminist Theory (1991) (with Marilouise Kroker)
The Last Sex: Feminism and Outlaw Bodies (1993) (with Marilouise Kroker)
Digital Delirium (1997) (with Marilouise Kroker)
Life in the Wires: The CTheory Reader (2004) (with Marilouise Kroker)
Critical Digital Studies: A Reader (2008) (with Marilouise Kroker)
Passage 15:
Poptropica
Poptropica is an online role-playing game, developed in 2007 by Pearson Education's Family Education Network, and targeted towards children aged 6 to 15  Poptropica was primarily the creation of Jeff Kinney, the author of the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series  As of 2015, he remains at the company as the Creative Director  The game primarily focuses on problem-solving through game quest scenarios, called "islands"  Islands all center on a problem that the player must resolve by going through multiple obstacles, collecting and using items, talking to various characters, and completing goals  All islands, upon completion, award "credits," which are non-negotiable currency that may be used to buy costumes and special effects in the Poptropica store 
In 2011, Poptropica was listed on Time magazine's list of "50 Websites that Make the Web Great", where it was described as "an inventive megasite for kids with a wholesome and slightly educational bent"  By 2012, the game had grown to have over 75 million registered users, with 35 million in the 15-25 age group  Versions of the game have been released on Nintendo DS and 3DS, iOS, and Android mobile devices  In May 2015, it was announced that Family Education Network was sold by Pearson to the interactive-education venture capitalist Sandbox Networks, and that Poptropica had "over 3 2 million monthly unique users in 200 countries and territories" In 2015, Poptropica was sold to educational-technology investment group, Sandbox Partners In 2020, because of the discontinuation of Adobe Flash, Poptropica began porting their old islands that were built on Adobe Flash over to an HTML5 format  As a result of Poptropica's utilization of varying Flash engines, a number of islands were unable to be ported immediately, and were effectively removed from the game  Fan archivists later made 35 islands available once again via the Basilisk browser within the Flashpoint program In April 2022, Poptropica announced that some of the old islands would return as part of a bundle on Steam  Though delayed by a day, the game was eventually released on May 26, 2022, and includes seventeen islands and Poptropica Realms 

Gameplay
When it first launched in 2007, Poptropica only had one island, titled Early Poptropica Island  By 2017, it had 58 islands to be explored, all with a different theme: examples include Back Lot Island, where the player helps produce a movie, and Super Power Island, where their goal is to defeat six super villains  Each island had its own quest, for which a player could receive an island medallion as well as 150 credits to spend in the in-game Poptropica Store  Starting July 6, 2011, Poptropica allowed players to replay islands without creating a new account, while still keeping track of all the Medallions the player had earned 

Advertisements
In addition to the available island quests, advertisers contract for temporary mini-games that appear on the site, sometimes targeted to players of a certain age group or gender  Regular advertisers have included Disney, Kellogg's Froot Loops, Lego toys, and various animated movies and DVD releases  Advertisement mini-games normally appear only during a two-week period  If the player completes an advertisement mini-game, they receive a temporary prize, usually related to the media being advertised 
A few Poptropica islands are themed after certain book series: these include Big Nate, Timmy Failure, Diary of a Wimpy Kid, and Magic Tree House  These islands are permanent, and can be played at any time  In 2015, a total of seven of these islands became members-only 

Mini-games
Poptropica features different mini-games that users can play with other people  These include Switch, Sudoku, Hoops, Sky Dive, Paint War, Star Link, Balloons, Soupwords and Pathwise  The game keeps track of how many times the player wins or loses a certain mini-game 

Spin-offs
Poptropica Adventures
In 2012, in partnership with Ubisoft, Poptropica released a video game for the Nintendo DS, titled Poptropica Adventures 

Poptropica: Forgotten Islands
On September 5, 2013, Poptropica launched Poptropica: Forgotten Islands, an iOS game, which allows players to meet new characters and discover story elements about Poptropica by finding artifacts littered throughout the game  It was also released on the Nintendo 3DS system through Ubisoft in 2014  It has been replaced on iOS and Android with a mobile version of the desktop Poptropica game 

Poptropica Worlds
On January 11, 2017, Poptropica announced via their blog that they were introducing another game called Poptropica Worlds, developed in Unity  It was released in spring 2017  Poptropica Worlds has new features, such as redesigned characters, customizable homes, and new islands  Returning players are able to port over their avatar's look and name to Poptropica Worlds  Poptropica Worlds can be played on both the web and mobile  If membership was bought for Poptropica, it carries over to Poptropica Worlds, and vice versa 
Context 3:  Students from all across Rajasthan and other parts of North India, participate in the event  MNIT also hosts inter-NIT sports tournaments being a part of the Inter-NIT sports federation  The institute is the West zone centre for NBA JAM National level events include Neuron, Blitzschlag, Electronica, Moments, MST, Schrifftum, Taal and Zodiac 

Hostel
MNIT has 10 boys and 2 girls hostels with an accommodation capacity of about 3,000 students  The largest among them is Aurobindo Hostel comprising 950 single bedrooms  First-year students are allotted triple bedrooms and from second Year onwards everyone gets single bedrooms  Most of the hostels are equipped with the mess  Students are given Wi-Fi, LAN, common room, and sports facilities in hostels  Hostel fees in a single semester is Rs  32,000 (out of which Rs  20,000 for Hostel mess bill and 12,000 for Room rent, electricity and light bill 

Blitzschlag
Blitzschlag is the annual cultural fest of MNIT Jaipur  It is a 3-day event held towards the start of February every year and attracts a crowd of over 20,000 students from more than 20 colleges all over the country The word Blitzschlag has German origins; it means a lightning strike  Aimed at inspiring innovation, technical interest among students, and awareness among the public, the event has played host to lectures, seminars, workshops, competitions, exhibitions, and quizzes 
The event is organized by the students under the guidance of their teachers 

Sphinx
Sphinx is the annual tech-fest organized autonomously by Malaviya National Institute of Technology, a 3-day event held in late October each year  The event is organized by the students under the guidance of their teachers 

Creative Arts & Cultural Society
MNIT CACS (Creative Arts & Cultural Society) allows students to exhibit extracurricular abilities 

Student Mentorship Program
Student Mentorship Program (SMP) is a program of mentorship of junior students by senior students  Web based services consist of an The Online Mentor-Mentee platform and SMP Media  Online Mentor-Mentee platform connects mentees with their Mentors, and SMP Media acts as a knowledge sharing platform 

The Mavericks
The Mavericks is the weekly newsletter service, run by a group of students which covers all activities going on on the campus, both academic and non-academic, discussing ongoing placements, internships, achievements by students, events, projects and other happenings on the campus 

Codavids
Codavids is the official programming and coding club of the institute, under the Head of the Computer Engineering Department  It aims to improve the programming culture among the student community and encourage them to solve practical problems through coding, improve their programming skills by taking lectures, organizing Online Coding Competitions (OCC) every month, organizing Guest lectures in algorithm complexity, algorithms, data structures, operating systems and programming in general 

Zine
Zine is a creative group of engineering undergraduates of Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur who are together to learn, improve and apply their technical skills to help foster the growth of society and India in the field of technology by using their engineering skills to work on real time problems  It is composed of students from various disciplines working under guidance of Dr  Rajesh Kumar from Electrical Engineering department and various alumni working in reputed firms and doing research in Universities in India and abroad 

