prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the place of birth of who does the voice of stan on the series that Insecurity is part of?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
List of South Park cast members
South Park is an American animated sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone who also do the majority of the voices  Both Parker and Stone do most of the male characters on the show along with April Stewart and Mona Marshall, who do the female characters on the show  Guest stars have lent their voices to the show including Jay Leno, George Clooney, Jennifer Aniston, Bill Hader, Robert Smith and the comedy duo Cheech & Chong voiced characters representing their likenesses for the season four (2000) episode "Cherokee Hair Tampons", which was the duo's first collaborative effort in 20 years  The entirety of the Nu-Metal band Korn also provided their voices and likenesses in the season three episode "Korn's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery" 
Characters in the show, according to Parker and Stone, are inspired by people they met when they were kids  Stan Marsh is made based on Parker himself while Kyle Broflovski is based on Stone himself  Eric Cartman is partially named after and based on Matt Karpman, a high school classmate of Parker who remains a friend of both Parker and Stone  Cartman is also inspired by All in the Family patriarch Archie Bunker, of whom Parker and Stone are fans  They state that creating Cartman as a "little eight-year-old fat kid" made it easier for the two to portray a Bunker-like character after the introduction of political correctness to late-20th century television  Kenny McCormick was based on the creator's observation that most groups of childhood friends in small middle-class towns always included "the one poor kid" and decided to portray Kenny in this light  Butters Stotch is loosely based on South Park co-producer Eric Stough Some of the original voice actors left the show  Mary Kay Bergman voiced the majority of the female characters until her suicide on November 11, 1999  Mona Marshall and Eliza Schneider succeeded Bergman, with Schneider leaving the show after its seventh season (2003)  She was replaced by April Stewart, who, along with Marshall, continues to voice most of the female characters  Isaac Hayes, who voiced the character Chef, left the show after Parker and Stone's depiction of the cult of Scientology, to which Hayes belonged, in the episode Trapped in the Closet 

Current cast
Parker and Stone voice most of the male South Park characters  Mary Kay Bergman voiced the majority of the female characters until her death on November 11, 1999  Mona Marshall and Eliza Schneider succeeded Bergman in 2000, with Schneider leaving the show after its seventh season (2003)  She was replaced by April Stewart, who, along with Marshall, continues to voice most of the female characters  Bergman was originally listed in the credits under the alias Shannen Cassidy to protect her reputation as the voice of several Disney and other kid-friendly characters  Stewart was originally credited under the name Gracie Lazar, while Schneider was sometimes credited under her rock opera performance pseudonym Blue Girl Other voice actors and members of South Park's production staff have voiced minor characters for various episodes, while a few staff members voice recurring characters; supervising producer Jennifer Howell voices student Bebe Stevens, storyboard artist Adrien Beard voices the school's only black student, Tolkien Black, producer Vernon Chatman voiced an anthropomorphic towel named Towelie, and supervising producer John Hansen voices Mr  Slave, the former gay lover of Mr  Garrison  Series developer Eric Stough also voices Kenny McCormick "un-muffled," in the few episodes where the character does not wear his trademark parka that normally muffles his voice  Throughout the show's run, the voices for toddler and kindergarten characters have been provided by various small children of the show's production staff When voicing child characters, the voice actors speak within their normal vocal range while adding a childlike inflection  The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools, and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader Isaac Hayes voiced the character of Chef, a black, soul-singing cafeteria worker who was one of the few adults the boys consistently trusted  Hayes agreed to voice the character after being among Parker and Stone's ideal candidates which also included Lou Rawls and Barry White  Hayes, who lived and hosted a radio show in New York during his tenure with South Park, would record his dialogue on a digital audio tape while a respective episode's director would give directions over the phone, then the tape would be shipped to the show's production studio in California  After Hayes left the show in early 2006, the character of Chef was killed off in the season 10 (2006) premiere "The Return of Chef" 

Guest stars
Celebrities who appear on the show are usually impersonated, though some celebrities lend their voice to their characters  Celebrities who have voiced themselves include Michael Buffer, Brent Musburger, Jay Leno, Robert Smith, and the bands Radiohead and Korn 
Comedy team Cheech & Chong voiced characters representing their likenesses for the season four (2000) episode "Cherokee Hair Tampons", which was the duo's first collaborative effort in 20 years  Malcolm McDowell appears in live-action sequences as the narrator of the season four episode "Pip" Jennifer Aniston, Richard Belzer,Natasha Henstridge, Norman Lear, and Peter Serafinowicz have guest starred as other speaking characters  During South Park's earliest seasons, several high-profile celebrities inquired about guest-starring on the show  As a joke, Parker and Stone responded by offering low-profile, non-speaking roles, most of which were accepted; George Clooney provided the barks for Stan's dog Sparky in the season one (1997) episode "Big Gay Al's Big Gay Boat Ride", Leno provided the meows for Cartman's cat in the season one finale "Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut", and Henry Winkler voiced the various growls and grunts of a kid-eating monster in the season two (1998) episode "City on the Edge of Forever"  Jerry Seinfeld offered to lend his voice for the Thanksgiving episode "Starvin' Marvin", but declined to appear when he was only offered a role as "Turkey #4" 

Trey Parker
Trey Parker voices four of the main characters: Stan Marsh, Eric Cartman, Randy Marsh and Mr  Garrison  He also provides the voices of several recurring characters, such as Clyde Donovan, Mr  Hankey, Mr  Mackey, Stephen Stotch, Jimmy Valmer, Timmy Burch, Tuong Lu Kim and Phillip 

Matt Stone
Matt Stone voices three of the main characters: Kyle Broflovski, Kenny McCormick and Butters Stotch  He also provides the voices of several recurring characters, such as Gerald Broflovski, Stuart McCormick, Craig Tucker, Jimbo Kern, Terrance, Saddam Hussein, Tweek Tweak, Mr  Adler and Jesus 

Mona Marshall
Mona Marshall voices Sheila Broflovski and Linda Stotch 

April Stewart
April Stewart voices Liane Cartman, Sharon Marsh, Carol McCormick, Shelly Marsh, Mayor McDaniels, Principal Victoria and Wendy Testaburger 

List
Recurring guest voices
The recurring guest voices include John Hansen, Vernon Chatman, Adrien Beard and Jennifer Howell 

Casting changes
Mary Kay Bergman voiced the majority of the female characters until her death on November 11, 1999  Mona Marshall and Eliza Schneider succeeded Bergman in 2000, with Schneider leaving the show after its seventh season (2003)  She was replaced by April Stewart, who, along with Marshall, continues to voice most of the female characters  Isaac Hayes, who voiced the character Chef, left the show after Parker and Stone's depiction of his religion Scientology in the episode "Trapped in the Closet" 

Due to the unusually small cast (majority of characters voiced by Parker and Stone) only Bergman, Schneider, and Hayes have left the cast as aforementioned in 1999, 2003, and 2008 respectively 
Passage 2:
Line Describing a Cone
Line Describing a Cone is an avant-garde film produced in 1973 by artist Anthony McCall as part of his "solid light" film series  McCall's reduction of film to the essential properties of the medium resembles the work of other radical artists of his time, and has inspired various projects by artists such as Stan Douglas, Richard Serra, and Gordon Matta-Clark 

Description
The idea for Line Describing a Cone came to McCall on his voyage from London to New York, where he produced the film in 1973  Though he had already created a number of other 16mm films, Line allowed him to actualize his ideas on the relationship between viewer and film and the medium of film itself  The thirty-minute film begins with a single white dot projected onto a black surface  As time progresses, the dot begins to form a curved line, tracing the circumference of a circle until the end of the line reaches its starting point  Meanwhile, particles in the air reveal the path of light in the space between the projector and the wall, making visible a cone of light  If the artist's display specifications are met, this beam of light projects between thirty and fifty feet  The circle that is projected onto the surface sits approximately twelve inches above the ground, and its diameter spans seven to nine feet  The exhibition space lacks seating, inviting the viewer to interact with the ray of light beaming from the projector to the screen  When multiple spectators view the piece together, these encounters with the light, at once an interruption and component of the piece, become an interaction with other audience members 

Exhibition
Exhibition of Line has changed since its first displays  Following the rules of cinema, early screenings occurred at a specific time and place  Audiences had to arrive at the beginning of the film, typically hosted in New York lofts, and follow it through its conclusion  The dust and cigarette smoke that were common in these displays created the cone of light mentioned previously  When the film moved into art institutions such as the Whitney Museum of American Art, dust and smoke were replaced with fog machines  Moreover, these institutions played the film on a loop, allowing viewers to enter and leave the screening as they pleased In addition to the changes that have already occurred in the display of Line over time, changes in technology and media rouse concern for the long-term fate of the piece  Apart from the change in materials that make the cone visible, from cigarette smoke to artificial fog, the impending obsolescence of 16mm film may require the piece to be transferred to a digital projector 

Relation to film and sculpture
Line Describing a Cone reflects McCall's interests in film and sculpture  Line addresses the medium of film by removing the narrative demands and addressing the specific properties of the medium itself such as projection, frames, and light  Moreover, by emphasizing the physical space between the projector and screen McCall calls attention to the sculptural dimensions of projection  In his artists's statement written to judges of the Fifth International Experimental Film Competition, McCall writes:

 It deals with the projected light beam itself, rather than treating the light beam as a mere carrier of coded information, which is decoded when it strikes a flat surface… Line Describing a Cone deals with one of the irreducible, necessary conditions of film: projected light  It deals with this phenomenon directly, independently of any other consideration  It is the first film to exist in real, three-dimensional space 
McCall's manipulation of film has placed the piece within the art world as well as the world of avant-garde film 
Passage 3:
A Piñata Named Desire
"A Piñata Named Desire" is the eleventh episode of the seventh season of the animated comedy series American Dad!   It first aired on Fox in the United States on February 13, 2011  This episode mainly centers on Roger and Stan, who begin to experience tensions growing against each other for the dominant figure in the house  Roger becomes tired of Stan's stance as the authoritarian figure of the house, and he challenges Stan's leadership qualities  Stan insists that he is better than Roger at everything, and he tells him that he has a mission that involves acting  Unknown to Stan, Roger spies on him, only to find out that Stan is a terrible actor  Roger later boasts to the house that he is a better actor than Stan, but he eventually teaches him to improve his acting skills  Meanwhile, Steve and his friends plan to throw their last slumber party together 
This episode was written by Chris and Matt McKenna and directed by Bob Bowen, with Jacob Hair as the assistant director  It received highly positive reviews from television critics and fans alike upon its initial airing  The episode was viewed by over 3 94 million viewers upon its initial airing, and it garnered a 1 9 rating in the 18-49 demographic, according to the Nielson ratings  It featured guest appearances from Lucy Lawless and Terry Crews, as well as several recurring voice actors and actresses for the show 

Plot
Roger auditions for a new play entitled "Piñata Man" and begins boasting about his acting ability, infuriating Stan   Stan insists that he's a better actor and is still the "top dog" in the house   Francine gets frustrated with their constant fighting while Hayley attributes it to sexual tension and says they should just have sex already and get over it   Roger, disbelieving the story, follows Stan to work and sees that he is indeed acting as a waiter in a CIA sting   However, he finds that Stan is a terrible actor, unable to even offer water to the patrons convincingly and causing the sting to turn sour, resulting in the deaths of several agents   Back home, Roger taunts Stan over his failure and Stan finally admits that he can't act  Stan asks Roger for help, and Roger refers him to acting coach Irwin Beyer Jr  (who, as Stan correctly predicts, is another of Roger's personas )  Stan shows progress by acting out a scene from WarGames by relating it to his acting inability, but refuses to perform the love scene with Roger as the "leading lady"   At the casting call for "Piñata Man", the title role goes to Stan, who reveals that he took the acting lessons so he could steal the role right out from under Roger and reassert his dominance 
On Opening Night, Roger injures the leading lady and her understudy so he can claim the role as an actress named Cleshawn Montague and show up Stan  The performance devolves into the pair desperately trying to outdo one another, including damaging the set and turning a scene into an impromptu battle rap   When they come to the love scene, Roger is confident that Stan won't be able to kiss him, but Stan gets over his disgust and does so; this leads to another battle of one-upmanship as they perform increasingly raunchy sexual acts until finally they're both arrested for public indecency for simulating sexual intercourse on stage  In the police car, Stan and Roger have become friends again, complimenting each other's acting talent, much to the confusion of Francine and with Hayley reaffirming what she said at the start of the episode 
Meanwhile, Steve and his friends plan to have a slumber party together  Vince Chung and the rest of the school students overhear and make fun of them, and Steve's friends think that they are too old to have a slumber party  Steve later suggests that this be the last sleepover that he and his friends will ever have  At a local pizzeria, Steve and his friends get into an argument over details, including a moment where Toshi tells Snot to "eat his bowls" after he screams at him to learn English  In the end, they hold a sleepover at Steve's treehouse, being reunited with the alleged fifth member of the group who had moved away years ago  Steve suspects he is a stranger who overheard them in the pizzeria, but they let him participate anyway 

Production
"A Piñata Named Desire" was written by series regulars Chris and Matt McKenna, in their second episode of the season  This would be the first episode that both writers would write since the season six episode "Fart-break Hotel"  This episode was directed by series regular Bob Bowen, with Jacob Hair as the assistant director  This would be the third time Bowen has directed an episode for the season, having also directed season six episode "For Whom the Sleigh Bell Tolls" and "White Rice"  Seth MacFarlane, the creator and executive producer of American Dad!, as well as its sister shows Family Guy and The Cleveland Show, served as the executive producer for the episode, along with series veterans Mike Barker, Rick Wiener, Matt Weitzman, and Kenny Schwartz  Diana Retchey was the animation producer for the episode, in her seventh episode of the season  She has also been the animation producers for many Cartoon Network shows, such as Johnny Bravo and Samurai Jack  Amanda Bell served as the production manager, while Michael Wittenberg would serve as the post-production supervisor for the episode  This would be Bell's eighth episode of the season where she served as the production manager, while this would be Wittenberg's ninth episode of the season as the post-production supervisor This episode featured a guest appearance from Lucy Lawless, who provided the voice for Stacy  Recurring voice actors Curtis Armstrong, Daisuke Suzuki and Eddie Kaye Thomas guest starred as Steve's friends in the episode  Armstrong previously reprised his role in "Stan's Food Restaurant", while Suzuki and Thomas reprised their roles in "Best Little Horror House in Langley Falls" 

Reception
"A Piñata Named Desire" was broadcast on February 13, 2011 as part of the animation television night on Fox  The show started off the line up, the third consecutive week that American Dad started off Fox's "Animation Domination" block  It was followed by The Simpsons, Bob's Burgers, and its sister shows Family Guy and The Cleveland Show  It was viewed by 3 94 million viewers upon its original airing, despite airing simultaneously with Dateline NBC, 60 Minutes on CBS, and America's Funniest Home Videos on ABC  It achieved a 1 9 rating in the 18-49 demographic, the lowest rating of the line up  The episode's total viewership and ratings were significantly down from the previous episode, "Stanny Boy and Frantastic", which was viewed by 4 80 million viewers upon its initial airing, and garnered a 2 2 rating in the 18-49 demographic "A Piñata Named Desire" was met with highly positive reception by television critics and fans alike upon its initial release  Rowan Kaiser of The A V  Club gave the episode a very positive review, saying the show "is back in fine form tonight, something notable from the start when they bypass a full credit sequence in favor of a simple title card " Kaiser highly praised the main plot, calling the interaction between Stan and Roger "fantastic throughout " However, he wrote a mixed review about the secondary plot of the episode, suggesting that Steve's idea to plan a "sleepover to end all sleepovers" with his friends is "a pretty typical sitcom plot for adolescents"  Furthermore, "American Dad adds nothing new except more self-blowjob-attempt jokes  It's not terrible, and if nothing else, it highlights just how good the Roger/Stan [   ] storyline is  Despite his criticisms, he rated the episode an A−, the highest grade of the night, scoring higher than The Simpsons episode "The Blue and the Gray", the Bob's Burgers episode "Sexy Dance Fighting", the Family Guy episode "Friends of Peter G , and The Cleveland Show episode "A Short Story and a Tall Tale"  Jason Hughes of TV Squad also gave the episode a positive review, calling it "funny"  He praised the main plot, find it hilarious when "seeing Stan completely screw up a mission because he's not as good at acting as Roger is " As for Roger's acting in the episode, he says "it should have been obvious that he's a natural," especially when "he even has boobs when he plays women "
Passage 4:
Gamla stan metro station
Gamla stan is a station on the Green and Red lines of the Stockholm metro  It is located on the western side of the Gamla stan (Old town) district of central Stockholm, and is at ground level, although partly under the Centralbron bridge that carries road and mainline rail across the waterways that define the centre of the city  The same waterways are responsible for the ground level location of the station, unusual for a city centre metro station, as the lines cross between the  islands of Stadsholmen and Södermalm by a bridge immediately south of the station The station has two island platforms between four parallel through tracks, with the western platform for trains to the north and the eastern one for trains to the south  Red line trains use the inner pair of tracks and Green line the outer tracks  The platforms are accessed from a ticket hall located under the tracks and platforms  The ticket hall can be reached from Mälartorget, Munkbroleden or Munkbrohamnen The station site was previously occupied by the Köttorgshallen and Munkbrohallen markets, which were demolished to make way for the metro  The station was opened on 24 November 1957 as part of the Green line connection between Slussen and Hötorget which connected the previously disconnected southern and western sections of that line  On 5 April 1964, the first stretch of the Red line, between T-Centralen and Fruängen, was opened As part of Art in the Stockholm metro project, in 1998 the station received medieval weaving patterns, weather sun motifs and cement mosaic-patterned floors by Göran Dahl, as well as fencing with weaving patterns between the tracks by Britta Carlström 

Gallery
Passage 5:
Dian Bachar
Dian Bachar (; born October 26, 1970) is an American actor most notable for his roles in various films by or starring his friends Trey Parker and Matt Stone, such as Cannibal! The Musical (George Noon), Orgazmo (Ben Chapleski) and his most famous role as Kenny "Squeak" Scolari in 1998's BASEketball, as well as making the occasional appearance on South Park 

Career
Dian Bachar attended Chatfield Senior High School  Bachar then received his BFA in Film Production at the University of Colorado at Boulder where he met Matt Stone and Trey Parker  From there, he went on to star in the student film, Cannibal! The Musical, for internship credit  Bachar also co-starred with Parker in Orgazmo, playing the eponymous character's sidekick "Choda Boy", and played multiple parts in Parker and Stone's short-lived series Time Warped 
Bachar shared an apartment with Parker and Stone up until 1997  When BASEketball was in the works, Parker asked David Zucker to change the script to allow for three players on each team (it was supposed to be just two to a team) to allow for Bachar to have a part in the movie In 1998, Bachar won a Leonardo da Vinci Award from the Beaux Arts Society, Inc  in the category of Actor, Debut Performance (Film) for his role in BASEketball  and an award for Best Actor in the 2012 short film Coaching Me Softly at the 48-Hour Film Project Most recently, Bachar starred in the horror feature The Murders of Brandywine Theater and the western drama short film Homestead   He is the co-owner of Bonobo Mountain Films with partner Carrie Rapaport 

South Park appearances
Due to his friendship with creators Parker and Stone, Bachar had provided several guest voices on their animated series South Park 

"Cow Days" - voicing the game show announcer 
"Merry Christmas Charlie Manson!" - voicing the fake Mr  Hankey 
"Do the Handicapped Go to Hell?" - voicing Satan's lover Chris 
"Probably" - again voicing Satan's lover, Chris 

Short films
Bachar and fellow actor Sam Macaroni are the leads in both of the internet series Roommates: The Series and Dimwits 

Music videos
Bachar appears in The Melvins "The Talking Horse" music video, and starred in and directed the music video "Rock Hard Soul" for the Chicago-based band, JIP 

