prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the name for the mouth of the watercourse of the body of water by Rotterdam Centrum?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Rotterdam Centrum
Rotterdam Centrum (English: Rotterdam Center/ Center of Rotterdam) is a borough of Rotterdam  It was established on March 3, 2010  The center has 33,983 inhabitants (as of January 1, 2017) Rotterdam Centrum is bounded by the emplacement of the Rotterdam Centraal railway station and the Goudsesingel in the North, the Tunneltraverse of the Henegouwerlaan and 's-Gravendijkwal in the West, the Nieuwe Maas River in the South and the Oostplein in the East 

Landmarks
Some landmarks include:

Market Hall
Euromast
Beurstraverse (Koopgoot), with the Beurs-World Trade Center
Lijnbaan
Coolsingel with the city hall and Hofplein
Erasmusbrug
Willemsbrug
Various stations of the Rotterdam Metro
Grote of Sint-Laurenskerk
Library Rotterdam
Cube houses
The Schielandshuis

Neighborhoods
The division into neighborhoods is as follows:

Oude Westen
Stadsdriehoek
Cool
C S  kwartier
Nieuwe Werk (Scheepvaartkwartier)
Dijkzigt
Passage 2:
Wapizagonke Lake
The Wapizagonke Lake is one of the bodies of water located the sector "Lac-Wapizagonke", in the city of Shawinigan, in the La Mauricie National Park, in the region of Mauricie, in Quebec, in Canada 

Geography
With a length of 9 2 kilometers, the Wapizagonke lake is located near the west boundary of La Mauricie National Park in northern Shawinigan  Surrounded by mountains, this lake is a narrow shape and length is in the north-south axis  It drains through its southern end into the Shawinigan River, which flows eastward and then south to empty into the Saint-Maurice River 
Major lakes feeding the Wapizagonke Lake watershed are: Reid, Houle, Jodon, Anticagamac and Avalon 

Toponymy
The lake appears on the cards in 1852 under the name "Lake Pisagunk"  Forestry workers identified him rather as the "lake Mistagance"  Wapizagonke appear on the map in 1925 and is a variation of Ouapitagone in Montagnais, which meant according to Father Joseph-Étienne Guinard (1864-1965): "kind of very rare duck species"  In Abenaki, the lake is named Wawibizagak and means "surrounded by the bush"  Certain visitors named the lake under two names: "Island Lake" and "Lake Croche" 

See also
Shawinigan River
Shawinigan
Passage 3:
Bardwell Creek
Bardwell Creek, an urban watercourse of the Cooks River catchment, is located in the southern suburbs of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Bardwell Creek rises in Georges River local government area, near Hurstville and flows in a north-easterly direction through the suburbs of Bexley, Bexley North, Bardwell Park, and Turrella in the Bayside local government area, where it makes its confluence with Wolli Creek, where it forms the border between the suburbs of Bardwell Park and Turrella  The upper reaches of the Creek are a piped drainage system, which becomes an open concrete channel at Croydon Road in the Bexley Golf Course  The total catchment area of Bardwell Creek is 6 36 square kilometres (2 46 sq mi) 

See also
Bardwell Valley, New South Wales
Wolli Creek Regional Park
Passage 4:
Potamogeton amplifolius
Potamogeton amplifolius, commonly known as largeleaf pondweed or broad-leaved pondweed, is an aquatic plant of North America  It grows in water bodies such as lakes, ponds, and rivers, often in deep water 
This perennial plant grows from rhizomes and produces a very slender, cylindrical, sometimes spotted stem up to a meter or so long  The leaves take two forms  Submersed leaves are up to 20 centimeters long by 7 wide and may be folded along their midribs  The submersed leaves have more veins than do those of other pondweed species, up to 49  Floating leaves are up to 10 centimeters long by 5 wide, leathery in texture, and borne on long petioles  The inflorescence is a spike of many flowers rising above the water surface on a thick peduncle 
Passage 5:
Animal
Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia  With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development  As of 2022, 2 16 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1 05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates—but it has been estimated there are around 7 77 million animal species in total  Animals range in length from 8 5 micrometres (0 00033 in) to 33 6 metres (110 ft)  They have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs  The scientific study of animals is known as zoology 
Most living animal species are in Bilateria, a clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric body plan  The Bilateria include the protostomes, containing animals such as nematodes, arthropods, flatworms, annelids and molluscs, and the deuterostomes, containing the echinoderms and the chordates, the latter including the vertebrates  Life forms interpreted as early animals were present in the Ediacaran biota of the late Precambrian  Many modern animal phyla became clearly established in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, which began around 539 million years ago  6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago 
Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without  Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809  In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous with Animalia) and the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals  In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as molecular phylogenetics, which are effective at demonstrating the evolutionary relationships between taxa 
Humans make use of many animal species, such as for food (including meat, milk, and eggs), for materials (such as leather and wool), as pets, and as working animals including for transport  Dogs have been used in hunting, as have birds of prey, while many terrestrial and aquatic animals were hunted for sports  Nonhuman animals have appeared in art from the earliest times and are featured in mythology and religion 

Etymology
The word "animal" comes from the Latin animalis, meaning 'having breath', 'having soul' or 'living being'  The biological definition includes all members of the kingdom Animalia  In colloquial usage, the term animal is often used to refer only to nonhuman animals  The term "metazoa" is derived from the Ancient Greek μετα (meta, meaning "later") and ζῷᾰ (zōia, plural of ζῷον zōion, meaning animal) 

Characteristics
Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things  Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular  Unlike plants and algae, which produce their own nutrients, animals are heterotrophic, feeding on organic material and digesting it internally  With very few exceptions, animals respire aerobically  All animals are motile (able to spontaneously move their bodies) during at least part of their life cycle, but some animals, such as sponges, corals, mussels, and barnacles, later become sessile  The blastula is a stage in embryonic development that is unique to animals, allowing cells to be differentiated into specialised tissues and organs 

Structure
All animals are composed of cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins  During development, the animal extracellular matrix forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganised, making the formation of complex structures possible  This may be calcified, forming structures such as shells, bones, and spicules  In contrast, the cells of other multicellular organisms (primarily algae, plants, and fungi) are held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth  Animal cells uniquely possess the cell junctions called tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes With few exceptions—in particular, the sponges and placozoans—animal bodies are differentiated into tissues  These include muscles, which enable locomotion, and nerve tissues, which transmit signals and coordinate the body  Typically, there is also an internal digestive chamber with either one opening (in Ctenophora, Cnidaria, and flatworms) or two openings (in most bilaterians) 

Reproduction and development
Nearly all animals make use of some form of sexual reproduction  They produce haploid gametes by meiosis; the smaller, motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger, non-motile gametes are ova  These fuse to form zygotes, which develop via mitosis into a hollow sphere, called a blastula  In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location, attach to the seabed, and develop into a new sponge  In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement  It first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber and two separate germ layers, an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm  In most cases, a third germ layer, the mesoderm, also develops between them  These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs Repeated instances of mating with a close relative during sexual reproduction generally leads to inbreeding depression within a population due to the increased prevalence of harmful recessive traits  Animals have evolved numerous mechanisms for avoiding close inbreeding Some animals are capable of asexual reproduction, which often results in a genetic clone of the parent  This may take place through fragmentation; budding, such as in Hydra and other cnidarians; or parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, such as in aphids 

Ecology
Animals are categorised into ecological groups depending on how they obtain or consume organic material, including carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, detritivores, and parasites  Interactions between animals form complex food webs  In carnivorous or omnivorous species, predation is a consumer–resource interaction where a predator feeds on another organism (called its prey)  Selective pressures imposed on one another lead to an evolutionary arms race between predator and prey, resulting in various anti-predator adaptations  Almost all multicellular predators are animals  Some consumers use multiple methods; for example, in parasitoid wasps, the larvae feed on the hosts' living tissues, killing them in the process, but the adults primarily consume nectar from flowers  Other animals may have very specific feeding behaviours, such as hawksbill sea turtles primarily eating sponges 

Most animals rely on the biomass and energy produced by plants through photosynthesis  Herbivores eat plant material directly, while carnivores, and other animals on higher trophic levels typically acquire it indirectly by eating other animals  Animals oxidize carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and other biomolecules, which allows the animal to grow and to sustain biological processes such as locomotion  Animals living close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on the dark sea floor consume organic matter of archaea and bacteria produced in these locations through chemosynthesis (by oxidizing inorganic compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide) Animals originally evolved in the sea  Lineages of arthropods colonised land around the same time as land plants, probably between 510 and 471 million years ago during the Late Cambrian or Early Ordovician  Vertebrates such as the lobe-finned fish Tiktaalik started to move on to land in the late Devonian, about 375 million years ago  Animals occupy virtually all of earth's habitats and microhabitats, including salt water, hydrothermal vents, fresh water, hot springs, swamps, forests, pastures, deserts, air, and the interiors of other animals, plants, fungi, and rocks  Animals are however not particularly heat tolerant; very few of them can survive at constant temperatures above 50 °C (122 °F)  Only very few species of animals (mostly nematodes) inhabit the most extreme cold deserts of continental Antarctica 

Diversity
Size
The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is the largest animal that has ever lived, weighing up to 190 tonnes and measuring up to 33 6 metres (110 ft) long  The largest extant terrestrial animal is the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), weighing up to 12 25 tonnes and measuring up to 10 67 metres (35 0 ft) long  The largest terrestrial animals that ever lived were titanosaur sauropod dinosaurs such as Argentinosaurus, which may have weighed as much as 73 tonnes, and Supersaurus which may have reached 39 meters  Several animals are microscopic; some Myxozoa (obligate parasites within the Cnidaria) never grow larger than 20 µm, and one of the smallest species (Myxobolus shekel) is no more than 8 5 µm when fully grown 

Numbers and habitats of major phyla
The following table lists estimated numbers of described extant species for the major animal phyla, along with their principal habitats (terrestrial, fresh water, and marine), and free-living or parasitic ways of life  Species estimates shown here are based on numbers described scientifically; much larger estimates have been calculated based on various means of prediction, and these can vary wildly  For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million  Using patterns within the taxonomic hierarchy, the total number of animal species—including those not yet described—was calculated to be about 7 77 million in 2011 

Evolutionary origin
Animals are found as long ago as the Ediacaran biota, towards the end of the Precambrian, and possibly somewhat earlier  It had long been doubted whether these life-forms included animals, but the discovery of the animal lipid cholesterol in fossils of Dickinsonia establishes their nature  Animals are thought to have originated under low-oxygen conditions, suggesting that they were capable of living entirely by anaerobic respiration, but as they became specialized for aerobic metabolism they became fully dependent on oxygen in their environments Many animal phyla first appear in the fossil record during the Cambrian explosion, starting about 539 million years ago, in beds such as the Burgess shale  Extant phyla in these rocks include molluscs, brachiopods, onychophorans, tardigrades, arthropods, echinoderms and hemichordates, along with numerous now-extinct forms such as the predatory Anomalocaris  The apparent suddenness of the event may however be an artefact of the fossil record, rather than showing that all these animals appeared simultaneously  
That view is supported by the discovery of Auroralumina attenboroughii, the earliest known Ediacaran crown-group cnidarian (557–562 mya, some 20 million years before the Cambrian explosion) from Charnwood Forest, England  It is thought to be one of the earliest predators, catching small prey with its nematocysts as modern cnidarians do Some palaeontologists have suggested that animals appeared much earlier than the Cambrian explosion, possibly as early as 1 billion years ago  Early fossils that might represent animals appear for example in the 665-million-year-old rocks of the Trezona Formation of South Australia  These fossils are interpreted as most probably being early sponges Trace fossils such as tracks and burrows found in the Tonian period (from 1 gya) may indicate the presence of triploblastic worm-like animals, roughly as large (about 5 mm wide) and complex as earthworms  However, similar tracks are produced today by the giant single-celled protist Gromia sphaerica, so the Tonian trace fossils may not indicate early animal evolution  Around the same time, the layered mats of microorganisms called stromatolites decreased in diversity, perhaps due to grazing by newly evolved animals  Objects such as sediment-filled tubes that resemble trace fossils of the burrows of wormlike animals have been found in 1 2 gya rocks in North America, in 1 5 gya rocks in Australia and North America, and in 1 7 gya rocks in Australia  Their interpretation as having an animal origin is disputed, as they might be water-escape or other structures 

Phylogeny
External phylogeny
Animals are monophyletic, meaning they are derived from a common ancestor  Animals are sister to the Choanoflagellata, with which they form the Choanozoa   
The dates on the phylogenetic tree indicate approximately how many millions of years ago (mya) the lineages split Ros-Rocher and colleagues (2021) trace the origins of animals to unicellular ancestors, providing the external phylogeny shown in the cladogram  Uncertainty of relationships is indicated with dashed lines 

Internal phylogeny
The most basal animals, the Porifera, Ctenophora, Cnidaria, and Placozoa, have body plans that lack bilateral symmetry  Their relationships are still disputed; the sister group to all other animals could be the Porifera or the Ctenophora, both of which lack hox genes, important in body plan development These genes are found in the Placozoa and the higher animals, the Bilateria  6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian  25 of these are novel core gene groups, found only in animals; of those, 8 are for essential components of the Wnt and TGF-beta signalling pathways which may have enabled animals to become multicellular by providing a pattern for the body's system of axes (in three dimensions), and another 7 are for transcription factors including homeodomain proteins involved in the control of development Giribet and Edgecombe (2020) provide what they consider to be a consensus internal phylogeny of the animals, embodying uncertainty about the structure at the base of the tree (dashed lines) 
An alternative phylogeny, from Kapli and colleagues (2021), proposes a clade Xenambulacraria for the Xenacoelamorpha + Ambulacraria; this is either within Deuterostomia, as sister to Chordata, or the Deuterostomia are recovered as paraphyletic, and Xenambulacraria is sister to the proposed clade Centroneuralia, consisting of Chordata + Protostomia 

Non-bilateria
Several animal phyla lack bilateral symmetry  These are the Porifera (sea sponges), Placozoa, Cnidaria (which includes jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals), and Ctenophora (comb jellies) 
Sponges are physically very distinct from other animals, and were long thought to have diverged first, representing the oldest animal phylum and forming a sister clade to all other animals  Despite their morphological dissimilarity with all other animals, genetic evidence suggests sponges may be more closely related to other animals than the comb jellies are  Sponges lack the complex organization found in most other animal phyla; their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organised into distinct tissues, unlike all other animals  They typically feed by drawing in water through pores, filtering out food and nutrients The comb jellies and Cnidaria are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both mouth and anus  Animals in both phyla have distinct tissues, but these are not organised into discrete organs  They are diploblastic, having only two main germ layers, ectoderm and endoderm The tiny placozoans have no permanent digestive chamber and no symmetry; they superficially resemble amoebae  Their phylogeny is poorly defined, and under active research 

Bilateria
The remaining animals, the great majority—comprising some 29 phyla and over a million species—form a clade, the Bilateria, which have a bilaterally symmetric body plan  The Bilateria are triploblastic, with three well-developed germ layers, and their tissues form distinct organs  The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is an internal body cavity, a coelom or pseudocoelom  These animals have a head end (anterior) and a tail end (posterior), a back (dorsal) surface and a belly (ventral) surface, and a left and a right side Having a front end means that this part of the body encounters stimuli, such as food, favouring cephalisation, the development of a head with sense organs and a mouth  Many bilaterians have a combination of circular muscles that constrict the body, making it longer, and an opposing set of longitudinal muscles, that shorten the body; these enable soft-bodied animals with a hydrostatic skeleton to move by peristalsis  They also have a gut that extends through the basically cylindrical body from mouth to anus  Many bilaterian phyla have primary larvae which swim with cilia and have an apical organ containing sensory cells  However, over evolutionary time, descendant spaces have evolved which have lost one or more of each of these characteristics  For example, adult echinoderms are radially symmetric (unlike their larvae), while some parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures Genetic studies have considerably changed zoologists' understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria  Most appear to belong to two major lineages, the protostomes and the deuterostomes  It is often suggested that the basalmost bilaterians are the Xenacoelomorpha, with all other bilaterians belonging to the subclade Nephrozoa However, this suggestion has been contested, with other studies finding that xenacoelomorphs are more closely related to Ambulacraria than to other bilaterians 

Protostomes and deuterostomes
Protostomes and deuterostomes differ in several ways  Early in development, deuterostome embryos undergo radial cleavage during cell division, while many protostomes (the Spiralia) undergo spiral cleavage 
Animals from both groups possess a complete digestive tract, but in protostomes the first opening of the embryonic gut develops into the mouth, and the anus forms secondarily  In deuterostomes, the anus forms first while the mouth develops secondarily  Most protostomes have schizocoelous development, where cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm  In deuterostomes, the mesoderm forms by enterocoelic pouching, through invagination of the endoderm The main deuterostome phyla are the Echinodermata and the Chordata  Echinoderms are exclusively marine and include starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers  The chordates are dominated by the vertebrates (animals with backbones), which consist of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals  The deuterostomes also include the Hemichordata (acorn worms) 

Ecdysozoa
The Ecdysozoa are protostomes, named after their shared trait of ecdysis, growth by moulting  They include the largest animal phylum, the Arthropoda, which contains insects, spiders, crabs, and their kin  All of these have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages  Two smaller phyla, the Onychophora and Tardigrada, are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits  The ecdysozoans also include the Nematoda or roundworms, perhaps the second largest animal phylum  Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water; some are important parasites  Smaller phyla related to them are the Nematomorpha or horsehair worms, and the Kinorhyncha, Priapulida, and Loricifera  These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom 

Spiralia
The Spiralia are a large group of protostomes that develop by spiral cleavage in the early embryo  The Spiralia's phylogeny has been disputed, but it contains a large clade, the superphylum Lophotrochozoa, and smaller groups of phyla such as the Rouphozoa which includes the gastrotrichs and the flatworms  All of these are grouped as the Platytrochozoa, which has a sister group, the Gnathifera, which includes the rotifers The Lophotrochozoa includes the molluscs, annelids, brachiopods, nemerteans, bryozoa and entoprocts  The molluscs, the second-largest animal phylum by number of described species, includes snails, clams, and squids, while the annelids are the segmented worms, such as earthworms, lugworms, and leeches  These two groups have long been considered close relatives because they share trochophore larvae 

History of classification
In the classical era, Aristotle divided animals, based on his own observations, into those with blood (roughly, the vertebrates) and those without  The animals were then arranged on a scale from man (with blood, 2 legs, rational soul) down through the live-bearing tetrapods (with blood, 4 legs, sensitive soul) and other groups such as crustaceans (no blood, many legs, sensitive soul) down to spontaneously generating creatures like sponges (no blood, no legs, vegetable soul)  Aristotle was uncertain whether sponges were animals, which in his system ought to have sensation, appetite, and locomotion, or plants, which did not: he knew that sponges could sense touch, and would contract if about to be pulled off their rocks, but that they were rooted like plants and never moved about In 1758, Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical classification in his Systema Naturae  In his original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia  Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the Chordata, while his Insecta (which included the crustaceans and arachnids) and Vermes have been renamed or broken up  The process was begun in 1793 by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, who called the Vermes une espèce de chaos (a chaotic mess) and split the group into three new phyla: worms, echinoderms, and polyps (which contained corals and jellyfish)  By 1809, in his Philosophie Zoologique, Lamarck had created 9 phyla apart from vertebrates (where he still had 4 phyla: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish) and molluscs, namely cirripedes, annelids, crustaceans, arachnids, insects, worms, radiates, polyps, and infusorians In his 1817 Le Règne Animal, Georges Cuvier used comparative anatomy to group the animals into four embranchements ("branches" with different body plans, roughly corresponding to phyla), namely vertebrates, molluscs, articulated animals (arthropods and annelids), and zoophytes (radiata) (echinoderms, cnidaria and other forms)  This division into four was followed by the embryologist Karl Ernst von Baer in 1828, the zoologist Louis Agassiz in 1857, and the comparative anatomist Richard Owen in 1860 In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms: Metazoa (multicellular animals, with five phyla: coelenterates, echinoderms, articulates, molluscs, and vertebrates) and Protozoa (single-celled animals), including a sixth animal phylum, sponges  The protozoa were later moved to the former kingdom Protista, leaving only the Metazoa as a synonym of Animalia 

