prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What year did the publisher of Labyrinth end?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Labyrinth (1984 video game)
Labyrinth is an action-adventure game published in 1984 by Acornsoft for the BBC Micro  Its author, Michael Mathison, describes it as: 

an amalgam of what I'd seen and liked visually and I wanted to make something like an 'arcade' version of an adventure game - with lots of creatures and lots of running around shooting at things but also with some simple puzzle elements 

Gameplay
Labyrinth consists of a complex labyrinth made up of multiple levels  Each level is made up of a number of rooms, with the player only able to see a single room at any one time  Doorways are provided allowing the player to move between rooms 
Each level contains two special rooms: the "Gate Room," and the "Key Room"  The Gate Room contains the doorway to the next level which is barred by a deadly forcefield  The Key Room contains a magical crystal which will remove the forcefield, and is generally the most well-guarded and dangerous room in the level 
Rooms are populated with a variety of monsters which become more dangerous as the player progresses through the game as they move more quickly, shoot at the player, or lay poisonous mushrooms  The player can choose to avoid the various monsters (though they may well follow the player through the labyrinth), or try to kill them by shooting at them (though some monsters are invulnerable in this way and reflect the shots back), or squash them with a "boulder" that the player is able to push around with them as they travel (trickier and more risky than shooting and therefore scores more points)   Colliding with a monster will kill it but causes the player to lose health, often leading to the player's death 
Different types of fruit are scattered throughout the labyrinth, which will increase the player's health when eaten  The player slowly loses health at all times while in the Labyrinth, and will eventually die if they don't progress through the game 

Legacy
In 1987 the game was reissued on Superior Software's Acornsoft Hits compilation 
Passage 2:
The Sense of an Ending
The Sense of an Ending is a 2011 novel written by British author Julian Barnes  The book is Barnes's eleventh novel written under his own name (he has also written crime fiction under the pseudonym Dan Kavanagh) and was released on 4 August 2011 in the United Kingdom  The Sense of an Ending is narrated by a retired man named Tony Webster, who recalls how he and his clique met Adrian Finn at school and vowed to remain friends for life  When the past catches up with Tony, he reflects on the paths he and his friends have taken  In October 2011, The Sense of an Ending was awarded the Booker Prize  The following month it was nominated in the novels category at the Costa Book Awards 

Publication and marketing
The Sense of an Ending is Barnes's eleventh novel and was released in hardback on 4 August 2011   The Sense of an Ending is published by Random House (as a Jonathan Cape publication) in the United Kingdom  The book was released in October 2011 in the United States, after its previously scheduled publication date for the United States was brought forward by three months by Random House's Knopf publishing group to capitalise on the shortlisting of the book as a candidate for the Booker prize  Suzanne Dean designed the cover for The Sense of an Ending  The cover shows floating dandelion seeds, with its edge and the edges of all the pages blackened 

Title
The title is shared by a book of the same name by Frank Kermode first published in 1967, subtitled Studies in the Theory of Fiction, the stated aim of which is "making sense of the ways we try to make sense of our lives"  Kermode's book is a well-received piece of literary criticism  Critic Colin Burrow called it one of "the three most inspiring works of literary criticism written in the twentieth century", comparing Kermode's work with Erich Auerbach's Mimesis and E  R  Curtius's European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages Barnes has stated his choice of title was coincidental with that of Kermode, of whose book he had not previously heard, and which he has never read  He came up with the title before one of his friends pointed out that it had been used already, but decided "there's no copyright in titles"   Notwithstanding which, several reviewers described the novel as being "in conversation" with Kermode    For example, the critic Boyd Tonkin adds the additional interpretation that Barnes's "show-off" characters could be typical readers of Kermode's work 

Reception
The Sense of an Ending has received mostly positive reviews from critics  Michael Prodger of The Financial Times said the novel's inclusion on the Man Booker Prize longlist was "absolutely merited" and he praised the intricate mechanism of the novel and said Barnes's writing is "founded on precision as well as on the nuances of language "
Prodger added "Its brevity, however, in no way compromises its intensity – every word has its part to play; with great but invisible skill Barnes squeezes into it not just a sense of the infinite complexity of the human heart but the damage the wrong permutations can cause when combined  It is perhaps his greatest achievement that, in his hands, the unknowable does not mean the implausible " The Guardian's Justine Jordan said "With its patterns and repetitions, scrutinising its own workings from every possible angle, the novella becomes a highly wrought meditation on ageing, memory and regret " Boyd Tonkin from The Independent said The Sense of an Ending is "A slow burn, measured but suspenseful, this compact novel makes every slyly crafted sentence count " Anita Brookner, writing for The Daily Telegraph, said the novel is not a thriller, but a tragedy, which resembles Henry James's The Turn of the Screw  She opined that Barnes's reputation would be enhanced by the novel and added, "Do not be misled by its brevity  Its mystery is as deeply embedded as the most archaic of memories "Entertainment Weekly's Stephen Lee gave The Sense of an Ending a B+ and said "Barnes's latest—a meditation on memory and aging—occasionally feels more like a series of wise, underline-worthy insights than a novel  But the many truths he highlights make it worthy of a careful read " Robert McCrum writing for The Observer thought the novel would win the Man Booker Prize because it is "a work of art, in a minor key " During a feature on the 2011 Man Booker Prize nominees, the Channel 4 newsroom team gave The Sense of an Ending a nine out of ten for readability and said "It's beautifully written, very readable, and raises questions which linger in the mind long after the covers are closed " Geordie Williamson from The Australian said the novel is a pleasure to read and explained there is "a fierce and unforgiving lucidity about The Sense of an Ending, a mature reckoning with ageing that makes its competitors seem petulant and shrill " Geoff Dyer in The New York Times said the novel is average at best  "It is averagely compelling     involves an average amount of concentration and, if such a thing makes sense, is averagely well written: excellent in its averageness!" David Sexton in The Spectator drew a comparison between the narrator of the novel and the "unreliable narrator" of Ford Madox Ford's The Good Soldier, for which – he noted – Barnes wrote an introduction to the Folio Society edition  Although Sexton praised Barnes's skill, "Yet this novella does not move or satisfy     It is a story repelled by the responsibility of having children, and its final disclosure is offputting     where's the heart?"

Awards and nominations
In September 2011, The Sense of an Ending was shortlisted for the Booker Prize  Barnes had been shortlisted for the prize on three previous occasions for Flaubert's Parrot (1984), England, England (1998) and Arthur & George (2005)  On choosing The Sense of an Ending for the shortlist, judge Gaby Wood said: "It seems to be the most obvious book on this list  It's a quiet book, but the shock that comes doesn't break stride with the tone of the rest of the book  In purely technical terms it is one of the most masterful things I've ever read " On 18 October 2011, The Sense of an Ending was awarded the Booker Prize  Head judge Stella Rimington described the novel as "exquisitely written, subtly plotted and reveals new depths with each reading " She added: "We thought it was a book that spoke to the humankind in the 21st Century "On 15 November 2011, it was announced The Sense of an Ending had been nominated in the Best Novel category at the 2011 Costa Book Awards, though the book lost out to Andrew Miller's novel, Pure 

Film adaptation

A film adaptation of the same name made its world premiere as the opening film at the Palm Springs International Film Festival in Palm Springs, California, on 5 January 2017  The limited US release began on 10 March 2017  It was directed by Ritesh Batra from a screenplay adaptation by Nick Payne with a cast including Michelle Dockery, Emily Mortimer, Jim Broadbent, Charlotte Rampling, and Harriet Walter 
Passage 3:
Indianapolis News
The Indianapolis News was an evening newspaper published for 130 years, beginning December 7, 1869, and ending on October 1, 1999   The "Great Hoosier Daily," as it was known, at one time held the largest circulation in the state of Indiana   It was also the oldest Indianapolis newspaper until it closed and was housed in the Indianapolis News Building from 1910 to 1949 : 3–5  After Eugene C  Pulliam, the founder and president of Central Newspapers acquired the News in 1948, he became its publisher, while his son, Eugene S  Pulliam, served as the newspaper's managing editor  Eugene S  Pulliam succeeded his father as publisher of the News in 1975 The Indianapolis News was an evening paper, and its decline matched a growing circulation of the morning newspaper, the Indianapolis Star  Prior to the closing, there had been a partial merging of the newspaper staff with the Star 

Notable staff members
Medford Stanton Evans (1934–2015) was an award-winning journalist, educator, and author who became the head editorial writer for the News in 1959  He was promoted to editor of the News in 1960, at the age twenty-six, and became the youngest editor of a metropolitan daily newspaper at that time  Because of his editorial at the News, Evans was selected in 1960 to draft the Sharon Statement, which outlined the founding principles for the Young Americans for Freedom  The conservative writer remained as editor of the News through 1974, when he left the city and became a nationally syndicated columnist for The Los Angeles Times  Evans also taught journalism as Troy University in Troy, Alabama, for more than thirty years  Among his many other activities, Evans lead the American Conservative Union from 1971 to 1977, authored several books, and founded the National Journalism Center in 1977 in Washington, D C 
Frank McKinney "Kin" Hubbard (1868–1930) was a nationally known American cartoonist, humorist, and journalist whose most famous work was the Abe Martin cartoon series  Hubbard  introduced his Abe Martin character to Indianapolis News readers on December 17, 1904, and it appeared six days a week on the back page of the newspaper for twenty-six years  Hubbard also originated and illustrated a once-a-week humor essay for the "Short Furrows" column in the Sunday edition  The Abe Martin cartoon series went into national print syndication in 1910 and the "Short Furrows" column went into syndication the following year  For years after Hubbard's death in 1930, the News and other newspapers continued to print his Abe Martin cartoon series 
Eugene S  Pulliam (1914–1999) began working at the News as its managing editor in 1948 and rose through the managerial ranks to become assistant publisher of the Indianapolis News and the Star  in 1962  He succeeded his father, Eugene C  Pulliam, as publisher of both newspapers in 1975  Known for his advocacy for First Amendment rights and freedom of the press, Eugene S  Pulliam remained the publisher of the News and the Star  until his death in 1999  He also became president of Central Newspapers in 1979 following the death of his stepmother, Nina Mason Pulliam 
Juliet V  Strauss (1863–1918) was a well-known journalist, author, and public speaker from Rockville, Indiana, who wrote a regular weekly column for the News using the pseudonym of "The Country Contributor" from November 1903 until her death in May 1918  Strauss also was a leader in efforts to generate public and state government support to establish Turkey Run State Park in Parke County, Indiana, in 1916 as Indiana's second state park  She began her journalism career as a regular newspaper columnist at the Rockville Tribune in 1893  In addition to her regular newspaper columns, Strauss authored "The Ideas of a Plain Country Woman," a monthly column for the Ladies' Home Journal from 1905 until 1918  She was also a founder in 1913 of the Woman's Press Club of Indiana 
Passage 4:
Someone in the Dark
Someone in the Dark is a collection of fantasy and horror short stories by author August Derleth  It was released in 1941 and was the second book published by Arkham House   1,115 copies were printed, priced at $2 00  In Thirty Years of Arkham House, Derleth implied that this title had sold out by the end of 1944 
However, more than twenty years later, in 1967, Derleth listed Someone in the Dark in an Arkham House bulletin with this announcement: "We have acquired a small stock of this title, Derleth's first collection of macabre tales, published in 1941  They will be sold at $5 00 the copy to patrons interested in acquiring the book   "
Derleth was being disingenuous in suggesting these 'unearthed' copies were the 1941 edition   The additional 300 copies were printed in offset by Hunter Publishing Co  in Winston-Salem in 1965, the reprint probably authorized by Derleth himself   (In The Arkham House Companion, Sheldon Jaffery quotes a letter that seems to indicate this)  The 1965 reprint are a quarter-inch higher than the originals, and are bound with headbands (not present in the 1941 first editions) 
The 1965 edition is scarce  While it is not generally considered an official Arkham House publication, it is considered an essential acquisition for Arkham House completists 
A paperback reprint was issued by Jove Books in 1978 

Contents
Someone in the Dark contains the following tales:

"When the Night and House "
"Glory Hand"
"Compliments of Spectro"
"A Gift for Uncle Herman"
"McGovern's Obsession"
"Three Gentlemen in Black"
"Muggridge's Aunt"
"Bramwell's Guardian"
"Joliper's Gift"
"Altimer's Amulet"
"The Shuttered House"
"The Sheraton Mirror"
"The Wind from the River"
"The Telephone in the Library"
"The Panelled Room"
"The Return of Hastur"
"The Sandwin Compact"

Reception
E  F  Bleiler noted that "the local, regionalistic American stories are best, while those in imitation of Lovecraft are weakest"  New York Times reviewer Louise Maunsell Field gave the collection a relatively favorable review, saying that "The stories are for the most part well told, and lovers of tales of the occult will find the volume entertaining and congenial, although it has little of either sensitivity or beauty " Thrilling Wonder Stories commented that "Mr  Derleth writes quietly and with restraint, in beautifully measured sentences that stick to the essentials of the story he has to tell  His very restraint sometimes plays a trick on him -- and makes his writing appear at time to lack fire" 
Passage 5:
Minotaur: The Labyrinths of Crete
Minotaur: The Labyrinths of Crete is a 1992 role-playing adventure video game for Macintosh by Bungie; produced by Jason Jones and Alex Seropian  The game distinguished itself from other games of its time by including a multiplayer mode that functioned over the AppleTalk protocol or Point-to-Point Protocol  A single-player exploration mode was also available, but this mode had no end goal and was useful to discover how the various items found in the maze operated  The game originated in 1988 as an Apple game played over a modem between two opponents, but was never officially released on that platform 
The game's tagline was "Kill your enemies  Kill your friends' enemies  Kill your friends"  This tagline has reappeared as a description in the multiplayer menu screens for some of Bungie's other games, such as Myth: The Fallen Lords and Halo 3 
Bungie later licensed Minotaur's game engine to the studio Paranoid Productions (Richard Rouse) who used it to create Odyssey: The Legend of Nemesis, released in 1996 

Reception
Computer Gaming World favorably reviewed Minotaur although criticizing its not using the mouse and lack of a single-player option, and concluded that "a group of dedicated opponents [that] enjoy fast-thinking and ad-lib strategizing will find long-lasting enjoyment from this game"  The game was reviewed in 1992 in Dragon #188 by Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser in "The Role of Computers" column  The reviewers gave the game 4 out of 5 stars  The game sold 2,500 copies 

See also
Pathways into Darkness, originally to be a sequel to this game
Passage 6:
Crónicas
Crónicas ("chronicles") is a 2004 Ecuadorian thriller film, written and directed by Sebastián Cordero  The film was produced by, among others, Guillermo del Toro, director of Pan's Labyrinth, and Alfonso Cuarón, director of Children of Men  It was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival 

Overview
Set in rural Ecuador, the movie follows a television journalist named Manolo Bonilla (played by John Leguizamo) as he investigates the rape and murder of children in the area  The film also stars Leonor Watling and José María Yazpik as Manolo's producer and cameraman, respectively  The film was the official Oscar selection from Ecuador in the Best Foreign Language category 

Plot summary
After traveling to a small village in Ecuador, Miami tabloid news reporter Manolo Bonilla (Leguizamo) witnesses the death of a local boy after Vinicio Cepeda, a traveling salesman, hits the boy with his pickup truck  When Cepeda attempts to back his truck away from the boy, a mob, led by the boy's father, Don Lucho, pulls him from his car, severely beats him, and sets him on fire before the local authorities intervene  After both men are arrested, Cepeda is examined at the jail infirmary and taken to his cell where, later that night, he is attacked by Don Lucho and severely injured 
The next morning Manolo Bonilla comes to the prison to interview the men involved  After agreeing to an interview alongside Cepeda, Lucho attacks Cepeda a second time and is taken away  The interview with Cepeda is cancelled due to concerns about Manolo's safety; however, before the reporter leaves, Cepeda notifies him that he has information on the Monster of Babahoyo, a notorious murderer and rapist in the area, and tells him the location where one of the murderer's victims, a nine-year-old girl, is buried  Manolo agrees to interview Cepeda and attempts to free him from prison in exchange for information about the murders  Later that evening Manolo and his cameraman Ivan drive to the location Cepeda mentioned and dig up a shallow grave, indeed containing the body of a small girl 
Over the following days Manolo begins interviewing Cepeda, as well as Cepeda’s wife, son, and babysitter  While interviewing Cepeda, Manolo begins to suspect that Cepeda is, in fact, the Monster of Babahoyo and using him to exonerate himself  After Manolo attempts to get Cepeda to incriminate himself, Cepeda tells him to leave and never come back  Manolo then informs Cepeda that the interview which would free him will not be aired 
Manolo calls the authorities and tells them that he had been receiving anonymous calls about the location of the girl's grave   He discovers circumstantial evidence placing Cepeda at the locations of the murders on the dates they occurred; however, despite Manolo's request, the news agency airs Cepeda's interviews which help set Cepeda free  After being interviewed by authorities, Manolo and his crew return to Cepeda's home in search of him only to find that he left his pregnant wife alone at their house and took their son to school before leaving the area  Manolo is offered his own show on the news network and, after deciding against turning over the evidence to the police, the team arrives at the airport and parts ways 

Cast
John Leguizamo as Manolo Bonilla
Leonor Watling as Marisa Iturralde
Damián Alcázar as Vinicio Cepeda
José María Yazpik as Iván Suárez
Alfred Molina as Victor Hugo Puentes
Henry Layana as Don Lucho
Tamara Navas as Doña Etelvina
Washington Garzón as Joseph Juan
Rosa Alina Ortiz as Amiga Don Lucho
Raymundo Zambrano as Cura
Camilo Luzuriaga as Capitán Bolivar Rojas
Peki Andino as Sargento Saltos (as Peky Andino)
Luiggi Pulla as Robert

Awards
Crónicas was Ecuador's submission to the 77th Academy Awards for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, but was not accepted as a nominee 