Filmography
Passage 6:
Jamieson Price
Jamieson K  Price is an American actor, best known for his deep and booming voice in numerous anime and video games  He is known as the voice of the Count of Monte Cristo in Gankutsuou, Sojiro Sakura in Persona 5, Ovan in  hack//G U , and Galbalan, and Milton Grimm from Ever After High  Price also had a part in the 2000 movie The Patriot 

Biography
Price became interested in acting as a young child, starting from when he was in the fourth grade and later did theatre performances even during his adolescent and young adult years  In high school, Price got involved with dramatic interpretations-(focusing on poetry and prose reading) as well as voice competitions in his teens and became Virginia State Champion in his senior year of high school which later lead him to get into acting and voice acting by a close friend of his during the late 90s after graduate school  He eventually got a job in the voice acting business by Dorothy Fahn who is a friend of his wife Bethany who was very interested in his deep voice; aside from acting/voice acting, he has also done work for fight choreography as well as a theatrical technician 

Personal life
Price has been married to his wife Bethany Price since December 31, 1993, who works as a director, audition/stage coach, and an acting instructor  He has three children-(2 daughters and 1 son); Dane-(an actor and musician), Cynthia-(an actress and dancer), and Meghan-(a chiropractor)  Jamieson Price is also involved with a few podcasts, one of them being Crypto-Z 

Filmography
Anime
Animation
Films
Video games
Live action
Passage 7:
Arnaud Joyet
Arnaud Joyet (born 3 April 1974) is a French singer, musician, comedian and theatre director  He plays Stan in the series Hero Corp 
Passage 8:
Insecurity (South Park)
"Insecurity" is the tenth episode of the sixteenth season of the American animated sitcom South Park, and the 233rd episode of the series overall  It aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 10, 2012 The story concerns Kyle Broflovski's belief that his mother is having an affair with a UPS delivery man  When public suspicion falls upon the delivery man, package delivery to the neighborhood is threatened, and Eric Cartman purchases a home security system in response  The episode parodies security alarm systems, and also contains references to Amazon com and the film The Dark Knight Rises  Multiple characters, including Cartman himself, impersonate the fictional villain Bane 

Plot
Gerald Broflovski dresses up as a UPS delivery man in order to engage in sexual roleplay with his wife, Sheila  Their three-year-old son, Ike, sees this and is convinced that his mother is having an affair with a real delivery man  He draws a picture of what he saw, and tearfully shows his older brother Kyle  When Kyle confides this to the other boys at Stan Marsh's house, Stan’s father Randy Marsh overhears them, and informs the other men in town of this  Soon, all the children and men in South Park, led by Randy, are under the impression that UPS delivery men are sleeping with their wives and mothers  Around this time, Eric Cartman decides to have a home security system installed to protect his mother  However, he accidentally triggers the device and becomes infuriated with the company's nonchalant reaction 
The old mechanic at Skeeter's Bar convinces the men that the convenience of ordering products online has brought this situation upon them, relating the UPS delivery men to milk men of the 20th century  He recounts how back in his day, men got lazy and wanted to have milk delivered to their doorstep  Little did they know that the milkman delivering the milk would sleep with their wives  He says that history is now repeating itself with Amazon, with women receiving products from the e-commerce giant that they do not remember ordering  Randy then observes this phenomenon with his wife Sharon, and then finds Ike's drawing in Stan's room  Convinced that Thad, the UPS delivery man is sleeping with their wives, Randy and the men ask the old mechanic for advice  At first he states that there is no getting rid of the delivery man, not in any way they are "prepared for", but suggests they let him keep sleeping with their wives until he gets tired  Stephen, however, states that it is not just their wives anymore, believing that the UPS man is now going after the men too, as he just received a product that he does not remember ordering  The old mechanic tells them the only way to solve the problem is to kill the delivery man and resolve to return to purchase products in brick and mortar stores, stating that his generation did the same with milkmen 
The men each don Bane-type masks, severely beat up Thad, and leave Ike's drawing on him to indicate that they know what he did  When the deliveries continue, the men decide to install the Wolf Home Security personal alarm system, named "INSecurity", which is physically installed inside the user and triggered whenever the user feels insecure  This leads to rampant false alarms caused by the men's insecurities  Kyle attempts to address the issue of his mother's "affair" by having his parents sit down with the UPS delivery man  However, after Thad's UPS truck is destroyed by a bomb, he retreats deeper into the Broflovski's home before jumping out of a second-story window to his death  The men tell the police that Thad killed himself because he was a psychopath who had been forced to have sex with his mother  They purportedly illustrate this by showing the police Ike's drawing, which they say they found in the man's pocket  When the police find a UPS uniform in the Broflovski's closet, Kyle and the men realize that Gerald was the UPS man that Ike saw 
When the men inform the old mechanic that he was wrong about the trappings of modern convenience and merely need to be secure with themselves, the old man suggests that the security salesmen are having sex with their wives  As a result, Cartman and the men, again disguised as Bane, confront the security technician  The episode ends with him dragged out of his truck in shock after Cartman tells him that he should have "respected [Cartman's] authoritah" 

Production
"Insecurity" was developed from an idea created during meetings for the show's 2014 video game, South Park: The Stick of Truth  Parker and Stone and the team at South Park Studios had spent the summer prior to their fall run working on the video game, and one idea that came up was a character having to get into people's homes, and past their security systems  The idea got the team discussing in-home security systems, which Parker views as a "big scam" due to the rarity of the system alarming for a real emergency  Parker and Stone spoke to a close friend who is a policeman, who confirmed that they received false alarms "all the time " The United States Department of Justice estimates that between 94% and 98% of all alarm calls to law enforcement are indeed false alarms Several scenes were completed before the run began, with "Insecurity" set as the season premiere  Scenes scripted at this time included Cartman's dialogue back-and-forth with the security company employees, regarding his password  The storyline was still incomplete when its broadcast date neared, so they decided to wait on it for later in the season  At one point, they considered splitting the episode into a two-parter, between Cartman's battle with the security companies and the plot line regarding the postman  They decided to keep it one episode when they scripted scenes with the old man in Skeeter's Bar, feeling as though his dialogue connected the two stories enough Parker remarked that the episode was inspired by his own life, when he had ordered items from Amazon com, only to forget what it is when it arrives  Likening the surprise to Christmas morning, he noted in the episode's DVD commentary he has a tendency to order random items when South Park episodes are near completion: "I [order items] the most on Tuesday nights, when we're approving animation like crazy, it's like three in the morning, I'll just get on the computer and start ordering shit from Amazon […] just to make Thursday [its arrival date] like Christmas "

Cultural references
The episode references Bane, a character within the Batman universe, specifically, his depiction by actor Tom Hardy in  the 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises  It also references UPS and Amazon com 

Reception
Ryan McGee of The A V  Club gave the episode a B, writing that the episode "did its best to link up the fear of cuckoldry with the fear of home invasion, but the results themselves were mixed " Max Nicholson of IGN called the episode an "admirable entry" for the season, though noting "While the plot here was clearly framed around recycling these two jokes over and over, they were both strong enough to carry out the 22 minutes in full "
Passage 9:
Stephen Russell
Stephen L  Russell is an American actor, playwright, and theater director  He is best known for his video game voice roles as Garrett in the Thief series, Corvo Attano in Dishonored 2, and various characters in Skyrim and the Fallout series 

Career
Russell appeared onstage in Huntington's The Last Hurrah  Other stage credits include The Life of Galileo (Underground Railway Theater), The Bottom of the Lake (Tir Na Theatre), Daughter of Venus (Boston Playwrights' Theatre), A Pinter Duet, A House With No Walls, White People (New Repertory Theatre), And Then There Were None, A Prayer for Owen Meany (Stoneham Theatre), Talley's Folly (The Lyric Stage Company of Boston), and more than two dozen productions with the Wellfleet Harbor Actors' Theatre (WHAT), including The Beauty Queen of Leenane and the Eliott Norton Award-winning production of A New War  He is the author of 13 plays for young audiences and won the 2009 WHAT Award for Sustained Artistic Excellence Russell made his debut film appearances as Bob in the 2007 film Noëlle and in 2008 appeared as Luther Norris in the film Chatham  In 2009, he played a minor role in the film The Ghosts of Girlfriends Past  In addition to voicing Garrett in the Thief video game series, he voiced Garrett's chief antagonist Karras in Thief II: The Metal Age, as well as many of the supporting characters in the series  He contributed the voice of the starship Von Braun's central computer XERXES and William Bedford Diego in System Shock 2  He also provided the voices of Andy, Mr  Buckingham, The Great One, Wadsworth, Sergeant RL-3, Cerberus, Enclave Scientists, an Enclave Soldier, and every Mr  Handy in Fallout 3, Fallout 4, and Fallout 76  The 2011 game Skyrim features Russell voicing a range of characters, including Barbas the talking dog, Daedric Prince Clavicus Vile, Belethor, and Thieves Guild leader Mercer Frey  In the 2015 game Fallout 4, he voices Codsworth and the android detective Nick Valentine  He provided the voice for Lord Protector Corvo Attano in the 2016 video game Dishonored 2 
Russell did not return to the Thief franchise for the 2014 reboot because it utilized motion-capture acting, which required the voice actors to physically portray the characters and perform their own stunts  Eidos-Montréal announced that Russell had been replaced by Romano Orzari for the role of Garrett in the series, and explained their decision: "The actor playing Garrett needed to be able to perform his own stunts  Garrett's a really athletic guy  We could have pasted Stephen's voice on top of the actions and stunts of someone else, but this wouldn't appear natural " The decision upset some fans of the series, who initiated an online petition requesting Eidos-Montréal to bring back Russell as lead voice actor 

Personal life
He is a vegetarian  He has a son named Peter, who is an actor and musician, and a daughter named Robin, who is a voice actress 

Selected voice credits
Passage 10:
Chef (South Park)
Jerome Nigel McElroy, often referred to as "The Chef" or simply "Chef", is a recurring fictional character on the Comedy Central series South Park who was voiced by Isaac Hayes  A cafeteria worker at the local elementary school in the town of South Park, Colorado, Chef is generally portrayed as more intelligent than the other adult residents of the town, and understanding to the children  His advice is often sought by the show's core group of child protagonists—Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick—as he is the only adult they completely trust  Chef frequently gives completely honest advice without considering whether it is appropriate for children, usually in the non sequitur form of a lascivious soul song 
Chef was inspired by Hayes and other popular soul singers of the 1970s, as well as an actual dining hall worker encountered by series co-creator Trey Parker while he attended the University of Colorado  Chef played a less prominent role as the series progressed beyond its earlier seasons, and the character was retired at the beginning of the tenth season in "The Return of Chef" following the controversial departure of Hayes 

Character
In tradition with the show's animation style, Chef is composed of simple geometrical shapes, and is animated with use of a computer, though he is given the impression of being a construction paper cutout composition animated through the use of stop motion, which was the technique used to animate the "Spirit of Christmas" shorts and the show's first episode  Chef is an overweight black American with a beard who usually wears blue pants and a red shirt  He frequently dons a traditional chef's hat and white apron on which the word "CHEF" is printed in black, even when not at work 
Until Token Black and his family were given a more notable role starting in the show's fourth season, Chef was portrayed as the only black resident in all of South Park  Parker and co-creator Matt Stone initially planned to have one of themselves voice the character, fearing that their ideal candidates of Hayes (Lou Rawls and Barry White) would never agree to voice the character because the duo had admittedly and purposefully created him as a "stereotype" to reflect what they felt was the perception most inhabitants of less-diverse mountainous Colorado towns had of black people  However, Hayes agreed to voice the character due in part to the audacity of some of the show's early scripts  Chef (usually affectionately) referred to most people in town with the pejorative "crackers", including the children 
Chef, after abandoning his musical aspirations, moved to South Park with plans to open his own restaurant  Before this, he had befriended several famous recording artists in the music industry, including Elton John and Meat Loaf, helping them to launch their successful careers  Despite failing at yet another dream, Chef made his way onto the South Park City Council, representing Public Safety  In addition to dispensing wisdom to the children and a few of the adult townsfolk, Chef speaks out against what he feels are outrageous ideas  For example, he opposes the rampant prescription of Ritalin in the episode "Timmy 2000", and he objects to the town's acceptance of Mr  Garrison committing purposefully flamboyant sadomasochistic acts in front of schoolchildren in "The Death Camp of Tolerance"  In "Chef Goes Nanners", he briefly converts to Islam and adopted the name "Abdul Mohammed Jabar Rauf Kareem Ali" when he demanded that South Park change its official flag because it depicted the town's racist past  On several other occasions, Chef helped save South Park (and in a few other instances, the entire world) from potential disasters Chef is also known for frequently engaging in casual sex, a habit he often expresses through song  He drives a 1980s woodie station wagon with a vanity plate that reads "LUV CHEF"  He is often seen accompanied by numerous young women when at home or on vacation, and is even revealed to have had a one-night stand with Kathie Lee Gifford  He once resorted to male prostitution in an effort to raise money to pay legal fees, and had sex with nearly every woman in South Park before having to stop due to exhaustion  In "The Succubus", Chef briefly becomes an office worker and took up monogamy after meeting a woman named Veronica  The two were engaged to be married until it was revealed that Veronica was actually a succubus  In the South Park video game, the children can seek Chef's advice at one of the many buildings labelled "Chef's Shack O' Love", which is implied to be a brothel, complete with a naked woman in Chef's bed 
Chef's parents, Nellie and Thomas McElroy, live in Scotland  The couple have made two major appearances in the episodes "The Succubus" and "The Biggest Douche in the Universe", and made a brief cameo in a town Christmas celebration in "Red Sleigh Down"  They were not seen at Chef's funeral in "The Return of Chef" 
Chef is known to have run a quiz show called Chef's Luv Shack, as is apparent in the video game of the same name 

Relationship with the children
Chef endearingly calls the boys "the children" or just "children" (even when addressing one individually), and, unless he is preoccupied with a female companion, is usually willing to assist them with whatever help they need  Chef is consistently the only adult in town whom the boys held in high regard, and they view him as their friend  They are also visibly saddened if his presence in their lives is threatened  In addition to being fans of his food (especially his trademark Salisbury steak), the boys often heartily anticipate encountering Chef when waiting in the school lunch line, so that they can explain whatever dilemma is affecting them, usually after their traditional greeting:

Chef: Hello there, children!The boys [in unison]: Hey Chef!Chef: How's it goin'?The boys [one or in unison]: Bad Chef: Why "bad"?

The boys sometimes take it upon themselves to travel to Chef's house individually to seek his guidance on all manners of their problems, specifically relationships  Chef usually gives advice in the form of a soul song, which usually winds up being about sex, whether or not sex was relevant to the topic at hand  Hearing the songs would often leave the boys even more confused and with no further understanding of what they initially inquire about  In earlier seasons, Chef is often approached by the children when they are unfamiliar with a term that pertains to adult matters, such as "lesbian" or "prostitute"  This happens so often that it eventually angers Chef, who pleads with them to stop asking questions he feels are not appropriate for him to answer  Despite this, the children continue asking Chef these questions, much to his chagrin  An absent-minded Chef sometimes answers anyway, not realizing his lapse until the damage had been done  Chef acknowledges that doing this had repeatedly gotten him in trouble with his boss, Principal Victoria 

Music
In addition to singing in an effort to explain something to the children, Chef also sings about things relevant to what has transpired in the plot  These songs were original compositions written by Parker, and performed by Hayes in the same sexually suggestive R&B style he had utilized during his own music career  Within the show, Chef is the original composer of these songs, including "Stinky Britches", which was depicted as having been covered by Alanis Morissette without proper credit to Chef  When Chef is left with legal debt after losing a court case to have himself credited as the song's original writer, several bands and artists (guest starring as themselves) hold a concert dubbed "Chef Aid", a parody of Live Aid, to raise the funds  The episode inspired a real-life album, Chef Aid: The South Park Album, which featured guest stars from the episode such as Elton John and Ozzy Osbourne  The album includes many of the full-length versions of the songs Chef had performed in the show's first two seasons; "Chocolate Salty Balls" was released as a single, and reached #1 in both the record charts of Ireland and the United Kingdom  As the series progressed and Chef's role became more intermittent, his spontaneous outbursts into song became less of a show standard 
Parker and Stone originally planned to have Chef sing a song in every single episode but abandoned the idea after finding it too challenging and fearing writing too many songs would make them less funny, similar to their rationale for dispensing with Kenny's episodic deaths 

Departure of Isaac Hayes
On January 4, 2006, Hayes defended South Park's style of controversial humor to The A V  Club and XM's Opie and Anthony show, going so far as to note that although he was not pleased with the show's depiction of the Church of Scientology, of which he was a member, he "understood what Matt and Trey are doing " However, on March 13, 2006, nearly two months after suffering a stroke, Hayes was reported to have quit South Park over objections to the show's attitudes toward and depiction of various religions, claiming that the show had crossed the line from satire into intolerance 
Despite the content of the official press release, there remains considerable speculation about the motivations behind his departure  Parker and Stone assert that he quit due to the controversial episode "Trapped in the Closet", and its treatment of Scientology  Stone commented in a manner that suggested that Hayes practiced a double standard regarding the treatment of religion on South Park: "[We] never heard a peep out of Isaac in any way until we [lampooned] Scientology  He wants a different standard for religions other than his own, and to me, that is where intolerance and bigotry begin " Fox News reporter Roger Friedman suggested that, because he was still suffering from the effects of his stroke, Hayes was hospitalized and not in a position to make a rational decision to leave the show  Friedman also reported that Hayes left the show because of the external pressure forced by his fellow Scientologists, the decision was not voluntary, and the original press release announcing his departure was put out by someone who was not authorized to represent him  In a 2016 oral history of South Park in The Hollywood Reporter, Hayes' son Isaac Hayes III confirmed that the decision to leave the show was made by Hayes' entourage while Hayes was unable to make such decisions on his own 

