prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the experimental satellite being forerunner to communication satellite of INSAT-4CR's manufacturer called?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Lockheed Martin A2100
The A2100 is a model of communications satellite spacecraft made by Lockheed Martin Space Systems  It is used as the foundation for telecommunications payloads in geosynchronous orbit, as well as GOES-R weather satellites and GPS Block IIIA satellites  Over 40 satellites use the A2100 bus 

History
The first satellite, AMC-1, was launched September 8, 1996, and has achieved 15-year on-orbit service life   Since 1996 there have been over 45 of the A2100 based satellites launched, with over 400 years of total on-orbit service 
Other A2100 spacecraft include JCSAT-13 and VINASAT-2, which were launched May, 2012 on an Ariane 5 rocket, as well as Arabsat-6A and Hellas Sat 4/SaudiGeoSat-1 of Saudi Arabia's Arabsat-6G program In 2002, Lockheed Martin Commercial Space Systems was given a Frost and Sullivan Satellite Reliability Award for excellence in the production of flexible and reliable communications satellites used in geosynchronous Earth orbit A2100 customers includes communications companies around the world, including Astra, Telesat, SKY Perfect JSAT Group and others 

Design
The Lockheed Martin A2100 geosynchronous spacecraft series is designed for a variety of telecommunications needs including Ka band broadband and broadcast services, fixed satellite services in C-band and Ku band payload configurations, high-power direct broadcast services using the Ku band frequency spectrum, and mobile satellite services using UHF, L-band and S-band payloads The A2100 satellite system was developed by the Astro Space team at its East Windsor, New Jersey facility, with team members delivering a flexible common bus with fewer components, lower spacecraft weight, and reduced customer delivery time The A2100 is being supplanted by the LM2100, an evolutionary upgrade with several new features  The military version is the LM2100 Combat Bus 

Propulsion system
The attitude control system includes reaction wheels, with momentum desaturation and main motor maneuver attitude control propulsion provided by small monopropellant hydrazine motors  This hydrazine supply is contained in a central propellant tank of 0 90 m diameter and up to 2 00 m length depending on the customer's requirements 
This tank's maximum length was later increased to 2 55 m 
The liquid apogee engine uses hydrazine fuel from the central tank along with nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer from two flanking tanks of 0 54 m diameter and up to 1 65 m long 
Orbit maintenance is performed by the small hydrazine motors and ion thrusters 
The maximum propellant supply (with the largest tanks at 95% fill factor) are 1368 kg of hydrazine fuel and 627 kg of nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer 
According to Moog-ISP, the A2100 platform uses its LEROS bipropellant Liquid Apogee Engine 

Satellite orders
A2100A
A2100AX
A2100AXS
A2100M (Military)
LM2100 (Modernized)
LM2100M (Modernized Military)
Cancelled orders
Passage 2:
Communications satellite
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunication signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth  Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications   Many communications satellites are in geostationary orbit 22,300 miles (35,900 km) above the equator, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore the satellite dish antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite  Others form satellite constellations in low Earth orbit, where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently 
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of sight and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth   The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points   Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies  To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use  This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference 

History
Origins
In October 1945, Arthur C  Clarke published an article titled "Extraterrestrial Relays" in the British magazine Wireless World  The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits to relay radio signals  Because of this, Arthur C  Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the concept of the communications satellite, and the term 'Clarke Belt' is employed as a description of the orbit 

The first artificial Earth satellite was Sputnik 1 which was put into orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957  It was developed by Mikhail Tikhonravov and Sergey Korolev, building on work by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky  Sputnik 1 was equipped with an on-board radio transmitter that worked on two frequencies of 20 005 and 40 002 MHz, or 7 and 15 meters wavelength  The satellite was not placed in orbit to send data from one point on Earth to another; the radio transmitter was meant to study the properties of radio wave distribution throughout the ionosphere   The launch of Sputnik 1 was a major step in the exploration of space and rocket development, and marks the beginning of the Space Age 

Early active and passive satellite experiments
There are two major classes of communications satellites, passive and active  Passive satellites only reflect the signal coming from the source, toward the direction of the receiver  With passive satellites, the reflected signal is not amplified at the satellite, and only a very small amount of the transmitted energy actually reaches the receiver   Since the satellite is so far above Earth, the radio signal is attenuated due to free-space path loss, so the signal received on Earth is very, very weak  Active satellites, on the other hand, amplify the received signal before retransmitting it to the receiver on the ground  Passive satellites were the first communications satellites, but are little used now 
Work that was begun in the field of electrical intelligence gathering at the United States Naval Research Laboratory in 1951 led to a project named Communication Moon Relay  Military planners had long shown considerable interest in secure and reliable communications lines as a tactical necessity, and the ultimate goal of this project was the creation of the longest communications circuit in human history, with the moon, Earth's natural satellite, acting as a passive relay  After achieving the first transoceanic communication between Washington, D C , and Hawaii on 23 January 1956, this system was publicly inaugurated and put into formal production in January 1960 

The first satellite purpose-built to actively relay communications was Project SCORE,  led by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and launched on 18 December 1958, which used a tape recorder to carry a stored voice message, as well as to receive, store, and retransmit messages  It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U S  President Dwight D  Eisenhower  The satellite also executed several realtime transmissions before the non-rechargeable batteries failed on 30 December 1958 after eight hours of actual operation The direct successor to SCORE was another ARPA-led project called Courier  Courier 1B was launched on 4 October 1960 to explore whether it would be possible to establish a global military communications network by using "delayed repeater" satellites, which receive and store information until commanded to rebroadcast them  After 17 days, a command system failure ended communications from the satellite NASA's satellite applications program launched the first artificial satellite used for passive relay communications in Echo 1 on 12 August 1960  Echo 1 was an aluminized balloon satellite acting as a passive reflector of microwave signals  Communication signals were bounced off the satellite from one point on Earth to another  This experiment sought to establish the feasibility of worldwide broadcasts of telephone, radio, and television signals 

More firsts and further experiments
Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications commercial satellite and marked the first transatlantic transmission of television signals  Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on 10 July 1962, in the first privately sponsored space launch Another passive relay experiment primarily intended for military communications purposes was Project West Ford, which was led by Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Laboratory  After an initial failure in 1961, a launch on 9 May 1963 dispersed 350 million copper needle dipoles to create a passive reflecting belt  Even though only about half of the dipoles properly separated from each other, the project was able to successfully experiment and communicate using frequencies in the SHF X band spectrum An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was the Hughes Aircraft Company's Syncom 2, launched on 26 July 1963  Syncom 2 was the first communications satellite in a geosynchronous orbit  It revolved around the earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still had north–south motion, special equipment was needed to track it  Its successor, Syncom 3, launched on 19 July 1964, was the first geostationary communications satellite  Syncom 3 obtained a geosynchronous orbit, without a north–south motion, making it appear from the ground as a stationary object in the sky A direct extension of the passive experiments of Project West Ford was the Lincoln Experimental Satellite program, also conducted by the Lincoln Laboratory on behalf of the United States Department of Defense  The LES-1 active communications satellite was launched on 11 February 1965 to explore the feasibility of active solid-state X band long-range military communications  A total of nine satellites were launched between 1965 and 1976 as part of this series 

International commercial satellite projects
In the United States, 1962 saw the creation of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) private corporation, which was subject to instruction by the US Government on matters of national policy  Over the next two years, international negotiations led to the Intelsat Agreements, which in turn led to the launch of Intelsat 1, also known as Early Bird, on 6 April 1965, and which was the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit  Subsequent Intelsat launches in the 1960s provided multi-destination service and video, audio, and data service to ships at sea (Intelsat 2 in 1966–67), and the completion of a fully global network with Intelsat 3 in 1969–70  By the 1980s, with significant expansions in commercial satellite capacity, Intelsat was on its way to become part of the competitive private telecommunications industry, and had started to get competition from the likes of PanAmSat in the United States, which, ironically, was then bought by its archrival in 2005 When Intelsat was launched, the United States was the only launch source outside of the Soviet Union, who did not participate in the Intelsat agreements  The Soviet Union launched its first communications satellite on 23 April 1965 as part of the Molniya program  This program was also unique at the time for its use of what then became known as the Molniya orbit, which describes a highly elliptical orbit, with two high apogees daily over the northern hemisphere  This orbit provides a long dwell time over Russian territory as well as over Canada at higher latitudes than geostationary orbits over the equator 

Satellite orbits
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital classifications are used to further specify orbital details  MEO and LEO are non-geostationary orbit (NGSO) 

Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is 22,236 miles (35,785 km) from Earth's surface  This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky   This is because the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth   The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in the sky the satellite appears 
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth  Orbital altitudes range from 2,000 to 36,000 kilometres (1,200 to 22,400 mi) above Earth 
The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth orbit (LEO), and is about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth beyond the visible horizon  Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so that one of these satellites will always be visible in the sky for transmission of communication signals   However, due to their closer distance to the Earth, LEO or MEO satellites can communicate to ground with reduced latency and at lower power than would be required from a geosynchronous orbit 

Low Earth orbit (LEO)
A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above the earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the sub-satellite point  In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly  So even for local applications, many satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity 
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal strength (signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is considerable)  Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost 
In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions 

Satellite constellation
A group of satellites working in concert is known as a satellite constellation  Two such constellations, intended to provide satellite phone and low-speed data services, primarily to remote areas, are the Iridium and Globalstar systems  The Iridium system has 66 satellites, which orbital inclination of 86 4° and inter-satellite links provide service availability over the entire surface of Earth  Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by SpaceX, that aims for global satellite Internet access coverage 
It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over another part   This will be the case with the CASCADE system of Canada's CASSIOPE communications satellite  Another system using this store and forward method is Orbcomm 

Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
A medium Earth orbit is a satellite in orbit somewhere between 2,000 and 35,786 kilometres (1,243 and 22,236 mi) above the earth's surface   MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality  MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 and 8 hours  MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites  A MEO satellite's longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network  One disadvantage is that a MEO satellite's distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, although these limitations are not as severe as those of a GEO satellite 
Like LEOs, these satellites do not maintain a stationary distance from the earth   This is in contrast to the geostationary orbit, where satellites are always 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) from the earth 
Typically the orbit of a medium earth orbit satellite is about 16,000 kilometres (10,000 mi) above earth  In various patterns, these satellites make the trip around earth in anywhere from 2 to 8 hours 

Examples of MEO
In 1962, the communications satellite, Telstar, was launched  It was a medium earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals  Although it was the first practical way to transmit signals over the horizon, its major drawback was soon realised  Because its orbital period of about 2 5 hours did not match the Earth's rotational period of 24 hours, continuous coverage was impossible  It was apparent that multiple MEOs needed to be used in order to provide continuous coverage 
In 2013, the first four of a constellation of 20 MEO satellites was launched  The O3b satellites provide broadband internet services, in particular to remote locations and maritime and in-flight use, and orbit at an altitude of 8,063 kilometres (5,010 mi)) 

Geostationary orbit (GEO)
To an observer on Earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky   This is because it revolves around the Earth at Earth's own angular velocity (one revolution per sidereal day, in an equatorial orbit) 
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion  This is relatively inexpensive 
In applications that require many ground antennas, such as DirecTV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit 

Examples of GEO
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on 19 August 1964, and used for communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics  Shortly after Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was launched on 6 April 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude  It was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean 
On 9 November 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, Anik A1, was launched by Telesat Canada, with the United States following suit with the launch of Westar 1 by Western Union on 13 April 1974 
On 30 May 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be three-axis stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-6 built for NASA 
After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE Americom, now SES) launched Satcom 1 in 1975   It was Satcom 1 that was instrumental in helping early cable TV channels such as WTBS (now TBS), HBO, CBN (now Freeform) and The Weather Channel become successful, because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local cable TV headends using the satellite   Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast television networks in the United States, like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute programming to their local affiliate stations   Satcom 1 was widely used because it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in America (24 transponders as opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in lower transponder-usage costs  Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher transponder numbers By 2000, Hughes Space and Communications (now Boeing Satellite Development Center) had built nearly 40 percent of the more than one hundred satellites in service worldwide  Other major satellite manufacturers include Space Systems/Loral, Orbital Sciences Corporation with the Star Bus series, Indian Space Research Organisation, Lockheed Martin (owns the former RCA Astro Electronics/GE Astro Space business), Northrop Grumman, Alcatel Space, now Thales Alenia Space, with the Spacebus series, and Astrium 

Molniya orbit
Geostationary satellites must operate above the equator and therefore appear lower on the horizon as the receiver gets farther from the equator  This will cause problems for extreme northerly latitudes, affecting connectivity and causing multipath interference (caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground antenna) 
Thus, for areas close to the North (and South) Pole, a geostationary satellite may appear below the horizon  Therefore, Molniya orbit satellites have been launched, mainly in Russia, to alleviate this problem 
Molniya orbits can be an appealing alternative in such cases  The Molniya orbit is highly inclined, guaranteeing good elevation over selected positions during the northern portion of the orbit  (Elevation is the extent of the satellite's position above the horizon  Thus, a satellite at the horizon has zero elevation and a satellite directly overhead has elevation of 90 degrees )
The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprint moves only slightly  Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation over the targeted region for six to nine hours every second revolution  In this way a constellation of three Molniya satellites (plus in-orbit spares) can provide uninterrupted coverage 
The first satellite of the Molniya series was launched on 23 April 1965 and was used for experimental transmission of TV signals from a Moscow uplink station to downlink stations located in Siberia and the Russian Far East, in Norilsk, Khabarovsk, Magadan and Vladivostok  In November 1967 Soviet engineers created a unique system of national TV network of satellite television, called Orbita, that was based on Molniya satellites 

Polar orbit
In the United States, the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) was established in 1994 to consolidate the polar satellite operations of
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)  NPOESS manages a number of satellites for various purposes; for example, METSAT for meteorological satellite, EUMETSAT for the European branch of the program, and METOP for meteorological operations 
These orbits are sun synchronous, meaning that they cross the equator at the same local time each day  For example, the satellites in the NPOESS (civilian) orbit will cross the equator, going from south to north, at times 1:30 P M , 5:30 P M , and 9:30 P M 

Beyond geostationary orbit
There are plans and initiatives to bring dedicated communications satellite beyond geostationary orbits 
NASA proposed LunaNet as a data network aiming to provide a „Lunar Internet for cis-lunar spacecraft and Installations 
The Moonlight Initiative is an equivalent ESA project that is stated to be compatible and providing navigational services for the lunar surface  Both programmes are satellite constellstions of several satellites in various orbits around the Moon 
Other orbits are also planned to be used  Positions in the Earth-Moon-Libration points are also proposed for communication satellites covering the Moon alike communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit cover the Earth  Also, dedicated communication satellites in orbits around Mars supporting different missions on surface and other orbits are considered, such as the Mars Telecommunications Orbiter 

Structure
Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems:

Communication Payload, normally composed of transponders, antennas, and switching systems
Engines used to bring the satellite to its desired orbit
A station keeping tracking and stabilization subsystem used to keep the satellite in the right orbit, with its antennas pointed in the right direction, and its power system pointed towards the sun
Power subsystem, used to power the Satellite systems, normally composed of solar cells, and batteries that maintain power during solar eclipse
Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground control stations  The ground control Earth stations monitor the satellite performance and control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided by the satellite  Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission  This is typically known as link budgeting and a network simulator can be used to arrive at the exact value 

Frequency allocation for satellite systems
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international coordination and planning  This is carried out under the auspices of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 
To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions:

Region 1: Europe, Africa, the Middle East, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia
Region 2: North and South America and Greenland
Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia, and the southwest PacificWithin these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given service may be allocated different frequency bands in different regions  Some of the services provided by satellites are:

Fixed satellite service (FSS)
Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)
Mobile-satellite service
Radionavigation-satellite service
Meteorological-satellite service

Applications
Telephony
The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony  The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from land line telephones to an earth station, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite   The downlink follows an analogous path   Improvements in submarine communications cables through the use of fiber-optics caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century 
Satellite communications are still used in many applications today  Remote islands such as Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Diego Garcia, and Easter Island, where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones  There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to non existent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, and Australia  Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of Antarctica and Greenland  Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a backup for hospitals, military, and recreation  Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones Satellite phone systems can be accomplished by a number of means  On a large scale, often there will be a local telephone system in an isolated area with a link to the telephone system in a main land area  There are also services that will patch a radio signal to a telephone system  In this example, almost any type of satellite can be used  Satellite phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-Earth-orbit satellites  Calls are then forwarded to a satellite teleport connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network  

Television
As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats   Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio: Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS) 
The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous  Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same linear polarization as FSS-class satellites  Examples of these are the Astra, Eutelsat, and Hotbird spacecraft in orbit over the European continent  Because of this, the terms FSS and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in Europe 
Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of the Ku band  They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, live shots, and backhauls), as well as being used for distance learning by schools and universities, business television (BTV), Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications  FSS satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends 
Free-to-air satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the Ku band  The Intelsat Americas 5, Galaxy 10R and AMC 3 satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their Ku band transponders 
The American Dish Network DBS service has also recently used FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's "must-carry" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels 
A direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter)  Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave Ku band  DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV, DISH Network and Orby TV in the United States, Bell Satellite TV and Shaw Direct in Canada, Freesat and Sky in the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand and DSTV in South Africa 
Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2 5 m) in diameter for Ku band, and 12 feet (3 6 m) or larger for C band)   They use linear polarization for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to circular polarization used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice  FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of TVRO (Television Receive Only) receivers and dishes  It was also used in its Ku band form for the now-defunct Primestar satellite TV service 
Some satellites have been launched that have transponders in the Ka band, such as DirecTV's SPACEWAY-1 satellite, and Anik F2  NASA and ISRO have also launched experimental satellites carrying Ka band beacons recently Some manufacturers have also introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television  Using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no matter where or how the vehicle (on which the antenna is mounted) is situated   These mobile satellite antennas are popular with some recreational vehicle owners   Such mobile DBS antennas are also used by JetBlue Airways for DirecTV (supplied by LiveTV, a subsidiary of JetBlue), which passengers can view on-board on LCD screens mounted in the seats 

Radio broadcasting
Satellite radio offers audio broadcast services in some countries, notably the United States  Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere 
A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals 

Amateur radio
Amateur radio operators have access to amateur satellites, which have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio traffic  Most such satellites operate as spaceborne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped with UHF or VHF radio equipment and highly directional antennas such as Yagis or dish antennas  Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time  Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using the X 25 or similar protocols 

Internet access
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections  This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access a broadband connection, or require high availability of services 

Military
Communications satellites are used for military communications applications, such as Global Command and Control Systems  Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are the MILSTAR, the DSCS, and the FLTSATCOM of the United States, NATO satellites, United Kingdom satellites (for instance Skynet), and satellites of the former Soviet Union  India has launched its first Military Communication satellite GSAT-7, its transponders operate in UHF, F, C and Ku band bands  Typically military satellites operate in the UHF, SHF (also known as X-band) or EHF (also known as Ka band) frequency bands 

Data collection
Near-ground in situ environmental monitoring equipment (such as weather stations, weather buoys, and radiosondes), may use satellites for one-way data transmission or two-way telemetry and telecontrol  It may be based on a secondary payload of a weather satellite (as in the case of GOES and METEOSAT and others in the Argos system) or in dedicated satellites (such as SCD)  The data rate is typically much lower than in satellite Internet access 

See also
Passage 3:
INSAT-4CR
INSAT-4CR was a communications satellite operated by ISRO as part of the Indian National Satellite System  Launched in September 2007, it replaced the INSAT-4C satellite which had been lost in a launch failure the previous year  The satellite was initially stationed in geostationary orbit at a longitude of 74 degrees east, with expected operational life of at least ten years, however this may have been reduced by the underperformance of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle which placed it into orbit  INSAT-4CR is planned to be replaced by GSAT-31, which was launched on February 6, 2019 

Spacecraft
INSAT-4CR was constructed by ISRO, and is based around the I-2K satellite bus  A 2,168-kilogram (4,780 lb) spacecraft, it is equipped with twelve Ku band transponders operating at a frequency of 36 MHz, with 140 Watt travelling wave tube amplifiers  The satellite has an effective isotropic radiated power of 51 5 dBW  An additional Ku band signal is used as a beacon for tracking 
INSAT-4CR operated in a geostationary orbit at a longitudes of 74° East and  48° East, providing communications to India  Broadcasting capacity on INSAT-4CR was allocated to Airtel Digital TV and Sun Direct DTH  At launch, the satellite was carrying 1,218 kilograms (2,685 lb) of fuel, for raising itself into geostationary orbit, and subsequently operating there for a planned twelve years  Increased expenditure of fuel reaching geostationary orbit, due to launch underperformance, may have resulted in a loss of up to five years of operational life 

Launch
INSAT-4CR was launched on 2 September 2007 by the fifth flight of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV-F04  The launch occurred at 12:51 UTC on 2 September 2007  The third stage of the carrier rocket underperformed, resulting in the satellite being placed into a lower than planned orbit 
As a result of the underperformance during its launch, INSAT-4CR had to expend maneuvering and station keeping propellant to raise its orbit by more than had originally been planned  It was subsequently reported by Indian news agencies that ISRO had lost track of the satellite's orbit, and could not locate the spacecraft until NASA identified it several days later, however, ISRO denied these claims  As a result of these failures, the operational lifetime of the satellite was reportedly decreased by up to five years 

End of life and replacement
Towards the end of its service life INSAT-4CR was relocated from 74°E to 48°E slot on 10 February 2017 where it stayed until being retired and placed into graveyard orbit on 24 November 2020  Services of INSAT-4CR were handed over to GSAT-31 
Passage 4:
NOAA-4
NOAA-4, also known as ITOS-G was a weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)  It was part of a series of satellites called ITOS, or improved TIROS  NOAA-4 was launched on a Delta rocket on November 15, 1974  The launch carried two other satellites: AMSAT-OSCAR 7 and Intasat  It remained operational for 1463 days until it was deactivated by NOAA on November 18, 1978 
Passage 5:
FedSat
FedSat (Australia's 'Federation Satellite'; sometimes FedSat 1; COSPAR 2002-056B, SATCAT 27598) was an Australian scientific research satellite launched from Tanegashima Space Center, Japan by a NASDA H-IIA launch vehicle  on 14 December 2002 (NASDA is now merged with JAXA)  The satellite was developed by the Cooperative Research Centre for Satellite Systems, a cooperative made up of several universities, commercial organisations and government bodies  The ground station was at the Institute for Telecommunications Research, part of the University of South Australia, near Adelaide  Since 2005 it was operated by the Australian Department of Defence 

Payloads
The satellite had six payloads, as given below:

Communications Payload: A collection of three components (UHF transponder, Ka-band transponder and base-band processor) used to perform several experiments in satellite communications 
High Performance Computing Experiment: A reconfigurable computer based on a Xilinx XQR4062 FPGA, the first of its kind to be used in space 
GPS Payload: A Global Positioning System receiver built by NASA  Conceived especially for ionospheric studies between GPS constellation levels and FedSat orbit 
NewMag Payload: A magnetometer built by the University of Newcastle, Australia, used to take measurements of the Earth's magnetic field near its poles 
Star Camera: An experimental star camera built by the University of Stellenbosch, used to determine the position of the satellite in space by analysing images of surrounding stars 
Compact Disk: A nickel "master" disk "cultural time capsule" with tracks including Paul Kelly's performance of the song he co-wrote with Kev Carmody, "From Little Things, Big Things Grow", and recorded statements from several hundred Australian school children about how they imagined a future Australia and its place in the Asia-Pacific The satellite platform, comprising the structural/thermal components, power system, attitude control system, onboard computer and groundlink, was originally developed in the United Kingdom by Space Innovations Limited  It was later completed along with integration of payloads in Canberra, Australia 

Declared Dead
The spacecraft's battery failed in May 2007 and the mission has been terminated, after lasting 18 months longer than expected 
Passage 6:
SICRAL 1B
SICRAL 1B is a military communications satellite built by Thales Alenia Space for Italian Armed Forces  It is a dual-use spacecraft: Telespazio will use some of the satellite's transmission capacity and some will be used by the Italian defense ministry and NATO  The spacecraft is based on the Italsat 3000 bus and includes one EHF/Ka band, three UHF-band and five active SHF-band transponders  It is designed to be operable for 13 years 

Construction
Thales Alenia Space was the prime contractor for development and construction of the SICRAL 1B satellite 

Launch
On April 20, 2009 Sea Launch used a Zenit-3SL to carry SICRAL 1B into a geosynchronous transfer orbit  Liftoff from the Ocean Odyssey launch platform took place at 08:16 GMT 
Passage 7:
ATS-6
ATS-6 (Applications Technology Satellite-6)  was a NASA experimental satellite, built by Fairchild Space and Electronics Division It has been called the world's first educational satellite as well as world's first experimental Direct Broadcast Satellite as part of the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment between NASA and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)  It was launched May 30, 1974, and decommissioned July 1979  At the time of launch, it was the most powerful telecommunication satellite in orbit  ATS-6 carried no fewer than 23 different experiments, and introduced several breakthroughs  It was the first 3-axis stabilized spacecraft in geostationary orbit  It was also the first to use experimentally with some success electric propulsion in geostationary orbit  It also carried several particle physics experiments, including the first heavy ion detector in geostationary orbit 
During its five-year life, ATS-6 transmitted connection programming to various countries, including India, the United States and other regions  The vehicle also conducted air traffic control tests, was used to practice satellite-assisted search and rescue techniques, carried an experimental radiometer subsequently carried as a standard instrument aboard weather satellites, and pioneered direct broadcast TV 
ATS-6 was a precursor to many technologies still in use today on geostationary spacecraft: large deployable antenna, 3-axis attitude control with slewing capabilities, antenna pointing through RF sensing, electric propulsion, meteorological radiometer in geostationary orbit, and direct to home broadcasting  It is also possible that ATS-6 was a forerunner of the large ELINT satellites such as Mentor 

Launch
ATS-6 was launched on May 30, 1974, by a Titan III-C launch vehicle  The spacecraft was inserted directly in the geosynchronous orbit  This reduced the on-board fuel requirements to less than 40 kilograms (88 lb) (for a total mass at launch of nearly 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb))  The highly accurate orbit insertion further lowered the amount of fuel required for final positioning to 9 kilograms (20 lb)  This enabled a life extension from the original 2 year to 5 years, even accounting for the premature failure of the electric propulsion subsystem (the station-keeping fuel requirement being around 1 6 kilograms per year (3 5 lb/a)) 

Structure, power subsystem and antenna
One of the major innovations of ATS-6 was an in-flight deployable antenna of more than 9 metres (30 ft) in diameter  The antenna reflector was furled during launch under the launch vehicle fairing, and was deployed in orbit much like an umbrella  The antenna reflector was built from 48 aluminum ribs, supporting a metallized Dacron mesh  The antenna feeds (in C, S, L, UHF and VHF bands) were placed on the spacecraft body, facing the antenna reflector, and linked to the antenna and the solar panels masts by a carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) truss  The solar panels were rigidly mounted on two deployable masts  They were of hemi-cylinder shape, thus providing a relatively constant power (595 W beginning of life)  Electric power was supplied during eclipses by two Nickel cadmium batteries of 15-A·h capacity, powering a regulated 30 5-V bus  The satellite dimensions in orbit were 15 8-metre (52 ft) width by 8 2-metre (27 ft) height 
This deployable antenna parabola was designed and developed by Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (LMSC), now Lockheed Martin, under subcontract to Fairchild Aerospace, after several years of small study contracts at LMSC   The program manager at LMSC was GKC (Colin) Campbell   The deployment of the reflector was initiated by pyrotechnically operated SQUIB cable cutters   Deployment time was on the order of 2 5 seconds producing 3,400 newton-metres (2,500 lb⋅ft) of torque at the spacecraft interface   The reflector surface was designed for optimal operation at S-Band frequencies  It weighed 83 kilograms (182 lb) at launch and stowed into a toroidal volume (doughnut shaped) approximately 1 8 metres (6 ft) in diameter and 250 millimetres (10 in) thick   Three models were fabricated, the STM or structural test model, the F reflector and the G reflector   The STM was destroyed by Fairchild shortly after the program was finished and the F model was launched with the spacecraft in 1972   The G model sat unprotected in the Farchild parking lot for several years before it was donated to the Smithsonian   Bill Wade, the assistant program manager and test manager on the program supported The Smithsonian in the restoration by providing a complete set of drawings and specifications and visited the Silver Hill facility to provide technical guidance At the time of launch it was the largest parabolic surface launched into orbit 