See also
List of submissions to the 77th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
Passage 7:
Fiscal year
A fiscal year (or financial year, or sometimes budget year) is used in government accounting, which varies between countries, and for budget purposes  It is also used for financial reporting by businesses and other organizations  Laws in many jurisdictions require company financial reports to be prepared and published on an annual basis but generally with the reporting period not aligning with the calendar year (1 January to 31 December)  Taxation laws generally require accounting records to be maintained and taxes calculated on an annual basis, which usually corresponds to the fiscal year used for government purposes  The calculation of tax on an annual basis is especially relevant for direct taxes, such as income tax  Many annual government fees—such as council tax and license fees, are also levied on a fiscal year basis, but others are charged on an anniversary basis 
Some companies, such as Cisco Systems, end their fiscal year on the same day of the week each year: the day that is closest to a particular date (for example, the Friday closest to 31 December)  Under such a system, some fiscal years have 52 weeks and others 53 weeks The calendar year is used as the fiscal year by about 65% of publicly-traded companies in the United States and for most large corporations in the United Kingdom  That is the case in many countries around the world with a few exceptions such as Australia, New Zealand, and Japan Many universities have a fiscal year which ends during the summer to align the fiscal year with the academic year (and, in some cases involving public universities, with the state government's fiscal year) and also because the university is normally less busy during the summer months  In the Northern Hemisphere, that is July to the next June  In the Southern Hemisphere, that is the calendar year, January to December  In a similar fashion, many nonprofit performing arts organizations will have a fiscal year which ends during the summer, so that their performance season that begins in the fall and ends in the spring will be within one fiscal year 
Some media/communication-based organizations use a broadcast calendar as the basis for their fiscal year 

Chart of various fiscal years
Tax year
The fiscal year for individuals and entities to report and pay income taxes is often known as the taxpayer's tax year or taxable year   Taxpayers in many jurisdictions may choose their tax year  Some federal countries, such as Canada and Switzerland, require the provincial or cantonal tax year to align with the federal year  In the United States, most states retained a 30 June fiscal year-end date when the federal government switched to 30 September in 1976  Nearly all jurisdictions require that the tax year be 12 months or 52/53 weeks  However, short years are permitted as the first year or when changing tax years Most countries require all individuals to pay income tax based on the calendar year   Significant exceptions include:

Australia: individuals pay income tax based on the financial year of 1 July until 30 June 
United Kingdom: the tax year for individuals begins on 6 April  This is due to Britain historically having a calendar year starting on Lady Day (25 March) in the Julian calendar but a fiscal year ending on that day  When the UK adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752, 25 March translated to 5 April and 26 March to 6 April  (See History of taxation in the United Kingdom#Why the United Kingdom income tax year begins on 6 April for more detailed explanation )
United States: individuals may (but rarely do) elect any tax year, subject to IRS approval Many jurisdictions require that the tax year conform to the taxpayer's fiscal year for financial reporting  The United States is a notable exception: taxpayers may choose any tax year, but must keep books and records for such year 

Operation in various countries/region
In some jurisdictions, particularly those that permit tax consolidation, companies that are part of a group of businesses must use nearly the same fiscal year (differences of up to three months are permitted in some jurisdictions, such as the U S  and Japan), with consolidating entries to adjust for transactions between units with different fiscal years, so the same resources will not be counted more than once or not at all 

Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, from 2011 to 2021, the fiscal year began on 1 Hamal (20th or 21 March)  The fiscal year aligned with the Persian or Solar Hijri calendar used in Afghanistan at the time 
Following transfer of power to the Taliban administration in September 2021, Afghanistan abandoned the Solar Hijri calendar in favour of the Lunar Hijri calendar  The fiscal cycle was restarted with effect from 1 Muharram 1444 AH (30 July 2022)

Australia
In Australia, a fiscal year is commonly called a "financial year" (FY) and starts on 1 July and ends on the next 30 June  Financial years are designated by the calendar year of the second half of the period  For example, financial year 2024 is the 12-month period ending on 30 June 2024 and can be referred to as FY2023/24  It is used for official purposes, by individual taxpayers and by the overwhelming majority of business enterprises  Business enterprises may opt to use a financial year that ends at the end of a week (e g , 52 or 53 weeks in length, and therefore is not exactly one calendar year in length), or opt for its financial year to end on a date that matches the reporting cycle of its foreign parent  All entities within the one group must use the same financial year 
For government accounting and budget purposes, pre-Federation colonies changed the financial year from the calendar year to a year ending 30 June on the following dates: Victoria changed in 1870, South Australia in 1874, Queensland in 1875, Western Australia in 1892, New South Wales in 1895 and Tasmania in 1904  The Commonwealth adopted the near-ubiquitous financial year standard since its inception in 1901  The reason given for the change was for convenience, as Parliament typically sits during May and June, while it was difficult for it to meet in November and December to pass a budget The Financial year is split into the following four-quarters

Austria
In Austria, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, the fiscal year is 1 July to the next 30 June 

Belarus
In Belarus, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Brazil
In Brazil, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Bulgaria
In Bulgaria, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December, both for personal income tax and for corporate taxes 

Canada
In Canada, the government's financial year is 1 April to 31 March (Q1 1 April - 30 June, Q2 1 July - 30 Sept, Q3 1 Oct - 31 Dec and Q4 1 Jan - 31 Mar)
For individual taxpayers, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

China
In China, the fiscal year for all entities is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December, and applies to the tax year, statutory year, and planning year 

Colombia
In Colombia, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Costa Rica
In Costa Rica, the fiscal year is 1 October to 30 September 

Egypt
In Egypt, the fiscal year is 1 July to 30 June 

France
In France, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December, and has been since at least 1911 

Germany
In Germany, the fiscal year runs from 1st January until 31st December 

Greece
In Greece, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, the government's financial year runs from 1 April to 31 March However, a company incorporated in Hong Kong can determine its own financial year-end, which may be different from the government fiscal year 

India
In India, the government's financial year runs from 1 April to 31 March the following year  The financial year from 1 April 2020 to 31 March 2021 would generally be abbreviated as FY 2020-21, but it may also be called FY 2021 on the basis of the ending year  Companies following the Indian Depositary Receipt (IDR) are given freedom to choose their financial year  For example, Standard Chartered's IDR follows the UK calendar despite being listed in India  Companies following Indian fiscal year get to know their economic health on 31 March of every Indian financial or fiscal year 
The current fiscal year was adopted by the colonial British government in 1867 to align India's financial year with that of the British Empire  Prior to 1867, India followed a fiscal year that ran from 1 May to 30 April In 1984, the LK Jha committee recommended adopting a fiscal year that ran from 1 January to 31 December  However, this proposal was not adopted by the government fearing possible issues during the transition period  A panel set up by the NITI Aayog in July 2016, recommended starting the next fiscal year from 1 January to 31 December after the end of the current five-year plan On 4 May 2017, Madhya Pradesh announced that it would move to a January–December financial year, becoming the first Indian state to do so  But later it dropped the idea 

Indonesia
In Indonesia, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Iran
In Iran, the fiscal year usually starts on 21st or 22 March (1st of Farvardin in the Solar Hejri calendar) and concludes on next year's 20th or 21 March (29th or 30th of Esfand in the Solar Hijri calendar) 

Ireland
In Ireland, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December  Until 2001, it was the year ending 5 April, as in the United Kingdom, but was changed with the introduction of the euro  The 2001 tax year was nine months, from April to December 

Israel
In Israel, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Italy
In Italy, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December  It was changed in 1965, before which it was 1 July to 30 June 

Japan
In Japan, the government's financial year is from 1 April to 31 March Japan's income tax year is 1 January to 31 December, but corporate tax is charged according to the corporation's own annual period 

Lithuania
In Lithuania, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Macau
In Macau, the government's financial year is 1 January to 31 December 

Mexico
In Mexico, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Moldova
In Moldova, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Myanmar/Burma
In Myanmar, the fiscal year is 1 October to 30 September 

Nepal
In Nepal, the fiscal year is July 16 (1 Shrawan in Bikram calendar) to July 15 (31 Ashad in Bikram calendar) 

New Zealand
In New Zealand, the government's fiscal and financial reporting year is 1 July to the next 30 June and applies also to the budget  The company and personal financial year is 1 April to 31 March and applies to company and personal income tax 

Pakistan
In Pakistan, the government's fiscal year is 1 July of the previous calendar year and concludes on 30 June  Private companies are free to observe their own accounting year, which may not be the same as government's fiscal year 

Philippines
In the Philippines, the government's fiscal year is the calendar year, from 1 January to 31 December The accounting period for the private sector must follow a 12-month fiscal period which can or can not be synchronized with the calendar year  Most Philippine companies end their fiscal years in December or March 

Poland
In Poland, the fiscal year is the calendar year, from 1 January to 31 December 

Portugal
In Portugal, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Qatar
In Qatar, the fiscal year is from 1 January to 31 December 

Romania
In Romania, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Russia
In Russia, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Singapore
In Singapore, the fiscal year for the calculation of personal income taxes is 1 January to 31 December The fiscal year for the Government of Singapore and many government-linked corporations is 1 April to 31 March Corporations and organisations are permitted to select any date as the end of each fiscal year, as long as this date remains constant  However, new companies should consciously choose their financial year end to stretch as much as a duration of 12 months as possible 

South Africa
In South Africa, the financial year for the Government of South Africa is 1 April to 31 March The year of assessment for individuals covers twelve months, 1 March to the final day of February the following year  The Act also provides for certain classes of taxpayers to have a year of assessment ending on a day other than the last day of February  Companies are permitted to have a tax year ending on a date that coincides with their financial year  Many older companies still use a tax year that runs from 1 July to 30 June, inherited from the British system  A common practice for newer companies is to run their tax year from 1 March to the final day of February following, to synchronize with the tax year for individuals 

South Korea
In South Korea, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Spain
In Spain, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Sweden
In Sweden, the fiscal year for individuals is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December The fiscal year for an organisation is typically one of the following:

1 January to 31 December
1 May to 30 April
1 July to 30 June
1 September to 31 AugustHowever, all calendar months are allowed  If an organisation wishes to change into a non-calendar year, permission from the Tax Authority is required 

Switzerland
In Switzerland, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Taiwan
In Taiwan, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December  However, an enterprise may elect to adopt a special fiscal year at the time it is established and can request approval from the tax authorities to change its fiscal year 

Thailand
In Thailand, the government's fiscal year (FY) is 1 October to 30 September of the following year  For individual taxpayers it is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Turkey
In Turkey, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Ukraine
In Ukraine, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

United Arab Emirates
In the United Arab Emirates, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the financial year runs from 1 April to 31 March for the purposes of government financial statements  For personal tax purposes the fiscal year starts on 6 April and ends on 5 April of the next calendar year Although United Kingdom corporation tax is charged by reference to the government's financial year, companies can adopt any year as their accounting year: if there is a change in tax rate, the taxable profit is apportioned to financial years on a time basis A number of major corporations that were once government-owned, such as BT Group and the National Grid, continue to use the government's financial year, which ends on the last day of March, as they have found no reason to change since privatisation The 5 April year end for income tax reflects the old civil and ecclesiastical calendar under which New Year began on 25 March (Lady Day)  The difference between the two dates is accounted for by the eleven days omitted in September 1752 due to the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 by which Great Britain also converted from the Julian Calendar to the Gregorian Calendar  However, although the calendar year finished on 24 March, the tax year finished a day later, on 25 March, the Quarter Day 
For a fuller explanation about the history of the United Kingdom income tax year and its start date, see History of taxation in the United Kingdom#Why the United Kingdom income tax year begins on 6 April 

United States
Federal government
In the United States, the federal government's fiscal year is the 12-month period beginning 1 October and ending 30 September the following year  The identification of a fiscal year is the calendar year in which it ends; thus, the current fiscal year is 2023, often written as "FY2023" or "FY23", which began on 1 October 2022 and will end on 30 September 2023 
Until 1976, the fiscal year began on 1 July and ended on 30 June  The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 made the change to allow Congress more time to arrive at a budget each year, and provided for what is known as the "transitional quarter" from 1 July 1976 to 30 September 1976  An earlier shift in the federal government's fiscal year was made in 1843, shifting the fiscal year from a calendar year to one starting on 1 July For example, the United States government Fiscal Year 2023 is:

1st quarter: 1 October 2022 – 31 December 2022
2nd quarter: 1 January 2023 – 31 March 2023
3rd quarter: 1 April 2023 – 30 June 2023
4th quarter: 1 July 2023 – 30 September 2023

State governments
State governments set their own fiscal year  Forty-six of the fifty states set their fiscal year to end on 30 June  Four states have fiscal years that end on a different date:

Alabama, ends 30 September
Michigan, ends 30 September
New York, ends 31 March
Texas, ends 31 AugustThe fiscal year for the Washington, D C , government ends on 30 September Among the inhabited territories of the United States, most align with the federal fiscal year, ending on 30 September  These include American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U S  Virgin Islands  Puerto Rico is the exception, with its fiscal year ending on 30 June 

Vietnam
In Vietnam, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December 

Businesses and organizations
The tax year for a business is governed by the fiscal year it chooses   A business may choose any consistent fiscal year that it wants; however, for seasonal businesses such as farming and retail, a good account practice is to end the fiscal year shortly after the highest revenue time of year   Consequently, most large agriculture companies end their fiscal years after the harvest season, and most retailers end their fiscal years shortly after the Christmas shopping season 

See also
4–4–5 calendar
Passage 8:
Headwall Pond
Headwall Pond (77°34′4″S 160°47′2″E) is a very small ice-covered pond in the Labyrinth of Wright Valley, in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica  The pond lies along a rock headwall close northeast of Craig Pond  The descriptive name was suggested by the United States Antarctic Program field party that sampled the pond in 2003–04 
Passage 9:
Acornsoft
Acornsoft was the software arm of Acorn Computers, and a major publisher of software for the BBC Micro and Acorn Electron  As well as games, it also produced a large number of educational titles, extra computer languages and business and utility packages – these included word processor VIEW and the spreadsheet ViewSheet supplied on ROM and cartridge for the BBC Micro/Acorn Electron and included as standard in the BBC Master and Acorn Business Computer 

History
Acornsoft was formed in late 1980 by Acorn Computers directors Hermann Hauser and Chris Curry, and David Johnson-Davies, author of the first game for a UK personal computer and of the official Acorn Atom manual "Atomic Theory and Practice"  David Johnson-Davies was managing director and in early 1981 was joined by Tim Dobson, Programmer and Chris Jordan, Publications Editor 
While some of their games were clones or remakes of popular arcade games (e g  Hopper is a clone of Sega's Frogger, Snapper is Namco's Pac-Man, Arcadians is Namco's Galaxian), they also published a number of original titles such as Aviator, Elite, and Revs  Acornsoft also published text adventures by authors such as Peter Killworth, including Philosopher's Quest (previously titled Brand X) and Countdown to Doom As a result of the publication of a method to circumvent copy protection measures employed by Acornsoft titles, a High Court injunction against Computing Publications - publisher of Personal Computer World - was granted to Acorn Computers "requiring all copies of the January 1984 issue of PCW to be withdrawn from sale", with the article concerned being regarded as inciting readers to "duplicate computer programs"  This injunction was subsequently lifted as a consequence of an out-of-court settlement between the parties involving a damages payment of £65,000 plus costs to Acorn "to meet Acorn's expenses in developing a new locking device"  The article's author, Guy Kewney, and the magazine's editor, Jane Bird, argued that printing a software routine showing how to save Acornsoft cassette software to disk was a service to the magazine's readers  The cost of printing the magazine issue concerned was estimated at £100,000 Acornsoft became a subsidiary within Acorn Computer Group, distinct from Acorn Computers who were responsible for the development of Acorn's microcomputer systems, but Acornsoft ceased to operate as a separate company upon the departure of David Johnson-Davies in January 1986  Past this date, Acorn Computers used the Acornsoft name on office software it released in the VIEW family for the BBC Master series  In 1986 Superior Software was granted a licence to publish some Acornsoft games and re-released many, individually and as compilations such as the Play It Again Sam and Acornsoft Hits series  By agreement, the Acornsoft name was also used on the packaging of some of the subsequent Superior games  Superior chose not to take on Acornsoft's text adventure games, most of which were released in updated versions by Topologika along with some sequels from the same authors 
In 1997, Acorn sought to revive the Acornsoft brand for new software releases, such as upgrades to RISC OS, programming tools, a new Web browser, multitasking movie playback (using Acorn Replay), and Java for RISC OS  A stated objective was to demonstrate that a "wide range of innovative software at competitive prices" was available for RISC OS, with support also being potentially offered to third-party software producers  Acornsoft products themselves would be supported by marketing, including advertising, and the provision of press review samples 

Branding
Acornsoft titles extended their consistent branding to the software's loading screens 

Select titles
Acheton – A text adventure
Arcadians – A Galaxian clone
Aviator – A Spitfire flight simulator  With aliens   
Black Box & Gambit - 2 board game type games which were the winning entries of a 'design a game' competition on ITV's The Saturday Show  Black Box was a licensed version of the Waddingtons game of the same name developed by Ben Finn who would go on to co-write Sibelius  Gambit was created by the Oliver Twins and their first commercially released game
Bouncer – A Q*Bert clone
Business Games – An educational package
Carousel – A Carnival clone
Castle of Riddles – A text adventure
Countdown to Doom – A text adventure; first in a trilogy (although sequels Return to Doom and Last Days of Doom were not published by Acornsoft)
Crazy Tracer – An Amidar clone
Creative Graphics – A series of graphical demonstrations of the BBC Micro's visual capabilities, with user editable code
Drogna – Strategy game based on a section of the BBC TV game show The Adventure Game
Elite – A 3D space battle and trading game
Firebug – A platform and ladders game
Free Fall – Survival game set in an out of control space station
Gateway to Karos – A text adventure
Graphs and Charts – Graphical mathematical modelling
Hopper – A Frogger clone
JCB Digger – A scrolling 2D dig-em-up
Kingdom of Hamil – A text adventure
Labyrinth – A 2D maze based shoot-em-up
Magic Mushrooms – A platform and ladders game with built-in level editor
Meteor Mission – A Lunar Rescue clone
Meteors – An Asteroids clone
Missile Base – A Missile Command clone
Monsters – A Space Panic clone
Philosopher's Quest – A text adventure
Planetoid – A Defender clone originally released as Defender
Revs – A Formula Three racing car simulation
Rocket Raid – A Scramble clone
Snapper – A Pac-Man clone
Sphinx Adventure – A text adventure
Starship Command – A 2D space battle game
Super Invaders – A Space Invaders clone
Volcano – A game in which you rescue people from the other side of an active volcano with a helicopter

Acornsoft Games range
Including all arcade, text adventure and board games  All games were compatible with the BBC Micro Model B  Games followed by Model A & B were compatible with both machines  Games followed by Electron were also released separately for the Acorn Electron  Games are listed by their catalogue numbers which are roughly the order of release of the BBC versions 