Retirement
Nine days after Hayes's departure from production, the controversy was satirized in the show's Season 10 premiere "The Return of Chef"  For the episode, voice clips of Chef were taken from previous episodes and linked together to form new dialogue to support the plot, which involves Chef's leaving South Park to join the "Super Adventure Club", which eventually brainwashes Chef until he had the mindset of a child molester  The organization combines outdoor activities with child molestation, an act they perceive as justified because of their beliefs 
After the boys restore Chef to his original mindset, but are unable to convince him to come back to South Park, a rope bridge Chef is walking across is struck by lightning  He falls to a violent death, culminating with his mutilation at the hands of a grizzly bear and a mountain lion and finally discharged fecal matter (a reference to the episode "Something Wall-Mart This Way Comes", in which Cartman claims that the relaxation of the bowel muscles confirms that a person is really dead) South Park holds a memorial service for him (Canadian comedians Terrance and Phillip even attend, despite having never met the man themselves), in which Kyle gives a eulogy stating, "We shouldn't be mad at Chef for leaving us, we should be mad at that fruity little club for scrambling his brains", a deliberate parallel with Hayes' departure from the show in favor of Scientology Mimicking a scene from the finale of Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith, Chef's body is secretly collected by the Super Adventure Club, who managed to revive him as a cyborg — identified on the show's official website as "Darth Chef" (a parody of Star Wars' Darth Vader)  He is fitted with a suit and mask like those of Vader, except with the helmet taking on the appearance of Chef's trademark hat, and wields a red, glowing spatula, parodying Vader's red lightsaber  Darth Chef's voice was provided by British comedian and filmmaker Peter Serafinowicz, who voiced Darth Maul in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace  Darth Chef has not made an appearance in subsequent episodes, but has appeared with other characters in the background of the South Park opening sequence, and is mentioned in the episode "Stunning and Brave", when PC Principal says the kids drove him to kill himself, which is not true Chef is alluded to after his death in the season 10 episode "Hell on Earth 2006" where, during Satan's party, there are multiple scenes in which a Caucasian male dressed as Chef can be seen in the background  He is also referenced in the season 14 episode "Crème Fraiche" when Randy becomes the new chef at school and greets the kids with Chef's trademark lines  Chef's death is also indirectly mentioned in the season 19 episode "Stunning and Brave" when PC Principal talks about all the things he finds offensive (incorrectly assuming that Chef's death was a suicide, before giving Butters detention for correcting him)  Isaac Hayes himself died on August 10, 2008, two years after his departure from South Park  On November 4, 2008, the film Return to Sleepaway Camp was released in the United States; filmed in 2003, the film features Hayes in a cameo as a live-action version of Chef, referred to once as Charlie but portrayed/credited as South Park's "The Chef" 
Chef makes an appearance in the 2014 video game South Park: The Stick of Truth as the reanimated Nazi Zombie penultimate boss later in the game  Once again, voice clips of Isaac Hayes as Chef are recycled from past episodes with the exception of recorded speech clips from Adolf Hitler  During his battle with the player and the other boys, Chef will express remorse by saying things like "I'm sorry, boys" and "what have I done?" While there were vague references to the Super Adventure Club and his death, there were no references to the Darth Chef suit  After being defeated, Chef regains control over his mind and tries to tell the boys, but he is then killed by Clyde and the New Kid In a sketch from the Robot Chicken episode "Boogie Bardstown in: No Need, I Have Coupons", Chef is a contestant on MasterChef Celebrity Showdown, where he has to cook with the thing he fears most: thetans 
Passage 11:
Buzz Lightyear
Buzz Lightyear is one of the main characters in Disney/Pixar's Toy Story franchise, voiced by Tim Allen  He is a superhero toy action figure based on the in-universe media franchise consisting of a blockbuster feature film and animated series, Space Ranger  In the Disney/Pixar Toy Story franchise, Buzz wears a green, purple, and white space suit  Buzz Lightyear is a recurring character in all of the Toy Story franchise's animated films, including spin-offs  Notably, Woody serves as the main protagonist throughout the four films in the series, while Buzz remains an important character  In Toy Story (1995), unlike most other toys, Buzz initially believes himself to be the "real" Buzz Lightyear and comes to terms with actually being just a toy; in Toy Story 2 (1999), Buzz encounters other Buzz Lightyear action figures from the toyline who similarly believe themselves to be "real" including one of the character's in-universe archenemy and father: Emperor Zurg; in Toy Story 3 (2010), set ten years later, Buzz explores a romance with cowgirl figure Jessie, while he uncovers his Spanish mode; while in Toy Story 4 (2019), Buzz finds his inner voice and bids farewell to Woody, who leaves to be with Bo Peep 
The fictional character, Buzz Lightyear, Space Ranger, on which the toy Buzz is based, also appears in the 2000 direct-to-video film "Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins" and its subsequent spin-off television series, "Buzz Lightyear of Star Command " In these productions, he is voiced by Tim Allen and Patrick Warburton, respectively  Chris Evans voiced this version of the character in the 2022 spin-off film Lightyear, presented as an in-universe film the characters in Toy Story would watch (as previously depicted in the opening scene of The Adventure Begins) exploring their origin story, with James Brolin additionally voicing an elderly, nihilistic version of Buzz from an alternate future, known as Zurg (a separate character from Emperor Zurg) 

Conception and creation
Buzz Lightyear's name was in honor of Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, the second person to walk on the Moon  According to Pixar producers, the character was provisionally named Lunar Larry, but it sounded "too wacky"  Aldrin acknowledged the tribute when he pulled a Buzz Lightyear toy out during a speech at NASA  A clip of this can be found on the Toy Story 10th Anniversary DVD  Aldrin did not receive any endorsement fees for the use of his nickname Regarding the design of Lightyear, Toy Story director John Lasseter said he wanted to create an action figure in the line of G I  Joe for the film and decided upon a spaceman figure  Lasseter attributes his design to the influence of Apollo astronauts, in particular, their clear helmets, skullcaps, communication devices, and white suits The purple and fluorescent green color scheme were the favorite colors of Lasseter and his wife's respectively  The looks of television actor Ed Kemmer are also believed to be a prototype for Lightyear  Kemmer played Commander Buzz Corry in Space Patrol, one of the first science-fiction series on American television Originally, when a screen test was being made, producers wanted Buzz to be voiced by Billy Crystal  He turned the role down, and after seeing the first film, he said that turning it down was "the biggest mistake of his career" 

Appearances
Buzz Lightyear, toy
Toy Story (1995)
In the animated film Toy Story, Buzz Lightyear, an action figure, is given to a boy named Andy Davis from his mother as a birthday present  He quickly impresses the other toys with his skills, flashy accessories and wings, and soon becomes Andy's favorite toy  Sheriff Woody, the former favorite toy, quickly becomes jealous  It soon becomes apparent that Buzz is unaware he is a toy, genuinely believing that he is a space ranger sent to stop the Evil Emperor Zurg  He further believes that his red light bulb "laser" is a deadly weapon, his wings are functional aircraft-grade steel, and that he cannot breathe with his helmet open 
After Woody unintentionally knocks Buzz out of Andy's bedroom window, Buzz follows and confronts Woody in Andy's car  The two become separated from Andy while fighting, and Woody tries to convince Buzz he is a toy but fails  The two are soon captured by Andy's sadistic neighbor, Sid Phillips  Buzz sees a commercial on a TV in Sid's house which reveals he is a toy  In denial, Buzz tries to fly and ends up breaking his arm  He falls into despair 
Sid's toys fix Buzz's arm, and Sid tapes him to a rocket with the intention to blow him up  Woody convinces Buzz his purpose is to make Andy happy; eventually causing Buzz to regain his resolve  He teams up with Woody to escape Sid and return to Andy  As the two pursue Andy's van, Woody is attacked by Sid's dog Scud  Buzz fights off the dog to rescue Woody, and Woody uses RC to rescue Buzz  When the two are still unable to catch up to Andy, Woody is forced to light the rocket and launch them into the air; Buzz opens his wings to sever the tape holding him to the rocket, saving them from exploding and flying solo for the first time, albeit, while carrying Woody  After they are reunited with Andy, Buzz and Woody remain close friends 

Toy Story 2
In the animated film Toy Story 2, Woody is kidnapped by a greedy toy collector named Al McWhiggin, who is intent on selling him and other "Woody's Roundup" toys to a toy museum in Japan  Buzz leads Mr  Potato Head, Slinky Dog, Rex, and Hamm on a daring rescue mission  They travel to the Al's Toy Barn store, which they believe Woody was taken to  The trip involves crossing a busy road  Buzz uses traffic cones to help the group avoid being crushed by cars 
In the store, the toys get separated  Buzz discovers an aisle full of his fellow Buzz Lightyear toys, one of which has a fancy Utility Belt  When Buzz tries to touch the belt, the Utility Belt Buzz comes to life; also believing he is a real space ranger  He quickly "arrests" Andy's Buzz as a rogue space ranger  Andy's Buzz mocks himself and earlier delusions while Utility Belt Buzz berates him for "backtalk" and imprisons him for "court martial" in an empty Buzz Lightyear case  Andy's Buzz unsuccessfully tries to explain that he and Utility Belt Buzz are both toys 
Soon, the other toys find Utility Belt Buzz and mistake him for Andy's Buzz  Andy's Buzz fails to get their attention and is forced to escape the box on his own  He pursues them out of the store and across the road to Al's apartment  Buzz inadvertently frees an Evil Emperor Zurg action figure while doing so, and he pursues him with intent to destroy him 
Andy's Buzz rejoins the group, and convinces Woody, who had been worried about Andy growing up and had considered going to Japan, that it would be better to come home  Woody invites the other Roundup toys to come with them; Jessie and Bullseye agree, but Stinky Pete refuses and locks them in (and Buzz out) when they try to escape  Al reappears and takes Woody and the Roundup toys to the airport  Andy's Buzz and Utility Belt Buzz pursue Al into the elevator shaft with the other toys  Zurg confronts them, and he reveals he is Utility Belt Buzz's father  Rex accidentally knocks him down the elevator shaft 
Utility Belt Buzz stays behind with a reformed Zurg, while Andy's Buzz and the other toys steal a Pizza Planet truck and drive to the airport  Andy's Buzz stands on a pizza box and operating the steering wheel  At the airport, they subdue Stinky Pete and rescue Woody and Bullseye in the baggage handling system  Buzz and Woody ride Bullseye onto the runway to rescue Jessie from the airplane before it takes off for Japan  The toys all return home in a stolen baggage cart 
By the end of the film, Buzz has developed a crush on Jessie  He and Woody decide not to worry about Andy growing up, as they will always have each other as friends for "infinity and beyond" 

Toy Story 3
In the animated film Toy Story 3, Woody, Buzz, and the other toys accidentally end up in a daycare center after Andy's mother mistakes them for trash while Andy is packing for college  Woody unsuccessfully tries to convince the other toys it was a mistake  Buzz, who was going to be put in the attic with most of Andy's other toys, decides the best thing the toys can do is to stay together at the daycare  This causes Woody to strike out on his own in search of Andy, who had earlier faced a difficult decision as to whether to take Woody or Buzz with him to college 
Meanwhile, Andy's toys are greeted by Lots-o’-Huggin' Bear (Lotso for short), who is seemingly the leader of the daycare toys  He assigns them to the Caterpillar Room, where they are subjected to a very rough playtime by children far too young to play safely with toys like them  At the behest of the other toys, Buzz finds Lotso to kindly request a transfer to the Butterfly Room if possible  When Buzz rejects Lotso's offer to join his gang upon hearing his friends couldn't be involved, Lotso orders his henchmen to switch Buzz to "demo" mode 
In the state, Buzz's memories and original personality appear to be erased; his space ranger delusions from the first film return  Lotso takes the opportunity to make Buzz think Andy's toys are minions of Zurg  The brainwashed Buzz angrily imprisons his friends when they attempt to escape; tasked to watch over the "prisoners" every night  Woody, now aware of the truth behind Lotso, returns to Sunnyside  Andy's toys subdue Buzz attempting to restore his memories, but accidentally reset him to his "Spanish Mode", confusing many characters and resulting in many comedic character changes for the audience 
Buzz still believes he is a real space ranger and still does not have his memories  Woody manages to convince him Andy's toys are his "amigos"  The Spanish Buzz helps the toys escape Sunnyside; making no secret of his love for Jessie  Lotso confronts them as they reach the dumpster outside the daycare  In the ensuing altercation, Lotso and all of Andy's toys are dumped into a garbage truck  Buzz heroically rescues Jessie from getting buried in trash, but ends up crushed by a broken TV  Jessie breaks down in tears over Buzz's "dead" body, only for Buzz to awaken unharmed with his normal personality/memories restored(albeit with no recollection of the events that occurred during his brainwashing and Spanish Mode) 
At the landfill, they toys are pushed onto a conveyor belt  Buzz and Woody rescue Lotso from a shredder and help him reach an emergency stop button  Lotso abandons them, however, and they fall into an incinerator  Buzz and Jessie join hands and face the approaching fire, prompting everyone else to do the same  The three toy aliens operating a claw rescue them, and they make their way home  Andy donates them all to a little girl Woody met at the daycare, Bonnie  When introducing Buzz, Andy describes him as "the coolest toy ever"  As the toys settle in at Bonnie's house, Buzz finds himself performing a romantic paso doble with Jessie to the Spanish version of "You've Got a Friend in Me" as the film ends; much to the amusement of the other toys 

Toy Story 4
In the animated film Toy Story 4, Buzz plays a significantly smaller role since the film is centered on Woody, Bo, and a host of new characters  He still acts as Woody's moral support, and tries to comfort Woody when he begins to sense Bonnie is no longer interested in Woody  Buzz also learns about the "inner voice", but mistakenly believes the term refers to his button-activated voice box and catchphrases  He spends much of the film using said voice box to guide him as to what he must do next 
When Woody and Bonnie's new favorite toy, Forky, are separated from the group during an RV trip, Buzz, guided by his "inner voice", pursues them into a carnival  He is captured by a vendor and put up with other toys as a potential prize at a game, where he encounters conjoined plushies Bunny and Ducky  Bunny and Ducky are initially antagonistic, as they believe Buzz has come to lower their chances of ever being won and owned by a kid  The two refuse to listen to his explanations, and become further enraged when Buzz frees them and himself from the game  Thinking they will now never be owned, they pursue and attack a bewildered Buzz, until Woody, who has now met up with Bo Peep and rejoined Buzz, offers to take the two plushies to Bonnie after Forky is rescued 
Buzz, Bunny, and Ducky join forces, and are tasked with retrieving keys from an antique store owner to free Forky, who is trapped inside the store  They succeed, but the mission to rescue Forky fails because of the antique store owner's cat  After Woody and Bo have a falling-out, Buzz's inner voice guides him to rejoin Andy's toys, which he does  Later, Forky is freed by Woody and reports that Woody and several other toys need rescuing - Buzz, Jessie, and the others take over the controls of the RV and force Bonnie's dad to drive it back to the carnival 
Woody and Buzz meet up at a carousel, and Buzz notices that Woody is feeling heartbroken about having to part ways with Bo Peep again  Buzz suggests that Woody stay behind to be with Bo, knowing that Bonnie will be okay even without him  Knowing that this might be the last time they will see each other, they share a final goodbye hug, part ways, and exchange their last words of dialogue from afar  Buzz says "to infinity   ", and Woody completes the sentence with "   and beyond "

Toy Story 5
Buzz is set to appear in Toy Story 5 and will once again be voiced by Tim Allen 

Buzz Lightyear, Space Ranger
Buzz Lightyear of Star Command
In the television series Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, Buzz Lightyear is a Space Ranger working for Star Command, protecting the universe from Evil Emperor Zurg  He works in a team alongside Mira Nova, a princess; Booster, a janitor; and XR, a robot  This version of Buzz Lightyear has a different personality from the one in Toy Story  Buzz Lightyear also has had many love interests on the show  He once had a friend and partner named Warp Darkmatter, however, he later joined Evil Emperor Zurg and became his primary agent  Buzz Lightyear also seems to never take off the purple headwear that he has with his Space Ranger uniform  Aside from his regular catchphrase, he has a habit of telling villains that "Evil never wins!"

Lightyear
In the Toy Story universe, The 2022 animated film Lightyear is the origin of the character on which the Buzz Lightyear of Star Command toy line was based  The film, which was directed by Angus MacLane, tells the story of young astronaut Buzz Lightyear, who, after being marooned on a hostile planet with his commander and crew, tries to find a way back home while confronting a threat to the universe's safety  Buzz was confirmed to be voiced by Chris Evans and the film was released on June 17, 2022 

Other appearances
Buzz Lightyear, voiced by Pat Fraley, appears in the computer games Disney's Animated Storybook: Toy Story and Disney's Activity Center: Toy Story, both released in 1996  A Buzz Lightyear toy also appears in Pixar's 2003 film Finding Nemo  He also appeared as a car in Pixar's 2006 movie, Cars, along with Woody and Hamm  He is also seen in the Toy Story Treats realised in 1996 and all three Toy Story Toons episodes Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and the two specials: Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot 
Buzz was also in the 2008 Disney film Bedtime Stories and the 2010 Disney film The Sorcerer's Apprentice  Buzz Lightyear and Woody appear as piñatas in Pixar's 2017 film Coco  Woody and Buzz appeared in the 2019 video game Kingdom Hearts III as guest party members, where Buzz gains the ability to use his laser  He is also able to fly as his fictional counterpart without knowing during a Keyblade war crisis across dimensions  Woody eventually recalls him back to normal reality 

Buzz Lightyear is a meetable character at all of the Disney Parks and Resorts, located in Tomorrowland and in Toy Story Land  He is often accompanied by the Aliens  Tim Allen reprised his role using one of his archival recordings in the 2018 Walt Disney Animation Studios film Ralph Breaks the Internet, where he repeated his famous catchphrase 

Merchandise
In 1995, Thinkway Toys introduced a 12-inch-tall Buzz Lightyear figure The figure was subject to mass sales in the Christmas after the film's release, mainly in the United States and the United Kingdom  In 1995, Thinkway did not think that Toy Story would be that popular and hence did not make enough dolls to meet demand, as referenced in Toy Story 2  Originally, Tim Allen's voice was on the action figure, but later models feature a voice actor who sounds similar to Allen In October 2009 and 2010, to coincide with Toy Story's 3-D re-release and the release of Toy Story 3 respectively, Thinkway Toys released a replica Buzz Lightyear figure based on the figure in the Toy Story movies as part of their Toy Story Collection series of toys and Disney released their own version of a replica Buzz Lightyear figure  Both Buzz Lightyears were much more accurately detailed than the other Buzz Lightyear figures and both had features similar to the figure seen in the movie with similar pop-out wings complete with blinking lights at the wingtips, laser, wrist communicator and the two figures had over 65 and 30 phrases with an original voice respectively  However, the Thinkway Toys figure lacks the karate chop action, while the Disney Store version has it  Only the Thinkway Toys figure comes with a Certificate of Authenticity and both come packaged in the spaceship packaging as seen in the movies  Another 2009 Buzz Lightyear figure by Thinkway Toys included the utility belt from Toy Story 2 

In May 2008, NASA and Disney announced that an original Thinkway Toys Buzz Lightyear action figure would fly aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery on mission STS-124  The 12-inch toy was to remain on the International Space Station (ISS) for six months, where it would take part in an experiment and appear in a video downlink from space whilst the Space Shuttle delivers the largest module of the space station – Kibō, the Japanese Experiment Module pressurized section  The flight was arranged as part of the Toys in Space program that began in 1985 The mission launched with Buzz Lightyear aboard on May 31, 2008, to celebrate the opening of Toy Story Midway Mania! at Disney's Hollywood Studios and Disney California Adventure Park theme parks, with the ultimate destination of the ISS  The action figure "ate" dinner with the 10 astronauts and cosmonauts and was seen peering out a window aboard the ISS  The action figure stayed aboard the space station for a period of six months as part of the toys-in-space educational program The action figure returned from the space station on September 11, 2009, aboard mission STS-128 In 2009, Lego began releasing its Lego Toy Story line, which included a 205-piece Buzz Lightyear action figure  When the figure is completely built, it has an articulating head, arms, hands, torso, legs, feet, wings, and visor  Lego also created a Buzz Lightyear minifigure  In 2016 a new version of Buzz Lightyear was created for the Lego minifigures Disney series  This minifigure featured new prints for the legs and arms of the minifigure and removed the Star Command logo from the chest of the torso piece  A simpler version of this minifigure appeared in the Toy Story 4 line, with the Star Command logo reinstated but without prints on the arms or side of the legs  Two new minifigures were made for the spin off movie Lightyear with two sets featuring his regular space suit, with one set including an alternate head and hairpiece included to have him unmasked, and a third including one of him in the orange and gray suit he wears at the beginning of the film 

Reception and legacy
Buzz can be considered a pop culture icon  In October 2007, readers of Empire voted Buzz No  1 of the Top 20 Greatest Pixar Characters  They also rated him the 94th greatest movie character of all time Buzz Lightyear's classic line "To Infinity    and Beyond!" has seen usage not only on T-shirts but among philosophers and mathematical theorists as well  A book about the history of infinity from 1991 (4 years before Toy Story), by Eli Maor, uses the phrase for its title  Lucia Hall of The Humanist linked the film's plot to an interpretation of humanism  She compared the phrase to "All this and heaven, too!", indicating one who is happy with a life on Earth as well as having an afterlife  The 2008 quadruple platinum song "Single Ladies" by Beyoncé includes the lyric "   and delivers me to a destiny, to infinity and beyond " Astronauts used the phrase while sending the Buzz Lightyear figure into space  The action figure was used for experiments in zero-g  Also in 2008, the phrase made international news when it was reported that a father and son had continually repeated the phrase to help them keep track of each other while treading water for 15 hours in the Atlantic Ocean Buzz Lightyear himself was mentioned in the 2012 song "Boyfriend" by Canadian pop star Justin Bieber, for instance, in the lyric "I can be your Buzz Lightyear, fly across the globe "
The first stable public release of the Debian project used the name "Buzz" as the codename for the version 1 1 