Three-axis stabilisation
ATS-6 has been the first geostationary satellite with three-axis stabilization and pointing , This subsystem was capable of a highly accurate pointing (better than 0 1° through the inertial measurement units, down to 0 002° by using a radio-frequency interferometer )  Furthermore, the satellite was able to follow low earth orbit satellites through slewing, by tracking the low earth-orbit satellite through an S-band RF sensing  The system was also able to perform orbitography of the tracked satellite, and was a precursor to the operational system TDRSS 
This highly advanced (for the time) pointing subsystem used earth and sun sensors, a star tracker pointed to the pole star, Polaris, and three inertial sensors  The sensor measurements were fed to two digital computers (nominal and redundant), as well to a back-up analog computer  It was also possible to orient the satellite by using radio-frequency sensors   Actuators were three momentum wheels, and hot gas (hydrazine mono-propellant) thrusters  One of the momentum wheels having failed in July 1975, an alternative scheme was developed, allowing station-keeping with the two remaining wheels and thrusters 

Electric propulsion
ATS-6 was equipped with two electric thrusters based on the acceleration of cesium ions, that were to be used for North-South Station Keeping  This subsystem development followed earlier failed attempts on the previous ATS spacecraft  Each of the thrusters had a mass of 16 kilograms (35 lb), used 150 W of electric power, and produced a thrust of 4 newton-metres (3 0 lbf⋅ft), with a specific impulse of 2500s  The on-board supply of cesium would have been sufficient for 4400 hours of thrust  Unfortunately, both thrusters failed prematurely, one after 1 hour of operation, one after 95 hours  However, some of the experiments objectives could be met, such as the measurement of the effective thrust, the absence of any interference with the radio-frequency payloads (from 150 MHz to 6 GHz), no cesium redeposition on the critical parts of the payload (such as the radiometer), and the correct neutralisation of the spacecraft versus its environment 

Payload
Radiometer
A radiometer was on board ATS-6, mounted on the earth-facing panel  This instrument was (for the time) of very high resolution  It operated on two channels: infra-red (10 5 to 12 5 µm) and visible light (0 55 to 0 75 µm)  Images taken with the radiometer covered the whole earth disk, with a resolution of 1,200 lines of 2,400 pixels each (11-kilometre (6 8 mi) square pixel in infra-red, and 5 5-kilometre (3 4 mi) square in visible light)  The IR detector was passively cooled at 115K, and the visible light detector maintained at 300K  A complete image of earth's disk was transmitted to ground every 25 minutes  Several hundreds images were taken and transmitted, until a mechanical component of the radiometer failed, two and a half months after launch 

Telecommunication experiments
The main mission of ATS-6 was to demonstrate the feasibility of direct-to-home (DTH) television broadcasting  To this end, in addition to the high-gain antenna, the spacecraft payload was able to receive in any of the VHF, C, S and L-bands, and to transmit in S-band (2 GHz) through a 20-W solid state transmitter, in L-band (1650 MHz) at 40W, in UHF (860 MHz) at 80W (which was used for the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)), and with a TWTA-based transmitter of 20 W in C-band (4 GHz)  The antenna produced two spots on earth of 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi) each, in which the TV broadcast could be received with 3 metres (9 8 ft) diameter antennas  This payload was first used over the United States for tele-education and tele-medicine experiments, from August 1974 to May 1975 as part of the HET, or Health, Education, Telecommunications experiment developed jointly by NASA and the US Department of Health, Education, & Welfare (now DHHS)  The spacecraft was then moved over the geo-stationary arc from 94 °W to 35 °E, in collaboration with the Indian Space Agency (ISRO), who had deployed in India more than 2500 receive ground stations  The move of the satellite from 94 degrees West to 35 degrees East, a journey of 12,800 kilometres (8,000 mi), was actioned from the ground station at Rosman North Carolina  This relocation involved 2 rocket burns of the onboard rocket motor  The 2nd burn lasting 5 hours 37 minutes and 17 seconds  The longest burn ever done by a chemical rocket in space at that time  A tele-education programme was started – Satellite Instructional Television Experiment or SITE – and run for one year  During the experiment, a receive station was offered by the Indian Government to Arthur C  Clarke, who was living in Sri Lanka  This experiment was highly successful, and encouraged ISRO to start building an operational program, with the Indian spacecraft  INSAT IB (launched 1983)  After the SITE experiment, the satellite was brought back over the United States, and served notably as a data-relay and tracking satellite for low-orbit spacecraft such as Nimbus 6, and for the Apollo-Soyuz flight 

Particle physics experiments
Several particle physics experiments were on board ATS-6  The most significant measured low energy protons (from 25 keV to 3 6 MeV), as well as detected heavy ions (up to 6 MeV)  This latter experiment allowed to detect the first heavy ions (Z > 6) with an energy  E > 4 MeV, in geostationary orbit 

Propagation experiments
Finally, ATS-6 embarked several radio beacons, which allowed to measure electromagnetic propagation properties of the atmosphere at 13, 18, 20 and 30 GHz 

Decommissioning
By June 30, 1979, only one of the four ATS-6 station keeping thrusters was working, and was showing signs of unreliability  This thruster was used to move ATS-6 out of geostationary orbit to an orbit several hundred kilometers higher  This was to vacate the geostationary slot for the next satellite 

See also
1974 in spaceflight
Applications Technology Satellite
Passage 8:
Optus
Singtel Optus Pty Limited (commonly referred to as Optus) is an Australian telecommunications company headquartered in Macquarie Park, a suburb in the Northern Sydney region of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia  It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Singaporean telecommunications company Singtel  
Optus is the second-largest wireless carrier in Australia, with over 10 million subscribers as of 2022, and it's mobile network covers 98 5% of the Australian population 

History
AUSSAT and deregulation (1981–1990)
Optus can trace its beginnings back to the formation of the Government-owned AUSSAT Pty Limited in 1981  In 1982, Aussat selected the Hughes 376 for their initial satellites, with the first, AUSSAT A1, launched in August 1985  AUSSAT satellites were used for both military and civilian satellite communications, and delivering television services to remote outback communities 

With Aussat operating at a loss and with moves to deregulate telecommunications in Australia, the government decided to sell Aussat, coupled with a telecommunications licence  The licence was sold to Optus Communications – a consortium including:
logistics firm Mayne Nickless (24 99%);
UK telecommunications company Cable & Wireless (24 50%);
US telecommunications company BellSouth (24 50%);
AIDC Limited (10 00%);
insurance and investment company AMP (10 00%); and
insurance and investment company National Mutual (6 02%) The new telecommunications company was designed to provide competition to then government owned telecommunications company Telecom Australia, now known as Telstra 

Founding of Optus (1991–present)
Optus gained the second general carrier licence in January 1991 After privatisation, AUSSAT became Optus and its first offering to the general public was to offer long-distance calls at cheaper rates than that of its competitor Telstra  The long-distance calling rates on offer were initially available by consumers dialing 1 before the area code and phone number  Following this, a ballot process was conducted by then regulator AUSTEL, with customers choosing their default long-distance carrier  Customers who made no choice or did not respond to the mailout campaign automatically remained as a Telstra long-distance customer  Customers who remained with Telstra could dial the override code of 1456 before the area code and phone number to manually select Optus as the carrier for that single call  Since 1 July 1998, consumers have the choice of preselecting their preferred long-distance carrier or dialling the override code before dialling a telephone number 
The group began by building an interstate fibre optic cable and a series of exchanges between Optus' interstate network and Telstra's local network  It also laid fibre optics into major office buildings and industrial areas, and focused on high bandwidth local, (interstate) long distance, and interstate calls for business  In its early years, Optus was only able to offer local and long-distance calls to residential customers through Telstra's local phone network  Telstra would carry residential to residential calls to Optus' exchanges, and then the calls would be switched to Optus' long-distance fibre optic network 
Optus was the main sponsor of the 1997 ARL season 

2022 cyberattack
Around 22 September 2022, Optus systems sustained a significant cyberattack that resulted in a major data breach of both current and former customers' personal information, including customers’ names, dates of birth, phone numbers and email addresses, with a smaller subset of customers having their street addresses, driving licence details and passport numbers leaked  Optus CEO Kelly Bayer Rosmarin urged customers to exercise "heightened awareness" regarding transactions with their Optus and other accounts  Rosmarin emphasised that passwords were not compromised  The CEO said that the "worst-case scenario" regarding the number of customers whose data had been leaked was 9 8 million customers, but believes the actual number to be far lower On 24 September 2022, Australian news outlets The Age and The Sydney Morning Herald reported that Optus was investigating the authenticity of a ransom demand of US$1 million made on a hacking forum  The demand gave Optus one week to pay the ransom in cryptocurrency else the data will be sold for US$300,000 to whoever else wants it On 6 October, the Australian Federal Police announced the arrest of a 19-year-old man who had allegedly threatened 93 Optus customers by saying that he would use their information leaked in the attack to commit financial crimes, unless they paid AUD $2,000 In response to the cyberattack, the Australian federal government announced emergency regulation on 6 October, in the form of a 12-month amendment to the Telecommunications Regulations 2021 to "enable telecommunications companies to temporarily share approved government identifier information with regulated financial services entities "On 11 October, the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner launched an investigation, the aim of which is to explore the company's handling of customers' data 

Corporate affairs
Chief Executive Officer
Kelly Bayer Rosmarin commenced as CEO of Optus and Consumer Australia on 1 April 2020 
A senior executive, Kelly joined Optus as Deputy CEO on 1 March 2019 following a variety of executive roles including Group Executive, Institutional Banking and Markets at the Commonwealth Bank of Australia 

The hybrid fibre-coax rollout
These practices meant that Optus was the largest customer of Telstra  To become competitive Optus would need to lay its own local phone network  To provide a killer application for this, the Australian Federal government sold subscription television licences  Optus, as well as the Seven Network, businessman Kerry Stokes and American cable company Cablevision, formed the Optus Vision consortium  News Corporation and Telstra created the rival Foxtel consortium 
Telstra's local phone network did not have the capability to deliver Foxtel pay television to consumers in the early 1990s, so Telstra identified a need to create a broadband network to support this new product 
As Telstra and Optus could not agree on terms for a joint broadband cable roll out, they laid two competing cable networks, in addition to Telstra's existing copper network, at a combined cost estimated of over A$6bn 
Whilst Telstra focused on creating a broadband network specifically for broadcast, Optus designed their cable network to provide telephony services in addition to broadcast television 
Optus is no longer a customer of Telstra's after deciding to move the funding used to lease Telstra's copper network into constructing their hybrid fibre-coaxial network, the first in Australia 

Takeovers
Cable and Wireless with 24 5% stakeholder bought out Bell South's equal 24 5% shareholding in July 1997  The company returned to profitability in 1998 and changed its name to Cable and Wireless Optus Pty Limited  Government relaxation of foreign ownership restrictions paved the way for the company to be floated - with Cable and Wireless increasing its holding to 52 5%) - and listed on the Australian Stock Exchange on 17 November 1998 During 2001, Singtel launched a takeover bid for Cable and Wireless Optus which was ultimately successful and the company became known as Singtel Optus Pty Limited 
In May 2004, Optus announced a $226 8 million bid for UEComm  The takeover was approved in July and completed in August In July 2005, Optus announced it would acquire Alphawest Ltd  for A$25 9 million  The buyout was completed in November 2005 and Alphawest is now an operating division of Optus Business 
On 12 January 2006, Optus acquired the remaining 74 15% of Virgin Mobile Australia for U$22 6 m, giving it 100% ownership 

OptusNet
Optus Communications offered its first business-focused internet products in 1998 under the OptusNet product family, offering in-house developed dial-up and high-speed services  Optus purchased one of Australia's pioneer ISPs, Microplex, in 1998 to provide consumer dial-up internet services  Separate to this, under the Optus Vision brand, a cable broadband arm began as a joint venture with U S  cable and content provider Excite@Home and was known as Optus@Home from its introduction in 1999 until it was renamed in 2002  ADSL services were offered from February 2004  ADSL2+ services were provided from December 2005 

OPEL Networks
In June 2007, joint venture subsidiary OPEL Networks was awarded government funding towards the cost of building a regional broadband network  Optus was to be contracted to build the network on behalf of OPEL In April 2008, after a change of the Federal Government from the Liberal Party of Australia coalition to the Australian Labor Party, the new government terminated the funding agreement and the project was halted, with its functions to be replaced by the National Broadband Network 

Terria
Optus is part of a consortium – now known as Terria – that in July 2006 announced their intention to make a combined bid to build the proposed National Broadband Network 

Products and services
Optus's Customer Solutions and Services (CS&S) organisation is responsible for providing support to Optus Business customers  CS&S works with Optus' subsidiary Alphawest to support information technology services across Optus' large business, corporate and government client base 
Retail services are sold to customers via phone, internet or through retail outlets, especially franchise chains such as Optus World, Network Communications, Strathfield, Telechoice, and Allphones 
Key Optus products and services include:

Voice
Residential and Commercial POTS for local and long-distance telephony
Commercial VoIP and VoDSL
Intelligent Network applications, such as free call, 1300 and Interactive voice response services

Wireless
GSM/GPRS utilising 900 MHz/1800 MHz covering 98 5% of the population
3G/HSPA provided by 2100 MHz for large regional centres and metropolitan and 900 MHz for regional as well as metropolitan coverage  The dual frequencies covers 98 5% (98 8% with the use of an external antenna) of the population
4G/LTE provided by 700 / 1800 / 2100 / 2300 / 2600 MHz Covering 95 9% of the Australian population (As of July 2017) 
5G provided by 2300 MHz and 3500 MHz
Satellite Telephony covering all of Australia 

Internet access
NBN Internet (via Cable, FTTB, FTTC, FTTN, FTTP, Fixed wireless and Satellite)
Residential Dial-Up Internet in all states
Residential Broadband Internet (via cable and DSL) in all states (except the Northern Territory) 
Commercial and wholesale internet access
Secure Gateway services for Federal Government departments
NBN WIRELESS - not continued for new connects

Television
Optus Television service provided in Sydney, Melbourne & Brisbane, including Foxtel Digital

Subsidiaries
A number of notable wholly owned subsidiaries operate as part of the Singtel Optus group  These are:

Information Technology & Network Services
Alphawest
Uecomm
Mobile Telephony
SIMplus
Virgin Mobile AustraliaUntil 20 January 2013, Optus sold mobile services under the brand name Boost Mobile Optus also has a 50% stake in the now defunct OPEL Networks Other wholly owned subsidiaries of note no longer have a significant active role as individual entities  These are as follows:
Reef Networks was formed in 1999 to provide an optical fibre link between Brisbane and Cairns in Queensland  Optus gained exclusive access to this link in 2001, ahead of acquiring the organisation in 2005 XYZed was established by Optus in 2000 to provide wholesale business-grade DSL services under an individual brand, but today provides a collection of products only as part of the Optus Wholesale & Satellite division  XYZed established a network of DSLAMs inside Telstra telephone exchanges, utilising Unconditioned Local Loop services to reach end users 

Infrastructure
Optus' fully owned network infrastructure consists of the following:

Network backbone
ExtraTerrestrial Fibre Optic Network
Cairns to Brisbane
Brisbane to Sydney (fully diverse over two physically separate paths)
Sydney to Melbourne (fully diverse over two physically separate paths, one via Canberra, one via the coast)
Melbourne to Adelaide
Adelaide to Perth
SDH Digital Microwave
Hobart to Launceston
Satellite
Fleet of geostationary satellites (See Optus fleet of satellites)
International Earth Stations in Sydney and Perth
National Earth Stations in Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, Hobart and Darwin
Regional exchanges in Sydney (Rosebery), Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra, Adelaide and Perth 
Telehousing Data Centres in Melbourne and Sydney

Customer access network
Hybrid fibre-coaxial (HFC) network in Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne, providing consumer fixed telephony, cable internet and cable television services 
CBD optical fibre rings in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, Canberra and Wollongong, providing direct access for corporate and government services 
DSLAMs in certain Telstra local telephone exchanges in all states  Originally only providing business-grade DSL services, newer installations also provide consumer DSL and POTS telephony OptusNet also provides Cable internet  In August 2010, OptusNet released an upgrade of its HFC network to the DOCSIS 3 0 standard, which enabled customers to access a maximum theoretical downstream bandwidth of 100 Megabits  OptusNet is also one of the few ISPs in Australia to currently provide ADSL2+ via its own DSLAMs, which it also resells to other ISPs 

Mobile network
Mobile network equipment is from Nortel, Nokia and Huawei and antennas are sourced from Andrews, RFS, Argus and Kathrein The Optus network operates on the following bandwidth frequencies across Australia:

3G UMTS 900/2100 MHz
4G LTE 700 / 1800 / 2100 / 2300 / 2600 MHz network which has been in progressive rollout since 2012  VoLTE is currently being rolled out across Australia  For now, VoLTE is only available in CBD and metro areas in Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, Perth and Canberra on selected devices purchased on postpaid contracts  Until VoLTE has been fully rolled out, voice calling is still reliant on the 3G network (and formerly the 2G network until it was terminated) 
5G NR 3500 MHz rollout started in October 2019The 2G GSM 900/1800 MHz network was terminated on 3 April 2017 in Western Australia and Northern Territory  2G GSM was completely terminated on 1 August 2017 when 2G was disconnected in Victoria, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Queensland, Tasmania and South Australia  To remain connected, a device that is capable of running 3G at 900 MHz is now required after 2G was completely disconnected across Australia 

Partly owned infrastructure
Part-owned network infrastructure includes:

3G mobile network, a joint venture with Vodafone Australia
Southern Cross Cable, a fully diverse submarine optical fibre link across the Pacific Ocean between Sydney, New South Wales and California in the United States  The Singtel group owns a 40% interest in Southern Cross Cables Limited  This interest was originally owned by Singtel Optus Pty Limited, before ownership was transferred to parent company Singtel during the March 2006 - June 2006 quarter 

Advertising and sponsorship
Between 1994 and 2005 Optus had the naming rights to the Carlton football clubs original home ground in Princes Park  It was called Optus Oval until the ground was retired by the AFL in 2005  
In 2016, Optus signed a 10-year partnership agreement with the Australian Olympic Committee to be the official partner of the Australian Olympic Team and the Australian Paralympic Team until 2026 In 2017, Optus won naming rights to Perth Stadium where it would be known as Optus Stadium  Optus and the Government of Western Australia agreed to a 10-year naming right worth approximately A$50 million Optus also has a long-term partnership with the Adelaide Crows in the AFL  Optus has been a partner of the Collingwood Magpies in the AFL Women's since 2018 Optus is the current major sponsor for the No  25 Walkinshaw Andretti United Holden ZB Commodore driven by Chaz Mostert

Outsourcing
Since 2005, Optus has outsourced some customer service functions to Concentrix and 247 ai, with the outsourcer providing 800 staff operating offshore in India, supplementing Optus' 3,000-plus onshore call centre staff  Some functions have also been supplemented in the Philippines  Optus also uses 24/7 Inc  for telephone & chat based offshore support 
In October 2006, Optus announced that it would outsource 100 contracting jobs to another Singtel subsidiary, IT company NCS, in Singapore 

Achievement and Rewards
See also
4G Australia
Internet in Australia
National Broadband Network
Telecommunications in Australia
Passage 9:
TDRS-6
TDRS-6, known before launch as TDRS-F, is an American communications satellite, of first generation, which is operated by NASA as part of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System  It was constructed by TRW, and is based on a custom satellite bus which was used for all seven first generation TDRS satellites 

History
TDRS-F was deployed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-54 mission in 1993  Endeavour was launched from Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center, at 13:59:30 UTC on 13 January 1993  TDRS-F was deployed from Endeavour around six hours after launch, and was raised to geosynchronous orbit by means of an Inertial Upper Stage 

Deployment
The two-stage solid-propellent Inertial Upper Stage made two burns  The first stage burn occurred shortly after deployment from Endeavour, and placed the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO)  At 02:26 UTC on 14 January 1993, it reached apogee, and the second stage fired, placing TDRS-F into geosynchronous orbit  At this point, it received its operational designation, TDRS-6 

Operation
In 1994, it was placed at a longitude 46 0° West of the Greenwich Meridian, to serve as an on-orbit spare  In 1996, it was moved to 47 0° West, where it remained until 2005, when it was repositioned to 174 0° West, where, as of August 2009, it was used to provide communications with spacecraft in Earth orbit, such as the International Space Station (ISS) and spacecraft bringing astronauts to the ISS 

See also
List of TDRS satellites
Passage 10:
Hans K  Ziegler
Hans K  Ziegler (March 1, 1911, Munich, Germany – December 11, 1999 Colts Neck Township, New Jersey, United States) was a pioneer in the field of communication satellites and the use of photovoltaic solar cells as a power source for satellites 

Life
Hans Ziegler was born in Munich, Germany  There, he studied at the Technische Hochschule, which is today the Technische Universität München (TUM), and began his career as Wissenschaftlicher Assistant (Scientific Assistant)  Following that, he was a researcher in German industry for ten years  During the Second World War, he worked for the company Rosental Selb in Bavaria on high tension porcelain 
In 1947, he came to the US with Wernher von Braun under Operation Paperclip, by means of which the USA gained Nazi engineers and scientists  He went to the US Army Signal Corps' Laboratories in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and became a US citizen in 1954 
Ziegler's work in the US was very influential in the development of military electronics, especially in the electronics for the early phases of the US space program  During the thirty years he worked as an engineer in the field of electronics and electrical engineering in the research and development department of the U S  Army in Fort Monmouth, N J  (from 1947 to 1976), he held the top position of Chief Scientist for 12 years  In Fort Monmouth, he worked as a Scientific Consultant, Assistant Director of Research, Director of the Astro-Electronics Division and Chief Scientist (1959)  After the Army was restructured, he became Deputy for Science and Chief Scientist of the US Army Electronics Command in 1963 and Director of the US Army Electronics Technology & Devices Laboratory from 1971 until his retirement 
In May 1954, after examining the solar cells of Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson at Bell Laboratories, Ziegler wrote, "Future development [of the silicon solar cell] may well render it into an important source of electrical power [as] the roofs of all our buildings in cities and towns equipped with solar [cells] would be sufficient to produce this country's entire demand for electrical power "Referring to silicon solar cells, he said to the head of the U  S  Signal Corps, General James O'Connell, at a meeting in September 1955, "In fact, in the long run, mankind has no choice but to turn to the sun if it wants to survive "He and his team produced a report on the prospects for application of this technique in the field of communication and they named the supply of energy for artificial satellites as the most important application  He knew that he was not the first to suggest this application  For example, the science fiction author, Arthur C  Clarke had already made this suggestion in 1945, but without having a concrete technology for it at that time 
Ziegler participated in the development of the first planned satellites  The first satellite,
Explorer 1, still went into space without solar cells, since it was a quick, less-than-ideal solution after the start of the Sputnik to show the American public that America's scientists could also start a satellite  The actual scheduled satellite project, Project Vanguard, successfully put a satellite named Vanguard I in orbit around Earth on March 17, 1958 
Over the objections of the Navy, which still thought that solar cells were not a mature technology, this satellite had four solar cells on its outer hull, due to the persistent work of Ziegler, which powered the instruments and performed their duties reliably for more than seven years  After this success, solar cells were established as the energy supply for satellites  He was also involved with the development of the first communication satellite in the world, SCORE, which was started in 1958 
He was awarded the Meritorious Civilian Service Award by the US Department of Defense in 1963 as a " world pioneer in communications satellites and solar energy systems to power satellites"  When he retired in 1977, he was decorated with the highest award of the Army for "exceptional civilian service" 
Ziegler was the author of many technical papers, a member of the IEEE, and represented the US, in military and civilian matters, in many national and international committees  In 1958, he was a member of the US delegation to the International Geophysical Year in Moscow, USSR, and in 1964, he gave advice on the scientific activities in Antarctica and at the South Pole, under the direction of the US National Science Foundation 
Ziegler's wife Friederike died in 1996  He last lived in Colts Neck Township, New Jersey and died at the age of 88 on December 11, 1999  He was survived by his daughters, Christine Griffith and Friederike Meindl, and his son, Hans 

See also
Solar power
Solar panel
Active solar
Photovoltaic components, projects and howtos
Context 2: Passage 1:
Red Bull
Red Bull is a brand of energy drinks created and owned by the Austrian company Red Bull GmbH  With a market share of 43%, it is the most popular energy drink brand as of 2020, and the third most valuable soft drink brand behind Coca-Cola and Pepsi  Since its launch in 1987, more than 100 billion cans of Red Bull have been sold worldwide, including over 11 5 billion in 2022 Originally available only in a single nondescript flavor sold in a tall and slim silver-blue can, called Red Bull Energy Drink, numerous variants of the drink were added over the course of time  Its slogan, "Red Bull Gives You Wings", is considered one of the most popular and memorable advertising slogans in the United States, ranking at 16 out of 25 with a 59 3% slogan recognition rate according to a study by advertising and market research firm Survata  Rather than following a traditional marketing approach, Red Bull has generated awareness and created a "brand myth" through proprietary extreme sport event series such as Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series, Red Bull Air Race, Red Bull Crashed Ice and standout stunts such as the Stratos space diving project  In addition to sport series, its marketing includes multiple sports team ownerships; celebrity endorsements; and music, through its Red Bull Records label Red Bull was first derived from a similar drink called Krating Daeng that originated in Thailand and was introduced by the pharmacist Chaleo Yoovidhya  While doing business in Thailand, Dietrich Mateschitz purchased a can of Krating Daeng and claimed it cured his jet lag  Mateschitz sought to create a partnership with Yoovidhya and formulated a product that would suit the tastes of Westerners, such as by carbonating the drink  In 1984, the two founded Red Bull GmbH in Fuschl am See, Salzburg, Austria  When branding their new product, Mateschitz referenced Krating Daeng's name: in Thai, daeng means red, and a krating (known in English as a gaur or Indian bison) is a large species of wild bovine native to the Indian subcontinent  In 1987, the company sold its first can of Red Bull in Austria  In 1996, Red Bull began operation in the United States, and has seen steady growth ever since  Both Red Bull and Kraeting Daeng use the same red bull on yellow sun logo while continuing to market their drinks separately in the Thai and Western markets 

History
In 1976, Chaleo Yoovidhya introduced a drink called Krating Daeng in Thailand, which means "red gaur" in English  It was popular among Thai truck drivers and labourers  While working for German manufacturer Blendax (later acquired by Procter & Gamble) in 1982, Dietrich Mateschitz travelled to Thailand and met Chaleo, owner of T C  Pharmaceutical  During his visit, Mateschitz discovered that Krating Daeng helped cure his jet lag  In 1984, Mateschitz co-founded Red Bull GmbH with Yoovidhya and turned it into an international brand  Each partner invested US$500,000 of savings to fund the company  Yoovidhya and Mateschitz each held a 49 percent share of the new company  They gave the remaining two percent to Yoovidhya's son, Chalerm, but it was agreed that Mateschitz would run the company  The product was first launched in Austria on 1 April 1987 In Thailand, energy drinks are most popular with blue-collar workers  Red Bull re-positioned the drink as a trendy, upscale drink, first introducing it at Austrian ski resorts  Pricing was a key differentiator, with Red Bull positioned as a premium drink and Krating Daeng as a lower cost item  In many countries, both drinks are available, dominating both ends of the price spectrum  The flavouring used for Red Bull is still produced in Bangkok and exported worldwide  Gary Smith is one of the co-CEOs of Red Bull  As a senior board member and corporate secretary between 2000 and 2007, Mr  Smith was also responsible for all day-to-day operations of the company as the COO, including sales, trade marketing, motorsports marketing, finance, information systems, legal, supply chain, operations, and human resources During the 1990s, the product expanded into Hungary, Slovenia, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States  It entered Germany and the UK in 1994, the United States (via California) in 1996 and the Middle East in 2000  In 2008, Forbes magazine listed both Chaleo and Mateschitz as the 250th richest people in the world with an estimated net worth of US$4 billion Mateschitz died on 22 October 2022 aged 78, following a long illness Red Bull GmbH is headquartered in Fuschl am See, an Austrian village of about 1,500 inhabitants near Salzburg  The company is 51 percent controlled by the Yoovidhya family who, for technical reasons, own the trademark in Europe and the US 