In human culture
Practical uses
The human population exploits a large number of other animal species for food, both of domesticated livestock species in animal husbandry and, mainly at sea, by hunting wild species  Marine fish of many species are caught commercially for food  A smaller number of species are farmed commercially  Humans and their livestock make up more than 90% of the biomass of all terrestrial vertebrates, and almost as much as all insects combined Invertebrates including cephalopods, crustaceans, and bivalve or gastropod molluscs are hunted or farmed for food  Chickens, cattle, sheep, pigs, and other animals are raised as livestock for meat across the world  Animal fibres such as wool are used to make textiles, while animal sinews have been used as lashings and bindings, and leather is widely used to make shoes and other items  Animals have been hunted and farmed for their fur to make items such as coats and hats  Dyestuffs including carmine (cochineal), shellac, and kermes have been made from the bodies of insects  Working animals including cattle and horses have been used for work and transport from the first days of agriculture Animals such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster serve a major role in science as experimental models  Animals have been used to create vaccines since their discovery in the 18th century  Some medicines such as the cancer drug trabectedin are based on toxins or other molecules of animal origin 

People have used hunting dogs to help chase down and retrieve animals, and birds of prey to catch birds and mammals, while tethered cormorants have been used to catch fish  Poison dart frogs have been used to poison the tips of blowpipe darts 
A wide variety of animals are kept as pets, from invertebrates such as tarantulas and octopuses, insects including praying mantises, reptiles such as snakes and chameleons, and birds including canaries, parakeets, and parrots all finding a place  However, the most kept pet species are mammals, namely dogs, cats, and rabbits  There is a tension between the role of animals as companions to humans, and their existence as individuals with rights of their own 
A wide variety of terrestrial and aquatic animals are hunted for sport 

Symbolic uses
Animals have been the subjects of art from the earliest times, both historical, as in Ancient Egypt, and prehistoric, as in the cave paintings at Lascaux  Major animal paintings include Albrecht Dürer's 1515 The Rhinoceros, and George Stubbs's c  1762 horse portrait Whistlejacket  Insects, birds and mammals play roles in literature and film, such as in giant bug movies Animals including insects and mammals feature in mythology and religion  In both Japan and Europe, a butterfly was seen as the personification of a person's soul, while the scarab beetle was sacred in ancient Egypt  Among the mammals, cattle, deer, horses, lions, bats, bears, and wolves are the subjects of myths and worship  The signs of the Western and Chinese zodiacs are based on animals 

See also
Animal coloration
Ethology
Fauna
List of animal names
Lists of organisms by population

Notes
Passage 6:
Het Scheur
The Scheur (Dutch pronunciation: [ət ˈsxøːr]; Dutch for "The Rip") is a branch of the Rhine-Meuse delta in South Holland, Netherlands, that flows west from the confluence of the Oude Maas and Nieuwe Maas branches past the towns of Rozenburg and Maassluis  It continues as the Nieuwe Waterweg (New Waterway) to the North Sea 
Originally, the Scheur was the northern branch of the river around Rozenburg island and curved south a few kilometres past Maassluis to join the Nieuwe Maas again in the Maasmond ("Mouth of Meuse") estuary near Den Briel  When the Nieuwe Waterweg was completed in 1872, the Scheur was dammed off and connected to the east end of the Nieuwe Waterweg to form the new channelized main mouth of the Rhine-Meuse delta 
Passage 7:
Ekulu River
The River Ekulu is a 25-kilometre (16 mi) long river and the largest body of water in the city of Enugu in Enugu State, southeastern Nigeria, and it originates in the same city as well 
Passage 8:
Little River (Wingecarribee)
The Little River, a watercourse that is part of the Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment, is located in the Southern Highlands region of New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
The Little River rises south southeast of the locality of Wills Hill, near Robertson, and flows generally north before reaching its confluence with the Dudewaugh Creek, a tributary of the Burke River within the Upper Nepean River catchment  The course of the river is approximately 8 kilometres (5 0 mi) 

See also
List of rivers of New South Wales (L–Z)
List of rivers of Australia
Rivers of New South Wales
Passage 9:
Secchi disk
The Secchi disk (or Secchi disc), as created in 1865 by Angelo Secchi, is a plain white, circular disk 30 cm (12 in) in diameter used to measure water transparency or turbidity in bodies of water  The disc is mounted on a pole or line and lowered slowly down in the water  The depth at which the disk is no longer visible is taken as a measure of the transparency of the water  This measure is known as the Secchi depth and is related to water turbidity  Since its invention, the disk has also been used in a modified, smaller 20 cm (8 in) diameter, black-and-white design to measure freshwater transparency 
Similar disks, with a black-and-yellow pattern, are used as fiducial markers on vehicles in crash tests, crash-test dummies, and other kinetic experiments 

History
The original Secchi disk was a plain white disk and was used in the Mediterranean Sea  Today, a plain white, 30 cm (12 in) diameter Secchi disk remains the standard design used in marine studies  In 1899 George C  Whipple modified the original all-white Secchi disk to "   a disc about 8 inches in diameter, divided into quadrants painted alternately black and white like the target of a level-rod   "  This modified black-and-white Secchi disk is the standard disk now used in limnology (freshwater) investigations 

Secchi depth
The Secchi depth is reached when the reflectance equals the intensity of light backscattered from the water  1 7 divided into this depth in metres yields an  attenuation coefficient (also called an extinction coefficient), for the available light averaged over the Secchi disk depth  While used as a variable, the extinction coefficient is also used as a variable for turbidity  The light attenuation coefficient, k, can then be used in a form of the Beer–Lambert law,

  
    
      
        
          
            
              I
              
                z
              
            
            
              I
              
                0
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          e
          
            −
            k
            z
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {I_{z} \over I_{0}}=e^{-kz}}
  to estimate Iz, the intensity of light at depth z from I0, the intensity of light at the ocean surface The Secchi disk readings do not provide an exact measure of transparency, as there can be errors because of the sun's glare on the water, or one person may see the disk at one depth, but another person with better eyesight may see it at a greater depth  However, it is an inexpensive and straightforward method of measuring water clarity  Because of the potential for variation between users, methods should be standardized as much as possible 
A Secchi disk measurement should always be taken off the shady side of a boat or dock between 9:00 and 15:00  The period for best results is between 10:00 and 14:00  The same observer should take Secchi depth measurements, in the same manner, every time  One can approach the measurement by lowering the disk beyond a point of disappearance, then raising it and lowering it slightly to set the Secchi depth  Another method is to record the depth at which the disk disappears, lower it another few feet, then record the depth at which the disk reappears as it is slowly brought up  The Secchi depth is taken as the average of the two values Secchi disk measurements do not indicate how attenuation changes with depth or particular wavelengths of light  Submarine photometers can operate at depths of 150 m (492 ft) and can record visible, ultraviolet, and infrared parts of the spectrum  Turbidimeters and Transmissometers have their own light sources and can measure transparency with scientific accuracy 

Applications
Secchi disk measurements have been an integral component of Minnesota's and Wisconsin's lake water quality assessment programs for some time; lake residents make periodic measurements and submit their readings to state and local agencies  The aggregated longitudinal data are used to reveal general trends in water quality  Similarly, the Indiana Clean Lakes Program trains and relies on volunteers to monitor turbidity in over 80 Indiana lakes using Secchi disks, and uses data submitted by volunteers to monitor lake quality in the state In 2013, a team of marine scientists established the global citizen science Secchi Disk program for seafarers to study marine phytoplankton  This ongoing citizen science Secchi Disk study combines the traditional plain white, 30  cm diameter marine Secchi Disk with mobile technology to upload Secchi depth data collected from the sea to a central database  The study's first scientific results were published in 2017  The Secchi Disk study was begun in response to a controversial scientific report that suggested the phytoplankton that influences water transparency had declined by 40% in the oceans between the years 1950 and 2008 

See also
Forel-Ule scale
Siemens star
Trophic state index
Water quality
Passage 10:
Plankton
Plankton are the diverse collection of organisms found in water (or air) that are unable to propel themselves against a current (or wind)  The individual organisms constituting plankton are called plankters  In the ocean, they provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms, such as bivalves, fish, and baleen whales 
Marine plankton include bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries  Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found in lakes and rivers  Mostly plankton just drift where currents take them, though some, like jellyfish, swim slowly but not fast enough to generally gain control from the influence of currents 
Although plankton are usually thought of as inhabiting water, there are also airborne versions that live part of their lives drifting in the atmosphere  These aeroplankton include plant spores, pollen and wind-scattered seeds  They may also include microorganisms swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms and oceanic plankton swept into the air by sea spray 
Though many planktonic species are microscopic in size, plankton includes organisms over a wide range of sizes, including large organisms such as jellyfish  This is because plankton are defined by their ecological niche and level of motility rather than by any phylogenetic or taxonomic classification  The "plankton" category differentiates these organisms from those that float on the water's surface, called neuston, those that can swim against a current, called nekton, and those that live on the deep sea floor, called benthos 

Terminology
The name plankton was coined by German marine biologist Victor Hensen in 1887 from shortening the word halyplankton from Greek ᾰ̔́λς háls "sea" and πλανάω planáō to  "drift" or "wander" : 1  While some forms are capable of independent movement and can swim hundreds of meters vertically in a single day (a behavior called diel vertical migration), their horizontal position is primarily determined by the surrounding water movement, and plankton typically flow with ocean currents  This is in contrast to nekton organisms, such as fish, squid and marine mammals, which can swim against the ambient flow and control their position in the environment 
Within the plankton, holoplankton spend their entire life cycle as plankton (e g  most algae, copepods, salps, and some jellyfish)  By contrast, meroplankton are only planktic for part of their lives (usually the larval stage), and then graduate to either a nektic (swimming) or benthic (sea floor) existence  Examples of meroplankton include the larvae of sea urchins, starfish, crustaceans, marine worms, and most fish The amount and distribution of plankton depends on available nutrients, the state of water and a large amount of other plankton The study of plankton is termed planktology and a planktonic individual is referred to as a plankter  The adjective planktonic is widely used in both the scientific and popular literature, and is a generally accepted term  However, from the standpoint of prescriptive grammar, the less-commonly used planktic is more strictly the correct adjective  When deriving English words from their Greek or Latin roots, the gender-specific ending (in this case, "-on" which indicates the word is neuter) is normally dropped, using only the root of the word in the derivation 

Trophic groups
Plankton are primarily divided into broad functional (or trophic level) groups:   

Phytoplankton (from Greek phyton, or plant), are autotrophic prokaryotic or eukaryotic algae that live near the water surface where there is sufficient light to support photosynthesis  Among the more important groups are the diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and coccolithophores 
Zooplankton (from Greek zoon, or animal), are small protozoans or metazoans (e g  crustaceans and other animals) that feed on other plankton  Some of the eggs and larvae of larger nektonic animals, such as fish, crustaceans, and annelids, are included here 
Mycoplankton include fungi and fungus-like organisms, which, like bacterioplankton, are also significant in remineralisation and nutrient cycling 
Bacterioplankton include bacteria and archaea, which play an important role in remineralising organic material down the water column (note that prokaryotic phytoplankton are also bacterioplankton) 
Virioplankton are viruses  Viruses are more abundant in the plankton than bacteria and archaea, though much smaller 

Mixoplankton
Mixotrophs  Plankton have traditionally been categorized as producer, consumer and recycler groups, but some plankton are able to benefit from more than just one trophic level  In this mixed trophic strategy—known as mixotrophy—organisms act as both producers and consumers, either at the same time or switching between modes of nutrition in response to ambient conditions  This makes it possible to use photosynthesis for growth when nutrients and light are abundant, but switching to eat phytoplankton, zooplankton or each other when growing conditions are poor  Mixotrophs are divided into two groups; constitutive mixotrophs, CMs, which are able to perform photosynthesis on their own, and non-constitutive mixotrophs, NCMs, which use phagocytosis to engulf phototrophic prey that are either kept alive inside the host cell which benefit from its photosynthesis, or they digest their prey except for the plastids which continues to perform photosynthesis (kleptoplasty) Recognition of the importance of mixotrophy as an ecological strategy is increasing, as well as the wider role this may play in marine biogeochemistry  Studies have shown that mixotrophs are much more important for the marine ecology than previously assumed, and comprise more than half of all microscopic plankton  Their presence act as a buffer that prevents the collapse of ecosystems during times with little to no light 

Size groups
Plankton are also often described in terms of size  Usually the following divisions are used: 
However, some of these terms may be used with very different boundaries, especially on the larger end  The existence and importance of nano- and even smaller plankton was only discovered during the 1980s, but they are thought to make up the largest proportion of all plankton in number and diversity 
The microplankton and smaller groups are microorganisms and operate at low Reynolds numbers, where the viscosity of water is more important than its mass or inertia 

Habitat groups
Marine plankton
Marine plankton includes marine bacteria and archaea, algae, protozoa and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries 

Freshwater plankton
Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found inland in the freshwaters of lakes and rivers 

Aeroplankton
Aeroplankton are tiny lifeforms that float and drift in the air, carried by the current of the wind; they are the atmospheric analogue to oceanic plankton  Most of the living things that make up aeroplankton are very small to microscopic in size, and many can be difficult to identify because of their tiny size  Scientists can collect them for study in traps and sweep nets from aircraft, kites or balloons  Aeroplankton is made up of numerous microbes, including viruses, about 1000 different species of bacteria, around 40,000 varieties of fungi, and hundreds of species of protists, algae, mosses and liverworts that live some part of their life cycle as aeroplankton, often as spores, pollen, and wind-scattered seeds  Additionally, peripatetic microorganisms are swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms, and an even larger amount of airborne marine microorganisms are propelled high into the atmosphere in sea spray  Aeroplankton deposits hundreds of millions of airborne viruses and tens of millions of bacteria every day on every square meter around the planet 
The sea surface microlayer, compared to the sub-surface waters, contains elevated concentration of bacteria and viruses  These materials can be transferred from the sea-surface to the atmosphere in the form of wind-generated aqueous aerosols due to their high vapour tension and a process known as volatilisation  When airborne, these microbes can be transported long distances to coastal regions  If they hit land they can have an effect on animal, vegetation and human health  Marine aerosols that contain viruses can travel hundreds of kilometers from their source and remain in liquid form as long as the humidity is high enough (over 70%)  These aerosols are able to remain suspended in the atmosphere for about 31 days  Evidence suggests that bacteria can remain viable after being transported inland through aerosols  Some reached as far as 200 meters at 30 meters above sea level  The process which transfers this material to the atmosphere causes further enrichment in both bacteria and viruses in comparison to either the SML or sub-surface waters (up to three orders of magnitude in some locations) 

Geoplankton
Many animals live in terrestrial environments by thriving in transient often microscopic bodies of water and moisture, these include rotifers and gastrotrichs which lay resilient eggs capable of surviving years in dry environments, and some of which can go dormant themselves  Nematodes are usually microscopic with this lifestyle  Water bears, despite only having lifespans of a few months, famously can enter suspended animation during dry or hostile conditions and survive for decades  This allows them to be ubiquitous in terrestrial environments despite needing water to grow and reproduce  Many microscopic crustacean groups like copepods and amphipods (of which sandhoppers are members) and seed shrimp are known to go dormant when dry and live in transient bodies of water too

Other groups
Gelatinous zooplankton
Gelatinous zooplankton are fragile animals that live in the water column in the ocean  Their delicate bodies have no hard parts and are easily damaged or destroyed  Gelatinous zooplankton are often transparent  All jellyfish are gelatinous zooplankton, but not all gelatinous zooplankton are jellyfish  The most commonly encountered organisms include ctenophores, medusae, salps, and Chaetognatha in coastal waters  However, almost all marine phyla, including Annelida, Mollusca and Arthropoda, contain gelatinous species, but many of those odd species live in the open ocean and the deep sea and are less available to the casual ocean observer 

Ichthyoplankton
Ichthyoplankton are the eggs and larvae of fish  They are mostly found in the sunlit zone of the water column, less than 200 metres deep, which is sometimes called the epipelagic or photic zone  Ichthyoplankton are planktonic, meaning they cannot swim effectively under their own power, but must drift with the ocean currents  Fish eggs cannot swim at all, and are unambiguously planktonic  Early stage larvae swim poorly, but later stage larvae swim better and cease to be planktonic as they grow into juveniles  Fish larvae are part of the zooplankton that eat smaller plankton, while fish eggs carry their own food supply  Both eggs and larvae are themselves eaten by larger animals  Fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into the open water column  Fish eggs typically have a diameter of about 1 millimetre (0 039 in)  The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae  They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens  The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis) to become juveniles  During this transition larvae must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae  In time fish larvae become able to swim against currents, at which point they cease to be plankton and become juvenile fish 

Holoplankton
Holoplankton are organisms that are planktic for their entire life cycle  Holoplankton can be contrasted with meroplankton, which are planktic organisms that spend part of their life cycle in the benthic zone  Examples of holoplankton include some diatoms, radiolarians, some dinoflagellates, foraminifera, amphipods, krill, copepods, and salps, as well as some gastropod mollusk species  Holoplankton dwell in the pelagic zone as opposed to the benthic zone  Holoplankton include both phytoplankton and zooplankton and vary in size  The most common plankton are protists 

Meroplankton
Meroplankton are a wide variety of aquatic organisms which have both planktonic and benthic stages in their life cycles  Much of the meroplankton consists of larval stages of larger organism  Meroplankton can be contrasted with holoplankton, which are planktonic organisms that stay in the pelagic zone as plankton throughout their entire life cycle  After a period of time in the plankton, many meroplankton graduate to the nekton or adopt a benthic (often sessile) lifestyle on the seafloor  The larval stages of benthic invertebrates make up a significant proportion of planktonic communities  The planktonic larval stage is particularly crucial to many benthic invertebrate in order to disperse their young  Depending on the particular species and the environmental conditions, larval or juvenile-stage meroplankton may remain in the pelagic zone for durations ranging from hour to months 

Pseudoplankton
Pseudoplankton are organisms that attach themselves to planktonic organisms or other floating objects, such as drifting wood, buoyant shells of organisms such as Spirula, or man-made flotsam  Examples include goose barnacles and the bryozoan Jellyella  By themselves these animals cannot float, which contrasts them with true planktonic organisms, such as Velella and the Portuguese Man o' War, which are buoyant  Pseudoplankton are often found in the guts of filtering zooplankters 

Tychoplankton
Tychoplankton are organisms, such as free-living or attached benthic organisms and other non-planktonic organisms, that are carried into the plankton through a disturbance of their benthic habitat, or by winds and currents  This can occur by direct turbulence or by disruption of the substrate and subsequent entrainment in the water column  Tychoplankton are, therefore, a primary subdivision for sorting planktonic organisms by duration of lifecycle spent in the plankton, as neither their entire lives nor particular reproductive portions are confined to planktonic existence  Tychoplankton are sometimes called accidental plankton 

Mineralized plankton
Some planktons are protected with mineralized shells or tests 

