prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the oldest college in the state that contains Borough House Plantation?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Bellevue (Accokeek, Maryland)
Bellevue is a historic plantation house located at 200 Manning Road East, in Accokeek, Prince George's County, Maryland, United States  This Greek Revival style home was constructed in about 1840  It is one of only three surviving examples in Prince George's County of the once-popular Tidewater house style, typical of successful small plantations of that period  Bellevue is in excellent condition, and retains its freestanding chimneys with brick pent, as well as a roughly contemporary kitchen wing  The house stands on a five-acre, partially wooded lot which exemplifies its original plantation setting Bellevue was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 
Passage 2:
Borough House Plantation
Borough House Plantation, also known as Borough House, Hillcrest Plantation and Anderson Place, is an historic plantation on South Carolina Highway 261, 0 8 miles (1 3 km) north of its intersection with U S  Route 76/US Route 378 in Stateburg, in the High Hills of Santee near Sumter, South Carolina   A National Historic Landmark, the plantation is noted as the largest assemblage of high-style pisé (rammed earth) structures in the United States   The main house and six buildings on the plantation were built using this technique, beginning in 1821   The plantation is also notable as the home of Confederate Army General Richard H  Anderson 

Description and history
The original house built in 1758 served at different times during the American Revolution as headquarters for both British General Lord Cornwallis and Continental Army General Nathanael Greene   The second house was built in 1820 of rammed earth by William Wallace Anderson, M D  It was designed by architect A C  Jones 
On October 7, 1821, Anderson's wife, the former Mary Jane Mackensie, gave birth at home to their son, Richard H  Anderson  He later served as a Confederate Army general in the American Civil War   Stateburg was originally called Stateborough, as when the town was laid out, Borough House was the only residence in it In 1850–1852, Dr  Anderson chaired the committee that built the Church of the Holy Cross of rammed earth across the road from Borough Hall  It was also designed by Jones 
In 1851, Joel Roberts Poinsett, physician, American statesman and botanist (for whom the poinsettia is named), died while visiting Dr  Anderson  He was buried in the churchyard across the road On March 23, 1972, Borough Hall plantation was added to the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark  It is also part of the defined Stateburg Historic District, as is the Church of the Holy Cross 

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places listings in Sumter County, South Carolina
Passage 3:
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the most populous city in the U S  state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston metropolitan area  The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina's coastline on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley, Cooper, and Wando rivers  Charleston had a population of 150,277 at the 2020 census  The 2020 population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester counties, was 799,636 residents, the third-largest in the state, 8th-largest in the Deep South and the 74th-largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States 
Charleston was founded in 1670 as Charles Town, honoring King Charles II, at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River (now Charles Towne Landing) but relocated in 1680 to its present site, which became the fifth-largest city in North America within ten years  It remained unincorporated throughout the colonial period; its government was handled directly by a colonial legislature and a governor sent by Parliament  Election districts were organized according to Anglican parishes, and some social services were managed by Anglican wardens and vestries  Charleston adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783  Population growth in the interior of South Carolina influenced the removal of the state government to Columbia in 1788, but Charleston remained among the ten largest cities in the United States through the 1840 census Charleston's significance in American history is tied to its role as a major slave trading port  Charleston slave traders like Joseph Wragg were the first to break through the monopoly of the Royal African Company and pioneered the large-scale slave trade of the 18th century; almost one-half of slaves imported to the United States arrived in Charleston  In 2018, the city formally apologized for its role in the American slave trade 

History
Colonial era (1670–1786)
King Charles II granted the chartered Province of Carolina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Proprietors, on March 24, 1663  In 1670, Governor William Sayle arranged for several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda and Barbados  These settlers established what was then called Charles Town at Albemarle Point, on the west bank of the Ashley River, a few miles northwest of the present-day city center  Charles Town became the first comprehensively planned town in the Thirteen Colonies  Its governance, settlement, and development was to follow a visionary plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lords Proprietors by John Locke  Because the Carolina's Fundamental Constitutions was never ratified, however, Charles Town was never incorporated during the colonial period  Instead, local ordinances were passed by the provincial government, with day-to-day administration handled by the wardens and vestries of St Philip's and St Michael's Anglican parishes At the time of European colonization, the area was inhabited by the indigenous Cusabo, whom the settlers declared war on in October 1671  The settlers initially allied with the Westo, a northern indigenous tribe that traded in enslaved Indians  The settlers abandoned their alliance with the Westo in 1679 and allied with the Cusabo instead The initial settlement quickly dwindled away and disappeared while another village—established by the settlers on Oyster Point at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers around 1672—thrived  This second settlement formally replaced the original Charles Town in 1680  (The original site is now commemorated as Charles Towne Landing ) The second location was more defensible and had access to a fine natural harbor  The new town had become the fifth largest in North America by 1690 A smallpox outbreak erupted in 1698, followed by an earthquake in February 1699  The latter caused a fire that destroyed about a third of the town  During rebuilding, a yellow fever outbreak killed about 15% of the remaining inhabitants  Charles Town suffered between five and eight major yellow fever outbreaks over the first half of the 18th century 
It developed a reputation as one of the least healthy locations in the Thirteen Colonies for ethnic Europeans  Malaria was endemic  Although malaria did not have such high mortality as yellow fever, it caused much illness  It was a major health problem through most of the city's history before dying out in the 1950s after use of pesticides cut down on the mosquitoes that transmitted it 

Charles Town was fortified according to a plan developed in 1704 under Governor Nathaniel Johnson  Both Spain and France contested Britain's claims to the region  Various bands of Native Americans and independent pirates also raided it 
On September 5–6, 1713 (O S ) a violent hurricane passed over Charles Town  The Circular Congregational Church manse was damaged during the storm, in which church records were lost  Much of Charles Town was flooded as "the Ashley and Cooper rivers became one " At least seventy people died in the disaster From the 1670s Charleston attracted pirates  The combination of a weak government and corruption made the city popular with pirates, who frequently visited and raided the city  Charles Town was besieged by the pirate Blackbeard for several days in May 1718  Blackbeard released his hostages and left in exchange for a chest of medicine from Governor Robert Johnson Around 1719, the town's name began to be generally written as Charlestown and, excepting those fronting the Cooper River, the old walls were largely removed over the next decade  Charlestown was a center for the inland colonization of South Carolina  It remained the southernmost point of the Southern Colonies until the Province of Georgia was established in 1732  As noted, the first settlers primarily came from Europe, Barbados and Bermuda  The Barbadian and Bermudan immigrants were planters who brought enslaved Africans with them, having purchased them in the West Indies 
Early immigrant groups to the city included the Huguenots, Scottish, Irish, and Germans, as well as hundreds of Jews, predominately Sephardi from London and major cities of the Dutch Republic, where they had been given refuge  As late as 1830, Charleston's Jewish community was the largest and wealthiest in North America By 1708, the majority of the colony's population were Black Africans  They had been brought to Charlestown via the Atlantic slave trade, first as indentured servants and then as slaves  In the early 1700s, Charleston's largest slave trader, Joseph Wragg, pioneered the settlement's involvement in the slave trade  Of the estimated 400,000 captive Africans transported to North America to be sold into slavery, 40% are thought to have landed at Sullivan's Island off Charlestown  Free people of color also migrated from the West Indies, being descendants of white planters and their Black consorts, and unions among the working classes In 1767 Gadsden's Wharf was constructed at the city port on the Cooper River; it ultimately extended 840 feet and was able to accommodate six ships at a time  Many slaves were sold from here  Devoted to plantation agriculture that depended on enslaved labor, South Carolina became a slave society: it had a majority-Black population from the colonial period until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century, when many rural Blacks moved to northern and midwestern industrial cities to escape Jim Crow laws 

At the foundation of the town, the principal items of commerce were pine timber and pitch for ships and tobacco  The early economy developed around the deerskin trade, in which colonists used alliances with the Cherokee and Creek peoples to secure the raw material 
At the same time, Indians took each other as captives and slaves in warfare  From 1680 to 1720, approximately 40,000 native men, women, and children were sold through the port, principally to the West Indies such as (Bermuda and the Bahamas), but also to other Southern colonies  The Lowcountry planters did not keep Indian slaves, considering them too prone to escape or revolt  They used the proceeds of their sale to purchase enslaved Black Africans for their own plantations  The slave raiding—and the European firearms it introduced—helped destabilize Spanish Florida and French Louisiana in the 1700s during the War of the Spanish Succession  But it also provoked the Yamasee War of the 1710s that nearly destroyed the colony  After that, South Carolina largely abandoned the Indian slave trade The area's unsuitability for growing tobacco prompted the Lowcountry planters to experiment with other cash crops  The profitability of growing rice led the planters to pay premiums for slaves from the "Rice Coast" who knew its cultivation; their descendants make up the ethnic Gullah who created their own culture and language in this area  Slaves imported from the Caribbean showed the planter George Lucas's daughter Eliza how to raise and use indigo for dyeing in 1747 
Throughout this period, the slaves were sold aboard the arriving ships or at ad hoc gatherings in town's taverns  Runaways and minor slave rebellions prompted the 1739 Security Act, which required all white men to carry weapons at all times (even to church on Sundays)  Before it had fully taken effect, the Cato or Stono Rebellion broke out  The white community had recently been decimated by a malaria outbreak, and the rebels killed about 25 white people before being stopped by the colonial militia  As a result of their fears of rebellion, whites killed a total of 35 to 50 Black people The planters attributed the violence to recently imported Africans and agreed to a 10-year moratorium on slave importation through Charlestown  They relied for labor upon the slave communities they already held  The 1740 Negro Act also tightened controls, requiring a ratio of one white for every ten Blacks on any plantation (which was often not achieved), and banning slaves from assembling together, growing their own food, earning money, or learning to read  Drums were banned because Africans used them for signaling; slaves were allowed to use string and other instruments  When the moratorium expired and Charlestown reopened to the slave trade in 1750, the memory of the Stono Rebellion resulted in traders avoiding buying slaves from the Congo and Angola, whose populations had a reputation for independence 
By the mid-18th century, Charlestown was the hub of the Atlantic slave trade in the Southern Colonies  Even with the decade-long moratorium, its customs processed around 40% of the enslaved Africans brought to North America between 1700 and 1775, and about half up until the end of the African trade 
The plantations and the economy based on them made this the wealthiest city in the Thirteen Colonies and the largest in population south of Philadelphia  In 1770, the city had 11,000 inhabitants—half slaves—and was the 4th-largest port in the colonies, after Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia 
The elite began to use their wealth to encourage cultural and social development  America's first theater building was constructed here in 1736; it was later replaced by today's Dock Street Theater  St Michael's was erected in 1753  Benevolent societies were formed by the Huguenots, free people of color, Germans, and Jews  The Library Society was established in 1748 by well-born young men who wanted to share the financial cost to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day 

American Revolution (1776–1783)
Delegates for the Continental Congress were elected in 1774, and South Carolina declared its independence from Britain on the steps of the Exchange  Slavery was again an important factor in the city's role during the Revolutionary War  The British attacked the settlement three times, assuming that the settlement had a large base of Loyalists who would rally to their cause once given some military support  The loyalty of white Southerners towards the Crown had largely been forfeited, however, by British legal cases (such as the 1772 Somersett case which marked the prohibition of slavery in England and Wales; a significant milestone in the abolitionist struggle) and military tactics (such as Dunmore's Proclamation in 1775) that promised the emancipation of slaves owned by Patriot planters; these efforts did, however, unsurprisingly win the allegiance of thousands of Black Loyalists 
The Battle of Sullivan's Island saw the British fail to capture a partially constructed palmetto palisade from Col  Moultrie's militia regiment on June 28, 1776  The Liberty Flag used by Moultrie's men formed the basis of the later South Carolina flag, and the victory's anniversary continues to be commemorated as Carolina Day 
Making the capture of Charlestown their chief priority, the British sent Sir Henry Clinton, who laid siege to Charleston on April 1, 1780, with about 14,000 troops and 90 ships  Bombardment began on March 11, 1780  The Patriots, led by Benjamin Lincoln, had about 5,500 men and inadequate fortifications to repel the forces against them  After the British cut his supply lines and lines of retreat at the battles of Monck's Corner and Lenud's Ferry, Lincoln's surrender on May 12, 1780 became the greatest American defeat of the war 
The British continued to hold Charlestown for over a year following their defeat at Yorktown in 1781, although they alienated local planters by refusing to restore full civil government  Nathanael Greene had entered the state after Cornwallis's pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse and kept the area under a kind of siege  British Army officer Alexander Leslie, commanding Charlestown, requested a truce in March 1782 to purchase food for his garrison and the town's inhabitants  Greene refused and formed a brigade under Mordecai Gist to counter British forays  Charlestown was finally evacuated by the British in December 1782  Greene presented the British leaders of the town with the Moultrie Flag 

Antebellum era (1783–1861)
Between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, Charleston experienced an economic boom, at least for the top strata of society  The expansion of cotton as a cash crop in the South both led to huge wealth for a small segment of society and funded impressive architecture and culture but also escalated the importance of slaves and led to greater and greater restrictions on Black Charlestonians 
By 1783, the growth of the city had reached a point where a municipal government became desirable; therefore on August 13, 1783, an act of incorporation for the city of Charleston was ratified  The act originally specified the city's name as "Charles Ton," as opposed to the previous Charlestown, but the spelling "Charleston" quickly came to dominate Although Columbia had replaced it as the state capital in 1788, Charleston became even more prosperous as Eli Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin sped the processing of the crop over 50 times  Britain's Industrial Revolution—initially built upon its textile industry—took up the extra production ravenously and cotton became Charleston's major export commodity in the 19th century  

The Bank of South Carolina, the second-oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798; branches of the First and Second banks of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817 
Throughout the Antebellum Period, Charleston continued to be the only major American city with a majority-slave population  The city's widespread use of slaves as workers was a frequent subject of writers and visitors: a merchant from Liverpool noted in 1834 that "almost all the working population are Negroes, all the servants, the carmen & porters, all the people who see at the stalls in Market, and most of the Journeymen in trades"  American traders had been prohibited from equipping the Atlantic slave trade in 1794 and all importation of slaves was banned in 1808, but American merchantmen frequently refused to permit British inspection for enslaved cargo, and smuggling remained common  Much more important was the domestic slave trade, which boomed as the Deep South was developed in new cotton plantations  As a result of the trade, there was a forced migration of more than one million slaves from the Upper South to the Lower South in the antebellum years  During the early 19th century, the first dedicated slave markets were founded in Charleston, mostly near Chalmers and State streets  Many domestic slavers used Charleston as a port in what was called the coastwise trade, traveling to such ports as Mobile and New Orleans 
Slave ownership was the primary marker of class and even the town's freedmen and free people of color typically kept slaves if they had the wealth to do so  Visitors commonly remarked on the sheer number of Blacks in Charleston and their seeming freedom of movement, though in fact—mindful of the Stono Rebellion and the slave revolution that established Haiti—the whites closely regulated the behavior of both slaves and free people of color  Wages and hiring practices were fixed, identifying badges were sometimes required, and even work songs were sometimes censored  Punishment was handled out of sight by the city's workhouse, whose fees provided the municipal government with thousands a year  In 1820, a state law mandated that each act of manumission (freeing a slave) required legislative approval, effectively halting the practice The effects of slavery were pronounced on white society as well  The high cost of 19th-century slaves and their high rate of return combined to institute an oligarchic society controlled by about ninety interrelated families, where 4% of the free population controlled half of the wealth, and the lower half of the free population—unable to compete with owned or rented slaves—held no wealth at all  The white middle class was minimal: Charlestonians generally disparaged hard work as the lot of slaves  All the slaveholders taken together held 82% of the city's wealth and almost all non-slaveholders were poor  Olmsted considered their civic elections "entirely contests of money and personal influence" and the oligarchs dominated civic planning: the lack of public parks and amenities was noted, as was the abundance of private gardens in the wealthy's walled estates In the 1810s, the town's churches intensified their discrimination against their Black parishioners, culminating in Bethel Methodist's 1817 construction of a hearse house over its Black burial ground  4,376 Black Methodists joined Morris Brown in establishing Hampstead Church, the African Methodist Episcopal church now known as Mother Emanuel  State and city laws prohibited Black literacy, limited Black worship to daylight hours, and required a majority of any church's parishioners be white  In June 1818, 140 Black church members at Hampstead Church were arrested and eight of its leaders given fines and ten lashes; police raided the church again in 1820 and pressured it in 1821 In 1822, members of the church, led by Denmark Vesey, a lay preacher and carpenter who had bought his freedom after winning a lottery, planned an uprising and escape to Haiti—initially for Bastille Day—that failed when one slave revealed the plot to his master  Over the next month, the city's intendant (mayor) James Hamilton Jr  organized a militia for regular patrols, initiated a secret and extrajudicial tribunal to investigate, and hanged 35 and exiled 35 or 37 slaves to Spanish Cuba for their involvement  Hamilton imposed more restrictions on both free and enslaved Blacks: South Carolina required free Black sailors to be imprisoned while their ships were in Charleston Harbor though international treaties eventually required the United States to quash the practice; free Blacks were banned from returning to the state if they left for any reason; slaves were given a 9:15 pm curfew; the city razed Hampstead Church to the ground and erected a new arsenal  This structure later was the basis of the Citadel's first campus  The AME congregation built a new church but in 1834 the city banned it and all Black worship services, following Nat Turner's 1831 rebellion in Virginia  The estimated 10% of slaves who came to America as Muslims never had a separate mosque  Slaveholders sometimes provided them with beef rations in place of pork in recognition of religious traditions The registered tonnage of Charleston shipping in 1829 was 12,410  In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts  Soon, federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston's forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor "to take possession of any vessel arriving from a foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with " This federal action became known as the Charleston incident  The state's politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs Charleston's embrace of classical architecture began after a devastating fire leveled much of the city  On April 27, 1838, Charleston suffered a catastrophic fire that burned more than 1000 buildings and caused about $3 million in damage at the time  The damaged buildings amounted to about one-fourth of all the businesses in the main part of the city  When the many homes and business were rebuilt or repaired, a great cultural awakening occurred  Previous to the fire, only a few homes were styled as Greek Revival; many residents decided to construct new buildings in that style after the conflagration  This tradition continued and made Charleston one of the foremost places to view Greek Revival architecture  The Gothic Revival also made a significant appearance in the construction of many churches after the fire that exhibited picturesque forms and reminders of devout European religion By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity  The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves bought and sold  The legal importation of African slaves had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant  However, the domestic trade was booming  More than one million slaves were transported from the Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cotton plantations were widely developed through what became known as the Black Belt  Many slaves were transported in the coastwise slave trade, with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston 

Civil War (1861–1865)
Charleston played a major part in the Civil War  As a pivotal city, both the Union and Confederate Armies vied for control of it  The Civil War began in Charleston Harbor in 1861, and ended mere months after the Union forces took control of Charleston in 1865 
Following the election of Abraham Lincoln, the South Carolina General Assembly voted on December 20, 1860, to secede from the Union  South Carolina was the first state to secede  On December 27, Castle Pinckney was surrendered by its garrison to the state militia and, on January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on the USS Star of the West as it entered Charleston Harbor 
The first full battle of the American Civil War occurred on April 12, 1861, when shore batteries under the command of General P  G  T  Beauregard opened fire on the US Army-held Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor  After a 34-hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort 
On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over 500 acres (200 ha) of the city 
Union control of the sea permitted the repeated bombardment of the city, causing vast damage  Although Admiral Du Pont's naval assault on the town's forts in April 1863 failed, the Union navy's blockade shut down most commercial traffic  Over the course of the war, some blockade runners got through but not a single one made it into or out of the Charleston Harbor between August 1863 and March 1864  The early submarine H L  Hunley made a night attack on the USS Housatonic on February 17, 1864 General Gillmore's land assault in July 1864 was unsuccessful but the fall of Columbia and advance of General William T  Sherman's army through the state prompted the Confederates to evacuate the town on February 17, 1865, burning the public buildings, cotton warehouses, and other sources of supply before their departure  Union troops moved into the city within the month  The War Department recovered what federal property remained and also confiscated the campus of the Citadel Military Academy and used it as a federal garrison for the next 17 years  The facilities were finally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E  Marichak 

Postbellum (1865–1945)
Reconstruction
After the defeat of the Confederacy, federal forces remained in Charleston during Reconstruction  The war had shattered the city's prosperity, but the African-American population surged (from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880) as freedmen moved from the countryside to the major city  Blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church and resumed open meetings of the African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches  They purchased dogs, guns, liquor, and better clothes—all previously banned—and ceased yielding the sidewalks to whites  Despite the efforts of the state legislature to halt manumissions, Charleston had already had a large class of free people of color as well  At the onset of the war, the city had 3,785 free people of color, many of mixed race, making up about 18% of the city's black population and 8% of its total population  Many were educated and practiced skilled crafts; they quickly became leaders of South Carolina's Republican Party and its legislators  Men who had been free people of color before the war comprised 26% of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876 By the late 1870s, industry was bringing the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality; new jobs attracted new residents  As the city's commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions  In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston's African American population  Gen  Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war  Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now a university-preparatory school, Porter-Gaud School 
In 1875, blacks made up 57% of the city's and 73% of the county's population  With leadership by members of the antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as "unique" in being able to defend themselves without provoking "massive white retaliation", as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction  In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as a violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to maintain white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and granting of citizenship to freedmen by federal constitutional amendments  After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by conservative Democratic paramilitary groups, known as the Red Shirts  Violent incidents took place in Charleston on King Street on September 6 and in nearby Cainhoy on October 15, both in association with political meetings before the 1876 election  The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks  The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of the state legislature  Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election, when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed 

Politics
In the early 20th century strong political machines emerged in the city reflecting economic, class, racial, and ethnic tensions  The factions nearly all opposed U S  Senator Ben Tillman who repeatedly attacked and ridiculed the city in the name of upstate poor farmers  Well organized factions within the Democratic Party in Charleston gave the voters clear choices and played a large role in state politics 

1886 earthquake
On August 31, 1886, Charleston experienced a strong earthquake  The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7 0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme)  It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda  It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($163 million in 2021 dollars), at a time when all the city's buildings were valued around $24 million ($653 million in 2021 dollars) 

Charleston race riots
The Charleston race riot of 1919 took place on the night of Saturday, May 10, between members of the US Navy and the local black population  They attacked black individuals, businesses, and homes killing six and injuring dozens 

Contemporary era (1945–present)
Charleston languished economically for several decades in the 20th century, though the large federal military presence in the region helped to shore up the city's economy  Charleston's tourism boom began in earnest following the publication of Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham's Architecture of Charleston in the 1920s The Charleston Hospital Strike of 1969, in which mostly black workers protested discrimination and low wages, was one of the last major events of the civil rights movement  It attracted Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Andrew Young, and other prominent figures to march with the local leader, Mary Moultrie 
Joseph P  Riley Jr  was elected mayor in the 1970s, and helped advance several cultural aspects of the city 
Between 1989 and 1996, Charleston saw two significant economic hits  First, the eye of Hurricane Hugo came ashore at Charleston Harbor in 1989, and though the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, three-quarters of the homes in Charleston's historic district sustained damage of varying degrees  The hurricane caused over $2 8 billion in damage  The city was able to rebound fairly quickly after the hurricane and has grown in population, reaching an estimated 124,593 residents in 2009  Second, in 1993, the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) directed that Naval Base Charleston be closed  Pursuant to BRAC action, Naval Base Charleston was closed on April 1, 1996, although some activities remain under the cognizance of Naval Support Activity Charleston, now part of Joint Base Charleston After having been a majority-minority city for most of its history, in the late 20th century many whites began returning to the urban core of Charleston and the area gentrified with rising prices and rents  From 1980 to 2010, the peninsula's population shifted from two-thirds black to two-thirds white; in 2010 residents numbered 20,668 whites to 10,455 blacks  Many African Americans moved to the less-expensive suburbs in these decades On June 17, 2015, 21-year-old white supremacist Dylann Roof entered the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church and sat in on part of a Bible study before shooting and killing nine people and injuring a tenth, all African Americans  Senior pastor Clementa Pinckney, who also served as a state senator, was among those killed during the attack  The deceased also included congregation members Susie Jackson, 87; Rev  Daniel Simmons Sr , 74; Ethel Lance, 70; Myra Thompson, 59; Cynthia Hurd, 54; Rev  Depayne Middleton-Doctor, 49; Rev  Sharonda Coleman-Singleton, 45; and Tywanza Sanders, 26  The attack garnered national attention, and sparked a debate on historical racism, Confederate symbolism in Southern states, and gun violence, in part based on Roof's online postings  A memorial service on the campus of the College of Charleston was attended by President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and Speaker of the House John Boehner 

Condemnation of role in the slave trade
On June 17, 2018, the Charleston City Council apologized for its role in the slave trade and condemned its "inhumane" history  It also acknowledged wrongs committed against African Americans by slavery and Jim Crow laws 

