prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the source of the river Orlam clans crossed to migrate to Namibia?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Bhilangna River
Bhilangna River is a Himalayan river in Uttarakhand, India, which is the major tributary of the Bhagirathi river, the source stream of the Ganges River of India  Bhilangana is a combination of Bhil and Ganga The mainstem, Bhilangna, rises at the foot of the Khatling Glacier (elevation 3,717 m (12,195 ft)) approximately 50 km (31 mi) south of the ice cave at Gaumukh, traditionally considered the source of both the Bhagirathi and the Ganges and flows into the Bhagirathi at Old Tehri, the site of the Tehri dam   It meets its major tributary the Bal Ganga at Ghansali (elevation 976 m (3,202 ft)) 
The Bal Ganga, whose headwaters are formed at the foot of Mount Kukhli Dhar (elevation 4,600 m (15,100 ft)), itself has a minor tributary, the Dharam Ganga, which meets it at Thati Kathur (also Budha Kedar) at elevation 1,524 m (5,000 ft)
The Khatling trek route passes alongside the Bhilangna, starting from the last point accessible by road, Ghuttu, until the glacier, which stands at 3700 metres  If one were to go further on the trail past the glacier, one could reach Kedarnath 

See also
Bhagirathi River
Ganges
Alaknanda River
Passage 2:
Orange River
The Orange River (from Afrikaans/Dutch: Oranjerivier) is a river in Southern Africa  It is the longest river in South Africa  With a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi), the Orange River Basin extends from Lesotho into South Africa and Namibia to the north  It rises in the Drakensberg mountains in Lesotho, flowing westwards through South Africa to the Atlantic Ocean  The river forms part of the international borders between South Africa and Lesotho and between South Africa and Namibia, as well as several provincial borders within South Africa  Except for Upington, it does not pass through any major cities  The Orange River plays an important role in the South African economy by providing water for irrigation and hydroelectric power  The river was named the Orange River in honour of the Dutch ruling family, the House of Orange, by the Dutch explorer Robert Jacob Gordon  Other names include simply the word for river, in Khoekhoegowab orthography written as !Garib, which is rendered in Afrikaans as Gariep River with the intrusion of a velar fricative in place of the alveolar click, Groote River (derived from Kai !Garib) or Senqu River (used in Lesotho), derived from ǂNū "Black"  It is known in isiZulu as isAngqu 

Course
The Orange rises in the Drakensberg mountains along the border between South Africa and Lesotho, about 193 km (120 mi) west of the Indian Ocean and at an altitude of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft)  The extremity of the Orange River inside Lesotho is known as the Senqu  Parts of the Senqu River freeze in winter because of the high altitude  This creates droughts downstream, which mainly affect goat and cattle production 

The Orange River then runs westward through South Africa, forming the south-western boundary of the Free State province  In this section, the river flows first into the Gariep Dam and later into the Vanderkloof Dam  From the border of Lesotho to below the Vanderkloof Dam, the river bed is deeply incised  Further downstream, the land is flatter, and the river is used extensively for irrigation 
At the western point of the Free State, southwest of Kimberley, the Orange meets with its main tributary, the Vaal River, which forms much of the northern border of the province  From here, the river flows further westward through the arid wilderness of the southern Kalahari region and Namaqualand in the Northern Cape province to meet with Namibia at 20°E longitude  From here, it flows westward for 550 km (340 mi), forming the international border between the province and Namibia's ǁKaras Region  On the border, the river passes the town of Vioolsdrif, the main border post between South Africa and Namibia 

In the last 800 km (500 mi) of its course, the Orange receives many intermittent streams, and several large wadis lead into it  In this section, the Namib Desert terminates on the north bank of the river, so under normal circumstances, the volume of water added by these tributaries is negligible  Here, the bed of the river is once again deeply incised  The Augrabies Falls are located on this section of the Orange, where the river descends 122 m (400 ft) in a course of 26 km (16 mi) 
The Orange empties into the Atlantic Ocean between the small towns of Oranjemund (meaning "Orange mouth") in Namibia and Alexander Bay in South Africa, about equidistant between Walvis Bay and Cape Town  Some 33 km (21 mi) from its mouth, it is obstructed by rapids and sand bars and is generally not navigable for long stretches 
The river has a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi) 

Catchment and rainfall
In the dry season, the volume of the water in the river is considerably reduced because of the rapid run-off and evaporation  At the source of the Orange, the rainfall is about 2,000 mm (79 in) per annum, but precipitation decreases as the river flows westward; at its mouth, the rainfall is less than 50 mm (2 0 in) per year  The factors that support evaporation, though, tend to increase in a westerly direction  In the wet season (summer), the Orange river becomes a brown colored torrent  The huge mass of sediment carried constitutes a long-term threat to engineering projects on the river The total catchment of the Orange River (including the Vaal) extends over 973,000 km2 (376,000 sq mi), i e  equivalent to about 77% of the land area of South Africa (1,221,037 km2 (471,445 sq mi))  Around 366,000 km2 (141,000 sq mi) (38%), however, are situated outside the country in Lesotho, Botswana, and Namibia 

Tributaries
Vaal River - 1,458 km (906 mi)
Caledon River - 642 km (399 mi)
Khubelu River - 144 km (89 mi)

Dams
Armenia Dam
Egmont Dam
Gariep Dam
Newberry Dam
Vanderkloof Dam
Welbedacht Dam

History
Etymology
Some of the earliest precolonial inhabitants called the river ǂNūǃarib, referring to its black colour, or sometimes just Kai !Arib ("Great River"), from which is derived the Afrikaans version Gariep, and translation "Groote Rivier"  The early Dutch name for the river was just that translation, Groote Rivier, meaning "Great River"  The river was named the Orange River by Colonel Robert Gordon, commander of the United East India Company (VOC) garrison at Cape Town, on a trip to the interior in 1779  Gordon named the river in honor of William V of Orange  A popular but incorrect belief is that the river was named after the supposedly orange color of its water, as opposed to the color of its tributary, the Vaal River, which name is derived from the name ǀHaiǃarib "pale river" (vaal being Afrikaans for pale or grey)  Since the end of apartheid, the name "Gariep" has had greater favour in official correspondence in South Africa, although the name "Orange" has greater international recognition  In Lesotho, where the river rises, it is known as the Senqu River, derived from the original Khoemana name 

The Eastern Cape Geographical Names Committee has advertised its intention to consider a name change from the colonial name, for that portion of the river that forms the border between the Eastern Cape and the Free State, with suggestions being IGqili or Senqu  The advertisement placed in the Aliwal Weekblad newspaper states that the "present name is perceived to have a strong association with the history of colonial subjugation and has therefore no place under the current democratic dispensation "

The Grootslang
In South African folklore, the Orange River is often associated with the Grootslang, a mythical being resembling a giant serpent, which is often connected to the river's alluvial diamonds  The Grootslang is described as living in a gem-filled cave connected to the Orange River by a natural pipe through which the diamonds gradually enter the river  Other sites said to be lairs of the creature include the pool beneath the King George Cataract at Aughrabies Falls, which is also said to be a source of diamonds, and a large rock in the middle of the river itself  In this version of the legend, the Grootslang is also said to prey on cattle from the river's banks 

Economy
As the collection point for the majority of South Africa's water, the Orange River plays a major role in supporting agriculture, industry, and mining  To assist in this, two large water schemes have been created, the Orange River Project and the Lesotho Highlands Water Project  Historically, the river played an important role in the South African diamond rush, with the first diamonds in the country being discovered in alluvial deposits on the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate along the final stretch of the Orange River and around its mouth 
Because of the lack of dangerous animals and high water levels during summer, the river is used for recreational canoeing and rafting  Orange River rafting has become very popular with many companies using their camps along the river from which to operate  The most popular trips are four-day and six-day river trips that take place either along the gorge below the Augrabies Falls or along the Richtersveld area 

Orange River Project
The Orange River Project (ORP) was one of the largest and most imaginative projects of its kind in South Africa  It was constructed by Hendrik Verwoerd's government at the height of the apartheid era  The ORP was built to exploit the waters of the Orange River—which, without the Vaal River, represents some 14 1% of the total runoff in South Africa—and in the process, to satisfy an increasing demand for water  The main objectives of the project were:

to stabilise river flow,
the generation and transmission of hydroelectric power,
to provide a reliable water supply for users in the Orange River basin, and
to give a new lease on life to water-deficient areas in the Eastern Cape, such as the Great Fish and Sundays River valleys The Gariep Dam near Colesberg is the main storage structure within the Orange River  From here, the water is supplied in two directions, westward along the Orange River (via hydroelectric power generators) to the Vanderkloof Dam and southward through the Orange-Fish Tunnel to the Eastern Cape 

Hydroelectricity
Eskom operates hydroelectric power stations at both the Gariep Dam and the Vanderkloof Dam  The hydroelectric power station at the Vanderkloof Dam was the first power-generation station in South Africa situated entirely underground  The towns Oviston and Oranjekrag were established to facilitate the construction and operation of the new infrastructure 

Irrigation
Irrigation in the vast area downstream of the Vanderkloof Dam, which has turned thousands of hectares of arid veld into highly productive agricultural land, was made possible by the construction of the Gariep and Vanderkloof Dams  Old established irrigation schemes such as those at Buchuberg, Upington, Kakamas, and Vioolsdrif have also benefitted because regulation of the flow is now possible  On the Namibian side of the river, Aussenkehr produces grapes with the help of water from the Orange 
In recent years, the wine-producing areas along the Orange River have grown in importance  Irrigation in the Eastern Cape has also received a tremendous boost, not only from the additional water being made available, but also owing to improvement in water quality  Without this improvement, the citrus farmers along the Lower Sundays River would almost certainly have continued to suffer losses of productivity 

Lesotho Highlands Water Project
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was conceived to supplement the water supply in the Vaal River System  Water is delivered to South Africa by means of the delivery tunnel which passes under the Lesotho South Africa border at the Caledon River, and then under the Little Caledon River south of Clarens in the Free State, and discharges into the Ash River about 30 kilometres (19 mi) further to the north  The scheme became viable when water demands in Gauteng reached levels that could no longer be supported economically by alternative schemes such as the Tugela River-Vaal River pumped storage scheme, which used the Sterkfontein Dam, located near Harrismith in the Free State 

Alluvial diamonds
In 1867, the first diamond discovered in South Africa, the Eureka Diamond, was found near Hopetown on the Orange River  Two years later, a much larger diamond known as the Star of South Africa was found in the same area, causing a diamond rush  This was soon eclipsed by the diamond rush to mine diamonds directly from kimberlite at Kimberley in 1871, although alluvial diamonds continued to be found in the Orange  Today, several commercial diamond mines operate on the last stretch of the river, as well as the beaches around its mouth  Diamond mines also operate on the middle stretch of the river 

Rafting and canoeing
During the temperate months of March and April, given good rains and the sluices of the dams being open, a canoeist (or rafter) can easily travel 30 kilometres (19 mi) per day  The lower reaches of the river are most popular, because of the spectacular topography  Commercial tours are available, and these expeditions depart from the border town of Vioolsdrif 

Wildlife
The Orange River has no large animals  It lies outside the range of the Nile crocodile, and although hippopotami were once abundant, they were hunted to extermination in the 19th century  The Orange River has a relative paucity of species diversity  A 2011 survey of 13,762 fish found only 16 species of fish present   Three of these, the common carp, the Mozambique tilapia, and the western mosquitofish are not indigenous   Another exotic species, rainbow trout, is found in the river headwaters in Lesotho 
Seven species are endemic to the Vaal-Orange River system:
Rock-catfish (Austroglanis sclateri)
Maluti redfin or Maloti minnow (Pseudobarbus quathlambae)
Namaquab barb (Barbus hospes)
River sardine (Mesobola brevianalis)
Smallmouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus aeneus)
Largemouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus kimberlyensis)
Orange River Mudfish (Labeo capensis)

See also
List of rivers in South Africa
List of international border rivers
List of crossings of the Orange River
Passage 3:
Khan River
The river Khan is an ephemeral river crossing the Erongo region of central Namibia  It is the main tributary of the Swakop River and only occasionally carries surface water during the rain seasons in November and February/March  Khan's catchment area including its tributaries Slang and Etiro is 8,400 square kilometres (3,200 sq mi) The Khan has its origin near the settlement of Otjisemba, north-west of Okahandja  From there the river course passes westwards to the town of Usakos, and further in a south-western direction through the Namib desert  It  has its confluence with the Swakop River 40 km east of Swakopmund It is a popular tourist attraction due to the proliferation of mammals such as the klipspringer antelope, ostriches and jackals 
Passage 4:
Namibia
Namibia ( (listen), ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa  Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean  It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east  Although it does not border Zimbabwe, less than 200 metres (660 feet) of the Botswanan right bank of the Zambezi River separates the two countries  Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence  Its capital and largest city is Windhoek  Namibia is a member state of the United Nations (UN), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the African Union (AU) and the Commonwealth of Nations 
The driest country in sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia has been inhabited since pre-historic times by the San, Damara and Nama people  Around the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived as part of the Bantu expansion  Since then, the Bantu groups, the largest being the Ovambo, have dominated the population of the country; since the late 19th century, they have constituted a majority  Today Namibia is one of the least densely populated countries in the world 
It has a population of 2 55 million people and is a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy  Agriculture, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver and base metals – form the basis of its economy, while the manufacturing sector is comparatively small 
In 1884, the German Empire established rule over most of the territory, forming a colony known as German South West Africa  Between 1904 and 1908, it perpetrated a genocide against the Herero and Nama people  German rule ended in 1915 with a defeat by South African forces  In 1920, after the end of World War I, the League of Nations mandated administration of the colony to South Africa  As mandatory power, South Africa imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules  From 1948, with the National Party elected to power, this included South Africa applying apartheid to what was then known as South West Africa  In the later 20th century, uprisings and demands for political representation by native African political activists seeking independence resulted in the UN assuming direct responsibility over the territory in 1966, but the country of South Africa maintained de facto rule  In 1973, the UN recognised the South West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO) as the official representative of the Namibian people  Following continued guerrilla warfare, Namibia obtained independence in 1990  However, Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994 

History
Etymology
The name of the country is derived from the Namib desert, the oldest desert in the world  The name Namib itself is of Nama origin and means "vast place"  That word for the country was chosen by Mburumba Kerina, who originally proposed the name the "Republic of Namib"  Before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa (Deutsch-Südwestafrika), then as South West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and South Africans 

Pre-colonial period
The dry lands of Namibia have been inhabited since prehistoric times by the San, Damara, and Nama  Around the 14th century, immigrating Bantu people began to arrive during the Bantu expansion from central Africa From the late 18th century onward, Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and moved into the area that today is southern Namibia  Their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful  They received the missionaries accompanying the Oorlam very well, granting them the right to use waterholes and grazing against an annual payment  On their way further north, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the OvaHerero at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja, who resisted their encroachment  The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the German Empire deployed troops to the contested places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam, and Herero In 1878, the Cape of Good Hope, then a British colony, annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands; these became an integral part of the new Union of South Africa at its creation in 1910 
The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, but the Portuguese did not try to claim the area  Like most of the interior of Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century  At that time traders and settlers came principally from Germany and Sweden  In 1870, Finnish missionaries came to the northern part of Namibia to spread the Lutheran religion among the Ovambo and Kavango people  In the late 19th century, Dorsland Trekkers crossed the area on their way from the Transvaal to Angola  Some of them settled in Namibia instead of continuing their journey 

German rule
Namibia became a German colony in 1884 under Otto von Bismarck to forestall perceived British encroachment and was known as German South West Africa (Deutsch-Südwestafrika)  The Palgrave Commission by the British governor in Cape Town determined that only the natural deep-water harbour of Walvis Bay was worth occupying and thus annexed it to the Cape province of British South Africa 
In 1897, a rinderpest epidemic caused massive cattle die-offs of an estimated 95% of cattle in southern & central Namibia  In response the German colonizers set up a veterinary cordon fence known as the Red Line  In 1907 this fence then broadly defined the boundaries for the first Police Zone From 1904 to 1907, the Herero and the Namaqua took up arms against brutal German colonialism  In a calculated punitive action by the German occupiers, government officials ordered the extinction of the natives in the OvaHerero and Namaqua genocide  In what has been called the "first genocide of the 20th century", the Germans systematically killed 10,000 Nama (half the population) and approximately 65,000 Herero (about 80% of the population)  The survivors, when finally released from detention, were subjected to a policy of dispossession, deportation, forced labour, racial segregation, and discrimination in a system that in many ways foreshadowed the apartheid established by South Africa in 1948 

Most Africans were confined to so-called native territories, which under South African rule after 1949 were turned into "homelands" (Bantustans)  Some historians have speculated that the German genocide in Namibia was a model for the Nazis in the Holocaust  The memory of genocide remains relevant to ethnic identity in independent Namibia and to relations with Germany  The German minister for aid development apologised for the Namibian genocide in 2004, however, the German government distanced itself from this apology 

South African mandate
During World War I, South African troops under General Louis Botha occupied the territory and deposed the German colonial administration  The end of the war and the Treaty of Versailles resulted in South West Africa remaining a possession of South Africa, at first as a League of Nations mandate, until 1990  The mandate system was formed as a compromise between those who advocated for an Allied annexation of former German and Ottoman territories and a proposition put forward by those who wished to grant them to an international trusteeship until they could govern themselves  It permitted the South African government to administer South West Africa until that territory's inhabitants were prepared for political self-determination  South Africa interpreted the mandate as a veiled annexation and made no attempt to prepare South West Africa for future autonomy 
As a result of the Conference on International Organization in 1945, the League of Nations was formally superseded by the United Nations (UN) and former League mandates by a trusteeship system  Article 77 of the United Nations Charter stated that UN trusteeship "shall apply   to territories now held under mandate"; furthermore, it would "be a matter of subsequent agreement as to which territories in the foregoing territories will be brought under the trusteeship system and under what terms"  The UN requested all former League of Nations mandates be surrendered to its Trusteeship Council in anticipation of their independence  South Africa declined to do so and instead requested permission from the UN to formally annex South West Africa, for which it received considerable criticism  When the UN General Assembly rejected this proposal, South Africa dismissed its opinion and began solidifying control of the territory  The UN Generally Assembly and Security Council responded by referring the issue to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which held a number of discussions on the legality of South African rule between 1949 and 1966 

South Africa began imposing apartheid, its codified system of racial segregation and discrimination, on South West Africa during the late 1940s  Black South West Africans were subject to pass laws, curfews, and a host of residential regulations that restricted their movement  Development was concentrated in the southern region of the territory adjacent to South Africa, known as the "Police Zone", where most of the major settlements and commercial economic activity were located  Outside the Police Zone, indigenous peoples were restricted to theoretically self-governing tribal homelands 
During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the accelerated decolonisation of Africa and mounting pressure on the remaining colonial powers to grant their colonies self-determination resulted in the formation of nascent nationalist parties in South West Africa  Movements such as the South West African National Union (SWANU) and the South West African People's Organisation advocated for the formal termination of South Africa's mandate and independence for the territory  In 1966, following the ICJ's controversial ruling that it had no legal standing to consider the question of South African rule, SWAPO launched an armed insurgency that escalated into part of a wider regional conflict known as the South African Border War In 1971 Namibian contract workers led a general strike against the contract system and in support of independence  Some of the striking workers would later join SWAPO's PLAN as part of the South African Border War 