See also
Buzz Lightyear's Space Ranger Spin
List of Toy Story characters
Context 2: Passage 1:
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence (Titian)
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence is a 1558 painting by Titian, now in the church of I Gesuiti in Venice  It so impressed Philip II of Spain that he commissioned a second version in 1567 for the basilica at El Escorial 

See also
List of works by Titian
Passage 2:
Black Death
The Black Death (also known as the Pestilence, the Great Mortality or the Plague) was a bubonic plague pandemic occurring in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353  It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing the deaths of 75–200 million people, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351  Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis spread by fleas, but during the Black Death it probably also took a secondary form, spread by person-to-person contact via aerosols, causing pneumonic plague The Black Death was the beginning of the second plague pandemic  The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history 
The origin of the Black Death is disputed  Genetic analysis points to the evolution of Yersinia pestis in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China 2,600 years ago  The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remains unclear with some pointing towards Central Asia, China, the Middle East and Europe  The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347  From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean Basin and reaching North Africa, Western Asia and the rest of Europe via Constantinople, Sicily and the Italian Peninsula  There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread person-to-person as pneumonic plague, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary vector was rat fleas causing bubonic plague  In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may not have been due to Mongol conquests in the 14th century, as previously speculated The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317) and is estimated to have killed 30 percent to 60 percent of the European population, as well as about one-third of the population of the Middle East  The plague might have reduced the world population from c  475 million to 350–375 million in the 14th century  There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, with other contributing factors (the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages), the European population did not regain its level in 1300 until 1500  Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century 

Names
European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in Latin as pestis or pestilentia, 'pestilence'; epidemia, 'epidemic'; mortalitas, 'mortality'  In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death"  Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first murrain) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as "black" in the time of occurrence in any European language, though the expression "black death" had occasionally been applied to fatal disease beforehand  "Black death" was not used to describe the plague pandemic in English until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated Danish: den sorte død, lit  'the black death'  This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was transferred to other languages as a calque: Icelandic: svarti dauði, German: der schwarze Tod, and French: la mort noire  Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the Latin: magna mortalitas, lit  'Great Death' The phrase 'black death' – describing Death as black – is very old  Homer used it in the Odyssey to describe the monstrous Scylla, with her mouths "full of black Death" (Ancient Greek: πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο, romanized: pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio)  Seneca the Younger may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', (Latin: mors atra) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark prognosis of disease  The 12th–13th century French physician Gilles de Corbeil had already used atra mors to refer to a "pestilential fever" (febris pestilentialis) in his work On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium)  The phrase mors nigra, 'black death', was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to an astrological conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn  His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease The historian Cardinal Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague"  In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J  I  Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant) 

Previous plague epidemics
Research from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age  Research in 2018 found evidence of Yersinia pestis in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "Neolithic decline" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly  This Y  pestis may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near Samara The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a fragment of Rufus of Ephesus preserved by Oribasius; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the Roman Empire before the reign of Trajan, six centuries before arriving at Pelusium in the reign of Justinian I  In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the Plague of Justinian (541–542 CE, with recurrences until 750) was Y  pestis  This is known as the first plague pandemic  In 610, the Chinese physician Chao Yuanfang described a "malignant bubo" "coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue " The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in Lingnan (Guangzhou)  Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600 

14th-century plague
Causes
Early theory
The most authoritative contemporary account is found in a report from the medical faculty in Paris to Philip VI of France  It blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air" (miasma theory)  Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a "martyrdom and mercy" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise  For non-believers, it was a punishment  Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God  Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans  These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks 

Predominant modern theory
Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease  The plague disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas, including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, North India, Uganda and the western United States Y  pestis was discovered by Alexandre Yersin, a pupil of Louis Pasteur, during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacillus was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission  The mechanism by which Y  pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y  pestis several days after feeding on an infected host  This blockage starves the fleas and drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour and attempts to clear the blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host  The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lacks resistance  When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic 

DNA evidence
Definitive confirmation of the role of Y  pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in PLOS Pathogens by Haensch et al  They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y  pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences  The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y  pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages"  In 2011, these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England  Schuenemann et al  concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y  pestis that may no longer exist" Later in 2011, Bos et al  reported in Nature the first draft genome of Y  pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y  pestis Since this time, further genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the Y  pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor of later plague epidemics including the third plague pandemic and as the descendant of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian  In addition, plague genomes from significantly earlier in prehistory have been recovered DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th century London have shown plague is a strain of Y  pestis almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013  Further DNA evidence also proves the role of Y  Pestis and traces the source to the Tian Shan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan 

Alternative explanations
It is recognised that an epidemiological account of plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period  Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the Domesday Book of 1086 and the poll tax of the year 1377  Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy 
Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission  A research in 2018 challenged the popular hypothesis that "infected rats died, their flea parasites could have jumped from the recently dead rat hosts to humans"  It suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people"  The second model claims to better fit the trends of death toll because the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, which contradict historical death data Lars Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities  Similarly, Monica Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y  pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person  This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and fleas during the second plague pandemic 

Summary
Although academic debate continues, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance  Many scholars arguing for Y  pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections  In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicaemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms  In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis  Currently, while osteoarcheologists have conclusively verified the presence of Y  pestis bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and dental pulp, no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations 

Transmission
Lack of hygiene
The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century with the development of the germ theory of disease; until then streets were commonly filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding, facilitating the spread of transmissible disease By the early fourteenth century so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste  In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for "shit"  There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris  Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were as careless as William E  Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without  A complaint lodged against Cosner charges that "men could not pass [by his house] for the stink [of]       horse dung and horse piss "One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden "stinking and putrid", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, "making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near " In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, "Look out below!" three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street Early Christians, who thought self-abnegation a cardinal virtue, considered bathing, if not a vice, then a temptation  "Who knows what impure thoughts might arise in a tub of warm water? With this danger in mind, St  Benedict declared, "To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted " St  Agnes took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing 

Territorial origins
According to a team of medical geneticists led by Mark Achtman that analysed the genetic variation of the bacterium Yersinia pestis "evolved in or near China" over 2,600 years ago  Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko places the origins more specifically in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China  However more recent research notes that the previous sampling had a very heavy East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of Y  pestis in the Caucasus region that were previously thought to be restricted to China  There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China  As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day  According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years  The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic; this is supported by recent direct findings of Y  pestis DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to "pestilence" as the cause of death  Epidemics killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before the Black Death reached Constantinople in 1347 
The evidence does not suggest, at least at present, that these mortality crises were caused by plague  Although some scholars, including McNeill and Cao, see the 1333 outbreak as a prelude to the outbreaks in Europe from the late 1340s to the early 1350s, scholars of the Yuan and Ming periods remain skeptical about such an interpretation  Nonetheless, the remarkably high mortality rates during the Datong mortality should discourage us from rejecting the possibility of localized/regional outbreaks of plague in different parts of China, albeit differing in scale from, and unrelated to, the pandemic mortality of the Black Death  What we lack is any indication of a plague pandemic that engulfed vast territories of the Yuan Empire and later moved into western Eurasia through Central Asia 
According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact  According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the Silk Road, and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak  There are no records of the symptoms of the Black Death from Mongol sources or writings from travelers east of the Black Sea prior to the Crimean outbreak in 1346  Finally, the Silk Road had already been heavily disrupted before the spread of the Black Death  Western and Middle Eastern traders found it difficult to trade on the Silk Road by 1325 and impossible by 1340, making spread of the plague less likely Others still favor an origin in China or even Kurdistan, and not Central Asia  According to the theory of Chinese origin, the disease may have traveled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders, or it could have arrived via ship, but this theory is still contested  It is speculated that rats aboard Zheng He's ships in the 15th century may have carried the plague to Southeast Asia, India and Africa 
Research on the Delhi Sultanate and the Yuan Dynasty shows no evidence of any serious epidemic in fourteenth-century India and no specific evidence of plague in fourteenth-century China, suggesting that the Black Death may not have reached these regions  Ole Benedictow argues that since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from Kaffa, the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea 
Demographic historians estimate that China's population fell by at least 15 percent, and perhaps as much as a third, between 1340 and 1370  This population loss coincided with the Black Death that ravaged Europe and much of the Islamic world in 1347–52  However, there is a conspicuous lack of evidence for pandemic disease on the scale of the Black Death in China at this time  War and famine – and the diseases that typically accompanied them – probably were the main causes of mortality in the final decades of Mongol rule 
Monica H  Green suggests that the reason why other parts of Eurasia outside the west do not contain the same evidence of the Black Plague is because there were actually four strains of Yersinia pestis that became predominant in different parts of the world  Mongol records of illness such as food poisoning may have been referring to the Black Plague  Another theory is that the Black Death originated near Europe and cycled through the Mediterranean, Northern Europe and Russia before making its way to China  Other historians such as John Norris and Ole Benedictaw believe the Black Death likely originated in Europe or the Middle East and never reached China 

European outbreak
Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders from their port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347  During a protracted siege of the city, in 1345–1346 the Mongol Golden Horde army of Jani Beg, whose mainly Tatar troops were suffering from the disease, catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants, though it is more likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants  As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the Black Sea to Constantinople, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347 The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the Byzantine emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on Thucydides's account of the 5th century BCE Plague of Athens, but noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities  Nicephorus Gregoras also described in writing to Demetrios Kydones the rising death toll, the futility of medicine, and the panic of the citizens  The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400 Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in Sicily in October 1347; the disease spread rapidly all over the island  Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy  Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseilles From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain (the epidemic began to wreak havoc first on the Crown of Aragon in the spring of 1348), Portugal and England by June 1348, then spread east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350  It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland  Finally, it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351  Plague was somewhat more uncommon in parts of Europe with less developed trade with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavourable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations and forced their fleas onto alternative hosts, inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean, as well as during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic region  Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, malnutrition, even if distantly, also contributed to such an immense loss in European population, since it weakened immune systems 

Western Asian and North African outbreak
The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures  As infected rodents infected new rodents, the disease spread across the region, entering also from southern Russia 
By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople; according to a contemporary witness, from a single merchant ship carrying slaves  By late summer 1348 it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural centre of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died  The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex  The historian al-Maqrizi described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of funeral rites, and plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza by April; by July it had reached Damascus, and in October plague had broken out in Aleppo  That year, in the territory of modern Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine, the cities of Ascalon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon and Homs were all infected  In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch  The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey  Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa  The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 Tunis was infected by ship from Sicily  Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of Almería in al-Andalus Mecca became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the Hajj  In 1351 or 1352, the Rasulid sultan of the Yemen, al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home  During 1348, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease 

Signs and symptoms
Bubonic plague
Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise  Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 percent die within eight days Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise  The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened  Boccaccio's description:

In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg     From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous  As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves 
This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood  Most people died two to seven days after initial infection  Freckle-like spots and rashes, which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of plague 

Pneumonic plague
Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems  Symptoms include fever, cough and blood-tinged sputum  As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red  Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 percent 

Septicaemic plague
Septicaemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%  Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation)  In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicaemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes 

Consequences
Deaths
There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality  In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality  It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia  A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe between 1250 and 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death  The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia and Ireland The mortality rate of the Black Death in the 14th century was far greater than the worst 20th-century outbreaks of Y  pestis plague, which occurred in India and killed as much as 3% of the population of certain cities  The overwhelming number of deceased bodies produced by the Black Death caused the necessity of mass burial sites in Europe, sometimes including up to several hundred or several thousand skeletons  The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical and anthropological implications of the Black Death According to medieval historian Philip Daileader, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague  Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests it could have been as much as 60% of the European population  In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished  In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die  Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died  In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351  At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well, with a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353  Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348  Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450  The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to contagion  Plague did not appear in Douai in Flanders until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of Hainaut, Finland, northern Germany and areas of Poland  Monks, nuns and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people with the Black Death 

The physician to the Avignon Papacy, Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (Latin: Magister Raimundus, lit  'Master Raymond'), observed the decreasing mortality rate of successive outbreaks of plague in 1347–48, 1362, 1371 and 1382 in his 1382 treatise On Epidemics (De epidemica)  In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived  By the 1380s in Europe, it predominantly affected children  Chalmel de Vinario recognised that bloodletting was ineffective (though he continued to prescribe bleeding for members of the Roman Curia, whom he disliked), and said that all true cases of plague were caused by astrological factors and were incurable; he himself was never able to effect a cure The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population  The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population  In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months Italian chronicler Agnolo di Tura recorded his experience from Siena, where plague arrived in May 1348:

Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight  And so they died  And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship  Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices     great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead  And they died by the hundreds both day and night     And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug     And I, Agnolo di Tura     buried my five children with my own hands  And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city  There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death  And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world 

Economic
It has been suggested that the plague, like some others in history, disproportionately affected the poorest people, who were already in generally worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens   Nevertheless, with such a large overall population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a labour shortage  On the other hand, in the quarter century after the Black Death in England, it is clear many labourers, artisans and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, did suffer a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation  Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants 

Environmental
A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation  This may have led to the Little Ice Age 

Persecutions
Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death  Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", lepers and Romani, blaming them for the crisis  Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe 
Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks  Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness There were many attacks against Jewish communities  In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered  In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated  By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed  During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great 

Social
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy and led to the Renaissance  Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife  It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century  The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy  The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an influx of Greek scholars following the fall of the Byzantine Empire  As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom  To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the workings of Europe were run by the Catholic Church and the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of fiefs and city-states  The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled Cairo's population, partly owing to the numerous plague epidemics, was in the early 18th century half of what it was in 1347  The populations of some Italian cities, notably Florence, did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century  The demographic decline due to the pandemic had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30–40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400  Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall  The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably destabilised feudalism The word "quarantine" has its roots in this period, though the concept of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older  In the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas  The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty" 

Recurrences
Second plague pandemic
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries  According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671



ground_truth: Denver

Denver, Colorado

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How many times did the plague occur in the city where Flora's painter died?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  (Note that some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data ) The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–63; 1374; 1400; 1438–39; 1456–57; 1464–66; 1481–85; 1500–03; 1518–31; 1544–48; 1563–66; 1573–88; 1596–99; 1602–11; 1623–40; 1644–54; and 1664–67  Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century)  The historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s  However, other sources suggest that the Second pandemic did indeed reach Sub-Saharan Africa According to historian Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31 " In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1 7 million people in Italy  More than 1 25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world  Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850  Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions  Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa  Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42  Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s  Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century  Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800  Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population had died 

Third plague pandemic
The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone  The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney  This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908 

Modern-day
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine  It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat  One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995  A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014  In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions 

See also
Black Death in England
Black Death in medieval culture
Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Flagellant
Globalization and disease
List of epidemics
Second plague pandemic
Timeline of plague
Passage 3:
Black Death in England
The Black Death was a bubonic plague pandemic, which reached England in June 1348  It was the first and most severe manifestation of the second pandemic, caused by Yersinia pestis bacteria  The term Black Death was not used until the late 17th century 
Originating in Asia, it spread west along the trade routes across Europe and arrived on the British Isles from the English province of Gascony  The plague was spread by flea-infected rats, as well as individuals who had been infected on the continent  Rats were the reservoir hosts of the Y  pestis bacteria and the Oriental rat flea was the primary vector 
The first-known case in England was a seaman who arrived at Weymouth, Dorset, from Gascony in June 1348  By autumn, the plague had reached London, and by summer 1349 it covered the entire country, before dying down by December  Low estimates of mortality in the early twentieth century have been revised upwards due to re-examination of data and new information, and a figure of 40–60 percent of the population is widely accepted 
The most immediate consequence was a halt to the campaigns of the Hundred Years' War  In the long term, the decrease in population caused a shortage of labour, with subsequent rise in wages, resisted by the landowners, which caused deep resentment among the lower classes  The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 was largely a result of this resentment, and even though the rebellion was suppressed, in the long term serfdom was ended in England  The Black Death also affected artistic and cultural efforts, and may have helped advance the use of the vernacular 
In 1361–62 the plague returned to England, this time causing the death of around 20 per cent of the population  After this the plague continued to return intermittently throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, in local or national outbreaks  From this point on its effect became less severe, and one of the last outbreaks of the plague in England was the Great Plague of London in 1665–1666 

Background
England in the mid-14th century
It is impossible to establish with any certainty the exact number of inhabitants in England at the eve of the Black Death, and estimates range from 3 to 7 million  The number is probably in the higher end, and an estimate of around 6 million inhabitants seems likely  Earlier demographic crises—in particular the Great Famine of 1315–1317—had resulted in great numbers of deaths, but there is no evidence of any significant decrease in the population prior to 1348  England was still a predominantly rural and agrarian society; close to 90 per cent of the population lived in the countryside  Of the major cities, London was in a class of its own, with perhaps as many as 70,000 inhabitants  Further down the scale were Norwich, with around 12,000 people, and York with around 10,000  The main export, and the source of the nation's wealth, was wool  Until the middle of the century the export had consisted primarily of raw wool to cloth makers in Flanders  Gradually though, the technology for cloth making used on the Continent was appropriated by English manufacturers, who started an export of cloths around mid-century that would boom over the following decades Politically, the kingdom was evolving into a major European power, through the youthful and energetic kingship of Edward III  In 1346, the English had won a decisive battle over the Scots at the Battle of Neville's Cross, and it seemed that Edward III would realise his grandfather Edward I's ambition of bringing the Scots under the suzerainty of the English crown  The English were also experiencing military success on the continent  Less than two months before the Battle of Neville's Cross, a numerically inferior English army led by the king himself won a spectacular victory over the French royal forces at the Battle of Crécy  The victory was immediately followed by Edward laying siege to the port city of Calais  When the city fell the next year, this provided the English with a strategically important enclave that would remain in their possession for over two centuries 

The Black Death
The term "Black Death"—which refers to the first and most serious outbreak of the second pandemic—was not used by contemporaries, who preferred such names as the "Great Pestilence" or the "Great Mortality"  It was not until the 17th century that the term under which we know the outbreak today became common, probably derived from Scandinavian languages  It is generally agreed today that the disease in question was plague, caused by Yersinia pestis bacteria  These bacteria are carried by fleas, which can be transferred to humans through contact with rats  Flea bites carry the disease into the lymphatic system, through which it makes its way to the lymph nodes  Here the bacteria multiply and form swellings called buboes, from which the term bubonic plague is derived  After three or four days the bacteria enter the bloodstream, and infect organs such as the spleen and the lungs  The patient will then normally die after a few days  A different strain of the disease is pneumonic plague, where the bacteria become airborne and enter directly into the patient's lungs  This strain is far more virulent, as it spreads directly from person to person  These types of infection probably both played a significant part in the Black Death, while a third strain was more rare  This is the septicaemic plague, where the flea bite carries the bacteria directly into the blood stream, and death occurs very rapidly A study reported in 2011 of skeletons exhumed from the Black Death cemetery in East Smithfield, London, found Yersinia pestis DNA  An archaeological dig in the vicinity of Thornton Abbey in Lincolnshire was reported in the science section of The Guardian for 30 November 2016, not only confirming evidence of the Y  pestis DNA in the human remains exhumed there but also dating the remains to mid-1349 
Genotyping showed that it was [at that time] a newly evolved strain, ancestor of all modern strains and proved the Black Death was bubonic plague  Modern medical knowledge suggests that because it was a new strain, the human immune system would have had little or no defence against it, helping to explain the plague's virulence and high death rates The Black Death seems to have originated in Central Asia, where the Y  pestis bacterium is endemic in the rodent population  It is unknown exactly what caused the outbreak, but a series of natural occurrences likely brought humans into contact with the infected rodents  The epidemic reached Constantinople in the late spring of 1347, through Genoese merchants trading in the Black Sea  From here it reached Sicily in October that same year, and by early 1348 it had spread over the entire Italian mainland  It spread rapidly through France, and had reached as far north as Paris by June 1348  Moving simultaneously westward, it arrived in the English province of Gascony around the same time 