Geography
The city proper consists of six distinct districts 

Downtown, or sometimes referred to as "The Peninsula", is Charleston's center city separated by the Ashley River to the west and the Cooper River to the east 
West Ashley, residential area to the west of Downtown bordered by the Ashley River to the east and the Stono River to the west
Johns Island, far western limits of Charleston, bordered by the Stono River to the east, Kiawah River to the south and Wadmalaw Island to the west
James Island, popular residential area between Downtown and the town of Folly Beach with portions of the independent town of James Island intermixed
Cainhoy Peninsula, far eastern limits of Charleston bordered by the Wando River to the west and Nowell Creek to the east
Daniel Island, residential area to the north of downtown, east of the Cooper River and west of the Wando River

Topography
The incorporated city fitted into 4–5 sq mi (10–13 km2) as late as the First World War, but has since greatly expanded, crossing the Ashley River and encompassing James Island and some of Johns Island  The city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area  The present city has a total area of 127 5 sq mi (330 2 km2), of which 109 0 sq mi (282 2 km2) is land and 18 5 sq mi (47 9 km2) is covered by water  North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River 
Charleston Harbor runs about 7 mi (11 km) southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 mi (3 2 km), surrounded on all sides except its entrance  Sullivan's Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to the south  The entrance itself is about 1 mi (2 km) wide; it was originally only 18 ft (5 m) deep but began to be enlarged in the 1870s  The tidal rivers (Wando, Cooper, Stono, and Ashley) are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline  There is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor, and the Cooper River is deep 

Climate
Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with mild winters, hot humid summers, and significant rainfall all year long  Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers  Fall remains relatively warm through the middle of November  Winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain  Measurable snow (≥0 1 in or 0 25 cm) has a median occurrence of only once per decade at the airport, but freezing rain is more common; a snowfall/freezing rain event on January 3, 2018, was the first such event in Charleston since December 26, 2010  However, 6 0 in (15 cm) fell at the airport on December 23, 1989, during the December 1989 United States cold wave, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8 0 in (20 cm) snowfall Downtown Charleston's climate is considerably milder than the airport's due to stronger maritime influence  This is especially true in the winter, with the average January low in downtown being 43 6 °F (6 °C) to the airport's 38 9 °F (4 °C) for example 
The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F (40 °C) on June 2, 1985, and June 24, 1944; the lowest was 7 °F (−14 °C) on February 14, 1899  At the airport, where official records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F (41 °C) on August 1, 1999, down to 6 °F (−14 °C) on January 21, 1985  Hurricanes are a major threat to the area during the summer and early fall, with several severe hurricanes hitting the area—most notably Hurricane Hugo on September 21, 1989 (a category 4 storm)  The dewpoint from June to August ranges from 67 8 to 71 4 °F (19 9 to 21 9 °C) 

Metropolitan Statistical Area
As defined by the U S  Office of Management and Budget, for use by the U S  Census Bureau and other U S  Government agencies for statistical purposes only, Charleston is included within the Charleston–North Charleston, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area and the smaller Charleston-North Charleston urban area  The Charleston–North Charleston metropolitan area consists of three counties: Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester  As of the 2020 U S  Census, the metropolitan statistical area had a total population of 799,636 people  North Charleston is the second-largest city in the metro area and ranks as the third-largest city in the state; Mount Pleasant and Summerville are the next-largest cities  These cities combined with other incorporated and unincorporated areas along with the city of Charleston form the Charleston–North Charleston urban area with a population of 548,404 as of 2010  The metropolitan statistical area also includes a separate and much smaller urban area within Berkeley County, Moncks Corner (with a 2000 population of 9,123) 
The traditional parish system persisted until the Reconstruction Era, when counties were imposed  Nevertheless, traditional parishes still exist in various capacities, mainly as public service districts  When the city of Charleston was formed, it was defined by the limits of the Parish of St  Philip and St  Michael, now also includes parts of St  James' Parish, St  George's Parish, St  Andrew's Parish, and St  John's Parish, although the last two are mostly still incorporated rural parishes 

Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 150,227 people, 58,902 households, and 31,780 families residing in the city 

Language
Given Charleston's high concentration of African Americans who spoke the Gullah language, a creole language that developed on the Sea Islands and in the Low Country, the local speech patterns were also influenced by this community  Today, Gullah is still spoken by many African American residents  However, rapid development since 1980, especially on the surrounding Sea Islands, has attracted residents from outside the area and led to a decline in Gullah's prominence 
The traditional educated Charleston accent has long been noted in the state and throughout the South  It is typically heard in wealthy European American older people who trace their families back generations in the city  It has ingliding or monophthongal long mid-vowels, raises ay and aw in certain environments, and is nonrhotic  Sylvester Primer of the College of Charleston wrote about aspects of the local dialect in his late 19th-century works: "Charleston Provincialisms" (1887) and "The Huguenot Element in Charleston's Provincialisms", published in a German journal  He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers  The disappearing "Charleston accent" spoken mainly by older natives is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city's name  Many Charleston natives ignore the 'r' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as "Chalston" 

Religion
Charleston is known as "The Holy City"  Despite beliefs that the term dates to the city's earliest days and refers to its religiously tolerant culture, the term was coined in the 20th century, likely as a mockery of Charlestonians' self-satisfied attitude about their city  Regardless of the nickname's origination, residents have embraced the term and explained it in more flattering terms 
The Anglican church was dominant in the colonial era, and the Cathedral of St  Luke and St  Paul is today the seat of the Anglican Diocese of South Carolina  St  John's Protestant Episcopal Church is another historic church in Charleston  Many French Huguenot refugees settled in Charleston in the early 18th century  The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal church in the Southern United States and houses the oldest black congregation south of Baltimore, Maryland South Carolina has long allowed Jews to practice their faith without restriction  Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim, founded in 1749 by Sephardic Jews from London, is the fourth-oldest Jewish congregation in the continental United States and was an important site for the development of Reform Judaism  Brith Sholom Beth Israel is the oldest Orthodox synagogue in the South, founded by Sam Berlin and other Ashkenazi German and Central European Jews in the mid-19th century The city's oldest Catholic parish, St  Mary of the Annunciation Catholic Church, is the mother church of Catholicism in South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia  In 1820, Charleston was established as the see city of the Diocese of Charleston, which at the time comprised the Carolinas and Georgia, and presently encompasses the state of South Carolina 
The Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite, established in Charleston in 1801, is considered the mother council of the world by Scottish Rite Freemasons 

Culture
Charleston's culture blends traditional Southern U S , English, French, and West African elements  The downtown peninsula has a number of art, music, local cuisine, and fashion venues  Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy 
Charleston's oldest community theater group, the Footlight Players, has provided theatrical productions since 1931  A variety of performing arts venues includes the historic Dock Street Theatre  The annual Charleston Fashion Week held each spring in Marion Square brings in designers, journalists, and clients from across the nation  Charleston is known for its local seafood, which plays a key role in the city's renowned cuisine, comprising staple dishes such as gumbo, she-crab soup, fried oysters, Lowcountry boil, deviled crab cakes, red rice, and shrimp and grits  Rice is the staple in many dishes, reflecting the rice culture of the Low Country  The cuisine in Charleston is also strongly influenced by British and French elements 

Annual cultural events and fairs
Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17-day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines  The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city  Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation's Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival  The Charleston Conference is a major library industry event, held in the city center since 1980 

Music
The Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music  In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country  The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake's "Charleston Rag" and later James P  Johnson's "Charleston", as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s  "Ballin' the Jack", which was a popular dance in the years before "Charleston", was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by the Rev  Daniel J  Jenkins in Charleston  The orphanage accepted donations of musical instruments and Rev  Jenkins hired local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music  As a result, Charleston musicians became proficient on a variety of instruments and were able to read music expertly  These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land some of them positions in big bands with Duke Ellington and Count Basie  William "Cat" Anderson, Jabbo Smith, and Freddie Green are but a few of the alumni who became professional musicians  Orphanages around the country began to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins Orphanage Band's success As many as five bands were on tour during the 1920s  The Jenkins Orphanage Band played in the inaugural parades of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft and toured the US and Europe  The band also played on Broadway for the play "Porgy" by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, a stage version of their novel of the same title  The story was based in Charleston and featured the Gullah community  The Heywards insisted on hiring the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on stage  Only a few years later, DuBose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel into the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess (so named so as to distinguish it from the play)  George Gershwin and Heyward spent the summer of 1934 at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing this "folk opera", as Gershwin called it  Porgy and Bess is considered one of the first Great American Operas and is widely performed To this day, Charleston is home to many musicians in all genres 

Live theater
Charleston has a vibrant theater scene and is home to America's first theater  Most of the theaters are part of the League of Charleston Theatres, better known as Theatre Charleston  Some of the city's theaters include:

The Dock Street Theatre, opened in the 1930s on the site of America's first purpose-built theater building, is home of the Charleston Stage Company, South Carolina's largest professional theater company 
Sottile Theater is on the campus of The College of Charleston 
The Queen Street Playhouse is a former cotton warehouse that was fully converted to a theater in 1986  It is the home of the Footlight Players, a Charleston theater troupe first organized in 1932 

Museums, historical sites, and other attractions
Charleston has many historic buildings, art and historical museums, public parks, and other attractions, including:

Halsey Institute of Contemporary Art at the College of Charleston is free a non-collecting contemporary arts organization 
The Calhoun Mansion, a 24,000-square-foot, 1876 Victorian home at 16 Meeting Street, is named for a grandson of John C  Calhoun who lived there with his wife, the builder's daughter  The private house is periodically open for tours 
The Charleston Museum, America's first museum, was founded in 1773 
The Exchange and Provost was built in 1767  It is operated as a museum by the Daughters of the American Revolution 
The Powder Magazine is a 1713 gunpowder magazine and museum  It is the oldest surviving public building in South Carolina 
The Gibbes Museum of Art, opened in 1905, houses principally American works with a Charleston or Southern connection 
The Fireproof Building houses the South Carolina Historical Society which has a rotating series of historical displays 
The Nathaniel Russell House is an important federal-style house open to the public as a house museum 
The Gov  William Aiken House, also known as the Aiken-Rhett House, is a house museum built in 1820 
The Heyward-Washington House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  Furnished for the late 18th century, the house includes a collection of Charleston-made furniture 
The Joseph Manigault House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum  The house was designed by Gabriel Manigault and is significant for its Adam style architecture 
The Market Hall and Sheds, also known as the City Market or simply the Market, stretch several blocks behind 188 Meeting Street  Market Hall was built in the 1841 and houses the Daughters of the Confederacy Museum  The sheds house some permanent stores, but are mainly occupied by open-air vendors 
The Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture was established to collect, preserve, and make public the unique historical and cultural heritage of African Americans in Charleston and the South Carolina Low Country  Avery's archival collections, museum exhibitions, and public programming reflect these diverse populations, as well as the wider African Diaspora 
Fort Sumter, site of the first shots fired in the Civil War, is located in Charleston Harbor  The National Park Service maintains a visitor center for Fort Sumter at Liberty Square (near the South Carolina Aquarium), and boat tours including the fort depart nearby 
The Battery is an historic defensive seawall and promenade located at the tip of the peninsula along with White Point Garden, a park featuring several memorials and Civil War-era artillery pieces 
Rainbow Row is an iconic strip of homes along the harbor that date back to the mid-18th century  Though the homes are not open to the public, they are one of the most photographed attractions in the city and are featured heavily in local art 
The South Carolina Aquarium includes revolving exhibits while its permanent focus is on the aquatic life of South Carolina 
Waterfront Park located on the Cooper River 
Old Slave Mart museum – Located at 6 Chalmers St in the historic district is the first African American Museum  It has operated since 1938 

Sports
Charleston is home to a number of professional, minor league, and amateur sports teams:

The Charleston Battery, a professional soccer team, play in the USL Championship  The Battery play at Patriots Point Soccer Complex 
The South Carolina Stingrays, a professional hockey team, plays in the ECHL  The Stingrays play in North Charleston at the North Charleston Coliseum  The Stingrays are an affiliate of the Washington Capitals and Hershey Bears 
The Charleston RiverDogs, a Minor League Baseball team, plays in the Low-A East and are an affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays  The RiverDogs play at Joseph P  Riley Jr  Park 
The Charleston Outlaws RFC is a rugby union club in the Palmetto Rugby Union, USA Rugby South, and USA Rugby  It competes in Men's Division II against the Cape Fear, Columbia, Greenville, and Charlotte "B" clubs  The club also hosts a rugby sevens tournament during Memorial Day weekend 
The Charleston Gaelic Athletic Association is a Gaelic athletic club focusing on the sports of hurling and Gaelic football  The club competes in the Southeastern Division of the North American County Board of the GAA  The club hosts other division clubs in the Holy City Cup each spring 
The Lowcountry Highrollers is a women's flat-track roller derby league in the Charleston area  The league is a local member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association 
The Family Circle Tennis Center hosts the Volvo Car Open, a major Women's Tennis Association Event  The facility is located on Daniel Island Other notable sports venues in Charleston include Johnson Hagood Stadium (home of The Citadel Bulldogs football team), McAlister Field House (home of The Citadel Bulldogs basketball team), and Toronto Dominion Bank Arena at the College of Charleston, which seats 5,100 people who view the school's basketball and volleyball teams 

Books and films
Various books and films have been set in Charleston; some of the best known works are listed below  In addition, Charleston is a popular filming location for movies and television, both in its own right and as a stand-in for Southern and/or historic settings 

Porgy (1925), by DuBose Heyward, adapted into the play in 1927  George Gershwin's folk opera Porgy and Bess (1935), based on the novel Porgy, is set in Charleston and was partially written at Folly Beach, near Charleston  A film version was released in 1959 
North and South series of books by John Jakes, was partially set in Charleston  The North and South miniseries was partially set and filmed in Charleston 
Part of the 1989 film Glory, starring Matthew Broderick, Denzel Washington, and Morgan Freeman, features the 1863 Second Battle of Fort Wagner on Morris Island 
The movies Swamp Thing (1982) and The Lords of Discipline (1983) (based on the novel by Pat Conroy) were partly filmed in Charleston 

Economy
Commercial shipping is important to the economy  The city has two shipping terminals, of a total of five terminals owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority in the Charleston metropolitan area, which are part of the fourth-largest container seaport on the East Coast and the seventh-largest container seaport in the United States  The port is also used to transfer cars and car parts for Charleston's auto manufacturing business, such as Mercedes and Volvo Sometimes known as Silicon Harbor, the city is becoming a popular location for high tech and innovation, and this sector has had the highest rate of growth between 2011 and 2012, due in large part to the Charleston Digital Corridor  In 2013, the Milken Institute ranked the Charleston region as the ninth-best performing economy in the US because of its growing IT sector  Notable companies include Blackbaud, Greystar Real Estate Partners, Evening Post Industries, Le Creuset, SPARC a Booz Allen Hamilton subsidiary, BoomTown, CSS, and Benefitfocus 
In June 2017, the mean sales price for a home in Charleston was $351,186 and the median price was $260,000 

Government
Charleston has a strong mayor-council government, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive officer of the municipality  The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as other council members  The current mayor, since 2016, is John Tecklenburg  The council has 12 members who are each elected from single-member districts 

Fire department
The City of Charleston Fire Department consists over 300 full-time firefighters  These firefighters operate out of 21 companies located throughout the city: 16 engine companies, two tower companies, two ladder companies, a heavy rescue company, a HAZ-MAT unit and several special units  Training, Fire Marshall, Operations, and Administration are the divisions of the department  The department operates on a 24/48 schedule and is a Class 1 ISO rating  Russell (Rusty) Thomas served as Fire Chief until June 2008, and was succeeded by Chief Thomas Carr in November 2008  The department is presently led by Chief Daniel Curia 

Police department
The City of Charleston Police Department, with a total of 458 sworn officers, 117 civilians, and 27 reserve police officers, is South Carolina's largest police department  Luther Reynolds serves as the current Chief of Police  He follows Greg Mullen and Reuben Greenberg  Chief Reynolds is credited with continuing successful community outreach programs such as The Illumination Project and fostering a culture of mutual respect  Under Chief Reynolds, the agency has successfully withstood challenges such as the Coronavirus and downtown disturbances  Additionally, the agency continues to recruit police candidates in a competitive market 

EMS and medical centers
Emergency medical services (EMS) for the city are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services (CCEMS) & Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (BCEMS)  The city is served by the EMS and 911 services of both Charleston and Berkeley counties since the city is part of both counties 
Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state  The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H  Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital  MUSC is the state's first school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth-oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States  The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals  Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at another major hospital located in the West Ashley portion of the city: Bon Secours-St Francis Xavier Hospital  The Trident Regional Medical Center located in the City of North Charleston and East Cooper Regional Medical Center located in Mount Pleasant also serve the needs of residents of the city of Charleston 

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Station Charleston responds to search and rescue emergencies, conducts maritime law enforcement activities, and Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security (PWCS) missions  Personnel from Station Charleston are highly trained professionals, composed of federal law enforcement officers, boat crewmen, and coxswains who are capable of completing a wide range of missions  In 2020, the Coast Guard announced plans to construct a 2,800-acre (11 km2) "superbase" on the former Charleston Naval Shipyard complex to consolidate all its Charleston-area facilities and become the homeport for five Security cutters and additional offshore cutters Coast Guard Sector Charleston (District 7)

Coast Guard Station Charleston
Coast Guard Helicopter Air Facility, Johns Island, Charleston
Coast Guard Reserves, Charleston
USCGC Yellowfin, Marine Protector-class coastal patrol boat, Charleston
USCGC Anvil, 75-foot inland construction tender, Charleston
USCGC Willow, (WLB-202), Charleston

Military
Army Corps of Engineers, Charleston District Headquarters
U S  Coast Guard
Joint Base Charleston (Navy & Air Force)

Crime
The following table shows Charleston's crime rate for six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses to calculate the ranking of "America's most dangerous cities", in comparison to the national average  The statistics shown are for the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people  Since 1999, the overall crime rate of Charleston has declined markedly  The total crime index rate for Charleston in 1999 was 597 1 crimes committed per 100,000 people, while in 2011, the total crime index rate was 236 4 per 100,000 

Transportation
Airport and rail
The City of Charleston is served by the Charleston International Airport  It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 mi (19 km) northwest of downtown Charleston  It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS)  The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base  Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John's Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft  Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority  As of April 2019, British Airways does seasonal non-stop flights from Charleston to London-Heathrow 
Charleston is served by two daily Amtrak trains: The Palmetto and Silver Meteor at the Amtrak station located at 4565 Gaynor Avenue in the City of North Charleston located around 7 5 miles from downtown Charleston 

Interstates and highways
Interstate 26 (I-26) begins in downtown Charleston, with exits to the Septima Clark Expressway, the Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Meeting Street  Heading northwest, it connects the city to North Charleston, the Charleston International Airport, I-95, and Columbia  The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge and Septima Clark Expressway are part of U S  Route 17 (US 17), which travels east–west through the cities of Charleston and Mount Pleasant  The Mark Clark Expressway, or I-526, is the bypass around the city and begins and ends at US 17  US 52 is Meeting Street and its spur is East Bay Street, which becomes Morrison Drive after leaving the east side  This highway merges with King Street in the city's Neck area (industrial district)  US 78 is King Street in the downtown area, eventually merging with Meeting Street 

Major highways
Interstate 26 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
Interstate 526
U S  Route 17
U S  Route 52 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
U S  Route 78 (eastern terminus is in Charleston)
State Highway 7 (Sam Rittenberg Boulevard)
State Highway 30 (James Island Expressway)
State Highway 61 (St  Andrews Boulevard/Ashley River Road)
State Highway 171 (Old Towne Road/Folly Road)
State Highway 461 (Paul Cantrell Boulevard/Glenn McConnell Parkway)
South Carolina Highway 700 (Maybank Highway)

Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge
The Arthur Ravenel Jr  Bridge across the Cooper River opened on July 16, 2005, and was the longest cable-stayed bridge in the Americas at the time of its construction  The bridge links downtown Charleston with Mount Pleasant, and has eight lanes plus a 12-foot lane shared by pedestrians and bicycles  The height of the bridge varies, but it is estimated that it has a height of 573 feet  It replaced the Grace Memorial Bridge (built in 1929) and the Silas N  Pearman Bridge (built in 1966)  They were considered two of the more dangerous bridges in America and were demolished after the Ravenel Bridge opened 

City bus service
The city is also served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA)  Most of the urban area is served by regional fixed route buses, which are equipped with bike racks as part of the system's Rack and Ride program  CARTA offers connectivity to historic downtown attractions and accommodations with the Downtown Area Shuttle trolley buses, and it offers curbside pickup for disabled passengers with its Tel-A-Ride buses  A bus rapid transit system is in development, called Lowcountry Rapid Transit that will connect Charleston to Summerville through North Charleston 
Rural parts of the city and metropolitan area are served by a different bus system, operated by Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Rural Transportation Management Association  The system is also commonly called the TriCounty Link 

Port
The Port of Charleston, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, is one of the largest ports in the United States, ranked seventh in the top 25 by containerized cargo volume in 2018  It consists of six terminals, with the sixth having opened in April 2021  Port activity at the two terminals located in the city of Charleston is one of the city's leading sources of revenue, behind tourism 
Today, the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal  A harbor-deepening project is currently underway to take the Port of Charleston's entrance channel to 54 feet and harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide  With an average high tide of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and 58 feet, respectively 
Part of Union Pier Treminal, in the city of Charleston, is a cruise ship passenger terminal which hosted numerous cruise departures annually through 2019  Beginning in May 2019, until cruise operations were interrupted in April 2020, the Carnival Sunshine was permanently stationed in Charleston, offering 4, 5, and 7-day cruises to the Caribbean With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc  signed a long-term lease  With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc  is one of the largest commercial marine repair facilities on the East Coast  Projects include military, commercial, and cruise ships 

Schools, colleges, and universities
Because most of the city of Charleston is located in Charleston County, it is served by the Charleston County School District  Part of the city, however, is served by the Berkeley County School District in northern portions of the city, such as the Cainhoy Industrial District, Cainhoy Historical District and Daniel Island 
Charleston is also served by a large number of independent schools, including Porter-Gaud School (K-12), Charleston Collegiate School (K-12), Ashley Hall (Pre K-12), Charleston Day School (K-8), First Baptist Church School (K-12), Palmetto Christian Academy (K-12), Coastal Christian Preparatory School (K-12), Mason Preparatory School (K-8), and Addlestone Hebrew Academy (K-8) 
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston Office of Education also operates out of the city and oversees several K-8 parochial schools, such as Blessed Sacrament School, Christ Our King School, Charleston Catholic School, Nativity School, and Divine Redeemer School, all of which are "feeder" schools into Bishop England High School, a diocesan high school within the city  Bishop England, Porter-Gaud School, and Ashley Hall are the city's oldest and most prominent private schools, and are a significant part of Charleston history, dating back some 150 years 
Public institutions of higher education in Charleston include the College of Charleston, The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, and the Medical University of South Carolina  The city is also home to private schools including the Charleston Southern University and Charleston School of Law  Charleston is also home to the Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing, and the city has a downtown satellite campus for the region's technical school, Trident Technical College  Charleston has the only college in the country that offers bachelor's degrees in the building arts, The American College of the Building Arts 

Media
Broadcast television
Charleston is the nation's 89th-largest Designated market area (DMA), with 332,770 households and 0 27% of the U S  TV population  These stations are licensed in Charleston and have significant operations or viewers in the city:
WCBD-TV (2, NBC) and (14, CW)
WGWG (4, MeTV)
WCSC-TV (5, CBS, Bounce TV, Grit)
WITV (7, PBS)
WLCN-CD (18, CTN)
WTAT-TV (24, Fox)
WAZS-CD (29, Azteca America Independent)
WJNI-CD (31, America One Independent)
WCIV (36, MyNetworkTV, ABC)

Notable people
As a population and wealth center with colleges and cultural outlets, Charleston has produced many notable people in all fields  Among the most notable historical and contemporary figures are:

Jarrell Brantley (born 1996), basketball player
Madelyn Cline, Actress in Outer Banks
Stephen Colbert, comedian and host of The Late Show
Wesley Donehue, political strategist, Internet consultant, CEO
Ann Drayton, 18th-century landowner
Shepard Fairey, graffiti artist
Robert F  Furchgott, recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1998)
Thomas Gibson, actor and star of Criminal Minds
Fritz Hollings, former US Senator and Governor of South Carolina
Lauren Hutton, model and actress, starring in American Gigolo and The Gambler (1974)
Robert Jordan (James Oliver Rigney Jr ), fantasy author, notable for Wheel of Time series
John Laurens, American revolutionary lieutenant colonel in the continental army
Peter Manigault, wealthiest person in British North America in 1770
Khris Middleton, NBA basketball player for the Milwaukee Bucks, gold medal Olympian
Darius Rucker, country music artist, former member of Hootie & The Blowfish
Robert Smalls, African American civil war hero, businessman, politician, and civil rights activist
Denmark Vesey, revolutionary
Joseph Wragg, a pioneer of the large-scale slave trade