Ingredients
Depending on the country, Red Bull contains different amounts of caffeine, taurine, B vitamins (B2, B3, B5, B6, B12), glucuronolactone and simple sugars (sucrose and glucose) in a buffer solution of carbonated water, sodium bicarbonate and magnesium carbonate (substituted in some flavours with a trisodium citrate/citric acid buffer, each solution providing electrolytes)  To produce Red Bull Sugarfree, sucrose and glucose have been replaced by artificial sweeteners acesulfame K and aspartame or sucralose 

Health effects
Claims about the drink's effects and performance have been challenged on various occasions, with the UK's Advertising Standards Authority imposing advertising restrictions in 2001 in response to complaints recorded as early as 1997 Energy drinks have the effects that caffeine and sugar provide, but experts still argue about the possible effects of the other ingredients  Most of the effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine  There is evidence that energy drinks can increase mental and athletic performance  A study funded by Red Bull GmbH, which did not include a caffeine-only control group, found that performance during prolonged driving is increased after consumption of Red Bull  Other tests for physical performance showed results such as increased endurance and power  Red Bull energy drink increased upper body muscle endurance during repeated Wingate tests in young healthy adults  Excessive or repeated consumption of energy drinks can lead to cardiac and psychiatric conditions The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that exposure to taurine and glucuronolactone at the levels presently used in energy drinks is not a safety concern  In a separate analysis, they also concluded that there is insufficient evidence to support a number of commercial health claims about taurine  A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, including Red Bull 

Caffeine content
The caffeine content of a single 250ml can of Red Bull is approximately 40–80 mg / 250 ml (15–32 mg / 100 ml)  The caffeine level in Red Bull varies depending on country, as some countries have legal restrictions on how much caffeine is allowed in drinks  As is the case with other caffeinated beverages, Red Bull drinkers may experience adverse effects as a result of overuse  Excessive consumption may induce mild to moderate euphoria primarily caused by stimulant properties of caffeine and may also induce agitation, anxiety, irritability and insomnia The general population of healthy adults is not at risk for potential adverse effects from caffeine if they limit their consumption to 400 mg per day, which is provided by 5 standard 250 ml cans  Consumption of a single energy drink will not lead to excessive caffeine intake  Adverse effects associated with caffeine consumption in amounts greater than 400 mg include nervousness, irritability, sleeplessness, increased urination, abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia), and dyspepsia  Consumption also has been known to cause pupil dilation when taken with certain antidepressants or SSRIs  Caffeine dosage is not required to be on the product label for food in the United States, unlike drugs, but some advocates are urging the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to change this practice  (Red Bull voluntarily lists the caffeine content in each can along with the ingredient list )

Variants
Over the years, Red Bull has offered many variations of its drink, all based on the same formula but differing in taste and colour Red Bull began offering variations on its drinks in 2003 with a sugar-free version of the drink with a different flavor from the original, called Red Bull Sugarfree  In 2012, Red Bull released Red Bull Total Zero, a variant with zero calories  In 2018, the company released Red Bull Zero, a different sugar-free formulation designed to taste more like the original flavor In 2009, Red Bull unveiled a highly concentrated variant of its drink called Red Bull Energy Shot, supplied in 2 oz (60 ml) cans The company began expanding its flavor offerings in 2013 with the launch of Red Bull Editions  Initially available in cranberry, lime, and blueberry, the Editions line has expanded to include a variety of flavours, including some available only during specific seasons or in certain regions 

Other products
Red Bull released a cola drink, called Simply Cola, in 2008  A new version of the cola was released in 2019, as part of Red Bull's Organics line 
In 2018, the company launched Organics by Red Bull, a line of organic sodas with four flavours; bitter lemon, ginger ale, tonic water, and a new version of Red Bull Simply Cola 

Regulatory approval and legal status
Authorities in France, Denmark, and Norway initially did not permit the sale of Red Bull  However, as of 2021, it is on sale in all 27 member states of the European Union and in 171 countries around the world The French food safety agency was concerned about taurine; a Red Bull drink that did not contain taurine was introduced  The French refusal of market approval was challenged by the European Commission, and partially upheld by the European Court of Justice in 2004  The French food safety agency relented in 2008, because it was unable to prove a definite health risk, taurine-related or not 

Litigation
In 2013, Red Bull told the Redwell Brewery, a Norfolk micro brewery, to change its name or face legal action, because it sounded too similar to Red Bull  The eight-man brewery in Norwich was told its name could "confuse" customers and "tarnish" its trademark  The two companies reached a settlement permitting Redwell to continue using its name In 2014, Red Bull entered into a US$13 million settlement to resolve two consumer class action lawsuits in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York  Named as plaintiffs were Benjamin Careathers, David Wolf, and Miguel Almarez, who had sued the company claiming breach of express warranty and unjust enrichment, saying that Red Bull falsely asserted performance-enhancing benefits from the drink's ingredients that were unsubstantiated by scientific studies  On 1 May 2015 the Court approved the settlement, giving customers who had submitted claims the opportunity to receive a US$10 cash reimbursement or US$15 in Red Bull products within 150 days of affirmance on any appeal  Contrary to reports from some news outlets, the plaintiffs had not alleged that the drink did not give consumers actual wings 

Advertising, sports team ownership, and sponsorships
Since 1997, Red Bull has been making commercials bearing its slogan "Red Bull gives you wings " Commercials usually were crudely animated and featured characters with constant squints 
Red Bull's international marketing campaign is largely linked to extreme sports  These range from motorcycle racing, such as MotoGP, Dakar Rally, motorcycle speedway, mountain biking, aerobatics, BMX, motocross, windsurfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, kayaking, rowing, wakeboarding, cliff-diving, parkour, surfing, skating, freestyle motocross, rallycross, Formula 1 motor racing, NASCAR racing, to breakdancing  Red Bull uses music and video games, and has enlisted celebrities, such as Eminem (sponsoring the Red Bull "EmSee Battle Rap championships")  It hosts events such as art shows and the "Red Bull Flugtag" (German for "flight day" or "flying day") Red Bull owns football teams, with clubs in Austria, Germany, the United States, and Brazil featuring the Red Bull trademark in their names  By associating the drink's image with these activities, the company seeks to promote a "cool" public image and raise brand power  The energy drink has created a market for over 150 related types of products In the PlayStation 3's social gaming platform, PlayStation Home, Red Bull developed its own in-game island, specifically advertising its energy drink and the Red Bull Air Race event (for which the space is named) released in January 2009  In late November 2009, Red Bull produced two new spaces, the Red Bull Illume space, and the Red Bull Beach space featuring the Red Bull Flugtag, both released on the same day  In January 2012, Red Bull released its first personal space called the "Red Bull House of Skate" featuring an indoor skate park In 2010, the company enlisted Adrian Newey to design a prototype racing car, the Red Bull X2010, for the video game Gran Turismo 5 In 2022, Red Bull announced a full-on production of a hypercar called RB17, also designed by Newey 

Red Bull Arts
Red Bull Arts is an art fellowship program launched by Red Bull in 2013 under the name Red Bull House of Arts  The program has multiple locations, including Detroit, Michigan; São Paulo, Brazil; and formerly New York City  The program typically consists of a three-month period during which six to eight participants create new artwork to be displayed at a final exhibition  During the fellowship, artists receive unlimited access to the galleries and a stipend for art supplies  Some of the artwork has been used in Red Bull advertising campaigns 

Sports and esports sponsorships
Red Bull has used sports sponsorships as an advertising vehicle for most of its existence  The company first started sponsoring athletes in 1989, initially focusing on Formula One racing and extreme sports such as windsurfing and hang gliding, and later growing to include more mainstream sports such as basketball and soccer  As of 2016, the company sponsored more than 750 individual athletes and more than a dozen teams in various disciplines, including motorsports, soccer, and esports 

Athlete sponsorships
Austrian Formula One driver Gerhard Berger was the first athlete to be sponsored by Red Bull in 1989  Many of the company's early sponsorships were in lesser-known or extreme sports, including Olympic rower Xeno Müller, who won a gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics in the single scull race and BASE jumpers Frank "Gambler" Gambalie, Miles Dashier, and Shane McConkey  In the 2010s, Red Bull began expanding its athlete base to include athletes from more mainstream sports, including Austrian tennis player Dominic Thiem, Brazilian skateboarder Letícia Bufoni, American skier Lindsey Vonn, and American Major League Baseball player Kris Bryant  The company also started sponsoring video game players and esports athletes, including American Fortnite player Richard "Ninja" Blevins, Spanish League of Legends player Enrique Cedeño "xPeke" Martinez, and Swedish Super Smash Bros  player William "Leffen" Hjelte 

Team ownership and sponsorships
The first team sponsored by Red Bull was ice hockey's EC Salzburg during the 1987–88 season  Red Bull acquired the club outright in 2000  Since 2014, Salzburg has also hosted the company's joint ice hockey and soccer academy  Red Bull became the title sponsor of DEL team EHC München in 2012, and took full ownership the following year  It also financed the team's new arena, SAP Garden In 1995, Red Bull sponsored its first motorsports team, the Swiss Formula One team Sauber and in 1999 started sponsoring the Flying Bulls, a Czech aerobatics team In the 2000s, the company expanded its sporting team ownership to include several soccer teams, including the Austrian Bundesliga team SV Austria Salzburg (rebranded as Red Bull Salzburg), the Major League Soccer team the New York MetroStars (rebranded as the New York Red Bulls) in 2006, and the fifth-tier German team SSV Markranstadt (rebranded as RasenBallsport Leipzig) in 2009, which the company sought to move to the top of the German Bundesliga  RB Leipzig has been divisive and the subject of protests by some fans but has also experienced rapid success, climbing through the German soccer divisions to get a place in the top-flight German Bundesliga and earning berths in the UEFA Champions League in 2017–2018 and 2019–2020, the latter trip ending with a semi-final loss to Paris St  Germain  The company also sponsors the Los Angeles Clippers NBA team and Red Bull 3X, a series of men's and women's 3x3 basketball tournaments In the 2010s, Red Bull began sponsoring gamers and esports organizations, including OG, G2 Esports and Cloud9, and founded the Red Bulls League of Legends team In 2021, Red Bull sponsored Hoang Anh Gia Lai from V League 1 
 Red Bull Salzburg
 FC Liefering
 Red Bull Bragantino
 Red Bull Brasil
 RB Leipzig
 RB Leipzig II
 Red Bull New York
 Red Bull New York II

Events
Current and former Red Bull events include ACF Nationals (2009), Air Race World Championship (2003–2019), Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix, Art of Motion, BC One, Big Wave Africa, Cape Fear, Cliff Diving World Series, Crashed Ice, Dolomitenmann, Drifting World Championship, Flugtag, Frozen Rush, Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix, King of the Air, King of the Rock Tournament, Last Man Standing, MotoGP Rookies Cup, Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas, New Year No Limits, Paper Wings, Rampage, Red Bull 400, Red Bull Joyride, Road Rage, Romaniacs Hard Enduro Rallye, Soapbox Race, Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix, Stratos, Street Freestyle World Champions (2019), Trolley Grand Prix, Unleashed (2015), Wings for Life World Run, X-Alps, Xcbusa, and X-Fighters 

See also
Red Bull Stratos – 2012 stratospheric parachute jump
Passage 2:
Ural Rakhimov
Ural Murtazovich Rakhimov (Russian: Урал Муртазович Рахимов; Bashkir: Рәхимов Урал Мортаза улы, Räximov Ural Mortaza ulı; born 13 December 1961) is a Russian businessman of Bashkir ethnicity  Rakhimov is the 191st richest man in Russia with a net worth of US$500 million as of 2011 

Biography
Rakhimov was born in Ufa  Worldwide, Rakhimov is known to be the only son of Murtaza Rakhimov, the former president of Bashkortostan  Throughout most of Rakhimov's life, he maintained a deep interest in science, eventually studying at Ufa State Petroleum Technological University and graduating in 1984 He then studied at the French Petroleum Institute, receiving a Master's of Science, and then he studied in the United States for another Master's degree  For most of his business career, he was a member of Bashneft  In 2003, he initiated the creation of Bashkir capital  During 2009 till early 2010, he was the owner of Salavat Yulaev Ufa 
Passage 3:
The World's Billionaires
The World's Billionaires is an annual ranking of people who are considered to have a net worth of $1 billion or more, by the American business magazine Forbes  The list was first published in March 1987  The total net worth of each individual on the list is estimated and is cited in United States dollars, based on their documented assets and accounting for debt and other factors  Royalty and dictators whose wealth comes from their positions are excluded from these lists  This ranking is an index of the wealthiest documented individuals, excluding any ranking of those with wealth that is not able to be completely ascertained In 2018, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos was ranked at the top for the first time and became the first centibillionaire included in the ranking, surpassing Microsoft founder Bill Gates, who had topped the list 18 of the previous 24 years  In 2022, after topping the list for four years, Bezos was surpassed by Elon Musk  In 2023, Musk was in turn surpassed by French businessman Bernard Arnault, after topping the list for just a year  Arnault became the first French person to top the list 

Methodology
Each year, Forbes employs a team of over 50 reporters from a variety of countries to track the activity of the world's wealthiest individuals and sometimes groups or families – who share wealth  Preliminary surveys are sent to those who may qualify for the list  According to Forbes, they received three types of responses – some people try to inflate their wealth, others cooperate but leave out details, and some refuse to answer any questions  Business deals are then scrutinized and estimates of valuable assets – land, homes, vehicles, artwork, etc  – are made  Interviews are conducted to vet the figures and improve the estimate of an individual's holdings  Finally, positions in a publicly traded stock are priced to market on a date roughly a month before publication  Privately held companies are priced by the prevailing price-to-sales or price-to-earnings ratios  Known debt is subtracted from assets to get a final estimate of an individual's estimated worth in United States dollars  Since stock prices fluctuate rapidly, an individual's true wealth and ranking at the time of publication may vary from their situation when the list was compiled When a living individual has dispersed his or her wealth to immediate family members it is included under a single listing (as a single "family fortune") provided that individual (the grantor) is still living  However, if a deceased billionaire's fortune has been dispersed, it will not appear as a single listing, and each recipient will only appear if his or her own total net worth is over a $Billion (his or her net worth will not be combined with family members') Royal families and dictators that have their wealth contingent on a position are always excluded from these lists 

Annual rankings
The rankings are published annually in March, so the net worths listed are snapshots taken at that time  These lists only show the top 10 wealthiest billionaires for each year 

Legend
2023
In the 37th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,640 billionaires with a total net wealth of $12 2 trillion, down 28 members and $500 billion from 2022  Nearly half the list is poorer than the previous year, including Elon Musk, who fell from No  1 to No  2  The list also marks for the first time a French citizen was in the top position as well as a non-American for the first time since 2013 when the Mexican Carlos Slim Helu was the world's richest person  The list, like in 2022, counted 15 under 30 billionaires with the richest of them being Red Bull heir Mark Mateschitz with a net worth of $34 7 billion  The youngest of the lot were Clemente Del Vecchio, heir to the Luxottica fortune shared with his six siblings and stepmother and Kim Jung-yang, whose fortune lies in Japanese-South Korean gaming giant Nexon, both under-20s 

2022
In the 36th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,668 billionaires with a total net wealth of $12 7 trillion, down 97 members from 2021 

2021
In the 35th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,755 billionaires with a total net wealth of $13 1 trillion, up 660 members from 2020; 86% of these billionaires had more wealth than they possessed last year 

2020
In the 34th annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,095 billionaires with a total net wealth of $8 trillion, down 58 members and $700 billion from 2019; 51% of these billionaires had less wealth than they possessed last year  The list was finalized as of 18 March, thus was already partially influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic 

2019
In the 33rd annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the list included 2,153 billionaires with a total net wealth of $8 7 trillion, down 55 members and $400 billion from 2018   The U S  continued to have the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 609, while China dropped to 324 (when not including Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan) 

2018
In the 32nd annual Forbes list of the world's billionaires, the aggregate wealth of the top 20 richest people on Earth amounted to about 13 percent of all billionaires' fortunes combined  A record of 2,208 billionaires were in the ranking and the total wealth was $9 1 trillion, up 18% since 2017  For the first time, Jeff Bezos was listed as the top billionaire due to Amazon's rising stock price that resulted in one person's biggest one-year gain in wealth ($35 billion) since Forbes started tracking in 1987  The U S  had the most billionaires in the world, with 585, while China was catching up with 476 when including Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan; it had 372 when excluding those three places  Forbes excluded Al-Walid bin Talal and all other Saudi billionaires due to the absence of accurate wealth estimations as a result of the 2017–19 Saudi Arabian purge 

2017
On the 30th anniversary of the Forbes list of the world's billionaires, for the fourth year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world  In 2017, there was a record of 2,043 people on the list, which is the first time over 2,000 people were listed  This included 195 newcomers of whom 76 were from China and 25 from the U S ; there were 56 people under 40 and it had a record of 227 women  The number of billionaires increased 13% to 2,043 from 1,810 in 2016; this was the biggest change in over 30 years of tracking billionaires globally  Added together, the total net worth for 2017's billionaires was US$7 67 trillion, up from US$7 1 trillion in 2015  This was the first time after 12 years that Carlos Slim was not within the top five  The U S  had the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 565  China had 319 (not including Hong Kong, Taiwan or Macau), Germany had 114, and India had the fourth most with 101; India reached over 100 billionaires for its first time 

2016
For the third year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes' 2016 list of the world's billionaires  This is the 17th time that the founder of Microsoft had claimed the top spot  Amancio Ortega rose from last year's position of number four to second  Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway came in third for the second consecutive time, while Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim slipped  from last year's second position to fourth  Jeff Bezos of Amazon, Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook and Michael Bloomberg of Bloomberg L P , appeared for the first time on the Forbes top 10 billionaires list, coming at fifth, sixth and eighth positions, respectively  Zuckerberg became the youngest top 10 billionaire this year at the age of 31  Larry Ellison, Charles Koch and David Koch also slipped from their previous year's positions, with Ellison dropping to seventh from fifth, and the Kochs falling to ninth position from sixth 

2015
In the 29th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, a record 1,826 billionaires were named with an aggregated net worth of $7 1 trillion compared to $6 4 trillion in the previous year  46 of the billionaires in this list were under the age of 40  A record number of 290 people joined the list for the first time, of whom 25 percent hailed from China, which produced a world-leading 71 newcomers  The United States came in second, with 57; followed by India, with 28; and Germany, with 23  The United States had the largest number of billionaires with 526  Russia went down to 88 from 111 in 2014  Russia was placed behind China, Germany and India by the number of billionaires  Self-made billionaires made up the largest number of people on the list with 1,191 positions (over 65 percent), while just 230 (under 13 percent) had wealth through inheritance  The number of billionaires who inherited a portion but were still working to increase their fortunes is 405 Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes' annual list of the world's billionaires  This was the 16th time that the founder of Microsoft claimed the top spot  Carlos Slim came in second for the second consecutive time  Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway placed third, while Amancio Ortega of Spain, slipped down a position from the previous year to number four  Larry Ellison, the founder of Oracle, rounded off the top five  Christy Walton was the highest-ranking female at number eight  America's Evan Spiegel, co-founder of photo messaging app Snapchat, became the youngest billionaire this year at age 24  At age 99, David Rockefeller maintained his position as the oldest billionaire included in the list  Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of Facebook, rose to number 16 with $33 4 billion  Iceland had a billionaire, Thor Bjorgolfsson, in the list after a gap of five years  Guatemala had a billionaire, Mario Lopez Estrada, for the first time in its history 

2014
Gates added $9 billion to his fortune since 2013 and topped the Forbes 2014 billionaire list  He had topped the list in 15 of the previous 20 years, but his previous number one ranking was in 2009  Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim came in second place after being number one the previous four years  Zara founder Amancio Ortega placed third for the second consecutive year  American investor Warren Buffett was in the top five for the 20th consecutive year, placing fourth  America's Christy Walton was the highest ranking woman, placing ninth overall  Aliko Dangote of Nigeria became the first African to enter the top 25, with an estimated net worth of $25 billion A total of 1,645 people made the 2014 billionaire list, representing a combined wealth of $6 4 trillion  Of those, a record 268 were newcomers, surpassing 2008's 226 newcomers  100 people listed in 2013 failed to make the list  The number of women on the list rose to a record 172 in 2014  Approximately 66 percent of the list were self-made, 13 percent achieved their wealth through inheritance alone, and 21 percent through a mixture of the two The United States had 492 billionaires on the list, the most of any country  It also had the most newcomers with 50, and women with 54  China had the second most billionaires with 152, while Russia was third with 111  Algeria, Lithuania, Tanzania, and Uganda were all represented on the list for the first time  Turkey saw the most people drop off the list, 19, due to a period of high inflation in the country 

2013
Carlos Slim topped the 2013 billionaire list, marking his fourth consecutive year at the top  Gates remained in second, while Amancio Ortega moved up to third  Ortega's gain of $19 5 billion was the largest of anyone on the list  Warren Buffett failed to make the top three for the first time since 2000, placing fourth  Diesel founder Renzo Rosso was among the top newcomers, debuting with an estimate net worth of $3 billion A global rise in asset prices led Forbes editor Randall Lane to declare "It [was] a very good year to be a billionaire"  However, it was not a good year to be Eike Batista, who fell from seventh to 100th, suffering the largest net loss of anyone on the list  Overall, net gainers outnumbered net losers by 4:1 A record total of 1,426 people made the 2013 list, representing $5 4 trillion of assets  Of those, 442 billionaires hailed from the United States  The Asian-Pacific region had 386 billionaires and Europe 366  The list also featured a record number of newcomers, 210, representing 42 countries  60 people from the 2012 list fell below a billion dollars of assets in 2013, and eight others from the 2012 list died  The Asia-Pacific region had the most drop-offs, with 29, followed by the United States with 16  The 2013 list featured 138 women, of which 50 came from the United States  A majority of the list (961 individuals, 67 percent) were entirely self-made; 184 (13 percent) inherited their wealth, and 281 (20 percent) achieved their fortune through a combination of inheritance and business acumen  Vietnam's Phạm Nhật Vượng was the first person from that country to be included in this list 

2012
Carlos Slim topped the 2012 list, marking this third consecutive year at the top  Gates placed second but narrowed the gap from 2011 as Slim's fortune fell $5 billion while Gates' rose $5 billion  Warren Buffett remained in third place  Bernard Arnault of France was the top-ranking European on the list, placing fourth  Ricardo Salinas Pliego was the greatest gainer in terms of dollars, adding $9 2 billion to his fortune and moving up to number 37 overall  Making her debut on the list at age 27, Spanx founder Sara Blakely became the youngest self-made female billionaire ever  Colombia's Alejandro Santo Domingo was the highest-ranked newcomer, inheriting a $9 5 billion stake in Santo Domingo Group from his father  India's Lakshmi Mittal was the largest loser as his fortune dropped from $31 1 billion to $20 7 billion as the price of steelmaker ArcelorMittal fell sharply  As a result, he failed to make the top 10 for the first time since 2004 and lost his title of richest Asian to Hong Kong's Li Ka-shing A record total of 1,226 people made the 2012 list, representing 58 countries  Of those, 126 were newcomers to the list and 104 were women  The United States had the greatest number of billionaires with 425  Russia had 96 people on the list, while China had 95  Georgia, Morocco, and Peru were newly represented on the list  Falling stock prices in Asia contributed to 117 former billionaires falling from the list worldwide  Twelve others listed in 2011 died  Overall, net gainers (460) barely outnumbered net losers (441) To coincide with the release of the 2012 list, Forbes announced a then-new "Billionaire Real-Time Ticker" updating the wealth of the world's top 50 billionaires in real time 

2011
In the 25th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, Slim added $20 5 billion to his fortune, the most of anyone, and retained his number one ranking with a total fortune of $74 billion  Gates remained in second place with $56 billion, while Warren Buffett was third with $50 billion  The top 10 had a combined wealth of $406 billion, up from $342 billion in 2010  According to Forbes editor Kerry Dolan, "media and technology billionaires definitely benefited from a stronger stock market and a growing enthusiasm for all things social" since the 2010 list  However, Nigerian commodity mogul Aliko Dangote was the greatest gainer on a percentage basis as his fortune increased 557 percent to $13 5 billion  Mark Zuckerberg was one of seven Facebook-related billionaires on the list, as he added $9 5 billion to his net worth to move up to 52nd  Facebook co-founder Dustin Moskovitz was the youngest person on the list  Aged 26, eight days younger than Zuckerberg, he debuted at number 420 with an estimated fortune of $2 7 billion  IKEA founder Ingvar Kamprad was the largest loser as he saw his fortune plummet from $23 billion to $6 billion, dropping him from 11th to 162nd overall A record 1,210 billionaires made the 2011 list, representing a combined wealth of $4 5 trillion, up from $3 6 trillion the previous year  One third of the world's billionaires, 413, came from the United States  China had the second most billionaires with 115, while Russia was third with 101  Asia moved up to 332 billionaires, passing Europe as a region for the first time since the 1990s  The 2011 list included 214 newcomers and the average net worth of those on it increased to $3 7 billion 

2010
Slim narrowly eclipsed Gates to top the billionaire list for the first time  Slim saw his estimated worth surge $18 5 billion to $53 5 billion as shares of America Movil rose 35 percent  Gates' estimated wealth rose $13 billion to $53 billion, placing him second  Warren Buffett was third with $47 billion  Christy Walton was the highest-ranking woman, placing 12th overall, with an inherited fortune of $22 5 billion  At age 25, Mark Zuckerberg continued to be the world's youngest self-made billionaire  American Isaac Perlmutter was among the newcomers with an estimated fortune of $4 billion largely acquired in his sale of Marvel Entertainment to Disney A total of 1,011 people made the 2010 list  The United States accounted for 403 billionaires, followed by China with 89 and Russia with 62  It was the first time China, while including Hong Kong, placed second  A total of 55 countries were represented on the 2010 list, including Finland and Pakistan which claimed their first billionaires  Eighty-nine women made the list, but only 14 of them were self-made  The combined net worth of the list was $3 6 trillion, up 50 percent from 2009's $2 4 trillion, while the average net worth was $3 5 billion The 2010 list featured 164 re-entries and 97 true newcomers  Asia accounted for more than 100 of the new entrants  Overall, just 12 percent of the list lost wealth since 2009, and 30 people fell off the list  13 others died  Of the 89 women, 12 were newcomers in 2010  Steve Forbes said the growing number of billionaires was a clear sign that the world's economy was recovering from 2009's global financial crisis In June 2010, Gates and Buffett announced the Giving Pledge, a promise to give the majority of their wealth to philanthropic causes  As of 2017, the pledge had 158 signatories, but some of the signatories have since died  Most of the signers of the pledge are billionaires, and their pledges total over $365 billion 

2009
In the wake of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008, the world's billionaires lost $2 trillion in net worth and the list became 30% smaller than the previous year's list 

2008
Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, four years after starting the company, joined the list at 23 to become the youngest self-made billionaire 

