prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who did the person considered the founder of three major monotheistic religions marry after the death of Sarah?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Keturah
Keturah (Hebrew: קְטוּרָה, Qəṭūrā, possibly meaning "incense"; Arabic: قطورة) was a wife and a concubine of the Biblical patriarch Abraham  According to the Book of Genesis, Abraham married Keturah after the death of his first wife, Sarah  Abraham and Keturah had six sons According to Jewish tradition, she was a descendant of Noah's son Japheth One modern commentator on the Hebrew Bible has called Keturah "the most ignored significant person in the Torah"  The medieval Jewish commentator Rashi, and some previous rabbinical commentators, related a traditional belief that Keturah was the same person as Hagar, although this idea cannot be found in the biblical text According to Doctor of Anthropology Paula M  McNutt, it is generally recognized that there is nothing specific in the biblical traditions recorded in Genesis, including those regarding Abraham and his family, that can be definitively related to known history in or around Canaan in the early second millennium B C E 

Sources for Keturah
Keturah is mentioned in two passages of the Hebrew Bible: in the Book of Genesis, and also in the First Book of Chronicles  Additionally, she is mentioned in Antiquities of the Jews by the 1st-century Romano-Jewish historian Josephus, in the Talmud, the Midrash, the Targum on the Torah, the Genesis Rabbah, and various other writings of Jewish theologians and philosophers Louis Feldman has said "Josephus records evidence of the prolific non-Jewish polymath Alexander Polyhistor, who, in turn, cites the historian Cleodemus Malchus, who states that two of the sons of Abraham by Keturah joined Heracles' campaign in Africa, and that Heracles, without doubt the greatest Greek hero of them all, married the daughter of one of them "

Relationship of Keturah to Abraham
Keturah is referred to in Genesis as "another wife" of Abraham (Hebrew:  אִשָּה‎ ‎  Translit : 'išāh   Translated:  woman, wife)   In First Chronicles, she is called Abraham's "concubine" (Hebrew:  פִּילֶגֶשׁ‎ ‎  Translit : pilegeš   Translated:  concubine) 
According to one opinion in the midrashic work Genesis Rabbah, Keturah and Hagar are names for the same person, whom Abraham remarried after initially expelling  This opinion was adopted and popularized by 11th-century scholar Rashi  Possible justifications for this opinion include the fact that Keturah is referred to 1 Chronicles 1:32 as Abraham's concubine (in the singular), and several other verses which suggest that the descendants of Hagar and Keturah lived in the same territory or formed a single ethnic group However, this idea was rejected by another rabbi in Genesis Rabbah, as well as by traditional commentators such as Ibn Ezra, Nahmanides, and Rashbam  The Book of Jubilees also supports the conclusion that Keturah and Hagar were two different people, by stating that Abraham waited until after Hagar's death before marrying Keturah  According to modern scholar Richard Elliott Friedman, the identification of Keturah with Hagar has "no basis     in the text" Genesis Rabbah interpreted the name Keturah in accordance with the opinion that she was identical to Hagar: the name was said to be related to the Aramaic ketur (knot) to imply that she was "bound" and did not have sexual relations with anyone else from the time she left Abraham until her return  The name Keturah was alternatively said to be derived from the ketoret (meaning "incense" in Hebrew) due to her deeds being as pleasing as incense 

Descendants
Keturah bore Abraham six sons: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah  Genesis and First Chronicles also list seven of her grandsons (Sheba, Dedan, Ephah, Epher, Hanoch, Abida, and Eldaah)   The Book of Genesis records that Abraham gave them gifts and sent them to the East, while making Isaac son of Sarah his primary heir   Keturah's sons were said to have represented the Arab tribes who lived south and east of Israel (Genesis 25:1–6)  According to the Judean authors Josephus and Cleodemus Malchus, Punic people were descended from Epher, grandson of Abraham and Keturah According to the African writer Olaudah Equiano, the 18th-century English theologian John Gill believed the African people were descended from Abraham and Keturah According to the Baháʼí author John Able, Baháʼís consider their founder, Bahá'u'lláh, to have been "descended doubly, from both Abraham and Sarah, and separately from Abraham and Keturah "
Passage 2:
Lilian Turner
Lilian Turner (21 August 1867 – 25 August 1956) was an Australian writer 

Biography
Lilian Wattnall Burwell was born 21 August 1867  She was the elder sister of Ethel Turner and the daughter of Bennett George and Sarah Jane Burwell  Bennett George Burwell died when Lilian was still a young child, and her mother married a widower, Henry Turner, a year later  Both Lilian and Ethel would later take their step-father's name for their professional writing careers  Sarah and Henry had a daughter,  Jeannie Rose (born 1873), but Henry died suddenly in 1878  The next year, Sarah traveled to Australia with her three kids, where she fell in love with and wed Charles Cope in Sydney 
Lilian and Ethel were educated at Sydney Girls' High School where they ran their own magazine, the Iris, in opposition to the Gazette, edited by Louise Mack  After leaving school the two sisters founded and co-edited a sixpenny monthly, the Parthenon, which lasted for three years  It was always the ambition of the two women to be novelists Lilian's early novel The Lights of Sydney (1896) won first prize in a competition run by a London publisher, but the win lead nowhere  Her work was soon eclipsed by her younger sister's and, as Brenda Niall states: "Accepting what she saw as a lesser aim, she turned to the 'flapper' novel: stories of love and ambition written for schoolgirls and young women " The World's News described Turner as "a simple, wholesome, restful writer, upon whom it is a pleasure to fall back for stories for growing Australian girls to read "Turner was married on 22 February 1898 to Frederick Lindsay Thompson, a dentist, who was often out of work  The couple had two sons  She supported the family via her writing and over her career published a total of 25 novels   However, when she died on 25 August 1956 at Turramurra all of her novels were out of print 

Publications
Novels
By the Blue Mountains (1894) (serialised in The Australian Town and Country Journal)
The Lights of Sydney (1896)
Miss Elizabeth (1896) (serialised in The Australian Town and Country Journal)
Barbara (1899) (serialised in The Australasian)
Felise (1901) (serialised in The Evening News)
Young Love (1902)
An Australian Lassie (1903)
Betty the Scribe (1906)
Paradise and the Perrys (1908)
The Perry Girls (1909)
Three New Chum Girls (1910)
April Girls (1911)
Stairways to the Stars (1913)
The Girl From the Back-blocks (1914)
War's Heart Throbs (1915)
The Noughts and Crosses (1917)
Rachel (1920)
Peggy the Pilot (1922)
Jill of the Fourth (1924)
The Happy Heriots (1926)
Nina Comes Home (1927)
Ann Chooses Glory (1928)
Lady Billie (1929)
There Came a Call (1930)
Two Take the Road (1931)

Collections
Written Down (1912)
Passage 3:
Abrahamic religions
The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around the worship of the God of Abraham  Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout the Abrahamic religious scriptures of the Quran, and the Hebrew and Christian Bibles Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons formed the nation of the Israelites in Canaan (or the Land of Israel); Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as the Ishmaelites are descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael in the Arabian Peninsula In its early stages, the Israelite religion was derived from the Canaanite religions of the Bronze Age; by the Iron Age, it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism for monolatry  The monolatrist nature of Yahwism was further developed in the period following the Babylonian captivity, eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism  In the 1st century CE, Christianity emerged as a splinter movement out of Judaism in the Land of Israel, developed under the Apostles of Jesus of Nazareth; it spread widely after it was adopted by the Roman Empire as a state religion in the 4th century CE  In the 7th century CE, Islam was founded by Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the early Muslim conquests, shortly after his death Alongside the Indian religions, the Iranian religions, and the East Asian religions, the Abrahamic religions make up the largest major division in comparative religion  By total number of adherents, Christianity and Islam comprise the largest and second-largest religious movements in the world, respectively  Abrahamic religions with fewer adherents include Judaism, the Baháʼí Faith, Druzism, Samaritanism, and Rastafari 

Etymology
The Catholic scholar of Islam Louis Massignon stated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source  The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to dīn Ibrāhīm, 'religion of Ibrahim', Arabic form of Abraham's name God's promise at Genesis 15:4–8 regarding Abraham's heirs became paradigmatic for Jews, who speak of him as "our father Abraham" (Avraham Avinu)  With the emergence of Christianity, Paul the Apostle, in Romans 4:11–12, likewise referred to him as "father of all" those who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised  Islam likewise conceived itself as the religion of Abraham  All the major Abrahamic religions claim a direct lineage to Abraham:

Abraham is recorded in the Torah as the ancestor of the Israelites through his son Isaac, born to Sarah through a promise made in Genesis 
Christians affirm the ancestral origin of the Jews in Abraham  Christianity also claims that Jesus was descended from Abraham 
Muhammad, as an Arab, is believed by Muslims to be descended from Abraham's son Ishmael, through Hagar  Jewish tradition also equates the descendants of Ishmael, Ishmaelites, with Arabs, while the descendants of Isaac by Jacob, who was also later known as Israel, are the Israelites 
The Bahá'í Faith states in its scripture that Bahá'ullah descended from Abraham through his wife Keturah's sons 

Debates regarding the term
The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam by the terms "Abrahamic religions" or "Abrahamic traditions" has, at times, been challenged  The common Christian beliefs of Incarnation, Trinity, and the resurrection of Jesus, for example, are not accepted by Judaism or Islam (see for example Islamic view of Jesus' death)  There are key beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most of Christianity (such as abstinence from pork), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (such as the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus, respectively) Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination  While there is a commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences  Alan L  Berger, professor of Judaic Studies at Florida Atlantic University, wrote that although "Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam," the three faiths "understand the role of Abraham" in different ways  Aaron W  Hughes, meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism" An alternative designation for the "Abrahamic religions", "desert monotheism", may also have unsatisfactory connotations 

Religions
Judaism
One of Judaism's primary texts is the Tanakh, an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple (c  535 BCE)  Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people  One of his great-grandsons was Judah, from whom the religion ultimately gets its name  The Israelites were initially a number of tribes who lived in the Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah 
After being conquered and exiled, some members of the Kingdom of Judah eventually returned to Israel  They later formed an independent state under the Hasmonean dynasty in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, before becoming a client kingdom of the Roman Empire, which also conquered the state and dispersed its inhabitants  From the 2nd to the 6th centuries, Rabbinical Jews (believed to be descended from the historical Pharisees) wrote the Talmud, a lengthy work of legal rulings and Biblical exegesis which, along with the Tanakh, is a key text of Rabbinical Judaism  Karaite Jews (believed to be descended from the Sadducees) and the Beta Israel reject the Talmud and the idea of an Oral Torah, following the Tanakh only 

Christianity
Christianity began in the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by Jesus  His followers viewed him as the Messiah, as in the Confession of Peter; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate, who was resurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom of God  Within a few decades the new movement split from Judaism  Christian teaching is based on the Old and New Testaments of the Bible 
After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace vis a vis the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been split into various churches from its beginning  An attempt was made by the Byzantine Empire to unify Christendom, but this formally failed with the East–West Schism of 1054  In the 16th century, the birth and growth of Protestantism during the Reformation further split Christianity into many denominations  The largest post-Reformation branching is the Latter Day Saint movement 

Islam
Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran  Although it considers Muhammad to be the Seal of the prophets, Islam teaches that every prophet preached Islam, as the word Islam literally means submission to God, the main concept preached by all Abrahamic prophets  Although the Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God, other Islamic books considered to be revealed by God before the Quran, mentioned by name in the Quran are the Tawrat (Torah) revealed to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel, the Zabur (Psalms) revealed to Dawud (David) and the Injil (the Gospel) revealed to Isa (Jesus)  The Quran also mentions God having revealed the Scrolls of Abraham and the Scrolls of Moses 
The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of God  Islam, like Christianity, is a universal religion (i e  membership is open to anyone)  Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called tawhid, or "strict" monotheism 

Other Abrahamic religions
Historically, the Abrahamic religions have been considered to be Judaism, Christianity, and Islam  Some of this is due to the age and larger size of these three  The other, similar religions were seen as either too new to judge as being truly in the same class, or too small to be of significance to the category 
However, some of the restrictions of Abrahamic to these three is due only to tradition in historical classification  Therefore, restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism  The religions listed below here claim Abrahamic classification, either by the religions themselves, or by scholars who study them 

Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith, which developed from Shi'a Islam during the late 19th century, is a world religion that has been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources in various fields  Monotheistic, it recognizes Abraham as one of a number of Manifestations of God including Adam, Moses, Zoroaster, Krishna, Gautama Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and ultimately Baháʼu'lláh  God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through these intermediaries, in a process known as progressive revelation 

Druzism
The Druze faith or Druzism is a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of high Islamic figures like Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad and Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, and Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle The Epistles of Wisdom is the foundational text of the Druze faith  The Druze faith incorporates elements of Islam's Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, Pythagoreanism, Christianity, Hinduism and other philosophies and beliefs, creating a distinct and secretive theology known to interpret esoterically religious scriptures, and to highlight the role of the mind and truthfulness  The Druze follow theophany, and believe in reincarnation or the transmigration of the soul  At the end of the cycle of rebirth, which is achieved through successive reincarnations, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind (Al Aaqal Al Kulli)  In the Druze faith, Jesus is considered one of God's important prophets 

Rastafari
The heterogeneous Rastafari movement, sometimes termed Rastafarianism, which originated in Jamaica is classified by some scholars as an international socio-religious movement, and by others as a separate Abrahamic religion  Classified as both a new religious movement and social movement, it developed in Jamaica during the 1930s  It lacks any centralised authority and there is much heterogeneity among practitioners, who are known as Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas Rastafari refer to their beliefs, which are based on a specific interpretation of the Bible, as "Rastalogy"  Central is a monotheistic belief in a single God—referred to as Jah—who partially resides within each individual  The former Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie, is given central importance; many Rastas regard him as the returned Messiah, the incarnation of Jah on Earth, and as the Second Coming of Christ  Others regard him as a human prophet who fully recognised the inner divinity within every individual  Rastafari is Afrocentric and focuses its attention on the African diaspora, which it believes is oppressed within Western society, or "Babylon` Many Rastas call for the resettlement of the African diaspora 
in either Ethiopia or Africa more widely, referring to this continent as the Promised Land of "Zion"  Other interpretations shift focus on to the adoption of an Afrocentric attitude while living outside of Africa  Rastas refer to their practices as "livity"  Communal meetings are known as "groundations", and are typified by music, chanting, discussions, and the smoking of cannabis, the latter being regarded as a sacrament with beneficial properties  Rastas place emphasis on what they regard as living 'naturally', adhering to ital dietary requirements, allowing their hair to form into dreadlocks, and following patriarchal gender roles 

Samaritanism
The Samaritans adhere to the Samaritan Torah, which they believe is the original, unchanged Torah, as opposed to the Torah used by Jews  In addition to the Samaritan Torah, Samaritans also revere their version of the Book of Joshua and recognize some later Biblical figures such as Eli 
Samaritanism is internally described as the religion that began with Moses, unchanged over the millennia that have since passed  Samaritans believe Judaism and the Jewish Torah have been corrupted by time and no longer serve the duties God mandated on Mount Sinai  While Jews view the Temple Mount in Jerusalem as the most sacred location in their faith, Samaritans regard Mount Gerizim, near Nablus, as the holiest spot on Earth 
Other Samaritan religious works include the Memar Markah, the Samaritan liturgy, and Samaritan law codes and biblical commentaries; scholars have various theories concerning the actual relationships between these three texts  The Samaritan Pentateuch first became known to the Western world in 1631, proving the first example of the Samaritan alphabet and sparking an intense theological debate regarding its relative age versus the Masoretic Text 

Mandaeism
Mandaeism (Classical Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ mandaiia; Arabic: المندائيّة al-Mandāʾiyya), sometimes also known as Nasoraeanism or Sabianism, is a Gnostic, monotheistic and ethnic religion : 4 : 1  Its adherents, the Mandaeans, revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enos, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptist  Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist prophets, with Adam being the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet : 45 The Mandaeans speak an Eastern Aramaic language known as Mandaic  The name 'Mandaean' comes from the Aramaic manda, meaning knowledge  Within the Middle East, but outside their community, the Mandaeans are more commonly known as the صُبَّة Ṣubba (singular: Ṣubbī), or as Sabians (الصابئة, al-Ṣābiʾa)  The term Ṣubba is derived from an Aramaic root related to baptism  The term Sabians derives from the mysterious religious group mentioned three times in the Quran  The name of this unidentified group, which is implied in the Quran to belong to the 'People of the Book' (ahl al-kitāb), was historically claimed by the Mandaeans as well as by several other religious groups in order to gain legal protection (dhimma) as offered by Islamic law  Occasionally, Mandaeans are also called "Christians of Saint John" 

Origins and history
The civilizations that developed in Mesopotamia influenced some religious texts, particularly the Hebrew Bible and the Book of Genesis  Abraham is said to have originated in Mesopotamia Judaism regards itself as the religion of the descendants of Jacob, a grandson of Abraham  It has a strictly unitary view of God, and the central holy book for almost all branches is the Masoretic Text as elucidated in the Oral Torah  In the 19th century and 20th centuries Judaism developed a small number of branches, of which the most significant are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform 
Christianity began as a sect of Judaism in the Mediterranean Basin of the first century CE and evolved into a separate religion—Christianity—with distinctive beliefs and practices  Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, considered by almost all denominations to be God the Son, one person of the Trinity  (See God in Christianity ) The Christian biblical canons are usually held to be the ultimate authority, alongside sacred tradition in some denominations (such as the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church)  Over many centuries, Christianity divided into three main branches (Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant), dozens of significant denominations, and hundreds of smaller ones 
Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century CE with a strictly unitary view of God  Muslims hold the Quran to be the ultimate authority, as revealed and elucidated through the teachings and practices of a central, but not divine, prophet, Muhammad  The Islamic faith considers all prophets and messengers from Adam through the final messenger (Muhammad) to carry the same Islamic monotheistic principles  Soon after its founding, Islam split into two main branches (Sunni and Shia Islam), each of which now has a number of denominations 
The Baháʼí Faith began within the context of Shia Islam in 19th-century Persia, after a merchant named Siyyid 'Alí Muḥammad Shírází claimed divine revelation and took on the title of the Báb, or "the Gate"  The Bab's ministry proclaimed the imminent advent of "He whom God shall make manifest", who Baháʼís accept as Bahá'u'lláh  Baháʼís revere the Torah, Gospels and the Quran, and the writings of the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá' are considered the central texts of the faith  A vast majority of adherents are unified under a single denomination 

Common aspects
All Abrahamic religions accept the tradition that God revealed himself to the patriarch Abraham  All of them are monotheistic, and all of them conceive God to be a transcendent creator and the source of moral law  Their religious texts feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings  Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups In the three main Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other  The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are both subordinate  One seeks salvation or transcendence not by contemplating the natural world or via philosophical speculation, but by seeking to please God (such as obedience with God's wishes or his law) and see divine revelation as outside of self, nature, and custom 

Monotheism
All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although one who is known by different names  Each of these religions preaches that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives  However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods—but rather in three persons, or hypostases, united in one essence—the Trinitarian doctrine, a fundamental of faith for the vast majority of Christian denominations, conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism  Since the conception of a divine Trinity is not amenable to tawhid, the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam regards Christianity as variously polytheistic Christianity and Islam both revere Jesus (Arabic: Isa or Yasu among Muslims and Arab Christians respectively) but with vastly differing conceptions:

Christians view Jesus as the saviour and regard him as God incarnate 
Muslims see Isa as a Prophet of Islam and Messiah However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as shirk in Islam and as shituf in Judaism), is typically viewed as the heresy of idolatry by Islam and Judaism 

Theological continuity
All the Abrahamic religions affirm one eternal God who created the universe, who rules history, who sends prophetic and angelic messengers and who reveals the divine will through inspired revelation  They also affirm that obedience to this creator deity is to be lived out historically and that one day God will unilaterally intervene in human history at the Last Judgment  Christianity, Islam, and Judaism have a teleological view on history, unlike the static or cyclic view on it found in other cultures (the latter being common in Indian religions) 

