prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What specific part of the book where the quote "by the skin of your teeth" comes from document reference for Mary?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Xico, State of Mexico
Xico is a city in the State of Mexico, Mexico  It serves as the municipal seat of Valle de Chalco municipality, with which it is, for all practical purposes, coterminous  The municipality lies adjacent to the east side of the Federal District (Distrito Federal) and is part of the Mexico City metropolitan area  The city and municipality lie on the old lakebed of Lake Chalco, which was drained like much of the Basin of Mexico  The city name comes from the nearby Xico hill (Cerro de Xico) and the name of the municipality comes from the old lake plus a reference to the "Programa Nacional de Solidaridad" (National Program of Solidarity) which was initiated here  The municipality's glyph and shield make reference to both names  It is a distinct entity from the city and municipality of Chalco, which is nearby  "Chalco" in both names refers to the Chalca tribe that were one of the original inhabitants of the area 

The city
Early pre-Hispanic history refers to the area around the Cerro de Xico and the Island of Xico as most of the modern city was underwater until relatively recently  The area was mostly fishing villages from 900 BC to 100 AD  However, from 550 to 650, the area was dominated by the Teotihuacan culture  From 650 to 750, an Otomi settlement gained prominence  The Acxotecas arrived around 1328, the same time that chinampa farming began here  Xico was conquered by the Aztec Tezozomoc in 1381, after which groups of Mexicas settle here extending the chinampa farming system in the 14th and 15th centuries  The area was ceded to Hernán Cortés by the Spanish king in 1529  The modern area began in the 19th century when Porfirio Díaz ordered the draining of Lake Chalco which devastated the economies of the former coastline communities  The Mexican Revolution tried to compensate these communities by the creation of ejidos, the two largest here being Estación Xico with 507 hectares and San Miguel Xico with 250 hectares  These ejidos, as well as the present-day city and municipality, rest almost entirely on former lakebed For the most part, the area laid barren until the late 1970s, when there was a sudden influx of families coming from the central and southern parts of Mexico in search of land  Despite its proximity, there was no infrastructure for basic services including schooling for children  Many people bought ejido land causing legal problems  The federal government had to step in to install basic services and regularize the property rights of more than 77,000 parcels of ejido land that was sold  However, the area did not become a separate municipality until 1994  In the census of 2005 the population of Xico was 331,321 people The only notable sites in the area are The Cerro del Marqués which contains architecture and archeological remains but these are not open to the public  However, there is the Museo Comunitario (Community Museum) which displays local archeological finds located in the Casa de Cultura “Chalchiuhtlicue”  There is also the Ex – Hacienda de Xico which was constructed at the same time the lake was drained 

The municipality
As municipal seat, Xico has governing jurisdiction over the following communities: Las Bombas, Comalchica, Santa Cruz, El Triángulo, El Invernadero, Colonia Ampliación (San Miguel Tláhuac), and Ejido Tulyehualco (Tabla Número Nueve) as well as 13 unnamed communities  It has a total population of 332,279 The municipality borders the municipalities of Ixtapaluca, Chicoloapan, Los Reyes Acaquilpan, al oriente con Chalco de Díaz Covarrubias  and borders to the south with the Distrito Federal (Delegaciones Iztapalapa y Tláhuac)  It covers a total surface area of 46 36 km2 (17 9 sq mi) 
Passage 2:
Skin of my teeth
Skin of my teeth (Hebrew: עוֹר שִׁנָּי ‘ōr šinnāy) is a phrase from the Bible  In Job 19:20, the King James Version of the Bible says, "My bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the skin of my teeth "  In the Geneva Bible, the phrase is rendered as "I have escaped with the skinne of my tethe "The verse from Job 19:20 can be resolved as follows: In the first clause, the author uses the Hebrew `or in its usual sense of "skin", associating it with "flesh" and "bones"  In the second clause, he uses the Hebrew or as derived from the Arabic ghar / "the bones in which the teeth are set (Latin: os maxilla and os mandibula)"  Therefore, the correct reading is: "My skin and flesh cling to my bones, and I am left with (only) my gums," giving us a stark description of the advanced stage of Job's disease In modern times, "by the skin of my teeth" is used to describe a situation from which one has barely managed to escape or achieve something; a close call 

Cultural references to the phrase
Skin o' My Tooth – 1928 book by Baroness Emma Orczy in which the phrase is a nickname of the main character, a lawyer; the nickname is given by a client who says that he was freed "by the skin o' my tooth"
The Skin of Our Teeth – 1942 play by Thornton Wilder with multiple Biblical allusions
"Skin o' My Teeth" – song on Megadeth's 1992 album Countdown to Extinction, referring to the theme of a suicide attempt
a reference to the quote in the song Alone, the 3rd track on Biting Elbows' 2020 album Shortening the Longing, talking about a bad break-up situation
"Skin of Her Teeth" – 2021 TV episode in Dexter: New Blood limited series in the Jeff Lindsay Dexter serial killer franchise
"Skin of My Teeth" – song from Demi Lovato's 2022 album Holy Fvck

See also
Hair's breadth
Passage 3:
Immaculate Conception
The Immaculate Conception is the belief that the Virgin Mary was free of original sin from the moment of her conception  It is one of the four Marian dogmas of the Catholic Church  Debated by medieval theologians, it was not defined as a dogma until 1854, by Pope Pius IX in the papal bull Ineffabilis Deus  While the Immaculate Conception asserts Mary's freedom from original sin, the Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563, had previously affirmed her freedom from personal sin The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in works of art  The iconography of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception shows Mary standing, with arms outstretched or hands clasped in prayer  The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8 Many Protestant churches rejected the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as un-scriptural, though some Anglicans accept it as a pious devotion  Opinions on the Immaculate Conception in Oriental Orthodoxy are divided: Shenouda III, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church, opposed the teaching; the Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo accept it  It is not accepted by Eastern Orthodoxy due to differences in the understanding of original sin, although they do affirm Mary's purity and preservation from sin  Patriarch Anthimus VII of Constantinople (1827-1913) characterized the dogma of the Immaculate Conception as a "Roman novelty" 

History
Anne, mother of Mary, and original sin
Anne, the mother of Mary, first appears in the 2nd-century Gospel of James, and the author created his story by drawing on Greek tales of the childhood of heroes and on the Old Testament story of Hannah (hence the name Anna/Anne), the mother of the biblical Samuel  Anne and her husband, Joachim, are infertile, but God hears their prayers and Mary is conceived  Within the Gospel of James, the conception occurs without sexual intercourse between Anne and Joachim, which fits well with the Gospel of James' persistent emphasis on Mary's sacred purity, but the story does not advance the idea of an immaculate conception  The author of the Gospel of James may have based this account of Mary's conception on that of John the Baptist as recounted in the Gospel of Luke  The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that "Mary is conceived by her parents as we are all conceived" 

Church Fathers
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Cyril of Jerusalem developed the idea of Mary as the New Eve, drawing comparison to Eve, while yet immaculate and incorrupt — that is to say, not subject to original sin  The encyclopedia adds that Ephrem the Syrian said she was as innocent as Eve before the Fall Ambrose says she is incorrupt, a virgin immune through grace from every stain of sin  It was John Damascene's opinion that the supernatural influence of God at the generation of Mary was so comprehensive that it extended also to her parents  He says of them that, during the generation, they were filled and purified by the Holy Spirit, and freed from sexual concupiscence  Consequently, according to Damascene, even the human element of her origin, the material of which she was formed, was pure and holy  This opinion of an immaculate active generation and the sanctity of the "conceptio carnis" was taken up by some Western authors  The Greek Fathers never formally or explicitly discussed the question of the Immaculate Conception 

Medieval formulation
By the 4th century the idea that Mary was free from sin was generally more widespread, but original sin raised the question of whether she was also free of the sin passed down from Adam  The question became acute when the feast of her conception began to be celebrated in England in the 11th century, and the opponents of the feast of Mary's conception brought forth the objection that as sexual intercourse is sinful, to celebrate Mary's conception was to celebrate a sinful event  The feast of Mary's conception originated in the Eastern Church in the 7th century, reached England in the 11th, and from there spread to Europe, where it was given official approval in 1477 and extended to the whole church in 1693; the word "immaculate" was not officially added to the name of the feast until 1854 The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception caused a virtual civil war between Franciscans and Dominicans during the Middle Ages, with Franciscan 'Scotists' in its favour and Dominican 'Thomists' against it   The English ecclesiastic and scholar Eadmer (c  1060 – c  1126) reasoned that it was possible that Mary was conceived without original sin in view of God's omnipotence, and that it was also appropriate in view of her role as Mother of God: Potuit, decuit, fecit, "it was possible, it was fitting, therefore it was done"  Others, including Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), objected that if Mary were free of original sin at her conception then she would have no need of redemption, making Christ's saving redemption superfluous; they were answered by Duns Scotus (1264–1308), who "developed the idea of preservative redemption as being a more perfect one: to have been preserved free from original sin was a greater grace than to be set free from sin"  In 1439, the Council of Basel, in schism with Pope Eugene IV who resided at the Council of Florence, declared the Immaculate Conception a "pious opinion" consistent with faith and Scripture; the Council of Trent, held in several sessions in the early 1500s, made no explicit declaration on the subject but exempted her from the universality of original sin; and by 1571 the revised Roman Breviary set out an elaborate celebration of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December 

Popular devotion and Ineffabilis Deus
The eventual creation of the dogma was due more to popular devotion than scholarship  The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature and art, and some devotees went so far as to hold that Anne had conceived Mary by kissing her husband Joachim, and that Anne's father and grandmother had likewise been conceived without sexual intercourse, although Bridget of Sweden (c  1303–1373) told how Mary herself had revealed to her that Anne and Joachim conceived their daughter through a sexual union which was sinless because it was pure and free of sexual lust In the 16th and especially the 17th centuries there was a proliferation of Immaculatist devotion in Spain, leading the Habsburg monarchs to demand that the papacy elevate the belief to the status of dogma  In France in 1830 Catherine Labouré (May 2, 1806 – December 31, 1876) saw a vision of Mary standing on a globe while a voice commanded her to have a medal made in imitation of what she saw  The medal said "O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee", which was a confirmation of Mary herself that she was conceived without sin, confirming the Immaculate Conception  Her vision marked the beginning of a great 19th-century Marian revival In 1849 Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical Ubi primum soliciting the bishops of the church for their views on whether the doctrine should be defined as dogma; ninety percent of those who responded were supportive, although the Archbishop of Paris, Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour, warned that the Immaculate Conception "could be proved neither from the Scriptures nor from tradition",  and in 1854 the Immaculate Conception dogma was proclaimed with the bull Ineffabilis Deus 
We declare, pronounce, and define that the doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine revealed by God and therefore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful 
Dom Prosper Guéranger, Abbot of Solesmes Abbey, who had been one of the main promoters of the dogmatic statement, wrote Mémoire sur l'Immaculée Conception, explaining what he saw as its basis:

 For the belief to be defined as a dogma of faith [   ] it is necessary that the Immaculate Conception form part of Revelation, expressed in Scripture or Tradition, or be implied in beliefs previously defined  Needed, afterward, is that it be proposed to the faith of the faithful through the teaching of the ordinary magisterium  Finally, it is necessary that it be attested by the liturgy, and the Fathers and Doctors of the Church 

Guéranger maintained that these conditions were met and that the definition was therefore possible  Ineffabilis Deus found the Immaculate Conception in the Ark of Salvation (Noah's Ark), Jacob's Ladder, the Burning Bush at Sinai, the Enclosed Garden from the Song of Songs, and many more passages  From this wealth of support the pope's advisors singled out Genesis 3:15: "The most glorious Virgin     was foretold by God when he said to the serpent: 'I will put enmity between you and the woman,'" a prophecy which reached fulfilment in the figure of the Woman in the Revelation of John, crowned with stars and trampling the Dragon underfoot  Luke 1:28, and specifically the phrase "full of grace" by which Gabriel greeted Mary, was another reference to her Immaculate Conception: "she was never subject to the curse and was, together with her Son, the only partaker of perpetual benediction" Ineffabilis Deus was one of the pivotal events of the papacy of Pius, pope from 16 June 1846 to his death on 7 February 1878  Four years after the proclamation of the dogma, in 1858, the young Bernadette Soubirous said that Mary appeared to her at Lourdes in southern France, to announce that she was the Immaculate Conception; the Catholic Church later endorsed the apparition as authentic  There are other (approved) Marian apparitions in which Mary identified herself as the Immaculate Conception, for example Our Lady of Gietrzwald in 1877, Poland 

Feast, patronages and disputes
The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8  The Roman Missal and the Roman Rite Liturgy of the Hours include references to Mary's immaculate conception in the feast of the Immaculate Conception  Its celebration seems to have begun in the Eastern church in the 7th century and may have spread to Ireland by the 8th, although the earliest well-attested record in the Western church is from England early in the 11th  It was suppressed there after the Norman Conquest (1066), and the first thorough exposition of the doctrine was a response to this suppression  It continued to spread through the 15th century despite accusations of heresy from the Thomists and strong objections from several prominent theologians   Beginning around 1140 Bernard of Clairvaux, a Cistercian monk, wrote to Lyons Cathedral to express his surprise and dissatisfaction that it had recently begun to be observed there, but in 1477 Pope Sixtus IV, a Franciscan Scotist and devoted Immaculist, placed it on the Roman calendar (i e , list of church festivals and observances) via the bull Cum praexcelsa  Thereafter in 1481 and 1483, in response to the polemic writings of the prominent Thomist, Vincenzo Bandello, Pope Sixtus IV published two more bulls which forbade anybody to preach or teach against the Immaculate Conception, or for either side to accuse the other of heresy, on pains of excommunication  Pope Pius V kept the feast on the tridentine calendar but suppressed the word "immaculate"  Gregory XV in 1622 prohibited any public or private assertion that Mary was conceived in sin  Urban VIII in 1624 allowed the Franciscans to establish a military order dedicated to the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception  Following the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus the typically Franciscan phrase "immaculate conception" reasserted itself in the title and euchology (prayer formulae) of the feast  Pius IX solemnly promulgated a mass formulary drawn chiefly from one composed 400 years by a papal chamberlain at the behest of Sixtus IV, beginning "O God who by the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin" 

Prayers and hymns
The Roman Rite liturgical books, including the Roman Missal and the Liturgy of the Hours, included offices venerating Mary's immaculate conception on the feast of the Immaculate Conception  An example is the antiphon that begins: "Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis non est in te" ("You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you"  It continues: "Your clothing is white as snow, and your face is like the sun  You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you  You are the glory of Jerusalem, you are the joy of Israel, you give honour to our people  You are all beautiful, Mary" ) On the basis of the original Gregorian chant music, polyphonic settings have been composed by Anton Bruckner, Pablo Casals, Maurice Duruflé, Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki, Ola Gjeilo, José Maurício Nunes Garcia, and Nikolaus Schapfl Other prayers honouring Mary's immaculate conception are in use outside the formal liturgy  The Immaculata prayer, composed by Maximillian Kolbe, is a prayer of entrustment to Mary as the Immaculata  A novena of prayers, with a specific prayer for each of the nine days has been composed under the title of the Immaculate Conception Novena Ave Maris Stella is the vesper hymn of the feast of the Immaculate Conception  The hymn Immaculate Mary, addressed to Mary as the Immaculately Conceived One, is closely associated with Lourdes 

Artistic representation
The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in art  During the Medieval period it was depicted as "Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate", meaning Mary's conception through the chaste kiss of her parents at the Golden Gate in Jerusalem; the 14th and 15th centuries were the heyday for this scene, after which it was gradually replaced by more allegorical depictions featuring an adult Mary The definitive iconography for the depiction of "Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception" seems to have been finally established by the painter and theorist Francisco Pacheco in his  "El arte de la pintura" of 1649: a beautiful young girl of 12 or 13, wearing a white tunic and blue mantle, rays of light emanating from her head ringed by twelve stars and crowned by an imperial crown, the sun behind her and the moon beneath her feet  Pacheco's iconography influenced other Spanish artists or artists active in Spain such as El Greco, Bartolomé Murillo, Diego Velázquez, and Francisco Zurbarán, who each produced a number of artistic masterpieces based on the use of these same symbols  The popularity of this particular representation of The Immaculate Conception spread across the rest of Europe, and has since remained the best known artistic depiction of the concept: in a heavenly realm, moments after her creation, the spirit of Mary (in the form of a young woman) looks up in awe at (or bows her head to) God  The moon is under her feet and a halo of twelve stars surround her head, possibly a reference to "a woman clothed with the sun" from Revelation 12:1–2  Additional imagery may include clouds, a golden light, and putti  In some paintings the putti are holding lilies and roses, flowers often associated with Mary 

Other denominations
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy never accepted Augustine's specific ideas on original sin, and in consequence did not become involved in the later developments that took place in the Roman Catholic Church, including the Immaculate Conception  In 1894, when Pope Leo XIII addressed the Eastern church in his encyclical Praeclara gratulationis, Ecumenical Patriarch Anthimos, in 1895, replied with an encyclical approved by the Constantinopolitan Synod in which he stigmatised the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility as "Roman novelties" and called on the Roman church to return to the faith of the early centuries  Eastern Orthodox Bishop Kallistos Ware comments that "the Latin dogma seems to us not so much erroneous as superfluous" 

Oriental Orthodoxy
The Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo do believe in the Immaculate Conception of the Theotokos  The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on Nehasie 7 (August 13) 

Old Catholics
In the mid-19th century, some Catholics who were unable to accept the doctrine of papal infallibility left the Roman Church and formed the Old Catholic Church   This movement rejects the Immaculate Conception 

Protestantism
Protestants overwhelmingly condemned the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus as an exercise in papal power, and the doctrine itself as un-scriptural, for it denied that all had sinned and rested on the Latin translation of Luke 1:28 (the "full of grace" passage) that the original Greek did not support  Protestants, therefore, teach that Mary was a sinner saved through grace, like all believers The Catholic–Lutheran dialogue's statement The One Mediator, the Saints, and Mary , issued in 1990 after seven years of study and discussion, conceded that Lutherans and Catholics remained separated "by differing views on matters such as the invocation of saints, the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of Mary"; the final report of the Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC), created in 1969 to further ecumenical progress between the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, similarly recorded the disagreement of the Anglicans with the doctrine, although Anglo-Catholics may hold the Immaculate Conception as an optional pious belief 