Independence
As SWAPO's insurgency intensified, South Africa's case for annexation in the international community continued to decline  The UN declared that South Africa had failed in its obligations to ensure the moral and material well-being of South West Africa's indigenous inhabitants, and had thus disavowed its own mandate  On 12 June 1968, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution proclaiming that, in accordance with the desires of its people, South West Africa be renamed Namibia  United Nations Security Council Resolution 269, adopted in August 1969, declared South Africa's continued occupation of Namibia illegal  In recognition of this landmark decision, SWAPO's armed wing was renamed the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) Namibia became one of several flashpoints for Cold War proxy conflicts in southern Africa during the latter years of the PLAN insurgency  The insurgents sought out weapons and sent recruits to the Soviet Union for military training  As the PLAN war effort gained momentum, the Soviet Union and other sympathetic states such as Cuba continued to increase their support, deploying advisers to train the insurgents directly as well as supplying more weapons and ammunition  SWAPO's leadership, dependent on Soviet, Angolan, and Cuban military aid, positioned the movement firmly within the socialist bloc by 1975  This practical alliance reinforced the external perception of SWAPO as a Soviet proxy, which dominated Cold War rhetoric in South Africa and the United States  For its part, the Soviet Union supported SWAPO partly because it viewed South Africa as a regional Western ally 

Growing war weariness and the reduction of tensions between the superpowers compelled South Africa, Angola, and Cuba to accede to the Tripartite Accord, under pressure from both the Soviet Union and the United States  South Africa accepted Namibian independence in exchange for Cuban military withdrawal from the region and an Angolan commitment to cease all aid to PLAN  PLAN and South Africa adopted an informal ceasefire in August 1988, and a United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) was formed to monitor the Namibian peace process and supervise the return of refugees  The ceasefire was broken after PLAN made a final incursion into the territory, possibly as a result of misunderstanding UNTAG's directives, in March 1989  A new ceasefire was later imposed with the condition that the insurgents were to be confined to their external bases in Angola until they could be disarmed and demobilised by UNTAG By the end of the 11-month transition period, the last South African troops had been withdrawn from Namibia, all political prisoners granted amnesty, racially discriminatory legislation repealed, and 42,000 Namibian refugees returned to their homes  Just over 97% of eligible voters participated in the country's first parliamentary elections held under a universal franchise  The United Nations plan included oversight by foreign election observers in an effort to ensure a free and fair election  SWAPO won a plurality of seats in the Constituent Assembly with 57% of the popular vote  This gave the party 41 seats, but not a two-thirds majority, which would have enabled it to draft the constitution on its own The Namibian Constitution was adopted in February 1990  It incorporated protection for human rights and compensation for state expropriations of private property and established an independent judiciary, legislature, and an executive presidency (the constituent assembly became the national assembly)  The country officially became independent on 21 March 1990  Sam Nujoma was sworn in as the first President of Namibia at a ceremony attended by Nelson Mandela of South Africa (who had been released from prison the previous month) and representatives from 147 countries, including 20 heads of state  In 1994, shortly before the first multiracial elections in South Africa, that country ceded Walvis Bay to Namibia 

After independence
Since independence Namibia has completed the transition from white minority apartheid rule to parliamentary democracy  Multiparty democracy was introduced and has been maintained, with local, regional and national elections held regularly  Several registered political parties are active and represented in the National Assembly, although the SWAPO has won every election since independence  The transition from the 15-year rule of President Nujoma to his successor Hifikepunye Pohamba in 2005 went smoothly Since independence, the Namibian government has promoted a policy of national reconciliation  It issued an amnesty for those who fought on either side during the liberation war  The civil war in Angola spilled over and adversely affected Namibians living in the north of the country  In 1998, Namibia Defence Force (NDF) troops were sent to the Democratic Republic of the Congo as part of a Southern African Development Community (SADC) contingent 
In 1999, the national government quashed a secessionist attempt in the northeastern Caprivi Strip  The Caprivi conflict was initiated by the Caprivi Liberation Army (CLA), a rebel group led by Mishake Muyongo  It wanted the Caprivi Strip to secede and form its own society 
In December 2014, Prime Minister Hage Geingob, the candidate of ruling SWAPO, won the presidential elections, taking 87% of the vote  His predecessor, President Hifikepunye Pohamba, also of SWAPO, had served the maximum two terms allowed by the constitution  In December 2019, President Hage Geingob was re-elected for a second term, taking 56 3% of the vote 

Geography
At 825,615 km2 (318,772 sq mi), Namibia is the world's thirty-fourth largest country (after Venezuela)  It lies mostly between latitudes 17° and 29°S (a small area is north of 17°), and longitudes 11° and 26°E 
Being situated between the Namib and the Kalahari deserts, Namibia has the least rainfall of any country in sub-Saharan Africa The Namibian landscape consists generally of five geographical areas, each with characteristic abiotic conditions and vegetation, with some variation within and overlap between them: the Central Plateau, the Namib, the Great Escarpment, the Bushveld, and the Kalahari Desert 
The Central Plateau runs from north to south, bordered by the Skeleton Coast to the northwest, the Namib Desert and its coastal plains to the southwest, the Orange River to the south, and the Kalahari Desert to the east  The Central Plateau is home to the highest point in Namibia at Königstein elevation 2,606 metres (8,550 ft) The Namib is a broad expanse of hyper-arid gravel plains and dunes that stretches along Namibia's entire coastline  It varies between 100 and 200 kilometres (60 and 120 mi) in width  Areas within the Namib include the Skeleton Coast and the Kaokoveld in the north and the extensive Namib Sand Sea along the central coast The Great Escarpment swiftly rises to over 2,000 metres (7,000 ft)  Average temperatures and temperature ranges increase further inland from the cold Atlantic waters, while the lingering coastal fogs slowly diminish  Although the area is rocky with poorly developed soils, it is significantly more productive than the Namib Desert  As summer winds are forced over the Escarpment, moisture is extracted as precipitation The Bushveld is found in north-eastern Namibia along the Angolan border and in the Caprivi Strip  The area receives a significantly greater amount of precipitation than the rest of the country, averaging around 400 mm (16 in) per year  The area is generally flat and the soils sandy, limiting their ability to retain water and support agriculture The Kalahari Desert, an arid region that extends into South Africa and Botswana, is one of Namibia's well-known geographical features  The Kalahari, while popularly known as a desert, has a variety of localised environments, including some verdant and technically non-desert areas  The Succulent Karoo is home to over 5,000 species of plants, nearly half of them endemic; approximately 10 percent of the world's succulents are found in the Karoo  The reason behind this high productivity and endemism may be the relatively stable nature of precipitation Namibia's Coastal Desert is one of the oldest deserts in the world  Its sand dunes, created by the strong onshore winds, are the highest in the world  Because of the location of the shoreline, at the point where the Atlantic's cold water reaches Africa's hot climate, often extremely dense fog forms along the coast  Near the coast there are areas where the dune-hummocks are vegetated  Namibia has rich coastal and marine resources that remain largely unexplored 

The Caprivi Strip extends east from the northeastern corner of the country 

Climate
Namibia extends from 17°S to 25°S latitude: climatically the range of the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt  Its overall climate description is arid, descending from the Sub-Humid [mean rain above 500 mm (20 in)] through Semi-Arid [between 300 and 500 mm (12 and 20 in)] (embracing most of the waterless Kalahari) and Arid [from 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 in)] (these three regions are inland from the western escarpment) to the Hyper-Arid coastal plain [less than 100 mm (4 in)]  Temperature maxima are limited by the overall elevation of the entire region: only in the far south, Warmbad for instance, are maxima above 40 °C (104 °F) recorded Typically the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt, with frequent clear skies, provides more than 300 days of sunshine per year  It is situated at the southern edge of the tropics; the Tropic of Capricorn cuts the country about in half  The winter (June – August) is generally dry  Both rainy seasons occur in summer: the small rainy season between September and November, the big one between February and April  Humidity is low, and average rainfall varies from almost zero in the coastal desert to more than 600 mm (24 in) in the Caprivi Strip  Rainfall is highly variable, and droughts are common  In the summer of 2006/07 the rainfall was recorded far below the annual average  In May 2019, Namibia declared a state of emergency in response to the drought, and extended it by additional 6 months in October 2019 Weather and climate in the coastal area are dominated by the cold, north-flowing Benguela Current of the Atlantic Ocean, which accounts for very low precipitation (50 mm (2 in) per year or less), frequent dense fog, and overall lower temperatures than in the rest of the country  In Winter, occasionally a condition known as Bergwind (German for "mountain wind") or Oosweer (Afrikaans for "east weather") occurs, a hot dry wind blowing from the inland to the coast  As the area behind the coast is a desert, these winds can develop into sand storms, leaving sand deposits in the Atlantic Ocean that are visible on satellite images The Central Plateau and Kalahari areas have wide diurnal temperature ranges of up to 30C (54F) Efundja, the annual seasonal flooding of the northern parts of the country, often causes not only damage to infrastructure but loss of life  The rains that cause these floods originate in Angola, flow into Namibia's Cuvelai-Etosha Basin, and fill the oshanas (Oshiwambo: flood plains) there  The worst floods so far occurred in March 2011 and displaced 21,000 people 

Water sources
Namibia is the driest country in sub-Saharan Africa and depends largely on groundwater  With an average rainfall of about 350 mm (14 in) per annum, the highest rainfall occurs in the Caprivi Strip in the northeast (about 600 mm (24 in) per annum) and decreases in a westerly and southwesterly direction to as little as 50 mm (2 in) and less per annum at the coast  The only perennial rivers are found on the national borders with South Africa, Angola, Zambia, and the short border with Botswana in the Caprivi Strip  In the interior of the country, surface water is available only in the summer months when rivers are in flood after exceptional rainfalls  Otherwise, surface water is restricted to a few large storage dams retaining and damming up these seasonal floods and their run-off  Where people do not live near perennial rivers or make use of the storage dams, they are dependent on groundwater  Even isolated communities and those economic activities located far from good surface water sources, such as mining, agriculture, and tourism, can be supplied from groundwater over nearly 80% of the country More than 100,000 boreholes have been drilled in Namibia over the past century  One third of these boreholes have been drilled dry  An aquifer called Ohangwena II, on both sides of the Angola-Namibia border, was discovered in 2012  It has been estimated to be capable of supplying a population of 800,000 people in the North for 400 years, at the current (2018) rate of consumption  Experts estimate that Namibia has 7,720 km3 (1,850 cu mi) of underground water According to African Folder, a sewage-to-water treatment project in Namibia not only provides citizens with safe drinking water but also boosts productivity by 6% per year  All pollutants and impurities are removed using cutting-edge "multi-barrier" technology, which includes residual chlorination, ozone treatment, and ultra membrane filtration  Strict bio-monitoring methods are also used throughout the process to ensure high-quality, safe drinking water 

Communal Wildlife Conservancies
Namibia is one of few countries in the world to specifically address conservation and protection of natural resources in its constitution  Article 95 states, "The State shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting international policies aimed at the following: maintenance of ecosystems, essential ecological processes, and biological diversity of Namibia, and utilisation of living natural resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians, both present and future "In 1993, Namibia's newly formed government received funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through its Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE) Project  The Ministry of Environment and Tourism, with financial support from organisations such as USAID, Endangered Wildlife Trust, WWF, and Canadian Ambassador's Fund, together form a Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) support structure  The project's main goal is to promote sustainable natural resource management by giving local communities rights to wildlife management and tourism 

Government and politics
Namibia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic  The President of Namibia is elected to a five-year term and is both the head of state and the head of government  All members of the government are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature The Constitution of Namibia outlines the following as the organs of the country's government:
Executive: executive power is exercised by the President and the Government 
Legislature: Namibia has a bicameral Parliament with the National Assembly as lower house, and the National Council as the upper house 
Judiciary: Namibia has a system of courts that interpret and apply the law in the name of the state While the constitution envisaged a multi-party system for Namibia's government, the SWAPO party has been dominant since independence in 1990 

Foreign relations
Namibia has a largely independent foreign policy, with persisting affiliations with states that aided the independence struggle, including Cuba  With a small army and a fragile economy, the Namibian government's principal foreign policy concern is developing strengthened ties within the Southern African region  A dynamic member of the Southern African Development Community, Namibia is a vocal advocate for greater regional integration  It became the 160th member of the UN on 23 April 1990  On its independence it became the 50th member of the Commonwealth of Nations 

Military
In early 2020, The Global Firepower Index (GFP) reported that Namibia's military is ranked as one of the weakest in the world, at 126th out of 137 countries  Among 34 African countries, Namibia is also poorly ranked at the 28th position  Despite this, government spending for the Ministry of Defence stood at N$5,885 million (a 1 2% decrease from the previous financial year)  With close to 6 billion Namibian dollars (US$411 million in 2021) the Ministry of Defence receives the fourth highest amount of money from Government per ministry 
Namibia does not have any enemies in the region, though it has been involved in various disputes regarding borders and construction plans The Namibian constitution defines the role of the military as "defending the territory and national interests " Namibia formed the Namibian Defence Force (NDF), comprising former enemies in a 23-year bush war: the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) and South West African Territorial Force (SWATF)  The British formulated the plan for integrating these forces and began training the NDF, which consists of a small headquarters and five battalions 
The United Nations Transitional Assistance Group (UNTAG)'s Kenyan infantry battalion remained in Namibia for three months after independence to help train the NDF and to stabilise the north  According to the Namibian Defence Ministry, enlistments of both men and women will number no more than 7,500 
The chief of the Namibian Defence Force is Air Vice Marshal Martin Kambulu Pinehas (with effect from 1 April 2020) 
In 2017, Namibia signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons 

Administrative divisions
Namibia is divided into 14 regions which are subdivided into 121 constituencies  The administrative division of Namibia is tabled by Delimitation Commissions and accepted or declined by the National Assembly  Since state foundation four Delimitation Commissions have delivered their work, the last one in 2013 under the chairmanship of Judge Alfred Siboleka Regional councillors are directly elected through secret ballots (regional elections) by the inhabitants of their constituencies Local authorities in Namibia can be in the form of municipalities (either Part 1 or Part 2 municipalities), town councils or villages 

Human rights
Namibia is one of the most free and democratic countries in Africa, with a government that maintains and protects basic human rights and freedoms  However, significant issues include government corruption and prison overcrowding  Also, refugees are not permitted free movement The law is not enforced, but homosexual acts are illegal in Namibia  Discrimination, as well as intolerance, against LGBT people is widespread  Some Namibian government officials and high-profile figures, such as Namibia's Ombudsman John Walters and First Lady Monica Geingos, have called for sodomy and homosexuality to be decriminalised and are in favour of LGBT rights In November 2018, it was reported that 32% of women aged 15–49 experienced violence and domestic abuse from their spouses/partners and 29 5% of men believe that physical abuse towards their wife/partner is acceptable  The Namibian constitution guarantees the rights, freedoms and equal treatment of women in Namibia and SWAPO, the ruling party in Namibia, has adopted a "zebra system", which ensures a fair balance of both genders in government and equal representation of women in the Namibian government 

Economy
Namibia's economy is tied closely to South Africa's due to their shared history  The largest economic sectors are mining (10 4% of the gross domestic product in 2009), agriculture (5 0%), manufacturing (13 5%), and tourism (14 5%) Namibia has a highly developed banking sector with modern infrastructures, such as online banking and cellphone banking  The Bank of Namibia (BoN) is the central bank of Namibia responsible for performing all other functions ordinarily performed by a central bank  There are five BoN authorised commercial banks in Namibia: Bank Windhoek, First National Bank, Nedbank, Standard Bank and Small and Medium Enterprises Bank  Namibia's economy is characterised by a divide between the formal and the informal economies, which is in part aggravated by the legacy of apartheid spatial planning According to the Namibia Labour Force Survey Report 2012, conducted by the Namibia Statistics Agency, the country's unemployment rate is 27 4%  "Strict unemployment" (people actively seeking a full-time job) stood at 20 2% in 2000, 21 9% in 2004 and spiralled to 29 4% in 2008  Under a broader definition (including people who have given up searching for employment) unemployment rose to 36 7% in 2004  This estimate considers people in the informal economy as employed  Labour and Social Welfare Minister Immanuel Ngatjizeko praised the 2008 study as "by far superior in scope and quality to any that has been available previously", but its methodology has also received criticism In 2004 a labour act was passed to protect people from job discrimination stemming from pregnancy and HIV/AIDS status  In early 2010 the Government tender board announced that "henceforth 100 per cent of all unskilled and semi-skilled labour must be sourced, without exception, from within Namibia" In 2013, global business and financial news provider, Bloomberg, named Namibia the top emerging market economy in Africa and the 13th best in the world  Only four African countries made the Top 20 Emerging Markets list in the March 2013 issue of Bloomberg Markets magazine, and Namibia was rated ahead of Morocco (19th), South Africa (15th), and Zambia (14th)  Worldwide, Namibia also fared better than Hungary, Brazil, and Mexico  Bloomberg Markets magazine ranked the top 20 based on more than a dozen criteria  The data came from Bloomberg's own financial-market statistics, IMF forecasts and the World Bank  The countries were also rated on areas of particular interest to foreign investors: the ease of doing business, the perceived level of corruption and economic freedom  To attract foreign investment, the government has made improvement in reducing red tape resulted from excessive government regulations, making Namibia one of the least bureaucratic places to do business in the region  Facilitation payments are occasionally demanded by customs due to cumbersome and costly customs procedures  Namibia is also classified as an Upper Middle Income country by the World Bank, and ranks 87th out of 185 economies in terms of ease of doing business The cost of living in Namibia is relatively high because most goods, including cereals, need to be imported  Its capital city, Windhoek, is the 150th most expensive place in the world for expatriates to live Taxation in Namibia includes personal income tax, which is applicable to the total taxable income of an individual  All individuals are taxed at progressive marginal rates over a series of income brackets  The value-added tax (VAT) is applicable to most of the commodities and services 

Despite the remote nature of much of the country, Namibia has seaports, airports, highways, and railways (narrow-gauge)  It seeks to become a regional transportation hub; it has an important seaport and several landlocked neighbours  The Central Plateau already serves as a transportation corridor from the more densely populated north to South Africa, the source of four-fifths of Namibia's imports 

Agriculture
About half of the population depends on agriculture (largely subsistence agriculture) for its livelihood, but Namibia must still import some of its food  Although per capita GDP is five times the per capita GDP of Africa's poorest countries, the majority of Namibia's people live in rural areas and have a subsistence way of life  Namibia has one of the highest rates of income inequality in the world, due in part to the fact that there is an urban economy and a more rural cashless economy  The inequality figures thus take into account people who do not actually rely on the formal economy for their survival  Although arable land accounts for <1% of Namibia, (about  97%), nearly half of the population is employed in agriculture About 4,000 commercial farmers own almost half of Namibia's arable land   The United Kingdom offered about $180,000 in 2004 to help finance Namibia's land reform process, as Namibia plans to start expropriating land from white farmers to resettle landless black Namibians  Germany has offered €1 1bn in 2021 over 30 years in reparations for the genocides in the early 20th century but the money will go towards infrastructure, healthcare and training programmes not land reform An agreement has been reached on the privatisation of several more enterprises in coming years, with hopes that this will stimulate much needed foreign investment, but reinvestment of environmentally derived capital has hobbled Namibian per capita income  One of the fastest growing areas of economic development in Namibia is the growth of wildlife conservancies  These are particularly important to the rural, generally unemployed, population 