Scriptures
All Abrahamic religions believe that God guides humanity through revelation to prophets, and each religion believes that God revealed teachings to prophets, including those prophets whose lives are documented in its own scripture 

Ethical orientation
An ethical orientation: all these religions speak of a choice between good and evil, which is associated with obedience or disobedience to a single God and to Divine Law 

Eschatological world view
An eschatological world view of history and destiny, beginning with the creation of the world and the concept that God works through history, and ending with a resurrection of the dead and final judgment and world to come 

Importance of Jerusalem
Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city  Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE, when according to Biblical tradition David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah  Since the Hebrew Bible relates that Isaac's sacrifice took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events  Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal  Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (the United Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah, Yehud Medinata, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and modern Israel)  It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity  There has been a continuous Christian presence there since  William R  Kenan, Jr , professor of the history of Christianity at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the Islamic conquest in the middle of the 7th century, the Roman province of Palestine was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city  According to the New Testament, Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple and for the feast of the Passover  He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the money changers in disarray from the temple there, held the Last Supper in an "upper room" (traditionally the Cenacle) there the night before he was crucified on the cross and was arrested in Gethsemane  The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem  His crucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby (traditionally the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and his resurrection and ascension and prophecy to return all are said to have occurred or will occur there 
Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after Mecca and Medina  The Al-Aqsa Mosque, which translates to "farthest mosque" in sura Al-Isra in the Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as "the holy land"  Muslim tradition as recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem  The first Muslims did not pray toward Kaaba, but toward Jerusalem  The qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150)  Another reason for its significance is its connection with the Miʿrāj, where, according to traditional Muslim, Muhammad ascended through the Seven heavens on a winged mule named Buraq, guided by the Archangel Gabriel, beginning from the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, in modern times under the Dome of the Rock 

Significance of Abraham
Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs For Jews, Abraham is the founding patriarch of the children of Israel  God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you " With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come"  It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant  Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or patriarch (referred to as Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו in Hebrew) "Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land")  According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first post-Flood prophet to reject idolatry through rational analysis, although Shem and Eber carried on the tradition from Noah Christians view Abraham as an important exemplar of faith, and a spiritual, as well as physical, ancestor of Jesus  For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear as well as/rather than a direct ancestor depending on the individual's interpretation of Paul the Apostle, with the Abrahamic covenant "reinterpreted so as to be defined by faith in Christ rather than biological descent" or both by faith as well as a direct ancestor; in any case, the emphasis is placed on faith being the only requirement for the Abrahamic Covenant to apply (see also New Covenant and supersessionism)  In Christian belief, Abraham is a role model of faith, and his obedience to God by offering Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son Jesus Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherents rejected Jesus  They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as a Gentile (before he was circumcised) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness"  (cf  Rom  4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham"  (see also John 8:39)  This is most fully developed in Paul's theology where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham  However, with regards to Rom  4:20 and Gal  4:9, in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "sons of God" rather than "children of Abraham" For Muslims, Abraham is a prophet, the "messenger of God" who stands in the line from Adam to Muhammad, to whom God gave revelations,[Quran %3Averse%3D163 4 :163], who "raised the foundations of the House" (i e , the Kaaba)[Quran %3Averse%3D127 2 :127] with his first son, Isma'il, a symbol of which is every mosque  Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a genealogy for Muhammad  Islam considers Abraham to be "one of the first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God, thus being referred to as ابونا ابراهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well as Ibrahim al-Hanif or "Abraham the Monotheist"  Also, the same as Judaism, Islam believes that Abraham rejected idolatry through logical reasoning  Abraham is also recalled in certain details of the annual Hajj pilgrimage 

Differences
God
The Abrahamic God is the conception of God that remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions  The Abrahamic God is conceived of as eternal, omnipotent, omniscient and as the creator of the universe  God is further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, omnibenevolence, and omnipresence  Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also transcendent, but at the same time personal and involved, listening to prayer and reacting to the actions of his creatures  God in Abrahamic religions is always referred to as masculine only 

Jewish theology is strictly monotheistic  God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparable being who is the ultimate cause of all existence  Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and the world  In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who is the guide of the world, delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt, and gave them the 613 Mitzvot at Mount Sinai as described in the Torah 
The national god of the Israelites has a proper name, written Y-H-W-H (Hebrew: יהוה) in the Hebrew Bible  The etymology of the name is unknown  An explanation of the name is given to Moses when YHWH calls himself "I Am that I Am", (Hebrew: אהיה אשר אהיה ’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye), seemingly connecting it to the verb hayah (הָיָה), meaning 'to be', but this is likely not a genuine etymology  Jewish tradition accords many names to God, including Elohim, Shaddai, and Sabaoth 

In Christian theology, God is the eternal being who created and preserves the world  Christians believe God to be both transcendent and immanent (involved in the world)  Early Christian views of God were expressed in the Pauline Epistles and the early creeds, which proclaimed one God and the divinity of Jesus 
Around the year 200, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the Ecumenical Council of 381  Trinitarians, who form the large majority of Christians, hold it as a core tenet of their faith  Nontrinitarian denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways The theology of the attributes and nature of God has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with Irenaeus writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things " In the 8th century, John of Damascus listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted  As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e g , the Lord's Prayer, stating that the Father is in Heaven), others based on theological reasoning 

In Islamic theology, God (Arabic: الله Allāh) is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence  Islam emphasizes that God is strictly singular (tawḥīd) unique (wāḥid) and inherently One (aḥad), all-merciful and omnipotent  According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things " God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God  Islamic tradition also describes the 99 names of God  These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian 
Islamic belief in God is distinct from Christianity in that God has no progeny  This belief is summed up in chapter 112 of the Quran titled Al-Ikhlas, which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute  He does not beget nor was he begotten  Nor is there to Him any equivalent "[Quran %3Averse%3D1  112 :1]

Scriptures
All these religions rely on a body of scriptures, some of which are considered to be the word of God—hence sacred and unquestionable—and some the work of religious men, revered mainly by tradition and to the extent that they are considered to have been divinely inspired, if not dictated, by the divine being 
The sacred scriptures of Judaism are the Tanakh, a Hebrew acronym standing for Torah (Law or Teachings), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings)  These are complemented by and supplemented with various (originally oral) traditions: Midrash, the Mishnah, the Talmud and collected rabbinical writings  The Tanakh (or Hebrew Bible) was composed between 1,400 BCE, and 400 BCE by Jewish prophets, kings, and priests 
The Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular is considered holy, down to the last letter: transcribing is done with painstaking care  An error in a single letter, ornamentation or symbol of the 300,000+ stylized letters that make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use; hence the skills of a Torah scribe are specialist skills, and a scroll takes considerable time to write and check 

The sacred scriptures of most Christian groups are the Old Testament and the New Testament  Latin Bibles originally contained 73 books; however, 7 books, collectively called the Apocrypha or Deuterocanon depending on one's opinion of them, were removed by Martin Luther due to a lack of original Hebrew sources, and now vary on their inclusion between denominations  Greek Bibles contain additional materials 
The New Testament comprises four accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus (the Four Gospels), as well as several other writings (the epistles) and the Book of Revelation  They are usually considered to be divinely inspired, and together comprise the Christian Bible 
The vast majority of Christian faiths (including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and most forms of Protestantism) recognize that the Gospels were passed on by oral tradition, and were not set to paper until decades after the resurrection of Jesus and that the extant versions are copies of those originals  The version of the Bible considered to be most valid (in the sense of best conveying the true meaning of the word of God) has varied considerably: the Greek Septuagint, the Syriac Peshitta, the Latin Vulgate, the English King James Version and the Russian Synodal Bible have been authoritative to different communities at different times 
The sacred scriptures of the Christian Bible are complemented by a large body of writings by individual Christians and councils of Christian leaders (see canon law)  Some Christian churches and denominations consider certain additional writings to be binding; other Christian groups consider only the Bible to be binding (sola scriptura) 

Islam's holiest book is the Quran, comprising 114 Suras ("chapters of the Qur'an")  However, Muslims also believe in the religious texts of Judaism and Christianity in their original forms, albeit not the current versions  According to the Quran (and mainstream Muslim belief), the verses of the Quran were revealed by God through the Archangel Jibrail to Muhammad on separate occasions  These revelations were written down and also memorized by hundreds of companions of Muhammad  These multiple sources were collected into one official copy  After the death of Muhammad, Quran was copied on several copies and Caliph Uthman provided these copies to different cities of Islamic Empire 
The Quran mentions and reveres several of the Israelite prophets, including Moses and Jesus, among others (see also: Prophets of Islam)  The stories of these prophets are very similar to those in the Bible  However, the detailed precepts of the Tanakh and the New Testament are not adopted outright; they are replaced by the new commandments accepted as revealed directly by God (through Gabriel) to Muhammad and codified in the Quran 
Like the Jews with the Torah, Muslims consider the original Arabic text of the Quran as uncorrupted and holy to the last letter, and any translations are considered to be interpretations of the meaning of the Quran, as only the original Arabic text is considered to be the divine scripture Like the Rabbinic Oral Law to the Hebrew Bible, the Quran is complemented by the Hadith, a set of books by later authors recording the sayings of the prophet Muhammad  The Hadith interpret and elaborate Qur'anic precepts  Islamic scholars have categorized each Hadith at one of the following levels of authenticity or isnad: genuine (sahih), fair (hasan) or weak (da'if) By the 9th century, six major Hadith collections were accepted as reliable to Sunni Muslims 

Sahih al-Bukhari
Sahih Muslim
Sunan ibn Majah
Sunan Abu Dawud
Jami al-Tirmidhi
Sunan an-Nasa'iiShi'a Muslims, however, refer to other authenticated hadiths instead  They are known collectively as The Four Books 
The Hadith and the life story of Muhammad (sira) form the Sunnah, an authoritative supplement to the Quran  The legal opinions of Islamic jurists (Faqīh) provide another source for the daily practice and interpretation of Islamic tradition (see Fiqh )
The Quran contains repeated references to the "religion of Abraham" (see Suras 2:130,135; 3:95; 6:123,161; 12:38; 16:123; 22:78)  In the Quran, this expression refers specifically to Islam; sometimes in contrast to Christianity and Judaism, as in Sura 2:135, for example: 'They say: "Become Jews or Christians if ye would be guided (to salvation) " Say thou (O Muslims): "Nay! (I would rather) the Religion of Abraham the True, and he joined not gods with God " ' In the Quran, Abraham is declared to have been a Muslim (a hanif, more accurately a "primordial monotheist"), not a Jew nor a Christian (Sura 3:67) 

Eschatology
In the major Abrahamic religions, there exists the expectation of an individual who will herald the time of the end or bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth; in other words, the Messianic prophecy  Judaism awaits the coming of the Jewish Messiah; the Jewish concept of Messiah differs from the Christian concept in several significant ways, despite the same term being applied to both  The Jewish Messiah is not seen as a "god", but as a mortal man who by his holiness is worthy of that description  His appearance is not the end of history, rather it signals the coming of the world to come 
Christianity awaits the Second Coming of Christ, though Full Preterists believe this has already happened  Islam awaits both the second coming of Jesus (to complete his life and die) and the coming of Mahdi (Sunnis in his first incarnation, Twelver Shia as the return of Muhammad al-Mahdi) 
Most Abrahamic religions agree that a human being comprises the body, which dies, and the soul, which is capable of remaining alive beyond human death and carries the person's essence, and that God will judge each person's life accordingly on the Day of Judgement  The importance of this and the focus on it, as well as the precise criteria and end result, differ between religions Judaism's views on the afterlife ("the Next World") are quite diverse  This can be attributed to an almost non-existent tradition of souls/spirits in the Hebrew Bible (a possible exception being the Witch of Endor), resulting in a focus on the present life rather than future reward 
Christians have more diverse and definite teachings on the end times and what constitutes afterlife  Most Christian approaches either include different abodes for the dead (Heaven, Hell, Limbo, Purgatory) or universal reconciliation because all souls are made in the image of God  A small minority teach annihilationism, the doctrine that those persons who are not reconciled to God simply cease to exist 
In Islam, God is said to be "Most Compassionate and Most Merciful" (Quran 1:2, as well as the start of all Suras but one)  However, God is also "Most Just"; Islam prescribes a literal Hell for those who disobey God and commit gross sin  Those who obey God and submit to God will be rewarded with their own place in Paradise  While sinners are punished with fire, there are also many other forms of punishment described, depending on the sin committed; Hell is divided into numerous levels 
Those who worship and remember God are promised eternal abode in a physical and spiritual Paradise  Heaven is divided into eight levels, with the highest level of Paradise being the reward of those who have been most virtuous, the prophets, and those killed while fighting for Allah (martyrs) 
Upon repentance to God, many sins can be forgiven, on the condition they are not repeated, as God is supremely merciful  Additionally, those who believe in God, but have led sinful lives, may be punished for a time, and then eventually released into Paradise  If anyone dies in a state of Shirk (i e  associating God in any way, such as claiming that He is equal with anything or denying Him), this is not pardonable—he or she will stay forever in Hell 
Once a person is admitted to Paradise, this person will abide there for eternity 

Worship and religious rites
Worship, ceremonies and religion-related customs differ substantially among the Abrahamic religions  Among the few similarities are a seven-day cycle in which one day is nominally reserved for worship, prayer or other religious activities—Shabbat, Sabbath, or jumu'ah; this custom is related to the biblical story of Genesis, where God created the universe in six days and rested in the seventh 
Orthodox Judaism practice is guided by the interpretation of the Torah and the Talmud  Before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, Jewish priests offered sacrifices there two times daily; since then, the practice has been replaced, until the Temple is rebuilt, by Jewish men being required to pray three times daily, including the chanting of the Torah, and facing in the direction of Jerusalem's Temple Mount  Other practices include circumcision, dietary laws, Shabbat, Passover, Torah study, Tefillin, purity and others  Conservative Judaism, Reform Judaism and the Reconstructionist movement all move away, in different degrees, from the strict tradition of the law 
Jewish women's prayer obligations vary by denomination; in contemporary Orthodox practice, women do not read from the Torah and are only required to say certain parts of these daily services 
All versions of Judaism share a common, specialized calendar, containing many festivals  The calendar is lunisolar, with lunar months and a solar year (an extra month is added every second or third year to allow the shorter lunar year to "catch up" to the solar year)  All streams observe the same festivals, but some emphasize them differently  As is usual with its extensive law system, the Orthodox have the most complex manner of observing the festivals, while the Reform pay more attention to the simple symbolism of each one 
Christian worship varies from denomination to denomination  Individual prayer is usually not ritualised, while group prayer may be ritual or non-ritual according to the occasion  During church services, some form of liturgy is frequently followed  Rituals are performed during sacraments, which also vary from denomination to denomination and usually include Baptism and Communion, and may also include Confirmation, Confession, Last Rites and Holy Orders 
Catholic worship practice is governed by documents, including (in the largest, Western, Latin Church) the Roman Missal  Individuals, churches and denominations place different emphasis on ritual—some denominations consider most ritual activity optional (see Adiaphora), particularly since the Protestant Reformation 
The followers of Islam (Muslims) are to observe the Five Pillars of Islam  The first pillar is the belief in the oneness of Allah, and in Muhammad as his final and most perfect prophet  The second is to pray five times daily (salat) towards the direction (qibla) of the Kaaba in Mecca  The third pillar is almsgiving (Zakah), a portion of one's wealth given to the poor or to other specified causes, which means the giving of a specific share of one's wealth and savings to persons or causes, as is commanded in the Quran and elucidated as to specific percentages for different kinds of income and wealth in the hadith  The normal share to be paid is two and a half percent of one's earnings: this increases if labour was not required, and increases further if only capital or possessions alone were required (i e  proceeds from renting space), and increases to 50% on "unearned wealth" such as treasure-finding, and to 100% on wealth that is considered haram, as part of attempting to make atonement for the sin, such as that gained through financial interest (riba) 
Fasting (sawm) during the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, Ramadan, is the fourth pillar of Islam, to which all Muslims after the age of puberty in good health (as judged by a Muslim doctor to be able fast without incurring grave danger to health: even in seemingly obvious situations, a "competent and upright Muslim physician" is required to agree), that are not menstruating are bound to observe—missed days of the fast for any reason must be made up, unless there be a permanent illness, such as diabetes, that prevents a person from ever fasting  In such a case, restitution must be made by feeding one poor person for each day missed 
Finally, Muslims are also required, if physically able, to undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one's life: it is strongly recommended to do it as often as possible, preferably once a year  Only individuals whose financial position and health are severely insufficient are exempt from making Hajj (e g  if making Hajj would put stress on one's financial situation, but would not end up in homelessness or starvation, it is still required)  During this pilgrimage, the Muslims spend three to seven days in worship, performing several strictly defined rituals, most notably circumambulating the Kaaba among millions of other Muslims and the "Stoning of the Devil" at Mina 
At the end of the Hajj, the heads of men are shaved, sheep and other halal animals, notably camels, are slaughtered as a ritual sacrifice by bleeding out at the neck according to a strictly prescribed ritual slaughter method similar to the Jewish kashrut, to commemorate the moment when, according to Islamic tradition, Allah replaced Abraham's son Ishmael (contrasted with the Judaeo-Christian tradition that Isaac was the intended sacrifice) with a sheep, thereby preventing human sacrifice  The meat from these animals is then distributed locally to needy Muslims, neighbours and relatives  Finally, the hajji puts off ihram and the hajj is complete 

Circumcision
Judaism and Samaritanism commands that males be circumcised when they are eight days old, as does the Sunnah in Islam  Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be sunnah (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah  Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called khitan) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males 
Today, many Christian denominations are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons  Western Christianity replaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual of baptism, a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includes immersion, aspersion, or anointment with water  The Early Church (Acts 15, the Council of Jerusalem) decided that Gentile Christians are not required to undergo circumcision  The Council of Florence in the 15th century prohibited it  Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral  By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual  Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts  The New Testament chapter Acts 15 records that Christianity did not require circumcision  The Catholic Church currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision, and in 1442 it banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11th Council of Florence  Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage  The Eritrean Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia 

Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents in Europe and Latin America have low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is widely practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and among Christian communities in the Anglosphere countries, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa  Countries such as the United States, the Philippines, Australia (albeit primarily in the older generations), Canada, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, and many other African Christian countries have high circumcision rates  Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries of Oceania  In some African and Eastern Christian denominations male circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision  Coptic Christianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy and Eritrean Orthodoxy still observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as a rite of passage  Male circumcision is also widely practiced among Christians from South Korea, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and North Africa  (See also aposthia )
Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the fitrah, or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation Circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze, the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance in the Druze faith  Some Druses do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice" Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents 

Dietary restrictions
Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with permitted food known as kosher in Judaism, and halal in Islam  These two religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages of any kind  Halal restrictions can be seen as a modification of the kashrut dietary laws, so many kosher foods are considered halal; especially in the case of meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughtered in the name of God  Hence, in many places, Muslims used to consume kosher food  However, some foods not considered kosher are considered halal in Islam With rare exceptions, Christians do not consider the Old Testament's strict food laws as relevant for today's church; see also Biblical law in Christianity  Most Protestants have no set food laws, but there are minority exceptions The Roman Catholic Church believes in observing abstinence and penance  For example, all Fridays through the year and the time of Lent are penitential days  The law of abstinence requires a Catholic from 14 years of age until death to abstain from eating meat on Fridays in honor of the Passion of Jesus on Good Friday  The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops obtained the permission of the Holy See for Catholics in the U S  to substitute a penitential, or even a charitable, practice of their own choosing  Eastern Rite Catholics have their own penitential practices as specified by the Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) embraces numerous Old Testament rules and regulations such as tithing, Sabbath observance, and Jewish food laws  Therefore, they do not eat pork, shellfish, or other foods considered unclean under the Old Covenant  The "Fundamental Beliefs" of the SDA state that their members "are to adopt the most healthful diet possible and abstain from the unclean foods identified in the Scriptures"  among othersIn the Christian Bible, the consumption of strangled animals and of blood was forbidden by Apostolic Decree and are still forbidden in the Greek Orthodox Church, according to German theologian Karl Josef von Hefele, who, in his Commentary on Canon II of the Second Ecumenical Council held in the 4th century at Gangra, notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, the rule of the Apostolic Synod [the Council of Jerusalem of Acts 15] with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force  With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show " He also writes that "as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third, in 731, forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days "Jehovah's Witnesses abstain from eating blood and from blood transfusions based on Acts 15:19–21 
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints prohibits the consumption of alcohol, coffee, and non-herbal tea  While there is not a set of prohibited food, the church encourages members to refrain from eating excessive amounts of red meat 