G01 Philosopher's Quest (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G02 Defender (BBC 1982) deleted for legal reasons and later re-released as Planetoid
G02 Aviator (BBC 1983) released with G26-G28 but re-used the deleted Defender's number
G03 Monsters (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G04 Snapper (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G05 Rocket Raid (BBC 1982)
G06 Arcade Action (BBC Model A & B 1982) 4 games: Invaders, Breakout, Dodgems and Snake
G07 Sphinx Adventure (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G08 Cube Master (BBC 1982)
G09 JCB Digger (BBC 1983)
G10 Chess (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G11 Maze (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G12 Sliding-Block Puzzles (BBC 1982)
G13 Meteors (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
G14 Arcadians (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G15 Planetoid (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G16 Super Invaders (BBC 1982)
G17 Castle of Riddles (BBC 1982, Electron 1984)
G18 Missile Base (BBC 1982)
G19 Countdown to Doom (BBC 1982, Electron ROM Cartridge 1984)
G20 Draughts & Reversi (BBC Model A & B 1983, Electron 1983)
G21 Snooker (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G22 Starship Command (BBC 1983, Electron 1983)
G23 Hopper (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G24 Carousel (BBC 1983)
G25 Kingdom of Hamil (BBC 1983)
G26 Crazy Tracer (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G27 Drogna (BBC 1983)
G28 Free Fall (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
G29 Meteor Mission (BBC 1984)
G30 Gateway to Karos (BBC 1983)
G31 Boxer (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G32 Tetrapod (BBC 1984)
G33 Volcano (BBC 1984)
G34 Black Box & Gambit (BBC 1984)
G35 Bouncer (BBC 1984)
G36 The Seventh Star (BBC 1984)
G37 Acheton (BBC 1984)
G38 Elite (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G39 Firebug (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G40 Quondam (BBC 1984)
G41 Labyrinth (BBC 1984)
G42 Go (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
G43 Revs (BBC 1985)
G44 Revs 4 Tracks (BBC 1985) extra tracks for the main game
G45 Elite original BBC Micro 6502 Second Processor version
G46 Magic Mushrooms (BBC 1985, Electron 1985)
G47 Elite enhanced (BBC 1986) incl  6502 Second Processor and Master 128 versionsThere are also a number of completed but unreleased games that have found their way into the public domain such as Crazy Balloon, Hellforce and Bandit that date from around 1983 

Acornsoft Education range
Acornsoft produced a wide range of educational titles aimed at many different age groups 

E01 Algebraic Manipulation (BBC Model A & B 198?)
E02 Peeko-Computer (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984)
E03 Business Games (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984) 2 games: Stokmark and Telemark
E04 Tree of Knowledge (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
E05 Word Hunt (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
E06 Word Sequencing (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984)
E07 Sentence Sequencing (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
E08 Number Balance (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
E09 Missing Signs (BBC Model A & B 198?, Electron 1984)
E?? Speed and Light (BBC 198?)
E?? Density and Circuit (BBC 198?)
E12 Chemical Analysis (BBC 198?)
E13 Chemical Simulations (BBC 198?)
E14 Chemical Structures (BBC 198?)
E15 Jars (BBC 198?)
E16 Temperature Control Simulation (BBC 1983)
E17 The Examiner (BBC 198?)
E18 Spooky Manor (BBC 198?)
E19
E20
E21
E22 Talkback (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
E23 Workshop (BBC 1984, Electron 1984)
E24 ABC (BBC 1984)Acornsoft also published and distributed a range of educational software developed by ASK (Applied Systems Knowledge) that were widely used in schools running BBC Micros  These included Podd (find out which actions a red blobby character can perform (e g  jump, smile, dance), Squeeze (a two player strategy game of squeezing shapes onto a board) and Cranky (solve maths problems to repair a living calculator)  These titles were part of the Acornsoft catalogue but used a different code (XBE?? – all other Acornsoft titles began with S so the Education range on BBC Micro cassettes would be SBE??)  They ran on both the BBC Micro Model B and Acorn Electron 
The Ivan Berg Software range was also mainly educational but had its own distinct code (XBX??)  This included the 6 Grandmaster Quizzes (Theatre, Crime & Detection, Music, History, Science Fiction and Royal), relationship aids "  I Do" Your Guide to a Happy Marriage and The Dating Game and GCE/CSE revision guides (Mathematics, Biology and English) 
Acornsoft also distributed other ranges of educational programs developed by companies such as ICL, Good Housekeeping and Bourne but they are not considered part of the official catalogue 

Acornsoft Business range
Acornsoft produced a range of office software for home and business use 

B01 Desk Diary (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
B02 Forecast (BBC 198?)
B03 VIEW (BBC 198?, Electron ROM cartridge 1984)
B04 VIEW Printer Drivers (BBC 198?)
B05 Personal Money Management (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
B06 Database (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
B07 ViewSheet (BBC 1984, Electron ROM cartridge 1984)
B08 Invoicing (BBC 1984)
B09 Mailing (BBC 1984)
B10 Accounts Receivable (BBC 1984)
B11 Stock Control (BBC 1984)
B12 Order Processing (BBC 1984)
B13 Accounts Payable (BBC 1984)
B14 Purchasing (BBC 1984)
B15 Hi-View (BBC 19??)
B26 P-System (BBC with 6502 Second Processor)The series continues but mainly with add-on products for the VIEW word processor such as ViewIndex (an automatic index generator) and ViewSpell (spell-checker) as well as newer versions 
View Professional (1987) was a combined wordprocessor, spreadsheet and database similar to PipeDream on the Z88 Although primarily a programming language suite, Acornsoft released its P-System product featuring UCSD Pascal and Fortran 77 compilers as part of its business range  Developed by TDI for Acornsoft, the product required a 6502 second processor and disc system, preferably with two drives  Despite the £299 price, various tools including an assembler and linker were omitted from the product, these being made available in a separate Advanced Development Toolkit from TDI 

Acornsoft Languages range
Acorn systems came with a version of the BBC BASIC programming language as standard but Acornsoft also produced a wide range of other languages that could be loaded in by cassette or disc or in some cases, supplied in ROM form 

L01 FORTH (BBC 1982, Electron 1983)
L02 LISP (BBC 1982, Electron 1983, Electron ROM cartridge 1984)
L03 BCPL (BBC 1983)
L04 Microtext (BBC 1983)
L05 6502 Development System (BBC 1985)
L06 Logo (BBC 1983, Electron ROM cartridge 1985)
L07 Turtle Graphics (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
L08 S-Pascal (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
L09 LISP Demonstrations (BBC 1984)
L10 BCPL Calculations Package (BBC 198?)
L11
L12 BCPL Stand Alone Generator (BBC 1983)
L13 FORTH – ROM version (BBC 1984)
L14 LISP – ROM version (BBC 1982)
L15
L16
L17 PROLOG Micro (BBC 1985)
L18 ISO-Pascal (BBC 1984, Electron ROM cartridge 1985)
L19 COMAL (BBC 1984) 
L20
L21
L22 BASIC Editor (BBC 1985)
L23 Termulator (BBC 1987)
L24 ISO-Pascal Stand Alone Generator (BBC 198?)The relative performance of some of Acornsoft's languages was evaluated using a benchmark based on the Takeuchi function, Tak by former Acornsoft managing director, David Johnson-Davies, noting that "it is difficult to imagine a language that performs badly on Tak being much use for anything", illustrating a diversity amongst these language implementations in terms of readability, speed and generated code size  A follow-up article expanded the comparison to other language implementations such as Oxford Pascal, Z80 versions of BBC BASIC, Turbo Pascal and Small-C 

Acornsoft Graphics range and more
The graphics range was used to demonstrate the graphical power of the Acorn computers but only three titles were made available  The X?? code was then used for other types of software 

X01 Creative Graphics (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
X02 Graphs & Charts (BBC 198?, Electron 1983)
X03 Picture Maker (BBC 1983, Electron 1984)
X04 Shirley Conran's Magic Garden (BBC 1983)
X05 Collector's Catalogue (BBC 198?)
X06 Membership Manager (BBC 198?)
X07 One To Nine (BBC 198?)
X08 Hooked on Numbers (BBC 1983)
X09
X10 Complete Cocktail Maker (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
X11 Paul Daniels' Magic Show (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
X12 100 Programs for the BBC Micro (BBC 198?)
X13 Linkword French (BBC 1984)
X14 Linkword Italian (BBC 1984)
X15 Linkword Spanish (BBC 1984)
X16 Linkword German (BBC 1984)
X17 Watch Your Weight (BBC 198?, Electron 1984)
X18 Me & My Micro (Electron 1984)The range took on various themes including Creative Sound (X26) 
Passage 10:
Blast Corps
Blast Corps is an action game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64  In the game, the player uses vehicles to destroy buildings in the path of a runaway nuclear missile carrier  In the game's 57 levels, the player solves puzzles by transferring between vehicles to move objects and bridge gaps  It was released in March 1997 in Japan and North America  A wider release followed at the end of that year 
The game was Rare's first game for the Nintendo 64  Its development team ranged between four and seven members, many of whom were recent graduates  The team sought to find gameplay to fit Rare co-founder Chris Stamper's idea for a building destruction game  The puzzle game mechanics were inspired by those of Donkey Kong (1994) 
Blast Corps was released to critical acclaim and received Metacritic's second highest Nintendo 64 game ratings of 1997  The game sold one million copies—lower than the team's expectations—and received several editor's choice awards  Reviewers praised its originality, variety, and graphics, but some criticized its controls and repetition  Reviewers of Rare's 2015 Rare Replay retrospective compilation noted Blast Corps as a standout title 

Gameplay
Blast Corps is a single-player action video game  The player controls vehicles to destroy buildings, farms, and other structures in the path of a runaway nuclear missile carrier  The player fails if the carrier collides with an object  The eight demolition vehicles vary in the way they clear structures: the bulldozer rams, the dump truck drifts, the lightweight buggy crashes from higher ground, the tricycle shoots missiles, another truck presses outwards from its sides, and robot mechs tumble and stomp from the land and the air  The player must transfer between vehicles and other machinery to solve puzzles  Objectives include transporting timed explosive crates and bridging gaps  The game's puzzles increase in difficulty as the player progresses through its 57 levels The world is portrayed from a three-quarters overhead view  The player can adjust the game's viewable perspective with zoom and horizontal panning functions  Pop-up hints will guide the player in the early stages of the game, and other characters audibly encourage the player as each level wears on  The cheery soundtrack increases in tempo as the level's timer runs low  After completing a level, the player can return to explore without a time limit  By finding secrets and activating lights throughout the level, the player raises their score and final medal ranking  There are also secret levels hidden throughout the game, where the player completes objectives against the clock  The player can compete against a ghost copy of their previous path through a level  There are no settings to change the game's difficulty, and the game saves to both the game cartridge itself and external storage 

Plot
The game's story takes place on a parallel Earth, in which mankind lives in relative peace, until an event occurs that threatens the lives of the whole planet  The national government of an unnamed country discovers that the transportation of two defective nuclear missiles has gone wrong, after they begin leaking radiation  The automated carrier transporting them becomes damaged as a result and automatically sets itself on a direct course towards the site for a controlled detonation, effectively placing it in danger where the slightest jolt from hitting buildings or falling into pits would trigger the missiles, causing a catastrophic explosion 
To prevent this, the government hires the demolition company known as Blast Corps - founded by several former military soldiers who were stationed in the base the missiles came from, until an accident involving one of their members led the others to desert their post  Using a variety of different machines to assist them, Blast Corps assigns a new recruit to help clear the carrier's path, ensuring it can get past areas safely, while at the same time seeking out a group of missing scientists needed to conduct the safe detonation of the missiles  Dealing with an array of difficult situations, Blast Corps manages to prevent catastrophe, finding the scientists and putting an end to the threat from the missiles 
After Blast Corps successfully complete their mission, the company finds themselves contracted to help clear several buildings in a city in order to create an emergency runway for a space shuttle returning to Earth  The company successfully completes the mission, later earning a contract to clear debris on the moon, before its employees take a well-earned break after establishing a reputation for being the best demolition company in the business 

Development
Blast Corps was among Rare's first games for the Nintendo 64 and led a run of seven critically acclaimed Rare titles for the console  The game's production began in early 1996  The development team consisted of four recent graduates, though it expanded at times to seven concurrent staff  Martin Wakeley became the game's lead designer  He credited the team's small size for their easy progression from planning to market  Rare founder Chris Stamper was the impetus for the project  He had wanted to make a game about destroying buildings for years prior to Blast Corps's development  The team worked to fit his idea to a gameplay concept and devised a "Constantly Moving Object" conceit that would give the levels a time limit  This idea became the nuclear missile carrier 

Retro Gamer credited Wakeley for Blast Corps's idiosyncratic ideas and humor in light of the game's serious premise  For instance, the Mario Kart 64 "power slide" drift mechanics inspired that of Blast Corps's dump truck  Wakeley championed the drift controls against the rest of the team, who found them aggravating  The game's lead artist, Ricky Berwick, had developed the vehicle concepts without consideration for their in-game function, and the vehicles were only later retrofitted to the gameplay  One of the robot vehicles was designed without an arm because the developers had run out of computer memory to store the data and liked the look anyway  Wakeley determined the game's high score "goal medal" objectives, in which players would attempt to better a set completion time on each level  Blast Corps's Japanese and American quality assurance teams later competed to push the levels to their limits, which resulted in the game's platinum level objectives  Wakeley described these platinum challenges as "just insane" and said he could only finish four himself Wakeley saw Blast Corps as a puzzle game at its core  He was influenced by the 1994 Donkey Kong, in which the player begins each level with all the tools they need to finish but must learn how to use them  Wakeley said this was Blast Corp's core game mechanic  He was also inspired by the Super Mario 64 demo at Nintendo's annual trade show in 1995, which introduced him to the 3D analog stick and spurred him to achieve something similar  The team's technical accomplishments included character and environment models composed completely of polygons and the absence of distance fog to obscure the draw distance Nintendo published Blast Corps for their Nintendo 64  In its 1995 trade show preview, it was originally titled Blast Dozer, a name it retained for its Japanese release  (The team had considered other titles, including "Heavy Duty Heroes", "Blast Radius", and "Power Dozer" ) Blast Corps was first released in Japan on March 21, 1997, and in North America three days later  Its European and Australian release followed on December 22  The game had been in production for just over a year 

Reception
The game received "universal acclaim", according to review aggregator Metacritic, and "unanimous critical success", according to Retro Gamer  Reviewers highly praised the novelty and variety of Blast Corps's gameplay  Peer Schneider of IGN, in particular, lauded the game's originality  Trent Ward commented in GameSpot that the premise taps into childhood fantasies, while "the unique relationship between the terrain and the vehicles you pilot ensures that Blast Corps will exercise your mind as well as your reflexes" Reviewers struggled to master the game's controls  GamePro's Slo Mo praised this aspect of the game, saying that even mastering the extreme precision of the steering is fun, and rewards the player with both better gameplay technique and an appreciation for the strong distinction between the game's many vehicles  Schneider likewise overcame his initial concerns to appreciate the complexity of the controls and the differences between the vehicles  He considered the locked camera view restrictive when compared to the unrestricted 3D camera in the game's contemporaries  Schneider thought the game should have been longer, with fewer bonus levels and more main missions, though he did appreciate the pacing, design, and difficulty of the included levels  Slo Mo instead asserted that "Over 60 levels and hidden areas within hidden areas give you your money's worth"  A Next Generation critic agreed, asserting that the vast size of the levels and numerous secrets and bonus areas make Blast Corps "one of the few Nintendo 64 games that justifies its exorbitant price tag"  Shawn Smith and Sushi-X of Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM) thought the game was repetitive, as did Computer and Video Games  The latter, though, praised Blast Corps's level design and difficulty progression  Ward had fewer reservations, writing that "basically what you have here is a game with great graphics, great sound, and a great premise  What's even more impressive is that the game doesn't really have any substantial flaws to speak of – unless you want to count lack of a two-player mode, which really isn't fair " Crispin Boyer of EGM wrote that the game's best feature was its "palpable sense of suspense" as the carrier advanced on resistant buildings Critics praised the game's graphics and sound  Schneider found the game unpretentious in comparison to video game trends of photorealistic rendering and cartoonish art  He likened the slick vehicle animations and metallic elements to Micro Machines and Rare's R C  Pro-Am  Schneider praised the game's texture maps, which made the night scenes and houses look realistic, and the canyons breathtaking  He wrote that the game's 3D programming was errorless, and was particularly pleased about the game's lack of fog, usually used to cover developer limitations  EGM echoed Schneider's praise of the deep landscapes, which Boyer called "incredible"  Scott McCall (AllGame) praised the game's realistic polygonal models and technical prowess, and Steve Polak (The Weekend Australian) wrote that Blast Corps showcased the console's graphics capabilities  Schneider described the soundtrack as between "70s pop, disaster movie score, and Country Bear Jamboree"  He praised the range of engine, tire screeching, and crashing sound effects  Reviewers disliked the country music tracks with jaw harp IGN wrote that Blast Corps exemplified qualities of enjoyable Nintendo Entertainment System and arcade games, while EGM considered the game unlike all others  Retro Gamer wrote that the game's combination of puzzles and continuous destruction made the game so unique as to defy genre classification  The magazine described the gameplay concept of returning to explore without a time limit as "a stroke of genius"  Retro Gamer thought of Blast Corps as a 3D successor to "nail-biting reaction games" such as Loco-Motion  Computer and Video Games agreed with a reader that Blast Corps was part of a "Destroy" subgenre including games like Desert Strike, Return Fire, and Body Harvest, and Matt Fox of The Video Games Guide put the game in a lineage with Highway Encounter and Lunar Jetman  Slo Mo said it was "like Pilotwings with a kamikaze twist  It's a multifaceted game that melds a slick vehicle sim and a mind-thumping action/strategy challenge with massive destructive force " Schneider said Blast Corps was on par with the quality of Shigeru Miyamoto games and an excellent display of Rare's potential  Next Generation described it as "effectively every Tonka fantasy brought vividly and explosively to life" EGM named it a runner-up for "Most Original Game of the Year" (behind PaRappa the Rapper) at their 1997 Editors' Choice Awards Blast Corps sold close to a million copies  The game sold reasonably well in Japan  Metacritic ranked the title among the top ten games released in 1997  It remained Metacritic's highest ranked 1997 Nintendo 64 game after GoldenEye 007  Blast Corps was selected as Electronic Gaming Monthly's May 1997 Game of the Month and an IGN Editors' Choice  Later the same year, Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked it number 93 on their 100 best console video games of all time, remarking, "C'mon, not only are you driving all the vehicles you thought were mega cool as a kid – you're using 'em to plow through buildings " Four of six Nintendo Power reviewers recommended the game 