Distribution
Apart from aeroplankton, plankton inhabits oceans, seas, lakes and ponds  Local abundance varies horizontally, vertically and seasonally  The primary cause of this variability is the availability of light  All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy (but see chemosynthesis), confining primary production to surface waters, and to geographical regions and seasons having abundant light 
A secondary variable is nutrient availability  Although large areas of the tropical and sub-tropical oceans have abundant light, they experience relatively low primary production because they offer limited nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate and silicate  This results from large-scale ocean circulation and water column stratification  In such regions, primary production usually occurs at greater depth, although at a reduced level (because of reduced light) 
Despite significant macronutrient concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called HNLC regions)  The micronutrient iron is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of phytoplankton algal blooms  Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface  Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive, arid land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e g , the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where trade winds bring dust from the Sahara Desert in north Africa) 
While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column  At depths where no primary production occurs, zooplankton and bacterioplankton instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above  This flux of sinking material, so-called marine snow, can be especially high following the termination of spring blooms 
The local distribution of plankton can be affected by wind-driven Langmuir circulation and the biological effects of this physical process 

Ecological significance
Food chain
Aside from representing the bottom few levels of a food chain that supports commercially important fisheries, plankton ecosystems play a role in the biogeochemical cycles of many important chemical elements, including the ocean's carbon cycle  Fish larvae mainly eat zooplankton, which in turn eat phytoplankton

Carbon cycle
Primarily by grazing on phytoplankton, zooplankton provide carbon to the planktic foodweb, either respiring it to provide metabolic energy, or upon death as biomass or detritus  Organic material tends to be denser than seawater, so it sinks into open ocean ecosystems away from the coastlines, transporting carbon along with it  This process, called the biological pump, is one reason that oceans constitute the largest carbon sink on Earth  However, it has been shown to be influenced by increments of temperature  In 2019, a study indicated that at ongoing rates of seawater acidification, Antarctic phytoplanktons could become smaller and less effective at storing carbon before the end of the century It might be possible to increase the ocean's uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) generated through human activities by increasing plankton production through iron fertilization – introducing amounts of iron into the ocean  However, this technique may not be practical at a large scale  Ocean oxygen depletion and resultant methane production (caused by the excess production remineralising at depth) is one potential drawback 

Oxygen production
Phytoplankton absorb energy from the Sun and nutrients from the water to produce their own nourishment or energy  In the process of photosynthesis, phytoplankton release molecular oxygen (O2) into the water as a waste byproduct  It is estimated that about 50% of the world's oxygen is produced via phytoplankton photosynthesis  The rest is produced via photosynthesis on land by plants  Furthermore, phytoplankton photosynthesis has controlled the atmospheric CO2/O2 balance since the early Precambrian Eon 

Absorption efficiency
The absorption efficiency (AE) of plankton is the proportion of food absorbed by the plankton that determines how available the consumed organic materials are in meeting the required physiological demands  Depending on the feeding rate and prey composition, variations in absorption efficiency may lead to variations in fecal pellet production, and thus regulates how much organic material is recycled back to the marine environment  Low feeding rates typically lead to high absorption efficiency and small, dense pellets, while high feeding rates typically lead to low absorption efficiency and larger pellets with more organic content  Another contributing factor to dissolved organic matter (DOM) release is respiration rate  Physical factors such as oxygen availability, pH, and light conditions may affect overall oxygen consumption and how much carbon is loss from zooplankton in the form of respired CO2  The relative sizes of zooplankton and prey also mediate how much carbon is released via sloppy feeding  Smaller prey are ingested whole, whereas larger prey may be fed on more “sloppily”, that is more biomatter is released through inefficient consumption  There is also evidence that diet composition can impact nutrient release, with carnivorous diets releasing more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium than omnivorous diets 

Biomass variability
The growth of phytoplankton populations is dependent on light levels and nutrient availability  The chief factor limiting growth varies from region to region in the world's oceans  On a broad scale, growth of phytoplankton in the oligotrophic tropical and subtropical gyres is generally limited by nutrient supply, while light often limits phytoplankton growth in subarctic gyres  Environmental variability at multiple scales influences the nutrient and light available for phytoplankton, and as these organisms form the base of the marine food web, this variability in phytoplankton growth influences higher trophic levels  For example, at interannual scales phytoplankton levels temporarily plummet during El Niño periods, influencing populations of zooplankton, fishes, sea birds, and marine mammals 
The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research  Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important impacts on future phytoplankton productivity  Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of zooplankton grazing may be significant 

Plankton diversity
Some of the diversity found in plankton

Planktonic Relationships
Fish & plankton
Zooplankton are the initial prey item for almost all fish larvae as they switch from their yolk sacs to external feeding  Fish rely on the density and distribution of zooplankton to match that of new larvae, which can otherwise starve  Natural factors (e g , current variations, temperature changes) and man-made factors (e g  river dams, ocean acidification, rising temperatures) can strongly affect zooplankton, which can in turn strongly affect larval survival, and therefore breeding success 
It's been shown that plankton can be patchy in marine environments where there aren't significant fish populations and additionally, where fish are abundant, zooplankton dynamics are influenced by the fish predation rate in their environment  Depending on the predation rate, they could express regular or chaotic behavior A negative effect that fish larvae can have on planktonic algal blooms is that the larvae will prolong the blooming event by diminishing available zooplankton numbers; this in turn permits excessive phytoplankton growth allowing the bloom to flourish  The importance of both phytoplankton and zooplankton is also well-recognized in extensive and semi-intensive pond fish farming  Plankton population-based pond management strategies for fish rearing have been practiced by traditional fish farmers for decades, illustrating the importance of plankton even in man-made environments 
Whales & plankton
Of all animal fecal matter, it is whale feces that is the 'trophy' in terms of increasing nutrient availability  Phytoplankton are the powerhouse of open ocean primary production and they can acquire many nutrients from whale feces  In the marine food web, phytoplankton are at the base of the food web and are consumed by zooplankton & krill, which are preyed upon by larger and larger marine organisms, including whales, so it can be said that whale poop fuels the entire food web 

Humans & plankton
Plankton have many direct and indirect effects on humans 
Around 70% of the oxygen in the atmosphere is produced in the oceans from phytoplankton performing photosynthesis, meaning that the majority of the oxygen available for us and other organisms that respire aerobically is produced by plankton Plankton also make up the base of the marine food web, providing food for all the trophic levels above  Recent studies have analyzed the marine food web to see if the system runs on a top-down or bottom-up approach  Essentially, this research is focused on understanding whether changes in the food web are driven by nutrients at the bottom of the food web or predators at the top  The general conclusion is that the bottom-up approach seemed to be more predictive of food web behavior  This indicates that plankton have more sway in determining the success of the primary consumer species that prey on them than do the secondary consumers that prey on the primary consumers 
In some cases, plankton act as an intermediate host for deadly parasites in humans  One such case is that of cholera, an infection caused by several strains of Vibrio cholerae  These species have been shown to have a symbiotic relationship with chitinous zooplankton species like copepods  These bacteria benefit not only from the food provided by the chiton from the zooplankton, but also from the protection from acidic environments  Once the copepods have been ingested by a human host, the chitinous exterior protects the bacteria from the stomach acids in the stomach and proceed to the intestines  Once there, the bacteria bind with the surface of the small intestine and the host will start developing symptoms, including extreme diarrhea, within five days 

See also
Aeroplankton
Gelatinous zooplankton
Ichthyoplankton
Nekton
Paradox of the plankton
Seston
Veliger
Passage 11:
Coxs Creek (Belfield, New South Wales)
Coxs Creek, a watercourse of the Cooks River catchment, is located in the Inner West of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Coxs Creek rises northeast of Punchbowl railway station and flows generally north northeast, before reaching its confluence with the Cooks River, at Strathfield South  Over time the creek has been extensively modified and is now largely a storm drain that flows about 3 kilometres (1 9 mi)  Prior to development of the area the creek drained paperbark swamps that were formerly near the junction of Roberts Road and Juno Parade  Over time the creek has been extensively modified and rerouted  As with most drainage channels in the area it has been lined along much of its length  Coxs Creek drains a total catchment of 8 8 square kilometres (3 4 sq mi) The creek begins as a stormwater drain, then runs in the open through the Coxs Creek Wetland, a 1 84 hectares (4 5 acres) reserve containing significant remnant bushland including some Cooks River Castlereagh Ironbark Forest habitat  Including tree specimens of mugga ironbark (Eucalyptus sideroxylon), narrow-leaved ironbark (E  crebra), broad-leaved ironbark (E  fibrosa), and tallowwood (E  microcorys)  The forest habitat is noted as an endangered ecological community  Acacia pubescens (Downy Wattle) is a vulnerable flora species present as is the locally endangered Tadgell's Bluebell (Wahlenbergia multicaulis)  The endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog (Litoria aurea) has been recorded and frog ponds constructed as part of the creek  The frog has not been seen in the creek since 1995, though they are still present in the nearby constructed wetlands at the Juno Parade Brick Pit 
In 2005 Sydney Ports Corporation proposed works including fauna corridors and "frog ramps" to encourage their return  Along much of its length the creek is a combination of covered channel and an uncovered concrete lined trench  As the creek passes through the reserve it is open and the 2010 management plan calls for restoration of this part of the creek and the adjacent riparian zone 
Passage 12:
Dead Horse Bay
Dead Horse Bay is a small body of water off Barren Island, between the Gerritsen Inlet and Rockaway Inlet in the New York City borough of Brooklyn 

History
From the nineteenth century to the twentieth century, the area has been used in a variety of ways, including manufacturing fertilizer from the remains of dead animals, producing fish oil from the menhaden caught in the bay, and more recently a landfill for the disposal of New York City’s garbage  Periodic clogging by carcasses from the adjacent glue factory with 200 foot chimney gave the bay its name  A millstone used to grind horse bones can still be found along the Millstone trail In 1926, much of the salt marsh surrounding Dead Horse Bay and the rest of Barren Island were pumped with sand from Jamaica Bay  This raised the land to 16 feet above the high tide mark and connected the islands to each other, and the mainland of Brooklyn, in order to create Floyd Bennett Field as New York City's first municipal airport  The entire area, including the historic airfield, is now managed by the National Park Service as part of the Jamaica Bay Unit of the Gateway National Recreation Area 

In the 1950s, urban planner Robert Moses attempted to expand the now-peninsula to the west using garbage covered by topsoil, but the layer of soil eroded, and garbage can be seen on the coast during low tide  This coast contains many exposed broken glass bottles and other non-biodegradable material In August 2020, the National Park Service announced that Dead Horse Bay would be closed indefinitely because of the presence of radiological contamination  The NPS said at the time that the cleanup could last several years  The contamination was identified as having come from two deck markers, a type of Radium-226 or Strontium-90 based radioluminescent device used by the US military, though the risk of radiological exposure was considered low 

Current use
School groups are taken to Dead Horse Bay on a regular basis to walk the Millstone trail, seine for a variety of fishes, and learn about the natural and cultural history of the area  Its shores are also a popular sport fishing spot, and home to a marina operating in Deep Creek as a National Park Service concession  Today one can find a large array of glass bottles and pieces of broken glass on the beach, along with old shoes and construction materials, many from the landfill which is now leaking  It is a popular place for artists and crafters to collect strange decorative materials 
Passage 13:
Lake Kyyjärvi
Lake Kyyjärvi is a medium-sized lake in Kyyjärvi municipality, Finland  It is a starting point of the Saarijärvi Whitewater Route, a continuous watercourse in Central Finland 

See also
List of lakes in Finland
Passage 14:
August Willem van Voorden
August Willem van Voorden (25 November 1881, Rotterdam - 2 October 1921, Rotterdam) was a Dutch painter, best known for scenes of urban life in his hometown 

Biography
His father was a decorative house painter and gave him his first lessons  His first formal studies were at the Academy of Visual Arts  Later, he took lessons from Alexander van Maasdijk and Jan de Jong  He spent most of his life in Rotterdam, where he had a studio on the grounds of the Woudestein Estate (now part of Erasmus University)  In 1908, he lived briefly in Kortenhoef, where he met his wife,  and from 1912 to 1913 he was in  Nieuw-Loosdrecht He initially worked as a decorative painter, like his father, but after 1903 began doing regular oils and watercolors depicting street scenes, filled with the daily activities of ordinary people  He was heavily influenced by the works of George Hendrik Breitner and was often referred to as the "Breitner of Rotterdam" He worked during a period of rapid growth and was able to document the process, choosing bright, impressionistic colors as a counterweight to the gray hues normally associated with Dutch cityscapes  He also painted landscapes near Kortenhoef and Laren, where he worked with artists of the Hague School, as well as some portraits and still-lifes  For many years, he was a member of Arti et Amicitiae and the Haagse Kunstkring  He died of undisclosed causes just short of his fortieth birthday 

Selected paintings
Passage 15:
Lansdowne River
Lansdowne River, a watercourse of the Manning River catchment, is located in the Mid North Coast district of New South Wales, Australia 

Course and features
Lansdowne River rises below Mount Gibraltar in the Gibraltar Range, north northwest of Upper Lansdowne, and flows generally southeast before reaching its confluence with the Northern Arm of the Manning River, near Coopernook  The river descends 740 metres (2,430 ft) over its 51 kilometres (32 mi) course The Pacific Highway crosses the Lansdowne River south-east of Coopernook 

See also
Rivers of New South Wales
List of rivers of New South Wales (L–Z)
List of rivers of Australia
Passage 16:
Halmyris
Halmyris (Ancient Greek: Ἁλμυρίς)  was a Roman and Byzantine fort, settlement and naval port, located 2 5 kilometers west of the village of Murighiol at the mouth of the Danube Delta in Romania  It is locally known as the site where the bodies of two Christian saints, Epictet and Astion, were uncovered between 2001 and 2004 

History of the Site
Despite the creation of several Greek colonies along the Romanian Black Sea coast during the 7th century BC, no corresponding Greek structural remains have been found nearby Halmyris  The region was inhabited during the Second Iron Age by the Getae or Dacians as is evident by the discovery of several cremation burials within a possible necropolis that dates to the 4th-2nd centuries BC  
While the first Roman occupation of the site seems to have been in the form of a turf-and-timber fort constructed during the Flavian period, the first stone castrum at Halmyris was built during the reign of the emperor Trajan   Although the original layout of the Trajanic fort is largely covered by later reconstructive phases, the plan seems to have been indicative of the 'typical' 2nd century layout of a Roman fort, composed of a rectangular defensive wall, rectangular towers and a gate in the middle of each of the walls   The placement of the fort was strategically deliberate as it lay not only along the course of the Danube River but also at the very mouth of the Black Sea   Early connections to the Roman fleet and its maritime activities at Halmyris are confirmed from epigraphic evidence mentioning the existence of a 'mariner's village' or vicus classicorum 
However, a significant alteration of the defenses took place during the Tetrarchy period   The new layout of the fort walls consisted of an irregular polygon bolstered by 15 towers and at least two well-defended gateways in the north and the west  Structures found within the fort include numerous barracks, a private thermae or bathhouse and  a basilica   However, in the winter of 384/5, the Danube froze, allowing the foreign tribes to the north to cross and sack Halmyris   A series of earthquakes in the 4th century and later that altered the course of the Danube led to the silting up of Halmyris' harbor and decreased its economic and strategic importance   The final period of occupation seems to correspond with the reconstruction of the fort by the emperor Justinian   Additionally, Halmyris became the site of one of the major bishoprics in the province as well as being named as one of the fifteen most important towns in the province of Scythia 
Halmyris was the most easterly point of the Danubian border in Roman times and probably served as a supply centre for the fleet; early Roman inscriptions inform us of the existence of a "mariner's village"—vicus classicorum  During the late Roman period two units of the military fleet—Classis in Plateypegiis and Musculi Schytici (which had little ships, suited for the Danube Delta) may have been hosted by this city 
As for religious life, we know that in 290 AD, during the persecutions ordered by Diocletian, Saint Epictetus and Astion suffered martyrdom at Halmyris 

Halmyris served as a depot for supplies, colonization and cultural exchange in the region for 1,100 years  It was occupied from the Iron Age to the Byzantine period 
The original fort was made of timber and turf, but as the fort gained importance and a regular garrison was established along the Danube, the fort was rebuilt in stone 
Early in the fort's history, the Goths and Huns from the North crossed the Danube and conquered the fort  It was later re-captured by the Romans 
In the early 4th century, the Emperor Constantine added a basilica 
A series of earthquakes altered the course of the Danube and the fort became more removed from the river  Halmyris gradually lost its importance and was abandoned 

Current activities
The fort was excavated by the late Prof  Mihail Zahariade and Dr  John Karavas, with the Archaeology at Halmyris international volunteer program from 2010-2019 

See also
Histria
List of ancient towns in Scythia Minor
List of castra
Peuce Island
Context 2: Passage 1:
The Things They Carried
The Things They Carried (1990) is a collection of linked short stories by American novelist Tim O'Brien, about a platoon of American soldiers fighting on the ground in the Vietnam War   His third book about the war, it is based upon his experiences as a soldier in the 23rd Infantry Division 
O'Brien generally refrains from political debate and discourse regarding the Vietnam War  He was dismayed that people in his home town seemed to have so little understanding of the war and its world  It was in part a response to what he considered ignorance that he wrote The Things They Carried  It was published by Houghton Mifflin in 1990 Many of the characters are semi-autobiographical, sharing similarities with figures from his memoir If I Die in a Combat Zone, Box Me Up and Ship Me Home (1973/paperback 1999)  In The Things They Carried, O'Brien plays with the genre of metafiction; he writes using verisimilitude  His use of real place names and inclusion of himself as the protagonist blurs fiction and non-fiction  As part of this effect, O'Brien dedicates The Things They Carried to the fictional men of the "Alpha Company," giving it “the form of a war memoir,” states O’Brien 