Housing
MNIT provides on-campus residential facilities to its students, research scholars, faculty members, and many of its staff 
Hostel rooms are wired for the internet, for which students pay a compulsory charge included in the hostel fees  Most of the rooms in the hostels are designed to accommodate one student and is available after the first year, and there are hostels designed for triple bedding which are leased to students of the first year  Some hostels have Wi-fi networks  There are twelve hostels in all, and each hostel is provided with a common room equipped with a television, table tennis board, and newspaper reading section  Students residing in hostels are issued an advisory code of conduct and ragging or harassing other students, and juniors are strictly forbidden 

Past People
Students
MNIT enrols 710 undergraduates, 500 post graduate and 500 doctoral students every year  The Ratio of male to female students is seven to one  50% of students are from Rajasthan, due to the home state quota followed by Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North East and other states in the same order  Students from abroad are from Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Bangladesh, Nepal, Uganda, Sri Lanka and other middle-eastern countries 

Alumni
Alumni-institute interaction is developed and maintained through the Alumni Network and Alumni chapters across the world under the direction of MNIT Jaipur Alumni Association (MNITJAA)  It also helps in conducting the annual alumni meets 
Alumni from MNIT contribute to society in various fields like Academics, Science and Engineering, Public Service, Corporate Service, Entertainment, Defence, Arts & Design, etc 

Notable alumni
Thomas Abraham, president of GOPIO
Avinash Kumar Agarwal, Mechanical Engineer, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate 
Nikhil Gupta, researcher and professor based in Brooklyn, New York 
Ashok M  Raichur, nanotechnologist, N-Bios laureate 
Shivangi, Indian Navy First Woman Pilot 
Ashish Arora, founder physicsgalaxy com, author of physics textbooks in IIT-JEE Category, works at Unacademy, worked at Allen Jaipur and Bansal classes, founding member of FIITJEE

See also
National Institutes of Technology
Indian Institutes of Technology
Ministry of Human Resource Development
List of Institutes of National Importance
Passage 13:
James Watt
James Watt  (; 30 January 1736 (19 January 1736 OS) – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776, which was fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world 
While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines  He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and reheating the cylinder  Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines  Eventually, he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water 
Watt attempted to commercialise his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775  The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful and Watt became a wealthy man  In his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none was as significant as his steam engine work 
As Watt developed the concept of horsepower, the SI unit of power, the watt, was named after him 

Biography
Early life and education
James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, the eldest of the five surviving children of Agnes Muirhead (1703–1755) and James Watt (1698–1782)  His mother came from a distinguished family, was well educated and said to be of forceful character, while his father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the Greenock's chief baillie in 1751  The Watt family's wealth came in part from Watt's father's trading in slaves and slave-produced goods  
Watt's parents were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters, but despite his religious upbringing he later became a deist  Watt's grandfather, Thomas Watt (1642–1734), was a teacher of mathematics, surveying and navigation and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn Initially, Watt was educated at home by his mother, later going on to attend Greenock Grammar School  There he exhibited an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin and Greek failed to interest him 
Watt is said to have suffered prolonged bouts of ill-health as a child and from frequent headaches all his life After leaving school, Watt worked in the workshops of his father's businesses, demonstrating considerable dexterity and skill in creating engineering models  After his father suffered unsuccessful business ventures, Watt left Greenock to seek employment in Glasgow as a mathematical instrument maker 

When he was 18, Watt's mother died and his father's health began to fail  Watt travelled to London and was able to obtain a period of training as an instrument maker for a year (1755–56), then returned to Scotland, settling in the major commercial city of Glasgow, intent on setting up his own instrument-making business  He was still very young and, having not had a full apprenticeship, did not have the usual connections via a former master to establish himself as a journeyman instrument maker 
Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander MacFarlane to the University of Glasgow - instruments that required expert attention  Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated  These instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory  Subsequently, three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a small workshop within the university  It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed economist Adam Smith, became Watt's friends At first, he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants  He made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things 
It is sometimes falsely stated that he struggled to establish himself in Glasgow due to opposition from the Trades House, but this myth has been thoroughly debunked by the historian Harry Lumsden  The records from this period are lost, but it is known that he was able to work and trade completely normally as a skilled metal worker so the Incorporation of Hammermen must have been satisfied that he met their requirements for membership  It is also known that other people in the metal trades were pursued for working without being members of the Incorporation well into the 19th century, so the rules were definitely being enforced when Watt was trading freely throughout the city 
In 1759, he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and toys  This partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to 16 workers  Craig died in 1765  One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, which lasted into the 20th century In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret (Peggy) Miller, with whom he had 5 children, 2 of whom lived to adulthood: James Jr  (1769–1848) and Margaret (1767–1796)  His wife died in childbirth in 1773  In 1777, he married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had 2 children: Gregory (1777–1804), who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet (1779–1794)  Ann died in 1832  Between 1777 and 1790 he lived in Regent Place, Birmingham 

Watt and the kettle
There is a popular story that Watt was inspired to invent the steam engine by seeing a kettle boiling, the steam forcing the lid to rise and thus showing Watt the power of steam  This story is told in many forms; in some Watt is a young lad, in others he is older, sometimes it's his mother's kettle, sometimes his aunt's  Watt did not actually invent the steam engine, as the story implies, but dramatically improved the efficiency of the existing Newcomen engine by adding a separate condenser  This is difficult to explain to someone not familiar with concepts of heat and thermal efficiency  It appears that the story was created, possibly by Watt's son James Watt Jr , and persists because it is easy for children to understand and remember  In this light, it can be seen as akin to the story of Isaac Newton and the falling apple and his discovery of gravity 
Although it is often dismissed as a myth, the story of Watt and the kettle has a basis in fact  In trying to understand the thermodynamics of heat and steam, James Watt carried out many laboratory experiments and his diaries record that in conducting these, he used a kettle as a boiler to generate steam 

Early experiments with steam
In 1759, Watt's friend, John Robison, called his attention to the use of steam as a source of motive power  The design of the Newcomen engine, in use for almost 50 years for pumping water from mines, had hardly changed from its first implementation   Watt began to experiment with steam, though he had never seen an operating steam engine   He tried constructing a model; it failed to work satisfactorily, but he continued his experiments and began to read everything he could about the subject  He came to realise the importance of latent heat—the thermal energy released or absorbed during a constant-temperature process—in understanding the engine, which, unknown to Watt, his friend Joseph Black had previously discovered years before  Understanding of the steam engine was in a very primitive state, for the science of thermodynamics would not be formalised for nearly another 100 years 
In 1763, Watt was asked to repair a model Newcomen engine belonging to the university  Even after repair, the engine barely worked  After much experimentation, Watt demonstrated that about 3/4 of the thermal energy of the steam was being consumed in heating the engine cylinder on every cycle  This energy was wasted because, later in the cycle, cold water was injected into the cylinder to condense the steam to reduce its pressure  Thus, by repeatedly heating and cooling the cylinder, the engine wasted most of its thermal energy rather than converting it into mechanical energy 
Watt's critical insight, arrived at in May 1765 as he crossed Glasgow Green park, was to cause the steam to condense in a separate chamber apart from the piston, and to maintain the temperature of the cylinder at the same temperature as the injected steam by surrounding it with a "steam jacket"  Thus, very little energy was absorbed by the cylinder on each cycle, making more available to perform useful work  Watt had a working model later that same year 