Legacy
Wakeley, the game's designer, considered making a sequel as an action combat game, but thought the concepts behind Blast Corps had been fully exhausted  After praising the game in a 2010 Rare retrospective feature, Retro Gamer's writers craved a sequel  The magazine said the title was proof of the company's inventiveness  Steve Ellis, who was a programmer at Rare, thought Blast Corps to be among the company's most underrated games, and though its physics were now dated, he continued to find the game fun enough to revisit regularly  Blast Corps is included in Rare Replay, a compilation of 30 Rare titles, released on the Xbox One on August 4, 2015  The release's bonus features included behind-the-scenes interviews with Blast Corps's developers  Blast Corps was a standout favorite among Rare Replay reviewers Rare's Blast Corps began a run of highly praised Nintendo 64 games, including GoldenEye 007, Banjo-Kazooie, Perfect Dark, and Jet Force Gemini  Retro Gamer wrote that Rare had doubled the number of classic Nintendo 64 games and was an important alliance for Nintendo  Microsoft acquired Rare in 2002 for a record price of $377 million  After the industry had changed, Blast Corps designer Martin Wakeley reflected a decade after the game's 1997 release  In 2009, Wakeley said, a studio would rarely entrust the scope of a project like Blast Corps to a team of four recent graduates The staff of Nintendo Power (1997) and IGN (2014) both listed Blast Corps in the bottom halves of their top 100 Nintendo games of all time  Official Nintendo Magazine ranked the game 84th on a list of the greatest Nintendo games 
Passage 11:
The Long Week-End
The Long Week-End is a social history of interwar Britain, written by Robert Graves and Alan Hodge  It was first published in 1940, just after the end of the period it treats 
Their story covers a wide range of popular and social themes, including politics, business, science, religion, art, literature, fashion, education, popular amusements, domestic life, sexual relations, and much else The Long Week-End has gone through several reprints, the latest in 2009 by the Folio Society 
Historian Adrian Tinniswood named his 2016 book, The Long Weekend: Life in the English Country House, 1918–1939, after it 

Reception
In a contemporary book review in the peer-reviewed Journal of Modern History, William D  Clark wrote, "To write a social history of England from the newspapers of the last twenty years… demands extraordinary powers of selection and interpretation  Mr  Graves has given us proof that he possesses such powers, but unfortunately in this book he resolutely refuses to use them, misled perhaps by the ideals of the Mass-Observation school  The result is a strange unfocused photograph of the times, in which, although the 'camera-eye' has not lied, it has failed entirely to introduce any perspective or integration " A 1941 review by Kirkus Reviews summarized the book with; "a graphic panorama of fads, fancies, facts, foibles and fingerposts along the way from war to war    Thoroughly good reading of the background of those years, if one wants to look back "
Passage 12:
Linguistics (journal)
Linguistics: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the Language Sciences is a peer-reviewed academic journal of general linguistics published by De Gruyter Mouton  The journal publishes both articles and book reviews  It  publishes two special issues a year  The current Editor-in-Chief is Johan van der Auwera  Since 2010, it publishes 1400 pages per year 

History
Linguistics was started in 1963 by Mouton Publishers in The Hague, apparently on the initiative of Mouton's Peter de Ridder as well as linguist C H  van Schooneveld  In 1979, after Mouton had been bought by Walter de Gruyter, a new editorial board was established, consisting of Brian Butterworth, Bernard Comrie, Östen Dahl, Norbert Dittmar, Flip Droste, Jaap van Marle, and Jürgen Weissenborn  De facto, Brian Butterworth was editor-in-chief between 1979 and 1982  From 1982 through 2005, the editor was Wolfgang Klein, who was succeeded by Johan van der Auwera 

Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:

The journal has a Thomson Reuters 2015 impact factor of 0 763 and a 5-year impact factor of 0 872 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Paterson River
Paterson River, a perennial river that is part of the Hunter River catchment, is located in the Hunter and Mid North Coast regions of New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Paterson River rises in the Barrington Tops National Park, west by north of Careys Peak, and flows generally south and southeast, joined by six minor tributaries including the Allyn River at Vacy, before reaching its confluence with the Hunter River between Hinton and Morpeth  Between Hinton and Duns Creek, the Paterson River forms the border between the Port Stephens and Maitland local government areas  The river system courses through fertile the farming land of the Paterson and Allyn River Valleys and the historic Patersons Plains; descending 933 metres (3,061 ft) over its 151 kilometres (94 mi) course The river is impounded by Lostock Dam, located 48 kilometres (30 mi) downstream from the source in the Barringtons  The embankment dam was constructed by the New South Wales Department of Water Resources to supply water for irrigation and was completed in 1971  The river is tidal to above the village of Paterson and below Vacy Riverside towns within the Paterson's catchment include Gresford, Vacy, Paterson, Woodville and Hinton 
Colonel William Paterson surveyed the area along the river in 1801  Later Governor King named it in his honour 
Passage 2:
Horse Mesa Dam
The Horse Mesa Dam is a concrete thin arch dam located in the Superstition Mountains, northeast of Phoenix in Maricopa County, Arizona 
The dam is 660 feet (200 m) long, 300 feet (91 m) high and was built between 1924 and 1927  The dam includes three conventional hydroelectric generating units totaling 32 megawatts (MW) and a pumped-storage unit with a capacity of 97 MW 
The dam and associated infrastructure were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2017 
A few homes are nearby for temporary employee housing  Its name is derived from when sheep-herders used to graze their saddle and pack animals on the mesa when they were driving their flocks through the area  It has an estimated elevation of 2,067 feet (630 m) above sea level 

Reservoir
The dam forms Apache Lake as it impounds the Salt River  The dam and reservoir are located downstream from the Theodore Roosevelt Dam, and upstream from the Mormon Flat Dam 
Passage 3:
Darling Mills Creek
The Darling Mills Creek, an urban watercourse that is part of the Parramatta River catchment, is located in Greater Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
The Darling Mills Creek rises in the north-western suburbs of Sydney, west of Thompsons Corner, near the intersection of Castle Hill Road and Pennant Hills Road, within the suburb of West Pennant Hills  The headwaters lie on the watershed between the Hornsby Plateau and the Cumberland Plain  The creek flows generally west, then south, joined by its tributaries including the Bidjigal, Sawmill, Excelsior, Blue Gum, Bellbird, Bellamy Farm creeks and the dammed Hunts Creek downstream of Lake Parramatta, before reaching its confluence with the Toongabbie Creek to form the Parramatta River, in the suburb of North Parramatta, in land adjoining the northern boundary of the Cumberland Hospital  The course of the creek is approximately 10 kilometres (6 2 mi); and the creek passes through the Cumberland State Forest, the Darling Mills State Forest, Bidjigal Reserve, Excelsior Park, and many smaller reserves and parks The Darling Mills Creek is transversed by the Cumberland Highway, the M2 Hills Motorway, and marks the boundary between Windsor Road and Church Street in North Parramatta 

History
The land adjacent to the Parramatta River and its tributaries, including the Darling Mills Creek, was occupied for many thousands of years by the Burramattagal clan of the Darug people, Toongagal, Wallumattagal, Wangal, and Wategora Aboriginal peoples  They used the river as an important source of food and a place for trade The Darling Mills Creek takes its name from a watermill constructed a short distance from the confluence with Toongabbie Creek 
An earlier watermill was built by Samuel Marsden near the confluence  It milled flour from 1804 to 1818 
In 1825, the Darling Flour Mills were built for John Raine, upstream on the Windsor Road 
The Darling Mills site was taken over by Sydney Woollen Mills, which operated from 1870 to 1975  Sydney Woollen Mills originally used steam rather than water power  Part of the facade of the building remains on the site, which was occupied by Bunnings Warehouse's North Parramatta store in the early 21st century  There is a weir on the creek nearby that was constructed in the nineteenth century 

See also
Great North Walk
Rivers of New South Wales
Passage 4:
Lansdowne River
Lansdowne River, a watercourse of the Manning River catchment, is located in the Mid North Coast district of New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Lansdowne River rises below Mount Gibraltar in the Gibraltar Range, north northwest of Upper Lansdowne, and flows generally southeast before reaching its confluence with the Northern Arm of the Manning River, near Coopernook  The river descends 740 metres (2,430 ft) over its 51 kilometres (32 mi) course The Pacific Highway crosses the Lansdowne River south-east of Coopernook 

See also
Rivers of New South Wales
List of rivers of New South Wales (L–Z)
List of rivers of Australia
Passage 5:
Cabramatta Creek
Cabramatta Creek, an urban watercourse of the Georges River catchment, is located in the South Western Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Cabramatta Creek rises in the rural/residential suburb of Denham Court, east south-east of Leppington, within the Liverpool local government area  From here the creek flows in a northerly direction under Camden Valley Way towards Hoxton Park, and its junction with Hinchinbrook Creek  Substantial residential development has occurred in these areas, particularly to the west of Cowpasture Road  A number of detention basins have also been constructed in conjunction with the development 
The Ingham's poultry farm also occupies a significant landholding in the area  Below Hoxton Park Road, Cabramatta Creek starts to flow in an easterly direction the Fairfield local government area, towards its confluence with the Georges River, to the east of Warwick Farm  A more prominent creek "corridor", up to 200 metres (660 ft) wide, becomes more evident throughout the lower catchment  This primarily consists of public open space, playing fields and golf courses  The Elouera Nature Reserve, which is an important pocket of native bushland, also forms part of this corridor 
Cabramatta Creek flows through established residential suburbs, including Miller, Cartwright, Sadlier, Ashcroft, Liverpool, Mount Pritchard and Warwick Farm  Major transport routes that cross the catchment includes Hoxton Park Road, Elizabeth Drive, Orange Grove Road (the Cumberland Highway), the Hume Highway and the Main Southern railway line  The catchment area of the creek is approximately 74 square kilometres (29 sq mi), and within the catchment area are the Cabramatta Creek, Hinchinbrook Creek, Maxwells Creek, and Brickmakers Creek The area around the creek was home to the Darug Aboriginal people  European settlement began on the site in the 1790s when they found good quality soil 
In the area surrounding Cabramatta Creek is a large flying fox population; located behind the Sunnybrook Motel and called the Cabrammatta Creek Flying Fox Reserve A concrete beam road bridge that carries the Hume Highway over Cabramatta Creek, constructed in 1951 and commonly known as Ireland's Bridge, is listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register 
Passage 6:
Geographical feature
A feature (also called an object or entity), in the context of geography and geographic information science, is a discrete phenomenon that exists at a location in the space and scale of relevance to geography; that is, at or near the surface of Earth, at a moderate to global scale : 62  It is one of the primary types of phenomena represented in geographic information, such as that represented in maps, geographic information systems, remote sensing imagery, statistics, and other forms of geographic discourse  Such representations of features consists of descriptions of their inherent nature, their spatial form and location, and their characteristics or properties 

Ontology and terminology
The term "feature" is meant to be broad and inclusive, including both natural and human-constructed phenomena  It is metaphysically neutral, including both phenomena that exist physically (e g  a building) and those that are conceptual or social creations (e g  a neighbourhood)  In an ontological sense, the term is generally restricted to endurants, which are wholly present at any time during their lifespan (e g , the state of New York in 1820 was a complete state, and is the same state as the New York in 2021)  A feature is also discrete, meaning that it has a clear identity distinct from other phenomena, and is comprehended as a whole, defined in part by the boundary of its extent (although this can be problematic when vagueness arises, such as in the boundaries of a "valley")  This differentiates features from geographic processes and events, which are perdurants that only exist in time; and from geographic masses and fields, which are continuous in that they are not conceptualized as a distinct whole In geographic information science, the terms feature, object, and entity are generally used as roughly synonymous  In the 1992 Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS), one of the first public standard models of geographic information, an attempt was made to formally distinguish them: an entity as the real-world phenomenon, an object as a representation thereof (e g  on paper or digital), and a feature as the combination of both entity and representation objects  Although this distinction is often cited in textbooks, it has not gained lasting nor widespread usage  In the ISO 19101 Geographic Information Reference Model and Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Simple Features Specification, international standards that form the basis for most modern geospatial technologies, a feature is defined as "an abstraction of a real-world phenomena," essentially the object in SDTS 
Despite these attempts at formalization, the broadly interchangeable use of these English terms has persisted  That said, Phenomenon is likely the most broad, comfortably including geographic masses, processes, and events that would be difficult to call "objects" or "entities "

Types of features
Natural features
A natural feature is a phenomenon that was not created by humans, but is a part of the natural world  There has been some metaphysical debate over whether such features are "real," independent of the human mind (a realist stance), whether they are purely human conceptualizations of continuous natural phenomena (a constructivist stance), or a hybrid of discrete natural phenomena that highly motivate, but are simplified by human concepts (a experientialist stance)  It is also possible that individual features may be of any of these three types 

Ecosystems
There are two different terms to describe habitats: ecosystem and biome  An ecosystem is a community of organisms  In contrast, biomes occupy large areas of the globe and often encompass many different kinds of geographical features, including mountain ranges Biotic diversity within an ecosystem is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems  Living organisms are continually engaged in a set of relationships with every other element constituting the environment in which they exist, and ecosystem describes any situation where there is relationship between organisms and their environment 
Biomes represent large areas of ecologically similar communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms  Biomes are defined based on factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and climate  Unlike biogeographic realms, biomes are not defined by genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities  Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation 

Water bodies
A body of water is any significant accumulation of water, usually covering the land  The term "body of water" most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it may also include smaller pools of water such as ponds, creeks or wetlands  Rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are not always considered bodies of water, but they are included as geographical formations featuring water 
Some of these are easily recognizable as distinct real-world entities (e g , an isolated lake), while others are at least partially based on human conceptualizations  Examples of the latter include a branching stream network in which one of the branches has been arbitrarily designated as the continuation of the primary named stream; or a gulf or bay of an ocean, which has no meaningful dividing line from the rest of the ocean 

Landforms
A landform comprises a geomorphological unit and is largely defined by its surface form and location in the landscape, as part of the terrain, and as such is typically an element of topography  Landforms are categorized by features such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type  They include berms, mounds, hills, cliffs, valleys, rivers, and numerous other elements  Oceans and continents are the highest-order landforms 

Artificial features
Settlements
A settlement is a permanent or temporary community in which people live  Settlements range in components from a small number of dwellings grouped together to the largest of cities with surrounding urbanized areas  Other landscape features such as roads, enclosures, field systems, boundary banks and ditches, ponds, parks and woods, mills, manor houses, moats, and churches may be considered part of a settlement 

Administrative regions and other constructs
These include social constructions that are created to administer and organize the land, people, and other spatially-relevant resources  Examples include governmental units such as a state, cadastral land parcels, mining claims, zoning partitions of a city, or a church parish  There are also more informal social features, such as city neighbourhoods and other vernacular regions  These are purely conceptual entities established by edict or practice, although they may align with visible features (i e  a river boundary), and may be subsequently manifested on the ground, such as by survey markers or fences 

Engineered constructs
Engineered geographic features include highways, bridges, airports, railroads, buildings, dams, and reservoirs, and are part of the anthroposphere because they are man-made geographic features 

Cartographic features
Cartographic features are types of abstract geographical features, which appear on maps but not on the planet itself, even though they are located on the planet  For example, latitudes, longitudes, the Equator, and the prime meridian are shown on maps of Earth, but it do not physically exist  It is a theoretical line used for reference, navigation, and measurement 

Features and Geographic Information
In GIS, maps, statistics, databases, and other information systems, a geographic feature is represented by a set of descriptors of its various characteristics  A common classification of those characteristics has emerged based on developments by Peuquet, Mennis, and others, including the following : 

 Identity, the fact that a feature is unique and distinct from all other features  This does not have an inherent description, but humans have created many systems for attempting to express identity, such as names and  identification numbers/codes 
Existence, the fact that a feature exists in the world  At first, this may seem trivial, but complex situations are common, such as features that are proposed or planned, abstract concepts (e g , the Equator), under construction, or that no longer exist 
 Kind (also known as class, type, or category), one or more groups to which a feature belongs, typically focused on those that are most fundamental to its existence  It thus completes the sentence "This is a _________ " These are generally in the form of common nouns (tree, dog, building, county, etc ), which may be isolated or part of a taxonomic hierarchy 
 Relationships to other features  These may be inherent if they are crucial to the existence and identity of the feature, or incidental if they are not crucial, but "just happen to be " These may be of at least three types:
Spatial relations, those that can be visualized and measured in space  For example, the fact that the Potomac River is adjacent to Maryland is an inherent spatial relation because the river is part of the definition of the boundary of Maryland, but the overlap relation between Maryland and the Delmarva Peninsula is incidental, as each would exist unproblematically without the other 
Meronomic relations (also known as partonomy), in which a feature may exist as a part of a larger whole, or may exist as a collection of parts  For example, the relationship between Maryland and the United States is a meronomic relation; one is not just spatially within the boundaries of the other, but is a component part of the other that in part defines the existence of both 
Genealogical relations (also known as parent-child), which tie a feature to others that existed previously and created it (or from which it was formed by another agent), and in turn to any features it has created  For example, if a county were created by the subdivision of two existing counties, they would be considered its parents 
Location, a description of where the feature exists, often including the shape of its extent  While a feature has an inherent location, measuring it for the purpose of representation as data can be a complex process, such as requiring the invention of abstract spatial reference systems, and the necessary employment of cartographic generalization, including an expedient choice of dimension (e g , a city could be represented as a region or as a point, depending on scale and need) 
Attributes, characteristics of a feature other than location, often expressed as text or numbers; for example, the population of a city  In geography, the levels of measurement developed by Stanley Smith Stevens (and further extended by others) is a common system for understanding and using attribute data 
Time is fundamental to the representation of a feature, although it does not have independent temporal descriptions  Instead, expressions of time are attached to other characteristics, describing how they change (thus, they are analogous to adverbs in common discourse)  Any of the above characteristics is  mutable, with the possible exception of identity  For example, the lifespan of a feature could be considered as the temporal extent of its existence  The location of a city can change over time as annexations expand its extent  The resident population of a country changes frequently due to immigration, emigration, birth, and death The descriptions of features (i e , the measured values of each of the above characteristics) are typically collected in Geographic databases, such as GIS datasets, based on a variety of  data models and  file formats, often based on the  vector logical model 