Plot summaries
"The Things They Carried"
Lieutenant Jimmy Cross, the leader of a platoon of soldiers in Vietnam, carries physical reminders of Martha, the object of his unrequited love  Thoughts of Martha often distract Lieutenant Cross from his team's objectives  A death in the squad under his supervision causes Cross to reconsider his priorities; as he was heartbroken, he burns and throws away all reminders of Martha in order to focus on the mission and avoid distractions : 1 
"Love"
Cross and O'Brien reminisce about the war and about Martha  O'Brien asks if he can write a story about Cross, expressing his memories and hopes for the future; Cross agrees, thinking that perhaps Martha will read it and come find him : 26 
"Spin"
A series of unrelated memories from the war are narrated from O'Brien's point of view  It includes moments of camaraderie and beauty: a joke of a hate letter to the Draft Board; learning a rain dance between battles : 30 
"On the Rainy River"
O'Brien gets drafted as soon as he graduates from college  He is reluctant to go to war and considers fleeing the draft; he begins to travel north to the Canada–US border on the Rainy River  Near the border, he encounters an elderly stranger who allows him to work through his internal struggle  O'Brien is given the opportunity to escape; however, the societal pressures are too much for him  He goes to war ashamed with his inability to face the consequences of leaving : 37 
"Enemies and Friends"Told in two sections, the developing relationship between soldiers Jensen and Strunk is shown  At first regularly antagonized by one another, the two are drawn toward respect and friendship by the stress and horrors of warfare  Ultimately, they agree that if one should be wounded, the other must deal a fatal blow as a form of mercy : 59 
"How to Tell a True War Story"
O'Brien explores the telling of war stories by comrades, revealing that truth is delicate and malleable  Anything can be faked     but generally, only the worst events can be proven real  He concludes that, in the end, the truth of a story doesn't matter so much as what the story is trying to say : 62 
"The Dentist"
In order to mourn Curt Lemon, a man O'Brien did not know well, he shares a brief recollection about a bizarre interaction between Lemon and an army dentist  Lemon, who is afraid of dentists, faints before the dentist can examine him  Later that night, however, he complains of a phantom tooth ache so severe a tooth is pulled - even though it's perfectly healthy  Lemon has felt he needs to prove himself in front of his men and be the fearless man all soldiers are supposed to be : 82 
"Sweetheart of the Song Tra Bong"
O'Brien recounts the legendary (and almost certainly exaggerated) tale of Rat Kiley's first assignment, near the Song Tra Bong river  The area is so isolated that one of the soldiers flies his hometown girlfriend in by helicopter  At first, she cooks, cleans, and tends to the soldiers' wounds, but she gradually assimilates into Vietnamese guerrilla culture, even wearing a necklace made of human tongues, and disappears into the jungle : 85 
"Stockings"
O'Brien explains how Henry Dobbins wore the stockings of his girlfriend around his neck to bed, and sometimes to battle  Even when the girlfriend breaks things off, he keeps the stockings around his neck, as their powers have been demonstrated : 111 
"Church"
The platoon discovers an abandoned building being used as a sort of church, inhabited by monks who bring them food and supplies  The men discuss their relationships with churches, and for the most part, appreciate the interaction with other people and the peace of the building  Henry Dobbins wants to become a priest, but decides otherwise : 113 
"The Man I Killed"
O'Brien describes a man he killed in My Khe, and how he did it  He makes up a life story for the man, torturing himself with the idea that the victim had been a gentle soul : 118 
"Ambush"
O'Brien's daughter asks if he killed anyone in the war; he lies to her that he did not  He then tells the story of an ambush outside My Khe, in which O'Brien kills a young man who may or may not have wanted to harm him : 125 
"Style"The platoon witnesses a young Vietnamese girl dancing through the burned remains of her village, and argue over whether it's a ritual or simply what she likes to do  Later, Azar mocks the girl, and Dobbins rebukes him : 129 
"Speaking of Courage"
After his service, Norman Bowker is at a loss  His former girlfriend has married someone else, his closest friends are dead  He reflects on the medals he won in Vietnam, and imagines telling his father about both these and the medals he did not win  Ultimately, although he has no one to share these memories with, he finds catharsis in imagined conversations : 131 
"Notes"
O'Brien says that Bowker asked him to write the previous story, and that he hanged himself three years later unable to regain his footing and find any meaning in life after the war  O'Brien muses over the suspicion that, without Harvard and writing, he too might have lost the will to live after returning from Vietnam : 149 
"In the Field"
When Kiowa is killed on the banks of a river, during a mission led by Jimmy Cross, Cross takes responsibility for his death  He writes to Kiowa's father while the others search for the body - as usual, Azar jokes around at first  Another soldier also feels responsible for the death, as he did not save Kiowa; the story ends with the body being found in the mud, and both soldiers left to their guilt : 155 
"Good Form"
O'Brien reiterates that the real truth does not have to be the same as the story truth, and that it is the emotions evoked by the story that matter  He says that his story about killing a man on the trail outside My Khe was fabricated, but he wanted to provoke the same feelings in the reader that he felt during the war : 171 
"Field Trip"
After finishing the story, "In the Field," O'Brien says, he and his ten-year-old daughter visit the site of Kiowa's death with an interpreter  The field looks different from his memory of it, but he leaves a pair of Kiowa's moccasins in the spot where he believes Kiowa sank  In this way, he comes to terms with his friend's death : 173 
"The Ghost Soldiers"
O'Brien recounts the two times he was wounded  The first time, he is treated by Rat Kiley, and is impressed with the man's courage and skill  The second time, he is treated by Kiley's replacement, Bobby Jorgenson; Jorgenson is incompetent, and nearly kills O'Brien  Furious, O'Brien promises revenge, but can recruit only Azar  They scare Jorgenson by pretending to be enemy soldiers, but the soldier proves that he is not a coward, so O'Brien lets go of his resentment : 180 
"Night Life"
O'Brien tells the second-hand account of Rat Kiley's injury: warned of a possible attack, the platoon is on edge  Kiley reacts by distancing himself, the stress causing him first to be silent for days on end, and then to talk constantly  He has a breakdown from the pressure of being a medic, and shoots himself in the toe in order to get released from combat  No one questions his bravery : 208 
"The Lives of the Dead"
O'Brien remembers his very first encounter with a dead body, that of his childhood sweetheart Linda  Suffering from a brain tumor, Linda died at the age of nine and O'Brien was deeply affected by her funeral  In Vietnam, O'Brien explains, the soldiers keep the dead alive by telling stories about them; in this way, he keeps Linda alive by telling her story : 213  The thought and presence of death has shown to have a large effect on O'Brien 

Characters
Main characters
Tim O'Brien
The narrator and the protagonist  While modeled after the author and sharing the same name, O'Brien (within the book) is a fictional character  The author intentionally blurs this distinction 
Lt  Jimmy Cross
The platoon leader, who is obsessed with a young woman back home, Martha (who does not return his feelings)  He later believes that his obsession led to the death of Ted Lavender 
Bob "Rat" Kiley
A young medic whose exaggerations are complemented by his occasional cruelty  Eventually, he sees too much gore and begins to break down, imagining "the bugs are out to get [him] "
Norman Bowker
A soldier who O'Brien says attempted to save Kiowa the night he died  When Kiowa slips into the "shitfield", Bowker repeatedly tries to save him but is unable to; as a result, he feels guilty for Kiowa's death after the war  His memories continue to haunt Norman at home as he realizes that the world has moved on from the war, and wants nothing to do with the "hell" in Vietnam  He is continually haunted by the fact that he could not save Kiowa from sinking under the "shitfield" on a rainy night  However, O'Brien admits eventually that Norman did not fail to save Kiowa, that was fictional, and it is implied that O'Brien himself was the one who could not save him  After the war he briefly assists O'Brien in writing a story about Vietnam, but he hangs himself with a jump rope in an Iowa YMCA facility, leaving no note and his family shocked 
Henry Dobbins
Machine gunner   A man who, despite having a rather large frame, is gentle and kind  He is very superstitious; as a result, he wears his girlfriend's pantyhose around his neck as a protective "charm", even after she dumps him  He briefly contemplates becoming a monk after the war due to their acts of charity 
Kiowa
A compassionate and talkative soldier; he demonstrates the importance of talking about one's problems and traumatic experiences  He is also a devout Baptist and a Native American that occasionally feels contempt and distrust towards white people  However, he appears to be Tim O'Brien's best friend in the company  Kiowa often helps other soldiers deal with their own actions, such as taking the lives of other human beings  He is eventually killed when camping out in the "shitfield "
Mitchell Sanders
He is the radiotelephone operator for the platoon  Like O'Brien, he is also a storyteller and is portrayed as a mentor 
Ted Lavender
A grenadier  He dies from a gunshot wound to the back of the head  He is notorious for using tranquilizers to cope with the pain of war, and for carrying a (rather large—six to eight ounces) stash of "premium dope" with him  Cross blames himself for Lavender's death, as he was fantasizing about Martha when Lavender was shot 
Curt Lemon
A young man who frequently attempts to assume the role as a tough soldier  However, he is also good friend of Rat Kiley  Lemon dies after setting off a rigged artillery shell  In one of the book's more disturbing scenes, O'Brien and Dave Jensen help clear the trees of Curt's scattered remains, during which Jensen sings "Lemon Tree" (something that "wakes [Tim] up")  After Lemon dies, Kiley writes a long, eloquent letter to Lemon's sister, describing his friendship with Lemon and emphasizing how good a person Lemon was; Lemon's sister never responds, which crushes Kiley emotionally 
Azar
A young, rather unstable soldier who engages in needless and frequent acts of brutality  In one story, he blows up an orphan puppy that Ted Lavender had adopted by strapping it to a Claymore mine, then detonating it  He also aids Tim O'Brien in gaining revenge on Bobby Jorgenson, but mocks O'Brien when he's not willing to take the revenge further  At one point, Azar breaks down emotionally, revealing that his cruelty is merely a defense mechanism 
Dave Jensen and Lee Strunk
Minor soldiers who are the main characters of "Enemies" and "Friends"  Jensen fights with Strunk over a stolen jackknife, but they became uneasy friends afterwards  They each sign a pact to kill the other if he is ever faced with a "wheelchair wound"  After Strunk steps on a rigged mortar round and loses a leg, he begs Jensen not to kill him  Jensen obliges, but seems to have an enormous weight relieved when he learns "Strunk died somewhere over in Chu Lai"  Jensen is sometimes mentioned singing "Lemon Tree" after Curt Lemon's abrupt death  Jensen also appears in "The Lives of the Dead", where he pressures O'Brien to shake hands with a dead Vietnamese 
Bobby Jorgenson
Rat Kiley's replacement, after Rat "put a round through his foot" due to breaking under pressure  Green and terrified, he is slow to aid O'Brien when he is shot in the behind   Jorgenson nearly kills O'Brien after failing to treat him for shock  Filled with rage after his recovery, O'Brien elicits help from Azar to conspire and punish Jorgenson with a night of terrifying pranks   Later, O'Brien and Jorgenson become friends  Jorgenson may be a reference to a similarly-named character from The Caine Mutiny 

Themes
Genre
The Things They Carried is a war novel   Literary Critic David Wyatt points out that O'Brien's novel is similar to the works of Wilfred Owen, Stephen Crane, George Orwell, and Ernest Hemingway  O’Brien utilizes a style of writing that combines both fiction and nonfiction together into one piece  When asked to describe how he blurs this line between the two genres, O’Brien says "I set out to write a book with the feel of utter and absolute reality, a work of fiction that would read like nonfiction and adhere to the conventions of a memoir: dedicating the book to the characters, using my name, drawing on my own life  This was a technical challenge  My goal was to compose a fiction with the texture, sound and authentic-seeming weight of nonfiction "Truth vs Reality
Another theme that is highlighted in the short story "Good Form" is when the narrator makes a distinction between "story truth" and "happening truth " O’Brien talks about truth and reality in relation to the story by describing, "I can say that the book’s form is intimately connected to how I, as a human being, tend to view the world unfolding itself around me  It’s sometimes difficult to separate external 'reality' from the internal processing of that reality " O'Brien's fluid and elliptical negotiation of truth in this context finds echoes in works labeled as 'non-fiction novels' 
Imagination/Comedy
Another important theme O'Brien highlights is the emphasis on imagination and pretending  He says that this theme, "That’s an important part of my work  I’m a believer in the power of the imagination in ordinary human lives, and it’s much more important that we often credit " O'Brien goes on to say, "And that is, I think, key to why I’m a fiction writer  If that element were not present, I’d be doing nonfiction  Or I wouldn’t be a writer at all " Tim O'Brien also alludes to the difficulty in using dark comedy as a theme by say, "My guess is that I’ll be remembered, if I’m remembered at all, for my so-called tragedies: The Things They Carried, Going After Cacciato, If I Die in a Combat Zone and In the Lake of the Woods  Personally, I consider Tomcat in Love, if not my best book, certainly up there among the best  Yet I realize the most “literary” folks will disagree  In the end, it’s a matter of taste, I suppose  My sense of humor, which tends toward the outrageous, is plainly not for everyone "Morality
O’Brien also shows the constant struggle of morality throughout the story during the Vietnam War  A paper from Brigham Young University highlights the conflict that soldiers face when transitioning from civilian life to soldier life in relation to morality  It states, “As demonstrated through the soldiers’ experiences with pleasure, the soldiers’ moral code must change from that of their civilian lives in order for them to find moral justification in the everyday violence war requires ” The paper goes on to acknowledge that, “In O’Brien’s The Things They Carried, the concept of morality is complicated by the treatment of violence and a connection between violence and pleasure; resultantly, morality must be defined on a spectrum rather than a binary scale ”Belief
Additionally, the character Tim references writing the book Going After Cacciato which the author Tim had written and published previously  The theme of believing in the people around you and having reliable people with you comes from the time period being filled with people who are opposed to the action of war  This causes the people who are drafted into the mutual hate to band together to live 

Publication
Before the book's publication in 1990, five of the stories: "The Things They Carried," "How to Tell a True War Story,"  "Sweetheart of the Song Tra Bong," "The Ghost Soldiers," and "The Lives of the Dead" were published in Esquire "Speaking of Courage" was originally published (in heavily modified form) as a chapter of O'Brien's earlier novel Going After Cacciato 
"The Things They Carried" was also included in the 1987 volume of The Best American Short Stories, edited by Ann Beattie and the second edition of Literature: Approaches to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama by Robert DiYanni 

Reception
The Things They Carried has received critical acclaim and has been established as one of the preeminent pieces of Vietnam War literature  It has sold over 2 million copies worldwide and celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2010  It has received multiple awards such as France's Prix du Meilleur Livre Etranger Award and the Chicago Tribune Heartland Prize, as well as being a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize and National Book Critics Circle Award O'Brien has expressed surprise at how the book has become a staple in middle schools and high schools, stating that he "certainly hadn't imagined fourteen year-old kids and eighteen year-olds and those even in their early twenties reading the book and bringing such fervor to it, which comes from their own lives, really  The book is applied to a bad childhood or a broken home, and these are the things they're carrying  And in a way, it's extremely flattering, and other times, it can be depressing "In 2014, the book was included in Amazon com's list of 100 Books to Read in a Lifetime and credited as the inspiration for a National Veterans Art Museum exhibit It was included in the Library of Congress 2016 exhibit "America Reads" of the public’s choice of 65 of "the most influential books written and read in America and their impact on our lives" 

Adaptations
Film
The story "Sweetheart of the Song Tra Bong" was made into a film in 1998 titled A Soldier's Sweetheart, starring Kiefer Sutherland A film adaptation of the book, directed by Rupert Sanders and starring Tom Hardy, is currently in pre-production  Scott B  Smith is adapting the script 

Theatre
The legal rights to adapt the book into a play were awarded to James R  Stowell  The book was adapted into a play and it premiered at The History Theatre in Saint Paul, Minnesota, March 14, 2014  A second production was performed at The Lied Center, Lincoln Nebraska November 5, 2015  The stories "The Things They Carried", "On the Rainy River", "How to Tell a True War Story", "Sweetheart of the Song Tra Bong", "The Man I Killed", and "Lives of the Dead" were adapted for the theatre in March 2011 by the Eastern Washington University Theatre Department as part of the universities' Get Lit! Literary Festival in cooperation with the National Endowment for the Arts The Big Read 2011, of which The Things They Carried was the featured novel  The same department remounted the production in December 2011 for inclusion as a Participating Entry in the Kennedy Center American College Theater Festival  The production was selected as an alternate for KCACTF Region VII, as well as receiving other KCACTF honors for the production's director, actors, and production staff 

Music
The band TV Girl features a song off their 2014 album French Exit called "Pantyhose"  The song alludes to the "Stockings" chapter from the book and references Henry Dobbins and his girlfriend's stockings, which he ties around his neck to keep him from harm  Lyrics such as, "And when the bullets came, he didn't duck; He wrapped her pantyhose around his neck; And he could feel their magic working; Keeping him from harm; Away to some place mystical and warm; His lucky charm" clearly references to Dobbins and his tactic that the scent of his girlfriend's stockings protect him and take him some place far from Vietnam 

Games
Carry  A game about war  is a 2006 tabletop role-playing game designed by Nathan D  Paoletta  Its author describes it as "heavily inspired by the films Platoon and Full Metal Jacket and the novel The Things They Carried" 
Passage 2:
Winter Saloon
The Winter Saloon, also known as Harm's Bar, is a historic structure in Norwood Young America, Minnesota, United States  The building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on January 4, 1980 

Structure
The Winter Saloon is located on the corner of Elm and Hazel Streets in the central business district of historic Norwood, Minnesota   The town merged with neighboring Young America in 1997 to become Norwood Young America   The L-shaped, two story wood frame structure is sheathed in clapboard and topped with a gable roof   The orientation of the plan allows the commercial section to front the main street while the residential section is set back to allow for a front porch and small lawn The gable end of the commercial section forms the street facade   The original fenestration remains, including the design of the store front, the four-over-four double hung windows with peaked cornices and a fanlight near the top of the gable   The second floor of the commercial section originally served as a meeting hall and has an exterior enclosed staircase   The residential section is divided into three bays which front on the street   A one-story porch running the length of the street facade, and uses a simple configuration supported by three square posts with beveled corners   The windows for this section are two-over-two double hung and capped with simple cornices 

Significance
The Winter Saloon is the oldest and best preserved of Norwood Young America's bars, and is a dominating architectural feature in the small downtown   The original owners, the Winter Brothers, received the first liquor license in Norwood in 1891   Known as a "thirst parlor", it was located on the first floor of the commercial portion of the building   The second floor meeting hall was used by various fraternal organizations such as the Degree of Honor and Modern Woodmen   The proprietor lived in the residential section of the building At the time the first liquor license was issued in 1891 it cost $2 08   The bar went through a series of owners until Prohibition in 1919   In 1934, after the law was repealed, the bar was purchased by George Harm, Sr   A liquor license at that time cost $200 00   The bar remained in three generations of his family and was open at the time the building was listed on the NRHP in 1980; during this period the cost of a liquor license peaked at $1500 in 1954 

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Carver County, Minnesota
Passage 3:
Take Me Home, Country Roads
"Take Me Home, Country Roads", also known simply as "Country Roads", is a song written by Bill Danoff, Taffy Nivert and John Denver  It was released as a single performed by Denver on April 12, 1971, peaking at number two on Billboard's US Hot 100 singles for the week ending August 28, 1971  The song was a success on its initial release and was certified Gold by the RIAA on August 18, 1971, and Platinum on April 10, 2017  The song became one of John Denver's most popular songs  It has continued to sell, with over 1 6 million digital copies sold in the United States The song is considered a symbol of West Virginia  In March 2014, it became one of the four official state anthems of West Virginia  In 2023, the song was selected by the Library of Congress for inclusion in the National Recording Registry 

Composition
Inspiration for the title line had come while Taffy Nivert and Bill Danoff, who were married, were driving along Clopper Road in Montgomery County, Maryland to a gathering of Nivert's family in Gaithersburg, with Nivert behind the wheel while Danoff played his guitar  "I just started thinking, country roads, I started thinking of me growing up in western New England and going on all these small roads," Danoff said  "It didn't have anything to do with Maryland or anyplace "To Danoff, the lyric "(t)he radio reminds me of my home far away" in the bridge is quintessentially West Virginian, an allusion to when he listened to the program Saturday Night Jamboree, broadcast from Wheeling, West Virginia, on WWVA at his home in Springfield, Massachusetts during his childhood in the 1950s Danoff was influenced by friend and West Virginian actor Chris Sarandon and members of a West Virginia commune who attended Danoff's performances  Of the commune members, Danoff remarked, "They brought their dogs and were a very colorful group of folks, but that is how West Virginia began creeping into the song " While the song was inspired by Danoff's upbringing in Springfield, Massachusetts, he "didn't want to write about Massachusetts because [he] didn't think the word was musical "Starting December 22, 1970, Denver was heading the New Year's bill at The Cellar Door, with Fat City opening for him, just as Denver had opened at the same club for then-headliner David Steinberg  After the club's post-Christmas reopening night on Tuesday, December 29 (Cellar Door engagements ran from Tuesday to Sunday, and this booking was for two weeks), the three returned to the couple's apartment for an impromptu jam  On the way, Denver's left thumb was broken in a collision  He was rushed to the emergency room, where the thumb was splinted  When they returned to the apartment, Denver said he was "wired, you know "When Danoff and Nivert ran through what they had of the song they had been working on for about a month, planning to sell to Johnny Cash, Denver "flipped"  He decided he had to have it, prompting them to abandon plans for the sale  The verses and chorus were still missing a bridge, so the three of them went about finishing 
Nivert got out an encyclopedia to learn more about West Virginia  The first thing she encountered was the Rhododendron, the state flower, so she kept trying to work the word Rhododendron into the song  Rhododendron was the title that Nivert had written down on the lyric sheet, which they later sent to ASCAP  The three stayed up until 6:00 a m , changing words and moving lines around When they finished, on the morning of Wednesday, December 30, 1970, Denver announced that the song had to go on his next album  Later that night, during Denver's first set, Denver called his two collaborators back to the spotlight, where the trio changed their career trajectories, reading the lyrics from a single, handheld, unfolded piece of paper  According to Len Jaffe, a Washington, D C -based singer-songwriter who attended the show where Denver premiered the song, this resulted in a five-minute standing ovation  The next day was Denver's 28th birthday  They recorded it in New York City in January 1971 
"Take Me Home, Country Roads" is written in a Key of A major and composed in a tempo of 82 beats per minute per common time 