Mining and electricity
Providing 25% of Namibia's revenue, mining is the single most important contributor to the economy  Namibia is the fourth largest exporter of non-fuel minerals in Africa and was the world's fourth largest producer of uranium  There have been significant investment in uranium mining and Namibia planned to become the largest exporter of uranium by 2015  However, as of 2019 Namibia continued to produce 750 tons of uranium annually making it a smaller than average exporter in the competitive world market   Rich alluvial diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds  While Namibia is known predominantly for its gem diamond and uranium deposits, a number of other minerals are extracted industrially such as lead, tungsten, gold, tin, fluorspar, manganese, marble, copper and zinc  There are offshore gas deposits in the Atlantic Ocean that are planned to be extracted in the future  According to "The Diamond Investigation", a book about the global diamond market, from 1978, De Beers, the largest diamond company, bought most of the Namibian diamonds, and would continue to do so, because "whatever government eventually comes to power they will need this revenue to survive" Domestic supply voltage is 220 V AC  Electricity is generated mainly by thermal and hydroelectric power plants  Non-conventional methods of electricity generation also play some role  Encouraged by the rich uranium deposits, in 2010 the Namibian government planned to erect its first nuclear power station by 2018  Uranium enrichment was also envisaged to take place locally 

Diamonds
Although much of the world's diamond supply comes from what have been called African blood diamonds, Namibia has managed to develop a diamond mining industry largely free of the kinds of conflict, extortion, and murder that have plagued many other African nations with diamond mines  This has been attributed to political dynamics, economic institutions, grievances, political geography, and the effects of neighbourhoods, and is the result of a joint agreement between the government and De Beers that has led to a taxable base, strengthening state institutions 

Oil and natural gas
Estimates updated in 2022 suggest that two exploration wells in the offshore Orange Basin could hold 2 and 3 billion barrels of oil, respectively  The expected revenue could transform Namibia's domestic economy and facilitate sustainable development goals 

Tourism
Tourism is a major contributor (14 5%) to Namibia's GDP, creating tens of thousands of jobs (18 2% of all employment) directly or indirectly and servicing over a million tourists per year  The country is a prime destination in Africa and is known for ecotourism, which features Namibia's extensive wildlife There are many lodges and reserves to accommodate ecotourists  Sport and trophy hunting is also a large and growing component of the Namibian economy, accounting for 14% of total tourism in the year 2000, or 19 6 million U S  dollars, with Namibia boasting numerous species sought after by international sport hunters In addition, extreme sports such as sandboarding, skydiving and 4x4ing have become popular, and many cities have companies that provide tours  The most visited places include the capital city of Windhoek, Caprivi Strip, Fish River Canyon, Sossusvlei, the Skeleton Coast Park, Sesriem, Etosha Pan and the coastal towns of Swakopmund, Walvis Bay and Lüderitz Windhoek plays a very important role in Namibia's tourism due to its central location and close proximity to Hosea Kutako International Airport  According to The Namibia Tourism Exit Survey, which was produced by the Millennium Challenge Corporation for the Namibian Directorate of Tourism, 56% of all tourists visiting Namibia in 2012–13 visited Windhoek  Many of Namibia's tourism related parastatals and governing bodies such as Namibia Wildlife Resorts and the Namibia Tourism Board as well as Namibia's tourism-related trade associations such as the Hospitality Association of Namibia are headquartered in Windhoek  There are also a number of notable hotels in Windhoek, such as Windhoek Country Club Resort, and some international hotel chains, such as Hilton Hotels and Resorts 
Namibia's primary tourism related governing body, the Namibia Tourism Board (NTB), was established by an Act of Parliament: the Namibia Tourism Board Act, 2000 (Act 21 of 2000)  Its primary objectives are to regulate the tourism industry and to market Namibia as a tourist destination  There are also a number of trade associations that represent the tourism sector in Namibia, such as the Federation of Namibia Tourism Associations (the umbrella body for all tourism associations in Namibia), the Hospitality Association of Namibia, the Association of Namibian Travel Agents, Car Rental Association of Namibia and the Tour and Safari Association of Namibia 

Water supply and sanitation
The only bulk water supplier in Namibia is NamWater, which sells it to the respective municipalities which in turn deliver it through their reticulation networks  In rural areas, the Directorate of Rural Water Supply in the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry is in charge of drinking water supply The UN evaluated in 2011 that Namibia has improved its water access network significantly since independence in 1990  A large part of the population can not, however, make use of these resources due to the prohibitively high consumption cost and the long distance between residences and water points in rural areas  As a result, many Namibians prefer the traditional wells over the available water points far away Compared to the efforts made to improve access to safe water, Namibia is lagging behind in the provision of adequate sanitation  This includes 298 schools that have no toilet facilities  Over 50% of child deaths are related to lack of water, sanitation, or hygiene; 23% are due to diarrhoea alone  The UN has identified a "sanitation crisis" in the country Apart from residences for upper and middle class households, sanitation is insufficient in most residential areas  Private flush toilets are too expensive for virtually all residents in townships due to their water consumption and installation cost  As a result, access to improved sanitation has not increased much since independence: in Namibia's rural areas 13% of the population had more than basic sanitation, up from 8% in 1990  Many of Namibia's inhabitants have to resort to "flying toilets", plastic bags to defecate into, which after use are flung into the bush  The use of open areas close to residential land for urination and defecation is very common and has been identified as a major health hazard 

Demographics
Namibia has the second-lowest population density of any sovereign country, after Mongolia  In 2017 there were on average 3 08 people per km2  The total fertility rate in 2015 was 3 47 children per woman according to the UN 

Ethnic groups
The majority of the Namibian population is of Bantu-speaking origin—mostly of the Ovambo ethnicity, which forms about half of the population—residing mainly in the north of the country, although many are now resident in towns throughout Namibia  Other ethnic groups are the Herero and Himba people, who speak the related Herero language, and the Damara, who, like the Nama, speak Khoekhoe 
In addition to the Bantu majority, there are large groups of Khoisan (such as Nama and San), who are descendants of the original inhabitants of Southern Africa  The country also contains some descendants of refugees from Angola  There are also two smaller groups of people with mixed racial origins, called "Coloureds" and "Basters", who together make up 8 0% (with the Coloureds outnumbering the Basters two to one)  There is a substantial Chinese minority in Namibia; it stood at 40,000 in 2006 

Whites (being mainly of Afrikaner, German, British and Portuguese origin) make up between 4 0 and 7 0% of the population  Although their proportion of the population decreased after independence due to emigration and lower birth rates, they still form the second-largest population of European ancestry, both in terms of percentage and actual numbers, in Sub-Saharan Africa (after South Africa)  The majority of Namibian whites and nearly all those who are of mixed race speak Afrikaans and share similar origins, culture, and religion as the white and coloured populations of South Africa  A large minority of whites (around 30,000) trace their family origins back to the German settlers who colonised Namibia prior to the South African invasion during the First World War, and they maintain German cultural and educational institutions  Nearly all Portuguese settlers came to the country from the former Portuguese colony of Angola  The 1960 census reported 526,004 persons in what was then South West Africa, including 73,464 whites (14%) 

Censuses
Namibia conducts a census every ten years  After independence the first Population and Housing Census was carried out in 1991; further rounds followed in 2001, 2011, and 2023 (delayed two years due to the COVID-19 pandemic and financial constraints)  The data collection method is to count every person resident in Namibia on the census reference night, wherever they happen to be  This is called the de facto method  For enumeration purposes the country is demarcated into 4,042 enumeration areas  These areas do not overlap with constituency boundaries to get reliable data for election purposes as well The 2011 Population and Housing Census counted 2,113,077 inhabitants  Between 2001 and 2011 the annual population growth was 1 4%, down from 2 6% in the previous ten-year period 

Urban settlements
Namibia has 13 cities, governed by municipalities and 26 towns, governed by town councils  The capital Windhoek is by far the largest urban settlement in Namibia 

Religion
The Christian community makes up 80%–90% of the population of Namibia, with at least 75% being Protestant, of which at least 50% are Lutheran  Lutherans are the largest religious group, a legacy of the German and Finnish missionary work during the country's colonial times  10%–20% of the population hold indigenous beliefs Missionary activities during the second half of the 19th century resulted in many Namibians converting to Christianity  Today most Christians are Lutheran, but there also are Roman Catholic, Methodist, Anglican, African Methodist Episcopal, Dutch Reformed, Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses 
Islam in Namibia is subscribed to by about 9,000 people, many of them Nama  Namibia is home to a small Jewish community of about 100 people 

Languages
Up to 1990, English, German, and Afrikaans were official languages  Long before Namibia's independence from South Africa, SWAPO was of the opinion that the country should become officially monolingual, choosing this approach in contrast to that of its neighbour South Africa (which granted all 11 of its major languages official status), which it saw as "a deliberate policy of ethnolinguistic fragmentation " Consequently, SWAPO instituted English as Namibia's sole official language, though only about 3% of the population speaks it as a home language  Its implementation is focused on the civil service, education and the broadcasting system, especially the state broadcaster NBC  Some other languages have received semi-official recognition by being allowed as medium of instruction in primary schools  Private schools are expected to follow the same policy as state schools, and "English language" is a compulsory subject  Some critics argue that, as in other postcolonial African societies, the push for monolingual instruction and policy has resulted in a high rate of school drop-outs and of individuals whose academic competence in any language is low According to the 2011 census, the most common languages are Oshiwambo (the most spoken language for 49% of households), Khoekhoegowab  (11 3%), Afrikaans (10 4%), RuKwangali (9%), and Otjiherero (9%)  The most widely understood national language is Afrikaans, the country's lingua franca  Both Afrikaans and English are used primarily as a second language reserved for public communication  A complete list of languages according to the 2011 census is 48 9% Oshiwambo, 11 3% Khoekhoegowab, 10 4% Afrikaans, 8 6% Otjiherero, 8 5% RuKwangali, 4 8% siLozi, 3 4% English, 1 2% Other African languages, 0 9% German, 0 8% San, 0 7% Other European languages, 0 3% Setswana, and 0 1% Asian languages Most of the white population speaks either Afrikaans or German  More than a century after the end of the German colonial era, German continues to play a role as a commercial language  Afrikaans is spoken by 60% of the white community, German by 32%, English by 7% and Portuguese by 4–5%  Geographical proximity to Portuguese-speaking Angola explains the relatively high number of Portuguese speakers; in 2011 these were estimated to number 100,000 

Health
Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 64 years in 2017 – among the lowest in the world Namibia launched a National Health Extension Programme in 2012 deployment 1,800 (2015) of a total ceiling of 4,800 health extension workers trained for six months in community health activities including first aid, health promotion for disease prevention, nutritional assessment and counseling, water sanitation and hygiene practices, HIV testing and community-based antiretroviral treatment Namibia faces a non-communicable disease burden  The Demographic and Health Survey (2013) summarises findings on elevated blood pressure, hypertension, diabetes, and obesity:

Among eligible respondents age 35–64, more than 4 in 10 women (44 percent) and men (45 percent) have elevated blood pressure or are currently taking medicine to lower their blood pressure 
Forty-nine percent of women and 61 percent of men are not aware that they have elevated blood pressure 
Forty-three percent of women and 34 percent of men with hypertension are taking medication for their condition 
Only 29 percent of women and 20 percent of men with hypertension are taking medication and have their blood pressure under control 
Six percent of women and 7 percent of men are diabetic; that is, they have elevated fasting plasma glucose values or report that they are taking diabetes medication  An additional 7 percent of women and 6 percent of men are prediabetic 
Sixty-seven percent of women and 74 percent of men with diabetes are taking medication to lower their blood glucose 
Women and men with a higher-than-normal body mass index (25 0 or higher) are more likely to have elevated blood pressure and elevated fasting blood glucose 
The HIV epidemic remains a public health issue in Namibia despite significant achievements made by the Ministry of Health and Social Services to expand HIV treatment services  In 2001, there were an estimated 210,000 people living with HIV/AIDS, and the estimated death toll in 2003 was 16,000  According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, the epidemic in Namibia "appears to be leveling off " As the HIV/AIDS epidemic has reduced the working-aged population, the number of orphans has increased  It falls to the government to provide education, food, shelter and clothing for these orphans  A Demographic and Health Survey with an HIV biomarker was completed in 2013 and served as the fourth comprehensive, national-level population and health survey conducted in Namibia as part of the global Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) programme  The DHS observed important characteristics associated to the HIV epidemic:

Overall, 26 percent of men age 15–49 and 32 percent of those age 50–64 have been circumcised  HIV prevalence for men age 15–49 is lower among circumcised (8 0 percent) than among uncircumcised men (11 9 percent)  The pattern of lower HIV prevalence among circumcised than uncircumcised men is observed across most background characteristics  For each age group, circumcised men have lower HIV prevalence than those who are not circumcised; the difference is especially pronounced for men age 35–39 and 45–49 (11 7 percentage points each)  The difference in HIV prevalence between uncircumcised and circumcised men is larger among urban than rural men (5 2 percentage points versus 2 1 percentage points) 
HIV prevalence among respondents age 15–49 is 16 9 percent for women and 10 9 percent for men  HIV prevalence rates among women and men age 50–64 are similar (16 7 percent and 16 0 percent, respectively) 
HIV prevalence peaks in the 35–39 age group for both women and men (30 9 percent and 22 6 percent, respectively)  It is lowest among respondents age 15–24 (2 5–6 4 percent for women and 2 0–3 4 percent for men) 
Among respondents age 15–49, HIV prevalence is highest for women and men in Zambezi (30 9 percent and 15 9 percent, respectively) and lowest for women in Omaheke (6 9 percent) and men in Ohangwena (6 6 percent) 
In 76 4 percent of the 1,007 cohabiting couples who were tested for HIV in the 2013 NDHS, both partners were HIV negative; in 10 1 percent of the couples, both partners were HIV positive; and 13 5 percent of the couples were discordant (that is, one partner was infected with HIV and the other was not) As of 2015, the Ministry of Health and Social Services and UNAIDS produced a Progress Report in which UNAIDS projected HIV prevalence among 15–49-year-olds at 13 3% [12 2–14 5%] and an estimated 210,000 [200,000–230,000] living with HIV The malaria problem seems to be compounded by the AIDS epidemic  Research has shown that in Namibia the risk of contracting malaria is 14 5% greater if a person is also infected with HIV  The risk of death from malaria is also raised by approximately 50% with a concurrent HIV infection  The country had only 598 physicians in 2002 

Culture
Sport
The most popular sport in Namibia is association football  The Namibia national football team qualified for the 1998, 2008 and 2019 editions of the Africa Cup of Nations, but has yet to qualify for the World Cup 
The most successful national team is the Namibian rugby team, having competed in six separate World Cups  Namibia were participants in the 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015 and 2019 Rugby World Cups  Cricket is also popular, with the national side having qualified for 2003 Cricket World Cup, 2021 ICC T20 World Cup and 2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup  In December 2017, Namibia Cricket reached the final of the Cricket South Africa (CSA) Provincial One Day Challenge for the first time  In February 2018 Namibia hosted the ICC World Cricket League Division 2 with Namibia, Kenya, UAE, Nepal, Canada and Oman to compete for the final two ICC Cricket World Cup Qualifier positions in Zimbabwe  Namibia also qualified the qualifiers of ICC T20 World Cup 2021 and entered the super 12 club The most famous athlete from Namibia is Frankie Fredericks, sprinter in the 100 and 200 m events  He won four Olympic silver medals (1992, 1996) and also has medals from several World Athletics Championships  Golfer Trevor Dodds won the Greater Greensboro Open in 1998, one of 15 tournaments in his career  He achieved a career-high world ranking of 78th in 1998  Professional cyclist and Namibian Road Race champion Dan Craven represented Namibia at the 2016 Summer Olympics in both the road race and individual time trial  Boxer Julius Indongo is the unified WBA, IBF, and IBO world champion in the Light welterweight division  Another famous athlete from Namibia is ex-professional rugby player Jacques Burger  Burger played for Saracens and Aurillac in Europe, as well as gaining 41 caps for the national team 

Media
Although Namibia's population is fairly small, the country has a diverse choice of media; two TV stations, 19 radio stations (without counting community stations), 5 daily newspapers, several weeklies and special publications compete for the attention of the audience  Additionally, a mentionable amount of foreign media, especially South African, is available  Online media are mostly based on print publication contents  Namibia has a state-owned Press Agency, called NAMPA  Overall c  300 journalists work in the country The first newspaper in Namibia was the German-language Windhoeker Anzeiger, founded 1898  During German rule, the newspapers mainly reflected the living reality and the view of the white German-speaking minority  The black majority was ignored or depicted as a threat  During South African rule, the white bias continued, with mentionable influence of the Pretoria government on the South West African media system  Independent newspapers were seen as a menace to the existing order, and critical journalists were often threatened Current daily newspapers are the private publications The Namibian (English and other languages), Die Republikein (Afrikaans), Allgemeine Zeitung (German) and Namibian Sun (English) as well as the state-owned New Era (predominantly English)  Except for the largest newspaper, The Namibian, which is owned by a trust, the other mentioned private newspapers are part of Democratic Media Holdings  Other mentionable newspapers are the tabloid Informanté owned by TrustCo, the weekly Windhoek Observer, the weekly Namibia Economist, as well as the regional Namib Times  Current affairs magazines include Insight Namibia, Vision2030 Focus magazine and Prime FOCUS  The Sister Namibia magazine stands out as the longest running NGO magazine in Namibia, while Namibia Sport is the only national sport magazine  Furthermore, the print market is complemented with party publications, student newspapers and PR publications Radio was introduced in 1969, TV in 1981  The broadcasting sector today is dominated by the state-run Namibian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC)  The public broadcaster offers a TV station as well as a "National Radio" in English and nine language services in locally spoken languages  The nine private radio stations in the country are mainly English-language channels, except for Radio Omulunga (Oshiwambo) and Kosmos 94 1 (Afrikaans) 
Privately held One Africa TV has competed with NBC since the 2000s Compared to neighbouring countries, Namibia has a large degree of media freedom  Over the past years, the country usually ranked in the upper quarter of the Press Freedom Index of Reporters without Borders, reaching position 21 in 2010, being on par with Canada and the best-positioned African country  The African Media Barometer shows similarly positive results  However, as in other countries, there is still mentionable influence of representatives of state and economy on media in Namibia  In 2009, Namibia dropped to position 36 on the Press Freedom Index  In 2013, it was 19th, 22nd in 2014 and 23rd in 2019, meaning that it is currently the highest ranked African country in terms of press freedom 
Media and journalists in Namibia are represented by the Namibian chapter of the Media Institute of Southern Africa and the Editors' Forum of Namibia  An independent media ombudsman was appointed in 2009 to prevent a state-controlled media council 