Despite a potentially workable design, there were still substantial difficulties in constructing a full-scale engine  This required more capital, some of which came from Black  More substantial backing came from John Roebuck, the founder of the celebrated Carron Iron Works near Falkirk, with whom he now formed a partnership  Roebuck lived at Kinneil House in Bo'ness, during which time Watt worked at perfecting his steam engine in a cottage adjacent to the house  The shell of the cottage, and a very large part of one of his projects, still exist to the rear The principal difficulty was in machining the piston and cylinder  Iron workers of the day were more like blacksmiths than modern machinists, and were unable to produce the components with sufficient precision  Much capital was spent in pursuing a patent on Watt's invention  Strapped for resources, Watt was forced to take up employment—first as a surveyor, then as a civil engineer—for 8 years Roebuck went bankrupt, and Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho Manufactory works near Birmingham, acquired his patent rights  An extension of the patent to 1800 was successfully obtained in 1775 Through Boulton, Watt finally had access to some of the best iron workers in the world  The difficulty of the manufacture of a large cylinder with a tightly fitting piston was solved by John Wilkinson, who had developed precision boring techniques for cannon making at Bersham, near Wrexham, North Wales  Watt and Boulton formed a hugely successful partnership, Boulton and Watt, which lasted for the next 25 years 

First engines
In 1776, the first engines were installed and working in commercial enterprises  These first engines were used to power pumps and produced only reciprocating motion to move the pump rods at the bottom of the shaft  The design was commercially successful, and for the next 5 years, Watt was very busy installing more engines, mostly in Cornwall, for pumping water out of mines 
These early engines were not manufactured by Boulton and Watt, but were made by others according to drawings made by Watt, who served in the role of consulting engineer  The erection of the engine and its shakedown was supervised by Watt, at first, and then by men in the firm's employ  These were large machines  The first, for example, had a cylinder with a diameter of 50 inches and an overall height of about 24 feet, and required the construction of a dedicated building to house it  Boulton and Watt charged an annual payment, equal to 1/3 of the value of the coal saved in comparison to a Newcomen engine performing the same work 
The field of application for the invention was greatly widened when Boulton urged Watt to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston to produce rotational power for grinding, weaving and milling  Although a crank seemed the obvious solution to the conversion, Watt and Boulton were stymied by a patent for this, whose holder, James Pickard and his associates proposed to cross-license the external condenser  Watt adamantly opposed this and they circumvented the patent by their sun and planet gear in 1781 
Over the next 6 years, he made other improvements and modifications to the steam engine  A double-acting engine, in which the steam acted alternately on both sides of the piston, was one  He described methods for working the steam "expansively" (i e , using steam at pressures well above atmospheric)  A compound engine, which connected 2 or more engines, was described  Two more patents were granted for these in 1781 and 1782  Numerous other improvements that made for easier manufacture and installation were continually implemented  One of these included the use of the steam indicator which produced an informative plot of the pressure in the cylinder against its volume, which he kept as a trade secret  Another important invention, one which Watt was most proud of, was the parallel motion linkage, which was essential in double-acting engines as it produced the straight line motion required for the cylinder rod and pump, from the connected rocking beam, whose end moves in a circular arc  This was patented in 1784  A throttle valve to control the power of the engine, and a centrifugal governor, patented in 1788, to keep it from "running away" were very important  These improvements taken together produced an engine which was up to 5 times as fuel efficient as the Newcomen engine 
Because of the danger of exploding boilers, which were in a very primitive stage of development, and the ongoing issues with leaks, Watt restricted his use of high pressure steam – all of his engines used steam at near atmospheric pressure 

Patent trials
Edward Bull started constructing engines for Boulton and Watt in Cornwall in 1781  By 1792, he had started making engines of his own design, but which contained a separate condenser, and so infringed Watt's patents  Two brothers, Jabez Carter Hornblower and Jonathan Hornblower Jnr also started to build engines about the same time  Others began to modify Newcomen engines by adding a condenser, and the mine owners in Cornwall became convinced that Watt's patent could not be enforced  They started to withhold payments to Boulton and Watt, which by 1795 had fallen on hard times  Of the total £21,000 (equivalent to £2,310,000 as of 2021) owed, only £2,500 had been received  Watt was forced to go to court to enforce his claims He first sued Bull in 1793  The jury found for Watt, but the question of whether or not the original specification of the patent was valid was left to another trial  In the meantime, injunctions were issued against the infringers, forcing their payments of the royalties to be placed in escrow  The trial on determining the validity of the specifications which was held in the following year was inconclusive, but the injunctions remained in force and the infringers, except for Jonathan Hornblower, all began to settle their cases  Hornblower was soon brought to trial in 1799, and the verdict of the four was decisively in favour of Watt  Their friend John Wilkinson, who had solved the problem of boring an accurate cylinder, was a particularly grievous case  He had erected about 20 engines without Boulton's and Watts' knowledge  They finally agreed to settle the infringement in 1796  Boulton and Watt never collected all that was owed them, but the disputes were all settled directly between the parties or through arbitration  These trials were extremely costly in both money and time, but ultimately were successful for the firm 

Copying machine
Before 1780, there was no good method for making copies of letters or drawings  The only method sometimes used was a mechanical one using multiple linked pens  Watt at first experimented with improving this method, but soon gave up on this approach because it was so cumbersome  He instead decided to try to physically transfer ink from the front of the original to the back of another sheet, moistened with a solvent, and pressed to the original  The second sheet had to be thin, so that the ink could be seen through it when the copy was held up to the light, thus reproducing the original exactly Watt started to develop the process in 1779, and made many experiments to formulate the ink, select the thin paper, to devise a method for wetting the special thin paper, and to make a press suitable for applying the correct pressure to effect the transfer  All of these required much experimentation, but he soon had enough success to patent the process a year later  Watt formed another partnership with Boulton (who provided financing) and James Keir (to manage the business) in a firm called James Watt and Co  The perfection of the invention required much more development work before it could be routinely used by others, but this was carried out over the next few years  Boulton and Watt gave up their shares to their sons in 1794  It became a commercial success and was widely used in offices even into the 20th century 

Chemical experiments
From an early age, Watt was very interested in chemistry  In late 1786, while in Paris, he witnessed an experiment by Claude Louis Berthollet in which he reacted hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide to produce chlorine  He had already found that an aqueous solution of chlorine could bleach textiles, and had published his findings, which aroused great interest among many potential rivals  When Watt returned to Britain, he began experiments along these lines with hopes of finding a commercially viable process   He discovered that a mixture of salt, manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid could produce chlorine, which Watt believed might be a cheaper method  He passed the chlorine into a weak solution of alkali, and obtained a turbid solution that appeared to have good bleaching properties  He soon communicated these results to James McGrigor, his father-in-law, who was a bleacher in Glasgow  Otherwise, he tried to keep his method a secret With McGrigor and his wife Annie, he started to scale up the process, and in March 1788, McGrigor was able to bleach  1,500 yards (4,500 feet) of cloth to his satisfaction  About this time, Berthollet discovered the salt and sulphuric acid process, and published it, so it became public knowledge  Many others began to experiment with improving the process, which still had many shortcomings, not the least of which was the problem of transporting the liquid product  Watt's rivals soon overtook him in developing the process, and he dropped out of the race  It was not until 1799, when Charles Tennant patented a process for producing solid bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) that it became a commercial success 

By 1794, Watt had been chosen by Thomas Beddoes to manufacture apparatuses to produce, clean and store gases for use in the new Pneumatic Institution at Hotwells in Bristol  Watt continued to experiment with various gases, but by 1797, the medical uses for the "factitious airs" (artificial gases) had come to a dead end 