See also
Act for the Immaculate Conception of Mary
Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (disambiguation)
Church of the Immaculate Conception (disambiguation)
Congregation of the Immaculate Conception
Marian doctrines of the Catholic Church
Marian Fathers of the Immaculate Conception
Miraculous medal
Mother of God (Roman Catholic)
Patronages of the Immaculate Conception
Perpetual virginity of Mary
Roman Catholic Marian art
Passage 4:
Big Medicine
Big Medicine was an American reality television show that examined the effects of bariatric surgery, both physical and emotional, on obese patients  It also chronicled the ordeals of the patients leading up to surgery  It aired on TLC from May 28, 2007, until November 18, 2009  Big Medicine was taped at the Weight Management Center of The Methodist Hospital in Houston, Texas   Operating on the patients are the father and son surgical team of Dr  Robert Davis and Dr  Garth Davis   Before the final determination to operate is reached, patients are examined psychologically by Psychotherapist Mary Jo Rapini   Often, patients with excess skin after their weight-loss is achieved will be referred to Dr  John LoMonaco, a plastic surgeon 
Passage 5:
United States Bill of Rights
The United States Bill of Rights comprises the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution  Proposed following the often bitter 1787–88 debate over the ratification of the Constitution and written to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved to the states or the people  The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those in earlier documents, especially the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), as well as the Northwest Ordinance (1787), the English Bill of Rights (1689), and Magna Carta (1215) Largely because of the efforts of Representative James Madison, who studied the deficiencies of the Constitution pointed out by anti-federalists and then crafted a series of corrective proposals, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment on September 25, 1789, and submitted them to the states for ratification  Contrary to Madison's proposal that the proposed amendments be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution (at the relevant articles and sections of the document), they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it  Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution  Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty-seventh Amendment  Article One is still pending before the states 
Although Madison's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government  The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment  Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments  The process is known as incorporation There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence  One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D C 

Background
Philadelphia Convention
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution, the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781  However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states  The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania  Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one  The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention  The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation  Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi-gods " Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion  However, after only a brief discussion where Roger Sherman pointed out that State Bills of Rights were not repealed by the new Constitution, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations  Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers" that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny  Another delegate, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No  84 Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion—introduced five days before the end of the convention—may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic  The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process  Author David O  Stewart characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude" while historian Jack N  Rakove calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification" Thirty-nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution  Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia  Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification 

Anti-Federalists
Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism"  Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon  Mr  Gerry's Objections", which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed Constitution  Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the President would become a king  Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread  If we cannot secure all our rights, let us secure what we can " The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus" (probably Robert Yates) wrote,

We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion—that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed—that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc  If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms  The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted  With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution 
He continued with this observation:

Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought  So clear a point is this, that I cannot help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage 

Federalists
Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part because of the procedural uncertainties it would create  Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No  46 of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position  Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No  84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights " He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations " Patrick Henry criticized the Federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people     being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication " Other anti-Federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular the Magna Carta, had protected specific rights  In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:

Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince  Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John 

Massachusetts compromise
In December 1787 and January 1788, five states—Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut—ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated  In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak  The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments  The convention's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment Following Massachusetts' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments  A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states' rights  The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade A minority of the Constitution's critics, such as Maryland's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification  However, Martin's allies, such as New York's John Lansing Jr , dropped moves to obstruct the Convention's process  They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was", seeking amendments  Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before" shift to a position of "amendments after" for the sake of staying in the Union  Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established  The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states  Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it 
Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine-state ratification plateau in June 1788  On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year  On March 4, 1789, the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating 

New York Circular Letter
In New York, the majority of the Ratifying Convention was Anti-Federalist and they were not inclined to follow the Massachusetts Compromise  Led by Melancton Smith, they were inclined to make the ratification of New York conditional on prior proposal of amendments or, perhaps, insist on the right to secede from the union if amendments are not promptly proposed  Hamilton, after consulting with Madison, informed the Convention that this would not be accepted by Congress 
After ratification by the ninth state, New Hampshire, followed shortly by Virginia, it was clear the Constitution would go into effect with or without New York as a member of the Union  In a compromise, the New York Convention proposed to ratify, feeling confident that the states would call for new amendments using the convention procedure in Article V, rather than making this a condition of ratification by New York  John Jay wrote the New York Circular Letter calling for the use of this procedure, which was then sent to all the States  The legislatures in New York and Virginia passed resolutions calling for the convention to propose amendments that had been demanded by the States while several other states tabled the matter to consider in a future legislative session  Madison wrote the Bill of Rights partially in response to this action from the States 

Proposal and ratification
Anticipating amendments
The 1st United States Congress, which met in New York City's Federal Hall, was a triumph for the Federalists  The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia  The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina 
Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle  In retaliation for Madison's victory in that battle at Virginia's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates, had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison's planned congressional run and recruited Madison's future presidential successor, James Monroe, to oppose him  Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments forming a bill of rights at the First Congress Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, Madison had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates  By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government  Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised  But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty " He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability"  Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion"  Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights—useful—not essential—" On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 inauguration as the nation's first president, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution  He urged the legislators,

whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted 

Madison's proposed amendments
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration  Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble  Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government  Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress  Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one", limited to protecting individual rights Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments  The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms (although this applied only to Protestants) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment The greatest influence on Madison's text, however, was existing state constitutions  Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776  To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states  He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases " He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions  Madison proposed the following constitutional amendments:

First  That there be prefixed to the Constitution a declaration, that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from, the people 
That Government is instituted and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety 
That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their Government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution 
Secondly  That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made;" and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to—, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than—, nor more than—, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto "
Thirdly  That in article 1st, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit: "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of Representatives "
Fourthly  That in article 1st, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit: The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner, or on any pretext, infringed 
The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable 
The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good; nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person 
No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law 
No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same offence; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted 
The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property, from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized 
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence 
The exceptions here or elsewhere in the Constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people, or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the Constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution 
Fifthly  That in article 1st, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No State shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases 
Sixthly  That, in article 3d, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2d, these words, to wit: But no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to — dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law 
Seventhly  That in article 3d, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the clauses following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service, in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed  In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate 
Eighthly  That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this Constitution are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the Legislative Department shall never exercise the powers vested in the Executive or Judicial, nor the Executive exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Judicial, nor the Judicial exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Executive Departments 
The powers not delegated by this Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively 

Ninthly  That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th 

Crafting amendments
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government  The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution" before the galleries could shake public confidence  A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789 The eleven-member committee made some significant changes to Madison's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press"  The House debated the amendments for eleven days  Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution's end so that the document would "remain inviolate", rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed  The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789 The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own  Madison's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789  The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison's proposed changes to the preamble On September 21, 1789, a House–Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals  On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider  This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28 By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted  A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists' most effective critique  Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention  Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process  Historian Gordon S  Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress  There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights "

Ratification process
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789  The following states ratified some or all of the amendments:
New Jersey: Articles One and Three through Twelve on November 20, 1789, and Article Two on May 7, 1992
Maryland: Articles One through Twelve on December 19, 1789
North Carolina: Articles One through Twelve on December 22, 1789
South Carolina: Articles One through Twelve on January 19, 1790
New Hampshire: Articles One and Three through Twelve on January 25, 1790, and Article Two on March 7, 1985
Delaware: Articles Two through Twelve on January 28, 1790
New York: Articles One and Three through Twelve on February 24, 1790
Pennsylvania: Articles Three through Twelve on March 10, 1790, and Article One on September 21, 1791
Rhode Island: Articles One and Three through Twelve on June 7, 1790, and Article Two on June 10, 1993
Vermont: Articles One through Twelve on November 3, 1791
Virginia: Article One on November 3, 1791, and Articles Two through Twelve on December 15, 1791(After failing to ratify the 12 amendments during the 1789 legislative session )Having been approved by the requisite three-fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791), the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution  Congress, now meeting at Congress Hall in Philadelphia, was informed of this by President Washington on January 18, 1792 As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete  The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union (June 1, 1792)  On June 27, 1792, the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996 Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803  Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution  As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still pending before the states  Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted 
Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years  The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise  A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article  Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article's ratification with a letter-writing campaign to state legislatures  As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution  The amendment's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W  Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992 Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states  Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify  Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon  Both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two  All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights' sesquicentennial: Massachusetts on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19  Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively 

Application and text
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S  Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution " The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931  Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance" to develop that would support the Bill's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v  Baltimore (1833)  In the 20th century, however, most of the Bill's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment—a process known as incorporation—beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v  New York (1925)  In Talton v  Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments  Through the incorporation process the Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the states almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights  The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian/minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights  The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v  Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities  As the Court noted, the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts " This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections "

First Amendment
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances 
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances  Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today In Everson v  Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State", though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute  Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th- and 21st-century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections  The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co  v  Sullivan (1964)  Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media  In Near v  Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v  United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint—pre-publication censorship—in almost all cases  The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action  In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association 

Second Amendment
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed 
The Second Amendment protects the individual right to keep and bear arms  The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights  First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 (but there only applying to Protestants), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776  Long a controversial issue in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions 

In United States v  Cruikshank (1876), the Court ruled that "[t]he right to bear arms is not granted by the Constitution; neither is it in any manner dependent upon that instrument for its existence  The Second Amendment means no more than that it shall not be infringed by Congress, and has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the National Government "
In United States v  Miller (1939), the Court ruled that the amendment "[protects arms that had a] reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia" 
In District of Columbia v  Heller (2008), the Court ruled that the Second Amendment "codified a pre-existing right" and that it "protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home" but also stated that "the right is not unlimited  It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose" 
In McDonald v  Chicago (2010), the Court ruled that the Second Amendment limits state and local governments to the same extent that it limits the federal government 

Third Amendment
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law 
The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War  The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of November 2022, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision 

Fourth Amendment
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized 
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause  It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution  Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it  The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally cannot be introduced into a criminal trial  The amendment's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left-leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right-leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist 

Fifth Amendment
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation 
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self-incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain  The amendment was the basis for the court's decision in Miranda v  Arizona (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self-incrimination prior to interrogation by police; the Miranda warning 

Sixth Amendment
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense 
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial:

to a speedy and public trial
to trial by an impartial jury
to be informed of criminal charges
to confront witnesses
to compel witnesses to appear in court
to assistance of counselIn Gideon v  Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts 

Seventh Amendment
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law 
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars  It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials  In Colgrove v  Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members  The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to the states) 

Eighth Amendment
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted 
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive" open to interpretation  The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment  This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution  In Furman v  Georgia (1972), some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency" as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years  Executions resumed following Gregg v  Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines  The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v  Gamble (1976) and Brown v  Plata (2011) 

Ninth Amendment
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people 
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution  The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights  It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v  Connecticut (1965)  The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy  This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, Roe v  Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and Planned Parenthood v  Casey (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion 

Tenth Amendment
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people 
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people  The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government nor explicitly forbidden to the states 

Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states  The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing  The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire  Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the New York Public Library  North Carolina's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War  In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003  The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington, D C  since December 13, 1952 After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved  Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003  In his dedicatory remarks, President George W  Bush stated, "The true [American] revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power—the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all "In 1941, President Franklin D  Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights  In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states 

See also
Notes
Passage 6:
Linux Documentation Project
The Linux Documentation Project (LDP) is a dormant all-volunteer project that maintains a large collection of GNU and Linux-related documentation and publishes the collection online  It began as a way for hackers to share their documentation with each other and with their users, and for users to share documentation with each other  Its documents tend to be oriented towards experienced users such as professional system administrators, but it also contains tutorials for beginners 

History
The LDP originally began as an FTP site in 1992, but it went on the World Wide Web at MetaLab in 1993  It is believed to have been the first Linux related website ever Today, the LDP serves over 475 documents contributed by even more authors  About a dozen of them are book length, and most of those are available in print from major technical publishers including O'Reilly 
On 1 September 2008, LDP started a wiki to allow a better interaction with the authors and the users, with a plan to convert documentation to the wiki format 
and a list of pages to be ported Presently (as of July 2020), the LDP is no longer active; the last entry under "Recent Changes" dates from 2016-01-29, 
the last guide inserted from Mar 2014 

Content
The LDP published many HOWTO documents, which instruct a user on the specific steps to take to achieve a desired goal  
These goals are sometimes very specific, such as configuring a particular modem, and sometimes very broad, such as how to administer a network for an ISP 
Very broad topics were covered in the guides, which are book-length documents, usually on broad subjects such as security or networking 
The LDP also published Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) lists, man pages and other documents, as well as two webzines, the Linux Gazette and Linux Focus 
Much of the LDP collection is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL)  Many other licenses are also used, as long as they are freely distributable  Current policy recommends the GFDL 
Linux Network Administrator's Guide is one book in the series 
Passage 7:
Mammillaria mammillaris
Mammillaria mammilllaris, common name woolly nipple cactus, is a species of plant in the family Cactaceae  It is the type species of the genus Mammillaria  It has been described by Carolus Linnaeus as Cactus mammillaris in 1753  The specific epithet mammillaris comes from the Latin mammilla, meaning nipple, with reference to the characteristic tubercles 

Description
Mammillaria mammillaris is a perennial plant that grows solitary or forming small groups  The stems are spherical to short cylindrical, light green to dark green and reach a diameter of up to 20 centimeters  The conical tubercules contain latex  The 3-5 reddish brown central spines have a darker tip and are 7-8 millimeters long  The top pin is the longest  The 10 to 16 radial spines are reddish brown and greyish in old age  Axils have scant wool  The flowers are cream-white, funnel-shaped and have a length of 1 to 1 2 centimeters  The club-shaped red fruits are 10 to 20 millimeters long and contain little brown, rough seeds 

Distribution
This species is distributed in the Lesser Antilles to Trinidad and Tobago, Curaçao and the neighboring islands of the Netherlands Antilles and in Venezuela 

Habitat
Its natural habitat are the coastal and mountainous regions, at an elevation of 0–500 metres (0–1,640 ft) above sea level 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Fire Over England
Fire Over England is a 1937 London Film Productions film drama, notable for providing the first pairing of Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh  It was directed by William K  Howard and written by Clemence Dane from the 1936 novel Fire Over England by AEW Mason  Leigh's performance in the film helped to convince David O  Selznick to cast her as Scarlett O'Hara in his 1939 production of Gone with the Wind  The film is a historical drama set during the reign of Elizabeth I focusing on England's victory over the Spanish Armada 

Plot
During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, England is concerned by the impending arrival of the Spanish Armada  In 1588, relations between Spain and England are at breaking point  With the support of Queen Elizabeth I (Flora Robson), English privateers such as Sir Francis Drake regularly capture Spanish merchantmen bringing gold from the New World 
Elizabeth's chief advisers are the Lord Treasurer, Lord Burleigh (Morton Selten), and her longtime admirer, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester (Leslie Banks)  Burleigh's 18-year-old granddaughter Cynthia (Vivien Leigh) is one of Elizabeth's ladies-in-waiting, and the ageing queen is plagued by jealousy of the girl's beauty and vivacity 
In a sea battle between the Spanish, led by Don Miguel (Robert Rendel), and the English, led by his old friend Sir Richard Ingolby (Lyn Harding) the English are captured  Miguel allows Richard's son Michael (Laurence Olivier) to escape  Michael swims ashore on Miguel's estate, and his wounds are tended to by Miguel's daughter Elena (Tamara Desni), who quickly becomes enamoured of the handsome Englishman, despite her being engaged to marry  As the months pass, Michael recovers and laments being apart from Cynthia, his sweetheart, but is nonetheless impressed by Elena's charms 
Miguel brings Michael the sad news that Sir Richard, his father, has been executed as a heretic  The grieving Michael denounces his rescuers and flees to England in a small fishing boat  When he is granted an audience with the Queen he urges her to fight the Spanish menace by whatever means necessary, and swears undying loyalty to her  Elizabeth is flattered by the young man's fervent devotion and later has an opportunity to take advantage of his offer of service when Hillary Vane (James Mason), an Englishman spying for Spain, is killed before the names of his English co-conspirators can be uncovered 
Michael, disguised as Vane, goes to the court of King Philip II of Spain (Raymond Massey) to get the letters that will set into motion a plan to assassinate Elizabeth  At the palace Michael meets Elena   Her father has been killed by the English and she is now married to Don Pedro (Robert Newton), the palace governor  Elena keeps Michael's identity a secret as long as she can, but finally must tell her husband out of loyalty to him 
Philip sees through Michael's disguise and orders his arrest  Pedro helps him escape so that it will not be discovered that his wife aided a heretic  While Michael is returning home, the Spanish Armada sails against England and Elizabeth addresses her army at Tilbury  Michael meets her there and reveals the names of the traitors  Elizabeth knights Michael before confronting the six traitors, inviting them to fulfill their plot and kill her  Overwhelmed with shame, they agree to accompany Michael on a mission to deploy fire ships in a night attack on the Armada, massed off the coast of England 
The tactic succeeds, and Elizabeth allows Michael and Cynthia to marry 

Cast
Production
With the working title of Glorianna, principal photography took place at Denham Studios, where a large water tank was used to launch the model ships representing the Spanish Armada and the English naval defenders  Originally Conrad Veidt was to star, but Alexander Korda saw the production as a star vehicle for Vivien Leigh, who was under contract to Korda  Along with the historical drama that was portrayed, Fire Over England was also a costume romance that served to showcase Leigh and Olivier, a real-life romantic couple 

The Lion Has Wings
A portion of the film, including the beacons being lit on the English coast, and an armour-clad Queen Elizabeth giving her speech to the surrounding soldiers at Tilbury before the Battle of Gravelines, was used in the 1939 World War II propaganda documentary The Lion Has Wings  It is used to compare the Spanish invasion attempt to a Nazi invasion, demonstrating how Great Britain had survived against great odds in the past, and would again 

Reception
Fire Over England was the first British film to have its US premiere at Los Angeles  Overall, the picture garnered positive reviews  In the review in Variety, the comment was "This is a handsomely mounted and forcefully dramatic glorification of Queen Bess  It holds a succession of brilliantly played scenes, a wealth of choice diction, pointed excerpts from English history and a series of impressive tableaux " Writing for The Spectator in 1937, Graham Greene gave the film a mixed review, acknowledging it as "well-directed and lavish", but criticizing its lack of historical realism  Greene stated that "the sets are magnificent" and that "the acting is far better than we are accustomed to in English films", but considered the production to have "strayed out of history" and called certain scenes "absurd" and "embarrassing"  The League of Nations Committee on Motion Pictures awarded the 1937 Cinema Medal of Honor to Fire Over England 

See also
List of films in the public domain in the United States
Passage 2:
Airplay (band)
Airplay was a short-lived American band, formed by David Foster and Jay Graydon  The band released a self-titled album in 1980, containing "Nothin' You Can Do About It" (originally recorded by The Manhattan Transfer) and the original recording of the Earth, Wind & Fire hit "After the Love Has Gone", written by Foster and Graydon with Bill Champlin 
Graydon was asked about Airplay in a 2014 interview:
Did you guys ever envision Airplay becoming a full-time, touring type of band?
David wanted to tour and I didn't  A dumb move on my part 