Education
Namibia has free education for both primary and secondary education levels  Grades 1–7 are primary level, grades 8–12 are secondary  In 1998, there were 400,325 Namibian students in primary school and 115,237 students in secondary schools  The pupil-teacher ratio in 1999 was estimated at 32:1, with about 8% of the GDP being spent on education  Curriculum development, educational research, and professional development of teachers is centrally organised by the National Institute for Educational Development (NIED) in Okahandja  Among sub-Saharan African countries, Namibia has one of the highest literacy rates  According to CIA World Factbook, as of 2018 91 5% of the population age 15 and over can read and write Most schools in Namibia are state-run, but there are some private schools, which are also part of the country's education system  There are four teacher training universities, three colleges of agriculture, a police training college, and three universities: University of Namibia (UNAM), International University of Management (IUM) and Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST)  Namibia was ranked 100th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 

See also
Index of Namibia-related articles
Outline of Namibia
Context 2: Passage 1:
Stuart Mitchell
Stuart Mitchell (21 December 1965 – August 2018) was a Scottish pianist and composer who was born in Edinburgh and who is best known for his Seven Wonders Suite (2001)  The Seven Wonders Suite has been recorded by The Prague Symphony Orchestra conducted by Mario Klemens  A performance of part of the suite was performed in The Dvorak Hall in Prague in 2005  This major symphonic work has placed Mitchell in The Classic FM Hall of Fame since 2005, and is regularly requested by their listeners Stuart Mitchell was the son of pianist and composer Thomas J  Mitchell  In 2005, the Mitchells received media coverage from Reuters, ITN, BBC, and CNN/Fox News when they claimed to have deciphered a musical code carved into the ceiling design of Rosslyn Chapel In 2008, Mitchell released the first in his series of works called DNA Variations, music translated from Ancestral DNA sequences of various species and Fly – Orchestral Suite in 2016 was based upon the mitochondrial DNA music of birds and winged beings 
The Seven Wonders Suite was awarded the number 181 for the most popular classical music work in the Classic FM Hall of Fame 2017  And in the 2023 chart the suite had gone up to 82, the highest it has been Mitchell died of lung cancer in August 2018, aged 52 

Works
Cello Sonata in A – 1995
The Design of a Tear – 1998
Seven Wonders Suite for Orchestra (2003)
The Rosslyn Motet (2005)
Songs of the Chartres Labyrinth (2005)
DNA Variations Volume's I, II and III (2004–2009)
Transit of Venus – 2010
The Celestial Song of the Stars – 2010
Fanfare to Tutankhamen – 2009
Piano Concerto No 1 – 2008
Beethoven's DNA Music – 2010
The Eve Project (2011)
The Musical Life of Plants (2011)
The Emerald Tablets – Orchestral Choral Suite – 2008
Symphony No1 in B Flat Major – 2012
The Human Genome Music Project (2012)
Grounded – Motion Picture Soundtrack (2013)
Elvis Presley – DNA Music Translation/Rolling Stone Magazine
String Quartet – E minor – 2013
Faith Eternal for Choir & Orchestral – 2013
Power of the Earth – Grounded 2 Motion Picture – 2013
Symphony in the Key of H - 2013
Homage to the Great Composers – 2012
The Musical Life of Plants – Aromamusic – 2012
The Silent Sky – with Neil Warden – 2015
Fly – Orchestral Suite (2016)
Passage 2:
FreeRADIUS
FreeRADIUS is a modular, high performance free RADIUS suite developed and distributed under the GNU General Public License, version 2, and is free for download and use  The FreeRADIUS Suite includes a RADIUS server, a BSD-licensed RADIUS client library, a PAM library, an Apache module, and numerous additional RADIUS related utilities and development libraries In most cases, the word "FreeRADIUS" refers to the free open-source RADIUS server from this suite 
FreeRADIUS is the most popular open source RADIUS server and the most widely deployed RADIUS server in the world  It supports all common authentication protocols, and the server comes with a PHP-based web user administration tool called dialupadmin  It is the basis for many commercial RADIUS products and services, such as embedded systems, RADIUS appliances that support Network Access Control, and WiMAX  It supplies the AAA needs of many Fortune-500 companies, telcos, and Tier 1 ISPs  It is also widely used in the academic community, including eduroam  The server is fast, feature-rich, modular, and scalable 

History
FreeRADIUS was started in August 1999 by Alan DeKok and Miquel van Smoorenburg  Miquel had previously written the Cistron RADIUS server, which had gained widespread usage once the Livingston server was no longer being maintained  FreeRADIUS was started to create a new RADIUS server, using a modular design that would encourage more active community involvement 
As of November, 2014, the FreeRADIUS Project has three Core Team members: Alan DeKok (Project Leader), Arran Cudbard-Bell (Principal Architect), and Matthew Newton The latest major release is FreeRADIUS 3  FreeRADIUS 3 includes support for RADIUS over TLS, including RadSec, a completely rewritten rlm_ldap module, and hundreds of other minor consistency and usability enhancements  The latest mature version is maintained for stability rather than features 
The previous major release v2 2 x has entered the final phase of its lifecycle, and will now receive security fixes only A survey in 2006 showed that its user base totals 100 million people 

Features
Modules included with the server core support LDAP, MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, and many other databases  It supports all popular EAP authentication types, including PEAP and EAP-TTLS  More than 100 vendor dictionaries are included, ensuring compatibility with a wide range of NAS devices 
Version 2 0 0 added support for virtual hosting, IPv6, VMPS, and a new policy language that simplifies many complex configurations 

Administration tools
daloRADIUS: a web based management application aimed at managing hotspots and ISP deployments  With easy user management interface, pretty graphical reporting, accounting, also billing engine and integrates with GoogleMaps for geo-locating 
phpRADmin: a tool written in PHP intended to handle the administration and provisioning of FreeRADIUS over the Web with MySQL as backend 
Dialup Admin: a powerful web interface written in PHP comes with FreeRADIUS to administer radius users  Dialup Admin supports users either in SQL (MySQL or PostgreSQL are supported) or in LDAP  No longer under active development 
ezRadius: web-based management app  The main aim is to provide radius server or hotspot administrator a simple web-based management application  FreeRADIUS must be configured to use MySQL as backend 
RADIUSdesk:RADIUSdesk has been developed since 2012 as tool to manage wireless Internet and has been under active development ever since 

See also
Diameter protocol: the proposed replacement for RADIUS

Notes
External links
Official website
FreeRADIUS wiki
Passage 3:
Standard 52-card deck
The standard 52-card deck of French-suited playing cards is the most common pack of playing cards used today  In English-speaking countries it is the only traditional pack used for playing cards; in many countries of the world, however, it is used alongside other traditional, often older, standard packs with different suit systems such as those with German-, Italian-, Spanish- or Swiss suits  The most common pattern of French-suited cards worldwide and the only one commonly available in English-speaking countries is the English pattern pack  The second most common is the Belgian-Genoese pattern, designed in France, but whose use spread to Spain, Italy, the Ottoman Empire, the Balkans and much of North Africa and the Middle East  In addition to those, there are other major international and regional patterns including standard 52-card packs, for example, in Italy that use Italian-suited cards  In other regions, such as Spain and Switzerland, the traditional standard pack comprises 36, 40 or 48 cards 

Composition
A standard 52-card French-suited deck comprises 13 ranks in each of the four suits: clubs (♣), diamonds (♦), hearts (♥) and spades (♠)  Each suit includes three court cards (face cards), King, Queen and Jack, with reversible (i e  double-headed) images  Each suit also includes ten numeral cards or pip cards, from one (Ace) to ten  The card with one pip is known as an Ace  Each pip card displays the number of pips (symbols of the suit) corresponding to its number, as well as the appropriate numeral (except "A" for the Ace) in at least two corners 
In addition, commercial decks often include from one to six Jokers; most commonly two or three since the mid-20th century  The Jokers are often distinguishable from one another, either in design or colour, as some card games require these extra cards  The Jokers can also be used as replacements for lost or damaged cards 

Design
The most popular standard pattern of the French deck is the English pattern (pictured above), sometimes referred to as the International pattern or Anglo-American pattern  The second most common is the Belgian-Genoese pattern, which was designed in France for export and spread to Spain, Italy, the Ottoman Empire, the Balkans and much of North Africa and the Middle East  There are also numerous others such as the Berlin pattern, Nordic pattern, Dondorf Rhineland pattern (pictured right) and the variants of the European pattern 
Modern playing cards carry index labels on opposite corners or in all four corners to facilitate identifying the cards when they overlap and so that they appear identical for players on opposite sides  For the Ace and court cards, this label is the initial letter or letters of the name of that card  In English-speaking countries they are lettered A, K, Q and J for Ace, King, Queen and Jack  In other countries the letters may vary, although the English versions are also sometimes used  Germany uses A, K, D and B (Ass, König, Dame and Bube); Russia uses the Cyrillic letters Т, К, Д and В (Tuz, Korol, Dama and Valet); Sweden uses E, K, D and Kn (Ess, Kung, Dam and Knekt) and France uses 1, R, D, V (As, Roi, Dame, and Valet) 
All early playing cards were single headed (also called single ended)  During the 19th century, card manufacturers began designing double-headed cards so that the cards could be readily identified whichever way up they were  In the case of court cards, this entailed cutting off the lower half of the image and replacing it with an inverted copy of the top half usually, but not always, with a horizontal or sloping dividing line between the two halves  Today, while single headed patterns of German-suited and Latin-suited cards still exist, modern French-suited cards are invariably double headed 
Although French-suited, 52-card packs are the most common playing cards used internationally, there are many countries or regions where the traditional pack size is only 36 (Russia, Bavaria) or 32 (north and central Germany, Austria) or where regional cards with smaller packs are preferred for many games  For example, 40- or 48-card Italian-suited packs are common in Italy; 40- and 48-card Spanish-suited packs on the Iberian peninsula; and 36-card German-suited packs are very common in Bavaria and Austria  In addition, tarot cards are required for games such as French Tarot (78 cards), which is widely played in France, and the Tarock family of games (42 or 54 cards) played in countries like Austria and Hungary 

History
The English pattern pack originated in Britain which was importing French playing cards from Rouen and Antwerp by 1480  The earliest cards of the English pattern date to around 1516  But Britain only started manufacturing its own cards towards the end of the 16th century, when card production began in London  These were based on the Rouen pattern, but unlike the traditional French cards, they dropped the names on the court cards  The English pattern evolved, in the process losing "some of its Rouen flavour and elegance and became more and more stylised  The figures took more space in the cards and many details were distorted "All early cards of this type were single-headed, but around 1860, the double-headed cards, universally used on modern decks, appeared  Corner indices were added around 1880  During the 19th century, the English pattern spread all over the world and is now used almost everywhere, even in countries where traditional patterns and other suits are popular  In America, the English pattern was copied onto wider cards The fanciful design and manufacturer's logo commonly displayed on the ace of spades began under the reign of James I of England, who passed a law requiring an insignia on that card as proof of payment of a tax on local manufacture of cards  Until August 4, 1960, decks of playing cards printed and sold in the United Kingdom were liable for taxable duty and the ace of spades carried an indication of the name of the printer and the fact that taxation had been paid on the cards  The packs were also sealed with a government duty wrapper 

Card size
Historically the size of playing cards was down to the printer, but during the 19th century sizes became standardised, initially to a size of 3½ x 2½ inches  Today these are often referred to as "wide" cards or "poker-sized" cards  Wider playing cards had advantages: it was harder to cheat and, if packs were unavailable, dog-eared cards could be trimmed smaller  Narrower cards, known as "whist-sized" or "bridge-sized" cards, probably first appeared in Europe and enabled players to handle the larger numbers of cards required for games like bridge However, there is no formal requirement for precise adherence and minor variations are produced by various manufacturers in different countries  In Germany, for example, standard Poker and Rummy packs by ASS Altenburger and Ravensburger measure 92 × 59 mm  Austria's Piatnik sells packs marketed for Bridge, Poker and Whist measuring 89 × 58 mm; while Britain's Waddingtons produce generic packs sized at 88 × 58 mm 
Other sizes are also available, such as a medium size (usually 67 × 42 mm or 2 6 × 1 7 in) and a miniature size (typically 45 × 32 mm or 1 8 × 1 3 in)  These are often intended for playing patience or solitaire games  Larger 'jumbo' cards are produced for card tricks and those with poor eyesight 
The thickness and weight of modern playing cards are subject to numerous variables related to their purpose of use and associated material design for durability, stiffness, texture and appearance 

Markings
Some decks include additional design elements  Casino blackjack decks may include markings intended for a machine to check the ranks of cards, or shifts in rank location to allow a manual check via an inlaid mirror  Many casino decks and solitaire decks have four indices instead of just two  Some modern decks have bar code markings on the edge of the face to enable them to be sorted by machine (for playing duplicate bridge, especially simultaneous events where the same hands may be played at many different venues)  Some decks have large indices for clarity  These are sometimes sold as 'seniors' cards for older people with limited eyesight, but may also be used in games like stud poker, where being able to read cards from a distance is a benefit and hand sizes are small 

Four-colour packs
The standard French-suited pack uses black for the spades and clubs, and red for the hearts and diamonds  However, some packs use four colours for the suits in order to make it easier to tell them apart  There are several schemes: a common one is the English Poker format with black spades (♠), red hearts (♥), blue diamonds (♦) and green clubs (♣)  Another common system is based on the German suits and uses green spades (♠) and yellow diamonds (♦) with red hearts (♥) and black clubs (♣) 

Nomenclature
When giving the full written name of a specific card, the rank is given first followed by the suit, e g , "ace of spades" or "Ace of Spades"  Shorthand notation may reflect this by listing the rank first, "A♠"; this is common usage when discussing poker; but it is equally common in more general sources to find the suit listed first, as in "♠K" for a single card or "♠AKQ" for multiple cards  This is common practice when writing about bridge as it helps differentiate between the card(s) and the contract (e g  "4♥", a contract of four hearts)  Tens may be either abbreviated to T or written as 10 

Terminology
Common collective and individual terms for playing cards that are relevant, but not exclusive to, the 52-card pack are:

Face card or court card – a jack, queen or king 
Honour card – a card that attracts a special bonus or payment for being held or captured in play  In bridge, honours are the aces, the court cards and tens (A, K, Q, J, 10); in whist and related games, the aces and courts (A, K, Q, J) 
Wild card –  card that may be designated by the owner to represent any other card 
Numerals or pip cards are the cards numbered from 2 to 10 
"1" cards are usually known as aces 
"2" cards are also known as deuces 
"3" cards are also known as treys 

Nicknames
Certain cards have acquired nicknames over time  The following common nicknames for cards of the English pattern pack only  Other patterns are different and may have other nicknames in the countries where they are used:

One-eyed Jacks – the jack of spades and the jack of hearts are depicted in profile, while the others are shown in full or oblique face 
One-eyed Royals – are the king of diamonds as well as the one-eyed jacks  The rest of the courts are shown in full or oblique face 
Suicide Kings – The king of hearts is typically shown with a sword behind his head, making him appear to be stabbing himself  Similarly, the one-eyed king of diamonds is typically shown with an axe behind his head with the blade facing toward him  These depictions, and their blood-red colour, inspired this nickname 
The king of diamonds is traditionally armed with an axe, while the other three kings are armed with swords; thus, the king of diamonds is sometimes referred to as "the man with the axe"  This is the basis of the trump "one-eyed jacks and the man with the axe"  Poker may be played with wild cards, often "Aces, Jacks, and the King with the Axe" 
The ace of spades, unique in its large, ornate spade, is sometimes said to be the death card or the picture card, and in some games is used as a trump card 
The queen of spades usually holds a sceptre and is sometimes known as "the bedpost queen", though more often she is called the "black lady"  She is the only queen facing left 
In many decks, the queen of clubs holds a flower  She is thus known as the "flower queen", though this design element is among the most variable; the Bicycle Poker deck depicts all queens with a flower styled according to their suit 

Computer representations
SVG
Unicode
As of Unicode 7 0, playing cards are now represented  Note that the following chart ("Cards", Range: 1F0A0–1F0FF) includes cards from the Tarot Nouveau deck, as well as the standard 52-card deck 

See also
500 decks coming with extra ranks
French playing cards
German playing cards
Italian playing cards
Spanish playing cards
Stripped decks come with fewer ranks 
Tarot Nouveau, the most common French-suited tarot game deck

Notes
Passage 4:
Bowling Green Ballpark
Bowling Green Ballpark is a 4,559-seat stadium in Downtown Bowling Green, Kentucky  It is primarily used for baseball and is home to the Bowling Green Hot Rods of the High-A East of Minor League Baseball  This state-of-the-art stadium opened with Citizens First Opening Night on April 17, 2009 to a standing room only crowd of 6,886  The Bowling Green Hot Rods defeated the Kannapolis Intimidators 8–4 in this much anticipated opening game that brought professional baseball to Bowling Green for the first time in 67 years  Many ceremonial "first" pitches were thrown, and the starting lineup of the Hot Rods were driven onto the field by locally owned vintage Hot Rods  The offices for the Bowling Green Hot Rods and several other touches were finally completed after the 2009 season 
The ballpark is also used occasionally by the Western Kentucky Hilltoppers baseball team to host high profiles games, such as the 2017 and 2019 game against the Kentucky Wildcats baseball 

Ballpark Features
Bowling Green Ballpark was designed by architectural firm DLR Group  The right-centerfield wall in Bowling Green Ballpark is unique in that it is concave in right-center because of the shape of a pre-existing road behind the field  The scoreboard in right-centerfield measures 35-feet tall and 56-feet wide, with the ability to show scoring, live video, advertisements, player statistics, and more  Embedded in the left field wall is a 6-foot, 3inch tall by 68-foot wide LED display board, behind which is a picnic area  There are two grass lawn seating areas- one in left-center and one at the right field line  The kids play area boasts an inflatable car customized with the Hot Rods' logo, a carousel, and a playground, and a behind the batter's eye in centerfield, a splash-pad  The Reinhart Club is a bar located on suite level directly behind home plate  Also on the suite level are 10 suites, the Hall of Fame suite, and a party deck—The Coca-Cola Deck 

Events
From May 23–27, 2012, the venue hosted the 2012 Sun Belt Conference baseball tournament, which was won by Louisiana–Monroe Multiple concerts have also taken place at Bowling Green Ballpark, including Florida Georgia Line and Nelly, Jake Owen, Ted Nugent, Uncle Kracker, and more 
Passage 5:
Jareb Dauplaise
Jareb Dauplaise (born March 18, 1979) is an American actor  He played Wayne in The Suite Life of Zack & Cody  He has also appeared in a commercial for the restaurant El Pollo Loco  Dauplaise stars in the film The Prankster, playing Blotto Dauplaise stars in a web series called Blue Movies and he had a role in the MTV original series The Hard Times of RJ Berger, as the main character's best friend, Miles Jenner 

Filmography
Passage 6:
Suite: Judy Blue Eyes
"Suite: Judy Blue Eyes" is a song written by Stephen Stills and performed by Crosby, Stills & Nash (CSN)  It appeared on the group's self-titled debut album in 1969 and was released as a single, reaching number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 pop singles chart  In Canada, "Suite: Judy Blue Eyes" peaked at number 11  The song imitates the form of a classical music suite as an ordered set of musical pieces 

Background
The title "Suite: Judy Blue Eyes" (a play on words for "Sweet Judy Blue Eyes") refers to Stephen Stills' former girlfriend, singer/songwriter Judy Collins, and the lyrics to most of the suite's sections consist of his thoughts about her and their imminent breakup  During a July 15, 2007 interview for the National Public Radio program All Things Considered, Stills revealed that Collins was present in the studio when the demo tapes were recorded and had advised him, "Don't stay in here [in the studio] all night now " Stills also commented that the breakup with Collins "was imminent      We were just a little too big for one house " Stills said that he liked parts of this demo version of "Suite: Judy Blue Eyes" better than the released version; the song and other demos of early Crosby, Stills and Nash songs were released commercially on the album Just Roll Tape Collins and Stills had met in 1967 and dated for two years  In 1969, she was appearing in the New York Shakespeare Festival musical production of Peer Gynt and had fallen in love with her co-star Stacy Keach, eventually leaving Stills for him  Stills was devastated by the possible breakup and wrote the song as a response to his sadness  In a 2000 interview, Collins gave her impressions of when she first heard the song:

[Stephen] came to where I was singing one night on the West Coast and brought his guitar to the hotel and he sang me "Suite: Judy Blue Eyes," the whole song  And of course it has lines in it that referred to my therapy  And so he wove that all together in this magnificent creation  So the legacy of our relationship is certainly in that song 
Collins elaborated in a 2017 interview:

 Afterwards, we both cried – and then I said: "Oh, Stephen, it’s such a beautiful song  But it’s not winning me back " I’ve always understood that people have to write about their lives  Most of all, I felt the song was flattering and heartbreaking – for both of us  Neither one of us walked away from that relationship relieved  We were feeling like, "Whoa, what happened?”