2007
Forbes recorded a then record of 946 billionaires  There were 178 newcomers, as well as the first billionaires from Cyprus, Oman, Romania and Serbia  Over 66% of the previous year's billionaires became richer  The billionaires' net worth increased in 2007 by $900 billion to $3 5 trillion 

2006
Free cash used by consumers from home equity extraction, known as the real estate bubble created a total of nearly $5 trillion in 2005, contributing to economic growth worldwide 

2005
The net worth of 2005's 691 billionaires was $2 2 trillion  More than half of them had self-made fortunes 

2004
The founders of Google, Sergey Brin and Larry Page, became billionaires at age 30 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2003
Oprah Winfrey became the first female African-American billionaire 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2002
As a result of the market crash caused by the Dot-com bubble, 83 billionaires dropped off the list from the previous year 

* Each hold an essentially equal share in Walmart 

2001
In 2001, BET founder Robert L  Johnson became the first ever African-American billionaire 
* Each hold an essentially equal share in Wal-Mart  Had he been alive in 2001, Sam Walton would have been the world's wealthiest person 

2000
Gates became the first American to take the top spot of the world's billionaires in 1995 with a net worth of $12 5 billion, and he remained there during the dot-com bubble's height in 1999 when his fortune peaked at $90 billion  After the dot-com bubble started to collapse in 2000, his wealth dropped to $60 billion, although he remained at the top of the list 

1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
Statistics
The dot-com bubble created the most paper wealth for some billionaires  However, once the dotcom bubble burst the new rich saw their fortunes disappear  Billionaires' fortunes were hit even harder by the global financial crisis; 2009 was the first time in five years that the world had a net loss in the number of billionaires  The strong performance of the financial markets and global economic recovery have erased financial assets losses  Most of the richest people in the world saw their fortunes soar in the early 2010s 

See also
Passage 4:
Windows 98
Windows 98 is a consumer-oriented operating system developed by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x family of Microsoft Windows operating systems  The second operating system in the 9x line, it is the successor to Windows 95, and was released to manufacturing on May 15, 1998, and generally to retail on June 25, 1998  Like its predecessor, it is a hybrid 16-bit and 32-bit monolithic product with the boot stage based on MS-DOS Windows 98 is a web-integrated operating system that bears numerous similarities to its predecessor  Most of its improvements were cosmetic or designed to improve the user experience, but there were also a handful of features introduced to enhance system functionality and capabilities, including improved USB support and accessibility, as well as support for hardware advancements such as DVD players  Windows 98 was the first edition of Windows to adopt the Windows Driver Model, and introduced features that would become standard in future generations of Windows, such as Disk Cleanup, Windows Update, multi-monitor support, and Internet Connection Sharing 
Microsoft had marketed Windows 98 as a "tune-up" to Windows 95, rather than an entirely improved next generation of Windows  Upon release, it was generally well-received for its web-integrated interface and ease of use, as well as its addressing of issues present in Windows 95, although some pointed out that it was not significantly more stable than its predecessor  Windows 98 sold an estimated 58 million licenses and saw one major update, known as Windows 98 Second Edition (SE), released on May 5, 1999  After the release of its successor, Windows Me in 2000, mainstream support for Windows 98 and 98 SE ended on June 30, 2002, followed by extended support on July 11, 2006 

Development
Following the success of Windows 95, the development of Windows 98 began, initially under the development codename "Memphis " The first test version, Windows Memphis Developer Release, was released in January 1997 Memphis first entered beta as Windows Memphis Beta 1, released on June 30, 1997  It was followed by Windows 98 Beta 2, which dropped the Memphis name and was released in July  Microsoft had planned a full release of Windows 98 for the first quarter of 1998, along with a Windows 98 upgrade pack for Windows 95, but it also had a similar upgrade for Windows 3 x operating systems planned for the second quarter  Stacey Breyfogle, a product manager for Microsoft, explained that the later release of the upgrade for Windows 3 was because the upgrade required more testing than that for Windows 95 due to the presence of more compatibility issues, and without user objections, Microsoft merged the two upgrade packs into one and set all of their release dates to the second quarter On December 15, Microsoft released Windows 98 Beta 3  It was the first build to be able to upgrade from Windows 3 1x, and introduced new startup and shutdown sounds Near its completion, Windows 98 was released as Windows 98 Release Candidate on April 3, 1998, which expired on December 31  This coincided with a notable press demonstration at COMDEX that month  Microsoft CEO Bill Gates was highlighting the operating system's ease of use and enhanced support for Plug and Play (PnP)  However, when presentation assistant Chris Capossela plugged a USB scanner in, the operating system crashed, displaying a Blue Screen of Death  Bill Gates remarked after derisive applause and cheering from the audience, "That must be why we're not shipping Windows 98 yet " Video footage of this event became a popular Internet phenomenon Microsoft had quietly marketed the operating system as a "tune-up" to Windows 95  It was compiled as Windows 98 on May 11, 1998, before being fully released to manufacturing on May 15  The company was facing pending legal action for allowing free downloads of, and planning to ship Windows licenses with, Internet Explorer 4 0 in an alleged effort to expand its software monopoly  Microsoft's critics believed the lawsuit would further delay Windows 98's public release; it did not, and the operating system was released on June 25, 1998 A second major version of the operating system called Windows 98 Second Edition was later unveiled in March 1999  Microsoft compiled the final build on April 23, 1999, before publicly releasing it on May 5, 1999  Windows 98 was to be the final product in the Windows 9x line until Microsoft briefly revived the line to release Windows Me in 2000 as the final Windows 9x product before the introduction of Windows XP in 2001, which was based on the Windows NT architecture and kernel used in Windows 2000 

New and updated features
Web integration and shell enhancements
The first release of Windows 98 included Internet Explorer 4 01  This was updated to 5 0 in the Second Edition  Besides Internet Explorer, many other Internet companion applications are included such as Outlook Express, Windows Address Book, FrontPage Express, Microsoft Chat, Personal Web Server and a Web Publishing Wizard, and NetShow  NetMeeting allows multiple users to hold conference calls and work with each other on a document The Windows 98 shell is web-integrated; it contains deskbands, Active Desktop, Channels, ability to minimize foreground windows by clicking their button on the taskbar, single-click launching, Back and Forward navigation buttons, favorites, and address bar in Windows Explorer, image thumbnails, folder infotips and Web view in folders, and folder customization through HTML-based templates  The taskbar supports customizable toolbars designed to speed up access to the Web or the user's desktop; these toolbars include an Address Bar and Quick Launch  With the Address Bar, the user accesses the Web by typing in a URL, and Quick Launch contains shortcuts or buttons that perform system functions such as switching between windows and the desktop with the Show Desktop button  Another feature of this new shell is that dialog boxes show up in the Alt-Tab sequence 
Windows 98 also integrates shell enhancements, themes and other features from Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 such as DriveSpace 3, Compression Agent, Dial-Up Networking Server, Dial-Up Scripting Tool and Task Scheduler  3D Pinball Space Cadet is included on the CD-ROM, but not installed by default  Windows 98 had its own separately purchasable Plus! pack, called Plus! 98 Title bars of windows and dialog boxes support two-color gradients, a feature ported from and refined from Microsoft Office 95  Windows menus and tooltips support slide animation  Windows Explorer in Windows 98, as in Windows 95, converts all-uppercase filenames to sentence case for readability purposes; however, it also provides an option Allow all uppercase names to display them in their original case  Windows Explorer includes support for compressed CAB files  The Quick Res and Telephony Location Manager Windows 95 PowerToys are integrated into the core operating system 

Improvements to hardware support
Windows Driver Model
Windows 98 was the first operating system to use the Windows Driver Model (WDM)  This fact was not well publicized when Windows 98 was released, and most hardware producers continued to develop drivers for the older VxD driver standard, which Windows 98 supported for compatibility's sake  The WDM standard only achieved widespread adoption years later, mostly through Windows 2000 and Windows XP, as they were not compatible with the older VxD standard  With the Windows Driver Model, developers could write drivers that were compatible with other versions of Windows  Device driver access in WDM is implemented through a VxD device driver, NTKERN VXD, which implements several Windows NT-specific kernel support functions Support for WDM audio enables digital mixing, routing and processing of simultaneous audio streams and kernel streaming with high quality sample rate conversion on Windows 98  WDM Audio allows for software emulation of legacy hardware to support MS-DOS games, DirectSound support and MIDI wavetable synthesis  The Windows 95 11-device limitation for MIDI devices is eliminated  A Microsoft GS Wavetable Synthesizer licensed from Roland shipped with Windows 98 for WDM audio drivers  Windows 98 supports digital playback of audio CDs, and the Second Edition improves WDM audio support by adding DirectSound hardware mixing and DirectSound 3D hardware abstraction, DirectMusic kernel support, KMixer sample-rate conversion for capture streams and multichannel audio support  All audio is sampled by the Kernel Mixer to a fixed sampling rate which may result in some audio getting upsampled or downsampled and having a high latency, except when using Kernel Streaming or third-party audio paths like ASIO which allow unmixed audio streams and lower latency  Windows 98 also includes a WDM streaming class driver (Stream sys) to address real time multimedia data stream processing requirements and a WDM kernel-mode video transport for enhanced video playback and capture 
Windows Driver Model also includes Broadcast Driver Architecture, the backbone for TV technologies support in Windows  WebTV for Windows utilized BDA to allow viewing television on the computer if a compatible TV tuner card is installed  TV listings could be updated from the Internet and WaveTop Data Broadcasting allowed extra data about broadcasts to be received via regular television signals using an antenna or cable, by embedding data streams into the vertical blanking interval portion of existing broadcast television signals 

Other device support improvements
Windows 98 had more robust USB support than Windows 95, which only had support in OEM versions OSR2 1 and later  Windows 98 supports USB hubs, USB scanners and imaging class devices  Windows 98 also introduced built-in support for some USB Human Interface Device class (USB HID) and PID class devices such as USB mice, keyboards, force feedback joysticks etc  including additional keyboard functions through a certain number of Consumer Page HID controls Windows 98 introduced ACPI 1 0 support which enabled Standby and Hibernate states  However, hibernation support was extremely limited and vendor-specific  Hibernation was only available if compatible (PnP) hardware and BIOS are present, and the hardware manufacturer or OEM supplied compatible WDM drivers, non-VxD drivers  However, there are hibernation issues with the FAT32 file system, making hibernation problematic and unreliable 
Windows 98, in general, provides improved — and a broader range of — support for IDE and SCSI drives and drive controllers, floppy drive controllers and all other classes of hardware as compared to Windows 95  There is integrated Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) support (although the USB Supplement to Windows 95 OSR2 and later releases of Windows 95 did have AGP support)  Windows 98 has built-in DVD support and UDF 1 02 read support  The Still imaging architecture (STI) with TWAIN support was introduced for scanners and cameras and Image Color Management 2 0 for devices to perform color space transformations  Multiple monitor support allows using up to nine multiple monitors on a single PC, with the feature requiring one PCI graphics adapter per monitor  Windows 98 shipped with DirectX 5 2, which notably included DirectShow  Windows 98 Second Edition would later ship with DirectX 6 1 

Networking enhancements
Windows 98 networking enhancements to TCP/IP include built-in support for Winsock 2, SMB signing, a new IP Helper API, Automatic Private IP Addressing (also known as link-local addressing), IP multicasting, and performance enhancements for high-speed high bandwidth networks  Multihoming support with TCP/IP is improved and includes RIP listener support 
The DHCP client has been enhanced to include address assignment conflict detection and longer timeout intervals  NetBT configuration in the WINS client has been improved to continue persistently querying multiple WINS servers if it failed to establish the initial session until all of the WINS servers specified have been queried or a connection is established 
Network Driver Interface Specification 5 support means Windows 98 can support a wide range of network media, including Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Token Ring, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), ISDN, wide area networks, X 25, and Frame Relay  Additional features include NDIS power management, support for quality of service, Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) and support for a single INF file format across all Windows versions Windows 98 Dial-Up Networking supports PPTP tunneling, support for ISDN adapters, multilink support, and connection-time scripting to automate non-standard login connections  Multilink channel aggregation enables users to combine all available dial-up lines to achieve higher transfer speeds  PPP connection logs can show actual packets being passed and Windows 98 allows PPP logging per connection  The Dial-Up Networking improvements are also available in Windows 95 OSR2 and are downloadable for earlier Windows 95 releases 
For networked computers that have user profiles enabled, Windows 98 introduces Microsoft Family Logon which lists all users that have been configured for that computer, enabling users to simply select their names from a list rather than having to type them in Windows 98 supports IrDA 3 0 which specifies both Serial Infrared Devices and Fast Infrared devices, which are capable of sending and receiving data at 4 Mbit/s  Infrared Recipient, a new application for transferring files through an infrared connection is included  The IrDA stack in Windows 98 supports networking profiles over the IrCOMM kernel-mode driver  Windows 98 also has built-in support for browsing Distributed File System trees on Server Message Block shares such as Windows NT servers UPnP and NAT traversal APIs can be installed on Windows 98 by installing the Windows XP Network Setup Wizard  An L2TP/IPsec VPN client can also be downloaded  By installing Active Directory Client Extensions, Windows 98 can take advantage of several Windows 2000 Active Directory features 

Improvements to the system and built-in utilities
Performance improvements
Windows 95 introduced the 32-bit, protected-mode cache driver VCACHE (replacing SMARTDrv) to cache the most recently accessed information from the hard drive in memory, divided into chunks  However, the cache parameters needed manual tuning as it degraded performance by consuming too much memory and not releasing it quickly enough, forcing paging to occur far too early  The Windows 98 VCACHE cache size management for disk and network access, CD-ROM access and paging is more dynamic compared to Windows 95, resulting in no tuning being required for cache parameters  On the FAT32 file system, Windows 98 has a performance feature called MapCache that can run applications from the disk cache itself if the code pages of executable files are aligned/mapped on 4K boundaries, instead of copying them to virtual memory  This results in more memory being available to run applications, and lesser usage of the swap file 
Windows 98 registry handling is more robust than Windows 95 to avoid corruption and there are several enhancements to eliminate limitations and improve registry performance  The Windows 95 registry key size limitation of 64 KB is gone  The registry uses less memory and has better caching Disk Defragmenter has been improved to rearrange program files that are frequently used to a hard disk region optimized for program start  However, as with Windows 95, the message "Drive contents changed    restarting " still exists in this version (i e  if the contents of the hard drive changed, then the entire drive is then rescanned and then progress resumed where it had left off)  If it gets stuck on the same area too many times, it will ask the user if it should keep trying or give up  The version of Disk Defragmenter from Windows Me does not have this problem and will function on Windows 98 or Windows 95 if the user simply copies it over Windows 98 also supports a Fast Shutdown feature that initiates shutdown without uninitializing device drivers  However, this can cause Windows 98 to hang instead of shutting down the computer if a buggy driver is active, so Microsoft supplied instructions for disabling the feature  Windows 98 supports write-behind caching for removable disk drives  A utility for converting FAT16 partitions to FAT32 without formatting the partition is also included 

Other system tools
A number of improvements are made to various other system tools and accessories in Windows 98  Microsoft Backup supports differential backup and SCSI tape devices in Windows 98  Disk Cleanup, a new tool, enables users to clear their disks of unnecessary files  Cleanup locations are extensible through Disk Cleanup handlers  Disk Cleanup can be automated for regular silent cleanups Scanreg (DOS) and ScanRegW are Registry Checker tools used to back up, restore or optimize the Windows registry  ScanRegW tests the registry's integrity and saves a backup copy each time Windows successfully boots  The maximum number of copies could be customized by the user through "scanreg ini" file  The restoration of a registry that causes Windows to fail to boot can only be done from DOS mode using ScanReg System Configuration Utility is a new system utility used to disable programs and services that are not required to run the computer  A Maintenance Wizard is included that schedules and automates ScanDisk, Disk Defragmenter and Disk Cleanup  Windows Script Host, with VBScript and JScript engines is built-in and upgradeable to version 5 6  System File Checker checks installed versions of system files to ensure they were the same version as the one installed with Windows 98 or newer  Corrupt or older versions are replaced by the correct versions  This tool was introduced to resolve the DLL hell issue and was replaced in Windows Me by System File Protection 
Windows 98 Setup simplifies installation, reducing the bulk of user input required  The Windows 98 Startup Disk contains generic, real-mode ATAPI and SCSI CD-ROM drivers that can be used instead in the event that the specific driver for a CD-ROM is unavailable The system could be updated using Windows Update  A utility to automatically notify the user of critical updates was later released Windows 98 includes an improved version of the Dr  Watson utility that collects and lists comprehensive information such as running tasks, startup programs with their command line switches, system patches, kernel driver, user drivers, DOS drivers and 16-bit modules  With Dr  Watson loaded in the system tray, whenever a software fault occurs (general protection fault, hang, etc ), Dr  Watson will intercept it and indicate what software crashed and its cause Windows Report Tool takes a snapshot of system configuration and lets users submit a manual problem report along with system information to technicians  It has e-mail confirmation for submitted reports 

Accessories
Windows 98 includes Microsoft Magnifier, Accessibility Wizard and Microsoft Active Accessibility 1 1 API (upgradeable to MSAA 2 0 ) A new HTML Help system with 15 Troubleshooting Wizards was introduced to replace WinHelp 
Users can configure the font in Notepad  Microsoft Paint supports GIF transparency  HyperTerminal supports a TCP/IP connection method, which allows it to be used as a Telnet client  Imaging for Windows is updated  System Monitor—used to track the performance of hardware and software—supports output to a log file 

Miscellaneous improvements
Telephony API (TAPI) 2 1
DCOM version 1 2
Ability to list fonts by similarity determined using PANOSE information 
Tools to automate setup, such as Batch 98 and INFInst exe, support error-checking, gathering information automatically to create an INF file directly from a machine's registry, customizing IE4, shell and desktop settings and adding custom drivers 
Several other Resource Kit tools are included on the Windows 98 CD 
Windows 98 has new system event sounds for Low Battery Alarm and Critical Battery Alarm 
Windows 98 also introduced new and updated system sounds  The new startup sound for Windows 98 was composed by Microsoft sound engineer Ken Kato, who considered it to be a "tough act to follow" 
Windows 98 shipped with Flash Player and Shockwave Player preinstalled 

Windows 98 Second Edition
Windows 98 Second Edition (often shortened to Windows 98 SE and sometimes to Win98 SE) is an updated version of Windows 98 released on May 5, 1999, nine months before the release of Windows 2000  It includes many bug fixes, improved WDM audio and modem support, improved USB support, the replacement of Internet Explorer 4 0 with Internet Explorer 5 0, Web Folders (WebDAV namespace extension for Windows Explorer), and related shell updates  Also included is basic OHCI-compliant FireWire DV camcorder support (MSDV class driver) and SBP-2 support for mass storage class devices  Wake-On-LAN reenables suspended networked computers due to network activity, and Internet Connection Sharing allows multiple networked client computers to share an Internet connection via a single host computer Other features in the update include DirectX 6 1 which introduced major improvements to DirectSound and the introduction of DirectMusic, improvements to Asynchronous Transfer Mode support (IP/ATM, PPP/ATM and WinSock 2/ATM support), Windows Media Player 6 1 replacing the older Media Player, Microsoft NetMeeting 3 0, MDAC 2 1 and WMI  A memory overflow issue was resolved in which earlier versions of Windows 98 would crash most systems if left running for 49 7 days (equal to 232 milliseconds)  Windows 98 SE could be obtained as retail upgrade and full version packages, as well as OEM and a Second Edition Updates Disc for existing Windows 98 users  USB audio device class support is present from Windows 98 SE onwards  Windows 98 Second Edition improved WDM support in general for all devices, and it introduced support for WDM for modems (and therefore USB modems and virtual COM ports)  However, Microsoft driver support for both USB printers and USB mass-storage device class is not available for Windows 98 

Removed features
Windows 98 Second Edition did not ship with the WinG API or RealPlayer 4 0, unlike the original release of Windows 98, due to both of these having been superseded by DirectX and Windows Media Player, respectively 

Upgradeability
Several components of both Windows 98 and Windows 98 Second Edition can be updated to newer versions  These include:

Internet Explorer 6 SP1 and Outlook Express 6 SP1
Windows Media Format Runtime and Windows Media Player 9 Series on Windows 98 Second Edition (Windows Media Player 7 1 on Windows 98 original release)
Windows Media Encoder 7 1 and Windows Media 8 Encoding Utility
DirectX 9 0c (the latest compatible runtime is from October 2007 )
MSN Messenger 7 0
Significant features from newer Microsoft operating systems can be installed on Windows 98  Chief among them are  NET Framework versions 1 0, 1 1 and 2 0, the Visual C++ 2005 runtime, Windows Installer 2 0, the GDI+ redistributable library, Remote Desktop Connection client 5 2 and the Text Services Framework 
Several other components such as MSXML 3 0 SP7, Microsoft Agent 2 0, NetMeeting 3 01, MSAA 2 0, ActiveSync 3 8, WSH 5 6, Microsoft Data Access Components 2 81 SP1, WMI 1 5 and Speech API 4 0 
Office XP is the last version of Microsoft Office that is compatible with Windows 98 
Although Windows 98 does not fully support Unicode, certain Unicode applications can run if the Microsoft Layer for Unicode is installed 

System requirements
The two major versions of Windows 98 have minimum requirements needed to be run 

Users can bypass processor requirement checks with the undocumented /NM setup switch  This allows installation on computers with processors as old as the Intel 80386 

Limitations
The original release of Windows 98 may fail to boot on computers with a processor faster than 2 1 GHz  Windows 98 is only designed to handle up to 512 MB of RAM without changes  The maximum amount of RAM the operating system is designed to use is up to 1 GB of RAM  Systems with more than 1 5 GB of RAM may continuously reboot during startup  Both Windows 98 and Windows 98 Second Edition have problems running on hard drives of capacities larger than 32 GB in systems with certain Phoenix BIOS configurations  A software update fixed this shortcoming 

Support lifecycle
All computers running Windows NT 4 0 Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, and Windows 98 can be directly upgraded to Windows XP Professional  Support for Windows 98 under Microsoft's consumer product life cycle policy was originally planned to end on June 30, 2003, however, in December 2002, Microsoft extended the support window to January 16, 2004  This date would then be extended again to June 30, 2006 on January 13, 2004 up to a final end of support date of July 11, 2006, citing support volumes in emerging markets as the reason for the extension Retail availability for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and later became completely unavailable from Microsoft in any form (through MSDN or otherwise) due to the terms of Java-related settlements Microsoft made with Sun Microsystems The Windows Update website continued to be available after Windows 98's end of support date, however, in 2011, Microsoft retired the Windows Update v4 website and removed the updates for Windows 98 and Windows 98 SE from its servers 

Reception
Windows 98 was released to generally favorable reviews, with praise directed to its improved graphical user interface and customizability, ease of use,: 30–31  and the degree to which it addressed complaints that users and critics had with Windows 95  Michael Sweet of Smart Computing characterized it as heavily integrating features of the Internet browser, and found file and folder navigation easier : 30–31  Ed Bott of PC Computing lauded the bug fixes, easier troubleshooting, and support for hardware advances such as DVD players and USB  However, he also found that the operating system crashed only slightly less frequently, and criticized the high upgrade price and system requirements  He rated it four stars out of five 

Sales
Windows 98 sold 530,000 licenses in its first four days of availability, overtaking Windows 95's 510,000  It later sold a total of 580,000 and 350,000 licenses in the first and second months of availability, respectively In the first year of its release, Windows 98 sold a total of 15 million licenses – 2 million more than its predecessor  However, International Data Corporation estimated that of the roughly 89 million shipped computers in the desktop market, the operating system had a market share of 17 2 percent, compared to Windows 95's 57 4 percent  Meanwhile, the two operating systems continued to observe a trend whereby Windows 98 improved in sales performance, whereas Windows 95 dwindled  After a legal dispute and subsequent settlement with Sun Microsystems over the former's Java Virtual Machine, Microsoft ceased distributing the operating system on December 15, 2003, and IDC estimated that a total of 58 million copies were installed worldwide by then 
Passage 5:
Susanne Klatten
Susanne Hanna Ursula Klatten (née Quandt, born 28 April 1962) is a German billionaire heiress, the daughter of Herbert and Johanna Quandt  As of January 2022, her net worth was estimated at US$23 4 billion, and the richest woman in Germany and the 50th richest person in the world according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index 

Education
Klatten was born in Bad Homburg, West Germany  After gaining a degree in business finance, she worked for the advertising agency Young & Rubicam in Frankfurt from 1981 to 1983  This was followed by a course in marketing and management at the University of Buckingham, and an MBA from IMD Business School in Lausanne specialising in advertising She gained further business experience in London with Dresdner Bank, the Munich branch of management consultants McKinsey and the bank Bankhaus Reuschel & Co 
She has often worked under the name Susanne Kant 

Investments
On her father's death she inherited his 50 1% stake in pharmaceutical and chemicals manufacturer Altana  She sits on Altana's supervisory board and helped transform it into a world-class corporation in the German DAX list of 30 top companies  In 2006 Altana AG sold its pharmaceutical activities to Nycomed for €4 5 billion, leaving only its speciality chemicals business  The €4 5 billion was distributed to shareholders as a dividend  Altana maintained its stock exchange listing and Klatten remained its majority shareholder  
In 2009, she bought almost all shares she did not already own in Altana  Altana and SKion, which are both wholly owned by Susanne Klatten, are shareholder of Landa Digital Printing with together 46% since 2018  Landa Digital Printing is a company of the Israeli entrepreneur and inventor Benny Landa in the field of digital printing and nanotechnology Her father also left her a 12 50% stake in BMW, but following the death of her mother in 2015, her stake in BMW is now 19 2%  She was appointed to the supervisory board of BMW with her brother Stefan Quandt in 1997 
German graphite maker SGL Carbon said on 16 March 2009 that Klatten owns options to raise her stake in SGL from 8% to almost a quarter of the shares but no more than that 

Quandt family activities during WWII
The Hanns Joachim Friedrichs Award winning documentary film The Silence of the Quandts by the German public broadcaster ARD described in October 2007 the role of the Quandt family businesses during the Second World War  The family's Nazi past was not well known, but the documentary film revealed this to a wide audience and confronted the Quandts about the use of slave labourers in the family's factories during World War II  As a result, five days after the showing, four family members announced, on behalf of the entire Quandt family, their intention to fund a research project in which a historian would examine the family's activities during Adolf Hitler's dictatorship  The independent 1,200-page study researched and compiled by Bonn historian, Joachim Scholtyseck, that was released in 2011 concluded: "The Quandts were linked inseparably with the crimes of the Nazis"  As of 2008, no compensation, apology or even memorial at the site of one of their factories, have been permitted  BMW was not implicated in the report 

Personal life
Police prevented an attempt to kidnap her and her mother Johanna Quandt in 1978 Susanne met Jan Klatten while she was doing an internship with BMW in Regensburg, where he worked as an engineer  It is reported that during this time, she called herself Kant and did not tell him who she was until they were sure about each other, but Klatten himself denies the story  They married in 1990 in Kitzbühel and live in Munich  They have three children  The couple separated in 2018  She has been a member of the University Council of the Technical University of Munich since 2005  In 2007 she was awarded the Bayerischer Verdienstorden, the Bavarian Order of Merit  She is one of the biggest donors of the centre-right political party, the Christian Democratic Union In 2007 Klatten was blackmailed by Helg "Russak" Sgarbi, a 44-year-old Swiss national who threatened to release materials depicting the two having an affair  Sgarbi, who was charged with similar blackmail schemes against multiple women, was arrested in January 2009 and brought to court in Germany, where he was sentenced to six years in jail  His accomplice, the Italian hotel owner Ernano Barretta who allegedly filmed Sgarbi and Klatten with hidden cameras, was also arrested and was sentenced in 2012 to seven years in prison 