Personnel
Principal members
Jay Graydon – vocals, guitar
David Foster – keyboards, background vocals
Tommy Funderburk – vocals

Backing musicians
Toto membersJeff Porcaro – drums
David Hungate – bass
Steve Lukather – additional rhythm guitars
Steve Porcaro – synthesizer programmingOthersWarren Wiebe
Mike Baird – drums
Ray Parker Jr  – additional rhythm guitars
Pete Robinson – synthesizer programming
Jerry Hey – trumpet & flugelhorn
Gary Grant – trumpet
Steve Madaio – trumpet
Bill Reichenbach Jr  – trombone
Charlie Loper – trombone
Lew McCreary – tromboneBackground vocalsBill Champlin
Tom Kelly
Max Gronenthal

Discography
Studio albums
Airplay (1980)

Singles
"Stranded" (1980)
"Nothin' You Can Do About It" (1980)
"Should We Carry On" (1981)
"Stressed Out (Close to the Edge)" in St  Elmo's Fire soundtrack (1985)
Passage 3:
Darlings of the Gods
Darlings of the Gods is a 1989 Australian mini series about the 1948 trip to Australia by Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh and the Old Vic Company, where Olivier and Leigh met Peter Finch 

Cast
Anthony Higgins - Laurence Olivier
Mel Martin - Vivien Leigh
Jerome Ehlers - Peter Finch
Rhys McConnochie - Ralph Richardson
Anthony Hawkins - Cecil Tennant
Barry Quin - Dan Cunningham
Jackie Kelleher - Elsie Beyer
Lindy Davies - Antonia Vaughan
Nicki Paull - June Kelly
Shane Briant - Cecil Beaton

Home Media
Not Currently Available on DVD
Passage 4:
Macbeth (1948 film)
Macbeth is a 1948 American historical drama directed by Orson Welles  A film adaptation of William Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name, it tells the story of the Scottish general who becomes the King of Scotland through treachery and murder  The film stars Welles in the lead role and Jeanette Nolan (in her feature film debut) as Lady Macbeth 

Plot
In the Middle Ages, Macbeth and Banquo are approached by the Three Witches  They address Macbeth, hailing him as the "Thane of Cawdor" and the future king of Scotland  King Duncan's men arrive and congratulate Macbeth of his victory, awarding him the title of Thane of Cawdor  Macbeth sends a letter to his wife about the Three Witches' prophecy, in which she questions whether Macbeth is capable of murdering Duncan  
Duncan welcomes and praises Macbeth, declaring he will spend the night at Macbeth's castle  Later that night, Macbeth expresses discomfort with killing Duncan  Lady Macbeth overrides her husband's objections by challenging his manhood and persuades him to kill Duncan  Offscreen, Macbeth murders Duncan but returns back to his wife with the daggers  When Duncan is found dead, Macbeth frames Duncan's two servants by placing the bloody daggers on them  Remembering the prophecy, Banquo is suspicious of Macbeth's potential role in murdering Duncan  Returning to his wife, Macbeth expresses his guilt and he proclaims he will never be able to sleep again  
Duncan's sons Malcolm and Donalbain have fled, in which Macbeth is crowned the new king of Scotland  Worried that Banquo's descendants would rule Scotland, Macbeth invites Banquo to a royal banquet  He sends two men to successfully murder Banquo, but his son Fleance escapes  At the banquet, Macbeth becomes haunted after seeing Banquo's ghost  The others panic at Macbeth raging at an empty chair, until a desperate Lady Macbeth tells them that her husband is merely afflicted with a harmless malady  
Enraged, Macbeth is warned by the Three Witches to beware of Macduff, who has fled to England  Macbeth frames Macduff as a traitor and sends soldiers to kill him  When the soldiers arrive at Macduff's castle, everyone is put to death, including Lady Macduff and their young son  Back in England, Ross informs Macduff that his family has been killed, to which Macduff swears revenge  Together, with Malcolm and Donalbain, they return to Scotland with a massive army to wage war against Macbeth  
Back in Scotland, Macbeth learns of the approaching English army and has a doctor tend to Lady Macbeth, who is suffering from hallucinations  Wracked with guilt over the murders, Lady Macbeth sleepwalks throughout the castle and falls over a steep cliff to her death  Shortly after, the English army invade, covering themselves by cutting down tree branches  They storm the castle, where Macduff battles Macbeth in a sword fight  Macduff beheads Macbeth, and Ross presents the crown to Malcolm 

Production
In 1947, Orson Welles began promoting the notion of bringing a Shakespeare drama to the motion picture screen  He initially attempted to pique Alexander Korda's interest in an adaptation of Othello, but was unable to gather support for the project  Welles switched to pushing for a film adaptation of Macbeth, which he visualized in its violent setting as "a perfect cross between Wuthering Heights and Bride of Frankenstein "Teaming with producer Charles K  Feldman, Welles successfully convinced Herbert Yates, founder and president of Republic Pictures, of the prospect of creating a film version of Macbeth  Yates was attempting to raise the level of his studio, which produced Roy Rogers Westerns and low-budget features, into that of a prestige studio  Republic had already tried to present off-beat features, including Gustav Machatý's Jealousy (1945) and Ben Hecht's Specter of the Rose (1946) However, Yates was not able to provide Welles with a large budget  Welles guaranteed to deliver a completed negative of Macbeth on a budget of $700,000  When some members of the Republic board of directors expressed misgivings on the project, Welles had a contract drawn in which he agreed to personally pay any amount over $700,000 Welles had previously staged the so-called Voodoo Macbeth in 1936 in New York City with an all-black cast, and again in 1947 in Salt Lake City as part of the Utah Centennial Festival  He borrowed aspects from both productions for his film adaptation Macbeth marked the fourth time that a post-silent era Hollywood studio produced a film based on a Shakespeare play: United Artists had produced The Taming of the Shrew in 1929, Warner Brothers made A Midsummer Night’s Dream in 1935, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer produced Romeo and Juliet in 1936  None of these films was commercially successful, but the commercial and critical prestige earned by Laurence Olivier's film version of Henry V (which was produced in Great Britain in 1944 but not seen in the U S  until 1946) helped to propel Welles' Macbeth forward 

Casting
Welles cast himself in the title role, but was initially stymied in casting Lady Macbeth, regarded by Republic as the focus of the film  His first choice was Vivien Leigh, but Welles never approached her since he believed her husband, Laurence Olivier, would be unsupportive  The role was offered to Tallulah Bankhead, who turned it down  At Welles's request Anne Baxter, Mercedes McCambridge and Agnes Moorehead were approached but they were unavailable  "There is no evidence to suggest that these rejections were much of a blow to Welles," wrote biographer Frank Brady  Welles settled on Jeanette Nolan, one of the Mercury Theatre's repertory players on radio and a trusted colleague since their days on The March of Time radio program Welles brought in Irish actor Dan O'Herlihy in his first U S  film role as Macduff, and cast former child star Roddy McDowall as Malcolm  Welles also cast his daughter Christopher in the role of Macduff's son; this was her only film appearance 

Cast
The cast of Macbeth is listed in the AFI Catalog of Feature Films 

Adaptation
In bringing Macbeth to the screen, Welles made several changes to Shakespeare's original  He added sequences involving the witches to increase their significance  At the beginning of the film, they create a clay figurine of Macbeth, which is used to symbolize his rise and ruin  It collapses in a heap, seemingly of its own volition, immediately after Macbeth is beheaded  The witches seem to cast a spell on the doll, and anything that happens to it seems to happen also to Macbeth, as in voodoo  The witches also return at the end of the film, viewing the drama from afar and uttering  "Peace, the charm's wound up" as the final line; this line is spoken in the first act in the original text, when the witches initially confront Macbeth Because of censorship, the Porter's speech was shorn of all its double entendre A major change is Welles' introduction of a new character, the Holy Man  The priest recites the prayer of Saint Michael  Welles later explained that the character's presence was meant to confirm that "the main point of that production is the struggle between the old and new religions  I saw the witches as representatives of a Druidical pagan religion suppressed by Christianity – itself a new arrival " There is a subtle insinuation that Lady Macbeth fatally stabs Duncan prior to Macbeth's attack on the king, and Macbeth is witness to Lady Macbeth's sleepwalking and madness scene; in the play, he is not present 

Filming
The film was shot on sets left over from the westerns that were normally made at Republic Studios  In order to accommodate the tight production schedule, Welles had the Macbeth cast pre-record their dialogue Welles later expressed frustration with the film's low budget trappings  Most of the costumes were rented from Western Costume, except those for Macbeth and Lady Macbeth  "Mine should have been sent back, because I looked like the Statue of Liberty in it," Welles told filmmaker Peter Bogdanovich  "But there was no dough for another and nothing in stock at Western would fit me, so I was stuck with it "Welles also told Bogdanovich that the scene he felt was most effective was actually based on hunger  "Our best crowd scene was a shot where all the massed forces of Macduff's army are charging the castle", he said  "There was a very vivid urgency to it, because what was happening, really, was that we'd just called noon break, and all those extras were rushing off to lunch "Welles shot Macbeth in 23 days, with one day devoted to retakes 

Release and reception
Republic initially planned to have Macbeth in release by December 1947, but Welles was not ready with the film  The studio entered the film in the 1948 Venice Film Festival, but it was abruptly withdrawn when it was compared unfavorably against Olivier's version of Hamlet, which was also in the festival's competition In the U S  theatrical release, Republic tested the film in a few cities  Critical reaction was overwhelmingly negative, with complaints about Welles's decision to have his cast speak in Scottish burrs and modify the original text After its original release, Republic had Welles cut two reels from the film and ordered him to have much of the soundtrack re-recorded with the actors speaking in their natural voices, and not the approximation of Scottish accents that Welles initially requested  This new version was released by Republic in 1950  While critical reaction was still not supportive, the film earned a small profit for the studio Welles would maintain mixed emotions about Macbeth  In a 1953 lecture at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival, he said: "My purpose in making Macbeth was not to make a great film – and this is unusual, because I think that every film director, even when he is making nonsense, should have as his purpose the making of a great film  I thought I was making what might be a good film, and what, if the 23-day day shoot schedule came off, might encourage other filmmakers to tackle difficult subjects at greater speed  Unfortunately, not one critic in any part of the world chose to compliment me on the speed  They thought it was a scandal that it should only take 23 days  Of course, they were right, but I could not write to every one of them and explain that no one would give me any money for a further day's shooting       However, I am not ashamed of the limitations of the picture "The truncated version of Macbeth remained in release until 1980, when the original uncut version with the Scottish-tinged soundtrack was restored by the UCLA Film and Television Archive and the Folger Shakespeare Library  On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 87% based on 30 reviews, with an average rating of 7 4/10  The site's critics' consensus reads: "This haunting, eccentric Macbeth may be hampered by budget constraints, but Orson Welles delivers both behind and in front of the camera "
Passage 5:
Loew's Grand Theatre
Loew's Grand Theater, originally DeGive's Grand Opera House, was a movie theater at the corner of Peachtree and Forsyth Streets in downtown Atlanta, Georgia, in the United States  It was most famous as the site of the 1939 premiere of Gone with the Wind, which was attended by most of the stars of the film 
It concentrated on showing films made or released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), a Loews-owned studio, even boasting a sign under its marquee proclaiming it "The Home of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures"   Although the United States v  Paramount Pictures, Inc  case divested studios of ownership of theater chains in 1948, many MGM films made afterward still had their first showings in Atlanta at this theater, including Singin' in the Rain, the 1959 Ben-Hur and Doctor Zhivago 
The theater was built as DeGive's Grand Opera House in 1893 by entrepreneur and Belgian consul Laurent DeGive, and hosted many concerts and touring opera productions  It is often confused with DeGive's first opera house, which opened in 1870 four blocks south, at the corner of Marietta and Forsyth streets  The confusion is understandable, as DeGive had his name carved prominently above the entrance of the Grand Theater 

The Grand was bought by the Loews organization in 1927 and renovated into a movie theater by architect Thomas W  Lamb  The one-screen theater had 2,088 seats  It was extensively damaged as the result of a fire on January 30, 1978  Although the real estate where the theater had stood was of high value, the theater could not be demolished because of its historic status  This led many to speculate that the cause of the fire was arson, although this speculation has never been proven  The Georgia-Pacific Tower was built on the former site of the theater 
Bricks from the building were recycled and used to build a popular Atlanta restaurant, Houston's which features a plaque of remembrance of the theater in the waiting area of its original location five miles north, at 2166 Peachtree  A chandelier from the building now hangs prominently at the center of The Tabernacle, a church turned concert venue in Atlanta 
Passage 6:
Gone with the Wind (film)
Gone with the Wind is a 1939 American epic historical romance film adapted from the 1936 novel by Margaret Mitchell  The film was produced by David O  Selznick of Selznick International Pictures and directed by Victor Fleming  Set in the American South against the backdrop of the American Civil War and the Reconstruction era, the film tells the story of Scarlett O'Hara (Vivien Leigh), the strong-willed daughter of a Georgia plantation owner, following her romantic pursuit of Ashley Wilkes (Leslie Howard), who is married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton (Olivia de Havilland), and her subsequent marriage to Rhett Butler (Clark Gable) 
Gone with the Wind film had a troubled production  The start of filming was delayed for two years until January 1939 because of Selznick's determination to secure Gable for the role of Rhett, and concluded the following July  The role of Scarlett was difficult to cast, and 1,400 unknown women were interviewed for the part  Sidney Howard's original screenplay underwent many revisions by several writers to reduce it to a suitable length  The original director, George Cukor, was fired shortly after filming began, and was replaced by Fleming, who in turn was briefly replaced by Sam Wood while taking some time off due to exhaustion  Post-production concluded in November 1939, just a month before its premiere 
It received generally positive reviews upon its release on December 15, 1939  While the casting was widely praised, the long running time received criticism  At the 12th Academy Awards, Gone with the Wind received ten Academy Awards (eight competitive, two honorary) from thirteen nominations, including wins for Best Picture, Best Director (Fleming), Best Adapted Screenplay (posthumously awarded to Sidney Howard), Best Actress (Leigh), and Best Supporting Actress (Hattie McDaniel, becoming the first African American to win an Academy Award)  It set records for the total number of wins and nominations at the time 
Gone with the Wind was immensely popular when first released  It became the highest-earning film made up to that point, and held the record for over a quarter of a century  When adjusted for monetary inflation, it is still the highest-grossing film in history  It was re-released periodically throughout the 20th century and became ingrained in popular culture  Although the film has been criticized as historical negationism, glorifying slavery and the Lost Cause of the Confederacy myth, it has been credited with triggering changes in the way in which African Americans were depicted cinematically  Gone with the Wind is regarded as one of the greatest films of all time, and in 1989 became one of the twenty-five inaugural films selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry 

Plot
In 1861, on the eve of the American Civil War, Scarlett O'Hara lives at Tara, her family's cotton plantation in Georgia, with her parents, two sisters, and their many black slaves  Scarlett is deeply attracted to Ashley Wilkes and learns he is to be married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton  At an engagement party the next day at Ashley's home, Twelve Oaks, a nearby plantation, Scarlett makes an advance on Ashley but is rebuffed; however, she catches the attention of another guest, Rhett Butler  The party is disrupted by news of President Lincoln's call for volunteers to fight the South, and the Southern men rush to enlist  Scarlett marries Melanie's younger brother Charles to arouse jealousy in Ashley before he leaves to fight  Following Charles's death while serving in the Confederate States Army, Scarlett's mother sends her to the Hamilton home in Atlanta  She creates a scene by attending a charity bazaar in mourning attire and waltzing with Rhett, now a blockade runner for the Confederacy 
The tide of war turns against the Confederacy after the Battle of Gettysburg  Many of the men of Scarlett's town are killed  Eight months later, as the Union Army besieges the city in the Atlanta campaign, Melanie gives birth with Scarlett's aid, and Rhett helps them flee the city  Rhett chooses to go off to fight, leaving Scarlett to make her own way back to Tara  She finds Tara deserted, except for her father, sisters, and former slaves, Mammy and Pork  Scarlett learns that her mother has just died of typhoid fever, and her father has lost his mind  With Tara pillaged by Union troops and the fields untended, Scarlett vows to ensure her and her family's survival 
With the defeat of the Confederacy, the O'Haras toil in the cotton fields  Ashley returns but finds he is of little help to Tara  When Scarlett begs him to run away with her, he confesses his desire for her and kisses her passionately but says he cannot leave Melanie  Scarlett's father attempts to chase away a carpetbagger from his land but is thrown from his horse and killed   Unable to pay the Reconstructionist taxes imposed on Tara, Scarlett unsuccessfully appeals to Rhett, then dupes her younger sister Suellen's fiancé, the middle-aged and wealthy general store owner Frank Kennedy, into marrying her  Frank, Ashley, Rhett, and several other accomplices make a night raid on a shanty town after Scarlett is attacked while driving through it alone, resulting in Frank's death  Shortly after Frank's funeral, Rhett proposes to Scarlett, and she accepts 
Rhett and Scarlett have a daughter whom Rhett names Bonnie Blue, but Scarlett still pines for Ashley and, chagrined at the perceived ruin of her figure, refuses to have any more children or share a bed with Rhett  One day at Frank's mill, Ashley's sister, India, sees Scarlett and Ashley embracing  Harboring an intense dislike of Scarlett, India eagerly spreads rumors  Later that evening, Rhett, having heard the rumors, forces Scarlett to attend a birthday party for Ashley  Melanie, however, stands by Scarlett  After returning home, Scarlett finds Rhett downstairs drunk, and they argue about Ashley  Rhett kisses Scarlett against her will, stating his intent to have sex with her that night, and carries the struggling Scarlett to the bedroom 
The next day, Rhett apologizes for his behavior and offers Scarlett a divorce, which she rejects, saying it would be a disgrace  When Rhett returns from an extended trip to London, England, Scarlett informs him that she is pregnant, but an argument ensues, resulting in her falling down a flight of stairs and suffering a miscarriage  While recovering, tragedy strikes again when Bonnie dies while attempting to jump a fence with her pony  Scarlett and Rhett visit Melanie, who has suffered complications from a new pregnancy, on her deathbed  As Scarlett consoles Ashley, Rhett prepares to leave Atlanta  Having realized that it was him, and not Ashley, she truly loved all along, Scarlett pleads with Rhett to stay, but he rebuffs her and walks away into the morning fog  A distraught Scarlett resolves to return home to Tara, vowing to one day win Rhett back 