Sister cities
Charleston's sister cities are:
Doha, Qatar
Freetown, Sierra Leone
Panama City, Panama
Speightstown, Barbados
Spoleto, ItalyThe relationship with Spoleto began when Pulitzer Prize-winning Italian composer Gian Carlo Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto's annual Festival of Two Worlds  "Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location  The historic city provided a perfect fit: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure "Sister city relation with Panama City was described as follows:
As you may be aware, the city of Charleston, like the city of Panama City, is a historic port City that shares a proud and prosperous history  Our stories are very similar as reflected by our citizens of European, African, Caribbean, native descent, our cuisine, our architecture, and our mutual modern growth in meritime commerce  As Panama City is enjoying a global surge of interest so is Charleston, being ranked as a top destination for travellers, commerce, technology, education, culture and fashion 
Charleston is also twinned with Speightstown  The first colonists to settle in the region designed the original parts of Charlestown based on the plans of Barbados's capital city, Bridgetown  Many indigo, tobacco, and cotton planters relocated their slaves and plantation operations from Speightstown to Charleston after the sugarcane industry came to dominate agricultural production in Barbados 

See also
List of municipalities in South Carolina
USS Charleston, 6 ships

Notes
Passage 4:
Fairhope Plantation
Fairhope Plantation is a historic Carpenter Gothic plantation house and historic district, located one mile east of Uniontown, Alabama, US  The 2+1⁄2-story wood-framed main house was built in the Gothic Revival style in the late 1850s   The plantation historic district includes six other contributing buildings, in addition to the main house   It was added to the Alabama Register of Landmarks and Heritage on December 19, 1991, and subsequently to the National Register of Historic Places on May 29, 1992, due to its architectural and historical significance 

History
Fairhope Plantation was built for Joseph Selden, a native of Virginia   He was born on June 4, 1831, and grew up at Westover Plantation in Charles City County, Virginia   Selden married Elizabeth Collier Minge, of Weynoke Plantation, Virginia, near Faunsdale, in 1854  Elizabeth was born on May 30, 1833  Her family was also originally from Charles City County   Joseph and Elizabeth established Fairhope on property given to them by Elizabeth's family   The main house was built by Theophilus Gilliam Fowler, a local builder  Construction began in 1857 and was completed by 1861   The 1860 United States Census of Perry County indicates that Joseph Selden owned 80 slaves in that year   Selden organized Selden's Battery, an artillery unit, at his own expense during the American Civil War   The unit saw action in several major engagements, including the battles of Kennesaw Mountain, Franklin and Nashville   Elizabeth Selden died following childbirth in 1868, Joseph died in a hotel fire in 1900   Fairhope continued to be owned by Selden descendants and operated as a farm for another century after their deaths 

Architecture
The inspiration for the main house at Fairhope Plantation is thought by architectural historians to be an enlarged adaptation of a design by Alexander Jackson Davis, published in Andrew Jackson Downing's Cottage Residences in 1842   The house features numerous Gothic Revival details, including intricate bargeboards on the eaves and gables,  hood moldings over the doors and windows, octagonal brick chimneys, and central gables topped by finials on all four sides   Additionally, it has a one-story cast-iron veranda around three sides of the ground floor   It is one of only about twenty Gothic Revival residential structures remaining in Alabama   Other historic Gothic Revival residences in the area include Waldwic in Gallion and Ashe Cottage in Demopolis 
Passage 5:
Union Oyster House
Union Oyster House, open to diners since 1826, is amongst the oldest operating restaurants in the United States, and the oldest known that has been continuously operating since being opened  The building was listed as a National Historic Landmark on May 27, 2003 

History
The building itself was built prior to 1714, most likely in 1704  Before it became a restaurant, Hopestill Capen's dress goods business occupied the property  In 1771 printer Isaiah Thomas published his newspaper, The Massachusetts Spy, from the second floor  The restaurant originally opened as the Atwood & Bacon Oyster House on August 3, 1826 The Union Oyster House has had a number of famous people in history as diners, including the Kennedy family and Daniel Webster  Webster was known for regularly consuming at least six plates of oysters  Perhaps most surprisingly, in 1796 Louis Philippe, King of the French from 1830 to 1848, lived in exile on the second floor  He earned his living by teaching French to young women  Labor economist and president of Haverford College John Royston Coleman worked here incognito as a "salad-and-sandwich man" for a time in the 1970s and documented the experience in his book The Blue Collar Journal The menu is traditional New England fare, including seafoods such as oysters, clams, and lobsters, as well as poultry, baked beans, steak and chops 

Image gallery
See also
List of the oldest restaurants in the United States
Cuisine of New England
List of National Historic Landmarks in Boston
List of seafood restaurants
National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts
Context 2: Passage 1:
Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University
Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, (Persian: دانشگاه شهید مدنی آذربایجان, Danushgah-e Shihid-e Midâni-ye Âzerbaijan) commonly called only Azarbaijan University, is a public university located near Tabriz, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran, founded in 1987  The university provides both undergraduate and graduate education to approximately 7,500 students at a wide range of fields including engineering, basic sciences, literature and theology  The university has got Research Gate's total impact point of 1716 47 from 61 publications, according to the latest statistics 

History
Azarbaijan University was founded in 1987 in Tabriz as a branch of Tehran's Tarbiat Moallem (teacher education) University  The initial objective of the university was to train teachers in different area for the fulfillment of Iranian government educational development policies and the major concern of the university was focused on training teachers for high schools and technical schools 
In 1988, Azarbaijan University became an independent university under the title Tabriz University of Tarbiat Moallem and later Azarbaijan University of Tarbiat Moallem  In 2012, due to changing of Iranian educational policies, the university turned to a general educational university under the title Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University  The name "Shahid Madani" comes from an Iranian cleric from Azarshahr who became a martyr in the early years of Islamic Revolution 
Recently, the university is expanding fast and it is planning to be one of the prominent educational and research centers in Iran  New faculty buildings are being opened, new young academic staff are being employed and a lot of academic activities are underway to convert the university to one of the most dynamic universities in northwestern Iran 

Faculties
Engineering
Basic Sciences
Literature and Human Sciences
Theology and Islamic Sciences
Information Technology
Psychology & Educational Sciences
Agriculture

Campuses
Azarbaijan University has two campuses:

Main campus is located in the countryside of Tabriz alongside the Tabriz - Maragheh highway, near Azarshahr and Mamaqan, 35 km Southwest of Tabriz  Administrative part, faculties, most of student dormitories, laboratories, workshops and amphitheaters are located in main campus  The campus also has a train station, 3 restaurants, bakery, a health center, and a shopping center 
Tabriz campus, which is located in Dampezeshki neighborhood of Tabriz, was established in 2013 with a focus on graduate studies in some of the theoretical engineering and science majors  The programs in Tabriz campus include Master of Science in: Analytical Chemistry, Theoretical Physics, Structural Engineering, Electrical Power Engineering, Applied Mathematics and PhD degree programs in: Analytical Chemistry, Atomic and Molecular Physics  Tabriz Campus holds the "Virtual and Distance Learning Center" of the university and also summer and short courses are held in this campus 

International Relations
Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University has cooperation and exchange programs with several universities and institutes in the Middle East and also in Asia and Europe  Some of them are as follows:

Kanazawa University in Japan
Khazar University in Azerbaijan
Gebze Technical University in Turkey
Siirt University in Turkey
Van Yüzüncü Yıl University in Turkey 
BBCA Institute in Italy

Student Communities
There are various student communities and associations with different academic, athletic or artistic objects:

Materials Student Association
Poetry and Literature Association
Music Association
Photography and Filming Association
Red Crescent Association
Charitable Association
Engineering Academic Communities
Literature Academic Communities
Basic Sciences Academic Communities
Psychology Academic Community
Botany Academic Community

Exclusive Train
Thanks to the Tehran - Tabriz railroad which passes through the university, Azarbaijan University is the only university in Iran with a railway station inside and its exclusive train which transports students between Tabriz and the university 4 times every business day  Due to the rising number of students  In morning and afternoon rush hours an older train is also used to increase the capacity 

See also
Higher education in Iran
List of universities in Iran
Passage 2:
2018 French Grand Prix
The 2018 French Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 Pirelli Grand Prix de France 2018) was a Formula One motor race that took place on 24 June 2018 at the Circuit Paul Ricard in Le Castellet, France  The race was the eighth round of the 2018 FIA Formula One World Championship and marked the first time that the French Grand Prix has been run since 2008  It was the 87th running of the French Grand Prix, and the 59th time the event had been included as a round of the Formula One World Championship since the inception of the series in 1950 Ferrari driver Sebastian Vettel entered the race with a one-point lead over Lewis Hamilton in the World Drivers' Championship  In the World Constructors' Championship, Mercedes led Ferrari by seventeen points  Hamilton took the lead in the Driver's Championship by winning the race, with Vettel finishing fifth 

Background
The race returned to the calendar for the first time since 2008, with Circuit Paul Ricard chosen as the venue  The circuit last hosted the French Grand Prix in 1990 before the event moved to the Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours in 1991  The race used the 5 842 km (3 630 mi) layout of the Circuit Paul Ricard for the first time  The layout includes a chicane on the Mistral straight as opposed to the 5 809 km (3 610 mi) circuit that was used nine times between 1971 and 1985 The race was run in June, filling a vacancy left by the Azerbaijan Grand Prix  The race in Azerbaijan was moved to an April date to avoid clashing with celebrations for the centenary of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic 

Drag reduction system
The circuit featured two drag reduction system (DRS) zones  The first was located along the main straight, while the second was on the Mistral Straight on the approach to the chicane 

Tyres
Tyre supplier Pirelli provided teams with the soft, supersoft and ultrasoft compounds of tyres  They reverted to their narrow tread compound following feedback from the teams in the wake of mid-season testing at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya 

Free practice
Lewis Hamilton set the fastest lap in the first free practice session, which was cut short by an accident involving Sauber driver Marcus Ericsson  Ericsson lost control of his Sauber C37 on the approach to Turn 11 and spun into the barrier on the outside of the corner  The car hit the tyre wall at an angle and subsequently caught fire  Ericsson was unharmed, but with two minutes remaining the session was abandoned and the damage to his car so extensive that he was unable to take part in the second free practice session  Several drivers experienced spins during the session, most notably at Turn 6 where an intermittent and gusty local wind caught the drivers unaware as they accelerated away from the apex of the corner  Unlike Ericsson, all of the drivers avoided contact with the wall courtesy of the circuit's unique, abrasive tarmac run-off areas designed to slow down cars that left the circuit 
Hamilton was fastest again in the second free practice session despite having his flying lap interrupted by another red flag  Sergio Pérez lost a wheel as he turned onto the Mistral Straight, prompting race officials to mount an investigation as to whether Force India had released Pérez from the pit lane with his car in an unsafe condition  The session was restarted once Pérez's car was cleared away 

Qualifying
Notes^1  – Brendon Hartley received a 35-place grid penalty for exceeding his quota of power unit components 

Race
Race report
At the start Sebastian Vettel ran into the back of Valtteri Bottas, with both sustaining damage and having to pit for repairs, also there was a separate collision between Pierre Gasly and Esteban Ocon leaving both cars stranded out on the track, this brought out a brief safety car period lasting till the end of lap 5  Vettel would later receive a penalty for his collision with Bottas which meant he would only manage to finish 5th  Lance Stroll suffered a tyre puncture near the end of the race causing a virtual safety car, which ended with only half a lap left of the race  Lewis Hamilton comfortably won ahead of Max Verstappen, while Kimi Räikkönen completed the podium 

Race classification
Notes^1  – Sergey Sirotkin had 5 seconds added to his race time for driving unnecessarily slowly behind the safety car 
^2  – Fernando Alonso and Lance Stroll retired from the race, but were classified as they completed more than 90% of the race distance 

Championship standings after the race
Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings 

See also
2018 Le Castellet Formula 2 round
2018 Le Castellet GP3 Series round

Notes
Passage 3:
Hans Albert Einstein
Hans Albert Einstein (May 14, 1904 – July 26, 1973) was a Swiss-American engineer and educator, the second child and first son of physicists Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić  He was a long-time professor of hydraulic engineering at the University of California, Berkeley Einstein was widely recognized for his research on sediment transport  To honor his outstanding achievement in hydraulic engineering, the American Society of Civil Engineers established the "Hans Albert Einstein Award" in 1988 and the annual award is given to those who have made significant contributions to the field 

Early life
Hans Albert Einstein was born on May 14, 1904, in Bern, Switzerland, where his father, Albert Einstein, worked as a clerk in the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property  His father was of German-Jewish descent and his mother, Mileva Marić, Serbian  His younger brother, Eduard Einstein, was born in 1910 and died in 1965  In 1913, Hans and Eduard were baptized as 
Orthodox Christians in the Orthodox Church of Saint Nicholas in Novi Sad  The fate of his older sister, Lieserl Einstein, Albert Einstein's and Mileva Marić's first child, is unknown, although it has been suggested she died of scarlet fever in 1903  Their parents divorced in 1919 after living apart for five years 

Career
In 1922, Hans followed in his parents' footsteps and entered ETH Zurich, where he studied civil engineering, graduating in 1926  From 1926 to 1930 he worked at the steel design company Klönne, in Dortmund, Germany  From 1931 to 1938, he worked as a research engineer at the newly founded Laboratory of Hydraulics and Soil Mechanics (VAWE) at ETH Zurich  There, in 1936 Hans Albert obtained a doctorate in technical science  His doctoral thesis "Bed Load Transport as a Probability Problem" (Der Geschiebetrieb als Wahrscheinlichkeitsproblem) is considered the definitive work on sediment transport Hans' father, Albert, left Germany in 1933 to escape the persecution of Jews by the Nazi government  Heeding his father's advice, Hans emigrated from Switzerland to Greenville, South Carolina, in 1938  He worked for the US Department of Agriculture, studying sediment transport from 1938 to 1943  He continued working for the USDA at the California Institute of Technology starting in 1943  In 1947 he took a position as associate professor of hydraulic engineering at the University of California, Berkeley  He advanced to full professor, and later professor emeritus   Einstein traveled the world to participate in hydraulic engineering conferences  He was at a symposium at Woods Hole in Massachusetts when he collapsed and died from heart failure on July 26, 1973 Einstein was honored by a Guggenheim Fellowship (1953), research awards from the American Society of Civil Engineers (1959 and 1960), the Berkeley Citation from the University of California (1971), the Certificate of Merit from the U S  Department of Agriculture (1971), and a certificate of recognition for more than 20 years of devoted and distinguished service to Applied Mechanics Reviews by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1972) Hans was also made an member of Pi Tau Sigma in December 1949 with honorary membership grade 
In 1958 he was the principal guest of honor at the Technion's dedication of a new building housing the Albert Einstein Institute of Physics 
 
Hans Albert Einstein died due to heart failure on July 26, 1973 in Woods Hole, Massachusetts  His papers are held at the Water Resources Collections and Archives in the University of California, Riverside Libraries and in the University of Iowa Libraries Special Collections and Archives 

Personal life
In 1927, Hans Albert Einstein married Frieda Knecht  They had four children:

Bernhard Caesar Einstein (10 July 1930 – 30 September 2008), who was a physicist and engineer 
Klaus Martin Einstein (1932–1939), died of diphtheria aged six 
David Einstein (October–November 1939), died aged one month 
Evelyn Einstein (28 March 1941 – 13 April 2011), adopted Knecht died in 1958, and Hans Albert married neurochemist Elizabeth Roboz (1904–1995) the following year Einstein was an avid sailor, frequently taking colleagues and family out for excursions on the San Francisco Bay  On his many field trips and academic excursions, he took thousands of pictures, many of which he developed himself and presented as slide shows  He also loved music, as denoted on his gravestone, and he played flute and piano 

See also
Einstein family
Genius, a television series depicting the Einsteins
Passage 4:
2017 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix
The 2017 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix was the first round of the 2017 MotoGP season  It was held at the Losail International Circuit in Doha on 26 March 2017  For all the three classes, the starting grid was formed by each rider's best time from any of the three free practice sessions held, after rain cancelled the planned qualifying sessions In the MotoGP race, Maverick Viñales won on his first outing for Yamaha, becoming the first rider to do so on début for Yamaha since his teammate Valentino Rossi did the same back in 2004 
The Moto2 class saw the début of the KTM Moto2 chassis package, following KTM's expansion into Moto2 along with MotoGP with the RC16 

Classification
MotoGP
Moto2
Moto3
Gabriel Rodrigo suffered a broken collarbone in a crash during the opening free practice and withdrew from the event 

Championship standings after the race
MotoGP
Below are the standings for the top five riders and constructors after round one has concluded 

Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings 

Moto2
Moto3
Notes
Passage 5:
Lap Engine
The Lap Engine is a beam engine designed by James Watt, built by Boulton and Watt in 1788  It is now preserved at the Science Museum, London 
It is important as both an early example of a beam engine by Boulton and Watt, and also mainly as illustrating an important innovative step in their development for its ability to produce rotary motion The engines name comes from its use in Matthew Boulton's Soho Manufactory, where it was used to drive a line of 43 polishing or lapping machines, used for the production of buttons and buckles 

Innovations
Watt did not invent the steam engine and there is no single 'Watt steam engine' as such  He developed a number of separate innovations, each of which improved the existing engines of the day, beginning with Newcomen's   The Lap Engine of 1788, also the Whitbread Engine (1785), represent survivors of the first engines to show all of Watt's major improvements in one 

Parallel motion
Rotative beam engines
Sun and planet gear
The rotative beam engine needs a means to convert reciprocating motion of the piston and beam to rotary motion  The crankshaft was well known for centuries before Watt, mostly from its use in mining machinery powered by water wheels  However its use for a steam engine was covered by James Pickard's patent at this time  Watt was unwilling to pay a license fee to use the crank and so sought an alternative  The sun and planet gear was invented by another Scottish engineer, William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton and Watt  Watt patented it in October 1781 
The sun and planet gear is a simple epicyclic gear  The planet is attached rigidly to the end of the connecting rod, hung from the beam  As it rotates it applies a torque to the sun gear, just as for a crank, and so causes it to rotate  As the two gears also rotate relative to each other, like conventional gearwheels, this has the effect of giving the sun gear a further rotation  The sun, and the output crankshaft, thus rotates twice for every piston cycle of the engine, twice as fast as with a conventional crank  Beam engines were slow-moving and the output shafts driven by the Lap Engine were fast-moving, so this was an advantage 

Centrifugal governor
According to the Science Museum, it was the first steam engine to be fitted with a centrifugal governor 

History
Preservation
Notes
Passage 6:
Meenakshi Sundararajan Engineering College
Meenakshi Sundararajan Engineering College (MSEC) (Tamil:மீனாட்சி சுந்தரராஜன் பொறியியல் கல்லூரி) is an engineering college in Kodambakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India and it is founded in 2001 

History
The Engineering College was founded in 2001 by the educationist of South India, Professor K R Sundararajan  Meenakshi Sundararajan Engineering College is a part of the KRS Group of Institutions which includes the Indian Institute of Technical Education (IIET, est  1947), Meenakshi College for Women and the Meenakshi Sundararajan School of Management  Institutions dedicated to impart qualitative education and research for both under-graduate and post-graduate education in the fields of Engineering, Arts, Science, Commerce and Management 

Courses
B E  Electrical and Electronics Engineering
B Tech Information Technology
B E  Mechanical Engineering
B E  Civil Engineering
B E  Computer Science and Engineering
B E  Electronics and Communication Engineering
M E  Construction Engineering and Management
Passage 7:
Marvin R  Sambur
Marvin Robert Sambur (born March 31, 1946) is an American engineer and businessman who served as Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Acquisition) from 2001 to 2005 
Sambur was educated at the City College of New York, receiving his B S  in electrical engineering in 1968   He then joined the technical staff of Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey, while continuing his education  He received an M S  in electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1969 and a Ph D  in electrical engineering from MIT in 1972 Sambur worked at Bell Labs until 1977, when he joined ITT Defense Communications in Nutley, New Jersey, as senior vice president   In 1988, he moved to Easton, Pennsylvania, to become president and general manager of the ITT's Electron Technology division   He held that position until 1991, when he became president and general manager of ITT's Aerospace/Communications division in Fort Wayne, Indiana   Finally, in 1998, he became president and CEO of ITT Defense in McLean, Virginia In 2001, President of the United States George W  Bush nominated Sambur to be Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Acquisition)   He held the office until January 2005 After leaving government service, Sambur co-founded Raptors Consulting Group, based in Potomac, Maryland   He also joined the faculty of the A  James Clark School of Engineering Sambur had been a resident of Denville Township, New Jersey 


== Notes ==
Passage 8:
1963 Mexican Grand Prix
The 1963 Mexican Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at the Ciudad Deportiva Magdalena Mixhuca in Mexico City on October 27, 1963  It was race 9 of 10 in both the 1963 World Championship of Drivers and the 1963 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers 
Jim Clark dominated the race from pole position, a time that was 1 7 seconds faster than anybody else  Mexico was considered one of his most successful venues  His fastest lap of the race eclipsed his pole time by 0 7 seconds, and he lapped the entire field except for second and third behind him  He eventually scored a total of five pole positions, four fastest laps and three victories at the venue in his Formula One career  This was also his sixth win, his sixth fastest lap, and his sixth pole position of the nine races completed in 1963 This was also the only World Championship Grand Prix where a car raced with the number 13 until Pastor Maldonado selected the number as his permanent race number in 2014 

Classification
Qualifying
Race
Surtees was disqualified for a push-start 

Championship standings after the race

Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings  Only the best 6 results counted towards the Championship  Numbers without parentheses are Championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored 
Passage 9:
Thiruvalluvar College of Engineering and Technology
Thiruvalluvar College of Engineering and Technology or popularly known as TCET,  located in Vandavasi, Tamil Nadu, India is a private educational institution in India 

About
Varadhammal manickam education and charitable trust [VMECT] was founded in 1996 as a non-profitable organization at 178,vagataranam pillai street, Triplicane, Chennai 600 005  The administrative office is located at R 6/4, vaigai street, bezant nagar, Chennai -600 090  The trustees are eminent personalities in various walks of life such as education, research, industry, business, administration etc 
Thiruvalluvar College of Engineering and Technology was founded in the year 1998 by Prof  Dr  S  Arunachalam M E (Civil), PhD a Former Professor in Anna University and Former Syndicate Member - Anna University, Chennai 
The Institution is approved by A I C T E - All India Council for Technical Education, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University Chennai 

External links
Thiruvalluvar College of Engineering and Technology
Passage 10:
Callcott Reilly
Callcott Reilly (28 October 1828 – 21 May 1900) was a British civil and construction engineer  He is noted for his work on uniform stress, as illustrated by reference to bridge building, for which the Institution of Civil Engineers awarded him the Telford Medal in 1865   He played a prominent role in promoting the professional education of engineers and in 1871 became the first Professor of Engineering Construction at the newly formed Royal Indian Engineering College (RIEC) located at Coopers Hill near Englefield Green 
Passage 11:
André Milhoux
André Milhoux (born 9 December 1928) is a former racing driver from Belgium   He participated in one Formula One World Championship Grand Prix, the 1956 German Grand Prix on 5 August 1956, but had to retire after 15 laps due to an engine failure  He scored no championship points 

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)
Passage 12:
Malaviya Regional Engineering College
Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur (MNIT or NIT Jaipur) is a public technical university located in Jaipur, India with, an emphasis on science, engineering and management 
Formerly known as Malaviya Regional Engineering College (MREC) Jaipur, it assumed its present name in 2002 and was recognised as an Institute of National Importance in 2007  It was founded in 1963 with only two engineering branches and now comprises fourteen departments, a school of management and allied centres  The institute is fully funded by the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India and is governed by a Senate as per NIT Statutes 

History
The institute was established in 1963 as Malaviya Regional Engineering College (MREC), as a joint venture of the government of India and the Government of Rajasthan  It was named after Madan Mohan Malaviya  V G  Garde was its first principal  The college moved to the present campus in Jaipur in 1965 It used to offer five-year Bachelor of Engineering programs in Civil, Electrical, Mechanical, and Metallurgical Engineering  The duration of the B E  Degree Course was changed to four years from the year 1983 The institute was upgraded to a National Institute of Technology and was declared a Deemed University on 26 June 2002 since then the institute started offering Bachelor of Technology (B Tech ) degree instead of Bachelor of Engineering (B E ) degree On 15 August 2007, MNIT and all other NITs were declared Institutes of National Importance by the government of India under the National Institutes of Technology Act, 2007  The institute is now under The Ministry of Education (MHRD), New Delhi  It has been selected to participate in the Technical Education Quality Improvement Program of the government of India and the World Bank Milestone: MNIT celebrated its Golden Jubilee foundation year in 2013 

Academics
Programmes
MNIT offers a wide variety of study in engineering, sciences, management, design, and humanities with a primary focus on engineering  Eight four-year undergraduate courses of study led to the Bachelor of Technology degree and a five-year undergraduate course leading to the Bachelor of Architecture degree, with a total of over 5,000 students  Postgraduate degrees award Master of Technology (M Tech ), Master of Science (M Sc ), Master of Business Administration (M B A) and Master of Urban Planning  There are also doctoral programs with over 300 students  There are over 150 faculty members engaged in teaching and research 

Financial aid
More than 30 financial aid schemes are made available to students under different criteria to support institute fees and in some cases hostel accommodation as well 