Sabbath observance
Sabbath in the Bible is a weekly day of rest and time of worship  It is observed differently in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam and informs a similar occasion in several other Abrahamic faiths  Though many viewpoints and definitions have arisen over the millennia, most originate in the same textual tradition 

Proselytism
Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit missionaries since the end of the Second Temple era  Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of moral imperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God as a binding set of laws for the "children of Noah"—that is, all of humanity  It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator " Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion  In the U S , as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews  See also Conversion to Judaism 

Christianity encourages evangelism  Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world  See also Great Commission  Forced conversions to Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history  The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernán Cortés  Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (see recusancy and Popish plot) 
Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief)  According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will " The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight anti-Semitism Dawah is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam  Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation"  A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt  A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life 
Da'wah activities can take many forms  Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah  Mosques and other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches  Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah  Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah 
In Islamic theology, the purpose of Da‘wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad  Da‘wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim Ummah, or community of Muslims 

Dialogue between Abrahamic religions
This section reports on writings and talks which describe or advocate dialogue between the Abrahamic religions 
Amir HussainIn 2003, a book titled Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism contains a chapter by Amir Hussain which is titled "Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue" in which he claims that interfaith dialogue has been an integral part of Islam since its origin  After he received his "first revelation" and for the rest of his life, Muhammad was "engaged in interfaith dialogue"  Islam would not have spread without "interfaith dialogue" Hussain gives an early example of "the importance of pluralism and interfaith dialogue" in Islam  After some of Muhammad's followers were subjected to "physical persecution" in Mecca, he sent them to Abyssinia, a Christian nation, where they were "welcomed and accepted" by the Christian king  Another example is Córdoba, Andalusia in Muslim Spain, in the ninth and tenth centuries  Córdoba was "one of the most important cities in the history of the world"  In Córdoba, "Christians and Jews were involved in the Royal Court and the intellectual life of the city " Thus, there is "a history of Muslims, Jews, Christians, and other religious traditions living together in a pluralistic society" Turning to the present, Hussain says that one of the challenges which Muslims currently face is the conflicting passages in the Qur̀an some of which support interfaith "bridge-building", but other passages of it can be used to "justify mutual exclusion" 

Trialogue
The 2007 book Trialogue: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Dialogue starkly states the importance of interfaith dialogue: "We human beings today face a stark choice: dialogue or death!"
The Trialogue book gives four reasons why the three Abrahamic religions should engage in dialogue:
1  They "come from the same Hebraic roots and claim Abraham as their originating ancestor" 
2  "All three traditions are religions of ethical monotheism "
3  They "are all historical religions" 
4  All three are "religions of revelation" 

Pope Benedict XVI
In 2010, Pope Benedict XVI spoke about "Interreligious dialogue"  He said that "the Church's universal nature and vocation require that she engage in dialogue with the members of other religions " For the Abrahamic religions, this "dialogue is based on the spiritual and historical bonds uniting Christians to Jews and Muslims"  It is dialogue "grounded in the sacred Scriptures" and "defined in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen Gentium and in the Declaration on the Church's Relation to Non-Christian Religions Nostra Aetate  The Pope concluded with a prayer: "May Jews, Christians and Muslims     give the beautiful witness of serenity and concord between the children of Abraham "

Learned Ignorance
In the 2011 book Learned Ignorance: Intellectual Humility Among Jews, Christians and Muslims, the three editors address the question of "why engage in interreligious dialogue; its purpose?":

James L  Heft, a Roman Catholic priest, suggests "that the purpose of interreligious dialogue is, not only better mutual understanding     but also trying     to embody the truths that we affirm "
Omid Safi, a Muslim, answers the question of "why engage in interreligious dialogue?" He writes, "because for me, as a Muslim, God is greater than any one path leading to God"  Therefore, "neither I nor my traditions has a monopoly on truth, because in reality, we belong to the Truth (God), Truth to us "
Reuven Firestone, a Jewish rabbi writes about the "tension" between the "particularity" of one's "own religious experience" and the "universality of the divine reality" that as expressed in history has led to verbal and violent conflict  So, although this tension may never be "fully resolved", Firestone says that "it is of utmost consequence for leaders in religion to engage in the process of dialogue "

The Interfaith Amigos
In 2011, TED broadcast a 10-minute program about "Breaking the Taboos of Interfaith Dialogue" with Rabbi Ted Falcon (Jewish), Pastor Don Mackenzie (Christian), and Imam Jamal Rahman (Muslim) collectively known as The Interfaith Amigos  See their TED program by clicking here 

Divisive matters should be addressed
In 2012, a PhD thesis Dialogue Between Christians, Jews and Muslims argues that "the paramount need is for barriers against non-defensive dialogue conversations between Christians, Jews, and Muslims to be dismantled to facilitate the development of common understandings on matters that are deeply divisive " As of 2012, the thesis says that this has not been done 

Cardinal Koch
In 2015, Cardinal Kurt Koch, the President of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, an organization that is "responsible for the Church's dialogue with the Jewish people", was interviewed  He noted that the Church is already engaging in "bilateral talks with Jewish and Muslim religious leaders" but stated that it is too early for the Church to host "trialogue" talks with representatives of the three Abrahamic religions  Yet, Koch added, "we hope that we can go in this [direction] in the future "

Omid Safi
In 2016, a 26-minute interview with Omid Safi, a Muslim and Director of the Duke Islamic Studies Center, was posted on YouTube  In it, Safi stated that he has spent his life trying to combine "love and tenderness" which are the "essence of being human" with "social justice" 

Ahmed el-Tayeb
In November 2021, Ahmed el-Tayeb announced the rejection of the call to the "new Abrahamic religion", and asked in his speech whether the call was intended to "cooperate with believers in religions on their common and noble human values, or is it intended to create a new religion that has no color, taste, or smell", as he put it  Al-Tayeb said that the call to "Ibrahimism" "appears to be a call for human unity and the elimination of the causes of disputes and conflicts, and in fact it is a call to confiscate freedom of belief, freedom of faith and choice" 
Al-Tayeb believes that the call to unite the religion is a call that is "closer to troubled dreams than to realizing the facts and nature of things", because "the meeting of creation on one religion is impossible in the habit that God created people with " He continued, saying that "respecting the faith of the other is one thing, and believing in it is another" 

Demographics
Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2 3 billion adherents, constituting about 31 1% of the world's population  Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades  It has about 1 9 billion adherents, called Muslims, which constitute about 24 1% of the world's population  The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14 1 million adherents, called Jews  The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion, and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century usually at least twice the rate of population growth  The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two millions adherents 

See also
Abraham
Abraham in Islam
Abrahamites
Ancient Semitic religion
Bible
Chosen people
Christianity
Christianity and Islam
Christianity and Judaism
Christianity and other religions
Gnosticism
Hebrew Bible
Islam
Islamic–Jewish relations
Islam and other religions
Jewish Christian
Jews as the chosen people
Judaism
Judeo-Christian ethics
Messianic Judaism
Messianism
Manichaeism
Milah Abraham
Nigerian Chrislam
People of the Book
Quran
Sabians
Torah
Yazidism
Zoroastrianism

Notes
Passage 4:
Elmer George
Elmer Ray George (July 15, 1928 – May 31, 1976) was an American race car driver 
Born in Hockerville, Oklahoma, George died in Terre Haute, Indiana   He drove in the AAA and USAC Championship Car series, racing in the 1956–1963 seasons with 64 starts, including the Indianapolis 500 races in 1957, 1962, and 1963 He finished in the top ten 36 times, with one victory, in 1957 at Syracuse 
George was also the 1957 USAC Sprint Car Series champion 

1962 Bobby Ball Memorial race
On November 18, 1962, George suffered cuts and a left shoulder injury in a USAC Champ Car race held at the Arizona State Fairgrounds  Having hit another car's bumper, George lost control of his HOW Special, hit the guard rail before the grandstand, slid and headed towards the stands where he broke through a chain-link fence, landing upside down  22 spectators were injured as a result 

Personal
Elmer George was married to Mari Hulman George, daughter of Tony Hulman, owner of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway  Elmer and Mari had three daughters and one son, Tony George, founder of the Indy Racing League, and Ex-CEO of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway  Elmer had two children from a previous marriage, Joseph F  George and Carolyn Coffey 
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, George was the director of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network On May 3, 1976, Mari filed for divorce  On the day of the 1976 Indianapolis 500 (May 30, 1976), Elmer George argued by telephone with Guy Trolinger, a horse trainer at the family farm near Terre Haute, and Mari's alleged boyfriend  After the race, George drove to the farm, broke into the house and confronted Trolinger, then around 1:00 a m , gunfire broke out, and George was shot and killed as a result of multiple gunshot wounds  A grand jury ruled that Trolinger killed George in self-defense at which point the charges were dropped 

Award
He was inducted in the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame in 2005 

Complete AAA/USAC Championship Car results
Indianapolis 500 results
World Championship career summary
The Indianapolis 500 was part of the FIA World Championship from 1950 through 1960  Drivers competing at Indy during those years were credited with World Championship points and participation  George participated in the 1957 Indianapolis 500, his only World Championship race  He finished 33rd and did not accumulate any championship points 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Standing Rules of the United States Senate
The Standing Rules of the Senate are the parliamentary procedures adopted by the United States Senate that govern its procedure  The Senate's power to establish rules derives from Article One, Section 5 of the United States Constitution: "Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings    "
There are currently forty-five rules, with the latest revision adopted on January 24, 2013  The most recent addition of a new rule occurred in 2006, when The Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006 introduced a 44th rule on earmarks  The stricter rules are often waived by unanimous consent 

Outline of rules
Quorum
The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business  Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed to be present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise  Any senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present  In practice, senators almost always request quorum calls not to establish the presence of a quorum, but to temporarily delay proceedings without having to adjourn the session  Such a delay may serve one of many purposes; often, it allows Senate leaders to negotiate compromises off the floor or to allow senators time to come to the Senate floor to make speeches without having to constantly be present in the chamber while waiting for the opportunity  Once the need for a delay has ended, any senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call 

Debate
The Senate is presided over by the Presiding Officer, either the President of the Senate (the Vice President) or more often the President pro tempore (in special cases the Chief Justice presides)  During debates, senators may speak only if called upon by the Presiding Officer  The Presiding Officer is, however, required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak  Thus, the Presiding Officer has little control over the course of debate  Customarily, the majority leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates, even if another senator rises first  All speeches must be addressed to the Presiding Officer, using the words "Mr  President" or "Madam President"  Only the Presiding Officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person  In most cases, senators refer to each other not by name, but by state, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia" or "the junior senator from California" 
There are very few restrictions on the content of speeches, and there is no requirement that speeches be germane to the matter before the Senate 
The Senate Rules provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day (a legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends when it adjourns; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day)  The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please  Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits  In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute  In general, however, the right to unlimited debate is preserved 

Filibuster
The filibuster is an obstructionary tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely  A filibuster may entail, but does not actually require, long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments  The longest filibuster speech in the history of the Senate was delivered by Strom Thurmond, who spoke for over twenty-four hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957  The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture  In most cases, cloture requires the support of three-fifths of the Senate  Cloture is invoked very rarely, particularly because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority  If the Senate does invoke cloture, debate does not end immediately; instead, further debate is limited to thirty additional hours unless increased by another three-fifths vote 

Closed session
On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session  During a closed session, the chamber doors are closed and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or not essential to the session  Closed sessions are rare and are usually held only under certain circumstances in which the Senate is discussing sensitive subject matter, such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or discussions of Senate deliberations during impeachment trials  Any Senator has the right to call a closed session as long as the motion is seconded 

Voting
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote  In many cases, the Senate votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye!" (in favor of the motion) or "No!" (against the motion)  The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote  Any senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer's assessment and request a recorded vote  The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one-fifth of the senators present  In practice, however, senators second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy  When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; each senator responds when their name is called  Senators who miss the roll call may still cast a vote as long as the recorded vote remains open  The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer but must remain open for a minimum of fifteen minutes  If the vote is tied, the Vice President, if present, is entitled to a casting vote  If the Vice President is not present, however, the motion is resolved in the negative 

Committees
Tasks in the Senate are divided among sixteen standing committees, four select committees, four joint committees, and occasionally temporary committees  Senate rules establish the policy jurisdictions of each committee; for example, the Committee on Foreign Relations deals with all matters relating to foreign policy  Committees act, in effect, as "little legislatures", monitoring ongoing governmental operations, identifying issues suitable for legislative review, gathering and evaluating information, and recommending courses of action to their parent body in matters relating to their jurisdiction  Senate rules give committees significant gatekeeping authority over legislation that falls under their jurisdiction, with proposed bills submitted to the relevant committee, which can hold hearings, "mark up" bills, consolidate bills into a "clean bill", or ignore the bill altogether (there exist some workarounds for Senators to circumvent committees, but in general Senators work through the committee system) The size of each standing committee is established by Senate rules  The makeup of committees are established through inter-party negotiations before each new Congress, with the percentage of a party's representation within the Senate determining the percentage of seats it will have on each committee 

Reconciliation
Legislation affecting spending, revenues, and the federal debt limit is governed under a special rules process called "Reconciliation" that prohibits filibusters by limiting debate to twenty hours  Congress can pass up to three reconciliation bills per year, with each bill addressing one of the topics of reconciliation (revenue, spending, or the debt limit)  However, if Congress passes a reconciliation bill affecting more than one of those topics, it cannot pass another reconciliation bill later in the year affecting one of the topics addressed by the previous reconciliation bill  In practice, reconciliation bills have usually been passed once per year at most  Reconciliation cannot be used to enact or rescind discretionary spending (which is controlled through the annual appropriations process) or adjust Social Security spending, and is limited by the Byrd Rule, which allows senators to block provisions that are "extraneous" to spending, revenues, or the debt limit Reconciliation was created by the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, and significantly altered with the introduction of the Byrd Rule in 1985 (amended in 1990)  Originally infrequently used (it did not see first use until 1980) 

Nominations
Selected public positions in the United States are appointed by the president but require Senate approval  Senate rule XXXI governs the Senate process for considering the president's nominations 
For most positions the nomination is passed first to a Senate committee for review  Generally it is the Senate committee with jurisdiction over the topic or department related to the position to be filled A public hearing by the committee is possible  Historically about half of civilian appointees were approved without a hearing  After consideration, the committee can report a favorable recommendation, or an unfavorable recommendation, or it can report no recommendation  It can also fail to act  To simplify the process, and with the support of the committee, the Senate by unanimous consent might discharge a nomination from the committee without the committee having acted It is up to the leadership of the Senate to then place the nomination on the Senate calendar for a vote in executive session  Some nominations are passed by unanimous consent  The leadership may delay putting a nomination on the calendar, in which case it may not be acted upon 

Nomination Time Limit
Paragraph 6 of rule XXXI specifies that if final action has not been taken before Congress adjourns the nomination is returned to the President  By the same rule nominations are returned when the Senate goes into recess for more than 30 days  However, in modern practice some nominations may stay active over long recesses if the Senate holds pro forma sessions during recess or agrees to suspend the rule by unanimous consent  When a nomination is returned without action, the president may nominate a different person or re-nominate the same person 

Rules by number
There are currently forty-four Standing Rules of the Senate:
SR Rule I: Appointment of a Senator to the Chair
SR Rule II: Presentation of Credentials and Questions of Privilege
SR Rule III: Oaths
SR Rule IV: Commencement of Daily Sessions
SR Rule V: Suspension and Amendment of the Rules
SR Rule VI: Quorum – Absent Senators May Be Sent For
SR Rule VII: Morning Business
SR Rule VIII: Order of Business
SR Rule IX: Messages
SR Rule X: Special Orders
SR Rule XI: Papers – Withdrawal, Printing, Reading of, and Reference
SR Rule XII: Voting Procedure
SR Rule XIII: Reconsideration
SR Rule XIV: Joint Resolutions, and Preambles Thereto
SR Rule XV: Amendments and Resolutions
SR Rule XVI: Appropriations and Amendments to General Appropriation Bills
SR Rule XVII: Reference to Committees; Motions to Discharge; Reports of Committees; and Hearings Available
SR Rule XVIII: Business Continued from Session to Session
SR Rule XIX: Debate
SR Rule XX: Questions for Order
SR Rule XXI: Session with Closed Doors
SR Rule XXII: Precedence of Motions
SR Rule XXIII: Privilege of the Floor
SR Rule XXIV: Appointments of Committee
SR Rule XXV: Standing Committees
SR Rule XXVI: Committee Procedure
SR Rule XXVII: Committee Staff
SR Rule XXVIII: Conference Committees; Reports; Open Meetings
SR Rule XXIX: Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXX: Executive Session – Proceedings on Treaties
SR Rule XXXI: Executive Session – Proceedings on Nominations
SR Rule XXXII: The President Furnished with Copies of Record Executive Sessions
SR Rule XXXIII: Senate Chamber – Senate Wing of the Capitol
SR Rule XXXIV: Public Financial Disclosure
SR Rule XXXV: Gifts
SR Rule XXXVI: Outside Earned Income
SR Rule XXXVII: Conflict of Interest
SR Rule XXXVIII: Prohibition of Unofficial Office Accounts
SR Rule XXXIX: Foreign Travel
SR Rule XL: Franking Privilege and Radio and Television Studios
SR Rule XLI: Political Fund Activity; Definitions
SR Rule XLII: Employment Practices
SR Rule XLIII: Representation by Members
SR Rule XLIV: Congressionally Directed Spending and Related ItemsThe latest change was the introduction in 2006 of a 44th rule on earmarks, by the Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act 
Passage 2:
Sulaiman Mohammed Nazif
Sulaiman Mohammed Nazif (born 14 April 1970) is a Nigerian politician, who represented the Bauchi North constituency of Bauchi State, Nigeria, in the Senate of Nigeria  He took office on 29 May 2007  He was elected on the Action Congress (AC) platform Nazif attended the Federal Polytechnic Staff School, Bauchi (1981–1983), the Nigerian Military School (1983–1988) and Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, graduating in 1990 as an Engineer 
After taking his seat in the Senate, he was appointed to committees on Women and Youth, Water Resources, Solid Minerals, Local & Foreign Debts, Land Transport (Vice Chairman), Drugs and Narcotics, Anti Corruption and Communications 
He was also appointed the Publicity Secretary of the Northern Senators Forum He was nominated to go to the U S  to witness the inauguration of President Barack Obama  However, when he arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport he was told his visa was not in order and was not allowed to enter the country 
In a mid-term evaluation of Senators in May 2009, ThisDay said that he had not sponsored any bill but co-sponsored some bills, including the Nigerian Railway Corporation (Repeal and Reenactment) Bill 2008  He co-sponsored fifteen motions and made brilliant contributions to debates in plenary Nazif was a contender to become governor of Bauchi State in the 28 April 2011 elections, running on the All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP) platform  He came fourth with 102,093 votes, losing to the incumbent Governor Isa Yuguda, who won 771,503 votes 