See also
Geographical field
Geographical location
Human geography
Landscape
Physical geography
Simple Features
Passage 7:
Coxs Creek (Belfield, New South Wales)
Coxs Creek, a watercourse of the Cooks River catchment, is located in the Inner West of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Coxs Creek rises northeast of Punchbowl railway station and flows generally north northeast, before reaching its confluence with the Cooks River, at Strathfield South  Over time the creek has been extensively modified and is now largely a storm drain that flows about 3 kilometres (1 9 mi)  Prior to development of the area the creek drained paperbark swamps that were formerly near the junction of Roberts Road and Juno Parade  Over time the creek has been extensively modified and rerouted  As with most drainage channels in the area it has been lined along much of its length  Coxs Creek drains a total catchment of 8 8 square kilometres (3 4 sq mi) The creek begins as a stormwater drain, then runs in the open through the Coxs Creek Wetland, a 1 84 hectares (4 5 acres) reserve containing significant remnant bushland including some Cooks River Castlereagh Ironbark Forest habitat



ground_truth: 1986

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What watercourse is the river on which the Lostock Dam is located the mouth of?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Including tree specimens of mugga ironbark (Eucalyptus sideroxylon), narrow-leaved ironbark (E  crebra), broad-leaved ironbark (E  fibrosa), and tallowwood (E  microcorys)  The forest habitat is noted as an endangered ecological community  Acacia pubescens (Downy Wattle) is a vulnerable flora species present as is the locally endangered Tadgell's Bluebell (Wahlenbergia multicaulis)  The endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog (Litoria aurea) has been recorded and frog ponds constructed as part of the creek  The frog has not been seen in the creek since 1995, though they are still present in the nearby constructed wetlands at the Juno Parade Brick Pit 
In 2005 Sydney Ports Corporation proposed works including fauna corridors and "frog ramps" to encourage their return  Along much of its length the creek is a combination of covered channel and an uncovered concrete lined trench  As the creek passes through the reserve it is open and the 2010 management plan calls for restoration of this part of the creek and the adjacent riparian zone 
Passage 8:
Cup and Saucer Creek
Cup and Saucer Creek, an urban watercourse of the Cooks River catchment, is located in the Canterbury-Bankstown region of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Cup and Saucer Creek rises in Canterbury local government area, near Wiley Park railway station and flows in an east north-easterly direction through the suburbs of Roselands, Kingsgrove and Clemton Park, where it makes its confluence with the Cooks River, within the suburb of Earlwood  The upper reaches of the creek are a piped drainage system, which becomes part drain and part creek in the lower reaches  The Cup and Saucer Creek Catchment Management Study by the Water Board in 1992 showed extensive toxic organics in the form of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organochlorines The creek is so named because of sandstone formations in the former bed of the creek A concrete culvert over Bexley Road constructed in 1920 is listed on the NSW State Heritage Register 
Passage 9:
Bardwell Creek
Bardwell Creek, an urban watercourse of the Cooks River catchment, is located in the southern suburbs of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Bardwell Creek rises in Georges River local government area, near Hurstville and flows in a north-easterly direction through the suburbs of Bexley, Bexley North, Bardwell Park, and Turrella in the Bayside local government area, where it makes its confluence with Wolli Creek, where it forms the border between the suburbs of Bardwell Park and Turrella  The upper reaches of the Creek are a piped drainage system, which becomes an open concrete channel at Croydon Road in the Bexley Golf Course  The total catchment area of Bardwell Creek is 6 36 square kilometres (2 46 sq mi) 

See also
Bardwell Valley, New South Wales
Wolli Creek Regional Park
Passage 10:
Natural Dam, Arkansas
Natural Dam is an unincorporated community in Crawford County, Arkansas, United States  Natural Dam is located on Arkansas Highway 59, 6 miles (9 7 km) north-northwest of Cedarville  Natural Dam has a post office with ZIP code 72948  The now-replaced Lee Creek Bridge, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, was located in the community The community was named for a natural dam near the original town site 

Notable person
Shay Mooney, half of country duo Dan + Shay
Passage 11:
Enloe Dam and Powerplant
The Enloe Dam, also known as the Similkameen Dam, and its powerplant are located on the Similkameen River about 4 miles (6 4 km) west-northwest of Oroville, Washington  Located just above Similkameen (Coyote) Falls, the concrete arch-gravity dam stands about 54 feet (16 m) high, with a crest length of about 290 feet (88 m), built between 1916 and 1923  The dam was named after the president of the Okanogan Valley Power Company, Eugene Enloe  The dam was operated to generate power at its powerplant, located about 850 feet (260 m) downstream from the dam  Lacking fish ladders, Enloe Dam blocks fish passage and completely extirpated anadromous fish migration into the upper reaches of the Similkameen River and its tributaries in Canada 

History
The dam replaced a wood crib dam started in 1903 by J M  Hagerty, a local entrepreneur, and completed a year after his death  The dam fed a generating plant in a wooden powerplant below the dam and falls  Power went to the towns of Nighthawk and Oroville, as well as the nearby Owasco, Ivanhoe, Ruby and Canba mines  Attempts by Hagerty's estate to sell the dam in 1913 met no interest, partly because of the poor state of the crib dam  Eugene Enloe of the Okanogan Valley Power Company was able to secure the rights to the site in 1916, hiring C F  Uhden to design the dam that year  Construction did not start until 1919 and was completed in 1920 at a cost of $350,000, $150,000 of it Enloe's money  Enloe sold the dam and powerplant in 1923 to Washington Water Power Company, which added a second penstock 

Description
The dam features an unregulated overflow spillway whose height can be augmented by flashboards  The powerplant replaced a small run-of-river plant, which received water from a diversion channel  In 1923, the site was purchased by the Washington Water Power Company  In 1942 the WWPC was purchased by the Okanogan Public Utility District, which then ceased operations at Enloe Dam in 1958, as power was available from the Bonneville Power Administration system at less cost  The dam's reservoir extends 2 miles (3 2 km) up the Similkameen River  Largely silted up, it is just 9 feet (2 7 m) deep  Storage capacity is only 507 acre-feet (625,000 m3) The concrete powerhouse is in a partly ruinous state, and options have been presented to stabilize or demolish the structure when the proposed new hydroelectric development is undertaken  The powerhouse was fed by two wood stave penstocks, 7 feet (2 1 m) in diameter, running to Pelton wheels driving two 1 6 megawatt generators  The generator hall stands next to a heavily built transformer vault 

Redevelopment
The Okanogan Public Utility District obtained a new license for power generation from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission in 1983, but the license was withdrawn in 1986 because the dam's impact on anadromous fish had not been addressed  A second license for a 4 1 megawatt plant was granted in 1996, but was again rescinded on the same grounds in 2000  Yet another application was submitted in August 2008, seeking to build a new powerplant to generate 9 megawatts, fed by a new intake channel Enloe Dam was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 18, 1978 as an example of early power development in rural Washington 
After a study showing reenergizing the dam would be too expensive, the Okanogan PUD voted in 2019 to abandon plans  They are seeking to give the dam away to have it demolished, but removal remains too expensive  The Colville Indian tribes are seeking its removal to restore salmon to the Similkameen River 
Passage 12:
Wolli Creek
Wolli Creek () is an urban watercourse of the Cooks River catchment located in the southern suburbs of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Wolli Creek rises south of Narwee, within Beverly Hills Park, Beverly Hills, and flows generally east northeast through Wolli Creek Valley and Wolli Creek Regional Park, joined by its major tributary, Bardwell Creek, before reaching its confluence with the Cooks River near Arncliffe and Tempe  The creek is a lined channel between Kingsgrove Road, Kingsgrove and Bexley Road, Bexley North where it then enters the Wolli Creek Valley  The sub-catchment area of the creek is 22 square kilometres (8 5 sq mi) 

Nature conservation value
Adjacent to Wolli Creek, within the Wolli Creek Valley, is Wolli Creek Regional Park, a planned 50 hectares (120 acres) nature reserve of native bushland and public reserves that was announced by the NSW Government in 1998 as a result of sustained community campaigning for the area to be preserved and for the M5 East Freeway to go underground  Whilst some of the park has been formed and management handed over from local government authorities to the NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, including the 8 9 hectares (22 acres) Girrahween Park and some privately held land that was compulsorily acquired, some areas of the originally planned park remain in the hands of government agencies including Sydney Water and Roads & Maritime Services When complete, the planned nature reserve offers easy public transport access, family picnic areas, extensive views and bushland, rugged sandstone escarpments with walking tracks, a mixture of parkland, heathland, and woodland forest, and great birdwatching in close proximity to heavily developed residential and industrial landscape 

Wildlife
Bird observation
The diversity of habitat and strategic location of the Wolli Creek Valley are reflected in the wide range of bird species to be found adjacent to the creek  Approximately 175 species of birds have been recorded in the area between 1940 and 1999 

Fish
Several species of freshwater and saltwater fish can be found in the Wolli Creek in areas above and below the fish ladder  The fish ladder, or "rock-ramp fishway" was constructed to enable fish to bypass the weir at Henderson St, Turrella, allowing migration to other areas of the creek 

Coastal saltmarsh
The lower reaches – the tidal part – of Wolli Creek are home to a plant community known as saltmarsh, or coastal saltmarsh  The plant community includes various salinity-tolerant species such as Knobby Club-rush (Ficinia nodosa), Samphire (Sarcocornia quinqueflora), Sea Rush (Juncus kraussii), Seablite (Suaeda australis), Streaked Arrowgrass (Triglochin striata) and others  Coastal saltmarsh has been recognised as a carbon sink as well as a filter of nutrients maintaining water quality and is listed as an Endangered Ecological Community under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 

Gallery
See also
Wolli Creek Regional Park
Passage 13:
Little River (Wingecarribee)
The Little River, a watercourse that is part of the Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment, is located in the Southern Highlands region of New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
The Little River rises south southeast of the locality of Wills Hill, near Robertson, and flows generally north before reaching its confluence with the Dudewaugh Creek, a tributary of the Burke River within the Upper Nepean River catchment  The course of the river is approximately 8 kilometres (5 0 mi) 

See also
List of rivers of New South Wales (L–Z)
List of rivers of Australia
Rivers of New South Wales
Passage 14:
Joe Wheeler State Park
Joe Wheeler State Park is a public recreation area with resort features located on Wheeler Lake, an impoundment of the Tennessee River in northwest Alabama  The state park contains 2,550 acres (1,030 ha) of land in three separate parcels and adjoins the Tennessee Valley Authority's Wheeler Dam 

History
The park was established when the state purchased land from the TVA in 1949  Resort features were added during a major upgrade begun in 1973  The park, the lake and dam all are named for Confederate general and U S  Congressman Joseph Wheeler 

Awards
In September 2020, Joe Wheeler State Park was one of eleven Alabama state parks awarded Tripadvisor’s Traveler’s Choice Award, which recognizes businesses and attractions that earn consistently high user reviews 

Activities and amenities
The Rogersville area of the park includes a resort lodge, convention facilities, restaurant, campground, 140-slip marina, 18-hole golf course, and 2 5-mile (4 0 km) loop trail for hiking and biking  The TVA maintains a dam overlook near the state park's cabin area 
Passage 15:
Beaver Dam High School (Wisconsin)
Beaver Dam High School is a public high school located in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin  It is a part of the Beaver Dam Unified School District  As of 25 October 2017 it had an enrollment of 1,045 students  Its mascot is the Golden Beaver 

Extracurricular activities
Athletics
Clubs
Anime
BDHS orchestra
BDHS bands
Marching band
Jazz band 1 & 2
Pep band
Choirs
Concert choir
Treble choir
Bel Canto Choir
DECA
FFA
Forensics
Powerlifting
Mock trial
National Honor Society
Key Club
Student council
SWAZZ
Theatre

Gallery
Notable alumni
Science, media and the arts
Lois J  Ehlert – Artist, award-winning author, Caldecott Medal recipient, & Illustrator of Children’s Books
Raymond Z  Gallun – Pioneer science fiction author
Dave Krause, BSEM, UW-Madison – NASA Sounding Rocket Chief Engineer
Fred MacMurray – Actor
David Alan Smith - Actor

Business
Benjamin Murray – President of XOJET, Pittsburgh Pirates baseball draft
Gerald H  Teletzke – Business and engineer leader

Government
Robert G  Ehlenfeldt – Wisconsin State Veterinarian
Leon Epstein – Professor of Political Science, University of Wisconsin—Madison
James J  Healy – National labor relations leader, adviser to presidents Kennedy and Carter, Harvard Business School professor, lecturer, author
Robert Kastenmeier – Wisconsin Representative to U S  Congress
Fred McFarlane – Professor in Rehabilitation Counseling, San Diego State University
Mary Ann Spellman – Two-term Beaver Dam mayor
Joseph M  Stehling – Brigadier General, recipient of Purple Heart, Legion of Merit

Professional sports
Eric Baldwin – Professional poker player and 2009 Cardplayer of the year
Madeline "Maddy" Horn – Speed skater
Bill Rentmeester – Professional football player
R J  Shelton - Professional football player
Passage 16:
Lostock Dam
Lostock Dam is a minor rockfill and clay core embankment dam with a concrete lined, flip bucket spillway across the Paterson River upstream of the village of East Gresford in the Hunter region of New South Wales, Australia  The dam's purpose includes flood mitigation, irrigation, water supply and conservation  Mini hydro-power facilities were retrofitted in 2010  The impounded reservoir is also called Lostock Dam 

Location and features
Commenced in 1969 and completed in 1971, the Lostock Dam is a minor dam on the Paterson River, a tributary of the Hunter River, and is located approximately 65 kilometres (40 mi) from both Maitland and Singleton, and also 93 kilometres (58 mi) north-west of Newcastle, on the upper reaches of the river  The dam was built by Dumez Australia under contract to the New South Wales Water Department of Land and Water Conservation following the drought of 1964–66  At that time there was a need for a water conservation storage in the Paterson Valley to stabilise and further develop rural productivity The dam wall height is 38 metres (125 ft) and is 701 metres (2,300 ft) long  The maximum water depth is 30 metres (98 ft) and at 100% capacity the dam wall holds back 20,220 megalitres (714×10^6 cu ft) of water at 155 metres (509 ft) AHD  The surface area of the reservoir is 220 hectares (540 acres) and the catchment area is 277 square kilometres (107 sq mi)  The ungated concrete lined, flip bucket chute spillway is capable of discharging 2,860 cubic metres per second (101,000 cu ft/s) The name of the dam originates from the village of the same name, located approximately 2 kilometres (1 2 mi) downstream from the dam wall 

Power generation
A mini hydro-electric power station generates up to 2 2 megawatts (3,000 hp) of electricity from the flow of the water leaving Lostock Dam  Constructed by Heidemann Hydro Australia, the facility is managed by Delta Electricity 

See also
Delta Electricity
Irrigation in Australia
List of dams and reservoirs in New South Wales
Passage 17:
Tallebudgera Creek Dam
The Tallebudgera Creek Dam, or colloquially Tally Dam, is a decommissioned embankment dam across the upper reaches of the Tallebudgera Creek, located in the South East region of Queensland, Australia  The initial purpose of the dam from its establishment until its decommissioning during the 1970s was for the supply of potable water to the Gold Coast region  There is no public access to the dam 

Location and features
The Tallebudgera Dam is located approximately 16 kilometres (9 9 mi) south west of the Burleigh Heads 
Designed and constructed by the Coolangatta-Nerang Water Supply Board in the 1940s, construction of the Tallebudgera Dam was finalised in the early 1950s  The dam was one of the earliest water supplies for the region, and provided a constant flow to the intake that was located downstream of the dam  Growth and demand in the region led to the construction of Little Nerang Dam and Mudgeeraba Water Treatment Plant, which then made Tallebudgera Creek Dam obsolete as a water supply  The decommissioning is believed to have occurred in the 1970s and included the removal of the valve house and filling of the valve chambers  It appears that the dam was left for recreation purposes after decommissioning  Following introduction of the Water Act, 2000 (QLD), a Failure Impact Assessment noted the dam design did not comply with the latest safety standards and may over top during a 1 in 50 year average recurrence interval  The Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Water issued advice that the dam was to be upgraded to meet the current dam safety standards  Options considered were to permanently lower the level of the spillway, install flood-triggered gates and removal of the dam  In 2006, after two years of investigation, reports and public consultations, work commenced to upgrade the existing dam to the required standards 

See also
List of dams in Queensland
Passage 18:
List of crossings of the Kiskiminetas River
This is a complete list of bridges and dams that span the Kiskiminetas River from its confluence at the Conemaugh River and Loyalhanna Creek to its mouth at the Allegheny River 


== Crossings ==
Passage 19:
Toongabbie Creek
Toongabbie Creek, an urban watercourse that is part of the Parramatta River catchment, is located in Greater Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Toongabbie Creek rises in the north-western suburbs of Sydney, west of the Old Northern Road, within the suburb of Castle Hill; with its headwaters forming the watershed boundary between the Hornsby Plateau and the Cumberland Plain  The creek flows generally south-west, then south by east, then south by west, then east before reaching its confluence with the Darling Mills Creek to form the Parramatta River, in the suburb of North Parramatta, in land adjoining the northern boundary of the Cumberland Hospital  The course of the creek is approximately 9 kilometres (5 6 mi) Although only a small portion of Toongabbie Creek is contained within the Blacktown local government area, much of its sub-catchment, including the Blacktown and Lalor creeks and their associated tributaries are within the City of Blacktown  In 2005, the Toongabbie Creek catchment area was rated as the highest polluting catchment out of the twenty-two catchments in Blacktown  Much of the creek is channeled in a concrete drain; and domestic garbage is often scattered along the creek's banks  Prior to April 2015, the creek was dammed at many places by fallen trees, and the rapids at Mons Road were not visible  The stagnant water in the dams was bubbly  After the rain in April 2015, which caused a flood that damaged infrastructure at Parramatta,  most of the dead trees were cleaned away and the rocks at Mons Road are now exposed 
Toongabbie Creek is transversed by the Cumberland Highway; the Westlink M7 and M2 Hills Motorway at their interchange; and the Old Windsor Road 
The land adjacent to the Parramatta River and its tributaries, including the Toongabbie Creek, was occupied for many thousands of years by the Burramattagal, Toongagal, Wallumattagal, Wangal, and Wategora Aboriginal peoples  They used the river as an important source of food and a place for trade 