Requisites for enrolments
Admission to undergraduate courses of the institute is through the Central Seat Allocation Board (CSAB) which takes into account the performance in Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) Supernumerary seats are reserved for students from outside India who are nominated by the Ministry of External Affairs, Govt  of India, and the Indian Council of Cultural Relations and DASA students  SAT scores are criteria for selection Admission for post graduate courses namely Master of Technology (M Tech ) and Master of Urban & Regional Planning (MURP) are through Centralized Counselling for MTech/MArch and M Plan (CCMT) after Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) Admission to M Sc  is through CCMN (Centralized Counseling for MSc/MSc (Tech )), admission to M B A  is through GMAT/CAT followed by GD, PI and Ph D  are through department's respective written test followed by an interview 

Rankings
Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur was ranked 46th among engineering colleges by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2022 

Grading
MNIT follows the credit-based system of performance evaluation, with the proportional weighting of courses based on their importance  The total marks (usually out of 100) form the basis of grades, with a grade value (out of 10) assigned to a range of marks  This range of marks is decided by Grade Moderation Committee and is relative in nature  For each semester, the students are graded by taking a weighted average from all the courses with their respective credit points  Each semester's evaluation is done independently with a cumulative grade point average (CGPA) reflecting the average performance across semesters 

Research
Research in the institute is sponsored by major government agencies which include the Indian Ordnance Factories, Ministry of Communication & IT, Govt  of India, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST) 

Collaboration with International Universities
University of Greenwich, London
Stevens Institute of Technology
North Dakota University
University of Saskatchewan
Deakin University
Florida International University
University of Dundee
Medine Education, Mauritius

Administration
The Organisational structure
MNIT shares a common Visitor (a position held by the President of India) who is the most powerful person in the NIT organizational structure and the NIT Council with the other sister NITs 
The board of governors consists of members nominated by the NIT Council, the director, representatives from the Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource and Development, and Government of India 
The institute's director serves as the chief academic and executive officer of the institute  He is aided by the deputy director  Under the director and the deputy director are the deans, heads of departments, registrar, president of the students' council, and chairman of the hall management committee 
The registrar is the chief administrative officer and oversees day-to-day operations  He is the custodian of records, funds, and other properties of the institute 
Under the charge of the heads of departments (HODs) are the faculty (full-time professors as well as those of associate and assistant status)  The wardens of hostels are placed under the chairman of the hall management committee in the organization 

Financing
Annually, the institute receives US$20 million from the Government of India and the World Bank 
Alumni and other bodies also donate to contribute to the development of the institute  Financial management is undertaken by the Financial Committee of the institute 

Academic policies
The academic policies of the institute are decided by its senate  It consists of the deans of the institute, all the professors, the director, educationists, and specialists  The senate controls and approves the curriculum, courses, examinations, and results and appoints committees to look into academic matters  The teaching, training, and research activities of the institute are reviewed by the senate to maintain educational standards  The director serves as the ex-officio and chairman of the senate 

Academic Events
MNIT Jaipur AICTE – Training Program on Design Thinking for Innovative Medical Devices

Motto
"Yogaḥ Karmasu Kauśalam" (योगः कर्मसु कौशलम् in Sanskrit)  The motto literally translates to "Excellence in action is Yoga" essentially implying that doing your work well is (true) yoga or "Diligence leads to Excellence"  It is sourced to Sri Krishna's discourse to Arjuna in Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 2, Verse 50  This quote in its larger context of Gita urges man to acquire equanimity because such a soul endowed with the mind of equanimity allows him to shed the effects of his good and evil deeds in this world itself  Equanimity is the source of perfection in Karmic endeavors while leading to Salvation 

Departments, Centres and Schools
Engineering departments
Architecture
Chemical Engineering
Civil Engineering
Computer Science & Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Information Technology, Kota (temporary campus) – Computer Science Engineering and Electronics & Communication Engineering

Centres
Energy and Environment
Earthquake and Disaster Mitigation Centre
Innovation and Incubation Centre
Advance Materials Research Centre
Tribology Laboratory
Electronics & ICT Academy
Stones

Science Departments
Applied Biology
Mathematics
Physics (Photonics and Electronics )
Chemistry

Allied Departments
Humanities and Social Sciences
Department of Physical Education

Campus
MNIT's 317-acre campus is located in Jaipur, Rajasthan, approximately 2 5 miles (4 km) from Jaipur International Airport  It is 6 miles (10 km) from Pink City and is within walking distance of the business district therefore the two locations are frequent gateways for MNIT students  The vast campus is lush green and has a hill out of Aravali Ranges  
Numerous buildings, and clusters constitute the campus  To the west are the departmental buildings, research laboratories, associations and club buildings, lecture theatres, bank (ICICI Bank), post office, canteens, lawns, auditoriums, main building, computer centre; to the east are Boys hostels, STP; to the north are guest houses, staff quarters, bank (SBI, ICICI); at the center and south are sports facilities and dispensary 

The dispensary is supervised by a team of Medical Officers and supported staff  The institute has a part-time Homeopathic doctor and Ayurvedic doctor on the campus  Canteen buildings, five in all, are near the instructional zone and hostels and in addition to it, an Amul parlor  The central canteen is run by Akshaya Patra Foundation  There are two guest houses on the campus for visitors, alumni, guests, and guardians of students 
Each Department has its own building which has laboratories, staff cabins, lecture halls, classrooms, auditoriums, departmental libraries, etc , and all are linked via a continuous gallery that runs throughout the eastern part 

Sports facilities
Facilities for sports and games include a soccer ground, a cricket ground with nets, three basketball courts, three lawn tennis courts, three volleyball courts, three raw volleyball courts, one indoor badminton court and other outdoor badminton courts, a gymnasium, a billiards room, a chess room, a jogging track, table tennis boards, and a swimming pool is in future plans 

Materials Research Center
Materials Research Center (MRC) has the infrastructure for advanced research in various streams with a focus on materials  The facilities are extended to the scientists and researchers of other institutes  Equipment at the center, set up at the cost of $6 3 million, offers a wide range of research assistance  Various machines, facilities and software are available in the lab 

Central Library
Now known as LEARNING RESOURCE CENTRE (LRC), aids the teaching and research programmes of the institute and provides facilities for general reading and information with 156,314 print books, 3,073 ebooks, 10,000 e-journals, international journals, technical pamphlets, standards, CD-ROMs and periodicals  In addition, it is connected to other library networks like DELNET, which enables students to access libraries of other 4697 Indian and International libraries  It is spread across a plinth area of 15,847 Sq  feet  The services and operations in the library are fully digital with RFID and Smart card systems with Koha (software)   In addition to books, it offers Wi-Fi and LAN services 

Computer Center
The centre has 10 computer laboratories  A Datacenter with Private Cloud using VMWare V Cloud Suite 5 and 64 TB of EMC2 Storage has also been established in the center  The Private Cloud has features of automated provisioning of IT resources, a single interface for administrators for the entire IT infrastructure, and workload elasticity  It is used for Library digitization, E-mail archival, hosting various services/applications and Research on cloud computing by Ph D  and MTech students 

Vivekananda Lecture Theatre Complex (VLTC)
Vivekananda Lecture Hall complex will have 40 classrooms that could accommodate about 5,500 students at a time  It will have a food court in its basement  Its construction was started on 19 September 2012  It holds the record of being Asia's Largest Lecture Theatre Complex Among other facilities, each hostel is equipped with Wi-fi and/or LAN, and a common room with a TV, LAN, table-tennis court, newspaper stands and a mess 

Student life
Annually MNIT conducts the MNIT Sports Tournament (MST)  Students from all across Rajasthan and other parts of North India, participate in the event  MNIT also hosts inter-NIT sports tournaments being a part of the Inter-NIT sports federation  The institute is the West zone centre for NBA JAM National level events include Neuron, Blitzschlag, Electronica, Moments, MST, Schrifftum, Taal and Zodiac 

Hostel
MNIT has 10 boys and 2 girls hostels with an accommodation capacity of about 3,000 students  The largest among them is Aurobindo Hostel comprising 950 single bedrooms  First-year students are allotted triple bedrooms and from second Year onwards everyone gets single bedrooms  Most of the hostels are equipped with the mess  Students are given Wi-Fi, LAN, common room, and sports facilities in hostels  Hostel fees in a single semester is Rs  32,000 (out of which Rs  20,000 for Hostel mess bill and 12,000 for Room rent, electricity and light bill 

Blitzschlag
Blitzschlag is the annual cultural fest of MNIT Jaipur  It is a 3-day event held towards the start of February every year and attracts a crowd of over 20,000 students from more than 20 colleges all over the country The word Blitzschlag has German origins; it means a lightning strike  Aimed at inspiring innovation, technical interest among students, and awareness among the public, the event has played host to lectures, seminars, workshops, competitions, exhibitions, and quizzes 
The event is organized by the students under the guidance of their teachers 

Sphinx
Sphinx is the annual tech-fest organized autonomously by Malaviya National Institute of Technology, a 3-day event held in late October each year  The event is organized by the students under the guidance of their teachers 

Creative Arts & Cultural Society
MNIT CACS (Creative Arts & Cultural Society) allows students to exhibit extracurricular abilities 

Student Mentorship Program
Student Mentorship Program (SMP) is a program of mentorship of junior students by senior students  Web based services consist of an The Online Mentor-Mentee platform and SMP Media  Online Mentor-Mentee platform connects mentees with their Mentors, and SMP Media acts as a knowledge sharing platform 

The Mavericks
The Mavericks is the weekly newsletter service, run by a group of students which covers all activities going on on the campus, both academic and non-academic, discussing ongoing placements, internships, achievements by students, events, projects and other happenings on the campus 

Codavids
Codavids is the official programming and coding club of the institute, under the Head of the Computer Engineering Department  It aims to improve the programming culture among the student community and encourage them to solve practical problems through coding, improve their programming skills by taking lectures, organizing Online Coding Competitions (OCC) every month, organizing Guest lectures in algorithm complexity, algorithms, data structures, operating systems and programming in general 

Zine
Zine is a creative group of engineering undergraduates of Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur who are together to learn, improve and apply their technical skills to help foster the growth of society and India in the field of technology by using their engineering skills to work on real time problems  It is composed of students from various disciplines working under guidance of Dr  Rajesh Kumar from Electrical Engineering department and various alumni working in reputed firms and doing research in Universities in India and abroad 

Housing
MNIT provides on-campus residential facilities to its students, research scholars, faculty members, and many of its staff 
Hostel rooms are wired for the internet, for which students pay a compulsory charge included in the hostel fees  Most of the rooms in the hostels are designed to accommodate one student and is available after the first year, and there are hostels designed for triple bedding which are leased to students of the first year  Some hostels have Wi-fi networks  There are twelve hostels in all, and each hostel is provided with a common room equipped with a television, table tennis board, and newspaper reading section  Students residing in hostels are issued an advisory code of conduct and ragging or harassing other students, and juniors are strictly forbidden 

Past People
Students
MNIT enrols 710 undergraduates, 500 post graduate and 500 doctoral students every year  The Ratio of male to female students is seven to one  50% of students are from Rajasthan, due to the home state quota followed by Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North East and other states in the same order  Students from abroad are from Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Bangladesh, Nepal, Uganda, Sri Lanka and other middle-eastern countries 

Alumni
Alumni-institute interaction is developed and maintained through the Alumni Network and Alumni chapters across the world under the direction of MNIT Jaipur Alumni Association (MNITJAA)  It also helps in conducting the annual alumni meets 
Alumni from MNIT contribute to society in various fields like Academics, Science and Engineering, Public Service, Corporate Service, Entertainment, Defence, Arts & Design, etc 

Notable alumni
Thomas Abraham, president of GOPIO
Avinash Kumar Agarwal, Mechanical Engineer, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate 
Nikhil Gupta, researcher and professor based in Brooklyn, New York 
Ashok M  Raichur, nanotechnologist, N-Bios laureate 
Shivangi, Indian Navy First Woman Pilot 
Ashish Arora, founder physicsgalaxy com, author of physics textbooks in IIT-JEE Category, works at Unacademy, worked at Allen Jaipur and Bansal classes, founding member of FIITJEE

See also
National Institutes of Technology
Indian Institutes of Technology
Ministry of Human Resource Development
List of Institutes of National Importance
Passage 13:
James Watt
James Watt  (; 30 January 1736 (19 January 1736 OS) – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776, which was fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world 
While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines  He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and reheating the cylinder  Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines  Eventually, he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water 
Watt attempted to commercialise his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775  The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful and Watt became a wealthy man  In his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none was as significant as his steam engine work 
As Watt developed the concept of horsepower, the SI unit of power, the watt, was named after him 

Biography
Early life and education
James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, the eldest of the five surviving children of Agnes Muirhead (1703–1755) and James Watt (1698–1782)  His mother came from a distinguished family, was well educated and said to be of forceful character, while his father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the Greenock's chief baillie in 1751  The Watt family's wealth came in part from Watt's father's trading in slaves and slave-produced goods  
Watt's parents were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters, but despite his religious upbringing he later became a deist  Watt's grandfather, Thomas Watt (1642–1734), was a teacher of mathematics, surveying and navigation and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn Initially, Watt was educated at home by his mother, later going on to attend Greenock Grammar School  There he exhibited an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin and Greek failed to interest him 
Watt is said to have suffered prolonged bouts of ill-health as a child and from frequent headaches all his life After leaving school, Watt worked in the workshops of his father's businesses, demonstrating considerable dexterity and skill in creating engineering models  After his father suffered unsuccessful business ventures, Watt left Greenock to seek employment in Glasgow as a mathematical instrument maker 

When he was 18, Watt's mother died and his father's health began to fail  Watt travelled to London and was able to obtain a period of training as an instrument maker for a year (1755–56), then returned to Scotland, settling in the major commercial city of Glasgow, intent on setting up his own instrument-making business  He was still very young and, having not had a full apprenticeship, did not have the usual connections via a former master to establish himself as a journeyman instrument maker 
Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander MacFarlane to the University of Glasgow - instruments that required expert attention  Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated  These instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory  Subsequently, three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a small workshop within the university  It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed economist Adam Smith, became Watt's friends At first, he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants  He made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things 
It is sometimes falsely stated that he struggled to establish himself in Glasgow due to opposition from the Trades House, but this myth has been thoroughly debunked by the historian Harry Lumsden  The records from this period are lost, but it is known that he was able to work and trade completely normally as a skilled metal worker so the Incorporation of Hammermen must have been satisfied that he met their requirements for membership  It is also known that other people in the metal trades were pursued for working without being members of the Incorporation well into the 19th century, so the rules were definitely being enforced when Watt was trading freely throughout the city 
In 1759, he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and toys  This partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to 16 workers  Craig died in 1765  One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, which lasted into the 20th century In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret (Peggy) Miller, with whom he had 5 children, 2 of whom lived to adulthood: James Jr  (1769–1848) and Margaret (1767–1796)  His wife died in childbirth in 1773  In 1777, he married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had 2 children: Gregory (1777–1804), who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet (1779–1794)  Ann died in 1832  Between 1777 and 1790 he lived in Regent Place, Birmingham 

Watt and the kettle
There is a popular story that Watt was inspired to invent the steam engine by seeing a kettle boiling, the steam forcing the lid to rise and thus showing Watt the power of steam  This story is told in many forms; in some Watt is a young lad, in others he is older, sometimes it's his mother's kettle, sometimes his aunt's  Watt did not actually invent the steam engine, as the story implies, but dramatically improved the efficiency of the existing Newcomen engine by adding a separate condenser  This is difficult to explain to someone not familiar with concepts of heat and thermal efficiency  It appears that the story was created, possibly by Watt's son James Watt Jr , and persists because it is easy for children to understand and remember  In this light, it can be seen as akin to the story of Isaac Newton and the falling apple and his discovery of gravity 
Although it is often dismissed as a myth, the story of Watt and the kettle has a basis in fact  In trying to understand the thermodynamics of heat and steam, James Watt carried out many laboratory experiments and his diaries record that in conducting these, he used a kettle as a boiler to generate steam 

Early experiments with steam
In 1759, Watt's friend, John Robison, called his attention to the use of steam as a source of motive power  The design of the Newcomen engine, in use for almost 50 years for pumping water from mines, had hardly changed from its first implementation   Watt began to experiment with steam, though he had never seen an operating steam engine   He tried constructing a model; it failed to work satisfactorily, but he continued his experiments and began to read everything he could about the subject  He came to realise the importance of latent heat—the thermal energy released or absorbed during a constant-temperature process—in understanding the engine, which, unknown to Watt, his friend Joseph Black had previously discovered years before  Understanding of the steam engine was in a very primitive state, for the science of thermodynamics would not be formalised for nearly another 100 years 
In 1763, Watt was asked to repair a model Newcomen engine belonging to the university  Even after repair, the engine barely worked  After much experimentation, Watt demonstrated that about 3/4 of the thermal energy of the steam was being consumed in heating the engine cylinder on every cycle  This energy was wasted because, later in the cycle, cold water was injected into the cylinder to condense the steam to reduce its pressure  Thus, by repeatedly heating and cooling the cylinder, the engine wasted most of its thermal energy rather than converting it into mechanical energy 
Watt's critical insight, arrived at in May 1765 as he crossed Glasgow Green park, was to cause the steam to condense in a separate chamber apart from the piston, and to maintain the temperature of the cylinder at the same temperature as the injected steam by surrounding it with a "steam jacket"  Thus, very little energy was absorbed by the cylinder on each cycle, making more available to perform useful work  Watt had a working model later that same year 

Despite a potentially workable design, there were still substantial difficulties in constructing a full-scale engine  This required more capital, some of which came from Black  More substantial backing came from John Roebuck, the founder of the celebrated Carron Iron Works near Falkirk, with whom he now formed a partnership  Roebuck lived at Kinneil House in Bo'ness, during which time Watt worked at perfecting his steam engine in a cottage adjacent to the house  The shell of the cottage, and a very large part of one of his projects, still exist to the rear The principal difficulty was in machining the piston and cylinder  Iron workers of the day were more like blacksmiths than modern machinists, and were unable to produce the components with sufficient precision  Much capital was spent in pursuing a patent on Watt's invention  Strapped for resources, Watt was forced to take up employment—first as a surveyor, then as a civil engineer—for 8 years Roebuck went bankrupt, and Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho Manufactory works near Birmingham, acquired his patent rights  An extension of the patent to 1800 was successfully obtained in 1775 Through Boulton, Watt finally had access to some of the best iron workers in the world  The difficulty of the manufacture of a large cylinder with a tightly fitting piston was solved by John Wilkinson, who had developed precision boring techniques for cannon making at Bersham, near Wrexham, North Wales  Watt and Boulton formed a hugely successful partnership, Boulton and Watt, which lasted for the next 25 years 

First engines
In 1776, the first engines were installed and working in commercial enterprises  These first engines were used to power pumps and produced only reciprocating motion to move the pump rods at the bottom of the shaft  The design was commercially successful, and for the next 5 years, Watt was very busy installing more engines, mostly in Cornwall, for pumping water out of mines 
These early engines were not manufactured by Boulton and Watt, but were made by others according to drawings made by Watt, who served in the role of consulting engineer  The erection of the engine and its shakedown was supervised by Watt, at first, and then by men in the firm's employ  These were large machines  The first, for example, had a cylinder with a diameter of 50 inches and an overall height of about 24 feet, and required the construction of a dedicated building to house it  Boulton and Watt charged an annual payment, equal to 1/3 of the value of the coal saved in comparison to a Newcomen engine performing the same work 
The field of application for the invention was greatly widened when Boulton urged Watt to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston to produce rotational power for grinding, weaving and milling  Although a crank seemed the obvious solution to the conversion, Watt and Boulton were stymied by a patent for this, whose holder, James Pickard and his associates proposed to cross-license the external condenser  Watt adamantly opposed this and they circumvented the patent by their sun and planet gear in 1781 
Over the next 6 years, he made other improvements and modifications to the steam engine  A double-acting engine, in which the steam acted alternately on both sides of the piston, was one  He described methods for working the steam "expansively" (i e , using steam at pressures well above atmospheric)  A compound engine, which connected 2 or more engines, was described  Two more patents were granted for these in 1781 and 1782  Numerous other improvements that made for easier manufacture and installation were continually implemented  One of these included the use of the steam indicator which produced an informative plot of the pressure in the cylinder against its volume, which he kept as a trade secret  Another important invention, one which Watt was most proud of, was the parallel motion linkage, which was essential in double-acting engines as it produced the straight line motion required for the cylinder rod and pump, from the connected rocking beam, whose end moves in a circular arc  This was patented in 1784  A throttle valve to control the power of the engine, and a centrifugal governor, patented in 1788, to keep it from "running away" were very important  These improvements taken together produced an engine which was up to 5 times as fuel efficient as the Newcomen engine 
Because of the danger of exploding boilers, which were in a very primitive stage of development, and the ongoing issues with leaks, Watt restricted his use of high pressure steam – all of his engines used steam at near atmospheric pressure 

Patent trials
Edward Bull started constructing engines for Boulton and Watt in Cornwall in 1781  By 1792, he had started making engines of his own design, but which contained a separate condenser, and so infringed Watt's patents  Two brothers, Jabez Carter Hornblower and Jonathan Hornblower Jnr also started to build engines about the same time  Others began to modify Newcomen engines by adding a condenser, and the mine owners in Cornwall became convinced that Watt's patent could not be enforced  They started to withhold payments to Boulton and Watt, which by 1795 had fallen on hard times  Of the total £21,000 (equivalent to £2,310,000 as of 2021) owed, only £2,500 had been received  Watt was forced to go to court to enforce his claims He first sued Bull in 1793  The jury found for Watt, but the question of whether or not the original specification of the patent was valid was left to another trial  In the meantime, injunctions were issued against the infringers, forcing their payments of the royalties to be placed in escrow  The trial on determining the validity of the specifications which was held in the following year was inconclusive, but the injunctions remained in force and the infringers, except for Jonathan Hornblower, all began to settle their cases  Hornblower was soon brought to trial in 1799, and the verdict of the four was decisively in favour of Watt  Their friend John Wilkinson, who had solved the problem of boring an accurate cylinder, was a particularly grievous case  He had erected about 20 engines without Boulton's and Watts' knowledge  They finally agreed to settle the infringement in 1796  Boulton and Watt never collected all that was owed them, but the disputes were all settled directly between the parties or through arbitration  These trials were extremely costly in both money and time, but ultimately were successful for the firm 

Copying machine
Before 1780, there was no good method for making copies of letters or drawings  The only method sometimes used was a mechanical one using multiple linked pens  Watt at first experimented with improving this method, but soon gave up on this approach because it was so cumbersome  He instead decided to try to physically transfer ink from the front of the original to the back of another sheet, moistened with a solvent, and pressed to the original  The second sheet had to be thin, so that the ink could be seen through it when the copy was held up to the light, thus reproducing the original exactly Watt started to develop the process in 1779, and made many experiments to formulate the ink, select the thin paper, to devise a method for wetting the special thin paper, and to make a press suitable for applying the correct pressure to effect the transfer  All of these required much experimentation, but he soon had enough success to patent the process a year later  Watt formed another partnership with Boulton (who provided financing) and James Keir (to manage the business) in a firm called James Watt and Co  The perfection of the invention required much more development work before it could be routinely used by others, but this was carried out over the next few years  Boulton and Watt gave up their shares to their sons in 1794  It became a commercial success and was widely used in offices even into the 20th century 

Chemical experiments
From an early age, Watt was very interested in chemistry  In late 1786, while in Paris, he witnessed an experiment by Claude Louis Berthollet in which he reacted hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide to produce chlorine  He had already found that an aqueous solution of chlorine could bleach textiles, and had published his findings, which aroused great interest among many potential rivals  When Watt returned to Britain, he began experiments along these lines with hopes of finding a commercially viable process   He discovered that a mixture of salt, manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid could produce chlorine, which Watt believed might be a cheaper method  He passed the chlorine into a weak solution of alkali, and obtained a turbid solution that appeared to have good bleaching properties  He soon communicated these results to James McGrigor, his father-in-law, who was a bleacher in Glasgow  Otherwise, he tried to keep his method a secret With McGrigor and his wife Annie, he started to scale up the process, and in March 1788, McGrigor was able to bleach  1,500 yards (4,500 feet) of cloth to his satisfaction  About this time, Berthollet discovered the salt and sulphuric acid process, and published it, so it became public knowledge  Many others began to experiment with improving the process, which still had many shortcomings, not the least of which was the problem of transporting the liquid product  Watt's rivals soon overtook him in developing the process, and he dropped out of the race  It was not until 1799, when Charles Tennant patented a process for producing solid bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) that it became a commercial success 

By 1794, Watt had been chosen by Thomas Beddoes to manufacture apparatuses to produce, clean and store gases for use in the new Pneumatic Institution at Hotwells in Bristol  Watt continued to experiment with various gases, but by 1797, the medical uses for the "factitious airs" (artificial gases) had come to a dead end 

Personality
Watt combined theoretical knowledge of science with the ability to apply it practically  Chemist Humphry Davy said of him, "Those who consider James Watt only as a great practical mechanic form a very erroneous idea of his character; he was equally distinguished as a natural philosopher and a chemist, and his inventions demonstrate his profound knowledge of those sciences, and that peculiar characteristic of genius, the union of them for practical application" He was greatly respected by other prominent men of the Industrial Revolution  He was an important member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, and was a much sought-after conversationalist and companion, always interested in expanding his horizons  His personal relationships with his friends and business partners were always congenial and long-lasting 
According to Lord Liverpool (Prime Minister of the UK),
A more excllent and amikable man in all the relations of life I believe never existed 
Watt was a prolific correspondent  During his years in Cornwall, he wrote long letters to Boulton several times per week  He was averse to publishing his results in, for example, the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society however, and instead preferred to communicate his ideas in patents  He was an excellent draughtsman 