Incomplete project controversy
In January 2022, WikkiTimes reported on several incomplete constituency projects from Nazif's term in office, specifically two nonexistent skills acquisition centres that cost over ₦41 million in public funds  One "centre" was entirely on paper with no evidence of any construction while the other "centre" was simply an abandoned building that had never been utilized  The investigation also found that the contract awarding process did not follow legally required procedures and the companies given the construction contracts did not have any physical or recent presence  Nazif did not respond to requests for comment 
Passage 3:
Marriage Protection Act
The Marriage Protection Act of 2004 (MPA) was a bill introduced in the United States Congress in 2003 to amend the federal judicial code to deny federal courts jurisdiction to hear or decide any question pertaining to the interpretation of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) or the MPA itself  Introduced as H R  3313 during the 108th Congress, the Republican-controlled House passed it in 2004, but it did not pass the Senate 

Text
The version approved by the House of Representatives would have added this text as Section 1632 to Chapter 99 in Part IV of Title 28 of the United States Code (28 U S C  § 1632), governing the judiciary and judicial procedures: 

No court created by Act of Congress shall have any jurisdiction, and the Supreme Court shall have no appellate jurisdiction, to hear or decide any question pertaining to the interpretation of, or the validity under the Constitution of, section 1738C or this section  
28 U S C  § 1738C forbade (prior to the Respect for Marriage Act) requiring any state or any other political subdivision of the United States to credit as a marriage a same-sex relationship treated as marriage in another state or equivalent government 

Major actions
On October 16, 2003, the bill was introduced in the House of Representatives by John Hostettler (R–Indiana) and immediately referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary  The bill was co-sponsored by Ron Paul of Texas (R–Texas)  The legislation passed the House by a vote of 233 to 194  The Senate referred the bill to the Senate Judiciary Committee on September 7, 2004, where it died in committee 
Hostettler reintroduced the legislation as H R  1100 in the 109th Congress on March 3, 2005  It had 76 co-sponsors  It again died in committee  Dan Burton (R–Indiana) reintroduced the legislation as H R  724 in the 110th United States Congress, on January 30, 2007, with 50 cosponsors  It died when the 110th Congress ended  Burton reintroduced it again in the 111th Congress on March 3, 2009 as H R  1269 and it died in committee  Dan Burton reintroduced it in the 112th Congress on March 2, 2011 as H R  875 with 26 cosponsors  It was referred to the Subcommittee on Courts, Commercial and Administrative Law and the Subcommittee on Constitution 

Analysis
The proposed legislation raises Constitutional questions in relation to the Full Faith and Credit Clause  Joanna Grossman, writing for FindLaw, emphasized "the need for the federal courts to weigh in", rather than for states to continue making a public-policy exception when deciding the status of same-sex relationships independently of the decisions of other states, as states have been permitted to do in the case of incestuous marriages  The Act was designed to protect DOMA by prohibiting federal courts from hearing cases like that of Nancy Wilson, who sued to have her relationship with Paula Schoenwether treated as marriage in Florida because it had been treated as marriage in Massachusetts  In that case, the federal court upheld DOMA The U S  Constitution permits Congress to make exceptions to court jurisdiction  The degree to which such exceptions may undermine federal separation of powers, the Equal Protection Clause, or the Due Process Clause, may render the Marriage Protection Act unconstitutional, according to Grossman 

See also
Jurisdiction stripping
Federal Marriage Amendment
Defense of Marriage Act (2004)
LGBT rights in the United States
We the People Act
Respect for Marriage Act (2022)
Passage 4:
2014 United States Senate elections
The 2014 United States Senate elections were held on November 4, 2014  A total of 36 seats in the 100-member U S  Senate were contested  Thirty-three Class 2 seats were contested for regular six-year terms to be served from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2021, and three Class 3 seats were contested in special elections due to Senate vacancies  The elections marked 100 years of direct elections of U S  senators  Going into the elections, 21 of the contested seats were held by the Democratic Party, while 15 were held by the Republican Party 
The Republicans regained the majority of the Senate in the 114th Congress, which started in January 2015; the Republicans had not controlled the Senate since January 2007  They needed a net gain of at least six seats to obtain a majority and were projected by polls to do so  On election night, they held all of their seats and gained nine Democratic-held seats  Republicans defeated five Democratic incumbents: Mark Begich of Alaska lost to Dan Sullivan, Mark Pryor of Arkansas lost to Tom Cotton, Mark Udall of Colorado lost to Cory Gardner, Mary Landrieu of Louisiana lost to Bill Cassidy, and Kay Hagan of North Carolina lost to Thom Tillis  Republicans also picked up another four open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia  Democrats did not pick up any Republican-held seats, but they did hold an open seat in Michigan 
This was the second consecutive election held in a president's sixth year where control of the Senate changed hands, the first being in 2006  This was also the first time that the Democrats lost control of the Senate in a sixth-year midterm since 1918  With a total net gain of nine seats, the Republicans made the largest Senate gain by any party since 1980  This is also the first election since 1980 in which more than two incumbent Democratic Senators were defeated by their Republican challengers  Days after the election, the United States Election Project estimated that 36 4% of eligible voters voted, 4% lower than the 2010 elections, and possibly the lowest turnout rate since the 1942 election As of 2022, this remains the last time that a Republican has won a U S  Senate election in Colorado  This is the most recent Senate elections where any Republican flipped an open Democratic-held seat  This is also the most recent election where the party winning control of the Senate won the popular vote  It also remains the last time that the president's party has suffered a net loss of Senate seats in a midterm 

Partisan composition
For a majority, Republicans needed at least 51 seats  Democrats could have retained a majority with 48 seats (assuming the two Independents continued to caucus with them) because the Democratic Vice President Joe Biden would become the tie-breaker  From 1915 to 2013, control of the U S  Senate flipped in 10 of 50 cycles, or 20% of the time  Republicans had lost ground in the 2012 elections, leading to an internal fight among the Republican leadership over the best strategies and tactics for the 2014 Senate races  By December 2013, eight of the twelve incumbent Republicans running for re-election saw Tea Party challenges  However, Republican incumbents won every primary challenge  Although Democrats saw some opportunities for pickups, the combination of Democratic retirements and numerous Democratic seats up for election in swing states and red states gave Republicans hopes of taking control of the Senate  7 of the 21 states with Democratic seats up for election in 2014 had voted for Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election compared to just 1 state with a Republican senator that voted for Barack Obama  Democrats also faced the lower voter turnout that accompanies mid-term elections Poll aggregation website FiveThirtyEight gave the Republican Party a 60% chance of taking control of the Senate as of September 28  Another poll aggregation website, RealClearPolitics, gave the Republican Party a net gain of 7 seats  Due to the closeness of several races, it was initially believed that Senate control might not be decided on election night  Both Louisiana and Georgia were seen as competitive, and both states require a run-off election if no candidate takes a majority of the vote 
Two independent candidates (in Kansas and South Dakota) refused to commit to caucusing with either party  In the final months of the race, polls showed them with viable chances of winning, leading some analysts to speculate on the possibility of an "Independent caucus" that could also include Maine Senator Angus King and possibly Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders  However, no Independent won a Senate race in 2014, and King and Sanders continue to caucus with the Democratic Party following the 2014 election 
By midnight ET, most major networks projected that the Republicans would take control of the Senate  The party held all three competitive Republican-held seats (Kentucky, Kansas, and Georgia), and defeated incumbent Democrats in North Carolina, Colorado, and Arkansas  Combined with the pick-ups of open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, and West Virginia, the Republicans made a net gain of 7 seats before the end of the night  Republicans defeated three incumbent Democrats, a task the party had not accomplished since the 1980 election  Five of the seven confirmed pickups were in states that voted for Mitt Romney in 2012, but two of the seats that Republicans won represent states that voted for Barack Obama in 2012 (Colorado and Iowa)  Of the three races that were not called by the end of election night, Alaska and Virginia were still too close to call, while Louisiana held a December 6 run-off election  Virginia declared Democrat Mark Warner the winner of his race by a narrow margin over Republican Ed Gillespie on November 7, and Alaska declared Dan Sullivan the winner against Democratic incumbent Mark Begich a week later, on November 12  Republican Bill Cassidy defeated Democratic incumbent Mary Landrieu in the Louisiana runoff on December 6 

Election spending
Altogether, at least $3 67 billion was spent by candidates, parties, committees and outside groups in the 2014 election  Spending on the 2014 Senate elections by outside groups (i e , organizations other than a candidate's campaign, such as super PACs and "dark money" nonprofit groups) more than doubled from 2010  In the 10 competitive races for which data was available, outside groups accounted for 47% of spending, candidates accounted for 41% of spending, and parties accounted for 12% of spending  The Senate race with the most outside spending was in North Carolina, at $80 million, a new record The top outside spenders in the 11 most competitive Senate races were the following:

On the Republican side, the National Republican Senatorial Committee, Crossroads GPS, U S  Chamber of Commerce, Ending Spending Action Fund, Freedom Partners Action Fund, American Crossroads, and the NRA Political Victory Fund 
On the Democratic side, the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, Senate Majority PAC, and NextGen Climate Action Committee 

Results summary
The Republican Party made a net gain of nine U S  Senate seats in the 2014 elections Going into the elections, there were 53 Democratic, 45 Republican and 2 independent senators (both of whom caucus with the Democrats)  In all, there were 36 elections: 33 senators were up for election this year as class 2 senators, and 3 faced special elections (all from Class 3)  Of all these seats, 21 were held by Democrats and 15 were held by Republicans 

Colored shading indicates party with largest share of that row 

Source: Clerk of the U S  House of Representatives

Change in composition
Before the elections
After the elections
Gains and losses
Retirements
Four Democrats and two Republicans retired instead of seeking re-election 

Resignations
One Republican resigned four years into his six-year term 

Nomination withdrawn
One Democrat was originally to seek election for a full 6-year term in office but withdrew 

Defeats
Five Democrats sought re-election but lost in the general election 

Race summaries
Special elections during the preceding Congress
In these special elections, the winners were elected during 2014 and seated before January 3, 2015 — except that one was seated on January 3, 2015, the effective date of the predecessor's resignation 

Elections leading to the next Congress
In these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning January 3, 2015; ordered by state 
All of the elections involved the Class 2 seats 

Closest races
In seven races the margin of victory was under 10% 

Final pre-election predictions
Predicted probability of Republican takeover
Several websites used poll aggregation and psephology to estimate the probability that the Republican Party would gain enough seats to take control of the Senate 

Predictions
Republicans needed to win at least six in order to gain a majority of 51 seats and Democrats needed to win at least seven in order to hold a majority of 50 seats (including the two independents who currently caucus with the Democrats) and the tie-breaking vote of Vice President Joe Biden 

Alabama
Three-term incumbent Republican Jeff Sessions had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008



ground_truth: Keturah

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where is the origin of the river Augrabies Falls is part of?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Grand Falls Plaza, Missouri
Grand Falls Plaza is a village in Newton County, Missouri, United States  The population was 114 at the 2010 census, at which time it was a town  It is part of the Joplin, Missouri Metropolitan Statistical Area 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0 10 square miles (0 26 km2), all land 

Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 114 people, 46 households, and 36 families living in the village  The population density was 1,140 0 inhabitants per square mile (440 2/km2)  There were 47 housing units at an average density of 470 0 per square mile (181 5/km2)  The racial makeup of the village was 94 7% White, 3 5% Native American, and 1 8% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 9% of the population 
There were 46 households, of which 21 7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63 0% were married couples living together, 10 9% had a female householder with no husband present, 4 3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 21 7% were non-families  21 7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 48 and the average family size was 2 78 
The median age in the village was 52 years  20 2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 11 4% were from 25 to 44; 32 4% were from 45 to 64; and 27 2% were 65 years of age or older  The gender makeup of the village was 41 2% male and 58 8% female 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 104 people, 40 households, and 32 families living in the town  The population density was 1,105 9 inhabitants per square mile (427 0/km2)  There were 43 housing units at an average density of 457 2 per square mile (176 5/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 99 04% White and 0 96% Native American 
There were 40 households, out of which 30 0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 75 0% were married couples living together, 5 0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20 0% were non-families  17 5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 60 and the average family size was 2 94 
In the town the population was spread out, with 23 1% under the age of 18, 2 9% from 18 to 24, 25 0% from 25 to 44, 38 5% from 45 to 64, and 10 6% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 44 years  For every 100 females, there were 103 9 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100 0 males 
The median income for a household in the town was $48,250, and the median income for a family was $49,250  Males had a median income of $35,833 versus $58,750 for females  The per capita income for the town was $15,341  There were 3 4% of families and 8 8% of the population living below the poverty line, including 5 7% of under eighteens and 20 0% of those over 64 
Passage 2:
Mulholland Falls (soundtrack)
Mulholland Falls: Original MGM Motion Picture Soundtrack is an album by American pianist Dave Grusin released in 1996 by the Edel America label  This album is the soundtrack to the motion picture Mulholland Falls, directed by Lee Tamahori 

Track listing
All tracks composed by Dave Grusin except where noted

"Mulholland Falls" – 4:34
"Just a Girl   " – 2:48
"Hurting for Allison" – 3:33
"Flashback & Revelation" – 3:04
"Kate's Theme/The End of Jimmy" – 3:06
"Nuclear Madness/Hats in the Desert" – 4:15
"Home Movies" – 1:43
"It's Over/Flashback" – 3:01
"Separation" – 1:33
"To the Base/Fallout for Timms" – 3:25
"Finale: Hats Off" – 2:56
"No Common Ground/End Credits" – 6:50
"Harbor Lights" (Wilhelm Grosz, Jimmy Kennedy) – 3:22

Other music in the film
"That Certain Party" (Walter Donaldson, Gus Kahn) – Dean Martin
"Who Me?" (Frank Foster) – Count Basie
"So Tired" – Kay Starr

Personnel
Dave Grusin - Acoustic Piano, Synthesizer, Conductor

External links
Mulholland Falls' Soundtrack at Allmusic
Dave Grusin-Mulholland Falls at Discogs
Passage 3:
Granville (village), New York
Granville is a village in Washington County, New York, United States  It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area  The village population was 2,543 at the 2010 census The Village of Granville is in the eastern part of the Town of Granville at Routes NY-149 and NY-22 
The Granville Airport is located north of the village 

History
Many early settlers arrived from the New England area, and jurisdiction was claimed by both Vermont and New York 
The first known settler was a merchant named Bishop, who opened the first store in 1780   Slate deposits were located around 1850 in the town, and the slate business spread to Granville village by 1871 
The United States Post Office was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1 6 square miles (4 1 km2), all land 
The village is at the border of Vermont 
There are two rivers that meet in Granville: The Indian and the Mettowee (also known as Pawlet)   NY Route 22 runs along the west side of the village and joins NY Route 149 south of the village   NY-149 passes through the village as Main Street and becomes Vermont Route 149 at the eastern side of the village   County Road 24 from the northwest 

The Welsh Connection
Granville's Welsh connection began in the 1860s when Welsh miners from Blaenau Ffestiniog and Bethesda found their way into the area; many leaving their wives and families behind to send for them later  From then on, steady streams of Welsh immigrants settled the area and Granville gradually grew into a prominent Welsh American community  The ethnic enclave reached its peak in 1910 when of the town's 3,920 residents, 949 were Welsh born and another 847 were American born to Welsh parents, combined accounting for 45 8% of the town's population  Welsh placenames and chapels still exist e g  "Brynhyfryd" and Peniel Chapel  The Welsh folk song "Molianwn" originated there and refers to the closing down of the quarries over the cold winter period 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,644 people, 1,024 households, and 630 families residing in the village  The population density was 1,668 5 inhabitants per square mile (644 2/km2)  There were 1,130 housing units at an average density of 713 1 per square mile (275 3/km2)  The racial makeup of the village was 98 07% White, 0 23% Black or African American, 0 23% Native American, 0 26% Asian, 0 04% Pacific Islander, 0 42% from other races, and 0 76% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 79% of the population 
There were 1,024 households, out of which 32 0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43 1% were married couples living together, 14 1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38 4% were non-families  33 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 41 and the average family size was 3 04 
In the village, the population was spread out, with 25 7% under the age of 18, 8 2% from 18 to 24, 25 0% from 25 to 44, 19 4% from 45 to 64, and 21 7% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 37 years  For every 100 females, there were 86 9 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79 3 males 
The median income for a household in the village was $29,709, and the median income for a family was $38,444  Males had a median income of $28,221 versus $20,488 for females  The per capita income for the village was $15,424  About 11 6% of families and 17 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18 6% of those under age 18 and 10 9% of those age 65 or over 

Notable people
Mary Ann Day Brown (1816–1884), wife of John Brown the abolitionist
Alanson Holly, Wisconsin state legislator and newspaper editor
John M  Parker (New York politician), former US Congressman
Allen R  Sturtevant, Associate Justice of the Vermont Supreme Court
Passage 4:
The Funny Side
The Funny Side is an American sketch comedy program that aired on NBC as part of its 1971 fall lineup 

Synopsis
The Funny Side was hosted by Gene Kelly and starred five pairs of actors and actresses who were presented as married couples  Each week was an examination of the "funny side" of a potential issue in real-life marriages, such as health, money, sex, and the like   Each couple was a stereotype   Kelly also appeared as an actor in the sketches, and there was also a musical aspect with production numbers 

Cast
John Amos and Teresa Graves as the Black couple
Warren Berlinger and Pat Finley as the blue collar couple
Dick Clair and Jenna McMahon as the wealthy couple
Michael Lembeck and Cindy Williams as the teenage couple
Burt Mustin and Queenie Smith as the elderly couple

Cancellation
The Funny Side received poor Nielsen ratings and was cancelled after less than four months on the air 
Passage 5:
Jolly, Texas
Jolly is a city in Clay County, Texas, United States  It is part of the Wichita Falls, Texas Metropolitan Statistical Area  The population was 172 at the 2010 census 

Geography
Jolly is located at 33°52′27″N 98°20′55″W (33 874304, –98 348556) According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1 0 square mile (2 6 km2), all  land 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 188 people, 70 households, and 59 families residing in the city  The population density was 190 7 inhabitants per square mile (73 6/km2)  There were 73 housing units at an average density of 74 1 per square mile (28 6/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 99 47% White, and 0 53% from two or more races 
There were 70 households, out of which 28 6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 75 7% were married couples living together, 8 6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 14 3% were non-families  12 9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 69 and the average family size was 2 90 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 18 1% under the age of 18, 8 5% from 18 to 24, 27 7% from 25 to 44, 34 6% from 45 to 64, and 11 2% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 43 years  For every 100 females, there were 100 0 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 111 0 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $44,375, and the median income for a family was $49,375  Males had a median income of $29,375 versus $16,354 for females  The per capita income for the city was $20,467  None of the families and 1 7% of the population were living below the poverty line 

Education
The City of Jolly is served by the Henrietta Independent School District 

Notable person
Walter Jenkins, administrative assistant to Lyndon B  Johnson
Passage 6:
Hazelton, Idaho
Hazelton is a city in Jerome County, Idaho, United States  The population was 753 at the 2010 census  It is part of the Twin Falls, Idaho Micropolitan Statistical Area 

Geography
Hazelton is located at 42°35′41″N 114°8′12″W (42 594681, -114 136531) According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0 38 square miles (0 98 km2), of which, 0 37 square miles (0 96 km2) is land and 0 01 square miles (0 03 km2) is water 

Education
Valley School is the only school in Hazelton, Idaho that consists of K-12 classrooms; Valley Elementary School, Valley Middle School, and Valley High School  The 1A school features a Viking as their mascot 

Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 753 people, 254 households, and 187 families residing in the city  The population density was 2,035 1 inhabitants per square mile (785 8/km2)  There were 272 housing units at an average density of 735 1 per square mile (283 8/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 45 9% White, 0 1% Native American, 0 3% Asian, 2 0% from other races, and 2 7% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 52 0% of the population 
There were 254 households, of which 44 9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59 8% were married couples living together, 10 6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3 1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 26 4% were non-families  22 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 96 and the average family size was 3 56 
The median age in the city was 31 2 years  33 6% of residents were under the age of 18; 8 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24 7% were from 25 to 44; 20 8% were from 45 to 64; and 12% were 65 years of age or older  The gender makeup of the city was 50 3% male and 49 7% female 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 687 people, 238 households, and 172 families residing in the city   The population density was 2,099 9 inhabitants per square mile (810 8/km2)   There were 270 housing units at an average density of 825 3 per square mile (318 7/km2)   The racial makeup of the city was 83 55% White, 0 87% African American, 1 31% Native American, 13 39% from other races, and 0 87% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 26 64% of the population 
There were 238 households, out of which 41 2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58 8% were married couples living together, 9 2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27 7% were non-families  23 9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older   The average household size was 2 89 and the average family size was 3 53 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 34 2% under the age of 18, 8 3% from 18 to 24, 25 6% from 25 to 44, 17 2% from 45 to 64, and 14 7% who were 65 years of age or older   The median age was 32 years  For every 100 females, there were 99 1 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100 0 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $22,596, and the median income for a family was $30,000  Males had a median income of $30,132 versus $18,125 for females  The per capita income for the city was $10,215   About 24 1% of families and 29 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37 7% of those under age 18 and 10 6% of those age 65 or over 

History
Annie Pike Greenwood wrote 1934 autobiography We Sagebrush Folks, an autobiography published in 1934 about farm life near Hazelton 
Passage 7:
George Burns Comedy Week
George Burns Comedy Week is a comedy anthology television series broadcast in the United States by CBS as part of its 1985 fall lineup, hosted by George Burns 

Overview
As he was age 89 when the show premiered, George Burns was billed as the oldest person ever to "star" in a television series   Burns had been around television in one way or another since shortly after its inception; like many old-time radio stars he had brought his routine over more-or-less intact from the older medium   However, his actual role in this series was rather slight; aside from lending his name, introducing the night's program, and providing an occasional voice-over narration, Burns was not involved in any of the episodes as an actor and those who tuned in expecting to see him as such were disappointed 
Several well-known comedians appeared in episodes of this show, including Joe Piscopo, Robert Klein, Don Rickles, Martin Mull, Don Knotts, and Howard Hesseman   The show is probably best known for two particular segments, one being "Christmas Carol II: The Sequel" in which an adult Tiny Tim has come to exhibit many of the characteristics once defining his father's old boss, Ebenezer Scrooge, and another starring Valerie Perrine and Harvey Korman in what proved to be the pilot for their short lived sitcom, Leo & Liz in Beverly Hills 

Episodes
Reception
George Burns Comedy Week did poorly in the Nielsen ratings and was last broadcast on Christmas night 1985   It marked Burns' last ongoing role in a television series, although he continued to appear as a guest on programs for the next nine years, until suffering a serious fall at age 98 which ended his active performing career (Burns died at age 100) 
Passage 8:
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island is a 2012 American science fantasy action-adventure film directed by Brad Peyton and produced by Beau Flynn, Tripp Vinson and Charlotte Huggins  A sequel to Journey to the Center of the Earth (2008), the film is based on Jules Verne's The Mysterious Island (1875)  It stars Dwayne Johnson, Michael Caine, Josh Hutcherson, Vanessa Hudgens, Luis Guzmán, and Kristin Davis  The storyline was written by Richard Outten, Brian Gunn and Mark Gunn, and the screenplay by Brian and Mark Gunn 
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island was released in cinemas on February 10, 2012, by Warner Bros  Pictures, New Line Cinema and Walden Media to mixed reviews, but was a box office success with a worldwide gross of $335 million, surpassing its predecessor  It was released on DVD/Blu-ray on June 5, 2012 

Plot
Four years after his adventure in the center of the earth, 17-year-old Sean Anderson is arrested by the police for breaking into a satellite control center in hopes of enhancing a coded signal that could have been sent by his long-missing grandfather, Alexander Anderson  
Wanting to bond with Sean, his new stepfather Hank Parsons helps decipher the code, which leads to three books: Treasure Island, Gulliver's Travels, and Jules Verne's Mysterious Island  Using the books' individual maps, Hank uses a backlight to make them a single island, complete with the coordinates to its location  Hoping to prove to Sean that there is no mysterious island there, Hank agrees to take him to where the coordinates point to 
In Palau, Hank reluctantly hires helicopter tourism guide Gabato and his daughter Kailani (on whom Sean develops an immediate crush) to fly to the coordinates, as they are the only ones willing to take them  The helicopter gets caught in a cyclone and they crash into the Pacific, waking up on the island 
Moving in land, they are shocked to discover miniature elephants (which belong to a prehistoric species, the Dwarf sicilian elephant) and giant butterflies, meaning the animal sizes are opposite  After coming across an egg clutch, Gabato accidentally wakes up a giant frilled lizard, which chases them throughout the jungle  
They nearly get eaten, but are saved by Alexander  He takes them to a hut he built from the wreckage of the ship that brought him to the island  He has a working radio, but due to the positioning of the satellite, it will be two weeks before they can call out 
The next morning, Alexander leads the group to the lost city of Atlantis, which rises every 70 years and sinks again after a couple of days  Although Alexander assures them the island won't sink for many years, Hank discovers sea water coming from underground, meaning they only have days before the island sinks  Their only means of salvation seems to be the legendary Nautilus, Captain Nemo's submarine  Kailani enters Nemo's crypt and finds his journal, which shows that Nautilus is in a cave at Poseidon's Cliffs 
To go there, they mount giant bees and fly over a high ridge  When giant bee-eater birds try to devour them, Sean saves Kailani's life, but dislocates his ankle  Hank and Alexander reset Sean's ankle, then the group has a bonding moment when Hank sings his rendition of "What a Wonderful World" to ease Sean's pain 
The next morning, the water rises greatly and Hank deduces that the island will sink in a matter of hours  Gabato is missing, having gone toward the island's volcano in search of gold  While Alexander and Kailani go after him, Sean and Hank head for Poseidon's Cliffs 
To reach Nautilus' underwater cave, Sean and Hank create makeshift oxygen tanks and dive down fifty feet, but are nearly killed by a giant electric moray eel  The 140-year-old batteries have run down, so they engineer a way to start the submarine with the eel's electricity 
Kailani and Alexander find Gabato and convince him to escape with them instead of trying to take some volcano gold  As they near Poseidon's Cliffs, the volcano erupts  Sean and Hank arrive in Nautilus just in time to rescue the others from the water  Gabato pilots the submarine out of harm's way while Hank and Sean fire torpedoes into the path of falling debris  As they clear the dangers, Kailani kisses Sean for his bravery 
Six months later, Kailani and Gabato are well off, as he runs the most popular tourist attraction on Palau – tours aboard the Nautilus  Kailani visits Sean on his birthday  While the family celebrates, Alexander arrives with a book for Sean's birthday present – Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon, Alexander's suggestion for the next new adventure with the family 
The film ends with the camera panning to the moon 

Cast
Dwayne Johnson as Hank, Sean's stepfather and a former Navy code breaker 
Josh Hutcherson as Sean, Hank's stepson who wants to find his missing grandfather on the Mysterious Island 
Michael Caine as Alexander, Sean's grandfather who is the father of Max and Trevor Anderson from the previous film 
Luis Guzmán as Gabato, Kailani's father, who is part of the father-daughter tour guide team 
Vanessa Hudgens as Kailani, part of the father-daughter tour guide company and Sean's love interest 
Kristin Davis as Liz, Sean's mother and Hank's wife  Portrayed by Jane Wheeler in the previous film 
Anna Colwell as Jessica
Stephen Caudill as Cop, a police officer who is a friend of Hank's 
Branscombe Richmond as Tour Guide
Walter Bankson as Hockey Player

Production
After the commercial success of the first film, New Line Cinema and Walden Media purchased Richard Outten's spec script, Mysterious Travels, in March 2009 to serve as the basis for the film  In the story, the characters embark on a journey to a mysterious uncharted island thought to have inspired the writing of three literary classics: Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island, Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, and Jules Verne's Mysterious Island  Brian Gunn and Mark Gunn were chosen to revise Outten's script  Warner Bros  and New Line Cinema announced that Journey 2: The Mysterious Island would be released on February 10, 2012 

Casting
Josh Hutcherson was the only actor to reprise his role  Due to scheduling issues, Brendan Fraser and Anita Briem did not return  Kristin Davis replaced Jane Wheeler as Sean's mother Liz  Dwayne Johnson played Sean's stepfather, who is forced to accompany Sean on the trip to find his missing grandfather Alexander (played by Michael Caine) on a mythical and monstrous island  Vanessa Hudgens was cast as Hutcherson's love interest, Kailani 

Short film
The theatrical release of the film was preceded by a Looney Tunes short film titled Daffy's Rhapsody, featuring Daffy Duck and Elmer Fudd in the first CG or 3-D depiction of these specific Looney Tunes characters  The short film's director, Matthew O'Callaghan, noted that "Daffy Rhapsody was originally recorded in the early 1950s as part of a kids' album"  Unlike the earlier CG Looney Tunes shorts that appeared before Happy Feet Two and Yogi Bear, this short did not appear on the home video release of the film it accompanied 

Release
Theatrical release
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island was released in cinemas on February 10, 2012, by Warner Bros  Pictures, Walden Media and New Line Cinema  The film was accompanied by a 3D Looney Tunes short titled Daffy's Rhapsody  The short was originally going to play before Happy Feet Two, but was replaced with I Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tat to go along with the bird theme 

Home media
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island was released on DVD/Blu-ray on June 5, 2012 

Reception
Box office
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island grossed $103 9 million in North America and $231 4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $335 3 million, against a production budget of $79 million surpassing its predecessor  In North America, the film earned a $6 54 million on its debut Friday, ranking fourth at the box office  Over the weekend, it earned $27 3 million, coming in third place, much higher than the original's $21 0 million debut  Outside North America, Journey 2 began its run three weeks before its North American release  It topped the box office outside North America for two consecutive weekends and three in total  It surpassed the original's total outside North America  Its highest-grossing region after North America was China ($58 4 million), followed by Russia and the CIS ($17 6 million) and Mexico ($12 7 million) 

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 44% based on 131 reviews with an average rating of 4 92/10  The site's critical consensus reads: "Aggressively unambitious, Journey 2 might thrill teen viewers, but most others will find it too intense for young audiences and too cartoonishly dull for adults"  On Metacritic, the film has a score of 41 out of 100 based on reviews from 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews"  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B grade, stating that "the movie flies by pleasantly, and is then instantly forgettable  Perhaps Jules Verne can explain the science of that"  Randy Cordova from the Arizona Republic said: "Johnson can't save the movie, directed by Brad Peyton, from being a sloppy skip from one seemingly unrelated idea to the next"  Roger Ebert, who gave the first film two stars, gave the sequel two-and-a-half stars, stating: "It isn't a "good" movie in the usual sense (or most senses), but it is jolly and goodnatured, and Michael Caine and Dwayne Johnson are among the most likable of actors" 

Accolades
Soundtrack
Letterbomb - Performed by Green Day
Sleep Forever - Performed by Crocodiles
Aloha Oe - Performed by Dwayne Johnson
Hello Again - Performed by Meta & The Cornerstones
Three Little Birds - Performed by Bob Marley & The Wailers
What a Wonderful World - Performed by Dwayne Johnson

Future
In August 2014, Carey Hayes and Chad Hayes were announced to write the script for a third film  Brad Peyton and Dwayne Johnson were expected to direct and star in the sequel, respectively  It was later stated that there would be two sequels  By January 2018 however, Johnson stated despite the financial success of The Mysterious Island, and although a third film titled Journey from the Earth to the Moon was intended, its development had been cancelled due to a lack of immediate interest and troubles in adequately adapting the novel  Despite this, reports from Hollywood production insiders arose in August 2020, stating that a sequel was once again in development  In December 2021, Hiram Garcia confirmed that Warner Bros  Pictures wants a sequel film, though Seven Bucks Productions decided to delay development in favor of pursuing other projects 

See also
Journey to the Center of the Earth (2008 film)
Passage 9:
Barker, Niagara County, New York
Barker is a village in Niagara County, New York  The population was 533 at the time of the 2010 census  The mail ZIP code is 14012  It is part of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area 
Barker is within the Town of Somerset and was incorporated in 1908  The main crossroad in the town is the intersection of West Somerset Road and Quaker Road (NY 148) 

Geography
Barker is located at 43°19′39″N 78°33′13″W (43 327466, -78 553592) According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0 4 square miles (1 0 km2), all land 
Barker is situated at the junction of West Somerset Road/Coleman Road and Quaker Road (Route 148) 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 577 people, 211 households, and 150 families residing in the village  The population density was 1,372 3 inhabitants per square mile (529 8/km2)  There were 234 housing units at an average density of 556 5 per square mile (214 9/km2)  The racial makeup of the village was 98 09% White, 0 69% African American, 0 52% Native American, 0 17% from other races, and 0 52% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 56% of the population 
There were 211 households, out of which 38 4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54 0% were married couples living together, 10 4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28 9% were non-families  24 6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 73 and the average family size was 3 19 
In the village, the population was spread out, with 30 3% under the age of 18, 8 1% from 18 to 24, 26 3% from 25 to 44, 21 8% from 45 to 64, and 13 3% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 36 years  For every 100 females, there were 99 0 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93 3 males 
The median income for a household in the village was $37,411, and the median income for a family was $49,464  Males had a median income of $41,875 versus $21,375 for females  The per capita income for the village was $16,042  About 8 1% of families and 9 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11 0% of those under age 18 and 7 6% of those age 65 or over 
Passage 10:
R359 (South Africa)
The R359 is a regional route in the Northern Cape province of South Africa that runs along the south bank of the Orange River from Augrabies Falls through Augrabies and Kakamas to Upington 

Route
The western end of the route is at the entrance to the Augrabies Falls National Park  It passes through the towns of Augrabies and Marchand to meet the N14 national route 9 kilometres (5 6 mi) west of Kakamas  The R359 overlaps the N14 route as far as Kakamas, where the N14 crosses the Orange River to run along the north bank, while the R359 continues on the south bank  It crosses the R27 provincial route opposite Keimoes before reaching its eastern end at the N10 national route across the river from Upington 
Passage 11:
American Chronicles
American Chronicles is a documentary television program that was broadcast by Fox Broadcasting Company as part of its 1990 fall lineup 
American Chronicles was produced by Mark Frost through Lynch/Frost Productions, the company that he founded with David Lynch  Featured many of the same quirky camera angles, unusual music, and a focus on violence and sexuality that were hallmarks of their ABC series Twin Peaks   The half-hour weekly program was narrated by Richard Dreyfuss 
This program had a relatively brief run, being cancelled just over three months after its premiere, after ranking last out of 98 shows with an average household rating of 3 07 

Episodes
101: Farewell to the Flesh (pilot episode; writer/director: Mark Frost; airdate: 9/8/1990)
102: The Eye of the Beholder (airdate: 9/15/1990)
103: Manhattan After Dark (writer/producer: Robin L  Sestero; airdate: 9/22/1990)
104: Auto-Obsession (airdate: 9/29/1990)
105: Biker Nation (writer/producer: Ruben Norte; airdate: 10/6/1990)
106: Semper Fidelis (writer/producer: Robin L  Sestero; airdate: 10/13/1990)
107: This Gun's for Hire / Defender of the Faith (writer/producer: Chappy Hardy; airdate: 10/27/1990)
108: After a Fashion / An American Camelot (airdate: 11/3/1990)
109: Here Today, Gone Tomorrow / Truck Stop (writer/producer: Robin L  Sestero; airdate: 10/6/1990)
110: Once Upon a Time (about Hugh Hefner) (writers: Gary H  Grossman, Michael Gross, Robert Heath; directed by Robert Heath; airdate: 11/17/1990)
111: The Class of '65 (airdate: 12/8/1990)
112: Diamonds Are Forever (Last Day at Comiskey Park) / The Future That Never Was (writer/producer: David H  Jones; airdate: 12/15/1990)
113: Champions (unaired in U S ; first aired in UK 6/21/92)

International broadcasts
American Chronicles was aired in the United Kingdom by Channel 4 (1992), in Australia by SBS (1993), in New Zealand by TV3 (1992), in France by Planète (1992) and in Spain by TVE (1992) 
Passage 12:
Teech
Teech is an American sitcom television series that briefly aired on CBS from September 18 to October 16, 1991 as part of its 1991 Fall lineup  The series was co-produced by Nikndaph Productions in association with Columbia Pictures Television for CBS 

Synopsis
Teech stars Phill Lewis as "Teech" Gibson, an African American music instructor (and the "coolest teacher") at Winthrop Academy, a prestigious, predominantly-white prep school   He has style and drives a Corvair  Teech loves music and has tremendous appeal even to troubled, disruptive students   Teech also had appeal to Cassie Lee (Maggie Han), the sexy assistant headmaster who had hired him   Headmaster Alfred Litton (Steven Gilborn) wanted to dismiss Teech's troubled students from the school   He apparently would like to have done the same to Teech except he realized that so doing would likely open him to charges of racism and discrimination 
Scheduled opposite NBC's Top 20 hit Unsolved Mysteries, Teech drew low ratings and was pulled from the lineup after only four episodes had aired 

Cast
Phill Lewis as David "Teech" Gibson
Curnal Achilles Aulisio as George Dubcek, Jr 
Steven Gilborn as Alfred W  Litton
Maggie Han as Cassie Lee
Josh Hoffman as Kenny Freedman
Kevin Lawrence Johnson as Boyd Askew
Jason Kristofer as Alby Nichols
Jack Noseworthy as Adrian Peterman

Production notes
The series was created by David Frankel and Norman Steinberg  Teech's theme song "Teach Me" was performed by B B  King 

Episodes
Passage 13:
Too Young to Fall in Love
"Too Young to Fall in Love" is a 1984 single by American heavy metal band Mötley Crüe  It was originally released on their 1983 album Shout at the Devil 

Background
Written by bass guitarist Nikki Sixx, "Too Young to Fall in Love" was released as a single in 1984 and reached #90 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #26 on the Mainstream Rock tracks The tune later appeared in the 2002 video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City on the fictional in-game radio station "V-Rock" 
Even though the song was a hit, it has been left off some of Mötley Crüe's compilation albums such as Decade of Decadence and Greatest Hits, though it would be included on the reissue of the latter 

Music video
An accompanying music video was released with the single 
The video concerns the members of the band coming together to rescue a young Asian woman from the clutches of the local Crime Boss 
Interspersed with footage of the band performing the song, the video also contains a fight scene where the band members fight Guards of the Crime Boss 
It is then revealed that the young woman has willingly submitted to being a consort to the Crime Boss prompting the band members to leave while shaking their heads in disbelief and disgust 
As they leave, Tommy Lee tries to sample some of the Asian cuisine in the Crime Boss's kitchen  The Chief Guard attempts to kill Tommy, but is knocked out using a heavy sack of grain 
Tommy then picks up a bit of the food and begins to eat it 
He then grimaces and spits the food out, walking from the kitchen in disgust 

Track listing
"Too Young to Fall in Love"
"Take Me to the Top"

Personnel
Vince Neil - vocals
Mick Mars - guitar
Nikki Sixx - bass
Tommy Lee - drums

Charts
Passage 14:
Crescent Falls
Crescent Falls is a series of two waterfalls located on the Bighorn River in the Bighorn River Canyon in west-central Alberta, Canada  They were originally called the Bighorn Falls, after the river they are located on  The current name is a reference to the crescent cliff over which they drop The falls are located a few kilometres upstream of the river's confluence with the North Saskatchewan River  A 4 5-kilometre-long (2 8 mi) gravel road leads north from David Thompson Highway (between Abraham Lake and Nordegg) to the falls  The Crescent Falls Provincial Recreation Area is immediately up-river from the falls The waterfall is two-tiered and has a height of 27 metres (89 ft)  Visitors are allowed at the waterfalls year-round  The rock ledges around the top of the falls are slippery and fatal drops have occurred  Additionally, people have died by being swept under the waterfall after swimming at the bottom of the falls Arthur Philemon Coleman, a professor of geology at the University of Toronto, made the first mention of the falls in 1892 and described them as having a "far better scenery than we had been used to in the foot-hills" A sitting bench next to the falls is dedicated to James Hammond and placed there by his family after his death  Hammond was an avid outdoorsman and was especially fond of this location 