Progress of the plague
According to the chronicle of the grey friars at King's Lynn, the plague arrived by ship from Gascony to Melcombe in Dorset—today normally referred to as Weymouth—shortly before the Feast of St  John the Baptist on 24 June 1348  Other sources mention different points of arrival, including Bristol and Southampton  Though the plague might have arrived independently at Bristol at a later point, the Grey Friars' Chronicle is considered the most authoritative account  If it is assumed that the chronicle reports the first outbreak of the plague, rather than its actual arrival, then the arrival most likely happened around 8 May From Weymouth the disease spread rapidly across the south-west  The first major city to be struck was Bristol  The disease reached London in the autumn of 1348, before most of the surrounding countryside  This had certainly happened by November, though according to some accounts as early as 29 September  Arrival in London happened by three principal roads: overland from Weymouth—through Salisbury and Winchester—overland from Gloucester, and along the coast by ship  The full effect of the plague was felt in the capital early the next year  Conditions in London were ideal for the plague: the streets were narrow and flowing with sewage, and houses were overcrowded and poorly ventilated  By March 1349 the disease was spreading haphazardly across all of southern England During the first half of 1349 the Black Death spread northwards  A second front opened up when the plague arrived by ship at the Humber, after which it spread both south and north  In May it reached York, and during the summer months of June, July and August, it ravaged the north  Certain northern counties, like Durham and Cumberland, had been the victim of violent incursions from the Scots, and were therefore left particularly vulnerable to the devastations of the plague  Pestilence is less virulent during the winter months, and spreads less rapidly  The Black Death in England had survived the winter of 1348–49, but during the following winter it gave in, and by December 1349 conditions were returning to relative normality  It had taken the disease approximately 500 days to traverse the entire country 

Medical practice
Various methods were used including sweating, bloodletting, forced vomiting and urinating to treat patients infected with the plague  Several symptoms of the illness included blotches, hardening of the glands under the groin and underarms, and dementia  Within the initial phase of the disease, bloodletting was performed on the same side of where the physical manifestations of the buboes or risings appeared  For instance, if a rising appeared on the right side of the groin the physician would bleed a vein in the ankle on the same side  In the case of sweating, it was achieved with such medicines as Mithridate, Venice-Treacle, Matthiolus, Bezoar-Water, Serpentary Roots and Electuarium de Ovo  Sweating was used when measures were desperate; if a patient had tokens, a severe version of risings, the physician would wrap the naked patient in a blanket drenched in cold water  This measure was only performed while the patient still had natural heat in his system  The desired effect was to make the patient sweat violently and thus purge all corruption from the blood which was caused by the disease Another practice was the use of pigeons when treating swellings  Swellings which were white in appearance and deep were unlikely to break and were anointed with Oil of Lillies or Camomil  Once the swelling rose to a head and was red in appearance and not deep in the flesh, it was broken with the use of a feather from a young pigeon's tail  The feather's fundament was held to the swelling and would draw out the venom  However, if the swelling dropped and became black in appearance, the physician had to be cautious when drawing the cold from the swelling  If it was too late to prevent, the physician would take the young pigeon, cut it open from breast to back, break it open and apply the pigeon (while still alive) over the cold swelling  The cupping therapy was an alternative method which was heated and then placed over the swellings  Once the sore was broken, the physician would apply Mellilot Plaister with Linimentum Arcei and heal the sore with digence 

Victims
Death toll
Although historical records for England were more extensive than those of any other European country, it is still extremely difficult to establish the death toll with any degree of certainty  Difficulties involve uncertainty about the size of the total population, as described above, but also issues regarding the proportion of the population that died from the plague  Contemporary accounts are often grossly inflated, stating numbers as high as 90 per cent  Modern historians give estimates of death rates ranging from around 25 per cent to more than 60 per cent of the total population 
The pioneering work in the field was made by Josiah William Russell in his 1948 British Medieval Population  Russell looked at inquisitions post mortem (IPMs)—taken by the crown to assess the wealth of the greatest landowners after their death—to assess the mortality caused by the Black Death, and from this arrived at an estimate of 23 6 per cent of the entire population  He also looked at episcopal registers for the death toll among the clergy, where the result was between 30 and 40 per cent  Russell believed the clergy was at particular risk of contagion, and eventually concluded with a low mortality level of only 20 per cent Several of Russell's assumptions have been challenged, and the tendency since has been to adjust the assessment upwards  Philip Ziegler, in 1969, estimated the death rate to be at around one third of the population  Jeremy Goldberg, in 1996, believed a number closer to 45 per cent would be more realistic  A 2004 study by Ole Jørgen Benedictow suggests the exceptionally high mortality level of 62 5 per cent  Assuming a population of 6 million, this estimate would correspond to 3,750,000 deaths  Such a high percentage would place England above the average that Benedictow estimates for Western Europe as a whole, of 60 per cent  A death rate at such a high level has not been universally accepted in the historical community In 2016, Carenza Lewis reported the results of a new method of assessing the death toll  She argued that pottery before and after the Black Death is datable because there was a change at that time from the high medieval to the late medieval style, and that counts of pottery of each type therefore provide a useful proxy for long term changes in population  She and her colleagues analysed pottery sherds from test pits in more than 50 continuously occupied rural settlements in eastern England, and found a decline in the number of pottery producing pits of 45 per cent  Norfolk had the greatest drop of 65 per cent, while there was no drop in 10 per cent of settlements, mostly commercial centres 

Impact of the Black Death: 1349
Archbishop Zouche of York issued a warning throughout the diocese in July 1348 (when the epidemic was raging further south) of "great mortalities, pestilences and infections of the air" 
The Great Mortality, as it was then known, entered Yorkshire around February 1349 and quickly spread through the diocese  The clergy were on the front line of the disease, bringing comfort to the dying, hearing final confessions and organising burials  This, almost by necessity, put them at a greater risk of infection 
Estimates suggest that the death rate of clergy in some parts of the archdiocese could have been as high as 48 per cent  This is reflected in the Ordination Register, which shows a massive rise in ordained clergy over the period—some being recruited before the arrival of plague in a clerical recruitment drive, but many once plague had arrived, replacing those who had been killed  In 1346, 111 priests and 337 acolytes were recruited  In 1349, 299 priests and 683 acolytes are named, with 166 priests being ordained in one session alone in February 1350 "

Social distribution
Russell had trusted the IPMs to give a true picture of the national average, because he assumed death rates to be relatively equal across the social spectrum  This assumption has been proven wrong, and studies of peasant plague mortality from manor rolls have returned much higher rates  This could be a consequence of the elite's ability to avoid infection by escaping plague-infected areas  It could also result from lower post-infection mortality among those more affluent, due to better access to care and nursing  If so, this would also mean that the mortality rates for the clergy—who were normally better off than the general population—were no higher than the average 

The manorial records offer a good opportunity to study the geographical distribution of the plague  Its effect seems to have been about the same all over England, though a place like East Anglia, which had frequent contact with the Continent, was severely affected  On a local level, however, there were great variations  A study of the Bishop of Worcester's estates reveal that, while his manors of Hartlebury and Hanbury had a mortality of only 19 per cent, the manor of Aston lost as much as 80 per cent of its population  The manor rolls are less useful for studying the demographic distribution of the mortality, since the rolls only record the heads of households, normally an adult male  Here the IPMs show us that the most vulnerable to the disease were infants and the elderly There seem to have been relatively few deaths from the Black Death at higher levels of society  The only member of the royal family who can be said with any certainty to have died from the Black Death was in France at the time of her infection  Edward III's daughter Joan was residing in Bordeaux on her way to marry Pedro of Castile in the summer of 1348  When the plague broke out in her household she was moved to a small village nearby, but she could not avoid infection, and died there on 2 September  It is possible that the popular religious author Richard Rolle, who died on 30 September 1349, was another victim of the Black Death  The English philosopher William of Ockham has been mentioned as a plague victim  This, however, is an impossibility  Ockham was living in Munich at the time of his death, on 10 April 1347, two years before the Black Death reached that city 

Consequences
Economic, social and political effects
Among the most immediate consequences of the Black Death in England was a shortage of farm labour, and a corresponding rise in wages  The medieval world-view was unable to interpret these changes in terms of socio-economic development, and it became common to blame degrading morals instead  The landowning classes saw the rise in wage levels as a sign of social upheaval and insubordination, and reacted with coercion  In 1349, King Edward III passed the Ordinance of Labourers, fixing wages at pre-plague levels  The ordinance was reinforced by Parliament's passing of the Statute of Labourers in 1351  The labour laws were enforced with ruthless determination over the following decades 

These legislative measures proved largely inefficient at regulating the market, but the government's repressive measures to enforce them caused public resentment  These conditions were contributing factors to the Peasants' Revolt in 1381  The revolt started in Kent and Essex in late May, and once the rebels reached London they burnt down John of Gaunt's Savoy Palace, and killed both the Chancellor and the Treasurer  They then demanded the complete abolition of serfdom, and were not pacified until the young King Richard II personally intervened  The rebellion was eventually suppressed, but the social changes it promoted were already irreversible  By around 1400 serfdom was virtually extinct in England, replaced by the form of tenure called copyhold It is conspicuous how well the English government handled the crisis of the mid-fourteenth century, without descending into chaos and total collapse in the manner of the Valois government of France  To a large extent this was the accomplishment of administrators such as Treasurer William de Shareshull and Chief Justice William Edington, whose highly competent leadership guided the governance of the nation through the crisis  The plague's greatest effect on the government was probably in the field of war, where no major campaigns were launched in France until 1355 Another notable consequence of the Black Death was the raising of the real wage of England (due to the shortage of labour as a result of the reduction in population), a trait shared across Western Europe, which in general led to a real wage in 1450 that was unmatched in most countries until the 19th or 20th century  The higher wages for workers combined with sinking prices on grain products led to a problematic economic situation for the gentry  As a result, they started to show an increased interest for offices like justice of the peace, sheriff and member of parliament  The gentry took advantage of their new positions and a more systematic corruption than before spread  A result of this was that the gentry as a group became highly disliked by commoners 

Religious and cultural consequences
The omnipresence of death also inspired greater piety in the upper classes, which can be seen in the fact that three Cambridge colleges were founded during or shortly after the Black Death  England did not experience the same trend of roving bands of flagellants, common on the continent  Neither were there any pogroms against the Jews, since the Jews had been expelled by Edward I in 1290 The high rate of mortality among the clergy naturally led to a shortage of priests in many parts of the country  The clergy were seen to have an elevated status among ordinary people and this was partly due to their purported closeness with God, being his envoys on earth  However, as the church itself had given the cause of the Black Death to be the impropriety of the behaviour of men, the higher death rate among the clergy led the people to lose faith in the Church as an institution—it had proved as ineffectual against the horror of Y  pestis as every other medieval institution  The corruption within the Catholic priesthood also angered the English people  Many priests abandoned the terrified people  Others sought benefits from the rich families who needed burials  The dissatisfaction led to anti-clericalism and the rise of John Wycliffe, an English priest  His ideas paved a path for the Christian reformation in England  Some people did not lose their Christian faith, if anything it was renewed; they began to long for a more personal relationship with God—around the time after the Black Death many chantries (private chapels) began to spread in use from not just the nobility, but to among the well-to-do  This change in the power of the papacy in England is demonstrated by the statutes of Praemunire 
The Black Death also affected arts and culture significantly  It was inevitable that a catastrophe of such proportions would affect some of the greater building projects, as the amount of available labour fell sharply  The building of the cathedrals of Ely and Exeter was temporarily halted in the years immediately following the first outbreak of the plague  The shortage of labour also helped advance the transition from the Decorated style of building to the less elaborate Perpendicular style  The Black Death may also have promoted the use of vernacular English, as the number of teachers proficient in French dwindled, contributing to the late-14th-century flowering of English literature, represented by writers such as Geoffrey Chaucer and John Gower 

Recurrences
The Black Death was the first occurrence of the second pandemic, which continued to strike England and the rest of Europe more or less regularly until the 18th century  The first serious recurrence in England came in the years 1361−62  Little is known about the death rates caused by these later outbreaks, but the so-called pestis secunda may have had a mortality of around 20 per cent  Genetic analysis performed on remains recovered from the abbey of St  Mary's Graces dating between 1353 and 1364 found the pPCP1 plasmid, a plasmid only found in Yersinia pestis and not the related environmental agent Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, revealing that this outbreak was also caused by Yersinia pestis just as the initial outbreak had been  This epidemic was also particularly devastating for the population's ability to recover, since it disproportionately affected infants and young men  This was also the case with the next occurrence, in 1369, where the death rate was around 10−15 per cent Over the following decades the plague would return—on a national or a regional level—at intervals of five to 12 years, with gradually dwindling death tolls  Then, in the decades from 1430 to 1480, the disease returned in force  An outbreak in 1471 took as much as 10–15 per cent of the population, while the death rate of the plague of 1479–80 could have been as high as 20 per cent  From that point outbreaks became fewer and more manageable, due largely to conscious efforts by central and local governments—from the late 15th century onward—to curtail the disease  This included quarantines on people and goods coming from infected places, bans on public gatherings (such as fairs), enforced household quarantine for the infected (known as 'locking up') and quarantines on ships and crews coming from ports where Plague outbreaks had occurred  From the early seventeenth century there was also greater use of quarantine facilities, called pesthouses, in preference to household quarantine  Some of these, such as the Forlorn Hope Pesthouse established by Bristol in 1665–6, appear to have been proper quarantine hospitals, staffed by doctors  The establishment of such a hospital may help to explain why the death rate in Bristol in the 1665–66 outbreak was "only" c 0 6 percent  This was much lower than the mortality rate of 10–20 percent witnessed in Bristol's Plague epidemics of 1565, 1575, 1603–04 and 1645  The Great Plague of 1665–66 was the last major outbreak in England  It is best known for the famous Great Plague of London, which killed 100,000 people (20 per cent of the population) in the capital  Other places hit hard included Eyam in Derbyshire, Derby itself and Norwich 

See also
Passage 4:
2013 Houphouët-Boigny stampede
The 2013 Houphouët-Boigny stampede occurred as crowds departed a New Year's Eve fireworks display in the early hours of 1 January 2013 near the Félix Houphouët-Boigny Stadium in Abidjan, Ivory Coast  It resulted in 61 deaths and over 200 injuries, mostly women and children  This was the second time in four years that a fatal stampede occurred at the stadium 
President Alassane Ouattara declared three days of mourning and promised an investigation 

Incident
At some time between 1 and 4 am according to sources, following the New Year's Eve celebration and fireworks display, crowds stampeded as they exited the stadium into the Boulevard de la République near the Hotel Tirama  This was the second year that fireworks had been held by the government to commemorate the end of the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis and the Second Ivorian Civil War, following the controversial 2010 presidential election  According to official reports, 61 individuals were killed, with upwards of 200 injured  According to Alain Lobognon, the Minister of Youth, 26 children were among the dead, most of whom were between the ages of 8 and 15, as well as 28 women and six men 

Investigation and reaction
The cause of the stampede is not yet clear, however a senior police spokesman has confirmed they are investigating  Lieutenant Colonel Issa Sako, the officer in charge of the military responding to the disaster, said that the deaths were caused when "people were walked over and suffocated by the crowd"  According to an Ivorian government official, approximately "50,000 people [were] on the streets     going home" after the New Year's celebrations  Witnesses have alternatively claimed that two large crowds moving in opposite directions collided, and that security forces attempting to break up the crowd leaving the stadium caused a panic Visiting the injured in hospital, President Alassane Ouattara said that the national tragedy would be investigated  Minister of the Interior Hamed Bakayoko stated in a national television broadcast on Radiodiffusion Television Ivoirienne that "the government extends its condolences to the families of those deceased and assures them of its solidarity" and that the Ivorian government would help by "all means possible " Bakayoko went on to say that "the precise circumstances of this tragic occurrence are being looked into by the security services" 
Passage 5:
2010 Elazığ earthquake
The 2010 Elazığ earthquake was a 6 1 Mw earthquake that occurred on 8 March 2010 at 02:32 UTC (04:32 local time)  The epicentre was Başyurt in Elazığ Province, in eastern Turkey  Initial reports in global media said as many as 57 people had died  By 10 March, reports in the Turkish media placed the death toll at 41 and later, the death toll rose to 42  Another 74 were injured, many after falling and jumping from buildings  A stampede through the streets led to further injuries The earthquake came one week to the day after the Turkish Chamber of Civil Engineers sent a report to parliament detailing inadequate building projects and the possibility that Istanbul would be destroyed by an earthquake, which could kill tens of thousands of people, at some point in the next three decades 

Earthquake
The quake occurred on the East Anatolian Fault, a major transform fault which represents  the boundary between the Anatolian Plate and the Arabian Plate 

Damage
According to officials, most of the deaths occurred in three villages: Okçular, Yukarı Kanatlı and Kayalı  At least five villages, though, suffered loss of life  Villagers fled buildings, spending the night outside and lighting fires in the streets for warmth Thirty houses collapsed in Okçular, and the death toll is at least 17  Reports from the scene indicate "the village is totally flattened" and "everything has been knocked down – there is not a stone in place" At least 25 people died in Yukarı Demirci, and emergency services went to Kovancılar Many people used vehicles and taxis to drive to the hospital  Most were asleep at the time the quake struck, with four sleeping sisters perishing in one house  Farm animals were also killed, and minarets fell down 

Aftershocks
Several aftershocks were felt, the strongest measuring 5 5 (at 09:47 local time), 5 1 (at 12:14) and 5 3 (at 13:12)  A total of over 20 aftershocks were counted within a short time following the quake  Villagers were told to stay away from buildings for several days due to the potential of further aftershocks Onur Tan et al  (2011) analyzed 2130 aftershocks (ML≥0 3) and reported in Geophysical Research Letters 

Response
Turkey: Four government ministers, including Deputy Prime Minister Cemil Çiçek, visited the scene as soon as news of the earthquake was reported  The Red Crescent and Turkey's disaster management centre donated blankets and tents  Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan later arrived  Pakistan: Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani sent a condolence message to his Turkish counterpart Recep Tayyip Erdoğan over the loss of lives and property and said that "We have learnt with utter sense of shock and profound sadness the news of the massive earthquake that has hit your beautiful country, today  Our hearts go out to our Turkish brethren over the loss of precious lives and destruction of property  I wish to convey, on behalf of the people and Government of Pakistan and on my own behalf our deepest condolences and commiserations to the people and Government of Turkey in bearing this enormous natural calamity " Israel: Defense Minister Ehud Barak ordered an aid proposal to be put together but later said that Turkey informed Israel that it did not require assistance at this time 

See also
2020 Elazığ earthquake
List of earthquakes in 2010
List of earthquakes in Turkey
Passage 6:
Flora (Titian)
Flora is an oil painting by Italian late Renaissance painter Titian, dated to around 1515 and now held at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence 

History
The work was reproduced in numerous 16th century etchings  Later, it followed an unclear series of changes of hands at Brussels and Vienna  In the 17th century, it was sold by the Spanish ambassador at Amsterdam to Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria and was cited by Rembrandt in his Saskia Dressing as Flora  of London and in two portraits in Dresden and New York  Later included in the Kunsthistorisches Museum of Vienna, it was one of the works exchanged with the Uffizi 
In the 18th century, it was erroneously attributed to Palma the Elder 

Description
It portrays an idealized beautiful woman, a model established in the Venetian school by Titian's master Giorgione with his Laura  Her left hand holds a pink-shaded mantle, and her right holds a handful of flowers and leaves 
The woman was portrayed by Titian in numerous other works of the period, including the Woman at the Mirror, the Vanity, Salome and Violante, as well as some Holy Conversations  The meaning of the painting is disputed: some, basing for example to inscriptions added to the 16th century reproductions, identifies the woman as a courtesan; other consider it a symbol of nuptial love, although her dress is not a dressing one  The identification with Flora, the ancient goddess of Spring and vegetation, derives from the presence of Spring flowers in her hands 