Personality
Watt combined theoretical knowledge of science with the ability to apply it practically  Chemist Humphry Davy said of him, "Those who consider James Watt only as a great practical mechanic form a very erroneous idea of his character; he was equally distinguished as a natural philosopher and a chemist, and his inventions demonstrate his profound knowledge of those sciences, and that peculiar characteristic of genius, the union of them for practical application" He was greatly respected by other prominent men of the Industrial Revolution  He was an important member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, and was a much sought-after conversationalist and companion, always interested in expanding his horizons  His personal relationships with his friends and business partners were always congenial and long-lasting 
According to Lord Liverpool (Prime Minister of the UK),
A more excllent and amikable man in all the relations of life I believe never existed 
Watt was a prolific correspondent  During his years in Cornwall, he wrote long letters to Boulton several times per week  He was averse to publishing his results in, for example, the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society however, and instead preferred to communicate his ideas in patents  He was an excellent draughtsman 

He was a rather poor businessman, and especially hated bargaining and negotiating terms with those who sought to use the steam engine  In a letter to William Small in 1772, Watt confessed that "he would rather face a loaded cannon than settle an account or make a bargain " Until he retired, he was always very concerned about his financial affairs, and was something of a worrier  His health was often poor and he suffered frequent nervous headaches and depression  When he retired in 1800, he became a rich enough man to pass the business on to his sons 

Soho Foundry
At first, the partnership made the drawings and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect them on the customers' property  They produced almost none of the parts themselves  Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper's Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory  Gradually, the partners began to actually manufacture more and more of the parts, and by 1795, they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho Manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal, to establish a new foundry for the manufacture of the engines  The Soho Foundry formally opened in 1796 at a time when Watt's sons, Gregory and James Jr  were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise  In 1800, the year of Watt's retirement, the firm made a total of 41 engines 

Later years
Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired  The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr   Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered 
Watt continued to invent other things before and during his semi-retirement  Within his home in Handsworth, Staffordshire, Watt made use of a garret room as a workshop, and it was here that he worked on many of his inventions  Among other things, he invented and constructed machines for copying sculptures and medallions which worked very well, but which he never patented  One of the first sculptures he produced with the machine was a small head of his old professor friend Adam Smith  He maintained his interest in civil engineering and was a consultant on several significant projects  He proposed, for example, a method for constructing a flexible pipe to be used for pumping water under the River Clyde at Glasgow He and his second wife travelled to France and Germany, and he purchased an estate in mid-Wales at Doldowlod House, one mile south of Llanwrthwl, which he much improved 
In 1816, he took a trip on the paddle-steamer Comet, a product of his inventions, to revisit his home town of Greenock He died on 25 August 1819 at his home "Heathfield Hall" near Handsworth in Staffordshire (now part of Birmingham) at the age of 83  He was buried on 2 September in the graveyard of St Mary's Church, Handsworth  The church has since been extended and his grave is now inside the church 

Family
On 16 July 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller (d  1773)  They had two children, Margaret (1767–1796) and James (1769–1848)  In 1791, their daughter married James Miller  In September 1773, while Watt was working in the Scottish Highlands, he learned that his wife, who was pregnant with their third child, was seriously ill  He immediately returned home but found that she had died and their child was stillborn In 1775, he married Ann MacGregor (d 1832) 

Freemasonry
He was Initiated into Scottish Freemasonry in The Glasgow Royal Arch Lodge, No  77, in 1763  The Lodge ceased to exist in 1810  A Masonic Lodge was named after him in his home town of Glasgow – Lodge James Watt, No  1215 

Murdoch's contributions
William Murdoch joined Boulton and Watt in 1777  At first, he worked in the pattern shop in Soho, but soon he was erecting engines in Cornwall   He became an important part of the firm and made many contributions to its success including important inventions of his own 
John Griffiths, who wrote a biography of him in 1992, has argued that Watt's discouragement of Murdoch's work with high-pressure steam on his steam road locomotive experiments delayed its development: Watt rightly believed that boilers of the time would be unsafe at higher pressures Watt patented the application of the sun and planet gear to steam in 1781 and a steam locomotive in 1784, both of which have strong claims to have been invented by Murdoch  The patent was never contested by Murdoch, however, and Boulton and Watt's firm continued to use the sun and planet gear in their rotative engines, even long after the patent for the crank expired in 1794   Murdoch was made a partner of the firm in 1810, where he remained until his retirement 20 years later at the age of 76 

Legacy
As one author states, James Watt's improvements to the steam engine "converted it from a prime mover of marginal efficiency into the mechanical workhorse of the Industrial Revolution" 

Honours
Watt was much honoured in his own time  In 1784, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and was elected as a member of the Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy, of Rotterdam, the Netherlands, in 1787  In 1789, he was elected to the elite group, the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers  In 1806, he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Glasgow   The French Academy elected him a Corresponding Member and he was made a Foreign Associate in 1814 The watt is named after James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, and was adopted by the Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889 and by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 as the unit of power incorporated in the International System of Units (or "SI") 
On 29 May 2009, the Bank of England announced that Boulton and Watt would appear on a new £50 note  The design is the first to feature a dual portrait on a Bank of England note, and presents the two industrialists side by side with images of Watt's steam engine and Boulton's Soho Manufactory  Quotes attributed to each of the men are inscribed on the note: "I sell here, sir, what all the world desires to have—POWER" (Boulton) and "I can think of nothing else but this machine" (Watt)  The inclusion of Watt is the second time that a Scot has featured on a Bank of England note (the first was Adam Smith on the 2007 issue £20 note)  In September 2011, it was announced that the notes would enter circulation on 2 November In 2011, he was one of seven inaugural inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame 

Memorials
Watt was buried in the grounds of St  Mary's Church, Handsworth, in Birmingham  Later expansion of the church, over his grave, means that his tomb is now buried inside the church The garret room workshop that Watt used in his retirement was left, locked and untouched, until 1853, when it was first viewed by his biographer J  P  Muirhead  Thereafter, it was occasionally visited, but left untouched, as a kind of shrine  A proposal to have it transferred to the Patent Office came to nothing  When the house was due to be demolished in 1924, the room and all its contents were presented to the Science Museum, where it was recreated in its entirety  It remained on display for visitors for many years, but was walled-off when the gallery it was housed in closed  The workshop remained intact, and preserved, and in March 2011 was put on public display as part of a new permanent Science Museum exhibition, "James Watt and our world" The approximate location of James Watt's birth in Greenock is commemorated by a statue  Other memorials in Greenock include street names and the Watt Memorial Library, which was begun in 1816 with Watt's donation of scientific books, and developed as part of the Watt Institution by his son (which ultimately became the James Watt College)  Taken over by the local authority in 1974, the library now also houses the local history collection and archives of Inverclyde, and is dominated by a large seated statue in the vestibule  Watt is additionally commemorated by statuary in George Square, Glasgow and Princes Street, Edinburgh, as well as others in Birmingham, where he is also remembered by the Moonstones and a school is named in his honour 
The James Watt College has expanded from its original location to include campuses in Kilwinning (North Ayrshire), Finnart Street and The Waterfront in Greenock, and the Sports campus in Largs  Heriot-Watt University near Edinburgh was at one time the School of Arts of Edinburgh, founded in 1821 as the world's first Mechanics Institute, but to commemorate George Heriot, the 16th-century financier to King James VI and I, and James Watt, after Royal Charter the name was changed to Heriot-Watt University  Dozens of university and college buildings (chiefly of science and technology) are named after him  Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, is now a museum, commemorating the work of both men  The University of Glasgow's Faculty of Engineering has its headquarters in the James Watt Building, which also houses the department of Mechanical Engineering and the department of Aerospace Engineering  The huge painting James Watt contemplating the steam engine by James Eckford Lauder is now owned by the National Gallery of Scotland 