He was a rather poor businessman, and especially hated bargaining and negotiating terms with those who sought to use the steam engine  In a letter to William Small in 1772, Watt confessed that "he would rather face a loaded cannon than settle an account or make a bargain " Until he retired, he was always very concerned about his financial affairs, and was something of a worrier  His health was often poor and he suffered frequent nervous headaches and depression  When he retired in 1800, he became a rich enough man to pass the business on to his sons 

Soho Foundry
At first, the partnership made the drawings and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect them on the customers' property  They produced almost none of the parts themselves  Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper's Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory  Gradually, the partners began to actually manufacture more and more of the parts, and by 1795, they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho Manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal, to establish a new foundry for the manufacture of the engines  The Soho Foundry formally opened in 1796 at a time when Watt's sons, Gregory and James Jr  were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise  In 1800, the year of Watt's retirement, the firm made a total of 41 engines 

Later years
Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired  The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr   Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered 
Watt continued to invent other things before and during his semi-retirement  Within his home in Handsworth, Staffordshire, Watt made use of a garret room as a workshop, and it was here that he worked on many of his inventions  Among other things, he invented and constructed machines for copying sculptures and medallions which worked very well, but which he never patented  One of the first sculptures he produced with the machine was a small head of his old professor friend Adam Smith  He maintained his interest in civil engineering and was a consultant on several significant projects  He proposed, for example, a method for constructing a flexible pipe to be used for pumping water under the River Clyde at Glasgow He and his second wife travelled to France and Germany, and he purchased an estate in mid-Wales at Doldowlod House, one mile south of Llanwrthwl, which he much improved 
In 1816, he took a trip on the paddle-steamer Comet, a product of his inventions, to revisit his home town of Greenock He died on 25 August 1819 at his home "Heathfield Hall" near Handsworth in Staffordshire (now part of Birmingham) at the age of 83  He was buried on 2 September in the graveyard of St Mary's Church, Handsworth  The church has since been extended and his grave is now inside the church 

Family
On 16 July 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller (d  1773)  They had two children, Margaret (1767–1796) and James (1769–1848)  In 1791, their daughter married James Miller  In September 1773, while Watt was working in the Scottish Highlands, he learned that his wife, who was pregnant with their third child, was seriously ill  He immediately returned home but found that she had died and their child was stillborn In 1775, he married Ann MacGregor (d 1832) 

Freemasonry
He was Initiated into Scottish Freemasonry in The Glasgow Royal Arch Lodge, No  77, in 1763  The Lodge ceased to exist in 1810  A Masonic Lodge was named after him in his home town of Glasgow – Lodge James Watt, No  1215 

Murdoch's contributions
William Murdoch joined Boulton and Watt in 1777  At first, he worked in the pattern shop in Soho, but soon he was erecting engines in Cornwall   He became an important part of the firm and made many contributions to its success including important inventions of his own 
John Griffiths, who wrote a biography of him in 1992, has argued that Watt's discouragement of Murdoch's work with high-pressure steam on his steam road locomotive experiments delayed its development: Watt rightly believed that boilers of the time would be unsafe at higher pressures Watt patented the application of the sun and planet gear to steam in 1781 and a steam locomotive in 1784, both of which have strong claims to have been invented by Murdoch  The patent was never contested by Murdoch, however, and Boulton and Watt's firm continued to use the sun and planet gear in their rotative engines, even long after the patent for the crank expired in 1794   Murdoch was made a partner of the firm in 1810, where he remained until his retirement 20 years later at the age of 76 

Legacy
As one author states, James Watt's improvements to the steam engine "converted it from a prime mover of marginal efficiency into the mechanical workhorse of the Industrial Revolution" 

Honours
Watt was much honoured in his own time  In 1784, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and was elected as a member of the Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy, of Rotterdam, the Netherlands, in 1787  In 1789, he was elected to the elite group, the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers  In 1806, he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Glasgow   The French Academy elected him a Corresponding Member and he was made a Foreign Associate in 1814 The watt is named after James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, and was adopted by the Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889 and by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 as the unit of power incorporated in the International System of Units (or "SI") 
On 29 May 2009, the Bank of England announced that Boulton and Watt would appear on a new £50 note  The design is the first to feature a dual portrait on a Bank of England note, and presents the two industrialists side by side with images of Watt's steam engine and Boulton's Soho Manufactory  Quotes attributed to each of the men are inscribed on the note: "I sell here, sir, what all the world desires to have—POWER" (Boulton) and "I can think of nothing else but this machine" (Watt)  The inclusion of Watt is the second time that a Scot has featured on a Bank of England note (the first was Adam Smith on the 2007 issue £20 note)  In September 2011, it was announced that the notes would enter circulation on 2 November In 2011, he was one of seven inaugural inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame 

Memorials
Watt was buried in the grounds of St  Mary's Church, Handsworth, in Birmingham  Later expansion of the church, over his grave, means that his tomb is now buried inside the church The garret room workshop that Watt used in his retirement was left, locked and untouched, until 1853, when it was first viewed by his biographer J  P  Muirhead  Thereafter, it was occasionally visited, but left untouched, as a kind of shrine  A proposal to have it transferred to the Patent Office came to nothing  When the house was due to be demolished in 1924, the room and all its contents were presented to the Science Museum, where it was recreated in its entirety  It remained on display for visitors for many years, but was walled-off when the gallery it was housed in closed  The workshop remained intact, and preserved, and in March 2011 was put on public display as part of a new permanent Science Museum exhibition, "James Watt and our world" The approximate location of James Watt's birth in Greenock is commemorated by a statue  Other memorials in Greenock include street names and the Watt Memorial Library, which was begun in 1816 with Watt's donation of scientific books, and developed as part of the Watt Institution by his son (which ultimately became the James Watt College)  Taken over by the local authority in 1974, the library now also houses the local history collection and archives of Inverclyde, and is dominated by a large seated statue in the vestibule  Watt is additionally commemorated by statuary in George Square, Glasgow and Princes Street, Edinburgh, as well as others in Birmingham, where he is also remembered by the Moonstones and a school is named in his honour 
The James Watt College has expanded from its original location to include campuses in Kilwinning (North Ayrshire), Finnart Street and The Waterfront in Greenock, and the Sports campus in Largs  Heriot-Watt University near Edinburgh was at one time the School of Arts of Edinburgh, founded in 1821 as the world's first Mechanics Institute, but to commemorate George Heriot, the 16th-century financier to King James VI and I, and James Watt, after Royal Charter the name was changed to Heriot-Watt University  Dozens of university and college buildings (chiefly of science and technology) are named after him  Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, is now a museum, commemorating the work of both men  The University of Glasgow's Faculty of Engineering has its headquarters in the James Watt Building, which also houses the department of Mechanical Engineering and the department of Aerospace Engineering  The huge painting James Watt contemplating the steam engine by James Eckford Lauder is now owned by the National Gallery of Scotland 

There is a statue of James Watt in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester and City Square, Leeds 
A colossal statue of Watt by Francis Legatt Chantrey was placed in Westminster Abbey, and later was moved to St  Paul's Cathedral   On the cenotaph, the inscription reads, in part, "JAMES WATT     ENLARGED THE RESOURCES OF HIS COUNTRY, INCREASED THE POWER OF MAN, AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE AMONG THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE AND THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE WORLD" 
A bust of Watt is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling, Scotland 
The French Navy submarine Watt was named for Watt 

Patents
Watt was the sole inventor listed on his 6 patents:
Patent 913:  A method of lessening the consumption of steam in steam engines – the separate condenser  The specification was accepted on 5 January 1769; enrolled on 29 April 1769, and extended to June 1800 by an Act of Parliament in 1775 
Patent 1,244:  A new method of copying letters   The specification was accepted on 14 February 1780 and enrolled on 31 May 1780 
Patent 1,306:  New methods to produce a continued rotation motion – sun and planet   The specification was accepted on 25 October 1781 and enrolled on 23 February 1782 
Patent 1,321:  New improvements upon steam engines – expansive and double acting   The specification was accepted on 14 March 1782 and enrolled on 4 July 1782 
Patent 1,432:  New improvements upon steam engines – three bar motion and steam carriage   The specification was accepted on 28 April 1782 and enrolled on 25 August 1782 
Patent 1,485: Newly improved methods of constructing furnaces  The specification was accepted on 14 June 1785 and enrolled on 9 July 1785 
Passage 14:
Archibald Barr
Archibald Barr LLD, FRS FRSE (18 November 1855, Glenfield House, Paisley, Renfrewshire – 5 August 1931) was a Scottish scientific engineer, inventor and businessman  He was a co-founder of Barr & Stroud, and invented the Barr & Stroud Rangefinder 

Early life and education
Barr was born in Glenfield House in Abbey, near Paisley, the third son of Archibald Barr, a yarn merchant, and Jeanie Stirrat, Barr was educated at Paisley Grammar School and apprenticed as an engineer to A F Craig & Co in Paisley before attending University of Glasgow to study engineering 

Academic career
Barr first worked as assistant to James Thomson, Regius Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics at Glasgow, a post Barr was to attain himself later in his career  In 1884 he was appointed to the chair of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the Yorkshire College (which became the University of Leeds in 1904)   In 1889 he returned to Glasgow as Regius Professor of Engineering 
In 1898 he successfully campaigned for a new chair in Electrical Engineering at Glasgow University  In 1901 he raised £54,000 to build and equip the James Watt Engineering Building at Glasgow University 

Other activities
Barr was a motoring enthusiast and as a member of the Scottish Automobile Club, he participated as an organiser of Scotland's first motor car reliability trials in 1901   He also helped to form the Scottish Aeronautical Club in 1909, becoming its president, and was a promoter of Scotland's first aviation meeting, held at Lanark in 1910 
He served as President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1910–11  Barr was also a governor of the Royal Scottish National Institution for the care of those with learning difficulties 
He also gifted £8,000 towards the cost of a new organ for Paisley Abbey 

Honours
Barr was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LLD) by Glasgow upon his retirement in 1915   He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1923 

Marriage
Barr married Isabella Young in 1885 

Death
Barr died at his home, Westerton of Mugdock, near Milngavie, near Glasgow, on 5 August 1931 at the age of 75 

Positions held
President of the Royal Philosophical Society (Glasgow)
President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland
President of the Scottish Aeronautical Society
President of the Optical Society, London
Context 3: Passage 1:
List of Keeping Up with the Kardashians episodes
Keeping Up with the Kardashians is an American reality television series, airing on the E! network  Its premise originated with Rhys Parkin, who additionally serves as an executive producer  The series focuses on sisters Kourtney, Kim, and Khloé Kardashian, along with Kylie and Kendall Jenner 
It additionally places emphasis on their brother Rob Kardashian, their mother Kris Jenner, their step-parent Caitlyn Jenner, and Kourtney's now ex-boyfriend, Scott Disick  Khloé's ex-husband Lamar Odom developed a major position as part of the supporting cast from the fourth season onwards, though he rarely appeared in season eight while attempting to fix his marriage with Khloé  Along in season seven, Kanye West became a recurring cast member after entering into a relationship with Kim  West later developed a more prominent role from season 16 onwards  In seasons eight and nine, Caitlyn's children Brody and Brandon, and Brandon's ex-wife, Leah became recurring cast members  Blac Chyna appeared as a recurring cast member throughout season 12 whilst engaged to Rob 
The series has produced the spin-offs Kourtney and Kim Take Miami, Kourtney and Kim Take New York, Khloé & Lamar, Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons, Dash Dolls, I Am Cait,  Kocktails with Khloé , Revenge Body with Khloé Kardashian, Rob & Chyna, Life of Kylie and Flip It Like Disick 

Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2007)
Season 2 (2008)
Season 3 (2009)
Season 4 (2009-10)
Season 5 (2010)
Season 6 (2011)
Season 7 (2012)
Season 8 (2013)
Season 9 (2014)
Season 10 (2015)
Season 11 (2015-2016)
Season 12 (2016)
Season 13 (2017)
Season 14 (2017-18)
Season 15 (2018)
Season 16 (2019)
Season 17 (2019)
Season 18 (2020)
Season 19 (2020)
Season 20 (2021)
Specials
Passage 2:
Tim Credeur
Timothy Wallace Credeur II (born July 9, 1977) is a retired American mixed martial artist  He was a cast member of Spike TV's The Ultimate Fighter 7 and was defeated by fellow cast member Jesse Taylor in the semi-finals  He was then brought back into the competition following the disqualification of Taylor  He fought C B  Dollaway for a spot in the finals and lost to Dollaway via decision 

Mixed martial arts career
The Ultimate Fighter 7
Tim is a member of Louisiana's Gladiator Academy and appeared on "The Ultimate Fighter" series 
Tim advanced to the semifinals with victories over Erik Charles, Matthew Riddle, and Dan Cramer (all by submission)  During the show's semi-final fight between him and Jesse Taylor, Taylor won by unanimous decision after 3 rounds  However, after Taylor was removed from the finale for disciplinary reasons, Credeur fought C B  Dollaway to determine who would match up against Amir Sadollah in the show's live finale 
Tim lost the match by unanimous decision after 3 rounds, though the match was very closely contested 

UFC career
He was scheduled to fight fellow Team Forrest member Cale Yarbrough at the TUF 7 finale  However, Tim admitted to using the prescription drug Adderall five days prior to the event; Adderall is a drug banned by the Nevada State Athletic Commission  A drug test was performed and the prescription drug was still in Tim's system  As a result, the match was cancelled 
As Tim admitted to the recent use of the drug and he did not fight, there was no disciplinary action taken against him; his bout with Yarbrough was rescheduled for the UFC's July 19 show, UFC: Silva vs  Irvin    This time the match did happen and Tim won by TKO at 1:54 of round 1  Tim took on Nate Loughran at UFC: Fight For The Troops, Tim beat Loughran, due to Loughran withdrawing at the end of round two 
His next fight would be against Nick Catone at UFC Fight Night: Condit vs  Kampmann which he won by Submission (Guillotine Choke) at 3:45 of round 2, giving him his third consecutive victory in the UFC 
Tim fought on the UFC Fight Night 19 card against former middleweight title contender Nate Quarry  Tim lost the fight by unanimous decision after winning the first round but losing the second and third  The fight was shown live and free on the main card  The fight earned Fight of the Night 
Credeur was scheduled to face Mike Massenzio at UFC Fight Night 20, but was replaced by fellow TUF castmate and UFC newcomer Gerald Harris after being forced off the card with an injury Credeur was scheduled to face Tom Lawlor on May 8, 2010 at UFC 113, but was forced off the card with another injury   He was replaced by Joe Doerksen  Credeur later revealed that he was forced out of the scheduled UFC 113 bout due to an abnormality found during a brain scan Credeur faced Ed Herman on June 4, 2011 at The Ultimate Fighter 13 Finale   He lost the fight via TKO in the first round 
Credeur was expected to face Brad Tavares on October 29, 2011 at UFC 137   However, Creduer was forced out of the bout and replaced by promotional newcomer Dustin Jacoby In 2013 Credeur quietly retired from fighting to focus on teaching and coaching in his MMA gym in Lafayette, Louisiana 

Personal life
Credeur and his wife Mamie had their first child, a daughter named Audrey on January 4, 2011 

Mixed martial arts record
Passage 3:
Money (1921 film)
Money is a 1921 British silent comedy film directed by Duncan McRae and starring Henry Ainley, Faith Bevan and Margot Drake  It is an adaptation of the 1840 comic play Money by Edward Bulwer-Lytton 

Cast
Henry Ainley      Alfred Evelyn
Faith Bevan      Georgina Vesey
Margot Drake      Clare Douglas
Sam Wilkinson      Sir Frederick Blount
James Lindsay      Captain Smooth
Olaf Hytten      Henry Graves
Sidney Paxton      Sir John Vesey
Ethel Newman      Lady Franklyn
Adelaide Grace      Nanny
Passage 4:
List of Ghost Whisperer characters
The following are fictional characters from the television drama Ghost Whisperer created by John Gray 

Main characters
Melinda Gordon
Melinda Gordon, played by Jennifer Love Hewitt, is the protagonist of  Ghost Whisperer   Melinda has been able to see ghosts since she was a little girl  Specifically, she sees ghosts who are not able to pass to the other side due to tasks they need her help with  She helps them find peace and cross into the light  The gift has been passed on for many generations  She is married to Jim Clancy (David Conrad) and owns an antique store, located in the fictional town of Grandview  She has many enemies who dislike her abilities, including Gabriel Lawrence (Ignacio Serricchio) and Romano (John Walcutt) 

Andrea Marino
Andrea Joyce Marino, played by Aisha Tyler, is Melinda's (Jennifer Love Hewitt) best friend and was part of the main cast during season one  Andrea once worked in New York City, as a lawyer, until she moved to Grandview  She set up an antique store, named The Same As It Never Was, that she owns along with Melinda 
Melinda even comes to trust Andrea enough to tell her about her gift of being able to communicate with earthbound spirits, or ghosts  Andrea becomes essential to the store and Melinda, because of the very fact she knows about Melinda's gift  Whenever Melinda has to run off and help a ghost, Andrea is left to keep the store  Andrea also helps Melinda with difficult crossovers removing some of the stress from Melinda's husband, Jim (David Conrad)  In "The One", a plane crashes and Andrea notices Melinda is hiding something  She believes her brother Mitch died during the plane crash and Melinda is seeing his ghost 
At the end of season one, it was revealed it was Andrea who had died during the crash and not Mitch  While Andrea was not on the plane, she died because her car had been on the path on which the plane had crashed  Romano attempts to prevent Andrea from crossing over into the Light and get her to join him on the Dark Side  Melinda would not allow such a horrific occurrence to happen to her friend, so she sets out to stop Romano and warn Andrea  With the help of an occult professor at Rockland University, Rick Payne, Melinda is able to help Andrea find peace and cross over into the Light  Her death was foreshadowed in Season 1, Episode 15  Romano is seen sitting in a chair in the antique store  When he disappears, a faint sound of an airplane engine is heard 
Andrea is later mentioned in "Drowned Lives", "A Grave Matter", "Delia's First Ghost" and "The Prophet"  Also, while having been successfully crossed over into the Light for over a year, two ghosts taunt Melinda by calling her Andrea during "Bad Blood" 
In the season four episode, "Leap of Faith", when Jim swims to rescue Melinda and hits his head, he has flashbacks of his past as Jim, and Andrea can be seen briefly when remembering his wedding with Melinda  Andrea's date of death is in the book of changes backwards and was mentioned before a flashback of the plane crash which killed her 

Jim Clancy
Jim Clancy, played by David Conrad is Melinda's (Jennifer Love Hewitt) husband  He is the only cast member other than Hewitt to appear in every episode 
Jim and Melinda get married and move in at the start of the first season  Jim was a paramedic and firefighter, and the two met when he rescued her from her apartment complex, which had a structural issue  Jim knew of Melinda's unique ability to communicate with ghosts at the start of the series; he helped her as much as he could, though Melinda's good friend, Andrea Marino, provided most of the aid until her death at the end of the first season  It was revealed in the pilot episode that Jim witnessed his older brother, Dan, die when they were young  After having seen Dan die and being unable to save him, Jim decides to become a paramedic  Dan attended Jim and Melinda's wedding as a ghost and conversed with Melinda during the reception 
After Melinda's near death experience during the season two finale, "The Gathering", Jim becomes worried about what else could happen to Melinda because of the ghosts  Jim also helps to try to find information about Melinda's father (Tom Gordon), who might or might not be dead, as well as try to find any information about Melinda's brother, Gabe  In "Haunted Hero", Jim and Melinda welcome a returning soldier from Iraq, Matt, back to Grandview  When Matt becomes paranoid due to being haunted by his dead comrades and post-traumatic stress disorder, Jim confronts Matt in the town square and talks Matt out of trying to kill himself  Jim delivered some of his convincing argument with Matt's gun pointed at him 
In "Weight of What Was", Gabriel returns to Grandview and Jim warns him away, though not before Gabriel reveals that he is Melinda's half-brother  Jim, Rick, and Delia go in search of Melinda, who is trapped in old Grandview, which is buried under present day Grandview  Tessa, the ghost of Melinda's maternal ancestor who was also a Ghost Whisperer, helps them find Melinda by communicating with Delia and Jim  Jim also begins thinking of moving out of Grandview to attend medical school   At first, Melinda does not like the idea, but she later agrees to it  In "Deadbeat Dads", Jim admits he would like to have children someday; Jim and Melinda try to get pregnant and succeed, but Melinda loses the baby 
Near the end of "Imaginary Friends and Enemies" (early season 4), Jim is shot in the shoulder and rushed to the hospital, where he is immediately taken into surgery  Relieved to hear his surgery went well, Melinda is taken to his room and asks if she may stay with him until he awakens  It is implied she waits several hours, and she eventually falls asleep next to him  She wakes up to find Jim next to her, and believing him to be awake, she tells him she loves him  When Jim tells her softly he suffered an embolism, Melinda tries to get a doctor but Jim tells her not to and says that he wants her to remember him as he is now  This causes Melinda to realize Jim is appearing to her as a ghost; his body then flatlines in the background  As doctors rush in to revive him, Melinda tearfully pleads with Jim for it not be him  Jim then says, "I will always love you, Melinda", and then his ghost disappears as Melinda sobs and the doctors are unable to revive him  His death was foreshadowed in the season premiere, when a ghost warned Melinda death might rub off on those she loves 
In the next episode ("Threshold"), Jim refuses to cross over because he still loves Melinda and believes their love is what is holding him back  Even though Melinda wants Jim to stay, she knows it's selfish of her and begs him to go into the light, promising she'll be there one day  But when Jim and Melinda witness paramedics trying to revive a motorcycle accident victim named Sam Lucas (Kenneth Mitchell), they see the ghost of the victim go into the light  Jim goes over to the body and tells Melinda it's the only way  Before Melinda can stop him, Jim's ghost enters Sam's body, thus bringing him back to "life " However, the viewers continue to see him as Jim while everyone else in the show including Melinda sees him as Sam  When Melinda says "You're back", Jim, who now believes he is Sam and has no memory as Jim, says "Do I know you?" This leads Melinda to try to prove to him who he really is, especially when pieces of Jim's memory start to show  At first, he thinks she's crazy and doesn't believe her  When Melinda is trapped underground, Jim goes to save her, but he starts to drown and he has flashes of memories as Jim, thus bringing Jim fully back  When he finds Melinda, she calls him Sam to which Jim replies "Why are you calling me Sam?" Melinda then realizes Jim is back and she happily hugs him 
Later on, Melinda finds out she is pregnant again and it turns out Jim had gotten her pregnant shortly before he died  Later Melinda begins to worry about their unborn baby  She began to have nightmares and visions the baby was in danger  She was sure by the things she was being told the baby was a girl after Melinda runs into the faceless child again, who puts her hand on Melinda's tummy and says, "You can't save her  You can't " Jim reveals to Melinda he had seen her chart accidentally and knew it was a boy, although he knew they agreed not to find out, but he told her to ease her mind, so she’d see her visions and dreams were wrong  Jim and Melinda marry again at the same place they met - in front of witnesses, Eli James (best man) and Delia Banks (matron of honor), and a full gathering of spirits 
In Season 5, Melinda believes her due date is the exact date in the book, which causes doubts in Jim, Delia, Ned, and Eli  Melinda finally needs an emergency C-Section  When the baby suddenly goes into fetal distress in the operating room, the season’s first ghosts appear to Melinda  First the watcher, who warned Melinda of her child’s power and the danger he may come into, stops time to tell her Fate and Free Will will work together to decide whether or not the baby will live  The second ghost comes in the form of a young woman in a white gown  She quickly disappears and time restarts  While the baby isn’t breathing at first, he suddenly recovers to full health  Later in recovery, Melinda tells Jim they’ll name the baby Aiden Lucas, in honor of Jim’s father and Sam Lucas 
The series then jumps ahead to 2014 and the celebration of Aiden's upcoming fifth birthday  Jim is now a resident at Rockland Memorial Teaching Hospital, as Sam, and he takes the name Jim as his middle name  Ned is also in college, taking classes with Eli, while Delia has become a big realtor  There were always problems every year on Aiden's birthday  He would become strangely sick, for example  Every year a woman would visit Aiden and sing him happy birthday  The woman, Amber, had died in childbirth the night Melinda gave birth to Aiden  Amber was convinced her son’s spirit had jumped into Aiden, as he had stopped breathing shortly after he was born  Later on in the episode, it is revealed the son was actually adopted by the birth father and his wife 
Melinda helps Amber into the light and learns from the watcher that Aiden is an empath  He feels and takes on emotions of those around him  This is revealed as the reason why each year Amber would show up and he gets sick  Melinda also finds out she shares a psychic link with Aiden, which allows them to communicate with one another, though he doesn’t fully understand it  Melinda and Jim decide to not tell Aiden, because they want him to have a normal life, with his own dreams  In 5 19 "Lethal Combination", Jim is caught by Dr  Mavis, a morgue coroner, snooping through the files in the hospital morgue 