See also
List of female billionaires
Passage 6:
List of countries by steel production
This article summarizes the world steel production by country 
In 2020, total world crude steel production was 1877 5 million tonnes (Mt)   The biggest steel producing country is currently China, which accounted for 57% of world steel production in 2020  In 2020, China became the first country to produce over one billion tons of steel  In 2008, 2009, 2015 and 2016 output fell in the majority of steel-producing countries as a result of the global recession  In 2010 and 2017, it started to rise again  Crude steel production contracted in all regions in 2019 except in Asia and the Middle East 

List of countries by steel production
This is a list of countries by steel production in 1967, 1980, 1990, 2000 and from 2007 to 2021, based on data provided by the World Steel Association  All countries with annual production of crude steel at least 2 million metric tons 

Exports
net: exports - imports

Imports
Net: imports − exports

See also
Steel industry
Global steel industry trends
List of steel producers
List of countries by iron ore production
Context 3: Passage 1:
Hans Modrow
Hans Modrow (German pronunciation: [ˈhans ˈmoːdʁo]; 27 January 1928 – 10 February 2023) was a German politician best known as the last communist premier of East Germany 
Taking office in the middle of the Peaceful Revolution, he was the de facto leader of the country for much of the winter of 1989 and 1990  He was a transitional figure, paving the way to the first and only free elections in East Germany and including many opposition politicians in his cabinet  
After the end of Communist rule and reunification of Germany, he was convicted of electoral fraud and perjury by the Dresden District Court in 1995, on the basis that he had been the SED official nominally in charge of the electoral process  He was later convicted of the first charge and was given a nine-month suspended sentence  One of the few high-ranking former SED officials to not have been expelled, he was the honorary chairman of the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) and was the president of the "council of elders" of the Left Party from 2007 

Early life and education
Modrow was born on 27 January 1928 in Jasenitz, Province of Pomerania, German Reich, now Jasienica, part of the town of Police in Poland  As a child he was a Hitler Youth leader and attended a Volksschule  He trained as a machinist from 1942 to 1945 when he was filled with intense hatred of the Bolsheviks, whom he deemed as subhumans, inferior to Germans physically and morally  For six months during the Allied bombing of Stettin he served as a volunteer firefighter  He later served briefly in the Volkssturm in January 1945, and was subsequently captured as a prisoner of war by the Soviet Red Army in Stralsund in May 1945  He and other German prisoners were sent to a farm in Hinterpommern to work  Upon arrival, his backpack was stolen, making him begin to rethink the Germans' so-called camaraderie  Days later, he was appointed a driver to a Soviet captain, who asked him about Heinrich Heine, a German poet  Modrow had never heard of him and felt embarrassed that the people he thought of as "subhumans" knew more about German culture than he  Transported to a POW camp near Moscow, he joined a National Committee for a Free Germany anti-fascist school run by future SED Politburo member Alfred Neumann for Wehrmacht members and received training in Marxism-Leninism, which he embraced  Upon release in 1949 he worked as a machinist for LEW Hennigsdorf  That same year he joined the Socialist Unity Party (SED) From 1949 to 1961, Modrow worked in various functions for the Free German Youth (FDJ) in Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, and Berlin and in 1952 and 1953 studied at the Komsomol college in Moscow  In 1953, he attended the state funeral of Joseph Stalin  After Nikita Khrushchev's Secret Speech at the 20th Party Congress condemning Stalin and beginning de-Stalinization, Modrow claimed to have complained to his former teacher Neumann "Comrade, this is unacceptable — you are accusing us of having learned Stalin off by heart, but I never had the inclination to do this myself, you asked us to!" From 1953 to 1961, he served as an FDJ functionary in East Berlin  From 1954 to 1957, he studied at the SED's Karl Marx school in Berlin, graduating as a social scientist  In 1959 to 1961 he studied at the University of Economics in Berlin-Karlshorst and obtained the degree of graduate economist  He gained his doctorate at the Humboldt University of Berlin in 1966  West Germany's Federal Intelligence Service (BND) kept Modrow under observation from 1958 to 2013 

Communist party career
Modrow had a long political career in East Germany, serving as a member of the Volkskammer from 1957 to 1990 and in the SED's Central Committee (ZK) from 1967 to 1989, having previously been a candidate for the ZK from 1958 to 1967  From 1961 to 1967 he was first secretary of the district administration of the SED in Berlin-Köpenick and secretary for agitation and propaganda from 1967 to 1971 in the SED's district leadership in Berlin  During this time he was involved in the formation of the Union Berlin football club, which is based in the Köpenick district  From 1971 to 1973 he worked as the head of the SED's department of agitation  In 1975 he was awarded the GDR's Patriotic Order of Merit in gold and received the award of the Order of Karl Marx in 1978 From 1973 onward, he was the SED's first secretary in Dresden, East Germany's third-largest city  He was prevented from rising any further than a local party boss, largely because he was one of the few SED leaders who dared to publicly criticise longtime SED chief Erich Honecker  He developed some important contacts with the Soviet Union, including eventual Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev  Modrow initially supported Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika reforms  In early 1987, Gorbachev and the KGB explored the possibility of installing Modrow as Honecker's successor  From 1988 to 1989, the Stasi, under the orders of Honecker and Erich Mielke, conducted a massive surveillance operation against Modrow with the intention of gathering enough evidence to convict him of high treason 

Peaceful Revolution and premiership
During the Peaceful Revolution of 1989, Modrow ordered thousands of Volkspolizei, Stasi, Combat Groups of the Working Class, and National People's Army troops to crush a demonstration at the Dresden Hauptbahnhof on 4–5 October  Some 1,300 people were arrested  In a top secret and encrypted telex to Honecker on 9 October, Modrow reported: "With the determined commitment of the comrades of the security organs, anti-state terrorist riots were suppressed" When Honecker was toppled on 18 October, Gorbachev hoped that Modrow would become the new leader of the SED  Egon Krenz was selected instead  He became premier following the resignation of Willi Stoph on 13 November, four days after the Berlin Wall fell  The SED formally abandoned power on 1 December  Krenz resigned two days later, on 3 December  Since the premiership was the highest state post in East Germany, Modrow became the de facto leader of the country To defeat the opposition's demand for the complete dissolution of the Stasi, it was renamed as the "Office for National Security" (Amt für Nationale Sicherheit – AfNS) on 17 November 1989  Modrow's attempt to re-brand it further as the "Office for the Protection of the Constitution of the GDR" (Verfassungsschutz der DDR) failed due to pressure from the public and the opposition parties and the AfNS was dissolved on 13 January 1990  The Modrow government gave orders to destroy incriminating Stasi files On 7 December 1989, Modrow accepted the proposal of the East German Round Table opposition groups to hold free elections within six months  Modrow and the Round Table agreed on 28 January to bring the elections forward to 18 March  By this time, the SED had added "Party of Democratic Socialism" to its name; the SED portion was dropped altogether in February  Some of the Round Table parties strove for a "third way" model of democratic socialism and therefore agreed with Modrow to slow down or block a reunification with capitalist West Germany  As the SED-PDS regime grew weaker, Modrow on 1 February 1990 proposed a slow, three-stage process that would create a neutral German confederation and continued to oppose "rapid" reunification  The collapse of the East German state and economy in early 1990 and the approaching East German free elections allowed Helmut Kohl's government in Bonn to disregard Modrow's demand for neutrality From 5 February 1990 on, Modrow included eight representatives of opposition parties and civil liberties groups as ministers without portfolio in his cabinet  On 13 February 1990, Modrow met with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, asking for an accommodation loan of 15 billion DM, which was rejected by Kohl  Modrow remained premier until the 18 March 1990 elections  The PDS expelled Honecker, Krenz, and other Communist-era leaders in February 1990 

Criminal sentence
On 27 May 1993, the Dresden District Court found Modrow guilty of electoral fraud committed in the Dresden municipal elections in May 1989, specifically, understating the percentage of voters who refused to vote for the official slate  The judge declined to impose a prison sentence or a fine  The Dresden District Court revoked the decision in August 1995 and Modrow was sentenced to nine months on probation  Modrow did not directly deny the charges, but argued that the trial was politically motivated and that the court lacked jurisdiction for crimes committed in East Germany   "We were all members of a political system," he said, speaking to the court in Dresden   "Some perhaps had the good fortune not to come into contact with manipulation, while others could not or were not allowed to turn away "

Later life and death
After German reunification, Modrow served as a member of the Bundestag (1990–1994) and of the European Parliament (1999–2004)  After leaving office, he wrote a number of books on his political experiences, his continued Marxist political views, and his disappointment at the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc  Although a supporter of Gorbachev's reforms in the 1980s, after the fall of Communism he criticised them for weakening the Eastern Bloc's economy  In 2006, he suggested both West Germany and East Germany were responsible for the killings of East Germans by the communist regime at the Berlin Wall, and later defended the construction of the wall as a necessary measure to prevent a war over West Berlin  He also called East Germany an "effective democracy"  He was criticised for maintaining contacts with Neo-Stalinist groups  In 2018, he sued the Federal Intelligence Service for access to West German intelligence files on him from the Cold War  In 2019 he criticised the enlargement of NATO, which he also opposed reunified Germany's membership in  Modrow died on 10 February 2023, aged 95  He was buried at Dorotheenstadt Cemetery 

Citations
Passage 2:
Mátyás Szűrös
Mátyás Szűrös (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈmaːcaːʃ ˈsyːrøʃ]; born 11 September 1933 in Püspökladány) is a Hungarian politician  He served as provisional president of the Republic from 23 October 1989 to 2 May 1990  His presidency occurred during Hungary's transition from Communism to democratic government 

Biography
Szűrös served as Speaker of the National Assembly of Hungary from March 1989 to May 1990  In the fall of 1989, as part of an agreement between the Communists and the opposition to establish multiparty democracy, the 1949 Constitution was almost completely rewritten to remove its Communist character  The Presidential Council, the country's Communist-era collective presidency, was dissolved  Under the Constitution, Szűrös became provisional president until the election  Soon after taking office on 23 October he made the official proclamation that Hungary had removed the "People's Republic" from its constitutional name and was now the "Republic of Hungary "He remained in parliament until 2002 as a member of the Hungarian Socialist Party, often voting against the party consensus  He quit the party, in 2002, joined the newly established New Left Party and ran as their prime minister candidate at the parliamentary elections, but the party only got 0 1% of the popular vote  In 2003, he joined the Social Democratic Party and was later elected chairman of the party  He resigned his position in 2005 
Passage 3:
Friedrich Ebert Foundation
The Friedrich Ebert Foundation (German: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e V ; Abbreviation: FES) is a German political party foundation associated with, but independent from, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)  Established in 1925 as the political legacy of Friedrich Ebert, Germany's first democratically elected President, it is the largest and oldest of the German party-associated foundations  It is headquartered in Bonn and Berlin, and has offices and projects in over 100 countries  It is Germany's oldest organisation to promote democracy, political education, and promote students of outstanding intellectual abilities and personality 

History
The FES was named after Friedrich Ebert (1871–1925), the Social Democratic President of Germany, 1919–1925  In his will, he specified that the proceeds from donations at his funeral should be used to create a foundation   The SPD chairman at the time, Konrad Ludwig, was given the responsibility of building this foundation, which he did a few days after Ebert's death in 1925  The main concern of the foundation was to work against discrimination of workers in the area of education: "The Friedrich Ebert Foundation pursues the goal of giving young, empowered proletarians government aid to fund an education at state-accredited institutions  As a basic principle, only those people who have a recommendation from the party organisation will receive funding " (SPD Yearbook 1926) By the end of 1931, 295 students had been funded with over 52,000 marks  At this point the funding of the foundation fell through, as a result of the Great Depression  The FES was a section of the Social Democratic Education and Culture Organisation, and was banned along with the party itself in 1933 by the Nazis 
In 1946, the FES was reinstituted at the founding assembly of the Socialist German Student Federation  In 1954, the FES was restructured into a charitable organisation "for the advancement of democratic education"  This established the FES as an independent, self-contained institute  In addition to education programmes, the FES has also worked in the area of development aid since the 1960s  In this effort, it has supported democracy and freedom movements, for instance in the African National Congress (ANC), and played an important role in overcoming dictatorial regimes in Greece, Spain, and Portugal   Thus it was not a coincidence that the Socialist Party of Portugal was formed in an FES school in the German town of Bad Münstereifel 
The German state did subsidize the work of the foundation with 170 Million Euros in 2018 

Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Academic Foundation
The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Academic Foundation (FES) is one of thirteen state-funded organizations for the promotion of young talents (Begabtenförderwerke) in Germany  Less than 1% of German students achieve a scholarship at one of the thirteen organizations (i e  FES, Studienstiftung, Konrad Adenauer Foundation, Friedrich Naumann Foundation, Hanns Seidel Foundation, Heinrich Böll Foundation, Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, Cusanuswerk, Ernst Ludwig Ehrlich Scholarship Fund)  It is financially funded and subsidized by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and supports students with outstanding academical and political achievements  Awards are granted after a multi-stage selection process and are based on grades, letters of recommendation, letters of motivation, political and social engagement as well as personality and character  Until today it has sponsored more than 12,000 grantees  Over 90% of those sponsored graduate with honours   In 2005, there were 1,731 students in the programme, of which 51% were women   
Beyond the financial support, grantees also receive so-called ideational support, which comes from opportunities to attend political seminars, conferences, and other activities, which can be important job qualifications  Students are assigned advisors who work with them for the length of their grants 
Each year, the grantees vote for a board during the nationwide conference at the Gustav Stresemann Institute in Bonn   This board serves for the next full year as the representation of grantees for dialog with the foundation   The FES maintains a website ([1] www fes-stip de) for networking among grantees, which includes a wide variety of mailing lists, services, and communications tools 
Since 1971, foreign students have also had the opportunity to receive grants through solidarity funds   Preference for these grants goes to people who are persecuted on political, racial or religious grounds   Funding for this program comes exclusively from donations from current and former grantees   The program have helped over 1,000 students  Currently there are 31 students who are in the solidarity programme  Two grantees from this programme are chosen every year at the conference in Bonn to work on the steering committee of the fund 

Further activities
Today, the Friedrich Ebert Foundation's main goals are to promote political and societal education of people from all walks of life in the spirit of democracy and pluralism, to enable young people the opportunity to study and do research through grants, and to work toward international understanding and cooperation 
The foundation employs several hundred employees in their offices in Bonn and Berlin, as well as in 14 regional offices and an academy within Germany and in over 100 foreign agencies   It is financed mainly through grants from the federal budget and the budgets of the various Bundesländer 
The FES had its own conference center on the Venusberg in Bonn for these activities until its closure in 2009   
The historical research center of the foundation also contains the Archive of Social Democracy and its libraries in Bonn and at the Karl Marx House in Trier   This is one of the largest collections of documents on social history and the history of the workers movement 
Since 1982, the foundation has awarded a prize of 10,000 euro called Das politische Buch ("The Political Book") to promote noteworthy political books  The prize serves to remind people of the Nazi book burnings of May 10, 1933 

Controversy
In 2017, Friedrich Ebert Foundation was attacked by a group dubbed “Pawn Storm”, the same cyber spy group that targeted that year's campaign of French presidential candidate Emmanuel Macron; the group used email phishing tricks and attempted to install malware at the foundation In 2022, the Friedrich Ebert Foundation was barred from working in Russia 

Leadership
1953–1970: Gerhard Weisser
1970–1983: Alfred Nau
1983–1987: Heinz Kühn
1987–2003: Holger Börner (chairman laureate from 2003 until his death in 2006)
2003–2010: Anke Fuchs
2010–2012: Peter Struck
2013–2020: Kurt Beck and Dieter Schulte (interim since Struck's death)
2020–present: Martin Schulz

See also
Konrad Adenauer Foundation (CDU)
Hanns Seidel Foundation (CSU)
Friedrich Naumann Foundation für die Freiheit (FDP)
Heinrich Böll Foundation (Grüne)
Rosa Luxemburg Foundation (Die Linke)
Desiderius-Erasmus-Stiftung (AfD)
Passage 4:
LSV Berlin
LSV Berlin was a short-lived German association football club from the city of Berlin  It served as the sports club for Luftwaffe (German air force) personnel in the city during World War II and disappeared with the end of the conflict 

History
The formation of military-based sports and football clubs was common under the Third Reich and they took part in the country's established football competition alongside traditional civilian clubs 
German football was re-organized under the Reich's politically motivated sports policies in 1933 into sixteen top-flight regional divisions  Luftwaffensportverein Berlin was a latecomer to the Gauliga Berlin-Brandenburg, joining the top-flight division for the 1943–44 season and earning a 2nd-place result As the tide of the war turned against Germany and Allied forces invaded the country, most military football sides were disbanded  LSV Berlin was lost in September 1944, before the start of the 1944–45 season, its place in the Oberliga being taken by SG OrPo Berlin 

Stadium
LSV played its home matches in Steitstaße Spandau or Mommsenstadion (capacity 37,570) 
Passage 5:
Gleiwitz incident
The Gleiwitz incident (German: Überfall auf den Sender Gleiwitz; Polish: Prowokacja gliwicka) was a false flag attack on the radio station Sender Gleiwitz in Gleiwitz (then Germany and now Gliwice, Poland) staged by Nazi Germany on the night of 31 August 1939  Along with some two dozen similar incidents, the attack was manufactured by Germany as a casus belli to justify the invasion of Poland  Prior to the invasion, Adolf Hitler gave a radio address condemning the acts and announcing German plans to attack Poland, which began the next morning  Despite the German government using the attack as a justification to go to war with Poland, the Gleiwitz assailants were not Polish but were German SS officers wearing Polish uniforms  
During his declaration of war, Hitler did not mention the Gleiwitz incident but grouped all provocations staged by the SS as an alleged "Polish assault" on Germany  The Gleiwitz incident is the best-known action of Operation Himmler, a series of special operations undertaken by the Schutzstaffel (SS) to serve German propaganda at the outbreak of war  The operation was intended to create the appearance of a Polish aggression against Germany to justify the invasion of Poland  On September 3, Britain and France declared war on Germany, and the European theatre of World War II had begun  Manufactured evidence for the Gleiwitz attack by the SS was provided by the German SS officer Alfred Naujocks in 1945 

Events at Gleiwitz
Much of what is known about the Gleiwitz incident comes from the affidavit of SS-Sturmbannführer Alfred Naujocks at the Nuremberg Trials  In his testimony, he stated that he organised the incident under orders from Reinhard Heydrich and Heinrich Müller, chief of the Gestapo  On the night of 31 August, a small group of German operatives dressed in Polish uniforms and led by Naujocks seized the Gleiwitz station and broadcast a short anti-German message in Polish (sources vary on the content of the message)   The operation was named "Grossmutter gestorben" (Grandmother died)  The operation was to make the attack and the broadcast look like the work of Polish anti-German saboteurs  The operation was planned and carried out from the Sławięcice Palace (Schloss Slawentzitz) To make the attack seem more convincing, the Gestapo executed Franciszek Honiok, a 43-year-old unmarried Upper Silesian Catholic farmer, known for sympathising with the Poles  He had been arrested the previous day by the Gestapo and dressed to look like a saboteur, then rendered unconscious by an injection of drugs, then killed by gunshot wounds  Honiok was left dead at the scene so that he appeared to have been killed while attacking the station  His corpse was then presented to the police and press as proof of the attack  Several prisoners from the Dachau concentration camp were drugged, shot dead on the site and their faces disfigured to make identification impossible  The Germans referred to them by the code phrase "Konserve" (canned goods)  Some sources incorrectly refer to the incident as Operation Canned Goods In an oral testimony at the trials, Erwin von Lahousen stated that his division of the Abwehr was one of two that were given the task of providing Polish Army uniforms, equipment and identification cards; he was later told by Wilhelm Canaris that people from concentration camps had been disguised in these uniforms and ordered to attack the radio stations Oskar Schindler, who is credited with later saving the lives of 1,200 Jews during the Holocaust, played a role in supplying the Polish uniforms and weapons used in the operation as an agent for the Abwehr 

Context
The Gleiwitz incident was a part of a larger operation carried out by Abwehr and SS forces  Other orchestrated incidents were conducted along the Polish–German border at the same time as the Gleiwitz attack, such as a house burning in the Polish Corridor and spurious propaganda  The project was called Operation Himmler and comprised incidents intended to give the appearance of Polish aggression against Germany  German newspapers and politicians, including Adolf Hitler, had made accusations against Polish authorities for months before the 1939 invasion of organising or tolerating violent ethnic cleansing of ethnic Germans living in Poland  On 1 September, the day following the Gleiwitz attack, Germany launched Fall Weiss (Case White), the strategic plan for the invasion of Poland, which precipitated World War II in Europe  Hitler cited the border incidents in a speech in the Reichstag on the same day, with three of them called very serious, as justification for his invasion of Poland  Hitler had told his generals on 22 August, "I will provide a propagandistic casus belli  Its credibility doesn't matter  The victor will not be asked whether he told the truth" 

International reactions
American correspondents were summoned to the scene the next day but no neutral parties were allowed to investigate the incident in detail and the international public was skeptical of the German version of the incident 

In popular culture
There have been several adaptations of the incident in cinema  Der Fall Gleiwitz (1961), directed by Gerhard Klein for DEFA studios (The Gleiwitz Case; English subtitles), is an East German film that reconstructs the events Operacja Himmler (1979) is a Polish film that covers the events Both Die Blechtrommel (1979), directed by Volker Schlöndorff and Hitler's SS: Portrait in Evil (1985), directed by Jim Goddard, briefly include the incident It was also mentioned in a video game; Codename: Panzers (2004), which stirred up some controversy in Poland where the game was briefly discussed in Polish media as anti-Polish falsification of history, before the issue was cleared up as a case of poor reporting 

See also
1939 in Poland
1939 Tarnow rail station bomb attack
Jablunkov incident
Mukden Incident, a similar false flag operation that started the Japanese invasion of Manchuria
Nazi crimes against the Polish nation
Operation Greif
Shelling of Mainila, a similar false flag operation that started the Soviet invasion of Finland
Passage 6:
1990 Polish presidential election
Presidential elections were held in Poland on 25 November 1990, with a second round on 9 December  They were the first direct presidential elections in the history of Poland, and the first free presidential elections since the May Coup of 1926  Before World War II, presidents were elected by the Sejm   From 1952 to 1989—the bulk of the Communist era—the presidency did not exist as a separate institution, and most of its functions were fulfilled by the State Council of Poland, whose chairman was considered the equivalent of a president 
The leader of the Solidarity movement, Lech Wałęsa, won the first round  However, he did not earn over 50% of the vote, which led to a runoff election  Wałęsa faced Polish-Canadian businessman Stanisław Tymiński in the second round, defeating him easily 

Background
Wałęsa was an electrician and union leader with the image of an emotional, shirtsleeves populist  The first non-communist prime minister, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, was very popular and widely considered a front-runner   He appeared as a more respectable and intellectual leader than Wałęsa   but also as more of a compromiser   However, in the first round, Mazowiecki finished in a distant third, with only 18 7 percent of the vote, well behind Tymiński 
The reasons for Tymiński's unexpected success remain unclear  His vague promise to create wealth for everyone quickly, supported by his image as a patriotic Pole who had succeeded abroad, was well received at a time of radical political change and a worsening economic situation  There was increasing disappointment with the trench warfare that had broken out within the former anti-communist opposition so a mysterious, honest and patriotic stranger "straight out of nowhere" had considerable appeal 
Another factor was that Tymiński's use of political-marketing methods unknown in Poland at the time  A key element of his campaign was an omnipresent black briefcase, allegedly containing "secret documents" which would destroy his rivals' careers when the time was right  Although the elections passed without the briefcase being opened, its presence attracted constant attention  Tymiński's adversaries adopted a similar strategy; the daily Gazeta Wyborcza (which supported Mazowiecki) reported that Tymiński had had contact with the secret police, a story that was not withdrawn until after the elections 
Despite Tymiński's defeat, he had not only humiliated Mazowiecki (one of the best-known and most-respected figures in Polish politics), but also forced Wałęsa (who at that time was a national hero) into a runoff   After the election Tymiński tried to establish a new political party, but quickly disappeared from the political scene in Poland 

Candidates
Results
Passage 7:
Raymond Triboulet
Raymond Triboulet (3 October 1906 – 26 May 2006) was a French politician  He was a leading World War II resistance fighter who helped U S , Canadian, and British troops invade France, which was then occupied by Nazi Germany 

Biography
Born in Paris, Raymond Triboulet was a farmer and also had a law degree  At the start of World War II he enlisted in the French Army and was taken prisoner, but was later freed and returned home under the German occupation in 1941  He then joined the Calvados section of the group "Ceux de la Résistance", or Those of the Resistance 
By informing Allied forces of German movements between the towns of Caen and Bayeux, he contributed to the success of the D-Day landings of 6 June 1944  Following the reinstatement of a legitimate French government, Charles de Gaulle appointed him the first local governor of liberated France, in the Normandy town of Bayeux 
He was elected to Parliament in 1946 and served until 1973  He served as a minister in the governments of Michel Debré and Georges Pompidou from 1959 to 1966 and then became a member of the Council of Europe and the European Parliament 
He was elected to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques in 1979, serving as its president in 1991 

Publications
Un gaulliste de la IVe, Plon, 1985 (A Gaullist from the IVth Republic)
Un ministre du Général, Plon, 1985 (Minister to the General)

External links
Obituary, The Guardian, 16 June 2006 accessed at [1] 19 July 2006
Raymond Triboulet accessed at fr:Raymond Triboulet 21:02, 21 October 2006 (UTC)
Passage 8:
Green
Green is the color between cyan and yellow on the visible spectrum  It is evoked by light which has a dominant wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm  In subtractive color systems, used in painting and color printing, it is created by a combination of yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors  By far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy  Many creatures have adapted to their green environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage  Several minerals have a green color, including the emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content 
During post-classical and early modern Europe, green was the color commonly associated with wealth, merchants, bankers, and the gentry, while red was reserved for the nobility  For this reason, the costume of the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci and the benches in the British House of Commons are green while those in the House of Lords are red  It also has a long historical tradition as the color of Ireland and of Gaelic culture  It is the historic color of Islam, representing the lush vegetation of Paradise  It was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries In surveys made in American, European, and Islamic countries, green is the color most commonly associated with nature, life, health, youth, spring, hope, and envy  In the European Union and the United States, green is also sometimes associated with toxicity and poor health, but in China and most of Asia, its associations are very positive, as the symbol of fertility and happiness  Because of its association with nature, it is the color of the environmental movement  Political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties  This has led to similar campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly, products  Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission; a green light means go ahead, a green card permits permanent residence in the United States 

Etymology and linguistic definitions
The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene, which, like the German word grün, has the same root as the words grass and grow  It is from a Common Germanic *gronja-, which is also reflected in Old Norse grænn, Old High German gruoni (but unattested in East Germanic), ultimately from a PIE root *ghre- "to grow", and root-cognate with grass and to grow 
The first recorded use of the word as a color term in Old English dates to ca  AD 700 Latin with viridis also has a genuine and widely used term for "green"  Related to virere "to grow" and ver "spring", it gave rise to words in several Romance languages, French vert, Italian verde (and English vert, verdure etc )  Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ  Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish, pale green – χλωρός, chloros (cf  the color of chlorine), cognate with χλοερός "verdant" and χλόη "chloe, the green of new growth" 
Thus, the languages mentioned above (Germanic, Romance, Slavic, Greek) have old terms for "green" which are derived from words for fresh, sprouting vegetation 
However, comparative linguistics makes clear that these terms were coined independently, over the past few millennia, and there is no identifiable single Proto-Indo-European or word for "green"  For example, the Slavic zelenъ is cognate with Sanskrit hari "yellow, ochre, golden" 
The Turkic languages also have jašɨl "green" or "yellowish green", compared to a Mongolian word for "meadow" 