Composition
The recording features an acoustic guitar tuned to EEEEBE ("Bruce Palmer Modal Tuning") vs  the standard EADGBE tuning  This style of tuning would later be used for the Déjà Vu songs "4+20" and "Carry On" 
"Suite: Judy Blue Eyes" has four distinct sections  The shortened version released as a single cut the second and fourth verses from the first section, the third and fourth verses from the second section, and the final verse and preceding break from the third section, and shortened the guitar break between the second and the third sections  The final section is the only part that stayed fully intact 
The first section has four verses, featuring a chorus of "I am yours, you are mine, you are what you are " The lead vocal is performed by Stills, with Crosby and Nash providing harmonies 
The second section is performed in half-time relative to the first section, and features four verses of three-part harmony from the band, with Stills performing a brief vocal solo between the second and third 
This is followed by Stills' acoustic guitar solo, beginning the next section 
The third section features poetic lyrics ("chestnut brown canary, ruby-throated sparrow")  Each of the three phrases is initially sung by Stills, with Nash then joining, and finally Crosby  Connecting the phrases are instrumental breaks performed by Stills on acoustic guitar  There is a conga‑type sound at the end of the song that was attained by beating the back of his Martin guitar The final section is sung in Spanish, with "doo-doo-doo-doo-doo" backing vocals until the song concludes  Stills has said that he intentionally made the final stanzas unexpected and difficult, even using a foreign language for the lyrics, "just to make sure nobody would understand it" 

Live performances
The final section of the song is included on the CSNY live album 4 Way Street  It fades in on the opening of side one of the album  CSN also performed "Suite: Judy Blue Eyes" as their opening song at the Woodstock and Live Aid festivals, and their performance at the former is featured in the film Woodstock (1970) 

Critical reception
Writing for The New York Times in 1969, Robert Christgau suggested that while "Stills has become such a sophisticated guitarist that many of his lines lack any straight-on rhythmic compulsion", his "Suite: Judy Blue Eyes" is "a structural triumph which could never have been brought off by a more Dionysiac spirit ""Suite: Judy Blue Eyes" was named the 51st greatest song ever in a 2000 list by VH1  In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked it number 418 in the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time  It was also included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "500 Songs That Shaped Rock & Roll" "I love the intricacies of the harmonies and Stills's guitar work," remarked Slipknot front-man Corey Taylor  "This is a favourite "

Legacy
The final section has been parodied numerous times, notably in Frank Zappa's compositions "Billy the Mountain" and "Magdalena" on The Mothers of Invention's album Just Another Band From L A  "Weird Al" Yankovic performs a takeoff of it ("Mission Statement") on his 2014 album Mandatory Fun; instead of Spanish, the lyrics are corporate buzzwords strung together in such a way as to be ultimately nonsensical  It is also sampled in the 2010 Cypress Hill song "Armada Latina" 

Personnel
David Crosby – harmony vocals
Stephen Stills – lead and harmony vocals, electric and acoustic guitars, bass, Hammond B-3 organ, percussion
Graham Nash – harmony vocals
Dallas Taylor – drums and percussion

Charts
Passage 7:
Nothing Suits Me Like a Suit
"Nothing Suits Me Like a Suit" is a song performed by Neil Patrick Harris and the cast of the comedy series How I Met Your Mother from the 100th episode "Girls Versus Suits"  Carter Bays and Craig Thomas were nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics for writing the song 

Background
The song premiered on the 100th episode of How I Met Your Mother, "Girls Versus Suits" (season 5, episode 12) in a dream sequence where Harris' character, Barney Stinson, contemplates whether to keep his collection of suits or continue seeing the attractive bartender with whom he was about to hook up  The episode premiered on January 11, 2010, with the single being released the following day  Stacy Keibler guest-starred in this episode  The musical number featured 65 dancers and a 50-piece orchestra and was choreographed by Zach Woodlee (Glee) 

Chart performance
The song peaked at #50 on the UK Singles Chart  In Canada, the song peaked at 76 on the Canadian Hot 100 

Charts
Personnel
Lead vocals – Neil Patrick Harris as Barney Stinson
Additional vocals – Jason Segel as Marshall Eriksen, Josh Radnor as Ted Mosby, Alyson Hannigan as Lily Aldrin, and Cobie Smulders as Robin Scherbatsky
Passage 8:
Batman: Under the Red Hood
Batman: Under the Red Hood is a 2010 American animated superhero action thriller direct-to-video film produced by Warner Bros  Animation and released by Warner Home Video  It is the eighth film of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies  The writer, Judd Winick, also wrote the "Under the Hood" run in the monthly Batman comic the film is based on  The film was released on July 27, 2010, and received highly positive reviews from critics, who praised its plot, animation, and focus on storytelling  It is generally considered to be one of the best in the DC Universe Animated Original Movies line  The film was also a commercial success, grossing over $12 million in home video sales 
The two-disc special edition and Blu-ray also includes an animated short featuring Jonah Hex  An interactive short spiritual sequel/film adaptation, Batman: Death in the Family, was released on October 13, 2020,  ten years after Red Hood 

Plot
Ra's al Ghul realizes his mistake in hiring the Joker to use him as a distraction while he destroyed Europe's financial districts after learning that he has captured Jason Todd, the second Robin, Batman's partner  In Sarajevo, Bosnia, Joker brutally assaults Jason, in an abandoned warehouse with a crowbar  Jason is locked in the warehouse with a bomb, which explodes and kills him before Batman arrives 
Five years later in Gotham City, a mysterious vigilante called Red Hood assembles a meeting of the city's most prominent drug dealers  He announces a takeover of their drug trade, taking only 40% of the profit while offering them protection from both Black Mask and Batman - under punishment of death to anyone caught dealing drugs to children 
Batman stops an attempted theft of a shipment belonging to Black Mask, which is the advanced android Amazo  Batman destroys Amazo with the help of Jason's predecessor Dick Grayson a k a  Nightwing and discovers the thieves are working for Red Hood who then kills them  He chases Red Hood to Ace Chemicals, where an explosion destroys the facility  Batman and Nightwing interrogate Joker at Arkham Asylum about Red Hood, but he denies involvement 

Black Mask puts a hit on Red Hood for Amazo's destruction  Batman and Nightwing prevent Red Hood from hijacking Black Mask's next weapon shipment  They chase Red Hood to a train station, where he escapes after detonating a bomb, which injures Nightwing  Batman and Nightwing realize Red Hood is trained and has knowledge of Batman's tactics and gear  A review of audio footage of the chase reveals Red Hood knows Batman's secret identity 
Batman recalls Jason performing the same maneuvers as Robin and that Jason grew more violent and bloodthirsty as he aged, with Batman having to stop him many times from nearly killing criminals  The Fearsome Hand of 4 lure out Red Hood and nearly overpower him until Batman helps incapacitate three of them and Red Hood kills the fourth, horrifying Batman  Red Hood explains he is doing what Batman will not: killing criminals who are not afraid 
Batman analyzes a blood sample of Red Hood drawn from the battle and it matches Jason's  After discovering Jason's corpse is fake, Batman confronts Ra's al Ghul and demands to know the truth  Ra's explains that he felt responsible for Jason's death and, as a peace offering, he swapped Jason's body for a fake and revived him in the Lazarus Pit  Following his resurrection, Jason was driven insane and escaped 
After surviving an assassination attempt by Red Hood, Black Mask sets Joker free, tasking him with killing Red Hood  However, Joker instead abducts Black Mask and the drug dealers and plans to set them on fire; Red Hood appears and reveals his real target all along has been the Joker  Batman saves the hostages and Red Hood takes Joker  Red Hood brutally beats Joker in revenge for his own murder and confronts Batman 
During the fight, Red Hood removes his helmet, confirming he is Jason  Their fight makes its way to the dilapidated building where Jason is keeping the Joker and ends with Jason holding Batman at gunpoint  Though he has forgiven Batman for not saving him, Jason is upset and angry that Joker is still alive after killing him  Batman admits he has thought constantly about torturing and killing the Joker but will not, fearing he will not stop if he kills even once 
Jason tosses Batman a gun and gives him an ultimatum – he will execute the Joker unless Batman shoots him  Batman refuses and drops the gun, causing Jason to shoot at him  Batman throws a batarang, which jams Jason's pistol  When Jason pulls the trigger again, the gun is destroyed and his right hand gets mangled  Defeated, Jason sets off a time bomb and Batman subdues Joker before attempting to save Jason 
The bomb explodes; Batman and Joker survive but Jason is gone  Joker is returned to Arkham and Black Mask is arrested for his involvement in the Joker's escape  At the Batcave, Alfred offers to remove the glass case display of Jason's Robin costume after everything that has happened, but Bruce refuses, claiming it doesn't change anything 
A final flashback shows Jason's first day as Robin, which he cheerfully declares is the best day of his life 

Cast
Crew
Andrea Romano – Voice Director

Music
The score for Batman: Under the Red Hood was composed by Christopher Drake, who had previously scored several animated films set in the DC Universe  It was inspired by the soundtracks of Batman: Mask of the Phantasm which features a traditional orchestral score and The Dark Knight which features a computer generated, electronic score  Drake said that since Under the Red Hood has a darker tone than previous DC Universe animated films, he chose not to use the music as epic and melodramatic instead opting for a more intimate, minimal and restrained tone  He added that this is the first DC film he has scored that didn't rely on using a large choir to make the fight scenes sound bigger  Drake scored the film as a reference to modern minimalist electronic scores because the film's director Brandon Vietti felt that Under the Red Hood needed to go in a different, more modern direction to separate it from previous DC animation scores  At that point, Drake introduced more electronic and ambient elements, like synthesized and processed electronic guitar, while retaining orchestral elements Batman: Under The Red Hood – Soundtrack to The Animated Original Movie was released by WaterTower Music on July 27, 2010 and features 18 tracks composed for the film 

Commercial performance
The film grossed over $12 million in domestic home video sales, making it one of the highest grossing DC animated films 

Critical reception
Batman: Under the Red Hood received positive reviews from critics who praised the film's direction, animation, emotional weight of the story, and voice acting particularly for Jensen Ackles  On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 100% based on reviews from seven critics, with an average rating of a 7 3/10  
Demeter's review for The World's Finest stated: "I have to say this really was a damn good film"  James Harvey's review on the same website was even more positive, calling it "a mature and faithful take on the Batman lore"  IGN gave the movie an 8 out of 10, calling it "An interesting peek inside the psyche of Batman and the fine line between good and evil"  It was the highest rated direct-to-video Batman film until the release of The Dark Knight Returns 

Continuation
A follow-up film titled Batman: Death in the Family was released on October 13, 2020, a decade after Under the Red Hood with Greenwood, Martella, and DiMaggio reprising their roles  Zehra Fazal plays Talia al Ghul and Gary Cole plays both Two-Face and Commissioner Gordon  It is an interactive narrative where the viewer chooses what happens in the story 
Passage 9:
The Suite Life Sets Sail
"The Suite Life Sets Sail" is the pilot episode of the Disney Channel teen sitcom The Suite Life on Deck, a sequel/spin-off to the Disney Channel sitcom The Suite Life of Zack & Cody  Debby Ryan joins the cast as Bailey Pickett, who becomes a close friend of Zack's, the girlfriend of Cody, and the roommate of London, as well as Ashley Tisdale leaving the main cast due to her character Maddie Fitzpatrick having to attend college 
After an original sequel named Arwin! was not picked up by Disney Channel, the creators decided to change the concept  The series premiere in the United States drew 5 7 million viewers, and it became the most watched pilot in Canada and on Family Channel   This also outpaced veteran series Hannah Montana and Wizards of Waverly Place with the ratings 

Plot
Hotel heiress London Tipton (Brenda Song) and twins Zack (Dylan Sprouse) and Cody Martin (Cole Sprouse) are to attend a new semester in Seven Seas High School on the SS Tipton, a cruise ship owned by Wilfred Tipton (voiced by Bob Joles and played by Adam Tait in The Suite Life of Zack & Cody; played by John Michael Higgins in the special The Suite Life on Deck episode "Twister")  (which was seen in one episode of the predecessor)  Meanwhile, Mr  Moseby (Phill Lewis) tricks London into thinking that she is on vacation (which is not true), and a girl named Bailey Pickett sneaks into the bathrooms to disguise herself as a male, doing so since there are no more cabins left for women  London bribes her roommate Padma (Tiya Sircar) into leaving, so she can have the room to herself, and soon finds out she has to attend school 
Cody ends up sharing a room with Woody Fink (Matthew Timmons), who is very messy, while Zack eventually is with Bailey (Debby Ryan) (currently disguised as male, trying to hide her identity)  The twins decide to exchange roommates, but Zack in the end refuses after finding out she is a girl  However, her gender is eventually revealed to the people on the ship, and is happy to find out that the cabin from London is free for one more person, but this is the last straw for London, and she flees to Parrot Island via helicopter, leaving the plot for the following episode 

Starring
Guest starring
Erin Cardillo as Emma Tutweiller: Zack, Cody, London, Bailey and Woody's teacher for the semester on board 
Tiya Sircar as Padma: London's previous roommate whom she tricked into leaving 
Matthew Timmons as Woody Fink: Cody's roommate and a frequent guest star on the show 
Kim Rhodes as Carey Martin: Zack and Cody's mom who only has a cameo in this episode and appears in later episodes 

Reception
The series premiere attracted more than a million people on its opening day 
Passage 10:
Buckingham Palace
Buckingham Palace (UK: ) is a London royal residence and the administrative headquarters of the monarch of the United Kingdom  Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is often at the centre of state occasions and royal hospitality  It has been a focal point for the British people at times of national rejoicing and mourning 
Originally known as Buckingham House, the building at the core of today's palace was a large townhouse built for the Duke of Buckingham in 1703 on a site that had been in private ownership for at least 150 years  It was acquired by King George III in 1761 as a private residence for Queen Charlotte and became known as The Queen's House  During the 19th century it was enlarged by architects John Nash and Edward Blore, who constructed three wings around a central courtyard  Buckingham Palace became the London residence of the British monarch on the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837 
The last major structural additions were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including the East Front, which contains the well-known balcony on which the royal family traditionally appears to greet crowds  A German bomb destroyed the palace chapel during the Second World War; the Queen's Gallery was built on the site and opened to the public in 1962 to exhibit works of art from the Royal Collection 
The original early-19th-century interior designs, many of which survive, include widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis, on the advice of Sir Charles Long  King Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle Époque cream and gold colour scheme  Many smaller reception rooms are furnished in the Chinese regency style with furniture and fittings brought from the Royal Pavilion at Brighton and from Carlton House  The palace has 775 rooms, and the garden is the largest private garden in London  The state rooms, used for official and state entertaining, are open to the public each year for most of August and September and on some days in winter and spring 

History
Pre-1624
In the Middle Ages, the site of the future palace formed part of the Manor of Ebury (also called Eia)  The marshy ground was watered by the river Tyburn, which still flows below the courtyard and south wing of the palace  Where the river was fordable (at Cow Ford), the village of Eye Cross grew  Ownership of the site changed hands many times; owners included Edward the Confessor and Edith of Wessex in late Saxon times, and, after the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror  William gave the site to Geoffrey de Mandeville, who bequeathed it to the monks of Westminster Abbey In 1531, Henry VIII acquired the Hospital of St James, which became St James's Palace, from Eton College, and in 1536 he took the Manor of Ebury from Westminster Abbey  These transfers brought the site of Buckingham Palace back into royal hands for the first time since William the Conqueror had given it away almost 500 years earlier  Various owners leased it from royal landlords, and the freehold was the subject of frenzied speculation during the 17th century  By then, the old village of Eye Cross had long since fallen into decay, and the area was mostly wasteland  Needing money, James VI and I sold off part of the Crown freehold but retained part of the site on which he established a four-acre (1 6 ha) mulberry garden for the production of silk  (This is at the north-west corner of today's palace ) Clement Walker in Anarchia Anglicana (1649) refers to "new-erected sodoms and spintries at the Mulberry Garden at S  James's"; this suggests it may have been a place of debauchery  Eventually, in the late 17th century, the freehold was inherited from the property tycoon Sir Hugh Audley by the great heiress Mary Davies 

First houses on the site (1624–1761)
Possibly the first house erected within the site was that of Sir William Blake, around 1624  The next owner was Lord Goring, who from 1633 extended Blake's house, which came to be known as Goring House, and developed much of today's garden, then known as Goring Great Garden  He did not, however, obtain the freehold interest in the mulberry garden  Unbeknown to Goring, in 1640 the document "failed to pass the Great Seal before Charles I fled London, which it needed to do for legal execution"  It was this critical omission that would help the British royal family regain the freehold under George III  When the improvident Goring defaulted on his rents, Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington was able to purchase the lease of Goring House and he was occupying it when it burned down in 1674, following which he constructed Arlington House on the site – the location of the southern wing of today's palace – the next year  In 1698, John Sheffield acquired the lease  He later became the first Duke of Buckingham and Normanby  Buckingham House was built for Sheffield in 1703 to the design of William Winde  The style chosen was of a large, three-floored central block with two smaller flanking service wings  It was eventually sold by Buckingham's illegitimate son, Sir Charles Sheffield, in 1761 to George III for £21,000  Sheffield's leasehold on the mulberry garden site, the freehold of which was still owned by the royal family, was due to expire in 1774 