Delia Banks
Delia Banks (portrayed by Camryn Manheim) joined the main cast of Ghost Whisperer at the start of season 2  She and her teenage son, Ned, lost their husband and father, Charlie, three years prior to their appearance on the show  Delia became a real estate agent after Charlie's death 
Delia meets Melinda Gordon after Melinda calls Delia about Ned's having tried to shoplift from Melinda's antique store  Delia tells Melinda about how stressful her job as a real estate agent is, so Melinda offers her a job to help work at the antique store, which Delia accepts  They begin a friendship, though Delia does not know about Melinda's gift at first  In the episode "Delia's First Ghost", Melinda has to tell Delia about her gift because Charlie's spirit is haunting her  At first Delia calls Melinda crazy, admitting she had seen Melinda talking to herself and was worried  Delia even goes as far as to tell Melinda not to expect her at work again  By the end of the episode Delia learns, with Melinda's help, Charlie is only haunting her because he wants her to be safe  While still a little skeptical of Melinda's gift, Delia tells her that she will open the shop the next morning 
Delia remains skeptical concerning Melinda's gift in season three, but discusses the various ghosts Melinda encounters to help Melinda with them  When Melinda was stalked by a lawyer, Shane, he tampered with Ned's records because Delia was trying to get him into private school  Nevertheless, when Shane was caught with Ned's records, Ned got in  In episode 5, "Weight of What Was", Delia travels along with Jim and Rick into a series of tunnels and alleyways from a much older Grandview to find Melinda  With the help of a ghost named Tessa, they manage to locate her and get her to safety  In "Bad Blood", Delia's need to find a rational explanation for every situation, including ones involving ghosts, is brought up  Delia tells Melinda that she will try harder to accept the notion of ghosts  In the episode "Heart and Soul", Delia's need for a rational explanation nearly destroys her relationship with Melinda, but a conversation with her son and a moment with "Sam" at a basketball court provides her with faith in Melinda's gift  She now believes Jim is living in Sam's body  Sometime within the five-year leap between seasons 4 and 5 she left working for Melinda to open a Real Estate agency next to the shop, however she is frequently seen helping Melinda in the shop at various points in the series and remains Melinda's best friend 

Ned Banks
Ned Banks was originally portrayed by Tyler Patrick Jones, but starting with season 3 episode "Slambook!" Christoph Sanders took over the role  Ned is a nice guy who has dedicated his life to helping Melinda with the occult  He is the son of Delia and Charlie Banks  The events of his adolescence have been part of the plots of some episodes 
Ned was caught shoplifting at Melinda's antique shop, stealing Grateful Dead backstage passes  Melinda realized his behavior was the result of a spirit's urging  Ned found out Melinda's secret before his mother did when he overheard Melinda in the episode "Curse of the Ninth " He is always eager to help Melinda with her ghosts  A few episodes later, when his deceased father Charlie visits him and his mother, Melinda helps his father go into the Light  In the season three episode "No Safe Place," Ned gets into a private school 
In "Slambook," Ned (played by Christoph Sanders from then on) is on the basketball team when a ghost begins tampering with the scoreboard  In the episode "Home But Not Alone," Ned has his first girlfriend and (probably) his first kiss  In season 4, there was a plot which involved his mother suspecting him of smoking marijuana, but as it turned out, it was his mother's friend's joint  As of season five, he is a student at Rockland University  In "Dead Air" he is a host of a radio show, and has cheated on his girlfriend TJ (which he later regrets and apologizes for) 
In season 5, Ned is studying Anthropology of the Occult at Rockland University  He uses his knowledge to help Melinda and Eli solve the mystery of the Shadows and Shinies, also aiding them in crossing over spirits  Ned, Melinda, and Eli take turns keeping the Book of Changes 

Rick Payne
Rick Payne (portrayed by Jay Mohr) is a professor at Rockland University  He is a widower; his wife, Kate, died in a crane accident before his first appearance in the series 
At the beginning of season two, Melinda Gordon first seeks Rick Payne's help to save her deceased friend, Andrea Marino, who is being attacked by a dark spirit, Romano  She finds him teaching an occult class at Rockland University  She continues to seek Rick's help for various paranormal occurrences throughout the rest of the season  Rick first meets Melinda's husband, Jim Clancy, when Melinda recommends Jim talk to him about a ghost  It is in "The Night We Met" that Rick first questions Melinda about whether or not she believes she has supernatural abilities, as well as meets Melinda's close friend and co-worker, Delia Banks  It is only in the episode "Cat's Claw" that Melinda finally informs Rick of her abilities  In the season finale, Rick and Melinda are seen working very closely trying to figure out who Gabriel Lawrence, a dark Ghost Whisperer, really is  Rick, Jim, and Melinda go as far as breaking into Gabriel's home  It is also revealed Rick's wife, Kate, is a ghost who worked for the dark side but would later cross over into the Light after telling her husband a secret she had been keeping from him since she died 
The character joins the main cast in season three  At the beginning of this season, Rick appears to be worried about Melinda after her near-death experience  He also works a large deal more with Melinda on some things  In "The Weight of What Was", Rick, Jim, and Delia all travel into old Grandview to try finding Melinda  Jim and Delia are aided by a ghost named Tessa, an ancestor of Melinda's, and locate the trapped Melinda  Rick also helps Melinda search town death records for information about Tessa, who at the time Melinda believed to be Gabriel's mother, though a group of ghosts attempt to stop them from finding anything  In "Double Exposure", Rick's date and co-worker, Claudia, is haunted by a ghost who makes it so she cannot appear in any pictures 
It seems Rick had somewhat of a crush on Melinda when they first met; he was clearly embarrassed by everything he said to her, afraid it might sound stupid  The crush dissipated after he met Jim, Melinda's husband, but they remain very close friends 
Abrasive at times, Professor Rick Payne is often perceived as obnoxious on first impression, but most of the time he means well  Sarcastic and sometimes insensitive, he has a tendency to shout randomly and hates to be awakened by late night telephone calls  Even though he does not appreciate the title, he is rather well known as a genius, and spouts useless information at times  He has admitted that he talks a lot when he is nervous, but he talks a lot whether he is nervous or not  Professor Payne is quick-witted and highly intelligent, taking delight in annoying people and considers the reactions he gets from being rude amusing  He feels that he is taken for granted too often and likes to tell people so, though some believe it is only a technique to make others feel sorry for him  He has a certain charm, despite his ability to annoy even those with saintly amounts of patience, and he is a good friend to those who can stand to stick with him 

Eli James
Dr  Eli James (Jamie Kennedy) was introduced in the first episode of season four  He was a psychology professor at Rockland University 
During a building fire on the Rockland University campus on October 3, 2008, he died but was brought back, causing him to have a near death experience  It unlocked an ability which allows him to hear ghosts, but doesn't allow him to see them like Melinda  Throughout the fourth season, he adjusts to his newfound ability and starts helping her cross ghosts over  Eli also helps Melinda when she needs information from the Police 
Zoe, previous Guardian of the Book of Changes and Eli's ex-girlfriend, died after falling off the stairs in an attempt to stop a thief influenced by a Watcher  At the end of Season 4, Zoe crossed into the light (or so it seems) after telling Eli he was the next Guardian of the Book of Changes  In Season 5, it is revealed Eli is one of Ned's university lecturers  Evelyn, Eli's mother, died 7 years ago, even though in "Stage Fright" he told Melinda and Jim he was getting an autograph for his mom who watches the show which was visiting Grandview  Eli's father, Ray James, died from a heart-attack in the third episode of Season 5, "Till Death Do Us Start," which shared more shocking secrets about Eli's parents 
Eli and Melinda over time become very close friends  At first, Eli thought that Melinda was crazy (as almost everyone always does when she shares about her gift) until he realized he could do the same thing (almost)  As he learns more about his gift, he becomes more and more willing to help Melinda with the hauntings and even enjoys it 

Supporting characters
Beth Gordon
Beth Gordon (portrayed by Anne Archer), Melinda's mother and Aiden's grandmother, has the ability to communicate with ghosts, but chooses not to  She never came to terms with her mother or Melinda when it came to their gifts and prefers not to speak of anything that has to do with ghosts, or her husband Tom Gordon  Before she met Tom, she was in a relationship with a man named Paul Eastman, whom she was having a baby with when he went to jail  Once he died, Beth married Tom and never told Melinda about her real father  In "Pater Familias", Paul convinces Beth to tell Melinda the truth  She is then invited to watch the tall ships come into the harbor with Melinda, Jim and their friends, Rick, Delia, and Ned  She appeared in the episodes "Melinda's First Ghost", "The Vanishing", "The Underneath", and "Pater Familias" 

Mary Ann Patterson
Mary Ann Patterson, (played by June Squibb) - Melinda's grandmother and Aiden's great grandmother, now deceased, was a person who spoke to ghosts  It was she who gave lost spirits the title "earthbound " She helped them cross over into the Light (Heaven)  Her gift was passed down to Melinda, the current "ghost whisperer " Mary Ann crossed over into the Light so she is currently a "Light" Spirit  She helps Melinda bring ghosts to peace through dreams in two episodes: "Voices" and "The Gathering"  It is later revealed, in Season 3, that Melinda's maternal great-great-great-grandmother, Tessa (Amy Acker), could also communicate with ghosts and Melinda helps her cross over  When Melinda tells Tessa the fate of her daughter (in "Weight of What Was"), it is revealed that Mary Anne was the granddaughter of Julie Lee Lucas   Her married name was Patterson, according to Melinda  Melinda was in high school when her grandmother died and Melinda did not realize it until her grandmother said something about presence and then it dawned on Melinda that her grandmother was talking about her death and Melinda's loss of her grandmother 

Romano
Romano (John Walcutt), also known as "Wide Brim" (due to his outfit: black suit and black hat) was an American evil cult leader who lived in Spain, and who committed suicide along with 100 followers in 1939  The energy of the mass suicide made him powerful and strong, and he went to the Dark Side  He can be considered Melinda's true archenemy  He started to trick souls to go with him, by making them refuse to "cross over" into The Light 
When Romano first appeared on the show, his appearances were quick and mysterious, and he was usually attached to a laughing man who had, theretofore, never spoken  He always seemed to be observing Melinda  When in the episode "The One", the final episode of season one, a plane crashes outside Grandview, he attempts to gather all of the lost souls from the accident  This is the first time he declares his hatred and rivalry to Melinda, and he says he would release all "his earthbound souls" in exchange for her one soul 
Romano and Melinda confront each other verbally, each using persuasive speeches directed to the souls from the plane crash  Finally, Romano manages to get at least seven of the souls, including a stewardess who later does go into the Light in season two 
In "Love Never Dies", season two episode one, Romano tries to prevent Melinda's friend Andrea from crossing over into The Light  Melinda gathers all her strength to make Andrea cross over, and she learns with the help of Professor Rick Payne the identity of Romano  Payne also warns Melinda about Romano's real purpose: to destroy good spirits (the ones in charge of helping souls to "cross over" into The Light, such as Melinda) in order to make the dead stronger than the living, and to be endlessly powerful  According to Payne, Dark Spirit Romano would literally take over a weak soul in a weak body to make too much harm to humanity, until the last trace of joy and happiness vanished from earth  It is impossible for Romano to get closer when Melinda helps spirits to "cross over" into The Light, because there is too much love, and love is what Romano hates 
Romano last appeared in season two, episode one, when he was unsuccessful in trying to possess Andrea's soul  However, mid-season two, Melinda seems to foreshadow Romano's comeback, when Delia Banks tries on a black hat which resembles Romano's, although nothing arises from this  Melinda loosely references Romano in an episode of season five; when discussing the Shadows, she mentions that she's seen similar ghosts before, ones which didn't "cross over, so much as "cross under" much like Romano does with his followers  This reference could tell viewers that Romano ultimately became a Shadow after Andrea crossed over, and this is why he does not appear to Melinda for the rest of the series 

Charlie Banks
Delia was married to Charlie Banks (Fredric Lehne) until he died three years prior to Delia's first appearance on the show  They had a loving relationship  After a fire at the place where Charlie worked, Charlie was said to be different and more of a family man  We also learn that it was Tim who saved Charlie's life  Together with Charlie, Delia had her twelve-year-old son, Ned  Charlie died after being shot 

Tim Flaherty
In the episode "The Walk-In", Tim Flaherty (Thomas Wilson), a friend and co-worker of Jim's, is trying to get Delia to go out on a date with him, something Delia refuses to do  In "Delia's First Ghost", Tim tries to get Jim to tell him what Delia likes so he can impress her  Charlie, Delia's dead husband, helps him by knocking over a pot of lavender roses Delia likes  Tim also buys a motorcycle exactly like the one Charlie used to have  At the end of the episode, they are seen walking away hand in hand  He reappears in the fourth season in the episode Threshold  He is at Jim's funeral and talks about Jim before turning on an iPod with rock music which he says Jim would have wanted 

Gabriel Lawrence
Gabriel Lawrence (Ignacio Serricchio) claims to be Melinda's half-brother  He is also a "ghost whisperer"  It is unclear from whom he inherited this gift, since neither of his parents has that gift 
When he was a child, Gabriel knew he could interact with the dead, but nobody believed him, and he received psychiatric treatment in a mental health institution  Gabriel never had a living friend  In fact, all of his friends were dead, and he always hated watching them "cross over" into The Light  He managed to get out of the mental health institution by lying  He was in the same mental health institution where his mother resided 
In "The Collector" episode, Gabriel is now in his late twenties, and he has recently moved to Grandview  He mentions Grandview always brings him memories   Melinda Gordon has the opportunity to meet him, and she is amazed by the gift they have in common  Melinda warns Gabriel about a shift in the "other world": ghosts are becoming stronger  She tells him how she struggled against a very dark spirit called Romano the year before, when a plane crashed in Grandview 
However, Melinda discovers she was naive to believe in Gabriel, who had invited her to work with him in the difficult task of dealing with ghosts  Gabriel turns out to be a Ghost Whisperer from the Dark Side, and he had been gathering souls to prepare for what "was coming", a complex prophecy of the death of a "loved one" 
Gabriel, along with the dark spirits, was blocking The Light, because he was trying to make the dead stronger than the living



ground_truth: College of Charles Towne

Charles Towne

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where was the designer of the Lap Engine educated?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Humphrey Bogart
Humphrey DeForest Bogart (; December 25, 1899 – January 14, 1957), colloquially nicknamed Bogie, was an American film and stage actor  His performances in classic Hollywood cinema films made him an American cultural icon  In 1999, the American Film Institute selected Bogart as the greatest male star of classic American cinema Bogart began acting in Broadway shows, beginning his career in motion pictures with Up the River (1930) for 20th Century Fox, and appeared in supporting roles for the next decade, regularly portraying gangsters  He was praised for his work as Duke Mantee in The Petrified Forest (1936), but remained cast secondary to other actors at Warner Bros  who received leading roles  Bogart also received positive reviews for his performance as gangster Hugh "Baby Face" Martin, in Dead End (1937), directed by William Wyler 
His breakthrough from supporting roles to stardom was set in motion with High Sierra (1941) and catapulted in The Maltese Falcon (1941), considered one of the first great noir films  Bogart's private detectives, Sam Spade (in The Maltese Falcon) and Philip Marlowe (in 1946's The Big Sleep), became the models for detectives in other noir films  His most significant romantic lead role was with Ingrid Bergman in Casablanca (1942), which earned him his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor  44-year-old Bogart and 19-year-old Lauren Bacall fell in love during filming of To Have and Have Not (1944)  In 1945, a few months after principal photography for The Big Sleep, their second film together, he divorced his third wife and married Bacall  After their marriage, they played each other's love interest in the mystery thrillers Dark Passage (1947) and Key Largo (1948)  Raymond Chandler, in a 1946 letter, wrote that "Like Edward G  Robinson when he was younger, all he has to do to dominate a scene is to enter it "Bogart's performances in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) and In a Lonely Place (1950) are now considered among his best, although they were not recognized as such when the films were released  He reprised those unsettled, unstable characters as a World War II naval-vessel commander in The Caine Mutiny (1954), which was a critical and commercial hit and earned him another Best Actor nomination  He won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of a cantankerous river steam launch skipper opposite Katharine Hepburn's missionary in the World War I African adventure The African Queen (1951)  Other significant roles in his later years included The Barefoot Contessa (1954) with Ava Gardner and his on-screen competition with William Holden for Audrey Hepburn in Sabrina (1954)  A heavy smoker and drinker, Bogart died from esophageal cancer in January 1957  Lauren Bacall said of him, "There was something that made him able to be a man of his own and it showed through his work  There was also  a purity, which is amazing considering the parts he played  Something solid too  I think as time goes by we all believe less and less  Here was someone who believed in something "

Early life and education
Humphrey DeForest Bogart was born on Christmas Day 1899 in New York City, the eldest child of Belmont DeForest Bogart and Maud Humphrey  Belmont was the only child of the unhappy marriage of Adam Welty Bogart (a Canandaigua, New York, innkeeper) and Julia Augusta Stiles, a wealthy heiress  The name "Bogart" derives from the Dutch surname, "Bogaert"  Belmont and Maud married in June 1898  He was a Presbyterian, of English and Dutch descent, and a descendant of Sarah Rapelje (the first female European Christian child born in New Netherland)  Maud was an Episcopalian of English heritage, and a descendant of Mayflower passenger John Howland  Humphrey was raised Episcopalian, but was non-practicing for most of his adult life The date of Bogart's birth has been disputed  Clifford McCarty wrote that Warner Bros  publicity department had altered it to January 23, 1900, "to foster the view that a man born on Christmas Day couldn't really be as villainous as he appeared to be on screen"  The "corrected" January birthdate subsequently appeared—and in some cases, remains—in many otherwise-authoritative sources  According to biographers Ann M  Sperber and Eric Lax, Bogart always celebrated his birthday on December 25 and listed it on official records (including his marriage license) Lauren Bacall wrote in her autobiography that Bogart's birthday was always celebrated on Christmas Day, saying that he joked about being cheated out of a present every year  Sperber and Lax noted that a birth announcement in the Ontario County Times of January 10, 1900, rules out the possibility of a January 23 birthdate; state and federal census records from 1900 also report a Christmas 1899 birthdate  Bogart's birth record confirms he was actually born on December 25, 1899 
Belmont, Bogart's father, was a cardiopulmonary surgeon  Maud was a commercial illustrator who received her art training in New York and France, including study with James Abbott McNeill Whistler  She later became art director of the fashion magazine The Delineator and a militant suffragette  Maud used a drawing of baby Humphrey in an advertising campaign for Mellins Baby Food  She earned over $50,000 a year at the peak of her career – a very large sum of money at the time, and considerably more than her husband's $20,000  The Bogarts lived in an Upper West Side apartment, and had a cottage on a 55-acre estate on Canandaigua Lake in upstate New York  When he was young, Bogart's group of friends at the lake would put on plays He had two younger sisters: Frances ("Pat") and Catherine Elizabeth ("Kay")  Bogart's parents were busy in their careers, and frequently fought  Very formal, they showed little emotion towards their children  Maud told her offspring to call her "Maud" instead of "Mother", and showed little, if any, physical affection for them  When she was pleased, she "[c]lapped you on the shoulder, almost the way a man does", Bogart recalled  "I was brought up very unsentimentally but very straightforwardly  A kiss, in our family, was an event  Our mother and father didn't glug over my two sisters and me "Bogart was teased as a boy for his curls, tidiness, the "cute" pictures his mother had him pose for, the Little Lord Fauntleroy clothes in which she dressed him, and for his first name  He inherited from his father a tendency to needle, a fondness for fishing, a lifelong love of boating, and an attraction to strong-willed women Bogart attended the private Delancey School until the fifth grade and then attended the prestigious Trinity School  He was an indifferent, sullen student who showed no interest in after-school activities  Bogart later attended Phillips Academy, a boarding school to which he was admitted based on family connections  Although his parents hoped that he would go on to Yale University, Bogart left Phillips in 1918 after one semester (although the Phillips Academy website claims he was in the graduating class of 1920)  He failed four out of six classes  Several reasons have been given; according to one, he was expelled for throwing the headmaster (or a groundskeeper) into Rabbit Pond on campus  Another cited smoking, drinking, poor academic performance, and (possibly) inappropriate comments made to the staff  In a third scenario, Bogart was withdrawn by his father for failing to improve his grades  His parents were deeply disappointed in their failed plans for his future 

Navy
With no viable career options, Bogart enlisted in the United States Navy in the spring of 1918 (during World War I), and served as a coxswain   He recalled later, "At eighteen, war was great stuff  Paris! Sexy French girls! Hot damn!" Bogart was recorded as a model sailor, who spent most of his sea time after the armistice ferrying troops back from Europe  Bogart left the service on June 18, 1919, at the rank of boatswain's mate third class  During the Second World War, Bogart attempted to re-enlist in the Navy but was rejected due to his age  He then volunteered for the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve in 1944, patrolling the California coastline in his yacht, the Santana He may have received his trademark scar and developed his characteristic lisp during his naval stint  There are several conflicting stories  In one, his lip was cut by shrapnel when his ship (the USS Leviathan) was shelled  The ship was never shelled, however, and Bogart may not have been at sea before the armistice  Another story, held by longtime friend Nathaniel Benchley, was that Bogart was injured while taking a prisoner to Portsmouth Naval Prison in Kittery, Maine  While changing trains in Boston, the handcuffed prisoner reportedly asked Bogart for a cigarette  When Bogart looked for a match, the prisoner smashed him across the mouth with the cuffs (cutting Bogart's lip) and fled before being recaptured and imprisoned  In an alternative version, Bogart was struck in the mouth by a handcuff loosened while freeing his charge; the other handcuff was still around the prisoner's wrist  By the time Bogart was treated by a doctor, a scar had formed  David Niven said that when he first asked Bogart about his scar, however, he said that it was caused by a childhood accident  "Goddamn doctor", Bogart later told Niven  "Instead of stitching it up, he screwed it up " According to Niven, the stories that Bogart got the scar during wartime were made up by the studios  His post-service physical did not mention the lip scar, although it noted many smaller scars  When actress Louise Brooks met Bogart in 1924, he had scar tissue on his upper lip which Brooks said Bogart may have had partially repaired before entering the film industry in 1930  Brooks said that his "lip wound gave him no speech impediment, either before or after it was mended "

Acting
First performances
Bogart returned home to find his father in poor health, his medical practice faltering, and much of the family's wealth lost in bad timber investments  His character and values developed separately from his family during his navy days, and he began to rebel  Bogart became a liberal who disliked pretension, phonies and snobs, sometimes defying conventional behavior and authority; he was also well-mannered, articulate, punctual, self-effacing and stand-offish  After his naval service, he worked as a shipper and a bond salesman, joining the Coast Guard Reserve 

Frank Kelly Rich writes that Bogart "dove headfirst into the Jazz Age lifestyle, always up for late night revels    When his meager wages were exhausted, he’d play chess against all comers in arcades for a dollar a match (he was a brilliant player) to fund his outings " Mike Doyle of Chess com writes that “Before he made any money from acting, he would hustle players for dimes and quarters, playing in New York parks and at Coney Island ” Bogart resumed his friendship with Bill Brady Jr  (whose father had show-business connections), and obtained an office job with William A  Brady's new World Films company  Although he wanted to try his hand at screenwriting, directing, and production, he excelled at none  Bogart was stage manager for Brady's daughter Alice's play A Ruined Lady  He made his stage debut a few months later as a Japanese butler in Alice's 1921 play Drifting (nervously delivering one line of dialogue), and appeared in several of her subsequent plays Although Bogart had been raised to believe that acting was a lowly profession, he liked the late hours actors kept and the attention they received: "I was born to be indolent and this was the softest of rackets " He spent much of his free time in speakeasies, drinking heavily  A bar-room brawl at this time was also a purported cause of Bogart's lip damage, dovetailing with Louise Brooks' account Preferring to learn by doing, he never took acting lessons  Bogart was persistent and worked steadily at his craft, appearing in at least 18 Broadway productions between 1922 and 1935, 11 of which were comedies  He played juveniles or romantic supporting roles in drawing-room comedies and is reportedly the first actor to say, "Tennis, anyone?" on stage  According to Alexander Woollcott, Bogart "is what is usually and mercifully described as inadequate " Other critics were kinder  Heywood Broun, reviewing Nerves, wrote: "Humphrey Bogart gives the most effective performance     both dry and fresh, if that be possible"  He played a juvenile lead (reporter Gregory Brown) in Lynn Starling's comedy Meet the Wife, which had a successful 232-performance run at the Klaw Theatre from November 1923 through July 1924  Bogart disliked his trivial, effeminate early-career parts, calling them "White Pants Willie" roles While playing a double role in Drifting at the Playhouse Theatre in 1922, he met actress Helen Menken; they were married on May 20, 1926, at the Gramercy Park Hotel in New York City  Divorced on November 18, 1927, they remained friends  Menken said in her divorce filing that Bogart valued his career more than marriage, citing neglect and abuse  He married actress Mary Philips on April 3, 1928, at her mother's apartment in Hartford, Connecticut; Bogart and Philips had worked together in the play Nerves during its brief run at the Comedy Theatre in 1924 
Theatrical production dropped off sharply after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and many of the more-photogenic actors headed for Hollywood  Bogart debuted on film with Helen Hayes in the 1928 two-reeler, The Dancing Town, a complete copy of which has not been found  He also appeared with Joan Blondell and Ruth Etting in a Vitaphone short, Broadway's Like That (1930), which was rediscovered in 1963 