Languages where green and blue are one color
In some languages, including old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese, the same word can mean either blue or green  The Chinese character 青 (pronounced qīng in Mandarin, ao in Japanese, and thanh in Sino-Vietnamese) has a meaning that covers both blue and green; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of "青"  In more contemporary terms, they are 藍 (lán, in Mandarin) and 綠 (lǜ, in Mandarin) respectively  Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green, 緑 (midori, which is derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb midoru "to be in leaf, to flourish" in reference to trees) and グリーン (guriin, which is derived from the English word "green")  However, in Japan, although the traffic lights have the same colors as other countries have, the green light is described using the same word as for blue, aoi, because green is considered a shade of aoi; similarly, green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples, green shiso (as opposed to red apples and red shiso) will be described with the word aoi  Vietnamese uses a single word for both blue and green, xanh, with variants such as xanh da trời (azure, lit  "sky blue"), lam (blue), and lục (green; also xanh lá cây, lit  "leaf green") 
"Green" in modern European languages corresponds to about 520–570 nm, but many historical and non-European languages make other choices, e g  using a term for the range of ca  450–530 nm ("blue/green") and another for ca  530–590 nm ("green/yellow")  In the comparative study of color terms in the world's languages, green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors (white, black, red, green, yellow, and blue), or more rarely in systems with five colors (white, red, yellow, green, and black/blue)  These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote "green", but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms (much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit)  Thus, the Thai word เขียว kheīyw, besides meaning "green", also means "rank" and "smelly" and holds other unpleasant associations The Celtic languages had a term for "blue/green/grey", Proto-Celtic *glasto-, which gave rise to Old Irish glas "green, grey" and to Welsh glas "blue"  This word is cognate with the Ancient Greek γλαυκός "bluish green", contrasting with χλωρός "yellowish green" discussed above 

In modern Japanese, the term for green is 緑, while the old term for "blue/green", blue (青, Ao) now means "blue"  But in certain contexts, green is still conventionally referred to as 青, as in blue traffic light (青信号, ao shingō) and blue leaves (青葉, aoba), reflecting the absence of blue-green distinction in old Japanese (more accurately, the traditional Japanese color terminology grouped some shades of green with blue, and others with yellow tones) 

In science
Color vision and colorimetry
In optics, the perception of green is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm  The sensitivity of the dark-adapted human eye is greatest at about 507 nm, a blue-green color, while the light-adapted eye is most sensitive about 555 nm, a yellow-green; these are the peak locations of the rod and cone (scotopic and photopic, respectively) luminosity functions The perception of greenness (in opposition to redness forming one of the opponent mechanisms in human color vision) is evoked by light which triggers the medium-wavelength M cone cells in the eye more than the long-wavelength L cones  Light which triggers this greenness response more than the yellowness or blueness of the other color opponent mechanism is called green  A green light source typically has a spectral power distribution dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 487–570 nm 

Human eyes have color receptors known as cone cells, of which there are three types  In some cases, one is missing or faulty, which can cause color blindness, including the common inability to distinguish red and yellow from green, known as deuteranopia or red-green color blindness 
Green is restful to the eye  Studies show that a green environment can reduce fatigue In the subtractive color system, used in painting and color printing, green is created by a combination of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors  On the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel, the complement of green is magenta; that is, a color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light (one of the purples)  On a traditional color wheel, based on subtractive color, the complementary color to green is considered to be red In additive color devices such as computer displays and televisions, one of the primary light sources is typically a narrow-spectrum yellowish-green of dominant wavelength ~550 nm; this "green" primary is combined with an orangish-red "red" primary and a purplish-blue "blue" primary to produce any color in between – the RGB color model  A unique green (green appearing neither yellowish nor bluish) is produced on such a device by mixing light from the green primary with some light from the blue primary 

Lasers
Lasers emitting in the green part of the spectrum are widely available to the general public in a wide range of output powers  Green laser pointers outputting at 532 nm (563 5 THz) are relatively inexpensive compared to other wavelengths of the same power, and are very popular due to their good beam quality and very high apparent brightness  The most common green lasers use diode pumped solid state (DPSS) technology to create the green light 
An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces it to emit 281 76 THz (1064 nm)  This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium, titanium and phosphorus (KTP), whose non-linear properties generate light at a frequency that is twice that of the incident beam (563 5 THz); in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 532 nm ("green") 
Other green wavelengths are also available using DPSS technology ranging from 501 nm to 543 nm 
Green wavelengths are also available from gas lasers, including the helium–neon laser (543 nm), the Argon-ion laser (514 nm) and the Krypton-ion laser (521 nm and 531 nm), as well as liquid dye lasers  Green lasers have a wide variety of applications, including pointing, illumination, surgery, laser light shows, spectroscopy, interferometry, fluorescence, holography, machine vision, non-lethal weapons, and bird control As of mid-2011, direct green laser diodes at 510 nm and 500 nm have become generally available,
although the price remains relatively prohibitive for widespread public use  The efficiency of these lasers (peak 3%) compared to that of DPSS green lasers (peak 35%)
may also be limiting adoption of the diodes to niche uses 

Pigments, food coloring and fireworks
Many minerals provide pigments which have been used in green paints and dyes over the centuries  Pigments, in this case, are minerals which reflect the color green, rather that emitting it through luminescent or phosphorescent qualities  The large number of green pigments makes it impossible to mention them all  Among the more notable green minerals, however is the emerald, which is colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium 
Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3), is called chrome green, also called viridian or institutional green when used as a pigment  For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery  Widely thought to have been due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors, the blue-green color is likely to be derived from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar 
Copper is the source of the green color in malachite pigments, chemically known as basic copper(II) carbonate Verdigris is made by placing a plate or blade of copper, brass or bronze, slightly warmed, into a vat of fermenting wine, leaving it there for several weeks, and then scraping off and drying the green powder that forms on the metal  The process of making verdigris was described in ancient times by Pliny  It was used by the Romans in the murals of Pompeii, and in Celtic medieval manuscripts as early as the 5th century AD  It produced a blue-green which no other pigment could imitate, but it had drawbacks: it was unstable, it could not resist dampness, it did not mix well with other colors, it could ruin other colors with which it came into contact, and it was toxic  Leonardo da Vinci, in his treatise on painting, warned artists not to use it  It was widely used in miniature paintings in Europe and Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries  Its use largely ended in the late 19th century, when it was replaced by the safer and more stable chrome green  Viridian, as described above, was patented in 1859  It became popular with painters, since, unlike other synthetic greens, it was stable and not toxic  Vincent van Gogh used it, along with Prussian blue, to create a dark blue sky with a greenish tint in his painting Café Terrace at Night Green earth is a natural pigment used since the time of the Roman Empire  It is composed of clay colored by iron oxide, magnesium, aluminum silicate, or potassium  Large deposits were found in the South of France near Nice, and in Italy around Verona, on Cyprus, and in Bohemia  The clay was crushed, washed to remove impurities, then powdered  It was sometimes called Green of Verona Mixtures of oxidized cobalt and zinc were also used to create green paints as early as the 18th century Cobalt green, sometimes known as Rinman's green or zinc green, is a translucent green pigment made by heating a mixture of cobalt (II) oxide and zinc oxide  Sven Rinman, a Swedish chemist, discovered this compound in 1780 
Green chrome oxide was a new synthetic green created by a chemist named Pannetier in Paris in about 1835  Emerald green was a synthetic deep green made in the 19th century by hydrating chrome oxide  It was also known as Guignet green 

There is no natural source for green food colorings which has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration  Chlorophyll, the E numbers E140 and E141, is the most common green chemical found in nature, and only allowed in certain medicines and cosmetic materials Quinoline Yellow (E104) is a commonly used coloring in the United Kingdom but is banned in Australia, Japan, Norway and the United States Green S (E142) is prohibited in many countries, for it is known to cause hyperactivity, asthma, urticaria, and insomnia To create green sparks, fireworks use barium salts, such as barium chlorate, barium nitrate crystals, or barium chloride, also used for green fireplace logs  Copper salts typically burn blue, but cupric chloride (also known as "campfire blue") can also produce green flames  Green pyrotechnic flares can use a mix ratio 75:25 of boron and potassium nitrate  Smoke can be turned green by a mixture: solvent yellow 33, solvent green 3, lactose, magnesium carbonate plus sodium carbonate added to potassium chlorate 

Biology
Green is common in nature, as many plants  are green because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll, which is involved in photosynthesis  Chlorophyll absorbs the long wavelengths of light (red) and short wavelengths of light (blue) much more efficiently than the wavelengths that appear green to the human eye, so light reflected by plants is enriched in green 
Chlorophyll absorbs green light poorly because it first arose in organisms living in oceans where purple halobacteria were already exploiting photosynthesis  Their purple color arose because they extracted energy in the green portion of the spectrum using bacteriorhodopsin  The new organisms that then later came to dominate the extraction of light were selected to exploit those portions of the spectrum not used by the halobacteria 

Animals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment  Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment  Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment  For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light  Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially  Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet  This can causes their feces to look green as well  Other chemicals which generally contribute to greenness among organisms are flavins (lychochromes) and hemanovadin  Humans have imitated this by wearing green clothing as a camouflage in military and other fields  Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one's skin include biliverdin, the green pigment in bile, and ceruloplasmin, a protein that carries copper ions in chelation 
The green huntsman spider is green due to the presence of bilin pigments in the spider's hemolymph (circulatory system fluids) and tissue fluids 
It hunts insects in green vegetation, where it is well camouflaged 

Green eyes
There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light Nobody is brought into the world with green eyes  An infant has one of two eye hues: dark or blue  Following birth, cells called melanocytes start to discharge melanin, the earthy colored shade, in the child's irises  This begins happening since melanocytes respond to light in time 
Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe 
They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia  In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green eye color 
A study of Icelandic and Dutch adults found green eyes to be much more prevalent in women than in men 
Among European Americans, green eyes are most common among those of recent Celtic and Germanic ancestry, about 16% 

In history and art
Prehistoric history
Neolithic cave paintings do not have traces of green pigments, but neolithic peoples in northern Europe did make a green dye for clothing, made from the leaves of the birch tree  It was of very poor quality, more brown than green  Ceramics from ancient Mesopotamia show people wearing vivid green costumes, but it is not known how the colors were produced 

Ancient history
In Ancient Egypt, green was the symbol of regeneration and rebirth, and of the crops made possible by the annual flooding of the Nile  For painting on the walls of tombs or on papyrus, Egyptian artists used finely ground malachite, mined in the west Sinai and the eastern desert; a paintbox with malachite pigment was found inside the tomb of King Tutankhamun  They also used less expensive green earth pigment, or mixed yellow ochre and blue azurite  To dye fabrics green, they first colored them yellow with dye made from saffron and then soaked them in blue dye from the roots of the woad plant For the ancient Egyptians, green had very positive associations  The hieroglyph for green represented a growing papyrus sprout, showing the close connection between green, vegetation, vigor and growth  In wall paintings, the ruler of the underworld, Osiris, was typically portrayed with a green face, because green was the symbol of good health and rebirth  Palettes of green facial makeup, made with malachite, were found in tombs  It was worn by both the living and the dead, particularly around the eyes, to protect them from evil  Tombs also often contained small green amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite, which would protect and give vigor to the deceased  It also symbolized the sea, which was called the "Very Green" In Ancient Greece, green and blue were sometimes considered the same color, and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees  The philosopher Democritus described two different greens: chloron, or pale green, and prasinon, or leek green  Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black, symbolizing the earth, and white, symbolizing water  However, green was not counted among the four classic colors of Greek painting – red, yellow, black and white – and is rarely found in Greek art The Romans had a greater appreciation for the color green; it was the color of Venus, the goddess of gardens, vegetables and vineyards  The Romans made a fine green earth pigment that was widely used in the wall paintings of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Lyon, Vaison-la-Romaine, and other Roman cities  They also used the pigment verdigris, made by soaking copper plates in fermenting wine  By the second century AD, the Romans were using green in paintings, mosaics and glass, and there were ten different words in Latin for varieties of green 

Postclassical history
In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the color of clothing showed a person's social rank and profession  Red could only be worn by the nobility, brown and gray by peasants, and green by merchants, bankers and the gentry and their families  The Mona Lisa wears green in her portrait, as does the bride in the Arnolfini portrait by Jan van Eyck 
There were no good vegetal green dyes which resisted washing and sunlight for those who wanted or were required to wear green  Green dyes were made out of the fern, plantain, buckthorn berries, the juice of nettles and of leeks, the digitalis plant, the broom plant, the leaves of the fraxinus, or ash tree, and the bark of the alder tree, but they rapidly faded or changed color  Only in the 16th century was a good green dye produced, by first dyeing the cloth blue with woad, and then yellow with Reseda luteola, also known as yellow-weed The pigments available to painters were more varied; monks in monasteries used verdigris, made by soaking copper in fermenting wine, to color medieval manuscripts  They also used finely-ground malachite, which made a luminous green  They used green earth colors for backgrounds 
During the early Renaissance, painters such as Duccio di Buoninsegna learned to paint faces first with a green undercoat, then with pink, which gave the faces a more realistic hue  Over the centuries the pink has faded, making some of the faces look green 

Modern history
In the 18th and 19th century
The 18th and 19th centuries brought the discovery and production of synthetic green pigments and dyes, which rapidly replaced the earlier mineral and vegetable pigments and dyes  These new dyes were more stable and brilliant than the vegetable dyes, but some contained high levels of arsenic, and were eventually banned 
In the 18th and 19th centuries, green was associated with the romantic movement in literature and art  The German poet and philosopher Goethe declared that green was the most restful color, suitable for decorating bedrooms  Painters such as John Constable and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot depicted the lush green of rural landscapes and forests  Green was contrasted to the smoky grays and blacks of the Industrial Revolution 
The second half of the 19th century saw the use of green in art to create specific emotions, not just to imitate nature  One of the first to make color the central element of his picture was the American artist James McNeill Whistler, who created a series of paintings called "symphonies" or "noctures" of color, including Symphony in gray and green; The Ocean between 1866 and 1872 
The late 19th century also brought the systematic study of color theory, and particularly the study of how complementary colors such as red and green reinforced each other when they were placed next to each other  These studies were avidly followed by artists such as Vincent van Gogh  Describing his painting, The Night Cafe, to his brother Theo in 1888, Van Gogh wrote: "I sought to express with red and green the terrible human passions  The hall is blood red and pale yellow, with a green billiard table in the center, and four lamps of lemon yellow, with rays of orange and green  Everywhere it is a battle and antithesis of the most different reds and greens "

In the 20th and 21st century
In the 1980s green became a political symbol, the color of the Green Party in Germany and in many other European countries  It symbolized the environmental movement, and also a new politics of the left which rejected traditional socialism and communism  (See § In politics section below )

Symbolism and associations
Safety and permission
Green can communicate safety to proceed, as in traffic lights  Green and red were standardized as the colors of international railroad signals in the 19th century  The first traffic light, using green and red gas lamps, was erected in 1868 in front of the Houses of Parliament in London  It exploded the following year, injuring the policeman who operated it  In 1912, the first modern electric traffic lights were put up in Salt Lake City, Utah  Red was chosen largely because of its high visibility, and its association with danger, while green was chosen largely because it could not be mistaken for red  Today green lights universally signal that a system is turned on and working as it should  In many video games, green signifies both health and completed objectives, opposite red 

Nature, vivacity, and life
Green is the color most commonly associated in Europe and the United States with nature, vivacity and life 
It is the color of many environmental organizations, such as Greenpeace, and of the Green Parties in Europe  Many cities have designated a garden or park as a green space, and use green trash bins and containers  A green cross is commonly used to designate pharmacies in Europe 
In China, green is associated with the east, with sunrise, and with life and growth  In Thailand, the color green is considered auspicious for those born on a Wednesday (light green for those born at night) 

Springtime, freshness, and hope
Green is the color most commonly associated in the United States and Europe with springtime, freshness, and hope  Green is often used to symbolize rebirth and renewal and immortality  In Ancient Egypt; the god Osiris, king of the underworld, was depicted as green-skinned  Green as the color of hope is connected with the color of springtime; hope represents the faith that things will improve after a period of difficulty, like the renewal of flowers and plants after the winter season 

Youth and inexperience
Green the color most commonly associated in Europe and the United States with youth  It also often is used to describe anyone young, inexperienced, probably by the analogy to immature and unripe fruit  Examples include green cheese, a term for a fresh, unaged cheese, and greenhorn, an inexperienced person 

Food and diet
The color green has been increasingly used by food companies, governments, and practitioners themselves to identify veganism and vegetarianism  The government of India requires food that is vegetarian to be marked with a green circle as part of the Food Safety and Standards Act of 2006 with changes to symbolism since but still maintaining the color green  In 2021, India introduced a green V to exclusively label vegan options  In the west, the V-Label, a green V designed by the European Vegetarian Union, has been used by food distributors to label vegan and vegetarian options 

Calm, tolerance, and the agreeable
Surveys also show that green is the color most associated with the calm, the agreeable, and tolerance  Red is associated with heat, blue with cold, and green with an agreeable temperature  Red is associated with dry, blue with wet, and green, in the middle, with dampness  Red is the most active color, blue the most passive; green, in the middle, is the color of neutrality and calm, sometimes used in architecture and design for these reasons 
Blue and green together symbolize harmony and balance  Experimental studies also show this calming effect in a statistical significant decrease of negative emotions
and increase of creative performance 

Jealousy and envy
Green is often associated with jealousy and envy  The expression "green-eyed monster" was first used by William Shakespeare in Othello: "it is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on " Shakespeare also used it in the Merchant of Venice, speaking of "green-eyed jealousy" 

Love and sexuality
Green today is not commonly associated in Europe and the United States with love and sexuality, but in stories of the medieval period it sometimes represented love and the base, natural desires of man  It was the color of the serpent in the Garden of Eden who caused the downfall of Adam and Eve  However, for the troubadours, green was the color of growing love, and light green clothing was reserved for young women who were not yet married In Persian and Sudanese poetry, dark-skinned women, called "green" women, were considered erotic  The Chinese term for cuckold is "to wear a green hat " This was because in ancient China, prostitutes were called "the family of the green lantern" and a prostitute's family would wear a green headscarf In Victorian England, the color green was associated with homosexuality 

Dragons, fairies, monsters, and devils
In legends, folk tales and films, fairies, dragons, monsters, and the devil are often shown as green 
In the Middle Ages, the devil was usually shown as either red, black or green  Dragons were usually green, because they had the heads, claws and tails of reptiles 
Modern Chinese dragons are also often green, but unlike European dragons, they are benevolent; Chinese dragons traditionally symbolize potent and auspicious powers, particularly control over water, rainfall, hurricane, and floods  The dragon is also a symbol of power, strength, and good luck  The Emperor of China usually used the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power and strength  The dragon dance is a popular feature of Chinese festivals 
In Irish folklore and English folklore, the color was sometimes was associated with witchcraft, and with faeries and spirits  The type of Irish fairy known as a leprechaun is commonly portrayed wearing a green suit, though before the 20th century he was usually described as wearing a red suit 
In theater and film, green was often connected with monsters and the inhuman  The earliest films of Frankenstein were in black and white, but in the poster for the 1935 version The Bride of Frankenstein, the monster had a green face  Actor Bela Lugosi wore green-hued makeup for the role of Dracula in the 1927–1928 Broadway stage production 

Poison and sickness
Like other common colors, green has several completely opposite associations  While it is the color most associated by Europeans and Americans with good health, it is also the color most often associated with toxicity and poison  There was a solid foundation for this association; in the nineteenth century several popular paints and pigments, notably verdigris, vert de Schweinfurt and vert de Paris, were highly toxic, containing copper or arsenic  The intoxicating drink absinthe was known as "the green fairy" 
A green tinge in the skin is sometimes associated with nausea and sickness  The expression 'green at the gills' means appearing sick  The color, when combined with gold, is sometimes seen as representing the fading of youth  In some Far East cultures the color green is used as a symbol of sickness or nausea 

Social status, prosperity and the dollar
Green in Europe and the United States is sometimes associated with status and prosperity  From the Middle Ages to the 19th century it was often worn by bankers, merchants country gentlemen and others who were wealthy but not members of the nobility  The benches in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, where the landed gentry sat, are colored green 
In the United States green was connected with the dollar bill  Since 1861, the reverse side of the dollar bill has been green  Green was originally chosen because it deterred counterfeiters, who tried to use early camera equipment to duplicate banknotes  Also, since the banknotes were thin, the green on the back did not show through and muddle the pictures on the front of the banknote  Green continues to be used because the public now associates it with a strong and stable currency One of the more notable uses of this meaning is found in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz  The Emerald City in this story is a place where everyone wears tinted glasses that make everything appear green  According to the populist interpretation of the story, the city's color is used by the author, L  Frank Baum, to illustrate the financial system of America in his day, as he lived in a time when America was debating the use of paper money versus gold 

On flags
The flag of Italy (1797) was modeled after the French tricolor  It was originally the flag of the Cisalpine Republic, whose capital was Milan; red and white were the colors of Milan, and green was the color of the military uniforms of the army of the Cisalpine Republic  Other versions say it is the color of the Italian landscape, or symbolizes hope 
The flag of Brazil has a green field adapted from the flag of the Empire of Brazil  The green represented the royal family 
The flag of India was inspired by an earlier flag of the independence movement of Gandhi, which had a red band for Hinduism and a green band representing Islam, the second largest religion in India 
The flag of Pakistan symbolizes Pakistan's commitment to Islam and equal rights of religious minorities where the larger portion (3:2 ratio) of flag is dark green representing Muslim majority (98% of total population) while a white vertical bar (3:1 ratio) at the mast representing equal rights for religious minorities and minority religions in country  The crescent and star symbolizes progress and bright future respectively 
The Flag of Bangladesh has a green field based on a similar flag used during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971  It consists of a red disc on top of a green field  The red disc represents the sun rising over Bengal, and also the blood of those who died for the independence of Bangladesh  The green field stands for the lushness of the land of Bangladesh 
The flag of the international constructed language Esperanto has a green field and a green star in a white area  The green represents hope ("esperanto" means "one who hopes"), the white represents peace and neutrality and the star represents the five inhabited continents Green is one of the three colors (along with red and black, or red and gold) of Pan-Africanism  Several African countries thus use the color on their flags, including Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Togo, Guinea, Benin, and Zimbabwe  The Pan-African colors are borrowed from the Ethiopian flag, one of the oldest independent African countries  Green on some African flags represents the natural richness of Africa Many flags of the Islamic world are green, as the color is considered sacred in Islam (see below)  The flag of Hamas, as well as the flag of Iran, is green, symbolizing their Islamist ideology  The 1977 flag of Libya consisted of a simple green field with no other characteristics  It was the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details  Some countries used green in their flags to represent their country's lush vegetation, as in the flag of Jamaica, and hope in the future, as in the flags of Portugal and Nigeria  The green cedar of Lebanon tree on the Flag of Lebanon officially represents steadiness and tolerance 

Green is a symbol of Ireland, which is often referred to as the "Emerald Isle"  The color is particularly identified with the republican and nationalist traditions in modern times  It is used this way on the flag of the Republic of Ireland, in balance with white and the Protestant orange  Green is a strong trend in the Irish holiday St  Patrick's Day 

In politics
The first recorded green party was a political faction in Constantinople during the 6th century Byzantine Empire  which took its name from a popular chariot racing team  They were bitter opponents of the blue faction, which supported Emperor Justinian I and which had its own chariot racing team  In 532 AD rioting between the factions began after one race, which led to the massacre of green supporters and the destruction of much of the center of Constantinople  (See Nika Riots) 
Green was the traditional color of Irish nationalism, beginning in the 17th century  The green harp flag, with a traditional gaelic harp, became the symbol of the movement  It was the banner of the Society of United Irishmen, which organized the ultimately unsuccessful Irish Rebellion of 1798  When Ireland achieved independence in 1922, green was incorporated into the national flag In the 1970s green became the color of the third biggest Swiss Federal Council political party, the Swiss People's Party SVP  The ideology is Swiss nationalism, national conservatism, right-wing populism, economic liberalism, agrarianism, isolationism, euroscepticism  The SVP was founded on September 22, 1971 and has 90,000 members In the 1980s green became the color of a number of new European political parties organized around an agenda of environmentalism  Green was chosen for its association with nature, health, and growth  The largest green party in Europe is Alliance '90/The Greens (German: Bündnis 90/Die Grünen) in Germany, which was formed in 1993 from the merger of the German Green Party, founded in West Germany in 1980, and Alliance 90, founded during the Revolution of 1989–1990 in East Germany  In the 2009 federal elections, the party won 11% of the votes and 68 out of 622 seats in the Bundestag 
Green parties in Europe have programs based on ecology, grassroots democracy, nonviolence, and social justice  Green parties are found in over one hundred countries, and most are members of the Global Green Network Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization which emerged from the anti-nuclear and peace movements in the 1970s  Its ship, the Rainbow Warrior, frequently tried to interfere with nuclear tests and whaling operations  The movement now has branches in forty countries 
The Australian Greens was founded in 1992  In the 2010 federal election, the party received 13% of the vote (more than 1 6 million votes) in the Senate, a first for any Australian minor party 
Green is the color associated with Puerto Rico's Independence Party, the smallest of that country's three major political parties, which advocates Puerto Rican independence from the United States 
In Taiwan, green is used by Democratic Progressive Party  Green in Taiwan associates with Taiwan independence movement 

In religion
Green is the traditional color of Islam  According to tradition, the robe and banner of Muhammad were green, and according to the Koran (XVIII, 31 and LXXVI, 21) those fortunate enough to live in paradise wear green silk robes  Muhammad is quoted in a hadith as saying that "water, greenery, and a beautiful face" were three universally good things  Green was accordingly adopted as a Shi'a color Al-Khidr ("The Green One"), was an important Qur'anic figure who was said to have met and traveled with Moses  He was given that name because of his role as a diplomat and negotiator  Green was also considered to be the median color between light and obscurity Roman Catholic and more traditional Protestant clergy wear green vestments at liturgical celebrations during Ordinary Time  In the Eastern Catholic Church, green is the color of Pentecost  Green is one of the Christmas colors as well, possibly dating back to pre-Christian times, when evergreens were worshiped for their ability to maintain their color through the winter season  Romans used green holly and evergreen as decorations for their winter solstice celebration called Saturnalia, which eventually evolved into a Christmas celebration  In Ireland and Scotland especially, green is used to represent Catholics, while orange is used to represent Protestantism  This is shown on the national flag of Ireland 
In Paganism, green represents abundance, growth, wealth, renewal, and balance  In magickal practices, green is often used to bring money and luck  One figure who shares parallels with various deities is the Green Man 

In gambling and sports
Gambling tables in a casino are traditionally green  The tradition is said to have started in gambling rooms in Venice in the 16th century 
Billiards tables are traditionally covered with green woolen cloth  The first indoor tables, dating to the 15th century, were colored green after the grass courts used for the similar lawn games of the period 
Green was the traditional color worn by hunters in the 19th century, particularly the shade called hunter green  In the 20th century most hunters began wearing the color olive drab, a shade of green, instead of hunter green 
Green is a common color for sports teams  Well-known teams include A S  Saint-Étienne of France, known as Les Verts (The Greens)  The Green Bay Packers, an American football team, has the color in its official name and wears green uniforms  A number of national soccer teams feature the color, with the color usually reflective of the teams' national flag 
British racing green was the international motor racing color of Britain from the early 1900s until the 1960s, when it was replaced by the colors of the sponsoring automobile companies 
A green belt in karate, taekwondo, and judo symbolizes a level of proficiency in the sport 

Idioms and expressions
Having a green thumb (American English) or green fingers (British English)  To be passionate about or talented at gardening  The expression was popularized beginning in 1925 by a BBC gardening program 
Greenhorn  Someone who is inexperienced 
Green-eyed monster  Refers to jealousy  (See section above on jealousy and envy) 
Greenmail  A term used in finance and corporate takeovers  It refers to the practice of a company paying a high price to buy back shares of its own stock to prevent an unfriendly takeover by another company or businessman  It originated in the 1980s on Wall Street, and originates from the green of dollars 
Green room  A room at a theater where actors rest when not onstage, or a room at a television studio where guests wait before going on-camera  It originated in the late 17th century from a room of that color at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London 
Greenwashing  Environmental activists sometimes use this term to describe the advertising of a company which promotes its positive environmental practices to cover up its environmental destruction 
Green around the gills  A description of a person who looks physically ill 
Going green  An expression commonly used to refer to preserving the natural environment, and participating in activities such as recycling materials 
Looking green  A description of a person who looks revolted or repulsed 