From Queen's House to palace (1761–1837)
Under the new royal ownership, the building was originally intended as a private retreat for Queen Charlotte, and was accordingly known as The Queen's House  Remodelling of the structure began in 1762  In 1775, an Act of Parliament settled the property on Queen Charlotte, in exchange for her rights to nearby Somerset House, and 14 of her 15 children were born there  Some furnishings were transferred from Carlton House and others had been bought in France after the French Revolution of 1789  While St James's Palace remained the official and ceremonial royal residence, the name "Buckingham-palace" was used from at least 1791  After his accession to the throne in 1820, George IV continued the renovation intending to create a small, comfortable home  However, in 1826, while the work was in progress, the King decided to modify the house into a palace with the help of his architect John Nash  The external façade was designed, keeping in mind the French neoclassical influence preferred by George IV  The cost of the renovations grew dramatically, and by 1829 the extravagance of Nash's designs resulted in his removal as the architect  On the death of George IV in 1830, his younger brother William IV hired Edward Blore to finish the work  William never moved into the palace  After the Palace of Westminster was destroyed by fire in 1834, he offered to convert Buckingham Palace into a new Houses of Parliament, but his offer was declined 

Queen Victoria (1837–1901)
Buckingham Palace became the principal royal residence in 1837, on the accession of Queen Victoria, who was the first monarch to reside there; her predecessor William IV had died before its completion  While the state rooms were a riot of gilt and colour, the necessities of the new palace were somewhat less luxurious  It was reported the chimneys smoked so much that the fires had to be allowed to die down, and consequently the palace was often cold  Ventilation was so bad that the interior smelled, and when it was decided to install gas lamps, there was a serious worry about the build-up of gas on the lower floors  It was also said that the staff were lax and lazy and the palace was dirty  Following the Queen's marriage in 1840, her husband, Prince Albert, concerned himself with a reorganisation of the household offices and staff, and with addressing the design faults of the palace  By the end of 1840, all the problems had been rectified  However, the builders were to return within a decade By 1847, the couple had found the palace too small for court life and their growing family and a new wing, designed by Edward Blore, was built by Thomas Cubitt, enclosing the central quadrangle  The large East Front, facing The Mall, is today the "public face" of Buckingham Palace and contains the balcony from which the royal family acknowledge the crowds on momentous occasions and after the annual Trooping the Colour  The ballroom wing and a further suite of state rooms were also built in this period, designed by Nash's student Sir James Pennethorne  Before Prince Albert's death, the palace was frequently the scene of musical entertainments, and the most celebrated contemporary musicians entertained at Buckingham Palace  The composer Felix Mendelssohn is known to have played there on three occasions  Johann Strauss II and his orchestra played there when in England  Under Victoria, Buckingham Palace was frequently the scene of lavish costume balls, in addition to the usual royal ceremonies, investitures and presentations Widowed in 1861, the grief-stricken Queen withdrew from public life and left Buckingham Palace to live at Windsor Castle, Balmoral Castle and Osborne House  For many years the palace was seldom used, even neglected  In 1864, a note was found pinned to the fence of Buckingham Palace, saying: "These commanding premises to be let or sold, in consequence of the late occupant's declining business " Eventually, public opinion persuaded the Queen to return to London, though even then she preferred to live elsewhere whenever possible  Court functions were still held at Windsor Castle, presided over by the sombre Queen habitually dressed in mourning black, while Buckingham Palace remained shuttered for most of the year 

Early 20th century (1901–1945)
In 1901, the new king, Edward VII, began redecorating the palace  The King and his wife, Queen Alexandra, had always been at the forefront of London high society, and their friends, known as "the Marlborough House Set", were considered to be the most eminent and fashionable of the age  Buckingham Palace—the Ballroom, Grand Entrance, Marble Hall, Grand Staircase, vestibules and galleries were redecorated in the Belle Époque cream and gold colour scheme they retain today—once again became a setting for entertaining on a majestic scale but leaving some to feel Edward's heavy redecorations were at odds with Nash's original work The last major building work took place during the reign of George V when, in 1913, Sir Aston Webb redesigned Blore's 1850 East Front to resemble in part Giacomo Leoni's Lyme Park in Cheshire  This new refaced principal façade (of Portland stone) was designed to be the backdrop to the Victoria Memorial, a large memorial statue of Queen Victoria created by sculptor Sir Thomas Brock, erected outside the main gates on a surround constructed by architect Sir Aston Webb  George V, who had succeeded Edward VII in 1910, had a more serious personality than his father; greater emphasis was now placed on official entertainment and royal duties than on lavish parties  He arranged a series of command performances featuring jazz musicians such as the Original Dixieland Jazz Band (1919; the first jazz performance for a head of state), Sidney Bechet and Louis Armstrong (1932), which earned the palace a nomination in 2009 for a (Kind of) Blue Plaque by the Brecon Jazz Festival as one of the venues making the greatest contribution to jazz music in the United Kingdom During the First World War, which lasted from 1914 until 1918, the palace escaped unscathed  Its more valuable contents were evacuated to Windsor, but the royal family remained in residence  The King imposed rationing at the palace, much to the dismay of his guests and household  To the King's later regret, David Lloyd George persuaded him to go further and ostentatiously lock the wine cellars and refrain from alcohol, to set a good example to the supposedly inebriated working class  The workers continued to imbibe, and the King was left unhappy at his enforced abstinence George V's wife, Queen Mary, was a connoisseur of the arts and took a keen interest in the Royal Collection of furniture and art, both restoring and adding to it  Queen Mary also had many new fixtures and fittings installed, such as the pair of marble Empire-style chimneypieces by Benjamin Vulliamy, dating from 1810, which the Queen had installed in the ground floor Bow Room, the huge low room at the centre of the garden façade  Queen Mary was also responsible for the decoration of the Blue Drawing Room  This room, 69 feet (21 metres) long, previously known as the South Drawing Room, has a ceiling designed by Nash, coffered with huge gilt console brackets  In 1938, the northwest pavilion, designed by Nash as a conservatory, was converted into a swimming pool 

Second World War
During the Second World War, which broke out in 1939, the palace was bombed nine times  The most serious and publicised incident destroyed the palace chapel in 1940  This event was shown in cinemas throughout the United Kingdom to show the common suffering of the rich and poor  One bomb fell in the palace quadrangle while George VI and Queen Elizabeth (the future Queen Mother) were in the palace, and many windows were blown in and the chapel destroyed  Wartime coverage of such incidents was severely restricted, however  The King and Queen were filmed inspecting their bombed home; it was at this time the Queen famously declared: "I'm glad we have been bombed  Now I can look the East End in the face"  The royal family were seen as sharing their subjects' hardship, as The Sunday Graphic reported:

By the Editor: The King and Queen have endured the ordeal which has come to their subjects  For the second time a German bomber has tried to bring death and destruction to the home of Their Majesties     When this war is over the common danger which King George and Queen Elizabeth have shared with their people will be a cherished memory and an inspiration through the years 
On 15 September 1940, known as Battle of Britain Day, an RAF pilot, Ray Holmes of No  504 Squadron RAF rammed a German Dornier Do 17 bomber he believed was going to bomb the Palace  Holmes had run out of ammunition and made the quick decision to ram it  Holmes bailed out and the aircraft crashed into the forecourt of London Victoria station  The bomber's engine was later exhibited at the Imperial War Museum in London  The British pilot became a King's Messenger after the war and died at the age of 90 in 2005  On VE Day—8 May 1945—the palace was the centre of British celebrations  The King, the Queen, Princess Elizabeth (the future queen) and Princess Margaret appeared on the balcony, with the palace's blacked-out windows behind them, to cheers from a vast crowd in The Mall  The damaged Palace was carefully restored after the war by John Mowlem & Co 

Mid 20th century to present day
Many of the palace's contents are part of the Royal Collection, held in trust by King Charles III; they can, on occasion, be viewed by the public at the Queen's Gallery, near the Royal Mews  The purpose-built gallery opened in 1962 and displays a changing selection of items from the collection  It occupies the site of the chapel that was destroyed in the Second World War  The palace was designated a Grade I listed building in 1970  Its state rooms have been open to the public during August and September and on some dates throughout the year since 1993  The money raised in entry fees was originally put towards the rebuilding of Windsor Castle after the 1992 fire devastated many of its staterooms  In the year to 31 March 2017, 580,000 people visited the palace, and 154,000 visited the gallery  In 2004, the palace attempted to claim money from the community energy fund to heat Buckingham Palace, but the claim was rejected due to fear of public backlash The palace used to racially segregate staff  In 1968, Charles Tryon, 2nd Baron Tryon, acting as treasurer to Queen Elizabeth II, sought to exempt Buckingham Palace from full application of the Race Relations Act 1968  He stated that the palace did not hire people of colour for clerical jobs, only as domestic servants  He arranged with Civil servants for an exemption that meant that complaints of racism against the royal household would be sent directly to the Home Secretary and kept out of the legal system The palace, like Windsor Castle, is owned by the reigning monarch in right of the Crown  Occupied royal palaces are not part of the Crown Estate, nor are they the monarch's personal property, unlike Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle  The Government of the United Kingdom is responsible for maintaining the palace in exchange for the profits made by the Crown Estate  In 2015, the State Dining Room was closed for a year and a half because its ceiling had become potentially dangerous  A 10-year schedule of maintenance work, including new plumbing, wiring, boilers and radiators, and the installation of solar panels on the roof, has been estimated to cost £369 million and was approved by the prime minister in November 2016  It will be funded by a temporary increase in the Sovereign Grant paid from the income of the Crown Estate and is intended to extend the building's working life by at least 50 years  In 2017, the House of Commons backed funding for the project by 464 votes to 56 Buckingham Palace is a symbol and home of the British monarchy, an art gallery and a tourist attraction  Behind the gilded railings and gates that were completed by the Bromsgrove Guild in 1911, lies Webb's famous façade, which was described in a book published by the Royal Collection Trust as looking "like everybody's idea of a palace"  It has not only been a weekday home of Elizabeth II and Prince Philip but is also the London residence of the Duke of York and the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh  The palace also houses their offices, as well as those of the Princess Royal and Princess Alexandra, and is the workplace of more than 800 people  Charles III lives at Clarence House while restoration work continues, although he conducts official business at Buckingham Palace, including weekly meetings with the Prime Minister  Every year, some 50,000 invited guests are entertained at garden parties, receptions, audiences and banquets  Three garden parties are held in the summer, usually in July  The forecourt of Buckingham Palace is used for the Changing of the Guard, a major ceremony and tourist attraction (daily from April to July; every other day in other months) 

Interior
The front of the palace measures 355 feet (108 m) across, by 390 feet (120 m) deep, by 80 feet (24 m) high and contains over 830,000 square feet (77,000 m2) of floorspace  There are 775 rooms, including 188 staff bedrooms, 92 offices, 78 bathrooms, 52 principal bedrooms and 19 state rooms  It also has a post office, cinema, swimming pool, doctor's surgery, and jeweller's workshop  The Royal family occupy a small suite of private rooms in the north wing 

Principal rooms
The principal rooms are contained on the first-floor piano nobile behind the west-facing garden façade at the rear of the palace  The centre of this ornate suite of state rooms is the Music Room, its large bow the dominant feature of the façade  Flanking the Music Room are the Blue and the White Drawing Rooms  At the centre of the suite, serving as a corridor to link the state rooms, is the Picture Gallery, which is top-lit and 55 yards (50 m) long  The Gallery is hung with numerous works including some by Rembrandt, van Dyck, Rubens and Vermeer; other rooms leading from the Picture Gallery are the Throne Room and the Green Drawing Room  The Green Drawing Room serves as a huge anteroom to the Throne Room, and is part of the ceremonial route to the throne from the Guard Room at the top of the Grand Staircase  The Guard Room contains white marble statues of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, in Roman costume, set in a tribune lined with tapestries  These very formal rooms are used only for ceremonial and official entertaining but are open to the public every summer 

Semi-state apartments
Directly underneath the state apartments are the less grand semi-state apartments  Opening from the Marble Hall, these rooms are used for less formal entertaining, such as luncheon parties and private audiences  At the centre of this floor is the Bow Room, through which thousands of guests pass annually to the monarch's garden parties  When paying a state visit to Britain, foreign heads of state are usually entertained by the monarch at Buckingham Palace  They are allocated an extensive suite of rooms known as the Belgian Suite, situated at the foot of the Minister's Staircase, on the ground floor of the west-facing Garden Wing  Some of the rooms are named and decorated for particular visitors, such as the 1844 Room, decorated in that year for the state visit of Nicholas I of Russia, and the 1855 Room, in honour of the visit of Napoleon III of France  The former is a sitting room that also serves as an audience room and is often used for personal investitures  Narrow corridors link the rooms of the suite; one of them is given extra height and perspective by saucer domes designed by Nash in the style of Soane  A second corridor in the suite has Gothic-influenced cross-over vaulting  The suite was named after Leopold I of Belgium, uncle of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert  In 1936, the suite briefly became the private apartments of the palace when Edward VIII occupied them  The original early-19th-century interior designs, many of which still survive, included widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis, on the advice of Sir Charles Long  Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle Époque cream and gold colour scheme 

East wing
Between 1847 and 1850, when Blore was building the new east wing, the Brighton Pavilion was once again plundered of its fittings  As a result, many of the rooms in the new wing have a distinctly oriental atmosphere  The red and blue Chinese Luncheon Room is made up of parts of the Brighton Banqueting and Music Rooms with a large oriental chimneypiece designed by Robert Jones and sculpted by Richard Westmacott  It was formerly in the Music Room at the Brighton Pavilion  The ornate clock, known as the Kylin Clock, was made in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province, China, in the second half of the 18th century; it has a later movement by Benjamin Vulliamy circa 1820  The Yellow Drawing Room has wallpaper supplied in 1817 for the Brighton Saloon, and a chimneypiece which is a European vision of how the Chinese chimney piece may appear  It has nodding mandarins in niches and fearsome winged dragons, designed by Robert Jones At the centre of this wing is the famous balcony with the Centre Room behind its glass doors  This is a Chinese-style saloon enhanced by Queen Mary, who, working with the designer Sir Charles Allom, created a more "binding" Chinese theme in the late 1920s, although the lacquer doors were brought from Brighton in 1873  Running the length of the piano nobile of the east wing is the Great Gallery, modestly known as the Principal Corridor, which runs the length of the eastern side of the quadrangle  It has mirrored doors and mirrored cross walls reflecting porcelain pagodas and other oriental furniture from Brighton  The Chinese Luncheon Room and Yellow Drawing Room are situated at each end of this gallery, with the Centre Room in between 

Court ceremonies
Investitures, which include the conferring of knighthoods by dubbing with a sword, and other awards take place in the palace's Ballroom, built in 1854  At 120 feet (36 6 m) long, 60 feet (18 m) wide and 45 feet (13 5 m) high, it is the largest room in the palace  It has replaced the throne room in importance and use  During investitures, the King stands on the throne dais beneath a giant, domed velvet canopy, known as a shamiana or a baldachin, that was used at the Delhi Durbar in 1911  A military band plays in the musicians' gallery as award recipients approach the King and receive their honours, watched by their families and friends 

State banquets also take place in the Ballroom; these formal dinners are held on the first evening of a state visit by a foreign head of state  On these occasions, for up to 170 guests in formal "white tie and decorations", including tiaras, the dining table is laid with the Grand Service, a collection of silver-gilt plate made in 1811 for the Prince of Wales, later George IV  The largest and most formal reception at Buckingham Palace takes place every November when the King entertains members of the diplomatic corps  On this grand occasion, all the state rooms are in use, as the royal family proceed through them, beginning at the great north doors of the Picture Gallery  As Nash had envisaged, all the large, double-mirrored doors stand open, reflecting the numerous crystal chandeliers and sconces, creating a deliberate optical illusion of space and light Smaller ceremonies such as the reception of new ambassadors take place in the "1844 Room"  Here too, the King holds small lunch parties, and often meetings of the Privy Council  Larger lunch parties often take place in the curved and domed Music Room or the State Dining Room  Since the bombing of the palace chapel in World War II, royal christenings have sometimes taken place in the Music Room  Queen Elizabeth II's first three children were all baptised there  On all formal occasions, the ceremonies are attended by the Yeomen of the Guard, in their historic uniforms, and other officers of the court such as the Lord Chamberlain 

Former ceremonial
Court dress
Formerly, men not wearing military uniform wore knee breeches of 18th-century design  Women's evening dress included trains and tiaras or feathers in their hair (often both)  The dress code governing formal court uniform and dress has progressively relaxed  After the First World War, when Queen Mary wished to follow fashion by raising her skirts a few inches from the ground, she requested a lady-in-waiting to shorten her own skirt first to gauge the King's reaction  King George V disapproved, so the Queen kept her hemline unfashionably low  Following his accession in 1936, King George VI and Queen Elizabeth allowed the hemline of daytime skirts to rise  Today, there is no official dress code  Most men invited to Buckingham Palace in the daytime choose to wear service uniform or lounge suits; a minority wear morning coats, and in the evening, depending on the formality of the occasion, black tie or white tie 

Court presentation of débutantes
Débutantes were aristocratic young ladies making their first entrée into society through a presentation to the monarch at court  These occasions, known as "coming out", took place at the palace from the reign of Edward VII  The débutantes entered—wearing full court dress, with three ostrich feathers in their hair—curtsied, performed a backwards walk and a further curtsey, while manoeuvring a dress train of prescribed length  The ceremony, known as an evening court, corresponded to the "court drawing rooms" of Victoria's reign  After World War II, the ceremony was replaced by less formal afternoon receptions, omitting the requirement of court evening dress  In 1958, Queen Elizabeth II abolished the presentation parties for débutantes, replacing them with Garden Parties, for up to 8,000 invitees in the Garden  They are the largest functions of the year 

Garden and surroundings
At the rear of the palace is the large and park-like garden, which together with its lake is the largest private garden in London  There, Queen Elizabeth II hosted her annual garden parties each summer and also held large functions to celebrate royal milestones, such as jubilees  It covers 17 ha (42 acres) and includes a helicopter landing area, a lake and a tennis court Adjacent to the palace is the Royal Mews, also designed by Nash, where the royal carriages, including the Gold State Coach, are housed  This rococo gilt coach, designed by Sir William Chambers in 1760, has painted panels by G  B  Cipriani  It was first used for the State Opening of Parliament by George III in 1762 and has been used by the monarch for every coronation since William IV  It was last used for the Coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla  Also housed in the mews are the coach horses used at royal ceremonial processions as well as many of the cars used by the royal family 
The Mall, a ceremonial approach route to the palace, was designed by Sir Aston Webb and completed in 1911 as part of a grand memorial to Queen Victoria  It extends from Admiralty Arch, across St James's Park to the Victoria Memorial  This route is used by the cavalcades and motorcades of visiting heads of state, and by the royal family on state occasions—such as the annual Trooping the Colour 