There is a statue of James Watt in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester and City Square, Leeds 
A colossal statue of Watt by Francis Legatt Chantrey was placed in Westminster Abbey, and later was moved to St  Paul's Cathedral   On the cenotaph, the inscription reads, in part, "JAMES WATT     ENLARGED THE RESOURCES OF HIS COUNTRY, INCREASED THE POWER OF MAN, AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE AMONG THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE AND THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE WORLD" 
A bust of Watt is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling, Scotland 
The French Navy submarine Watt was named for Watt 

Patents
Watt was the sole inventor listed on his 6 patents:
Patent 913:  A method of lessening the consumption of steam in steam engines – the separate condenser  The specification was accepted on 5 January 1769; enrolled on 29 April 1769, and extended to June 1800 by an Act of Parliament in 1775 
Patent 1,244:  A new method of copying letters   The specification was accepted on 14 February 1780 and enrolled on 31 May 1780 
Patent 1,306:  New methods to produce a continued rotation motion – sun and planet   The specification was accepted on 25 October 1781 and enrolled on 23 February 1782 
Patent 1,321:  New improvements upon steam engines – expansive and double acting   The specification was accepted on 14 March 1782 and enrolled on 4 July 1782 
Patent 1,432:  New improvements upon steam engines – three bar motion and steam carriage   The specification was accepted on 28 April 1782 and enrolled on 25 August 1782 
Patent 1,485: Newly improved methods of constructing furnaces  The specification was accepted on 14 June 1785 and enrolled on 9 July 1785 
Passage 14:
Archibald Barr
Archibald Barr LLD, FRS FRSE (18 November 1855, Glenfield House, Paisley, Renfrewshire – 5 August 1931) was a Scottish scientific engineer, inventor and businessman  He was a co-founder of Barr & Stroud, and invented the Barr & Stroud Rangefinder 

Early life and education
Barr was born in Glenfield House in Abbey, near Paisley, the third son of Archibald Barr, a yarn merchant, and Jeanie Stirrat, Barr was educated at Paisley Grammar School and apprenticed as an engineer to A F Craig & Co in Paisley before attending University of Glasgow to study engineering 

Academic career
Barr first worked as assistant to James Thomson, Regius Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics at Glasgow, a post Barr was to attain himself later in his career  In 1884 he was appointed to the chair of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the Yorkshire College (which became the University of Leeds in 1904)   In 1889 he returned to Glasgow as Regius Professor of Engineering 
In 1898 he successfully campaigned for a new chair in Electrical Engineering at Glasgow University  In 1901 he raised £54,000 to build and equip the James Watt Engineering Building at Glasgow University 

Other activities
Barr was a motoring enthusiast and as a member of the Scottish Automobile Club, he participated as an organiser of Scotland's first motor car reliability trials in 1901   He also helped to form the Scottish Aeronautical Club in 1909, becoming its president, and was a promoter of Scotland's first aviation meeting, held at Lanark in 1910 
He served as President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1910–11  Barr was also a governor of the Royal Scottish National Institution for the care of those with learning difficulties 
He also gifted £8,000 towards the cost of a new organ for Paisley Abbey 

Honours
Barr was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LLD) by Glasgow upon his retirement in 1915   He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1923 

Marriage
Barr married Isabella Young in 1885 

Death
Barr died at his home, Westerton of Mugdock, near Milngavie, near Glasgow, on 5 August 1931 at the age of 75 

Positions held
President of the Royal Philosophical Society (Glasgow)
President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland
President of the Scottish Aeronautical Society
President of the Optical Society, London



ground_truth: University of Toronto

UT

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where was the designer of the Lap Engine educated?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850  Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions  Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa  Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42  Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s  Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century  Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800  Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died 

Third plague pandemic
The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone  The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney  This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908 

Modern-day
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine  It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat  One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995  A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014  In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions 

See also
Black Death in England
Black Death in medieval culture
Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Flagellant
Globalization and disease
List of epidemics
Second plague pandemic
Timeline of plague
Passage 2:
Christian Ackermann
Christian Ackermann was a sculptor and carver who worked in Estonia 

Life and work
Christian Ackermann was born in Königsberg  He worked in Riga, Stockholm, and Gdańsk, before becoming active in Tallinn from about 1672 until his death in 1710  In 1675, Ackermann moved to Tallinn and worked first in the workshop of Elert Thiele, a local woodcarver  After Thiele's death in 1674, Achermann married the master's widow  He then became a citizen of Tallinn but didn't join the local guild of woodcarvers   And that was a reason why between him and the guild's masters had begun a strong struggle which finished in court  Ackermann won and got the permission to work alone, he was the first independent sculptor in Estonia and acquired his own workshop at Toompea Hill  He probably died either in 1710 or a short time later from plague 
Christian Ackermann was one of the greatest masters of the Baroque style in Estonia  He brought strong Central European influences to Northeast Europe, in particular the motifs of the Baroque and masterful Acanthus ornaments  The majority of his works consists of almost twenty altarpieces, pulpits and large coat-of-arms epitaphs 

Most important works
Baptistery for the Swedish St  Michael's Church in Tallinn (around 1680)
Altarpiece for the church of Simuna (1684)
Altar and pulpit for the church of Türi (1693)
Pulpit with figures of the apostles (1686) and altarpiece (1696) for St Mary's Cathedral of Tallinn
Emblem for St Mary's Cathedral of Tallinn
Clock for the Church of the Holy Ghost in Tallinn
Altar figures and altarpiece for the church of Martna
Pulpit for the church of Juuru Parish (1695)
Pulpit for the church of Karuse (1697)
Crucifix for the church of Koeru Parish (end of the 17th century)

See also
List of Baltic German artists
Passage 3:
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence (Titian)
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence is a 1558 painting by Titian, now in the church of I Gesuiti in Venice  It so impressed Philip II of Spain that he commissioned a second version in 1567 for the basilica at El Escorial 

See also
List of works by Titian
Passage 4:
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea and gastro, is an inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract including the stomach and intestine  Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain  Fever, lack of energy, and dehydration may also occur  This typically lasts less than two weeks  It is not related to influenza, even though in the U S  it is sometimes called the "stomach flu" Gastroenteritis is usually caused by viruses; however, gut bacteria, parasites, and fungi can also cause gastroenteritis  In children, rotavirus is the most common cause of severe disease  In adults, norovirus and Campylobacter are common causes  Eating improperly prepared food, drinking contaminated water or close contact with a person who is infected can spread the disease  Treatment is generally the same with or without a definitive diagnosis, so testing to confirm is usually not needed For young children in impoverished countries, prevention includes hand washing with soap, drinking clean water, breastfeeding babies instead of using formula, and proper disposal of human waste  The rotavirus vaccine is recommended as a prevention for children  Treatment involves getting enough fluids  For mild or moderate cases, this can typically be achieved by drinking oral rehydration solution (a combination of water, salts and sugar)  In those who are breastfed, continued breastfeeding is recommended  For more severe cases, intravenous fluids may be needed  Fluids may also be given by a nasogastric tube  Zinc supplementation is recommended in children  Antibiotics are generally not needed  However, antibiotics are recommended for young children with a fever and bloody diarrhea In 2015, there were two billion cases of gastroenteritis, resulting in 1 3 million deaths globally  Children and those in the developing world are affected the most  In 2011, there were about 1 7 billion cases, resulting in about 700,000 deaths of children under the age of five  In the developing world, children less than two years of age frequently get six or more infections a year  It is less common in adults, partly due to the development of immunity 