Campground
Located to the north-west of Crescent Falls, is an un-serviced campground run by Westward Bound Campgrounds  It currently has 31 available sites to camp on, and is open from May 1 to October 14  The site has access to water; however, due to potential contamination from pathogens in ground water, the owners recommend that visitors bring their own drinking water The time it takes to travel to Crescent Falls and back is about 1 hour and 15 minutes  Access to the area below the first waterfall of Crescent Falls has been restricted, mostly due to unsafe travel conditions and thin ice 
Passage 15:
Cold Brook Dam
Cold Brook Dam is an earthen dam located near Hot Springs, South Dakota in Fall River County in the southwestern part of the state, in the southern Black Hills 
The earthen dam was constructed in 1953 by the United States Army Corps of Engineers with a height of 127 feet and a length at its crest of 925 feet   It impounds Cold Brook Creek, a tributary of the Cheyenne River for flood control purposes during flash flood events for nearby Hot Springs   The dam is owned and operated by the Corps of Engineers, Omaha District 
The reservoir it creates, Cold Brook Lake, has a water surface of 36 acres and has a maximum capacity of 7200 acre-feet   year-round recreation is possible and includes canoeing, fishing, swimming, wildlife viewing, camping, and (in the winter) ice fishing, skating, and cross-country skiing  Cold Brook Lake Recreation Area includes a boat ramp, picnic area, swim beach and campground is managed by the Corps of Engineers 
Cottonwood Springs Dam, another Corps of Engineers dam is located about 5 miles to the southwest 

External links
Cold Brook Lake at Recreation gov
U S  Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Brook Dam
Passage 16:
Orange River
The Orange River (from Afrikaans/Dutch: Oranjerivier) is a river in Southern Africa  It is the longest river in South Africa  With a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi), the Orange River Basin extends from Lesotho into South Africa and Namibia to the north  It rises in the Drakensberg mountains in Lesotho, flowing westwards through South Africa to the Atlantic Ocean  The river forms part of the international borders between South Africa and Lesotho and between South Africa and Namibia, as well as several provincial borders within South Africa  Except for Upington, it does not pass through any major cities  The Orange River plays an important role in the South African economy by providing water for irrigation and hydroelectric power  The river was named the Orange River in honour of the Dutch ruling family, the House of Orange, by the Dutch explorer Robert Jacob Gordon  Other names include simply the word for river, in Khoekhoegowab orthography written as !Garib, which is rendered in Afrikaans as Gariep River with the intrusion of a velar fricative in place of the alveolar click, Groote River (derived from Kai !Garib) or Senqu River (used in Lesotho), derived from ǂNū "Black"  It is known in isiZulu as isAngqu 

Course
The Orange rises in the Drakensberg mountains along the border between South Africa and Lesotho, about 193 km (120 mi) west of the Indian Ocean and at an altitude of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft)  The extremity of the Orange River inside Lesotho is known as the Senqu  Parts of the Senqu River freeze in winter because of the high altitude  This creates droughts downstream, which mainly affect goat and cattle production 

The Orange River then runs westward through South Africa, forming the south-western boundary of the Free State province  In this section, the river flows first into the Gariep Dam and later into the Vanderkloof Dam  From the border of Lesotho to below the Vanderkloof Dam, the river bed is deeply incised  Further downstream, the land is flatter, and the river is used extensively for irrigation 
At the western point of the Free State, southwest of Kimberley, the Orange meets with its main tributary, the Vaal River, which forms much of the northern border of the province  From here, the river flows further westward through the arid wilderness of the southern Kalahari region and Namaqualand in the Northern Cape province to meet with Namibia at 20°E longitude  From here, it flows westward for 550 km (340 mi), forming the international border between the province and Namibia's ǁKaras Region  On the border, the river passes the town of Vioolsdrif, the main border post between South Africa and Namibia 

In the last 800 km (500 mi) of its course, the Orange receives many intermittent streams, and several large wadis lead into it  In this section, the Namib Desert terminates on the north bank of the river, so under normal circumstances, the volume of water added by these tributaries is negligible  Here, the bed of the river is once again deeply incised  The Augrabies Falls are located on this section of the Orange, where the river descends 122 m (400 ft) in a course of 26 km (16 mi) 
The Orange empties into the Atlantic Ocean between the small towns of Oranjemund (meaning "Orange mouth") in Namibia and Alexander Bay in South Africa, about equidistant between Walvis Bay and Cape Town  Some 33 km (21 mi) from its mouth, it is obstructed by rapids and sand bars and is generally not navigable for long stretches 
The river has a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi) 

Catchment and rainfall
In the dry season, the volume of the water in the river is considerably reduced because of the rapid run-off and evaporation  At the source of the Orange, the rainfall is about 2,000 mm (79 in) per annum, but precipitation decreases as the river flows westward; at its mouth, the rainfall is less than 50 mm (2 0 in) per year  The factors that support evaporation, though, tend to increase in a westerly direction  In the wet season (summer), the Orange river becomes a brown colored torrent  The huge mass of sediment carried constitutes a long-term threat to engineering projects on the river The total catchment of the Orange River (including the Vaal) extends over 973,000 km2 (376,000 sq mi), i e  equivalent to about 77% of the land area of South Africa (1,221,037 km2 (471,445 sq mi))  Around 366,000 km2 (141,000 sq mi) (38%), however, are situated outside the country in Lesotho, Botswana, and Namibia 

Tributaries
Vaal River - 1,458 km (906 mi)
Caledon River - 642 km (399 mi)
Khubelu River - 144 km (89 mi)

Dams
Armenia Dam
Egmont Dam
Gariep Dam
Newberry Dam
Vanderkloof Dam
Welbedacht Dam

History
Etymology
Some of the earliest precolonial inhabitants called the river ǂNūǃarib, referring to its black colour, or sometimes just Kai !Arib ("Great River"), from which is derived the Afrikaans version Gariep, and translation "Groote Rivier"  The early Dutch name for the river was just that translation, Groote Rivier, meaning "Great River"  The river was named the Orange River by Colonel Robert Gordon, commander of the United East India Company (VOC) garrison at Cape Town, on a trip to the interior in 1779  Gordon named the river in honor of William V of Orange  A popular but incorrect belief is that the river was named after the supposedly orange color of its water, as opposed to the color of its tributary, the Vaal River, which name is derived from the name ǀHaiǃarib "pale river" (vaal being Afrikaans for pale or grey)  Since the end of apartheid, the name "Gariep" has had greater favour in official correspondence in South Africa, although the name "Orange" has greater international recognition  In Lesotho, where the river rises, it is known as the Senqu River, derived from the original Khoemana name 

The Eastern Cape Geographical Names Committee has advertised its intention to consider a name change from the colonial name, for that portion of the river that forms the border between the Eastern Cape and the Free State, with suggestions being IGqili or Senqu  The advertisement placed in the Aliwal Weekblad newspaper states that the "present name is perceived to have a strong association with the history of colonial subjugation and has therefore no place under the current democratic dispensation "

The Grootslang
In South African folklore, the Orange River is often associated with the Grootslang, a mythical being resembling a giant serpent, which is often connected to the river's alluvial diamonds  The Grootslang is described as living in a gem-filled cave connected to the Orange River by a natural pipe through which the diamonds gradually enter the river  Other sites said to be lairs of the creature include the pool beneath the King George Cataract at Aughrabies Falls, which is also said to be a source of diamonds, and a large rock in the middle of the river itself  In this version of the legend, the Grootslang is also said to prey on cattle from the river's banks 

Economy
As the collection point for the majority of South Africa's water, the Orange River plays a major role in supporting agriculture, industry, and mining  To assist in this, two large water schemes have been created, the Orange River Project and the Lesotho Highlands Water Project  Historically, the river played an important role in the South African diamond rush, with the first diamonds in the country being discovered in alluvial deposits on the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate along the final stretch of the Orange River and around its mouth 
Because of the lack of dangerous animals and high water levels during summer, the river is used for recreational canoeing and rafting  Orange River rafting has become very popular with many companies using their camps along the river from which to operate  The most popular trips are four-day and six-day river trips that take place either along the gorge below the Augrabies Falls or along the Richtersveld area 

Orange River Project
The Orange River Project (ORP) was one of the largest and most imaginative projects of its kind in South Africa  It was constructed by Hendrik Verwoerd's government at the height of the apartheid era  The ORP was built to exploit the waters of the Orange River—which, without the Vaal River, represents some 14 1% of the total runoff in South Africa—and in the process, to satisfy an increasing demand for water  The main objectives of the project were:

to stabilise river flow,
the generation and transmission of hydroelectric power,
to provide a reliable water supply for users in the Orange River basin, and
to give a new lease on life to water-deficient areas in the Eastern Cape, such as the Great Fish and Sundays River valleys The Gariep Dam near Colesberg is the main storage structure within the Orange River  From here, the water is supplied in two directions, westward along the Orange River (via hydroelectric power generators) to the Vanderkloof Dam and southward through the Orange-Fish Tunnel to the Eastern Cape 

Hydroelectricity
Eskom operates hydroelectric power stations at both the Gariep Dam and the Vanderkloof Dam  The hydroelectric power station at the Vanderkloof Dam was the first power-generation station in South Africa situated entirely underground  The towns Oviston and Oranjekrag were established to facilitate the construction and operation of the new infrastructure 

Irrigation
Irrigation in the vast area downstream of the Vanderkloof Dam, which has turned thousands of hectares of arid veld into highly productive agricultural land, was made possible by the construction of the Gariep and Vanderkloof Dams  Old established irrigation schemes such as those at Buchuberg, Upington, Kakamas, and Vioolsdrif have also benefitted because regulation of the flow is now possible  On the Namibian side of the river, Aussenkehr produces grapes with the help of water from the Orange 
In recent years, the wine-producing areas along the Orange River have grown in importance  Irrigation in the Eastern Cape has also received a tremendous boost, not only from the additional water being made available, but also owing to improvement in water quality  Without this improvement, the citrus farmers along the Lower Sundays River would almost certainly have continued to suffer losses of productivity 

Lesotho Highlands Water Project
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was conceived to supplement the water supply in the Vaal River System  Water is delivered to South Africa by means of the delivery tunnel which passes under the Lesotho South Africa border at the Caledon River, and then under the Little Caledon River south of Clarens in the Free State, and discharges into the Ash River about 30 kilometres (19 mi) further to the north  The scheme became viable when water demands in Gauteng reached levels that could no longer be supported economically by alternative schemes such as the Tugela River-Vaal River pumped storage scheme, which used the Sterkfontein Dam, located near Harrismith in the Free State 

Alluvial diamonds
In 1867, the first diamond discovered in South Africa, the Eureka Diamond, was found near Hopetown on the Orange River  Two years later, a much larger diamond known as the Star of South Africa was found in the same area, causing a diamond rush  This was soon eclipsed by the diamond rush to mine diamonds directly from kimberlite at Kimberley in 1871, although alluvial diamonds continued to be found in the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate on the last stretch of the river, as well as the beaches around its mouth  Diamond mines also operate on the middle stretch of the river 

Rafting and canoeing
During the temperate months of March and April, given good rains and the sluices of the dams being open, a canoeist (or rafter) can easily travel 30 kilometres (19 mi) per day  The lower reaches of the river are most popular, because of the spectacular topography  Commercial tours are available, and these expeditions depart from the border town of Vioolsdrif 

Wildlife
The Orange River has no large animals  It lies outside the range of the Nile crocodile, and although hippopotami were once abundant, they were hunted to extermination in the 19th century  The Orange River has a relative paucity of species diversity  A 2011 survey of 13,762 fish found only 16 species of fish present   Three of these, the common carp, the Mozambique tilapia, and the western mosquitofish are not indigenous   Another exotic species, rainbow trout, is found in the river headwaters in Lesotho 
Seven species are endemic to the Vaal-Orange River system:
Rock-catfish (Austroglanis sclateri)
Maluti redfin or Maloti minnow (Pseudobarbus quathlambae)
Namaquab barb (Barbus hospes)
River sardine (Mesobola brevianalis)
Smallmouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus aeneus)
Largemouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus kimberlyensis)
Orange River Mudfish (Labeo capensis)

See also
List of rivers in South Africa
List of international border rivers
List of crossings of the Orange River
Passage 17:
Hudson City School District (Ohio)
The Hudson City School District is a school district in Ohio, covering most of Hudson and Boston Heights, and parts of Boston Township and Cuyahoga Falls  The high-school is ranked #460 in the nation, by U S  News & World Report, as of 2021 

Board of education
Current members
David Zurro (President)
Steve DiMauro (Vice President)
James Field
Alisa Wright
Tom Tobin

Administration
Steve Farnsworth (Interim Superintendent)
Doreen Osmun (Assistant Superintendent)
Phillip Butto (Treasurer)
Tom Barone (Business Manager)
Kelly Kempf (Pupil Services)
Lisa Hunt (Human Resources)
Jennifer Reece (Communications Manager)

Changes in Hudson City School District
1919: Hudson Township Rural School District is formed, consisting of the former Hudson Village School District and the township school districts 
1998: Hudson Local School District became Hudson City School District 
2010: Hudson Elementary is demolished 
2018–2022: The Administration and Board of Education begin making changes to multiple schools and facilitates around the Hudson City School District 

Schools
Hudson High School, 2500 Hudson-Aurora Road
Principal: Mike Miller
Hudson Middle School, 83 North Oviatt Street
Principal: Kimberly Cockley
East Woods Intermediate School, 120 North Hayden Parkway
Principal: Natalie Wininger
Ellsworth Hill Elementary, 7750 Stow Rd
Principal: Jen Filomeana
McDowell Early Learning School, 280 North Hayden Parkway
Principal: Beth Trivelli

Previous locations
Hudson Elementary, 34 North Oviatt Street (torn down in 2010)
Last Principal: Mark Leventhal
Evamere Elementary, 76 North Hayden Parkway (closed in 2021)
Last Principal: Beth Trivelli

Other facilities
Al Statts Transportation Facility and Koberna Salt Storage Facility opened in June 2019  Is a bus garage and salt storage facility 
Lavelli Stadium, built in 1972, named in 1975, when 1941 Hudson High School graduate Dante Lavelli was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame 
Memorial Stadium, has been built on Hudson High School (Ohio) property beside the W-wing faculty parking lot 
Ada Cooper Miller Natatorium, attached to East Woods Elementary   Ada Cooper Miller served on the Hudson Board of Education for 40 years, and presided for 25 of those years 

Previous locations
Petermann Limited, 91 Owen Brown Street (closed)
Passage 18:
George W  Childs Recreation Site
The George W  Childs Recreation Site is a former Pennsylvania state park that is the site of a number of cascade waterfalls along Dingmans Creek; it has been part of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area since 1983  It is located in Dingmans Ferry in Delaware Township, Pike County, Pennsylvania and is named for the late newspaper publisher George William Childs, whose widow deeded the land to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1912    The site contains three main waterfalls: Factory Falls, Fulmer Falls and Deer Leap Falls and is a few miles upstream from Dingmans Falls and Silverthread Falls 
The pools below the waterfalls were once a popular spot for swimming during its ownership by the Pennsylvania Bureau of State Parks   However, that activity had been banned upon transfer of ownership to the National Park Service 

The mill
The site is also host to the ruins of Joseph Brooks' 19th century woolen mill  In the 1820s Joseph Brooks, a Welshman who had immigrated to Philadelphia, built a woolen mill of stone, 3½ stories high   He employed about 80 workers 
His sheep, though, were devoured by wolves or died from eating poisonous Sheep Laurel  Supplies, operatives, and materials such as expensive raw wool, had to be brought in from Philadelphia, and the finished products shipped down to this city by wagons, a trip which took 10 days   Brooks died in 1832 and the mill was abandoned; the ruins are still visible 

Closures
From October 2010 to May 2013 the National Park Service (NPS) began a $2 5 million rehabilitation project  for much-needed repairs to trails, bridges, parking areas, and historic structures, and implemented measures to help maintain and preserve the forest and streamside vegetation  The project was in the planning stage for several years; public meetings were held in June 2006   and an Environmental Assessment was released for public review in May 2008   After nearly 3 years of closure to the public, reopening in May 2013, the park had accessible trails and picnic sites that met Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) standards  In March of 2018 two nor'easters, Winter Storm Riley (March 2) and Winter Storm Quinn (March 7), struck the United States eastern seaboard resulting in damage that caused the park to close indefinitely  In October 2022 the NPS announced that a nearly $3 million contract had been awarded to Puyenpa services, LLC from Gaithersburg, MD 20877, a company experienced in trail construction and familiar with sensitive natural and cultural resources for a final phase of restoration and construction work    During construction, other work during this phase of repairs included surveying and project layout, vegetation clearing and stump/root removal for trail work, and procurement of supplies and materials  No work would take place during the winter months and construction was planned to resume in the spring of 2023   On May 30, 2023 the NPS announced the final stage of restoration was set to start with work to continue through the fall and into early winter   Tentatively the park is expected to open to the public again in the Spring of 2024 
Passage 19:
Horicon, New York
Horicon is a town in Warren County, New York, United States  It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area  Horicon's population was 1,389 at the 2010 census Horicon is on the county's northern border and is located inside the Adirondack Park 

History
Horicon was first settled around 1800 
The town was formed in 1838 from parts of the towns of Hague and Bolton 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 71 8 square miles (186 km2), of which 66 1 square miles (171 km2)  is land and 5 7 square miles (15 km2)  (7 98%) is water 
The northern town line is the border of Essex County, New York 
New York State Route 8 crosses the town, forming a major east-west highway 
The town is also the site of the Curtis S  Read Scout Reservation, a Boy Scout camp owned by the Westchester-Putnam Council of Hawthorne 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,479 people, 642 households, and 446 families residing in the town   The population density was 22 4 people per square mile (8 6/km2)   There were 1,767 housing units at an average density of 26 7 per square mile (10 3/km2)   The racial makeup of the town was 98 58% White, 0 20% African American, 0 20% Native American, 0 20% Asian, 0 20% from other races, and 0 61% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 47% of the population 
There were 642 households, out of which 23 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59 3% were married couples living together, 5 9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30 4% were non-families  26 5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older   The average household size was 2 30 and the average family size was 2 74 
In the town, the population was spread out, with 20 6% under the age of 18, 5 2% from 18 to 24, 23 2% from 25 to 44, 32 0% from 45 to 64, and 19 0% who were 65 years of age or older   The median age was 46 years  For every 100 females, there were 100 1 males   For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98 3 males 
As of 2015, the estimated median income per household was $65,804, and the median income for a family was $71,518  The per capita income for the town was $35,597  5 3% of families and 9 5% of the population were estimated as below the poverty line, including 26% of those under age 18 and 3 1% of those age 65 or over 

School district
The towns of Horicon and Chester together established North Warren Central School District, which serves residents of both towns 

Communities and locations in Horicon
Adirondack – a hamlet in the northwestern part of the town, by Schroon Lake  This hamlet has ZIP code 12808 
Brant Lake – a lake in the central part of the town
Brant Lake – a hamlet at the western end of the lake, located on Route 8
Island Pond – a lake located east of the hamlet of Brant Lake
Long Pond – a lake located east of the hamlet of Brant Lake
Pottersville – a hamlet near the western town line by Schroon Lake  The majority of this hamlet is located  in the Town of Chester  This hamlet has ZIP code 12860
Schroon Lake – a lake partly in the northwestern part of the town  This hamlet has ZIP code 12870 
South Horicon – a hamlet in the southwestern part of the town
Starbuckville – a hamlet west of Brant Lake hamlet
Passage 20:
Delta Force: Angel Falls
Delta Force is a tactical first-person shooter developed and published by NovaLogic  It was released for Microsoft Windows in 1998, and re-released on Steam in 2009  Delta Force was designed to be a military simulation loosely based on the United States' Delta Force special operations army unit 
The game was a critical and commercial success and it, along with a number of other high profile FPS games at the time, helped to popularize and define the tactical shooter genre 