See also
Rivers of New South Wales
Passage 20:
Doubtful Creek
Doubtful Creek, formerly known as Doubtful River, a watercourse that is part of the Murrumbidgee catchment within the Murray–Darling basin, is located in the Snowy Mountains district of New South Wales, Australia 
The river rises on the north western side of the Munyang Range in the Snowy Mountains at 1,660 metres (5,450 ft) and flows generally north west towards its confluence with the Tumut River at The Gulf Mine; descending 380 metres (1,250 ft) over its 15-kilometre (9 3 mi) course 

See also
List of rivers of Australia
Rivers of New South Wales



ground_truth: Hunter River

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the oldest college in the state that contains Borough House Plantation?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Bellevue (Accokeek, Maryland)
Bellevue is a historic plantation house located at 200 Manning Road East, in Accokeek, Prince George's County, Maryland, United States  This Greek Revival style home was constructed in about 1840  It is one of only three surviving examples in Prince George's County of the once-popular Tidewater house style, typical of successful small plantations of that period  Bellevue is in excellent condition, and retains its freestanding chimneys with brick pent, as well as a roughly contemporary kitchen wing  The house stands on a five-acre, partially wooded lot which exemplifies its original plantation setting Bellevue was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 
Passage 2:
Borough House Plantation
Borough House Plantation, also known as Borough House, Hillcrest Plantation and Anderson Place, is an historic plantation on South Carolina Highway 261, 0 8 miles (1 3 km) north of its intersection with U S  Route 76/US Route 378 in Stateburg, in the High Hills of Santee near Sumter, South Carolina   A National Historic Landmark, the plantation is noted as the largest assemblage of high-style pisé (rammed earth) structures in the United States   The main house and six buildings on the plantation were built using this technique, beginning in 1821   The plantation is also notable as the home of Confederate Army General Richard H  Anderson 

Description and history
The original house built in 1758 served at different times during the American Revolution as headquarters for both British General Lord Cornwallis and Continental Army General Nathanael Greene   The second house was built in 1820 of rammed earth by William Wallace Anderson, M D  It was designed by architect A C  Jones 
On October 7, 1821, Anderson's wife, the former Mary Jane Mackensie, gave birth at home to their son, Richard H  Anderson  He later served as a Confederate Army general in the American Civil War   Stateburg was originally called Stateborough, as when the town was laid out, Borough House was the only residence in it In 1850–1852, Dr  Anderson chaired the committee that built the Church of the Holy Cross of rammed earth across the road from Borough Hall  It was also designed by Jones 
In 1851, Joel Roberts Poinsett, physician, American statesman and botanist (for whom the poinsettia is named), died while visiting Dr  Anderson  He was buried in the churchyard across the road On March 23, 1972, Borough Hall plantation was added to the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark  It is also part of the defined Stateburg Historic District, as is the Church of the Holy Cross 

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places listings in Sumter County, South Carolina
Passage 3:
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the most populous city in the U S  state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston metropolitan area  The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina's coastline on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley, Cooper, and Wando rivers  Charleston had a population of 150,277 at the 2020 census  The 2020 population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester counties, was 799,636 residents, the third-largest in the state, 8th-largest in the Deep South and the 74th-largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States 
Charleston was founded in 1670 as Charles Town, honoring King Charles II, at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River (now Charles Towne Landing) but relocated in 1680 to its present site, which became the fifth-largest city in North America within ten years  It remained unincorporated throughout the colonial period; its government was handled directly by a colonial legislature and a governor sent by Parliament  Election districts were organized according to Anglican parishes, and some social services were managed by Anglican wardens and vestries  Charleston adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783  Population growth in the interior of South Carolina influenced the removal of the state government to Columbia in 1788, but Charleston remained among the ten largest cities in the United States through the 1840 census Charleston's significance in American history is tied to its role as a major slave trading port  Charleston slave traders like Joseph Wragg were the first to break through the monopoly of the Royal African Company and pioneered the large-scale slave trade of the 18th century; almost one-half of slaves imported to the United States arrived in Charleston  In 2018, the city formally apologized for its role in the American slave trade 

History
Colonial era (1670–1786)
King Charles II granted the chartered Province of Carolina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Proprietors, on March 24, 1663  In 1670, Governor William Sayle arranged for several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda and Barbados  These settlers established what was then called Charles Town at Albemarle Point, on the west bank of the Ashley River, a few miles northwest of the present-day city center  Charles Town became the first comprehensively planned town in the Thirteen Colonies  Its governance, settlement, and development was to follow a visionary plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lords Proprietors by John Locke  Because the Carolina's Fundamental Constitutions was never ratified, however, Charles Town was never incorporated during the colonial period  Instead, local ordinances were passed by the provincial government, with day-to-day administration handled by the wardens and vestries of St Philip's and St Michael's Anglican parishes At the time of European colonization, the area was inhabited by the indigenous Cusabo, whom the settlers declared war on in October 1671  The settlers initially allied with the Westo, a northern indigenous tribe that traded in enslaved Indians  The settlers abandoned their alliance with the Westo in 1679 and allied with the Cusabo instead The initial settlement quickly dwindled away and disappeared while another village—established by the settlers on Oyster Point at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers around 1672—thrived  This second settlement formally replaced the original Charles Town in 1680  (The original site is now commemorated as Charles Towne Landing ) The second location was more defensible and had access to a fine natural harbor  The new town had become the fifth largest in North America by 1690 A smallpox outbreak erupted in 1698, followed by an earthquake in February 1699  The latter caused a fire that destroyed about a third of the town  During rebuilding, a yellow fever outbreak killed about 15% of the remaining inhabitants  Charles Town suffered between five and eight major yellow fever outbreaks over the first half of the 18th century 
It developed a reputation as one of the least healthy locations in the Thirteen Colonies for ethnic Europeans  Malaria was endemic  Although malaria did not have such high mortality as yellow fever, it caused much illness  It was a major health problem through most of the city's history before dying out in the 1950s after use of pesticides cut down on the mosquitoes that transmitted it 

Charles Town was fortified according to a plan developed in 1704 under Governor Nathaniel Johnson  Both Spain and France contested Britain's claims to the region  Various bands of Native Americans and independent pirates also raided it 
On September 5–6, 1713 (O S ) a violent hurricane passed over Charles Town  The Circular Congregational Church manse was damaged during the storm, in which church records were lost  Much of Charles Town was flooded as "the Ashley and Cooper rivers became one " At least seventy people died in the disaster From the 1670s Charleston attracted pirates  The combination of a weak government and corruption made the city popular with pirates, who frequently visited and raided the city  Charles Town was besieged by the pirate Blackbeard for several days in May 1718  Blackbeard released his hostages and left in exchange for a chest of medicine from Governor Robert Johnson Around 1719, the town's name began to be generally written as Charlestown and, excepting those fronting the Cooper River, the old walls were largely removed over the next decade  Charlestown was a center for the inland colonization of South Carolina  It remained the southernmost point of the Southern Colonies until the Province of Georgia was established in 1732  As noted, the first settlers primarily came from Europe, Barbados and Bermuda  The Barbadian and Bermudan immigrants were planters who brought enslaved Africans with them, having purchased them in the West Indies 
Early immigrant groups to the city included the Huguenots, Scottish, Irish, and Germans, as well as hundreds of Jews, predominately Sephardi from London and major cities of the Dutch Republic, where they had been given refuge  As late as 1830, Charleston's Jewish community was the largest and wealthiest in North America By 1708, the majority of the colony's population were Black Africans  They had been brought to Charlestown via the Atlantic slave trade, first as indentured servants and then as slaves  In the early 1700s, Charleston's largest slave trader, Joseph Wragg, pioneered the settlement's involvement in the slave trade  Of the estimated 400,000 captive Africans transported to North America to be sold into slavery, 40% are thought to have landed at Sullivan's Island off Charlestown  Free people of color also migrated from the West Indies, being descendants of white planters and their Black consorts, and unions among the working classes In 1767 Gadsden's Wharf was constructed at the city port on the Cooper River; it ultimately extended 840 feet and was able to accommodate six ships at a time  Many slaves were sold from here  Devoted to plantation agriculture that depended on enslaved labor, South Carolina became a slave society: it had a majority-Black population from the colonial period until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century, when many rural Blacks moved to northern and midwestern industrial cities to escape Jim Crow laws 

At the foundation of the town, the principal items of commerce were pine timber and pitch for ships and tobacco  The early economy developed around the deerskin trade, in which colonists used alliances with the Cherokee and Creek peoples to secure the raw material 
At the same time, Indians took each other as captives and slaves in warfare  From 1680 to 1720, approximately 40,000 native men, women, and children were sold through the port, principally to the West Indies such as (Bermuda and the Bahamas), but also to other Southern colonies  The Lowcountry planters did not keep Indian slaves, considering them too prone to escape or revolt  They used the proceeds of their sale to purchase enslaved Black Africans for their own plantations  The slave raiding—and the European firearms it introduced—helped destabilize Spanish Florida and French Louisiana in the 1700s during the War of the Spanish Succession  But it also provoked the Yamasee War of the 1710s that nearly destroyed the colony  After that, South Carolina largely abandoned the Indian slave trade The area's unsuitability for growing tobacco prompted the Lowcountry planters to experiment with other cash crops  The profitability of growing rice led the planters to pay premiums for slaves from the "Rice Coast" who knew its cultivation; their descendants make up the ethnic Gullah who created their own culture and language in this area  Slaves imported from the Caribbean showed the planter George Lucas's daughter Eliza how to raise and use indigo for dyeing in 1747 
Throughout this period, the slaves were sold aboard the arriving ships or at ad hoc gatherings in town's taverns  Runaways and minor slave rebellions prompted the 1739 Security Act, which required all white men to carry weapons at all times (even to church on Sundays)  Before it had fully taken effect, the Cato or Stono Rebellion broke out  The white community had recently been decimated by a malaria outbreak, and the rebels killed about 25 white people before being stopped by the colonial militia  As a result of their fears of rebellion, whites killed a total of 35 to 50 Black people The planters attributed the violence to recently imported Africans and agreed to a 10-year moratorium on slave importation through Charlestown  They relied for labor upon the slave communities they already held  The 1740 Negro Act also tightened controls, requiring a ratio of one white for every ten Blacks on any plantation (which was often not achieved), and banning slaves from assembling together, growing their own food, earning money, or learning to read  Drums were banned because Africans used them for signaling; slaves were allowed to use string and other instruments  When the moratorium expired and Charlestown reopened to the slave trade in 1750, the memory of the Stono Rebellion resulted in traders avoiding buying slaves from the Congo and Angola, whose populations had a reputation for independence 
By the mid-18th century, Charlestown was the hub of the Atlantic slave trade in the Southern Colonies  Even with the decade-long moratorium, its customs processed around 40% of the enslaved Africans brought to North America between 1700 and 1775, and about half up until the end of the African trade 
The plantations and the economy based on them made this the wealthiest city in the Thirteen Colonies and the largest in population south of Philadelphia  In 1770, the city had 11,000 inhabitants—half slaves—and was the 4th-largest port in the colonies, after Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia 
The elite began to use their wealth to encourage cultural and social development  America's first theater building was constructed here in 1736; it was later replaced by today's Dock Street Theater  St Michael's was erected in 1753  Benevolent societies were formed by the Huguenots, free people of color, Germans, and Jews  The Library Society was established in 1748 by well-born young men who wanted to share the financial cost to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day 

American Revolution (1776–1783)
Delegates for the Continental Congress were elected in 1774, and South Carolina declared its independence from Britain on the steps of the Exchange  Slavery was again an important factor in the city's role during the Revolutionary War  The British attacked the settlement three times, assuming that the settlement had a large base of Loyalists who would rally to their cause once given some military support  The loyalty of white Southerners towards the Crown had largely been forfeited, however, by British legal cases (such as the 1772 Somersett case which marked the prohibition of slavery in England and Wales; a significant milestone in the abolitionist struggle) and military tactics (such as Dunmore's Proclamation in 1775) that promised the emancipation of slaves owned by Patriot planters; these efforts did, however, unsurprisingly win the allegiance of thousands of Black Loyalists 
The Battle of Sullivan's Island saw the British fail to capture a partially constructed palmetto palisade from Col  Moultrie's militia regiment on June 28, 1776  The Liberty Flag used by Moultrie's men formed the basis of the later South Carolina flag, and the victory's anniversary continues to be commemorated as Carolina Day 
Making the capture of Charlestown their chief priority, the British sent Sir Henry Clinton, who laid siege to Charleston on April 1, 1780, with about 14,000 troops and 90 ships  Bombardment began on March 11, 1780  The Patriots, led by Benjamin Lincoln, had about 5,500 men and inadequate fortifications to repel the forces against them  After the British cut his supply lines and lines of retreat at the battles of Monck's Corner and Lenud's Ferry, Lincoln's surrender on May 12, 1780 became the greatest American defeat of the war 
The British continued to hold Charlestown for over a year following their defeat at Yorktown in 1781, although they alienated local planters by refusing to restore full civil government  Nathanael Greene had entered the state after Cornwallis's pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse and kept the area under a kind of siege  British Army officer Alexander Leslie, commanding Charlestown, requested a truce in March 1782 to purchase food for his garrison and the town's inhabitants  Greene refused and formed a brigade under Mordecai Gist to counter British forays  Charlestown was finally evacuated by the British in December 1782  Greene presented the British leaders of the town with the Moultrie Flag 

Antebellum era (1783–1861)
Between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, Charleston experienced an economic boom, at least for the top strata of society  The expansion of cotton as a cash crop in the South both led to huge wealth for a small segment of society and funded impressive architecture and culture but also escalated the importance of slaves and led to greater and greater restrictions on Black Charlestonians 
By 1783, the growth of the city had reached a point where a municipal government became desirable; therefore on August 13, 1783, an act of incorporation for the city of Charleston was ratified  The act originally specified the city's name as "Charles Ton," as opposed to the previous Charlestown, but the spelling "Charleston" quickly came to dominate Although Columbia had replaced it as the state capital in 1788, Charleston became even more prosperous as Eli Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin sped the processing of the crop over 50 times  Britain's Industrial Revolution—initially built upon its textile industry—took up the extra production ravenously and cotton became Charleston's major export commodity in the 19th century  

The Bank of South Carolina, the second-oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798; branches of the First and Second banks of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817 
Throughout the Antebellum Period, Charleston continued to be the only major American city with a majority-slave population  The city's widespread use of slaves as workers was a frequent subject of writers and visitors: a merchant from Liverpool noted in 1834 that "almost all the working population are Negroes, all the servants, the carmen & porters, all the people who see at the stalls in Market, and most of the Journeymen in trades"  American traders had been prohibited from equipping the Atlantic slave trade in 1794 and all importation of slaves was banned in 1808, but American merchantmen frequently refused to permit British inspection for enslaved cargo, and smuggling remained common  Much more important was the domestic slave trade, which boomed as the Deep South was developed in new cotton plantations  As a result of the trade, there was a forced migration of more than one million slaves from the Upper South to the Lower South in the antebellum years  During the early 19th century, the first dedicated slave markets were founded in Charleston, mostly near Chalmers and State streets  Many domestic slavers used Charleston as a port in what was called the coastwise trade, traveling to such ports as Mobile and New Orleans 
Slave ownership was the primary marker of class and even the town's freedmen and free people of color typically kept slaves if they had the wealth to do so  Visitors commonly remarked on the sheer number of Blacks in Charleston and their seeming freedom of movement, though in fact—mindful of the Stono Rebellion and the slave revolution that established Haiti—the whites closely regulated the behavior of both slaves and free people of color  Wages and hiring practices were fixed, identifying badges were sometimes required, and even work songs were sometimes censored  Punishment was handled out of sight by the city's workhouse, whose fees provided the municipal government with thousands a year  In 1820, a state law mandated that each act of manumission (freeing a slave) required legislative approval, effectively halting the practice The effects of slavery were pronounced on white society as well  The high cost of 19th-century slaves and their high rate of return combined to institute an oligarchic society controlled by about ninety interrelated families, where 4% of the free population controlled half of the wealth, and the lower half of the free population—unable to compete with owned or rented slaves—held no wealth at all  The white middle class was minimal: Charlestonians generally disparaged hard work as the lot of slaves  All the slaveholders taken together held 82% of the city's wealth and almost all non-slaveholders were poor  Olmsted considered their civic elections "entirely contests of money and personal influence" and the oligarchs dominated civic planning: the lack of public parks and amenities was noted, as was the abundance of private gardens in the wealthy's walled estates In the 1810s, the town's churches intensified their discrimination against their Black parishioners, culminating in Bethel Methodist's 1817 construction of a hearse house over its Black burial ground  4,376 Black Methodists joined Morris Brown in establishing Hampstead Church, the African Methodist Episcopal church now known as Mother Emanuel  State and city laws prohibited Black literacy, limited Black worship to daylight hours, and required a majority of any church's parishioners be white  In June 1818, 140 Black church members at Hampstead Church were arrested and eight of its leaders given fines and ten lashes; police raided the church again in 1820 and pressured it in 1821 In 1822, members of the church, led by Denmark Vesey, a lay preacher and carpenter who had bought his freedom after winning a lottery, planned an uprising and escape to Haiti—initially for Bastille Day—that failed when one slave revealed the plot to his master  Over the next month, the city's intendant (mayor) James Hamilton Jr  organized a militia for regular patrols, initiated a secret and extrajudicial tribunal to investigate, and hanged 35 and exiled 35 or 37 slaves to Spanish Cuba for their involvement  Hamilton imposed more restrictions on both free and enslaved Blacks: South Carolina required free Black sailors to be imprisoned while their ships were in Charleston Harbor though international treaties eventually required the United States to quash the practice; free Blacks were banned from returning to the state if they left for any reason; slaves were given a 9:15 pm curfew; the city razed Hampstead Church to the ground and erected a new arsenal  This structure later was the basis of the Citadel's first campus  The AME congregation built a new church but in 1834 the city banned it and all Black worship services, following Nat Turner's 1831 rebellion in Virginia  The estimated 10% of slaves who came to America as Muslims never had a separate mosque  Slaveholders sometimes provided them with beef rations in place of pork in recognition of religious traditions The registered tonnage of Charleston shipping in 1829 was 12,410  In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts  Soon, federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston's forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor "to take possession of any vessel arriving from a foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with " This federal action became known as the Charleston incident  The state's politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs Charleston's embrace of classical architecture began after a devastating fire leveled much of the city  On April 27, 1838, Charleston suffered a catastrophic fire that burned more than 1000 buildings and caused about $3 million in damage at the time  The damaged buildings amounted to about one-fourth of all the businesses in the main part of the city  When the many homes and business were rebuilt or repaired, a great cultural awakening occurred  Previous to the fire, only a few homes were styled as Greek Revival; many residents decided to construct new buildings in that style after the conflagration  This tradition continued and made Charleston one of the foremost places to view Greek Revival architecture  The Gothic Revival also made a significant appearance in the construction of many churches after the fire that exhibited picturesque forms and reminders of devout European religion By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity  The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves bought and sold  The legal importation of African slaves had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant  However, the domestic trade was booming  More than one million slaves were transported from the Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cotton plantations were widely developed through what became known as the Black Belt  Many slaves were transported in the coastwise slave trade, with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston 