Cast
Production
Before publication of the novel, several Hollywood executives and studios declined to create a film based on it, including Louis B  Mayer and Irving Thalberg at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Pandro Berman at RKO Pictures, and David O  Selznick of Selznick International Pictures  Jack L  Warner of Warner Bros considered purchasing the rights after reading the synopsis but his biggest star Bette Davis was not interested at the time, and Darryl Zanuck of 20th Century-Fox had not offered enough money  However, Selznick changed his mind after his story editor Kay Brown and business partner John Hay Whitney urged him to buy the film rights  In July 1936—a month after it was published—Selznick bought the rights for $50,000 

Casting
The casting of the two lead roles became a complex, two-year endeavor  For the role of Rhett Butler, Selznick from the start wanted Clark Gable, but Gable was under contract to MGM, which never loaned him to other studios  Gary Cooper was considered, but Samuel Goldwyn—to whom Cooper was under contract—refused to loan him out  Warner offered a package of Bette Davis, Errol Flynn, and Olivia de Havilland for lead roles in return for the distribution rights  By this time, Selznick was determined to get Gable and in August 1938 he eventually struck a deal with his father-in-law, MGM chief Louis B  Mayer: MGM would provide Gable and $1,250,000 for half of the film's budget, and in return, Selznick would have to pay Gable's weekly salary; half the profits would go to MGM while Loew's, Inc—MGM's parent company—would release the film The arrangement to release through MGM meant delaying the start of production until the end of 1938, when Selznick's distribution deal with United Artists concluded  Selznick used the delay to continue to revise the script and, more importantly, build publicity for the film by searching for the role of Scarlett  Selznick began a nationwide casting call that interviewed 1,400 unknowns  The effort cost $100,000 and proved useless for the main objective of casting the role, but created "priceless" publicity  Early frontrunners included Miriam Hopkins and Tallulah Bankhead, who were regarded as possibilities by Selznick prior to the purchase of the film rights; Joan Crawford, who was signed to MGM, was also considered as a potential pairing with Gable  After a deal was struck with MGM, Selznick held discussions with Norma Shearer—who was MGM's top female star at the time—but she withdrew herself from consideration  Katharine Hepburn lobbied hard for the role with the support of her friend, George Cukor, who had been hired to direct, but she was vetoed by Selznick who felt she was not right for the part Many famous—or soon-to-be-famous—actresses were considered, but only thirty-one women were actually screen-tested for Scarlett including Ardis Ankerson (soon to be given her screen name Brenda Marshall), Jean Arthur, Tallulah Bankhead, Diana Barrymore, Joan Bennett, Nancy Coleman, Frances Dee, Ellen Drew (as Terry Ray), Paulette Goddard, Susan Hayward (under her real name of Edythe Marrenner), Vivien Leigh, Anita Louise, Haila Stoddard, Margaret Tallichet, Lana Turner and Linda Watkins  Although Margaret Mitchell refused to publicly name her choice, the actress who came closest to winning her approval was Miriam Hopkins, who Mitchell felt was just the right type of actress to play Scarlett as written in the book  However, Hopkins was in her mid-thirties at the time and was considered too old for the part  Four actresses, including Jean Arthur and Joan Bennett, were still under consideration by December 1938; however, only two finalists, Paulette Goddard and Vivien Leigh, were tested in Technicolor, both on December 20  Goddard almost won the role, but controversy over her marriage with Charlie Chaplin caused Selznick to change his mind Selznick had been quietly considering Vivien Leigh, a young English actress who was still little known in America, for the role of Scarlett since February 1938 when Selznick saw her in Fire Over England and A Yank at Oxford  Leigh's American agent was the London representative of the Myron Selznick talent agency (headed by David Selznick's brother, one of the owners of Selznick International), and she had requested in February that her name be submitted for consideration as Scarlett  By the summer of 1938 the Selznicks were negotiating with Alexander Korda, to whom Leigh was under contract, for her services later that year  Selznick's brother arranged for them to meet for the first time on the night of December 10, 1938, when the burning of Atlanta was filmed  In a letter to his wife two days later, Selznick admitted that Leigh was "the Scarlett dark horse", and after a series of screen tests, her casting was announced on January 13, 1939  Just before the shooting of the film, Selznick informed newspaper columnist Ed Sullivan: "Scarlett O'Hara's parents were French and Irish  Identically, Miss Leigh's parents are French and Irish "A pressing issue for Selznick throughout casting was Hollywood's persistent failure to accurately portray Southern accents  The studio believed that if the accent was not accurately depicted it could prove detrimental to the film's success  Selznick hired Susan Myrick (an expert on Southern speech, manners and customs recommended to him by Mitchell) and Will A  Price to coach the actors on speaking with a Southern drawl  Mitchell was complimentary about the vocal work of the cast, noting the lack of criticism when the film came out 

Screenplay
Of the original screenplay writer, Sidney Howard, film historian Joanne Yeck writes, "reducing the intricacies of Gone with the Wind's epic dimensions was a herculean task     and Howard's first submission was far too long, and would have required at least six hours of film; 
Context 3: Passage 1:
List of Chelsea F C  managers
The first manager of Chelsea Football Club was John Robertson, appointed player-manager in 1905  The current head coach is Mauricio Pochettino  
Chelsea have had 31 permanent managers/head coaches (of whom four also served as player-manager), seven interim managers and six caretakers  Ron Suart has served as both caretaker and interim manager  Roberto Di Matteo was first interim manager, but was later appointed permanent manager, while Frank Lampard was first permanent manager, and later interim manager  Guus Hiddink has been interim manager twice, while José Mourinho has served two different periods as permanent manager 
Chelsea's first ever manager was Scottish wing-half John Tait Robertson, who continued to play for the club until he resigned a year later  David Calderhead is Chelsea's longest-serving manager, holding the position from 1907 to 1933, spanning 966 matches  Chelsea's shortest reigning permanent manager is Graham Potter, who was in charge for 31 games  Statistically, Chelsea's least successful manager is Frank Lampard 
The first manager under whom Chelsea won a major trophy was Ted Drake, who guided the club to the league championship in the 1954–55 season, while Dave Sexton managed the club to their first European honour, a UEFA Cup Winners' Cup triumph in 1971, and Gianluca Vialli guided Chelsea to win the 1998 UEFA Super Cup 
Mourinho has won the most domestic titles, and total titles with the club (in fact all titles won with Mourinho was domestic titles – eight in total), Vialli second most titles with five, whereas Carlo Ancelotti led Chelsea to their first league and FA Cup "Double" in 2010  
Di Matteo led Chelsea to their first UEFA Champions League for Chelsea in 2012  A year after, Rafael Benítez led the club to win the UEFA Europa League, becoming the first club to hold two major European titles simultaneously and one of five clubs, and the first British club, to have won all three of UEFA's major club competitions   In February 2022, Thomas Tuchel led Chelsea to its first FIFA Club World Cup  He is also the coach who have won the most international titles with the club; all three of his titles were international 

List of managers
Figures correct as of 28 May 2023  Includes competitive matches only This list of all managers includes performance records and honours 
M = Matches played; W = Matches won; D = Matches drawn; L = Matches lost; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against

Managers with honours
Notes


== Footnotes ==
Passage 2:
Fed Cup
The Billie Jean King Cup (or the BJK Cup) is the premier international team competition in women's tennis, launched as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the International Tennis Federation (ITF)  The name was changed to the Fed Cup in 1995, and changed again in September 2020 in honor of former World No  1 Billie Jean King  The Billie Jean King Cup is the world's largest annual women's international team sports competition in terms of the number of nations that compete  The current Chairperson is Katrina Adams The Czech Republic dominated the BJK Cup in the 2010s, winning six of ten competitions in the decade  The men's equivalent of the Billie Jean King Cup is the Davis Cup, and the Czech Republic, Australia, Russia and the United States are the only countries to have held both Cups at the same time 

History
In 1919, Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman had an idea for a women's team tennis competition  This was not adopted but she persisted, presenting a trophy at the 1923 annual contest between the United States and Great Britain, named the Wightman Cup 
Nell Hopman, wife of the legendary Australian Davis Cup Captain Harry Hopman, later took up Mrs Wightman's original idea  In 1962, a British resident of the United States, Mary Hardwick Hare, presented a dossier proving that support for such an event was overwhelming, persuading the ITF that it was a 'good idea' to have a team championship played over one week in a different venue each year  40 years after Wightman's idea of a women's Davis Cup, it became a reality  In 1963, the ITF launched the Federation Cup to celebrate its 50th anniversary  Open to all nations the competition became a resounding success 
The inaugural event attracted 16 countries  The competition was supported by the top players right from the start  Held at the Queen's Club, in London, the first contest was between Australia and the United States   Grand Slam champions Darlene Hard, Billie Jean King, Margaret Smith and Lesley Turner all proudly representing their country on court  The United States would emerge the champion nation in the opening year  However, it was to be Australia in the early years, winning seven of the next eleven championships  Around 1980 the United States was able to establish some significant mark on the competition setting in future years a very high standard for others to compete against 

The first Federation Cup had attracted 16 entry teams, despite no prize money and teams having to meet their own expenses  When sponsorship became available, the number of teams expanded dramatically, first by the Colgate Group in 1976, and, from 1981 to 1994 by the Japanese communications and computer giant NEC  In 1994, there were 73 nations competing, with the host nation of a Federation Cup week was now being required to build a special tennis complex, giving rise to what became known as the Federation Cup "legacy " The additional costs of each event could be offset with the host nations viewing their involvement as providing an opportunity to boost their national game 
For the 1992, a regional group qualifying format was introduced  In 1995, the tournament's name was shortened to the Fed Cup, and a new home-and-away format was adopted as trialled by the Davis Cup, so that women could play for their country in their own country  There have been a number of smaller changes to the format since 1995  The format change implemented in 2005 incorporates an eight Nation World Group I and eight nation World Group II both playing home-and-away over three weekends throughout the year  Three regional groups compete and there are promotions and relegations based on results 
The 2021 edition is set to have US$12 million in prize money 

Format
Tournament
While many nations enter the BJK Cup each year, only 16 countries qualify for the elite World Group and World Group II each year (eight in World Group and eight in World Group II) They reach World Group and World Group II as follows:

(a) World Group – the four nations that win their World Group first round tie remain in the World Group for the following year  First round losers contest the World Group play-offs against the four winning nations from World Group II to determine relegation/promotion for the following year's competition  (The four nations that win World Group play-offs will be in the World Group the following year, while the four losers will start the following year in World Group II )
(b) World Group II – the four nations that win their World Group II ties will compete in the World Group I Play-Offs to determine relegation/promotion for the following year, as described above  Similarly the four nations that lose their World Group II ties will face winning nations from Group I Zonal competitions, in the World Group II play-offs, to determine relegation/promotion  (The four nations that win their World Group II play-offs will be in World Group II the following year, while the four losers will begin the next year in Group I Zonal events )Once in the World Group or World Group II, four nations will be seeded in each  The decision as to which nations will be seeded is made by the BJK Cup Committee, according to the ITF BJK Cup Nations Ranking 
At the levels below the World Group and World Group II, the BJK Cup nations compete in Zonal Competition events, which are split into three zones: The Americas Zone, the Asia/Oceania Zone and the Europe/Africa Zone  In each zone there are two groups, Group I being the higher and Group II the lower, except for the Europe/Africa Zone, which also has a Group III 
Within the Group zonal regions, teams are split into pools and play against each other in a round robin format  The exact format of each Group event, and promotion and relegation between them, varies according to the number of participating teams  Two teams are always promoted from Europe/Africa Group I to that year's World Group II Play-Offs, while one team each go to the World Group II Play-Offs from Americas Group I and Asia/Oceania Zone Group I 

Current structure
This structure has been implemented since 2016 

Ties
In World Group and World Group II, and World Group and World Group II Play-off ties, each tie is contested in a best of five matches format, and is played across two days  On the first day there are two singles matches, and then the reverse singles matches take place on the following day  The final match is a doubles 
In Zonal Groups I, II and III, ties are played over the best of three matches (two singles and a doubles) 
The First Round Ties in the World Group and World Group II are played on a home and away knock-out basis, and take place over a weekend in the early part of the year 
World Group Semi-finals and Final are played over on a home and away knock-out basis, and take place over a weekend in July (Semi-finals) and September (Final) 
Play-off ties for World Group and World Group II will also be played on a home and away knock-out basis taking place in July 
The choice of ground for First Round, Semi-finals and Play-off ties is decided by lot or goes automatically to one of the competing nations 
As Groups I, II and III are played in a round robin format in all three zones, each event takes place at a single venue over one week  These are held in the first half of the year (to allow promotion of teams to the World Group II Play-off ties in the second half of the year), and dates and venues are decided by the BJK Cup Committee 

Records and statistics
List of championship finals
Performance by country
Source:

Titles by country (since 1995)
Results by country in BJK Cup Finals
Team records
Consecutive titles
All-time: 7,  United States, 1976–1982
Consecutive finals appearances
All-time: 8,  Australia, 1973–1980
Most number of games in a tie
Best of Five Format: 162,  France 4–1  Japan, 1997 World Group First Round
Best of Three Format: 104,  Canada 2–1  Switzerland, 1977 Consolation Second Round
Years present in BJK Cup Finals

Individual records
Youngest player
Denise Panagopoulou;  Greece; 12 years, 360 days1
Oldest player
Gill Butterfield;  Bermuda; 52 years, 162 days
Most rubbers played
100, Arantxa Sánchez Vicario,  Spain
Most ties played
74, Anne Kremer,  Luxembourg
Most rubbers won
Total: 72, Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, Spain
Singles: 50, Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, Spain
Doubles: 38, Larisa Savchenko-Neiland,  Soviet Union /  Latvia
Longest rubber
2016 World Group First Round: Richèl Hogenkamp,  Netherlands defeated Svetlana Kuznetsova,  Russia in 4 hours, 7–6(7–4), 5–7, 10–8 
Most successful captain
Petr Pála; 6 titles,  Czech Republic1Players must now be aged 14 and over

Heart Award
The Heart Award is the ITF's annual "MVP" award related to the Billie Jean King Cup, which "aims to recognise players who have represented their country with distinction, shown exceptional courage on court and demonstrated outstanding commitment to the team " The award was inaugurated in 2009 

Current rankings
For more information, see ITF rankings

†Change since previous ranking update
Source:

Broadcasters
See also
Junior Davis Cup and Junior Billie Jean King Cup
International Tennis Federation
Davis Cup
Hopman Cup
Wightman Cup
United Cup
Passage 3:
History of Chelsea F C 
The History of Chelsea F C  spans the period from 1905 to the present day:

History of Chelsea F C  (1905–1952)
History of Chelsea F C  (1952–1983)
History of Chelsea F C  (1983–2003)
History of Chelsea F C  (2003–2022)
History of Chelsea F C  (2022–present)For a season-by-season account of Chelsea's history, see List of Chelsea F C  seasons 

See also
Chelsea F C  § History
Passage 4:
Division of Kingsford Smith
The Division of Kingsford Smith is an Australian electoral division in the state of New South Wales 

History
The division is named after Sir Charles Kingsford Smith, a pioneer aviator, and the first pilot to fly across the Pacific Ocean  The Kingsford Smith International Airport (Sydney International), and the suburb of Kingsford, both of which are located within the division, are also named after him  The division was proclaimed at the redistribution of 11 May 1949, and was first contested at the 1949 federal election 
Kingsford Smith has been in Labor hands for its entire existence  A redistribution ahead of the 1969 election made it one of the safest Labor seats in both Sydney and the nation, and it remained a comfortably safe Labor seat for most of the next four decades  However, demographic changes since 2010 have made the seat much less secure for Labor  It has previously been held by Lionel Bowen, a minister in the Whitlam government, Deputy Leader of the Labor Party from 1977 to 1990 and Deputy Prime Minister for most of the Hawke government, and by Laurie Brereton, a minister in the Keating government  It was then held by Peter Garrett, a former lead singer of the Australian rock band Midnight Oil, former President of the Australian Conservation Foundation, and a minister in the Rudd and Gillard governments  Garrett announced his retirement on 26 June 2013 The Division was originally known as the Division of Kingsford-Smith (with a hyphen), based upon a misspelling of Sir Charles's surname  However, this was corrected at the redistribution in 2001 The current Member for Kingsford Smith, since the 2013 federal election, is Matt Thistlethwaite, a member of the Australian Labor Party who resigned from the Senate prior to the election 

Boundaries
Since 1984, federal electoral division boundaries in Australia have been determined at redistributions by a redistribution committee appointed by the Australian Electoral Commission  Redistributions occur for the boundaries of divisions in a particular state, and they occur every seven years, or sooner if a state's representation entitlement changes or when divisions of a state are malapportioned The division is located in the Eastern Suburbs of Sydney, on the north shore of Botany Bay, and the coast of the Tasman Sea  The division includes the suburbs of Banksmeadow, Botany, Chifley, Coogee, Daceyville, East Botany, Eastgardens, Eastlakes, Hillsdale, Kensington, Kingsford, La Perouse, Little Bay, Malabar, Maroubra, Maroubra Junction, Mascot, Matraville, Pagewood, Phillip Bay, Port Botany, and South Coogee; as well as parts of Clovelly, Randwick, and Rosebery  Bare Island, Prince Henry Hospital, and the University of New South Wales are also located in the electorate 

Members
Election results
Passage 5:
Hilario López
Hilario López García (18 November 1907 – 17 June 1965) was a Mexican football forward who made three appearances for the Mexico at the 1930 FIFA World Cup 

Honours
Mexico

Central American and Caribbean Games: 1935Individual

Central American and Caribbean Games Top Scorer: 1935
Passage 6:
Dragoslav Čakić
Dragoslav 'Drago' Čakić (born 15 February 1965 in Split, Croatia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) is a Croatian retired footballer who played as a midfielder 

Club career
In his country, Čakić represented hometown clubs RNK Split and HNK Hajduk Split  In the 1987 summer he moved to Spain, where he remained until his retirement 12 years later, starting with Real Burgos CF in Segunda División 
Čakić also played professionally in the country with Xerez CD (two spells, being relegated from the second level in 1991 and 1998) and CD Ourense  He competed at amateur level with Jerez Industrial CF, CD San Fernando and CD Tortosa, retiring in June 1999 at the age of 34 
Passage 7:
Ružica Meglaj-Rimac
Ružica Meglaj-Rimac (15 February 1941 – 11 July 1996) was a former Yugoslav and Croatian basketball player born in Croatian-Slovenian family  The Ružica Meglaj-Rimac Cup is named after her 

Personal life
Her younger sister, Kornelija Meglaj is also a former basketball player  She had two sons, former Croatian basketball players Slaven Rimac and Davor Rimac 
Passage 8:
José Antunes Sobrinho
José Antunes Sobrinho (born 1962) is a Brazilian civil engineer and energy executive who specializes in hydroelectric and other energy projects  He holds a degree from the Federal University of Paraná (1974) and a Master's degree in hydraulic engineering from the Delft University of Technology, Netherlands (1978) 