Gameplay
The player assumes the role of a Delta Force operator who takes part in military operations in various theatres, and may customize their in-game avatar during the game's menu screen, selecting from various faces, as well as selecting a male or female operator  Objectives typically involve the elimination of a hostile presence in a region, assassinating a high-profile target, destroying military equipment or escorting POWs or civilians to an extraction point  Depending on the mission the player also needs to make it to an extraction point himself after fulfilling all other objectives  All five campaigns are available from the start and additional missions are unlocked as previous ones are completed  Sometimes multiple missions are unlocked at once and it is up to the player which order to play them in  The game features 40 missions in total, specifically taking place in Peru, Indonesia, Uzbekistan, and Novaya Zemlya 
The AI in the game varies depending on the difficulty you choose, as well as varying in spawn location from play-through to play-through  The lower the difficulty, the worse their aim is and the less they react and move around relative to the player  The higher the difficulty, the better their aim is, the faster they lock on to the player's location, and they use more advanced tactics, such as moving in small groups and providing cover fire while the others advance 

Equipment
Before each mission the player is able to choose his equipment  Default loadouts differ from mission to mission but the player can exchange it without any restrictions  The inventory is based on three slots: one for the main weapon, one for extra equipment and one for a sidearm  Unlike many other shooters of the era, bullets are actual objects in the game with simulated ballistics which account for drop and time to reach targets, requiring the player to lead targets that are far enough away 
On all of the maps, there are also scattered pickups that the player can use to their advantage  The player can decide whether to turn these on or off in the settings menu  Ammo pickups refill ammo, while medical pickups restore player health (despite player health not being visible through the HUD) 

Multiplayer
Delta Force also features LAN and online multiplayer for up to 32 players  All missions from the singleplayer campaign can be played cooperatively with additional players replacing the AI-controlled Delta Force operatives  Additionally deathmatch, king of the hill and capture the flag are available, along with team variations 

Development
Delta Force uses NovaLogic's own proprietary Voxel Space engine, known from their earlier games such as the Comanche series, which uses voxels to visualise terrain while polygons are used for rendering characters, vehicles, buildings and other details  This method allowed for draw distances and terrain detail unseen in first person shooters at the time and supported the game's attempt to simulate realistic outdoor combat at distances of up to several hundred meters  A limitation of the engine was that it did not support any form of 3D acceleration 

Reception
The game received "favorable" reviews according to video game review aggregator GameRankings  GameSpot's Michael Ryan called it "a very impressive game overall", particularly praising the game's mission and sound design, albeit pointing out its outdated visuals  He also drew comparisons to Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six, released earlier the same year, but noted Delta Force's limited preparation options compared to the latter  He also praised the multiplayer mode but noted that technical problems made it hard to play  PC Gamer's Todd Vaughn also drew comparisons to Rainbow Six but noted Delta Force's focus on long-distance fights and lower level of realism  He concluded: "Overall, Delta Force is a surprising and welcome addition to the genre that uses just the right mix [of] action and tactics to set itself apart from the crowd " Next Generation wrote, "Though Delta Force's standalone play is often uninspired, the multiplayer is one of the most satisfying gaming experiences available today "

Sequels
The game was successful enough to receive a direct sequel, Delta Force 2, the following year and spawn a long-running series  The last game in the series was Delta Force: Xtreme 2, released in 2009  Another game titled Delta Force: Angel Falls was announced but never released due to NovaLogic's closure in 2016 
Inspired by the popularity of Ridley Scott's war film Black Hawk Down, chronicling the Battle of Mogadishu, NovaLogic developed a Delta Force game with the same theme titled Delta Force: Black Hawk Down, which was released in 2003  Due to the rise in popularity of military-themed multiplayer shooters with vehicular combat, most notably DICE's Battlefield series, NovaLogic also developed a multiplayer focused spin-off of the Delta Force series titled Joint Operations: Typhoon Rising, released in 2004 
Context 3:  Sessions sought re-election  Democrat Victor Sanchez Williams ran against Sessions as a write-in candidate  Sessions won with 97 3 percent of the vote against assorted write-in candidates 

Alaska
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Begich had been first elected with 48% of the vote in 2008, defeating six-term Senator Ted Stevens by 3,953 votes (a margin of 1 25%)  Begich was 52 years old in 2014 and was seeking re-election to a second term  Stevens, who would have been almost 91 years old at the time of the election, had already filed for a rematch back in 2009, but was killed in a plane crash the following year 
Republican Lieutenant Governor Mead Treadwell, 2010 nominee Joe Miller, State Natural Resources Commissioner Daniel S  Sullivan, and Air Force veteran John Jaramillo ran for the GOP nomination  In the August 19 primary, Sullivan won the Republican nomination with 40% and defeated Begich in the general election 

Arkansas
Two-term incumbent Democrat Mark Pryor had been re-elected with 80% of the vote without Republican opposition in 2008  Pryor was running for a third term Freshman Representative Tom Cotton of Arkansas's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee  In the general election, Cotton defeated Pryor 

Colorado
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Udall had been elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  Udall was running for re-election Congressman Cory Gardner of Colorado's 4th congressional district was the Republican nominee; his late entry into the race caused numerous Republicans to withdraw their candidacies  Gaylon Kent was the Libertarian Party nominee  Unity Party of America founder and National Chairman Bill Hammons was the Unity Party nominee 

Delaware
Democrat Chris Coons won in the 2010 United States Senate special election in Delaware caused by Joe Biden's election as Vice President, winning by a 57% to 41% margin  Coons sought re-election  His Republican opponent was engineer Kevin Wade, whom Coons went on to defeat in the general election 

Georgia
Two-term incumbent Republican Saxby Chambliss had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008 in a runoff election with former state Representative Jim Martin; Georgia requires run-off elections when no Senate candidate wins over 50% of the vote  Chambliss did not seek a third term Political activist Derrick Grayson, Representatives Jack Kingston of Georgia's 1st congressional district, Paul Broun of Georgia's 10th congressional district, and Phil Gingrey of Georgia's 11th congressional district all declared their candidacy for the Republican nomination, as did former Secretary of State Karen Handel  In the May 20 primary, no candidate received a majority of votes, so the top two candidates faced each other in a runoff; Perdue narrowly won against Kingston in the runoff primary election on July 22 with 50 9% of the vote Michelle Nunn, CEO of Points of Light and the daughter of former U S  Senator Sam Nunn, won the Democratic nomination  Other declared Democratic candidates included former State Senator Steen Miles, psychiatrist Branko Radulovacki, and former US Army Ranger Todd Robinson  Amanda Swafford, a former Flowery Branch, Georgia, city councilwoman, received the Libertarian Party of Georgia nomination 

Hawaii (special)
Daniel Inouye, the second longest serving United States Senator in U S  history, died on December 17, 2012, after respiratory complications  Hawaii law allows the Governor of Hawaii, to appoint an interim Senator "who serves until the next regularly-scheduled general election, chosen from a list of three prospective appointees that the prior incumbent's political party submits"  Governor Neil Abercrombie did so, selecting Lieutenant Governor Brian Schatz to fill the Senate seat  Inouye had been re-elected in 2010 with 72% of the vote  Schatz was challenged in the Democratic primary by Congresswoman Colleen Hanabusa of Hawaii's 1st congressional district, who Inouye had hoped would be his successor  Schatz defeated Hanabusa in the primary with 48 5% to 47 8% Campbell Cavasso, former State Representative and nominee for the U S  Senate in 2004 and 2010, was the Republican nominee 

Idaho
One-term incumbent Republican Jim Risch had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Risch sought a second term Boise attorney Nels Mitchell was the Democratic nominee 

Illinois
Three-term incumbent and Senate Majority Whip Democrat Dick Durbin had been re-elected with 68% of the vote in 2008  Durbin ran for a fourth term State Senator Jim Oberweis was the Republican nominee  He defeated primary challenger Doug Truax with 56% of the vote 

Iowa
Five-term incumbent Democrat Tom Harkin had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Harkin announced on January 26, 2013, that he would not seek a sixth term  Congressman Bruce Braley was the Democratic nominee State Senator Joni Ernst was the Republican nominee Doug Butzier, who was the Libertarian Party's nominee, died in a plane crash on October 13, 2014, but still appeared on the ballot 

Kansas
Three-term incumbent Republican Pat Roberts had been re-elected with 60% of the vote in 2008  Roberts sought a fourth term  He faced a primary challenge from radiologist Milton Wolf, a conservative Tea Party supporter  Roberts defeated Wolf in the Republican primary by 48% to 41%  Shawnee County District Attorney Chad Taylor won the Democratic nomination  Randall Batson from Wichita was on the general election ballot as a Libertarian  Also, Greg Orman qualified for the ballot as an independent On September 3, Taylor announced he was dropping out of the election, leading to speculation that Democrats would support Orman's candidacy  On September 18, the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Taylor's name had to be removed from the ballot 

Kentucky
Five-term Republican incumbent and Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell had been re-elected with 53% of the vote in 2008  McConnell sought re-election to a sixth term  McConnell defeated businessman Matt Bevin in the Republican primary on May 20 Kentucky Secretary of State Alison Lundergan Grimes, with support from much of Kentucky's Democratic leadership, won the Democratic primary  Actress Ashley Judd publicly claimed to be considering a run for the Democratic nomination, but ultimately decided against it Ed Marksberry pursued an independent bid after dropping out of the Democratic field in September 2013 

Louisiana
Three-term incumbent Democrat Mary Landrieu had been re-elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Landrieu ran for a fourth term Louisiana uses a unique jungle primary system that eschews primaries in favor of run-off elections between the top two candidates; this run-off can be avoided if the winning candidate receives over 50% of the vote  Democrats Wayne Ables, Vallian Senegal, and William Waymire ran against Landrieu in the election, as did Republicans Bill Cassidy (representative of Louisiana's 6th congressional district), Thomas Clements (small business owner), and retired Air Force Colonel Rob Maness  Electrical Engineer Brannon McMorris ran as a Libertarian Because Republican candidate Maness took almost 14% of the votes in the primary, there was a runoff election on December 6, 2014, between Landrieu (42%) and Cassidy (41%)  Cassidy won the runoff with 56% of the vote 

Maine
Three-term incumbent Republican Susan Collins was seeking a fourth term  Shenna Bellows, former executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Maine, was the Democratic nominee 

Massachusetts
Five-term incumbent and 2004 Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry had been re-elected with 66% of the vote in 2008  Kerry resigned in early 2013 to become U S  Secretary of State  Governor Deval Patrick appointed Democrat Mo Cowan to the seat  Democratic Congressman Ed Markey beat Republican Gabriel E  Gomez in the June 25, 2013 special election by a 55% to 45% margin  Markey had served the remainder of Kerry's term before running for re-election to a first full term in 2014  Hopkinton Town Selectman Brian Herr was the Republican nominee 

Michigan
Six-term incumbent Senator and Chairman of the Armed Services Committee Democrat Carl Levin, the longest-serving senator in Michigan's history, had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Levin announced on March 7, 2013, that he would not seek re-election 
Three term Democratic Representative Gary Peters of MI-14 was the Democratic nominee  He defeated Republican former Secretary of State Terri Lynn Land who was unopposed for the Republican nomination 

Minnesota
One-term incumbent Democrat Al Franken unseated one-term Republican Norm Coleman by 312 votes in a contested three-way race with 42% of the vote in 2008; the third candidate in the race, former Senator Dean Barkley of the Independence Party of Minnesota, won 15% of the vote  Franken sought re-election  State Representative Jim Abeler, St  Louis County Commissioner Chris Dahlberg, co-CEO of Lazard Middle Market Mike McFadden, bison farmer and former hair salon owner Monti Moreno, state Senator Julianne Ortman, and U S  Navy reservist Phillip Parrish ran for the Republican nomination  McFadden won the Republican primary and was the Republican nominee in the general election Hannah Nicollet of the Independence Party of Minnesota also ran 

Mississippi
Six-term incumbent Republican Thad Cochran, re-elected with 62% of the vote in 2008, ran for re-election  Cochran was the last incumbent Senator to declare his plans, leading to widespread speculation that he might announce his retirement Tea Party candidate Chris McDaniel, a conservative Mississippi state senator, ran against Cochran in the Republican primary  Neither McDaniel nor Cochran was able to get 50% of the vote in the first round of the primary, so a runoff election was held June 24  Cochran won the runoff election by 51% to 49%, with the help of Democratic voters eligible to vote in the state's open primaries who chose Cochran as their preferred Republican  McDaniel filed a lawsuit to challenge the results of the run-off, but the challenge was rejected on appeal by the Supreme Court of Mississippi Former Congressman Travis Childers was the Democratic nominee 

Montana
Six-term incumbent Democrat Max Baucus, the longest-serving senator in Montana's history, had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Baucus announced on April 23, 2013, that he would retire in 2014, rather than seek re-election to a seventh term  Baucus was appointed as the United States Ambassador to China, leading him to resign from the Senate in February 2014 Following Baucus's confirmation as ambassador, Governor Steve Bullock appointed the Lieutenant Governor John Walsh to fill the vacant senate seat  Former Lieutenant Governor John Bohlinger was defeated by Walsh in the Democratic primary  Amid controversy over alleged plagiarism in a 2007 research paper, Walsh pulled out of the race  The Montana Democratic Party held a special nominating convention on August 16 to choose a replacement for Walsh  First-term State Representative Amanda Curtis won the nomination, thereby becoming the new Democratic nominee Congressman Steve Daines won the Republican nomination over state Representative Champ Edmunds of Missoula and David Leaser of Kalispell 

Nebraska
One-term incumbent Republican Mike Johanns had been elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  He did not seek a second term  Term limited Republican Governor Dave Heineman considered running for the Republican nomination, but ultimately decided not to do so  Former state Treasurer Shane Osborn, attorney Bart McLeay, banker Sid Dinsdale, and Midland University President Ben Sasse ran for the Republican nomination  In the May 13 primary, Sasse won the Republican nomination 
Trial lawyer David Domina was the Democratic nominee 

New Hampshire
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeanne Shaheen had been elected with 52% of the vote in 2008  Shaheen ran for re-election  Shaheen defeated Republican nominee Scott Brown, who had represented neighboring Massachusetts in the Senate from 2010 to 2013 

New Jersey
Incumbent Democrat Frank Lautenberg had been re-elected with 56% of the vote in 2008  After announcing he would not seek re-election, Lautenberg died in June 2013, aged 89, after a long period of ill health Newark Mayor Cory Booker, a Democrat, defeated Republican nominee Steve Lonegan by 55%-to-45% in a 2013 special election to replace interim Republican appointee Jeffrey Chiesa  Booker ran for re-election to a full term in 2014  1978 and 1982 Republican candidate and political operative Jeff Bell was the Republican nominee 

New Mexico
One-term incumbent Democrat Tom Udall had been elected with 61% of the vote in 2008  Former Doña Ana County Republican Party Chairman David Clements and former New Mexico Republican Party Chairman Allen Weh sought the Republican nomination  Weh won the June 3 primary but lost to Udall in the general election 

North Carolina
One-term incumbent Democrat Kay Hagan had been elected with 53% of the vote against incumbent Republican Elizabeth Dole in 2008  Hagan was seeking re-election State House Speaker Thom Tillis was the Republican nominee  Sean Haugh won the Libertarian nomination 

Oklahoma
There were 2 elections in Oklahoma, due to the resignation of Tom Coburn 

Oklahoma (regular)
Three-term incumbent Republican Jim Inhofe had been re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2008  Inhofe sought re-election  Matt Silverstein, an insurance agency owner, ran for the Democratic nomination 

Oklahoma (special)
Two-term incumbent Republican Tom Coburn had been re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2010, and was not scheduled to be up for election again until 2016  However, Coburn announced his intention to resign at the end of the 113th Congress  A special election to fill his seat took place in November 2014, concurrent with the other Senate elections  Congressman James Lankford was the Republican nominee  State Senator Connie Johnson was the Democratic nominee 

Oregon
One-term incumbent Democrat Jeff Merkley was narrowly elected with 49% of the vote in 2008  Merkley was running for a second term  State representative Jason Conger, attorney Tim Crawley, IT consultant Mark Callahan, neurosurgeon Dr  Monica Wehby, and former Linn County Republican Chair Jo Rae Perkins all ran for the Republican nomination, with Wehby ultimately winning the nomination in the May 20 primary 

Rhode Island
Three-term incumbent Democrat Jack Reed had been re-elected with 73% of the vote in 2008  Reed defeated Republican nominee Mark Zaccaria in the 2014 election 

South Carolina
There were 2 elections in South Carolina, due to the resignation of Jim DeMint 

South Carolina (regular)
Two-term Republican Lindsey Graham had been re-elected with 58% of the vote in 2008  Graham won the Republican nomination over a field that included state senator Lee Bright  State Senator Brad Hutto won the Democratic nomination 

South Carolina (special)
Jim DeMint had been elected to a second term in 2010, but resigned from the Senate in January 2013 to become president of The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank  Governor Nikki Haley appointed Congressman Tim Scott as DeMint's replacement  Scott, an African-American, was the Republican nominee to serve out the remainder of DeMint's term  Scott is the first African-American Republican since shortly after Reconstruction to represent a Southern state  Richland County Councilwoman Joyce Dickerson won the Democratic nomination 

South Dakota
Three-term incumbent Democrat Tim Johnson had been re-elected with 63% of the vote in 2008  Johnson announced on March 26, 2013, that he would not run for re-election  Former Congressional aide Rick Weiland was the Democratic nominee Among Republicans, former two-term Governor Mike Rounds announced his candidacy for the GOP nomination on November 29, 2012  Rounds won the Republican nomination over state senator Larry Rhoden, state representative Stace Nelson, and physician Annette Bosworth Former Republican U S  Senator Larry Pressler and Republican State Senator Gordon Howie ran as independents  Pressler did not commit to caucusing with either party, while Howie said he would caucus with the Senate Republicans 

Tennessee
Two-term incumbent Republican Lamar Alexander had been re-elected with 65% of the vote in 2008  Alexander sought re-election to a third term  On August 7, 2014, Alexander won the Republican nomination over six challengers, including State Representative Joe Carr On November 4, 2014, Alexander faced Democratic nominee Gordon Ball, Libertarian Party nominee Joshua James, Constitution Party nominee Joe Wilmothm, and independent Danny Page also ran in the general election 

Texas
Two-term incumbent Republican John Cornyn, the Senate Minority Whip, had been re-elected with 55% of the vote in 2008  Cornyn sought re-election, and won the 2014 Republican primary with 59% of the vote  David Alameel, a dentist, and Kesha Rogers, a volunteer for The Lyndon LaRouche Policy Institute, faced each other in a run-off election for the Democratic nomination  Alameel won the run-off and was the Democratic nominee 

Virginia
One-term incumbent Democrat Mark Warner had been elected with 65% of the vote in 2008; he sought re-election  Ed Gillespie, former RNC Chairman and presidential adviser, ran for the Republican nomination  Robert Sarvis, the Libertarian nominee for Governor in 2013, also ran 

West Virginia
Five-term incumbent Democrat Jay Rockefeller had been re-elected with 64% of the vote in 2008  He announced on January 11, 2013, that he would not seek re-election to a sixth term  Secretary of State Natalie Tennant won the Democratic nomination On November 26, 2012, Republican Congresswoman Shelley Moore Capito announced her plans to run for the seat, in hopes of becoming the first Republican Senator elected from West Virginia since 1956  Moore Capito won the Republican nomination and the general election, the first woman to serve as United States Senator from West Virginia 

Wyoming
Three-term incumbent Republican Mike Enzi had been re-elected with 76% of the vote in 2008  Enzi sought re-election  Liz Cheney, daughter of former Vice President Dick Cheney, briefly entered the race for the Republican nomination, but dropped her bid in January 2014  On August 19, Enzi won the Republican primary election with 82% of the vote, and Democrat Charlie Hardy, a former Catholic priest, won his party's primary election with 48% of the vote 