Signs and symptoms
Gastroenteritis usually involves both diarrhea and vomiting  Sometimes, only one or the other is present  This may be accompanied by abdominal cramps  Signs and symptoms usually begin 12–72 hours after contracting the infectious agent  If due to a virus, the condition usually resolves within one week  Some viral infections also involve fever, fatigue, headache and muscle pain  If the stool is bloody, the cause is less likely to be viral and more likely to be bacterial  Some bacterial infections cause severe abdominal pain and may persist for several weeks Children infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery within three to eight days  However, in poor countries treatment for severe infections is often out of reach and persistent diarrhea is common   Dehydration is a common complication of diarrhea  Severe dehydration in children may be recognized if the skin color and position returns slowly when pressed  This is called "prolonged capillary refill" and "poor skin turgor"  Abnormal breathing is another sign of severe dehydration  Repeat infections are typically seen in areas with poor sanitation, and malnutrition  Stunted growth and long-term cognitive delays can result Reactive arthritis occurs in 1% of people following infections with Campylobacter species  Guillain–Barré syndrome occurs in 0 1%  Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) may occur due to infection with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli or Shigella species  HUS causes low platelet counts, poor kidney function, and low red blood cell count (due to their breakdown)  Children are more predisposed to getting HUS than adults  Some viral infections may produce benign infantile seizures 

Cause
Viruses (particularly rotavirus (in children) and norovirus (in adults)) and the bacteria Escherichia coli and Campylobacter species are the primary causes of gastroenteritis  There are, however, many other infectious agents that can cause this syndrome including parasites and fungus  Non-infectious causes are seen on occasion, but they are less likely than a viral or bacterial cause  Risk of infection is higher in children due to their lack of immunity  Children are also at higher risk because they are less likely to practice good hygiene habits  Children living in areas without easy access to water and soap are especially vulnerable 

Viral
Rotaviruses, noroviruses, adenoviruses, and astroviruses are known to cause viral gastroenteritis  Rotavirus is the most common cause of gastroenteritis in children, and produces similar rates in both the developed and developing world  Viruses cause about 70% of episodes of infectious diarrhea in the pediatric age group  Rotavirus is a less common cause in adults due to acquired immunity  Norovirus is the cause in about 18% of all cases  Generally speaking, viral gastroenteritis accounts for 21–40% of the cases of infectious diarrhea in developed countries Norovirus is the leading cause of gastroenteritis among adults in America accounting for about 90% of viral gastroenteritis outbreaks  These localized epidemics typically occur when groups of people spend time proximate to each other, such as on cruise ships, in hospitals, or in restaurants  People may remain infectious even after their diarrhea has ended  Norovirus is the cause of about 10% of cases in children 

Bacterial
In some countries, Campylobacter jejuni is the primary cause of bacterial gastroenteritis, with half of these cases associated with exposure to poultry  In children, bacteria are the cause in about 15% of cases, with the most common types being Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter species  If food becomes contaminated with bacteria and remains at room temperature for a period of several hours, the bacteria multiply and increase the risk of infection in those who consume the food  Some foods commonly associated with illness include raw or undercooked meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs; raw sprouts; unpasteurized milk and soft cheeses; and fruit and vegetable juices  In the developing world, especially sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, cholera is a common cause of gastroenteritis  This infection is usually transmitted by contaminated water or food Toxigenic Clostridium difficile is an important cause of diarrhea that occurs more often in the elderly  Infants can carry these bacteria without developing symptoms  It is a common cause of diarrhea in those who are hospitalized and is frequently associated with antibiotic use  Staphylococcus aureus infectious diarrhea may also occur in those who have used antibiotics  Acute "traveler's diarrhea" is usually a type of bacterial gastroenteritis, while the persistent form is usually parasitic  Acid-suppressing medication appears to increase the risk of significant infection after exposure to a number of organisms, including Clostridium difficile, Salmonella, and Campylobacter species  The risk is greater in those taking proton pump inhibitors than with H2 antagonists 

Parasitic
A number of parasites can cause gastroenteritis  Giardia lamblia is most common, but Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium spp , and other species have also been implicated  As a group, these agents comprise about 10% of cases in children  Giardia occurs more commonly in the developing world, but this type of illness can occur nearly everywhere  It occurs more commonly in persons who have traveled to areas with high prevalence, children who attend day care, men who have sex with men, and following disasters 

Transmission
Transmission may occur from drinking contaminated water or when people share personal objects  Water quality typically worsens during the rainy season and outbreaks are more common at this time  In areas with four seasons, infections are more common in the winter  Worldwide, bottle-feeding of babies with improperly sanitized bottles is a significant cause  Transmission rates are also related to poor hygiene, (especially among children), in crowded households, and in those with poor nutritional status  Adults who have developed immunities might still carry certain organisms without exhibiting symptoms  Thus, adults can become natural reservoirs of certain diseases  While some agents (such as Shigella) only occur in primates, others (such as Giardia) may occur in a wide variety of animals 

Non-infectious
There are a number of non-infectious causes of inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract  Some of the more common include medications (like NSAIDs), certain foods such as lactose (in those who are intolerant), and gluten (in those with celiac disease)  Crohn's disease is also a non-infectious cause of (often severe) gastroenteritis  Disease secondary to toxins may also occur  Some food-related conditions associated with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea include: ciguatera poisoning due to consumption of contaminated predatory fish, scombroid associated with the consumption of certain types of spoiled fish, tetrodotoxin poisoning from the consumption of puffer fish among others, and botulism typically due to improperly preserved food In the United States, rates of emergency department use for noninfectious gastroenteritis dropped 30% from 2006 until 2011  Of the twenty most common conditions seen in the emergency department, rates of noninfectious gastroenteritis had the largest decrease in visits in that time period 

Pathophysiology
Gastroenteritis is defined as vomiting or diarrhea due to inflammation of the small or large bowel, often due to infection  The changes in the small bowel are typically noninflammatory, while the ones in the large bowel are inflammatory  The number of pathogens required to cause an infection varies from as few as one (for Cryptosporidium) to as many as 108 (for Vibrio cholerae) 

Diagnosis
Gastroenteritis is typically diagnosed clinically, based on a person's signs and symptoms  Determining the exact cause is usually not needed as it does not alter the management of the condition However, stool cultures should be performed in those with blood in the stool, those who might have been exposed to food poisoning, and those who have recently traveled to the developing world  It may also be appropriate in children younger than 5, old people, and those with poor immune function  Diagnostic testing may also be done for surveillance  As hypoglycemia occurs in approximately 10% of infants and young children, measuring serum glucose in this population is recommended  Electrolytes and kidney function should also be checked when there is a concern about severe dehydration 

Dehydration
A determination of whether or not the person has dehydration is an important part of the assessment, with dehydration typically divided into mild (3–5%), moderate (6–9%), and severe (≥10%) cases  In children, the most accurate signs of moderate or severe dehydration are a prolonged capillary refill, poor skin turgor, and abnormal breathing  Other useful findings (when used in combination) include sunken eyes, decreased activity, a lack of tears, and a dry mouth  A normal urinary output and oral fluid intake is reassuring  Laboratory testing is of little clinical benefit in determining the degree of dehydration  Thus the use of urine testing or ultrasounds is generally not needed 