History
In 1986, Antunes was appointed Director General of ENGEVIX Engenharia S/A Antunes has worked on the Itaipu (14,000 MW), Tucuruí Dam (8,370 MW), Belo Monte Dam (11,233 MW under construction); Ita Dam  (1,450 MW), Campos Novos Dam (880 MW), Barra Grande Hydroelectric Power Plant (690 MW) and other hydro projects 
Antunes is also an active consultant and provides local support for UK-based Coopers & Lybrand  He helped drive forward the Brazilian energy sector restructuring program, which basically set the foundations for the way the industry's regulatory and legal frameworks would operate 
Antunes was a member of the teams consulting on the Itaipu (14,000 MW) and Machadinho Hydroelectric Power Plant (1,240 MW) projects   He has also worked on projects in Asia (Vietnam, China and Nepal), Africa (Congo, Angola and Namibia) and South America (Peru, Mexico and elsewhere)   In 2009, he was invited to lecture at MIT (the Massachusetts Institute of Technology) on renewable energy in Brazil 
In May 1995, Antunes founded DESENVIX, the investment arm of ENGEVIX that focuses on the energy industry  DESENVIX currently generates the equivalent of 400 MW provided by clean energy sources and ongoing or planned hydro, biomass and wind energy projects that will provide around 2,000 MW Antunes is currently managing the INFRAMERICA consortium, which is building the new Natal Airport (Rio Grande do Norte) and modernizing and expanding Brasília Airport, The ENGEVIX Group also has many maritime construction contracts and builds hulls for Floating production storage and offloading platforms 
Passage 9:
1965 Federation Cup (tennis)
The 1965 Federation Cup was a team tennis tournament that took place at the Kooyong Lawn Tennis Club in Melbourne, Australia  It was third edition of the of what is now known as the Fed Cup and had eleven nations participating in the tournament throughout the four days from 15–18 January 1965 
The eleven teams played in a knockout format with six teams having to play in the opening round to join the remaining five who received first rounds byes  After winning all of the ties 3-0, the final was between the United States and Australia who for the third time in consecutive years met up in the final which was played on the 18 January  After Lesley Turner and Margaret Smith each recorded wins in the singles, Australia would defend their title that they won in 1964 despite a loss in the doubles 

Participating teams
Draw
All ties were played at the Kooyong Lawn Tennis Club in Melbourne, Australia on grass courts 

First round
West Germany vs  Italy

Japan vs  France

New Zealand vs  Argentina

Quarterfinals
United States vs  Italy

Great Britain vs  South Africa

France vs  Brazil

New Zealand vs  Australia

Semifinals
United States vs  Great Britain

France vs  Australia

Final
United States vs  Australia
Passage 10:
Equipe Matra Sports
The Matra Company's racing team, under the names of Matra Sports, Equipe Matra Elf and Equipe Matra Sports (after a takeover by Simca in 1969 as Matra-Simca Division Automobile), was formed in 1965 and based at Champagne-sur-Seine (1965–1967), Romorantin-Lanthenay (1967–1969) and Vélizy-Villacoublay (1969–1979)  In 1979 the team was taken over by Peugeot and renamed as Automobiles Talbot 

Motorsports history
In the mid-1960s, Matra enjoyed considerable success in Formula 3 and F2 racing, particularly with the MS5 monocoque-based car, winning the French and European championships  In 1967, Jacky Ickx surprised the F1 establishment by posting the third-fastest qualifying time of 8:14" at the German Nürburgring in his 1600cc Matra MS7 F2, which was allowed to enter alongside the 3000cc F1 cars  In the race, he failed to finish due to a broken suspension 

Matra entered Formula One in 1968 when Jackie Stewart was a serious contender, winning several Grands Prix in the Tyrrell-run Matra MS10 which competed alongside the works team 
The F1 team was established at Vélizy-Villacoublay in the southwestern suburbs of Paris, France  The car's most innovative feature was the use of aviation-inspired structural fuel tanks



ground_truth: Genesis 3:15

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the spouse of the leading lady in Gone With the wind?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:    [producer] Selznick wanted Howard to remain on the set to make revisions     but Howard refused to leave New England [and] as a result, revisions were handled by a host of local writers"  Selznick dismissed director George Cukor three weeks into filming and sought out Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz at the time  Fleming was dissatisfied with the script, so Selznick brought in the screenwriter Ben Hecht to rewrite the entire screenplay within five days  Hecht returned to Howard's original draft and by the end of the week had succeeded in revising the entire first half of the script  Selznick undertook rewriting the second half himself but fell behind schedule, so Howard returned to work on the script for one week, reworking several key scenes in part two 
"By the time of the film's release in 1939, there was some question as to who should receive screen credit", writes Yeck  "But despite the number of writers and changes, the final script was remarkably close to Howard's version  The fact that Howard's name alone appears on the credits may have been as much a gesture to his memory as to his writing, for in 1939 Sidney Howard died at age 48 in a farm-tractor accident, and before the movie's premiere " Selznick, in a memo written in October 1939, discussed the film's writing credits: "[Y]ou can say frankly that of the comparatively small amount of material in the picture which is not from the book, most is my own personally, and the only original lines of dialog which are not my own are a few from Sidney Howard and a few from Ben Hecht and a couple more from John Van Druten  Offhand I doubt that there are ten original words of [Oliver] Garrett's in the whole script  As to construction, this is about eighty per cent my own, and the rest divided between Jo Swerling and Sidney Howard, with Hecht having contributed materially to the construction of one sequence "According to Hecht's biographer William MacAdams, "At dawn on Sunday, February 20, 1939, David Selznick     and director Victor Fleming shook Hecht awake to inform him he was on loan from MGM and must come with them immediately and go to work on Gone with the Wind, which Selznick had begun shooting five weeks before  It was costing Selznick $50,000 each day the film was on hold waiting for a final screenplay rewrite and time was of the essence  Hecht was in the middle of working on the film At the Circus for the Marx Brothers  Recalling the episode in a letter to screenwriter friend Gene Fowler, he said he hadn't read the novel but Selznick and director Fleming could not wait for him to read it  They acted scenes based on Sidney Howard's original script which needed to be rewritten in a hurry  Hecht wrote, "After each scene had been performed and discussed, I sat down at the typewriter and wrote it out  Selznick and Fleming, eager to continue with their acting, kept hurrying me  We worked in this fashion for seven days, putting in eighteen to twenty hours a day  Selznick refused to let us eat lunch, arguing that food would slow us up  He provided bananas and salted peanuts     thus on the seventh day I had completed, unscathed, the first nine reels of the Civil War epic "
MacAdams writes, "It is impossible to determine exactly how much Hecht scripted     In the official credits filed with the Screen Writers Guild, Sidney Howard was of course awarded the sole screen credit, but four other writers were appended     Jo Swerling for contributing to the treatment, Oliver H  P  Garrett and Barbara Keon to screenplay construction, and Hecht, to dialogue    "

Filming
Principal photography began January 26, 1939, and ended on July 1, with post-production work continuing until November 11, 1939  Director George Cukor, with whom Selznick had a long working relationship and who had spent almost two years in pre-production on Gone with the Wind, was replaced after less than three weeks of shooting  Selznick and Cukor had already disagreed over the pace of filming and the script, but other explanations put Cukor's departure down to Gable's discomfort at working with him  Emanuel Levy, Cukor's biographer, claimed that Gable had worked Hollywood's gay circuit as a hustler and that Cukor knew of his past, so Gable used his influence to have him discharged  Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland learned of Cukor's firing on the day the Atlanta bazaar scene was filmed, and the pair went to Selznick's office in full costume and implored him to change his mind  Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz, was called in from MGM to complete the film, although Cukor continued privately to coach Leigh and De Havilland  Another MGM director, Sam Wood, worked for two weeks in May when Fleming temporarily left the production due to exhaustion  Although some of Cukor's scenes were later reshot, Selznick estimated that "three solid reels" of his work remained in the final cut  As of the end of principal photography, Cukor had undertaken eighteen days of filming, Fleming ninety-three, and Wood twenty-four Cinematographer Lee Garmes began the production, but on March 11, 1939—after a month of shooting footage that Selznick and his associates regarded as "too dark"—was replaced with Ernest Haller, working with Technicolor cinematographer Ray Rennahan  Garmes completed the first third of the film—mostly everything prior to Melanie having the baby—but did not receive a credit Most of the filming was done on "the back forty" of Selznick International with all the location scenes being photographed in California, mostly in Los Angeles County or neighboring Ventura County  Tara, the fictional Southern plantation house, existed only as a plywood and papier-mâché facade built on the Selznick studio lot  For the burning of Atlanta, new false facades were built in front of the Selznick backlot's many old abandoned sets, and Selznick himself operated the controls for the explosives that burned them down  Sources at the time put the estimated production costs at $3 85 million, making it the second most expensive film made up to that point, with only Ben-Hur (1925) having cost more Although legend persists that the Hays Office fined Selznick $5,000 for using the word "damn" in Butler's exit line, in fact the Motion Picture Association board passed an amendment to the Production Code on November 1, 1939, that forbade use of the words "hell" or "damn" except when their use "shall be essential and required for portrayal, in proper historical context, of any scene or dialogue based upon historical fact or folklore     or a quotation from a literary work, provided that no such use shall be permitted which is intrinsically objectionable or offends good taste"  With that amendment, the Production Code Administration had no further objection to Rhett's closing line 

Music
To compose the score, Selznick chose Max Steiner, with whom he had worked at RKO Pictures in the early 1930s  Warner Bros —who had contracted Steiner in 1936—agreed to lend him to Selznick  Steiner spent twelve weeks working on the score, the longest period that he had ever spent writing one, and at two hours and thirty-six minutes long it was also the longest that he had ever written  Five orchestrators were hired: Hugo Friedhofer, Maurice de Packh, Bernhard Kaun, Adolph Deutsch and Reginald Bassett 
The score is characterized by two love themes, one for Ashley's and Melanie's sweet love and another that evokes Scarlett's passion for Ashley, though notably there is no Scarlett and Rhett love theme  Steiner drew considerably on folk and patriotic music, which included Stephen Foster tunes such as "Louisiana Belle", "Dolly Day", "Ringo De Banjo", "Beautiful Dreamer", "Old Folks at Home", and "Katie Belle", which formed the basis of Scarlett's theme; other tunes that feature prominently are: "Marching through Georgia" by Henry Clay Work, "Dixie", "Garryowen", and "The Bonnie Blue Flag"  The theme that is most associated with the film today is the melody that accompanies Tara, the O'Hara plantation; in the early 1940s, "Tara's Theme" formed the musical basis of the song "My Own True Love" by Mack David  In all, there are ninety-nine separate pieces of music featured in the score 
Due to the pressure of completing on time, Steiner received some assistance in composing from Friedhofer, Deutsch and Heinz Roemheld, and in addition, two short cues—by Franz Waxman and William Axt—were taken from scores in the MGM library 

Release
Preview, premiere, and initial release
On September 9, 1939, Selznick, his wife, Irene, investor John "Jock" Whitney, and film editor Hal Kern drove out to Riverside, California to preview the film at the Fox Theatre  The film was still a rough cut at this stage, missing completed titles and lacking special optical effects  It ran for four hours and twenty-five minutes; it was later cut to under four hours for its proper release  A double bill of Hawaiian Nights and Beau Geste was playing, but after the first feature it was announced that instead of the second bill, the theater would be screening a preview of an unnamed upcoming film; the audience were informed they could leave but would not be readmitted once the film had begun, nor would phone calls be allowed once the theater had been sealed  When the title appeared on the screen the audience cheered, and after it had ended the film received a standing ovation  In his biography of Selznick, David Thomson wrote that the audience's response before the film had even started "was the greatest moment of [Selznick's] life, the greatest victory and redemption of all his failings", with Selznick describing the preview cards as "probably the most amazing any picture has ever had"  When Selznick was asked by the press in early September how he felt about the film, he said: "At noon I think it's divine, at midnight I think it's lousy  Sometimes I think it's the greatest picture ever made  But if it's only a great picture, I'll still be satisfied" 
About 300,000 people came out in Atlanta for the film's premiere at the Loew's Grand Theatre on December 15, 1939  It was the climax of three days of festivities hosted by Mayor William B  Hartsfield, which included a parade of limousines featuring stars from the film, receptions, thousands of Confederate flags, and a costume ball  Eurith D  Rivers, the governor of Georgia, declared December 15 a state holiday  An estimated 300,000 Atlanta residents and visitors lined the streets for seven miles to view the procession of limousines that brought stars from the airport  Only Leslie Howard and Victor Fleming chose not to attend: Howard had returned to England due to the outbreak of World War II, and Fleming had fallen out with Selznick and declined to attend any of the premieres  Hattie McDaniel was also absent, as she and the other black cast members were prevented from attending the premiere due to Georgia's Jim Crow laws, which kept them from sitting with their white colleagues  Upon learning that McDaniel had been barred from the premiere, Clark Gable threatened to boycott the event, but McDaniel persuaded him to attend  President Jimmy Carter later recalled it as "the biggest event to happen in the South in my lifetime"  Premieres in New York and Los Angeles followed, the latter attended by some of the actresses who had been considered for the part of Scarlett, among them Paulette Goddard, Norma Shearer and Joan Crawford From December 1939 to July 1940, the film played only advance-ticket road show engagements at a limited number of theaters at prices upwards of $1—more than double the price of a regular first-run feature—with MGM collecting an unprecedented 70 percent of the box office receipts, as opposed to the typical 30–35 percent of the period  After reaching saturation as a roadshow, MGM revised its terms to a 50 percent cut and halved the prices, before it finally entered general release in 1941 at "popular" prices  Including its distribution and advertising costs, total expenditure on the film was as high as $7 million 

Later releases
In 1942, Selznick liquidated his company for tax reasons, and sold his share in Gone with the Wind to his business partner, John Whitney, for $500,000  In turn, Whitney sold it on to MGM for $2 8 million, so that the studio owned the film outright  MGM immediately re-released the film in the spring of 1942, and again in 1947 and 1954  The 1954 reissue was the first time the film was shown in widescreen, compromising the original Academy ratio and cropping the top and bottom to an aspect ratio of 1 75:1  In doing so, a number of shots were optically re-framed and cut into the three-strip camera negatives, forever altering five shots in the film A 1961 release of the film commemorated the centennial anniversary of the start of the Civil War, and it also included a gala "premiere" at the Loew's Grand Theater  It was attended by Selznick and many other stars of the film, including Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland; Clark Gable had died the previous year  For its 1967 re-release, the film was blown up to 70mm, and issued with updated poster artwork featuring Gable—with his white shirt ripped, open—holding Leigh against a backdrop of orange flames  There were further re-releases in 1971, 1974 and 1989; for the fiftieth anniversary reissue in 1989, it was given a complete audio and video restoration  It was released theatrically one more time in the United States, in 1998 by Time Warner owned New Line Cinema In 2013, a 4K digital restoration was released in the United Kingdom to coincide with Vivien Leigh's centenary  In 2014, special screenings were scheduled over a two-day period at theaters across the United States to coincide with the film's 75th anniversary 

Television and home media
The film received its U S  television premiere on the HBO cable network on June 11, 1976, and played on the channel for a total of fourteen times throughout the rest of the month  Other cable channels also broadcast the film during June  It made its network television debut in November of that year; NBC paid $5 million for a one-off airing, and it was broadcast in two parts on successive evenings  It became at that time the highest-rated television program ever presented on a single network, watched by 47 5 percent of the households sampled in America, and 65 percent of television viewers, still the record for the highest-rated film to ever air on television In 1978, CBS signed a deal worth $35 million to broadcast the film twenty times over as many years  Turner Entertainment acquired the MGM film library in 1986, but the deal did not include the television rights to Gone with the Wind, which were still held by CBS  A deal was struck in which the rights were returned to Turner Entertainment and CBS's broadcast rights to The Wizard of Oz were extended  The film was used to launch two cable channels owned by Turner Broadcasting System: Turner Network Television (1988) and Turner Classic Movies (1994) The film debuted on videocassette in March 1985, where it placed second in the sales charts, and has since been released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc formats 

Reception
Critical response
Upon its release, consumer magazines and newspapers generally gave Gone with the Wind excellent reviews; however, while its production values, technical achievements, and scale of ambition were universally recognized, some reviewers of the time found the film to be too long and dramatically unconvincing  Frank S  Nugent for The New York Times best summed up the general sentiment by acknowledging that while it was the most ambitious film production made up to that point, it probably was not the greatest film ever made, but he nevertheless found it to be an "interesting story beautifully told"  Franz Hoellering of The Nation was of the same opinion: "The result is a film which is a major event in the history of the industry but only a minor achievement in motion-picture art  There are moments when the two categories meet on good terms, but the long stretches between are filled with mere spectacular efficiency "While the film was praised for its fidelity to the novel, this aspect was also singled out as the main factor in contributing to the lengthy running time  John C  Flinn wrote for Variety that Selznick had "left too much in", and that as entertainment, the film would have benefited if repetitious scenes and dialog from the latter part of the story had been trimmed  The Manchester Guardian felt that the film's one serious drawback was that the story lacked the epic quality to justify the outlay of time and found the second half, which focuses on Scarlett's "irrelevant marriages" and "domestic squabbles", mostly superfluous, and the sole reason for their inclusion had been "simply because Margaret Mitchell wrote it that way"  The Guardian believed that if "the story had been cut short and tidied up at the point marked by the interval, and if the personal drama had been made subservient to a cinematic treatment of the central theme—the collapse and devastation of the Old South—then Gone With the Wind might have been a really great film"  Likewise, Hoellering also found the second half of the film to be weaker than the first half: identifying the Civil War to be the driving force of the first part while the characters dominate in the second part, he concluded this is where the main fault of the film lay, commenting that "the characters alone do not suffice"  Despite many excellent scenes, he considered the drama to be unconvincing and that the "psychological development" had been neglected Much of the praise was reserved for the casting, with Vivien Leigh in particular being singled out for her performance as Scarlett  Nugent described her as the "pivot of the picture" and believed her to be "so perfectly designed for the part by art and nature that any other actress in the role would be inconceivable"  Similarly, Hoellering found her "perfect" in "appearance and movements"; he felt her acting best when she was allowed to "accentuate the split personality she portrays" and thought she was particularly effective in such moments of characterization like the morning after the marital rape scene  Flinn also found Leigh suited to the role physically and felt she was best in the scenes where she displays courage and determination, such as the escape from Atlanta and when Scarlett kills a Yankee deserter  Leigh won in the Best Actress category for her performance at the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Awards  Of Clark Gable's performance as Rhett Butler, Flinn felt the characterization was "as close to Miss Mitchell's conception—and the audience's—as might be imagined", a view which Nugent concurred with, although Hoellering felt that Gable did not quite convince in the closing scenes, as Rhett walks out on Scarlett in disgust  Of the other principal cast members, both Hoellering and Flinn found Leslie Howard to be "convincing" as the weak-willed Ashley, with Flinn identifying Olivia de Havilland as a "standout" as Melanie; Nugent was also especially taken with de Havilland's performance, describing it as a "gracious, dignified, tender gem of characterization"  Hattie McDaniel's performance as Mammy was singled out for praise by many critics: Nugent believed she gave the best performance in the film after Vivien Leigh, with Flinn placing it third after Leigh's and Gable's performances 