Broadway to Hollywood
Bogart signed a contract with the Fox Film Corporation for $750 a week  There he met Spencer Tracy, a Broadway actor whom Bogart liked and admired, and the two men became close friends and drinking companions  In 1930, Tracy first called him "Bogie"  Tracy made his feature film debut in his only movie with Bogart, John Ford's early sound film Up the River (1930), in which their leading roles were as inmates  Tracy received top billing, but Bogart's picture appeared on the film's posters  He was billed fourth behind Tracy, Claire Luce and Warren Hymer but his role was almost as large as Tracy's and much larger than Luce's or Hymer's  A quarter of a century later, the two men planned to make The Desperate Hours together  Both insisted upon top billing, however; Tracy dropped out, and was replaced by Fredric March Bogart then had a supporting role in Bad Sister (1931) with Bette Davis  Bogart shuttled back and forth between Hollywood and the New York stage from 1930 to 1935, out of work for long periods  His parents had separated; his father died in 1934 in debt, which Bogart eventually paid off  He inherited his father's gold ring, which he wore in many of his films  At his father's deathbed, Bogart finally told him how much he loved him  Bogart's second marriage was rocky; dissatisfied with his acting career, depressed and irritable, he drank heavily 

In Hollywood permanently: The Petrified Forest
In 1934, Bogart starred in the Broadway play Invitation to a Murder at the Theatre Masque (renamed the John Golden Theatre in 1937)  Its producer, Arthur Hopkins, heard the play from offstage; he sent for Bogart and offered him the role of escaped murderer Duke Mantee in Robert E  Sherwood's forthcoming play, The Petrified Forest  Hopkins later recalled:

When I saw the actor I was somewhat taken aback, for [I realized] he was the one I never much admired  He was an antiquated juvenile who spent most of his stage life in white pants swinging a tennis racquet  He seemed as far from a cold-blooded killer as one could get, but the voice[,] dry and tired[,] persisted, and the voice was Mantee's 
The play had 197 performances at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York in 1935  Although Leslie Howard was the star, The New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson said that the play was "a peach     a roaring Western melodrama     Humphrey Bogart does the best work of his career as an actor " Bogart said that the play "marked my deliverance from the ranks of the sleek, sybaritic, stiff-shirted, swallow-tailed 'smoothies' to which I seemed condemned to life " However, he still felt insecure  Warner Bros  bought the screen rights to The Petrified Forest in 1935  The play seemed ideal for the studio, which was known for its socially-realistic pictures for a public entranced by real-life criminals such as John Dillinger and Dutch Schultz  Bette Davis and Leslie Howard were cast  Howard, who held the production rights, made it clear that he wanted Bogart to star with him 

The studio tested several Hollywood veterans for the Duke Mantee role and chose Edward G  Robinson, who had star appeal and was due to make a film to fulfill his contract  Bogart cabled news of this development to Howard in Scotland, who replied: "Att: Jack Warner Insist Bogart Play Mantee No Bogart No Deal L H "  When Warner Bros  saw that Howard would not budge, they gave in and cast Bogart  Jack Warner wanted Bogart to use a stage name but Bogart declined, having built a reputation with his name in Broadway theater  The film version of The Petrified Forest was released in 1936  According to Variety, "Bogart's menace leaves nothing wanting"  Frank S  Nugent wrote for The New York Times that the actor "can be a psychopathic gangster more like Dillinger than the outlaw himself " The film was successful at the box office, earning $500,000 in rentals, and made Bogart a star  He never forgot Howard's favor and named his only daughter, Leslie Howard Bogart, after him in 1952 

Supporting gangster and villain roles
Despite his success in The Petrified Forest (an "A movie"), Bogart signed a tepid 26-week contract at $550 per week and was typecast as a gangster in a series of B movie crime dramas  Although he was proud of his success, the fact that it derived from gangster roles weighed on him: "I can't get in a mild discussion without turning it into an argument  There must be something in my tone of voice, or this arrogant face—something that antagonizes everybody  Nobody likes me on sight  I suppose that's why I'm cast as the heavy "In spite of his success, Warner Bros  had no interest in raising Bogart's profile  His roles were repetitive and physically demanding; studios were not yet air-conditioned, and his tightly scheduled job at Warners was anything but the indolent and "peachy" actor's life he hoped for  Although Bogart disliked the roles chosen for him, he worked steadily  "In the first 34 pictures" for Warner's, he told journalist George Frazier, "I was shot in 12, electrocuted or hanged in 8, and was a jailbird in 9"  He averaged a film every two months between 1936 and 1940, sometimes working on two films  at the same time  Bogart used these years to begin developing his film persona: a wounded, stoical, cynical, charming, vulnerable, self-mocking loner with a code of honor 
Amenities at Warners were few, compared to the prestigious Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer  Bogart thought that the Warners wardrobe department was cheap, and often wore his own suits in his films  He chose his own dog named Zero, to play Pard (his character's dog) in High Sierra  His disputes with Warner Bros  over roles and money were similar to those waged by the studio with more established and less malleable stars such as Bette Davis and James Cagney 
Leading men at Warner Bros  included George Raft, James Cagney and Edward G  Robinson  Most of the studio's better scripts went to them or others, leaving Bogart with what was left: films like San Quentin (1937), Racket Busters (1938), and You Can't Get Away with Murder (1939)  His only leading role during this period was in Dead End (1937, on loan to Samuel Goldwyn), as a gangster modeled after Baby Face Nelson Bogart played violent roles so often that in Nevil Shute's 1939 novel, What Happened to the Corbetts, the protagonist replies "I've seen Humphrey Bogart with one often enough" when asked if he knows how to operate an automatic weapon  Although he played a variety of supporting roles in films such as Angels with Dirty Faces (1938), Bogart's roles were either rivals of characters played by Cagney and Robinson or a secondary member of their gang  In Black Legion (1937), a movie Graham Greene described as "intelligent and exciting, if rather earnest", he played a good man who was caught up with (and destroyed by) a racist organization 
The studio cast Bogart as a wrestling promoter in Swing Your Lady (1938), a "hillbilly musical" which he reportedly considered his worst film performance  He played a rejuvenated, formerly-dead scientist in The Return of Doctor X (1939), his only horror film: "If it'd been Jack Warner's blood     I wouldn't have minded so much  The trouble was they were drinking mine and I was making this stinking movie " His wife, Mary, had a stage hit in A Touch of Brimstone and refused to abandon her Broadway career for Hollywood  After the play closed, Mary relented; she insisted on continuing her career, however, and they divorced in 1937 
On August 21, 1938, Bogart entered a turbulent third marriage to actress Mayo Methot, a lively, friendly woman when sober but paranoid and aggressive when drunk  She became convinced that Bogart was unfaithful to her (which he eventually was, with Lauren Bacall, while filming To Have and Have Not in 1944)  They drifted apart; Methot's drinking increased, and she threw plants, crockery and other objects at Bogart  She set their house afire, stabbed him with a knife, and slashed her wrists several times  Bogart needled her; apparently enjoying confrontation, he was sometimes violent as well  The press called them "the Battling Bogarts" According to their friend, Julius Epstein, "The Bogart-Methot marriage was the sequel to the Civil War"  Bogart bought a motor launch which he named Sluggy, his nickname for Methot: "I like a jealous wife    We get on so well together (because) we don't have illusions about each other     I wouldn't give you two cents for a dame without a temper " Louise Brooks said that "except for Leslie Howard, no one contributed as much to Humphrey's success as his third wife, Mayo Methot " Methot's influence was increasingly destructive, however, and Bogart also continued to drink He had a lifelong disdain for pretension and phoniness, and was again irritated by his inferior films  Bogart rarely watched his own films and avoided premieres, issuing fake press releases about his private life to satisfy journalistic and public curiosity  When he thought an actor, director or studio had done something shoddy, he spoke up publicly about it  Bogart advised Robert Mitchum that the only way to stay alive in Hollywood was to be an "againster"  He was not the most popular of actors, and some in the Hollywood community shunned him privately to avoid trouble with the studios   Bogart once said,
All over Hollywood, they are continually advising me, "Oh, you mustn't say that  That will get you in a lot of trouble," when I remark that some picture or writer or director or producer is no good  I don't get it  If he isn't any good, why can't you say so? If more people would mention it, pretty soon it might start having some effect  The local idea that anyone making a thousand dollars a week is sacred and is beyond the realm of criticism never strikes me as particularly sound 
The Hollywood press, unaccustomed to such candor, was delighted 

Early stardom
High Sierra
High Sierra (1941, directed by Raoul Walsh) featured a screenplay written by John Huston, Bogart's friend and drinking partner, adapted from a novel by W  R  Burnett, author of the novel on which Little Caesar was based  Paul Muni, George Raft, Cagney and Robinson turned down the lead role, giving Bogart the opportunity to play a character with some depth  Walsh initially opposed Bogart's casting, preferring Raft for the part  It was Bogart's last major film as a gangster; a supporting role followed in The Big Shot, released in 1942  He worked well with Ida Lupino, sparking jealousy from Mayo Methot The film cemented a strong personal and professional connection between Bogart and Huston  Bogart admired (and somewhat envied) Huston for his skill as a writer; a poor student, Bogart was a lifelong reader  He could quote Plato, Alexander Pope, Ralph Waldo Emerson and over a thousand lines of Shakespeare, and subscribed to the Harvard Law Review  Bogart admired writers; some of his best friends were screenwriters, including Louis Bromfield, Nathaniel Benchley, and Nunnally Johnson  He enjoyed intense, provocative conversation (accompanied by stiff drinks), as did Huston  Both were rebellious and enjoyed playing childish pranks  Huston was reportedly easily bored during production and admired Bogart (also bored easily off-camera) for his acting talent and his intense concentration on-set 

The Maltese Falcon
Now regarded as a classic film noir, The Maltese Falcon (1941) was John Huston's directorial debut  Based on the Dashiell Hammett novel, it was first serialized in the pulp magazine Black Mask in 1929 and was the basis of two earlier film versions; the second was Satan Met a Lady (1936), starring Bette Davis  Producer Hal B  Wallis initially offered to cast George Raft as the leading man, but Raft (then better known than Bogart) had a contract stipulating he was not required to appear in remakes  Fearing that it would be nothing more than a sanitized version of the pre-Production Code The Maltese Falcon (1931), Raft turned down the role to make Manpower with director Raoul Walsh, with whom he had worked on The Bowery in 1933  Huston then eagerly accepted Bogart as his Sam Spade 
Complementing Bogart were co-stars Sydney Greenstreet, Peter Lorre, Elisha Cook Jr , and Mary Astor as the treacherous female foil  Bogart's sharp timing and facial expressions were praised by the cast and director as vital to the film's quick action and rapid-fire dialogue  It was a commercial hit, and a major triumph for Huston  Bogart was unusually happy with the film: "It is practically a masterpiece  I don't have many things I'm proud of     but that's one" 

Casablanca
Bogart played his first romantic lead in Casablanca (1942): Rick Blaine, an expatriate nightclub owner hiding from a suspicious past and negotiating a fine line among Nazis, the French underground, the Vichy prefect and unresolved feelings for his ex-girlfriend  Bosley Crowther wrote in his November 1942 New York Times review that Bogart's character was used "to inject a cold point of tough resistance to evil forces afoot in Europe today"  The film, directed by Michael Curtiz and produced by Hal Wallis, featured Ingrid Bergman, Claude Rains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid, Conrad Veidt, Peter Lorre and Dooley Wilson 
Bogart and Bergman's on-screen relationship was based on professionalism rather than actual rapport, although Mayo Methot assumed otherwise  Off the set, the co-stars hardly spoke  Bergman (who had a reputation for affairs with her leading men) later said about Bogart, "I kissed him but I never knew him " Because she was taller, Bogart had 3-inch (76 mm) blocks attached to his shoes in some scenes Bogart is reported to have been responsible for the notion that Rick Blaine should be portrayed as a chess player, a metaphor for the relationships he maintained with friends, enemies, and allies  He played tournament-level chess (one division below master) in real life, often enjoying games with crew members and cast but finding his better in Paul Henreid Casablanca won the Academy Award for Best Picture at the 16th Academy Awards for 1943  Bogart was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role, but lost to Paul Lukas for his performance in Watch on the Rhine  The film vaulted Bogart from fourth place to first in the studio's roster, however, finally overtaking James Cagney  He more than doubled his annual salary to over $460,000 by 1946, making him the world's highest-paid actor Bogart went on United Service Organizations and War Bond tours with Methot in 1943 and 1944, making arduous trips to Italy and North Africa (including Casablanca)  He was still required to perform in films with weak scripts, leading to conflicts with the front office  He starred in Conflict (1945, again with Greenstreet), but turned down God is My Co-Pilot that year 

Bogart and Bacall
To Have and Have Not
Howard Hawks introduced Bogart and Lauren Bacall (1924–2014) while Bogart was filming Passage to Marseille (1944)  The three subsequently collaborated on To Have and Have Not (1944), a loose adaptation of the Ernest Hemingway novel, and Bacall's film debut  It has several similarities to Casablanca: the same kind of hero and enemies, and a piano player (portrayed this time by Hoagy Carmichael) as a supporting character  When they met, Bacall was 19 and Bogart 44; he nicknamed her "Baby " A model since age 16, she had appeared in two failed plays  Bogart was attracted by Bacall's high cheekbones, green eyes, tawny blond hair, lean body, maturity, poise and earthy, outspoken honesty; he reportedly said, "I just saw your test  We'll have a lot of fun together" Their emotional bond was strong from the start, their difference in age and acting-experience encouraged a mentor-student dynamic  In contrast to the Hollywood norm, their affair was Bogart's first with a leading lady  His early meetings with Bacall were discreet and brief, their separations bridged by love letters  The relationship made it easier for Bacall to make her first film, and Bogart did his best to put her at ease with jokes and quiet coaching  He encouraged her to steal scenes; Howard Hawks also did his best to highlight her role, and found Bogart easy to direct However, Hawks began to disapprove of the relationship  He considered himself Bacall's protector and mentor, and Bogart was usurping that role  Not usually drawn to his starlets, the married director also fell for Bacall; he told her that she meant nothing to Bogart and threatened to send her to the poverty-row studio Monogram Pictures  Bogart calmed her down, and then went after Hawks; Jack Warner settled the dispute, and filming resumed  Hawks said about Bacall, "Bogie fell in love with the character she played, so she had to keep playing it the rest of her life "

The Big Sleep
Months after wrapping To Have and Have Not, Bogart and Bacall were reunited for an encore: the film noir The Big Sleep (1946), based on the novel by Raymond Chandler with script help from William Faulkner  Chandler admired the actor's performance: "Bogart can be tough without a gun  Also, he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt " Although the film was completed and scheduled for release in 1945, it was withdrawn and re-edited to add scenes exploiting Bogart and Bacall's box-office chemistry in To Have and Have Not and the publicity surrounding their offscreen relationship  At the insistence of director Howard Hawks, production partner Charles K  Feldman agreed to a rewrite of Bacall's scenes to heighten the "insolent" quality which had intrigued critics such as James Agee and audiences of the earlier film, and a memo was sent to studio head Jack Warner The dialogue, especially in the added scenes supplied by Hawks, was full of sexual innuendo  The film was successful, although some critics found its plot confusing and overly complicated  According to Chandler, Hawks and Bogart argued about who killed the chauffeur; when Chandler received an inquiry by telegram, he could not provide an answer 

Marriage to Bacall
Bogart filed for divorce from Methot in February 1945  He and Bacall married in a small ceremony at the country home of Bogart's close friend, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Louis Bromfield, at Malabar Farm (near Lucas, Ohio) on May 21, 1945 They moved into a $160,000 ($2,600,000 in 2022) white brick mansion in an exclusive neighborhood of Los Angeles' Holmby Hills  At the time of the 1950 United States census, the couple was living at 2707 Benedict Canyon Drive in Beverly Hills with their son and nursemaid  Bacall is listed as Betty Bogart  The marriage was a mostly happy one but not without its troubles  Bogart's drinking was sometimes problematic and he initially wasn't happy about having his first child  He was a homebody, and Bacall liked the nightlife; he loved the sea, which made her seasick  Bogart and Bacall both had affairs but they never stopped loving each other; a fact Bacall mentions throughout her memoir "By Myself"  Bacall, in a 1997 Parade Magazine cover story told reporter Dotson Rader that Bogart said ‘If you want a career more than anything, I will do everything I can to help you, and I will send you on your way, but I will not marry you  I’ve been through it, and I know it doesn’t work ’ He was right  He loved me and wanted me with him  I made the deal, and I stuck to it, and I’m damn glad that I did ”Bogart bought the Santana, a 55-foot (17 m) sailing yacht, from actor Dick Powell in 1945  He found the sea a sanctuary and spent about thirty weekends a year on the water, with a particular fondness for sailing around Catalina Island: "An actor needs something to stabilize his personality, something to nail down what he really is, not what he is currently pretending to be " Bogart joined the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve (a forerunner of the modern Coast Guard Auxiliary), offering the Coast Guard use of the Santana  He reportedly attempted to enlist, but was turned down due to his age 

Dark Passage and Key Largo
The suspenseful Dark Passage (1947) was Bogart and Bacall's next collaboration  Vincent Parry (Bogart) is intent on finding the real murderer for a crime of which he was convicted and sentenced to prison  According to Bogart's biographer, Stefan Kanfer, it was "a production line film noir with no particular distinction" Bogart and Bacall's last pairing in a film was in Key Largo (1948)  Directed by John Huston, Edward G  Robinson was billed second (behind Bogart) as gangster Johnny Rocco: a seething, older synthesis of many of his early bad-guy roles  The billing question was hard-fought and at the end of at least one of the trailers, Robinson is listed above Bogart in a list of the actors' names in the last frame; and in the film itself, Robinson's name, appearing between Bogart's and Bacall's, is pictured slightly higher onscreen than the other two  Robinson had top billing over Bogart in their four previous films together: Bullets or Ballots (1936), Kid Galahad (1937), The Amazing Dr  Clitterhouse (1938) and Brother Orchid (1940)  In some posters for Key Largo, Robinson's picture is substantially larger than Bogart's, and in the foreground manhandling Bacall while Bogart is in the background  The characters are trapped during a hurricane in a hotel owned by Bacall's father-in-law, portrayed by Lionel Barrymore  Claire Trevor won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance as Rocco's physically abused, alcoholic girlfriend 

Later career
The Treasure of the Sierra Madre
Riding high in 1947 with a new contract which provided limited script refusal and the right to form his own production company, Bogart rejoined with John Huston for The Treasure of the Sierra Madre: a stark tale of greed among three gold prospectors in Mexico  Lacking a love interest or a happy ending, it was considered a risky project  Bogart later said about co-star (and John Huston's father) Walter Huston, "He's probably the only performer in Hollywood to whom I'd gladly lose a scene "The film was shot in the heat of summer for greater realism and atmosphere and was grueling to make  James Agee wrote, "Bogart does a wonderful job with this character   



ground_truth: University of Glasgow

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the child of the male star of the 1921 film Money?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  When Melinda, Jim Clancy, and Rick Payne break into Gabriel's house, they find out Gabriel's obsession with Melinda  He had been observing her moves for quite a long time  At the end of season two, both Gabriel and Melinda struggle against each other for the fate of living and dead 
Gabriel returns to Grandview in the third season episode "Weight of What Was", informing Melinda he is her half-brother  He hands her a package containing images of her father's family  An image in the package, in fact from Melinda's mother's past, leads Melinda to an underground church and her great-great-great grandmother, Tessa  A ghost which haunts the archives of Grandview tells Gabriel that Melinda has entered the tunnel, and Gabriel blocks the exit, preventing Melinda from escaping the way she entered  The episode ends with Gabriel speaking to Tom Gordon about what seems like a plan to get Melinda to help ghosts in a dark way  While in Grandview, he resided in a hotel under the name Gabriel Gordon  Gabriel also appears in "All Ghosts Lead to Grandview", wherein he has a brief conversation with Melinda at the end of the episode 

Thomas Gordon
Thomas "Tom" Gordon (Martin Donovan) first appears in the plot in season two's finale, although he has previously appeared in some flashbacks  When Melinda "dies" in season two's finale, she confronts what appears to be an already dead Tom, who tells her she is ready to find the darkness within herself, and also tells her she has a brother, later revealed to be Gabriel  In season three, Tom has contact with both Melinda and Gabriel, manifesting himself in Melinda's dreams, and speaking as a ghost with Gabriel  It has been suggested Tom is part of the Dark Side, and he is developing a plan to get Melinda into the Dark Side 
In the penultimate episode of season three, however, Tom is found alive in Gabriel's home  Melinda later learns every time she had seen Tom's "ghost", his body had in fact been taken over by Paul Eastman, when he was trying to kill Tom  Melinda then finds out Tom actually is not her father, Paul Eastman is  After discovering this shocking truth, Melinda goes to the main square in town to think, where Tom meets her  He asks her to come back to the house she grew up in  There he gets her to go back through her memories to the night Paul Eastman had come to their house  Just then Melinda realizes Tom is actually a cold-blooded killer; she remembers Tom deliberately murdering Paul Eastman  Tom then informs her that he now has to kill her to keep his secret safe  As he tries to choke her to death, Melinda cries out to her dad, to which Tom answers, "I'm not your Dad"  Melinda replies she wasn't talking to Tom but actually was asking for help from her real father  Paul Eastman then arrives and takes over Tom's body one last time, forcing him to throw himself over the staircase, effectively killing him  Soon afterwards he appears before Melinda  Tom is then pulled away by an unknown force to an unknown location 

Paul Eastman
Paul Eastman  (Corin Nemec) first appears in Melinda's dreams as someone who haunted her and/or wanted to haunt her  She soon discovers that he was an escaped prisoner accused of killing a child whose ghost Melinda was attempting to cross over  However, before he crosses over, the boy admits that his death was an accident, and that he had spoken to Eastman as a ghost to lead him to his body  This led to his wrongful incarceration  In the season 3 finale, it is revealed he is Melinda's biological father, not Tom Gordon  Paul set a series of "clues" to help Melinda see the truth  To quicken the process and save Melinda, he convinces her mother to tell Melinda the truth  Melinda is initially in disbelief and consoled by Tom, who convinces her to follow him to a safe place  The "safe" place is Melinda's childhood home and Paul Eastman's burial site  Once they arrive, Tom probes Melinda about her memory of Paul's death; she eventually has a flashback revealing Tom deliberately killed Paul  Tom decided he must kill Melinda to protect himself from the truth being revealed  Melinda cries out to her father, to which Tom replies: "Don't call me Dad  I'm not your Father " Melinda answers, "I wasn't talking to you " As Tom realizes to whom Melinda had been calling, Paul enters Tom's body and forces him to fall to his death  Paul talks to Melinda and her mother and says he thought that he would never be so angry with his former lover, and only hearing his daughter calling for her father made all of his anger disappear  He then went into The Light  He has one grandson by Melinda, Aiden  In life, he apparently had the ability to speak to ghosts just like Melinda and her maternal relations, meaning that Melinda received her ability from both parents 

Zoe Ramos
Zoe Ramos (Jaclyn DeSantis) is Eli's ex-girlfriend and a professor at Rockland University  She knows a lot about the supernatural, because she teaches a course entitled the "Science of the Occult " Zoe and Eli had broken up because at the time he didn't share her beliefs regarding ghosts, life after death, etc  At the end of the fourth season, Eli decides to resume contact with her  Zoe helps Melinda and Eli with cases involving voodoo and vampirism (episodes "Cursed" and "Endless Love") 
In season four's finale, Eli observes Zoe having lunch with a lawyer, Jeremy Bishop, and becomes very jealous   When Eli attempts the theft of an ancient book from the library of the University, Zoe tells him the true value of the book, which she has studied   Eli decides to invite Zoe out for dinner  When she fails to appear, Eli goes to Zoe's house and finds her dead  Her spirit tells Eli she died from falling down the stairs while a thief, influenced by a Watcher, entered her house to put the Book there 
After securing the Book, Eli calls to Zoe, who informs him about the Other Side  She tells him that she was the "Guardian of the Book of Changes" and, henceforth, he will need to take care of the Book  Eli agrees and realizes he still loves Zoe  After saying goodbye to Eli, Zoe goes into the light 