See also
2014 United States elections
2014 United States gubernatorial elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
113th United States Congress
114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 5:
1946 United States House of Representatives elections
The 1946 United States House of Representatives elections were elections for the United States House of Representatives to elect members to serve in the 80th United States Congress  They were held for the most part on November 5, 1946, while Maine held theirs on September 9  November 1946 was 19 months after President Harry S  Truman assumed office upon the death of Franklin D  Roosevelt 
While Democrats had controlled the House for 16 years since 1931 and Roosevelt had been elected to a record four terms in office, Truman did not garner the same support as the deceased president  The 1946 election resulted in Republicans picking up 55 seats to win majority control  Joseph Martin, Republican of Massachusetts, became Speaker of the House, exchanging places with Sam Rayburn, Democrat of Texas, who became the new Minority Leader  The Democratic defeat was the largest since they were trounced in the 1928 pro-Republican wave that brought Herbert Hoover to power  They also lost the Senate in the concurrent Senate elections 
The vote was largely seen as a referendum on Truman, whose approval rating had sunk to 32 percent over the president's controversial handling of a wave of post-war labor strikes, including a United Auto Workers strike against Ford and General Motors in 1945, a United Mine Workers strike starting in April 1946, and a national railroad worker strike that began in May  Further damage resulted from the back-and-forth over whether to end wartime price controls, unpopular with the American business constituency, to handle shortages, particularly in meat and other foodstuffs  While Truman's early months in the White House had been plagued with questions of "What would Roosevelt do if he were alive?" Republicans now began to joke "What would Truman do if he were alive?" and "To err is Truman " However, the Republican majority was short-lived, as Democrats regained control of the House two years later 

Overall results
Source: Election Statistics - Office of the Clerk

Special elections
In these special elections, the winner was seated during 1946 or before January 3, 1947; ordered by election date, then by district 

Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Non-voting delegates
Alaska Territory
See also
1946 United States elections
1946 United States Senate elections
1946 California's 12th congressional district election (the Richard Nixon-Jerry Voorhis race)
79th United States Congress
80th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 6:
114th United States Congress
The 114th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States of America federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives  It met in Washington, D C , from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2017, during the final two years of Barack Obama's presidency  The seats in the House were apportioned based on the 2010 United States census The 2014 elections gave the Republicans control of the Senate and the House for the first time since the 109th Congress  With 248 seats in the House of Representatives and 54 seats in the Senate, this Congress began with the largest Republican majority since the 71st Congress of 1929–1931 

Major events
January 6, 2015: Incumbent Speaker of the House John Boehner was re-elected even though several members of his own party once again chose not to vote for him  He received 216 votes, a majority of the votes cast, but two votes shy of a majority of the full membership 
January 20, 2015: 2015 State of the Union Address
March 3, 2015: Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu addressed a joint session of Congress regarding sanctions against Iran  Netanyahu was invited by Speaker John Boehner without consulting President Obama 
March 9, 2015: U S  Senator Tom Cotton wrote and sent a letter to the leadership of the Islamic Republic of Iran, signed by 47 of the Senate's 54 Republicans, attempting to cast doubt on the Obama administration's authority to engage in nuclear-proliferation negotiations with Iran



ground_truth: Thaba Putsoa

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the party who gained control of congress in the midterm elections in 1946 take control of the determiner of rules of the US House and US Senate?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 
March 25, 2015: Afghanistan President Ashraf Ghani addressed a joint session of Congress 
April 29, 2015: Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe addressed a joint session of Congress, becoming the first Japanese leader to do so 
September 24, 2015: Pope Francis addressed a joint session of Congress, becoming the first Pope to do so 
September 25, 2015: House Speaker John Boehner announced that he would resign as Speaker and from the House at the end of October 2015  Subsequently, Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy, the presumptive favorite to succeed John Boehner, unexpectedly withdrew his candidacy for the job 
October 29, 2015: Paul Ryan was elected to succeed John Boehner as Speaker of the House receiving 236 votes (of 432 votes cast)  He is the youngest Speaker since James G  Blaine in 1869 
January 12, 2016: 2016 State of the Union Address
June 8, 2016: Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed a joint session of Congress 
June 22–23, 2016: In the wake of the Orlando nightclub shooting, Congress debated gun control reform  The U S  House recessed for the July 4 holiday during a sit-in protest held by Democrats that halted business in the chamber for more than 24 hours 
November 8, 2016: Donald Trump and Mike Pence elected as president and vice-president in presidential elections, while the Republicans retain majority at both Senate and House of Representatives 

Major legislation
Enacted
January 12, 2015: Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–1 (text) (PDF)
February 27, 2015: Protecting Volunteer Firefighters and Emergency Responders Act, Pub L  114-3
March 4, 2015: Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2015, Pub L  114-4
April 16, 2015: Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–10 (text) (PDF)
May 22, 2015: Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–17 (text) (PDF)
June 2, 2015: USA FREEDOM Act: Uniting and Strengthening America by Fulfilling Rights and Ensuring Effective Discipline Over Monitoring Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–23 (text) (PDF)
June 29, 2015: Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–27 (text) (PDF)
July 6, 2015: Department of Homeland Security Interoperable Communications Act, Pub  L  114–29 (text) (PDF)
September 25, 2015: Gerardo Hernandez Airport Security Act of 2015, Pub L  114-50
September 30, 2015: National Winstorm Impact Reduction Act Reauthorization of 2015, Pub L  114-52
November 2, 2015: Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–74 (text) (PDF)
November 5, 2015: Librarian of Congress Succession Modernization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–86 (text) (PDF)
November 25, 2015: SPACE Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–90 (text) (PDF)
November 25, 2015: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016, Pub L  114-92
December 4, 2015: Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act, Pub  L  114–94 (text) (PDF)
December 10, 2015: Every Student Succeeds Act, Pub  L  114–95 (text) (PDF)
December 18, 2015: Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016, Pub  L  114–113 (text) (PDF)
January 28, 2016: Grants Oversight and New Efficiency (GONE) Act, Pub L  114-117
February 8, 2016: International Megan's Law to Prevent Sexual Exploitation and Other Crimes Through Advanced Notification of Traveling Sex Offenders, Pub L  114-119
February 8, 2016: Coast Guard Authorization Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–120 (text) (PDF)
February 24, 2016: Internet Tax Freedom Act contained in Trade Facilitation and Trade Enforcement Act of 2015, Pub  L  114–125 (text) (PDF)
May 9, 2016: Protect and Preserve International Cultural Property Act, Pub L  114-151
June 28, 2016: Frank R  Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, Pub  L  114-182
June 30, 2016: Puerto Rico Oversight, Management, and Economic Stability Act (PROMESA), Pub L  114-187
July 20, 2016: Global Food Security Act of 2016, Pub  L  114–195 (text) (PDF)
July 29, 2016: Making Electronic Government Accountable By Yielding Tangible Efficiences (MEGABYTE) Act of 2016, Pub L  114-210
September 28, 2016: Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act, Pub  L  114–222 (text) (PDF)
September 29, 2016: Continuing Appropriations and Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2017, and Zika Response and Preparedness Act, Pub L  114-223
October 7, 2016: Sexual Assault Survivors' Rights Act, Pub  L  114–236 (text) (PDF)
December 10, 2016: Further Continuing and Security Assistance Appropriations Act, 2017, Pub L  114-254
December 13, 2016: 21st Century Cures Act, Pub  L  114–255 (text) (PDF)
December 14, 2016: First Responder Anthrax Preparedness Act, Pub L  114-268
December 14, 2016: Better Online Ticket Sales (BOTS) Act, Pub L  114-274
December 16, 2016: Frank R  Wolf International Religious Freedom Act, Pub  L  114-281
December 16, 2016: United States-Israel Advanced Research Partnership Act of 2016, Pub L  114-304
December 16, 2016: Holocaust Expropriated Art Recovery (HEAR) Act of 2016, Pub L  114-308
December 16, 2016: Foreign Cultural Exchange Jurisdictional Immunity Clarification Act, Pub L  114-319
December 23, 2016: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017, Pub L  114-328
January 6, 2017: American Innovation and Competitiveness Act, Pub L  114-329

Proposed
Vetoed
February 24, 2015: Keystone XL Pipeline Approval Act (S  1)
March 31, 2015: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the National Labor Relations Board relating to representation case procedures  (S J Res  8)
October 22, 2015: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016 (H R  1735)
December 19, 2015: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of a rule submitted by the Environmental Protection Agency relating to "Standards of Performance for Greenhouse Gas Emissions from New, Modified, and Reconstructed Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units" (S J Res  23)
December 19, 2015: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of a rule submitted by the Environmental Protection Agency relating to "Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units" (S J Res  24)
January 8, 2016: The Restoring Americans' Healthcare Freedom Reconciliation Act of 2015 (H R  3762)
January 19, 2016: A joint resolution providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the Corps of Engineers and the Environmental Protection Agency relating to the definition of "waters of the United States" under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (S J Res  22)
June 8, 2016: A joint resolution disapproving the rule submitted by the Department of Labor relating to the definition of the term "Fiduciary" (H J Res  88)
July 22, 2016: Presidential Allowance Modernization Act of 2016 (H R  1777)
September 23, 2016: Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (S  2040) (Passed over Veto)

Party summary
Resignations and new members are discussed in the "Changes in membership" section, below 

Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Section contents: Senate: Majority (R), Minority (D) • House: Majority (R),  Minority (D)

Senate
President: Joe Biden (D)
President pro tempore: Orrin Hatch (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Mitch McConnell
Assistant Majority Leader (Majority Whip): John Cornyn
Chief Deputy Whip: Mike Crapo
Deputy Whips:[data unknown/missing]
Republican Conference Chairman: John Thune
Republican Conference Vice Chairman: Roy Blunt
Senatorial Committee Chairman: Roger Wicker
Policy Committee Chairman: John Barrasso

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Harry Reid
Assistant Minority Leader (Minority Whip): Dick Durbin
Chief Deputy Whip: Barbara Boxer
Deputy Whips:[data unknown/missing]
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Harry Reid
Democratic Caucus Vice Chair and Policy Committee Chairman: Chuck Schumer
Democratic Caucus Secretary: Patty Murray
Senatorial Campaign Committee Chairman: Jon Tester
Policy Committee Vice Chairwoman: Debbie Stabenow
Policy Committee Strategic Policy Adviser: Elizabeth Warren
Policy Committee Policy Development Adviser: Mark Warner
Steering and Outreach Committee Chairwoman: Amy Klobuchar
Steering and Outreach Committee Vice Chairwoman: Jeanne Shaheen

House of Representatives
Speaker: John Boehner (R), until October 29, 2015
Paul Ryan (R), from October 29, 2015

Majority (Republican) leadership
Majority Leader: Kevin McCarthy
Majority Whip: Steve Scalise
Majority Chief Deputy Whip: Patrick McHenry
Senior Deputy Whips: Kristi Noem, Dennis Ross, Aaron Schock (until March 31, 2015), Steve Stivers, Ann Wagner
Republican Conference Chairwoman: Cathy McMorris Rodgers
Republican Conference Vice-Chairwoman: Lynn Jenkins
Republican Conference Secretary: Virginia Foxx
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Greg Walden
Policy Committee Chairman: Luke Messer
Republican Campaign Committee Deputy Chairman: Lynn Westmoreland

Minority (Democratic) leadership
Minority Leader: Nancy Pelosi
Minority Whip: Steny Hoyer
Assistant Democratic Leader: Jim Clyburn
Senior Chief Deputy Minority Whip: John Lewis
Chief Deputy Minority Whips: G  K  Butterfield, Diana DeGette, Keith Ellison, Jan Schakowsky, Kyrsten Sinema, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Peter Welch
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Xavier Becerra
Democratic Caucus Vice-Chairman: Joe Crowley
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Ben Ray Luján
Steering and Policy Committee Co-Chairs: Rosa DeLauro (Steering) and Donna Edwards (Policy)
Organization, Study, and Review Chairwoman: Karen Bass
Policy and Communications Chairman: Steve Israel

Members
Senate
Senators are listed by state and then by Senate classes, In this Congress, Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 2016; Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 2018; and Class 2 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 2020 

House of Representatives
Changes in membership
Senate
There were no changes in Senate membership during this Congress 

House of Representatives
Committees
[Section contents: Senate, House, Joint ]

Senate
House of Representatives
Joint committees
Caucuses
Employees
Senate
Source: "Senate Organization Chart for the 114th Congress"  Senate gov  US Senate  Archived from the original on March 28, 2015  Retrieved January 26, 2015 

Chaplain: Barry C  Black (Seventh-day Adventist)
Curator: Melinda Smith
Librarian: Leona I  Faust
Historian: Donald A  Ritchie, until June 1, 2015
Betty Koed, starting June 1, 2015
Parliamentarian: Elizabeth MacDonough
Secretary: Julie E  Adams
Sergeant at Arms: Frank J  Larkin
Secretary for the Majority: Laura Dove
Secretary for the Minority: Gary B  Myrick

House of Representatives
Source: "Officers and Organizations of the House"  House gov  US House  Archived from the original on July 6, 2017  Retrieved January 26, 2015 

Chaplain: Patrick J  Conroy (Roman Catholic)
Chief Administrative Officer: Ed Cassidy, until December 31, 2015
Will Plaster, January 1, 2016 – August 1, 2016
Phil Kiko, from August 1, 2016
Clerk: Karen L  Haas
Historian: Matthew Wasniewski
Inspector General: Theresa M  Grafenstine
Parliamentarian: Thomas J  Wickham Jr 
Reading Clerks: Susan Cole and Joseph Novotny
Sergeant at Arms: Paul D  Irving

Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Stephen T  Ayers
Attending Physician of the United States Congress: Brian P  Monahan
Comptroller General of the United States: Eugene Louis Dodaro
Director of the Congressional Budget Office: Douglas Elmendorf, until March 31, 2015
Keith Hall, from April 1, 2015
Librarian of Congress: James H  Billington, until September 30, 2015
David S  Mao (acting), October 1, 2015 – September 14, 2016
Carla Diane Hayden, from September 14, 2016
Public Printer of the United States: Davita Vance-Cooks

See also
Elections
2014 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
2014 United States Senate elections
2014 United States House of Representatives elections
2016 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
2016 United States presidential election
2016 United States Senate elections
2016 United States House of Representatives elections

Membership lists
List of new members of the 114th United States Congress

Notes
Passage 7:
CDC SCOPE
SCOPE (Supervisory Control of Program Execution) is a series of Control Data Corporation batch operating systems developed in the 1960s 

Variants
SCOPE for the CDC 3000 series
SCOPE for the CDC 6000 series
SCOPE and SCOPE-2 for the CDC 7600/Cyber-76

SCOPE for the CDC 3000 series
SCOPE for the CDC 6000 series
This operating system was based on the original Chippewa Operating System  In the early 1970s, it was renamed NOS/BE for the CDC Cyber machines  The SCOPE operating system is a file-oriented system using mass storage, random access devices  It was designed to make use of all capabilities of CDC 6000 computer systems and exploits fully the multiple-operating modes of all segments of the computer  Main tasks of SCOPE are controlling job execution, storage assignment, performing segment and overlay loading  Its features include comprehensive input/output functions and library maintenance routines  The operating system chronologically records all jobs run and any problems encountered  To aid debugging, dumps and memory maps are available 

Description
SCOPE is a multiprogramming operating system capable of running up to eight jobs, called control points, at one time  One control point is used for system functions : p 1-2  Later versions increased this limit to 15 
SCOPE runs on the 6x00's peripheral processors (PPs)  "A central processor (CP)… is completely within the power of every PP at all times " One PP, identified as PP0 runs the Monitor Program (MTR) "that oversees or controls all other activities " PP9 is assigned to control the system console typewriter and displays  The other PPs perform input/output functions as directed by MTR : p 1-1 A portion of the central processor's memory (called central memory, or CM) the Central Memory Resident (CMR) "is reserved for various system tables accessible by the PPs ”: p 1-2  Part of this CMR is a communications area for each PP  Each communications area contains an "input register" and an "output register", followed by a message buffer : p 1-1 When the computer is deadstarted, all PP's are loaded with system code from magnetic tape  PP0 will begin running the monitor code  The remaining PPs will loop reading their input registers waiting for requests from the monitor : p 1-1

Software
As of SCOPE 3 3 a number of programming language compilers and utilities were supported  Major languages were ALGOL, BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, and COMPASS (assembler)  Other languages were APT, CSSL 3 (Continuous System Simulation Language), JOVIAL, SIMSCRIPT, and SIMULA  Other software included IGS (Interactive Graphics System), PERT, and SORT/MERGE CDC systems were considered supercomputers, and customers were often large government agencies and research facilities  Most of these had specialized requirements, and often wrote their own software 

Competition
SCOPE was written by a programming team in Sunnyvale, California, about 2,000 miles from the CDC hardware division   It was considered by them a buggy and inefficient piece of software, though not much different than many operating systems of the era   At the CDC Arden Hills, Minnesota laboratories (where they referred to SCOPE as Sunnyvale's Collection Of Programming Errors) they had a competing operating system, MACE   This was the Mansfield And Cahlander Executive (from Greg Mansfield and Dave Cahlander, the authors of the system)   It had started as an engineering test executive, but eventually developed into a complete operating system — a modularized rewrite and enhancement of the original Chippewa Operating System (COS)   While never an official CDC product, a copy was freely given to any customer who asked for one   Many customers did, especially the more advanced ones (like University and research sites) 
When Control Data decided to write its next operating system Kronos, it considered both the current SCOPE system and the unofficial MACE alternative   They chose to abandon the SCOPE system and base Kronos on the MACE software   Eventually, Kronos was replaced by the new Network Operating System (NOS)   Though many smaller CDC customers continued to use the SCOPE system rather than Kronos   When NOS became the primary Control Data operating system, some customers running mainly batch operations were reluctant to switch to the NOS system, as they saw no benefit for their shop   So the SCOPE system was maintained, and renamed as NOS/BE (Batch Environment), primarily so that CDC Marketing could say that all mainframe customers were using the NOS operating system 

Current status
The computer emulation community has made repeated attempts to recover and preserve CDC software  It is now running under a CDC CYBER and 6000 series emulator 

See also
CDC Kronos
NOS
Passage 8:
1886 United States House of Representatives elections
The 1886 United States House of Representatives elections were held for the most part on November 2, 1886, with three states holding theirs early between June and September  They occurred in the middle of President Grover Cleveland's first term  Elections were held for 325 seats of the United States House of Representatives, representing 38 states, to serve in the 50th United States Congress  Special elections were also held throughout the year 
As in many midterm elections, the President's party lost seats to the opposition, in this case, Democrats lost seats to Republicans, although a narrow majority was retained   Many of these Republican pickups were in the industrializing Midwest states, where the debate over tariffs, which were advocated by Republicans to protect domestic industry but opposed by Democrats to allow for free agricultural trade, led to political change  The small Labor Party, supported by industrial workers, gained one seat each in Virginia and Wisconsin, while the Greenback Party maintained its one seat in Iowa (James B  Weaver)  One Independent was also elected in North Carolina 

Election summaries
There were 2 Labor and 1 Independent members elected, and 1 Greenback member re-elected  The previous election saw just the Greenback elected 

Special elections
Election dates
In all the states except three, elections were held November 2, 1886  Those three states, with 7 seats among them, held elections:

June 7, 1886: Oregon
September 7, 1886: Vermont
September 10, 1886: Maine

Alabama
Arkansas
Arizona Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

California
Colorado
Connecticut
Dakota Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

New York
North Carolina
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Utah Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Vermont
Virginia
Washington Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wisconsin elected nine members of congress on Election Day, November 2, 1886 

Wyoming Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below 

Non-voting members
See also
1886 United States elections
1886–87 United States Senate elections
49th United States Congress
50th United States Congress

Notes



ground_truth: January 2015