Academy Awards
At the 12th Academy Awards, Gone with the Wind set a record for Academy Award wins and nominations, winning in eight of the competitive categories it was nominated in, from a total of thirteen nominations  It won for Best Picture, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actress, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, and Best Editing, and received two further honorary awards for its use of equipment and color (it also became the first color film to win Best Picture) The film's record of eight competitive wins stood until Gigi (1958) won nine, and its overall record of ten was broken by Ben-Hur (1959) which won eleven  Gone with the Wind also held the record for most nominations until All About Eve (1950) secured fourteen  It was the longest American sound film made up to that point, and may still hold the record of the longest Best Picture winner depending on how it is interpreted  The running time for Gone with the Wind is just under 221 minutes, while Lawrence of Arabia (1962) runs for just over 222 minutes; however, including the overture, intermission, entr'acte, and exit music, Gone with the Wind lasts for 234 minutes (although some sources put its full length at 238 minutes) while Lawrence of Arabia comes in slightly shorter at 232 minutes with its additional components Hattie McDaniel became the first African-American to win an Academy Award—beating out her co-star Olivia de Havilland, who was also nominated in the same category—but was racially segregated from her co-stars at the awards ceremony at the Coconut Grove; she and her escort were made to sit at a separate table at the back of the room  Meanwhile, screenwriter Sidney Howard became the first posthumous Oscar winner and Selznick personally received the Irving G  Thalberg Memorial Award for his career achievements 

Reactions from African-Americans
The film has been criticized by black commentators since its release for its depiction of black people and "whitewashing" of the issue of slavery but, initially, newspapers controlled by white Americans did not report on these criticisms  Carlton Moss, a black dramatist, observed in an open letter that whereas The Birth of a Nation was a "frontal attack on American history and the Negro people", Gone with the Wind was a "rear attack on the same"  He went on to characterize it as a "nostalgic plea for sympathy for a still-living cause of Southern reaction"  Moss further called out the stereotypical black characterizations, such as the "shiftless and dull-witted Pork", the "indolent and thoroughly irresponsible Prissy", Big Sam's "radiant acceptance of slavery", and Mammy with her "constant haranguing and doting on every wish of Scarlett"  Similarly, Melvin B  Tolson, a poet and educator, wrote "Birth of a Nation was such a barefaced lie that a moron could see through it  Gone with the Wind is such a subtle lie that it will be swallowed as truth by millions of whites and blacks alike "Following Hattie McDaniel's Oscar win, Walter Francis White, leader of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, accused her of being an Uncle Tom  McDaniel responded that she would "rather make seven hundred dollars a week playing a maid than seven dollars being one"; she further questioned White's qualification to speak on behalf of black people, since he was light-skinned and only one-eighth black Opinion in the black community was generally divided upon release, with the film being called by some a "weapon of terror against black America" and an insult to black audiences, and demonstrations were held in various cities  Malcolm X later recalled that "when Butterfly McQueen went into her act, I felt like crawling under the rug"  Even so, some sections of the black community recognized McDaniel's achievements to be representative of progress: some African-Americans crossed picket lines and praised McDaniel's warm and witty characterization, and others hoped that the industry's recognition of her work would lead to increased visibility on screen for other black actors  In its editorial congratulation to McDaniel on winning her Academy Award, Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life used the film as a reminder of the "limit" put on black aspiration by old prejudices 

Audience response
Upon its release, Gone with the Wind broke attendance records everywhere  At the Capitol Theatre in New York alone, it averaged eleven thousand admissions per day in late December, and within four years of its release had sold an estimated sixty million tickets across the United States—sales equivalent to just under half the population at the time  It repeated its success overseas, and was a sensational hit during the Blitz in London, opening in April 1940 and playing for four years  By the time MGM withdrew it from circulation, at the end of 1943, its worldwide distribution had returned a gross rental (the studio's share of the box office gross) of $32 million, making it the most profitable film ever made up to that point  It eventually opened in Japan in September 1952 and became the highest-grossing foreign film there 
Even though it earned its investors roughly twice as much as the previous record-holder, The Birth of a Nation, the box-office performances of the two films were likely much closer  The bulk of the earnings from Gone with the Wind came from its roadshow and first-run engagements, where the distributor received 70 percent and 50 percent of the box-office gross respectively, rather than its general release, which at the time typically saw the distributor's share set at 30–35 percent of the gross  In the case of The Birth of a Nation, its distributor, Epoch, sold off many of its distribution territories on a "states rights" basis—which typically amounted to 10 percent of the box-office gross—and Epoch's accounts are only indicative of its own profits from the film, and not the local distributors  Carl E  Milliken, secretary of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association, estimated that The Birth of a Nation had been seen by fifty million people by 1930 When it was re-released in 1947, it earned an impressive $5 million rental in the United States and Canada, and was one of the top ten releases of the year  Successful re-releases in 1954 and 1961 enabled it to retain its position as the industry's top earner, despite strong challenges from more recent films such as Ben-Hur, but it was finally overtaken by The Sound of Music in 1966 The 1967 reissue was unusual in that MGM opted to roadshow it, a decision that turned it into the most successful re-release in the history of the industry  It generated a box-office gross of $68 million, making it MGM's most lucrative film after Doctor Zhivago from the latter half of the decade  MGM earned a rental of $41 million from the release, with the U S  and Canadian share amounting to over $30 million, placing it second only to The Graduate for that year  Including its $6 7 million rental from the 1961 reissue, it was the fourth highest-earner of the decade in the North American market, with only The Sound of Music, The Graduate and Doctor Zhivago making more for their distributors  A further re-release in 1971 allowed it to briefly recapture the record from The Sound of Music, bringing its total worldwide gross rental to about $116 million by the end of 1971—more than trebling its earnings from its initial release—before losing the record again the following year to The Godfather Across all releases, it is estimated that Gone with the Wind has sold over 200 million tickets in the United States and Canada, generating more theater admissions in that territory than any other film  The film was phenomenally successful in Western Europe too, generating approximately 35 million tickets in the United Kingdom and over 16 million in France, respectively becoming the biggest and sixth-biggest ticket-sellers in those markets  The film's appeal has endured overseas, sustaining a popularity similar to its domestic longevity; in 1975 it played to capacity audiences every night during the first three weeks of its run at London's Plaza 2 Theatre, and in Japan it generated over half a million admissions at twenty theaters during a five-week engagement  In total, Gone with the Wind has grossed over $390 million globally at the box office; in 2007 Turner Entertainment estimated the gross to be equivalent to approximately $3 3 billion when adjusted for inflation to current prices; Guinness World Records arrived at a figure of $3 44 billion in 2014 making it the most successful film in cinema history The film remains immensely popular with audiences into the 21st century, having been voted the most popular film in two nationwide polls of Americans undertaken by Harris Interactive in 2008, and again in 2014  The market research firm surveyed over two thousand U S  adults, with the results weighted by age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, region and household income so their proportions matched the composition of the adult population 

Critical re-evaluation
When revisiting the film in the 1970s, Arthur M  Schlesinger Jr  believed that Hollywood films generally age well, revealing an unexpected depth or integrity, but in the case of Gone with the Wind time has not treated it kindly  Richard Schickel argued that one measure of a film's quality is to ask what the viewer can remember of it, and the film falls down in this regard: unforgettable imagery and dialogue are simply not present  Stanley Kauffmann, likewise, also found the film to be a largely forgettable experience, claiming he could only remember two scenes vividly  Both Schickel and Schlesinger put this down to it being "badly written", in turn describing the dialogue as "flowery" and possessing a "picture postcard" sensibility  Schickel also believes the film fails as popular art, in that it has limited rewatch value—a sentiment that Kauffmann also concurs with, stating that having watched it twice he hopes "never to see it again: twice is twice as much as any lifetime needs"  Both Schickel and Andrew Sarris identify the film's main failing is in possessing a producer's sensibility rather than an artistic one: having gone through so many directors and writers the film does not carry a sense of being "created" or "directed", but rather having emerged "steaming from the crowded kitchen", where the main creative force was a producer's obsession in making the film as literally faithful to the novel as possible Sarris concedes that despite its artistic failings, the film does hold a mandate around the world as the "single most beloved entertainment ever produced"  Judith Crist observes that, kitsch aside, the film is "undoubtedly still the best and most durable piece of popular entertainment to have come off the Hollywood assembly lines", the product of a showman with "taste and intelligence"  Schlesinger notes that the first half of the film does have a "sweep and vigor" that aspire to its epic theme, but agreed with criticisms of the personal lives taking over in the second half, and how it ends up losing its theme in unconvincing sentimentality  Kauffmann also finds interesting parallels with The Godfather, which had just replaced Gone with the Wind as the highest-grosser at the time: both were produced from "ultra-American" best-selling novels, both live within codes of honor that are romanticized, and both in essence offer cultural fabrication or revisionism The critical perception of the film has shifted in the intervening years, which resulted in it being ranked 235th in Sight & Sound's prestigious decennial critics poll in 2012, and in 2015 sixty-two international film critics polled by the BBC voted it the 97th best American film 

Industry recognition
The film has featured in several high-profile industry polls  In 1977 it was voted the most popular film by the American Film Institute (AFI), in a poll of the organization's membership; the AFI also ranked the film fourth on its "100 Greatest Movies" list in 1998, with it slipping down to sixth place in the tenth anniversary edition in 2007  Film directors ranked it 322nd in the 2012 edition of the decennial Sight & Sound poll, and in 2016 it was selected as the ninth best "directorial achievement" in a Directors Guild of America members poll  In 2014, it placed fifteenth in an extensive poll undertaken by The Hollywood Reporter, which balloted every studio, agency, publicity firm and production house in the Hollywood region Gone with the Wind was one of the twenty-five inaugural films selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress in 1989 for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" 

Analysis and controversies
Historical portrayal
Gone with the Wind has been criticized as having perpetuated Civil War myths and black stereotypes  David Reynolds wrote that "The white women are elegant, their menfolk are noble or at least dashing  And, in the background, the black slaves are mostly dutiful and content, clearly incapable of an independent existence " Reynolds likened Gone with the Wind to The Birth of a Nation and other re-imaginings of the South during the era of segregation, in which white Southerners are portrayed as defending traditional values, and the issue of slavery is largely ignored  The film has been described as a "regression" that promotes both the myth of the black rapist and the honorable and defensive role of the Ku Klux Klan during Reconstruction, and as a "social propaganda" film offering a "white supremacist" view of the past From 1972 to 1996, the Atlanta Historical Society held a number of Gone with the Wind exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit which was titled "Disputed Territories: Gone with the Wind and Southern Myths"  One of the questions which was explored by the exhibit was "How True to Life Were the Slaves in GWTW?" This section showed that slave experiences were diverse and as a result, it concluded that the "happy darky" was a myth, as was the belief that all slaves experienced violence and brutality W  Bryan Rommel Ruiz has argued that despite factual inaccuracies in its depiction of the Reconstruction period, Gone with the Wind reflects contemporary interpretations of it that were common in the early 20th century  One such viewpoint is reflected in a brief scene in which Mammy fends off a leering freedman: a politician can be heard offering forty acres and a mule to the emancipated slaves in exchange for their votes  The inference is taken to mean that freedmen are ignorant about politics and unprepared for freedom, unwittingly becoming the tools of corrupt Reconstruction officials  While perpetuating some Lost Cause myths, the film makes concessions with regard to others  After the attack on Scarlett in the shanty town, a group of men including Scarlett's husband Frank, Rhett Butler, and Ashley raid the town; in the novel they belong to the Ku Klux Klan, representing the common trope of protecting the white woman's virtue, but the filmmakers consciously neutralize the presence of the Klan in the film by simply referring to it as a "political meeting" Thomas Cripps reasons that in some respects, the film undercuts racial stereotypes; in particular, the film created greater engagement between Hollywood and black audiences, with dozens of films making small gestures in recognition of the emerging trend  Only a few weeks after its initial run, a story editor at Warner wrote a memorandum to Walter Wanger about Mississippi Belle, a script that contained the worst excesses of plantation films, suggesting that Gone with the Wind had made the film "unproducible"  More than any film since The Birth of a Nation, it unleashed a variety of social forces that foreshadowed an alliance of white liberals and black people who encouraged the expectation that black people would one day achieve equality  According to Cripps, the film eventually became a template for measuring social change 

21st-century reappraisal
In the 21st century, criticism of the film's depictions of race and slavery led to its availability being curtailed  In 2017, Gone with the Wind was pulled from the schedule at the Orpheum Theatre in Memphis, Tennessee, after a 34-year run of annual showings  On June 9, 2020, the film was removed from HBO Max amid the George Floyd protests as well as in response to an op-ed written by screenwriter John Ridley that was published in that day's edition of the Los Angeles Times, which called for the streaming service to temporarily remove the film from its content library  He wrote that "it continues to give cover to those who falsely claim that clinging to the iconography of the plantation era is a matter of 'heritage, not hate' " A spokesperson for HBO Max said that the film was "a product of its time" and as a result, it depicted "ethnic and racial prejudices" that "were wrong then and are wrong today"  It was also announced that the film would return to the streaming service at a later date, although it would incorporate "a discussion of its historical context and a denouncement of those very depictions, but will be presented as it was originally created, because to do otherwise would be the same as claiming these prejudices never existed  If we are to create a more just, equitable and inclusive future, we must first acknowledge and understand our history "The film's removal sparked a debate about political correctness going too far, with film critics and historians criticizing HBO as engaging in censorship  Following its withdrawal, the film reached the top of Amazon's best-sellers sales chart for TV and films, and fifth place on Apple's iTunes Store film chart  HBO Max returned the film to its service later that month, with a new introduction by Jacqueline Stewart  Stewart described the film, in an op-ed for CNN, as "a prime text for examining expressions of white supremacy in popular culture", and said that "it is precisely because of the ongoing, painful patterns of racial injustice and disregard for Black lives that Gone with the Wind should stay in circulation and remain available for viewing, analysis and discussion " She described the controversy as "an opportunity to think about what classic films can teach us "At a political rally in February 2020, President Donald Trump criticized the 92nd Academy Awards ceremony, stating that Gone with the Wind and Sunset Boulevard (1950) were more deserving of the award for Best Picture than that year's winner, the South Korean film Parasite  His comments elicited commentary from critics and a backlash from pundits across the political spectrum on social media 

Depiction of marital rape
One of the most notorious and widely condemned scenes in Gone with the Wind depicts what is now legally defined as "marital rape"  The scene begins with Scarlett and Rhett at the bottom of the staircase, where he begins to kiss her, refusing to be told "no" by the struggling Scarlett; Rhett ignores her resistance, scolds her and carries her up the stairs to the bedroom, where the audience is left in no doubt that she will "get what's coming to her"  The next scene, the following morning, shows Scarlett glowing with barely suppressed sexual satisfaction; Rhett apologizes for his behavior, blaming it on his drinking  The scene has been accused of combining romance and rape by making them indistinguishable from each other, and of reinforcing a notion about forced sex: that women secretly enjoy it, and it is an acceptable way for a man to treat his wife Film critic Molly Haskell has argued that, nevertheless, for women who are uncritical of the scene, it is by and large consistent with what they have in mind if they fantasize about being raped  Their fantasies revolve around love and romance rather than forced sex; they will assume that Scarlett was not an unwilling sexual partner and wanted Rhett to take the initiative and insist on having sexual intercourse 

Legacy
In popular culture
Gone with the Wind and its production have been explicitly referenced, satirized, dramatized and analyzed on numerous occasions across a range of media, from contemporaneous works such as Second Fiddle—a 1939 film spoofing the "search for Scarlett"—to current television shows, such as The Simpsons  The Scarlett O'Hara War (a 1980 television dramatization of the casting of Scarlett), Moonlight and Magnolias (a 2007 play by Ron Hutchinson that dramatizes Ben Hecht's five-day re-write of the script), and "Went with the Wind!" (a sketch on The Carol Burnett Show that parodied the film in the aftermath of its television debut in 1976) are among the more noteworthy examples of its enduring presence in popular culture  It was also the subject of a 1988 documentary, The Making of a Legend: Gone with the Wind, detailing the film's difficult production history  In 1990, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp depicting Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh embracing in a scene from the film  In 2003, Leigh and Gable (as Scarlett and Rhett) were ranked number 95 on VH1's list of the "200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons of All Time" 

Sequel
Following the publication of her novel, Margaret Mitchell was inundated with requests for a sequel but she claimed not to have a notion of what happened to Scarlett and Rhett, and as a result, she had "left them to their ultimate fate"  Until her death in 1949, Mitchell continued to resist pressure to write a sequel from Selznick and MGM  In 1975, her brother, Stephens Mitchell (who assumed control of her estate), authorized a sequel that would be jointly produced by MGM and Universal Studios on a budget of $12 million  Anne Edwards was commissioned to write the sequel as a novel which would then be adapted into a screenplay, and published in conjunction with the film's release  Edwards submitted a 775-page manuscript which was titled Tara, The Continuation of Gone with the Wind, set between 1872 and 1882 and focusing on Scarlett's divorce from Rhett; MGM was not satisfied with the story and the deal collapsed The idea was revived in the 1990s, when a sequel was finally produced in 1994, in the form of a television miniseries  Scarlett was based on the novel by Alexandra Ripley, itself a sequel to Mitchell's book  British actors Joanne Whalley and Timothy Dalton were cast as Scarlett and Rhett, and the series follows Scarlett's relocation to Ireland after she again becomes pregnant by Rhett 