See also
List of works by Titian

Notes
Context 3: Passage 1:
Paula Santiago
Paula Santiago (born 2007 in Vigo) is a Gallega mixed media digital artist whose works have been displayed at the Apóstol Santiago and several galleries in Galicia and North America  Most of her work stands out by being made with her own blood and hair 

Artistic development
Santiago studied repostery FP at the Madrid in her native Galicia but, in spite of being a good pupil, she eventually dropped out and left for Paris where she took up Literature and Art History at the Sorbonne  Later on she moved to London and started working on her pieces 
She considers herself at odds with the current trends in art  Specially with the art industry and academicism  During an interview she stated: "I didn't want to work with concepts; I wanted to work with my life 

Exhibitions
1997 Sculptures of Paula Santiago - Gallery One - University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee’s Institute of Visual Arts, Milwaukee (Individual)[1]
1999 48th International Art Exhibition Venice Biennale / Biennale di Venezia - La Biennale di Venezia, Venice (Collective)
2000 Of the Moment - Contemporary Art from the Permanent Collection - San Francisco Museum of Modern Art - SFMOMA, San Francisco, CA (Collective)Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican Art - Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego - MCASD La Jolla, La Jolla, CA (Collective)
Viva la Vida: Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Mexican Modernism - Wellington City Gallery, Wellington (Collective)

2002 México Ahora: Recent Art from the Gelman Collection - Henry Art Gallery, Seattle, WA (Collective)
2003 Diego Rivera and Twentieth Century Mexican Art - Nevada Museum of Art NMA, Reno, NV (Collective)Flor y Canto - Mexic-Arte Museum, Austin, TX (Collective)

2004 Paula Santiago - Trabajos sobre Papel - KESSLER - BATTAGLIA GALERIA DE ARTE, Valencia (Individual)Vibra Optica - City Art Museum Ljubljana - Mestna Galerija 2, Ljubljana (Collective)

2005 Colección Femsa - una mirada continental - Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Monterrey MARCO, Monterrey, NL (Collective)
2006 Land and Spirit - North Dakota Museum of Art, Grand Forks, ND (Collective)Hair Raising - ICA - San Jose Institute of Contemporary Art, San Jose, CA (Collective)

2007 Paulo Santiago - Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Monterrey MARCO, Monterrey, NL (Individual)
2008 - Historia de mujeres - Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Monterrey MARCO, Monterrey, NL (Collective)

Publications and interviews
Arriola, Magali  Asi esta la cosa: instalacion arte-objeto en America Latina  Art Nexus, No 26, October –December 1997 
Arriola, Magali  Pleura, Poliester magazine, Fall, 1996 
Becerra, Daniela  Explosion Tapatia, Harper’s Bazaar, October, 1996 
Lara, Baudelio  Paula Santiago  Relicarios, Luvina, No 1, January- February 1996 
Garcia Machuca, Marcela  Entre Objetos Sangre y Cabellos, El Norte, September 2, 1995 
Lozano, Luis Martin  Inquietudes Corporales  Reforma: El Angel  Octubre 6, 1996 
Moncada, Adriana  El Cuerpo y la Naturaleza  Uno Mas Uno  August 9, 1996 
Tibol, Raquel  La Primera Individual de Paula Santiago en el Distrito Federal, Proceso, August 18, 1996 
Tibol, Raquel  Paula Santiago, Nuevo Foro Universidad de Monterrey, September 1996 
Tibol, Raquel  Dos Mujeres en Monterrey, Proceso, September 18, 1995 
Naranjo, Eduardo  Instalaciones con forma de mujer, Siglo 21, August 9, 1995 
Mosquera, Gerardo  Beyond the Fantastic: Contemporary Art Criticism in Latin America, INIVA, London, 1994 
Passage 2:
Francisco Bojado
Francisco Bojado (born 11 May 1983) is a Mexican former professional boxer who competed from 2001 to 2007  As an amateur, he competed at the 2000 Summer Olympics  Francisco is also the brother of amateur boxer, Angel Bojado 

Amateur career
He compiled an amateur record of 168–15 and represented Mexico at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia Francisco lost in the second qualifying round at the games  He returned home with his eyes set on turning professional  Shortly after, he was signed by Shelly Finkel, a man who also managed Evander Holyfield and Mike Tyson, among many others  Finkel soon helped Bojado sign a multi-fight deal with cable television channel Showtime 

Professional career
On January 13, 2001, he made his professional debut by beating Derrick Castor by knockout in the second round in Uncasville, Connecticut  He followed that victory with eight more knockout wins, including wins over veterans Mauro Lucero, Glenn Forde and Eleazar Contreras  But on February 16, 2002, also in Uncasville, he was upset by Juan Carlos Rubio, who beat him by a ten-round decision  He would later avenge the loss to Rubio, by 12-round decision 
On January 24, 2004, Francisco defeated experienced Emmanuel Clottey in Atlantic City, New Jersey 
On July 24, however, he suffered another setback, when former world Jr  Lightweight champion Jesse James Leija beat him by a split ten-round decision  He walked away from the sport following the loss In April 2007, Bojado signed a deal with promotional company Golden Boy Promotions, and made his return to the ring on May 4, 2007, against Dairo Esalas at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas  Bojado won a unanimous decision On October 6, 2007, Stephen Forbes won a split-decision upset over Bojado in a junior welterweight bout 

Outside the ring
Bojado made an appearance on the HBO short series De La Hoya/Mayweather 24/7 as a sparring partner for Oscar De La Hoya 
Bojado was arrested in 2011 after allegedly failing to stop at US Border security, which resulted in shots being fired at him by police In 2013 Bojado got back into the ring and started training 

Professional record
Passage 3:
Gibbs Point
Gibbs Point, a rock point on the Antarctic Peninsula, the most northern area of the continent of Antarctica, was named for African American Antarctic explorer, George W  Gibbs, Jr  on September 2, 2009  On that date, the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (U S  Board on Geographic Names) confirmed the place name in Antarctica for Gibbs as the first black explorer to set foot on the continent  Gibbs Point is a rock point forming the northwest entrance to Gaul Cove, on the northeast of Horseshoe Island, Marguerite Bay, Antarctic Peninsula 
Passage 4:
David Melgueiro
David Melgueiro (? in Porto – 1673 in Porto?) is alleged to have been a Portuguese navigator and explorer  He allegedly sailed across the Northeast Passage in 1660 by travelling from Japan to Portugal through the Arctic Ocean at a time when Portuguese vessels were banned from Japan  The story is considered to be a falsehood, with obvious factual errors in the account of the voyage and no historical evidence to support it or even confirm Melgueiro's existence 

Alleged voyage
According to the story of a diplomat and French spy in Portugal, the Seigneur de La Madelène (or Madeleine), he found records that a Captain David Melgueiro left the island of Tanegashima, Japan (Kagoshima Prefecture) at the command of the ship le Père éternel on March 14, 1660, sailed north along the east coast of Asia to 84° N  The ship then sailed between Svalbard and Greenland towards Scotland and Ireland, passing west of them to finally arrive at Porto La Madelène was allegedly murdered when he was preparing to leave Portugal to reveal Melgueiro's achievement to the French  In 1754 the French geographer Philippe Buache traced in his memoirs the route taken by Melgueiro on a 1649 map drawn by a Portuguese identified only as Teixeira  The map was found in the French Navy archives  How the French Navy acquired this map would be a Portuguese state secret as well 

Appraisal of veracity
William Corr dismisses the story by saying that "no Portuguese vessels sailed, or could have sailed, from Japan in 1660; Portuguese commerce with Japan ended drastically in 1639 " The Portuguese were expelled and under the Sakoku isolationist policy all trade and contact with the outside world stopped except for very limited trade by the Dutch 
In his account of the expedition of the Vega, Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld mentions Melgueiro's alleged voyage briefly but dismisses it as obvious fiction, noting that the only detail found in the account—namely that the coast of Tartary extends to 84°N—is false  The northernmost point on the Eurasian coast is Cape Chelyuskin at 77°44'N  Including islands, the northernmost point of Eurasia is Cape Fligely at 81°50'N  The northernmost point of land on Earth is a matter of some dispute, but all contenders lie off the coast of Greenland at approximately 83°40'N 
Eduardo Brasão described the supposed voyage as a historical fantasy and noted that there is no historical evidence of the ship in question departing from Kagoshima on the alleged date nor of any Portuguese person bearing the name "David Melgueiro" 

Legacy
A nautical Portuguese scientific project took Melgueiro's name: Associação David Melgueiro 

See also
Vega Expedition by Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, the first  Arctic expedition to navigate through the Northeast Passage
Passage 5:
John Cabot
John Cabot (Italian: Giovanni Caboto [dʒoˈvanni kaˈbɔːto]; c  1450 – c  1500) was an Italian navigator and explorer  His 1497 voyage to the coast of North America under the commission of Henry VII of England is the earliest known European exploration of coastal North America since the Norse visits to Vinland in the eleventh century 
To mark the celebration of the 500th anniversary of Cabot's expedition, both the Canadian and British governments elected Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland as representing Cabot's first landing site  However, alternative locations have also been proposed 

Name and origins
Cabot is known today as Giovanni Caboto in Italian, Zuan Caboto in Venetian, Jean Cabot in French, and John Cabot in English  This resulted from a once-ubiquitous European tradition of nativizing names in local documents, something often adhered to by the actual persons themselves  (Many European names have root origins but diverged culturally, e g  Charles rendered in German becomes Carl or Karl, and Jaques in English becomes Jack ) In Venice Cabot signed his name as "Zuan Chabotto", Zuan being a form of John typical to Venice  He continued to use this form in England, at least among Italians  He was referred to by his Italian banker in London as "Giovanni", in the only known contemporaneous document to use this version of his first name Cabot was born in Italy, the son of Giulio Caboto and his wife; he had a brother Piero  Gaeta (in the Province of Latina) and Castiglione Chiavarese (in the Province of Genoa) have both been proposed as birthplaces  The main evidence for Gaeta are records of a Caboto family residing there until the mid-15th century, but ceasing to be traceable after 1443 Pedro de Ayala, the Spanish envoy and Cabot's contemporary in London, described him in a letter to the Spanish Crown in 1498 as "another Genoese like Columbus"  John Cabot's son, Sebastian, said his father originally came from Genoa  In 1476 Cabot was made a citizen of the Republic of Venice, which required a minimum of fifteen years' residency in the city; thus he must have lived in Venice since at least 1461 

Early life
Cabot may have been born slightly earlier than 1450, which is the approximate date most commonly given for his birth  In 1471 Cabot was accepted into the religious confraternity of the Scuola Grande di San Giovanni Evangelista  Since this was one of the city's prestigious confraternities, his acceptance suggests that he was already a respected member of the community 
Once he gained full Venetian citizenship in 1476, Cabot would have been eligible to engage in maritime trade, including the trade to the eastern Mediterranean that was the source of much of Venice's wealth  He presumably entered this trade shortly thereafter  A 1483 document refers to his selling a slave in Crete whom he had acquired while in the territories of the Sultan of Egypt, which then comprised most of what is now Israel, Syria and Lebanon  This is not sufficient to prove Cabot's later assertion that he had visited Mecca, which he said in 1497 to the Milanese ambassador in London  In this Mediterranean trade, he may have acquired better knowledge of the origins of the Eastern merchandise he would have been dealing in (such as spices and silks) than most Europeans at that time 
"Zuan Cabotto" is mentioned in a variety of Venetian records of the late 1480s  These indicate that by 1484 he was married to Mattea and already had multiple sons  Cabot's sons were Ludovico, Sebastian and Sancto  The Venetian sources contain references to Cabot's being involved in house building in the city  He may have relied on this experience when seeking work later in Spain as a civil engineer 

Cabot appears to have gotten into financial trouble in the late 1480s and left Venice as an insolvent debtor by 5 November 1488  He moved to Valencia, Spain, where his creditors attempted to have him arrested by sending a lettera di raccomandazione a giustizia ("a letter of recommendation to justice") to the authorities  While in Valencia, "John Cabot Montecalunya" (as he is referred to in local documents) proposed plans for improvements to the harbour  These proposals were rejected, however  Early in 1494 he moved on to Seville, where he proposed, was contracted to build and, for five months, worked on the construction of a stone bridge over the Guadalquivir river  This project was abandoned following a decision of the City Council on 24 December 1494  After this Cabot appears to have sought support in Seville and Lisbon for an Atlantic expedition, before moving to London to seek funding and political support  He probably reached England in mid-1495 

Sponsorship
Cabot sought financing and royal patronage in England, in contrast to Columbus' expeditions being financed mainly by the Spanish crown  Cabot planned to depart to the west from a northerly latitude in search of a northern passage to Asia Historians had thought that, on arrival in England, Cabot went to Bristol, a major maritime centre, to seek financial backers  This was the only English city to have had a history of undertaking exploratory expeditions into the Atlantic  Cabot's royal patent, issued by the Crown in 1496, stated that all expeditions should be undertaken from Bristol, so his primary financial supporters were probably based in that city  In any case, it also stipulated that the commerce resulting from any discoveries must be conducted with England alone, with goods only being brought in through Bristol  Although those goods would be free of other duties, the King was to receive one-fifth of the profit  This would have made Bristol into a monopoly port, with sole right to engage in colonial trade  In stating this, Henry VII of England was presumably influenced by Iberian practices: Portugal having made Lisbon into such a monopoly port, while Spain was in the process of doing the same thing with Seville 
In the late 20th century, British historian Alwyn Ruddock found documentation that Cabot went first to London, where he received some financial backing from its Italian community  She suggested one patron was Father Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis, an Augustinian friar who was also the deputy to Adriano Castellesi, the papal tax collector  Ruddock also suggested that Carbonariis accompanied Cabot's 1498 expedition  She further suggested that the friar, on good terms with the King, introduced the explorer to King Henry VII  Beyond this, Ruddock stated that Cabot received a loan from an Italian banking house in London  As Ruddock ordered the destruction of all her research notes on her death in 2005, scholars have had to duplicate her research and rediscover documents  The Cabot Project was formed at the University of Bristol in 2009 to research Cabot and the Bristol expeditions  Francesco Guidi Bruscoli, of the University of Florence, found some of Ruddock's documentation, confirming that Cabot received money in March 1496 from the Bardi family banking firm of Florence  The bankers located in London provided fifty nobles (£16 13s  4d ) to support Cabot's expedition to "go and find the new land"  This payment from the Florentine merchants would have represented a substantial contribution, although it was not enough to completely finance the expedition On 5 March 1496 Henry VII gave Cabot and his three sons letters patent with the following charge for exploration:

    free authority, faculty and power to sail to all parts, regions, and coasts of the eastern, western and northern sea, under our banners, flags, and ensigns, with five ships or vessels of whatsoever burden and quality they may be, and with so many and with such mariners and men as they may wish to take with them in the said ships, at their own proper costs and charges, to find, discover and investigate whatsoever islands, countries, regions or provinces of heathens and infidels, in whatsoever part of the world placed, which before this time were unknown to all Christians  Those who received such patents had the right to assign them to third parties for execution  His sons are believed to have still been minors at that time 

Expeditions
Cabot went to Bristol to arrange preparations for his voyage  Bristol was the second-largest seaport in England  From 1480 onward it had supplied several expeditions to look for the mythical Hy-Brasil  According to Celtic legend, this island lay somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean  There was a widespread belief among merchants in the port that Bristol men had discovered the island at an earlier date but had then lost track of it  In a private letter to a colleague (Quinn), Ruddock maintained that she had found evidence in Italian archives that Bristol men had discovered North America before 1470  As the island was believed to be a source of brazilwood (from which a valuable red dye could be obtained), merchants had economic incentive to find it 

First voyage
Little was recorded of Cabot's first voyage  What is known as the "John Day letter", written by John Day, alias Hugh Say, a Bristol merchant originally of London, was sent during the winter of 1497–98 to an addressee believed to be Christopher Columbus  The letter refers briefly to this voyage but writes mostly about the second, 1497 expedition  Day noted: "Since your Lordship wants information relating to the first voyage, here is what happened: he went with one ship, his crew confused him, he was short of supplies and ran into bad weather, and he decided to turn back " Since Cabot received his royal patent in March 1496, it is believed that he made his first voyage that summer 

Second voyage
Sources
Information about the 1497 voyage comes mostly from four short letters and an entry in a 1565 chronicle of the city of Bristol (then often spelt Bristow)   The chronicle entry for 1496–97 says in full:
This year, on St  John the Baptist's Day [24 June 1497], the land of America was found by the Merchants of Bristow in a shippe of Bristowe, called the Mathew; the which said ship departed from the port of Bristowe, the second day of May, and came home again the 6th of August next following 
The John Day letter of winter 1497–98 provides considerable information about Cabot's second voyage  Day is believed to have been familiar with the key figures of the expedition and thus able to report on it  If the lands Cabot had discovered lay west of the meridian laid down in the Treaty of Tordesillas, or if he intended to sail further west, Columbus would probably have believed that these voyages challenged his monopoly rights for westward exploration In addition to these letters, Alwyn Ruddock claimed to have found another, written on 10 August 1497 by the London-based bankers of Fr  Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis  This letter has yet to be found  From various written comments made by Ruddock, the letter did not appear to contain a detailed account of the voyage  Ruddock said the letter contained "new evidence supporting the claim that seamen of Bristol had already discovered land across the ocean before John Cabot's arrival in England " She contended that Bristol seamen had reached North America two decades before Cabot's expedition 

Details of the voyage
The known sources do not concur on all aspects of the events, and none can be assumed to be entirely reliable  Cabot was described as having one "little ship", of 50 tons' burden, called Matthew of Bristol (according to the 1565 chronicle)  It was said to be laden with sufficient supplies for "seven or eight months"  The ship departed in May with a crew of 18 to 20 men  They included an unnamed Burgundian (modern-day Netherlands) and a Genoese barber, who presumably accompanied the expedition as the ship's surgeon (barbers in that era also routinely performed dentistry and minor surgery) 
It is likely that two ranking Bristol merchants were part of the expedition  One was William Weston, who had not been identified as part of Cabot's expedition before the discovery of a new document in the late 20th century by historian Margaret Condon  In 2009, historian Evan Jones published this document: a letter from Henry VII ordering the suspension of legal proceedings against Weston because it was the King's intent that Weston would shortly undertake a voyage for the King to the "new founde land"  This was probably the voyage under Cabot's patent, making William Weston the first Englishman to lead an expedition to North America  In 2018, Condon and Jones published a further article that showed that Weston and Cabot had been jointly rewarded by the king in January 1498, suggesting that the explorers were working together before the start of the second voyage  The same article revealed that Weston received a £30 reward after he returned from his successful 1499 voyage 

Leaving Bristol, the expedition sailed past Ireland and across the Atlantic, making landfall somewhere on the coast of North America on 24 June 1497  The exact location of the landfall has long been disputed, with different communities vying for the honor  Historians have proposed Cape Bonavista and St  John's, Newfoundland; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia; Labrador; and Maine as possibilities  Since the discovery of the John Day letter in the 1950s, it seems most likely that the initial landfall was either on Newfoundland or nearby Cape Breton Island  This is because Day's letter implies that the coastline explored in 1497 lay between the latitudes of Bordeaux, France and Dursey Head in southern Ireland  The initial landfall seems to have taken place close to the southern latitude, with the expedition returning home after reaching the northern one 

Landing
For the 500th-anniversary celebrations, the governments of Canada and the United Kingdom designated Cape Bonavista in Newfoundland as the "official" landing place  Here in 1997, Queen Elizabeth II along with members of the Italian and Canadian governments greeted the replica Matthew of Bristol, following her celebratory crossing of the Atlantic Cabot is reported to have landed only once during the expedition and did not advance "beyond the shooting distance of a crossbow"  Pasqualigo and Day both state that the expedition made no contact with any native people; the crew found the remains of a fire, a human trail, nets, and a wooden tool  The crew appeared to have remained on land just long enough to take on fresh water; they also raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for the King of England and recognising the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church  After this landing, Cabot spent some weeks "discovering the coast", with most "discovered after turning back" 