Commercial performance and legacy
"Take Me Home, Country Roads" appeared on the LP Poems, Prayers & Promises and was released as a 45 in the spring of 1971  Original pressings credited the single to "John Denver with Fat City"  It broke nationally in mid-April but moved up the charts very slowly  After several weeks, RCA Records called John and told him they were giving up on the single  His response: "No! Keep working on it!" They did, and the single went to number 1 on the Record World Pop Singles Chart and the Cash Box Top 100, and number 2 on the U S  Billboard Hot 100, topped only by "How Can You Mend a Broken Heart" by The Bee Gees 
On August 18, 1971, it was certified Gold by the RIAA for a million copies shipped  The song continued to sell in the digital era  As of January 2020, the song has also sold 1,591,000 downloads since it became available digitally Denver's recording of "Take Me Home, Country Roads" was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry in 2023 

Reception in West Virginia
"Take Me Home, Country Roads" received an enthusiastic response from West Virginians  On November 1, 2017, the West Virginia Tourism Office announced it had obtained the rights to use "Take Me Home, Country Roads", in its marketing efforts  "'Country Roads' has become synonymous with West Virginia all over the world," said West Virginia Tourism Commissioner Chelsea Ruby  "It highlights everything we love about our state: scenic beauty, majestic mountains, a timeless way of life, and most of all, the warmth of a place that feels like home whether you've lived here forever or are just coming to visit " The opening phrase of the song, "Almost heaven", became a primary tourism office slogan The song is the theme song of West Virginia University, and it has been performed during every home football pregame show since 1972  The song is played for other athletic events and university functions, including after football games, for which the fans are encouraged to stay in the stands and sing the song along with the team  On September 6, 1980, at the invitation of West Virginia Governor Jay Rockefeller, songwriters Danoff, Nivert, and Denver performed the song during pregame festivities to a sold-out crowd of Mountaineer fans  This performance marked the dedication of the current West Virginia University Mountaineer Field and the first game for head coach Don Nehlen The popularity of the song inspired resolutions in the West Virginia Legislature to adopt "Take Me Home, Country Roads" as an official state song  On March 7, 2014, the West Virginia Legislature approved a resolution to make "Take Me Home, Country Roads" an official state song of West Virginia, alongside three other pieces: "West Virginia Hills", "This Is My West Virginia", and "West Virginia, My Home Sweet Home"  Governor Earl Ray Tomblin signed the resolution into law on March 8, 2014 The song was played at the funeral for West Virginia Senator Robert Byrd at the state capitol in Charleston, West Virginia on July 2, 2010 The Mountain State Brewing Company based in Thomas, West Virginia, produces an amber ale named "Almost Heaven", which it says is "named after John Denver's ode to West Virginia, 'Country Roads'" 

Personnel
John Denver – vocals, 6- & 12-string acoustic guitar
Bill Danoff – backing vocals
Taffy Nivert – backing vocals
Eric Weissberg – banjo, steel guitar
Mike Taylor – acoustic guitar
Richard Kniss – double bass
Gary Chester – drums, percussion

Charts
Certifications
Cover versions
Hermes House Band version
Dutch pop band Hermes House Band covered the song and released it as "Country Roads"  This version was first released in Germany on May 21, 2001, and was issued in the United Kingdom on December 3, 2001, where it was a contender for the 2001 Christmas number-one single  This version was a chart success in Europe, reaching number one in Scotland, number two in Germany and Ireland, and the top 10 in Austria, Denmark, and the United Kingdom 

Track listings
Charts
Certifications
Olivia Newton-John version
Olivia Newton-John released a cover version in January 1973 that reached number 6 in Japan and number 15 in the UK  It was the lead single from her third studio album, Let Me Be There  This version, as well as the song itself, features prominently in the Japanese animated film, Whisper of the Heart 

Fallout 76 version
A cover version of the song, a collaboration between Copilot Music and Sound and the vocal group Spank, was commissioned for and featured in both the teaser and full E3 2018 trailers for the 2018 video game Fallout 76, with its plot events are set in West Virginia  Released as an iTunes-only single on July 4, 2018, the song reached No  1 on the iTunes singles chart  It debuted at No  41 on Billboard's Hot Country Songs chart that week and at No  21 on Billboard's Country Digital Songs the following week  The official YouTube upload of the original John Denver recording, initially uploaded in 2013, would later edit its description in response to the song's use for the game  In Australia, a promotional Fallout 76 vinyl featuring the cover was included with the December 2018 issue of STACK Magazine exclusively from retailer JB Hi-Fi 

Forever Country
The song found further chart success as part of the Forever Country medley and video, created in 2016 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Country Music Association Awards 
Passage 4:
Absorption of water
In higher plants water and minerals are absorbed through root hairs which are in contact with soil water and  from the  root hairs zone a little the root tips 

Active absorption
Active absorption refers to the absorption of water by roots with the help of adenosine triphosphate, generated by the root respiration: as the root cells actively take part in the process, it is called active absorption
Context 3: Passage 1:
Hughesville, Maryland
Hughesville is a census-designated place (CDP) in Charles County, Maryland, United States  The population was 2,197 at the 2010 census  Truman's Place was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 11 2 square miles (29 1 km2), of which 11 2 square miles (28 9 km2) is land and 0 08 square miles (0 2 km2), or 0 69%, is water Hughesville was a tobacco market town   The former tobacco warehouses are now used for second-hand thrift stores and boutique gift and craft shops Because Hughesville, though small, is considered the strategic geographic center of the tri-county Southern Maryland region, it houses institutions such as the headquarters for the Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative, an animal shelter, an economic development council, a board of realtors, and a homeless women's shelter, which serve the tri-county area  There is also a Girl Scout camp  The town has no traditional grid-layout streets, but consists of merely businesses along the highway and some very small outlying housing developments  It was announced in 2013 that the College of Southern Maryland is building their fourth campus in the town A 5 5-MW solar farm near Hughesville generates enough power for 600 homes, and offsets the pollution of 1,600 cars 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,537 people, 503 households, and 407 families residing in the CDP  The population density was 137 4 inhabitants per square mile (53 1/km2)  There were 529 housing units at an average density of 47 3 per square mile (18 3/km2)  The racial makeup of the CDP was 82 04% White, 13 08% African American, 0 72% Native American, 2 73% Asian, 0 07% Pacific Islander, 0 13% from other races, and 1 24% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 65% of the population 
There were 503 households, out of which 36 4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68 2% were married couples living together, 7 4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18 9% were non-families  12 7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 97 and the average family size was 3 25 
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 26 3% under the age of 18, 6 5% from 18 to 24, 30 0% from 25 to 44, 27 3% from 45 to 64, and 10 0% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 38 years  For every 100 females, there were 99 4 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97 4 males 
The median income for a household in the CDP was $90,697, and the median income for a family was $103,393  Males had a median income of $49,500 versus $36,563 for females  The per capita income for the CDP was $29,884  About 4 8% of families and 7 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7 9% of those under age 18 and 5 1% of those age 65 or over 
Passage 2:
Minsk Region
Minsk Region, also known as Minsk Oblast or Minsk Voblasts (Belarusian: Мі́нская во́бласць, romanized: Minskaja voblasć, IPA: [ˈmʲinskaja ˈvobɫasʲtsʲ]; Russian: Минская о́бласть, romanized: Minskaya oblast), is one of the regions of Belarus  Its administrative center is Minsk, although it is a separate administrative territorial entity of Belarus  As of 2011, the region's population is 1,411,500 

Geography
Minsk Region covers a total of 39,900 km2, about 19 44% of the national total area  Lake Narach, the largest lake in the country, is located in the northern part of the region  There are four other large lakes in this region: Svir (8th largest), Myadel (11th largest), Syalyava (14th largest) and Myastro (15th largest)  It is the only region of Belarus whose border is not part of the international border of Belarus 

History
Beginning the 10th century, the territory of the current Minsk Region was part of Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and later it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania  With the unification of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, the territory became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 
In 1793, as a result of the second partition of Polish territory, the area was annexed by Russia as the Minsk Region  During the collapse of the Russian Empire due to the Civil War, the western part was annexed to Poland in 1921, while the east became Soviet Belarus 
The Minsk region was established on 15 January 1938, based on the amendment of the Constitutional Law of the USSR  As of 20 February 1938, the area included 20 districts   Following the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939, the former Eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic were annexed in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact partitioning Poland and added to the Minsk Region 
On 20 September 1944, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck were removed from the Minsk region and transferred to the newly formed Bobruisk Region 
On 8 January 1954, by the decree of the USSR Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the Nesvizhski and Stolbtsovsky districts from the abolished Baranovichi Region, as well as the Glusk, Gressky, Kopyl, Krasnoslobodski, Luban, Slutsky, Starobin, Starodorozhski districts and the city of Sluck from the abolished Bobruisk Region, were added to the Minsk Region 
In 1960, following the abolition of Molodechno Region, its southern part became the northern part of the Minsk Region 

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Minsk Region grew from twelve in 2000 to seventy in 2010  The most popular tourist destinations of the region are Zaslavskoye Lake, the Zhdanovichi area which has health resorts, Nesvizh Palace and its surroundings, as well as the alpine ski resorts of Logoysk and Silichi 

Administrative subdivisions
The Minsk Region comprises 22 districts (raions), 307 selsovets, 22 cities, 8 city municipalities, and 20 urban-type settlements 

Districts of Minsk Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Minsk Region

Demographics
See also
Administrative divisions of Belarus
Villages in Minsk Region
Passage 3:
Hylestad
Hylestad is a former municipality in the old Aust-Agder county in Norway  The 570-square-kilometre (220 sq mi) former municipality existed from 1915 until its dissolution in 1962  It was located in the southern part of the present-day municipality of Valle in the traditional region of Setesdal in Agder county  The administrative centre was the village of Rysstad where the Hylestad Church was located 

History
The parish of Hylestad was established as a municipality on 1 July 1915 when the municipality of Valle was divided into two municipalities: Hylestad (population: 658) in the south and Valle (population: 1,051) in the north  During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee  On 1 January 1962, Hylestad was reincorporated into Valle  Prior to the merger Hylestad had a population of 662 

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) was named after the old Hylestad farm (Old Norse: Hyljastaðir), since the first Hylestad Church was built there  The first element comes from hylja meaning a "pool" (possibly referring to the pool in the river) and the last element is staðir which means "homestead" or "farm" 

Government
All municipalities in Norway, including Hylestad, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads  The municipality was governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elected a mayor 

Municipal council
The municipal council (Herredsstyre) of Hylestad was made up of 13 representatives that were elected to four year terms   The party breakdown of the final municipal council was as follows:

Notable residents
Osmund Faremo (1921-1999), a Norwegian politician
Aani Aanisson Rysstad (1894-1965), a Norwegian politician

See also
List of former municipalities of Norway
Passage 4:
Port Blair
Port Blair (pronunciation ) is the capital city of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India in the Bay of Bengal  It is also the local administrative sub-division (tehsil) of the islands, the headquarters for the district of South Andaman and is the territory's only notified town 
Port Blair serves as the entry point for visiting the Andaman and Nicobar Islands  Port Blair is connected with mainland India by both air and sea  It is a two to three-hour flight from mainland India to Port Blair's Veer Savarkar International Airport, and three to four days by sea to reach Kolkata, Chennai, or Visakhapatnam from Haddo Wharf in Port Blair  It is home to several museums and a major naval base INS Jarawa of the Indian Navy, along with sea and air bases of the Indian Coast Guard, Andaman and Nicobar Police, Andaman and Nicobar Command, the first integrated tri-command of the Indian Armed Forces and the Indian Air Force Port Blair is also famous for the historic Cellular Jail and other small islands like Corbyn's Cove, Wandoor, Ross Island, Viper Island and so forth, which were once home to British colonists  Port Blair has been selected as one of the cities to be developed as a smart city under the Smart Cities Mission 

History
Pre-history
The indigenous inhabitants are the Andamanese  Radiocarbon dating studies of the kitchen refuse dumps from the mounds excavated by the Anthropological Survey of India at Choladari near Port Blair indicate human occupation for at least 2,000 years, although they are likely to have diverged from the inhabitants of the mainland significantly earlier 

Modern history
In 1789 the Government of Bengal established a penal colony on Chatham Island in the southeast bay of Great Andaman, named Port Blair in the honour of Archibald Blair of the East India Company  After two years, the colony moved to the northeast part of Great Andaman and was named Port Cornwallis after Admiral William Cornwallis  However, there was much disease and death in the penal colony, and the government ceased operating it in May 1796 
In 1824 Port Cornwallis was the rendezvous of the fleet carrying the army to the First Anglo-Burmese War  In the 1830s and 1840s, shipwrecked crews who landed on the Andamans were often attacked and killed by the natives, alarming the British government  In 1855, the government proposed another settlement on the islands, including a convict establishment, but the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced a delay in its construction 
However, since the rebellion provided the British with a lot of new prisoners, it made the new Andaman settlement and prison an urgent necessity  Construction began in November 1857 at the renovated Port Blair, avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp which seemed to have been the source of many of the old colony's problems  The penal colony was originally on Viper Island  The convicts, mostly political prisoners, suffered life imprisonment at hard labour under cruel and degrading conditions  Many were hanged, while others died of disease and starvation  Between 1864 and 1867 a penal establishment was also built with convict labour on the northern side of Ross Island  These structures now lie in ruins As the Indian independence movement continued to grow in the late 19th century, the enormous Cellular Jail was constructed between 1896 and 1906 to house Indian convicts, mostly political prisoners, in solitary confinement  The Cellular Jail is also known as Kala Pani (translated as "Black Waters"), a name given to it due to the torture and general ill-treatment towards its Indian convicts 
The airport at Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar's capital, has been named Veer Savarkar International Airport  The commemorative blue plaque on India House fixed by the Historic Building and Monuments Commission for England reads "Vinayak Damodar Savarkar 1883–1966 Indian patriot and philosopher lived here "
In World War II the islands were occupied by the Japanese on 23 March 1942 without opposition from the garrison  From 1943 to 1944, Port Blair served as the headquarters of the Azad Hind government under Subhas Chandra Bose  British forces returned to the islands in October 1945 Although affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, Port Blair survived sufficiently to act as a base for relief efforts in the islands 

Climate
Port Blair has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Am), with little variation in average temperature and large amounts of precipitation throughout the year  All months except January, February and March receive substantial rainfall 

Tourism
Port Blair being the capital city of Andaman and Nicobar Islands is the entry point for all tourism related activities  Tourists first have to arrive to Port Blair before progressing on to any other islands in Andaman  At Port Blair, the major tourist places to visit are the Cellular Jail, Corbyns Cove Beach, North Bay Island, Ross Island renamed to Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island, Chidiatapu, Wandoor and other museums that are present within city limits  Entry charges are applicable to some of the tourist places 

Demographics
As of 2011 India census, Port Blair had a population of 100,608  Males constitute 52 92% (53,247) of the population and females 47 07% (47,361)  9 3% of the population is under the age of 6 years 

Language
Bengali is the most spoken language of the city, followed by Telegu, Hindi and Tamil 

Religion
The most common religion is Hinduism, followed by Christianity and Islam 

Literacy
Port Blair has an average literacy rate of 89 76%, higher than the national average that is 74 04%  In Port Blair, male literacy is 92 79%, and female literacy is 86 34% 

Administration
The Port Blair Municipal Council, abbreviated as PBMC is the ruling civic body administering the city of Port Blair, the capital and the largest city in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands  The council came into existence on 2 October 1957 after the assent by the President of India to the Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Municipal Board’s) Regulation, 1957 Act on 11 March 1957  The council comprises a total of 24 wards after the recent delimitation and the expansion of the city limits with the merger of few other villages to the existing 18 wards previously The recent elections for the council were held in 2022  U  Kavitha from ward 24 a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party was elected as the chairperson for the first term which commenced from 16 March 2022  On 14 March 2023, Telugu Desam Party councilor S  Selvi from ward 5 was elected as the chairperson for the second year term of commencing from 16 March 2023 as part of the joint candidature from the BJP-TDP Alliance 

PBMC electoral history
Education
B Ed
Tagore Government College of Education

Degree
Andaman and Nicobar college
Jawaharlal Nehru Government College

Engineering
Dr  B  R  Ambedkar Institute of Technology

Law
Andaman Law College

Medicine
Andaman and Nicobar Islands Institute of Medical Sciences

Gallery
See also
Cellular Jail
Charles James Lyall
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
Ross Island
Havelock Island
Passage 5:
Pak Tam Chung
Pak Tam Chung (Chinese: 北潭涌) is an area in the southern part of the Sai Kung Peninsula in the New Territories of Hong Kong  It is administratively under the Sai Kung District 

Features
Pak Tam Chung was described as consisting of six villages in 1911 with fewer than 405 inhabitants: Wong Yi Chau (黃宜洲), Pak Tam (北潭), Sheung Yiu (上窰), Tsak Yue Wu (鯽魚湖), Wong Keng Tei (黃麖地) and Tsam Chuk Wan  The six villages were all inhabited by Hakka people, with the exception of two hamlets in Pak Tam There is a visitor centre for nature education set up by the Hong Kong Government  Near the centre is a vehicle barrier leading to the restricted portion of Sai Kung East Country Park in Pak Tam Chung  For vehicles, only those with authorisation can enter the area and reach places like Hoi Ha, Pak Tam Au and High Island Reservoir 
There are a number of picnic and barbecue facilities within Pak Tam Chung, including a site designed for physically disabled visitors



ground_truth: Het Scheur

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: During the war in which The Things They Carried is set, when was conscription introduced by the country where the film Grievous Bodily Harm was later released?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  According to Jenner, active absorption takes place in low transpiring and well-watered plants, and 4% of total water absorption is carried out in this process  The active absorption is carried out by two theories; active osmotic water absorption and Active non-osmotic water absorption  In this process, energy is not required 
Active absorption is important for the plants 

Active osmotic water absorption
The root cells behave as an ideal osmotic pressure system through which water moves up from the soil solution to the root xylem along an increasing gradient of D P D  (suction pressure, which is the real force for water absorption)  If the solute concentration is high and water potential is low in the root cells, water can enter from soil to root cells through endosmosis  Mineral nutrients are absorbed actively by the root cells due to utilisation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)  As a result, the concentration of ions (osmotica) in the xylem vessels is more in comparison to the soil water  A concentration gradient is established between the root and the soil water  The solute potential of xylem water is more in comparison to that of soil and correspondingly water potential is low than the soil water  If stated, water potential is comparatively positive in the soil water  This gradient of water potential causes endosmosis  The endosmosis of water continues until the water potential both in the root and soil becomes equal  It is the absorption of minerals that utilise metabolic energy, but not water absorption  Hence, the absorption of water is indirectly an active process in a plant's life  Active transport is in an opposite direction to that of diffusion 