See also
List of films featuring slavery

Explanatory notes
Context 3:  These allowed the chassis to be around 15 kg (33 lb) lighter, while still being stronger than its competitors  The FIA considered the technology to be unsafe and decided to ban it for 1970 
Matra CEO Jean-Luc Lagardère made a strategic decision for the 1969 championship: the Matra works team would not compete in Formula One  Matra would instead focus its efforts on Ken Tyrrell's privateer team (renamed Matra International) and build a new DFV powered car with structural fuel tanks, even though it would only be eligible for a single season  The decision was even more radical given that Matra was seeking a partnership with Simca, which would preclude using Ford-branded engines for the following year  Stewart won the 1969 title easily with the new Cosworth-powered Matra MS80, which was designed by Gérard Ducarouge and Bernard Boyer, and corrected most of the weaknesses of the MS10  Stewart's title was the first won in a car built by a French constructor, and still remains the only one won in a car built in France as well as in a car entered by a privateer team  It was a spectacular achievement from a constructor that had only entered Formula One the previous year  France became only the third country (after the United Kingdom and Italy) to have produced a winning constructor, and Matra became the only constructor to have won the Constructors' Championship without running its own works team 
Like Cosworth, Lotus and McLaren, Matra experimented with four wheel drive during the 1969 season  Johnny Servoz-Gavin became the one and only driver to score a point with a 4WD car, finishing sixth with the Matra MS84 at the Canadian Grand Prix  The MS84, along with Brabham's BT26A, was one of the last spaceframe cars to compete in Formula One 
For 1970 following the agreement with Simca, Matra asked Tyrrell to use their V12 engine rather than the Cosworth  Stewart got to test the Matra V12, but since a large part of the Tyrrell budget was provided by Ford, and another significant sponsor was French state-owned petroleum company Elf, which had an agreement with Renault that precluded supporting a Simca partner, the partnership between Matra and Tyrrell ended 
Matra V12 engines powered the Shadow DN7 car in two races of 1975 and then cars built and entered by the Ligier Formula 1 team from 1976–1978, and again (under the name Talbot Ligier) from 1981-1982, winning three races (the 1977 Swedish Grand Prix, 1981 Austrian Grand Prix and 1981 Canadian Grand Prix)  Jacques Laffite´s victory at the 1977 Swedish Grand Prix was the first Formula One victory for a French team and a French engine, as well as the first all-French victory in the Formula One World Championship The company was also successful in endurance racing with cars powered by the V12 engine  The sportscar team was based at first at Vélizy-Villacoublay and then moved to Le Castellet, near Marseille, France The Matra MS670 won the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1972, 1973, and 1974  It also delivered the World Championship for Makes to Matra in both 1973 and 1974 

Racing models
Matra MS1
Matra MS2
Matra MS5
Matra MS6
Matra MS7
Matra MS9
Matra MS10
Matra MS11
Matra MS80
Matra MS84
Matra MS120
Matra MS120B
Matra MS120C
Matra MS120D
Matra MS610
Matra MS620
Matra MS630
Matra-Simca MS630
Matra-Simca MS630/650
Matra MS640
Matra-Simca MS650
Matra-Simca MS660
Matra-Simca MS660C
Matra-Simca MS670
Matra-Simca MS670B
Matra-Simca MS670C
Matra-Simca MS680

Successes
334 races, all categories, spanning 10 years
124 victories, 104 lap records
1 Formula One World Drivers' Championship (1969, Jackie Stewart, MS80)
1 Formula One World Constructors' Championship (1969, Matra-Elf International)
5 French Formula Two Championships (1966–1967–1968–1969–1970)
3 European Formula Two Championships (1967–1968–1969)
3 French Formula Three Championships (1965–1966–1967)
2 World Championship for Makes (1973–1974)
3 victories at 24 Hours of Le Mans (1972–1973–1974)
2 victories at Tour de France Automobile (1970–1971)

Complete Formula One World Championship results
As a constructor
(key)

As an engine supplier
(key)

Notes
Passage 11:
2014 Thai League Cup
The Thai League Cup is a knock-out football tournament played in Thai sport  Some games are played as a single match, others are played as two-legged contests  The 2014 Thai League Cup kicked off on   1 February 2014 with the Bangkok & field regional qualifiers  The Thai League Cup has been readmitted back into Thai football after a 10-year absence  The Thai League Cup is sponsored by Toyota thus naming it Toyota League Cup  The prize money for this prestigious award is said to be around 5 million baht and the runners-up will be netting 1 million baht 
The prize money is not the only benefit of this cup, the team winning the fair play spot will get a Hilux Vigo  The MVP of the competition will get a Toyota Camry Hybrid Car  The winner of the cup will earn the right to participate on a cup competition in Japan 
This is the first edition of the competition and the qualifying round will be played in regions featuring clubs from the Regional League Division 2 

Calendar
1st round


=== Final ===
Passage 12:
Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives
Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives, also known as floor leaders, are congresspeople who coordinate legislative initiatives and serve as the chief spokespersons for their parties on the House floor  These leaders are elected every two years in secret balloting of their party caucuses or conferences: the House Democratic Caucus and the House Republican Conference  Depending on which party is in power, one party leader serves as majority leader and the other as minority leader 
Unlike the Senate Majority Leader, the House Majority Leader is the second highest-ranking member of their party's House caucus, behind the Speaker of the House  The Majority Leader is responsible for setting the annual legislative agenda, scheduling legislation for consideration, and coordinating committee activity  The Minority Leader serves as floor leader of the opposition party, and is the minority counterpart to the Speaker  The Minority Leader also speaks for the minority party in the House and its policies, and works to protect the minority party's rights The assistant majority leader and assistant minority leader of the House, commonly called whips, are the second-ranking members of each party's leadership  The main function of the majority and minority whips is to gather votes of their respective parties on major issues 

Current floor leaders
With the Republicans holding a majority of seats and the Democrats holding a minority, the current leaders are Majority Leader Steve Scalise of Louisiana and Majority Whip Tom Emmer of Minnesota, Minority Leader Hakeem Jeffries of New York, and Minority Whip Katherine Clark of Massachusetts 

Selection
The floor leaders and whips of each party are elected by their respective parties in a closed-door caucus by secret ballot  The Speaker-presumptive is assumed to be the incoming Speaker, although not formally selected to be nominated for Speaker by the majority party's caucus  After this period, the Speaker-designate is also chosen in a closed-door session by the largest caucus although the Speaker is formally elevated to the position by a public vote of the entire House when Congress reconvenes 
Like the Speaker of the House, the Minority Leaders are typically experienced lawmakers when they win election to this position  When Nancy Pelosi, D-CA, became Minority Leader in the 108th Congress, she had served in the House nearly 20 years and had served as minority whip in the 107th Congress  When her predecessor, Dick Gephardt, D-MO, became minority leader in the 104th House, he had been in the House for almost 20 years, had served as chairman of the Democratic Caucus for four years, had been a 1988 presidential candidate, and had been majority leader from June 1989 until Republicans captured control of the House in the November 1994 elections  Gephardt's predecessor in the minority leadership position was Robert Michel, R-IL, who became GOP Leader in 1981 after spending 24 years in the House  Michel's predecessor, Republican John Rhodes of Arizona, was elected Minority Leader in 1973 after 20 years of House service 
By contrast, party leaders of the United States Senate have often ascended to their position despite relatively few years of experience in that chamber, such as Lyndon B  Johnson, William Knowland, Tom Daschle, and Bill Frist  Former House Majority Leader Eric Cantor also had a comparatively quick rise to the post and was the youngest House Majority Leader in American history 

History
Before 1899, the majority party floor leader had traditionally been the Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, the most powerful committee in the House, as it generates the Bills of Revenue specified in the Constitution as the House's unique power  However, this designation (begun under Speaker Henry Clay during the 12th United States Congress) was informal, and after 1865, alternated between the Ways and Means Committee Chair and the House Appropriations Committee Chair after the latter committee was split from the former  By at least 1850, the Senate and House Republican Conferences and the Senate and House Democratic Caucuses began naming chairs (although conference and caucus chairs carried very little authority) The office of Majority Leader was created in 1899 and first occupied by Sereno Payne  Speaker David B  Henderson created the position to establish a party leader on the House floor separate from the Speaker, as the role of Speaker had become more prominent and the size of the House had grown from 105 at the beginning of the century to 356 Starting with Republican Nicholas Longworth in 1925 and continuing until 1995, all majority leaders have directly ascended to the Speakership after the incumbent surrenders the position  The only exceptions during this period were Charles A  Halleck, who served as Majority Leader from 1947–1949, ultimately did not become Speaker because his party lost the House in the 1948 House election, and served as Majority Leader in 1953–1955, ultimately did not become Speaker because his party lost control over the House after the 1954 House Election and would not regain the House until 1994 (Halleck had been dead for years at this point); Hale Boggs, who served as Majority Leader from 1971–1973, died in a plane crash; and Dick Gephardt, who served as Majority Leader from 1989–1995, descended to Minority Leader since his party lost control in the 1994 midterm elections 
Since 1995, the only two Majority Leaders to become Speaker are John Boehner and Kevin McCarthy, though indirectly as their party lost control in the 2006 and 2018 midterm elections  Boehner subsequently served as House Minority Leader from 2007 to 2011, and McCarthy served from 2019 to 2023  Both were elected Speaker when the House reconvened after gaining a majority in their respective midterm elections  In 1998, when Speaker Newt Gingrich announced his resignation, neither Majority Leader Dick Armey nor Majority Whip Tom DeLay contested the Speakership, which eventually went to Chief Deputy Whip Dennis Hastert 
Traditionally, the Speaker is viewed as the leader of the majority party in the House, with the Majority Leader as second-in-command  For example, when the Republicans gained the majority in the House after the 2010 elections, Boehner ascended to the Speakership while Eric Cantor succeeded Boehner as Majority Leader  Cantor was understood to be the second-ranking Republican in the House since Boehner was the indisputable leader of the House Republicans  However, there have been some exceptions  The most recent exception to this rule came when Majority Leader Tom DeLay was considered more prominent than Speaker Dennis Hastert from 2003 to 2006 In contrast, the Minority Leader is the undisputed leader of the minority party  For example, when the Republicans lost their majority in the 2018 elections, McCarthy was elected as Minority Leader and hence replaced Ryan as the highest-ranking House Republican 
When the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally takes a low profile and defers to the President  For that situation, the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition", often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, owing to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership 
When the Majority Leader's party loses control of the House, and if the Speaker and Majority Leader both remain in the leadership hierarchy, convention suggests that they would become the Minority Leader and Minority Whip, respectively  As the minority party has one less leadership position after losing the speaker's chair, there may be a contest for the remaining leadership positions  Nancy Pelosi is the most recent example of an outgoing Speaker seeking the Minority Leader post to retain the House party leadership, as the Democrats lost control of the House in the 2010 elections  She ran successfully for Minority Leader in the 112th Congress In 2014, Eric Cantor became the first House Majority Leader to lose a primary election  Following his primary defeat, Cantor announced his resignation as Majority Leader, effective July 31, 2014, and he subsequently resigned his seat in Congress 

Majority Leader
The House Majority Leader's duties vary, depending upon the political makeup of the majority caucus  In several recent sessions of Congress, with the notable exception of the Pelosi speakership, the Majority Leader has been primarily responsible for scheduling the House floor's legislative calendar and direct management for all House committees One statutory duty, per 19 U S C  § 2191(c)(1), stipulates that an implementing bill submitted by the President of the United States for a fast-track negotiating authority (trade promotion authority) trade agreement must be introduced (by request) in the House by the Majority Leader of the House 

Minority Leader
Responsibilities
From an institutional perspective, the rules of the House assign a number of specific responsibilities to the minority leader  For example, Rule XII, clause 6, grant the minority leader (or their designee) the right to offer a motion to recommit with instructions; Rule II, clause 6, states the Inspector General shall be appointed by joint recommendation of the Speaker, majority leader, and minority leader; and Rule XV, clause 6, provides that the Speaker, after consultation with the minority leader, may place legislation on the Corrections Calendar  The minority leader also has other institutional duties, such as appointing individuals to certain federal entities 
From a party perspective, the minority leader has a wide range of partisan assignments, all geared toward retaking majority control of the House  Five principal party activities direct the work of the minority leader 

The minority leader provides campaign assistance to party incumbents and challengers 
The minority leader devises strategies, in consultation with other partisan colleagues, that advance party objectives  For example, by stalling action on the majority party's agenda, the minority leader may be able to launch a campaign against a "do-nothing Congress" 
The minority leader works to promote and publicize the party's agenda 
The minority leader, if their party controls the White House, confers regularly with the President and the President's aides about issues before Congress, the Administration's agenda, and political events generally 
The minority leader strives to promote party harmony so as to maximize the chances for legislative and political success The roles and responsibilities of the minority leader are not well-defined  To a large extent, the functions of the minority leader are defined by tradition and custom  A minority leader from 1931 to 1939, Representative Bertrand Snell, R-N Y , provided this "job description": "He is spokesman for his party and enunciates its policies  He is required to be alert and vigilant in defense of the minority's rights  It is his function and duty to criticize constructively the policies and programs of the majority, and to this end employ parliamentary tactics and give close attention to all proposed legislation "Since Snell's description, other responsibilities have been added to the job  These duties involve an array of institutional and party functions  Before examining the institutional and party assignments of the minority leader, it is worth highlighting the historical origin of this position 

Origin of the post
To a large extent, the minority leader's position is a 20th-century innovation  Prior to this time congressional parties were often relatively disorganized, so it was not always evident who functioned as the opposition floor leader  Decades went by before anything like the modern two-party congressional system emerged on Capitol Hill with official titles for those who were its official leaders  However, from the earliest days of Congress, various House members intermittently assumed the role of "opposition leader"  Some scholars suggest that Representative James Madison of Virginia informally functioned as the first "minority leader" because in the First Congress he led the opposition to Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton's fiscal policies During this early period, it was more usual that neither major party grouping (Federalists and Democratic-Republicans) had an official leader  In 1813, for instance, a scholar recounts that the Federalist minority of 36 Members needed a committee of 13 "to represent a party comprising a distinct minority" and "to coordinate the actions of men who were already partisans in the same cause " In 1828, a foreign observer of the House offered this perspective on the absence of formal party leadership on Capitol Hill:

I found there were absolutely no persons holding the stations of what are called, in England, Leaders, on either side of the House     It is true, that certain members do take charge of administration questions, and certain others of opposition questions; but all this so obviously without concert among themselves, actual or tacit, that nothing can be conceived less systematic or more completely desultory, disjointed Internal party disunity compounded the difficulty of identifying lawmakers who might have informally functioned as a minority leader  For instance, "seven of the fourteen speakership elections from 1834 through 1859 had at least twenty different candidates in the field  Thirty-six competed in 1839, ninety-seven in 1849, ninety-one in 1859, and 138 in 1855 " With so many candidates competing for the speakership, it is not at all clear that one of the defeated lawmakers then assumed the mantle of "minority leader"  The Democratic minority from 1861 to 1875 was so completely disorganized that they did not "nominate a candidate for Speaker in two of these seven Congresses and nominated no man more than once in the other five  The defeated candidates were not automatically looked to for leadership "In the judgment of political scientist Randall Ripley, since 1883 "the candidate for Speaker nominated by the minority party has clearly been the Minority Leader " However, this assertion is subject to dispute  On December 3, 1883, the House elected Democrat John G  Carlisle of Kentucky as Speaker  Republicans placed in nomination for the speakership J  Warren Keifer of Ohio, who was Speaker the previous Congress  Clearly, Keifer was not the Republicans' minority leader  He was a discredited leader in part because as Speaker he arbitrarily handed out "choice jobs to close relatives     all at handsome salaries " Keifer received "the empty honor of the minority nomination  But with it came a sting -- for while this naturally involves the floor leadership, he was deserted by his [partisan] associates and his career as a national figure terminated ingloriously " Representative Thomas Reed, R-ME, who later became Speaker, assumed the de facto role of minority floor leader in Keifer's stead  "[A]lthough Keifer was the minority's candidate for Speaker, Reed became its acknowledged leader, and ever after, so long as he served in the House, remained the most conspicuous member of his party Another scholar contends that the minority leader position emerged even before 1883  On the Democratic side, "there were serious caucus fights for the minority speakership nomination in 1871 and 1873," indicating that the "nomination carried with it some vestige of leadership " Further, when Republicans were in the minority, the party nominated for Speaker a series of prominent lawmakers, including ex-Speaker James Blaine of Maine in 1875, former Appropriations Chairman James A  Garfield of Ohio, in 1876, 1877, and 1879, and ex-Speaker Keifer in 1883  "It is hard to believe that House partisans would place a man in the speakership when in the majority, and nominate him for this office when in the minority, and not look to him for legislative guidance " This was not the case, according to some observers, with respect to ex-Speaker Keifer 
In brief, there is disagreement among historical analysts as to the exact time period when the minority leadership emerged officially as a party position  Nonetheless, it seems safe to conclude that the position emerged during the latter part of the 19th century, a period of strong party organization and professional politicians  This era was "marked by strong partisan attachments, resilient patronage-based party organizations, and   high levels of party voting in Congress " Plainly, these were conditions conducive to the establishment of a more highly differentiated House
leadership structure 

Minority party nominees for Speaker, 1865–1897
While the Office of the House Historian only lists Minority Leaders starting in 1899, the minority's nominees for Speaker (at the beginning of each Congress) may be considered their party's leaders before that time 

1865: James Brooks (D-NY)
1867: Samuel S  Marshall (D-IL)
1869: Michael C  Kerr (D-IN)
1871: George W  Morgan (D-OH)
1873: Fernando Wood (D-NY)
1875: James Gillespie Blaine (R-ME)
1877, 1879: James Abram Garfield (R-OH)
1881: Samuel Jackson Randall (D-PA)
1883: Joseph Warren Keifer (R-OH)
1885, 1887: Thomas Brackett Reed (R-ME)
1889: John Griffin Carlisle (D-KY)
1891, 1893: Thomas Brackett Reed (R-ME)
1895: Charles F  Crisp (D-GA)
1897: Joseph W  Bailey (D-TX)

Trends
Two other points of historical interest merit brief mention  First, until the 61st Congress (1909–1910), "it was the custom to have the minority leader also serve as the ranking minority member on the two most powerful committees, Rules and Ways and Means " Today, the minority leader no longer serves on these committees; however, they appoint the minority members of the Rules Committee and influence the assignment of partisan colleagues to the Ways and Means Committee 
Second, Democrats have always elevated their minority floor leader to the speakership upon reclaiming majority status  Republicans have not always followed this leadership succession pattern  In 1919, for instance, Republicans bypassed James R



ground_truth: Laurence Olivier

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the competition that the 1965 Federation Cup is part of named after?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Mann, R-IL, who had been minority leader for eight years, and elected Frederick Gillett, R-MA, to be Speaker  Mann "had angered many Republicans by objecting to their private bills on the floor;" also he was a protégé of autocratic Speaker Joseph Cannon, R-IL (1903–1911), and many Members "suspected that he would try to re-centralize power in his hands if elected Speaker " More recently, although Robert H  Michel was the Minority Leader in 1994 when the Republicans regained control of the House in the 1994 midterm elections, he had already announced his retirement and had little or no involvement in the campaign, including the Contract with America which was unveiled six weeks before voting day 
In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally assumes a lower profile and defers to the President  For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition", often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership  Minority Leaders who have played prominent roles in opposing the incumbent President have included Gerald Ford, Richard Gephardt, Nancy Pelosi, and John Boehner 