Differential diagnosis
Other potential causes of signs and symptoms that mimic those seen in gastroenteritis that need to be ruled out include appendicitis, volvulus, inflammatory bowel disease, urinary tract infections, and diabetes mellitus  Pancreatic insufficiency, short bowel syndrome, Whipple's disease, coeliac disease, and laxative abuse should also be considered  The differential diagnosis can be complicated somewhat if the person exhibits only vomiting or diarrhea (rather than both) Appendicitis may present with vomiting, abdominal pain, and a small amount of diarrhea in up to 33% of cases  This is in contrast to the large amount of diarrhea that is typical of gastroenteritis  Infections of the lungs or urinary tract in children may also cause vomiting or diarrhea  Classical diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) presents with abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting, but without diarrhea  One study found that 17% of children with DKA were initially diagnosed as having gastroenteritis 

Prevention
Water, sanitation, hygiene
A supply of easily accessible uncontaminated water and good sanitation practices are important for reducing rates of infection and clinically significant gastroenteritis  Personal hygiene measures (such as hand washing with soap) have been found to decrease rates of gastroenteritis in both the developing and developed world by as much as 30%  Alcohol-based gels may also be effective  Food or drink that is thought to be contaminated should be avoided Breastfeeding is important, especially in places with poor hygiene, as is improvement of hygiene generally  Breast milk reduces both the frequency of infections and their duration 

Vaccination
Due to both its effectiveness and safety, in 2009 the World Health Organization recommended that the rotavirus vaccine be offered to all children globally  Two commercial rotavirus vaccines exist and several more are in development  In Africa and Asia these vaccines reduced severe disease among infants and countries that have put in place national immunization programs have seen a decline in the rates and severity of disease  This vaccine may also prevent illness in non-vaccinated children by reducing the number of circulating infections  Since 2000, the implementation of a rotavirus vaccination program in the United States has substantially decreased the number of cases of diarrhea by as much as 80 percent  The first dose of vaccine should be given to infants between 6 and 15 weeks of age  The oral cholera vaccine has been found to be 50–60% effective over two years There are a number of vaccines against gastroenteritis in development  For example, vaccines against Shigella and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), which are two of the leading bacterial causes of gastroenteritis worldwide 

Management
Gastroenteritis is usually an acute and self-limiting disease that does not require medication  The preferred treatment in those with mild to moderate dehydration is oral rehydration therapy (ORT)  For children at risk of dehydration from vomiting, taking a single dose of the anti vomiting medication metoclopramide or ondansetron, may be helpful, and butylscopolamine is useful in treating abdominal pain 

Rehydration
The primary treatment of gastroenteritis in both children and adults is rehydration  This is preferably achieved by drinking rehydration solution, although intravenous delivery may be required if there is a decreased level of consciousness or if dehydration is severe  Drinking replacement therapy products made with complex carbohydrates (i e  those made from wheat or rice) may be superior to those based on simple sugars  Drinks especially high in simple sugars, such as soft drinks and fruit juices, are not recommended in children under five years of age as they may increase diarrhea  Plain water may be used if more specific ORT preparations are unavailable or the person is not willing to drink them  A nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted  In those who require intravenous fluids, one to four hours' worth is often sufficient 

Dietary
It is recommended that breast-fed infants continue to be nursed in the usual fashion,  and that formula-fed infants continue their formula immediately after rehydration with ORT  Lactose-free or lactose-reduced formulas usually are not necessary  Children should continue their usual diet during episodes of diarrhea with the exception that foods high in simple sugars should be avoided  The BRAT diet (bananas, rice, applesauce, toast and tea) is no longer recommended, as it contains insufficient nutrients and has no benefit over normal feeding A Cochrane Review from 2020 concludes that probiotics make little or no difference to people who have diarrhea lasting 2 days or longer and that there is no proof that they reduce its duration  They may be useful in preventing and treating antibiotic associated diarrhea  Fermented milk products (such as yogurt) are similarly beneficial  Zinc supplementation appears to be effective in both treating and preventing diarrhea among children in the developing world 

Antiemetics
Antiemetic medications may be helpful for treating vomiting in children  Ondansetron has some utility, with a single dose being associated with less need for intravenous fluids, fewer hospitalizations, and decreased vomiting  Metoclopramide might also be helpful  However, the use of ondansetron might possibly be linked to an increased rate of return to hospital in children  The intravenous preparation of ondansetron may be given orally if clinical judgment warrants  Dimenhydrinate, while reducing vomiting, does not appear to have a significant clinical benefit 

Antibiotics
Antibiotics are not usually used for gastroenteritis, although they are sometimes recommended if symptoms are particularly severe or if a susceptible bacterial cause is isolated or suspected  If antibiotics are to be employed, a macrolide (such as azithromycin) is preferred over a fluoroquinolone due to higher rates of resistance to the latter  Pseudomembranous colitis, usually caused by antibiotic use, is managed by discontinuing the causative agent and treating it with either metronidazole or vancomycin  Bacteria and protozoans that are amenable to treatment include Shigella Salmonella typhi, and Giardia species  In those with Giardia species or Entamoeba histolytica, tinidazole treatment is recommended and superior to metronidazole  The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the use of antibiotics in young children who have both bloody diarrhea and fever 

Antimotility agents
Antimotility medication has a theoretical risk of causing complications, and although clinical experience has shown this to be unlikely, these drugs are discouraged in people with bloody diarrhea or diarrhea that is complicated by fever  Loperamide, an opioid analogue, is commonly used for the symptomatic treatment of diarrhea  Loperamide is not recommended in children, however, as it may cross the immature blood–brain barrier and cause toxicity  Bismuth subsalicylate, an insoluble complex of trivalent bismuth and salicylate, can be used in mild to moderate cases, but salicylate toxicity is theoretically possible 

Epidemiology
It is estimated that there were two billion cases of gastroenteritis that resulted in 1 3 million deaths globally in 2015  Children and those in the developing world are most commonly affected  As of 2011, in those younger than five, there were about 1 7 billion cases resulting in 0 7 million deaths, with most of these occurring in the world's poorest nations  More than 450,000 of these fatalities are due to rotavirus in children under five years of age  Cholera causes about three to five million cases of disease and kills approximately 100,000 people yearly  In the developing world, children less than two years of age frequently get six or more infections a year that result in significant gastroenteritis  It is less common in adults, partly due to the development of acquired immunity In 1980, gastroenteritis from all causes caused 4 6 million deaths in children, with the majority occurring in the developing world  Death rates were reduced significantly (to approximately 1 5 million deaths annually) by 2000, largely due to the introduction and widespread use of oral rehydration therapy  In the US, infections causing gastroenteritis are the second most common infection (after the common cold), and they result in between 200 and 375 million cases of acute diarrhea and approximately ten thousand deaths annually, with 150 to 300 of these deaths in children less than five years of age 

Society and culture
Gastroenteritis is associated with many colloquial names, including "Montezuma's revenge", "Delhi belly", "la turista", and "back door sprint", among others  It has played a role in many military campaigns and is believed to be the origin of the term "no guts no glory" Gastroenteritis is the main reason for 3 7 million visits to physicians a year in the United States and 3 million visits in France  In the United States gastroenteritis as a whole is believed to result in costs of US$23 billion per year, with rotavirus alone resulting in estimated costs of US$1 billion a year 

Terminology
The first usage of "gastroenteritis" was in 1825  Before this time it was commonly known as typhoid fever or "cholera morbus", among others, or less specifically as "griping of the guts", "surfeit", "flux", "colic", "bowel complaint", or any one of a number of other archaic names for acute diarrhea  Cholera morbus is a historical term that was used to refer to gastroenteritis rather than specifically cholera 