Notes
See also
Shades of green
Green pigments



ground_truth: ATS - 6 (Applications Technology Satellite - 6)

ATS-6

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which two features were played up the person who had the biggest net worth in 2017?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
James Chadwick
Sir James Chadwick,  (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was a British physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932  In 1941, he wrote the final draft of the MAUD Report, which inspired the U S  government to begin serious atom bomb research efforts  He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II  He was knighted in Britain in 1945 for his achievements in physics 
Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford (known as the "father of nuclear physics")  At Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913  The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851  He elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, and not discrete lines as had been thought  Still in Germany when World War I broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp 
After the war, Chadwick followed Rutherford to the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, where Chadwick earned his Doctor of Philosophy degree under Rutherford's supervision from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, in June 1921  He was Rutherford's assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory for over a decade at a time when it was one of the world's foremost centres for the study of physics, attracting students like John Cockcroft, Norman Feather, and Mark Oliphant  Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass  He anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer  Chadwick left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1935 to become a professor of physics at the University of Liverpool, where he overhauled an antiquated laboratory and, by installing a cyclotron, made it an important centre for the study of nuclear physics 
During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build an atom bomb, while his Manchester lab and environs were harassed by Luftwaffe bombing  When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he became part of the British Mission, and worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory and in Washington, D C  He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R  Groves, Jr  For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test  After this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, he became the Master of Gonville and Caius College in 1948  He retired in 1959 

Education and early life
James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph Chadwick, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant  He was named James after his paternal grandfather  In 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents  He went to Bollington Cross Primary School, and was offered a scholarship to Manchester Grammar School, which his family had to turn down as they could not afford the small fees that still had to be paid  Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester, rejoining his parents there  He now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert; a sister had died in infancy  At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908  He meant to study mathematics, but enrolled in physics by mistake  Like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles (6 4 km) to the university and back each day  At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics  The physics department was headed by Ernest Rutherford, who assigned research projects to final-year students, and he instructed Chadwick to devise a means of comparing the amount of radioactive energy of two different sources  The idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 gram (0 035 oz) of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie  Rutherford's suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, and eventually devised the required method  The results became Chadwick's first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912  He graduated with first class honours in 1911 Having devised a means of measuring gamma radiation, Chadwick proceeded to measure the absorption of gamma rays by various gases and liquids  This time the resulting paper was published under his name alone  He was awarded his Master of Science (MSc) degree in 1912, and was appointed a Beyer Fellow  The following year he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, which allowed him to study and research at a university in continental Europe  He elected to go to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin in 1913, to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger  Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, which provided more accuracy than the earlier photographic techniques, he was able to demonstrate that beta radiation did not produce discrete lines, as has been previously thought, but rather a continuous spectrum with peaks in certain regions  On a visit to Geiger's laboratory, Albert Einstein told Chadwick that: "I can explain either of these things, but I can't explain them both at the same time " The continuous spectrum would remain an unexplained phenomenon for many years Chadwick was still in Germany at the start of the First World War, and was interned in the Ruhleben internment camp near Berlin, where he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables and conduct scientific experiments using improvised materials such as radioactive toothpaste  With the help of Charles Drummond Ellis, he worked on the ionisation of phosphorus, and the photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine  He was released after the Armistice with Germany came into effect in November 1918, and returned to his parents' home in Manchester, where he wrote up his findings over the previous four years for the 1851 Exhibition commissioners Rutherford gave Chadwick a part-time teaching position at Manchester, allowing him to continue research  He looked at the nuclear charge of platinum, silver, and copper, and experimentally found that this was the same as the atomic number within an error of less than 1 5 per cent  In April 1919, Rutherford became director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and Chadwick joined him there a few months later  Chadwick was awarded a Clerk-Maxwell studentship in 1920, and enrolled as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) student at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge  The first half of his thesis was his work with atomic numbers  In the second, he looked at the forces inside the nucleus  His degree was awarded in June 1921  In November, he became a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College 

Researcher
Cambridge
Chadwick's Clerk-Maxwell studentship expired in 1923, and he was succeeded by the Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitza  The Chairman of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Sir William McCormick arranged for Chadwick to become Rutherford's assistant director of research  In this role, Chadwick helped Rutherford select PhD students  Over the next few years these would include John Cockcroft, Norman Feather and Mark Oliphant, who would become firm friends with Chadwick  As many students had no idea what they wanted to research, Rutherford and Chadwick would suggest topics  Chadwick edited all the papers produced by the laboratory 

In 1925, Chadwick met Aileen Stewart-Brown, the daughter of a Liverpool stockbroker  The two were married in August 1925, with Kapitza as Best Man  The couple had twin daughters, Joanna and Judith, who were born in February 1927 In his research, Chadwick continued to probe the nucleus  In 1925, the concept of spin had allowed physicists to explain the Zeeman effect, but it also created unexplained anomalies  At the time it was believed that the nucleus consisted of protons and electrons, so nitrogen's nucleus, for example, with a mass number of 14, was assumed to contain 14 protons and 7 electrons  This gave it the right mass and charge, but the wrong spin At a conference at Cambridge on beta particles and gamma rays in 1928, Chadwick met Geiger again  Geiger had brought with him a new model of his Geiger counter, which had been improved by his post-doctoral student Walther Müller  Chadwick had not used one since the war, and the new Geiger–Müller counter was potentially a major improvement over the scintillation techniques then in use at Cambridge, which relied on the human eye for observation  The major drawback with it was that it detected alpha, beta and gamma radiation, and radium, which the Cavendish laboratory normally used in its experiments, emitted all three, and was therefore unsuitable for what Chadwick had in mind  However, polonium is an alpha emitter, and Lise Meitner sent Chadwick about 2 millicuries (about 0 5 μg) from Germany In Germany, Walther Bothe and his student Herbert Becker had used polonium to bombard beryllium with alpha particles, producing an unusual form of radiation  Chadwick had his Australian 1851 Exhibition scholar, Hugh Webster, duplicate their results  To Chadwick, this was evidence of something that he and Rutherford had been hypothesising for years: the neutron, a theoretical nuclear particle with no electric charge  Then in January 1932, Feather drew Chadwick's attention to another surprising result  Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie had succeeded in knocking protons from paraffin wax using polonium and beryllium as a source for what they thought was gamma radiation  Rutherford and Chadwick disagreed; protons were too heavy for that  But neutrons would need only a small amount of energy to achieve the same effect  In Rome, Ettore Majorana came to the same conclusion: the Joliot-Curies had discovered the neutron but did not know it 

Chadwick dropped all his other responsibilities to concentrate on proving the existence of the neutron, assisted by Feather and frequently working late at night  He devised a simple apparatus that consisted of a cylinder containing a polonium source and beryllium target  The resulting radiation could then be directed at a material such as paraffin wax; the displaced particles, which were protons, would go into a small ionisation chamber where they could be detected with an oscilloscope 
In February 1932, after only about two weeks of experimentation with neutrons, Chadwick sent a letter to Nature titled "Possible Existence of a Neutron"  He communicated his findings in detail in an article sent to Proceedings of the Royal Society A titled "The Existence of a Neutron" in May  His discovery of the neutron was a milestone in understanding the nucleus  Reading Chadwick's paper, Robert Bacher and Edward Condon realised that anomalies in the then-current theory, like the spin of nitrogen, would be resolved if the neutron has a spin of 1/2 and that a nitrogen nucleus consisted of seven protons and seven neutrons The theoretical physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg considered whether the neutron could be a fundamental nuclear particle like the proton and electron, rather than a proton–electron pair   Heisenberg showed that the neutron was best described as a new nuclear particle, but its exact nature remained unclear   In his 1933 Bakerian Lecture, Chadwick estimated that a neutron had a mass of about 1 0067 u  Since a proton and an electron had a combined mass of 1 0078 u, this implied the neutron as a proton–electron composite had a binding energy of about 2 MeV, which sounded reasonable, although it was hard to understand how a particle with so little binding energy could be stable   Estimating such a small mass difference required challenging precise measurements, however, and several conflicting results were obtained in 1933–4   By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a large value for the mass of a neutron, but Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California produced a small one   Then Maurice Goldhaber, a refugee from Nazi Germany and a graduate student at the Cavendish Laboratory, suggested to Chadwick that deuterons could be photodisintegrated by the 2 6 MeV gamma rays of 208Tl (then known as thorium C"):

An accurate value for the mass of the neutron could be determined from this process  Chadwick and Goldhaber tried this and found that it worked   They measured the kinetic energy of the proton produced as 1 05 MeV, leaving the mass of the neutron as the unknown in the equation   Chadwick and Goldhaber calculated that it was either 1 0084 or 1 0090 atomic units, depending on the values used for the masses of the proton and deuteron   (The modern accepted value for the mass of the neutron is 1 00866 u ) The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron pair For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick was awarded the Hughes Medal by the Royal Society in 1932, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935, the Copley Medal in 1950 and the Franklin Medal in 1951  His discovery of the neutron made it possible to produce elements heavier than uranium in the laboratory by the capture of slow neutrons followed by beta decay  Unlike the positively charged alpha particles, which are repelled by the electrical forces present in the nuclei of other atoms, neutrons do not need to overcome any Coulomb barrier, and can therefore penetrate and enter the nuclei of even the heaviest elements such as uranium  This inspired Enrico Fermi to investigate the nuclear reactions brought about by collisions of nuclei with slow neutrons, work for which Fermi would receive the Nobel Prize in 1938 Wolfgang Pauli proposed another kind of particle on 4 December 1930 in order to explain the continuous spectrum of beta radiation that Chadwick had reported in 1914  Since not all of the energy of beta radiation could be accounted for, the law of conservation of energy appeared to be violated, but Pauli argued that this could be redressed if another, undiscovered, particle was involved  Pauli also called this particle a neutron, but it was clearly not the same particle as Chadwick's neutron  Fermi renamed it the neutrino, Italian for "little neutron"  In 1934, Fermi proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino   The neutrino could account for the missing energy, but a particle with little mass and no electric charge was difficult to observe  Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth, so the chances of detecting them were slim  Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan would confirm the neutrino on 14 June 1956 by placing a detector within a large antineutrino flux from a nearby nuclear reactor 

Liverpool
With the onset of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom, the government became more parsimonious with funding for science  At the same time, Lawrence's recent invention, the cyclotron, promised to revolutionise experimental nuclear physics, and Chadwick felt that the Cavendish laboratory would fall behind unless it also acquired one  He therefore chafed under Rutherford, who clung to the belief that good nuclear physics could still be done without large, expensive equipment, and turned down the request for a cyclotron 

Chadwick was himself a critic of Big Science in general, and Lawrence in particular, whose approach he considered careless and focused on technology at the expense of science  When Lawrence postulated the existence of a new and hitherto unknown particle that he claimed was a possible source of limitless energy at the Solvay Conference in 1933, Chadwick responded that the results were more likely attributable to contamination of the equipment  While Lawrence rechecked his results at Berkeley only to find that Chadwick was correct, Rutherford and Oliphant conducted an investigation at the Cavendish that found that deuterium fuses to form helium-3, thereby causing the effect that Lawrence had observed  This was another major discovery, but the Oliphant-Rutherford particle accelerator was an expensive state-of-the-art piece of equipment In March 1935, Chadwick received an offer of the Lyon Jones Chair of physics at the University of Liverpool, in his wife's home town, to succeed Lionel Wilberforce  The laboratory was so antiquated that it still ran on direct current electricity, but Chadwick seized the opportunity, assuming the chair on 1 October 1935  The university's prestige was soon bolstered by Chadwick's Nobel Prize, which was announced in November 1935  His medal was sold at auction in 2014 for $329,000 Chadwick set about acquiring a cyclotron for Liverpool  He started by spending £700 to refurbish the antiquated laboratories at Liverpool, so some components could be made in-house  He was able to persuade the university to provide £2,000 and obtained a grant for another £2,000 from the Royal Society  To build his cyclotron, Chadwick brought in two young experts, Bernard Kinsey and Harold Walke, who had worked with Lawrence at the University of California  A local cable manufacturer donated the copper conductor for the coils  The cyclotron's 50-ton magnet was manufactured in Trafford Park by Metropolitan-Vickers, which also made the vacuum chamber  The cyclotron was completely installed and running in July 1939  The total cost of £5,184 was more than Chadwick had received from the University and the Royal Society, so Chadwick paid the rest from his 159,917 kr (£8,243) Nobel Prize money At Liverpool the Medicine and Science faculties worked together closely  Chadwick was automatically a committee member of both faculties, and in 1938 he was appointed to a commission headed by Lord Derby to investigate the arrangements for cancer treatment in Liverpool  Chadwick anticipated that neutrons and radioactive isotopes produced with the 37-inch cyclotron could be used to study biochemical processes, and might become a weapon in the fight against cancer 

Second World War
Tube Alloys and the MAUD Report
In Germany, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons, and noted that barium, a lighter element, was among the products produced  Hitherto, only the same or heavier elements had been produced by the process  In January 1939, Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch astounded the physics community with a paper that explained this result  They theorised that uranium atoms bombarded with neutrons can break into two roughly equal fragments, a process they called fission  They calculated that this would result in the release of about 200 MeV, implying an energy release orders of magnitude greater than chemical reactions, and Frisch confirmed their theory experimentally  It was soon noted by Hahn that if neutrons were released during fission, then a chain reaction was possible  French scientists, Pierre Joliot, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, soon verified that more than one neutron was indeed emitted per fission  In a paper co-authored with the American physicist John Wheeler, Bohr theorised that fission was more likely to occur in the uranium-235 isotope, which made up only 0 7 percent of natural uranium 

Chadwick did not believe that there was any likelihood of another war with Germany in 1939, and took his family for a holiday on a remote lake in northern Sweden  The news of the outbreak of the Second World War therefore came as a shock  Determined not to spend another war in an internment camp, Chadwick made his way to Stockholm as fast as he could, but when he arrived there with his family, he found that all air traffic between Stockholm and London had been suspended  They made their way back to England on a tramp steamer  When he reached Liverpool, Chadwick found Joseph Rotblat, a Polish post-doctoral fellow who had come to work with the cyclotron, was now destitute, as he was cut off from funds from Poland  Chadwick promptly hired Rotblat as a lecturer, despite his poor grasp of English In October 1939, Chadwick received a letter from Sir Edward Appleton, the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, asking for his opinion on the feasibility of an atom bomb  Chadwick responded cautiously  He did not dismiss the possibility, but carefully went over the many theoretical and practical difficulties involved  Chadwick decided to investigate the properties of uranium oxide further with Rotblat  In March 1940, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham re-examined the theoretical issues involved in a paper that became known as the Frisch–Peierls memorandum  Instead of looking at unenriched uranium oxide, they considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium-235, and found that not only could a chain reaction occur, but that it might require as little as 1 kilogram (2 2 lb) of uranium-235, and unleash the energy of tons of dynamite 

A special subcommittee of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW), known as the MAUD Committee, was created to investigate the matter further  It was chaired by Sir George Thomson and its original membership included Chadwick, along with Mark Oliphant, John Cockcroft and Philip Moon  While other teams investigated uranium enrichment techniques, Chadwick's team at Liverpool concentrated on determining the nuclear cross section of uranium-235  By April 1941, it had been experimentally confirmed that the critical mass of uranium-235 might be 8 kilograms (18 lb) or less  His research into such matters was complicated by all-but-incessant Luftwaffe bombings of the environs of his Liverpool lab; the windows were blown out so often that they were replaced by cardboard In July 1941, Chadwick was chosen to write the final draft of the MAUD Report, which, when presented by Vannevar Bush to President Franklin D  Roosevelt in October 1941, inspired the U S  government to pour millions of dollars into the pursuit of an atom bomb  When George B  Pegram and Harold Urey visited Britain to see how the project, now known as Tube Alloys, was going, Chadwick was able to tell them: "I wish I could tell you that the bomb is not going to work, but I am 90 per cent sure that it will "In a recent book about the Bomb project, Graham Farmelo wrote that "Chadwick did more than any other scientist to give Churchill the Bomb      Chadwick was tested almost to the breaking point " So worried that he could not sleep, Chadwick resorted to sleeping pills, which he continued to take for most of his remaining years  Chadwick later said that he realised that "a nuclear bomb was not only possible—it was inevitable  Sooner or later these ideas could not be peculiar to us  Everybody would think about them before long, and some country would put them into action"  Sir Hermann Bondi suggested that it was fortunate that Chadwick, not Rutherford, was the doyen of UK physics at the time, as the latter's prestige might otherwise have overpowered Chadwick's interest in "looking forward" to the Bomb's prospects 

Manhattan Project
Owing to the danger from aerial bombardment, the Chadwicks sent their twins to Canada as part of a government evacuation scheme  Chadwick was reluctant to move Tube Alloys there, believing that the United Kingdom was a better location for the isotope separation plant  The enormous scope of the effort became more apparent in 1942: even a pilot separation plant would cost over £1 million and strain Britain's resources, to say nothing of a full-scale plant, which was estimated to cost somewhere in the vicinity of £25 million  It would have to be built in America  At the same time that the British became convinced that a joint project was necessary, the progress of the American Manhattan Project was such that British cooperation seemed less essential, although the Americans were still eager to utilise Chadwick's talents The matter of cooperation had to be taken up at the highest level  In September 1943, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and President Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which reinstated cooperation between Britain, the United States and Canada  Chadwick, Oliphant, Peierls and Simon were summoned to the United States by the director of Tube Alloys, Sir Wallace Akers, to work with the Manhattan Project  The Quebec Agreement established a new Combined Policy Committee to direct the joint project  The Americans disliked Akers, so Chadwick was appointed technical advisor to the Combined Policy Committee, and the head of the British Mission Leaving Rotblat in charge in Liverpool, Chadwick began a tour of the Manhattan Project facilities in November 1943, except for the Hanford Site where plutonium was produced, which he was not allowed to see  He became the only man apart from Groves and his second in command to have access to all the American research and production facilities for the uranium bomb  Observing the work on the K-25 gaseous diffusion facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Chadwick realised how wrong he had been about building the plant in wartime Britain  The enormous structure could never have been concealed from the Luftwaffe  In early 1944, he moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico, with his wife and their twins, who now spoke with Canadian accents  For security reasons, he was given the cover name of James Chaffee 

Chadwick accepted that the Americans did not need British help, but that it could still be useful in bringing the project to an early and successful conclusion  Working closely with the director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R  Groves, Jr , he attempted to do everything he could to support the effort  He also endeavoured to place British scientists in as many parts of the project as possible in order to facilitate a post-war British nuclear weapons project to which Chadwick was committed  Requests from Groves via Chadwick for particular scientists tended to be met with an immediate rejection by the company, ministry or university currently employing them, only to be overcome by the overriding priority accorded to Tube Alloys  As a result, the British team was critical to the Project's success Although he had more knowledge of the project than anyone else from Britain, Chadwick had no access to the Hanford site  Lord Portal was offered a tour of Hanford in 1946  "This was the only plant to which Chadwick had been denied access in wartime, and now he asked Groves if he could accompany Portal  Groves replied that he could, but if he did then 'Portal will not see very much' " For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945  He considered this to be a recognition of the work of the whole Tube Alloys project By early 1945, Chadwick was spending most of his time in Washington, D C , and his family relocated from Los Alamos to a house on Washington's Dupont Circle in April 1945  He was present at the meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 4 July when Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson gave Britain's agreement to use the atom bomb against Japan, and at the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July, when the first atom bomb was detonated  Inside its pit was a polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator, a development of the technique that Chadwick had used to discover the neutron over a decade before  William L  Laurence, The New York Times reporter attached to the Manhattan Project, wrote that "never before in history had any man lived to see his own discovery materialize itself with such telling effect on the destiny of man "

Later life
Shortly after the war ended, Chadwick was appointed to the Advisory Committee on Atomic Energy (ACAE)  He was also appointed as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission  He clashed with fellow ACAE member Patrick Blackett, who disagreed with Chadwick's conviction that Britain needed to acquire its own nuclear weapons; but it was Chadwick's position that was ultimately adopted  He returned to Britain in 1946, to find a country still beset by wartime rationing and shortages At this time, Sir James Mountford, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Liverpool, wrote in his diary "he had never seen a man 'so physically, mentally and spiritually tired" as Chadwick, for he "had plumbed such depths of moral decision as more fortunate men are never called upon even to peer into     [and suffered]     almost insupportable agonies of responsibility arising from his scientific work' "In 1948, Chadwick accepted an offer to become the Master of Gonville and Caius College  The job was prestigious but ill-defined; the Master was the titular head of the College, but authority actually resided in a council of 13 fellows, of whom one was the Master  As Master, Chadwick strove to improve the academic reputation of the college  He increased the number of research fellowships from 31 to 49, and sought to bring talent into the college  This involved controversial decisions, such as hiring in 1951 the Chinese biochemist Tien-chin Tsao and the Hungarian-born economist Peter Bauer  In what became known as the Peasants' Revolt, fellows led by Patrick Hadley voted an old friend of Chadwick's off the council and replaced him with Bauer  More friends of Chadwick's were removed over the following years, and he retired in November 1958  It was during his mastership that Francis Crick, a PhD student at Gonville and Caius College, and James Watson discovered the structure of DNA Over the years, Chadwick received many honours, including the Medal for Merit from the United States, and the Pour le Mérite from Germany  He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1927  He became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1946 and an International member of the American Philosophical Society in 1948  He was made a Companion of Honour in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1970 for "services to science", and went to Buckingham Palace for the investiture ceremony  He became more frail, and seldom left his flat, although he travelled to Liverpool for celebrations of his eightieth birthday   A lifelong atheist, he saw no reason to adopt religious faith in later life  He died in his sleep on 24 July 1974 His papers are held at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge, and are accessible to the public  The Chadwick Laboratory at the University of Liverpool is named after him, as is its Sir James Chadwick Chair of Experimental Physics, which was named after him in 1991 as part of celebrations of the centenary of his birth  A crater on the moon is also named after him  The James Chadwick Building, which houses part of the School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, University of Manchester is named in his honour  He was described by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority official historian Lorna Arnold as "a physicist, a scientist-diplomat, and a good, wise, and humane man "

Notes
Passage 2:
Neutron temperature
The neutron detection temperature, also called the neutron energy, indicates a free neutron's kinetic energy, usually given in electron volts  The term temperature is used, since hot, thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium with a certain temperature  The neutron energy distribution is then adapted to the Maxwell distribution known for thermal motion  Qualitatively, the higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the free neutrons  The momentum and wavelength of the neutron are related through the de Broglie relation  The large wavelength of slow neutrons allows for the large cross section 

Neutron energy distribution ranges
But different ranges with different names are observed in other sources The following is a detailed classification:

Thermal
A thermal neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy of about 0 025 eV (about 4 0×10−21 J or 2 4 MJ/kg, hence a speed of 2 19 km/s), which is the energy corresponding to the most probable speed at a temperature of 290 K (17 °C or 62 °F), the mode of the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for this temperature, Epeak = 1/2 k T 
After a number of collisions with nuclei (scattering) in a medium (neutron moderator) at this temperature, those neutrons which are not absorbed reach about this energy level 
Thermal neutrons have a different and sometimes much larger effective neutron absorption cross-section for a given nuclide than fast neutrons, and can therefore often be absorbed more easily by an atomic nucleus, creating a heavier, often unstable isotope of the chemical element as a result  This event is called neutron activation 

EpithermalNeutrons of energy greater than thermal
Greater than 0 025 eV

CadmiumNeutrons which are strongly absorbed by cadmium
Less than 0 5 eV 

EpicadmiumNeutrons which are not strongly absorbed by cadmium
Greater than 0 5 eV 

Cold (slow) neutronsNeutrons of lower (much lower) energy than thermal neutrons 
Less than 5 meV 
Cold (slow) neutrons are subclassified into cold (CN), very cold (VCN), and ultra-cold (UCN) neutrons, each having particular characteristics in terms of their optical interactions with matter  As the wavelength is made (chosen to be) longer,  lower values of the momentum exchange become accessible  Therefore, it is possible to study larger scales and slower dynamics  Gravity also plays a very significant role in the case of UCN  Nevertheless, UCN reflect at all angles of incidence  This is because their momentum is comparable to the optical potential of materials  This effect is used to store them in bottles and study their fundamental properties e g  lifetime, neutron electrical-dipole moment etc    The main limitations of the use of slow neutrons is the low flux and the lack of efficient optical devices (in the case of CN and VCN)  Efficient neutron optical components are being developed and optimized to remedy this lack 

ResonanceRefers to neutrons which are strongly susceptible to non-fission capture by U-238 
1 eV to 300 eV

IntermediateNeutrons that are between slow and fast
Few hundred eV to 0 5 MeV 

Fast
A fast neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy level close to 1 MeV (100 TJ/kg), hence a speed of 14,000 km/s or higher  They are named fast neutrons to distinguish them from lower-energy thermal neutrons, and high-energy neutrons produced in cosmic showers or accelerators Fast neutrons are produced by nuclear processes:

Nuclear fission produces neutrons with a mean energy of 2 MeV (200 TJ/kg, i e  20,000 km/s), which qualifies as "fast"  However the range of neutrons from fission follows a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution from 0 to about 14 MeV in the center of momentum frame of the disintegration, and the mode of the energy is only 0 75 MeV, meaning that fewer than half of fission neutrons qualify as "fast" even by the 1 MeV criterion 
Spontaneous fission is a mode of radioactive decay for some heavy nuclides  Examples include plutonium-240 and californium-252 
Nuclear fusion: deuterium–tritium fusion produces neutrons of 14 1 MeV (1400 TJ/kg, i e



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prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

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The following are given passages.
Context 4:  52,000 km/s, 17 3% of the speed of light) that can easily fission uranium-238 and other non-fissile actinides 
Neutron emission occurs in situations in which a nucleus contains enough excess neutrons that the separation energy of one or more neutrons becomes negative (i e  excess neutrons "drip" out of the nucleus)  Unstable nuclei of this sort will often decay in less than one second Fast neutrons are usually undesirable in a steady-state nuclear reactor because most fissile fuel has a higher reaction rate with thermal neutrons  Fast neutrons can be rapidly changed into thermal neutrons via a process called moderation  This is done through numerous collisions with (in general) slower-moving and thus lower-temperature particles like atomic nuclei and other neutrons  These collisions will generally speed up the other particle and slow down the neutron and scatter it  Ideally, a room temperature neutron moderator is used for this process  In reactors, heavy water, light water, or graphite are typically used to moderate neutrons 

UltrafastRelativistic
Greater than 20 MeV

Other classifications
Pile

Neutrons of all energies present in nuclear reactors
0 001 eV to 15 MeV Ultracold

Neutrons with sufficiently low energy to be reflected and trapped
Upper bound of 335 neV