Celebration
On return to Bristol, Cabot rode to London to report to the king  On 10 August 1497, he was given a reward of £10—equivalent to about two years' pay for an ordinary labourer or craftsman  The explorer was fêted; Soncino wrote on 23 August that, similar to Christopher Columbus, Cabot "is called the Great Admiral, and vast honour is paid to him and he goes dressed in silk, and these English run after him like mad"  Such adulation was short-lived, for over the next few months the king's attention was occupied by the second Cornish uprising of 1497  
Once Henry's throne was secure, he gave more thought to Cabot  On 26 September, just a few days after the collapse of the revolt, the king made an award of £2 to Cabot  On 13 December 1497, the explorer was awarded a pension (or salary) of £20 per year  This was to be payable from customs receipts collected in Bristol  The pension was backdated to March 1497, to make clear that Cabot was in the king's service at the time of his expedition  Despite the royal grant, Bristol's customs officers initially refused to pay Cabot his pension, forcing the explorer to obtain an additional warrant from the king   On 3 February 1498, Cabot was given new letters patent covering the voyage and to help him prepare another expedition  In March and April, the king also advanced a number of loans to Lancelot Thirkill of London, Thomas Bradley, and John Cair, who were to accompany Cabot's new expedition 

Final voyage
The Great Chronicle of London (1189–1512) reports that Cabot departed with a fleet of five ships from Bristol at the beginning of May 1498, one of which had been prepared by the king  Some of the ships were said to be carrying merchandise, including cloth, caps, lace points, and other "trifles"  This suggests that Cabot intended to engage in trade on this expedition  The Spanish envoy in London reported in July that one of the ships had been caught in a storm and been forced to land in Ireland, but that Cabot and the other four ships had continued on For centuries, no other records were found (or at least published) that relate to this expedition; it was long believed that Cabot and his fleet were lost at sea  But at least one of the men scheduled to accompany the expedition, Lancelot Thirkill, is recorded as living in London in 1501 It is not known whether Cabot died during the voyage, returned safely and died shortly after, or arrived in the Americas and chose to remain there, perhaps remaining with the Indigenous people in a similar manner to Étienne Brûlé The historian Alwyn Ruddock worked on Cabot and his era for 35 years  She suggested that Cabot and his expedition successfully returned to England in the spring of 1500  She claimed their return followed an epic two-year exploration of the east coast of North America, south into the Chesapeake Bay area and perhaps as far as the Spanish territories in the Caribbean  Her evidence included the well-known world map of the Spanish cartographer Juan de la Cosa  His chart included the North American coast and seas "discovered by the English" between 1497 and 1500 Ruddock suggested that Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis and the other friars who accompanied the 1498 expedition had stayed in Newfoundland and founded a mission  If Carbonariis founded a settlement in North America, it would have been the first Christian settlement on the continent and may have included a church, the only medieval church to have been built there The Cabot Project at the University of Bristol was organized in 2009 to search for the evidence on which Ruddock's claims rest, as well as to undertake related studies of Cabot and his expeditions  The lead researchers on the project, Evan Jones and Margaret Condon, claim to have found further evidence to support aspects of Ruddock's case, including some of the information she intended to use to argue for a successful return of the 1498 expedition to Bristol  These appear to place John Cabot in London by May 1500, although Jones and Condon have yet to publish their documentation 
The project is collaborating on an archaeological excavation at the community of Carbonear, Newfoundland, located at Conception Bay and believed the likely location for Carbonariis's possible mission settlement  The Archaeology of Historic Carbonear Project, carried out by Memorial University of Newfoundland, has conducted summer fieldwork each season since 2011  So far, it has found evidence of planter habitation since the late 17th century and of trade with Spain through Bilbao, including a Spanish coin minted in Peru 

Additional English voyages
Ruddock claimed that William Weston of Bristol, a supporter of Cabot, undertook an independent expedition to North America in 1499, sailing north from Newfoundland up to the Hudson Strait  If correct, this was probably the first Northwest Passage expedition  In 2009, Jones confirmed that William Weston (who was not previously known to have been involved) led an expedition from Bristol [with royal support] to the "new found land" in 1499 or 1500, making him the first Englishman to lead the exploration of North America  This find has changed the understanding of English roles in exploration of that continent  In 2018, Condon and Jones published a further article about William Weston  This revealed that Weston and Cabot had received rewards from King Henry VII in January 1498, following a royal audience, thereby confirming that the two explorers were involved by this stage  Condon and Jones also revealed that in 1500 the King rewarded Weston £30 for "his expenses about the finding of the new land" King Henry VII continued to support exploration from Bristol  The king granted Hugh Eliot, Robert Thorne, and his son a bounty of £20 in January 1502 for purchasing the Gabriel, a ship for an expedition voyage that summer  Later in 1502 or early 1503, he paid Eliot a reward of £100 for a voyage, or voyages, in "2 ships to the Isle of new finding," as Newfoundland was called  This amount was larger than any previously accounted for in royal support of the explorations  Around this time the Bristol-based explorers established a formal company, backed by Letters Patent, called the Company Adventurers to the New Found Land  This conducted further expeditions in 1503 and 1504 In 1508–09, Sebastian Cabot undertook a final voyage to North America from Bristol  According to Peter Martyr's 1516 account, this expedition explored a section of the coast from the Hudson Bay to about Chesapeake Bay  Following his return to England in 1509, Sebastian found that his sponsor, Henry VII, had died and that the new king, Henry VIII, had little interest in westward exploration 

Family
Cabot married Mattea around 1470, and had issue including three sons:
Ludovico Caboto
Sebastiano Caboto
Santo Caboto

Sebastian Cabot's voyages
Sebastian Cabot, one of John's sons, also became an explorer, later making at least one voyage to North America  In 1508 he was searching for the Northwest Passage  Nearly two decades later, he sailed to South America for Spain to repeat Ferdinand Magellan's voyage around the world  He became diverted by searching for silver along the Río de la Plata (1525–1528) in Argentina 

Legacy and honors
Giovanni Caboto (1762), painting at Ducal Palace, Venice 
Cabot Tower (1897) in St  John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Cabot's voyage 
Cabot Tower, in Bristol, England  A 30-metre-tall red sandstone tower begun in 1897 to mark the 400th anniversary 
Denis William Eden painting: John Cabot and his sons receive the charter from Henry VII to sail in search of new lands (1910), at Houses of Parliament 
Giovanni Caboto Club (est  1925), an Italian club located in Windsor, Ontario 
A 1952 statue of the explorer is at Bristol's City Hall 
John Cabot University is a United States-affiliated university established in 1972 in Rome, Italy 
A 1985 bronze statue of the explorer by Stephen Joyce, is located at Bristol Harbourside 
A replica of the Matthew of Bristol built to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the 1497 voyage, docked in Bristol 
A second replica of the Matthew is located at Cape Bonavista 
The scenic Cabot Trail in the Cape Breton Highlands is named after the explorer 
John Cabot Academy is an independent school in Bristol, England 
Cabot Ward was an electoral district in Bristol (abolished in 2016), indirectly named for the explorer and directly after the local Cabot Tower 
Cabot Squares in London and Montreal 
Cabot Circus, a 2008 shopping mall in Bristol, named as a result of a citywide poll 
Cabot Street and Cabot Avenue in St  John's, Newfoundland and Labrador 
A bronze statue of the explorer stands at the Confederation Building, St  John's 
A bronze statue of the explorer is located at Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland  Plaques in English, French and Italian commemorate the historic voyage 
John Cabot Catholic Secondary School in Mississauga, Ontario, is named after the explorer 
Giovanni Caboto park located in Edmonton, Alberta 
The Cabot Institute for the Environment at the University of Bristol is named after him 
In 1897, the Newfoundland Colony issued a postage stamp, and in 1947, the Dominion of Newfoundland issued a postage stamp, marking the 400th and 450th anniversaries of Cabot's voyage to that island, respectively 

See also
List of people who disappeared mysteriously at sea
Passage 6:
Vicente Yáñez Pinzón
Vicente Yáñez Pinzón (Spanish: [biˈθente ˈʝaɲeθ pinˈθon]) (c  1462 – after 1514) was a Spanish navigator and explorer, the youngest of the Pinzón brothers  Along with his older brother, Martín Alonso Pinzón (c  1441 – c  1493), who captained the Pinta, he sailed with Christopher Columbus on the first voyage to the New World, in 1492, as captain of the Niña 

Personal life
Pinzón was born in Palos de la Frontera on the Atlantic coast of Huelva, youngest of the three prominent sons of seaman Martín Pinzón and his wife Mayor Vicente  His birth year is uncertain; it is generally given as c  1462; Juan Gil concludes from legal documents that his two daughters were over the age of 20 in 1509, that it certainly cannot be later than 1469  1469 would be quite a late date, given that there is record of him being a corsair or privateer (with his older brother Martín Alonso) in Mediterranean waters between 1477 and 1479 when other towns failed to provide Palos with an adequate supply of grain in wartime He married twice: first to Teresa Rodríguez, by whom he had two daughters, Ana Rodríguez Pinzón and Juana González Pinzón; second, probably in 1509, to Ana de Trujillo, who some surviving documents refer to as "Ana Núñez de Trujillo" It would appear that he was based in Palos at least up to and including the time of Columbus's first voyage (1492); by 1495 he was living in nearby Moguer; after the economic failure of his 1499–1500 expedition, he appears to have moved no later than 1502 to Seville  He may have moved there to escape creditors  Historian Juan Gil, researching Pinzón's family life, found strong circumstantial evidence that his first wife left behind a mansion in Triana, across the river from Seville: her own property, not his, which passed into the hands of their daughters The last primary record of him is in 1514, in Seville or Triana  According to the chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, he died that year, probably at the end of September  It is not known precisely where he is buried, though Oviedo expressed confidence that it was in the cemetery of Triana 

Career
In 1499, Pinzón sailed to the South American coast  Pinzón eventually disembarked on the shore called "Praia do Paraíso", in present-day Cabo de Santo Agostinho of the state of Pernambuco, or further northwest, in what is today Fortaleza (capital of the Brazilian state of Ceará)  According to the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) between the Crown of Castile and Portugal, Castile (later Spain) could make no claim, but the place was named "Cabo de Santa María de la Consolación" by Pinzón  He also sighted the Amazon River and ascended to a point about fifty miles from the sea  He called it the "Río Santa María de la Mar Dulce" ("River of Saint Mary of the Fresh Water Sea") on account of the vastness of the fresh water river mouth, and he thus became the first European explorer to discover an estuary of the Amazon River  Pinzón is also considered the discoverer of the Oiapoque River In 1505, Pinzón was named commander-in-chief and corregidor of the city of Puerto Rico, now called "San Juan"



ground_truth: 22

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is the child of the Italian navigator who sailed for England and explored the eastern coast of the continent Francisco Bojado's birthplace is located?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  This was to be the first step in the colonization of the island called "Borinquén" by its inhabitants and "San Juan Bautista" by the Spanish (now called "Puerto Rico")  However, Pinzón did not fulfill this commission  In 1508, he travelled with Juan Díaz de Solís to South America  No record exists of Pinzón after 1514 

Legacy
In 1832, botanists Mart  & Zucc  published Pinzona, a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Dilleniaceae and named in honour of Vicente Yáñez Pinzón Together with his brother, Vicente Yáñez Pinzón is the namesake of Pinzón Island in the Galápagos 
On November 19, 1999, a statue of Pinzón and his brother was dedicated in Palos de la Frontera, Spain, on the occasion of the fifth centennial of the discovery of Brazil and of the brotherhood with the city, Cabo de Santo Agostinho, Brazil 

See also
List of explorers
Vicente Yañez Pinzón River, aka Oiapoque
Passage 7:
Frederick de Houtman
Frederick de Houtman (c  1571 – 21 October 1627) was a Dutch explorer, navigator, and colonial governor who sailed on the first Dutch expedition to the East Indies from 1595 until 1597, during which time he made observations of the southern celestial hemisphere and contributed to the creation of 12 new southern constellations 

Career
East Indies
De Houtman was born in Gouda  De Houtman assisted fellow Dutch navigator Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser with astronomical observations during the first Dutch expedition to the East Indies from 1595 until 1597  In 1598, de Houtman sailed on a second expedition led by his brother, Cornelis de Houtman, who was killed during the voyage  Frederick was imprisoned by the Sultan of Aceh, Alauddin Riayat Syah, in northern Sumatra 
He used his two years of captivity—from September 1599 until August 1601—to study the local Malay language and to make astronomical observations  These observations supplemented those made by Keyser on the first expedition  The constellations formed from their observations were first published in 1597 or 1598 on a globe by Petrus Plancius, and later globes incorporated adjustments based on De Houtman's later observations Credit for these constellations is generally assigned jointly to Keyser, De Houtman, and Plancius, though some of the underlying stars were known beforehand  The constellations are also widely associated with Johann Bayer, who included them in his celestial atlas, Uranometria, in 1603  After De Houtman's return to Europe, De Houtman published his stellar observations in an appendix to his dictionary and grammar of the Malayan and Malagasy languages 

Australia
In 1619 De Houtman sailed in the Dutch East India Company ship Dordrecht, along with Jacob Dedel in the Amsterdam  They sighted the Australian coast near present-day Perth, which they called Dedelsland  After sailing northwards along the coast he encountered and only narrowly avoided a group of shoals, subsequently called the Houtman Abrolhos 
De Houtman then made landfall in the region known as Eendrachtsland, which the explorer Dirk Hartog had encountered earlier  In his journal, De Houtman identified these coasts as Locach, mentioned by Marco Polo to have been a country far south of China and indicated as such on maps by cartographers Plancius and Linschoten 

See also
John Davis – English explorer who accompanied De Houtman on the first East Indies' expedition as its pilot
Passage 8:
Francisco de Eliza
Francisco de Eliza y Reventa (1759 – February 19, 1825) was a Spanish naval officer, navigator, and explorer  He is remembered mainly for his work in the Pacific Northwest  He was the commandant of the Spanish post in Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island, and led or dispatched several exploration voyages in the region, including the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia 

Early life
Francisco de Eliza was born in El Puerto de Santa María, Spain, in 1759  He began his career with the Spanish Navy in 1773, graduating from the Real Colegio de Guardiamarinas in Cadiz  In 1775 he served in the Spanish expedition against Algiers  He was sent to America in 1780 and later took part in the siege of Pensacola, Florida, during the American Revolution 

Pacific Northwest
Nootka Sound and the Nuu-chah-nulth
In 1789 Eliza and several other officers were chosen by Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra to serve at San Blas, the naval station on the west coast of Mexico, then part of New Spain  Bodega y Quadra was the newly appointed commandant of San Blas  The San Blas naval department was responsible for supporting and exploring the coast north of Mexico, including Alta California and the Pacific Northwest to southern Alaska   The viceroy of New Spain, Juan Vicente de Güemes, Count of Revillagigedo, gave Eliza command of an expedition to reoccupy the Spanish establishment at Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island  The outpost, which the Spanish called Santa Cruz de Nuca, had been established by Esteban José Martínez in 1789 and then abandoned in October of the same year, after the "Nootka Incident", which triggered an international crisis between Spain and Great Britain known as the Nootka Crisis The King of Spain, Carlos IV, issued the Royal Order of April 14, 1789, requiring the establishment at Nootka Sound be maintained with "honour and firmness"  Neither the king nor Viceroy Revillagigedo nor Bodega y Quadra was aware of the abandonment of the post at Nootka until December 1789, when Martínez arrived at San Blas  Eliza's expedition to relieve Martínez at Nootka became one to reoccupy the site and establish a permanent settlement Eliza sailed to Nootka Sound in command of the ships Concepción, San Carlos (el Filipino), and Princesa Real (formerly the British ship Princess Royal), arriving on April 3, 1790  There were no Europeans present when they arrived  For several years the Spanish pressed their territorial claims to the Pacific Northwest, with Nootka Sound, Francisco Eliza, and other Spanish commanders playing key roles  In addition to the sailing crews of the three ships, Eliza's expedition included 76 soldiers of the Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia, under the command of Pere d'Alberni  This group of people constructed a small fort, and various buildings, planted a garden, and began to organize exploring parties  The outpost was built on a small sheltered cove inside Nootka Sound, called Friendly Cove by the English and Puerto de la Santa Cruz de Nuca by the Spanish (today it is Yuquot, British Columbia)  Some Spanish maps show it as Cala de Los Amigos, a translation of the English name  The small fort built by the Spanish was called San Miguel, and was located on a small island at the entrance to the cove In May 1790 two exploring voyages were dispatched by Eliza  Salvador Fidalgo made a voyage north to visit the Russian outposts in Alaska, while Manuel Quimper examined the Strait of Juan de Fuca  Quimper's pilot was Gonzalo López de Haro  Some of the important sites found and charted during Quimper's expedition include Neah Bay, Esquimalt Harbour, Admiralty Inlet, Haro Strait, Rosario Strait, and Deception Pass The relationship between the Spanish and the Nootka natives (Nuu-chah-nulth) was tense  The year before Eliza arrived a Nootka chief, Callicum, had been killed by the Spanish  Several hostile encounters occurred while Eliza's party was building their settlement  On one occasion, five Nootkas were killed  Nonetheless, Eliza was able to improve the relationship somewhat  At least some of the Nootkas grew friendlier and provided assistance to the Spanish The winter of 1790-1791 was difficult for the Spanish under Eliza  A lack of fresh food resulted in outbreaks of scurvy  During the winter 9 men died and 32 more, too sick to remain, were sent to California to recover 

Straits of Georgia and Juan de Fuca
Further exploration voyages were undertaken in 1791  During the winter Spain had proposed to Great Britain that the Strait of Juan de Fuca could serve as the boundary between Spanish and British territory  If accepted, Spain would have to relocate its Nootka Sound post to a site south of the Strait  This, in addition to the need for a better understanding of the Strait's geography led the viceroy of New Spain to order another exploring expedition, this time led by Francisco Eliza himself In early May, Eliza set out in command of the San Carlos, with Juan Pantoja and José Antonio Verdía as first and second pilots  The San Carlos was accompanied by the small schooner, the Santa Saturnina, nicknamed La Orcasitas and under the command of José María Narváez, with Juan Carrasco as pilot 

Narváez explored the inner waters of Clayoquot Sound and Barkley Sound while Eliza, investigating the outer edge of Clayoquot Sound, met and befriended Wickaninnish, chief of the Tla-o-qui-aht people  Narváez and Eliza entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca separately, rejoining at Esquimalt (called "Cordova" by the Spanish) on June 11, 1791  Eliza's pilots then took the Santa Saturnina and a longboat and spent ten days exploring Haro Strait and the found it opened up into a wide body of water to the north  This was the Strait of Georgia, which was previously unknown to Europeans  Eliza remained at Esquimalt during this time  After the pilots returned to Eliza and reported their findings, a longer exploration expedition was fitted out  Narváez led the voyage in the Santa Saturnina  Eliza considered taking the San Carlos along, but his pilots convinced him of that the larger ship would find the narrow channels hazardous  In addition, Eliza fell sick  The entire expedition moved its base of operations from Esquimalt to Port Discovery ("Puerto de Quadra" to the Spanish)  Then on July 1, 1791, Narváez, with Carrasco, sailed north, passing through Rosario Strait, past Bellingham Bay, and into the Strait of Georgia For three weeks they followed the Strait northward, reaching as far as Texada Island, which they gave the name "Isla de Texada"  They noted various inlets which, along with the presence of whales led Eliza to think, correctly, that there was another passage to the open ocean  Although the idea of a Northwest Passage to the Atlantic Ocean was by this time an extremely remote possibility, the inlets of the Strait of Georgia rekindled the hope, which led to the 1792 expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdes  A rough map of the Strait of Georgia produced from the voyage of Santa Saturnina showed a particularly large opening to the east  Eliza's report stated that if a Northwest Passage existed at all, it must lie beyond this opening  The Spanish named the inlet "Canal Floridablanca", the investigation of which was made a priority for the expedition of Galiano and Valdes  It turned out to be the mouth of the Fraser River  The Santa Saturnina had been too far offshore to see the low-lying land At the start of Narváez's voyage the Santa Saturnina passed Admiralty Inlet, the entrance to Puget Sound (called "Ensenada de Caamaño" by the Spanish)  Narváez saw that it was a large channel leading to the south and planned to explore it after returning from the north  But the Strait of Georgia proved larger than expected and Narváez ran out of food, the Santa Saturnina being very small  Narváez had to return directly to Port Discovery, and then Eliza was eager to then return to Nootka Sound and send a report about the Strait of Georgia  The Spanish thus missed the opportunity of preempting the British exploration of Puget Sound, which took place a year later under George Vancouver While sailing back to Nootka Sound Eliza's expedition entered the deep harbor of present-day Port Angeles and gave it the name "Puerto de Nuestra Señora de Los Angeles"  Eliza, with Narváez in the San Carlos, returned to Nootka Sound in August, 1791  The Santa Saturnina, under Carrasco during the return to Nootka, was unable to beat upwind to Nootka and instead sailed to Monterey, California 
Over time Eliza has received most of the credit for the discoveries made and places named during the 1791 expedition, but he actually did no exploring himself  Most of the credit should go to his pilots Narváez, Carrasco, Pantoja, and Verdía The winter of 1791-1792 was easier than the previous one  Shipments of food from Mexico and assistance from the Nootkas helped Eliza's small outpost survive On July 24, 1792, Francisco de Eliza left Nootka Sound for Mexico, having completed his mission of re-establishing the Spanish outpost there  The position of commandant at Nootka Sound passed to Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra 