Civil War (1861–1865)
Charleston played a major part in the Civil War  As a pivotal city, both the Union and Confederate Armies vied for control of it  The Civil War began in Charleston Harbor in 1861, and ended mere months after the Union forces took control of Charleston in 1865 
Following the election of Abraham Lincoln, the South Carolina General Assembly voted on December 20, 1860, to secede from the Union  South Carolina was the first state to secede  On December 27, Castle Pinckney was surrendered by its garrison to the state militia and, on January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on the USS Star of the West as it entered Charleston Harbor 
The first full battle of the American Civil War occurred on April 12, 1861, when shore batteries under the command of General P  G  T  Beauregard opened fire on the US Army-held Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor  After a 34-hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort 
On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over 500 acres (200 ha) of the city 
Union control of the sea permitted the repeated bombardment of the city, causing vast damage  Although Admiral Du Pont's naval assault on the town's forts in April 1863 failed, the Union navy's blockade shut down most commercial traffic  Over the course of the war, some blockade runners got through but not a single one made it into or out of the Charleston Harbor between August 1863 and March 1864  The early submarine H L  Hunley made a night attack on the USS Housatonic on February 17, 1864 General Gillmore's land assault in July 1864 was unsuccessful but the fall of Columbia and advance of General William T  Sherman's army through the state prompted the Confederates to evacuate the town on February 17, 1865, burning the public buildings, cotton warehouses, and other sources of supply before their departure  Union troops moved into the city within the month  The War Department recovered what federal property remained and also confiscated the campus of the Citadel Military Academy and used it as a federal garrison for the next 17 years  The facilities were finally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E  Marichak 

Postbellum (1865–1945)
Reconstruction
After the defeat of the Confederacy, federal forces remained in Charleston during Reconstruction  The war had shattered the city's prosperity, but the African-American population surged (from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880) as freedmen moved from the countryside to the major city  Blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church and resumed open meetings of the African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches  They purchased dogs, guns, liquor, and better clothes—all previously banned—and ceased yielding the sidewalks to whites  Despite the efforts of the state legislature to halt manumissions, Charleston had already had a large class of free people of color as well  At the onset of the war, the city had 3,785 free people of color, many of mixed race, making up about 18% of the city's black population and 8% of its total population  Many were educated and practiced skilled crafts; they quickly became leaders of South Carolina's Republican Party and its legislators  Men who had been free people of color before the war comprised 26% of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876 By the late 1870s, industry was bringing the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality; new jobs attracted new residents  As the city's commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions  In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston's African American population  Gen  Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war  Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now a university-preparatory school, Porter-Gaud School 
In 1875, blacks made up 57% of the city's and 73% of the county's population  With leadership by members of the antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as "unique" in being able to defend themselves without provoking "massive white retaliation", as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction  In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as a violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to maintain white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and granting of citizenship to freedmen by federal constitutional amendments  After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by conservative Democratic paramilitary groups, known as the Red Shirts  Violent incidents took place in Charleston on King Street on September 6 and in nearby Cainhoy on October 15, both in association with political meetings before the 1876 election  The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks  The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of the state legislature  Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election, when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed 

Politics
In the early 20th century strong political machines emerged in the city reflecting economic, class, racial, and ethnic tensions  The factions nearly all opposed U S  Senator Ben Tillman who repeatedly attacked and ridiculed the city in the name of upstate poor farmers  Well organized factions within the Democratic Party in Charleston gave the voters clear choices and played a large role in state politics 

1886 earthquake
On August 31, 1886, Charleston experienced a strong earthquake  The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7 0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme)  It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda  It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($163 million in 2021 dollars), at a time when all the city's buildings were valued around $24 million ($653 million in 2021 dollars) 

Charleston race riots
The Charleston race riot of 1919 took place on the night of Saturday, May 10, between members of the US Navy and the local black population  They attacked black individuals, businesses, and homes killing six and injuring dozens 

Contemporary era (1945–present)
Charleston languished economically for several decades in the 20th century, though the large federal military presence in the region helped to shore up the city's economy  Charleston's tourism boom began in earnest following the publication of Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham's Architecture of Charleston in the 1920s The Charleston Hospital Strike of 1969, in which mostly black workers protested discrimination and low wages, was one of the last major events of the civil rights movement  It attracted Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Andrew Young, and other prominent figures to march with the local leader, Mary Moultrie 
Joseph P  Riley Jr  was elected mayor in the 1970s, and helped advance several cultural aspects of the city 
Between 1989 and 1996, Charleston saw two significant economic hits  First, the eye of Hurricane Hugo came ashore at Charleston Harbor in 1989, and though the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, three-quarters of the homes in Charleston's historic district sustained damage of varying degrees  The hurricane caused over $2 8 billion in damage  The city was able to rebound fairly quickly after the hurricane and has grown in population, reaching an estimated 124,593 residents in 2009  Second, in 1993, the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) directed that Naval Base Charleston be closed  Pursuant to BRAC action, Naval Base Charleston was closed on April 1, 1996, although some activities remain under the cognizance of Naval Support Activity Charleston, now part of Joint Base Charleston After having been a majority-minority city for most of its history, in the late 20th century many whites began returning to the urban core of Charleston and the area gentrified with rising prices and rents  From 1980 to 2010, the peninsula's population shifted from two-thirds black to two-thirds white; in 2010 residents numbered 20,668 whites to 10,455 blacks  Many African Americans moved to the less-expensive suburbs in these decades On June 17, 2015, 21-year-old white supremacist Dylann Roof entered the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church and sat in on part of a Bible study before shooting and killing nine people and injuring a tenth, all African Americans  Senior pastor Clementa Pinckney, who also served as a state senator, was among those killed during the attack  The deceased also included congregation members Susie Jackson, 87; Rev  Daniel Simmons Sr , 74; Ethel Lance, 70; Myra Thompson, 59; Cynthia Hurd, 54; Rev  Depayne Middleton-Doctor, 49; Rev  Sharonda Coleman-Singleton, 45; and Tywanza Sanders, 26  The attack garnered national attention, and sparked a debate on historical racism, Confederate symbolism in Southern states, and gun violence, in part based on Roof's online postings  A memorial service on the campus of the College of Charleston was attended by President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and Speaker of the House John Boehner 

Condemnation of role in the slave trade
On June 17, 2018, the Charleston City Council apologized for its role in the slave trade and condemned its "inhumane" history  It also acknowledged wrongs committed against African Americans by slavery and Jim Crow laws 

Geography
The city proper consists of six distinct districts 

Downtown, or sometimes referred to as "The Peninsula", is Charleston's center city separated by the Ashley River to the west and the Cooper River to the east 
West Ashley, residential area to the west of Downtown bordered by the Ashley River to the east and the Stono River to the west
Johns Island, far western limits of Charleston, bordered by the Stono River to the east, Kiawah River to the south and Wadmalaw Island to the west
James Island, popular residential area between Downtown and the town of Folly Beach with portions of the independent town of James Island intermixed
Cainhoy Peninsula, far eastern limits of Charleston bordered by the Wando River to the west and Nowell Creek to the east
Daniel Island, residential area to the north of downtown, east of the Cooper River and west of the Wando River

Topography
The incorporated city fitted into 4–5 sq mi (10–13 km2) as late as the First World War, but has since greatly expanded, crossing the Ashley River and encompassing James Island and some of Johns Island  The city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area  The present city has a total area of 127 5 sq mi (330 2 km2), of which 109 0 sq mi (282 2 km2) is land and 18 5 sq mi (47 9 km2) is covered by water  North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River 
Charleston Harbor runs about 7 mi (11 km) southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 mi (3 2 km), surrounded on all sides except its entrance  Sullivan's Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to the south  The entrance itself is about 1 mi (2 km) wide; it was originally only 18 ft (5 m) deep but began to be enlarged in the 1870s  The tidal rivers (Wando, Cooper, Stono, and Ashley) are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline  There is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor, and the Cooper River is deep 

Climate
Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with mild winters, hot humid summers, and significant rainfall all year long  Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers  Fall remains relatively warm through the middle of November  Winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain  Measurable snow (≥0 1 in or 0 25 cm) has a median occurrence of only once per decade at the airport, but freezing rain is more common; a snowfall/freezing rain event on January 3, 2018, was the first such event in Charleston since December 26, 2010  However, 6 0 in (15 cm) fell at the airport on December 23, 1989, during the December 1989 United States cold wave, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8 0 in (20 cm) snowfall Downtown Charleston's climate is considerably milder than the airport's due to stronger maritime influence  This is especially true in the winter, with the average January low in downtown being 43 6 °F (6 °C) to the airport's 38 9 °F (4 °C) for example 
The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F (40 °C) on June 2, 1985, and June 24, 1944; the lowest was 7 °F (−14 °C) on February 14, 1899  At the airport, where official records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F (41 °C) on August 1, 1999, down to 6 °F (−14 °C) on January 21, 1985  Hurricanes are a major threat to the area during the summer and early fall, with several severe hurricanes hitting the area—most notably Hurricane Hugo on September 21, 1989 (a category 4 storm)  The dewpoint from June to August ranges from 67 8 to 71 4 °F (19 9 to 21 9 °C) 

Metropolitan Statistical Area
As defined by the U S  Office of Management and Budget, for use by the U S  Census Bureau and other U S  Government agencies for statistical purposes only, Charleston is included within the Charleston–North Charleston, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area and the smaller Charleston-North Charleston urban area  The Charleston–North Charleston metropolitan area consists of three counties: Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester  As of the 2020 U S  Census, the metropolitan statistical area had a total population of 799,636 people  North Charleston is the second-largest city in the metro area and ranks as the third-largest city in the state; Mount Pleasant and Summerville are the next-largest cities  These cities combined with other incorporated and unincorporated areas along with the city of Charleston form the Charleston–North Charleston urban area with a population of 548,404 as of 2010  The metropolitan statistical area also includes a separate and much smaller urban area within Berkeley County, Moncks Corner (with a 2000 population of 9,123) 
The traditional parish system persisted until the Reconstruction Era, when counties were imposed  Nevertheless, traditional parishes still exist in various capacities, mainly as public service districts  When the city of Charleston was formed, it was defined by the limits of the Parish of St  Philip and St  Michael, now also includes parts of St  James' Parish, St  George's Parish, St  Andrew's Parish, and St  John's Parish, although the last two are mostly still incorporated rural parishes 

Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 150,227 people, 58,902 households, and 31,780 families residing in the city 

Language
Given Charleston's high concentration of African Americans who spoke the Gullah language, a creole language that developed on the Sea Islands and in the Low Country, the local speech patterns were also influenced by this community  Today, Gullah is still spoken by many African American residents  However, rapid development since 1980, especially on the surrounding Sea Islands, has attracted residents from outside the area and led to a decline in Gullah's prominence 
The traditional educated Charleston accent has long been noted in the state and throughout the South  It is typically heard in wealthy European American older people who trace their families back generations in the city  It has ingliding or monophthongal long mid-vowels, raises ay and aw in certain environments, and is nonrhotic  Sylvester Primer of the College of Charleston wrote about aspects of the local dialect in his late 19th-century works: "Charleston Provincialisms" (1887) and "The Huguenot Element in Charleston's Provincialisms", published in a German journal  He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers  The disappearing "Charleston accent" spoken mainly by older natives is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city's name  Many Charleston natives ignore the 'r' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as "Chalston" 

Religion
Charleston is known as "The Holy City"  Despite beliefs that the term dates to the city's earliest days and refers to its religiously tolerant culture, the term was coined in the 20th century, likely as a mockery of Charlestonians' self-satisfied attitude about their city  Regardless of the nickname's origination, residents have embraced the term and explained it in more flattering terms 
The Anglican church was dominant in the colonial era, and the Cathedral of St  Luke and St  Paul is today the seat of the Anglican Diocese of South Carolina  St  John's Protestant Episcopal Church is another historic church in Charleston  Many French Huguenot refugees settled in Charleston in the early 18th century  The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal church in the Southern United States and houses the oldest black congregation south of Baltimore, Maryland South Carolina has long allowed Jews to practice their faith without restriction  Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim, founded in 1749 by Sephardic Jews from London, is the fourth-oldest Jewish congregation in the continental United States and was an important site for the development of Reform Judaism  Brith Sholom Beth Israel is the oldest Orthodox synagogue in the South, founded by Sam Berlin and other Ashkenazi German and Central European Jews in the mid-19th century The city's oldest Catholic parish, St  Mary of the Annunciation Catholic Church, is the mother church of Catholicism in South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia  In 1820, Charleston was established as the see city of the Diocese of Charleston, which at the time comprised the Carolinas and Georgia, and presently encompasses the state of South Carolina 
The Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite, established in Charleston in 1801, is considered the mother council of the world by Scottish Rite Freemasons 

Culture
Charleston's culture blends traditional Southern U S , English, French, and West African elements  The downtown peninsula has a number of art, music, local cuisine, and fashion venues  Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy 
Charleston's oldest community theater group, the Footlight Players, has provided theatrical productions since 1931  A variety of performing arts venues includes the historic Dock Street Theatre  The annual Charleston Fashion Week held each spring in Marion Square brings in designers, journalists, and clients from across the nation  Charleston is known for its local seafood, which plays a key role in the city's renowned cuisine, comprising staple dishes such as gumbo, she-crab soup, fried oysters, Lowcountry boil, deviled crab cakes, red rice, and shrimp and grits  Rice is the staple in many dishes, reflecting the rice culture of the Low Country  The cuisine in Charleston is also strongly influenced by British and French elements 

Annual cultural events and fairs
Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17-day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines  The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city  Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation's Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival  The Charleston Conference is a major library industry event, held in the city center since 1980 

Music
The Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music  In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country  The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake's "Charleston Rag" and later James P  Johnson's "Charleston", as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s  "Ballin' the Jack", which was a popular dance in the years before "Charleston", was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by the Rev  Daniel J  Jenkins in Charleston  The orphanage accepted donations of musical instruments and Rev  Jenkins hired local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music  As a result, Charleston musicians became proficient on a variety of instruments and were able to read music expertly  These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land some of them positions in big bands with Duke Ellington and Count Basie  William "Cat" Anderson, Jabbo Smith, and Freddie Green are but a few of the alumni who became professional musicians  Orphanages around the country began to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins Orphanage Band's success As many as five bands were on tour during the 1920s  The Jenkins Orphanage Band played in the inaugural parades of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft and toured the US and Europe  The band also played on Broadway for the play "Porgy" by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, a stage version of their novel of the same title  The story was based in Charleston and featured the Gullah community  The Heywards insisted on hiring the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on stage  Only a few years later, DuBose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel into the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess (so named so as to distinguish it from the play)  George Gershwin and Heyward spent the summer of 1934 at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing this "folk opera", as Gershwin called it  Porgy and Bess is considered one of the first Great American Operas and is widely performed To this day, Charleston is home to many musicians in all genres 

Live theater
Charleston has a vibrant theater scene and is home to America's first theater  Most of the theaters are part of the League of Charleston Theatres, better known as Theatre Charleston  Some of the city's theaters include:

The Dock Street Theatre, opened in the 1930s on the site of America's first purpose-built theater building, is home of the Charleston Stage Company, South Carolina's largest professional theater company 
Sottile Theater is on the campus of The College of Charleston 
The Queen Street Playhouse is a former cotton warehouse that was fully converted to a theater in 1986  It is the home of the Footlight Players, a Charleston theater troupe first organized in 1932 

Museums, historical sites, and other attractions
Charleston has many historic buildings, art and historical museums, public parks, and other attractions, including:

Halsey Institute of Contemporary Art at the College of Charleston is free a non-collecting contemporary arts organization 
The Calhoun Mansion, a 24,000-square-foot, 1876 Victorian home at 16 Meeting Street, is named for a grandson of John C  Calhoun who lived there with his wife, the builder's daughter  The private house is periodically open for tours 
The Charleston Museum, America's first museum, was founded in 1773 
The Exchange and Provost was built in 1767  It is operated as a museum by the Daughters of the American Revolution 
The Powder Magazine is a 1713 gunpowder magazine and museum  It is the oldest surviving public building in South Carolina 
The Gibbes Museum of Art, opened in 1905, houses principally American works with a Charleston or Southern connection 
The Fireproof Building houses the South Carolina Historical Society which has a rotating series of historical displays 
The Nathaniel Russell House is an important federal-style house open to the public as a house museum 
The Gov  William Aiken House, also known as the Aiken-Rhett House, is a house museum built in 1820 
The Heyward-Washington House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  Furnished for the late 18th century, the house includes a collection of Charleston-made furniture 
The Joseph Manigault House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  The house was designed by Gabriel Manigault and is significant for its Adam style architecture 
The Market Hall and Sheds, also known as the City Market or simply the Market, stretch several blocks behind 188 Meeting Street  Market Hall was built in the 1841 and houses the Daughters of the Confederacy Museum  The sheds house some permanent stores, but are mainly occupied by open-air vendors 
The Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture was established to collect, preserve, and make public the unique historical and cultural heritage of African Americans in Charleston and the South Carolina Low Country  Avery's archival collections, museum exhibitions, and public programming reflect these diverse populations, as well as the wider African Diaspora 
Fort Sumter, site of the first shots fired in the Civil War, is located in Charleston Harbor  The National Park Service maintains a visitor center for Fort Sumter at Liberty Square (near the South Carolina Aquarium), and boat tours including the fort depart nearby 
The Battery is an historic defensive seawall and promenade located at the tip of the peninsula along with White Point Garden, a park featuring several memorials and Civil War-era artillery pieces 
Rainbow Row is an iconic strip of homes along the harbor that date back to the mid-18th century  Though the homes are not open to the public, they are one of the most photographed attractions in the city and are featured heavily in local art 
The South Carolina Aquarium includes revolving exhibits while its permanent focus is on the aquatic life of South Carolina 
Waterfront Park located on the Cooper River 
Old Slave Mart museum – Located at 6 Chalmers St in the historic district is the first African American Museum  It has operated since 1938 