Fast-neutron reactor and thermal-neutron reactor compared
Most fission reactors are thermal-neutron reactors that use a neutron moderator to slow down ("thermalize") the neutrons produced by nuclear fission  Moderation substantially increases the fission cross section for fissile nuclei such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239  In addition, uranium-238 has a much lower capture cross section for thermal neutrons, allowing more neutrons to cause fission of fissile nuclei and propagate the chain reaction, rather than being captured by 238U  The combination of these effects allows light water reactors to use low-enriched uranium  Heavy water reactors and graphite-moderated reactors can even use natural uranium as these moderators have much lower neutron capture cross sections than light water An increase in fuel temperature also raises uranium-238's thermal neutron absorption by Doppler broadening, providing negative feedback to help control the reactor  When the coolant is a liquid that also contributes to moderation and absorption (light water or heavy water), boiling of the coolant will reduce the moderator density, which can provide positive or negative feedback (a positive or negative void coefficient), depending on whether the reactor is under- or over-moderated 
Intermediate-energy neutrons have poorer fission/capture ratios than either fast or thermal neutrons for most fuels  An exception is the uranium-233 of the thorium cycle, which has a good fission/capture ratio at all neutron energies 
Fast-neutron reactors use unmoderated fast neutrons to sustain the reaction, and require the fuel to contain a higher concentration of fissile material relative to fertile material (uranium-238)  However, fast neutrons have a better fission/capture ratio for many nuclides, and each fast fission releases a larger number of neutrons, so a fast breeder reactor can potentially "breed" more fissile fuel than it consumes 
Fast reactor control cannot depend solely on Doppler broadening or on negative void coefficient from a moderator  However, thermal expansion of the fuel itself can provide quick negative feedback  Perennially expected to be the wave of the future, fast reactor development has been nearly dormant with only a handful of reactors built in the decades since the Chernobyl accident due to low prices in the uranium market, although there is now a revival with several Asian countries planning to complete larger prototype fast reactors in the next few years 

See also
Passage 3:
Discovery of the neutron
The discovery of the neutron and its properties was central to the extraordinary developments in atomic physics in the first half of the 20th century  Early in the century, Ernest Rutherford developed a crude model of the atom,: 188  based on the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden  In this model, atoms had their mass and positive electric charge concentrated in a very small nucleus  By 1920, isotopes of chemical elements had been discovered, the atomic masses had been determined to be (approximately) integer multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom, and the atomic number had been identified as the charge on the nucleus : §1 1 2  Throughout the 1920s, the nucleus was viewed as composed of combinations of protons and electrons, the two elementary particles known at the time, but that model presented several experimental and theoretical contradictions : 298 The essential nature of the atomic nucleus was established with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 and the determination that it was a new elementary particle, distinct from the proton : 55 The uncharged neutron was immediately exploited as a new means to probe nuclear structure, leading to such discoveries as the creation of new radioactive elements by neutron irradiation (1934) and the fission of uranium atoms by neutrons (1938)  The discovery of fission led to the creation of both nuclear power and nuclear weapons by the end of World War II  Both the proton and the neutron were presumed to be elementary particles until the 1960s, when they were determined to be composite particles built from quarks 

Discovery of radioactivity
At the start of the 20th century, the vigorous debate as to the existence of atoms had not yet been resolved  Philosophers such as Ernst Mach and Wilhelm Ostwald denied that atoms were real, viewing them as a convenient mathematical construct, while scientists such as Arnold Sommerfeld and Ludwig Boltzmann saw that physical theories required the existence of atoms : 13–14 Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel, while working with phosphorescent materials   In 1898, Ernest Rutherford at Cavendish Laboratory distinguished two types of radioactivity, alpha rays and beta rays, which differed in their ability to penetrate, or travel into, ordinary objects or gases  Two years later, Paul Villard discovered gamma rays, which possessed even more penetrating power : 8–9  These radiations were soon identified with known particles:  beta rays were shown to be electrons by Walter Kaufmann in 1902; alpha rays were shown to be helium ions by Rutherford and Thomas Royds in 1907; and gamma rays were shown to be electromagnetic radiation, that is, a form of light, by Rutherford and Edward Andrade in 1914 : 61–62, 87  These radiations had also been identified as emanating from atoms, hence they provided clues to processes occurring within atoms   Conversely, the radiations were also recognized as tools that could be exploited in scattering experiments to probe the interior of atoms : 112–115

The gold foil experiment and the discovery of the atomic nucleus
At the University of Manchester between 1908 and 1913, Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden in a series of experiments to determine what happens when alpha particles scatter from metal foil  Now called the Rutherford gold foil experiment, or the Geiger–Marsden experiment, these measurements made the extraordinary discovery that although most alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil experienced little deflection, a few scattered to a high angle  The scattering indicated that some of the alpha particles ricocheted back from a small, but dense, component inside the atoms  Based on these measurements, by 1911 it was apparent to Rutherford that the atom consisted of a small, massive nucleus with positive charge surrounded by a much larger cloud of negatively charged electrons  The concentrated atomic mass was required to provide the observed deflection of the alpha particles, and Rutherford developed a mathematical model that accounted for the scattering The Rutherford model was very influential, motivating the Bohr model for electrons orbiting the nucleus in 1913 and eventually leading to quantum mechanics by the mid-1920s 

Discovery of isotopes
Concurrent with the work of Rutherford, Geiger, and Marsden, the radiochemist Frederick Soddy at the University of Glasgow was studying chemistry related problems on radioactive materials  Soddy had worked with Rutherford on radioactivity at McGill University  By 1910, about 40 different radioactive elements, referred to as radioelements, had been identified between uranium and lead, although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements  Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently found in 1913 that an element undergoing alpha decay will produce an element two places to the left in the periodic system and an element undergoing beta decay will produce an element one place to the right in the periodic system   Also, those radioelements that reside in the same places in the periodic system are chemically identical   Soddy called these chemically identical elements  isotopes : 3–5  For his study of radioactivity and the discovery of isotopes, Soddy was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 

Building from work by J  J  Thomson on the deflection of positively charged atoms by electric and magnetic fields, Francis Aston built the first mass spectrograph at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919  His aim, which he easily achieved, was to separate the two isotopes of neon, 20Ne and 22Ne  Aston discovered that the masses of all the particles are whole numbers (the whole number rule): that is, the masses of all the isotopes are whole number multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom  In these measurements, Aston arbitrarily computed his masses relative to oxygen-16, which he took to have a mass of exactly 16  (Today the atomic mass unit (amu) is relative to carbon-12 ) Ironically, the one exception to this rule was hydrogen itself, which had a mass value of 1 008  The excess mass was small, but well outside the limits of experimental uncertainty  Aston and others quickly realized that the discrepancy is due to the binding energy of atoms, that is, the mass of a number of hydrogen atoms bound into a single atom must be less than the sum of the masses of the separate hydrogen atoms   Aston's work on isotopes won him the 1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole number rule  Noting Aston's recent discovery of nuclear binding energy, in 1920 Arthur Eddington suggested that stars may obtain their energy by fusing hydrogen (protons) into helium and that the heavier elements may form in stars 

Atomic number and Moseley's law
Rutherford and others had noted the disparity between the mass of an atom, computed in atomic mass units, and the approximate charge required on the nucleus for the Rutherford model to work  The required charge of the atomic nucleus was usually about half its atomic mass : 82 Antonius van den Broek boldly hypothesized that the required charge, denoted by Z, was not half of the atomic weight for elements, but instead was exactly equal to the element's ordinal position in the periodic table : 228  At that time, the positions of the elements in the periodic table were not known to have any physical significance   If the elements were ordered based on increasing atomic mass, however, periodicity in chemical properties was exhibited   Exceptions to this periodicity were apparent, however, such as cobalt and nickel : 180 At the University of Manchester in 1913 Henry Moseley discussed the new Bohr model of the atom with the visiting Bohr  The model accounted for the electromagnetic emission spectrum from the hydrogen atom, and Moseley and Bohr wondered if the electromagnetic emission spectra of heavier elements such as cobalt and nickel would follow their ordering by weight, or by their position in the periodic table : 346  In 1913–1914 Moseley tested the question experimentally by using X-ray diffraction techniques  He found that the most intense short-wavelength line in the X-ray spectrum of a particular element, known as the K-alpha line, was related to the element's position in the periodic table, that is, its atomic number, Z  Indeed, Moseley introduced this nomenclature : §1 1 2  Moseley found that the frequencies of the radiation were related in a simple way to the atomic number of the elements for a large number of elements : 5 : 181 Within a year it was noted that the equation for the relation, now called Moseley's law, could be explained in terms of the 1913 Bohr model, with reasonable extra assumptions about atomic structure in other elements : 87  Moseley's result, by Bohr's later account, not only established atomic number as a measurable experimental quantity, but gave it a physical meaning as the positive charge on the atomic nucleus  The elements could be ordered in the periodic system in order of atomic number, rather than atomic weight : 127  The result tied together the organization of the periodic table, the Bohr model for the atom,: 56  and Rutherford's model for alpha scattering from nuclei  It was cited by Rutherford, Bohr, and others as a critical advance in understanding the nature of the atomic nucleus Further research in atomic physics was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I  Moseley was killed in 1915 at the Battle of Gallipoli,: 182  while Rutherford's student James Chadwick was interned in Germany for the duration of the war, 1914–1918  In Berlin, Lise Meitner's and Otto Hahn's research work on determining the radioactive decay chains of radium and uranium by precise chemical separation was interrupted : §4  Meitner spent much of the war working as a radiologist and medical X-ray technician near the Austrian front, while Hahn, a chemist, worked on research in poison gas warfare : 61–62, 68

Rutherford atom
In 1920 Rutherford gave a Bakerian lecture at the Royal Society entitled the "Nuclear Constitution of Atoms", a summary of recent experiments on atomic nuclei and conclusions as to the structure of atomic nuclei : 23 : 5  By 1920, the existence of electrons within the atomic nucleus was widely assumed   It was assumed the nucleus consisted of hydrogen nuclei in number equal to the atomic mass   But since each hydrogen nucleus had charge +1, the nucleus required a smaller number of "internal electrons" each of charge −1 to give the nucleus its correct total charge  The mass of protons is about 1800 times greater than that of electrons, so the mass of the electrons is incidental in this computation : 230–231   Such a model was consistent with the scattering of alpha particles from heavy nuclei, as well as the charge and mass of the many isotopes that had been identified   There were other motivations for the proton–electron model   As noted by Rutherford at the time, "We have strong reason for believing that the nuclei of atoms contain electrons as well as positively charged bodies   ",: 376–377  namely, it was known that beta radiation was electrons emitted from the nucleus : 21 : 5–6 In that lecture, Rutherford conjectured the existence of new particles   The alpha particle was known to be very stable, and it was assumed to retain its identity within the nucleus   The alpha particle was presumed to consist of four protons and two closely bound electrons to give it +2 charge and mass 4   In a 1919 paper, Rutherford had reported the apparent discovery of a new doubly charged particle of mass 3, denoted the X++, interpreted to consist of three protons and a closely bound electron   This result suggested to Rutherford the likely existence of two new particles: one of two protons with a closely bound electron, and another of one proton and a closely bound electron  The X++ particle was later determined to have mass 4 and to be just a low-energy alpha particle : 25  Nevertheless, Rutherford had conjectured the existence of the deuteron, a +1 charge particle of mass 2, and the neutron, a neutral particle of mass 1 : 396   The former is the nucleus of deuterium, discovered in 1931 by Harold Urey  The mass of the hypothetical neutral particle would be little different from that of the proton  Rutherford determined that such a zero-charge particle would be difficult to detect by available techniques : 396 About the time of Rutherford's lecture, other publications appeared with similar suggestions of a proton–electron composite in the nucleus, and in 1921 William Harkins, an American chemist, named the uncharged particle the neutron : 6  About that same time the word proton was adopted for the hydrogen nucleus   Neutron was apparently constructed from the Latin root for neutral and the Greek ending -on (by imitation of electron and proton)  References to the word neutron in connection with the atom can be found in the literature as early as 1899, however : 398 Rutherford and Chadwick immediately began an experimental program at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to search for the neutron : 27 : 398   The experiments continued throughout the 1920s without success Rutherford's conjecture and the hypothetical "neutron" were not widely accepted   In his 1931 monograph on the Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and Radioactivity, George Gamow, then at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen, did not mention the neutron   At the time of their 1932 measurements in Paris that would lead to the discovery of the neutron, Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot were unaware of the conjecture 

Problems of the nuclear electrons hypothesis
Throughout the 1920s, physicists assumed that the atomic nucleus was composed of protons and "nuclear electrons" : 29–32  Under this hypothesis, the nitrogen-14 (14N) nucleus would be composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons, so that it would have a net charge of +7 elementary charge units and a mass of 14 atomic mass units  This nucleus would also be orbited by another 7 electrons, termed "external electrons" by Rutherford,: 375  to complete the 14N atom  However problems with the hypothesis soon became apparent 
Ralph Kronig pointed out in 1926 that the observed hyperfine structure of atomic spectra was inconsistent with the proton–electron hypothesis  This structure is caused by the influence of the nucleus on the dynamics of orbiting electrons  The magnetic moments of supposed "nuclear electrons" should produce hyperfine spectral line splittings similar to the Zeeman effect, but no such effects were observed : 199   It seemed that the magnetic moment of the electron vanished when it was within the nucleus : 299 While on a visit to Utrecht University in 1928, Kronig learned of a surprising aspect of the rotational spectrum of N2+  The precision measurement made by Leonard Ornstein, the director of Utrecht's Physical Laboratory, showed that the spin of nitrogen nucleus must be equal to one  However, if the nitrogen-14 (14N) nucleus was composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons, an odd number of spin-1/2 particles, then the resultant nuclear spin should be half-integer  Kronig therefore suggested that perhaps "protons and  electrons do not retain their identity to the extent they do outside the nucleus" : 299–301 : 117 Observations of the rotational energy levels of diatomic molecules using Raman spectroscopy by Franco Rasetti in 1929 were inconsistent with the statistics expected from the proton–electron hypothesis  Rasetti obtained band spectra for H2 and N2 molecules   While the lines for both diatomic molecules showed alternation in intensity between light and dark, the pattern of alternation for H2 is opposite to that of the N2  After carefully analyzing these experimental results, German physicists Walter Heitler and Gerhard Herzberg showed that the hydrogen nuclei obey Fermi statistics and the nitrogen nuclei obey Bose statistics  However, a then unpublished result of Eugene Wigner showed that a composite system with an odd number of spin-1/2 particles must obey Fermi statistics; a system with an even number of spin-1/2 particle obeys Bose statistics  If the nitrogen nucleus had 21 particles, it should obey Fermi statistics, contrary to fact  Thus, Heitler and Herzberg concluded: "the electron in the nucleus     loses its ability to determine the statistics of the nucleus ": 117–118 The Klein paradox, discovered by Oskar Klein in 1928, presented further quantum mechanical objections to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus   Derived from the Dirac equation, this clear and precise paradox suggested that an  electron approaching a high potential barrier has a high probability of passing through the barrier by a pair creation process   Apparently, an electron could not be confined within a nucleus by any potential well  The meaning of this paradox was intensely debated at the time : 199–200 By about 1930 it was generally recognized that it was difficult to reconcile the proton–electron model for nuclei with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics : 199 : 299  This relation, Δx⋅Δp ≥ 1⁄2ħ, implies that an electron confined to a region the size of an atomic nucleus typically has a kinetic energy of about 40 MeV,: 299  which is larger than the observed energy of beta particles emitted from the nucleus  Such energy is also much larger than the binding energy of nucleons,: 89  which Aston and others had shown to be less than 9 MeV per nucleon : 511 In 1927, Charles Ellis and W  Wooster at the Cavendish Laboratory measured the energies of β-decay electrons   They found that the distribution of energies from any particular radioactive nuclei was broad and continuous, a result that contrasted notably with the distinct energy values observed in alpha and gamma decay  Further, the continuous energy distribution seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved by this "nuclear electrons" process   Indeed, in 1929 Bohr proposed to modify the law of energy conservation to account for the continuous energy distribution  The proposal earned the support of Werner Heisenberg  Such considerations were apparently reasonable, inasmuch as the laws of quantum mechanics had so recently overturned the laws of classical mechanics 
While all these considerations did not "prove" an electron could not exist in the nucleus, they were confusing and challenging for physicists to interpret   Many theories were invented to explain how the above arguments could be wrong : 4–5  In his 1931 monograph, Gamow summarized all these contradictions, marking the statements regarding electrons in the nucleus with warning symbols : 23

Discovery of the neutron
In 1930, Walther Bothe and his collaborator Herbert Becker in Giessen, Germany found that if the energetic alpha particles emitted from polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically beryllium (94Be), boron (115B), or lithium (73Li), an unusually penetrating radiation was produced  Beryllium produced the most intense radiation   Polonium is highly radioactive, producing energetic alpha radiation, and it was commonly used for scattering experiments at the time : 99–110  Alpha radiation can be influenced by an electric field, because it is composed of charged particles   The observed penetrating radiation was not influenced by an electric field, however, so it was thought to be gamma radiation  The radiation was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were difficult to interpret 

Two years later Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot in Paris showed that if this unknown radiation fell on paraffin wax, or any other hydrogen-containing compound, it ejected protons of very high energy (5 MeV)  This observation was not in itself inconsistent with the assumed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but that interpretation (Compton scattering) had a logical problem   From energy and momentum considerations, a gamma ray would have to have impossibly high energy (50 MeV) to scatter a massive proton : §1 3 1  In Rome, the young physicist Ettore Majorana declared that the manner in which the new radiation interacted with
protons required a new neutral particle On hearing of the Paris results, neither Rutherford nor James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory believed the gamma ray hypothesis  Assisted by Norman Feather, Chadwick quickly performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable  The previous year, Chadwick, J E R  Constable, and E C  Pollard had already conducted experiments on disintegrating light elements using alpha radiation from polonium  They had also developed more accurate and efficient methods for detecting, counting, and recording the ejected protons  Chadwick repeated the creation of the radiation using beryllium to absorb the alpha particles: 9Be + 4He (α) →  12C + 1n  Following the Paris experiment, he aimed the radiation at paraffin wax, a hydrocarbon high in hydrogen content, hence offering a target dense with protons  As in the Paris experiment, the radiation energetically scattered some of the protons  Chadwick measured the range of these protons, and also measured how the new radiation impacted the atoms of various gases  He found that the new radiation consisted of not gamma rays, but uncharged particles with about the same mass as the proton  These particles were neutrons  Chadwick won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for this discovery The year 1932 was later referred to as the "annus mirabilis" for nuclear physics in the Cavendish Laboratory, with discoveries of the neutron, artificial nuclear disintegration by the Cockcroft–Walton particle accelerator, and the positron 

Proton–neutron model of the nucleus
Given the problems of the proton–electron model, it was quickly accepted that the atomic nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, although the precise nature of the neutron was initially unclear  Within months after the discovery of the neutron, Werner Heisenberg and Dmitri Ivanenko had proposed proton–neutron models for the nucleus  Heisenberg's landmark papers approached the description of protons and neutrons in the nucleus through quantum mechanics  While Heisenberg's theory for protons and neutrons in the nucleus was a "major step toward understanding the nucleus as a quantum mechanical system," he still assumed the presence of nuclear electrons  In particular, Heisenberg assumed the neutron was a proton–electron composite, for which there is no quantum mechanical explanation  Heisenberg had no explanation for how lightweight electrons could be bound within the nucleus  Heisenberg introduced the first theory of nuclear exchange forces that bind the nucleons  He considered protons and neutrons to be different quantum states of the same particle, i e , nucleons distinguished by the value of their nuclear isospin quantum numbers 
The proton–neutron model explained the puzzle of dinitrogen  When 14N was proposed to consist of 3 pairs each of protons and neutrons, with an additional unpaired neutron and proton each contributing a spin of 1⁄2 ħ in the same direction for a total spin of 1 ħ, the model became viable  Soon, neutrons were used to naturally explain spin differences in many different nuclides in the same way 
If the proton–neutron model for the nucleus resolved many issues, it highlighted the problem of explaining the origins of beta radiation  No existing theory could account for how electrons, or positrons, could emanate from the nucleus  In 1934, Enrico Fermi published his classic paper describing the process of beta decay, in which the neutron decays to a proton by creating an electron and a (as yet undiscovered) neutrino  The paper employed the analogy that photons, or electromagnetic radiation, were similarly created and destroyed in atomic processes  Ivanenko had suggested a similar analogy in 1932  Fermi's theory requires the neutron to be a spin-1⁄2 particle  The theory preserved the principle of conservation of energy, which had been thrown into question by the continuous energy distribution of beta particles  The basic theory for beta decay proposed by Fermi was the first to show how particles could be created and destroyed  It established a general, basic theory for the interaction of particles by weak or strong forces  While this influential paper has stood the test of time, the ideas within it were so new that when it was first submitted to the journal Nature in 1933 it was rejected as being too speculative 

The nature of the neutron
The question of whether the neutron was a composite particle of a proton and an electron persisted for a few years after its discovery  In 1932 Harrie Massey explored a model for a composite neutron to account for its great penetrating power through matter and its electrical neutrality, for example  The issue was a legacy of the prevailing view from the 1920s that the only elementary particles were the proton and electron 
The nature of the neutron was a primary topic of discussion at the 7th Solvay Conference held in October 1933, attended by Heisenberg, Niels Bohr, Lise Meitner, Ernest Lawrence, Fermi, Chadwick, and others  As posed by Chadwick in his Bakerian Lecture in 1933, the primary question was the mass of the neutron relative to the proton  If the neutron's mass was less than the combined masses of a proton and an electron (1 0078 u), then the neutron could be a proton-electron composite because of the mass defect from the nuclear binding energy  If greater than the combined masses, then the neutron was elementary like the proton  The question was challenging to answer because the electron's mass is only 0 05% of the proton's, hence exceptionally precise measurements were required 
The difficulty of making the measurement is illustrated by the wide-ranging values for the mass of the neutron obtained from 1932 to 1934  The accepted value today is 1 00866 u  In Chadwick's 1932 paper reporting on the discovery, he estimated the mass of the neutron to be between 1 005 u and 1 008 u  By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a high value of 1 012 u, while Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California measured the small value 1 0006 u using their new cyclotron In 1935 Chadwick and his doctoral student Maurice Goldhaber resolved the issue by reporting the first accurate measurement of the mass of the neutron  They used the 2 6 MeV gamma rays of Thallium-208 (208Tl) (then known as thorium C") to photodisintegrate the deuteron 
In this reaction, the resulting proton and neutron have about equal kinetic energy, since their masses are about equal   The kinetic energy of the resulting proton could be measured (0 24 MeV), and therefore the deuteron's binding energy could be determined (2 6 MeV − 2(0 24 MeV) = 2 1 MeV, or 0 0023 u)  The neutron's mass could then be determined by the simple mass balance

where md,p,n refer to the deuteron, proton, or neutron mass, and "b e " is the binding energy  The masses of the deuteron and proton were known; Chadwick and Goldhaber used values 2 0142 u and 1 0081 u, respectively   They found that the neutron's mass was slightly greater than the mass of the proton 1 0084 u or 1 0090 u, depending on the precise value used for the deuteron mass  The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron composite, and the neutron was therefore identified as an elementary particle   Chadwick and Goldhaber predicted that a free neutron would be able to decay into a proton, electron, and neutrino (beta decay) 

Neutron physics in the 1930s
Soon after the discovery of the neutron, indirect evidence suggested the neutron had an unexpected non-zero value for its magnetic moment  Attempts to measure the neutron's magnetic moment originated with the discovery by Otto Stern in 1933 in Hamburg that the proton had an anomalously large magnetic moment  By 1934 groups led by Stern, now in Pittsburgh, and I  I  Rabi in New York had independently deduced that the magnetic moment of the neutron was negative and unexpectedly large by measuring the magnetic moments of the proton and deuteron  Values for the magnetic moment of the neutron were also determined by Robert Bacher (1933) at Ann Arbor and I Y  Tamm and S A  Altshuler (1934) in the Soviet Union from studies of the hyperfine structure of atomic spectra  By the late 1930s accurate values for the magnetic moment of the neutron had been deduced by the Rabi group using measurements employing newly developed nuclear magnetic resonance techniques  The large value for the proton's magnetic moment and the inferred negative value for the neutron's magnetic moment were unexpected and raised many questions 

The discovery of the neutron immediately gave scientists a new tool for probing the properties of atomic nuclei  Alpha particles had been used over the previous decades in scattering experiments, but such particles, which are helium nuclei, have +2 charge  This charge makes it difficult for alpha particles to overcome the Coulomb repulsive force and interact directly with the nuclei of atoms  Since neutrons have no electric charge, they do not have to overcome this force to interact with nuclei  Almost coincident with their discovery, neutrons were used by Norman Feather, Chadwick's colleague and protege, in scattering experiments with nitrogen  Feather was able to show that neutrons interacting with nitrogen nuclei scattered to protons or induced nitrogen to disintegrate to form boron with the emission of an alpha particle  Feather was therefore the first to show that neutrons produce nuclear disintegrations 
In Rome, Enrico Fermi and his team bombarded heavier elements with neutrons and found the products to be radioactive  By 1934 they had used neutrons to induce radioactivity in 22 different elements, many of these elements of high atomic number  Noticing that other experiments with neutrons at his laboratory seemed to work better on a wooden table than a marble table, Fermi suspected that the protons of the wood were slowing the neutrons and so increasing the chance for the neutron to interact with nuclei  Fermi therefore passed neutrons through paraffin wax to slow them and found that the radioactivity of some bombarded elements increased by a factor of tens to hundreds  The cross section for interaction with nuclei is much larger for slow neutrons than for fast neutrons  In 1938 Fermi received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons" 

In Berlin, the collaboration of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, together with their assistant Fritz Strassmann, furthered the research begun by Fermi and his team when they bombarded uranium with neutrons  Between 1934 and 1938, Hahn, Meitner, and Strassmann found a great number of radioactive transmutation products from these experiments, all of which they regarded as transuranic  Transuranic nuclides are those that have an atomic number greater than uranium (92), formed by neutron absorption; such nuclides are not naturally occurring  In July 1938, Meitner was forced to escape antisemitic persecution in Nazi Germany after the Anschluss, and she was able to secure a new position in Sweden  The decisive experiment on 16–17 December 1938 (using a chemical process called "radium–barium–mesothorium fractionation") produced puzzling results: what they had understood to be three isotopes of radium were instead consistently behaving as barium  Radium (atomic number 88) and barium (atomic number 56) are in the same chemical group   By January 1939 Hahn had concluded that what they had thought were transuranic nuclides were instead much lighter nuclides, such as barium, lanthanum, cerium and light platinoids  Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch immediately and correctly interpreted these observations as resulting from nuclear fission, a term coined by Frisch Hahn and his collaborators had detected the splitting of uranium nuclei, made unstable by neutron absorption, into lighter elements  Meitner and Frisch also showed that the fission of each uranium atom would release about 200 MeV of energy  The discovery of fission electrified the global community of atomic physicists and the public   In their second publication on nuclear fission, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process  Frédéric Joliot and his team proved this phenomenon to be a chain reaction in March 1939  In 1945 Hahn received the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei "

After 1939
The discovery of nuclear fission at the end of 1938 marked a shift in the centers of nuclear research from Europe to the United States  Large numbers of scientists were migrating to the United States to escape the troubles and antisemitism in Europe and the looming war: 407–410  (See Jewish scientists and the Manhattan Project)  The new centers of nuclear research were the universities in the United States, particularly Columbia University in New York and the University of Chicago where Enrico Fermi had relocated, and a secret research facility at Los Alamos, New Mexico, established in 1942, the new home of the Manhattan project  This wartime project was focussed on the construction of nuclear weapons, exploiting the enormous energy released by the fission of uranium or plutonium through neutron-based chain reactions 
The discoveries of the neutron and positron in 1932 were the start of the discoveries of many new particles   Muons were discovered in 1936   Pions and kaons were discovered in 1947, while lambda particles were discovered in 1950   Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a large number of particles called hadrons were discovered   A classification scheme for organizing all these particles, proposed independently by Murray Gell-Mann and
George Zweig in 1964, became known as the quark model  By this model, particles such as the proton and neutron were not elementary, but composed of various configurations of a small number of other truly elementary particles called partons or quarks  The quark model received experimental verification beginning in the late 1960s and finally provided an explanation for the neutron's anomalous magnetic moment 

Videos
Ernest Rutherford summarizes the state of nuclear physics in 1935  (7 min , Nobelprize org)
Hans Bethe discusses Chadwick and Goldhaber's work on deuteron disintegration  (2 min , Web of Stories)

Explanatory notes



ground_truth: Lech Wałęsa