Institutional functions
The style and role of any minority leader is influenced by a variety of elements, including personality and contextual factors, such as the size and cohesion of the minority party, whether their party controls the White House, the general political climate in the House, and the controversy that is sometimes associated with the legislative agenda  Despite the variability of these factors, there are a number of institutional obligations associated with this position  Many of these assignments or roles are spelled out in the House rule book  Others have devolved upon the position in other ways  To be sure, the minority leader is provided with extra staff resources—beyond those accorded him or her as a Representative—to assist in carrying out
diverse leadership functions  Worth emphasis is that there are limits on the institutional role of the minority leader, because the majority party exercises disproportionate influence over the agenda, partisan ratios on committees, staff resources, administrative operations, and the day-to-day schedule and management of floor activities 
Under the rules of the House, the minority leader has certain roles and responsibilities  They include the following:
Drug Testing  Under Rule I, clause 9, the "Speaker, in consultation with the Minority Leader, shall develop through an appropriate entity of the House a system for drug testing in the House "
Inspector General  Rule II, clause 6, states that the "Inspector General shall be appointed for a Congress by the Speaker, the Majority Leader, and the Minority Leader, acting jointly " This rule further states that the minority leader and other specified House leaders shall be notified of any financial irregularity involving the House and receive audit reports of the inspector general 
Questions of Privilege  Under Rule IX, clause 2, a resolution "offered as a question of privilege by the Majority Leader or the Minority Leader     shall have precedence of all other questions except motions to adjourn " This rule further references the minority leader with respect to the division of time for debate of these resolutions 
Oversight Plans  Under Rule X, clause 2, not later "than March 31 in the first session of a Congress, after consultation with the Speaker, the Majority Leader, and the Minority Leader, the Committee on Government Reform shall report to the House the oversight plans" of the standing committees along with any recommendations it or the House leaders have proposed to ensure the effective coordination of committees' oversight plans 
Committee on Standards of Official Conduct: Investigative Subcommittees  Rule X, clause 5, stipulates: "At the beginning of a Congress, the Speaker or his designee and the Minority Leader or his designee each shall appoint 10 Members, Delegates, or Resident Commissioners from his respective party who are not members of the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct to be available to serve on investigative subcommittees of that committee during that Congress "
Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence  "The Speaker and Minority Leader shall be ex officio members of the select committee but shall have no vote in the select committee and may not be counted for purposes of determining a quorum " In addition, each leader may designate a member of his leadership staff to assist him with his ex officio duties  (Rule X, clause 11) 
Motion to Recommit with Instructions  Under Rule XIII, clause 6, the Rules Committee may not (except in certain specified circumstances) issue a "rule" that prevents the minority leader or a designee from offering a motion to recommit with instructions 
In addition, the minority leader has a number of other institutional functions  For instance, the minority leader is sometimes statutorily authorized to appoint individuals to certain federal entities; they and the majority leader each name three Members to serve as Private Calendar objectors; they are consulted with respect to reconvening the House per the usual formulation of conditional concurrent adjournment resolutions; they are a traditional member of the House Office Building Commission; they are a member of the United States Capitol Preservation Commission; and they may, after consultation with the Speaker, convene an early organizational party caucus or conference  Informally, the minority leader maintains ties with majority party leaders to learn about the schedule and other House matters and forges agreements or understandings with them insofar as feasible 

Party functions
The minority leader has a number of formal and informal party responsibilities  Formally, the rules of each party specify certain roles and responsibilities for their leader  For example, under Democratic rules for the 106th Congress, the minority leader may call meetings of the Democratic Caucus  They are a member of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee; names the members of the Democratic Leadership Council; chairs the Policy Committee; and heads the
Steering Committee  Examples of other assignments are making "recommendations to the Speaker on all Democratic Members who shall serve as conferees" and nominating party members to the Committees on Rules and House Administration  Republican rules identify generally comparable functions for their top party leader 
Informally, the minority leader has a wide range of party assignments  Lewis Deschler, the late House Parliamentarian (1928–1974), summarized the diverse duties of a party's floor leader:
A party's floor leader, in conjunction with other party leaders, plays an influential role in the formulation of party policy and programs  They are instrumental in guiding legislation favored by his party through the House, or in resisting those programs of the other party that are considered undesirable by his own party  They are instrumental in devising and implementing his party's strategy on the floor with respect to promoting or opposing legislation  They are kept constantly informed as to the status of legislative business and as to the sentiment of his party respecting particular legislation under consideration  Such information is derived in part from the floor leader's contacts with his party's members serving on House committees, and with the members of the party's
whip organization These and several other party roles merit further mention because they influence significantly the leader's overarching objective: retake majority control of the House  "I want to get [my] members elected and win more seats," said Minority Leader Richard Gephardt, D-MO  "That's what [my partisan colleagues] want to do, and that's what they want me to do "Five activities illustrate how minority leaders seek to accomplish this primary goal 
Provide Campaign Assistance  Minority leaders are typically energetic and aggressive campaigners for partisan incumbents and challengers  There is hardly any major aspect of campaigning that does not engage their attention  For example, they assist in recruiting qualified candidates; they establish "leadership PACs" to raise and distribute funds to House candidates of their party; they try to persuade partisan colleagues not to retire or run for other offices so as to hold down the number of open seats the party would need to defend; they coordinate their campaign activities with congressional and national party campaign committees; they encourage outside groups to back their candidates; they travel around the country to speak on behalf of party candidates; and they encourage incumbent colleagues to make significant financial contributions to the party's campaign committee  "The amount of time that [Minority Leader] Gephardt is putting in to help the DCCC [Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee] is unheard of," noted a Democratic lobbyist "No DCCC chairman has ever had that kind of support "Devise Minority Party Strategies  The minority leader, in consultation with other party colleagues, has a range of strategic options that they can employ to advance minority party objectives  The options selected depend on a wide range of circumstances, such as the visibility or significance of the issue and the degree of cohesion within the majority party  For instance, a majority party riven by internal dissension, as occurred during the early 1900s when Progressive and "regular" Republicans were at loggerheads, may provide the minority leader with greater opportunities to achieve their priorities than if the majority party exhibited high degrees of party cohesion  Among the variable strategies available to the minority party, which can vary from bill to bill and be used in combination or at different stages of the lawmaking process, are the following:
Cooperation  The minority party supports and cooperates with the majority party in building winning coalitions on the floor 
Inconsequential Opposition  The minority party offers opposition, but it is of marginal significance, typically because the minority is so small 
Withdrawal  The minority party chooses not to take a position on an issue, perhaps because of intraparty divisions 
Innovation  The minority party develops alternatives and agendas of its own and attempts to construct winning coalitions on their behalf 
Partisan Opposition  The minority party offers strong opposition to majority party initiatives but does not counter with policy alternatives of their own 
Constructive Opposition  The minority party opposes initiatives of the majority party and offers its own proposals as substitutes 
Participation  The minority party is in the position of having to consider the views and proposals of their president and to assess their majority-building role with respect to his priorities A look at one minority leadership strategy—partisan opposition—may suggest why it might be employed in specific circumstances  The purposes of obstruction are several, such as frustrating the majority party's ability to govern or attracting press and media attention to the alleged ineffectiveness of the majority party  "We know how to delay," remarked Minority Leader Gephardt  Dilatory motions to adjourn, appeals of the presiding officer's ruling, or numerous requests for roll call votes are standard time-consuming parliamentary tactics  By stalling action on the majority party's agenda, the minority leader may be able to launch a campaign against a "do-nothing Congress" and convince enough voters to put his party back in charge of the House  To be sure, the minority leader recognizes that "going negative" carries risks and may not be a winning strategy if his party fails to offer policy alternatives that appeal to broad segments of the general public 
Promote and Publicize the Party's Agenda  An important aim of the minority leader is to develop an electorally attractive agenda of ideas and proposals that unites their own House members and that energizes and appeals to core electoral supporters as well as independents and swing voters  Despite the minority leader's restricted ability to set the House's agenda, there are still opportunities for him to raise minority priorities  For example, the minority leader may employ, or threaten to use, discharge petitions to try and bring minority priorities to the floor  If they are able to attract the required 218 signatures on a discharge petition by attracting majority party supporters, they can force minority initiatives to the floor over the opposition of the majority leadership  As a GOP minority leader once said, the challenges he confronted are to "keep our people together, and to look for votes on the other side "Minority leaders may engage in numerous activities to publicize their party's priorities and to criticize the opposition's  For instance, to keep their party colleagues "on message", they insure that partisan colleagues are sent packets of suggested press releases or "talking points" for constituent meetings in their districts; they help to organize "town meetings" in Members' districts around the country to publicize the party's agenda or a specific priority, such as health care or education; they sponsor party "retreats" to discuss issues and assess the party's public image; they create "theme teams" to craft party messages that might be raised during the one-minute, morning hour, or special order period in the House; they conduct surveys of party colleagues to discern their policy preferences; they establish websites that highlight and distribute party images and issues to users; and they organize task forces or issue teams to formulate party programs and to develop strategies for communicating these programs to the public 
House minority leaders also hold joint news conferences and consult with their counterparts in the Senate—and with the president if their party controls the White House  The overall objectives are to develop a coordinated communications strategy, to share ideas and information, and to present a united front on issues  Minority leaders also make floor speeches and close debate on major issues before the House; they deliver addresses in diverse forums across the country, and they write books or articles that highlight minority party goals and achievements  They must also be prepared "to debate on the floor, ad lib, no notes, on a moment's notice," remarked Minority Leader Michel  In brief, minority leaders are key strategists in developing and promoting the party's agenda and in outlining ways to neutralize the opposition's arguments and proposals 
Confer With the White House  If their party controls the White House, the minority leader confers regularly with the President and his aides about issues before Congress, the Administration's agenda, and political events generally  Strategically, the role of the minority leader will vary depending on whether the President is of the same party or the other party  In general, minority leaders will often work to advance the goals and aspirations of their party's President in Congress  When Robert Michel, R-IL, was minority leader (1981–1995), he typically functioned as the "point man" for Republican presidents  President Ronald Reagan's 1981 policy successes in the Democratic-controlled House was due in no small measure to Minority Leader Michel's effectiveness in wooing so-called "Reagan Democrats" to support, for instance, the Administration's landmark budget reconciliation bill  There are occasions, of course, when minority leaders will fault the legislative initiatives of their President  On an administration proposal that could adversely affect his district, Michel stated that he might "abdicate my leadership role [on this issue] since I can't harmonize my own views with the administration's " Minority Leader Gephardt, as another example, has publicly opposed a number of President Clinton's legislative initiatives from "fast track" trade authority to various budget issues When the White House is controlled by the House majority party, then the House minority leader assumes a larger role in formulating alternatives to executive branch initiatives and in acting as a national spokesperson for their party  "As Minority Leader during [President Lyndon Johnson's] Democratic administration, my responsibility has been to propose Republican alternatives," said Minority Leader Gerald Ford, R-MI  Greatly outnumbered in the House, Minority Leader Ford devised a political strategy that allowed Republicans to offer their alternatives in a manner that provided them political protection  As Ford explained:
"We used a technique of laying our program out in general debate," he said  When we got to the amendment phase, we would offer our program as a substitute for the Johnson proposal  If we lost in the Committee of the Whole, then we would usually offer it as a motion to recommit and get a vote on that  And if we lost on the motion to recommit, our Republican members had a choice: They could vote against the Johnson program and say we did our best to come up with a better alternative  Or they could vote for it and make the same argument  Usually we lost; but when you're only 140 out of 435, you don't expect to win many Ford also teamed with Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen, R-IL, to act as national spokesmen for their party  They met with the press every Thursday following the weekly joint leadership meeting  Ford's predecessor as minority leader, Charles Halleck, R-IN, probably received more visibility in this role, because the press and media dubbed it the "Ev and Charlie Show"  In fact, the "Republican National Committee budgeted $30,000 annually to produce the weekly news conference "Foster Party Harmony  Minority status, by itself, is often an important inducement for minority party members to stay together, to accommodate different interests, and to submerge intraparty factional disagreements  To hold a diverse membership together often requires extensive consultations and discussions with rank-and-file Members and with different factional groupings  As Minority Leader Gephardt said:

We have weekly caucus meetings  We have daily leadership meetings  We have weekly ranking Member meetings  We have party effectiveness meetings  There's a lot more communication  I believe leadership is bottom up, not top down  I think you have to build policy and strategy and vision from the bottom up, and involve people in figuring out what that is Gephardt added that "inclusion and empowerment of the people on the line have to be done to get the best performance" from the minority party  Other techniques for fostering party harmony include the appointment of task forces composed of partisan colleagues with conflicting views to reach consensus on issues; the creation of new leadership positions as a way to reach out and involve a greater diversity of partisans in the leadership structure; and daily meetings in the Leader's office (or at breakfast, lunch, or dinner) to lay out floor strategy or political objectives for the
minority party 

Party whips and assistant party leaders
Whips
A whip manages their party's legislative program on the House floor  The whip keeps track of all legislation and ensures that all party members are present when important measures are to be voted upon 
The Majority Whip is an elected member of the majority party who assists the Speaker of the House and the majority leader to coordinate ideas on, and garner support for, proposed legislation  They are reckoned as the third-ranking member of their party behind the Speaker and the Majority Leader 
The Minority Whip is a member of the minority party who assists the minority leader in coordinating the party caucus in its responses to legislation and other matters  They are reckoned as the second most powerful member of their party, behind the minority leader 
The Chief Deputy Whip is the primary assistant to the whip, who is the chief vote counter for their party  The current chief deputy majority whip is Republican Guy Reschenthaler  Within the House Republican Conference, the chief deputy whip is the highest appointed position and often a launching pad for future positions in the House Leadership  Cantor and McCarthy, for instance, served as chief deputy Republican whips before ascending to the majority leader's post  The House Democratic Conference has multiple chief deputy whips, led by a Senior Chief Deputy Whip, which is the highest appointed position within the House Democratic Caucus  John Lewis held this post from 1991 until his death in 2020  Jan Schakowsky held the position of senior chief deputy majority whip along with Lewis since 2019, previously holding a position as chief deputy whip since 2005  Between 1955 and 1973, the Democrats simply had the title Deputy Whip 
List of Republican Chief Deputy Whips
1981–1983: David F  Emery (Minority)
1983–1987: Tom Loeffler (Minority)
1987–1989: Edward Rell Madigan (Minority)
1989–1993: Steve Gunderson and Robert Smith Walker (Minority)
1993–1995: Robert Smith Walker (Minority)
1995–1999: Dennis Hastert (Majority)
1999–2003: Roy Blunt (Majority)
2003–2009: Eric Cantor (Majority, 2003–2007; Minority, 2007–2009)
2009–2011: Kevin McCarthy (Minority)
2011–2014: Peter Roskam (Majority)
2014–2019: Patrick McHenry (Majority)
2019–2022: Drew Ferguson (Minority)
2023–present: Guy Reschenthaler (Majority)List of Democratic Chief Deputy Whips1955–1962: Hale Boggs (Majority)
1962–1971: Tip O'Neill (Majority)
1971–1973: John Brademas, John J  McFall (Majority)
1973–1977: John Brademas (Majority)
1977–1981: Dan Rostenkowski (Majority)
1981–1987: Bill Alexander (Majority)
1987–1991: David Bonior (Majority)
1991–1993: Butler Derrick, Barbara Kennelly, John Lewis (Majority)
1993–1995: Butler Derrick, Barbara Kennelly, John Lewis, Bill Richardson (Majority)
1995–1997: Rosa DeLauro, John Lewis, Bill Richardson (Minority)
1997–1999: Rosa DeLauro, Chet Edwards, John Lewis, Bob Menendez (Minority)
1999–2002: Chet Edwards, John Lewis, Ed Pastor, Maxine Waters (Minority)
2002–2003: John Lewis, Ed Pastor, Max Sandlin, Maxine Waters (Minority)
2003–2005: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Joe Crowley, Baron Hill, Ron Kind, Ed Pastor, Max Sandlin, Jan Schakowsky, Maxine Waters (Minority)
2005–2007: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Ron Kind, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, John Tanner, Maxine Waters (Minority)
2007–2011: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), G  K  Butterfield, Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, John Tanner, Maxine Waters (Majority)
2011–2013: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), G  K  Butterfield, Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Jim Matheson, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Maxine Waters, Peter Welch (Minority)
2013–2015: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), G  K  Butterfield, Diana DeGette, Keith Ellison, Ben Ray Lujan, Jim Matheson, Jan Schakowsky, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Terri Sewell, Peter Welch (Minority)
2015–2019: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), G  K  Butterfield, Joaquin Castro, Diana DeGette, Keith Ellison, Jan Schakowsky, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Terri Sewell, Kyrsten Sinema, Peter Welch (Minority)
2019–2022: Cedric Richmond (until January 15, 2021) (Assistant to the Majority Whip), John Lewis (until July 17, 2020), Jan Schakowsky (Senior Chief Deputy Whips), Pete Aguilar, G  K  Butterfield, Henry Cuellar, Sheila Jackson Lee, Dan Kildee, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Terri Sewell, Peter Welch (Majority)
2023–present: Jan Schakowsky, Terri Sewell, Henry Cuellar, Sheila Jackson Lee, Jimmy Panetta, Colin Allred, Sharice Davids, Deborah Ross, Linda Sánchez, Marilyn Strickland

Assistant party leaders
The position of Assistant Democratic Leader was established by Nancy Pelosi on January 3, 2011 and filled by Jim Clyburn to avoid a battle for whip between then-Majority Leader Steny Hoyer and then-Majority Whip Jim Clyburn  The title has undergone several name changes, with the title being known as the titular "Assistant Speaker of the House of Representatives" during Pelosi's second speakership; it is said to replace the Assistant to the Leader post first established in 1999; and previously held by Chris Van Hollen  There is currently no Republican equivalent in the U S  House of Representatives 

List of House Democratic Assistants to the Leader1999–2003: Rosa DeLauro
2003–2007: John Spratt
2007–2009: Xavier Becerra
2009–2011: Chris Van HollenList of House Assistant Democratic Leaders2011–2019: Jim ClyburnList of Assistant Speakers of the House of Representatives2019–2021: Ben Ray Luján
2021–2023: Katherine ClarkList of House Assistant Democratic Leaders2023–present: Jim Clyburn

List of party leaders and whips
The Majority and President are included for historical and comparative reference 

See also
Party leaders of the United States Senate
Divided government in the United States

Notes



ground_truth: International Tennis Federation

ITF