Sports
Charleston is home to a number of professional, minor league, and amateur sports teams:

The Charleston Battery, a professional soccer team, play in the USL Championship  The Battery play at Patriots Point Soccer Complex 
The South Carolina Stingrays, a professional hockey team, plays in the ECHL  The Stingrays play in North Charleston at the North Charleston Coliseum  The Stingrays are an affiliate of the Washington Capitals and Hershey Bears 
The Charleston RiverDogs, a Minor League Baseball team, plays in the Low-A East and are an affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays  The RiverDogs play at Joseph P  Riley Jr  Park 
The Charleston Outlaws RFC is a rugby union club in the Palmetto Rugby Union, USA Rugby South, and USA Rugby  It competes in Men's Division II against the Cape Fear, Columbia, Greenville, and Charlotte "B" clubs  The club also hosts a rugby sevens tournament during Memorial Day weekend 
The Charleston Gaelic Athletic Association is a Gaelic athletic club focusing on the sports of hurling and Gaelic football  The club competes in the Southeastern Division of the North American County Board of the GAA  The club hosts other division clubs in the Holy City Cup each spring 
The Lowcountry Highrollers is a women's flat-track roller derby league in the Charleston area  The league is a local member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association 
The Family Circle Tennis Center hosts the Volvo Car Open, a major Women's Tennis Association Event  The facility is located on Daniel Island Other notable sports venues in Charleston include Johnson Hagood Stadium (home of The Citadel Bulldogs football team), McAlister Field House (home of The Citadel Bulldogs basketball team), and Toronto Dominion Bank Arena at the College of Charleston, which seats 5,100 people who view the school's basketball and volleyball teams 

Books and films
Various books and films have been set in Charleston; some of the best known works are listed below  In addition, Charleston is a popular filming location for movies and television, both in its own right and as a stand-in for Southern and/or historic settings 

Porgy (1925), by DuBose Heyward, adapted into the play in 1927  George Gershwin's folk opera Porgy and Bess (1935), based on the novel Porgy, is set in Charleston and was partially written at Folly Beach, near Charleston  A film version was released in 1959 
North and South series of books by John Jakes, was partially set in Charleston  The North and South miniseries was partially set and filmed in Charleston 
Part of the 1989 film Glory, starring Matthew Broderick, Denzel Washington, and Morgan Freeman, features the 1863 Second Battle of Fort Wagner on Morris Island 
The movies Swamp Thing (1982) and The Lords of Discipline (1983) (based on the novel by Pat Conroy) were partly filmed in Charleston 

Economy
Commercial shipping is important to the economy  The city has two shipping terminals, of a total of five terminals owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority in the Charleston metropolitan area, which are part of the fourth-largest container seaport on the East Coast and the seventh-largest container seaport in the United States  The port is also used to transfer cars and car parts for Charleston's auto manufacturing business, such as Mercedes and Volvo Sometimes known as Silicon Harbor, the city is becoming a popular location for high tech and innovation, and this sector has had the highest rate of growth between 2011 and 2012, due in large part to the Charleston Digital Corridor  In 2013, the Milken Institute ranked the Charleston region as the ninth-best performing economy in the US because of its growing IT sector  Notable companies include Blackbaud, Greystar Real Estate Partners, Evening Post Industries, Le Creuset, SPARC a Booz Allen Hamilton subsidiary, BoomTown, CSS, and Benefitfocus 
In June 2017, the mean sales price for a home in Charleston was $351,186 and the median price was $260,000 

Government
Charleston has a strong mayor-council government, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive officer of the municipality  The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as other council members  The current mayor, since 2016, is John Tecklenburg  The council has 12 members who are each elected from single-member districts 

Fire department
The City of Charleston Fire Department consists over 300 full-time firefighters  These firefighters operate out of 21 companies located throughout the city: 16 engine companies, two tower companies, two ladder companies, a heavy rescue company, a HAZ-MAT unit and several special units  Training, Fire Marshall, Operations, and Administration are the divisions of the department  The department operates on a 24/48 schedule and is a Class 1 ISO rating  Russell (Rusty) Thomas served as Fire Chief until June 2008, and was succeeded by Chief Thomas Carr in November 2008  The department is presently led by Chief Daniel Curia 

Police department
The City of Charleston Police Department, with a total of 458 sworn officers, 117 civilians, and 27 reserve police officers, is South Carolina's largest police department  Luther Reynolds serves as the current Chief of Police  He follows Greg Mullen and Reuben Greenberg  Chief Reynolds is credited with continuing successful community outreach programs such as The Illumination Project and fostering a culture of mutual respect  Under Chief Reynolds, the agency has successfully withstood challenges such as the Coronavirus and downtown disturbances  Additionally, the agency continues to recruit police candidates in a competitive market 

EMS and medical centers
Emergency medical services (EMS) for the city are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services (CCEMS) & Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (BCEMS)  The city is served by the EMS and 911 services of both Charleston and Berkeley counties since the city is part of both counties 
Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state  The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H  Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital  MUSC is the state's first school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth-oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States  The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals  Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at another major hospital located in the West Ashley portion of the city: Bon Secours-St Francis Xavier Hospital  The Trident Regional Medical Center located in the City of North Charleston and East Cooper Regional Medical Center located in Mount Pleasant also serve the needs of residents of the city of Charleston 

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Station Charleston responds to search and rescue emergencies, conducts maritime law enforcement activities, and Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security (PWCS) missions  Personnel from Station Charleston are highly trained professionals, composed of federal law enforcement officers, boat crewmen, and coxswains who are capable of completing a wide range of missions  In 2020, the Coast Guard announced plans to construct a 2,800-acre (11 km2) "superbase" on the former Charleston Naval Shipyard complex to consolidate all its Charleston-area facilities and become the homeport for five Security cutters and additional offshore cutters Coast Guard Sector Charleston (District 7)

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Helicopter Air Facility, Johns Island, Charleston
Coast Guard Reserves, Charleston
USCGC Yellowfin, Marine Protector-class coastal patrol boat, Charleston
USCGC Anvil, 75-foot inland construction tender, Charleston
USCGC Willow, (WLB-202), Charleston

Military
Army Corps of Engineers, Charleston District Headquarters
U S  Coast Guard
Joint Base Charleston (Navy & Air Force)

Crime
The following table shows Charleston's crime rate for six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses to calculate the ranking of "America's most dangerous cities", in comparison to the national average  The statistics shown are for the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people  Since 1999, the overall crime rate of Charleston has declined markedly  The total crime index rate for Charleston in 1999 was 597 1 crimes committed per 100,000 people, while in 2011, the total crime index rate was 236 4 per 100,000 

Transportation
Airport and rail
The City of Charleston is served by the Charleston International Airport  It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 mi (19 km) northwest of downtown Charleston  It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS)  The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base  Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John's Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft  Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority  As of April 2019, British Airways does seasonal non-stop flights from Charleston to London-Heathrow 
Charleston is served by two daily Amtrak trains: The Palmetto and Silver Meteor at the Amtrak station located at 4565 Gaynor Avenue in the City of North Charleston located around 7 5 miles from downtown Charleston 

Interstates and highways
Interstate 26 (I-26) begins in downtown Charleston, with exits to the Septima Clark Expressway, the Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Meeting Street  Heading northwest, it connects the city to North Charleston, the Charleston International Airport, I-95, and Columbia  The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Septima Clark Expressway are part of U S  Route 17 (US 17), which travels east–west through the cities of Charleston and Mount Pleasant  The Mark Clark Expressway, or I-526, is the bypass around the city and begins and ends at US 17  US 52 is Meeting Street and its spur is East Bay Street, which becomes Morrison Drive after leaving the east side  This highway merges with King Street in the city's Neck area (industrial district)  US 78 is King Street in the downtown area, eventually merging with Meeting Street 

Major highways
Interstate 26 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
Interstate 526
U S  Route 17
U S  Route 52 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
U S  Route 78 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
State Highway 7 (Sam Rittenberg Boulevard)
State Highway 30 (James Island Expressway)
State Highway 61 (St  Andrews Boulevard/Ashley River Road)
State Highway 171 (Old Towne Road/Folly Road)
State Highway 461 (Paul Cantrell Boulevard/Glenn McConnell Parkway)
South Carolina Highway 700 (Maybank Highway)

Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge
The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge across the Cooper River opened on July 16, 2005, and was the longest cable-stayed bridge in the Americas at the time of its construction  The bridge links downtown Charleston with Mount Pleasant, and has eight lanes plus a 12-foot lane shared by pedestrians and bicycles  The height of the bridge varies, but it is estimated that it has a height of 573 feet  It replaced the Grace Memorial Bridge (built in 1929) and the Silas N  Pearman Bridge (built in 1966)  They were considered two of the more dangerous bridges in America and were demolished after the Ravenel Bridge opened 

City bus service
The city is also served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA)  Most of the urban area is served by regional fixed route buses, which are equipped with bike racks as part of the system's Rack and Ride program  CARTA offers connectivity to historic downtown attractions and accommodations with the Downtown Area Shuttle trolley buses, and it offers curbside pickup for disabled passengers with its Tel-A-Ride buses  A bus rapid transit system is in development, called Lowcountry Rapid Transit that will connect Charleston to Summerville through North Charleston 
Rural parts of the city and metropolitan area are served by a different bus system, operated by Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Rural Transportation Management Association  The system is also commonly called the TriCounty Link 

Port
The Port of Charleston, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, is one of the largest ports in the United States, ranked seventh in the top 25 by containerized cargo volume in 2018  It consists of six terminals, with the sixth having opened in April 2021  Port activity at the two terminals located in the city of Charleston is one of the city's leading sources of revenue, behind tourism 
Today, the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal  A harbor-deepening project is currently underway to take the Port of Charleston's entrance channel to 54 feet and harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide  With an average high tide of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and 58 feet, respectively 
Part of Union Pier Treminal, in the city of Charleston, is a cruise ship passenger terminal which hosted numerous cruise departures annually through 2019  Beginning in May 2019, until cruise operations were interrupted in April 2020, the Carnival Sunshine was permanently stationed in Charleston, offering 4, 5, and 7-day cruises to the Caribbean With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc  signed a long-term lease  With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc  is one of the largest commercial marine repair facilities on the East Coast  Projects include military, commercial, and cruise ships 

Schools, colleges, and universities
Because most of the city of Charleston is located in Charleston County, it is served by the Charleston County School District  Part of the city, however, is served by the Berkeley County School District in northern portions of the city, such as the Cainhoy Industrial District, Cainhoy Historical District and Daniel Island 
Charleston is also served by a large number of independent schools, including Porter-Gaud School (K-12), Charleston Collegiate School (K-12), Ashley Hall (Pre K-12), Charleston Day School (K-8), First Baptist Church School (K-12), Palmetto Christian Academy (K-12), Coastal Christian Preparatory School (K-12), Mason Preparatory School (K-8), and Addlestone Hebrew Academy (K-8) 
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston Office of Education also operates out of the city and oversees several K-8 parochial schools, such as Blessed Sacrament School, Christ Our King School, Charleston Catholic School, Nativity School, and Divine Redeemer School, all of which are "feeder" schools into Bishop England High School, a diocesan high school within the city  Bishop England, Porter-Gaud School, and Ashley Hall are the city's oldest and most prominent private schools, and are a significant part of Charleston history, dating back some 150 years 
Public institutions of higher education in Charleston include the College of Charleston, The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, and the Medical University of South Carolina  The city is also home to private schools including the Charleston Southern University and Charleston School of Law  Charleston is also home to the Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing, and the city has a downtown satellite campus for the region's technical school, Trident Technical College  Charleston has the only college in the country that offers bachelor's degrees in the building arts, The American College of the Building Arts 

Media
Broadcast television
Charleston is the nation's 89th-largest Designated market area (DMA), with 332,770 households and 0 27% of the U S  TV population  These stations are licensed in Charleston and have significant operations or viewers in the city:
WCBD-TV (2, NBC) and (14, CW)
WGWG (4, MeTV)
WCSC-TV (5, CBS, Bounce TV, Grit)
WITV (7, PBS)
WLCN-CD (18, CTN)
WTAT-TV (24, Fox)
WAZS-CD (29, Azteca America Independent)
WJNI-CD (31, America One Independent)
WCIV (36, MyNetworkTV, ABC)

Notable people
As a population and wealth center with colleges and cultural outlets, Charleston has produced many notable people in all fields  Among the most notable historical and contemporary figures are:

Jarrell Brantley (born 1996), basketball player
Madelyn Cline, Actress in Outer Banks
Stephen Colbert, comedian and host of The Late Show
Wesley Donehue, political strategist, Internet consultant, CEO
Ann Drayton, 18th-century landowner
Shepard Fairey, graffiti artist
Robert F  Furchgott, recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1998)
Thomas Gibson, actor and star of Criminal Minds
Fritz Hollings, former US Senator and Governor of South Carolina
Lauren Hutton, model and actress, starring in American Gigolo and The Gambler (1974)
Robert Jordan (James Oliver Rigney Jr ), fantasy author, notable for Wheel of Time series
John Laurens, American revolutionary lieutenant colonel in the continental army
Peter Manigault, wealthiest person in British North America in 1770
Khris Middleton, NBA basketball player for the Milwaukee Bucks, gold medal Olympian
Darius Rucker, country music artist, former member of Hootie & The Blowfish
Robert Smalls, African American civil war hero, businessman, politician, and civil rights activist
Denmark Vesey, revolutionary
Joseph Wragg, a pioneer of the large-scale slave trade

Sister cities
Charleston's sister cities are:
Doha, Qatar
Freetown, Sierra Leone
Panama City, Panama
Speightstown, Barbados
Spoleto, ItalyThe relationship with Spoleto began when Pulitzer Prize-winning Italian composer Gian Carlo Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto's annual Festival of Two Worlds  "Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location  The historic city provided a perfect fit: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure "Sister city relation with Panama City was described as follows:
As you may be aware, the city of Charleston, like the city of Panama City, is a historic port City that shares a proud and prosperous history  Our stories are very similar as reflected by our citizens of European, African, Caribbean, native descent, our cuisine, our architecture, and our mutual modern growth in meritime commerce  As Panama City is enjoying a global surge of interest so is Charleston, being ranked as a top destination for travellers, commerce, technology, education, culture and fashion 
Charleston is also twinned with Speightstown  The first colonists to settle in the region designed the original parts of Charlestown based on the plans of Barbados's capital city, Bridgetown  Many indigo, tobacco, and cotton planters relocated their slaves and plantation operations from Speightstown to Charleston after the sugarcane industry came to dominate agricultural production in Barbados 

See also
List of municipalities in South Carolina
USS Charleston, 6 ships

Notes
Passage 4:
Fairhope Plantation
Fairhope Plantation is a historic Carpenter Gothic plantation house and historic district, located one mile east of Uniontown, Alabama, US  The 2+1⁄2-story wood-framed main house was built in the Gothic Revival style in the late 1850s   The plantation historic district includes six other contributing buildings, in addition to the main house   It was added to the Alabama Register of Landmarks and Heritage on December 19, 1991, and subsequently to the National Register of Historic Places on May 29, 1992, due to its architectural and historical significance 

History
Fairhope Plantation was built for Joseph Selden, a native of Virginia   He was born on June 4, 1831, and grew up at Westover Plantation in Charles City County, Virginia   Selden married Elizabeth Collier Minge, of Weynoke Plantation, Virginia, near Faunsdale, in 1854  Elizabeth was born on May 30, 1833  Her family was also originally from Charles City County   Joseph and Elizabeth established Fairhope on property given to them by Elizabeth's family   The main house was built by Theophilus Gilliam Fowler, a local builder  Construction began in 1857 and was completed by 1861   The 1860 United States Census of Perry County indicates that Joseph Selden owned 80 slaves in that year   Selden organized Selden's Battery, an artillery unit, at his own expense during the American Civil War   The unit saw action in several major engagements, including the battles of Kennesaw Mountain, Franklin and Nashville   Elizabeth Selden died following childbirth in 1868, Joseph died in a hotel fire in 1900   Fairhope continued to be owned by Selden descendants and operated as a farm for another century after their deaths 

Architecture
The inspiration for the main house at Fairhope Plantation is thought by architectural historians to be an enlarged adaptation of a design by Alexander Jackson Davis, published in Andrew Jackson Downing's Cottage Residences in 1842   The house features numerous Gothic Revival details, including intricate bargeboards on the eaves and gables,  hood moldings over the doors and windows, octagonal brick chimneys, and central gables topped by finials on all four sides   Additionally, it has a one-story cast-iron veranda around three sides of the ground floor   It is one of only about twenty Gothic Revival residential structures remaining in Alabama   Other historic Gothic Revival residences in the area include Waldwic in Gallion and Ashe Cottage in Demopolis 
Passage 5:
Union Oyster House
Union Oyster House, open to diners since 1826, is amongst the oldest operating restaurants in the United States, and the oldest known that has been continuously operating since being opened  The building was listed as a National Historic Landmark on May 27, 2003 

History
The building itself was built prior to 1714, most likely in 1704  Before it became a restaurant, Hopestill Capen's dress goods business occupied the property  In 1771 printer Isaiah Thomas published his newspaper, The Massachusetts Spy, from the second floor  The restaurant originally opened as the Atwood & Bacon Oyster House on August 3, 1826 The Union Oyster House has had a number of famous people in history as diners, including the Kennedy family and Daniel Webster  Webster was known for regularly consuming at least six plates of oysters  Perhaps most surprisingly, in 1796 Louis Philippe, King of the French from 1830 to 1848, lived in exile on the second floor  He earned his living by teaching French to young women  Labor economist and president of Haverford College John Royston Coleman worked here incognito as a "salad-and-sandwich man" for a time in the 1970s and documented the experience in his book The Blue Collar Journal The menu is traditional New England fare, including seafoods such as oysters, clams, and lobsters, as well as poultry, baked beans, steak and chops 

Image gallery
See also
List of the oldest restaurants in the United States
Cuisine of New England
List of National Historic Landmarks in Boston
List of seafood restaurants
National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts



ground_truth: College of Charles Towne

Charles Towne