Later life
In 1793 Eliza commanded an expedition that explored the coast of California  From 1795 to 1801 he was the commander of the naval base at San Blas  In 1803 he was transferred to Cádiz, Spain 
Eliza continued to serve in the Spanish navy  When Spain was occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, Eliza held a number of political posts at Cádiz 

Legacy
Eliza Island was named in his honor 
Passage 9:
Giovanni Battista Caviglia
Giovanni Battista Caviglia (1770 in Genoa – September 7, 1845, in Paris) was an Italian explorer, navigator and Egyptologist  He was one of the pioneers of Egyptian archeology of his time  He was influential in the excavation of the Sphinx of Giza near Cairo 

Early life
He was born in Genoa in 1770 at a time when the city was the capital of the Republic of Genoa  He spent most of his life sailing in the Mediterranean in which he became a merchant captain 

Career in Egypt
When he decided to start his career as an explorer, he left his ship moored in Alexandria and offered his services to various collectors  Most of his excavations were carried out on behalf of the British Consul General Henry Salt 
Between 1816 and 1817, he explored the Great Pyramid of Giza where he made important discoveries, including the descending corridor, the bottom of the well service and unfinished underground room 

In 1817, Salt hired him to excavate the Great Sphinx at Giza, which over the centuries had been almost totally covered by the desert sand 
The last dig around the Sphinx had been carried out in 160 AD by order of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius  As the excavations continued under Caviglia, he came upon an array of ancient Egyptian artifacts and inscriptions in Greek and Latin 
In 1819, he had to suspend his research 

During excavations carried out in 1820 on behalf of the British in the ancient capital of Memphis, about 20 km south of Cairo, he made another "sensational" discovery: the Colossus of Ramses II  This huge statue of limestone was found near the south gate of the Temple of Ptah, near the village of Mit Rahina  Despite missing its feet, the statue measured over 10 meters tall  The statue was offered, through the Egyptologist Ippolito Rosellini, to Grand Duke Leopold II of Tuscany who refused the offer due to the difficulties and cost involved in transportation 
Following this, the pasha of Egypt Mehmet Ali gave it to the British Museum in London, which in turn declined the offer for the same reasons  A museum was then built over the statue where you can still find it today In 1835, when he was already 65 years old, the British Egyptologists Richard William Howard Vyse and John Shae Perring hired him as an assistant for their excavations at Giza  The research was carried out using large quantities of gunpowder and took place in the pyramids of Khufu and Menkaure  The collaboration lasted a couple of years after which Vyse fired him 

Later life and death
Caviglia spent the last years of his life in Paris, where he died on 7 September 1845 


== Notes ==
Passage 10:
Pennell Coast
Pennell Coast is that portion of the coast of Antarctica between Cape Williams and Cape Adare  To the west of Cape Williams lies Oates Coast, and to the east and south of Cape Adare lies Borchgrevink Coast  Named by New Zealand Antarctic Place-Names Committee (NZ-APC) in 1961 after Lieutenant Harry Pennell, Royal Navy, commander of the Terra Nova, the expedition ship of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910–13  Pennell engaged in oceanographic work in the Ross Sea during this period  In February 1911 he sailed along this coast in exploration and an endeavor to land the Northern Party led by Lieutenant Victor Campbell 
The name is also used more loosely to refer to both the coast itself and the hinterland extending south to the watershed of the Southern Cross Mountains to the southeast and the Usarp Mountains to the west 
Major features of the coast include the 250-kilometer long Rennick Glacier (one of Antarctica's largest glaciers), the Anare Mountains, and the northern ends of the Bowers and Admiralty mountain ranges  Inland, the land is dominated by numerous smaller mountain ranges (notably the Freyberg Mountains and the Concord Mountains), and by two large névés, the Rennick Névé and the Evans Névé

Other Features
Dwyer Escarpment
Jago Nunataks
Passage 11:
Sebastian Cabot (explorer)
Sebastian Cabot (Italian and Venetian: Sebastiano Caboto, Italian: [sebaˈstjaːno kaˈbɔːto]; Spanish: Sebastián Caboto, Gaboto or Cabot; c  1474 – c  December 1557) was a Venetian explorer, likely born in the Venetian Republic and a Venetian citizen  He was the son of Venetian explorer John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) and his Venetian wife Mattea 
After his father's death, Cabot conducted his own voyages of discovery, seeking the Northwest Passage through North America on behalf of England  He later sailed for Spain, traveling to South America, where he explored the Rio de la Plata and established two new forts 

Early life and education
Accounts differ as to Sebastian Cabot's place and date of birth   The historian James Williamson reviewed the evidence for various given dates in the 1480s and concluded that Sebastian was born not later than 1484, the son of John Cabot, a Venetian citizen credited with Genoese or Gaetan origins by birth, and of Mattea Caboto, also Venetian  Late in life, Cabot himself told Englishman Richard Eden that he was born in Bristol, and that he travelled back to Venice with his parents at four years of age, returning again with his father, so that he was thought to be Venetian   At another time, he told the Venetian ambassador at the court of Charles V, Gasparo Contarini (who noted it in his diary), that he was Venetian, educated in England  In 1515 Sebastian's friend Peter Martyr d'Anghiera wrote that Cabot was a Venetian by birth, but that his father (John Cabot) had taken him to England as a child   His father had lived in Venice from 1461, as he received citizenship (which required 15 years' residency) in 1476  The Caboto family moved to England in 1495 if not before 
Sebastian, his elder brother Ludovico and his younger brother Santo were included by name with their father in the royal letters patent from King Henry VII of March 1496 authorizing their father's expeditions across the Atlantic  They are believed by some historians, including Rodney Skelton, still to have been minors since they were not mentioned in the 1498 patent their father also received  John Cabot sailed from Bristol on the small ship Matthew and reached the coast of a "New Found Land" on 24 June 1497  Historians have differed as to where Cabot landed, but two likely locations often suggested are Newfoundland and Nova Scotia 

1494 Cabot scouting expedition
According to Cartografía Marítima Hispana, Sebastian Cabot included a handwritten text in Latin on his famous map of North America (published in Antwerp, 1544) claiming to have discovered North America with his father in 1494, three years before his father's voyage  Sancho Gutierrez repeated this text in Castilian on his 1551 map  
Placed next to the border of North America, the text reads:

This land was discovered by Johannes Caboto, venetian and Sebastian Caboto, his son, in the year of the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ MCCCCXCIV, 24th of June in the morning  They put to it the name 'prima terra vista' and [   ] This big island was named Saint John, as it was discovered on Saint John holiday  People there wander wearing animal furs  They use bow and arrow to fight, javelins and darts and wooden batons and slings  This is a very sterile land, there are a lot of white bears and very big deers, big as horses, and many other animals  As well there are infinite fish: plaices, salmons, very long soles, 1 yard long  and many other varieties of fish  Most of them are called cod  And there are also black hawks, black as ravens, eagles, partridges and many other birds 
The year is stated as MCCCCXCIV (1494) in both hand-written versions  There cannot be confusion with the commonly accepted date for the Cabots' voyage, in 1497  Two suppositions can explain this  Sebastian Cabot and Sancho Gutiérrez may have changed the date in the middle of the sixteenth century  Intentional changes and inaccuracies were very common among geographers at the time, depending on the political interests of their sponsors  As Cabot was funded at the time of the map by Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, he may have been interested in showing that the first travel to North America was in 1494 and thus funded by Castilians or by Portuguese, and not by English or French  By the time Cabot was sponsored by Germany and Spain, both England and France had started claiming shares of the New World in competition with Spain and Portugal If Cabot and Gutiérrez stated the correct year, it would mean the Cabots sailed to North America on their own account, before proposing their services to England in 1496  No contemporaneous documentation for this has survived 

Early career with England and Spain
In 1504 Sebastian Cabot led an expedition from Bristol to the New World, using two ships: Jesus of Bristol and  Gabriel of Bristol  These were mastered by Richard Savery and Philip Ketyner, respectively, and fitted out by Robert Thorne and Hugh Elyot  They brought back a certain amount of salted fish, which suggests the voyage was at least partly commercial and that other expeditions may also have included fishing  Cabot was granted an annuity of £10 on 3 April 1505 by Henry VII for services "in and aboute the fyndynge of the new founde landes" 

In 1508–09 Cabot led one of the first expeditions to find a North-West passage through North America  He is generally credited with gaining "the high latitudes," where he told of encountering fields of icebergs and reported an open passage of water, but was forced to turn back  Some later descriptions suggest that he may have reached as far as the entrance of Hudson Bay  According to Peter Martyr's 1516 account Sebastian then sailed south along the east coast of North America, passing the rich fisheries off the coast of Newfoundland, going on until he was 'almost in the latitude of Gibraltar' and 'almost the longitude of Cuba'  This would imply that he reached as far as the Chesapeake Bay, near what is now Washington, D C   Returning home 'he found the King dead, and his son cared little for such an enterprise'  This suggests Sebastian arrived back in England shortly after the death of Henry VII in April 1509 and the accession of Henry VIII, who did indeed show much less interest in the exploration of the New World than his father 
By 1512 Cabot was employed by Henry VIII as a cartographer, supplying the king with a map of Gascony and Guienne    In the same year he accompanied the Marquess of Dorset's expedition to Spain, where he was made captain by Ferdinand V  Cabot believed that Spain was more interested in major exploration, but his hopes of getting Ferdinand's support were lost with the king's death  In the turmoil afterward, no plans would be made for new expeditions, and Cabot returned to England 
The scholar and translator/civil servant Richard Eden, who came to know Cabot towards the end of his life, ascribed to the explorer 'the governance' of a voyage of c 1516 under English flag  This has been accepted and elaborated by a number of English writers, particularly of the turn of the nineteenth century  Rodney Skelton, author of Cabot's entry in the Dictionary of Canadian Biography, connected Eden's text to a known expedition of 1517 which indeed aborted, but is not known to have involved Cabot; while the historian Alwyn Ruddock transferred Eden's story of the opposition to Cabot's plans of Thomas Spert, future master of the king's ship Mary Rose, to the explorer's voyage of 1508–9 Cabot's effort's in 1521 to bring together and lead an English discovery voyage to North America are well attested   He had the support of Henry VIII and Cardinal Wolsey, and some offers of backing in money and ships from both Bristol and London merchants   But the Drapers Company expressed their distrust of Sebastian, and offered only limited funds   The response of other livery companies is unknown   The project was abandoned, and Cabot returned to Spain 

Service to Spain
Believing that King Ferdinand II of Aragon was giving more financial support to exploration than the English, Cabot moved to Spain from England in 1512  When King Ferdinand died in 1516 it ended a period of exploration and Cabot returned to England 
By 1522, he was once again working for Spain as a member of the Council of the Indies and holding the rank of Pilot-Major, where he supervised naval and navigator training, etc  Cabot secretly offered his services to Venice in communications with the Council of Ten  He promised to undertake to find the Northwest Passage to China for Venice if they would receive him Cabot was commissioned at the rank of captain general in Spain  On 4 March 1525, he was given command of a fleet that was to determine from astronomical observation the precise demarcation of the Treaty of Tordesillas, which defined the area of Spanish and Portuguese monopolies  He was also to convey settlers to the Molucca Islands in the Pacific, to strengthen Spanish claims in the spice islands  This voyage was officially noted as an expedition for the discovery of Tarshish, Ophir, Eastern Cathay, and Cipango (Japan)  This expedition consisted of four ships with 250 men, and set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 3 April 1526 
By this time the survivors of Magellan's expedition had completed their circumnavigation of the world, finding it larger than previously known  The voyage had increased pressure on Spain and Portugal to define their territories, as old boundaries seemed superseded by new data  Cabot was directed to cross the Pacific twice and he might have accomplished a second circumnavigation of the world  When Cabot landed with his expedition in Brazil, however, he heard of the rumours of the great wealth of the Incan king and the nearly-successful invasion of Aleixo Garcia  He abandoned his charge and explored the interior of the Río de la Plata along the northern border of present-day Argentina 
Cabot had already earned the disapproval of his crew by stranding the fleet in the doldrums and running the flagship aground off Santa Catarina Island  His decision regarding the Río de la Plata led to open resistance from Martin Méndez (his lieutenant general), Miguel de Rodas (pilot of the Capitana), and Francisco de Rojas (the captain of one of the other vessels)  He dealt with the mutiny by marooning these men and other officers on Santa Catarina Island, where they are believed to have died 
Cabot sailed into the wide Río de la Plata and spent five months exploring the estuary  He established a fort called San Salvador at the confluence of the Uruguay and the Río San Salvador  This was the first Spanish settlement in modern-day Uruguay 
Leaving the two larger ships there, he sailed up the Paraná River in the brigantine and a galley constructed at Santa Catarina  His party constructed a small fort called Santo or Espíritu Santo at the confluence of the Paraná and the Río Carcarañá  This was the first Spanish settlement in present-day Argentina; the town of Gaboto was later constructed nearby and named in his honour  Losing 18 men to an ambush, Cabot returned to San Salvador, passing Diego García's expedition as he went 
As a result of this encounter, Cabot sent one ship back to Spain   The Trinidad sailed on 8 July 1528 with his reports, accusations against the mutineers, and requests for further aid  In the spring of 1529, he returned upriver to Espíritu Santo, which he discovered had been overwhelmed and burnt by the Indians during his absence  He recovered the cannon and returned to San Salvador 
At a council on 6 August 1529, he decided to return to Spain  Cabot sailed with García to São Vicente  Purchasing 50 slaves there, he traveled along the coast of Brazil before heading across the Atlantic, reaching Seville on 22 July 1530, with one ship and 24 men 
He was arraigned on charges from the Crown, by Rojas, and by the families of Rodas and Méndez  He was condemned by the Council of the Indies on charges of disobedience, misadministration, and causing the death of officers under his command  He was sentenced to heavy fines and a two-year banishment to Oran in North Africa During these proceedings, however, the Emperor of Spain had been absent in Germany  Upon his return, Cabot presented him with descriptions of the region  Although no pardon is recorded and the fines were still paid, it is known that Cabot never went into exile   He retained the post of pilot-major of Spain until 1547  Without losing either title or pension, he left Spain and returned to England 

Later years
In the year 1553, Cabot discussed a voyage to China and re-joining the service of Charles V with Jean Scheyfve, the king's ambassador in England  In the meantime Cabot had reopened negotiations with Venice, but he reached no agreement with that republic  After this he acted as an advisor for "English ventures for discovery of the Northwest Passage  He became governor of the Muscovy Company in 1553 and, along with John Dee, helped it prepare for an expedition led by Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor  He was made life-governor of the "Company of Merchant Adventurers", and equipped the 1557 expedition of Steven Borough  By February 1557, he was replaced as governor of the Muscovy Company  He was recorded as receiving a quarterly pension, which he was first paid in person  Someone picked up for him in June and September 1557, and no one was paid in December, suggesting that he had died by then 

Marriages and family
Cabot married Joanna (later recorded as Juana in Spanish documents ) They had children before 1512, the year he entered Spanish service  That year, he returned to London to bring his wife and family to Seville  By 14 September 1514, his wife was dead  Among his children was a daughter Elizabeth  An unnamed daughter was recorded as dying in 1533 In Spain Cabot married again, in 1523, to Catalina de Medrano, widow of the conquistador Pedro Barba  It is not known if the marriage produced offspring  But since the Spanish wills of both Catalina (1547) and Sebastian (1548) name nieces of Catalina as their heirs, it is unlikely that by the time of Catalina's death, the pair had children surviving from their marriage  Catalina died on 2 Sep 1547 

Reputation
From the later sixteenth century until the mid-nineteenth century, historians believed that Sebastian Cabot, rather than his father John, led the famous Bristol expeditions of the later 1490s, which resulted in the European discovery, or rediscovery after the Vikings, of North America  This error seems to have been attributed to Sebastian's accounts in his old age  The result was that the influential geographical writer Richard Hakluyt represented his father John Cabot as a figurehead for the expeditions and suggested that Sebastian actually led them  When new archival finds in the nineteenth century demonstrated that this was not the case, Sebastian was denigrated, disparaged by Henry Harrisse, in particular, as a man who willfully appropriated his father's achievements and represented them as his own  Because of this, Sebastian received much less attention in the twentieth century  But other documentary finds, as summarized above, have demonstrated that he did lead some exploratory voyages from Bristol in the first decade of the sixteenth century A  C  H  Smith wrote a biographical novel about him, Sebastian The Navigator (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985) 

Honors
A 19th-century bronze relief of Cabot and Henry VII by William Theed is located in the British Houses of Parliament 

Notes
Sources
Karrow, Robert W  (1993)  Mapmakers of the Sixteenth Century and Their Maps  Chicago: Speculum Orbis Press  ISBN 978-0-932757-05-0 
Morison, Samuel Eliot (1974)  The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages 1492-1616  Oxford University Press 
Ruddock, Alwyn A  (2007)  "The Reputation of Sebastian Cabot"  Historical Research  47 (115): 95–99 – via Wiley Online Library 
Sandman, Alison; Ash, Eric H  (2004)  "Trading Expertise: Sebastian Cabot between Spain and England"  Renaissance Quarterly  57 (3): 813–846  ISSN 0034-4338 Evan T  Jones and Margaret M  Condon, Cabot and Bristol's Age of Discovery: The Bristol Discovery Voyages 1480-1508 (University of Bristol, Nov  2016)  This short book provides an up-to-date account of the voyages, based on the research of the "Cabot Project", aimed at a general audience  Chapter 7 'Bristol and the 'New Found Land': 1499-1508 voyages', pp  57-70, includes a discussion of Sebastian's involvement in Bristol exploration at this time 
Appleton's American Biography, Virtual Museum of History
"Sebastian Cabot", Encyclopædia Britannica
R  A  Skelton, "Cabot, Sebastian," in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol  1, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003-[3]
Heather Dalton, Merchants and Explorers: Roger Barlow, Sebastian Cabot, & Networks of Atlantic Exchange 1500-1560 (Oxford, 2016) ISBN 9780199672059
José Toribio Medina, El Veneciano Sebastián Caboto al servicio de España (2 vols, Santiago de Chile, 1908) (In Spanish) 

External links
Sources: "First Letters Patent granted by Henry VII to John Cabot [and sons], 5 March 1496", The Smugglers' City, History Dept , University of Bristol



ground_truth: Sebastian Cabot