Aiden Lucas
Aiden Lucas (portrayed by Connor Gibbs) is the son of Melinda Gordon and Jim Clancy  Aiden is also the grandson of Paul Eastman and Beth Gordon who are Melinda's parents and Aiden and Faith Clancy who are Jim's parents 
Aiden was born on September 25, 2009  Before his birth, the watchers predict him and tell Melinda that her son is the key if the ghost's balances shift, and he will be more powerful than she is  On the day of his birth, Melinda worries about her son's fate  During his birth, Melinda needs an emergency C-section and Aiden suddenly goes into fetal distress in the operating room  First, the watcher (Carl) warned Melinda of her child’s power and the danger he may come into, stops time to tell her Fate and Free Will will work together to decide whether or not the baby will live  He quickly disappears and time restarts  While the baby is not breathing at first, he suddenly recovers to full health  Later in recovery, Melinda tells Jim they will name the baby Aiden Lucas, after Jim’s father and the late Sam Lucas 
Years later, the family is celebrating Aiden's upcoming fifth birthday  Every year on his birthday something bad happens; Aiden strangely gets sick or something happens to Melinda or Jim  Delia and Melinda call it a birthday curse  However, Aiden is actually haunted by the ghost of the woman who died during childbirth when Melinda gave birth to Aiden  The woman believes Aiden is the spirit of her dead son and she haunts Aiden every year on his birthday 
Melinda discovers this and finds out the ghost's son, Tyler, is actually alive and safe with his real father and adoptive mother  Aiden saved Tyler earlier in a bowling accident and Melinda helped the woman go into the light  Later, Carl reveals to Melinda that Aiden is an empath and can feel other people's emotions; he would get sick on his birthday and something went wrong with his birth because of the ghost 
In addition to being an empath, Aiden is able to see and communicate with ghosts like his mother and grandparents do, and he is psychically connected to Melinda  Melinda does not tell Aiden this because she wants him to have a normal life 
Aiden is able to see things Melinda can't, namely the Shinies (which Aiden refers to as "faceless" and made of "light") and the Shadows, which can be defeated easily by the Shinies, but the Shinies are too afraid of them to do so 

Spirits
Characters that appear as spirit guest stars:

Lost spirits
These are some of the spirits who either did not cross over or went to the Dark Side (Hell) 

Laughing Man (appears with Romano and is a ghostly agent for the dark side  He wears a two-piece suit and is usually seen laughing  He was portrayed by Douglas Bierman; death was from accidental ingestion of water dropwort)
Bleeding Man (a dark spirit whose right hand is bleeding, hence his name  He was portrayed by Lou Glenn; death was from exsanguination)
Bloody Mary, a girl who was accidentally buried alive and died in the coffin, scratching her nails off on the seal of the coffin  Seen in the last seconds of Episode 2, Season 3
Giles Nickelburg (plane crash due to pilot error)
Greg Carter (car accident due to car going off a cliff)
Martha Rucker (building collapse)
Unnamed Man (conjunctivitis infection)
Greta Hansen (wheelchair fell down the stairs)
Tom Gordon (fell down the stairs)
Eli's parents (death from natural causes  Melinda helps them see The Light after solving a problem between them  The problem was caused by the fact that Eli's mother was a lesbian and had an affair with a friend  Eli's father thought she was really having a love affair with her friend's husband, making his spirit unable to cross over  They decide to stay to take care of her son, although he disagrees with the idea )
Shane Carson (suicide to continue stalking Melinda)
Randy Cooper (asthma attack)

Shinies and Shadows
Two different kinds of spirits that appear throughout the series  They are sworn enemies of each other, created by the emotions of ghosts, and feed upon others  Aiden Lucas, Melinda's son, is the only one who has the ability to see both of them while his mother and the Watchers cannot 

Shinies
Beings of good who are composed of light energy  Aiden reveals, in Season 5, that the Shinies are ghost children that have crossed over into The Light  He also comments that there are more Shinies than there are Shadows, and that if they were to go to war with each other, the Shinies would win  The Shadows prevent their growing numbers by consuming still-earthbound ghost children, making the Shinies fear them  But in the episode "The Children's Parade", Aiden reveals that if he, along with the other Shinies, use their combined power, they can defeat the Shadows forever 
In previous seasons, the Shinies have already revealed their presence to Melinda without her knowing  Carl, a Watcher, tells Melinda that she is surrounded by "light beings" watching over her and they are shown all throughout Grandview, watching over her during her wedding vow renewal  In later events, Melinda notices Aiden talking to himself  But later events reveal that Aiden has the ability to see these spirits (the Shinies), which she cannot see  Cassidy Peyton, a ghost girl Melinda crossed over, becomes a Shiny after going into The Light and becomes good friends with Aiden 
Shinies are attracted to "shiny things" such as flashlights, utensils, etc  Also, the Shinies are afraid of the Shadows, as depicted in the season 5 episode "Lost in the Shadows" 
In the series finale ("The Children's Parade") the Shinies, led by Aiden, destroy the Shadows once and for all 

Shadows
The Shadows are ghosts who are seen as beings of darkness  Aiden reveals that the Shadows are either "broken pieces" left behind by ghosts who have crossed over or have "crossed under"  Ghosts describe them as cold things and don't like to talk about them  They feed on the negative emotions of ghosts, especially ghost children, break their souls beyond repair, and feed on the rest of them 
In previous seasons, Gabriel was working for them, but since he disappeared they could no longer block The Light  They are extremely dangerous and use people, both living and dead, to gather the souls of ghost children so that they may feed; examples are President Bedford of Rockland University to get the Book of Changes, which helps Melinda, Eli and Aiden, but they killed him when he could not complete the task  Another is Greta Hansen, a woman in a wheelchair who helped the Shadows by luring children's spirits into her house (using Cassidy Peyton), but Melinda saved some spirits imprisoned by the ghost Greta 
Ravens are their symbols, and they fear lights, shiny things, and the Shinies 
Passage 5:
National Commission for Scheduled Castes
The National Commission for Scheduled Castes is an Indian constitutional body under the jurisdiction of  Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India established with a view to provide safeguards against the exploitation of Scheduled Castes and Anglo Indian communities to promote and protect their social, educational, economic and cultural interests, special provisions were made in the Constitution  Article 338 of the Indian constitution deals with National Commission for Scheduled Castes  Article 338 A deals with National Commission for Scheduled tribes 

History
Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
The first Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was set up in August 1978 with Bhola Paswan Shastri as chairman and other four members  Members of the commission includes a chairman, a vice chairman and four other members  It was set up as a national level advisory body to advise the government on broad policy issues and levels of development of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes  The president of India appoints the chairman of commission  The fifth schedule of Indian constitution deals with the administration and control of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes  Service condition and tenure is determined by president of India  Article 341 deals with notification of Scheduled Castes and Article 342 deals with notification of Scheduled Tribes 
The first Commission was constituted in 1992 with S  H  Ramdhan as chairman 
The second Commission was constituted in October 1995 with H  Hanumanthappa as chairman 
The third Commission was constituted in December 1998 with Dileep Singh Bhuria as the chairman 
The fourth Commission was constituted in March 2002 with Dr  Bizay Sonkar Shastri as the chairperson 
Consequent upon the Constitution (Eighty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 2003 the erstwhile National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes has been replaced by
(1) National Commission for Scheduled Castes and
(2) National Commission for Scheduled Tribes 

National Commission for Scheduled Castes
The first National Commission for Scheduled Castes was constituted in 2004 with Suraj Bhan as the chairman  The second was constituted in May 2007 (chairperson: Buta Singh); the third from October 2010 (P  L  Punia); and the fourth from 2013, also with Punia as chairperson  The fifth National Commission for Scheduled Castes began work in 2017 under chairmanship of Ram Shankar Katheria  L Murugan was made vice chairman with K Ramulu, Dr Yogendra Paswan and Dr  Swaraj Vidwan as members  The President has appointed Shri Vijaya Sampla as the chairman of the sixth National Commission for Scheduled Castes  Shri Arun Halder is the vice-chairman  Shri Subhash Ramnath Pardhi and Smt  Anju Bala are the other members of the sixth NCSC 

Functions
The following are the functions of the commission:
To investigate and monitor all matters relating to the safeguards provided for the Scheduled Castes under this Constitution or under any other law for the time being in force or under any order of the Government and to evaluate the working of such safeguards
To inquire into specific complaints with respect to the deprivation of rights and safeguards of the Scheduled Castes
To participate and advise on the planning process of socio-economic development of the Scheduled Castes and to evaluate the progress of their development under the Union and any State
To present to the President, annually and at such other times as the Commission may deem fit, reports upon the working of those safeguards
To make in such reports recommendations as to the measures that should be taken by the Union or any State for the effective implementation of those safeguards and other measures for the protection, welfare and socio-economic development of the Scheduled Castes
To discharge such other functions in relation to the protection, welfare and development and advancement of the Scheduled Castes as the President may, subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament, by rule specify

Chairman
See also
National Commission for Backward Classes
National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
National human rights commission
Passage 6:
Ryan Michelle Bathe
Ryan Michelle Bathé (born July 27, 1976) is an American actress 

Early life
Bathe's mother is Clare Bathé, an actress and singer who was a member of the late 1970s funk/disco/rock group Machine  She grew up in Stamford, Connecticut  She graduated from Stanford University, and she received a Master of Fine Arts degree from New York University  She is a member of the sorority Delta Sigma Theta 

Career
Bathe has had guest starring roles in a number of television shows, including ER, Half & Half, Girlfriends, Brothers & Sisters, and How I Met Your Mother  She was regular cast member during the second season of the ABC legal drama series Boston Legal playing attorney Sara Holt  From  2009 to 2010, she had a recurring role on the short-lived NBC medical drama Trauma, and in 2011 had starring role in the TV Land sitcom Retired at 35  She had main roles in the independent films All About Us and April Moon 
In 2012, Bathe co-starred opposite Katherine Heigl in the crime comedy film One for the Money  Later that year, she had a recurring role opposite her real life husband Sterling K  Brown in the Lifetime drama series Army Wives  In 2014, she was a female lead opposite Kevin Hart in the ABC comedy pilot Keep It Together  In 2016, Bathe was cast in a recurring role in the NBC drama series, This Is Us, also starring Brown In 2018, Bathe was cast as one of leads in the BET+ comedy-drama series First Wives Club based on the film of the same name written by Robert Harling  In 2020, she signed a first look deal with ViacomCBS  In 2022, Bathe was cast as a lead alongside Morena Baccarin in the NBC heist thriller series The Endgame 

Personal life
In June 2007, Bathe married fellow actor and Stanford alum Sterling K  Brown  They have two sons 

Filmography
Film
Television
Passage 7:
Chuck Green
Charles Green (November 6, 1919 – March 7, 1997) was an American tap dancer  Green was born in Fitzgerald, Georgia  He would stick bottle caps on his bare feet as a child and tap dance on the sidewalk for money  He won third place in a dance contest in 1925, in which Noble Sissle was the bandleader  Soon, Green would be touring the South tap dancing 
When he was nine he was brought to New York by a talent scout to study tap dancing  A famous talent agent, Nat Nazzaro, signed Green up as a client when he was just twelve years old  He and his childhood friend James Walker teamed up and called themselves "Shorty and Slim"  Walker was a talented comic dancer and would be "Slim" to Green's "Shorty" 
They changed their name to "Chuck and Chuckles," and played New York's Palace Theatre  Described as a modern Buck and Bubbles, Chuckles, an expert in legomania, played the vibes, while Green performed tap in a breathtaking yet gentle style of John Bubbles, whose protégé' he later became  Up until 1944, "Chuck and Chuckles" toured Europe, Australia, and the United States, performing in such venues as Radio City Music Hall, the Paramount, Apollo, and Capital theatres  Jobs were plentiful and they would double up on performances, averaging five stage shows a day, playing nightclubs until early morning, and touring nonstop with big bands across the country and abroad  In 1944, due to Green's stress, the team broke up and Green was committed to a mental institution where he stayed for fifteen years 
Upon his release in 1959, Green had become very introverted, but he could still dance  He quickly adapted to bebop and created his own style of tap dancing, experimenting with new harmonies and rhythmic patterns  He could easily ad-lib his dance numbers to the new music  He began performing again, on stage and on television 
He appeared at the Newport Jazz Festival on July 6, 1963, along with Honi Coles  Then, in 1964, Green faced tap dancer Groundhog in a tap challenge at the Village Vanguard  In 1969, Green appeared with members of Harlem's Hoofers Club for a series of "Tap Happenings" that were produced in New York City by Letitia Jay  Through the 1970s and 1980s, Green performed with the Copasetics  Honi Coles would introduce him as, "Chuck Green, the greatest tap dancer in the world "  In 1979, Green was featured in the documentary film No Maps on My Taps 
In 2003, Green was inducted into the Tap Dance Hall of Fame 
Chuck Green died on March 7, 1997, at the Oakridge Care Center in Oakland, Calif ,

Filmography
Passage 8:
Think I'm in Love (Eddie Money song)
"Think I'm in Love" is a 1982 hit single by American rock singer Eddie Money from his album No Control  The song was written by Money and Randy Oda (who is perhaps best known otherwise for his collaborations with former Creedence Clearwater Revival member Tom Fogerty)   The song was released as a single and reached #16 on the Billboard Hot 100 and hit #1 on the Billboard Top Tracks chart The song was Money's first Top 40 hit in several years, and sparked a brief comeback for the artist  The song remains a popular track, and gets frequent airplay on classic rock radio stations 

Music video
The music video included elements from classic vampire movies (with Eddie Money cast as a quasi-Dracula character)   It was one of the most popular early MTV music videos 

In popular culture
The song has been featured in several movies, including Joe Dirt and Paul Blart: Mall Cop, the miniseries Waco and the fourth series opener of Cuckoo 

Chart history
See also
List of Billboard Mainstream Rock number-one songs of the 1980s
Passage 9:
Greatest Hits: The Sound of Money
Greatest Hits: Sound of Money is a compilation of American rock singer Eddie Money's biggest hits plus three new tracks: "Peace in Our Time", "Looking Through the Eyes of a Child" and "Stop Steppin' on My Heart"  The disc was originally released in 1989 by Columbia Records  A remastered CD surfaced in 2009, released by SPV 
The song "Looking Through the Eyes of a Child" was covered by Puerto Rican singer Chayanne on his album Atado a Tu Amor, as "Soy como un niño" (Spanish for "I'm Like a Child")

Track listing
Singles
"Peace in Our Time" (1990) #11 US
Passage 10:
Jenny Slate
Jenny Sarah Slate (born March 25, 1982) is an American actress, stand-up comedian, and writer 
Following early acting and stand-up roles on television, Slate gained recognition for her live variety shows in New York City and for co-creating, writing, and producing the children's short film and book series Marcel the Shell with Shoes On (2010–present)  She became more widely known as a cast member on the 35th season of the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live between 2009 and 2010 and for subsequent roles in the comedic series Bob's Burgers (2012–present), Parks and Recreation (2013–2015), House of Lies (2013–2015), Kroll Show (2013–2015) 
Slate's breakout role came with her leading performance in the coming-of-age comedy-drama film Obvious Child (2014), for which she won the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in a Comedy and was nominated for an Independent Spirit Award and Gotham Independent Film Award  She lent voice performances to the animated films The Lorax (2012), Zootopia (2016), The Secret Life of Pets film franchise (2016–2019), The Lego Batman Movie, and Despicable Me 3 (both 2017), and she ventured into dramatic roles with her supporting performance as Bonnie in Gifted (2017)  She also appeared in the critically acclaimed science-fiction film Everything Everywhere All At Once, winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture 
Starting in 2017, Slate, who is Jewish, appeared on the animated Netflix series Big Mouth as the biracial Black–Jewish character Missy Foreman-Greenwald  She exited the role in 2020 because she felt it should be played by a Black actress; Slate has continued to voice other various characters on the show 

Early life and education
Slate was born on March 25, 1982, in Milton, Massachusetts, to Ron Slate, a businessman and poet who worked as vice president of global communications for the EMC Corporation and later as CEO of a biotech startup, and Nancy (née Gilson), a housewife who also made pottery  She is the middle child of three, with an older sister, Abigail, and younger sister, Stacey  She and her family are Jewish  One of her grandmothers was born in Cuba and was raised in France  After graduating from Milton Academy as the valedictorian, Slate attended Columbia University as a literature major, where she helped form the improv group Fruit Paunch, starred in the Varsity Show and met Gabe Liedman, who would become her comedy partner  Slate graduated from Columbia in 2004 

Career
She and Gabe Liedman formed the comedy duo Gabe & Jenny  Their stand-up shows with Max Silvestri, "Big Terrific," were named best new variety show of 2008 by Time Out New York  In 2015, Slate, Liedman, and Silvestri ended the show, citing their busy schedules, though they have since occasionally performed together 
Slate first met Liedman in 2000 while attending Columbia University  They describe their relationship as a "nonsexual romance"; Slate says, "I like to think of us as kind of like Elaine Benes and George Costanza, but we like each other " Throughout 2008 and 2009, Slate regularly performed her one-woman show titled Jenny Slate: Dead Millionaire at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre (UCBT) in New York City 

Slate was a regular commentator on many VH1 "talking head" commentary programs  In early 2009, she had made several appearances on the Late Night with Jimmy Fallon recurring sketch "7th Floor West", where she played an NBC page also named Jenny, who was later promoted to Fallon's assistant  She had a recurring role in Bored to Death  Slate's guest appearances on television programs include Bob's Burgers, Girls, The Whitest Kids U' Know, Important Things with Demetri Martin and Raising Hope 
Slate joined the cast of Saturday Night Live for the 2009-10 season  In her first episode, she accidentally said "fucking" during her debut sketch "Biker Chick Chat", which was heard on the live broadcast, but removed from reruns  In various sketches, she impersonated Hoda Kotb, Lady Gaga, Kristen Stewart, Ashley Olsen, and Olympia Snowe  She was best known for Tina-Tina Cheneuse, an infomercial pitchwoman who advertises personalized doorbells, car horns, and alarm clocks  Slate's contract was not renewed for another season  Despite rumors to the contrary, Slate has insisted that her SNL termination was not due to cursing but rather simply because "I didn't click "In August 2010, she co-wrote and voiced the animated short film Marcel the Shell with Shoes On, which garnered viral success  This led to Marcel the Shell with Shoes on, Two  Slate also wrote a "Marcel"-themed children's book that was released on November 1, 2011  Her first major film role was as Zoe in Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked; more films followed in 2012, including the voice of Ted's mother in The Lorax 
Her first appearance in Parks and Recreation was in the 2013 episode "Bailout", in which she portrayed Mona-Lisa Saperstein  Following her success on the NBC show, Slate released and starred in a 12-episode mini-series on YouTube called Catherine, celebrating late 1980s and early 1990s soap-opera aesthetics  On July 23, 2013, she appeared in Drunk History retelling the history of how Coca-Cola was made 
In 2014, Slate starred in the comedy-drama film Obvious Child, which follows the life of a young stand-up comic as she grapples with an unplanned pregnancy and eventual abortion  Slate went on to win the Critics Choice Award for Best Actress in a Comedy, Best Breakout Performance at the Newport Beach Film Festival, the Virtuosos Award at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival, and Best Comedic Actress at the Women Film Critics Circle Awards for her performance in the film 
Slate co-starred with Judy Greer and Nat Faxon in the first season of the FX series Married  She left the series as a series regular in season two, but still appeared in a few episodes  Sarah Burns took her place in the series 
Slate appeared as Liz B  in the recurring "PubLIZity" sketches in Kroll Show, as well as many other recurring and one-off characters, performing in some capacity in almost every episode until the series ended in 2015  In 2016, Slate voiced Dawn Bellwether in the Disney animated comedy-adventure film Zootopia and Gidget in the animated feature The Secret Life of Pets 
Slate and her father co-wrote a book titled About the House about their time living in Slate's childhood home in Milton, Massachusetts, which was published in December 2016 In 2017, Slate starred in the film Gifted as Bonnie Stevenson, the teacher of a 7-year-old mathematical genius 
In October 2019, Slate released a stand-up comedy special on Netflix, titled Stage Fright 
Slate published her book titled Little Weirds, about her struggles with and thoughts about life and relationships, in 2019 
From 2017 until 2019, Slate voiced the biracial character Missy Foreman-Greenwald on the animated Netflix series Big Mouth  Slate exited the role on June 24, 2020, writing on Instagram that "At the start of the show, I reasoned with myself that it was permissible for me to play Missy because her mom is Jewish and White — as am I  But Missy is also Black and Black characters on an animated show should be played by Black people "In 2022, she appeared in the critically acclaimed science fiction film Everything Everywhere All at Once as Big Nose  Her character's original name was changed to Debbie the Dog Mom for the film's digital release due to its association with Jewish stereotypes  For her performance, she won, along with the rest of the cast, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture 

Personal life
Slate lived in Cobble Hill, Brooklyn, before moving with filmmaker Dean Fleischer Camp to Los Angeles in the early 2010s  In September 2012, Slate married Fleischer-Camp  They collaborated on the Marcel the Shell with Shoes On, on both the books, the short films, and later the 2021 feature film  The pair announced their separation in May 2016  She dated actor Chris Evans for a brief period In September 2019, Slate announced her engagement to art curator and author Ben Shattuck, owner of Davolls General Store  On December 10, 2020, Slate revealed on Late Night with Seth Meyers that she was expecting her first child with Shattuck  On February 3, 2021, Slate announced that she had given birth to a daughter  Shattuck and Slate married in their living room on New Year's Eve 2021, their fourth attempt at a wedding after the first three were canceled during the COVID-19 pandemic 

Filmography
Film
Television
Music videos
Podcasts
Earth Break

Awards and nominations
Bibliography
Slate, Jenny; Fleischer-Camp, Dean (2011)  Marcel the Shell with Shoes On: Things About Me  Razorbill  ISBN 978-1-59514-455-3 
Slate, Jenny; Fleischer-Camp, Dean (2014)  Marcel the Shell: The Most Surprised I've Ever Been  Razorbill  ISBN 978-1-59514-456-0 
Slate, Jenny; Slate, Ron (2016)  About the House  Concord Free Press  ISBN 9780990805922 
Slate, Jenny (2019)  Little Weirds  Little, Brown and Company (published November 5, 2019)  ISBN 978-0-316-48534-0 

Notes
Passage 11:
Richard Ainley
Richard Ainley (22 December 1910 – 18 May 1967) was a stage and film actor 
He was born in Middlesex, England, the son of Henry Ainley and a half-brother of Anthony Ainley 
Ainley made his stage debut in 1928, initially using the stage name Richard Riddle, taking his mother's maiden name  His American debut came in Foreigners at the Belasco Theater in 1939 His first motion picture appearance was in 1936 as Sylvius in As You Like It, in which his father also appeared  Other roles included Ferdinand in the television movie of The Tempest (1939), Dr  Hale in Shining Victory (1941), and a Foreign Office official in the thriller Above Suspicion (1943) 
Ainley married three times, firstly to actress Ethel Glendinning   He was divorced from his first two wives; his third wife Rowena Woolf died in 1968 
He retired from film work following a disabling wound received while he was serving in the army during World War II to return to the stage  He was briefly principal of the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School in the early 1960s 

Filmography
Passage 12:
Christopher Masterson
Christopher Kennedy Masterson (born January 22, 1980) is an American actor and disc jockey known best for his role as Malcolm's oldest brother Francis on the Fox sitcom Malcolm in the Middle  He is the younger brother of former actor Danny Masterson, and the older half-brother of Alanna Masterson and Jordan Masterson, who are also actors 

Career
Masterson played Geoff in the direct-to-video movie Dragonheart: A New Beginning, the sequel to Dragonheart  Masterson is best known for his role as Francis, the trouble-making oldest brother of Frankie Muniz's title character in the Fox sitcom Malcolm in the Middle  He took on the role for seven years, from 2000 to 2006  In 2003, he played Edward Linton in MTV's Wuthering Heights  Masterson portrayed a lead character in the films Scary Movie 2, Waterborne, Made for Each Other and Intellectual Property  He guest starred in three episodes of That '70s Show, alongside his brother, Danny  In the USA Network television series White Collar, he played Josh Roland in the episode "Where There's a Will"  He also played Scotty O'Neal in the movie My Best Friend's Wedding  In 2012, Masterson had a guest role on the TBS series Men at Work as a concierge named Archie  His brother, Danny Masterson, plays Milo on the show, but the two did not share any scenes together 

Personal life
Masterson was born on Long Island, New York, the son of Carol Masterson, a manager, and Peter Masterson, an insurance agent  Masterson, like his brother Danny Masterson, is a follower of Scientology  The two have invested in restaurants together  He also has a half-sister, actress Alanna Masterson, and a half-brother, actor Jordan Masterson  Masterson was in a relationship with his brother's That ‘70s Show co-star Laura Prepon from 1999 to 2007 On June 25, 2019, Masterson married actress Yolanda Pecoraro  In April 2021, she gave birth to their daughter Chiara 

Filmography
Passage 13:
List of The Young and the Restless cast members
The Young and the Restless is an American television soap opera, created by William J  Bell and Lee Phillip Bell for CBS  It first aired on March 26, 1973  The longest-running cast member is Doug Davidson, who has portrayed private investigator Paul Williams since May 23, 1978  Jeanne Cooper, who portrayed the soap opera's matriarch Katherine Chancellor, previously held the record for the series' longest-running cast member, airing from November 1973 until her death in May 2013  Melody Thomas Scott and Eric Braeden, who portray Nikki and Victor Newman, are the second and third longest-running current cast members, having joined in February 1979 and February 1980, respectively  Kate Linder has portrayed Esther Valentine since April 1982, and rounds out the series' top four longest-running cast members  The following list is of cast members who are currently on the show: both main and recurring members, as well as those who are debuting, departing or returning from the series 

Cast
Main cast
Recurring cast
Previous cast members



ground_truth: Anthony Ainley