Security breaches
The boy Jones was an intruder who gained entry to the palace on three occasions between 1838 and 1841  At least 12 people have managed to gain unauthorised entry into the palace or its grounds since 1914, including Michael Fagan, who broke into the palace twice in 1982 and entered Queen Elizabeth II's bedroom on the second occasion  At the time, news media reported that he had a long conversation with her while she waited for security officers to arrive, but in a 2012 interview with The Independent, Fagan said she ran out of the room, and no conversation took place  It was only in 2007 that trespassing on the palace grounds became a specific criminal offence 

See also
Flags at Buckingham Palace
List of British royal residences
King's Guard

Notes
Passage 11:
Cody Martin
Cody Martin may refer to:

Zack and Cody Martin, fictional characters from the TV series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody
Cody Martin (baseball) (born 1989), American baseball pitcher
Cody Martin (basketball) (born 1995), American basketball player
Passage 12:
Demi's Birthday Suit
Demi's Birthday Suit, or The Suit, was a trompe-l'œil body painting by Joanne Gair photographed by Annie Leibovitz that was featured on the cover of the Vanity Fair August 1992 issue to commemorate and exploit the success of Leibovitz's More Demi Moore cover photo of Demi Moore one year earlier  As an example of modern body painting artwork, it raised the profile of Gair in pop culture as an artist in that genre The work is considered to be groundbreaking by some, although there is controversy surrounding its originality  The converse of this image serves as the dust jacket art to Gair's second bodypainting book, Body Painting  The photo shoot also let Moore show off the results of her fitness regimen 

Artistic perspective
Gene Newman considers the body painting of Moore to be the introduction of modern body painting to the world  Although willing to credit Moore and Gair with the rebirth of bodypainting in a San Francisco Chronicle story, the "makeup artist, wig maker and stylist" Jim Ponder had difficulty calling interest in bodypainting a trend because it traces back to the "beginnings of man " Joanne Gair has described the painting as a stylized reference to Botticelli, since the sinuous pose is reminiscent of the central figures in both Primavera and The Birth of Venus  The Amazon com product description for Gair's book calls her participation in this photoshoot as her "defining moment " Soon after the release of the magazine Gair became such a pop culture icon that she was considered for an Absolut Vodka Absolut Gair ad campaign according to a story in The New York Times  The work is considered to be an example from the most sophisticated end of the bodypainting spectrum which extends all the way to Henna tattoos Some sources have claimed that the work is a derivative of preceding works  Playboy published a photo with similar bodypainting, with a necktie, suit jacket and similar pose, in its March 1968 issue, as part of a feature on bodypainting 

Details
Gair had worked with Leibovitz and Moore on More Demi Moore  Departing Vanity Fair editor Tina Brown felt "The only thing to do for the anniversary cover was to reprise it " According to a Houston Chronicle story that quotes both Moore and Brown, about 100 million people had seen the earlier cover, and this cover capitalized on the anniversary They decided to attempt a body painting during the week-long shoot at the Chateau Marmont in Los Angeles, California in 1992  Gair was provided with a pinstriped three-piece suit by Richard Tyler as a model to paint onto Moore  Since in those days she did not generally work with assistants, the day started at 6:30 A M  and Demi Moore slept that night in the painted-on suit in case they needed to resume the next day  It took 15 hours to apply the suit because it was difficult for Gair to build the proper paint density  Moore's body heat melted the paint  For the 1992 cover, which required a full-day sitting for Gair and her team of make-up artists, Leibovitz could not decide where to shoot, and "reserved two mobile homes, four hotel rooms and five houses"  Stylist Lori Goldstein assisted with the application Having started rigorous workouts in the final trimester of her pregnancy the year before to prepare for her role in A Few Good Men, Moore was physically fit for the photoshoot  Thus she appeared in additional nude photos within the magazine's cover story  Moore viewed the photos as a chance to show off the results of her workouts: "I said I would get better with each baby and I have " The weeklong effort also involved shots taken in Kauai, Hawaii that are included in Gair's second book, Body Painting  Moore felt she looked better on the cover at age 29 than she had in a bikini nine years earlier in Blame It on Rio 

More Demi Moore

Demi Moore had appeared on the cover of Vanity Fair exactly one year earlier in the August 1991 edition in Leibovitz's photograph, More Demi Moore  As a groundbreaking work, the photograph of her pregnant pose was an iconic one for Moore, Leibovitz and women in general who now view public representation of pregnancy as socially acceptable  It had a cultural impact by causing numerous celebrities to pose for photographs in advanced pregnancy, which has made pregnancy photos fashionable and created a profitable business for photographers such as Jennifer Loomis  The American Society of Magazine Editors regards it as one of the best U S  magazine covers ever, and it is one of Leibovitz' best-known works  Additionally, the photo served as a litmus test when Internet decency standards were first being legislated and adjudicated 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Paterson River
Paterson River, a perennial river that is part of the Hunter River catchment, is located in the Hunter and Mid North Coast regions of New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Paterson River rises in the Barrington Tops National Park, west by north of Careys Peak, and flows generally south and southeast, joined by six minor tributaries including the Allyn River at Vacy, before reaching its confluence with the Hunter River between Hinton and Morpeth  Between Hinton and Duns Creek, the Paterson River forms the border between the Port Stephens and Maitland local government areas  The river system courses through fertile the farming land of the Paterson and Allyn River Valleys and the historic Patersons Plains; descending 933 metres (3,061 ft) over its 151 kilometres (94 mi) course The river is impounded by Lostock Dam, located 48 kilometres (30 mi) downstream from the source in the Barringtons  The embankment dam was constructed by the New South Wales Department of Water Resources to supply water for irrigation and was completed in 1971  The river is tidal to above the village of Paterson and below Vacy Riverside towns within the Paterson's catchment include Gresford, Vacy, Paterson, Woodville and Hinton 
Colonel William Paterson surveyed the area along the river in 1801  Later Governor King named it in his honour 
Passage 2:
Horse Mesa Dam
The Horse Mesa Dam is a concrete thin arch dam located in the Superstition Mountains, northeast of Phoenix in Maricopa County, Arizona 
The dam is 660 feet (200 m) long, 300 feet (91 m) high and was built between 1924 and 1927  The dam includes three conventional hydroelectric generating units totaling 32 megawatts (MW) and a pumped-storage unit with a capacity of 97 MW 
The dam and associated infrastructure were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2017 
A few homes are nearby for temporary employee housing  Its name is derived from when sheep-herders used to graze their saddle and pack animals on the mesa when they were driving their flocks through the area  It has an estimated elevation of 2,067 feet (630 m) above sea level 

Reservoir
The dam forms Apache Lake as it impounds the Salt River  The dam and reservoir are located downstream from the Theodore Roosevelt Dam, and upstream from the Mormon Flat Dam 
Passage 3:
Darling Mills Creek
The Darling Mills Creek, an urban watercourse that is part of the Parramatta River catchment, is located in Greater Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
The Darling Mills Creek rises in the north-western suburbs of Sydney, west of Thompsons Corner, near the intersection of Castle Hill Road and Pennant Hills Road, within the suburb of West Pennant Hills  The headwaters lie on the watershed between the Hornsby Plateau and the Cumberland Plain  The creek flows generally west, then south, joined by its tributaries including the Bidjigal, Sawmill, Excelsior, Blue Gum, Bellbird, Bellamy Farm creeks and the dammed Hunts Creek downstream of Lake Parramatta, before reaching its confluence with the Toongabbie Creek to form the Parramatta River, in the suburb of North Parramatta, in land adjoining the northern boundary of the Cumberland Hospital  The course of the creek is approximately 10 kilometres (6 2 mi); and the creek passes through the Cumberland State Forest, the Darling Mills State Forest, Bidjigal Reserve, Excelsior Park, and many smaller reserves and parks The Darling Mills Creek is transversed by the Cumberland Highway, the M2 Hills Motorway, and marks the boundary between Windsor Road and Church Street in North Parramatta 

History
The land adjacent to the Parramatta River and its tributaries, including the Darling Mills Creek, was occupied for many thousands of years by the Burramattagal clan of the Darug people, Toongagal, Wallumattagal, Wangal, and Wategora Aboriginal peoples  They used the river as an important source of food and a place for trade The Darling Mills Creek takes its name from a watermill constructed a short distance from the confluence with Toongabbie Creek 
An earlier watermill was built by Samuel Marsden near the confluence  It milled flour from 1804 to 1818 
In 1825, the Darling Flour Mills were built for John Raine, upstream on the Windsor Road 
The Darling Mills site was taken over by Sydney Woollen Mills, which operated from 1870 to 1975  Sydney Woollen Mills originally used steam rather than water power  Part of the facade of the building remains on the site, which was occupied by Bunnings Warehouse's North Parramatta store in the early 21st century  There is a weir on the creek nearby that was constructed in the nineteenth century 

See also
Great North Walk
Rivers of New South Wales
Passage 4:
Lansdowne River
Lansdowne River, a watercourse of the Manning River catchment, is located in the Mid North Coast district of New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Lansdowne River rises below Mount Gibraltar in the Gibraltar Range, north northwest of Upper Lansdowne, and flows generally southeast before reaching its confluence with the Northern Arm of the Manning River, near Coopernook  The river descends 740 metres (2,430 ft) over its 51 kilometres (32 mi) course The Pacific Highway crosses the Lansdowne River south-east of Coopernook 

See also
Rivers of New South Wales
List of rivers of New South Wales (L–Z)
List of rivers of Australia
Passage 5:
Cabramatta Creek
Cabramatta Creek, an urban watercourse of the Georges River catchment, is located in the South Western Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Cabramatta Creek rises in the rural/residential suburb of Denham Court, east south-east of Leppington, within the Liverpool local government area  From here the creek flows in a northerly direction under Camden Valley Way towards Hoxton Park, and its junction with Hinchinbrook Creek  Substantial residential development has occurred in these areas, particularly to the west of Cowpasture Road  A number of detention basins have also been constructed in conjunction with the development 
The Ingham's poultry farm also occupies a significant landholding in the area  Below Hoxton Park Road, Cabramatta Creek starts to flow in an easterly direction the Fairfield local government area, towards its confluence with the Georges River, to the east of Warwick Farm  A more prominent creek "corridor", up to 200 metres (660 ft) wide, becomes more evident throughout the lower catchment  This primarily consists of public open space, playing fields and golf courses  The Elouera Nature Reserve, which is an important pocket of native bushland, also forms part of this corridor 
Cabramatta Creek flows through established residential suburbs, including Miller, Cartwright, Sadlier, Ashcroft, Liverpool, Mount Pritchard and Warwick Farm  Major transport routes that cross the catchment includes Hoxton Park Road, Elizabeth Drive, Orange Grove Road (the Cumberland Highway), the Hume Highway and the Main Southern railway line  The catchment area of the creek is approximately 74 square kilometres (29 sq mi), and within the catchment area are the Cabramatta Creek, Hinchinbrook Creek, Maxwells Creek, and Brickmakers Creek The area around the creek was home to the Darug Aboriginal people  European settlement began on the site in the 1790s when they found good quality soil 
In the area surrounding Cabramatta Creek is a large flying fox population; located behind the Sunnybrook Motel and called the Cabrammatta Creek Flying Fox Reserve A concrete beam road bridge that carries the Hume Highway over Cabramatta Creek, constructed in 1951 and commonly known as Ireland's Bridge, is listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register 
Passage 6:
Geographical feature
A feature (also called an object or entity), in the context of geography and geographic information science, is a discrete phenomenon that exists at a location in the space and scale of relevance to geography; that is, at or near the surface of Earth, at a moderate to global scale : 62  It is one of the primary types of phenomena represented in geographic information, such as that represented in maps, geographic information systems, remote sensing imagery, statistics, and other forms of geographic discourse  Such representations of features consists of descriptions of their inherent nature, their spatial form and location, and their characteristics or properties 

Ontology and terminology
The term "feature" is meant to be broad and inclusive, including both natural and human-constructed phenomena  It is metaphysically neutral, including both phenomena that exist physically (e g  a building) and those that are conceptual or social creations (e g  a neighbourhood)  In an ontological sense, the term is generally restricted to endurants, which are wholly present at any time during their lifespan (e g , the state of New York in 1820 was a complete state, and is the same state as the New York in 2021)  A feature is also discrete, meaning that it has a clear identity distinct from other phenomena, and is comprehended as a whole, defined in part by the boundary of its extent (although this can be problematic when vagueness arises, such as in the boundaries of a "valley")  This differentiates features from geographic processes and events, which are perdurants that only exist in time; and from geographic masses and fields, which are continuous in that they are not conceptualized as a distinct whole In geographic information science, the terms feature, object, and entity are generally used as roughly synonymous  In the 1992 Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS), one of the first public standard models of geographic information, an attempt was made to formally distinguish them: an entity as the real-world phenomenon, an object as a representation thereof (e g  on paper or digital), and a feature as the combination of both entity and representation objects  Although this distinction is often cited in textbooks, it has not gained lasting nor widespread usage  In the ISO 19101 Geographic Information Reference Model and Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Simple Features Specification, international standards that form the basis for most modern geospatial technologies, a feature is defined as "an abstraction of a real-world phenomena," essentially the object in SDTS 
Despite these attempts at formalization, the broadly interchangeable use of these English terms has persisted  That said, Phenomenon is likely the most broad, comfortably including geographic masses, processes, and events that would be difficult to call "objects" or "entities "

Types of features
Natural features
A natural feature is a phenomenon that was not created by humans, but is a part of the natural world  There has been some metaphysical debate over whether such features are "real," independent of the human mind (a realist stance), whether they are purely human conceptualizations of continuous natural phenomena (a constructivist stance), or a hybrid of discrete natural phenomena that highly motivate, but are simplified by human concepts (a experientialist stance)  It is also possible that individual features may be of any of these three types 

Ecosystems
There are two different terms to describe habitats: ecosystem and biome  An ecosystem is a community of organisms  In contrast, biomes occupy large areas of the globe and often encompass many different kinds of geographical features, including mountain ranges Biotic diversity within an ecosystem is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems  Living organisms are continually engaged in a set of relationships with every other element constituting the environment in which they exist, and ecosystem describes any situation where there is relationship between organisms and their environment 
Biomes represent large areas of ecologically similar communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms  Biomes are defined based on factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and climate  Unlike biogeographic realms, biomes are not defined by genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities  Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation 

Water bodies
A body of water is any significant accumulation of water, usually covering the land  The term "body of water" most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it may also include smaller pools of water such as ponds, creeks or wetlands  Rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are not always considered bodies of water, but they are included as geographical formations featuring water 
Some of these are easily recognizable as distinct real-world entities (e g , an isolated lake), while others are at least partially based on human conceptualizations  Examples of the latter include a branching stream network in which one of the branches has been arbitrarily designated as the continuation of the primary named stream; or a gulf or bay of an ocean, which has no meaningful dividing line from the rest of the ocean 

Landforms
A landform comprises a geomorphological unit and is largely defined by its surface form and location in the landscape, as part of the terrain, and as such is typically an element of topography  Landforms are categorized by features such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type  They include berms, mounds, hills, cliffs, valleys, rivers, and numerous other elements  Oceans and continents are the highest-order landforms 

Artificial features
Settlements
A settlement is a permanent or temporary community in which people live  Settlements range in components from a small number of dwellings grouped together to the largest of cities with surrounding urbanized areas  Other landscape features such as roads, enclosures, field systems, boundary banks and ditches, ponds, parks and woods, mills, manor houses, moats, and churches may be considered part of a settlement 

Administrative regions and other constructs
These include social constructions that are created to administer and organize the land, people, and other spatially-relevant resources  Examples include governmental units such as a state, cadastral land parcels, mining claims, zoning partitions of a city, or a church parish  There are also more informal social features, such as city neighbourhoods and other vernacular regions



ground_truth: Thaba Putsoa

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who does the Nothing Suits Me Like a Suit artist play in Batman Under the Red Hood?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  These are purely conceptual entities established by edict or practice, although they may align with visible features (i e  a river boundary), and may be subsequently manifested on the ground, such as by survey markers or fences 

Engineered constructs
Engineered geographic features include highways, bridges, airports, railroads, buildings, dams, and reservoirs, and are part of the anthroposphere because they are man-made geographic features 

Cartographic features
Cartographic features are types of abstract geographical features, which appear on maps but not on the planet itself, even though they are located on the planet  For example, latitudes, longitudes, the Equator, and the prime meridian are shown on maps of Earth, but it do not physically exist  It is a theoretical line used for reference, navigation, and measurement 

Features and Geographic Information
In GIS, maps, statistics, databases, and other information systems, a geographic feature is represented by a set of descriptors of its various characteristics  A common classification of those characteristics has emerged based on developments by Peuquet, Mennis, and others, including the following : 

 Identity, the fact that a feature is unique and distinct from all other features  This does not have an inherent description, but humans have created many systems for attempting to express identity, such as names and  identification numbers/codes 
Existence, the fact that a feature exists in the world  At first, this may seem trivial, but complex situations are common, such as features that are proposed or planned, abstract concepts (e g , the Equator), under construction, or that no longer exist 
 Kind (also known as class, type, or category), one or more groups to which a feature belongs, typically focused on those that are most fundamental to its existence  It thus completes the sentence "This is a _________ " These are generally in the form of common nouns (tree, dog, building, county, etc ), which may be isolated or part of a taxonomic hierarchy 
 Relationships to other features  These may be inherent if they are crucial to the existence and identity of the feature, or incidental if they are not crucial, but "just happen to be " These may be of at least three types:
Spatial relations, those that can be visualized and measured in space  For example, the fact that the Potomac River is adjacent to Maryland is an inherent spatial relation because the river is part of the definition of the boundary of Maryland, but the overlap relation between Maryland and the Delmarva Peninsula is incidental, as each would exist unproblematically without the other 
Meronomic relations (also known as partonomy), in which a feature may exist as a part of a larger whole, or may exist as a collection of parts  For example, the relationship between Maryland and the United States is a meronomic relation; one is not just spatially within the boundaries of the other, but is a component part of the other that in part defines the existence of both 
Genealogical relations (also known as parent-child), which tie a feature to others that existed previously and created it (or from which it was formed by another agent), and in turn to any features it has created  For example, if a county were created by the subdivision of two existing counties, they would be considered its parents 
Location, a description of where the feature exists, often including the shape of its extent  While a feature has an inherent location, measuring it for the purpose of representation as data can be a complex process, such as requiring the invention of abstract spatial reference systems, and the necessary employment of cartographic generalization, including an expedient choice of dimension (e g , a city could be represented as a region or as a point, depending on scale and need) 
Attributes, characteristics of a feature other than location, often expressed as text or numbers; for example, the population of a city  In geography, the levels of measurement developed by Stanley Smith Stevens (and further extended by others) is a common system for understanding and using attribute data 
Time is fundamental to the representation of a feature, although it does not have independent temporal descriptions  Instead, expressions of time are attached to other characteristics, describing how they change (thus, they are analogous to adverbs in common discourse)  Any of the above characteristics is  mutable, with the possible exception of identity  For example, the lifespan of a feature could be considered as the temporal extent of its existence  The location of a city can change over time as annexations expand its extent  The resident population of a country changes frequently due to immigration, emigration, birth, and death The descriptions of features (i e , the measured values of each of the above characteristics) are typically collected in Geographic databases, such as GIS datasets, based on a variety of  data models and  file formats, often based on the  vector logical model 