Active non-osmotic water absorption
Sometimes water is absorbed against a concentration gradient  This requires the expenditure of metabolic energy released from the respiration of root cells  There is no direct evidence, but some scientists suggest the involvement of energy from respiration  In conclusion, it is said that the evidence supporting active absorption of water are themselves poor 
This mechanism is carried out without utilisation of metabolic energy  Here, only the roots act as an organ of absorption or passage  Hence, sometimes it is called water absorption 'through roots', rather than 'by' roots  It occurs in rapidly transpiring plants during the daytime, because of the opening of stomata and the atmospheric conditions  The force for absorption of water is created at the leaf end i e  the transpiration pull  The main cause behind this transpiration pull, water is lifted up in the plant axis like a bucket of water is lifted by a person from a well  Transpiration pull is responsible for dragging water at the leaf end, the pull or force is transmitted down to the root through column of water in the xylem elements  The continuity of the water column remains intact due to the cohesion between the molecules and it act as a rope  Roots simply act as a passive organ of absorption  As transpiration proceeds, water absorption occurs simultaneously to compensate the water loss from the leaf end  Most volume of water entering plants is by means of passive absorption  Passive transport is no different from diffusion, it requires no input of energy: there is free movement of molecules from their higher concentration to their lower concentration  The water will enter the plant via the root cells that can be found in the roots where mainly passive absorption occurs  Also, with the absorption of water, minerals and nutrients are also absorbed 

See also
Root
Peter Atkins
Otto Renner
Kenneth Thimann
Passage 5:
Humanitarian civic assistance activities
In the United States Department of Defense, Humanitarian Civic Assistance (HCA) is relief and development activities that take place in the context of an overseas military exercise, training or operation  Under the HCA program, U S  military personnel participating in overseas deployments carry out humanitarian activities such as road and school construction, vaccination of children and animals, and well-digging  HCA programs are often executed with the involvement of host-country civilian and military personnel  U S  National Guard or reserve units are involved in many HCA activities 
HCA programs cannot be carried out solely for humanitarian purposes  The deployment's primary purpose must be training of U S  forces, readiness exercises or military operations  In describing the deployments which HCA accompanies, DoD states that

overseas deployments are an integral aspect of maintaining a forward U S  military presence, ensuring operational readiness to respond to crises, and preparing National Guard and Reserve Forces to perform their wartime missions  These exercises enhance U S  military operational readiness by providing unique training opportunities in remote and austere environments  During these deployments, U S  Forces practice command and control procedures, logistical operations and sustainment over extended distances 
HCA activities are now being described as "a key tool in the War on Terrorism " According to DoD, HCA activities 

directly support efforts to counter ideological support for terrorism - one of the fundamental elements of our national strategy and security cooperation initiatives  These humanitarian activities are often preventative in nature, focused at the root cause of ideological extremism, and provide access to regions where traditional military-to-military engagement is virtually impossible  They also provide significant training opportunities for U S  military personnel while also serving the basic economic and social needs of people in the countries supported 
The Humanitarian Mine Action (HMA) program falls within the HCA programs authorized by Section 401 of Title 10, U S  Code  The HMA program trains host nations in clearing landmines and other explosive remnants of war, while also providing U S  military personnel with training and readiness-enhancing experiences by giving them "access to geographical areas otherwise not easily available to US forces "  The program is directly supervised by the geographic combatant commanders  
The budget for Humanitarian Civic Assistance projects is presented in a yearly Defense Department report  The amounts indicate "incidental expenses" -- the cost of materials, supplies, and some services  The funding listed below does not include costs for transportation, personnel, fuel, or the repair of equipment  Expenses reported as HCA are only those components of a deployment which are directly related to the project at hand  Thus the dollar amounts categorized as "HCA" are very small when compared with the activity's actual expense 
Passage 6:
Grievous Bodily Harm
Grievous Bodily Harm is a 1988 Australian crime film directed by Mark Joffe starring Colin Friels and John Waters 

Plot
Crime reporter Tom Stewart (Colin Friels) and a cop (Bruno Lawrence) look for a deranged schoolteacher (John Waters) who goes on a murder spree while looking for the lover he thought to be dead 

Cast
John Waters as Morris Martin
Colin Friels as Tom Stewart
Bruno Lawrence as Det  Sgt  Ray Birch
Kim Gyngell as Mick
Gary Stalker as Derek Allen
Joy Bell as Claudine
Shane Briant as Stephen Enderby
Caz Lederman as Vivian Enderby
John Flaus as Neil Bradshaw

Production
The script was written by Warwick Hind, a former executive at Greater Union  Errol Sullivan showed the script to Richard Brennan, who raised up to around a $1 million of the budget; the remainder was raised through Antony I  Ginnane  Richard Brennan says the actual cost of the film was $3 million but various fees put it up to $3 4 million 

Awards
The film was nominated for 4 AFI Awards in 1988, including best picture 

Box office
Grievous Bodily Harm grossed $82,267 at the box office in Australia  However it did sell to American company Fries Entertainment for over $1 million 

See also
Cinema of Australia
Passage 7:
You're the Best Thing That Ever Happened to Me
"You're the Best Thing That Ever Happened To Me" — also known simply as "Best Thing That Ever Happened To Me" — is a song written by Jim Weatherly, and produced by Don Law  It was first recorded in 1973 by Ray Price from his album You're the Best Thing That Ever Happened To Me  The song enjoyed two runs of popularity, each by an artist in a different genre 
Weatherly told Tom Roland in The Billboard Book of Number One Country Hits that he wrote the song in 1971 and let his father-in-law first record it as a Christmas present for the latter's wife  "I thought it was really strange that nobody'd written a song with that title — possibly somebody had, but I'd never heard it — so I just sat down and let this stream of consciousness happen  I basically wrote it in a very short period of time, probably 30 minutes or an hour "

The versions
Ray Price country version
The song's first run of popularity, as "You're the Best Thing That Ever Happened to Me," came in 1973, when country music singer Ray Price took the song to number 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart on October 6, 1973 
For that version, it represented a last and a first  The "last" was Price's seventh and most recent No  1 single, in a string dating back to his 1956 hit "Crazy Arms " The "first": It was the No  1 single on the debut program of American Country Countdown, which used the Billboard chart in its programming  Although it fell short of the top 40 in his native United States, the song was an easy listening hit in Canada, his third such hit there 

Gladys Knight & the Pips pop/R&B version
In the early- to mid-1970s, Gladys Knight & the Pips recorded several of Weatherly's songs, and in 1974, they dipped into his catalog once again with their rendition of the song  Their version, titled "Best Thing That Ever Happened to Me," reached number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 that spring and topped the Hot Soul Singles for two weeks  The single was certified gold by the RIAA for sales of one million copies  It also reached the top 10 in the United Kingdom 

James Cleveland gospel version
In 1975, legendary gospel singer Rev  James Cleveland & The Charles Fold Singers recorded a live version of the song, which was cited (in the song) as an adaptation of the Gladys Knight & The Pips version of the song 

Chart history
The Persuaders R&B version
In 1974, The Persuaders also recorded a version, taken from their album of the same name Their version was quieter, less brassy, and more introspective than The Pips' version The song reached number 85 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart 

Dean Martin pop version
The song was also recorded by Dean Martin in 1973 

Andy Williams version
Andy Williams released a version in 1974 on his album, The Way We Were 

Steve Lawrence version
Steve Lawrence released a version in 1973 under MGM Records label 

Chart performance
Ray Price version
Passage 8:
Zig & Sharko
Zig & Sharko (French: Zig et Sharko) is a French animated slapstick comedy television series created and directed by Olivier Jean-Marie and produced by Xilam Animation  The series' premise focuses on the lives of Zig, a brown hyena, and Sharko, a great white shark, over their conflicts regarding the mermaid Marina, in which Zig seeks to devour her while Sharko loves and protects her  The series employs silent comedy: characters either do not speak; rather they use unintelligible vocalizations, gestures, and occasional pictograms in speech balloons (the Indian version dubs Hindi dialogue over the animation instead) 
Three seasons with a total of 78 half-hour episodes (234 seven-minute segments) were originally broadcast on December 21, 2010, followed by an official premiere on January 10, 2011 on Canal+ Family, with the second and third seasons airing on Gulli, and reruns airing on TF1  A third season was announced in December 2018  A fourth season was announced in 2022 

Premise
The series focuses on the exploits and adventures of a group of characters - Zig, a brown hyena; Sharko, a great white shark; Marina, a mermaid with red hair; and Bernie, a hermit crab  Much of the stories of each episode revolve around an eternal war over Marina between Zig, who attempts to capture her to eat her, and Sharko, who loves her and acts as her bodyguard against Zig's various plans  The show itself draws inspiration for its plot and slapstick humor from the cartoons of Wile E  Coyote and the Road Runner, in that Zig often makes use of various items or concocts plans based on things he witnesses with Sharko and Marina, but is often foiled in the process by Sharko, bad luck, or a combination of both  Although the pair are enemies to each other because of their constant battles and grudges, they are also good friends, akin to the relationship of Tom and Jerry  Alongside the main characters, the show is frequently populated by minor background characters, many of whom are animals and aquatic creatures that, alongside Zig and Sharko, are portrayed as anthropomorphic beings 
Throughout the first season, much of the plots revolve around the oceans surrounding a tropical volcanic island, in which Marina often spends the day residing on a rocky pinnacle off the coast during the day, while residing in an underwater home that she shares with Sharko  In the second season, the plots shifted to the island itself, including its beaches, volcano, and jungle, with some changes for the main characters - Marina takes residence in an ornate, life-sized sandcastle, built by Sharko; Zig and Bernie live with a cargo plane pilot in his crashed plane within the jungle; and Sharko operates as a lifeguard for the aquatic lifeforms who frequent the beaches  In the third season, the main characters and the island's inhabitants move onto a cruise ship to travel the oceans, where much of the season's plots take place 

Characters
None of the characters in the series speak; a form of gibberish speech is sometimes used, but most interactions involve hand signals and body language to convey what a character is thinking about  The show's main characters include:

Zig is an anthropomorphic brown hyena, and best friends with Bernie since childhood  He frequently plots to capture Marina to eat her, but his schemes for this purpose are often foiled by Sharko  He is often desperate and eager to eat Marina on sight, but is no better outside of his main motive  He has a comically dry and wheezy voice  The design of the character's behavior and characteristics were in part inspired by the cartoon character Wile E  Coyote 
Sharko is an anthropomorphic great white shark, who appears brutish and tough, but is dorky with a heart of gold  He loves Marina and will do anything to protect her from harm, which include Zig's schemes  He is often portrayed as muscular and athletic, and is a fan of table tennis  In spite of his devotion to Marina, he can sometimes occasionally cause trouble for himself  During the first few episodes of the series, he was unable to get around on the island and can only swim in the ocean  Later on, he is capable of walking on dry land using his tail as feet 
Marina is a mermaid, who is good-natured, intelligent, bubbly and romantic - intrigued by anything new she encounters  She maintains a positive relationship with the other characters in the show, including Zig  although this makes her quite naive to Zig's intentions to eat her  She is portrayed as wearing a small living sea star in her hair, and capable of walking on her tail (using her fins as feet)  Her design was likely inspired by the character Ariel, from The Little Mermaid 
Bernie is a red anthropomorphic hermit crab, and Zig's best friend since childhood  He often collaborates in Zig's schemes to capture Marina, though holds no grudge against her or Sharko, in reality  He is often denoted as being quite smart, and capable of coming to the rescue when needed Aside from the main characters, various episodes feature a variety of background and minor characters to the stories - jungle animals, aquatic lifeforms, and various human characters - in the first season, one of these human characters is portrayed as a Japanese cargo ship captain, who, as a running gag, frequently crashes his ship into the island and is forced to return home with a rubber dingy  Throughout the first season, several episodes featured the supporting character of Neptune, based on the mythological Roman god of the sea and portrayed as a vain, muscular merman with numerous killer whale henchmen, who competed with Sharko for Marina's love, despite her disliking him  Marina despises him and often has to rely on Sharko and Zig to keep him at bay  The second season introduces Poseidon, portrayed as a muscular elderly merman, who served as Marina's adopted father in the episode "Father-In-Law", and an amnesiac human cargo plane pilot who often exhibits the behavior of a monkey due to his condition - one episode revolves around a flashback, where the pilot has met up with actual simians 

Episodes
Production and development
In 2008, the television group Canal+ decided to develop pilot episodes for nine out of 135 animation projects received, including Zig and Sharko, for television broadcast during the 2010–11 season  A development budget of 6 to 6 5 million euros (7 1 to 7 69 million US dollars) was allocated to the series  The original title was The Mermaid, the Hyena and the Shark, and it is a co-production between the television channels TF1 and Canal+ Family which broadcast later this series  The type of animation is similar to the American series of Tex Avery, Bob Clampett and Tom and Jerry 
Dong Woo Animation and Armada TMT were the animation studios chosen for the series, similar to that of Space Goofs' second season and Oggy and the Cockroaches' third and fourth seasons  The development of the series was carried out by the French studios Xilam Animation  The series’ first season has been ordered and picked up by Xilam in 2009, which premiered on Canal+ on December 21, 2010, the series was launched on Canal+ Family on February 12, 2011, on Cartoon+ every Saturday at 7:40 pm  Xilam then produced a second season in 2013, changing its art style to match some of its modern TV shows, like Paprika and Lupin's Tales 

Distribution
On May 6, 2015, the official YouTube channel of Zig & Sharko was created, with all of the episodes – in a high-quality, widescreen format – from seasons 1 to 3  The channel made also various compilations  The channel made episodes with English title cards  As of August 2021, the channel has 11 9 million subscribers making it one of the Top 10 most-subscribed French channels on the site  As of November 2020, "The Were-Yena" (the 67th episode of the first season) is the most-viewed episode of the official channel, with over 99 million views  The most-viewed compilation has 118 million views 

Spin-off
In 2021, a spin-off series was created by Alexandre Simard, Mathieu Peters-Houg and Lucille Briand for Xilam, named The Adventures of Bernie  The series focused on the titular character who, while helping Zig in his next scheme to target and eat Marina, is sent off their island home in a freak accident and ends up in the depths of the rock-bottom ocean  The episodes focus on Bernie's endeavors in using his intelligence and inventive skills to find a way back home, and to Zig, all while meeting with a variety of new characters along the way  The series takes place in the same universe with a different art style like Oggy and the Cockroaches: Next Generation, and employs silent slapstick humor, but with each episode being three and a half minutes long – with the exception of the first episode 
Passage 9:
Conscription in Australia
Conscription in Australia, also known as National Service following the Second World War, has a controversial history in the country which dates back to the implementation of compulsory military training and service in the first years of nationhood  Military conscription for peacetime service was abolished in 1972        
However, in times of war, the Defence Act 1903 allows the Governor-General of Australia to authorise conscription for service in the Defence Force, provided it is approved by the Parliament of Australia within 90 days 

History
Universal Training Scheme
In 1909, the Deakin government introduced an amendment to the Defence Act 1903, the Defence Act 1909, which allowed for a form of conscription for boys from 12 to 14 years of age and for youths of 18 to 20 years of age for the purposes of home defence  The Act, which passed with the combined support of the Protectionist Party and the Australian Labor Party, did not allow soldiers to be conscripted for overseas service  
Following recommendations arising from a visit to Australia by Field Marshal Kitchener to report on the country's defence readiness, the Australian Labor Party government instituted a system of compulsory military training for all males aged between 12 and 26 from 1 January 1911 John Barrett, in his study of boyhood conscription, Falling In, noted:

In 1911 there were approximately 350,000 boys of an age (10–17 years) to register for compulsory training up to the end of 1915  Since 'universal' was a misnomer, about half that number were exempted from training, or perhaps never registered, reducing the group to 175,000 
There was quite extensive opposition to the so-called "boy conscription"  By July 1915, there had been about 34,000 prosecutions and 7,000 detentions of trainees, parents, employers or other persons required to register 

World War I
Under Labor Prime Minister Billy Hughes, full conscription for overseas service was attempted during the First World War in two plebiscites 
The first plebiscite was held on 28 October 1916 and narrowly rejected conscription with a margin of 49% for and 51% against  The plebiscite of 28 October 1916 asked Australians:

Are you in favour of the Government having, in this grave emergency, the same compulsory powers over citizens in regard to requiring their military service, for the term of this War, outside the Commonwealth, as it now has in regard to military service within the Commonwealth?
A second plebiscite was held on 20 December 1917 and defeated by 46% for and 54% against  This question was put to Australians:

Are you in favour of the proposal of the Commonwealth Government for reinforcing the Commonwealth Forces overseas?
After the failure of the first plebiscite, Billy Hughes and his supporters left the Australian Labor Party parliamentary caucus and took with them a good deal of the parliamentary party's talent  They created a new National Labor Party, and Hughes survived as prime minister by forming a conservative Nationalist government, which was dependent for survival on the Commonwealth Liberal Party  The remainder of the Labor Party, under the new leader, Frank Tudor, then expelled Hughes and all of those who had followed him  Following the split, Labor stayed out of office for ten years 

After the first plebiscite, the government used the War Precautions Act and the Unlawful Associations Act to arrest and prosecute anti-conscriptionists such as Tom Barker, the editor of Direct Action and many other members of the Industrial Workers of the World and E  H  Coombe, who had three sons at the front, of the Daily Herald  The young John Curtin, then a member of the Victorian Socialist Party, was also arrested  Anti-conscriptionist publications, in one case, even when it was read into Hansard, were seized by government censors in police raids 

Other notable opponents to Conscription included the Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne Daniel Mannix, Queensland Labor Premier Thomas Ryan, Vida Goldstein and the Women's Peace Army  Most trade unions actively opposed conscription  Archbishop Mannix, born in County Clare, stated that Ireland had been more wronged by Great Britain than Belgium had been by Germany Many people thought positively of conscription as a sign of loyalty to Britain and thought that it would also support those men who were already fighting  However, trade unions feared that their members might be replaced by cheaper foreign or female labour and so opposed conscription  Some groups argued that the whole war was immoral, and it was unjust to force people to fight 
South Africa and India were the only other participating countries not to introduce conscription during the First World War 

Divided nation
The conscription issue deeply divided Australia with large meetings held both for and against  The women's vote was seen as important, with large women's meetings and campaign information from both sides aimed at women voters  The campaigning for the first plebiscite was launched by Hughes at a huge overflow meeting at the Sydney Town Hall, where he outlined the government's proposals  That was followed by a huge pro-conscription meeting at the Melbourne Town Hall on 21 September Anti-conscriptionists, especially in Melbourne, were also able to mobilise large crowds, with a meeting filling the Exhibition Building on 20 September 1916; 30,000 people on the Yarra bank on Sunday, 15 October, and 25,000 the following week; a "parade of women promoted by the United Women's No-Conscription Committee – an immense crowd of about 60,000 people gathered at Swanston St between Guild Hall and Princes Bridge, and for upwards of an hour the street was a surging area of humanity"  An anti-conscription stop work meeting called by five trade unions held on the Yarra Bank mid-week on 4 October attracted 15,000 people  It was passed on 21 September 1916, and mandatory registration and enrolment commenced while the first plebiscite campaign was underway  By 5 October, The Age reported that of 11607 men examined, 4581 were found fit, approximately 40 percent The Age noted in the article "Influence of the IWW" that "the great bulk of the opposition to conscription is centred in Victoria"  Many meetings in inner Melbourne and Sydney were disrupted by anti-conscriptionists with speakers being howled down from the audience in what The Age described as "disgraceful exhibition" and "disorderly scenes" The issue deeply divided the Labor Party, with ministers such as Hughes and George Pearce vigorously arguing the need for conscription for Australia to help the Allies win the war  They were supported by many within the party, including Labor's first prime minister, Chris Watson and NSW Labor Premier William Holman  Hughes denounced anti-conscriptionists as traitors and a climate of bitter sectarianism developed since most Roman Catholics opposed conscription and most others supported it 
By the end of the war in November 1918, a total of 416,809 men had voluntarily enlisted in the Army, representing 38 7 percent of the white male population aged between 18 and 44 On 1 November 1929, the mandatory service provisions of the Defence Act were suspended, ending 18 years of conscription for home defence 