Other animals
Many of the same agents cause gastroenteritis in cats and dogs as in humans  The most common organisms are Campylobacter, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens, and Salmonella  A large number of toxic plants may also cause symptoms Some agents are more specific to a certain species  Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV) occurs in pigs resulting in vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration  It is believed to be introduced to pigs by wild birds and there is no specific treatment available  It is not transmissible to humans 

See also
Enterocolitis
Passage 5:
Gender symbol
A gender symbol is a pictogram or glyph used to represent sex and gender, for example in biology and medicine, in genealogy, or in the sociological fields of gender politics, LGBT subculture and identity politics 
In his books Mantissa Plantarum (1767) and Mantissa Plantarum Altera (1771), Carl Linnaeus regularly used the planetary symbols of Mars, Venus and Mercury – ♂, ♀, ☿ – for male, female and hermaphroditic (perfect) flowers, respectively  Botanists now use ⚥ for the last In genealogy, including kinship in anthropology and pedigrees in animal husbandry, the geometric shapes △ or □ are used for male and ○ for female  These are also used on public toilets in some countries  
The modern international pictograms used to indicate male and female public toilets, 🚹︎ and 🚺︎, became widely used in the 1960s and 1970s  They are sometimes abstracted to ▽ for male and △ for female 

Biology and medicine
The three standard sex symbols in biology are male ♂, female ♀ and hermaphroditic ⚥; originally the symbol for Mercury, ☿, was used for the last  These symbols were first used by Carl Linnaeus in 1751 to denote whether flowers were male (stamens only), female (pistil only) or perfect flowers with both pistils and stamens  (Most flowering and conifer plant species are hermaphroditic and either bear flowers/cones that themselves are hermaphroditic, or bear both male and female flowers/cones on the same plant ) These symbols are now ubiquitous in biology and medicine to indicate the sex of an individual, for example of a patient 

Genealogy
Kinship charts use a triangle △ for male and circle ○ for female  Pedigree charts published in scientific papers use an earlier anthropological convention of a square □ for male and a circle ○ for female Before a shape distinction was adopted, all individuals had been represented by a circle in Morgan's 1871 System of Consanguinity and Affinity of Human Family, where gender is encoded in the abbreviations for the kin relation (e g  M for 'mother' and F for 'father')  W  H  R  River distinguished gender in the words of the language being recorded by writing male kinship terms in all capitals and female kinship terms with normal capitalization  That convention was quite influential for a time, and his convention of prioritizing male kin by placing them to the left and females to the right continues to this day though there have been exceptions, such as Margaret Mead, who placed females to the left 

Public toilets
The modern gender symbols used for public toilets, 🚹︎ for male and 🚺︎ and female, are pictograms created for the British Rail system in the mid-1960s  Before that, local usage had been more variable  For example, schoolhouse outhouses in the 19th-century United States had ventilation holes in their doors that were shaped like a starburst Sun ✴ or like a crescent Moon ☾, respectively, to indicate whether the toilet was for use by boys or girls  The British Rail pictograms – often color-coded blue and red – are now the norm for marking public toilets in much of the world, with the female symbol distinguished by a triangular skirt or dress, and in early years (and sometimes still) the male symbol stylized like a tuxedo These symbols are abstracted to varying degrees in different countries – for example, the circle-and-triangle variants  (female) and  (male) commonly found on portable toilets, to the extreme of a triangle △ (representing a skirt or dress) for female and an inverted triangle ▽ (representing a broad-shouldered tuxedo) for male in Lithuania In elementary schools, the pictograms may be of children rather than of adults, with the girl distinguished by her hair  In themed locations, such as bars and tourist attractions, a thematic image or figurine of a man and woman or boy and girl may be used In Poland, an inverted triangle ▽ is used for male while a circle ○ is used for female In mainland China, silhouettes of heads in profile may be used as gender pictograms, generally alongside the Chinese characters for male (男) and female (女) 

Sexual orientation and gender politics
Since the 1970s, variations of gender symbols have been used to express sexual orientation and gender politics  Two interlocking male symbols ⚣ are used to represent gay men while two interlocking female symbols ⚢ are often used to represent lesbians Since the 2000s, numerous such variants have been introduced in the context of LGBT culture and politics  Some of these symbols have been adopted into Unicode (in the Miscellaneous Symbols block) beginning with version 4 1 in 2005 

Encoding
See also
Alchemical symbol
Astrological symbols
Fertility symbols
LGBT symbols
Miscellaneous Symbols Unicode block

Notes
Passage 6:
Venus with a Mirror
Venus with a Mirror (c  1555) is a painting by Titian, now in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, and it is considered to be one of the collection's highlights The pose of the Venus resembles the classical statues of the Venus de' Medici in Florence or the Capitoline Venus in Rome, which Titian may have seen when he wrote that was "learning from the marvelous ancient stones " The painting is said to celebrate the ideal beauty of the female form, or to be a critique of vanity, or perhaps both  It was copied by several later artists, including Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck Titian made a number of paintings of the same subject, but this is believed to be the earliest and the only version to be entirely by the hand of Titian, without additions by his assistants  It remained in his house until his death in 1576 

Painting, and versions
X-rays of the painting have revealed that Titian painted it over a double portrait which he had abandoned  Titian kept the red cloak of one of the figures in the abandoned painting and placed it under Venus's arm  The use of the cloak from the earlier painting probably played a large part in the composition of the new painting Titian is believed to have made another version of this Venus for the Venetian lawyer Niccolo Crasso, who also commissioned Titian to paint the Retable of Saint Nicholas de Bari at about the same time  A drawing of the other version was included by Anthony van Dyck in the sketchbook made during his trip to Italy  This other version is now lost, but a studio copy exists in the Hermitage Museum Titian is thought to have made a second copy, which was sent to his regular patron King Philip II of Spain, in 1567  This version was also lost, but a copy of it by Peter Paul Rubens exists, which is in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum in Madrid 

Other versions
Provenance
In 1581, five years after Titian's death, the contents of his house in Venice, including the Venus with a Mirror, were sold by his son and heir Pomponio Vechellio to Christoforo Barbarigo  In 1850 the Russian Consul-General in Venice, A  Kvostov, purchased the painting, along with a large number of other masterpieces, from the Barbarigo family, for Czar Nicholas I for the sum of 525,000 francs, and it entered the collection of the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg In 1931, in order to earn foreign currency for the first of the five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin and the Soviet government secretly sold the painting, along with a number of other masterpieces, to a syndicate of art dealers, who sold it to the American collector Andrew Mellon, who wished to create a national art museum for the United States  Mellon donated it to the United States Government in 1937  It was one of the first masterpieces to be displayed in the National Gallery of Art in Washington when it opened in 1941 

Works that may have influenced Titian
The pose of the painting may have been influenced by Ancient Greek and Roman statues of Venus Titian could have seen in Rome and Florence  He was also influenced by his teacher Giovanni Bellini, who was the leader of the Venetian school of painters, known for their masterful use of color 

Influence of the painting
The theme of the painting was adapted by a number of later artists, including Peter Paul Rubens and Diego Velázquez 
The painting itself was the inspiration for the protagonist Severin's imagination in the 1870 novel Venus in Furs by Leopold von Sacher-Masoch 

Gallery, influences
Notes
See also
List of paintings in the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, formerly in the Hermitage Museum
Venus in Furs, a novel containing great reference to the painting 



ground_truth: University of Glasgow