See also
Geographical field
Geographical location
Human geography
Landscape
Physical geography
Simple Features
Passage 7:
Coxs Creek (Belfield, New South Wales)
Coxs Creek, a watercourse of the Cooks River catchment, is located in the Inner West of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Coxs Creek rises northeast of Punchbowl railway station and flows generally north northeast, before reaching its confluence with the Cooks River, at Strathfield South  Over time the creek has been extensively modified and is now largely a storm drain that flows about 3 kilometres (1 9 mi)  Prior to development of the area the creek drained paperbark swamps that were formerly near the junction of Roberts Road and Juno Parade  Over time the creek has been extensively modified and rerouted  As with most drainage channels in the area it has been lined along much of its length  Coxs Creek drains a total catchment of 8 8 square kilometres (3 4 sq mi) The creek begins as a stormwater drain, then runs in the open through the Coxs Creek Wetland, a 1 84 hectares (4 5 acres) reserve containing significant remnant bushland including some Cooks River Castlereagh Ironbark Forest habitat  Including tree specimens of mugga ironbark (Eucalyptus sideroxylon), narrow-leaved ironbark (E  crebra), broad-leaved ironbark (E  fibrosa), and tallowwood (E  microcorys)  The forest habitat is noted as an endangered ecological community  Acacia pubescens (Downy Wattle) is a vulnerable flora species present as is the locally endangered Tadgell's Bluebell (Wahlenbergia multicaulis)  The endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog (Litoria aurea) has been recorded and frog ponds constructed as part of the creek  The frog has not been seen in the creek since 1995, though they are still present in the nearby constructed wetlands at the Juno Parade Brick Pit 
In 2005 Sydney Ports Corporation proposed works including fauna corridors and "frog ramps" to encourage their return  Along much of its length the creek is a combination of covered channel and an uncovered concrete lined trench  As the creek passes through the reserve it is open and the 2010 management plan calls for restoration of this part of the creek and the adjacent riparian zone 
Passage 8:
Cup and Saucer Creek
Cup and Saucer Creek, an urban watercourse of the Cooks River catchment, is located in the Canterbury-Bankstown region of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Cup and Saucer Creek rises in Canterbury local government area, near Wiley Park railway station and flows in an east north-easterly direction through the suburbs of Roselands, Kingsgrove and Clemton Park, where it makes its confluence with the Cooks River, within the suburb of Earlwood  The upper reaches of the creek are a piped drainage system, which becomes part drain and part creek in the lower reaches  The Cup and Saucer Creek Catchment Management Study by the Water Board in 1992 showed extensive toxic organics in the form of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organochlorines The creek is so named because of sandstone formations in the former bed of the creek A concrete culvert over Bexley Road constructed in 1920 is listed on the NSW State Heritage Register 
Passage 9:
Bardwell Creek
Bardwell Creek, an urban watercourse of the Cooks River catchment, is located in the southern suburbs of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Bardwell Creek rises in Georges River local government area, near Hurstville and flows in a north-easterly direction through the suburbs of Bexley, Bexley North, Bardwell Park, and Turrella in the Bayside local government area, where it makes its confluence with Wolli Creek, where it forms the border between the suburbs of Bardwell Park and Turrella  The upper reaches of the Creek are a piped drainage system, which becomes an open concrete channel at Croydon Road in the Bexley Golf Course  The total catchment area of Bardwell Creek is 6 36 square kilometres (2 46 sq mi) 

See also
Bardwell Valley, New South Wales
Wolli Creek Regional Park
Passage 10:
Natural Dam, Arkansas
Natural Dam is an unincorporated community in Crawford County, Arkansas, United States  Natural Dam is located on Arkansas Highway 59, 6 miles (9 7 km) north-northwest of Cedarville  Natural Dam has a post office with ZIP code 72948  The now-replaced Lee Creek Bridge, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, was located in the community The community was named for a natural dam near the original town site 

Notable person
Shay Mooney, half of country duo Dan + Shay
Passage 11:
Enloe Dam and Powerplant
The Enloe Dam, also known as the Similkameen Dam, and its powerplant are located on the Similkameen River about 4 miles (6 4 km) west-northwest of Oroville, Washington  Located just above Similkameen (Coyote) Falls, the concrete arch-gravity dam stands about 54 feet (16 m) high, with a crest length of about 290 feet (88 m), built between 1916 and 1923  The dam was named after the president of the Okanogan Valley Power Company, Eugene Enloe  The dam was operated to generate power at its powerplant, located about 850 feet (260 m) downstream from the dam  Lacking fish ladders, Enloe Dam blocks fish passage and completely extirpated anadromous fish migration into the upper reaches of the Similkameen River and its tributaries in Canada 

History
The dam replaced a wood crib dam started in 1903 by J M  Hagerty, a local entrepreneur, and completed a year after his death  The dam fed a generating plant in a wooden powerplant below the dam and falls  Power went to the towns of Nighthawk and Oroville, as well as the nearby Owasco, Ivanhoe, Ruby and Canba mines  Attempts by Hagerty's estate to sell the dam in 1913 met no interest, partly because of the poor state of the crib dam  Eugene Enloe of the Okanogan Valley Power Company was able to secure the rights to the site in 1916, hiring C F  Uhden to design the dam that year  Construction did not start until 1919 and was completed in 1920 at a cost of $350,000, $150,000 of it Enloe's money  Enloe sold the dam and powerplant in 1923 to Washington Water Power Company, which added a second penstock 

Description
The dam features an unregulated overflow spillway whose height can be augmented by flashboards  The powerplant replaced a small run-of-river plant, which received water from a diversion channel  In 1923, the site was purchased by the Washington Water Power Company  In 1942 the WWPC was purchased by the Okanogan Public Utility District, which then ceased operations at Enloe Dam in 1958, as power was available from the Bonneville Power Administration system at less cost  The dam's reservoir extends 2 miles (3 2 km) up the Similkameen River  Largely silted up, it is just 9 feet (2 7 m) deep



ground_truth: Nightwing / Dick Grayson

Nightwing

Dick Grayson

Batman

Robin

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What watercourse is the river on which the Lostock Dam is located the mouth of?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Storage capacity is only 507 acre-feet (625,000 m3) The concrete powerhouse is in a partly ruinous state, and options have been presented to stabilize or demolish the structure when the proposed new hydroelectric development is undertaken  The powerhouse was fed by two wood stave penstocks, 7 feet (2 1 m) in diameter, running to Pelton wheels driving two 1 6 megawatt generators  The generator hall stands next to a heavily built transformer vault 

Redevelopment
The Okanogan Public Utility District obtained a new license for power generation from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission in 1983, but the license was withdrawn in 1986 because the dam's impact on anadromous fish had not been addressed  A second license for a 4 1 megawatt plant was granted in 1996, but was again rescinded on the same grounds in 2000  Yet another application was submitted in August 2008, seeking to build a new powerplant to generate 9 megawatts, fed by a new intake channel Enloe Dam was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 18, 1978 as an example of early power development in rural Washington 
After a study showing reenergizing the dam would be too expensive, the Okanogan PUD voted in 2019 to abandon plans  They are seeking to give the dam away to have it demolished, but removal remains too expensive  The Colville Indian tribes are seeking its removal to restore salmon to the Similkameen River 
Passage 12:
Wolli Creek
Wolli Creek () is an urban watercourse of the Cooks River catchment located in the southern suburbs of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Wolli Creek rises south of Narwee, within Beverly Hills Park, Beverly Hills, and flows generally east northeast through Wolli Creek Valley and Wolli Creek Regional Park, joined by its major tributary, Bardwell Creek, before reaching its confluence with the Cooks River near Arncliffe and Tempe  The creek is a lined channel between Kingsgrove Road, Kingsgrove and Bexley Road, Bexley North where it then enters the Wolli Creek Valley  The sub-catchment area of the creek is 22 square kilometres (8 5 sq mi) 

Nature conservation value
Adjacent to Wolli Creek, within the Wolli Creek Valley, is Wolli Creek Regional Park, a planned 50 hectares (120 acres) nature reserve of native bushland and public reserves that was announced by the NSW Government in 1998 as a result of sustained community campaigning for the area to be preserved and for the M5 East Freeway to go underground  Whilst some of the park has been formed and management handed over from local government authorities to the NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, including the 8 9 hectares (22 acres) Girrahween Park and some privately held land that was compulsorily acquired, some areas of the originally planned park remain in the hands of government agencies including Sydney Water and Roads & Maritime Services When complete, the planned nature reserve offers easy public transport access, family picnic areas, extensive views and bushland, rugged sandstone escarpments with walking tracks, a mixture of parkland, heathland, and woodland forest, and great birdwatching in close proximity to heavily developed residential and industrial landscape 

Wildlife
Bird observation
The diversity of habitat and strategic location of the Wolli Creek Valley are reflected in the wide range of bird species to be found adjacent to the creek  Approximately 175 species of birds have been recorded in the area between 1940 and 1999 

Fish
Several species of freshwater and saltwater fish can be found in the Wolli Creek in areas above and below the fish ladder  The fish ladder, or "rock-ramp fishway" was constructed to enable fish to bypass the weir at Henderson St, Turrella, allowing migration to other areas of the creek 

Coastal saltmarsh
The lower reaches – the tidal part – of Wolli Creek are home to a plant community known as saltmarsh, or coastal saltmarsh  The plant community includes various salinity-tolerant species such as Knobby Club-rush (Ficinia nodosa), Samphire (Sarcocornia quinqueflora), Sea Rush (Juncus kraussii), Seablite (Suaeda australis), Streaked Arrowgrass (Triglochin striata) and others  Coastal saltmarsh has been recognised as a carbon sink as well as a filter of nutrients maintaining water quality and is listed as an Endangered Ecological Community under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 

Gallery
See also
Wolli Creek Regional Park
Passage 13:
Little River (Wingecarribee)
The Little River, a watercourse that is part of the Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment, is located in the Southern Highlands region of New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
The Little River rises south southeast of the locality of Wills Hill, near Robertson, and flows generally north before reaching its confluence with the Dudewaugh Creek, a tributary of the Burke River within the Upper Nepean River catchment  The course of the river is approximately 8 kilometres (5 0 mi) 

See also
List of rivers of New South Wales (L–Z)
List of rivers of Australia
Rivers of New South Wales
Passage 14:
Joe Wheeler State Park
Joe Wheeler State Park is a public recreation area with resort features located on Wheeler Lake, an impoundment of the Tennessee River in northwest Alabama  The state park contains 2,550 acres (1,030 ha) of land in three separate parcels and adjoins the Tennessee Valley Authority's Wheeler Dam 

History
The park was established when the state purchased land from the TVA in 1949  Resort features were added during a major upgrade begun in 1973  The park, the lake and dam all are named for Confederate general and U S  Congressman Joseph Wheeler 

Awards
In September 2020, Joe Wheeler State Park was one of eleven Alabama state parks awarded Tripadvisor’s Traveler’s Choice Award, which recognizes businesses and attractions that earn consistently high user reviews 

Activities and amenities
The Rogersville area of the park includes a resort lodge, convention facilities, restaurant, campground, 140-slip marina, 18-hole golf course, and 2 5-mile (4 0 km) loop trail for hiking and biking  The TVA maintains a dam overlook near the state park's cabin area 
Passage 15:
Beaver Dam High School (Wisconsin)
Beaver Dam High School is a public high school located in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin  It is a part of the Beaver Dam Unified School District  As of 25 October 2017 it had an enrollment of 1,045 students  Its mascot is the Golden Beaver 

Extracurricular activities
Athletics
Clubs
Anime
BDHS orchestra
BDHS bands
Marching band
Jazz band 1 & 2
Pep band
Choirs
Concert choir
Treble choir
Bel Canto Choir
DECA
FFA
Forensics
Powerlifting
Mock trial
National Honor Society
Key Club
Student council
SWAZZ
Theatre

Gallery
Notable alumni
Science, media and the arts
Lois J  Ehlert – Artist, award-winning author, Caldecott Medal recipient, & Illustrator of Children’s Books
Raymond Z  Gallun – Pioneer science fiction author
Dave Krause, BSEM, UW-Madison – NASA Sounding Rocket Chief Engineer
Fred MacMurray – Actor
David Alan Smith - Actor

Business
Benjamin Murray – President of XOJET, Pittsburgh Pirates baseball draft
Gerald H  Teletzke – Business and engineer leader

Government
Robert G  Ehlenfeldt – Wisconsin State Veterinarian
Leon Epstein – Professor of Political Science, University of Wisconsin—Madison
James J  Healy – National labor relations leader, adviser to presidents Kennedy and Carter, Harvard Business School professor, lecturer, author
Robert Kastenmeier – Wisconsin Representative to U S  Congress
Fred McFarlane – Professor in Rehabilitation Counseling, San Diego State University
Mary Ann Spellman – Two-term Beaver Dam mayor
Joseph M  Stehling – Brigadier General, recipient of Purple Heart, Legion of Merit

Professional sports
Eric Baldwin – Professional poker player and 2009 Cardplayer of the year
Madeline "Maddy" Horn – Speed skater
Bill Rentmeester – Professional football player
R J  Shelton - Professional football player
Passage 16:
Lostock Dam
Lostock Dam is a minor rockfill and clay core embankment dam with a concrete lined, flip bucket spillway across the Paterson River upstream of the village of East Gresford in the Hunter region of New South Wales, Australia  The dam's purpose includes flood mitigation, irrigation, water supply and conservation  Mini hydro-power facilities were retrofitted in 2010  The impounded reservoir is also called Lostock Dam 

Location and features
Commenced in 1969 and completed in 1971, the Lostock Dam is a minor dam on the Paterson River, a tributary of the Hunter River, and is located approximately 65 kilometres (40 mi) from both Maitland and Singleton, and also 93 kilometres (58 mi) north-west of Newcastle, on the upper reaches of the river  The dam was built by Dumez Australia under contract to the New South Wales Water Department of Land and Water Conservation following the drought of 1964–66  At that time there was a need for a water conservation storage in the Paterson Valley to stabilise and further develop rural productivity The dam wall height is 38 metres (125 ft) and is 701 metres (2,300 ft) long  The maximum water depth is 30 metres (98 ft) and at 100% capacity the dam wall holds back 20,220 megalitres (714×10^6 cu ft) of water at 155 metres (509 ft) AHD  The surface area of the reservoir is 220 hectares (540 acres) and the catchment area is 277 square kilometres (107 sq mi)  The ungated concrete lined, flip bucket chute spillway is capable of discharging 2,860 cubic metres per second (101,000 cu ft/s) The name of the dam originates from the village of the same name, located approximately 2 kilometres (1 2 mi) downstream from the dam wall 

Power generation
A mini hydro-electric power station generates up to 2 2 megawatts (3,000 hp) of electricity from the flow of the water leaving Lostock Dam  Constructed by Heidemann Hydro Australia, the facility is managed by Delta Electricity 

See also
Delta Electricity
Irrigation in Australia
List of dams and reservoirs in New South Wales
Passage 17:
Tallebudgera Creek Dam
The Tallebudgera Creek Dam, or colloquially Tally Dam, is a decommissioned embankment dam across the upper reaches of the Tallebudgera Creek, located in the South East region of Queensland, Australia  The initial purpose of the dam from its establishment until its decommissioning during the 1970s was for the supply of potable water to the Gold Coast region  There is no public access to the dam 

Location and features
The Tallebudgera Dam is located approximately 16 kilometres (9 9 mi) south west of the Burleigh Heads 
Designed and constructed by the Coolangatta-Nerang Water Supply Board in the 1940s, construction of the Tallebudgera Dam was finalised in the early 1950s  The dam was one of the earliest water supplies for the region, and provided a constant flow to the intake that was located downstream of the dam  Growth and demand in the region led to the construction of Little Nerang Dam and Mudgeeraba Water Treatment Plant, which then made Tallebudgera Creek Dam obsolete as a water supply  The decommissioning is believed to have occurred in the 1970s and included the removal of the valve house and filling of the valve chambers  It appears that the dam was left for recreation purposes after decommissioning  Following introduction of the Water Act, 2000 (QLD), a Failure Impact Assessment noted the dam design did not comply with the latest safety standards and may over top during a 1 in 50 year average recurrence interval  The Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Water issued advice that the dam was to be upgraded to meet the current dam safety standards  Options considered were to permanently lower the level of the spillway, install flood-triggered gates and removal of the dam  In 2006, after two years of investigation, reports and public consultations, work commenced to upgrade the existing dam to the required standards 

See also
List of dams in Queensland
Passage 18:
List of crossings of the Kiskiminetas River
This is a complete list of bridges and dams that span the Kiskiminetas River from its confluence at the Conemaugh River and Loyalhanna Creek to its mouth at the Allegheny River 


== Crossings ==
Passage 19:
Toongabbie Creek
Toongabbie Creek, an urban watercourse that is part of the Parramatta River catchment, is located in Greater Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Toongabbie Creek rises in the north-western suburbs of Sydney, west of the Old Northern Road, within the suburb of Castle Hill; with its headwaters forming the watershed boundary between the Hornsby Plateau and the Cumberland Plain  The creek flows generally south-west, then south by east, then south by west, then east before reaching its confluence with the Darling Mills Creek to form the Parramatta River, in the suburb of North Parramatta, in land adjoining the northern boundary of the Cumberland Hospital  The course of the creek is approximately 9 kilometres (5 6 mi) Although only a small portion of Toongabbie Creek is contained within the Blacktown local government area, much of its sub-catchment, including the Blacktown and Lalor creeks and their associated tributaries are within the City of Blacktown  In 2005, the Toongabbie Creek catchment area was rated as the highest polluting catchment out of the twenty-two catchments in Blacktown  Much of the creek is channeled in a concrete drain; and domestic garbage is often scattered along the creek's banks  Prior to April 2015, the creek was dammed at many places by fallen trees, and the rapids at Mons Road were not visible  The stagnant water in the dams was bubbly  After the rain in April 2015, which caused a flood that damaged infrastructure at Parramatta,  most of the dead trees were cleaned away and the rocks at Mons Road are now exposed 
Toongabbie Creek is transversed by the Cumberland Highway; the Westlink M7 and M2 Hills Motorway at their interchange; and the Old Windsor Road 
The land adjacent to the Parramatta River and its tributaries, including the Toongabbie Creek, was occupied for many thousands of years by the Burramattagal, Toongagal, Wallumattagal, Wangal, and Wategora Aboriginal peoples  They used the river as an important source of food and a place for trade 

See also
Rivers of New South Wales
Passage 20:
Doubtful Creek
Doubtful Creek, formerly known as Doubtful River, a watercourse that is part of the Murrumbidgee catchment within the Murray–Darling basin, is located in the Snowy Mountains district of New South Wales, Australia 
The river rises on the north western side of the Munyang Range in the Snowy Mountains at 1,660 metres (5,450 ft) and flows generally north west towards its confluence with the Tumut River at The Gulf Mine; descending 380 metres (1,250 ft) over its 15-kilometre (9 3 mi) course 

See also
List of rivers of Australia
Rivers of New South Wales



ground_truth: Hunter River