World War II
In 1939, at the start of World War II, all unmarried men aged 21 were to be called up for three months' military training  The men could serve only in Australia or its territories  Conscription was effectively introduced in mid-1942, when all men aged 18–35 and single men aged 35–45 were required to join the Citizen Military Forces (CMF)  Volunteers with the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) scorned CMF conscripts as "chocolate soldiers", or "chockos", because they were believed to melt under the conditions of battle, or it might be an allusion to George Bernard Shaw's Arms and the Man in which Bluntschli filled his backpack with chocolate bars, rather than ammunition  However, several CMF Militia units fought under difficult conditions, suffered extremely high casualties in 1942 and slowed the Japanese advance on the Kokoda Track in New Guinea, then an Australian territory The Papuan campaign of 1942 led to a significant reform in the composition of the Australian Army  During the campaign, the restriction banning CMF personnel from serving outside Australian territory hampered military planning and caused tensions between the AIF and CMF  In late 1942 and early 1943, Prime Minister John Curtin overcame opposition within the Australian Labor Party to extending the geographic boundaries in which conscripts could serve to include most of the South West Pacific, and the necessary legislation was passed in January 1943  The 11th Brigade was the only CMF formation to serve outside Australian territory, however, when it formed part of Merauke Force in the Dutch East Indies in 1943 and 1944 

Korean War
In 1951, during the Korean War, national service was introduced under the National Service Act 1951  All Australian males aged 18 had to register for 176 days training (99 days full-time) and two years in the CMF  Later, the obligation was 140 days of training (77 days full-time) and three years' service in the CMF   In 1957 the system was changed to emphasise skill rather than numbers, then ended in 1959  The regular military forces remained voluntary 

Vietnam War
In 1964, compulsory national service for 20-year-old males was introduced under the National Service Act 1964  The selection of conscripts was made by a sortition or lottery draw based on date of birth, and conscripts were obligated to give two years of continuous full-time service, followed by a further three years on the active reserve list  The full-time service requirement was reduced to 18 months in October 1971 The Defence Act was amended May 1964 to provide that national servicemen could be obliged to serve overseas, a provision that had been applied only once before, during World War II  The 1964 amendments applied only to the permanent military forces and excluded the Citizen Military Forces  In 1965, the Defence Act was again amended to require the CMF to serve overseas, which had not been included in the 1964 amendments "Defence Act 1965"  Federal Register of Legislation  Office of Parliamentary Counsel (Australia)  Section 16  Retrieved 26 January 2023  In March 1966, the government announced that national servicemen would be sent to South Vietnam to fight in units of the Australian Regular Army and for secondment to American forces  Requirements for overseas service were detailed by the Minister for the Army, Malcolm Fraser, on 13 May 1966  Men who wished to avoid national service could join the Citizen Military Forces and serve only inside Australia, claim a student deferment or attempt a conscientious objection application  To be exempted on the basis of conscientious objection, an applicant needed to demonstrate his moral objection to "all" wars in court and to be legalised as a pacifist  That meant that the rate of success for conscientious objection applications was generally low 

Opposition
During the late 1960s, domestic opposition to the Vietnam War and conscription grew in Australia  In 1965, a group of concerned Australian women formed the anti-conscription organisation Save Our Sons, which was established in Sydney with other branches later formed in Wollongong, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Newcastle and Adelaide  The movement protested against conscription of Australians to fight in the Vietnam War and made the plight of men under 21, who were not yet eligible to vote, a focus of their campaign  In 1970, five Save-Our-Sons women were jailed in Melbourne for handing out anti-conscription pamphlets on government property  The group, which included Jean Maclean, Irene Miller and Jo Maclaine-Ross, was dubbed "The Fairlea Five" after Fairlea women's prison in which they were incarcerated  Barbara Miller is understood to be related to the decorated conscript Simon Anderson, who mysteriously disappeared in 1970 

Young men who were subject to the conscription lottery also formed their own anti-conscription organisation, the Youth Campaign Against Conscription  Like Save Our Sons, it spread to other states: New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia  It was the YCAC that imported the concept of draft-card burning from the United States and ushered in a new form of resistance to conscription, active non-compliance  Instead of merely not registering (passive non-compliance with the National Service Scheme), the young conscripts actively demonstrated their distaste for the government's actions by destroying their registration cards  Unlike in the United States, that was not legal and so its importance remained symbolic 
There were several high-profile controversies caused by the government's heavy-handed treatment of conscientious objectors, including William White and Simon Townsend (who later became a well-known television personality)  In 1969 the Gorton administration was severely embarrassed by a renowned This Day Tonight story in which a conscientious objector, who had been on the run from police for several months, was interviewed live in the studio by the journalist Richard Carleton, who then posed awkward questions to the Army Minister about why TDT had been able to locate the man within hours and bring him to the studio when the federal police had been unable to capture him, and the event was made even more embarrassing for the government because the man was able to leave the studio before the police had arrived to arrest him 
By 1969, public opinion was turning against the war  A Gallup Poll in August showed that 55 percent of those surveyed favoured bringing Australian troops home, and only 40 percent favoured them staying  That was the first poll to show less than 50% approval for the government's policy, and all polls after August 1969 were to reveal a majority in favour of bringing the troops home  In October, during his policy speech for the 1969 federal elections, the opposition leader, Gough Whitlam, declared that if elected, the ALP would make sure that all Australian troops in Vietnam would be home 'by Christmas' Around then, opposition to conscription became more radical  Active non-compliers began to call themselves "draft resisters"  Instead of waiting to be called up, draft resisters wrote letters to the Minister for National Service detailing their intention not to comply with conscription  Under law, that immediately rendered them liable for service  A number of these young men formed a draft resisters' union, active in at least two states: New South Wales and Victoria  They included men such as Bob Scates and Michael Hamel-Green  They went underground while maintaining a public presence, appeared at protests and were spirited away by the crowd before they could be arrested  In December 1972, while 'underground' as a draft resister, Barry Johnson stood as the Australian Labor Party (ALP) candidate in the seat of Hotham against Minister Don Chipp 
Australian government cabinet documents released by Australian National Archives in 2001 show that in 1970, the conservative government was initially concerned about the growth of conscientious objection and of outright opposition to the National Service Act  Reportedly, the cabinet considered instituting an option of alternative civilian work program for conscientious objectors in an attempt to reduce the numbers of objectors going to jail  That was never instituted but was widely rumoured at the time  Such work would have been menial labouring jobs in remote locations such as north and western Queensland, western New South Wales and northern South Australia In Cabinet Submission Number 200 for 1970, Appendix 1, case studies of 17 men awaiting prosecution for failure to undertake service show a broad spectrum of opposition to conscription including:

Religious opposition such as Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses
Moral opposition to wars
Moral opposition to the Vietnam War in particular
Opposition based upon the compulsion and authoritarian nature of conscription and its conflict with democratic processes and ideals The documents reveal that draft resistance and draft dodging never posed a threat to the number of conscripts required, but the public opposition by draft resisters such as John Zarb, Michael Matteson and Robert Martin had an increasingly-political effect  Conscription ended in December 1972, and the remaining seven men in Australian prisons for refusing conscription were freed in mid-to-late December 1972 ef 63,735 national servicemen served in the Army, of whom 15,381 were deployed to Vietnam  Approximately 200 were killed 

See also
Australian Defence Force
Billy Hughes egg-throwing incident
Passage 10:
Get Right with the Man
Get Right with the Man is the fourth studio album by American musical duo Van Zant  It was released in 2005 by Columbia Records  It peaked at number 2 on the Top Country Albums chart, and was certified Gold by the RIAA  The album includes the singles "Help Somebody", "Nobody Gonna Tell Me What to Do" and "Things I Miss the Most" 
The song "I'm Doin' Alright", was featured in the 2006 EA Sports game NASCAR 07 
This album has been released with the Copy Control protection system in some regions 

Track listing
Personnel
Taken from liner notes 
Van ZantJohnny Van Zant – lead vocals, background vocals
Donnie Van Zant – lead vocals, background vocalsAdditional MusiciansBekka Bramlett – background vocals
Tom Bukovac – electric guitar
Perry Coleman – background vocals
Eric Darken – percussion
Glen Duncan – fiddle
Kenny Greenberg – electric guitar
Greg Morrow – drums, percussion
Russ Pahl – lap steel guitar, steel guitar, banjo
Michael Rhodes – bass guitar
Jeffrey Steele – background vocals
Trez – background vocals
John Willis – acoustic guitar
Glenn Worf – bass guitar
Reese Wynans – B3 organ, keyboards, piano, Wurlitzer

Chart performance
Singles
Certifications
Context 3: 
Po Leung Kuk owns a holiday camp site in Pak Tam Chung, the Po Leung Kuk Pak Tam Chung Camp (保良局北潭涌渡假營) 

See also
Sheung Yiu Folk Museum
Historic churches of Sai Kung Peninsula
Sai Kung Town
Tai Po District
Passage 6:
United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York
The United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York is the United States bankruptcy court within the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York   The Southern District of New York is a major venue for bankruptcy, as it has jurisdiction over the corporate headquarters and major financial institutions located in Manhattan 
Originally, the District Court itself handled bankruptcies; these and admiralty court cases dominated nearly to the exclusion of all other cases, which were primarily handled by a Circuit Court for the District of New York and its successor Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York, until that court was abolished and its cases handled by the District Court as well   The district became widely recognized for its expertise in handling large bankruptcies, leading companies to seek a way to file in this court   Modern examples include the General Motors Chapter 11 reorganization and the Enron and WorldCom bankruptcies From 1980 through 2014, the Southern District Bankruptcy Court for New York handled over 18% of all large, public-company bankruptcy filings in the United States while the Delaware District Bankruptcy Court handled nearly 36% 

List of judges
The following is a list of the bankruptcy judges, as of May 2023, for the United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York 

See also
United States District Court for the Southern District of New York
List of judges of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York
Passage 7:
Alamnagar
Alamnagar (community development block) is one of the administrative divisions of Madhepura district in the Indian state of Bihar  The block headquarters are located at a distance of 58 km from the district headquarters, namely, Madhepura  The name of Alamnagar is named for Shah Alamgir  Almost alls caste of Hindus and Muslims live together  Khara Budhama is also attached in Alamnagar vidhan shabha from udakishunganj  Khara is located 12 km from Alamnagar 

Geography
Alamnagar is located at 25°32′56″N 86°54′40″E

Panchayats
Panchayats in Alamnagar community development block are: Bispatti, Basanbara, [Khurhan, Bargaon, Singhar, Itahari, Alamnagar North, Alamnagar South, Alamnagar East, Northua Bhagipur, Kujauri, Gangapur, Kishanpur Ratwara and Khapur 

Demographics
In the 2001 census Alamnagar Block had a population of 129,226 
Passage 8:
Ceres Nunataks
The Ceres Nunataks (72°3′S 70°25′W) are a group of three nunataks located immediately east of the base of Shostakovich Peninsula in southern Alexander Island, Antarctica  They were mapped by the Directorate of Overseas Surveys from satellite imagery supplied by the U S  National Aeronautics and Space Administration in cooperation with the U S  Geological Survey, and named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Ceres, one of the asteroids lying between the orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter 

Geology
According to the British Antarctic Survey's (BAS) aeromagnetic 1975 survey of Ceres Nunataks and nearby Astraea Nunatak, this geographical feature is rich in the igneous rocks Diorite and Tonalite as presumed by the rock samples which were observed by BAS during this survey 

Aeromagnetic Survey of Ceres Nunataks and Astraea Nunatak
In December 1975, the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) (originally known as the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS)) embarked on an 8-week long survey observing the proposed theory of Ceres Nunataks and Astraea Nunatak having an aeromagnetic connection between one another  I  A  Crawford and R  W  Girdler embarked on the survey, along with other accompanists and personnel members, flying at a constant barometric altitude of approximately 1130 meters (3707 feet, with an east–west flightline separation of about 7 5 kilometers  Here, they proved that these geographical features were rich in geologic minerals which shared similar characteristics  Data was sampled at one-second intervals, which, at ground speed of approximately 240 kilometers per hour, equates to 15 data points for every kilometer covered  The total distance traveled on the surface was 2200 kilometers (1367 miles)  The equipment used included a Geometrics G-803 proton precision magnetometer with both analogue and digital recording, a Bendix DRA-12 Doppler navigation system and Sperry C-12 gyro-magnetic compass, and a Bonzer radio altimeter 
Overall, the 2-month long survey was a successful event and contributed to the history of Alexander Island and the Antarctic Peninsula in itself  Former contributors to this survey include:

Barker, P  F  - Studied the Cenozoic subduction history of the Antarctic Peninsula region 
Bell, C  M  - Observed the geology of the southern portion of Alexander Island 
Bhattacharyya, B  K  - Examined the magnetic anomalies due to prism-shaped bodies with arbitrary polarization 
Burn R  W  - Studied multiple fields of Alexander Island, such as the early Tertiary calc-alkaline volcanism on the island and researching the geology of the nearby LeMay Mountain Range due 40-50 kilometers north of Staccato Peaks 
Care, B  W  - Like Burn, Care studied the vast majority of fields involving Alexander Island, such as archiving geographic reports on the Havre Mountains, Lassus Mountains and other miscellaneous peaks within the vicinity of northern Alexander Island 
Coles R  W  - Conducted two magnetic interpretation methods using rectangular prisms 
Collinson, D  W  - Created an anisotropic susceptibility meter, along with Molyneux, L  and Stone, D  B 
Crabtree, R  D  - Constructed a British Antarctic Territory ice thickness map
Crawford, I  A  - Proposed an analysis of aeromagnetic data over the Staccato Peaks region of Alexander Island, Antarctica, along with Girdler, R  W 
Edwards, C  W  - Collected early Mesozoic marine fossils from the central portion of Alexander Island 
Fabiano, E  B  - Observed grid values of total magnetic intensity, along with the help of former geophysicist Peddie, N  W 
Pankhurst, R  J  - Studied the geochronology of Graham Land, Antarctica 
Peddie, N  W  - Former geophysicist of BAS 
Renner R  G  B  - Former member of BAS and accepted the aeromagnetic survey to commence, chief of the 1975 survey 
Smellie, J  L  - A complete arc-trench system recognized in Gondwana sequences of the Antarctic Peninsula region 
Streckeisen, A  - Gave to each plutonic body its proper name 
Suarez, M  - Credited for having charted a Plate-tectonic model for the southern portion of the Antarctic Peninsula (Palmer Land) and its relation to the southern Andes Mountain Range 
Passage 9:
Beryslav Raion
Beryslav Raion (Ukrainian: Бериславський район, romanized: Beryslavs'kyi raion) is one of the five administrative raions (a district) of Kherson Oblast in southern Ukraine  Its administrative center is located in the city of Beryslav  Its population was 55,976 as of the 2001 Ukrainian Census  Current population: 94,103 (2022 est ) The January 2020 estimate of the raion population was 45,931 (2020 est )  However, on 18 July 2020, as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, the number of raions of Kherson Oblast was reduced to five, and the area of Beryslav Raion was significantly expanded  Three raions (Novovorontsovka, Velyka Oleksandrivka, and Vysokopillia Raions) were abolished and their territories were merged into an enlarged Beryslav Raion 

Subdivisions
Current
After the reform in July 2020, the raion consisted of 11 hromadas:
Beryslav urban hromada with the administration in the city of Beryslav, retained from Beryslav Raion;
Borozenske rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Borozenske, transferred from Velyka Oleksandrivka Raion;
Kalynivske settlement hromada with the administration in the urban-type settlement of Kalynivske, transferred from Velyka Oleksandrivka Raion;
Kochubeivka rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Kochubeivka, transferred from Vysokopillia Raion;
Mylove rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Mylove, retained from Beryslav Raion;
Novooleksandrivka rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Novooleksandrivka, transferred from Novovorontsovka Raion;
Novoraisk rural hromada with the administration in the settlement of Novoraisk, retained from Beryslav Raion;
Novovorontsovka settlement hromada with the administration in the urban-type settlement of Novovorontsovka, transferred from Novovorontsovka Raion;
Tiahynka rural hromada with the administration in the settlement of Tiahynka, retained from Beryslav Raion;
Velyka Oleksandrivka settlement hromada with the administration in the urban-type settlement of Velyka Oleksandrivka, transferred from Velyka Oleksandrivka Raion 
Vysokopillia settlement hromada with the administration in the urban-type settlement of Vysokopillia, transferred from Vysokopillia Raion;

Before 2020
Before the 2020 reform, the raion consisted of four hromadas:
Beryslav urban hromada with the administration in Beryslav;
Mylove rural hromada with the administration in Mylove;
Novoraisk rural hromada with the administration in Novoraisk;
Tiahynka rural hromada with the administration in Tiahynka Beryslav Raion was divided in a way that followed the general administrative scheme in Ukraine  Local government was also organized along a similar scheme nationwide  Consequently, raions were subdivided into councils, which were the prime level of administrative division in the country 
Each of the raion's urban localities administered their own councils, often containing a few other villages within its jurisdiction  However, only a handful of rural localities were organized into councils, which also might contain a few villages within its jurisdiction 
Accordingly, Beryslav Raion was divided into:
1 city council—made up of the city of Beryslav (administrative center)
1 settlement council—made up of the urban-type settlement of Kozatske
29 village councilsOverall, the raion had a total of 43 populated localities, consisting of one city, one urban-type settlement, 34 villages, and seven rural settlements 

Geography
Beryslav Raion is located in the central part of Kherson Oblast on the right-bank of the Dnieper River and the Kakhovka Reservoir  Geographically, it lies in the lowland immediately before the Black Sea 

History
Beryslav Raion was first established on March 7, 1923 as part of a full-scale administrative reorganization of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic  During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, almost the whole of Beryslav Raion was initially occupied by Russian forces, apart from a few villages in the north of the Raion  However, by late October 2022 the majority of the rural districts had been re-taken by Ukrainian forces, although the city of Beryslav remained in Russian hands as at 29 October  The rest of the raion was retaken on 10 November 2022, when the Russian troops withdrew from the right bank of the Dnieper 

See also
Vysoke, Kherson Oblast
Passage 10:
Kiri Territory
Kiri Territory is an administrative region of Mai-Ndombe Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo  The headquarters is the town of Kiri 

Location
Kiri territory has sandy clay soils, supporting food crops that include cassava, maize, banana, peanut, yams, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, rice, beans, vegetables, robusta coffee, cocoa and palm 
Most of the land is covered with rain forest 
The southern boundary is defined by the Lokoro River, which flows from the southeast, entering Lake Mai-Ndombe at the westernmost point of the territory  
Kiri Territory is divided into the Beronge, Lutoy and Pendjwa sectors 

Economy
The Kiri General Hospital was rehabilitated in 1983, and a farmers cooperative was established in 1995 
As of 1997 Kiri Territory had a population of 121,604 within an area of 12,070 square kilometres (4,660 sq mi), or about 11 people per square kilometer  Trade was mostly with Kinshasa via the neighboring territory of Inongo to the west, handled by a cartel of traders who controlled prices  
Local products such as manioc or fish were exchanged for manufactured goods such as hammocks or machetes As of 2004 the territory lacked electricity and drinking water supplies, and had no telephone, radio or television service 
It does have an airport (Basango Mboliasa Airport) in good condition that is used for occasional unscheduled flights 
Passage 11:
Southern California Edison
Southern California Edison (or SCE Corp), the largest subsidiary of Edison International, is the primary electricity utility for much of Southern California  It provides 15 million people with electricity across a service territory of approximately 50,000 square miles  However, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E), Imperial Irrigation District, and some smaller municipal utilities serve substantial portions of the southern California territory  The northern part of the state is generally served by the Pacific Gas & Electric Company of San Francisco  Other investor-owned utilities (IOUs) in California include SDG&E, PacifiCorp, Bear Valley Electric, and Liberty Utilities 

Southern California Edison (SCE) still owns all of its electrical transmission facilities and equipment, but the deregulation of California's electricity market in the late 1990s forced the company to sell many of its power plants, though some were probably sold by choice  In California, SCE retained only its hydroelectric plants, totaling about 1,200 MW, and its 75% share of the 2,150-MW San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, which has been shut down since January 2012; in June 2013 the company announced its intention to permanently close and decommission the nuclear plant  The utility lost all of its natural gas-fired plants, which provided most of its electrical generation  The large, aging plants were bought by out-of-state companies such as Mirant and Reliant Energy, which allegedly used them to manipulate the California energy market Southern California Edison's power grid is linked to PG&E's by the Path 26 wires that generally follow Interstate 5 over Tejon Pass  The interconnection takes place at a large substation at Buttonwillow  PG&E's and WAPA's Path 15 and Path 66, respectively, from Buttonwillow north eventually connect to BPA's grid in the Pacific Northwest  There are several other interconnections with local and out-of-state utilities, such as Path 46 
In addition, SCE operates a regulated gas and water utility  SCE is the sole commercial provider of natural gas and fresh water service to Santa Catalina Island, including the city of Avalon, California  SCE operates the utilities under the names of Catalina Island Gas Company and Catalina Island Water Company 

History
The origins of the company lie with the grand scheme of business magnate Henry E  Huntington and hydraulic engineer John S  Eastwood, developed around 1908, for a vast complex of reservoirs to be constructed in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of central California   Huntington founded Pacific Light and Power, one of the roughly two dozen companies he controlled at the time, to execute what would eventually become one of the largest hydropower systems in the United States, the Big Creek Hydroelectric Project   Pacific Light and Power was one of the predecessor companies to SCE, along with Edison Electric, Mt  Whitney Power & Electric Co , California Electric Power Co , Southern California Power Co , and others 

Settlement for blackout
Southern California Edison agreed to pay a $650,000 settlement for the 2011 blackout with FERC and NERC 

Shooting
On December 16, 2011, a shooting occurred when an employee of Southern California Edison opened fire at an office building in Irwindale  The employee killed two co-workers and seriously wounded two others before committing suicide 

COVID-19 pandemic
In March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, 8,000 of the 13,000 employees were shifted to remote work  The US Department of Homeland Security has named utilities like SCE part of the 16 sectors designated “critical infrastructure sectors  The group of remote workers was set up so the company can operate if it faces workforce disruptions or shortages if employees become stricken or quarantined because of COVID-19 
The company also ceased power disconnections for non-payment 

Renewable energy
Southern California Edison allows its customer to obtain their electricity entirely from renewable sources by subscribing to a "green rate" In 2006, Southern California Edison planned to secure 1,500 megawatts or more of power generated from new projects to be built in the Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm area  The contract, which more than doubles SCE's wind energy portfolio, envisions more than 50 square miles (130 km2) of wind parks in the Tehachapi region, which is triple the size of any existing U S  wind farm In March 2008, Southern California Edison announced a $875 million project to build a network of 250 megawatts of photovoltaic solar power generation, making it the biggest solar cell project in the nation  The photovoltaic cells will cover 65,000,000 square feet (6,000,000 m2) of rooftops in southern California and will generate enough power to serve 162,000 homes In 2009, Southern California Edison entered into a contract with Solar Millennium to purchase solar thermal power up to 726 MW  Southern California Edison also entered into a contract with Stirling Energy Systems to buy electricity from a 500 megawatt, 4,600 acre (19 km2), solar power plant which was due to open in 2009  The purchase was canceled in late 2010, as changes in technology reduced the cost of photovoltaic-based solar power to below that of solar Stirling generated power  This would have been the first commercial application of the dish stirling system  A different technology from the more familiar solar panel, the dish concentrates solar energy by the use of reflective surfaces and by the use of the Stirling heat engine to convert the heat into electricity 
In 2014, Southern California Edison installed the Tehachapi Energy Storage Project, which is composed of more than 600,000 lithium-ion battery cells at Monolith Substation in Tehachapi, California in order to test storing power generated from an area that currently has 5,000 wind turbines In 2014 SCE had a renewables mix of 23%  By 2016, 28 2% of SCE's power sources were renewable



ground_truth: 1964

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In which county is Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative headquartered?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 

Natural gas and energy storage
In 2017, the company opened two new hybrid electric gas turbine (EGT) units called peaker plants, that combine gas turbines and storage batteries at the same site  Each plant delivers around 50-megawatts; the batteries can provide 10-megawatts and four megawatt-hours of power  Both the turbines and the batteries are designed and manufactured by General Electric’s Power Division The plant runs the battery first in a series of short bursts, saving gas usage for longer power demand  The combination of a 30-minute duration battery improves the environmental impact of the gas turbine   The SCE setup (the first of its kind) cut greenhouse gas emissions by 60%, reduced annual water usage by 2 million gallons and lowered the number of gas starts by 50% 

Electric vehicles
Southern California Edison has a number of resources and a rate designed specifically for electric vehicle users As of July 2018, Southern California Edison plans to add thousands of new charging stations for passenger electric vehicles (EV)  This addition is a component of the company's "Charge Ready" program, a pilot program with the aim of increasing the availability of charging ports for EVs  Since 2016, Southern California Edison has installed 1,000 charging stations throughout their Southern and Central California service area The company also runs a rebate program for electric vehicle purchases  Southern California Edison gives people in its service area who purchase a new or used, or lease, an electric vehicle a $450 rebate  The program will run until 2020 

Energy research and policy
Southern California Edison has a long history of research in the energy arena  Often this includes working with other companies and government entities  One example is the SOLARII feasibility generator, which was a solar-powered energy plant that could produce electricity 24 hours a day  This was done by heating molten salts that would hold the heat during the day and would be used to generate power at night Dr  John Jurewitz served as Director of Regulatory Policy for Southern California Edison for 15 years until his retirement in July 2007  His major areas of research are in oil, gas, and electricity policy and greenhouse gas regulation  He has testified and participated in government-sponsored proceedings addressing electric industry restructuring and energy policy at the state, federal, and international levels In November, 2014, SCE announced a partnership with Ice Energy to provide more efficient energy storage by freezing water at night when electricity is cheaper  (Ice Energy filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in December 2019 )

Labor practice controversy
In April 2015, Southern California Edison laid off about 400 IT employees, with an additional 100 IT workers leaving voluntarily  Meanwhile, the utility company hired  immigrants from India through Infosys, based in Bangalore, and Tata Consultancy Services in Mumbai, which are among the largest users of H-1B visas  About 70% of the work to be done by Tata and Infosys will be completed offshore, according to SCE  The company claimed it had to lay off US-based employees to stay competitive  The layoffs were questioned by members of the United States Senate  SCE was subsequently investigated by the US Department of Labor for potential H1-B visa abuse  In October, Department of Labor concluded Infosys did not abuse the H1-B program in the dealings with SCE, while Tata's case remained open 

See also
Energy use in California
Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert
Wind power in California
List of articles associated with nuclear issues in California
Passage 12:
Dunbar Hospital
The Dunbar Hospital was the first hospital for the black community in Detroit, Michigan  It is located at 580 Frederick Street, and is currently the administrative headquarters of the Detroit Medical Society  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 

Building construction and description
The building housing the Dunbar Hospital was built in 1892 by the Guy W  Vinton Company as a home for real estate developer Charles W  Warren  The home was constructed in a fashionable 19th century residential district The structure is a three-story home of mixed Romanesque Revival and Queen Anne style, built of red brick and rough-cut ashlar  The entrance is through a recessed, arched first-floor porch and the second story has a double-arch brick balcony  The roof is slate, with a bay-windowed gabled dormer surmounting the front façade 

Founding of the Dunbar Hospital
In 1894, Dr  James W  Ames, a graduate of both Straight University and Howard University, arrived in Detroit after a stint of teaching in New Orleans  He quickly became influential in both Detroit's white community and its then-small black community  Detroit's mayor at the time was Hazen Pingree  During his subsequent re-election campaign, Pingree actively courted the black vote, in part by supporting Ames's bid for election to the Michigan state legislature The nationally famous black poet Paul Laurence Dunbar, popular in both the black and white community, visited Detroit and lent his voice to those supporting Pingree, penning the poem, "Vote for Pingree and Vote for Bread " Both Ames and Pingree won their respective elections, and Ames spent the next two years in the legislature  He was the last black elected until the 1920s Two decades later, in the years following World War I, the black population of Detroit soared  In 1910, fewer than 6000 blacks called the city home; in 1917 more than 30,000 blacks lived in Detroit  The increase in black residents led to a crisis in health care  Hospitals were still segregated, and physicians like Ames were required to ask permission to admit black patients  Often black patients were simply denied care  The increase in the black population threatened to overwhelm the city's 30 black doctors In 1918, Ames led the group of 30 black physicians to form the Allied Medical Society  The area around Frederick street was at the cusp of becoming the center of social and cultural life for Detroit's black community, and the AMS purchased the Warren home on Frederick They opened their own non-profit hospital in the building, the first in the city to serve the black community, as well as an associated nursing school  The hospital was named for the poet Dunbar, who had died in 1906  The hospital had 27 beds and an operating room 

Later history
In 1928, demand led Dunbar Hospital to move from its first home to a larger facility several blocks to the east  The facility was renamed Parkside Hospital, and continued in operation until 1962  Soon after Dunbar moved from its home on Frederick, Charles Diggs Sr , who was later the first African-American Democratic state senator, purchased the home  Diggs's son, Charles C  Diggs Jr , served in the Michigan State Senate from 1951 to 1954 and the U S  House of Representatives from 1954 to 1980  In 1978, the Detroit Medical Society (the successor to the Allied Medical Society) purchased and restored the building  It now serves as their administrative headquarters and a museum 
Passage 13:
Campora
Campora is a town and comune in the province of Salerno, Campania (southern Italy)  It is located in the territory of Cilento and as of 2009 its population was 810 

History
Geography
The village is located in a hilly area in the middle of Cilento, close to Stio and to the area of Pruno, not far from the town of Vallo della Lucania  It borders with the municipalities of Cannalonga, Gioi, Laurino, Moio della Civitella, Novi Velia and Stio 

See also
Pruno Cilento
Cilentan language
Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park
Passage 14:
Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative
The Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative (SMECO) is an electric distribution cooperative which is headquartered in Hughesville, Maryland, United States  SMECO serves approximately 161,000 customers in Calvert, Charles, Prince George's, and St  Mary's counties of southern Maryland  Under its rules as a nonprofit cooperative, SMECO passes on its costs to its customer-members without markup or profit 

History
In 1937 two committees of citizens from three counties which were seeking aid to construct a local rural electric distribution system under the New Deal's Rural Electrictrification Administration formed the Southern Maryland Tri-County Electric Cooperative Association  This was reorganized as a cooperative under the SMECO name in 1942  Customers were allowed to select suppliers of electricity beginning in 2001 under the Maryland Electric Deregulation legislation enacted in 1999  From 2007 to 2011, SMECO has won the J D  Power and Associates award for best customer service for a midsize utility SMECO owned a 77 MW gas turbine generator located at the Chalk Point Generating Station which began operation in 1990 and was operated and maintained by NRG Energy  In 2015 NRG acquired the turbine plant from SMECO 

FERC solar complaint
SMECO has filed a complaint with the US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), alleging that the Maryland Public Service Commission (PSC) coerced utilities into purchasing excess solar power generated by the state's community solar program at much higher retail rates rather than paying the amount it would have cost these utilities to create the power themselves, also known as the avoided cost  This would be in violation with the federal Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), which establishes that any payment given to such qualifying power plants equate the utility's avoided cost  In addition, PURPA mandates that these plants do not exceed 80 MW of power Recently, the development of community solar programs has become increasingly prevalent in order to meet the ever-growing demand for new, viable energy sources; however, there has been much controversy regarding the surge in net metering consumers due to the resulting cost shifts which negatively affect the non-solar community now facing much higher payments to even out the increased benefits given to solar projects Because of the continual reduction in the cost of power, FERC has become more concerned with the discrepancy between avoided costs and wholesale prices, which continue to prevail  This has placed more focus on PURPA's roles and responsibilities in the maintenance and balance of the current energy market 
Passage 15:
Poum
Poum  is a commune in the North Province of New Caledonia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean  The small town of Poum (Latitude: 20° 13' 59 south, longitude: 164° 1' 23 east) is located in the far northwest, located on the southern part of Banare Bay, with Mouac Island just offshore  Aside from French, the native language of the Kanak inhabitants is nêlêmwa-nixumwak, an Austronesian language spoken by about 1,100 people  British fishermen came to the islands in 1855 seeking sea cucumbers, and settled and intermarried, and this is reflected in the last names of some clan members and on gravestones (e g  Williams, Winchester)  In the 1850s, a hundred Europeans lived on Mouac Island and John Henry Williams established a presence on Néba island 

Geography
The Poum massif south of Poum and Titch rises to 414 m and is rich in nickel  Other minerals like cobalt have been mined out  The hills around Poum are bare of trees and distinctively rose and red-tinged  Seasonal water shortages and bush fires are common 

Economy
There is one boarding middle school near Poum village  The Kanak population pursue diverse subsistence activities, sometimes combined with paid work  There is one service station and store, opened in the 2010s  Tourists can stay at a western style hotel complex, the Malabou Beach hotel on Nehoue Bay, which is owned by the Northern Province corporation, Grands Hôtels - it has 35 employees  There are also two tourist cottages (Golone and Poingam),  a campsite (Pagop) and home stays are also possible Fishing is still pursued mainly by the islanders, especially from Tiabet, although commercial fish sales are affected by the long distances to market in Nouméa and accreditation systems  Agriculture is practised, and there is some European-owned cattle ranching 
The Poum nickel mine was not heavily exploited fully for many years following its acquisition by SLN after the Accords de Bercy in the 1990s, and had about thirty employees in 2014  In 2015, plans to increase production to 100,000 tonnes of ore per year from 'Spur A' of the mine, with 2 5% nickel content, were announced  In 2019, a further announcement of increased production was made  The mine has been accused by the inhabitants of Titch, west of Poum centre, of creating water pollution problems 
Passage 16:
Menteng, Menteng
Menteng is an administrative village in the Menteng district of Indonesia  It has a postal code of 10310  It is located on the southern area of the Menteng Project 

See also
List of administrative villages of Jakarta
Passage 17:
Elk Ridge (Maryland)
Elk Ridge, or Elk Mountain, is a mountain ridge of the Blue Ridge Mountains in Maryland and is the westernmost of four parallel ridges   It forms the western side of a narrow valley in which are situated the towns of Yarrowsburg and Brownsville   South Mountain is on the eastern side of this valley running roughly parallel to it   The ridge runs from Rohrersville, in the north, to the Potomac River across from Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, in the south   Across the Potomac the ridge continues as Blue Ridge Mountain in Virginia and West Virginia   To the west of Elk Mountain is the broader Cumberland Valley, in which lie the towns of Hagerstown and Chambersburg, and the Potomac River   The southern end of the ridge, which is part of Harpers Ferry National Historical Park, is known as Maryland Heights 

History
In the early 19th century, Elk Ridge was the site of numerous charcoal hearths, which produced charcoal for nearby iron furnaces from wood harvested on the mountain   More than 50 hearths were constructed between 1810 and 1840 
The Maryland Heights portion of Elk Ridge was the scene of much activity during the American Civil War   Artillery emplacements and fortifications were first erected on the mountain by Union forces in 1862, during Stonewall Jackson's Valley Campaign   Later that year, during the Battle of Harpers Ferry, the union fortifications on the mountain were attacked by units under General Lafayette McLaws, who subsequently took control of the ridge and used it to deliver devastating artillery fire against the Union garrison at Harpers Ferry   After the battle Confederate forces abandoned the ridge to rejoin the Army of Northern Virginia at Antietam and the Union army quickly reoccupied the heights 
Following the Battle of Antietam, Abraham Lincoln came to Maryland to review the army, including the garrisons on the mountain   He began the ascent, but because of the steepness of the slope, turned around halfway up, concluding any man who could make the climb would pass his muster   In June 1863 Union forces again took control of the ridge and enlarged the fortifications in response to the Confederate invasion of Maryland during the Gettysburg Campaign 
The "Pinnacle Lot" of the Maryland Heights was purchased by the Maryland Park System from the grandchildren of the last private owner, Judge Patrick Chapman Savin (1820-1889) of Harper's Ferry, MD; the lot was in turn gifted by the State of Maryland to the National Park Service in the 1950s   Judge Patrick and his brother, John Chapman Savin, and a future son-in-law, John Marion Marsteller (1841-1898) were among those who participated in the capture of John Brown and his men   It was during this time that the side of the cliff overlooking Harper's Ferry was leased for advertising seen by the passengers of trains as they entered and exited the tunnel under the Maryland Heights 

Recreation
A trail system, maintained by the National Park Service, ascends Maryland Heights and tours the Civil War-era fortifications and provides access to the cliffs on the mountain which contain views of Harpers Ferry and the Potomac Water Gap   An unmaintained trail leads along the ridge of Park Service land onto private property to Buggy Rocks and views east of Pleasant Valley   Mountain climbing is permitted by the National Park Service along the Maryland Heights cliffs 

Bibliography
Whitman, T  Stephen, Antietam 1862: Gateway to Emancipation, ABC-CLIO, 2012 ISBN 0313397341 

External links
NPS Maryland Heights Brochure
Passage 18:
Pangi Territory
Pangi Territory is an administrative area in Maniema Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo  The  headquarters is the town of Pangi 
The Elila River flows through Pangi territory, entering the Lualaba River to the west 
The territory is divided into the Babene chiefdom and the Beia, Ikama, Wakabango and Wasongola sectors 
Most of the territory is inhabited by the Lega people, as are the adjoining Mwenga and Shabunda territories 
As of 1972 there were still a few Pygmies living among the Baziri tribe of Lega people 
Before independence the territory had 97,380 inhabitants of whom 35,518 were in urban and mining agglomerations 
Passage 19:
WaterColor, Florida
WaterColor is an unincorporated master-planned community located in Walton County, Florida, United States, between Grayton Beach and Seaside  This 499-acre (2 02 km2) Southern resort and residential community was planned by Cooper, Robertson & Partners with Urban Design Associates, in collaboration with Nelson Byrd Woltz Landscape Architects, under the direction of The St  Joe Company  The St  Joe Company has owned the land since 1927 
WaterColor homes are based on the vernacular architecture of Southern wood homes with features that include large wraparound or screened porches, wood columns and siding and a metal roof with deep overhangs  Community amenities include a swimming pool, fitness center, tennis courts, parks and gardens, shopping and restaurants  Camp Creek Golf Club is available to homeowners for an annual fee 
The WaterColor Inn is a 60-room beachfront resort designed by David Rockwell   In 2006 it was rated the #1 Family Friendly Resort in North America by Travel + Leisure magazine   It is the only four diamond hotel in Northwest Florida   The Inn and Vacation Rentals are managed by Troon Golf and St  Joe Clubs and Resorts as of January 2014 

See also
Celebration, Florida
Prospect New Town
Rosemary Beach, Florida
Seaside, Florida
Tradition, Florida
Passage 20:
Khong Island
Khong Island or Don Khong (Lao: ດອນໂຂງ) is the largest island and the seat of administration in the Si Phan Don riverine archipelago located in the Mekong River, Khong District, Champasak Province, southern Laos 
The island is 18 kilometers (11 mi) long (north-south), and 8 kilometers (5 0 mi) at its widest point  Its population is mainly concentrated in the two villages Muang Saen (west) and Muang Khong (east); the latter is the de facto capital of the island as well as the regional seat of government  There are 19 villages on the island and the main source of income comes from fishing  
The former President of Laos, Khamtai Siphandon, has a residence on the island, which is a possible explanation for the  high quality of its infrastructure, such as asphalted roads and electricity  Locals tend to travel on longtail boats 



ground_truth: Charles County

Charles County, Maryland